AgM:ulture 
 
 By: 
 
 p • L ' Simmonds 
 
ALBERT R. MANN 
 LIBRARY 
 
 New York State Colleges 
 
 OF 
 
 Agriculture and Home Economics 
 
 Cornell University 
 
Cornell University Library 
 
 SB 111.S59 1889 
 
 Tropical agriculture.A treatise on the c 
 
 3 1924 001 791 957 
 
The original of tiiis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924001791957 
 
ADVBKTISEMBNTS. 
 
 SUnON'S SE 
 
 CARRIAGE FREE BY PARCEL POST 
 
 To India, Ceylon, Victoria, New South Wales, Western 
 Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania. 
 
 The following Collections of Flower and Vegetable Seeds will he 
 delivered free to any address in the above countries on receipt of a 
 remittance for the amount named. 
 
 Sutton's "Export Box" of Flower Seeds, 
 
 
 45 Sorts, including— 
 
 
 Antirrhinum. 
 
 Larkspur. 
 
 Phlox Drummondii. 
 
 Aster. 
 
 Lobelia. 
 
 Poppy. 
 
 Balsam. 
 
 Mignonette. 
 
 Stock. 
 
 Cineraria. 
 
 Nasturtium. 
 
 Sweet Peas. 
 
 Dianthus. 
 
 Pansy. 
 
 Sweet William. 
 
 Heliotrope. 
 
 Petunia. 
 
 Wallflower, 
 
 [and others. 
 
 DELIVERED 
 
 FREE BY PARGET. 3 
 
 POST POR 21s. 
 
 tJ-- AI/I- FI 
 
 iOl^ER SEEDS ] 
 
 POST FREE. 
 
 Sutton's "Ex 
 
 port Box" of Y 
 
 Bgetable Seeds, 
 
 
 56 Sorts, including— 
 
 
 Beans, Broad. 
 
 Cauliflower. 
 
 Leek. 
 
 Beans, French. 
 
 Cucumber. 
 
 Onion. 
 
 Broccoli. 
 
 Carrot. 
 
 Peas. 
 
 Brussels Sprouts. 
 
 Celery. 
 
 Eadish. 
 
 Borecole or Kale. 
 
 Kohl Kabi. 
 
 Tomato. 
 
 Cabbage. 
 
 Lettuce. 
 
 Vegetable Marrow, 
 [and others. 
 POSO? FOR 25s. 
 
 DELIVERED 
 
 FREE BY PARCEL : 
 
 THE QUEEN'S SEEDSMEN, READING, ENGLAND. 
 
ADVBKTISEMENTS. 
 
 .^^ # ti\ 
 
 J.. |,-f«-4>*.]l' 
 
 i 
 
 RANSOMES & RAPIER, 
 
 Engineers and Manufacturers of 
 
 LIGHT RAILWAY MATERIALS 
 FOR PLANTATIONS. 
 
 INCZTIDIIfa— 
 
 SMALL LOCOMOTIVES, WAGONS and WAGON 
 IRON-WORK for all purposes. 
 
 Steel Sleepers, Rails and Fastenings, Points and Crossings. 
 
 TURNTABLES, TANKS, PUMPS, HYDRANTS 
 and WATER-CRANES. 
 
 All Materials for the Entire Equipment of 
 
 Portable •:• and •:■ Permanent •:• Railways. 
 
 STEAM AND HAND CRANES DF EVERY DESGRIPTIDN. 
 
 <|IIustrat*ir Catakgxt^ of '%'titt^ aw application to 
 
 RANSOMES & RAPIER, 
 
 9, Victoria Street, London, S.W. 
 
TROPICAL AGRICULTURE. 
 
 A TEEATISE 
 
 CULTUEE, PEEPAEATION, COMMEECE, AND 
 
 CONSUMPTION OF THE PEINCIPAL PEODUCTS 
 
 OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 
 
 By pXLf'siMMONDS, F.L.S., F.E.C.I., 
 
 KNIGHT OF THE LEGION OP HONOUR, AND OP THE CROWN OP ITALT, 
 
 HONOBABT AND COKEESPONDING MEMBER OF THE IMPERIAL AUSTRIAN AGRICULTURAL SOCIETr, 
 
 OF THE BOTAL AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY OP TURIN, THE INDUSTRIAL SOOtETT OP MULHOUSE, 
 
 THE NETHERLANDS SOCIETY FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OP INDUSTRY, 
 
 THE GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETIES OP PARIS AND MARSEILLES, HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE 
 
 FASIS ACADfiMIB NATIONALS, SUPERINTENDENT OP THE BRITISH COLONIES AT VARIOUS INTERNATIONAL 
 
 EXHIBITIONS, AND AUTHOR OF NUMEROUS TVOEKS ON AGRICULTURE, COMMEKCE, 
 
 APPLIED SCIENCE AND NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 N EW EDITION. 
 
 E. & F. N. SPON, 125, STEAND, LONDON. 
 
 NEW YOKE: 12, COETLANDT STEEET. 
 
 1/0 1, 
 
 ^%^ r ! JRA[;Y 
 
LONDON : 
 
 PRINTED BT WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITBD, 
 
 STAMFOBD STREET A17D CHARINa CBOSS. 
 
PEEFAOB TO THE THIRD EDITION. 
 
 The necessity for a descriptive work of reference of this kind, 
 treating exhaustively on the culture, preparation, and consumption 
 of the principal staples of commerce furnished by the "Vegetable 
 kingdom, is proved by the sale of several large editions. That 
 published about twelve years ago being exhausted, I have been 
 requested to prepare another, bringing down the statistical and 
 general information to the present time. 
 
 So many changes have, however, taken place, even in this short 
 interval, in the seats of production, the nature and extent of 'the 
 cultures, and in additions made to our Colonial Possessions, that 
 an entirely new work is almost required, or at least very material 
 changes in the notices of the principal products of commerce. 
 
 Steam navigation has made great progress, and the Suez Canal 
 and increased speed attained have shortened the route to India, 
 the Eastern Archipelago and Australasia, while submarine cables 
 have now brought almost all distant countries within a few hours' 
 communication of each other. These improvements have had an 
 enormous stimulating effect upon Commerce and Agriculture, 
 coupled with the vast extension of railways. 
 
 We have added to our Colonial Possessions Fiji, New Guinea, 
 Burma, North Borneo, and Cyprus. Great Britain, Belgium, 
 Italy, and Germany are extending their colonising influence in 
 Africa, so as to open up that vast Continent more generally to 
 Commerce. A large emigration has taken place in the last ten 
 years to North and South America, and Australasia. 
 
 The Colonial and Indian Exhibition, held in London in 1886, 
 brought prominently before the British public the capabilities 
 of our various possessions to supply us with almost all that we 
 require. 
 
 The consumption of the dietetic articles and cereals, fruits, 
 wines, spirits, cils, &o., necessarily increases with the growth 
 
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. 
 
 of population, hence the period under notice shows large advances. 
 A few instances of progress in the world's production in eleven 
 years may be cited : — 
 
 
 18?6. 
 
 1887. 
 
 Sugar .... 
 
 tons 
 
 3,665,000 
 
 6,177,000 
 
 Tea 
 
 . . lbs. 
 
 1,290,037,000 
 
 1,444,000,000 
 
 Coffee .... 
 
 cwts. 
 
 11,500,000 
 
 14,000,000 
 
 Cacao .... 
 
 . . lbs. 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 82,500,000 
 
 Kice ..... 
 
 tons 
 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 Maize .... 
 
 . bushels 
 
 1,300,000,000 
 
 2,000,000,000 
 
 Oilseeds . . . 
 
 cwts. 
 
 ,, 
 
 17,300,000 
 
 Palm oil . . . . 
 
 3J 
 
 864,472 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 „ ternels . 
 
 tons 
 
 25,192 
 
 36,000 
 
 Coconut oil . . . 
 
 cwts. 
 
 250,000 
 
 318,454 
 
 Coffee planting in the British Colonies has retrograded owing 
 to the immense production in Brazil and the decline in European 
 consumption. Tea, on the contrary, is increasing in demand, and 
 the planters of India and Ceylon have thrown themselves with 
 such energy into the industry, that they already produce more 
 than half the quantity required for the United Kingdom, and of 
 a far superior quality to the Chinese tea. 
 
 The culture and commerce of many of the principal dye-stuffs 
 of India have been almost annihilated by the coal-tar colours. 
 
 Some new products have come largely into commerce of late 
 years, among which i^ay be mentioned the Cinchona barks, 
 cardamoms, the kola nut, &c. The demand increases for the 
 elastic gums, caoutchouc, and gutta-percha, and the same may 
 be said of tobacco, the consumption of which largely progresses 
 in all countries. The British imports are now : — 
 
 Caoutcliouo cwts. 220,350 
 
 Cotton „ 15,462,099 
 
 Peruvian bark „ 144,820 
 
 Gutta-percha „ 22,483 
 
 Liquorice „ 34,831 
 
 Nuts for expressing oil .. .. tons 62,932 
 
 The failure of the wine crop in Europe a few years ago led to 
 increased attention being given to the manufacture in Australia, 
 Cyprus, and the Cape Colony, as well as in parts of North and 
 South America. The fruit trade of our Colonies has also received 
 more attention, so that shipments are now profitably made to 
 Europe, and these are extending. 
 
 The great increase which has taken place in our imports in 
 some of the principal commodities is shown by the following 
 
PBEFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. T 
 
 comparative figures, although these are not all consumed in the 
 United Kingdom : — 
 
 Articles of Food, etc. 
 
 Cacao lbs. 
 
 Coffee cwta. 
 
 Tea lbs. 
 
 Sugar cwts. 
 
 Molasses , 
 
 Brandy galls 
 
 Kum 
 
 "Wine 
 
 Maize cwts. 
 
 ,> meal , 
 
 Rice „ 
 
 Sago 
 
 Unenumerated spices .. lbs. 
 
 Cinnamon „ 
 
 Gringer cwts. 
 
 Pepper lbs. 
 
 Pimento cwts. 
 
 Currants, raisins, and figs „ 
 Oranges and lemons .. bush. 
 Tobacco .. ' lbs. 
 
 Articles fob Manufactubes, etc. 
 
 Oil-seeds qrs. 
 
 Cotton-seed tons 
 
 Oil-seed cake , 
 
 Coconut oil cwts. 
 
 Olive oil tuns 
 
 Palm oil cwts. 
 
 Manila bemp , 
 
 Jute , 
 
 Gambler and cutch . . tons 
 
 Indigo cwts. 
 
 Madder and garancine . . „ 
 Safflower „ 
 
 20,382,308 
 
 1,341,378 
 
 185,698,190 
 
 15,587,246 
 
 . 49(i,357 
 
 7,953,913 
 
 10,476,503 
 
 19,969,838 
 
 39,958,226 
 
 7,706 
 
 6,485,987 
 
 360,357 
 
 4,200,000 
 
 1,339,508 
 
 62,164 
 
 26,059,030 
 
 35,710 
 
 1,714,445 
 
 2,995,328 
 
 2,457,348 
 230,284 
 190,225 
 199,431 
 23,975 
 864,472 
 300,798 
 
 26,677 
 88,680 
 74,535 
 
 31,550,245 
 
 949,330 
 
 222,758,296 
 
 25,209,949 
 
 345,894 
 
 2,655,004 
 
 4,146,564 
 
 14,745,161 
 
 25,370,164 
 
 14,745 
 
 6,189,644 
 
 426,346 
 
 16,153,000 
 
 1,346,990 
 
 68,743 
 
 28,679,221 
 
 50,000 
 
 1,783,029 
 
 4,861,061 
 
 62,302,572 
 
 2,811,267 
 
 257,172 
 
 257,748 
 
 194,025 
 
 18,535 
 
 953,799 
 
 693,797 
 
 313,828 
 
 28,543 
 
 78,128 
 
 14,204 
 
 1,628 
 
 Although the title of 'Tropical Agriculture' has heen main- 
 tained for the book, yet it will be found to embrace incidental 
 mention of a few extra-tropical cultures and productions, such as 
 maize, madder, beetroot sugar, Paraguay tea, tobacco, &c., which 
 are important in their nature, although many of them are carried 
 on beyond the limits of the Tropics. 
 
 Since the body of this work was printed, I have received a copy 
 of a pamphlet containing the recent official reports of the various 
 American consuls on the production of Coffee in the States of 
 Central and South America and the West Indies, and it will be 
 interesting to place on record their estimates made on the spot, 
 and therefore under special advantages. 
 
VI PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Vera Cruz 15,866,000 
 
 Tampioo 400,000 
 
 Costa Eica 44,800,000 
 
 Guatemala 50,000,000 
 
 Honduras 2,240,000 
 
 Salvador 18,000,000 
 
 Nicaragua 10,000,000 
 
 Brazil 840,000,000 
 
 Ecuador 4,000,000 
 
 Peru 560,000 
 
 Colombia 17,000,000 
 
 Venezuela 60,000,000 
 
 Jamaica 8,360,800 
 
 Cuba .. 1,850,627 
 
 Porto Eico 43,000,000 
 
 Hayti .. 100,000,000 
 
 San Domingo 7,652,348 
 
 Martinique and I 6,500,000 
 
 Guadaloupe / ' 
 
 1,230,229,770 
 
 If we add to the above figures the production of coffee in the 
 Eastern hemisphere, we get at a pretty fair estimate of the 
 production of the world : — 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Java 175,500,000 
 
 Sumatra and Celebes 40,500,000 
 
 Philippines .. 8,400,000 
 
 Ceylon 31,360,000 
 
 India 31,355,487 
 
 Africa and Arabia 15,232,000 
 
 Pacific Islands 33,000,000 
 
 335,347,487 
 
 This brings out a total of 1,566,577,257 lbs., or 700,000 tons, 
 which approximates closely to the estimate of Messrs. Eucker 
 & Co., given on page 30. 
 
 P. L. SIMMDNDS. 
 
 85, FiNBOEOUGH EOAD, SoUTH KENSINGTOJf, 
 
 October, 1889. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PASS 
 
 SECTION I. — Plants tieldins Seeds, Leaves, and other Substances 
 
 EMPLOTED IN DOMESTIC USE FOB THE PeEPABATION OP DIETETIC 
 
 Beveeages, &0. 
 
 Cacao. — Botanical deaoription and chemistry — Statistics of production in 
 various countries— ^Statistics of imports and consumption in the United 
 Kingdom — Consumption in Spain, Holland, and France — Large sales 
 of Cacao butter — Culture in Trinidad — ^Varieties — Statistics of exports 
 from Trinidad — Production in the other West Indian Islands, Dominica, 
 Jamaica, Grenada, Guadaloupe, and Martinique — French Guiana — 
 Culture in Venezuela — Statistics of production and export in Venezuela, 
 Ecuador, British Honduras, Brazil — Production and shipments — 
 Culture in the East — The Philippines 1 
 
 GuAEANA. — Production in Brazil and other parts of South America — 
 Chemical composition of 26 
 
 Kola Nuts. — Chemistry of, and commerce 27 
 
 CoPFEE. — Production in the world at different periods — Eange of prices 
 — Statistics of consumption in the United Kingdom — In countries of 
 Europe, the United States — Appreciation and determination of various 
 coffees — Analysis of coffees — Commercial subdivisions — Varieties of 
 the plant — Systems of cultivation in Java — Statistics — Sumatra — 
 Celebes — Timor — The Philippines — Culture in Ceylon — ^Acreage under 
 coffee — Plantation and native coffee — Statistics of production — Insect 
 pests — Production in British IndiaA^Statistics of land under coffee and 
 the crops — Mysore, Travancore and Coorg — ^Exports of Indian coffee — 
 Production in the West India Islands — Martinique, Guadaloupe, 
 Jamaica, Hayti, Cuba, Porto Eico, Trinidad, Dominica — Production 
 in America — Central America, New Granada, British Honduras, Costa 
 Kica, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Ecuador, British Guiana, French Guiana, 
 Bolivia, Venezuela — Brazil — ^Varieties of coffee — Statistics of pro- 
 duction and exports — Supply to the United States — Pacific Islands — 
 Production in Java — ^Arabia — Reunion — Africa and its islands-^Liberia 
 —Natal 28 
 
 Tea. — Genera] rernarks — Statistics of consumption in the United King- 
 dom — <xeneral production and consumption — ^Imports into the United 
 Kingdom, showing the producing countries — Consumption of the 
 world in 1886 — Imports into Europe — Culture in China — Process of 
 manufacture and preparation of the leaf — ^American imports — Russian 
 consumption — Shipments of tea from China — Sealed tea — Brick tea — 
 Tea planting in India — Progress of culture — Statistics of India tea- 
 culture and exports — Prospects in Ceylon, climate, soil, labour, &o. — 
 Statistics of exports— Straits Settlements— Java— First introduction of 
 tea plant — Statistics of production and export — Japan — ^Production — 
 Exports — ^Australia — Melbourne — Queensland — Jamaica — Trinidad — 
 Brazil — ^North America — California — Instructions for manufacture — 
 Fiji— Natal 87 
 
■Vill I CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Ybbba Mate, ob Paeaguat Tea.— Description of the tree— Mode of 
 preparing the tea — Statistics of production and consumption m 
 Paraguay, Brazil, and the Elver Plate States l-'O 
 
 SuGAB.— General remarks — Analyses — Estimate of the -world's pro- 
 duction of all kinds of sugar— Value of the cane sugar exported from 
 the principal British possessions in decennial periods— Statistics of 
 sugar production in the West India Islands— Cane sugar production of 
 the world in 1876 and 1886— Beetroot production of Europe in 18.-6 
 and 1886— Estimated aggregate and individual consumption of sugar 
 in the world— Total consumption in the United Kingdom— From 
 whence derived— Consumption in the United States — Molasses— The 
 supplies we receive — Distillation of Eum and imports— "Varieties of 
 the sugar-cane — Experimental culture in Trinidad — In Jamaica — Pro- 
 duction of sugar, molasses, and rum in Bridsh Guiana — Mode of cul- 
 tivation — French Ghiiana — Surinam, statistics of exports — Brazil, pro- 
 duction and progress — British Honduras — Central America — Colomhia 
 —Venezuela— Statistics of exports— Peru— Louisiana, progress made 
 in production — Chemical results— India — Eude processes of culture 
 and manufacture— Statistics of exports of sugar from British India hy 
 sea and land — Goor or jaggery — Siam — China — Cochin China — 
 Japan — Exports — Borneo — Mauritius— Varieties of cane grown — Im- 
 proved manufacture — Chemical analyses — Statistics of exports — Ee- 
 unlon— Straits Settlements — Philippines — Statistics of exports— Java 
 — Tahiti— Queensland — New South Wales— Victoria— Egypir--Sta- 
 tistics of exports of sugar from Egypt — Natal exports — Jamaica — 
 Statistics of yield of crops and shipments of sugar and rum — Barbados 
 crops — Tobago — Tortola — St. Kitts — Analyses of sugar-canes — ^Do- 
 minica — Statistics of exports of sugar, molasses, and rum — Montserrat 
 — St. Lucia — Grenada — St. Vincent — Statistics of exports — Trinidad — 
 — Statistics of exports — Martinique — Statistics of production — Account 
 of the usines or central sugar factories on the island — Eeports on their 
 working operations and financial results — Guadaloupe — St. Croix — 
 Porto Eico — Shipments of sugar and molasses — Cuba — Crops and 
 shipments — Hawaiian islands — Fiji, exports 130 
 
 Maple Sugae. — Description of the tree — Statistics of the sugar crop in 
 the United States and Canada 211 
 
 Palm Subae. — Trees which yield it — General estimate of production of 
 sugar — Details of yield and processes, &c., furnished under the section 
 ofthe Useful Palms 213 
 
 Bbeteoot Sugae. — Statistics of production in Europe — Process of culti- 
 vation and manufacture — Production and consumption in Austro- 
 Hungary — France — Belgium — Germany — Exports to different 
 countries 214 
 
 Gltjcose, oe Staeoh Stigab. — Quantity made in Germany from potatoes ; 
 ia the United States from maize ; in Japan from rice 216 
 
 SoBGHOM SuGAB. — Description of the plant — Cultivated in Australia, 
 France, Algeria, and the United States 218 
 
 Maize Sugae. — ^Yield of from the stalks 221 
 
 SECTION II.— The Useful Palms and thbib Economio Peoducts. 
 
 The Cocohut Palm. — Instructions for planting — Soils best suited for it 
 — Growth of the tree^Its enemies — Produce— Cultivated varieties 
 of this palm— Uses of the fruit — Its medicinal properties — Chemical 
 analysis— Copra or copperah— Coconut oil— Its uses— Statistics of 
 
CONTENTS, iX 
 
 imports into the United Kingdom— Particulars and cost of machinery 
 
 for_ making the oil — Uses of the coconut shells — Coconut fibre or coir 
 
 Shipments from India — Statistics of exports from Ceylon— Cost of 
 machinery for preparing the fibre— Wide range of the coconut palm — 
 
 Production in Brazil and Malabar — Coconuts imported into Bengal 
 
 Statistics of products of the coconut palm exported from British India 
 
 Statistics of trees and produce in Ceylon — Exports— Details for Cochin 
 China, Straits Settlements, and the Eastern Archipelago ; New Caledonia, 
 Pacific Islands, Tahiti, Marquesas, Friendly Isles, Fiji and Tuamotus 
 Archipelago ; the West Indies, Jamaica, and Trinidad — Florida .. 222 
 
 The African Oil Palw.— Description and distribution of the tree— Oil 
 supply- Oil rivers— Mode of preparing the oil— Statistics of British 
 trade in palm oil— Palm kernels — Value of the oil obtained from them 
 — ^Analysis of the oilcake — Exports of palm kernels from Lagos, Gold 
 Coast and Gambia — Imports at Rotterdam 248 
 
 The GoMUTi Palm.— Description of the tree— Its commercial products — 
 Ejoo fibre— Toddy or sweet sap— Sugar— Sago— Meal— Fruit as sweet- 
 meats 252 
 
 The Wild Date iPalm op India.— Different species of the Fhcenix— 
 Sugar-yielding species— Fruit species- Extent of the culture in India 
 — Tapping and extracting the juice— Processes of manufacturing the 
 sugar— Native names for the kinds made : Khaur, Nimphool, Dulloah, 
 Gurpatta, Jerunnee, Dobarah — Implements used in tapping the tree — 
 Classification of the date trees — Kinds of goor made from the sap — 
 Estimates of yield — Manufacture of sugar from goor — ^Analysis of the 
 sugar 255 
 
 The Palmyba PALM.^Wide distribution — Acres under culture in Madras 
 and Ceylon — Various uses of the palm — Its leaves — Toddy — Jaggery 
 Timber — Kelingoes — Pnnatoo or pulp of the fruit 266 
 
 The Sago Palm. — Varieties of the tree — Its products — Farina — Fruit — 
 Immense yield — Mode of collecting and preparing the sago — Statistics 
 of exports from Borneo, Labuan, Celebes — Wide distribution of the 
 tree over the Eastern Archipelago — Singapore the entrepSt of manu- 
 facture and export — Statistics of imports into the United Kingdom — 
 Chief uses of sago 271 
 
 The Bastard Sago. — Products : Sugar and toddy, sago, kittool fibre for 
 brush-making — Exports from Ceylon — Seeds used as beads — Sago 
 from the Cycads 280 
 
 The Carjtatjba Palm op Brazil. — Its economic uses — Wax from the 
 leaves — Its employment — Exports from Ceara and Aracati — Prepara- 
 tion of the wax — Fibre from the leaves — Its extensive employment — 
 Applicable as a paper material — Wood useful 281 
 
 The Betelnut Palm. — Wide distribution — Extensive commerce carried 
 on in the fruit — ^Average production — General use of the betelnut as a 
 masticatory — Various native names for the palm — Statistics of exports 
 fiom eastern ports — Quantity produced in various countries — Mode of 
 preparation — Superior quality of the Mysore nut — Statistics of exports 
 from Ceylon 286 
 
 The Betel Pepper Leap. — Its cultivation and use 290 
 
 The Date Palm. — Its wide distribution — Produce of the tree — Numerous 
 distinct varieties of dates — Production in Northern Africa, and mode 
 of preserving the &uit — Other useful products of the palm — Number of 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 FAGB 
 
 date palms in Egypt and Tunis — Production in Bussorah — Vaiietiea 
 and prices — Imports into India — Date cake — Analysis of dates — Con- 
 sumption of dates in England 290 
 
 The Spiny Date oe Aeeioa. — Its products 296 
 
 The Wine or Bamboo Palm. — Its distribution — Use of the fibre of the 
 leaves for mats, &c. — Sap for palm wine — Fruit for oil 296 
 
 The Doum Palm oe Egypt. — Fruit edible — ^Known as gingerbread tree — 
 Kernel made into beads — Leaves for mats 297 
 
 The Dwarf Palm. — Its distribution in Africa — Use of the leaves for 
 paper-making — " Grin vegetal " or curled fibre — Its preparation and 
 uses — Statistics of exports from Algeria — Saw Palmetto and other palm 
 leaves 297 
 
 SECTION III. — The Teopioal Cereals and STAECH-PEODUcrNG Plants. 
 
 Indian Maize or Corn. — Wide distribution of the plant — Of American 
 origin — Immense yield in the United States — The produce nearly 
 equals the wheat crop of the whole earth — ^Prejudice against com 
 meal — Its use, however, extending in Europe — Exports of maize in 
 European countries — Large proportion of oil in maize — Chemical com- 
 position of different varieties — Broad divisions of maize into table 
 maize and farm maize — Use of the stem and leaves for paper-making 
 — Names of varieties grown — Statistics of crops in the United States 
 and South America — Imports into the United Kingdom — Production 
 in Australia — Description of the principal varieties of maize grown in 
 India — Food preparations of maize — Various economic applications of 
 the grain — Sugar from the saccharine sap— Chioa, or maize beer — Food 
 for stock — Grain sometimes so plentiful as to be burned for fuel — 
 Production in India, Natal, Fiji, France, Italy, Hungary, Greece and 
 Algeria — ^Maize starch or corn flour 300 
 
 ElCE. — Most extensively diffused and useful of the grain crops — Commer- 
 cial qualities — Statistics of imports into the United Kingdom 
 
 Exports from the East — Enumeration of botanical species and varieties 
 of rice — ^Analyses and chemical composition of various rices — Growth 
 of rice in Italy and exports — Area under rice and extensive culture in 
 India — Three recognised classes of paddy in Bengal, with more than 
 4000 distinct varieties — Loss in husking paddy, one-third to half- 
 Statistics of consumption in Bengal and Behar — Average yield- 
 Comparative results of irrigation and dry crops — Comparative yield in 
 various countries— Area under rice and millets— Rice trade of Eangoon 
 — The Burmese recognise a hundred varieties of rice— Exports of rice 
 
 from India — Siam— China : System of culture — Growth in Formosa 
 
 Mode of husking or cleaning rice— Japan : Statistics of production— Eioe 
 wine, or sakg— Java : Kinds of rice cultivated — Culture in Borneo and 
 the Philippines— Statistics of production in the Eastern Archipelao-o in 
 1874— Growth in Afrioa^Rice grounds of Egypt, Brazil, United 
 States ^_ __ giQ 
 
 The Millets, or Small-seeded Food-grains. — Our imports of these 
 
 A third part of the inhabitants of the globe feed on the millets 
 
 Various uses to which they are applied— Great confusion in their 
 
 botanical classification — Enumerated species by Professor Parlatore 
 
 Great Indian miUet, or Guinea com— The yellow Cholum, or Jowaree 
 of India — Chemical composition of its grain and the plant — Useful aa 
 a fodder plant— Acreage under millet in Madras — Bed Cholum 
 Dhurra, or Dourah— Sorghum, known as Kafir corn in Natal— Acreage 
 and produce ° ooo 
 
CONTENTS. XI 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The SuoAR Millet 218,336 
 
 Bboom Ooen or Millet. — Grown in Italy and in the United States for 
 its panicle, used in brush-making — Mode of cultiyation 336 
 
 The Panioums. — Several hundred species 337 
 
 Italian Millet. — Three varieties 337 
 
 Chena OB Indian Millet ; Veeagoo. — Grown in India and Sicily . . . . 338 
 
 Shamat, OB Little Millet 338 
 
 Sawa Millet 338 
 
 Cdmboo, OB Spiked Millet. — Mode of culture — Extensively grown in 
 India — Oomposition of the grain 338 
 
 Kaggt, OB Eaggbe. — Of importance in Southern India 339 
 
 KoDA Millet AND Tepf 340 
 
 Staboh-pkoduoing Plants. — ^Varieties of starches and their distinctive 
 characters — Statistics of imports into the United Kingdom 340 
 
 Aebowboot. — Cultivation and manufacture in Bermuda and Jamaica — 
 Statistics of exports — St. Kitts — St. Vincent — Large progress in the 
 production — Culture and manufacture in Natal — Statistics of exports 
 — Production in India 341 
 
 AusTBALiAN Abboweoot. — Production in Victoria, New South Wales, 
 and Queensland — Plants yielding the fecula 344 
 
 Taoca Plant oe the Pacific Islands 345 
 
 Manioc, oe Cassava Staboh. — ^Where grown — Soils best suited to the 
 plant — Two defined species, but numerous varieties — Preparation of 
 the meal and fecula for market — Culture in Brazil — Analysis of roots — 
 Statistics of Tapioca exports from Brazil — Imports of Tapioca into the 
 United Kingdom from the Straits Settlements — Culture in North 
 Borneo 346 
 
 The Sweet Potato. — Culture in Brazil, United States, and New Zealand 350 
 
 TheTamTbibe 351 
 
 The Coco, ob Bddoe • ■ • 351 
 
 Japanese Stabohbs 352 
 
 Chatote ., 352 
 
 Potato Staboh and Maize Staeou 353 
 
 SECTION IV. — The Peinoipal Vegetable Dtb-stuefs op Commeboe. 
 
 Indigo. — ^Various kinds produced— Statistics of imports into the United 
 Kingdom, with re-exports— Variations in sources of supply— Plants 
 yielding the dye-stuff- Modes of manufacture in India— Culture of 
 the plant — Tests of good indigo — Exports from India — ^Money value 
 of the crop— Extension of the culture— Land under indigo— Exports 
 
:U CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 from India — Range of prices — Consumption in the United States — 
 Costof cultivation— Cochin China, mode of production— Siam — China- 
 Japan— Java— Statistics of exports and quality of the indigo— Indigo- 
 tine — The Philippines — Africa — Guatemalan-Nicaragua— Central 
 America — British imports from thence — Colombia — Venezuela .. .. 355 
 
 Maddbk. — History and production— Influence of the coal-tar dyes — 
 Alizarine — Naples madder — French madder — Statistics of production 
 — Garancine — Dutch madder, annual yield — Eussian madder .. .. 370 
 
 MtTNJEET. — Description of 373 
 
 Chat EooT. — Its growth and use 373 
 
 Saitlowee. — Its production and uses — European, Indian, and Chinese — 
 Mode of culture and preparation — Use of the seeds — Exports from 
 India — Supplanted by aniline dyes 373 
 
 Sattkon — Where grown— Its cultivation, preparation, and uses — Pecu- 
 liar soil required— Analysis of it— Production in France, Spain, and 
 SicOy — Imports into India 378 
 
 TuEMEEic. — Commercial varieties of — Its uses — Grown in India and 
 China — Shipments from India 382 
 
 CuTOH. — Trees yielding it — ^Mode of preparation. Palm Cutch — Exports 
 from India 384 
 
 Gambiee. — Plants producing it — Mode of manufacture — Exports from 
 Singapore and Netherlands-India — Imports into the United Kingdom 386 
 
 Aiwotta. — Growth and preparation — Uses — Land under culture with it 
 in the French colonies — Exports from Jamaica — Porto Eico 388 
 
 Henha. — Uses of the dye — Extent of the production — Plants which 
 produce it 390 
 
 Alkahet EooT. — Its uses 392 
 
 SECTION V. — The Oil Seeds and Vegetable Oils of Commeece. 
 
 The Olive. — Distribution of the tree — Statistics of exports of olive oil 
 from the principal countries — Imports into the United Kingdom — 
 Production in Italy — ^Varieties of the oil at Marseilles — Syria — Greece, 
 exports — Cape Colony — France, five kinds of trees — Spain and the 
 Balearic Islands — Algeria — Morocco — Tunis 393 
 
 Lmseed Oil. — Preparation and mode of expression, cold-drawn and 
 heated — Quantity produced — Imports of flax seed into United Kingdom 400 
 
 The Geound-nut.' — Its production in different countries — Statistics of 
 imports at Marseilles^Growth and exports of the ground-nut from the 
 Gambia Coimtry, West Africa — Use of the oil — Analysis of ground-nut 
 meal — Sold as peanuts in the United States — Quantities grown in 
 America, in Senegal, India, and Mozambique 401 
 
 Cotton-seed Oil. — Immense quantity of seed available in various 
 countries — Large export from Egypt — British imports of cotton seed — 
 Oil-seed cake — Great varieties produced — Statistics of imports of 
 foreign made — Exports from India — Oil-cake made at Marseilles . . 405 
 
CONTENTS. Xlii 
 
 PAGB 
 
 The Castor Oil Plant. — ^Variety of species — ^Preparation of the oil — 
 Three sorts met with in commerce — Analyses of — Cold-drawn and boiled 
 — Use as a lubricating oil and in medicine 406 
 
 Eapb Seed. — Mode of culture in Prance— Extent of land under colza — 
 Production of oil and oil seeds in France — Imports of rape seed into 
 the United Kingdom 410 
 
 Mustard Seed. — Species cultivated — The mustard of commerce — Large 
 quantity made in Prance— Acres under culture in Madras — Colza and 
 ravison seeds imported into Marseilles — Species grown in India .. .. 412 
 
 Safflower Oil. — Its production and uses, called Curdee 413 
 
 Sesame Seed. — Its growth and employment — Different names given to 
 it— Yield of oil — ^Large quantities received in Marseilles — Exports 
 from Sierra Leone — Oil-oake made from it 413 
 
 Niger Seed. — Its uses — Production of oil in the United States — 
 Immense trade in oil seeds at Marseilles — Statistics of oil seeds and 
 oils shipped from India — Acreage under oil seeds — Imports at Mar- 
 seilles 415 
 
 Goi-D OP Pleastire, or Camelina Seed. — Culture of the plant — Uses of 
 the oil 418 
 
 StrNPLOWER-SEED OiL. — Culture and production — Yield and uses of the 
 plant — Oil-cake — Extensive production in Eussia, and statistics . . . . 419 
 
 Candle Nuts. — Trees yielding them — Analysis of the nut and of the oil- 
 oake — The oil obtained from it — Its uses 421 
 
 Japan Wax — Trees which produce it — Preparation and uses — Prices — 
 Statistics of exports and of vegetable tallow 423 
 
 Poppt-seed Oil. — Growth and production in India — Exports 424 
 
 Melon Seed. — Statistics of production and oil obtained 425 
 
 Phttsio Nut. — Description of oil production in Cape Verde — ^Various 
 names given to the seeds — Uses of the oil — Oil seeds received at Rotter- 
 dam 425 
 
 Croton Oil. — Preparation — ^Purgative quality 426 
 
 Chinese Oils. — Plants which yield them — Bean oil and bean-cake — 
 Trade in them 426 
 
 Oil op Ben. — Description of 427 
 
 Essential Oils. — Statistics of 427 
 
 SECTION VI.— The Principal Fruits op Commerce. 
 
 Vine Culture and the Grape. — Imports of grapes into the United King- 
 dom — Preparation of raisins and commerce in them — Quantity of wine 
 consumed in the United Kingdom — Land under culture with the vine 
 in various countries — Exports of wine from ditto — Statistics of produc- 
 tion of wine in France— Culture of the vine in Algeria— In the United 
 States— Production of wine in California— in Mexico— Brazil— Ship- 
 ments of Cape wines— Statistics of wine production in the Cape Colony 
 
XIV CONTENTS. 
 
 FAGB 
 
 — ^Australia, acreage under vines — History of wine mannfaotnre in 
 South Australian-Production of currants and raisins— Vine culture in 
 New South Wales— in Victoria— in Queensland— Tasmaniar-Cyprus 428 
 
 Deibd Feuit — CuEEANTS AND Eaisiits. — Sicily raisins — Sultanas — 
 Smyrna raisisas- Varieties of muscatels or table raisins in Malaga — 
 Exports of raisins from Spain— Imports of currants and raisins into the 
 United Kingdom — Aggregate value 439 
 
 Pbodtjcts op the Oeangb Family. — ^Wide extent of culture — Statistics 
 of imports of oranges and lemons into the United Kingdom — Sources of 
 supply — Great number of species and varieties of the Orange family — 
 Bescription of them — Essential oUs — Citron — Lemon — Trade in them 
 — Lime juice — Statistics of production in Montserrat — Production of 
 oranges in Algeria — in the Azores — Statistics of exports — Italy — New 
 South Wales — Orange groves of Parramatta — Profits made — Mode of 
 culture — Production in South Australia — ^in Florida — in California — in 
 Jamaica — Culture and trade of the Bahamas — Shipments of oranges 
 Irom Tahiti — Fruit trade and shipments of Italy — Collecting and 
 packing the fruit — Average yield per tree — Mode of packing — Essence 
 of lemon — Lemon juice and candied citron peel — Statistics of exports 
 ^Oranges shipped from Spain — Fruit trade of Greece 441 
 
 The Pine- apple. — Its growth in England — ^Varieties cultivated — Exten- 
 sive culture in the Bahamas — Large production of fruit for export — 
 Season for shipment — Mode of packing — Extensive trade carried on in 
 tinning the fruit — Mode of preparing — Statistics of pine-apples shipped 
 to the United States — Prospects of increase of fruit trade in Jamaica 
 — Profits on culture — Shipments from the Azores — Fine fruit, and mode 
 of packing— Introduction of the pine-apple into India, Cochin China, 
 and Ceylon — Pine-apple fibre, mode of preparation — Beautiful fine 
 fabrics made of it in the Philippines — Manufacture in the Straits 
 Settlements — Fibre of the Bromelias, or wild pine-apples — Extensive 
 difi'Usion of these plants — Uses to which applied 452 
 
 The Plantain and Banana. — Importance and utility of the Musa tribe 
 -;— The plantain as food — Extent of diffusion of the plantain — Acres 
 under culture in Madras and Ceylon — The banana — Number of varie- 
 ties — Chemical analysis of the fruit of the plantain — Large consump- 
 tion in Trinidad — Geographical distribution of the species — Soil best 
 suited for its culture — Establishing a plantain walk — Enormous return 
 from — Mode of using and preserving the fruit — Some have been kept 
 good sixteen years — Fibre from the stem — The trade in plantains from 
 Panama to New York — Plantain meal, or Conquintay — Plantain 
 starch — Various uses of the stalk — Properties of the sap — Plantains 
 in New Caledonia — Machinery for preparing plantain fibre — Mode of 
 preparation in Jamaica — Manila hemp of commerce — Description of 
 the plantain which produces it— Grades of fibre obtained, and native 
 
 names — Fabrics made with it — Native name for the fibre "Abaca" 
 
 Tfield of fibre— Mode of preparing it— Machines proposed— Statistics 
 of exports from the Philippines— Direct imports into the United 
 Kingdom 46o 
 
 The Fig, its Ccltuee and Commebce, and otheb pbuits. — Great age 
 the tree attains — Varieties of the fruit — Smyrna figs, Aidin, Ermeh 
 and Eleme— The Trojan fig of Italy — Exports of Portugal, Italy' 
 Greece, and Spain — Imports into the United Kingdom — French 
 plums, other dried plums and prunes — Tamarinds, mode of preserv- 
 ing — Export fruit trade of Jamaioa^Natal — Tasmania — Fiji The 
 
 passion fruits, granadilla, &c. The mango — ^Large quantities eaten in 
 Jamaica — Quantities exported — Number of varieties — Choice mangoes 
 in India ^no 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 SECTION VII.— The Spices op Commbeob. 
 
 Pepper. — Its uses — Commercial varieties — Exports of spices from India 
 — Production of pepper in the Eastern Archipelago — ^Imports into China 
 — Production in Siam — Cochin China — Statistics of imports at Mar- 
 seilles — Exports from Netherlands-India and British India — Culture 
 in Malabar and Travanoore — Growth and preparation — Culture 
 in Sumatra — Statistics of imports and consumption of the United 
 Kingdom 486 
 
 Chillies and Cayenne Peppeb. — Species of capsicum grown — Large 
 consumption in India — Acres under culture in Madras — Our sources 
 of supply — Exports of cayenne from Natal 493 
 
 GnTGEB. — Production and consumption of this spice — Varieties entering 
 into commerce — Our sources of supply — Statistics of imports and 
 value for the United Kingdom — Culture and preparation in Jamaica 
 — Statistics of exports — Culture in India — Quantity exported — African 
 ginger — Imports from West Africa — System of cultivation and prepara- 
 tion in India — Preserved ginger — Mode of preparation, and statistics of 
 imports from China 495 
 
 Nutmegs and Mace. — ^Description of the tree — Statistics of imports of 
 nutmegs into the United Kingdom — Production in the Banda Islands 
 — Exports from Netherlands-India — Production in the Straits Settle- 
 ments — Exports from Pinang — Production annihilated — Singapore 
 an entrepot— Imports into Holland — Nutmegs in Jamaica — Shape and 
 size — Wild nutmegs — Nutmeg butter or concrete oil — Mace, statistics 
 of production and British imports 499 
 
 Cassia and otheb Spice Baeks. — Aromatic products of the Laurel family 
 — ^Various spice barks, leaves, and berries — Cassia lignea, trees which 
 yield it — Their diffusion — Mode of peeling — Statistics of exports from 
 Java — Shipments from Canton — Spices of all kinds received from China 
 — Statistics of imports 504 
 
 Cassia Buds. — Their uses and statistics of imports — Shipments from 
 Canton 506 
 
 Cinnamon. — Propagation and preparation of the bark in Ceylon — ^Various 
 products of the tree — System of culture and stripping the bark — 
 Cinnamon oU — Statistics of exports from Ceylon— Wild cinnamon .. 507 
 
 Vanilla. — Orchids which yield the trade-product — Consumption in the 
 United States and France — Preparation- Production in Mexico, Guate- 
 mala, Brazil, Guadaloupe— Artificial vanilla— Uses of vanilla— Descrip- 
 tion of the pod — Production in Reunion — Land under culture, and 
 statistics of exports — Range of prices — Mauritius, statistics of exports — 
 Cultivation in Java and Tahiti— Other aromatic orchids 512 
 
 Pimento oe Allspice. — ^Culture in Jamaica — Statistics of exports from 
 the island — Mode of collection and preparation for shipment — Pimento 
 sticks ^^'^ 
 
 Cloves. — Sources of production — Imports into Holland 520 
 
 Caedamoms.— Uses and varieties of— Culture and yield— Exports from 
 India, Siam, and Ceylon 520 
 
XVI ' CONTENTS. 
 
 SECTION VIII. — Tobacco, its Pboduotion, Use3,~and Commebcb. 
 
 Area under culture with the plant in different countries — Production — 
 Consumption and revenue from, in the United Kingdom — General 
 imports and exports in various countries — Varieties of the plant grown 
 — Tobacco grown in India — Exports — Culture and manufacture in the 
 United States — Production and export in Algeria — in Prance — Cuba — 
 Java exports — Sumatra tobacco imported into Holland — Production in 
 Germany — Consumption of tobacco per head in various countries .. 523 
 
 INDEX 533 
 
COMMEECIAL PEODUCTS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 
 
 SECTION L 
 
 PLANTS YIELDING SEEDS, LEAVES, AND OTHER SUBSTANCES 
 EMPLOYED IN DOMESTIC USE FOR THE PEEPAEATION OF 
 INFUSED DIETETIC BEVERAGES, ETC. 
 
 No substances are so essentially necessary and useful to mankind, 
 or form such important articles of commerce, as those which I 
 propose first to consider. Cacao, Coffee, Tea, and Sugar. The con- 
 sumption of these in all civilised countries is immense, notwith- 
 standing that in many they have heen fettered with heavy fiscal 
 duties. The description of the culture of the plants from which 
 they are obtained, the manufacture of the products, and the 
 statistics of commerce, are the subjects to which it is intended to 
 give most attention, glancing only incidentally or occasionally at 
 their early history. 
 
 CACAO.* 
 
 Botanical Description and Chemistry of Cacao. — The cacao, or 
 cocoa, of commerce is the seed of an evergreen tree, the Theohroma 
 Cacao (Lin.), growing from fifteen to forty feet high. There are 
 nine or ten other species, however, enumerated by botanists, of 
 which I may name T. angustifolia, Dec, and T. ovatifolia, Dec. (the 
 Soconosco), of Mexico ; T. bicolor, HumlDoldt, of New Granada ; T. 
 Guianensis, Aublet, of Guiana ; T. Carihcea, of the West Indies ; 
 and T. microcarpa, Mart. ; T. speciosa, Willd., Para ; T. subincana 
 and sylvestris, Martius, of Brazil. 
 
 The fruit, or pod, resembles a short, thick cucumber, and con- 
 tains from twenty to forty seeds enclosed in a pulp, somewhat like 
 that of a water-melon. This pulp is frequently used for food and 
 sweetmeats ; vinegar is also made of it. In the Brazilian collec- 
 
 * I have adopted this spelling to distinguish' it from the numerous other 
 cocoas of commerce, 
 
 B 
 
i QLCkQ. 
 
 tions at the various International Exhibitions, spirits, liqueurs, 
 jellies, &c., made with cacao, have been shown. 
 
 When Cortez and the Spaniards entered the vast empire of 
 Montezuma, they found the use of cacao or chocolate as a beverage 
 common. The emperor, however, alone drank it flavoured with 
 vanilla from a golden cup. A legend surrounds with religious 
 veneration this sacred beverage, and when Cortez sent to Charles Y. 
 the principal products of the New World, he did not omit cacao as 
 the most healthy of the beverages which Spain obtained by its con- 
 quests. The conquerors were not slow to appreciate its excellent 
 qualities, and introduced it into Spain. 
 
 Spain, however, for some time depended on the colonies for the 
 manufactured articles, but when the art of preparing it was con- 
 veyed there, the raw material was also imported. The Spaniards, 
 by jealously guarding as a secret the mode of manufacture, were 
 able to retain the monoply of the trade in chocolate for many 
 years. 
 
 The value of chocolate was speedily appreciated by the 
 physicians of Europe, and Hoffmann wrote a monograph treating 
 of it, entitled ' Potus Chocolati,' in which he recommends it in 
 many diseases, and instances the case of Cardinal Eichelieu, who, 
 he states, was cured of general atrophy by its use. 
 
 It was probably more than a century after the introduction of 
 cacao into Europe before the English became acquainted with it. 
 According to Mr. Hewett, the earliest mention of its use appears 
 in a newspaper called Needham's ' Mercurius Politicus,' dated the 
 16th of June, 1659. For many years England continued to import 
 all the chocolate she consumed in its manufactured state ; but about 
 the commencement of last century several persons commenced the 
 manufacture in this country. There is very strong reason to 
 believe that a knowledge of the mode of preparation was brought 
 into England by Sir Hans (then Dr.) Sloane. 
 
 Cacao or Chocolate is, without exception, of all domestic drinks, 
 i,he most alimentary, and the Spaniards esteem it so necessary to 
 the health and support of the body, that it is considered the 
 severest punishment to withhold it, even from criminals; nay, to 
 be unable to procure chocolate is deemed the greatest misfortune 
 in life. The signs by which good chocolate or cacao is known are 
 these. It should dissolve entirely in water, and be without sedi- 
 ment ; should be oily and yet sweet in the mouth, and if genuine 
 and carefully prepared, should deposit no grits or grounds. 
 
 The bean of the cacao owes its properties in the first place to 
 a nitrogenous substance, theobromine, and next to the ternary 
 compounds oils and starch. It also contains a large quantity of 
 phosphate of lime, which adds no doubt to its qualities as food. 
 The quantity of volatile substance it contains is small, though it 
 may, to some slight degree, be increased by roasting. 
 
 The chemical composition of cacao is shown in tables printed 
 in later pages, which give the different analyses of any importance 
 that have been made. 
 
 The results given are not very flattering to chemical science, 
 
CACAO. 3 
 
 the analyses iDeiDg of tlie most contradictory character, and con- 
 taining discrepancies which cannot be at all reconciled with each 
 other. ^ It appears to me that the analj-sis prepared by Sir Lyon 
 Playfair is the most correct, while those of Tuchen and Muter are 
 the least so. We thus see that, taking the most important con- 
 stituents, cacao contains : 
 
 Cacao butter . . ' 50 
 
 Albuminoid substances 20 
 
 Starch, sugar, &o 13 
 
 Salts 4 
 
 Theobromine 2 
 
 Other substances H 
 
 100 
 
 Examining these in the order of their importance, we first notice 
 the fat, or cacao butter, which forms about half the substance of 
 the nibs. It is a hard," fatty material, which, when clarified, is of 
 a dead white colour. Its melting point is about 100° Pahr., which, 
 being the heat of the body, renders it of great value for therapeu- 
 tical purposes. This fat never becomes rancid, however long it 
 may be kept, a quality peculiar to itself. It is hardly necessary 
 to point out how valuable this property is, for it places cacao 
 butter first in the list of the fatty class of our carbonaceous or 
 heat-giving foods. The albuminoid constituents form about 
 20 per cent, of the nib. These are classed amongst the nitrogenous 
 principles of food, and their presence renders cacao one of the 
 richest flesh-formers we have. The starch, gum, and sugar present, 
 like the cacao butter, belong to the nonazotised principles ; they 
 form about 13 per cent, of the whole. The alkaloid of cacao, 
 theohromine, is very similar in its physiological effects to its ana- 
 logues, theine and caffeine, from which it differs but slightly in 
 chemical composition. 
 
 ESSEKTIAL ALKALOm PeINCIPLES. 
 
 Yielded by 
 
 Name. 
 
 Composition. 
 
 Proportion. 
 
 Cacao 
 
 Coffee 
 
 Tea 
 
 Guarana 
 
 Mat^ 
 
 Theobromine 
 
 Caffeine 
 
 Theine 
 
 Guaranine 
 
 Theine 
 
 0, H, N, 0, 
 
 1 All identical 
 C,H,„N,0, 
 
 IJ to 2 per cent. 
 1 to 5 per cent. 
 IJ per cent. 
 
 In regard to these alkaloids, it is interesting to note that 
 throughout the world the instinct of man has led him to seek some 
 substance that contains one of these principles, which owe their 
 value to the specific influence they exert on the nervous system, 
 stimulating it and checking waste of tissue. Tlieobromine, when 
 extracted, presents the form of a white powder of almost amorphous 
 
 B 2 
 
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CACAO. 
 
 eliaracter, differing from caffeine and theme, wliich. have a very 
 beautiful crystalline appearance. 
 
 In most of the analyses of cacao the existence of a volatile 
 •oil has been overlooked. It is probably present only in small 
 ■quantities, and appears to be developed by roasting ; but upon it 
 depends the flavour and aroma which exist in cacao.* 
 
 Mr. Charles Heisch, P.C.S., in a paper " On the Composition of 
 Various Kinds of Cacao," observes : " It is well known that dif- 
 ferent varieties of cacao fetch very diflferent prices ; but as far as I 
 am aware, no careful examination has been made to ascertain if 
 these variations are caused by any difference in their composition 
 regarded as articles of food, or if they be due solely to differences 
 in flavour, which, after all, may be only matters of taste. In none 
 of the published analyses of cacao which I have seen is any men- 
 tion made of the kind of bean analysed, it is therefore not surpris- 
 ing that the results published vary very considerably. Thus, 
 while in Dr. Hassall's book we are told that cacao contains 
 albuminoid matter 1 6 • 7 per cent. ; in Dr. Parkes' Practical 
 Hygiene it is stated to contain from 13 to 18 per cent, of protein 
 substance. In neither case is it mentioned whether the bean was 
 ■examined raw or after roasting. Having, through the kindness of 
 a friend, obtained samples of various cacao beans, both raw and 
 roasted, which he assured me were unmixed, I made a number of 
 analyses of the roasted beans. The results are shown in the 
 following table. They are not so complete as I had hoped to make, 
 
 
 Per- 
 
 Result of Examination of Roasted Bean 
 
 iFTEii Removal of Husk. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ash 
 
 
 Phosphoric 
 
 
 starch. 
 
 
 centage 
 
 
 Nitro- 
 
 
 
 
 Ash 
 
 Acid in 
 
 Mois- 
 
 Gum, 
 
 
 of Husk. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 gen. 
 
 
 Ash. 
 
 in 
 
 soluble 
 
 Ash, cal- 
 
 ture. 
 
 Celln- 
 
 
 
 
 stances. 
 
 
 water. 
 
 in HCl. 
 
 culated as 
 Ha PO4. 
 
 
 lose,&c. 
 
 Caracas 
 
 13-8 
 
 48-4 
 
 1-76 
 
 11-14 
 
 3-95 
 
 2-15 
 
 1-80 
 
 1-54 
 
 4 -.^2 
 
 32-19 
 
 Trinidadf . . 
 
 15-5 
 
 49-4 
 
 1-76 
 
 11-14 
 
 2-80 
 
 •9 
 
 1-90 
 
 -93 
 
 3-84 
 
 82-82 
 
 .Surinam . . 
 
 15-5 
 
 .54-4 
 
 1-76 
 
 ll-H 
 
 2-35 
 
 -80 
 
 1-55 
 
 1-23 
 
 3-76 
 
 28-35 
 
 Guayaquil 
 
 11-5 
 
 49-8 
 
 2-06 
 
 13-03 
 
 3-50 
 
 1-75 
 
 1-75 
 
 1-87 
 
 4-14 
 
 30-47 
 
 ■Grenada . . 
 
 •14-6 
 
 45-6 
 
 1-96 
 
 12-40 
 
 2-40 
 
 •60 
 
 1-80 
 
 1-35 
 
 3-90 
 
 35-70 
 
 Bahia 
 
 9-6 
 
 ,')0-,<? 
 
 1-17 
 
 7-40 
 
 2-60 
 
 •90 
 
 1-70 
 
 1-26 
 
 4-40 
 
 35-30 
 
 ■Cuba .. .. 
 
 12-0 
 
 4.')-.S 
 
 1-37 
 
 8-67 
 
 2-90 
 
 -95 
 
 1-95 
 
 1-13 
 
 3-72 
 
 39-41 
 
 Para .. 
 
 8-5 
 
 54-0 
 
 2-00 
 
 12-66 
 
 3-05 
 
 1-40 
 
 1-65 
 
 1-00 
 
 3-96 
 
 26-33 
 
 t I am inclined to think that the Trinidad sample was not of the finest quality. 
 
 Ihem, but they comprise the more important constituents. In the 
 first column of the table is noted the proportion of husk in the 
 several varieties. This difference appears to be mainly due to the 
 husk in some kinds being much thicker than in others ; in all cases 
 these thick husks separate more readily from the bean in the 
 process of roasting, and can be taken off with much greater facility. 
 
 * Mr. John Holm " On Cocoa and its Manufacture," ' Journal of the Society 
 of Arts,' vol. xxii. p. 356. 1874. 
 
6 CACAO. 
 
 The other estimations are made on the roasted bean after removal 
 of the husk. The albuminoids are calculated from the total 
 nitrogen found by combustion with soda lime ; the nitrogen con- 
 tained in the theobromine is thus included, but in the roasted bean 
 this is so small that the diiference is hardly worth consideration ; 
 hereafter, I hope to estimate the theobromine in the different 
 varieties, as well as the starch, gum, cellulose, &c. It will be 
 observed that in none of the above samples do the albuminoid 
 substances reach the amount mentioned by Hassall or Parkes, but, 
 as neither of them give the method by which the albuminoids were 
 ascertained, no attempt can be made to account for the difference. 
 The amount of these substances in Para cacao, which is about the 
 lowest-priced variety, is, with one exception, the highest in the 
 table, so that, viewed as an article of food, it is superior to some of 
 the more expensive kinds. The soluble ash consists, to a great 
 extent, of phosphate of potash, the phosphoric acid in the portion 
 insoluble in water being mostly, if not entirely, combined with 
 magnesia." 
 
 Gc. Wolfran, of Dresden, published in 1878 an investigatioi» 
 into the chemical constituents of different kinds of cacao in con- 
 tinuation of the inquiries of A. Mitscherlich in his " Cacao and 
 Chocolate," Berlin, 1859. The foUovnng are the published results 
 of 100 gramiiies husked and dried. 
 
 
 Ashes. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Theobromine. 
 
 Caracas 
 
 3-68 
 
 53-8 
 
 1-63 
 
 Guayaquil 
 
 3-81 
 
 50-6 
 
 1-63 
 
 San Domingo 
 
 3-02 
 
 51-5 
 
 1-66 
 
 Bahia 
 
 3-35 
 
 51-7 
 
 1-64 
 
 Porto Cabello 
 
 3 '59 
 
 49-9 
 
 1-46 
 
 Tabasco 
 
 4-33 
 
 52-6 
 
 1-34 
 
 Production and Consumption. — The cacao production of the world 
 may be set down as follows, according to the latest returns : 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Brazil 14,000,000 
 
 Venezuela 14,300,000 
 
 Ecuador 22,500,000 
 
 Trinidad 20,000,000 
 
 Grenada 2,500,000 
 
 Dominica 200,000 
 
 St. Lucia .. ; 260,000 
 
 Jamaica 370,000 
 
 Frencli Guiana 60,000 
 
 Guadaloupe 567,000 
 
 Martinique 970,000 
 
 Hay ti and St. Vincent 3,400,000 
 
 Mexico 2,000,000 
 
 Celebes and Netlierlands-India . . . . 250 , OOO 
 
 Ceylon and India 1,100,000 
 
CACAO. 7 
 
 Cacao and cliocolate are comparatively little used in the United 
 Kingdom, compared with the other articles employed for dietetic 
 beverages. The quantity taken for consumption in 1888 was 
 over 18,000,000 lb., or about half a pound for each person of the 
 population. Still, it is gradually on the increase, as will be seen 
 by the following statistics, showing the annual quantity consumed 
 and the percentage of consumption per head of the population in 
 the kingdom. 
 
 When we consider that the imports of cacao into this country 
 in each of the years 1887 and 1888 were over 28,000,000 lb., there 
 was an abundant supply to fall back upon, had there been a com- 
 mensurate demand. Looking at the small consumption here, and 
 that there is only the Continental market to depend upon, there is 
 but little encouragement to our colonial planters to extend the 
 production. 
 
 The value of the cacao imported annually into the United 
 Kingdom is about 930,000Z. The quantity now received here 
 ranges between 27,500,000 and 29,500,000 lb., 18,000,000 of which 
 is kept for use in Great Britain. 
 
 The following gives the quantity of cacao annually retained for 
 consumption in the United Kingdom, and the average consumption 
 per head of the population : 
 
 Total Consumption. 
 
 Lbs. Average Lb. 
 
 1840 2,641,470 0-08 
 
 1850 3,080,641 0-11 
 
 1860 4,585,124 0-11 
 
 1870 6,943,102 0-20 
 
 1880 10,566,189 0-30 
 
 1887 15,878,098 0-43 
 
 1888 18,227,017 0-50 
 
 The duty on raw cacao imported is Id. per lb.,- and on pre- 
 pared 2d. per lb. 
 
 The total imports of cacao into the United Kingdom in 1886 
 were drawn from the following countries : — 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 The Continent 3,872,739 
 
 Hayti and St. Domingo 324,780 
 
 Central America and Colombia .. .. 343,225 
 
 Venezuela 80,859 
 
 Ecuador 6,032,874 
 
 Brazil 447,634 
 
 Other Foreign Countries 671,168 
 
 British East Indies 1,223,810 
 
 British West India Islands 11,998,808 
 
 British Guiana 362,018 
 
 Other British Possessions 5,528 
 
 25,363,443 
 
 Spain is the largest consumer of cacao, although England, 
 France, and Holland now use much. 
 
 The following have been the imports of cacao into Spain 
 of late years, which gives an average of nearly 1 lb. per head. 
 
CACAO. 
 
 Spain. — Cacao imports in kilos of 2^ lb. 
 
 1874 6,648,000 
 
 1875 4,272,000 
 
 1876 5,702,000 
 
 1877 6,390,000 
 
 1878 5,324,000 
 
 1879 5,937,000 
 
 1880 8,471,000 
 
 1881 5,502,000 
 
 1882 6,858,000 
 
 1883 6,052,000 
 
 1884 7,372,000 
 
 1885 7,201,000 
 
 1886 7,154,000 
 
 The total importations of cacao into France were in — 
 
 Of which were received 
 iu Marseilles. 
 
 Kilos. Kilos. 
 
 1883 15,662,289 190,161 
 
 1884 17,566,718 258,104 
 
 1885 15,459,031 231,493 
 
 1886 18,601,890 486,902 
 
 France receives a good deal from Brazil. 
 
 There are about ten chocolate and cacao manufacturers in 
 Holland, whose yearly requirements of cacao beans may be esti- 
 mated at 3000 tons in round figures, principally of the Guayaquil, 
 Caracas, and Domingo kinds. They mostly manufacture cacao pre- 
 parations, known by the name of soluble cacao, cacaotina, and 
 cacao powders, viz. the roasted and powdered cacao beans deprived 
 of most of their natural fat, which is used as a valuable ingredient 
 by manufacturers of chocolate, cacao sweetmeats, and also for 
 pharmaceutical purposes. 
 
 The oldest of the Dutch cacao works was founded on a small 
 scale more than a century ago, and most of the other works have 
 existed from forty to sixty years, but all of them remained insignifi- 
 cant until the above-named powdered preparations found their way 
 to foreign countries, especially England and Germany, where certain 
 Dutch brands of powdered cacao have been very well received and 
 enjoy a large sale. In 1886 the imports of these from Holland 
 were over one million pounds, and from France, Belgium, and 
 other countries 332,000 lb. more. 
 
 There are people who suppose that the superiority of Dutch 
 cacao powder is to be attributed to a peculiar mode of manufacture, 
 different from the methods followed in other countries. In England 
 there are over a dozen cacao and chocolate manufacturers who work 
 up over 15,000,000 lb. of raw beans, of this 13,000,000 lb. come 
 from the West Indies and British Guiana. 
 
 The idea to extract the fat from the roasted cacao beans and 
 to sell the powder is said to have originated in the brain of a Dutch 
 chocolate maker about 1830. 
 
 Monday, October 4th, 1887, 25 tons of cacao butter were sold 
 by one maker in Holland, and 80 tons by another maker in London. 
 The time is not so far back when all the makers of cacao powder 
 in Holland did not produce 50 tons of butter a year, and when an 
 order for cacao beans was usually combined with the condition 
 that 10 per cent, of the value of the order should be taken out in 
 
CACAO. 9 
 
 butter of cacao, a condition wbicli in many cases was refused hy 
 the selling part}'', who found it too dangerous to keep a stock of 
 a few hundred pounds of cacao butter. In 1883, 2000 tons of 
 cacao butter were produced in Holland. 
 
 In two ordinary varieties of cacao, lately analysed fresh from 
 the pod by Mr. McCarthy, the Government analyst, the fat was 
 only 18 per cent, in one, while in the other it was over 28 per 
 cent. Theobromine being in nearly the same proportion. 
 
 M. Menier, the principal manufacturer of chocolate in France, 
 produces about 18,000 lb. a day. When he started his factory 
 some 60 or 70 years ago, cacao nibs were imported, but in small 
 quantities, into Prance. The better specimens from Venezuela, 
 Nicaragua, Guatemala, and Mexico were sent to Spain, where 
 the monopoly of the best chocolate was retained, as well as the 
 reputation of a superior manufacture. Now Holland, France, and 
 England surpass Spain in the excellence of the manufacture. In 
 those early days the use of chocolate was limited to the upper 
 classes, the middle and lower classes using it only in cases of 
 sickness. Some time ago the late M. Menier purchased a very 
 extensive estate in Nicaragua, and began the experiment of 
 culture on a large plantation, which is in a very flourishing state. 
 
 In Spain the two principal manufacturing companies are the 
 Colonial, at Pinto, near Madrid, on the Mediodres railway, and that 
 of Matias Lopez, at San Lorenzo (Escurial) in Madrid. The latter 
 has a magnificent building of 60,000 square yards, and ten years 
 ago worked up 2,500,000 lb. of chocolate annually; it has since 
 kept pace with the increased consumption of the country. 
 
 Hamburs. 
 Cacao imports in bags. 
 
 1886. 1885. 
 
 Guayaquil 44,925 35,807 
 
 Paia — 300 
 
 Bahia 1,276 3,618 
 
 Cape Haiti 9,200 11,000 
 
 Samana 2,261 2,370 
 
 Trinidad 2,067 4,952 
 
 Caracas 4,574 5,470 
 
 Carupano 1,473 1,464 
 
 Surinam 479 1,432 
 
 Grenada — — 
 
 St. Thomas 6,952 6,593 
 
 Angostura 125 .50 
 
 Maracaibo and Cauca .. .. 1,271 598 
 
 Ceylon 2,895 262 
 
 Peru 393 — 
 
 87,891 74,583 
 
 Culture in Trinidad. — The following practical remarks are 
 furnished me by Mr. John McCarthy, F.O.S. of Trinidad :— Cacao 
 thrives well in almost every quarter of the Island, the moist shady 
 quiet valleys being exactly suited to its cultivation. To grow cacao 
 to perfection a good rich soil, which is to be found on all sides, and 
 
10 CACAO. 
 
 especially in tiie virgin forests, must be acquired, and the land 
 felled and partially cleared. Of all tropical cultivation that of 
 cacao is by far the most suited to the habits of Europeans. From 
 the first the cacao tree must be grown in the shade with the object 
 of maintaining the moisture of the soil which is an essential 
 element. The result is that on coming into bearing at say the 
 fourth year and onwards the planter and labourers have the whole 
 of their work to perform perfectly protected from the rays of the 
 sun. The cacao plantations at the age of six or seven years, when 
 the trees begin to meet overhead, makes a perfect picture. The 
 trunks of the trees displaying various shades of grey and green, 
 the leaves a bright dark green, and the pods from seven to ten 
 inches long, and in shape more or less like a coconut — there are 
 always some ripening, while at the same time the blossom has only 
 just formed on another part of the tree, the pods are of various 
 colours, pink, grey, orange, crimson, scarlet, and hanging from all 
 parts of the branches and stem, some hanging in a cluster round 
 the foot of a tree, contribute to form a picture which lingers 
 pleasantly on the mind. The cacao trees are planted on an average 
 about 13 feet apart, which gives about 260 trees to the acre. In 
 the fourth year, with careful planting and attention, one bag of 
 cacao, weighing 1| cwt. net, should be obtained per acre. This 
 will increase every year until the eighth and onwards, when 
 2^ bags should be obtained ; 2J bags will net in London after 
 paying all expenses, freight, and charges, 12Z. 10s.; deducting 
 yearly cost of cultivation, and preparation and transport, 51. ; 
 leaves, profit per acre, 71. 10s., and this will go on practically for 
 any length of time up to seventy years or more. The quality of 
 cacao produce from old trees is considered better than that from 
 3'oung ones, and the cost of cultivation less. An acre of new land 
 to fell, clear, and plant cacao, shade trees, corn, or other minor 
 industry between the spaces will cost, including dwellings for 
 labourers and managers, about 71. ; add to this four years' cultiva- 
 tion, weeding, pruning, &c., 30s., 61. = 13Z. The first crop 1 bag per 
 acre netting the planter, after paying all expenses for the year's 
 freight, and charges a profit of 31. per acre. This will gradually 
 increase jear by year, until by the eighth year the cost and profit 
 will be as follows : — Cost to the fourth year as above ISl. ; add four 
 more years' cultivation, 61., = 19Z. ; and the profit as shown above 
 will be 71. 10s. It is estimated and well known to be a fact that 
 money invested in cacao cultivation will double itself in value in 
 five years, plus interest. 
 
 As regards the commercial aspect, the following are a few 
 interesting facts : — During the last few years of depression cacao 
 is one _ of the few articles of tropical produce which has kept its 
 value in the market. Tea, coffee, sugar, and cinchona, and other 
 leading articles produced in the tropics have fallen at times to 
 almost ruinous prices, but the value of Trinidad cacao has scarcely 
 varied more than Is. or 28. per cwt. during the period named. This 
 proves that the demand in Europe is steady and increasing, and 
 the production not overdone, on account of the few places in the 
 
CACAO, 
 
 11 
 
 world suitable for its cultivation, and perhaps the comparatively 
 long time required to bring the tree into bearing. The official 
 returns for the last few years are appended below. 
 
 England. 
 
 Imported 
 
 Deliveries for home con-\ 
 
 sumption / 
 
 Exported 
 
 Tona. 
 11,328 
 
 6,764 
 
 3,000 
 
 Tons. 
 10,560 
 
 6,520 
 
 3.840 
 
 Tons. 
 10,120 
 
 6,281 
 
 3,555 
 
 lfi83. 
 
 Tons. 
 10,104 
 
 5,745 
 
 3,652 
 
 1882. 
 
 Toiic. 
 8,478 
 
 5,356 
 
 3,729 
 
 Tons. 
 9,986 
 
 4,865 
 
 4,353 
 
 France. 
 
 Imported 
 
 Duty-paid 
 
 Exported 
 
 1885. 
 
 Tons. 
 15,230 
 12,120 
 
 4,950 
 
 Tons. 
 17,307 
 12,018 
 
 3,488 
 
 1883. 
 
 Tons. 
 15,430 
 12,700 
 
 4,396 
 
 Tons, 
 17,574 
 11,430 
 
 3,660 
 
 Tons. 
 17,806 
 12,000 
 
 4,628 
 
 Established cacao estates in Trinidad are very highly valued 
 as may be gathered from the fact that, for years, the fixed price 
 was one dollar (4s. 2d.^ per tree, but lately the price has been raised 
 Si • 20 to .gl • 50 (5s. and 6s. 3d.). The value of an acre with 260' 
 trees five years old can therefore be easily reckoned. Even at 
 these prices, to purchase an established estate would be a fine 
 investment for the capitalist, giving the purchaser from 10 to 12 J- 
 per cent, yearly income on the money invested. It is much better 
 therefore for the planter who can begin at the beginning and can 
 afford "to wait until his young trees come to the bearing stage. 
 
 The country that produces by far the largest crops of cacao is 
 Ecuador, known as Guayaquil cacao (Gruayaquil being the shipping 
 port). When, for some reason, such as drought, the Gruayaquil 
 crops fall short, Trinidad cacao will rise to 100s. or even 130s. per 
 cwt., which has happened during the last few years. The present 
 or normal value of good estate cacao from Trinidad is 82s. to 85s., 
 on which figures I have based my calculations of profits, and a 
 notable fact is that, in spite of the imports into Europe during the 
 last six months of 1886 from Guayaquil being on an unusually 
 large scale, and a consequent great drop in the price of Guayaquil 
 cacao, still the price of Trinidad has held its own. This is owing 
 to the peculiar flavour of Guayaquil not being at all suitable to 
 the requirements of English manufacturers. Of course there are 
 always risks to be reckoned for in this, as in all cultivation, both 
 in Trinidad and elsewhere. Dry weather may prevent the blossom 
 forming fully, and a short crop will be the result. Heavy rains 
 occur sometimes when dry weather is needed to ripen the pods, 
 and the result is the cacao harvested will be inferior in quality, but. 
 
12 CACAO. 
 
 as regards disease to tlic trees, there is no record, as far as is known, 
 ■of cacao trees in Trinidad having suffered from any permanent 
 disease, and it has been grown in the island for over 160 years, 
 though only extensively during recent times. There are more ways 
 than one for forming a cacao estate, and the common one adopted, 
 though not the best, is after purchasing the land to let it out in 
 blocks to negro and coolie contractors. They clear the land and plant 
 it up with cacao, their source of profit being the vegetables, com, 
 fruit, &c., which they grow as market gardeners between the young 
 trees for local sale. At the end of four or five years the contractors 
 •give back the land to the owner, who thereupon pays them at the 
 rate of about Is. per cacao tree. An acre of 260 trees will thus cost 
 the owner 13Z., which is the same as if he had planted it himself 
 with his own paid labour. This contract system is more specially 
 suitable for the planter without all the necessary funds available 
 to extend the cultivation himself with his own paid labour, or for 
 the owner non-resident, who canaot or does not care to supervise 
 the planting of his estate. But by far the best plan is for the 
 European proprietor to open the land himself, under the super- 
 vision of an experienced manager, for although it entails an imme- 
 diate outlay of capital which will lie dormant for four years, still 
 it has been distinctly proved, and is only natural, that cacao trees 
 will receive better treatment under the master's eye and come into 
 bearing earlier and more regularly than if left to a contractor, who 
 has no direct personal interest in the welfare of the cacao. Besides 
 which it is clear that if the contractor can make a good living out 
 ■of the corn, &c., why should not the owner do the same." 
 
 The distance at which trees should stand apart will be modified 
 to some extent by the altitude at which they grow, and by the 
 •different habit of growth or the different varieties — the trees 
 usually being smaller and of more compact habit as altitude 
 increases, some varieties have an erect, and some a spreading habit 
 — but it will range from 10 to 30 feet. 
 
 The first pruning should consist of removing all weaker 
 branches which happen to cross each other closely, and the branch- 
 lets (smaller branches) to such an extent as to leave the principal 
 branches free of each other, and, as much as possible, radiating 
 regularly from the centre of the tree. 
 
 The smaller of the principal branches should also be removed 
 where they are crowded ; and in larger trees, all branches which 
 have a downward tendency, so that a regular canopy of branch and 
 foliage may be formed overhead, supported on fruitful column-like 
 stems. The growth of every tree over four or five years old will 
 be at least two feet in the spread all round in one year, until the 
 full dimensions are reached. 
 
 The best months for pruning in the West Indies are March and 
 April, but pruning of large branches may be done in August and 
 September, should the branches have no young fruit to sacrifice. 
 The model form of a cacao tree, and which should always be kept 
 in view by the grower — either with regard to trees to be renovated 
 or young plants — is this ; a straight single stem up to three feet 
 
CACAO. 13 
 
 from the ground, and dividing into two or three as it grows higher ; 
 each of these again dividing into two or three branches, make up 
 the framework or principal branches which terminate numerously 
 in the leafy branchlets regularly disposed into a well-formed head. 
 The tree uninterfered with from the beginning will assume to- 
 itself more or less accurately this mode of growth — termed tri- 
 chotomous by botanists — which, being innate with it, the model is 
 of very easy attainment, and ensures the greatest possible produc- 
 tion of fruit in the least possible space. 
 
 The cacao tree is a deep rooter, and therefore soils of the second 
 class, and those of the valleys — especially where they are much 
 broken — are best suited to it. 
 
 Aspect is a most important consideration in the culture of cacao- 
 in all countries, and it does not thrive in valleys of easterly and 
 northerly aspect. In Trinidad the quality of the produce is 
 modified by various modes of treatment when prepared for th& 
 market. 
 
 The best quality, irrespective of treatment, is produced by the 
 OrioUo cacao of the Spanish inhabitants, who almost monopolise 
 this cultivation, and it is getting scarce. The pods are smaller 
 than those of the better varieties of other kinds, but the seeds are 
 thicker, shorter, and almost globular. The interior of the seed 
 is of a pale crimson, toning down into pink, and the taste slightly 
 bitter. 
 
 The Forastero kinds are here much prized ; there is the 
 Cundeamar of two kinds, one with yellow, the other with red pods. 
 The former are sooner fit for drying; it has the largest seeds, 
 which are easily fermented and prepared. They are of a pale- 
 crimson, approaching the CrioUo. 
 
 The Amelonado comes next, and then the Calabacillo, which is- 
 the lowest kind ; its seeds are small and very bitter, and the- 
 crimson pigment is so dark that it is very easily distinguished 
 from the other varieties by this mark alone. ' 
 
 The fruit after being picked is either left under the trees in 
 large heaps unopened, or opened at once and brought to the fer- 
 menting and drying houses. In the former case a sort of fermen- 
 tation begins in the fruit, and some planters consider it a good 
 process. The pulp surrounding the seeds contains abundance of 
 saccharine, which causes or rather feeds the fermentation. In 
 many establishments the seeds are fermented in barrels, in others 
 they are merely heaped in a close room. According to the quantity 
 of seeds the planter wishes to obtain, and according to the quality 
 of the seed, this fermentation is continued from three to ten days. 
 The best Forastero cacaos require less time than the other 
 qualities, but more than the Criollo, which completes the process- 
 in three days. 
 
 The influence of the fermentation is twofold ; first, it destroys 
 the pulp which surrounds the seeds and the saccharine matter, 
 which would interfere with the drying process ; and, further, it 
 produces a sort of sweetness and flavour in the seed, accompauiei.. 
 by a change from violet to brownish-red or cinnamon colour. 
 
14 
 
 CACAO. 
 
 Some hold that fermentation lessens the bitterness of the berry, 
 but on this point doubts are admissible. Cacao must of course be 
 fermented to prepare it for drying, but the process is attended ■with 
 some risk in wet weather, when the berries are prone to blister. 
 
 Not very many years ago fine red cacao, that is cacao having a 
 very clear skin of a reddish colour, fetched the highest price in the 
 English market, and no attention was paid to the flavour of the 
 kernel. The opinions of buyers have since changed, and the 
 samples that now fetch the highest prices are all highly fermented. 
 Bed cacao is, however, still in favour, probably on account of the 
 small percentage the manufacturer loses when the berry is clean. 
 Trinidad manufacturers and consumers prefer the light-brown 
 kernel, irrespective of the colour of the skin. The substance of 
 the kernel itself is not changed by fermentation ; the starch is left 
 intact, and siiffers no loss in weight. A great deal depends upon 
 the weather for curing the cacao for shipment. 
 
 The Criollo red-skinned cacao, abundant in Caracas, requires 
 but little fermentation, as it is naturally of a much finer flavour, 
 but its produce is small, and the tree is said to be a slow bearer, 
 and easily destroyed by disease or bad weather. 
 
 Jamaica is reviving her long-abandoned cacao cultivation, and 
 Dominica will do well to follow her example, having rich soil in 
 sheltered dells, • well adapted, to all appearance, to favour this 
 delicate plant. But the islands to the north of Trinidad must take 
 into their calculation a risk from which that island and Grenada 
 are almost free — that of hurricane blasts. The quality of Trinidad 
 cacao maintains its reputation. 
 
 Exports from Trinidad. — In Trinidad cacao is now the principal 
 staple of production (valued at 590,00OZ., and exceeding the sugar 
 crop), although the annual yield necessarily fluctuates, according 
 to weather and favourable seasons, yet it will be seen the ship- 
 ments have trebled in the last quarter of a century. 
 
 Taking decennial periods the shipments have been as follows : 
 
 3821 1,214,093 
 
 1831 1,888,852 
 
 1841 2,493,302 
 
 1851 5,552,437 
 
 1861 6,530,906 
 
 1871 6,422,038 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1881 11,473,737 
 
 1882 12.240,491 
 
 1883 12,830,848 
 
 3884 .. .. .. 14,669,356 
 
 1885 14,904,830 
 
 1886 19,798,856 
 
 Cacao is prepared in two diiferent ways, according to the 
 market for which it is intended. If for Europe, the seeds are 
 covered with dry leaves and a light layer of earth, and left for six 
 or eight days to ferment. Treated thus they lose much water, 
 and their very bitter and astringent principle. The seeds become 
 lighter, of an agreeable and mild flavour, are of a handsome 
 cinnamon colour, and the husk or envelope separates easily from 
 the bean by a slight pressure between the fingers. It is in this 
 condition that the seeds are most sought after, and make the best 
 chocolate. To England, where cacao is principally consumed in 
 infusion, it is sent without any preparation. The seeds are then 
 
CACAO. 1 5 
 
 of a red colour, their envelope is clean, smootli, adhering to the 
 interior almond, which is of a purple colour, with an astringent 
 and bitter flavour. In thi& conditipn it is quite unfit to be manu- 
 factured into chocolate. According to Mr. H. Prestoe, colonial 
 botanist, the chief object in claying the beans is to preserve 
 them, but in the French market there is a decided preference for 
 clayed kinds, without apparently much regard being paid to the 
 quality of the interior. The qualities characteristic of the best 
 cacaos are these : A clean reddish-brown or " chocolate " coloured 
 interior. Dryness, so as to render the bean crisp all through, and 
 the " nibs " or plates of the kernel readily separable from each 
 other, and from the shell or skin. The colour of the " nibs " out- 
 side is a dull purplish, slightly brown. The fracture presents a 
 fine glaucous purple-brown. Chewed, the nibs reduce and dissolve 
 in the mouth readily, and the flavour is a flue full chocolate, 
 slightly warm and astringent. The consistence is much like that 
 of finely-prepared dessert " ground nuts." There should be no 
 trace of mildew. The process of fermenting consists in collecting 
 the seeds, when taken from the husks or pods, into barrels or 
 troughs, or into heaps, nicely covered with plantain leaves or 
 sacks, within the curing house for two, three, or four days ; the 
 house, meantime, being kept closed. 
 
 The first object in fermenting is to reduce the mucous cover- 
 ing of the seeds, and the second is to tone the colour of the kernel 
 to a fine purple-brown. On being removed from the fermenting 
 process, the beans are well rubbed with a small quantity of a fine 
 red earth, and then spread out evenly to dry. The beans have to 
 be frequently stirred about in drying, but a very hot sun is 
 avoided during this part of the operation. The whole process is 
 very simple, but it requires considerable practice to produce the 
 desired effect of the fermentation with nicety. The drying or 
 curing house consists of a strongly-built span roof, fixed with 
 wheels running on iron rails, laid along a stout framework, which 
 supports a strong platform underneath, and upon which the beans 
 are manipulated and dried. The gathering of the cacao pods is 
 accomplished by means of an instrument called a " cacao hook," 
 and upon the proper use of which the goodness of the future crop 
 very largely depends. It is most essential that in removing the 
 pod by a clean cut through its stem, its base or the part of the 
 stem or branch from which it proceeds, be not cut also ; as at that 
 point other flowers and fruits develop, and therefore it should not 
 be damaged. The pods of the cacao being very persistent, to 
 remove them by pulling is not only laborious, but it tears the 
 fruitful portion of the bark situated immediately at its base, and 
 thus prevents fruitfulness. 
 
 Other West Indian Islands. — In 1649 only one cacao tree was 
 known in the Windward Islands, planted for curiosity in the 
 garden of an Englishman at St. Croix. 
 
 Dominica. — The cultivation of cacao in Dominica, although 
 long established, dating from some forty years back, is yet in its 
 infancy as regards proper and systematic culture. 
 
16 CACAO. 
 
 The trees have been planted so close, from two to four feet, 
 that, being overcrowded to excess, they are killing each other in 
 the struggle for light and air before they are large enough to bear 
 fruit. There does not appear to have been any attempt at thinning 
 or pruning, or clearing the ground, since they were planted. In 
 1838, 2354 lb. of cacao were exported; in 1842 it had risen to 
 19,264 lb. It then fluctuated between 30,000 and 100,000 lb; 
 and the shipments in the last few years have been about 
 200,000 lb. 
 
 This is wholly shipped to Martinique and Barbados, either for 
 partial consumption in those 'places, or for shipment to England, 
 France, or America. The process of preparing the cacao beans for 
 the market by fermentation, and subsequent claying, seems scarcely 
 to have been heard of in Dominica ; but it should be known by all 
 growers that this process, properly performed, raises the value of 
 the article from 20 to 30 per cent. 
 
 Haiti exported in 1873 2,783,308 lb., and in 1882, 3,382,192 lb. 
 Jamaica. — Many years ago, Long, the historian, made the 
 following remarks with regard to cacao : " This tree once grew so 
 plentifully in Jamaica, that the inhabitants flattered themselves 
 it would become the source of inexhaustible wealth to them. In 
 1671 there were 45 walks in bearing and many new ones in culti- 
 vation, but some years afterwards they were all destroyed at once, 
 as it is said by a blast which shook the whole island, so that they 
 were never afterwards recovered, and at the present time are but 
 few." 
 
 The number of cacao plantations is now about ten, but several 
 smaller ones are being established, and it is hoped shortly to find 
 Jamaica cacao in the London market in large quantities. 
 
 In the seventeenth century cacao was very generally grown in 
 Jamaica, and was of great importance among the exports. But it 
 declined on account of hurricanes and of the excessive duties 
 imposed npon it in England, amounting to 80 per cent, of the 
 value. 
 
 The culture has now been resumed and 30,000 plants of the 
 best Trinidad varieties distributed among the planters, and when 
 these have fruited there will be a supply of seeds available for 
 thoroughly establishing the most valuable kinds on the island. 
 
 Twenty years ago the only trees in the island were a few 
 inferior kinds scattered here and there in settlers' gardens. In 
 1867 the quantity of cacao exported was 133 cwt., but ten years 
 after it had reached 375 cwt., of the value of 1051Z., and in 1870 
 644 cwt. Now the quantity exported exceeds 4000 cwt., and it is 
 ranked equal to high-class Trinidad. The shipments in 1884 were 
 4016 cwt, valued at 8997Z., and in 1881 3855 cwt. 
 
 As concerns temperature and rainfall, some of the plains and 
 valleys of Jamaica are admirably adapted for the cultivation of 
 cacao. Although the island is about 7^ degrees further north 
 than Trinidad, and nearly six degrees further north than Grenada, 
 it is almost in the same latitude as some of the best cacao districts 
 of JTexicn and (runtemala. 
 
CACAO. 
 
 17 
 
 The situations test suited, however, for successful cultivation 
 are the moist valleys and hollows up to 600 feet, well protected 
 frora winds. The rainfall should not he below an average of 
 60 inches per annum, nor the mean annual temperature below 
 75° Pahr., and the soil should be deep and moderately rich, the 
 preference being given to that containing a certain proportion of 
 marl or lime. 
 
 In St. Lucia there are about 500 acres under culture with cacao, 
 but the annual exports are almost stationary at 300,000 lbs. A 
 little is grown in Montserrat. 
 
 In Grenada there are at least 4000 acres planted with cacao. 
 
 In the quality of its cacao, which may be called the staple of 
 the island, Grenada stands next to Trinidad, and may with care 
 soon have a name for its cacao-nibs as well as its larger rival. 
 Probably some of the cacao exported from G-renada at this time is 
 not inferior to the best Trinidad, though its price is from ten to 
 twelve shillings a hundredweight lower, but the mass of the 
 seeds are cured by peasant proprietors in a crude manner, which 
 Tenders the article inferior in the market, and the majority of the 
 production gives the name to the rest. 
 
 The shipments were in — 
 
 1865 .. .. .. 1,263,743 
 
 1870 2,500,000 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1875 3,137,360 
 
 1885 5,500,000 
 
 Mr. Douglas Alexander furnishes the following observations 
 relative to the management and practice in that island : — 
 
 " The cacao-tree is on the whole a hardy one, but care is neces- 
 sary in selecting a proper site for planting. It will not thrive if 
 exposed to the direct influence of the sea breeze nor in any bleak 
 locality. It therefore follows that sheltered plains or valleys 
 and hill-sides with a westerly or southerly aspect are most suit- 
 able for its growth. If strong breezes are prevalent, it is 
 necessary to plant rows to windward so as to shelter the trees 
 from their deleterious influences. Breadfruit, breadnut, figs and 
 mammee sapotas will form good shelter trees for this purpose. 
 The most esteemed shade-tree in Trinidad is the 'bois immor- 
 telle ' (Erythrina umhrosa). 
 
 " In lower lands it is often necessary, especially where the soil is 
 dry, to plant shade-trees throughout the pieces to protect the 
 cacao from the sun's rays, but all sorts of hard woods should be 
 shunned. In the mountains shade-trees are unnecessary, as it is 
 not advisable in damp localities to exclude the rays of the sun. 
 
 " Drainage is necessary, as the trees will not thrive if stagnant 
 water is permitted to lodge near the roots. It is usual to plant 
 from three to four seeds in each hole, the holes being from 11 to 15 
 feet apart, according to the lie of the land and the nature of the soil. 
 On a hillside, 11 feet apart on the descending line will often be 
 found sufficiently wide, although a greater distance will be found 
 necessary in the lateral line. In flat or rich land from 14 to 15 
 feet square is not too far distant. Plantain or fig-trees are put in 
 
 c 
 
18 CACAO. 
 
 close alongside of the cacao seeds. These grow up and form a 
 good shelter for the young trees, and, besides, give out moisture 
 from the roots, which is very heneficial to the growth of the 
 young cacao. Besides these, other smaller esculents may be 
 profitably planted, such as sweet potatoes (Batatas edulis), tannias, 
 yams and manioc. These help to create a shade and keep the 
 land cool, besides giving the cultivators some remuneration for 
 the labour and expense of bringing on the young cacao. 
 
 " When the trees are about a year old, all must be removed 
 from the hole excepting one, which should be allowed to remain. 
 Naturally, the best of the plants will be selected for this purpose. 
 
 " The period at which some fruit may be expected from the trees 
 varies from three to six or seven years, according to the soil and 
 aspect ; but it is usual to remove the first year's blossoms, so as 
 to give strength to the plant and increase the subsequent yield. 
 
 " In the lower lands the best months for planting are from the 
 middle of April to the middle of June, and from the middle of 
 September to the middle of November. In the upper lands the 
 seeds may be planted all through the year, except during the 
 latter half of July and August, when the heat is too great. At 
 all times, however, it is better to avoid planting at or near the 
 full moon. 
 
 " The tree ought to be a single stem of from four to five feet 
 high, and then branching off into three or four branches. No 
 suckers should be allowed to grow, and all superfiuous wood 
 must be pruned off carefully. The best months for pruning are 
 April and May, but solitary suckers should be removed as often 
 as possible, except at the full of the moon, when the sap is up in 
 the branches." 
 
 French West Indies. — In 1655 the native Caribs showed to 
 M. de Parquet trees of the cacao, growing wild in the woods of 
 Martinique. A Jew named Benjamin first began to cultivate the 
 trees ; but it was not till about twenty-five years after that any 
 great progress was made in the culture. 
 
 In 1727, owing to some disease, the whole of the cacao trees 
 perished in Martinique ; the inhabitants, half ruined, after having 
 tried several remedies, resolved at last to plant coffee. Of late 
 years the cultivation of cacao has however been resumed and 
 greatly extended in Martinique, and the quality is much esteemed. 
 There are now 286 planters, with 500 acres under culture. 
 
 The culture of cacao, which had long been neglected in Guada- 
 loupe and its dependencies, is again coming into favour. The 
 plantations are formed from plants imported direct from Caracas. 
 There are 230 plantations with 2800 acres under cacao. 
 
 The land under culture and the production of cacao in the four 
 Trench colonies in 1870 and 1886 were as follows : 
 
CACAO. 
 
 19 
 
 
 1870. 
 
 1886. 
 
 
 Hectares of 
 2^ Acres. 
 
 Kilogrammes 
 of 21 lbs. 
 
 Hectares of 
 H Acres. 
 
 Kilogrammes 
 of 21 lbs. 
 
 Martinique 
 
 Guadaloupe 
 
 French Guiana . . .. :. 
 Beunion 
 
 628 
 
 463 
 
 255 
 
 21 
 
 262,300 
 
 125,131 
 
 54,556 
 
 3,750 
 
 939 
 
 1,094 
 
 245 
 
 33 
 
 437,606 
 
 257,877 
 
 25,000 
 
 2,125 
 
 
 1,367 
 
 445,737 
 
 2,311 
 
 722,608 
 
 British Guiana. — Attention is being given to the planting of 
 cacao on the vegetable soils to the rear of the cane groves. The 
 cacao estates are chiefly on Canal No. 1, west bank of the Demerara 
 Eiver, and cacao is grown on a small scale on some sugar estates 
 at the back of the cane plantations. 
 
 The cacao of French Guiana, dried in the sun or by a current 
 of air, presents unctuous qualities, which render it sought for to 
 mix with the perfumed but drier kinds grown in Caracas. The 
 export in 1874 from French Guiana was 66,000 kilos. ; there 
 are now 246 hectares under culture by 44 planters, and the 
 export is only 25,000 kilos., which is not half the produce in 1836 
 from 197 hectares. 
 
 The exports of cacao from Surinam have been as follows : — 
 
 Kilogrammes. 
 1879 1,122,990 
 
 1880 939,899 
 
 1881 1,670,053 
 
 Kilogrammes. 
 
 1882 1,237,707 
 
 1883 1,765,174 
 
 A little cacao is grown in the Mauritius. Some small quantity 
 is still produced in Eeunion, of a good quality, the Caracas sort. 
 Cacao used to be grown in the island in connection with coffee. 
 
 Production in Venezuela. — Venezuelan, or, as it is generally 
 termed, Caracas cacao, has ever been considered the best of all 
 that is produced upon the American soil. Although it was from 
 Mexico that the bean was first imported into Spain, large quan- 
 tities of it were subsequently exported from the Venezuelan port 
 of Maracaibo to the Mexican port of Vera Cruz. The cacao tree 
 flourishes best when planted in a damp, level soil, and begins to 
 produce fruit when about five or six years old, its yield being 
 usually about one pound at that age ; it does not, however, attain 
 its full bearing capability until it has attained its eighth year, at 
 least in the neighbourhood of the sea coast ; and in some places, 
 such as the Guique districts upon the lake of Valencia, in the 
 neighbouring province of Carabobo, it does not attain its full 
 yielding power until it has reached its ninth year. Experienced 
 planters residing in the capital (Caracas), however, state that, 
 with proper care, it may be made to cover the expenses of its 
 cultivation from its sixth year. 
 
 The regular periods for gathering in the crops are in June and 
 
 c 2 
 
20 CACAO. 
 
 December, denominated tlie " crop of St. John'' and " Christmas 
 crop ; " but, when the plants have attained maturity, the gathering 
 of scattered pods is carried on almost daily. 
 
 The production of cacao has not only greatly diminished in 
 Venezuela, owing to the perpetual civil warfare prevailing, bixt 
 its quality has materially deteriorated owing to the introduction 
 into the country of seed, commonly termed " Trinitario," from the 
 island of Trinidad, which, although infinitely more prolific than 
 the native seed, produces a bean somewhat bitter in taste, and 
 very inferior, as regards essential oil and richness of flavour, to 
 that produced from the latter. The difference between the two 
 can indeed be detected at once by the most casual observer, and 
 the scale of prices at once confirms it. 
 
 Ineffectual efforts were made to guard against the deterioration 
 of the native cacao, enjoying so high a reputation in foreign coun- 
 tries, by the introduction of the Trinidad seed, to the extent of a 
 proposition being made by the Minister of the Interior and Justice 
 to the Congress in the year 1850, that any person detected in 
 introducing the same into the eastern ports of the Kepublic in 
 constant communication with the island of Trinidad should be 
 subjected to corporal chastisement. 
 
 The Trinitario cacao is a more robust tree than the Criollo, the 
 fruit pod is larger and more variegated, the seeds are smaller and 
 flatter, and the taste more astringent. It is cultivated chiefly in the 
 eastern part of the Eepublic, and the product is known as Cacao 
 Barlovento. The Criollo kind is grown chiefly in the western section, 
 especially in the States of Carabobo and Lara. The Trinitario 
 seed is, at the present time, the staple of cacao from the districts 
 of Giiiria, Maturin, Cariipano, and down the eastward or wind- 
 ward coast as far as the Rio Chica ; but the native or genuine 
 " Creole " plant is still cultivated upon some few estates. The 
 Trinitario seed is also sown to some extent in the valleys of the 
 Tuy, near the capital, although the majority of the estates there 
 are sown with Creole seed, and thus good cacao can still be 
 procured from thence. From the port of La Guayra, running 
 westward towards Puerto Cabello, and particularly at Choroni, 
 Ocumare, Turiamo, Patanemo, and Borburato, lie the districts 
 where the best Venezuelan cacao is now produced ; and the 
 ■choicest of all at an estate called Chuao, near Choroni, the pro- 
 perty of the University of Caraccas. From the neighbourhood of 
 San Pelipe, the capital of the State of Yaracuy, a very superior 
 Tinmixed cacao is sent to Puerto Cabello, to the amount, including 
 a small quantity from Barquisimeto, of about 4000 to 6000 fanegas 
 annually. The other kinds are Maracaibo, Eio Chica, and Eio 
 Cariba or Cariipano. The Spanish fanega, the general weight 
 ■employed, is about 50 kilos. 
 
 From what has been above stated, it will be seen that it is from 
 Cape Codera down to Puerto Cabello, following the coast-line, 
 that the Caracas cacao is principally cultivated ; and on some 
 estates on this line, where the Trinidad seed had been introduced, 
 it has fallen into great disrepute, and some of the planters even 
 
CACAO. 
 
 21 
 
 import the red soil of Choroni, in order to impart a better colouring 
 to their bean. 
 
 In the period from 1830 to 1865 the minimum export was in 
 the year 1834-35, 4,243,320 lbs., and the maximum in 1851-52, 
 10,922,926 lbs. 
 
 In 1881-82 the export was 5,259,744 kilos., of which 3,403,761 
 went to France, 200,818 to Germany, 76,727 to England, 135,200 
 to the United States, and 802,690 to Spain, and 640,548 kilos, to 
 other countries. In 1882-83 the total export was 6,498,229 kilos. 
 
 In 1884 there were 55,000 acres under culture with cacao. As 
 there were 1,304,025 kilos, consumed locally in 1882-83, the total 
 production was 7,802,254 kilos., or 313 kilos, per hectare of 2J acres. 
 
 The exports of cacao from the port' of La Guayra in the year 
 ending 1884 were 3,270,943 kilos., of which 2,121,300 went to 
 France, 592,455 to Spain, 293,746 to Germany, and 191,721 to 
 New York. 
 
 Venezuela exported in 1883, 6,498,229 kilos. Venezuelan cacao 
 is generally dearer than other kinds, and is in great request. 
 
 The first-quality cacao (which is almost entirely absorbed by 
 the Spanish and French markets, whilst the inferior qualities go 
 to England and Germany) is produced almost exclusively in the 
 coast districts, being thus commonly termed " cacao do la costa " ; 
 the seed within the pod, of a rich dark-brown colour, being larger, 
 richer, and of a more oily quality than that produced anywhere 
 inland ; the " cacao mezelado," or mixed cacao, is that grown 
 upon estates where such, of the original first-class " crioUo cacao " 
 trees as may have died out have been replaced by others raised 
 from Trinidad seed; such amalgamation somewhat depreciates 
 the quality of the produce, notwithstanding that a decided im- 
 provement in the quality of the Trinidad seed has been attained 
 in some districts, owing to the favourable nature of the soil. This 
 Trinidad cacao came into favour some years ago on account of the 
 more robust nature and greater productiveness of the plants, but 
 is now universally held to be of an inferior quality. 
 
 Ecuador. — This is the largest producing South American State. 
 The crop varies, the highest export having been 25,000 cwts., but 
 of late has been rather on the decline. The exports have been as 
 follows : — ' 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1857 149,624 
 
 1863 147,722 
 
 1873 
 1883 
 
 Cwts. 
 251,812 
 168,600 
 
 British Honduras. — Mr. D. Morris, in his work on British Hon- 
 duras, states that one if not more species of the cacao plant is a 
 native of that colony. 
 
 " In the forests along the banks of the Eio Grande and in the 
 neighbourhood of the Toledo Settlement, and again in the forests 
 on the western frontier, near the upper portions of the Beleze 
 Eiver, cacao trees are found wild in the woods with their stems 
 covered with flowers and often loaded with fruit. The trees 
 which came under my notice in the south were probably forms of 
 
22 CACAO. 
 
 tlie same species {T. Cacao) which yield the best kinds of Trinidad 
 cacao; but in other instances the characters approached more 
 nearly to T. angustifolia, which is supposed to be a distinct species 
 and under cultivation in Guatemala. 
 
 " This last is no doubt the Tabasco cacao of the Atlantic slopes 
 of Central America, which is probably the celebrated Soconusco 
 cacao of the Pacific slopes. The wild trees in the forest grow 
 under the shade of large overhanging trees in deep soil and in 
 rather moist situations. That cacao trees, even under cultivation 
 in the plains, require permanent shade is very clearly indicated 
 by lie circumstances under which the wild trees are found. The 
 cacao tree never appears to such advantage or thrives so luxuri- 
 ously as when it occupies a cool, moist situation in deep, well- 
 drained soil, thoroughly sheltered from strong winds, and with 
 moderate shade above. The Soconusco cacao, grown in the 
 province of that name on the Pacific, is supposed to be the best 
 cacao known, and little, if any of it, finds its way into foreign 
 markets. 
 
 " This cacao is supposed to have been reserved, from time 
 immemorial, for the use of the Eoyal Court at Mexico ; and the 
 drink or beverage prepared from it was highly appreciated by the 
 Mexicans, with whom it was held in religious veneration. As the 
 trees have the same habit and characteristics as those of Caracas 
 cacao, derived from the class of cacao criollo, the trees in British 
 Honduras will no doubt be found to be the yellow-fruited variety 
 of that highly-esteemed plant. In Forastero cacao (the class of 
 cacao chiefly under culture in Trinidad and Grenada), the yellow 
 varieties are supposed to yield finer and better cacao than the red ; 
 and if these characteristics obtain in the cacao criollo class, then 
 we have in the Tabasco or Soconusco cacao of Central America, 
 which, as shown above, is also a native of British Honduras, the 
 £nest quality of cacao which can be grown. 
 
 " In the woods the fruits are smaller, probably, than they would 
 be if the trees were under cultivation ; but if any difSculty were 
 experienced in obtaining sufficient quantities of seed in British 
 Honduras, they might be obtained from Guatemala or from 
 Tabasco, or any districts on the mainland known to possess this 
 f)articular variety." 
 
 Cacao, besides being cultivated in aU the gardens of Moyobamba, 
 the eastern territory of Peru or the Montana, grows spontaneously, 
 and is met with in abundance and of various kinds in the woods 
 of the province. 
 
 Production in Brazil. — The culture of cacao was first begun in 
 Bahia in 1780, plants being brought from Para, where it is in- 
 digenous to the districts of Valencia, Camanu, and Ilheos. The 
 culture has steadily increased. 
 
 The total shipments of cacao from Brazil have been as follows : — 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1830 57,316 
 
 1841 4,455,068 
 
 1851 8,405,440 
 
 1861 8,671,188 
 
 Lbs. 
 1871 10,180,242 
 
 1881 11,726,000 
 
 1882 11,726,000 
 
CACAO. 23 
 
 All this goes to Europe. The quantity exported is subject to 
 great fluctuations owing to the frequent overflows of the river 
 Amazon, which stops the gathering of the fruit. 
 
 The tree is indigenous in Para, being found in great abundance 
 on the banks of the large rivers of that province, and from Para 
 comes five-sixths of the exports of Brazil. It is, besides, grown 
 to some extent in Bahia, and in small quantities in Maranhao and 
 in Eio Janeiro ; requiring but little labour and capital, it is well 
 worthy of more attention. 
 
 At the end of three years the tree is well grown and begins to 
 produce fruit. These are ripe about June and December, and are 
 knocked off the trees with the aid of long forks. They are then 
 piled in heaps on the ground or under shade, and allowed to 
 ferment for three or four days, after which they are cut open and 
 the beans or seeds removed, which are spread on the ground or on 
 mats to dry. The tree flourishes well on the banks of the rivers 
 Madeira and Salimoes. There are two harvests yearly, the first 
 in December and January, the second, which is the most abundant, 
 in May and June. The tree, whether in its wild or cultivated 
 state, is not injured by the overflowing of the rivers, even when 
 the trunk is deeply submerged during the inundations. In the 
 provinces of Amazonas and Para it grows naturally without 
 culture, and the trees produce freely, requiring no care except the 
 collection of the fruit, which in those localities forms the fortune 
 of the daughters of the cultivators. 
 
 The principal part of the cacao shipped is exported from the 
 valley of the Amazon and the banks of the Tocantins. It is in 
 the provinces of Bahia and Ceara that cacao is most largely 
 developed year by year. It grows spontaneously and abundantly 
 in the forests of the Amazon, and is largely cultivated in Parana. 
 
 In the ten years ending 1862 the shipments of cacao from Para 
 averaged 6,700,000 lbs. per annum. 
 
 Though in many cases carelessly cultivated, it grows for the 
 most part spontaneously. The tree with moderate care will con- 
 tinue to give two crops annually for fifty or sixty years. The 
 towns in this province which send cacao for shipment to the 
 capital are Cameta, Gurupa, Obidos, and Santarem ; nearly all 
 goes to France. 
 
 Culture in the East. — The experiments on the cultivation of the 
 cacao tree on the Nilghiri Hills is still a subject of attention 
 with the Government of India. It is some years since a large 
 number of the young trees were introduced into the Budliar 
 G-ardens, and their cultivation was so far a success that about four 
 years ago two cases of seedlings from the gardens were sent as 
 specimens to Calcutta. The Government recently inquired 
 whether seedlings of another species would not be acceptable, and 
 a case of the new variety was to arrive by one of the ships daily 
 expected at Calcutta, it being the desire of the Government that 
 the seedlings should be planted in the Budliar Gardens, where the 
 results of the first experiment had been so satisfactory. 
 
 Ceylon. — Attention has recently been directed to the cultivation 
 
24 CACAO. 
 
 of cacao in this island, and has met with much success. The districts 
 of Dumbera, Kurunegala, Moneragala, Dolosbagie and Matale show 
 how this now fully recognized product is being gradually ex- 
 tended. The acreage in cultivation is 4746 acres growing by 
 itself, and 10,709 acres amongst coffee. As with tea, this area is 
 steadily increasing. The exports for the six years tabulated wer& 
 as follows : — 
 
 1879 42 owts., valued at Rs. 1,820 
 
 1880 121 „ „ „ 5,445 
 
 1881 283 „ „ „ 12,735 
 
 1882 864 „ „ „ 38,880 
 
 1883 3,588 „ „ „ 161,360 
 
 1884 9,241 „ 
 
 These figures, showing the produce of cacao only in very partial 
 bearing, prove how rapidly the cultivation is increasing. One of 
 the greatest authorities upon this cultivation (Mr. Theuser of 
 British Guiana) states that the cacao tree generally begins to bear 
 in its fourth, and is considered to attain maturity at its twelfth 
 year. Ceylon cacao has so far been able to command the highest 
 prices in the London market. 
 
 Cacao has within recent years been introduced into India, and 
 is now being cultivated commercially in some parts of the Madras 
 Presidency. It is grown in Java, Timor, and the Moluccas. 
 
 The cacao tree was introduced into Celebes by the Spaniards 
 between 1560 and 1570. About 1500 piculs were produced in 
 1854, and since then the production has greatly increased; the- 
 yield there is about 5 or 6 lbs. per tree. 
 
 The exports of cacao from Netherland-India by privata 
 cultivators have been as follows : — 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 1875 202,654 
 
 1880 146,504 
 
 1885 115,894 
 
 Culture in the Philippines. — The cacao tree was first imported 
 into the Philippines from Acapulco— either, according to Camarines, 
 by a pilot called Pedro Brabo de Lagunas, in 1670, or, according to. 
 Samar, by some Jesuits during Salcedos' government, between 
 1663 and 1668. Since then it has spread over the greater part of 
 the island, and although it is not cultivated with any excessive 
 care, its fruit is of an excellent quality. This cacao of Albay, if 
 its cheapness be taken into consideration, may be regarded at least 
 equal to that of Caracas, so much prized in Europe, and which 
 on account of its high price, is generally largely mixed with 
 inferior kinds. The trees are usually found in small gardens, 
 close to the houses; but so great is the laziness of the Indians 
 that they frequently allow the berries to decay, although the 
 native cacao sells for a higher price than that imported. 
 
 At Cebu and Negros a little more attention is paid to its culti- 
 vation ; but it does not suffice to supply the wants of the colony 
 which imports the deficiency from Ternate and Mindanao. The 
 
CACAO. 25 
 
 best cacao of the Philippines is produced in the small island of 
 Maripipi, which lies to the north-west of Leyte ; and it is difficult 
 to obtain, the entire crop generally being long bespoke. The 
 Indians usually cover the kernels just as they are beginning to 
 sprout with a little earth, and placing them in a spirally rolled 
 leaf, hang them up beneath the roof of their dwellings till re- 
 quired for planting. They grow very rapidly, and to prevent 
 their being choked by weeds are planted out at verj' short dis- 
 tances. This method of treatment is probably the reason that tho 
 cacao trees in the Philippines never attain a greater height than 
 eight or ten feet, while in their native soil they frequently reach 
 thirty, and sometimes even forty feet. The tree begins to bear 
 fruit in its third or fourth year, and in its fifth or sixth it reaches 
 maturity, when it usually yields a " ganta " — three quarts — of 
 cacao seeds. 
 
 The profits arising from a large plantation would therefore be 
 considerable, yet it is very rare to meet with one. The great 
 obstacles in the way of large plantations are the heavy storms 
 which recur almost regularly every year, and often destroy an 
 entire plantation in a single day. In 1856 a hurricane visited the 
 island just before the harvest, and completely tore up several large 
 plantations by the roots ; these catastrophes naturally caused much 
 discouragement to the cultivators. 
 
 Travellers in America say that a well-kept cacao plantation is 
 a very picturesque sight. In the Philippines, however, or at any 
 rate in East Luzon, the closely-packed, lifeless-looking, moss- 
 covered trees present a dreary spectacle. Their existence is a 
 brief one. Their oval leaves, sometimes nearly a foot long, droop 
 singly from the twigs, and form no luxuriant masses of foliage. 
 Their blossoms are very insignificant; they are of a reddish 
 yellow, no larger than the flowers of the lime, and grow separately 
 on long weedy stalks. The fruit ripens in six months. When it 
 is matured it is of either a red or a yellow tint, and is somewhat 
 like a very large, rough gherkin. Only two varieties appear to 
 be cultivated in the Philippines, although eighteen kinds are 
 spoken of. 
 
 On the Segaliud river, North Borneo, there were two or three 
 groves planted by the natives long ago, which throve admirably 
 and bore freely. A small European plantation of cacao on the 
 Sibooga was doing remarkably well, commencing to fruit, when 
 circumstances led to its being abandoned; even after this they 
 continued to bear. The vigour and size both of the trees and 
 fruit at Segaliud lead to the hope that cacao will be one of the 
 main products of North Borneo if properly tried on good soil. 
 
 According to F. Engel, a flourishing cacao plantation requires 
 less outlay and trouble, and yields more profit than any other 
 tropical plant, yet its harvests, which do not yield anything for 
 the first five or six years, are very uncertain, owing to the numer- 
 ous insects which attack the plants. In short, cacao plantations 
 are only suited to laj'ge capitalists, or to very small cultivators 
 who grow the trees in their own gardens. 
 
26 GUAEANA. 
 
 GUAEANA. 
 
 A product, allied to cacao in some respects, may be incidentally 
 mentioned here, made from tlie crushed nuclei of the seeds of a 
 Brazilian plant, and highly esteemed there, although it has not 
 appeared much in European commerce. This is guarana, the 
 product of a climbing shrub, the Paullinia sorhilis. Mart., belonging 
 to the order Sapindacese. The tree grows abundantly in the province 
 of Amazonas, along the banks of the Tapagos, Eio Negro, &c., as 
 well as in Guiana and Venezuela. The genus indeed is a large 
 one, and it is probable that the seeds of P. Cupana of the Orinoco 
 and many other species are used for a like purpose. 
 
 It is manufactured by the Muras, Mondrucas, and other tribes 
 of Indians. The fruit, scarcely as large as a walnut, contains five 
 or six seeds ; it is gathered when ripe and roasted intact. The 
 seeds are then taken out, and, after being pounded in a heated 
 mortar, are formed into a thick paste with water, and moulded 
 into cakes, fanciful shapes or cylindrical rolls, something like a 
 large sausage, and then finally dried in the sun or by the fire, 
 when it becomes extremely solid and difficult to fracture. In this 
 form it will keep good for any length of time, and is always ready 
 when required. 
 
 Guarana is used extensively in Brazil, Guatemala, Costa Eica, 
 and other parts of South America as a nervous stimulant and 
 restorative for sick headache, but sometimes purges violently. 
 It is included in the French Pharmaceutical Codex, and also 
 among the non-officinal substances of the United States Dispen- 
 satory. Besides its medicinal properties, this substance has a 
 reputation for afibrding a refreshing beverage, similar in its 
 efiectsto tea and coffee. Grated down, it is very like powdered 
 cocoa in appearance. Two spoonfuls of the powder, mixed in 
 a tumbler of water, is regarded as a stimulant to the nerves, 
 and, like strong tea or coffee, is said to take away the disposition 
 to sleep. 
 
 The active principle is an alkaloid, first discovered by Von 
 Martins, and called by him guaranine, but since shown by Dr. 
 Stenhouse to be identical with theine. Guarana contains more 
 than double as much of this alkaloid as good black tea, and five 
 times as much as coffee ; the proportions being 5 • 07 per cent, in 
 guarana, 2-13 per cent, in tea, and about 1 per cent, in coffee. 
 
 The same alkaloid is found to the amount of 1-25 per cent, in 
 mate or Paraguay tea, the produce of several species of Ilex. It is 
 rather a singular coincidence that the same alkaloid should pre- 
 vail in aU the principal substances employed in a similar manner 
 as beverages in different parts of the world. 
 
 In addition to theine, guarana contains a colouring matter 
 apparently analogous to the tannin in cinchona bark, and also a 
 fatty matter, which, like cacao butter, does not appear to become 
 rancid by keeping. The Indians of Brazil stain their faces with 
 the colouring matter. 
 
KOLA NUTS, 27 
 
 There is exported annually from the city of Santarem about 
 16,000 lbs. of guarana, valued at 8d. or 9d. per pound; near the 
 Rio Negro it sells for very much less, but on the continent of 
 Europe it has been sold occasionally, for its alleged medicinal 
 properties, at almost fabulous prices. 
 
 KOLA NUTS. 
 
 The Cola or Kola nut-tree (Sterculia acuminata), whose habitat is 
 all along the West African coast, from 10° N. lat. to 5° S. lat., is 
 much prized by the natives. In Senegal 66,000 lbs. of the nuts 
 are consumed ; they are there known under the name of Goureaux 
 or Gero nuts, and on the Congo as Makasso. It is met with at 
 Sierra Leone, Liberia, the Gold Coast, the Niger, Fernando Po, St. 
 Thomas' and Princes' Islands, Gaboon, Congo, and the Portuguese 
 Possessions. About 600,000 lbs. are imported annually to the 
 Gambia; Sierra Leone exports about 3500 baskets or packages 
 yearly, valued at £35,000 to £40,000. There is an export duty of 
 5s. per cwt. on it at Sierra Leone. The properties of the nut are 
 eaid to be twofold. In the first place, like olives, it enhances to 
 many palates the flavour of food eaten afterwards ; secondly, it 
 possesses the more important function of staying the cravings of 
 hunger, and enabling those indulging in it to endure prolonged 
 labour without fatigue. The fresh nuts have a bitter taste. It 
 appears in that part of the world t6 satisfy the general craving of 
 mankind for a stimulant. The trade is extending into Central 
 Africa, and northward to the African shores of the Mediterranean, 
 indicating an increased demand. It constitutes an important 
 article in the Soudan. They are said to contain more theine 
 (viz., 2-34) than most of the other dietetic products. Infusions 
 of coffee, tea, yerba mate or guarana are used as beverages by 
 three-fourths of the human race, and each contains this active 
 principle. 
 
 Thus does chemistry reveal the true reason why the unerring 
 instinct of man, even in his savage state, has led him to select 
 from the many thousands of plants presented to him in nature, 
 just four or five with which to concoct a beverage that would 
 seem to be a necessary, rather than a luxury of life. The nuts 
 have to be kept moist, for if they become dry and shrivelled they 
 lose not only their mercantile demand, but a considerable portion 
 of their bitterness. These so-valued luxuries are offered to visitors 
 as a substitute for coffee, being handed round on salvers, hence the 
 frequent application of the name, " the coffee of the blacks," or of 
 Soudan, bestowed on them. One remarkable feature worthy of 
 mention is the marked avidity displayed by the negro inhabitants 
 of Sierra Leone and the Portuguese colonies for the nuts in pre- 
 ference to the beverages of tea and coffee, although each contains 
 the same elementary alkaloid. In countries where slaves were at 
 one time imported, the culture of the tree was introduced to 
 supply the demand. Hence the introduction of the tree into the 
 
28 COFFEE. 
 
 Mauritms, several of the West India islands, Brazil, Mexico, and 
 other extensive regions on the continent of America. 
 
 This interesting plant is being largely cultivated in Jamaica in 
 the hope that the nuts may become a recognised article of com- 
 merce. The tree is hardy and easily established, and there would 
 be no difficulty in supplying large quantities of the nuts eveiy 
 year. Locally in the island the nuts are used as a stomachic and 
 a tonic. They are said to have effected very remarkable cures in 
 dyspepsia and allied disorders, and are used for this purpose in 
 the same manner as cacao or chocolate. It is prepared by 
 grinding the dry cured nut into a powder and mixing with: 
 boiling water, sugar and milk. Some people use kola nut regu- 
 larly at breakfast in this manner, and consider it superior to 
 everything else of the kind. 
 
 To cure the nuts for export they only require to be taken out of 
 the pods and subjected to careful drying in the sun until quite 
 firm and hard. The process, however, requires to be thoroughly 
 done, owing to the thickness of the cotyledons and to prevent 
 mouldiness on the voyage. 
 
 There is another kola nut, the produce of Garcinia kola. The 
 fruit, the size of an apple, contains three or four seeds of a strongly 
 bitter, astringent and aromatic taste, but differing in its properties 
 from the true kola. 
 
 COFFEE. 
 
 After Tea there is scarcely any other staple of commerce used 
 for dietetic beverages that has made more rapid progress in the 
 world, or gained for itself more general acceptation with all 
 classes, than_Co£fee. Its constantly increasing consumption as a 
 beverage, as seen in the statistical tables given, clearly proves 
 that it may be regarded not only as one of the necessaries of life, 
 but also as a "very important one. The continued increase in the 
 demand for coffee, irrespective of climatic influences, will of 
 necessity extend the present area of its cultivation largely into 
 those belts of land which are favourable to the production of the 
 plant. These lands are found lying principally between the 
 isothermal lines of 25° north, and 30° south of the equator. It 
 has been ascertained that the plant cannot be grown to advan- 
 tage in places where the thermometer descends at any time 
 below 55°. 
 
 Besides the existing countries where coffee is cultivated, there 
 are many other places where it might be extensively grown, such, 
 for instance, as the western coast of Africa generally, the interior 
 ranges of Natal, the mountain ranges on the northern coast of 
 Australia, from Moreton Bay to Torres Straits, &c. Soil and 
 climate are the circumstances which chiefly affect its commercial 
 value. The cultivation of coffee is now widely diffused over all 
 tropical parts of the world. It is found in most of the Webt 
 India Islands, in the provinces of Central America, Guiana, 
 
COFFEE. 
 
 29 
 
 Mexico, Bolivia, Peru.^ and especially Brazil, the largest producer 
 of all in the new world. It is widely spread over Arabia, and 
 many parts of the east and west coast of Africa, Southern India, 
 Ceylon, Java, Sumatra, Timor, the Philippines, and other islands 
 of the Eastern Archipelago, Bombay, Madagascar, &c. 
 
 The coffee shrub is indigenous to the mountains of South- 
 ' Western Abygsinia, extending, according to Welwitsch and Peters, 
 to Mozambique and Guinea. 
 
 Coffee Production of the World. — Pew people have even an 
 approximate idea of the magnitude of the coffee trade of the 
 world ; taking the production at present at 13,000,000 cwts. 
 (which is certainly much within the mark), and estimating it at 
 about 60s. per cwt. on the spot, we arrive at a total of £39,000,000. 
 Our imports into the United Kingdom in 1875 of under 1,600,000 
 cwts. were valued at £7,500,000, and of 956,274 cwts. in 1888 at 
 but £3,585,213. 
 
 Let me now trace the aggregate progress of coffee production as 
 shown in the last quarter of a century. 
 
 Brazil — ^Eio 
 
 „ Santos 
 
 „ BaUa 
 
 Mexico — Costa Eica and Guatemala 
 Laguayra and Porto Oabello, Mara-\ 
 
 caibo and Guayaquil / 
 
 Porto Eico, Cuba, and British Wesfl 
 
 Indies / 
 
 Haiti 
 
 Java 
 
 Padang 
 
 Menado 
 
 Sumatra, Macassar, Timor, &c. 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 British India and Manila 
 
 Africa, Mocha, &c 
 
 CWtB. 
 
 cwts. 
 
 cwts. 
 
 3,610,400 1 
 
 
 4,354,000 
 
 359,100 
 
 7,142,000 
 
 2,591,600 
 
 72,000 
 
 
 187,500 
 
 54,200 
 
 354,260 
 
 
 295,000 
 
 410,650 
 
 1,332,625 
 
 100,200 
 
 377,000 
 
 203,875 
 
 314,600 
 
 24,500 
 
 500,500 
 
 1,117,100 
 
 1,400,000 
 
 1,365,626 
 
 203,900 
 
 161,000 
 
 104,000 
 
 16,300 
 
 20,000 
 
 33,375 
 
 9,700 
 
 35,000 
 
 181,000 
 
 593,900 
 
 967,700 
 
 190,000 
 
 173,100 
 
 446,420 
 
 349,000 
 135,625 
 
 6,919,500 
 
 11,338,530 
 
 11,528,726- 
 
 The entire production of coffee in the world may be set down 
 at the following figures in pounds :— 
 
 1832 209,000,000 
 
 1855 660,000,000 
 
 1880 1,320,000,000 
 
 1886 1,292,000,000 
 
 The following particulars, collected by Messrs. S. Eucker & Co., 
 show the total production and consumption of the world for 1888, 
 and the estimated amount for 1889 : — 
 
30 
 
 COFFEE. 
 
 PEODTJCTION OF THE WOELD. 
 
 aS88-89. 
 Brazil — Tons. 
 
 Kio 270,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 33,800 
 
 18,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 7,200 
 
 5,700 
 
 Santos 
 
 BaMa, &c. 
 Java, Government 
 
 „ Priyate 
 Sumatra 
 Macassar . . 
 
 Manila 
 
 Ceylon 6,000 
 
 East Indies.. .. 13,200 
 Mocha and African 6,000 
 British West Indies 5 , 100 
 CubaandPortoRico 21,000 
 St. Domingo .. 27,000 
 Costa Eica .. 9,000 
 
 New Granada, 
 
 Venezuela, La 
 
 Guayra, Mara- 
 
 caibo, &c. 
 Guatemala, Hon 
 
 duras, Nicara- 
 gua, &c 36,000 
 
 Mexico .. .. 6,000 
 
 1889-90. 
 
 Tods. 
 
 150,000* 
 
 90,000* 
 
 22,000* 
 
 31,000 
 
 16,000 
 
 6,500 
 
 7,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 11,600 
 
 6,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 19,000 
 
 2i,000 
 
 9,000 
 
 40,000 42,000 
 
 38,000 
 5,500 
 
 CONSUMPTION OF 
 WOELD. 
 
 United States 
 
 Canada, &o 
 
 Germany 
 
 Austria and Hungary . . 
 
 France ^.. 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Holland 
 
 England 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Norway and Sweden . . 
 
 Eussia 
 
 Italy 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Portugal and Spain . . 
 Turkey and Levant . . 
 Balkan States 
 North Africa 
 Cape, Australia, &c. . . 
 
 THE ' 
 
 1888-89. 
 Tons. 
 
 232,000 
 18,000 
 123,000 
 36,000 
 66,000 
 27,000 
 27,000 
 15,000 
 
 5,700 
 21,000 
 16,500 
 16,500 
 
 7,800 
 
 6,600 
 14,400 
 
 9,000 
 10,500 
 19,500 
 
 671,500 
 
 691,000 495,600 
 
 Tons. 
 Stock in United States and Europe, August 1, 1888 . . . . 104 , 500 
 Add crops of 1888-89 691,000 
 
 795,500 
 Deduct total Consumption in the World, 1888-89 671 , 500 
 
 Would leave Stock on August 1, 1889 124,000 
 
 Add estimated Crops of 1889-90 495,600 
 
 619,600 
 Deduct total Consumption in the World for 1889-90, estimated 
 at 100,700 tons less than for the preceding year 570,800 
 
 Would leave estimated Stock, August 1, 1890 48,800 
 
 In 1874 coffee fetched on the average £5 per cwt., but since 
 then it has gradually declined in price to £3 os. per cwt. 
 
 The following decennial range of prices of coffee are given by- 
 Messrs. Travers & Sons, the eminent produce brokers of London : — 
 
 
 Per lb. 
 
 
 
 Per lb. 
 
 
 s. d. s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 s. d. s. d. 
 
 1787 . 
 
 .. 2 4 to 4 
 
 6 
 
 1847 .. 
 
 .. 10 tol 10 
 
 1797 . 
 
 .. 3 5 „ 5 
 
 6 
 
 1857 .. 
 
 .. 1 OJ „ 1 6 
 
 1807 , 
 
 .. 4 4 „ 5 
 
 6 
 
 1867 .. 
 
 .. 8 „ 1 9 
 
 1817 . 
 
 .. 1 10 „ 3 
 
 4 
 
 1877 .. 
 
 .. 11 „ 1 7s 
 
 1827 . 
 
 .. 1 1 „ 2 
 
 9 
 
 1887 .. 
 
 • • 1 IJ „ 1 7 
 
 1837 . 
 
 .. 1 3 „ 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Conmm/ption in the United Kingdom. — If we examine closely the 
 statistics of coffee consumption in this country, we find that in 
 
 * Most other estimates give the total production of Brazil as only 200,000 tons. 
 
COFFEE. 
 
 31 
 
 the first four years of tlie century it was only an ounce per head. ; 
 in the five years ending 1809 it averaged three ounces ; it then 
 increased, in the next quinquennial period, to six ounces, at which 
 proportion it remained steady till 1825-29, when it advanced to 
 eleven ounces ; increased, in the next five years to fifteen ounces, 
 averaged about a pound per head for the following ten years, and 
 then kept steady at about a pound and a quarter till 1861, since 
 which period it has been gradually declining contemporaneously 
 with the increased consumption of tea, and notwithstanding a 
 reduction of duty. 
 
 In the year 1862, with a population of 27,500,000, we consumed 
 35,000,000 lbs. of coffee, the customs duty in that year being 
 3d. per pound weight ; whereas in the year 1887, with a popu- 
 lation of 37,000,000, the annual consumption had decreased to a 
 little over 31,100,000 lbs., notwithstanding that the duty had in 
 the meantime been reduced to l^d. per lb. Ten years ago the 
 proportion of coffee consumed per head of the population was 
 0*99 of a pound, now it has dropped to 0*81. 
 
 It has been well observed, that it would be interesting to 
 enquire why it is that Great Britain, which has the lion's share of 
 the carrying trade of the world, and whose intercourse with the 
 East is daily and hourly increasing, whose tropical colonies grow 
 coffee in abundance, and whose opportunities for obtaining good 
 coffee are unequalled, consumes less coffee per head of its popu- 
 lation than almost any other civilised country in the world, and 
 this in spite of the enormous increase of its population, and also 
 in spite of the increased demand for non-alcoholic drinks, and the 
 opening of hundreds of so-called coffee-taverns throughout the 
 country. Notwithstanding that the consumption of tea shows 
 some inconsiderable increase, and is undoubtedly the popular 
 English beverage, it is impossible to believe that the use of 
 "coffee," in its generally accepted meaning, is on the decline. 
 The true reason is undoubtedly to be found in the wholesale 
 adulteration to which the genuine article is subjected, and which is 
 systematically encouraged by the Government. More than 116,000 
 cwts. of foreign chicory are annually imported, besides what is 
 grown at home. 
 
 Our imports of chicory were in — 
 
 
 1885. 
 
 1886. 
 
 Eaw 
 
 . . cwts. 
 
 116,612 
 
 112,467 
 
 Roasted 
 
 .. lbs. 
 
 410,647 
 
 442,635 
 
 Coffee and oMoory mixed . . 
 
 .• )> 
 
 105,080 
 
 135,193 
 
 In 1887 we imported 138,090 cwts. of chicory, of which 106,127 
 cwts. were taken for home consumption, and in 1888 116,059 cwts., 
 of which 100,413 cwts. were taken for consumption. 
 
 Chicory pays a duty of 13s. 3d. per cwt. 
 
32 
 
 COFFEE. 
 
 The following shows the consumptioii of coffee in the United 
 Xingdom, and the average quantity consumed by each individual 
 «f the population during the last twenty years : — - 
 
 Quantity, lbs. 
 
 Population of the 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Average per 
 Individual. 
 
 3867 .. 
 
 1868 .. 
 
 1869 .. 
 
 1870 .. 
 
 1871 .. 
 
 1872 .. 
 
 1873 .. 
 187i .. 
 
 1875 .. 
 
 1876 .. 
 
 1877 .. 
 
 1878 .. 
 
 1879 .. 
 
 1880 .. 
 
 1881 .. 
 
 1882 .. 
 
 1883 .. 
 
 1884 .. 
 
 1885 .. 
 
 1886 .. 
 
 1887 .. 
 
 31,282,023 
 30,356,818 
 28,839,100 
 30,629,710 
 31,010,615 
 31,650,192 
 31,930,928 
 31,252,368 
 32.048,016 
 32,894,400 
 32,286,016 
 33,329,552 
 34,122,032 
 31,868,480 
 31,207,904 
 31,214,512 
 31,562,048 
 32,255,664 
 32,660,320 
 31,608,304 
 30,052,064 
 
 30,156,000 
 30,381,000 
 30,611,000 
 30,829,000 
 31,048,000 
 31,836,000 
 32,124,000 
 32,426,000 
 32,737,000 
 33,199,994 
 33,575,941 
 33,943,773 
 34,362,557 
 34,622,930 
 34,952,294 
 35,297,114 
 35,611,770 
 35,961,663 
 36,331,119 
 36,709,409 
 37,091,564 
 
 1-04 
 1-00 
 0-94 
 0-98 
 0-97 
 0'98 
 0-99 
 0-96 
 0-98 
 99 
 0-96 
 0-97 
 0-99 
 0-92 
 0-89 
 0-88 
 0-89 
 0-90 
 0-90 
 0-86 
 0-81 
 
 General Consumption. — Coffee may be said to form almost the 
 exclusive dietetic warm beverage of 100,000,000 of the human 
 race. 
 
 The principal countries using it largely, besides Turkey and 
 Egypt, are the United States, Austrian and German Empires, 
 France, Holland, Belgium, Switzerland and the Scandinavian 
 .States, and Great Britain. In some of these, as the Zollverein, 
 Belgium, Holland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and North America, 
 &c., the consumption is from 7 to 10 lbs. per head. 
 
 The Statistical Department of Denmark compiled a statement of 
 the consumption of the chief dietetic articles in several European 
 countries, taking the period 1860-71 (except for the Zollverein, 
 which rested on earlier data). The following were shown to be the 
 proportions of coffee then used per head of the population : — 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 France 2-32 
 
 Great Britain .. .. 0-95 
 
 BBelgium 8-60 
 
 Zollverein 3-94 
 
 Norway 6-30 
 
 Sweden 3-28 
 
 Denmark 4-90 
 
 Taking, however, other returns we have at command of the 
 imports of coffee retained for consumption, we arrive at the 
 following results, showing the gross and individual consumption, 
 which are somewhat different to those given above. 
 
COFFEE. 
 
 33 
 
 Estimate made for the year 1873 from the official returns of 
 articles imported and retained for consumption in the various 
 countries, chiefly from the 'Statistical Abstract for Foreign 
 Countries ' : — 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Prance 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Russia, European 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Norway 
 
 Denmark . . 
 
 Holland 
 
 Hamburg . . 
 
 Austria 
 
 Greece 
 
 Italy 
 
 United Kingdom 
 United States . . 
 
 Total Imports of 
 
 Coffee taken for 
 
 Consumption. 
 
 lbs. 
 98,635,000 
 49,771,000 
 18,779,500 
 14,740,920 
 26,555,213 
 17,636,080 
 26,035,652 
 72,395,800 
 
 178,715,936 
 
 76,876,576 
 
 2,131,367 
 
 28,511,560 
 
 32,330,928 
 
 293,293,833 
 
 Average per 
 Head. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 2-73 
 
 13-48 
 
 7-03 
 
 0-19 
 
 6-11 
 
 9-80 
 
 13-89 
 
 21-00 
 
 2 -is 
 
 1-42 
 
 1-00 
 1-00 
 7-61 
 
 If we examine the latest year at command, 1884, as far as 
 official returns will allow, and assuming the total imports are 
 taken for consumption, we arrive at the following proportionate 
 results of consumption. But in some cases, as for Hamburg, 
 Holland, and Belgium, there are doubtless large re-exports. 
 
 Coontries. 
 
 France 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Switzerland . . 
 European Bussia .. 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Norway 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Holland 
 
 Germany (Hamburg) 
 Austria-Hungary .. 
 
 Greece 
 
 Italy 
 
 Portugal 
 
 United Kingdom . . 
 United States 
 
 Total Imports. 
 
 Average per 
 Head. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 149,410,800 
 
 4-00 
 
 44,381,000 
 
 8-00 
 
 20,197,860 
 
 7-01 
 
 18,216,000 
 
 
 81,234,311 
 
 7-00 
 
 16,218,400 
 
 8-90 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 7-01 
 
 229,392,000 
 
 ,, 
 
 210,608,300 
 
 4-50 
 
 78,051,380 
 
 3-50 
 
 2,048,739 
 
 1-00 
 
 35,824,800 
 
 1-02 
 
 5,192,000 
 
 1-00 
 
 32,255,664 
 
 0-90 
 
 534,786,000 
 
 10-50 
 
 According to the trade circulars of the leading brokers of 
 Kotterdam, the deliveries of coffee in Europe and North America 
 
34 
 
 COFFEE. 
 
 in the last ten years were as follows, in bales of 60 
 grammes : — 
 
 Hlo- 
 
 Year. 
 
 Europe. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1878 
 
 5,685,500 
 
 2,470,900 
 
 8,156,400 
 
 1879 
 
 6,257,800 
 
 3,117,100 
 
 9,374,900 
 
 1880 
 
 5,813,700 
 
 3,050,700 
 
 8,864,400 
 
 1881 
 
 6,159,500 
 
 3,405,000 
 
 9,564,500 
 
 1882 
 
 6,462,000 
 
 3,748,700 
 
 10,210,700 
 
 1883 
 
 7,355,200 
 
 3,634,900 
 
 10,990,100 
 
 1884 
 
 6,838,400 
 
 3,739,600 
 
 10,578,000 
 
 1885 
 
 7,221,800 
 
 4,018,200 
 
 11,235,000 
 
 1886 
 
 7,483,400 
 
 4,013,800 
 
 11,497,200 
 
 1887 
 
 6,089,600 
 
 3,096,200 
 
 9,185,800 
 
 This gives an average of about 10,000,000 bales annually, or 
 3,320,000,000 lbs. 
 
 From these figures it will be seen that the United States takes 
 half as much coffee as the whole of Europe. 
 
 The following official returns of the imports of coffee in various 
 countries may prove interesting for reference. 
 
 Consumption of Coffee in tlie United States. 
 
 1863 
 1873 
 
 Tons. 
 35,589 
 120,150 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1883 252,626 
 
 1887 193,500 
 
 This is exclusive of the consumption on the Pacific coast. 
 The average consumption per head was as follows : — 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1850 5-55 
 
 1860 5-86 
 
 1870 6-60 
 
 1880 
 1886 
 
 T Lbs- 
 
 8-90 
 
 11-00 
 
 FRANCE. 
 Coffee Impoets in Kilo(Jba3imes. 
 
 1874 38,709,000 
 
 1875 48,013,000 
 
 1876 53,487,000 
 
 1877 47,811,000 
 
 1878 54,105,000 
 
 1879 58,826,000 
 
 1880 57,733,000 
 
 1881 64,696,000 
 
 1882 63,838,000 
 
 1883 68,252,000 
 
 1884 67,914,000 
 
 1885 68,369,000 
 
 1886 68,233,000 
 
 The imports of coffee at Marseilles were as follows, in tons 
 
 1882 20,796 
 
 1883 24,691 
 
 1884 17,113 
 
 1885 17,857 
 
 1886 15 126 
 
COFFEE. 
 
 35 
 
 BBLGIUM- 
 
 CoFPEE Impobts in Kilooeammes. 
 
 Year. 
 
 1874 
 1875 
 1876 
 1877 
 1878 
 1879 
 1880 
 1881 
 1882 
 1883 
 1884 
 1885 
 1886 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 19,022,000 
 21,892,000 
 26,473,000 
 20,386,000 
 23,079,000 
 24,962,000 
 22,755,000 
 25,364,000 
 28,206,000 
 28,507,000 
 20,164,000 
 26,216,000 
 26,874,000 
 
 Of this was received 
 from Holland. 
 
 7,100,000 
 
 7,900,000 
 
 10,600,000 
 
 9,700,000 
 
 8,500,000 
 
 9,300,000 
 
 9,800,000 
 
 9,500,000 
 
 9,900,000 
 
 11,400,000 
 
 10,500,000 
 
 11,000,000 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 Imports of Coppbe in Metrical Centners of 220 lbs. 
 
 1875 93,906 
 
 1876 99,655 
 
 1877 77,871 
 
 1878 83,329 
 
 1879 96,325 
 
 1880 84,305 
 
 1881 97,834 
 
 1882 95,489 
 
 1883 95,943 
 
 1884 91,763 
 
 1885 89,444 
 
 1886 97,639 
 
 OopPEB Imported into EnssiA in Poods 
 
 (36 lbs.). 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Poods. 
 
 KUogramincs. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Poods. 
 
 Kilogrammes. 
 
 1874 .. .. 
 
 443,065 
 
 ., 
 
 1881 .. .. 
 
 424,431 
 
 6,952,180 
 
 1875 .. .. 
 
 457,396 
 
 
 1882 .. .. 
 
 508,877 
 
 8,331,334 
 
 1876 .. .. 
 
 500,589 
 
 .. 
 
 1883 .. .. 
 
 387,141 
 
 6,338,272 
 
 1877 .. .. 
 
 287,038 
 
 4,701,682 
 
 1884 .. .. 
 
 506,000 
 
 
 1878 .. .. 
 
 417,221 
 
 6,734,060 
 
 1885 .. .. 
 
 470,000 
 
 ., 
 
 1879 .. .. 
 
 472,448 
 
 7,638,698 
 
 1886 .. .. 
 
 456,000 
 
 ,. 
 
 1880 .. .. 
 
 500,064 
 
 8,191,048 
 
 
 
 
 Coffee Imported into the Scandinavian States in Kilogrammes. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Norway. 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Norway. 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 1875 ,. 
 
 6,850,000 
 
 9,919,988 
 
 1881 .. 
 
 7,603,000 
 
 12,341,006 
 
 1876 .. 
 
 7,225,000 
 
 11,307,384 
 
 1882 .. 
 
 6,993,000 
 
 13,532,924 
 
 1877 .. 
 
 7,397,000 
 
 10,813,595 
 
 1883 .. 
 
 7,994,000 
 
 14,197,414 
 
 1878 .. 
 
 6,101,000 
 
 10,593,072 
 
 1884 .. 
 
 7,372,000 
 
 14,139,082 
 
 1879 .. 
 
 7,229,000 
 
 10,302,102 
 
 1885 .. 
 
 7,910,000 
 
 15,453,503 
 
 1880 .. 
 
 7,167,000 
 
 11,309,048 
 
 1886 .. 
 
 8,814,000 
 
 •■ 
 
 D 2 
 
36 
 
 COFFEE. 
 
 DENMAEK. 
 
 Impoets in Funds (1 ■ 102 lbs.). 
 
 Year. 
 
 Coffee. 1 Chicory. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 Chicory. 
 
 1874 .. 
 
 14,354,474 
 
 2,238,514 
 
 1880 .. 
 
 13,264,126 
 
 4,161,295 
 
 1875 .. 
 
 15,907,122 
 
 3,729,079 
 
 1881 
 
 15,728,744 . 
 
 3,562,841 
 
 1876 .. 
 
 15,960,529 
 
 3,309,331 
 
 1882 
 
 16,657,576 
 
 3,763,834 
 
 1877 .. 
 
 15,122,963 
 
 2,633,364 
 
 1883 
 
 21,224,815 
 
 2,549,228 
 
 1878 .. 
 
 13,162,038 
 
 4,037,802 
 
 1884 .. 
 
 14,741,863 
 
 1,769,089 
 
 1879 .. 
 
 14,738,394 
 
 4,611,437 
 
 1885 
 
 17,105,725 
 
 D0xjOxt7 
 
 Coffee Imported into Holland in Kilogbammes. 
 
 1874 83,958,000 
 
 1875 110,037,000 
 
 1876 84,540,000 
 
 1877 110,629,000 
 
 1878 93,465,000 
 
 1879 95,935,000 
 
 1880 96,583,000 
 
 1881 94,094,000 
 
 1882 96,301,000 
 
 1883 128,949,000 
 
 1884 104,269,000 
 
 1885 111,263,541 
 
 1886 84,144,000 
 
 Of this last amoTint, about one-half, 53,245,328 kilogrammes 
 were received at Eotterdam. In 1886 the imports at Eotterdam 
 were only 46,413,088 kilogrammes. 
 
 The imports of coffee into Holland in 1887 were drawn from 
 the following sources (in hales of 60 kilogrammes) : — 
 
 Java 869,600 
 
 Padang 4,900 
 
 Menado 26,700 
 
 Macassar 73,800 
 
 Ceylon 100 
 
 England and Manila 600 
 
 Africa 30,300 
 
 Kio 1,400 
 
 Santos 98,700 
 
 LaGuayra 15,900 
 
 Other countries 30 , 000 
 
 1,152,000 
 
 Coffee offeeed for Sale by the Nethbelanhs Geneeal Company in Bales 
 of 68 Kilogrammes, in the last Ten Years, with the Prices realised for 
 GOOD ORDINARY Java at the Sales. 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 iBt. 
 
 2nd. 
 
 3rd. 
 
 4th. 
 
 6th. 
 
 6th. 
 
 nh. 
 
 8th. 
 
 9th. 
 
 
 Bales. 
 
 Cents. 
 
 Cents. 
 
 Cents. 
 
 Cent'. 
 
 Cents. 
 
 Cents. 
 
 Cents. 
 
 Cents. 
 
 Cents. 
 
 1878 
 
 878,837 
 
 51 
 
 47 
 
 49 
 
 47* 
 
 45 
 
 49 
 
 47 
 
 46* 
 
 42*. 
 
 1879 
 
 887,950 
 
 42i 
 
 42i 
 
 42i 
 
 42 
 
 41 
 
 40* 
 
 42 
 
 47* 
 
 50 
 
 1880 
 
 920,992 
 
 47 
 
 44J 
 
 40i 
 
 39i 
 
 41 
 
 40* 
 
 39* 
 
 38 
 
 39i 
 
 1881 
 
 870,244 
 
 37f 
 
 36i 
 
 36i 
 
 33i 
 
 37 
 
 37 
 
 35i 
 
 35 
 
 35i 
 
 1882 
 
 866,148 
 
 29 
 
 30J 
 
 28i 
 
 27* 
 
 27i 
 
 28i 
 
 268 
 
 28 
 
 25* 
 
 1883 
 
 974,775 
 
 28 
 
 33i 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 29 
 
 29i 
 
 29i 
 
 31i 
 26i 
 26i 
 
 35 
 
 1884 
 
 943,449 
 
 34i 
 
 32 
 
 28i 
 
 29i 
 
 30 
 
 27 
 
 m 
 
 28* 
 
 1885 
 
 874,798 
 
 26^ 
 
 25| 
 
 25i 
 
 25J 
 
 26 
 
 24* 
 
 24i 
 
 25* 
 
 1886 
 
 768,078 
 
 25i 
 
 26J 
 
 25* 
 
 26i 
 
 27i 
 
 30 
 
 34| 
 
 34 
 
 39 
 
 1887 
 
 617,842 
 
 42 
 
 42 
 
 m 
 
 57 
 
 53 
 
 52J 
 
 53i 
 
 53* 
 
 46 
 
COFFEE. 
 
 37 
 
 Coffee Imported in 100 KiLoaBAMMES for the Gbbman EiiriBE. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Hamburg. 
 
 Germaa 
 Empire. 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Hamburg. 
 
 German 
 Empire. 
 
 1874 
 
 781,500 
 
 
 1881 
 
 1,169,000 
 
 1,041,550 
 
 1875 
 
 868,500 
 
 1,007,500 
 
 1882 
 
 1,111,500 
 
 1,071,250 
 
 1876 
 
 880,500 
 
 1,064,000 
 
 1883 
 
 1,141,500 
 
 1,141,735 
 
 1877 
 
 917,. TOO 
 
 958,150 
 
 1884 
 
 995,000 
 
 1,111,083 
 
 1878 
 
 940,500 
 
 994,150 
 
 1885 
 
 1,071,000 
 
 1,181,340 
 
 1879 
 
 1,026,000 
 
 1,114,850 
 
 1886 
 
 1,131,000 
 
 1,236,305 
 
 1880 
 
 1,013,500 
 
 942,200 
 
 
 
 
 AUSTEO-HUNGARY. 
 Coffee Impobted and Entbbed for Home Consumption, in Metbioal 
 
 CeNTNEBS of 220 LB3. 
 
 1875 317,201 
 
 1876 327,022 
 
 1877 338,526 
 
 1878 399,040 
 
 1879 193,087 
 
 1880 315,916 
 
 1881 357,935 
 
 1882 378,197 
 
 1883 338,323 
 
 1884 354,779 
 
 1885 367,303 
 
 1886 375,594 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 Coffee Impobted and Entered for Home Consumption. 
 
 Kilogrammes. 
 
 1874 10,695,000 
 
 1875 13,580,000 
 
 1876 14,873,000 
 
 1877 12,220,000 
 
 1878 12,697,000 
 
 1879 15,495,000 
 
 1880 10,673,000 
 
 Kilogrammes. 
 
 1881 14,138,000 
 
 1882 14,091,000 
 
 1883 15,344,000 
 
 1884 16,284,000 
 
 1885 23,596,000 
 
 1886 10,851,000 
 
 POETUGAL. 
 
 Imports of Coffee in Kilogrammes. 
 
 1874 1,548,000 
 
 1875 1,691,000 
 
 1876 1,777,000 
 
 1877 1,702,000 
 
 1878 2,075,000 
 
 1879 2,099,000 
 
 1880 1,919,000 
 
 1881 2,091,000 
 
 1882 2,257,000 
 
 1883 2,246,000 
 
 1884 2,360,000 
 
 1885 2,634,000 
 
 1886 2,633,000 
 
 GEEECB. 
 Imports of Coffee in Ocques of 2*84 lbs. 
 
 1867 779,377 
 
 1868 691,319 
 
 1869 715,685 
 
 1870 620,857 
 
 1871 .. .. .. .. 717,129 
 
 1872 658,272 
 
 1873 579,897 
 
 1874 575,855 
 
 1875 682,913 
 
38 
 
 COFFEE. 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 Impobts of Coffee in Pounds. 
 
 1874 285,271,697 
 
 1875 321,970,865 
 
 1876 340,089,200 
 
 1877 331,639,000 
 
 1878 309,882,000 
 
 1879 377,848,000 
 
 1880 446,851,000 
 
 1881 455,190,000 
 
 1882 459,923,000 
 
 1883 515,879,000 
 
 1884 534,786,000 
 
 1883 572,600,000 
 
 1886 564,708,000 
 
 EOTJMANIA. 
 
 Coffee Impobts in Kilogeammes. 
 
 1879 
 
 1880 
 
 1881 
 
 -1882 
 
 804,857 
 
 819,370 
 
 1,041,048 
 
 983,447 
 
 1883 1,243,193 
 
 1884 1,272,015 
 
 1885 1,400,295 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 Coffee Imports, Talue in Piastees (96 to the £). 
 
 1877 658,000 
 
 1878 743,000 
 
 1879 21,204,000 
 
 1880 30,477,000 
 
 1881 26,391,000 
 
 1882 23,385,000 
 
 1883 21,791,000 
 
 1884 26,903,000 
 
 1885 20,179,000 
 
 1886 17,594,000 
 
 rrom India about 10,000 cwts. are sent annually to Turkey, 
 17,000 cwts. to Arabia, 20,000 cwts. to Aden, and 12,000 cwts. to 
 Persia. 
 
 Imports in Tons for Sixteen diffeeent Counteies for 1886. 
 
 France 
 Belgium 
 Switzerland 
 Bussia 
 Norway 
 
 Denmark (1885) 
 Sweden (1885) . 
 Holland 
 
 70,000 
 
 26,350 
 
 10,000 
 
 7,300 
 
 9,000 
 
 8,400 
 
 15,000 
 
 82,000 
 
 German Empire.. .. 123,630 
 
 Hamburg 113,100 
 
 Austro-Himgary .. 37,559 
 
 Italy 16,000 
 
 Portugal 2,000 
 
 Greece 1,000 
 
 United States .. .. 252,100 
 
 Eoumania (1885) .. 1,400 
 
 Coffee Consumption in the United States, pee Head. 
 
 Lis. 
 
 1873 9-6 
 
 1874 6-7 
 
 1875 7-2 
 
 1876 7-5 
 
 1877 7-1 
 
 1878 6-5 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1879 7-5 
 
 1880 8-9 
 
 1881 9-0 
 
 1882 9'0 
 
 1883 100 
 
 1884 10-2 
 
 The later average is not quite so high as stated, the consump- 
 tion being taken en the census of 1880, whereas the population 
 has increased since then by one million of immigrants alone, 
 besides the natural increase. 
 
COFFEE. 39 
 
 Appreciation and determination of various Coffees. — The exact 
 determination of the source or origin of any kind of coffee is a 
 very difficult matter, and requires considerable knowledge, prac- 
 tice, and experience. The form, size and colour of the seeds 
 serve, at the ports of arrival, as a fair criterion for estahlishing 
 a first classification, hut certain kinds undergo a second triage or 
 assortment when imported, or with the dealers, hence the various 
 kinds of coffee consist of a great many varieties. 
 
 The estimation of the commercial value of coffee, therefore, 
 depends chiefly upon characters drawn from the place of produc- 
 tion, the form, size, colour, smell, flavour, age and uniformity of 
 the seeds ; also on the presence or absence of foreign substances, 
 such as dust, stones, stems, &o. The source of production, when 
 known, is usually a good index, but even then there is always to 
 be found some difference, according to the nature of the soil, the 
 season, the state of ripeness of the beans, their mode of extraction 
 and preparation. Thus, arid soils yield better qualities than low 
 or humid ground ; berries which have been decorticated by 
 means of a mill and then dried in the sun are better than those 
 which have been first soaked or prepared by desiccation and 
 triturating the fruit. 
 
 The general form of the berry is not always a safe criterion for 
 determining the source of the coffee, for forms of different kinds 
 will often be found in coffee of the same origin. Thus, for 
 example, Santos coffee possesses characters common to that of 
 India, Oceania; and some sorts of West Indian and Bourbon 
 coffee beans have sometimes a pointed extremity and at others a- 
 rounded end. 
 
 The different forms of beans may be ranged under three prin- 
 cipal types, represented by Mocha, pointed Bourbon and Marti- 
 nique. The first is small, rounded, and rather rolled ; the second 
 is of medium size, elongated and pointed ; the third is large and 
 flattened. But it must not be overlooked that in each of these 
 sorts we find, besides the typical form, the two others as additions,, 
 and in some rare exceptional cases the coffees of all sources are 
 found to have a mixture of these three forms, produced on the 
 same plant. The planters at Bourbon sort or class the berries- 
 from the tree during the collection. This triage offers no difficulty^ 
 The fruit at the extremity of the branches only produce the Mocha- 
 form, that from the axis the Martinique form, and the inter- 
 mediary fruit the Bourbon kind. The seeds diminish in size from 
 the commencement of the branch to the end. This decrease in 
 size appears to be the result of a marked abortion. These facts 
 explain and are in accord with the theory which asserts that 
 the nourishment becomes less strong in the branch towards the 
 extremity. 
 
 The progress of cultivation leads to a predominancy of the 
 plano-convex form, which is the normal character of the seed, and 
 the Mocha, carefully collected, after some years furnishes a pro- 
 portion more and more considerable of flattened beans. The 
 rounded and selected seeds constitute the round coffee of the 
 
40 
 
 COFFEE. 
 
 Creoles, tlie Caracotello of the Spaniards, and the pea 'berry ot 
 commerce. 
 
 Occasionally a good estimate may be drawn from the convex or 
 crushed shape of the dorsal face of the seeds, of the_ flat or ex- 
 cavated form of the opposite face, also of the disposition of the 
 longitudinal sillon, which is straight or largely open, and of 
 which the inferior extremity encroaches more or less on the 
 dorsal face. 
 
 Coffee seeds vary in colour from brown to bluish green, and also 
 in size. The following table, compiled at the close of 1883, will 
 give an idea of the size of the berries and also the value of coffee 
 from different localities.")" 
 
 Fine brown Java 
 
 „ Mysore 
 
 „ Nilgherry 
 
 Costa Bica 
 
 Good ordinary Guatemala 
 
 „ La Guayra 
 
 „ average Santos 
 
 * Fine long berry Mocha . . 
 
 * Good ordinary Java 
 Fine Ceylon Plantation . . 
 
 * Good average Rio . . 
 Medium Plantation, Ceylon 
 
 * Manila 
 
 * Ordinary Mocba 
 
 * West African 
 
 No. of Seeds in a 
 
 
 Unit Measure 
 
 Per cwt. 
 
 (about 2i oz.). 
 
 
 187 
 
 160 
 
 198 
 
 130 
 
 203 
 
 93 
 
 203 
 
 70 
 
 207 
 
 56 
 
 210 
 
 70 
 
 21.S 
 
 54 
 
 217 
 
 130 • 
 
 223 
 
 60 
 
 225 
 
 92 
 
 236 
 
 52 
 
 238 
 
 78 
 
 218 
 
 52 
 
 270 
 
 100 
 
 313 
 
 40 
 
 Those sorts marked with an asterisk are irregular in size and colour, and have 
 the appearance of being carelessly prepared ; and the reason why Eio, Manila, 
 and West African fetch the least money seems obvious enough. 
 
 The high prices of the Mochas leads one to think that there is 
 something in a name, but the light colour of the seeds indicates 
 probably not only a very complete ripeness when gathered, but 
 considerable age as well, and be it remembered that coffee improves 
 with age and will continue to improve for 15 or 20 years. The 
 brown Java, priced at 160s., had not only very fine seeds, but it 
 had been six or seven years in the island. Eaw coffee improves 
 by keeping; like wine it gains in quality by aging, but, as it 
 loses in weight, dealers do not like to encounter this loss. Old 
 coffee sometimes fetches extravagant prices, thus the merchants of 
 the east coast of Africa will not sell coffee of two years old under 
 2s. a pound, and still older and drier coffees under 2s. 6d. a pound. 
 This is also the case as regards the size of the seeds, which 
 measure from nine to twelve millimetres long, by six or eight 
 broad. Some coffees, as Brazil, Martinique, and Java, present an 
 
 t liCcture at the Parkes Museum, London, December 6, 1883. 
 
COFFEE. 41 
 
 equality of bean and pretty fair regularity, but this is not the case 
 with those of Hayti, St. Domingo, and Mocha, in which will be 
 found beans of different sizes. As a general rule, the sorts which 
 have the finest flavour are those where the bean is of medium 
 size. The very variable difference in the colour of the seeds 
 results from different causes, such as the nature of the soil, climate, 
 degree of maturity of the seeds, their mode of extraction, age, 
 and kind of preparation. Coffee grown in elevated lands is of a 
 light colour, while that raised in low and humid localities has a 
 darker hue. 
 
 The berry is green when it has been extracted by maceration 
 of the fruit, yellow when it has been prepared by trituration after 
 complete drj'ing, and usually greenish yellow when it has been 
 grege or prepared by the mill. It is, in fact, of a more or less 
 lightish yellow when it arrives in a season tolerably dry. The 
 colour of the beans may differ considerably in this respect, but be 
 sufficiently alike, the shade of others, such as Eio and Santos, will 
 vary considerably, being sometimes of a beautiful golden yellow, 
 at others blue, green, grey or blackish. 
 
 Generally the coffees of the old continent and its islands (as 
 Mocha, Bourbon, Ceylon, Java, &c.) are yellow and greenish 
 yellow, while those of American origin (as Jamaica, Martinique, 
 Guadaloupe, Hayti, Brazil, &c.) are green. 
 
 The greater part of the coffees, those of Hayti especially, which 
 are most esteemed by consumers, have when fresh a sweetish 
 odour and a very pronounced raw flavour. The weight of coffee 
 depends greatly on its state of dryness. Hence an experienced 
 French chemist tells us the driest coffees, the colour of which is in 
 general a pale j'ellow, have a density, by measure, determined 
 without heaping up, of about 600 grammes to the decimetre, 
 while those of a greenish colour and which have only been 
 gathered about one or two years will weigh on the average from 
 680 to 700 grammes or more to the cubic decimetre. 
 
 The odour sui generis of certain coffees will furnish a good test, 
 but in most cases this needs great experience to apply it. 
 
 Green Mocha has an agreeable odour somewhat resembling that 
 of tea. The coffees of Martinique and Jamaica have a pure 
 pleasant smell, that of Porto Eico is much less agreeable. The 
 odour of Brazil sorts is generally strong, without being always 
 the same, because it is by this character that Eio and Santos coffees 
 can generally be distinguished. Those of Java and Sumatra are 
 penetrating or sharp, and that of Manila is very pronounced. 
 
 The taste and flavour constitute another special characteristic. 
 That of Mocha is the best of all. Martinique coffee is very agree- 
 able, while the coffees of Guadaloupe and Porto Eico are less so ; 
 Padang coffee is not so much esteemed as that of Java ; Sumatra 
 coffee is slightly bitter. Green coffee mostly arrives in commerce 
 mixed more or less with broken berries, debris of husks, mouldy 
 beans, and foreign substances such as dust, stones, bits of wood, 
 and various seeds. It requires, therefore, in examining different 
 kinds of coffee to have this element in view. 
 
42 COFFEE. 
 
 The coffee of Hayti, for example, contains a larger number of 
 broken beans, dust, and a greater quantity of stones than that 
 from any other quarter. The coffees from Eio, Santos, Martinique 
 and Java are generally, on the contrary, well prepared, clean, and 
 contain few foreign "matters. Other sorts, as from the Cayes, 
 Singapore and Macassar, have usually mouldy beans. 
 
 The stones found will necessarily correspond with the geological 
 formation of the country where the coffee is grown, and hence 
 differ notably. Those of BrazU, for example, will in nowise 
 resemble those of Hayti ; the stones of Santos being of a brick-red 
 colour, friable, and of dimensions varying from a pin's head to a 
 hazel-nut, whilst those of Eio are generally white, crystalline, and 
 sharp, of various sizes, and will scratch glass. The stenes of 
 Hayti (Port-au-Prince) are greenish grey and ranging in size from 
 a grain of sand to a large nut. Hence the stones and earth found 
 mixed with the coffee may give some clue to the source of growth, 
 but this can only be on first arrival, for dealers usually mingle 
 one kind with another. Besides the stones, the imports, carefully 
 prepared, of Eio and Santos coffees, contain little bits of wood, 
 pieces of the boughs or branches of the coffee-tree. 
 
 The value of commercial Coffee, it will be seen, therefore, depends 
 upon the texture and form of the berry, and the colour, flavour and 
 mode in which it has been prepared for market. 
 
 Finally, in a commercial appreciation of the various kinds of 
 coffee, account must be taken of the relative proportion of caffeine 
 which they contain, but this determination requires careful 
 chemical analysis. The quantity of this alkaloid varies in dif- 
 ferent kinds of coffee. Messrs. Eobiquet and Boutron found the 
 following proportions : — 
 
 Yellow Coffee of Brazil 1-82 
 
 Martinique 1'79 
 
 Alexandria and Java 1 • 26 
 
 Mocha 1-06 
 
 Cayenne I'OO 
 
 San Domingo 0'89 
 
 Professor A. H. Church made an analysis for the Brazilian Consul 
 in London in 1881, as follows : — 
 
 Sample of Eaw Coffee from Brazil. 
 
 In 100 parts. 
 
 Moisture 11 -22 
 
 Oil and Fat 14-27 
 
 Matter Boluble in water 24 '87 
 
 Albuminoids or flesh-formers 6-96 
 
 Caffeine 1-18 
 
 Ash, or mineral matter 3'51 
 
 62-01 
 
 Few persons have given attention to the analysis of coffee in a 
 chemical point of view, since the article of Payen (' Annales de 
 Chimie,' 3 serie, 1849, t. xxvi. p. 108.) 
 
COFFEE. 
 
 43 
 
 Long researches have been made to ascertain if from any one of 
 the elements, caffeine, tannin, ash, alhumen, &c., any cause could 
 he found for the notable differences which gourmets find or seek in 
 coffee. In a word, if by the aid of analysis coffees could be 
 classed, as the brokers, dealers, and experts do, by the aid of 
 physical signs, or by tasting the infusion, operations which 
 demand, like other species of judgment, special knowledge and 
 much practice, which very few persons have the opportunity of 
 acquirLag. 
 
 M. CommaUle in a study of coffee (' Moniteur Scientifique,' 1876, 
 p. 779) says he has after long experience been unable to do this, but 
 he found that he could in a certain degree by testing chloroginic 
 acid, estimate the damage and alterations resulting from fermen- 
 tation, &c. Many persons (for instance, M. Branson, ' Moniteur 
 Scientifique,' 1874, t. iv. p. 626) writing on coffee consider that 
 the quality depends upon the proportion of caffeine it contains. 
 
 M. Commaille experimented with 80 different sorts of coffee, 
 chiefly Mysore j it contained 13 per cent, of water, and 1 litre 
 weighed 700 grammes. 
 
 Analyses of Coffee. 
 
 Commaille. 
 
 Mysore Coffee, 
 
 not dried. 
 
 Payen's Estimate 
 on Mocha and Mar- 
 tinique. 
 
 Water 
 
 Fatty substances 
 
 Glucose 
 
 Dextrine 
 
 Undetermined acid 
 
 Legumine, Casein 
 
 Albumen 
 
 Double Chlorate of Potass and Caf-\ 
 
 feine / 
 
 Acid, Chloroginic 
 
 Caffeine, free 
 
 Total Caffeine (3) 
 
 Ash 
 
 Extract of Coffee in cold water 
 „ „ boiling water . . 
 „ „ by alcohol at 60°1 
 percent / 
 
 6-3 to 15-7(1) 
 
 12-68 
 
 2-60 
 
 1-52 
 1-04 
 
 About 9-0 
 
 0-42 to 1-31 
 3-882 
 24-97 
 37-20 
 
 23-150 
 
 10-0 
 10 to 13 
 
 15-5 
 
 lO-O 
 
 3-5 to 5 
 
 2-22 to 3-17 (2) 
 
 0-8 
 
 1-815 to 2-250 (4) 
 
 6-697 
 
 (1) The highest and lowest of 24 samples of coffee. 
 
 (2) 65-5 acid to 100 of salt, according to Payen. 
 
 (3) 29 of caffeine to 100 of salt, according to Payen. 
 
 (4) Free caffeine 0-8, and combined caffeine 1-055 to 1-450. 
 
 These figures are too high, as no one has extracted two gi-ammes 
 of pure caffeine per cent. 
 
 A practical subdivision of coffees admits again of ten or twelve 
 categories of many varieties, which differ from each other, not 
 only in the price, which is variable, but also by their quality, 
 aroma, and source. This distinction is very essential to be known. 
 
44 COFFEE. » 
 
 and I append the designations nnder which different sorts pass 
 in commerce. 
 
 America. 
 
 Brazil — Eio (washed Bio, Capitania). 
 Santos, and waslied Santos. 
 Minas-Geraes. 
 
 Bahia (Caravellas, Muriteba, Valenoa, Maragogipi). 
 Ceara. 
 Andarahy. 
 Pernambuco. 
 Amazon. 
 Antilles— Haiti or San Domingo (St. Marc, Mole, Gonaives, St. 
 Domingo, Port de Paix, Porto Plata, Cape Haitien, Port 
 an Prince, Jacmel, Jeremie, Aquin, Cayes). 
 Jamaica (plantation and ordinary). 
 
 Porto Kico, Martinique, Guadaloupe (I'Habitant, le Bonefieui). 
 Cuba (Santiago de Cuba, Havana). 
 Central America. — Guatemala (ordinary and grege or pulped). 
 Nicaragua. 
 Savanilla. 
 
 Costa Rica (ordinary and grege). 
 Honduras. 
 San Salvador. 
 Venezeula — Porto Cabello (grege). 
 La Guayra. 
 Maracaibo. 
 Peru — Carabaya. 
 Huauca. 
 Solivia — Yungas. 
 French Guiana — Cayenne (Cote' de Kemire, Montagne d' Argent, Kaw, Oyac). 
 
 Afbioa. 
 West Africa. — Madeira. 
 
 Cape Verd. 
 
 Senegambia (Cayengo, Eio Nunes). 
 
 Gaboon, Benguela, Monrovia. 
 
 St. Thomas (Principes). 
 
 Angola (Bncoge, Cazengo). 
 East Africa. — Eeunion (Bourbon poiijted, round. Mocha, Myrtle, Leroy, 
 St. Leu, and Mauritius). 
 
 Mayotte. 
 
 Nossi-Be. 
 
 Mozambique (Inhambaue). 
 
 Madagascar (Tamatave). 
 
 Natal. 
 
 Zanzibar (Mocha). 
 
 Berbera. 
 Arabia. — Mocha, Mocha of Aden, Hodeidah, Kusina, Dejibi, Aden. 
 
 Asia. 
 India. — Bombay (Mocha). 
 Mangalore. 
 Mysore. 
 Malabar. 
 Wynaad. 
 Tellicherry. 
 Nilgheris. 
 Salem. 
 
 Ceylon (plantation and native). 
 Cocldn China. 
 
COFFEE. 45 
 
 Indian Archipelago and Pacific. 
 
 Java (Preanger, Demerary, Menado, Tagal, Malang, Solo, 
 Tjilatjap, Sainarang, Cheribon, Tenger, Kadoe, Peoalongan, 
 Pasoeroean). 
 
 Palembang. 
 
 Padang. 
 
 Celebes (Pare-Par^, Boeng, Maoasaar). 
 
 Sumatra. 
 
 Luoon (Manila, Zamboang). 
 Pacific— Tahiti. 
 
 Fiji. 
 
 New Caledonia. 
 
 Varieties of the Plant. — Botanists have enumerated about sixty 
 species of the genus Ooffea, spread over various countries in the 
 eastern and western hemispheres. Most of these must be mere 
 varieties resulting from accidents of soil, climate, or cultivation, 
 produced subsequently to the naturalising of the plant, for we 
 know that all the coffee trees now grown in America and the 
 West Indies are the progeny of one plant introduced in the year 
 1714, and yet botanists have individualised as separate species the 
 following : — • 
 
 In Brazil — C. australis, biflora, gardenioides, jasminoides, magno- 
 liaefolia, major, meridionalis, minor, nodosa, parqaioides, parvifolia, 
 porophylla, sessilis, stipulacea, truncata, viburnoides. 
 
 In Guiana — C. guianensis, laurifolia, paniculata, stipulacea. 
 
 In Mexico — C. mexicana, obovata, and rosea. 
 
 In New G-ranada — G. spicata. 
 
 In Peru — 0. niiida, racemosa, subsessilis, umbellata, verticillata, 
 longifolia, foveolata, ciliata, and acuminata. 
 
 In the Bast Indies we have, in India, C. semiexserta, tetranda, 
 travancorensis, Wightiana ; in Java, C. densiflora and C. indica ; 
 in the Moluccas, G. pedunculata. 
 
 In the Sandwich Islands, G. Ghamissonis and G. Kaduana. 
 
 In Africa, the original Goffea Arabica in Arabia and Abyssinia ; 
 C. laurina in Sierra Leone ; G. Liberica in Liberia ; and G. Mozam- 
 hicana and G. Zanguebarica in other parts. 
 
 Mr. W. P. Hiern, writing in the Linnean Society's Transactions, 
 states that, as at present understood, the Linnean genus Goffea 
 belongs to the Old World, and the numerous American species 
 that have been previously referred to it now find places in other 
 genera. All the species most valuable for economic or commercial 
 purposes are confined to Africa, or are of African origin. Among 
 the Indian species at least one, G. bengalensis, Eoxb., a native of 
 Silhet, was in former times cultivated in Bengal for the growth of 
 coffee, but, being far inferior and not productive, it has been 
 discarded on the introduction of the African plants. 
 
 Mr. Hiern, in his monograph, enumerates fifteen species, seven of 
 which have been already described, and the remaining eight are 
 new, or have not been previously described. 
 
46 COFFEE. 
 
 1. O. arabica. 
 
 2. G. Liberica. 
 
 3. C. stenophylla. 
 
 4. C. Zanguebarioa. 
 
 5. G. brevipes. 
 
 6. G. melanocarpa. 
 
 7. G. mauriliana. 
 
 8. G. maerocarpa. 
 
 9. G. hypoglauca. 
 
 10. G. microcarpa. 
 
 11. C.Afzelii. 
 
 12. C. s«6cor(iato. 
 
 13. C rupestris. 
 
 14. 0. jasminoidei. 
 
 15. O. racemosa. 
 
 0. arabica is indigenous in Abyssinia, also on the slopes above 
 the Victoria Nyanza, and in Angola, and probably in some of the 
 intervening countries; cultivated, and often occurring spontane- 
 ously in Arabia and nearly all tropical and sub-tropical countries, 
 including Madagascar and Natal; said to be wild along the 
 Mozambique coast. It, with its numerous cultivated varieties, is 
 the source of most of the coffee of commerce. A variety of this, 
 C. leucocarpa, inhabiting Sierra Leone, may prove to be a distinct 
 species. 
 
 C. Liberica inhabits Sierra Leone, Monrovia, and Angola, is the 
 source of the Liberian coffee, and probably also of the Cape Coast 
 coffee. 
 
 C. stenophylla, Don., is the Highland coffee of Sierra Leone. 
 
 G. Zanguebarica, Lour., is found on the Zanzibar coast and 
 Mozambique. 
 
 C brevipes, Hiern, found on the Cameron Mountains at an 
 elevation of 2000 to 3000 feet by Mann. 
 
 G. melanocarpa, Welw., in the Angola country. 
 
 G. mauritiana. Lam., inhabiting high mountainous forests in 
 Bourbon and Mauritius, called cafe manor, or wild in Bourbon. It 
 is mixed with other coffees, for, if used alone, it is said to have 
 intoxicating properties. 
 
 G. macrocarpa, A. Eich., in dense mountainous forests in Mau- 
 ritius. 
 
 C. hypoglaiica, Welw. Angola. 
 
 G. mieroearpa, Dec. Senegambia. 
 
 G. Afzelii, Hiern. Sierra Leone. 
 
 O. subcordata, Hiern. Old Calabar. 
 
 C. rupestris, Hiern. Abbeokuta. 
 
 G. jisminoides, Welw. Angola. 
 
 G. racemosa. Lour. Mozambique. 
 
 Mr. Hiern excludes G. lamina, Poir. of Sierra Leone, which he 
 refers to Graterispermum laurinum, Benth. 
 
 In 1877 Mr. Preston, the Colonial botanist, Trinidad, drew 
 attention to the following species under experimental culture in 
 that island : The Liberian, and a species from Cape Coast. The 
 narrow-leaf C. angustifolia, received from Java, quite as new to 
 Western cultivation as the Liberian, and eminently adapted for 
 cultivation in poor, rocky or gravelly soils. It resists drought 
 that would prove fatal to the ordinary Creole coffee. Its prolific- 
 ness is very remarkable, and the size of the bean only second to 
 that of the Liberian, but it is slower to develop than the ordinary 
 coffee. 
 
COFFEE. 41 
 
 Soufriere, a variety of G. arabica, obtained from Dominica, 
 hardy, vigorous, and proof against insects. The size of the bean 
 unusually large, nearly equalling that of the narrow-leaved coffee 
 last-named. 
 
 Mocha. — C. arabica, varieties major and minor. The rate of 
 growth of the major is much faster than that of the minor, and at 
 the same time it is more prolific. The hean is as round as, and a 
 third larger than that of, the minor. 
 
 It does not appear (Mr. Preston adds) to he generally known 
 that the Mocha coffee is rendered most prolific hy scorching sun 
 heat up to a point of making the trees lose their leaves to some 
 extent, and thus it is that in the East the operation of gathering 
 is often effected by drawing the branches through the hand, not 
 picking the berries off the branches. Moreover, Mocha coffee trees 
 in Trinidad are often seen in the leafless condition alluded to, 
 laden with fruit. 
 
 Bengal Coffee. — This species differs from all others in its ex- 
 cessively compact habit of growth, its small and long bean, and 
 specially in its adaptability for cultivation under other trees, 
 luxuriantly, and being most prolific in dense shade. It is a 
 second-class coffee in the market, chiefly owing to the shape of the 
 beans, but it is recommended as a variety for planting in rows 
 intermediate with cacao. 
 
 There exist numerous species of coffee trees, as, for instance, 
 Coffea arabica, of which there are many varieties, as the Mocha, 
 the Myrtle, the Aden, and the wild. 
 
 Coffea mauritiana, the wild coffee of Eeunion. 
 C^ea Liberica, the coffee of Monrovia and Gaboon. 
 Coffea laurina. Sierra Leone. 
 
 Coffea amarello, the wild coffee with yellow berries (the most 
 rich of all in caffeine), which is found in the forests of Botuioateo, j 
 in the province of San Paulo, Brazil. 
 
 Coffea vermelho, the ordinary red coffee of Brazil. 
 Cultivation. — The coffee tree succeeds in countries in which the 
 temperature does not fall below 55°, but is very commonly raised 
 in greenhouses in various parts of Europe and North America. It 
 may be cultivated as far as 36° N. lat., where the mean temperature 
 is about 70°. The cultivation within extra-tropical boundaries 
 can only be tried, with any prospect of success, in the warmest 
 and at the same time moistest regions, frost being detrimental to 
 the coffee plant. The Americans of the States believe that the 
 climate and soil of Florida would be favourable to coffee, as well 
 as Lower California and a portion of Texas. This belief is 
 rendered almost a certainty by the authentic statements that in 
 these regions, at least in Florida and California, there is found 
 growing in abundance a wild coffee plant with many of the 
 characteristics of the cultivated plant. In California the experi- 
 ment has been tried of planting Costa Eica seed, and the results 
 are reported as satisfactory. Within the tropics coffee thrives best 
 at an elevation of 1200 to 3000 feet, and rarely grows above 6000 
 feet. In Jamaica and Ceylon it is found to withstand cold well in 
 
48 COFFSE. 
 
 the high mountain ranges, and bears a large, plump, and aromatic 
 herry. It takes its name from Coffa, a south-western province of 
 Ahyssinia, of which it is a native, and the common name is almost 
 the same in all languages to which it has spread. 
 
 The trees are usually raised from seeds in nurseries, and after- 
 wards planted out at regular distances, which vary according to 
 the nature of the soil. Plantations are made chiefly on hills and 
 the skirts of mountains, and, if possible, where the soil is moist 
 and shaded. In dry and gravelly soils the coffee trees seldom 
 grow higher than six feet, and may be planted five feet apart ; but 
 in rich soils, where they attain the height of nine or ten feet or 
 more, the plants should not be so crowded, and intervals of eight 
 or ten feet ought to be left between them. If not pruned they 
 would rise to the height of sixteen or eighteen feet, but they are 
 generally dwarfed to five feet for the convenience of gathering 
 the fruit with greater ease, and also to prevent their running to 
 wood. Thus dwarfed they extend their branches laterally, so that 
 they cover the whole spot round about them. The trees produce 
 fruit when they are two years old, and in the third or fourth year 
 they are in full bearing. The produce of a good tree is from one 
 and a half to two pounds of berries. 
 
 With the same infirmities that most other trees are subject to, 
 coffee trees are likewise in danger of being destroyed by the borer 
 and other insects, and occasionally by the scorching rays of the 
 sun. In the West Indies and some other parts, large umbrageous 
 trees, of various kinds, are planted in rows at intervals throughout 
 a coffee plantation, to afford a shade and shelter to the young plants. 
 
 Coffee trees flourish in hilly districts where the subsoil is 
 gravelly, for the roots will strike" down and obtain nourishment, 
 so as to keep the tree alive and fruitful for thirty years. This is, 
 however, about the extreme limit at which the tree will bear fruit. 
 Trees planted in a light soil and in dry and elevated spots produca 
 smaller berries, which have a better flavour than those grown in 
 rich, flat, and moist soils. The weight of produce yielded by the 
 latter is, however, double that obtained from the former, and, as 
 the difference in price between the two is by no means adequate 
 to cover this deficiency of weight, the interest of the planter 
 naturally leads him to the production of the largest but least 
 excellent kind. It is the usual calculation that each bushel of ripe 
 berries will yield 10 lbs. weight of merchantable coffee. 
 
 The aspect of a coffee plantation during the period of blossoming, 
 which does not last longer than one or two days, is very interest- 
 ing. In one night the blossoms expand themselves so profusely 
 as to present the same appearance which is sometimes witnessed 
 in England when a casual snowstorm, at the close of autumn, has 
 loaded the trees, while still furnished with their full complement 
 of foliage. The fruit is known to be ripe when it assumes a dark 
 red or nearly purple colour, and in this state the pulpy covering 
 begins to shrivel. If not then gathered the fruit will drop from 
 the trees. The sweet pulp covering the seeds is in some countries 
 distilled, and in other cases dried and used as a coffee substitute. 
 
COFFEE. 49 
 
 The fruit or berries are either gathered by hand into bags or 
 baskets, or the trees are shaken and the fruit falls on sheets laid 
 «0n the ground. 
 
 In curing or drying the coffee it is sometimes usual to expose 
 the berries to the sun's rays, in layers five or six inches deep, on 
 platforms or- terraced floors, called barbacues. These paved bar- 
 bacues are raised a little above the ground and enclosed vs^ith an 
 mpright stone ledge of eight or ten inches in height, and divided 
 by transverse partitions into four or more square compartments, 
 that each may contain a day's gathering. During the first and 
 second days the berries are turned often, that the whole may be 
 more exposed to the sun, but when they begin to dry they are 
 frequently winnowed and laid in cloths to preserve them better 
 from rain and dews, still exposing them to the sun daily, and 
 removing them und.er cover every evening until they are sufS- 
 •ciently dried. By this means the pulp ferments in a few days, and 
 having thus thrown off a strong acidulous moisture, dries gradually 
 in about three weeks ; the husks are afterwards separated from the 
 iseeds in a mill. 
 
 Other planters remove the pulp from the seed as soon as the 
 berries are gathered by a pulping mill. The pulp is then separated 
 from the seeds by washing them, and the latter are spread out in 
 the sun to dry. It is then necessary to remove the membranous 
 iskin or parchment by means of heavy rollers. The seeds are 
 afterwards sifted and winnowed to separate the chaff, and, if any 
 among them appear to have escaped the action of the rollers, they 
 .are again passed through the mill. 
 
 In the ten years from 1861 to 1870, the coffee-growing countries 
 produced nearly sixty-eight millions of cwts. of coffee. Of this, 
 Eio alone supplied considerably more than a third ; now Brazil 
 furnishes more than one-half of the entire production of the 
 world. 
 
 Production in Java and the Eastern Archipelago. — Although Brazil 
 supplies the largest quantity of coffee to the world, as shipments 
 go chiefly to the United States, hence I will commence with the 
 second great coftee-producing country, Java, which, however, 
 ■stands the first in precedence for the introduction of the coffee 
 tree. 
 
 As early as 1696 the industrious Dutch carried the seeds of 
 coffee trees from Carranova in- Malabar to their colony in the far 
 East, enlarged the enterprise rapidly, and were able by 1719 to 
 appear in the great markets of the world with large supplies of 
 coffee (30,000 lbs.) from Java. Encouraged by this success, they 
 established similar plantations in Sumatra, Ceylon, and the Sunda 
 islands. The French and the English followed their example, and 
 in a short time the coffee tree had made the voyage round the 
 world. In 1690 Governor Witsen presented a coffee plant to the 
 Botanic Garden of Amsterdam, where it bore fruit and produced 
 many young plants, from which the West Indies have been 
 furnished. 
 
 In Java, which is situated six degrees south of the equator, 
 
 E 
 
COFFEE. 
 
 elevated forest clearings, between 2000 and 4000 feet above the 
 level of the sea, are found to be the best suited for the growth of 
 coffee ; but it is cultivated in low lands also, although the tree 
 does not last so long, and bears less fruit. Shade trees are used, 
 and weeding is well attended to. 
 
 In some places the berries are dried with the pulp, but in the 
 majority of cases it is prepared in the parchment by pulping, 
 washing, and pounding with wooden pestles, and, by experienced 
 planters, with more complicated machinery. 
 
 Java coffee has gradually acquired a reputation which its in- 
 trinsic value fully merits. The greatest care and attention have 
 been bestowed on the cultivation there, it being not so much the 
 wish of the Dutch Government naturally to increase the present 
 extent of culture as to develop and strengthen the plant, in order 
 thus to improve the quality and enhance the value of the bean. 
 In San Domingo and other places over-cultivation and obvious 
 neglect are doing much to injure the character of the product. 
 
 There are three prominent kinds of Java coffee brought into the 
 Dutch markets — Jacatra, usually sold as Java; Cheribon, and 
 Samarang. The iirst is the best ; Cheribon is a little lighter colour, 
 and of somewhat inferior quality. Samarang coffee has yellowish 
 brown or green flattened beans, but what is generally sold as such 
 is simply a kind of " triage," black beans of a coarse flavour. 
 
 Besides the Government culture there is a good deal of coffee 
 raised by private growers. 
 
 The tree bears fruit there in the fourth year, and continues to 
 yield up to the fifteenth year or longer. It blossoms generally 
 three times in the year, so that it may be said there are three 
 gatherings of the berry. 
 
 The comparative progress of coffee production in Java is shown 
 by the exports, which were in 
 
 1829 
 1839 
 1859 
 
 Cwts. 
 334,000 
 1,000,000 
 1,195,880 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1869 3,299,000 
 
 1879 2,000,000 
 
 1884 1,250,000 
 
 The export has occasionally reached 170,000,000 lbs., and the 
 production is regaining its old footing. The exports, however, 
 include various receipts from the other islands, although shipped 
 under the general designation of Java coffee. 
 
 The quantity of coffee delivered into the Government stores at 
 Java and the private produce was as follows : — 
 
 Year. 
 
 Piculs of 135 lbs. 
 
 Piculs of 135 lbs. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Piculs of 135 lis. 
 
 Piculs of 136 lbs. 
 
 Government. 
 
 Private. 
 
 Government. 
 
 Private. 
 
 1869 
 
 962,800 
 
 144,000 
 
 1875 
 
 494,000 
 
 122,000 
 
 1870 
 
 986,038 
 
 153,000 
 
 1876 
 
 1,266,000 
 
 203,000 
 
 1871 
 
 446,304 
 
 121,000 
 
 1877 
 
 875,000 
 
 185,000 
 
 1872 
 
 985,961 
 
 185,000 
 
 1878 
 
 851,000 
 
 116,000 
 
 1873 
 
 773,920 
 
 152,000 
 
 1879 
 
 1,250,000 
 
 226,851 
 
 1874 
 
 1,032,000 
 
 180,000 
 
 
 
 
COFFEE. 
 
 The total since has heen as follows : — 
 
 51 
 
 Piouls of 135 11)3. 
 
 1880 722,668 
 
 1881 1,274,555 
 
 Piculs of 135 lbs. 
 
 1882 1,298,542 
 
 1883 1,375,500 
 
 In 1884 the crop of coffee (G-overnment and private) exceeded 
 1,000,000 piculs. The crop in 1885 was only 500,000 piculs, but 
 there was a recovery in 1886 to 816,932 piculs. 
 
 The export of coffee, husked, 1880-84, was 16,668,000 kilogrammes. 
 Exported, not husked, 1886, „ 7,859,000 „ 
 
 „ „ 1880-84, „ 25,264,000 
 
 Government crop in 1886, „ 817,000 „ 
 
 „ „ 1880-84, „ 1,037,000 „ 
 
 The coffee of the private planters in Java surpasses in quality, 
 and necessarily in value, that produced by the Government. The 
 coffee planters, in view of the crisis they have suffered and the 
 devastation arising from the coffee leaf disease, which first showed 
 itself there in 1884, have diminished considerably their expenses 
 and the outlay for production. 
 
 The exports of coffee on private accounts from Netherland India 
 have been as follows : — 
 
 Kilogrammes. 
 
 1875 35,671,225 
 
 1880 39,945,705 
 
 1885 24,621,195 
 
 The Java crop of coffee, in bales of 60 kilos., has been as 
 follows : — 
 
 
 Years. 
 
 Government. 
 
 Private. 
 
 
 
 1877-78 
 1878-79 
 1879-80 
 
 826,267 
 
 1,267,168 
 
 558,795 
 
 341,000 
 328,000 
 297,000 
 
 
 
 1880-81 
 1881-82 
 1882-83 
 
 1,047,000 
 1,007,600 
 1,025,000 
 
 219,000 
 326,000 
 145,500 
 
 
 
 1883-84 
 1884-85 
 1885-86 
 
 1,072,000 
 
 1,019,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 309,300 
 200,800 
 325,000 
 
 
 
 1886-87 
 
 817,000 
 
 283,800 
 
 
 Sumatra. — After Java, Sumatra is the next island which raises 
 coffee in large quantity, and as it has been greatly taken up by the 
 native cultivators, the island now yields a considerable crop. The 
 beans are dark brown, occasionally black, and the last kind is but 
 of poor quality. 
 
 E 2 
 
COFFEE. 
 
 Exports of Coffee from Kethekland India, Java, Maduua, and Menado, 
 
 in KlLOGEAMMES. 
 
 
 Government. 
 
 Private. 
 
 
 From Java and Madura. 
 
 From Java and Madura. 
 
 Other Places. 
 
 1872 
 
 42,704,780 
 
 20,098,001 
 
 9,717,179 
 
 1873 
 
 46,729,010 
 
 22,252,942 
 
 10,434,112 
 
 1874 
 
 43,784,967 
 
 21,431,419 
 
 9,939,444 
 
 1875 
 
 42,649,173 
 
 19,805,106 
 
 15,821,119 
 
 1876 
 
 51,879,720 
 
 21,626,499 
 
 13,504,287 
 
 1877 
 
 55,885,431 
 
 28,138,872 
 
 7,271,304 
 
 1878 
 
 37,361,575 
 
 13,704,537 
 
 12,283,209 
 
 1879 
 
 41,873,972 
 
 23,802,056 
 
 16,260,099 
 
 1880 
 
 45,598,616 
 
 24,439,279 
 
 15,506,426 
 
 1881 
 
 56,494,673 
 
 37,698,000 
 
 
 1882 
 
 51,608,906 
 
 35,665,000 
 
 
 1883 
 
 59,128,840 
 
 46,845,000 
 
 
 1884 
 
 49,010,115 
 
 41,055,000 
 
 
 1885 
 
 25,659,027 
 
 30,312,000 
 
 
 Padang Coffee. 
 
 PiculB. 
 
 1875 160,844 
 
 1876 141,780 
 
 1877 141,854 
 
 1878 124,175 
 
 1879 103,504 
 
 1880 134,633 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 1881 101,805 
 
 1882 98,534 
 
 1883 135,824 
 
 1884 133,964 
 
 1885 137,580 
 
 1886 62,759 
 
 The crop seldom exceeds 170,000 piculs. In 1857 it was 
 190,900, in 1874, 131,474, and in 1877, 175,000 piculs. AtPalem- 
 bang aLont 34,000 piculs are grown. 
 
 The formation of regular coffee plantations by the natives was 
 commenced in Celebes in 1822. By the beginning of 1855 there 
 were more than 5,000,000 coffee trees planted in Minahassa, but 
 not all planted are yet bearing. In some districts the produce is 
 as much as 2 to 4 lbs. per tree, while in others it is only from a 
 half to three-quarters of a pound. The general character of the 
 coffee is not very good, little care being given to the preparation ; 
 but the quality of the beans from Menado is better and of a palish 
 green. 
 
 Macassar is at present the centre of the coifee trade, where the 
 crops of South Celebes and of the islands of the eastern part of 
 the Archipelago are brought to market. The imports in 1877 
 amounted to about 70,000 piculs from the Government lands of 
 Celebes, 25,000 from the Principalities of Celebes, 18,000 from 
 Timor, and 7000 piculs from East Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, and 
 Boeton, aggregating 120,000 piculs, of which nearly one-fourth 
 was exported to Java and Singapore, and the remainder to Europe 
 direct. The mountain regions of the southern and eastern dis- 
 tricts, and also those of the northern districts, can compete with 
 
COFFEE. 53 
 
 the best coffee soil of Java, as regards their suitableness for the 
 cultivation of that staple. The total coffee production of Bali and 
 the other small Sunda Islands is at present about 40,000 piculs. 
 In Celebes the production is very variable, ranging from 23,000 
 piculs to 118,000 piculs. 
 
 In 1880 the following estimate vfas officially made by Dr. Van 
 der Berg, V.-P. of the Batavia Chamber of Commerce, of the yield 
 of coffee in Netherland India : — 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 Java, Government .. 999,000 
 
 „ private .. .: 168,000 
 
 Sumatra, Government 127,000 
 
 „ private 20,000 
 
 Celebes, Government 20,000 
 
 „ private 95,000 
 
 Bali and tlie other small Sunda Islands . . 50 , 000 
 
 1,479,000 
 = 1,782,723 cwt. 
 
 Exports of Coffee from Sumatra and Celebes, both on Government and 
 Private Account, in Piculs. 
 
 Tear 
 
 Sumatra. 
 
 Celebes. 
 
 
 
 Padang. 
 
 Macassar. 
 
 Menado. 
 
 
 1853 
 1863 
 1873 
 1883 
 1884 
 1885 
 
 119,420 
 129,357 
 
 97,805 
 144,800 
 
 90,520 
 102,825 
 
 6,000 
 
 36,000 
 
 83,857 
 
 116,609 
 
 115,602 
 
 115,592 
 
 16,115 
 13,187 
 10,769 
 10,289 
 17,070 
 23,561 
 
 141,534 
 178,544 
 192,853 
 271,693 
 223,192 
 242,078 
 
 At Timor the Portuguese are encouraging the culture of coffee, 
 and the best results are expected from the plantations made, 
 although as yet the yield is small. 
 
 Fifty coffee trees are found in the course of four or five years to 
 yield here Ij cwt. of coffee ; but it is only by purchasing the 
 coffee from the natives that the authorities can get coffee produc- 
 tion extended. At Amboyna some 60,000 trees have been planted. 
 
 Goffee in the Philippines. — This coffee is quite equal to that of 
 Java ; the beans are medium sized, and of a pale greenish colour. 
 
 The plant thrives wonderfuUj'- in the Philippines, and its berry 
 has so strongly marked a flavour that the worst Manila coffee 
 commands as high a price as the best Java. In spite of this, 
 however, the amount of coffee produced in the Philippines is very 
 insignificant, and until lately scarcely deserved mention. In the 
 early part of this century the coffee plant was almost unknown 
 there, and represented only by a few specimens in the Botanical 
 Garden at Manila. It soon, however, increased and multiplied. 
 The Economical Society bestirred itself by offering rewards to 
 
54 COFFEE. 
 
 encourage the laying out of large coffee islantations. In 1837 it 
 granted to M. de la Gironniere a premium of 1000 dollars for a 
 coffee plantation of 10,000 trees, which were yielding their second 
 harvest, and four premiums to others in the following year. But 
 as soon as the rewards were obtained, the plantations were once 
 more allowed to fall into neglect. Trom this it is pretty evident 
 that the enterprise in the face of the then market prices and the 
 artificially high rates of freight did not afford a sufficient profit. 
 
 In 1856 the exports of coffee were not more than 7000 piculs, in 
 1865 they had increased to 37,588, and in 1874 to 45,842. This 
 increase, however, affords no criterion by which to estimate the 
 increase in the number of plantations, for these make no returns 
 for the first few years after being laid out. But even greatly 
 increased exports could not be taken as correct measures of the 
 colony's resources. 
 
 Not till European capital calls large plantations into existence 
 in the most suitable localities will the Philippines obtain their 
 proper rank in the coffee-producing districts of the world. The 
 best coffee comes from the provinces of Laguna, Batangas, and 
 Cavite, the worst from Mindanao. The latter, in consequence of 
 careless treatment, is very impure, and generally contains a 
 quantity of bad beans. The beans of Mindanao are of a yellowish 
 white colour and flabby, those of Laguna are smaller, but firmer 
 in texture. Manila coffee is very highly esteemed by connoisseurs 
 on the Continent, and is expensive, though it is by no means so 
 nice looking as that of Ceylon and other more carefully prepared 
 kinds. 
 
 Considering that coffee grows with the greatest facility in the 
 provinces, and that its quality is considered excellent, it is indeed 
 surprising that its culture is so limited. The export of coffee from 
 Java and its dependencies is probably now 1,500,000 piculs, whilst 
 that from the Philippines is but 60,000 piculs per annum. 
 
 Cultivation in Ceylon. — Ceylon soon became the most important 
 coffee-producing country of the British possessions. It would seem 
 that the tree was taken to that island by the Dutch a little over 
 two hundred years ago, but the first regular estates were only 
 opened in 1824, when Sir Edward Barnes and Sir George Bird 
 commenced planting. 
 
 Coffee planting had been gradually extending up to 1844, and 
 a considerable breadth of land of what would now be called low 
 country estates, that is, land planted at an elevation from 1600 to 
 2500 feet, was then in full bearing. Up to this period the English 
 consumption of coffee, restricted by a complicated system of differ- 
 ential duties, had been almost entirely confined to the produce of 
 the British colonies and a small quantity of superior Mocha. 
 
 It was known that within the tropics both Demerara and Berbice 
 produced a coffee of highly approved quality in the London 
 market. These countries lying at the level of the sea, a large 
 quantity of the coffee of Jamaica being also grown on the plains 
 of Liguanea, very little above the seaport of Kingston, and Mocha 
 coffee being also supposed to be produced in a dry and hot 
 
, COFFEE. 55 
 
 country,* the effects of temperature or altitude were forgotten or not 
 considered to be a necessary condition. It may be observed also 
 that elevation and temperature, though tbey may be on the average 
 the same in two different countries, are still not equal as conditions, 
 inasmuch as soil, neighbourhood of, or distance from, mountains, 
 combine to form other and varying circumstances, in which few 
 countries can be found absolutely to agree. Whilst Demerara 
 rejoices in a similar temperature, she possesses a rich alluvial soil 
 of many feet in depth, not liable to be removed by the rains, 
 whilst Jamaica has a rich volcanic soil on her lower hills. 
 
 The hill region of Ceylon covers an area of about 4000 square 
 miles, is of a somewhat circular form, and its most elevated parts 
 rise to 8280 feet above the level of the sea. Systematic culti- 
 vation is almost exclusively carried on on these hills, although 
 irregular native garden plantations are found everywhere in the 
 eouth-western portion of the island, even close to the sea-beach. 
 The favourite elevation is between 2000 and 3500 feet, but in a 
 few exceptional cases estates descend almost to the foot of the 
 hills, whilst others are situated at 5500 feet, and even higher. 
 The number of systematically worked coffee estates scattered all 
 over these hills was in 1875 about 1100, covering an area of 
 perhaps 440,000 acres, of which about 220,000 were cultivated, 
 producing nearly 1,000,000 owts. of clean coffee, worth on the spot, 
 say £3,000,000 sterling, and giving employment to 912 superin- 
 tendents and assistants, and upwards of 200,000 persons, chiefly 
 Tamil labourers from the coast of India. This was exclusive of 
 about 60,000 acres of coffee grown by natives. At the present 
 time the acreage under coffee is only 143,000 acres. 
 
 The coffee estates in the Badulla district are situate in two 
 different directions ; those on the Badulla side lie in an easterly 
 direction, and are mostly on spurs running out from Nammanakolie 
 Kande, and those in a south-westerly direction on the Happootelle 
 ranges. The elevation of the estates above the level of the sea 
 is from 2400 to 4800 feet. Those on the Happootelle side are 
 from 25 to 37 miles from the town of Badulla; those on the 
 Badulla side from 3 to 12 miles. Badulla is 156 miles from 
 Colombo, and 84 from Eandy. The heavy blossom appears in 
 August and September. The principal crop is picked from April 
 to July. A small crop, chiefly from young coffee, is picked from 
 September to December. 
 
 The coffee production in Ceylon is shown by the following 
 figures of the exports at decennial periods : — 
 
 Cn-ts. 
 
 1836 60,329 
 
 1846 173,892 
 
 1856 445,568 
 
 1866 899,480 
 
 1876 888,774 
 
 1886 179,254 
 
 In each of the two years, 1868 and 1870, the shipments exceeded 
 one million owts. 
 
 * Mooha coffee, as may be seen by tbe bean, is grown both on lowlands and 
 likewise on mountain heights, which makes the distinction of greenish small 
 berry and the Patna kind. 
 
56 COFFEE. 
 
 In commencing coffee planting the first step is tiie selection- 
 of ground. A virgin forest soil on the slopes of the mountains- 
 about 3000 feet above the level of the sea is most suitable. A 
 convenient spot should next be chosen for a nursery to be planted 
 with seed or parchment coffee. The forest should then be cut 
 down, lopped, and in five or six weeks burnt. When the clearing 
 and roads are finished, the ground should be lined, holed, and 
 planted with plants from the nursery, which wiU be then from 
 nine to twelve months old. Coffee grows well at Kaigalle, Kome- 
 galle, and in the Doombera valley between 800 and 1500 feet above 
 the sea. In Ouvrah coffee bears well at between 4000 and 5000 
 feet above the sea, owing to the dry air and climate ; while, on 
 the more western side of the island, at the same elevation, it either 
 bears only 2 or 3 cwts. an acre, is a mass of leaves, or gets covered 
 with black bug ; the two latter being chiefly caused by the extreme' 
 quantity of rain that falls. A dark chocolate-coloured soil, 
 mixed with small stones, under ledges of rock, and bestrewn 
 with boulders, is the most suitable for coffee trees ; and the best 
 medium elevation is, say, 3000 feet above the level of the sea. In 
 forming a nursery one bushel of parchment coffee is calculated to 
 yield about 30,000 plants ; so that for a clearing of 100 acres, four 
 or five bushels of seed would be required. The placing of the 
 plants in the holes is the one operation that requires the utmost 
 care and attention. The planting season commences in May, and 
 extends to the end of November. During the growth of the plants 
 the ground must be kept clear of weeds, and the buildings for 
 machinery, according to a good plan, should be at once com- 
 menced. By the time these buildings, together with the machinery, 
 are erected (say three years) the coffee is ready to be picked. 
 
 The next operation, and by far the first in importance, is pulping 
 the coffee. The machine most extensively used is an Improved 
 Pulper, manufactured by John Gordon & Co., London, who have 
 for many years supplied the Ceylon and Indian planters with 
 this and every other kind of coffee machinery. The coffee is run 
 into the pulper by means of a stream of water. Here the pulp is 
 separated from the seeds, which fall into a cistern, where they 
 remain from eighteen to twenty-four hours without water. After 
 this time has elapsed the cistern is supplied with running water, 
 and all the glutinous matter is by this means washed away. On 
 some plantations a washing machine is used. It is then dried by 
 a machine made for the purpose, or in the sun. Having been 
 stored away for two or three weeks, it is again placed in the sun 
 to finish drying. This is completed if the bean crack freely 
 between the teeth, and it is not until then ready for the peeling- 
 mill, which removes the parchment and skin from the bean. It 
 is next passed through the fan or ventilator into a sizing machine 
 (about eighteen feet in length), which takes out the broken coffee, 
 and separates the beans into different sizes. This not only causes 
 the coffee to roast equally (a quality which raises its value in the 
 market), but also separates the pea-berry, or round coffee, which 
 brings a much higher price. 
 
COFFEE. 
 
 67 
 
 Coffee Pests. — Coffee is a remarkably hardy plant, thriving at 
 various elevations, and under the most different conditions of 
 moisture, soil, and temperature. It is, however, liable to the 
 attacks of certain insects, amongst which the borer (Xylotrechus 
 quadrupes) is the most formidable. Hardy as it is, the tree is a 
 dreadful sufferer, and there is scarcely a time when it is entirely 
 free from disease within, or from attacks of enemies from without. 
 Grub, borer, bug, drought, the damp and the leaf disease, are a» 
 few of its enemies, and it will be well to touch upon some of these. 
 
 The coffee-leaf fungus (Hemilia vastatrix) has been a great anxiety 
 of the coffee planter. Leaf disease in coffee assumed an aspect so 
 serious that the fullest possible investigation into its cause^ 
 nature, effect, and the possible remedies became essentially 
 necessary. 
 
 The fungus, Mr. J. Hamilton tells us, was first noticed in 1869, 
 on an estate in Madullisama, and is supposed to have originated 
 first on a jungle plant in the forest near the plantation. From 
 thence it has spread all over Ceylon, India, Java, Fiji, and down 
 to the Cape ; in fact over the entire eastern hemisphere of the 
 coffee-producing world. It has not yet made its appearance in 
 Brazil or the West Indies. For some years its effects, although 
 felt, were not considered as likely to be a permanent evil. Many 
 thought, with manure and high cultivation, that more than 
 passing effects could be staved off indefinitely. 
 
 The coffee tree, like the laurel, does not naturally shed its. 
 leaves, but the disease changes the whole nature of the plant, and 
 causes it to shed its leaves sometimes two or three times in the- 
 year, with the result of destroying its cropping wood and im- 
 pairing the vigour of the plant. In 1875 there were in Ceylon 
 237,345 acres under coffee, producing 988,328 cwts. In 1885 there 
 were but 127,000 acres, producing 200,000 cwts. The appended 
 table will testify more accurately than words can paint what- 
 Ceylon proprietors have passed through by the failure of the crops- 
 and the fall in prices : — 
 
 1879-80 
 1880-81 
 1881-82 
 1882-83 
 1883-84 
 1884-85 
 1885-86 
 
 Crop. 
 
 Value 
 per ton. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 33,400 
 
 100 
 
 3,340,000 
 
 22,290 
 
 90 
 
 2,006,100 
 
 28.000 
 
 80 
 
 2,240,000 
 
 12,900 
 
 70 
 
 903,000 
 
 16,200 
 
 65 
 
 1,053,000 
 
 15,500 
 
 60 
 
 930,000 
 
 9,000 
 
 00 
 
 540,000 
 
 The local consumption of coffee in Ceylon is estimated at from 
 50,000 to 100,000 cwts. -, ,. n i 
 
 Production in British In&'a.— Passing from the island ot Ceyipn, 
 we reach the peninsula of India, where, under British enterprise, 
 coffee cultivation made rapid progress from the greater facility ot 
 
58 COFFEE. 
 
 obtaining labour. It is this insuperable difficulty which has 
 crippled production in our West Indian possessions, and led to the 
 transfer of the culture of many of the leading staples of commerce 
 from the western to the eastern hemisphere. 
 
 Coffee soon became a much more important article of agriculture 
 in India, Ceylon, Java, and Brazil, than in its native countries. 
 The origin of coffee culture in India is due to some refugees 
 from the Philippines, and has been detailed circumstantially by the 
 late Mr. J. S. Buckingham. SufSce it to say that about 1820 an 
 insurrection of the native Indians of the Philippine Islands, 
 against their conquerors the Spaniards, drove almost every white 
 man from that country, and some few of these sought refuge in 
 ■Calcutta. Among others were two Frenchmen who had been 
 for some years successful cultivators of coffee at Manila, but who, 
 though wealthy by their possessions there, barely escaped with 
 their lives. A subscription was raised for them by the merchants, 
 money advanced, the requisite land purchased, the coffee plant 
 ciiltivated on it ; and from this source has sprung all the subsequent 
 increase which makes the present production of India about 
 50,000,000 lbs. 
 
 The production of Indian coffee is coniined almost entirely to 
 the Madras Presidency, the native States of Travancore, Mysore, 
 and Coorg, all sections of the Western Ghat range, but there 
 are numerous estates on other isolated hill ranges, such as the 
 Shevaroys, Anamalais, &c. The coffee districts under the 
 Madras Government are Wynaad, Nilgiris, Tinnivelly, Shevaroys, 
 and Anamalais. There is a large and increasing home con- 
 sumption of coffee in India. The fluctuations of the trade, 
 which are often considerable, are to be explained by the deficiency 
 or abundance of crops, according as the season is unfavourable or 
 the reverse. Crops have often been materially affected too by 
 the ravages of the "borer," by rot, as well also (and this is a 
 large element in the influences which have from time to time 
 affected injuriously the out-turn of the crops) by the want of 
 knowledge of proper conditions of culture on the part of those 
 engaged in the cultivation, both Europeans and natives. 
 
 The cultivation has now settled down into a steady industry, 
 in which natives are largely occiipied as well as Europeans; but, 
 like tea, before attaining this last stage, it went through all the 
 phases of wild speculation. From 1800 to 1863 or 1864, there was 
 quite a mania for the cultivation of coffee. Land was bought 
 recklessly, without regard to its suitability, cleared and brought 
 into cultivation at enormous expense, and, in many cases, ruinous 
 loss ultimately. Great sums of money were wasted in this 
 speculative period, which was followed by the inevitable reaction 
 and depression. This period has long passed, and planters under- 
 stand now that they cannot hope for the visionary profits of which 
 they were formerly assured ; but the cultivation of coffee is, with 
 care and intelligence, a steady and prosperous support to those 
 engaged in the industry. 
 
 It is a noticeable fact, as showing the wide range of the plant, 
 
COFFEE. 59 
 
 that in many of tlie countries where coffee culture has been 
 introduced, species have been found indigenous, such as Goffea 
 alpestris, grumeloides, and Wightiana, in the Nilgiri hills; C. 
 Mauritiana, in Bourbon ; and C. Liberica, in Western Africa. 
 
 Although the coffee tree will not refuse to grow and even bear 
 crop in countries subject to frost and snow, and extreme warmth 
 is not absolutely necassary to its existence, still experience shows 
 that_ it flourishes and bears fruit abundantly only within the 
 tropics. In Sputhern India and Ceylon the elevation at which the 
 estates are situated varies considerably, from nearly 6000 feet 
 above sea-level to so low as 400 and even 300 feet. It has been 
 asserted that coffee requires a great deal of moisture ; and a humid 
 atmosphere, combined with a warm temperature, will encourage 
 trees to bear most heavily. The latter requirement must not be 
 overlooked, as it is well known that, on very elevated estates, 
 where an almost perpetual mist and frequent rains furnish more 
 than an adequate supply of moisture, but where, however, the 
 air is seldom warm, even when the sun shines brightly, the coffee 
 trees, even in sheltered situations, though they sometimes present 
 a healthy and even luxurious appearance, bear but very little 
 crop. Such situations also prove, in many cases, strongholds of 
 the blight called black bug. Hence few experienced planters 
 would think of establishing a garden at an elevation above 4000 
 feet ; though, if the aspect and soil be exceptionally favourable, 
 coffee may thrive well and yield heavy crops at an elevation of 
 even 6000 feet. In situations between 2000 and 4000 feet above 
 the sea-level, the climate and temperature required by coffee will 
 generally be found. In elevations below 2000 feet, the great heat 
 of the climate causes so rapid a growth of vegetation that it is 
 extremely difficult to keep down the weeds, and where, as at a 
 tolerable elevation, one monthly weeding would be amply sufficient, 
 two at a lower elevation would be quite necessary to keep an 
 estate clean. Moreover, the malarious atmosphere of estates in 
 low situations is a condition which, though suited to the coffee 
 plant, is not conducive to human health. 
 
 The most suitable soil in the East Indies for the coffee plant is 
 that which grows soft timber. The latest authorities seem to 
 confirm the opinion of Laborie, who observes : " If the first or tap- 
 root finds the gravel, stone, or clay, the tree will not last long ; 
 but if it, as well as the roots, find their way through the stony 
 ground, and if there be a good proportion of mould, it suffers no 
 inconvenience, as the stones keep the mould together." The finest 
 estates are said to be of this latter character of soil, and have 
 given consecutively heavy crops, with the assistance of little or no 
 manure ; while estates of a lighter soil, having lost nearly all the 
 mould, and having no good subsoil, require to be regularly 
 manured. In a word, a dark chocolate-coloured soil, mixed with 
 small stones, under ledges of rock, and bestrewn with boulders, is 
 the best, and the most favourable elevation is 3000 feet. A level 
 piece of virgin ground, not far from water, where the soil is rich 
 and crumbly, is the most eligible for the construction of a nursery. 
 
60 COFFEE. 
 
 First, the land must be tliorouglily cleared, and all but tbe largest 
 stumps of the forest trees rooted out; the soil should be dug 
 to the depth of nine or twelve inches, and be made as friable as. 
 possible, then divided into beds with narrow paths between them ; 
 the seed, in parchment (generally taken from the cistern after being 
 pulped), should be put in, row by row, about six inches apart. A 
 rope, the length of the beds, is used for this purpose, stretched 
 from one end of the bed to the other. The seed, if sown in suitable 
 weather, soon makes its appearance above the surface ; so that a 
 nursery made in May or June of one year has plants fit to put out 
 at the same date in the following year. A slightly inclined piece 
 of land is more desirable for a nursery, because the natural 
 drainage would be better ; and it is important that care should be 
 taken to prevent damage by heavy rains. One bushel of parch- 
 ment coffee is calculated to yield about 30,000 plants ; so that for 
 a clearing of 100 acres four or five bushels of seed would be 
 required. "When the young trees in a nursery have attained a 
 growth and age at which their being planted out as plants becomes 
 rather a doubtful proceeding, with reference to the probability of 
 their succeeding and taking root, it is better to make " stumps " of 
 them ; this is done by pulling them up with as little injury as 
 possible to the roots, and cutting them down to about six inches 
 above the roots ; then to shorten the tap-root by a careful sloping 
 out ; next, to trim the other lateral roots, which are often 
 needlessly extended. Filling-in is the operation that follows 
 holing. It has been ascertained by experience, that leaving the 
 holes open for some time is very beneficial to the soil in a chemical 
 point of view. Filling-in, like every other work on a coffee estate, 
 should be carefully superintended. But of all operations in the 
 formation of a coffee plantation, the actual placing of the plants 
 in the holes is the one that requires the utmost care and attention. 
 Early planting is, of course, desirable, because the trees have the 
 benefit of the entire rainy season, and are sure to give a larger 
 maiden crop. The usual course of transferring the plant is as 
 follows : When pulled up, those with crooked roots should be 
 picked out and thrown away, the roots should then be trimmed 
 with a sharp knife, diminishing the length of the tap-root 
 sufficiently to prevent the chance of its being bent or broken. 
 The plant should not be put deeper into the earth than it was 
 before it was pulled up ; it must then be pressed down with the 
 hands or firmly trodden down. A coffee plantation, to be worked 
 effectively, requires to he well " roaded " and drained. Drains, like 
 roads and paths, should be cut as soon as the estate is commenced. 
 The extension of coffee cultivation in the hill districts of 
 Southern India has been very remarkable. It was commenced 
 experimentally in the "VVynaad in 1840, and in 1862 there were 
 9932 acres under cultivation in that district alone. In 1865 
 Wynaad coffee cultivation had increased to 200 estates, covering 
 14,613 acres. The exports in 1860-61 amounted to 19,119,209 lbs. 
 In 1873 the total number of holdings was 6913, of which 195 
 belonged to Europeans, and 6718 to natives. 
 
COFFEE, 
 
 61 
 
 In 1874-5 the extent of cofTee cultivation in Wynaad had 
 increased to 32,180 acres. The total value of the land under 
 cultivation was £965,430, and the amount expended annually in 
 coolies' wages alone -was £182,500 ; other expenses in connection 
 with cultivation, carriage, and shipment of crops, amounted to 
 £100,000. There were altogether 117 European planters, 16 of 
 whom were in North Wynaad, 74 in South Wynaad, and 27 in 
 South-East Wynaad. 
 
 In the mountainous province of Coorg the cultivation of coffee 
 by European enterprise was commenced in 1854, and there werO 
 in 1874 73,806 acres under cultivation. 
 
 The coffee trade which is located in Southern India has for 
 some time been in a depressed condition. In 1885, the area under 
 mature plants was estimated at 186,326 acres. Of this acreage, 
 81,754 was the share of Mysore, 55,143 of Madras, and 43,000 of 
 Coorg. 
 
 In 1886, the following was the position of coffee culture in 
 British India : — 
 
 Madras. 
 
 Mysore. 
 
 Coorg. 
 
 Number of plantations 
 
 Acres under mature plants 
 „ under immature plants 
 
 Approximate yield lbs. 
 
 Average per acre of mature plants! 
 
 lbs./ 
 
 16,571 
 
 53,094 
 
 6,313 
 
 12,167,800 
 
 229 
 
 27,238 
 
 75,119 
 
 27,569 
 
 10,153,481 
 
 135 
 
 4,865 
 
 43,800 
 
 7,2.50 
 
 ,133,440 
 
 183 
 
 The total yield, adding the feudatory states of Cochin and 
 Travancore, was in 1886, 31,355,487 lbs. The exports of coffee 
 from Travancore and Cochin in 1886 were 1,551,189 lbs. There 
 were about 100 acres under coffee in Assam. 
 
 On the Malabar coast some excellent coffee is grown, as well as 
 in the hilly regions of Mysore and on the slopes of the Nilgiris. 
 From these two latter places the finest growths of coffee are now- 
 being raised, more especially from Mysore, the prices obtained 
 being considerably more than for Mocha. Very good specimens of 
 coffee have also been produced in the interior of India, as in the 
 district of Chota Nagpore, where the culture might apparently be 
 greatly extended, and be of great benefit for consumption locally. 
 
 The quantity of coffee exported from India in the year 1873-4 
 was 2749 tons; in 1875 the quantity increased to 3316 tons; in 
 1886 and 1887 it averaged 18,500 tons, but in 1888 it fell to 
 13,600 tons. 
 
 The slopes of the hills that rise on the plateau of Mysore are 
 thickly clothed with coffee plantations, and in the Munzerabad and 
 nSTugger districts coffee is even planted under the shade of forest 
 trees, to obtain the requisite temperature ; so that there is hardly a 
 spot of land fit for coffee culture that is left uncultivated. 
 
 The coffee estates in Coorg may be classified into three groups : 
 the Mercara plateau, the Grhat and the Bamboo estates. Each 
 
62 
 
 COFFEE. 
 
 group has its peculiar characteristics, advantages, and disad- 
 ■vantages. The Mercara plateau has an average elevation of 3500 
 feet, and, in the higher planted portions, rising to upwards of 
 4000 feet, enjoys a bracing climate, being equally exposed to the 
 sweeping monsoon rains and to the dry east winds. With an 
 average rainfall of 121 inches, extended over almost the whole 
 year, the moisture is ample. The granitic soil consists generally 
 of a red felspar clay, more or less mixed with gritty ferruginous 
 stones, and covered with a layer of humus. 
 
 The slope of the land being steep, it is evident that unless 
 cultivation is carried on with due precaution against the " waste " 
 of the surface soil, by terracing, draining, or a judicious system of 
 weeding, the trees will in a few years be deprived of the coolest 
 and most nourishing portion of earth, and the land become sterile. 
 Artificial shade is not required. 
 
 It has been found that high mountain coffee, when properly 
 cured, picked, and sized (three distinct operations), contains an 
 amount of aroma and essential oil much in excess of descriptions 
 produced at low elevations. 
 
 Coffee is grown in Jamaica at all heights from the sea-level up 
 to 5000 feet. The quality at the lower altitudes is inferior, but at 
 a height from 3500 to 5000 feet, the produce is the finest in the 
 world. The exports have been : — 
 
 Cwts. ' 
 
 1854 43,059 
 
 1874 92,065 
 
 1884 48,357 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1885 80,657 
 
 1886 54,919 
 
 The following distinctive features of superiority are manifested 
 in the Jamaica coffee — the striking blue colour, the perfect form, 
 and unity of appearance of the berries, and the almost complete 
 absence of the " silver skin." 
 
 Liberian coffee is being generally planted, and will soon occupy 
 a prominent position in the produce market. It is successfully 
 grown in the plains. 
 
 In Jamaica two very distinct classes of coffee are produced. 
 The total export is about 84,000 cwts. per annum. Of this about 
 10,000 cwts. is Blue Mountain coffee of the finest quality, consigned 
 almost entirely to the Liverpool market, where it sells from 100s. 
 to 142s. per cwt. The remaining portion of Jamaica coffee, 
 grown chiefly by negro settlers, is badly cured, and hence fetches 
 comparatively low prices. 
 
 Hayti, which owed its former prosperity to coffee, has not yet 
 again attained to the quantity it used to produce when a French 
 colony. In 1789 the coffee crop there was 80,000,000 lbs. The 
 trees were almost entirely destroyed in subsequent years. In 
 1826 the production had, however, recovered to 32,000,000 lbs. ; in 
 1860 it had advanced to 50,000,000 lbs., and in 1863 to 68,140,752 
 lbs. ; but it is now retrogressing : the exports were 60,666,000 lbs. 
 in 1873, and 51,703,000 lbs. in 1883. 
 
 Cuba was at one time a large coffee-producing island, for in 
 
COFFEE. C3 
 
 1847 there were 2064 plantations tinder culture -with, this croiD. 
 From 1830 to 1840, the annual production was about 2,000,000 
 arrobas of 25 lbs. From the year 1841 to 1846, the average yearly- 
 production was 45,236,100 lbs. In 1851, owing to the fall in price 
 of coffee and the more remunerative character of sugar and tobacco 
 production, the crop had declined to 13,000,000 lbs. ; in 1864 the 
 export of coffee fell far below this, and now Cuba imports supplies 
 of coffee from Porto Eico. In 1878 there were 192 cafetales or 
 plantations for the growth of coifee. 
 
 In Porto Bico the coffee crop now averages about 230,000 cwts. 
 In 1839 the shipments were only 85,384 cwts. ; in 1861, 129,000 
 cwts. ; in 1873, 270,895 cwts. ; and in 1883, 335,000 cwts. 
 
 The cultivation of coffee has increased of late years, and might 
 be much extended on land now almost unproductive, on the hills 
 and valleys of the table-lands. The coffee of Porto Eico is of 
 excellent quality ; though not well known in the English markets, 
 it is much appreciated in Spain and Italy, an,d even now exported 
 to the value of over £900,000. A considerable quantity is grown 
 in the province of Ponce, but it is also raised in the provinces of 
 Mayaguez, Areoibo, and Aguadilla. 
 
 St. Lucia, Dominica, and St. Vincent should be great coffee 
 producers on their mountain slopes, and Nevis and St. Kitts on a 
 lesser scale. St. Lucia used to have 500 acres under culture with 
 coffee, and in 1840 exported 324,000 lbs. In 1829 Grenada 
 shipped 64,654 lbs. 
 
 Trinidad. — In 1796 there were 130 coffee plantations in Trinidad, 
 and the produce there in 1803 was 358,660 lbs. The export from 
 Trinidad averaged 24,000 lbs. in each of the four years ending 
 1875, but it is not likely to attain to the former proportions 
 grown, even with the increased care and attention given to the 
 culture, for the South American competition is too strong. 
 
 Latterly more attention has been directed to coffee culture, and 
 several persons have been induced to try it on a somewhat larger- 
 scale than heretofore. A ready sale can always be found for it in 
 the local market. 74,000 lbs. were exported in 1877, but the 
 shipments are now only from 60,000 to 74,000 lbs. : — ■ 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Exports in 1881 41,640 
 
 1882 73,200 
 
 Coffee grows wild in Trinidad, but hitherto the quality as sent 
 to England so far has not been of a high order. Now that Ceylon 
 coffee is gradually disappearing on account of the wholesale con- 
 version of .the coffee into tea estates, or destruction of the trees 
 themselves from disease, an effort should be made to produce a 
 coffee ■ of fine quality, which is always saleable in Europe at a 
 remunerative price. At the same time it cannot be expected that 
 Trinidad, with its comparatively low-lying lands, will produce as 
 fine a grade as that received from the highlands of Ceylon and 
 Jamaica ; nevertheless, the crops from the virgin lands of Trinidad 
 would be very heavy and the profits considerable. 
 
Gi 
 
 COFFEE. 
 
 The method of curing coffee throughout the West Indies is by- 
 passing it through a mill when it is gathered ripe, and, after this 
 operation, it is put into cisterns and covered with water for ten or 
 twelve hours until the pulp becomes loose, when it is washed, and 
 the coffee being in its husk, is thrown in heaps to sweat, and that 
 the water may drain off, for two or three days more, when it is 
 ■spread abroad and dried in the sun ; and when dry is put into 
 ■troughs and pounded with rammers until all the husks (or parch- 
 ment as it is called) are beat off, when it is winnowed in the air, 
 and exposed in the sun until it is perfectly dry, and then sent to 
 market. 
 
 At the close of the last century Dominica produced more than 
 2,000,000 lbs. of coffee annually, even in 1833 the shipments were 
 1,612,528 lbs., and in 1835 over 1,000,000 lbs., but the general 
 ■effect of the negro emancipation was the entire abandonment of 
 -coffee cultivation by the owners, under whose care and energy 
 they had hitherto been such brilliant mines of wealth. The estates 
 were appropriated, subdivided, and allotted among the peasantry, 
 -who took up the production of sugar, cacao, cassava, and other 
 cultures. 
 
 Production in America. — Having passed under review the several 
 West Indian islands, I come now to speak of Central and Southern 
 America, which are extensive and increasing fields of coffee pro- 
 duction. The direct imports into the United Kingdom from the 
 different States there have been as follows,, in cwts. : — 
 
 Year. 
 
 Central America. 
 
 New Granada 
 (tJ. S. of Colombia). 
 
 Venezuela. 
 
 Brazil. 
 
 1872 
 
 133,290 
 
 27,063 
 
 
 159,194 
 
 1873 
 
 ] 97, 720 
 
 16,860 
 
 10,685 
 
 143,749 
 
 1874 
 
 151,538 
 
 21,724 
 
 7,863 
 
 200,125 
 
 1875 
 
 210,979 
 
 14,646 
 
 2,162 
 
 222,375 
 
 1885 
 
 223,348 
 
 8,707 
 
 213 
 
 187,526 
 
 1886 
 
 285,191 
 
 19,163 
 
 405 
 
 203,325 
 
 1887 
 
 245,344 
 
 
 .. 
 
 300,495 
 
 1888 
 
 229,543 
 
 
 
 160,258 
 
 From British Honduras we have received lately supplies of 
 coffee, but whether this is all grown there, or partly Guatemala 
 produce shipped from thence, I am unable to state. The direct 
 imports from Honduras have been : — 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1872 2,635 
 
 1873 1,626 
 
 1874 3,975 
 
 Cwis. 
 
 1875 4,777 
 
 1886 439 
 
 Costa Mica. — This republic has risen by the culture of coffee to 
 a degree of prosperity unknown by the other Central American 
 States. The introduction of the plant in the vast plain of San 
 Jose, which it now covers, only dates back some forty years. The 
 principal plantations belong to the families of Monteleagre and 
 Mora. 
 
COFFEE. 65 
 
 About 1845 the distinguished Senor Mora, then President of the 
 Hepublic of Costa Eica, prohibited the raising of plantains for 
 sanitary and other reasons, and caused a governmental decree to 
 be passed encouraging the culture of coffee. " With lingering 
 steps and slow " the hill-sides about Cartage and San Jose were 
 ■cleared and planted with coffee slips, and to-day a thousand coffee 
 planters are enjoying a competency from the net income of the 
 estates thus compulsorily established. 
 
 An impression which some have that American coffee is inferior 
 to the eastern, as, for example, the Java and far-famed Mocha, is 
 •erroneous. On the contrary, the coffee raised on the highlands of 
 Nicaragua and Costa Kica is unsurpassed for strength and a 
 delicate aromatic flavour, unknown to the best coffee of the East ; 
 and the fruit of the lowlands and medium elevations is far from 
 inferior. Although not having the plump form or peculiar bluish 
 tinge which are the characteristics of the excellent coffee of the 
 highlands, it compares favourably with the coffee of Java or the 
 Moluccas. The cultivation of coffee will undoubtedly here engage 
 the attention of many of the colonists. It is worth noting that, 
 though in opposite quarters of the globe, Costa Eica and Southern 
 India lie in the same position of north latitude, and that their 
 respective growths approach one another in fine quality. This 
 line also cuts directly through the Abyssinian coffee districts 
 which of old supplied Persia. 
 
 The quality of Costa Eica coffee is considered excellent. The 
 following figures show the exports at decennial periods : — 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1845 70,000 
 
 1855 70,709 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1865 99,720 
 
 1875 210,000 
 
 1883 20,005,927 lbs. 
 
 Coffee is and must be the principal and almost only staple 
 product of Costa Eica, until a railroad enables it to compete with 
 other countries in sugar, cacao, &c. The scarcity of labour is one 
 o-reat drawback, for in many parts crops spoil on the trees for 
 want of hands to gather them. 
 
 Guatemala. — This republic lies on the 14th and 15th parallel of 
 N". latitude. The frost line here is considered 5000 feet above the 
 level of the sea. Coffee ought to be planted from 2000 to 4000 
 feet above sea-level in a moist free soil, and, if possible, a virgin 
 soil. Prom 60° to 80° Fahr. is the proper climate for coffee, 
 although it will grow in hotter countries and lower altitudes. 
 Coffee blooms here during the months of April and May. Bloom 
 on a coffee tree does not remain over twenty-four hours. A coffee 
 tree carries its berry eight months before it is ripe. It is ready 
 to gather in this country during the months of November and 
 December. Coffee when ripe is exactly like a red cherry. 
 
 All coffee is gathered from the tree by hand — a slow and expen- 
 sive method. No machine can ever be invented to pull coffee 
 from the tree, as sometimes the berries wUl be the same size and 
 close together, but one may be red and ripe, while the one just 
 
6G COFFEE. 
 
 teside it may be green and unripe. One hand can pull from the 
 trees about 120 lbs. of ripe coffee in a day, which yields about 
 15 lbs. of marketable coffee. It is taken from the trees to the 
 machine-house, where it is put through the pulper. In this 
 machine it is separated from the outside skin, the bean being 
 delivered by the machine in a tank filled with water, where 
 it remains one or two days. 
 
 "When washed in the tank it is spread out to dry on the jiatio, a 
 level dry surface which is made purposely to dry coffee on. It is 
 a piece of ground, levelled off and paved with stone, mortar being 
 spread over the stone very smooth. The coffee is placed on this 
 j)atio untU it is dried, which takes about ten days' exposure in the 
 sun. Some plantations dry their coffee with drying machines, 
 which in some parts of the country is absolutely necessary owing 
 to the contimied wet weather during the coffee season. 
 
 When the coffee is dried, it is taken to the machine-house again 
 to be cleaned and made ready for shipment. The most important 
 point is to have your coffee well dried before cleaning, that is 
 taking off the hull. Probably the best machine ever invented for 
 cleaning coffee is called the Eetrilla, of English manufacture. It 
 is a simple and clumsy, but very efficient machine, being merely 
 two iron wheels, or wooden wheels shod with iron, about four feet 
 in diameter, which run in a trough, also lined with iron. The 
 coffee is laid in this trough and the wheels run over it and clean 
 and polish the coffee at the same time. The wheels are about 
 seven hundred pounds weight and run about twenty revolutions 
 per minute around a circle fifteen feet in diameter. The coffee is 
 then taken to the ventilator, which is simply a fan similar to that 
 employed in cleaning] wheat, where the hull ,or chaff is separated 
 from the bean. Then the coffes ia .taken ,to the separator, which 
 is a wire cylinder eighteen inches in diameter and twelve feet 
 long. The wires which form this cylinder are wound around it, 
 commencing very close, only to pass dust, then gradually opening 
 to the end, where they are wide enough to pass a full coffee bean. 
 This is the last machine coffee goes through. It then passes to a- 
 table, on which it is spread and hand-picked by women and 
 children, who separate the deformed and bad-coloured beans from, 
 the good. When this is done, the coffee is put in sacks, weighed 
 and sewed, and shipped to its market. 
 
 The bad coffee season of 1882 was followed in 1883 by an 
 abundant crop. Allowing 50,000 quintals for home consumption, 
 the harvest seems to have been about 450,000 quintals, or about 
 20,089 tons. The greater part of the lands in the Eepublic suit- 
 able fot coffee growing are now in full yield, and the supply of 
 Guatemalan coffee has consequently almost reached its maximum. 
 Many agriculturists, disheartened by the bad prices realised in 1882, 
 and the failure of whole districts to bear good coffee, have turned 
 their attention to other crops, chiefly sugar, indigo, and cinchona. 
 
 Guatemala produces some of the best coffee that is grown in any 
 country. The kernel of the Guatemala coffee is small and plump, 
 resembling the best quality of wheat, and not large. From the 
 
COFFEE. 67 
 
 plantation of Mr. Jose Guai^dioja, of Chooola, there is sent to New 
 York a grade of coffee surpassing in quality either Java or Mocha. 
 Mr. Guardiola has introduce!!^ drying-machines of his own inven- 
 tion, which enables him to cii^e tis coffee in wet as well as sunny 
 weather, and has also patentet^ a hulling and polishing machine, 
 which he uses with great sucosss on his extensive plantation. To 
 the introduction of these mad^ines is no doubt attributable the 
 preservation of the delicious \flavour and aroma of Guatemala 
 coffee. The exports of coffee to Eavr^pi* fro.'^ tte Central American 
 States are shown in a previous table. 
 
 Some forty years ago considerable plantati(Vis of coffee were 
 made in different parts of this State, but the cuitUre was aban- 
 doned owing to the disturbances among the' Indian's. Of late 
 years, however, it has been resumed, and is making -^ood pro- 
 gress. The greater part of the plantations are situated in the 
 -neighbourhood of Coban. Coffee will be in future the prinoipal 
 article of export, and to an extent and importance scarcely yet to 
 be calculated. In 1860 only 63 tons were shipped ; in 1863 this 
 had increased to 799 tons; in 1867 to 2000 tons. In 1882 the 
 coffee exports were valued at 3,132,719 dols. ; and in 1883 at 
 4,848,833 dols. 
 
 In Nicaragua coffee is grown in the Vallee Menier, the plantation 
 of the great Parisian chocolate firm ; in 1882, 7,300,000 lbs. were 
 shipped from this State. 
 
 In the State of San Salvador a fair quality of coffee is grown ; 
 the exports in 1865 were to the value of £21,500, in 1873 about 
 £215,000 ; and in 1882, 18,005,364 lbs. were shipped. 
 
 In the States of Colombia, formerly New Granada, the coffee 
 grown is of excellent .quality, especially at Ocama and Ambalima, 
 but the quantity produced is limited, and is chiefly sold for con- 
 sumption in the country. Our direct imports into Great Britain 
 from New Granada averaged 20,000 cwts. in the four years 
 ending 1876. In 1880 coffee was exported to the value of £610,200, 
 but in 1883 it was only half this amount. 
 
 In Ecuador attention ihas of late years been given to the culture, 
 and a very superior quality of coiFee is produced. In 1855 only 
 776 cwts. were shipped, but now a large quantity is exported. 
 The crop of coffee in 1874 was 10,652 cwts. 
 
 British Guiana. — In 1752 the cultivation of coffee was com- 
 menced in Demerara, and one bag was exported; in 1761, 45 
 tierces of coffee were shipped, and in 1764, 211 bags. In 1796 
 the colony was taken possession of by the British, and in 1803, 
 9,954,610 lbs. of coffee were shipped ; in 1823 the exports of coffee 
 were 8,008,729 lbs. After this the culture began to fall off; com- 
 paring 1829 with 1839, there was a deficiency in the latter year of 
 2,139,430 lbs. of coffee. The gradual decline in production is 
 shown by the following figures, giving the exports : — 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1830 .. - .. .. 9,472,756 
 
 1840 .. ' 3.357,300 
 
 1849 100,550 
 
 F 2 
 
68 COFFEE. 
 
 After tHs it was given up for suga/.^ ^^^ ^^ -^^^^ yg^j.g several 
 alDandoiied coffee estates liave DeenJ)j.^^ig^^Q^^ Coffee is grown 
 principally in the county of Berbice'^^ g^^g^ ^^le Liberian coffee has 
 been planted with great success also L^ ^^^^ estates. 
 
 In French Guiana coffee was at onL ^^^^ ^^ important staple, the 
 species grown being the Mocha varid.^y^ ^^^ ^j^e cultivation of which 
 the country is especially adapted ; iW jg ^^^ chiefly grown as a shade 
 tree to cacao, annatto, and otH»^ crops, but a few Government 
 plantations are maintai^t&>-tnfSre being about 350 acres under 
 coffee. The average production, as shown below, is scarcely 
 50,000 lbs. a ye^ Although temporarily abandoned, the trees 
 continue to thr'^ve in a wild state, and may be reclaimed hereafter. 
 They attaix\ to a height of about fifteen or sixteen feet, with a 
 circumfefdjice a few feet from the ground of thirty inches ; they 
 are rioji in foliage, but do not flower ; the coffee tree here also 
 appears to be safe from the ravages of insects, whereas many other 
 trees suffer vitally from this evil. 
 
 Kllogs. 
 
 1861 50,000 
 
 1865 64,436 
 
 1866 73,270 
 
 1867 107,424 
 
 1868 60,463 
 
 1869 135,614 
 
 1870 60,079 
 
 1871 57,433 
 
 1873 40,250 
 
 1874 40,028 
 
 1885 17,000 
 
 In Surinam the produce is only about 500,000 lbs. 
 
 In Solivia coffee is grown in the whole extent of the Yungas, and 
 of forms and varieties not generally known ; it is best when raised 
 on the flanks of the mountains. In the plains the berry increases 
 in size, but loses flavour; when grown on higher elevations it 
 decreases in size, but improves in quality. The Yungas coffee is 
 so highly esteemed that it is considered equal, if not superior, to 
 Mocha. 
 
 Peru. — Coffee grows with extraordinary luxuriance in the 
 mountain regions of Peru ; the activity of its vegetation is wonder- 
 ful ; the branches are borne down indeed with the weight of 
 the numerous berries. 
 
 Venezuela. — The best coffee grows in the cooler portion of the 
 State, and the crop is gathered in October. The production is 
 about 600,000 cwts. annually. 
 
 With respect to what may be considered as the yearly yield of 
 coffee per tree in Venezuela, as compared with Brazil and Ceylon, 
 its principal rivals in the staple, up to 1858, it was generally 
 considered that the average might be put down at half a pound per 
 tree ; but since that period such has been the neglect of the 
 plantations throughout the country, owing, in the first place, to 
 the uninterrupted five years' war of the Federation up to the close 
 of the crop of 1853, and to the subsequent state of anarchy and 
 confusion prevailing, the scarcity of capital and labour, and the 
 want of personal supervision upon the part of landed proprietors, 
 that the yield may be said to have diminished by one-half, and 
 thus the general average does not exceed a quarter of a pound per 
 
COFFEE. 69 
 
 tree. It may be remarked, also, that the coffee plant, though 
 prolific, is most delicate and susceptible, requiring constant attention 
 and careful cultivation, such as circumstances do not admit of its 
 having bestowed on it in that country. 
 
 An intelligent American gentleman, many years resident in 
 Brazil, and well acquainted with coffee cultivation in the province 
 of Eio Janeiro, who visited Caracoas in 1869, informed the coffee 
 growers that the general average annual yield of coffee for the past 
 twenty years in Brazil had been 4 lbs. per tree, and upon the most 
 carefully cultivated plantations as high as 30 lbs. per tree, whilst 
 upon smaller estates of 200 to 300 acres, with 500 trees per acre, a 
 regular yield of 10 lbs. was obtained. The coffee trees in Brazil 
 are not shaded as they are in Venezuela, which ensures a larger 
 yield, although lessening the duration of producing power, generally 
 estimated at about fifteen years. Improved and more scientific 
 culture would certainly ■ give 2 lbs. per tree as the average in 
 Venezuela, many isolated instances existing of that amount, and 
 even of over 4 lbs. per tree having been obtained. 
 
 The exports of coffee from Venezuela have been as follows in the 
 financial years : — 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1834-35 2,705 
 
 1844-45 13,197 
 
 1854^-55 17,156 
 
 Tona. 
 
 1864-65 12,796 
 
 1874-75 35,721 
 
 1882-83 49,079 
 
 Only a small quantity comes to England. 
 
 Statistics prove that the coffee plant will bear climatic extremes, 
 and that it will thrive in localities differing as much as 20° to 30° 
 in average temperature. It flourishes best on uplands and moun- 
 tain sides, from 1500 to 4500 feet above the sea level, and the 
 tropical belt between 25° north and 30° south of the equator. 
 Coffee has now begun to be largely cultivated in Colima, a small 
 state on the Pacific coast. A line drawn from the port of Vera Cruz 
 to the port of ManzanUlo would bisect Colima, and the coffee grown 
 in this district has the reputation of being remarkably gogd. 
 Cordova and Orizaba coffee is equal to that of Cuba, but the Colima 
 is said to be superior even to the favourite Mocha. In Mexico, coffee 
 culture is making great progress, and it is destined hereafter to be 
 one of the main exports of that country. 
 
 Production in Brazil. — Coffee having been introduced into the 
 French settlement of Cayenne, by La Motte Aigron, the governor, 
 in 1722, a Brazilian subject, Palhetta, while on a voyage to that 
 colony, managed, not without much difficulty, to bring to the city 
 of Belem (Para) a few of the seeds of this valuable plant ; in that 
 province coffee trees were multiplied through the care of Agostinho 
 Domingos, and others. A deserter, it is said, introduced the plant 
 from Para into Maranham about 1770. The judge, Joas Gualberto 
 Castello Banco, appointed chancellor to the high court of the 
 Eelacas at Eio Janeiro, took with him with great care two small 
 coffee trees during the vice-royalty of the Marquis de Lavradio, in 
 the middle of the eighteenth century, when sugar and cereals 
 constituted the great fountains of the wealth of the province of 
 
70 COFFEE. 
 
 Eio Janeiro. The two plants were by order of tHat notable states- 
 man cultivated in a private garden in tiie neighbourhood of the 
 convent of Adjuda, and in this manner those two small and humble 
 trees in the course of one century became the first and most 
 important branch of the public wealth. 
 
 Mr. Moke, a Belgian, is said to have been the first planter to 
 carry on the systematic cultivation of coffee near the city of Rio, 
 and enormous profits have resulted from the energetic efforts thus 
 made. 
 
 The coffee tree having rapidly multiplied, extended itself then 
 over dozens of miles, and was transplanted to Minas Geraes, San 
 Paulo, Bahia, Ceara, &c. 
 
 Coffee is now the most important agricultural product of Brazil, 
 and forms the principal staple of its foreign commerce. It con- 
 stitutes more than half of all the supply of coffee to the world. 
 The culture of coffee in Brazil is carried on more or less largely 
 from the river Amazon to the province of San Paulo, embracing 
 nearly 20° of latitude. Prom the coast to the extreme west of the 
 province of Matto Grosso comprises 25° of longitude. The total 
 area in which coffee can be cultivated is estimated at 2,000,000 
 square kUometres, of about 1090 yards. The area under 
 actual culture in the provinces of Rio, Minas, San Paulo, Santos, 
 Bahia, and Ceara does not exceed 60,000 to 60,000 square kilo- 
 metres. It succeeds best generally between the 18th and 25th 
 parallels. The principal producing provinces are Eio Janeiro, San 
 Paulo, Bahia, Ceara, and Minas Geraes. The shipping ports are 
 Rio, Santos, Bahia, and Ceara, the port of Eio exporting about 
 one-half of all that is shipped. 
 
 Of the varieties of the coffee tree, no less than sixteen species are 
 said to be indigenous to Brazil, an evidence of the suitability of 
 the soil and climate for the culture, while Peru, Guiana, Mexico, 
 Kew Granada, and other parts of the continent, have also 
 indigenous species of the tree. 
 
 The following is the classification of Brazilian coffees which 
 is made by the Agricultural and Commercial Society of Eio : — 
 
 Bio Coffees. — Andarahy, Brazilian Mocha, Botucatu, Leroy, 
 Brazilian Ceylon, Maragogipe, Murta, Brazilian Bourbon, and the 
 fourteen following qualities : Pine, Superior Nos. 1 and 2 ; first good 
 Nos. 1 and 2 ; first regular (average), Nos. 1 and 2 ; first ordi- 
 nary, Nos. 1 and 2 ; good, Nos. 1 and 2 ; second ordinary, Nos. 1 
 and 2 ; ordinary. No. 2, Escolha. These coffees are again sub- 
 divided into washed and unwashed. 
 
 Santos Coffees (San Paulo). — The same varieties as Eio. 
 
 Capitania Coffees. — Those of the province of Espirito Santo. 
 
 Minas Geraes.- — The same varieties as Eio, from which port they 
 are all shipped. 
 
 Bahia Coffees. — Bahia, Caravillas, Muritiba, Valenca, Maragogipe, 
 and the fourteen varieties of Eio. 
 
 Ceara Coffees. — The fourteen varieties of Eio. 
 
 The coffee plant grows in most parts of Brazil, as the medium 
 temperature which it requires is found throughout nearly all the 
 
COFFEE. 71 
 
 ■empire. It prospers even in places exposed to tlie cold, and appears 
 to vegetate with more vigour, but the fruit is not so abundant, nor 
 has it the precocity and regularity necessary to render the crop pro- 
 fitable. As the flowering and fructification take place at two periods, 
 the end of September and October, two gatherings are necessary. 
 
 Attempts have been made, but without any resulting benefit, to 
 ■acclimatise some of the esteemed varieties from other countries. 
 The Government introduced Bourbon plants in 1857, and Java, 
 l^Iocha, and other species tried have soon degenerated and assimi- 
 lated to the ordinary Brazilian. ' The same occurred in Martinique, 
 where the Mocha cofiee was introduced in 1818, for in a few years 
 the berry was found not to diifer from that ordinarily cultivated 
 in the island. 
 
 When a plantation has to be made, the stmny slope of a hill is 
 selected, the site of which is not too retentive of the water falling 
 on it. This, after being cleared and burnt off in the usual manner 
 of treating timber lands, is planted over in rows, with year-old 
 plants previously reared in a nursery. These receive little further 
 care than to keep the weeds down, and to have the upward growth 
 ■checked by pruning, so as to facilitate the gathering of the crop. 
 In four or five j'ears the trees are productive, and will in general 
 icontinue so for upwards of twenty years. Its thick clusters of 
 white flowers burst forth in abundance at certain seasons, but the 
 dark green foliage is rarely seen unrelieved by them, and by the 
 fruit in all stages of maturity. 
 
 The pulp of the cherry that surrounds the bean is sweet and 
 agreeable to the taste, and, like the leaves, partakes of the flavour 
 of the berry. 
 
 From its strong flavour Brazilian coffee is improved by age, 
 perhaps to a greater degree than any other coffee, and it is said, if 
 tept for ten or twelve years, would fully equal the best Mocha. 
 
 It is essentially necessary that, during the drying, the berry 
 •does not come in contact with the earth, which would much injure 
 its quality, hence in large plantations paved terraces are formed, or 
 of some other materials. On smaller estates the coffee is dried on 
 bamboo frames or some other substitute. As the paved or stuccoed 
 drying terraces are expensive, it is better when possible to employ 
 pulping machines, although these require a fall of water to work 
 them. When the coffee is dry it has to be deprived of its pulp and 
 parchment. The machines employed for this purpose have not 
 much effect on the produce. It is simply a question of time and 
 trouble, more economical than industrial. In fact, nothing can be 
 imagined more simple and primitive than the appliances used in 
 some of the countries which furnish the coffee most esteemed in the 
 European markets. 
 
 Of late this has been carried out mechanically by the process of 
 two Brazilian engineers, Messrs. Taunay and Telles, who have 
 invented a drying apparatus bearing their name. 
 
 The berries of the ovoid form of the Mocha found in the markets 
 are derived from the older Brazilian coffee trees, and from the 
 ■higher branches of the young trees which are more exposed to the 
 
72 
 
 COFFEE. 
 
 solar rays ; these are separated bj' bolters. In Brazil coffee treea 
 are reckoned to yield, from their fifth to their twentieth year, an 
 average of an arroba, or 32 lbs. of clean coffee to each ten trees. 
 From six to twelve years the produce is commonly two, and some- 
 times three, arrobas to ten trees, but from the sixteenth to the 
 twentieth year the crops are irregular, and below this average. 
 The common yield of clean coffee is about one arroba to three- 
 bushels of the fresh fruit. An arroba of clean coffee is obtained 
 from one and a third arroba of dry coffee in the hull, deprived of 
 its pulp, but not of the parchment-like envelope. Whilst the cost 
 of clearing, planting, and bringing into bearing an estate of 150 acres, 
 with only 333 trees to the acre, is far more than that of a similar 
 plantation in Ceylon, the returns are much larger per tree, averag- 
 ing nearly 10 cwts. to the acre, and the trees bear much longer. 
 
 The productive duration of the coffee tree varies in diflerent 
 localities. At Eio and Santos it is from fifteen to twenty years ; at 
 Minas twenty to thirty years ; at San Paulo twenty-five to forty 
 years. The;number of coffee trees in the empire was estimated in 1883 
 at 1,000,000,000, and the crop of coffee at 400,000,000 kilogrammes, 
 yearly. New plantations on a large scale have lately been made in San 
 Paulo and Minas, so that the production is likely to be maintained. 
 
 The average annual increase in thirty-five years of coffee has. 
 been 2-86 per cent. From the port of Eio 55 per cent, of the 
 Brazilian exports pass, and coffee makes up half the total value. 
 
 Brazil well merits the name of the coffee country par excellence, 
 inasmuch as it ships about half the whole coffee produce of the 
 world. 
 
 In 1817 it shipped 66,985 bags ; in 1820, 97,498 ; in 1830, 484,222 ; 
 in 1840, 1,037,981 ; in 1876, 3,756,122, and now about 6,000,000 
 bags of 140 lbs. 
 
 In 1884, out of 660,000,000 kilogrammes, Brazil produced 
 360,000,000; and yet in 1800 it only exported thirteen bags of 
 coffee. 
 
 The coffee is chiefly divided into eight kinds, which take the names 
 of the districts in which it is cultivated, viz., Eio, Santos, Bahia, 
 Ceara, Minas-Geraes, Andarahy, Pernambuco and Amazon. 
 
 In Brazil virgin soils and wooded lands are sought out for a 
 plantation. The trees are felled and burnt on the spot, and the 
 coffee trees are planted, and left to themselves, care being taken 
 to protect tbem from the fierce rays of the sun and any cold winds. 
 The coffee succeeds well in Brazil between the 18th and 26th 
 parallels.^ At the end of five or six years the plantation is in 
 full bearing. The fruit ripens in four months and the harvest 
 goes on almost without interruption. 
 
 An hectare (nearly 2J acres), well planted (918 trees), will yield 
 on an average 2 tons in first-class soils, IJ in second-class grounds, 
 and less than f of a ton in inferior soils. 
 
 With reference to the prospects of the Brazilian coffee trade 
 during this year, the Bio Neios makes the following remarks : — 
 " Estimates are furnished us of the 1888-89 crops, and these vary 
 from 4,500,000 to 6,000,000 bags for Eio, and 2,760,000 to 3,500,000 
 
COFFEE. 73 
 
 tags for Santos. Opinions tliat we consider reliable fix ilie first at 
 6,000,000 bags, and the latter at 3,000,000 bags. This is a very large 
 supply, and must mean low prices in consuming markets. It seems- 
 certain tbat the number of slaves will be much reduced, but the 
 flow of immigration to the province is satisfactorily increasing, and 
 we do not suppose that there is any particular reason why a 
 colonist or immigrant should not gather coffee as well, if not 
 better, than a slave." 
 
 The coffee produced in Brazil in 1881 amounted to about 5,000,000 
 bags of 120 lbs. each, making a total of 5,357,143 cwts., or more 
 than half the world's consumption, which is estimated at about 
 600,000 tons. Of this quantity there was exported to the United 
 Statesof America 2,241,976 bags, and to Europe, &c.,2,135,442bags. 
 When the emancipation of the negroes is complete, as it will be in 
 another ten years, the question is whether the coffee planters will 
 be able to find labourers enough to keep up this high total. 
 
 The quality has been so much improved of late years that much 
 of the coffee is sent to Europe and sold under the names of Java, 
 Ceylon, Martinique, San Domingo, and even Mocha. At the Paris 
 International Exhibition of 1867, Brazilian coffee received from 
 the jurors a gold medal over all other coffees. 
 
 Between 1816 and 1820 the planters of Eio abandoned the culture 
 of the sugar-cane, and turned their attention to coffee, the cultiva- 
 tion of which thereafter became the basis of immense progress, 
 and the accumulation of much wealth in the capital of the empire. 
 
 The greater part of the Caravillas coffee from the province of 
 Bahia is sent to Eio Janeiro in consequence of the easy transit 
 during the summer months, when the prevailing winds from the 
 north-east enable the planters to get quick returns for their 
 produce from that important coffee mart. 
 
 Campinas is the coffee capital of the province of Santos, and the 
 quantity carried over the San Paulo line was, in 1871, 41,107 tons. 
 
 The culture of coffee is comparatively recent in the province of 
 Ceara, but it is being carried out on a large scale in the mountains 
 of Maragogipe, Aratana, Baturite, Araripe, Machado, and Ura- 
 burotama. The abolition of the duty on coffee in the United States, 
 and its reduction from 3d. to l^d. a pound in England, came as a 
 timely relief to the Brazilian planter. 
 
 The quarters to which Brazilian coffee is shipped may be divided 
 into three classes — 1, the United States ; 2, Northern European and 
 Channel ports ; and 3, Mediterranean ports. The relative propor- 
 tions to each are shown by the following exports in bags, the first 
 column, for 1871, from Eio only: — 
 
 1871. 1883. 
 
 United States Ij.SSl.Sie 2,314,650 
 
 Nortli Europe 689,917 724,986 
 
 Mediterranean 198,498 307,506 
 
 Different ports 115,243 307,368 
 
 2,358,004 3,654,511 
 
 From Santos . . . . 1,898,638 
 
 5,553,14tf 
 
74 
 
 COFFEE. 
 
 As tlie United States monopolise the cMef supply of Brazilian 
 ooffee, it may be interesting to note their aggregate imports of all 
 Mnds, which have heen as follows, in decennial periods : — 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1790 4,150,754 
 
 1800 7,408,196 
 
 1810 5,352,082 
 
 1820 13,291,857 
 
 1830 51,488,248 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1840 94,996,095 
 
 1850 144,986,895 
 
 1870 282,540,737 
 
 1880 .. 446,851,000 
 
 1886 564,708,000 
 
 The American consumption is ahout one-fourth of the entire 
 world, and more than any other country on the globe. 
 
 The United States receives 74 to 80 per cent, of its supplies 
 from Brazil. Its total consumption in 1886, including the Pacific 
 States, was over 282,000 tons, the largest in the history of the 
 trade. 
 
 Of the Brazil coffee crop the United States have taken in the 
 last twelve years the following quantity: — 
 
 Bags of 60 kilos. 
 
 1876 1,448,424 
 
 1877 1,710,073 
 
 1878 1,670,383 
 
 1879 2,283,545 
 
 1880 1,886,857 
 
 1881 2,241,976 
 
 Bags of 60 kilos. 
 
 1882 2,459,132 
 
 1883 2,314,650 
 
 1884 2,430,620 
 
 1885 2,620,300 
 
 1886 2,933,600 
 
 1887 2,701,000 
 
 Destination of tlie Coppee shipped from Kio only, in the Years ENDma 
 
 December, in Sacks of 60 Kiloseammes. 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Europe, &c. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 1876 
 
 1,317,498 
 
 1,448,424 
 
 2,765,922 
 
 
 
 1877 
 
 1,136,482 
 
 1,710,073 
 
 2,846,555 
 
 
 
 1878 
 
 1,360,816 
 
 1,670,383 
 
 3,031,199 
 
 
 
 1879 
 
 1,251,638 
 
 2,283,545 
 
 3,535,183 
 
 
 
 1880 
 
 1,676,197 
 
 1,886,857 
 
 3,563,054 
 
 
 
 1881 
 
 2,135,442 
 
 2,241,976 
 
 4,377,418 
 
 
 
 1882 
 
 1,741,458 
 
 2,459,132 
 
 4,200,590 
 
 
 
 1883 
 
 1,339,861 
 
 2,314,650 
 
 3,654,511 
 
 
 Brazil — Exports of Coffee, in Bales of 60 Kilogrammes (about IJ cwt). 
 
 Years 
 
 Hio. 
 
 Santos. 
 
 Bahia. 
 
 ending 
 July 1. 
 
 To North 
 America. 
 
 To Europe. 
 
 Total. 
 
 To North 
 America. 
 
 To Europe. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Years end- 
 ing Oct. 1. 
 
 1877-78 
 1878-79 
 1879-80 
 1880-81 
 1881-82 
 1882-83 
 1883-84 
 1884-85 
 1885-86 
 1886-87 
 
 1,501,400 
 2,073,400 
 1,875,300 
 2,098,700 
 2,284,100 
 2,606,300 
 2,010,420 
 2,144,600 
 2,456,400 
 2,134,200 
 
 942,800 
 1,325,200 
 
 920,000 
 1,907,300 
 1,333,600 
 1,656,700 
 
 947,800 
 1,250,800 
 1,0.50,800 
 1,217,200 
 
 2,549,900 
 3,577,800 
 2,937,000 
 4,324,500 
 3,880,900 
 4,509,900 
 3,198,000 
 4,209,200 
 3,712,400 
 3,483,900 
 
 99,600 
 177,300 
 194,100 
 239,800 
 238,000 
 329,500 
 420,200 
 475,700 
 477,200 
 566,800 
 
 854,000 
 
 987,200 
 
 830,100 
 
 971,800 
 
 1,306,900 
 
 1,532,100 
 
 1,491,800 
 
 1,684,100 
 
 1,181,600 
 
 1,955,500 
 
 1,019,500 
 1,187,400 
 1,046,100 
 1,228,300 
 1,555,000 
 1,874,600 
 1,936,500 
 2,171,500 
 1,666,500 
 2,527,700 
 
 79,200 
 93,900 
 134,300 
 126,900 
 145,900 
 108,800 
 91,600 
 121,000 
 208,000 
 150, OOC 
 
COFFEE. 
 
 75 
 
 'Other American Coffee — Exports to Europe and United States, in Bales 
 of 60 KiLOaRAMMBS (or 11 owt.). 
 
 Year. 
 
 1878 
 1879 
 1880 
 1881 
 
 1882 
 1883 
 1884 
 1885 
 1886 
 1887 
 
 Mexico and 
 Central America. 
 
 Costa Hica, 
 
 Guatemala, 
 
 and 
 
 New Granada. 
 
 407,800 
 529,500 
 660,300 
 767,000 
 842,000 
 885,400 
 870,900 
 
 1,035,000 
 928,000 
 
 1,066,100 
 
 Laguayra, 
 
 Porto Cabello, 
 
 and 
 
 Marucaibo. 
 
 672,300 
 550,000 
 678,100 
 647,000 
 846,000 
 729,000 
 617,000 
 637,000 
 700,000 
 632,200 
 
 West India 
 Islands. 
 
 Cuba, 
 Porto Eico, 
 and British 
 West Indies. 
 
 88,700 
 175,300 
 138,900 
 200,000 
 186,700 
 205,000 
 170,000 
 230,000 
 190,000 
 163,100 
 
 Haiti. 
 
 473,600 
 495,200 
 498,600 
 546,000 
 452,400 
 536,000 
 385,000 
 660,000 
 475,000 
 400,400 
 
 Exports of Coffee from the Port of Eio. 
 
 1800 
 1820 
 1830 
 1840 
 
 10 
 
 97,400 
 
 391,785 
 
 ,068,418 
 
 1850 1,343,484 
 
 1860 2,127,219 
 
 1870 2,209,456 
 
 1880 3,563,054 
 
 1885 4,209,200 
 
 1887 3,483,900 
 
 The Bahia bag contains 120 lbs. ; the Kio bag 160 lbs. 
 
 
 Brazil — Exports of Coffei 
 
 s, in Bags of 60 Kilogrammes. 
 
 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Eio. 
 
 Santos. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 1873 
 
 2,433,709 
 
 542,569 
 
 2,976,278 
 
 
 
 1874 
 
 2,673,281 
 
 666,943 
 
 3,340,224 
 
 
 
 1875 
 
 3,152,296 
 
 826,382 
 
 3,978,678 
 
 
 
 1876 
 
 2,765,922 
 
 754,993 
 
 3,520,915 
 
 
 
 1877 
 
 2,846,565 
 
 628,903 
 
 3,475,458 
 
 
 
 1878 
 
 3,031,199 
 
 999,007 
 
 4,030,206 
 
 
 
 1879 
 
 3,535,183 
 
 1,260,172 
 
 4,745,355 
 
 
 
 1880 
 
 3,563,054 
 
 1,042,246 
 
 4,605,300 
 
 
 
 1881 
 
 4,377,418 
 
 1,204,198 
 
 5,581,616 
 
 
 
 1882 
 
 4,200,590 
 
 1,986,500 
 
 6,737,090 
 
 
 
 1883 
 
 3,654,511 
 
 1,898,638 
 
 5,553,149 
 
 
 
 1887 
 
 3,483,900 
 
 2,527,700 
 
 6,011,600 
 
 
 Besides the above, Babia and Ceara ship about 12,000 tons. 
 
 In the Pacific Islands some attention has been given to coffee 
 culture. Large plantations of coffee trees were made at Tahiti in 
 1862, with the view of supplying Chili, California, and Sydney. 
 In 1868, 78,373 lbs. of coffee were shipped from the Hawaiian 
 Islands. In later years from Hawaii there was shipped of 
 coffee : — 
 
 1880 
 
 1881 
 
 100,000,000 lbs. 
 19,000,000 „ 
 
 1882 
 1883 
 
 8,000,000 kilos. 
 16,000,000 lbs. 
 
76 COFFEE. 
 
 Fiji. — Perhaps no tropical industry offers more genuine attractions* 
 to a man possessed of ordinary business ability, with a taste for 
 agricultural pursuits, than does that of coffee-planting. 
 
 In even the most unhealthy of tropical countries, coffee-planting, 
 from its having to be conducted at a considerable elevation above 
 sea-level, is, as compared with the majority of tropical pursuits, 
 regarded as a peculiarly salutary and agreeable occupation. In 
 Fiji, however, the exceptionally healthful character of the country 
 obviates the institution of any such comparison. 
 
 The coffee industry is no longer in its infancy in JTiji. Questions 
 with regard to soil, natural fertility, elevation, and shelter, having 
 now been proved by the experience of pioneer planters, may be 
 regarded as settled, and any one now opening up a coffee plantation 
 in Fiji need no longer run the risks attending experiment in these 
 directions. 
 
 That the country is one specially adapted to the growth of the 
 coffee plant is attested by Mr. John Home, F.L.S., Director of the 
 Botanical Gardens, Mauritius, who, in his ' Eemarks on the Agri- 
 cultural Prospects of Fiji,' writes as follows : — 
 
 " In Fiji there is a large extent of land, which from a variety of 
 causes is better adapted for growing coffee than any other tropical 
 product. The greater portion of this land lies in the interior of 
 Viti Levu, Vanua Levu, Taviuni, some portions of Eabi, Ovalau, 
 &c. These islands contain large areas of almost incomparably fine 
 cofice land, and enjoy a climate which is at once healthy and well 
 adapted for the growth of the coffee tree, plant, or bush. Next to 
 sugar-cane growing, that of coffee will in future years claim a 
 large share of attention. Coffee growing will yearly extend and 
 become an important product of those islands. Coffee will be second ' 
 to none except sugar in value ; its export value will ultimately 
 attain to about a million and a-half or to two millions sterling 
 per annum. The plants of coffee seen in the interior of Viti Levu, 
 Vanua Levu, and Taviuni were remarkably healthy looking; 
 indeed, the healthy appearance of the plants prove that coffee 
 will succeed in Fiji beyond a doubt." 
 
 The peculiarity of the country in this respect is manifested in 
 the matter of altitude, which differs materially from that neces- 
 sary in other countries. Experienced planters from Ceylon say 
 that 1000 feet in Fiji is equal to about 3500 feet in Ceylon, 
 while coffee on the coast lands yields well, but gives a smaller 
 berry. 
 
 Cultivation in other respects varies very little from that pursued 
 in other coffee-producing countries, but great regard ought to be 
 paid to the shelter afforded to the plantation from the south-east 
 trade winds, and no shade trees ought to be left, as coffee does 
 better in the open. 
 
 Seed, when planted in the ordinarily careful way, quickly 
 germinates, and the seedlings are fit foruse in seven months. If 
 planted out in October or November it will yield a maiden crop of 
 four cwts. per acre in about two and a half years, while it has 
 already been proved that almost any weight up to fifteen cwts. 
 
COFFEE. 77 
 
 ■per acre may be picked in successive years according to variations 
 in climate, soil, and weatlier. 
 
 Wide planting, too, will be found advantageous, but tbe distance 
 ought to be regulated by the rankness of the soil, which, being in 
 many places volcanic, causes the primaries to overlap in the third 
 year when planted six feet apart. 
 
 Topping, likewise, must be regulated by position, and in well- 
 «heltered places five feet is not too high to allow, especially where 
 the soil is volcanic. 
 
 Handling and pruning, if taken in time, will require only 
 ordinary attention, but must on no account be neglected. 
 
 Buildings of a substantial character can be erected at a moderate 
 cost, fine hard wood being plentiful in the jungle, and easily sawn 
 by Polynesian or other labour, on the estate, while lime is made 
 ■from the coral which abounds on the coast. 
 
 The coffee-leaf disease, which some four years ago threatened to 
 crush the coffee industry throughout the world, may now be said 
 to have all but disappeared from Fiji. 
 
 Experience has shown that it may best be resisted by high 
 cultivation, and for this purpose the incomparably rich soil of the 
 group offers facilities that cannot elsewhere be met with. 
 
 On the Island of Taviuni, for instance, which, on account of 
 position and fertility, seems to have been specially selected as a field 
 for the coffee industry in Fiji, the disease is rarely to be met with. 
 ■ Of this island Mr. P. B. Thurber, in his ' Coffee from Plantation to 
 Cup,' remarks : — " In the Island of Taviuni in the Fiji group there 
 are some half-dozen coffee estates, ranging in area from fifty to 
 three hundred acres. Coffee trees are just coming into bearing 
 (1880). At the Sydney Exhibition the first gold medal was 
 awarded to an exhibit of coffee from Fiji." 
 
 On the Island of Taviuni is also erected the principal curing 
 mill in the Colony. The site is a dry one, fully exposed to the 
 sun. Extensive drying-grounds, and upwards of 3000 square feet 
 of wire-netting on reapers are provided for drying and preserving 
 the coffee. The capacity of the mill is a turn-out of 2400 lbs. of 
 clean coffee per hour. 
 
 The following figures show the quantities of coffee exported 
 during five years :— 1881, 104,624 lbs. ; 1882, 62,328 lbs.; 1883, 
 210,204 lbs. ; 1884, 86,065 lbs.; 1885, 85,239 lbs._ 
 
 India. — The coffee grown in the Madras Presidency is brought 
 down the Ghats from the hill districts of Mysore, Coorg, Wynaad, 
 and the Mlgirris, to be exported from the Malabar ports. 
 Some is also shipped in South Canara and at Tuticorin, as well 
 as from a new port in Travancore. The exports from the 
 Madras Presidency do not show an increase, but much is con- 
 sumed locally. 
 ■ The shipments have been as follows : — 
 
 Lbs. I Lbs. 
 
 1871 31,295,195 | 1874 40,110,203 
 
 1872 52,047,318 I 1875 33,738,922 
 
 1873 39,781,819 | 1885 37,581,894 
 
78 
 
 COFFEE. 
 
 The coffee fields in Travancore may be divided into the northern,, 
 middle, and southern districts. The northern includes the estates 
 at and about Peremade ; the middle, those near and to the north 
 of the Augustan Peak, and in the neighbourhood of Courtallum ; 
 the southern, called also the Assamboo range, includes those- 
 between Assamboo in the south and the Koday river in the north. 
 In the latter districts there are coffee estates covering 10,000 
 acres, of which 5500 acres are planted, and all this has been done 
 since 1863. 
 
 The number of coffee estates owned by Europeans in Travancor& 
 in 1870 was fifty, containing in the aggregate about 14,700 acres. 
 This was independent of the estates and gardens owned by natives,, 
 both on the hills and plains. Since then a good many hundred 
 acres of forest land have been planted with coffee. 
 
 The average annual exports of coffee from India since 1850 are 
 shown below in periods of five years each : — 
 
 Tears. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Value. 
 
 1851-55 
 
 1856-60 
 
 ; 1861-65 
 
 1866-70 
 
 7,813,602 
 
 8,274,183 
 
 24,162,260 
 
 33,879,096 
 
 £ 
 
 94,974 
 
 135,263 
 
 555,652 
 
 784,727 
 
 1871-75 
 1876-80 
 1881-85 
 
 41,405,214 
 37,577,984 
 39,732,985 
 
 1,218,867 
 1,496,341 
 1,424,741 
 
 Coffee Expokts from Ikdia. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1876 371,986 
 
 1877 304,158 
 
 1878 298,587 
 
 1879 342,268 
 
 1880 361,037 
 
 1881 370,713 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1882 351,981 
 
 1883 364,008 
 
 1884 364,410 
 
 1885 342,682 
 
 1886 376,702 
 
 1887 370,458 
 
 This is nearly all shipped from the Port of Madras, and only 
 about 30,000 cwt. from Bombay. 
 
 In 1883-84, 185,839 acres were returned as being under coffee for 
 aU India. The total yield was 30,750,000 lbs. In 1885-86 the 
 land under culture was reduced to 119,142 acres. 
 
 The coffee plantations in India and our Colonies are threatened 
 with annihilation by external competition, chiefly from Brazil. 
 The failure of the coffee estates is a serious matter. In Coorg 
 they gave permanent employment to 27,000 people, and another 
 20,000 in temporary work during the picking season. 
 
 Much of the Indian coffee goes to Arabia, Persia, Egypt, Turkey 
 in Asia, and even to Mauritius. Ceylon and the Straits send ta 
 India large quantities of coffee. 
 
 The following table shows the destination of Indian coffee in 
 the last three financial years ending 31st March, in cwts. : — 
 
COFFEE. 
 
 Td' 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1885. 
 
 1886. 
 
 1887. 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 Austria 
 
 France 
 
 Egypt 
 
 ' Arabia 
 
 172,563 
 
 1,598 
 
 117,120 
 
 4,657 
 
 8,084 
 
 10,475 
 
 10,266 
 
 3,554 
 
 197,247 
 
 4,355 
 
 110,213 
 
 9,346 
 
 17,413 
 
 12,603 
 
 9,619 
 
 10,231 
 
 193,501 
 
 5,640 
 
 119,677 
 
 12,013 
 
 9,630 
 
 8,135 
 
 8,707 
 
 13,155 
 
 Persia 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 Other countries 
 
 
 328,317 
 
 371,027 
 
 370,458 
 
 The coffee tree is supposed to be indigenous to the highlands- 
 which border on the African coast of the Eed Sea ; possibly the 
 district called Kaffa, to the south of Abyssinia, gives us a hint as 
 to its origin. Hence it was imported into Arabia, to the hilly 
 districts of Yemen or Arabia Felix. This is supposed to have been 
 effeetsd in the 14th century, from which time dates the importance- 
 of Mocha as a trading port. 
 
 It may be assumed that the coffee plantations of Yemen increased' 
 ■qntil the yield served for export as well as home consumption. 
 In the 16th century mention is made of the consumption of coffee 
 by the Turks, and Lord Bacon, among other writers, alludes to it. 
 
 The coffee came by ships from Mocha to Suez, and overland by 
 caravans to Damascus and Aleppo, the total exports from Mocha, 
 in the middle of the 17th century, being estimated by Dufour at 
 about 16,000 bales of 300 lbs. each, or alsout 2,150 tons. 
 
 Mr. Ellis, F.E.S., in his account of coffee, published long ago, 
 observed that the part of Arabia from whence the Asiatic coffee is- 
 brought, is for the most part extremely sandy, dry, and hot. At 
 Batavia the soil is in general wet and deep ; and though, like other 
 eastern climates, there is a dry season, yet in the rainy periods 
 the quantity of wet that falls is excessive. The rich, luxuriant 
 state of vegetation in the island of Java, on which Batavia is 
 situated, is a proof of this assertion ; and one may safely infer that 
 a plant brought from a dry, sterile, sandy soil, will assume not 
 only a very different appearance, but its fruit will have a very 
 different quality from that which is the: produce of a fertile, moist 
 soil, subjected to equal heat. The drier the soil on which the 
 coffee grows, the smaller is its fruit, and its quality more excellent.- 
 
 It is certain that in old coffee trees the fruit is smaller; perhaps 
 an accurate taste would discover that its flavour is improved in 
 proportion. 
 
 Arabia. — Before leaving: the Asiatic continent, we must say a 
 few words in passing on the coffet? production of Arabia. , 
 
 I'dr ages before its use among : the western nations, coffee was 
 raised on the famous hills of Yepiep, in Arabia, where Niebuhr 
 states the tree was first cultivated after it was brought from 
 Abyssinia by the Arabs. The coffee gardens there are on terraces, 
 which reach an elevation of about 3000 feet. The soil is kept 
 moist by means of small artificial canals, which are made to irri- 
 
80 COFFEE. 
 
 gate the whole by the water falling from the upper to the lower 
 terraces. The trees are planted so close together that the thick 
 foliage shelters their roots from the tropical heat of the sun. The 
 fruit° begins to ripen in February, but the most considerable 
 harvest is in May. "When the berries are dried and prepared, they 
 are conveyed to the city of Beit al Fakih, when part goes to 
 Mocha and the rest to European markets. 
 
 Prom Mocha, Hodeida, and other parts of Arabia, there used to be 
 exported, a quarter of a century ago, about 10,000 tons of coffee 
 annually, but it is difficult to get at any precise figures as to the 
 production now ; it certainly, however, is not one-half of this. 
 
 The principal coffee districts are Hinjersia, Tarzia, Oudeiu, 
 Aneizah, Bazil, and Wusaf. The coffees of the Red Sea are mostly 
 sent first to Bombay by Arab ships, and there garbled and 
 forwarded to Europe. Mocha coffee, until lately, has been much 
 esteemed ; the fine sorts continue to be so, but the major part 
 imported into this country is of a very mixed character, in many 
 cases stones and husks forming a good portion of the bulk. Other 
 growths, such as Mysore and fine East India, are rapidly super- 
 seding this kind, and unless the quality is much improved the 
 demand in this country must die away ; as it is, the greater part 
 is exported at prices actually below those of Plantation Ceylon, 
 and other colonial growths. The berry of the really choice 
 qualities of Mocha, when roasted, has a flavour and fragrance 
 which are unequalled by other growths. 
 
 Africa and the African Islands.-^The eastern and western coasts 
 of Africa, including the islands of Eeunion, St. Helena, St. 
 Thomas, and Prince's, produce coffee to the extent of about 
 2,000,000 lbs. yearly. The island of St. Thomas is progressing in 
 coffee production. At Praia Eei, where the culture was com- 
 menced in 1854, the produce has gone on advancing. This 
 property, which is one league and a half by three in extent, is 
 divided into three estates, cultivated by about SOO labourers ; 
 Monte Cafe, another estate commenced in 1854, by 50 labourers, 
 in the course of eight years had nearly 500,000 trees planted. 
 The seventh year the crop yielded 200,000 lbs., and since 1865 has 
 produced about 550,000 lbs. annually. Alta Douro, another estate, 
 only commenced in 1857, had planted some 50,000 trees in a j^ear 
 or two, and is now a most productive property. The coffee of 
 Liberia and Eio Nunez has a high reputation. 
 
 Although attention was prominently drawn by me to the 
 excellence of the Liberian coffee, and its prolificness in the first 
 edition of this work nearly half a century ago, it is only within 
 the last ten or twelve years that planters and commercial men 
 have begun to dulj' appreciate its value and importance. 
 
 Coffee is also grown in the Cape Verde islands, Mozambique. 
 Madagascar, Angola, the G-old Coast, G-aboon, Ambriz, and 
 Madeira. About the villages and settlements of the Sherbro 
 river and Sierra Leone wild coffee trees are very abundant. 
 
 There are many varieties of West African coffee from the large 
 and symmetrical pale berries of St. Thomas to the little dark 
 
COFFEE. 81 
 
 Bembe coffees. In the Congo State, the production of coffee in 
 1887 was 2,750,000 lbs. 
 
 Bourbon or Beunion. — This island was taken possession of by the 
 French in 1649. In 1715 wild coffee trees were found growing in 
 the woods, and in 1718 Mocha coffee trees were introduced. 
 
 The former reputation of Bourbon coffee was European, and the 
 island long owed its prosperity to coffee culture, but the 
 hurricanes, decay of the trees used for shade, and the preference 
 given by the planters of late years to sugar cultivation, has 
 caused a great decline in the production of coffee. In 1817 the 
 crop exceeded 7,250,000 lbs., but in 1860, only 630,000 lbs. were 
 shipped, in 1865 less than 470,000 lbs., and in 1875, 467,500 lbs., 
 although in the previous year, 1874, it was 719,400 lbs. The 
 land under cultivation with coffee is only 5200 acres against 
 121,000 acres under cane, and there are 347 coffee works or 
 buildings. There are iive species or varieties of the coffee shrub, 
 known on the island, viz. : 
 
 1. Mocha, passing as Bourbon {Goffea Arabica), the first in- 
 troduced into the island, and superior to all other kinds, easy to 
 grow, but requiring shade trees for shelter. 
 
 2. Leroy coffee (Goffea laurina), the Sierra Leone species, a hardy 
 kind, growing readily without shade, and having a seed pointed 
 at one end. 
 
 3. Myrtle coffee, a Mocha variety of 0. Arahica, especially remark- 
 able for the longevity of the tree. 
 
 4. Aden coffee {Goffea microcarpa), with small regular berries, 
 and a particular aroma, brought from Hes, Yemen, by Admiral 
 Jehuine ; it is the same as the Foucard coffee of Guadaloupe ; very 
 little of this variety is, however, grown in the island. 
 
 5. Bitter or wUd coffee (Goffea Mauritiana), an' indigenous 
 species, common in the elevated forests of the island, with a pointed 
 seed of a strange form, having a strong and bitter flavour, which 
 intoxicates in infusion, but mixed with other kinds is agreeable. 
 
 Liberia. — Coffee is found in a dwarfish state growing wild in all 
 parts of the republic of Liberia, on the west coast of Africa, and 
 is believed to be a distinct species, which has now been named 
 Goffea Liberica, but used to pass as G. microcarpa. Some suppose 
 it to be indigenous, others that it was introduced by the 
 Portuguese a few centuries ago. The coffee now being cultivated 
 in Liberia is from plants originally procured from the forest, but 
 greatly improved by cultivation. It is grown both on light 
 alluvial soil near the coast, and on gravelly soils in the interior. 
 From present indications in a few years the export of coffee from 
 Liberia will be considerable, and its rich and superior flavour will 
 secure for it a corresponding demand at remunerative prices. 
 Coffee it has been proved can be cultivated with great ease, and to 
 any extent, in this republic, from being indigenous to the soil and 
 the tree being found there in abundance. A single tree at 
 Monrovia, it is said, has yielded the enormous quantity of 16 lbs. 
 at one gathering. It was estimated some years since that there 
 were about 30,000 coffee trees in one of the counties, that of Grand 
 
8-2 COFFEE. 
 
 Bassa, and tlie quality of the produce was stated to be equal to the 
 best Java. About the villages and settlements of the Sherbro 
 river and Sierra Leone, wild coffee trees are very abundant. A 
 good many plants of Liberian coffee have been sent lately from 
 Kew to Jamaica, Southern India, and Ceylon. 
 
 In this Eepublic the coffee tree is grown in all varieties of soil, 
 but prospers most in those of a loose nature, such as the sandy and 
 loamy soils, especially if these are strengthened by the addition of 
 locks. There are two species of sandy soil in Liberia ; one has 
 been the bed of the sea, and this has not been enriched by decayed 
 vegetable and other matter, but has near the surface a substratum 
 of clay. This serves as a reservoir to hold the surplus water, which 
 rising through the sand by capillary attraction, keeps plants 
 growing even in dry weather. This soil is particularly suited to 
 coffee, which grows rapidly in it. 
 
 Two systems of hulling the coffee are practised in Liberia; one 
 consists in taking off the cherry hull when fresh from the tree, 
 drying the bean, and then denuding it of its parchment ; the 
 other in drying the entire berry, and taking off both hulls by one 
 manipulation. The former method is the more expeditious, but by 
 the latter there is an improvement in the quality of the coffee, as 
 the beans having been thoroughly dried in both hulls, the aroma 
 is prevented from escaping, and it is also said that there is a gain 
 in the weight of the bean. 
 
 The plant producing Liberian coffee is distinguished from the 
 ordinary coffee tree (C. Arahica), by its more robust habit, its larger 
 leaves, and much larger berries and seeds. Liberiaa coffee grows 
 equally well in the neighbourhood of the sea, and at considerable' 
 distances from it. Under like conditions of soil and attention, trees 
 near the sea shore in Monrovia, are about the same as those at 
 Careysburg and other places thirty miles distant. The wild 
 coffee from which the cultivated comes, is found at even still greater 
 distances in the interior. At Bassa and Sinou the coffee trees are 
 said to grow within a hundred yards of the sea. The general 
 temperature at which coffee thrives best ranges from 72° to 87° 
 Fahrenheit in the shade. In the country, at the furthest point 
 at which coffee is cultivated by the settlers, there is a difference of 
 one or two degrees lower, owing principally to the rise in the land. 
 The lowest temperature observed at Monrovia, near the sea, was 
 62°, at seven o'clock a.m., in the month of January, during the 
 prevalence ofHarmattan winds, the highest temperature being 91°, 
 but these are exceptional cases. Along the coast the coffee tree 
 thrives, at only a few feet (about ten) above sea level. At Careys- 
 burg and at Mount Coffee, it succeeds as well at an elevation of 
 550 feet. It grows equally well on level ground as on slopes. In 
 the former situation, however, care should be taken not to allow 
 water to stand ; and in the latter the rich mould or surface soil 
 should not be washed away. 
 
 The method of cultivation practised in. Liberia is similar to that 
 adopted in the East Indies. The forests are cleared in the same 
 manner; the undergrowth is first cut, then the large trees are 
 
COFFEE. 83 
 
 ■felled, lopped, and when sufficiently dry, tlie wliole is set on fire. 
 The stumps of the trees are, as a rule, immediately removed. The 
 entire ground is not ploughed, but holes are dug at proper intervals 
 for the reception of the plants. These are generally not less than 
 12 feet apart, and are dug in straight parallel lines. Ploughing, 
 hy loosening the soil, would, on sloping land, render it liable to 
 he washed away by the heavy rains. The plants are taken from 
 the nursei^ when from a year to two years old, and in planting 
 the cherry hull is removed, and the seeds are deposited in rows 
 from two to three feet apart. The seeds are inserted in the ground 
 at a depth of about one inch, if the showers be regular, but at a 
 depth of two inches if the weather is dry. The transplanting is 
 generally done at the beginning of the rainy season, in May or 
 June. The trees are lopped at the height of 5 feet; but this rule 
 is not observed by all growers. After the trees are lopped, they 
 shoot out a number of suckers from the trunk. These are generally 
 pulled out by hand, and no secondary shoots are allowed to grow 
 ■on the branches nearer to the trunk than 18 iaches. This would 
 give an open space of three feet in diameter, in the centre of the 
 tree, for the penetration of sunshine, and the circulation of air. 
 This Liberian coffee tree does not produce all its flowers at one 
 blooming, the time of blossoming depends upon the occasional 
 showers that fall in the dry season, for although the buds may 
 ■stand out prominently, they will remain without opening for a 
 space of two months, or until there falls a shower of rain sufficient 
 to saturate the soil ; a light shower which does not soak into the 
 ground will not cause them to open. In December a slight blossom 
 appears, and the fullest blooms appear in January and February. 
 There is only one full crop, and this is gathered during the months 
 of December, January, February and March. Surface manuring 
 is the best suited to Liberian coffee trees, as these belong to the 
 ■class of forest trees whose feeders keep near the surface. Even 
 when the manure is placed in trenches the fibrous roots or feeders 
 penetrate it, and seek the surface long before the manure is 
 ■consumed. Coffee pulp, mixed with other ingredients, guano, 
 ashes, and clay from the hill nests of the termites are also exten- 
 sively used as manures to promote the growth of the tree. 
 
 Wild trees are found in the forest more than 30 feet high, and 
 10 to 12 feet in diameter. This coffee tree is confined strictly to the 
 sections of country between 4° and 7° north latitude. It has been 
 found wild from the sea shore to the part where the mountainous 
 or hilly land descends into the grassy plains on the borders of 
 the Mandingo country. Here the Liberian coffee apparently 
 fitops. 
 
 In size the berry both of the cultivated and the wild Liberian 
 coffee exceed that of any other known variety. Some berries from 
 a wild tree in a section of country beyond Careysburg about 
 40 miles from the sea were found to be one-third larger than any 
 hitherto discovered. As a rule the berries are entirely red when 
 xipe; but some are red on one-half and yellow on the other. 
 Some are red, or red on one half and green on the other. Others 
 
84 COFFEE. 
 
 when lipe are entirely green on the outside, but have the hlood red 
 colour on the inside of the first hull. Others, again, are entirely- 
 yellow. 
 
 The Liberian coffee industry is attaining very considerable 
 importance, and the quantity exported largely increasing eveiy 
 year. In 1878 only 200,000 lbs. of coffee were exported. In 1881 
 300,000 lbs. were shipped, nearly all to the United States. 
 
 Different estimates have been given of the production of the 
 Liberian coffee trees. It has been stated that if properly cultivated 
 they ought to average 3 lbs. when ten or twelve years old, but the 
 trees, owing to lack of means to give them the high cultivation 
 which they require, do not produce on an average one-third of the 
 quantity they are capable of producing. A Ceylon coffee planter 
 of thirty years' experience, estimated that the production of an 
 acre of Liberian coffee would, under favourable circumstances, 
 equal that of ten acres of Ceylon coffee. The produce of an acre 
 of Liberian coffee trees ten years old, properly cultivated, may 
 easily be set down at 1600 lbs. 
 
 Distinct varieties of the plant are known, one of which produces 
 fruit at an earlier age than the other ; the berry also is smaller. 
 The larger variety, however, is preferred, as yielding a superior 
 quality of coffee, and a larger crop. This larger variety again 
 varies in itself under changed conditions of soil. In the moist low- 
 lands the berry is very large, while in the dry rocky hills or up- 
 lands, it becomes somewhat smaller, but of a finer flavour. The 
 trees on a single plantation produce berries varying in size to some 
 extent. The small variety before referred to, begins to bear at 
 eighteen months, the larger form in the third year j this variety 
 has, however, been known to bear sooner. The first crop is 
 usually only a few berries, but the tree goes on increasing until 
 it becomes capable of yielding 20 lbs., and some very old trees 
 have been known to give 24 lbs. each, but more generally depends 
 upon cultivation than upon age. 
 
 For pulping Liberian coffee a very useful hand-pulper has been 
 invented by Messrs. John Wather and Co., Colombo, Ceylon. It 
 is said to pulp at the rate of ten bushels per hour, and to cost, 
 complete, £18. Another machine adapted for hulling this coffee in 
 the cracknel state, that is, after the cherries have been simply 
 dried in the sun (without pulping), is highly recommended by 
 Mr. E. S. Morris, of Philadelphia, who has taken a great personal 
 interest in the development of the coffee industry amongst the 
 negroes of the Liberian Eepublic. 
 
 It should be distinctly understood that Liberian coffee is not to 
 be looked upon as a complete substitute for Arabica, Mocha, or other 
 varieties of coffee, except in low, swampy, or what is known as 
 " heavy-bottom" land, or very :ich soil in which ordinary coffee, if 
 grown, would not be fruitful, but where this Liberian coffee would 
 be at home. 
 
 Liberian coffee is thus especially valuable as an adjunct for either 
 swampy land or poor, moist valley, or plain land. It is more 
 particularly valuable for planting alaout cacao estates, where, the 
 
COFFEE. 8.) 
 
 land being moist enough and the aspect suitable for cacao, the land 
 •is stiff or poor. 
 
 The Dutch, who have always been most zealous and energetic in 
 introducing and promoting the culture of new products, have sent 
 ■out plants of the Liberian tree to their plantations in Java, and 
 other parts of the Eastern Archipelago. 
 
 Coffee is found growing in a wild state in the province of 
 Bambaye, the most eastern part of Fonta Djallon, between the Eio 
 Jsunez and the Eio Pongo. The island of Goree is the entrepot 
 for this coffee. 
 
 When British settlements and colonies are fortned in Eastern 
 Africa, the best coffee harvests there will be in what may be called 
 the coffee belts from 5° to 15° north and south latitude. This 
 •would be in the south, that country which was so graphically 
 described in Dr. Livingstone's letters, the base ports being 
 Zanzibar and Mozambique ; and in the north the old coffee-growing 
 country of Abyssinia, and the equatorial Nile basin out of Egyptian 
 territory. Both Dr. Livingstone and Sir Samuel Baker describe 
 these countries as those of a terrestrial paradise, the latter speaking 
 of boundless tracts, situated at a mean altitude of 3000 to 4000 
 feet above the sea-level, with a fertile soil, healthy climate, regular 
 rainy season, and a docile population, eminently adapted for coffee 
 cultivation. 
 
 Natal. — Looking at the number of localities on the African 
 continent where coffee is indigenous, there is no reason why, under 
 proper cultivation and judicious management, coffee should not 
 succeed well in Natal. It has been grown there on a small scale, 
 but from want of proper attention and management and neglect of 
 weeding, or from exhaustion of the soil, the trees have been 
 attacked with fungi, and the crop has latterly failed. In 1870 the 
 total crop amounted to nearly 1000 tons, and 2700 cwts. were 
 shipped ; in 1874, 680 cwts., but in 1883 only 2 owts. 
 
 The samples of Natal coffee, however, shown at the various 
 International Exhibitions at London, Dublin, and Paris, were of 
 good quality. In 1868 the shipments were valued at £2500, and in 
 1872 at £8606 ; in 1879 the exports were only 10 cwts., the produce 
 being principally consumed locally. 
 
 The cultivation is now being revived with some success near the 
 Umzimkula river and in other districts. 
 
 Production in the West India Islands. — The rapid decline in coffee 
 production — I may almost say its abandonment, — -in the British West 
 Indies, since negro emancipation, is remarkable. In 1828 we 
 received from our West India colonies and Demerara 30,000,000 lbs. 
 of coffee; in 1831, 20,000,000 lbs. ; in 1841, less than 10,000,000 
 lbs. ; and now but 3,000,000 lbs. reach us. 
 
 Coffee was first cultivated by the Dutch, in Surinam, early in 
 the eighteenth century. It was next grown by the French in 
 Martinique, and thence spread to the neighbouring islands, and to 
 Jamaica. The Dutch jealously guarded their early efforts in this 
 direction, and were not anxious to aid other nations in campeting 
 with them. There is a little fragrance of romance connected with 
 
86 COFFEE. 
 
 the first French effort of this kind which was made in Martinique-. 
 Louis XIV. who, in spite of all his foibles and vices, was fully- 
 able to appreciate the importance of such apparently small matters- 
 as a potato tuber or a coffee bean, had in his private gardens a 
 coffee shrub five feet high, which, before his death (1715), bore 
 ripe fruit. Having heard of Dutch coffee plantations in Berbice 
 and Surinam, his ambition was aroused, and he desired to have- 
 similar ones in his Trench West Indian colonies. He entrusted, 
 therefore, a slip from his pet tree to a naval officer, Declieux, with 
 orders to carry it safely to Martinique. Unfortunately the ship in 
 which he served had an unusually long voyage — fierce storms- 
 alternating with provoking calms, and at last the water casks were 
 empty. The captain, however, sacrificed his own wants for the 
 sake of the young plant, and shared with it his scanty ration of 
 water. But his troubles were not at an end when he at last 
 reached the island ; storms and tempests, men and beasts, seemed 
 to have united to threaten the tender shoot, and Declieux had to 
 place a guard over the plant, who, under his supervision, watched 
 it day and night. Fortunately it grew and throve till it became a 
 fine lai-ge tree, the ancestor of most of the coffee plantations in the 
 West India Islands. It may be safely said that never was tree 
 more carefully tended or more usefully employed. 
 
 Guadaloupe. — Coffee was formerly among the first of the staples 
 of this colony. In 1790 it exported about 7,500,000 lbs. In 
 1816, when the French retook possession of the island, the coffee 
 crop produced no more than 284,135 kilos., but starting from the 
 succeeding year and on to 1830, it assumed considerable proportions. 
 Guadaloupe during this period of fifteen years exported 15,260,050 
 kilos., being a mean annual export of over 1000 tons. From 
 1831 to 1845 sugar largely took its place, and the annual export 
 decreased by one-half. From 1846 to 1860 the decrease in the 
 coffee production was even more appreciable, the export again 
 diminishing by one-half to less than 250 tons. From 1861 to- 
 1878 coffee production rallied again, the exports recovering to about 
 450 tons. In 1885 about 7,000,000 lbs. were exported. 
 
 The three principal kinds of coffee grown in Guadaloupe are the 
 ordinary, the Mocha, and the Liberian. The two former are held in 
 high estimation, but the Liberian, as yet, is not much in favour,, 
 yielding more in quantity than quality. 
 
 There were, in 1873, 3588 hectares (of 2-^ acres) under cultivation 
 with coffee, the average produce being about 1000 lbs. per hectare;, 
 in 1885, 3678 hectares produced 2,722,322 kilos, of coffee. 
 
 Martinique. — Coflee culture has almost entirely disappeared from. 
 Martinique, although the coffee grown in Guadaloupe passes in 
 commerce under that name. The annual produce of an hectare of 
 land under coffee here is from 500 to 1000 lbs. Owing to. 
 the attacks of the coffee insect (^Elachysta coffeola), impoverishment 
 of the soil, hurricanes, atmospheric influences, and other causes, the 
 production of coffee is declining here. In 1873 there were about 
 1270 acres under coffee, and in 1885 only 500. There is a largfr 
 local consumption, and hence the quantity shipped is but trifling.. 
 
TEA. 
 
 87 
 
 The following shows the crops of late years in kilogrammes of 
 little over 2 Ihs. : 
 
 KiloB. 
 
 1868 254,553 
 
 1869 145,575 
 
 1870 169,480 
 
 1873 
 1885 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 210,000 
 
 31,581 
 
 The shipments to France direct from Martinique vary consider- 
 ably, and are hut small in any year. 
 
 Jamaica is admirably suited for coffee culture from its elevated 
 mountain ranges, and the island used to produce large crops of a 
 very fine quality. The culture was introduced in 1728; in 1752, 
 60,000 lbs. were exported, and the average annual shipment in the 
 three years ending 1807 was 28,600,000 lbs. In 1844 there were 
 671 coffee plantations in the island. But the culture was almost 
 entirely abandoned, the coffee planters of the East having quite 
 outstripped those of the West Indies by the advantages of capital, 
 labour, and suitable land, with facilities for shipment. Jamaica^ 
 among the British islands, is now paying increased attention to 
 the growth of coffee, though the distance from ports of shipment 
 is often greater than it is in the smaller islands. 
 
 There are 22,000 acres under coffee cultivation in Jamaica. 
 The principal parishes in which it is grown are St. Andrew's, 
 St. Catherine's, Manchester, Clarendon, and St. Ann's. 
 
 TEA. 
 
 Extensive as the production and consumption of the preceding 
 articles of commerce described — Cacao and Coffee — are, they cantiot 
 be compared in importance with Tea, the consumption of which 
 over the world is enormous, and continually increasing. 
 
 The progress of the production of tea in other countries than 
 China is necessarily interesting, as calculated to make the world 
 more independent for its supplies. 
 
 Besides India, Ceylon, Java, and Japan, in the East, where it 
 has made good progress, efforts are making to introduce it in parts 
 of Australia, such as Queensland and Victoria, in Jamaica, Natal, 
 and Mauritius. It is said to be also cultivated in the Corea, Tonkin, 
 and Cochin China. 
 
 Parts of North and South America afford a vast field for tea 
 culture, and it has long been attempted, with some degree of 
 success, in Brazil and parts of the United States. 
 
 Madeira, Teneriffe, Portugal, Spain, Prance, Algeria, Italy, 
 Austria, Turkey, and the Crimea 'might all grow tea, for their 
 climates are quite suitable; Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand 
 are admirably adapted likewise, but they have little or no labour 
 to bestow on such a cultivation. Java has long taken up tea 
 culture, and produces about eight million pounds. 
 
 Tea is a very accommodating plant, both as respects climatic 
 range and the nature of the soil in which it is planted. We find 
 it growing from Pekin — which frequently has winters of Eussian 
 
88 
 
 TEA. 
 
 severity — to Canton and Macao, where the sugar-cane and pine- 
 apple find sufficient heat to render them sure and profitable crops. 
 The plant seems quite capable of withstanding winters of very 
 intense frost, provided the summers are of sufficient duration and 
 heat to mature perfectly the newly-formed wood which it makes. 
 Any country, therefore, having a long and hot summer and a cold 
 winter can grow tea. 
 
 So far back as 1844 some success attended the efforts of a private 
 individual, M. Jaunet, in the cultivation of the tea plant in the 
 island of Mauritius. Chinese labourers were employed to assist 
 him in the further culture of this important plant, the expense 
 being borne by the Colonial Goverument : others were also engaged 
 for a similar purpose in the Botanical Garden. 
 
 At a later period Mr. Boyer, of Port Louis, succeeded in raising 
 40,000 tea trees, and expressed the opinion that if the island of 
 Eeunion would give itself up to the cultivation, it might easily 
 supply France with all the tea she requires, which is but little. 
 
 Although those climates where it has been introduced will grow 
 the plant, yet the manipulation of the leaf has hitherto been so 
 little understood, that only two of these countries can yet claim 
 tea as among their leading productions. 
 
 In Transcaucasus, under a latitude corresponding to the northern 
 parts of Niphon, Japan, good results have been obtained, and a 
 company has been formed to carry on tea cultivation. 
 
 In many other quarters the tea plant would be found to grow 
 well, but the difficulty to contend with, in most of these, is the cost 
 of labour compared with China, India, and Ceylon. 
 
 Consumption of Tea. — We may note the gradual increase of 
 consumption in Great Britain and Ireland by the following 
 figures : — 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1820 22,452,050 
 
 1830 30.047,079 
 
 1840 32,252,628 
 
 1850 51,172,302 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1860 76,816,394 
 
 1870 117,651,152 
 
 1880 158, 321, .572 
 
 1888 185,556,214 
 
 Proportion per head of the population : — 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1840 1-22 
 
 1850 1-86 
 
 1860 2-67 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1870 3-81 
 
 1880 4-57 
 
 1887 4-95 
 
 It is curious to trace the range of prices of tea, as given by 
 Messrs. Travers and Sons, of London : — 
 
 
 Per lb. 
 
 Per Jb. 
 
 
 Per lb. 
 
 Per lb 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 1787 .. 
 
 .. 1 9Jto 
 
 14 
 
 1847 .. 
 
 .. 2 7 to 
 
 7 
 
 1797 .. 
 
 .. 2 3 „ 
 
 11 
 
 1857 .. 
 
 .. 10 „ 
 
 4 6 
 
 1807 .. 
 
 .. 2 10 „ 
 
 18 
 
 1867 .. 
 
 .. 6J „ 
 
 .s n 
 
 1817 .. 
 
 .. 5 1 „ 
 
 14 
 
 1877 .. 
 
 .. 7 „ 
 
 3 10 
 
 1827 .. 
 
 .. 3 1 „ 
 
 14 
 
 1887 .. 
 
 ■• 4J „ 
 
 a 7 
 
 1837 .. 
 
 .. 2 3 „ 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
TEA. 
 
 89 
 
 The average price of tea in England, always on tlie decline, may 
 be stated as follows, per pound : — 
 
 
 d. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 1869 .. . 
 
 . .. 17-78 
 
 1883 .. . 
 
 . .. 12-46 
 
 1873 .. . 
 
 . .. 16-67 
 
 1884 .. . 
 
 . .. 11-78 
 
 1878 .. . 
 
 . .. 15-29 
 
 1887 .. . 
 
 . .. 10-58 
 
 We have no very certain means of estimating the quantity of tea 
 consumed in China, but -we may nevertheless draw conclusions 
 from such data as we possess. Taking the population of the 
 ■country, then, at 350 millions, and considering that the use of tea 
 is universal amongst them, that they drink it from early morning 
 until they retire for the night ; that in sickness or health, working 
 ■or resting, travelling or at home, it is the one great national 
 beverage, without which no Chinese family could live and thrive ; 
 considering all this, I think I am not overrating it when I set it 
 ^own at an average of 2J lbs. a head per annum, or say a total of 
 ■SOO millions of pounds ! Surely it would be equal to that of 
 ■Great Britain. Others estimate it much lower — Scherzer at 
 400 millions ; Andrie at 500 millions. Now, if we allow only 
 100 lbs. of cured tea as the average produce per acre in China, this 
 will show a cultivation of 10 million acres in tea alone. 
 
 If we allow that the internal consumption of tea in China 
 amounts to 1000 millions of pounds, we cannot but be struck with 
 the comparatively small quantity she exports; for, according to 
 the latest statistics, we find that her total export of tea to all 
 countries does not reach 300 million pounds, being about one-third 
 of her own consumption. Of this quantity the United Kingdom 
 ■took about 146 million pounds in 1886. 
 
 The following figures will give a rough estimate of the produc- 
 tien and consumption of tea : — 
 
 Pkoduction. 
 
 China, exports, 1886 
 
 „ assumed home consumption 
 
 British India, exports, 1887 
 
 „ assumed local consumption and 
 
 exports to Asia 
 
 Java, exports 
 
 Japan, exports 
 
 „ home consumption 
 
 Ceylon, exports, 1886 
 
 Brazil, home consumption 
 
 Other small producing countries 
 
 Lbs. 
 295,626,000 
 1,000,000,000 
 87,514,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 7,167,000 
 
 35,759,000 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 7,860,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 250,000 
 
 Total 1,451,676,000 
 
 Consumption. 
 
 Of the statistics of consumption I am not able to furnish any 
 complete details, as only for a few countries are the quantities of 
 tea imported and sold given in their ofiicial returns. 
 
 The following figures, however, are taken from the Statistical 
 Abstract for the principal Foreign countries, and from other 
 
90 
 
 reliable documents, for tlie years 1873 and 1886, 
 certain quantity of the tea produced and shipped 
 
 1873. 
 Lbs. 
 
 Eusaia 26,379,928 
 
 Denmark 849,635 
 
 Holland 9,625,200 
 
 Belgium 
 
 North Germany 2,000,000 
 
 United Kingdom 132,022,159 
 
 Spain, Gibraltar, and Malta .. .. 361,000 
 
 Turkey 400,000 
 
 France 6,500,000 
 
 United States 51,028,904 
 
 Dominion of Canada 8,776,781 
 
 Newfoundland 599,104 
 
 British West India Islands, Guiana, 
 
 and Honduras 100,000 
 
 South American States 1,000,000 
 
 South African States 1,000,000 
 
 Sierra Leone, St. Helena, Falklands, 
 
 and Mauritius 30,000 
 
 Victoria 10,585,795 
 
 New South Wales 5,021,219 
 
 Queensland 1,355,575 
 
 South Australia 1 , 678 , 325 
 
 Tasmania 530,500 
 
 New Zealand 2,301,308 
 
 Totals 262,645,433 
 
 and dispose of a 
 from the East : — 
 
 18S6. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 33,284,000 
 
 729,000 
 
 5,095,200 
 
 200,000 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 178,800,197 
 
 300,000 
 
 400,000 
 
 7,859,000 
 
 81,888,000 
 
 22,582,155 
 
 773,030 
 
 1.50,000 
 1,000,000 
 1,500,000 
 
 20,000 
 11,968,252 
 7,107,038 
 2,475,172 
 1,991,786 
 779,904 
 4,442,867 
 
 366,845,601 
 
 Impokts of Tea into the United Kingdom, showing the PBODUOHfQ 
 
 COUNTKIES. 
 
 Tear. 
 
 British India and 
 Ceylon. 
 
 China. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 Total Imports. 
 
 1855 
 1865 
 1875 
 1885 
 1888 
 
 lbs. 
 
 470,559 
 
 2,037,586 
 
 25,387,359 
 
 68,624,259 
 
 113,004,692 
 
 lbs. 
 81,560,207 
 112,782,845 
 170,462,921 
 139,673,354 
 105,424,271 
 
 lbs. 
 
 4,02i^901 
 54,806 
 10,286 
 
 lbs. 
 83,259,657 
 121,271,220 
 197,505,316 
 212,143,820 
 223,618,478 
 
 Estimated Consumption of Tea for 1886. 
 
 Europe. Lbs. 
 
 ♦United Kingdom 178,800,197 
 
 ♦Russia in Europe 33,284,000 
 
 ♦Holland 5,095,200 
 
 Germany 3,000,000 
 
 *France 7,859,000 
 
 ♦Denmark 729,000 
 
 Belgium 200,000 
 
 Spain, Gibraltar, and Malta 300,000 
 
 Austro-Hungary 740,000 
 
 Portugal 561,000 
 
 Switzerland 300,000 
 
 Norway and Sweden . . .. '. 310,000 
 
 Turkey 400,000 
 
 231,578,397 
 
TEA. 91 
 
 Asia. 
 
 Us. 
 
 Persia 1,000,000 
 
 India and Ceylon 2,000,000 
 
 China 1,000,000,000 
 
 Japan 15,000,000 
 
 1,018,000,000' 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Morocco 350,000 
 
 *South African States 1,500,000 
 
 1,850,000 
 
 America. 
 
 Kiver Plate States 1,000,000 
 
 *United States 81,888,000 
 
 ♦Dominion of Canada 22,582,155 
 
 ♦Newfoundland 773,030 
 
 106,243,185 
 
 Australasia. 
 
 *New South Wales 7,107,038 
 
 ♦Victoria 11,968,252 
 
 ♦South Australia 1,991,786 
 
 ♦Tasmania 779,904 
 
 ♦New Zealand 4,442,867 
 
 ♦Queensland 2,475,172 
 
 Other small British Colonies 35,000 
 
 28,800,019 
 
 The countries marked with an asterisk are official figures. 
 
 Summarising these returns, we arrive at tlie following figures :. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Europe 231,578,397 
 
 Asia 1,018,000,000 
 
 Africa 1,850,000 
 
 America 106,243,185 
 
 Australasia 28,800,019 
 
 1,386,471,601 
 
 In France, although tea is not included in the official imports, 
 the figures given are those stated for the whole of the tea imported 
 at the French ports in 1881. Belgium and Holland are large 
 consumers of coffee ; Spain and Portugal consume chiefly chocolate. 
 For the Austrian Empire, Italy, Greece, and some of the smaller 
 States, there are no reliable details. 
 
 The consumption in Asia is chiefly estimated. Asiatic Eussia 
 takes a large quantity of tea overland from China, at least 
 60,000,000 lbs. ; 560,000 lbs. of Indian tea is sent annually by 
 land to Kabul, Kashmir, and Ladakh, and an equal quantity of 
 Chinese teas. 
 
 From India about 20,000 lbs, of tea are sent to Arabia, and 
 
9-2 
 
 TEA. 
 
 5,000 lbs. to Aden ; 20,000 to 30,000 lbs. to Turkey in Asia, and 
 12,000 lbs. to Turkey in Europe, and 200,000 lbs. to the United 
 States. 
 
 For Japan I have estimated the consumption at only half a 
 pound per head, but it must be much larger. In Northern Africa, 
 Egypt, Tunis, &c., some quantity of tea is drunk. For South 
 America coffee and mate are no doubt the chief articles of 
 consumption. 
 
 There is a growing demand for tea in Morocco, nearly all 
 bought from England. In 1887 the four principal ports imported 
 together £33,553 worth of tea, against £31,619 in 1886. 
 
 The imports of tea into Denmark have ranged from 1,000,000 lbs. 
 to 750,000 lbs., but the latter amount may be taken as the 
 annual average. Holland imports about 11,000,000 lbs. annually. 
 
 Imports, Consumption, etc 
 
 , of Tea in the Netherlands, in 
 
 Chests of 
 
 40 KiLOGKAMMES (about 88 lbs.). 
 
 
 
 General Imports. 
 
 Consumption. 
 
 Exports in 
 Transit. 
 
 stock, 
 
 December 31. 
 
 Year. 
 
 China 
 
 
 other 
 
 
 
 
 Java 
 
 
 
 
 (via 
 
 Java. 
 
 Coun- 
 
 Total. 
 
 China. 
 
 Java. 
 
 and 
 
 China. 
 
 Java. 
 
 
 England) 
 
 
 tries. 
 
 
 
 
 China. 
 
 
 
 1878 
 
 32,975 
 
 51,950 
 
 900 
 
 85,825 
 
 30,450 
 
 17,750 
 
 90,425 
 
 11,316 
 
 9,297 
 
 1879 
 
 35,450 
 
 42,875 
 
 2,025 
 
 80,350 
 
 35,300 
 
 12,825 
 
 68,525 
 
 4,986 
 
 10 
 
 1880 
 
 39,750 
 
 53,075 
 
 1,100 
 
 93,950 
 
 40,075 
 
 13,000 
 
 47,675 
 
 7,600 
 
 7,800 
 
 1881 
 
 54,675 
 
 26,675 
 
 3,100 
 
 84,450 
 
 43,625 
 
 10,900 
 
 25,150 
 
 7,000 
 
 4,900 
 
 1882 
 
 47,050 
 
 32,250 
 
 450 
 
 79,760 
 
 47,125 
 
 9,475 
 
 27,975 
 
 4,400 
 
 8,200 
 
 1883 
 
 60,100 
 
 41,200 
 
 300101,600 
 
 52,825 
 
 16,725 
 
 46,300 
 
 2,400 
 
 300 
 
 1884 i 42,900 
 
 31,200 
 
 3,600 77,700 
 
 33,900 
 
 10,500 
 
 55,000 
 
 6,800 
 
 1,400 
 
 1885 i 47,400 
 
 36,700 
 
 7,200 91,300 
 
 44,400 
 
 9,800 
 
 68,300 
 
 5,800 
 
 1,600 
 
 1886 1 54,200 
 
 42,600 
 
 4,700 96,500 
 
 46,200 
 
 11,700 
 
 67,200 
 
 3,100 
 
 1,800 
 
 1887 55,300 
 
 51,600 27,700134,600 
 
 47,200 
 
 14,100101,800 
 
 4,000 
 
 4,505 
 
 Within the last few years there has been a singular development 
 of the tea trade at the port of Marseilles. In 1850 the arrivals did 
 not exceed 12,000 kilogrammes, most of which came from the 
 warehouses of the Hanseatic towns and from London. Ten years 
 later the direct relations with the East caused a great movement 
 of tea to Marseilles, the annual imports being 229, 114 kilogrammes, 
 of which 223,813 came directly from China. Since then the trade 
 has been very greatly on the increase, the quantity for 1881 being 
 3,198,430 kilogrammes, of which 2,878,675 were from China. 
 
 Tea Imports into United States, Years ending Jdne 30. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 I-bs. 
 
 1874 58,811,625 
 
 1875 64,956,879 
 
 1876 62,887,153 
 
 1877 58,347,000 
 
 1878 65,366,000 
 
 1879 60,195,000 
 
 1880 72,163,000 
 
 1881 81,844,000 
 
 1882 78,769,000 
 
 1883 73,479,000 
 
 1884 67,666,000 
 
 1885 72,105,000 
 
 1886 81,888,000 
 
TEA. 
 
 93 
 
 The following may be given as the approximate annual tea bill 
 of the United Kingdom : — 
 
 Annual consumption 180,000,000 lbs. 
 
 Eetailed at Is. lid. per lb £17,250,000 
 
 Average wholesale price, including freight and London 
 charges : — 
 
 £ 
 
 90 , 000 , 000 lbs. China and Java at 9d 3 , 375 , 000 
 
 90 , 000 , 000 lbs. India and Ceylon at 1«. Jd 4 , 593 , 750 
 
 Duty on 180,000,000 lbs. at 6d 4,500,000 
 
 Cost of distribution and gross profit to dealers .. .. 4, 781, 250 
 
 £17,250,000 
 
 Impoets of Tea into Europe, in Chests of 40 Kilogeammes. 
 (From tbe Eotterdam Trade Circulars.) 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Deliveries. 
 
 Stock, December 31. 
 
 
 
 1878 
 
 2,645,900 
 
 2,646,500 
 
 1,462,300 
 
 
 
 1879 
 
 2,415,100 
 
 2,640,100 
 
 1,270,500 
 
 
 
 1880 
 
 2,672,000 
 
 2,684,900 
 
 1,318,600 
 
 
 
 1881 
 
 2,726,700 
 
 2,655,400 
 
 1,345,500 
 
 
 
 1882 
 
 2,764,500 
 
 2,712,900 
 
 1,449,900 
 
 
 
 1883 
 
 2,910,800 
 
 2,839,300 
 
 1,538,300 
 
 
 
 1884 
 
 2,747,300 
 
 2,876,200 
 
 1,433,600 
 
 
 
 1885 
 
 2,719,200 
 
 2,921,000 
 
 1,264,300 
 
 
 
 1886 
 
 2,966,500 
 
 2,919,100 
 
 1,337,800 
 
 
 
 1887 
 
 2,874,800 
 
 2,896,800 
 
 1,347,800 
 
 
 Culture in China. — The tea plant (Thea Chinensis, Linne ; Camellia 
 Thea, Link) has a bushy stem, with numerous branches, and 
 very leafy. It flowers with a white blossom, and ranges in height, 
 when fully grown, from three to six feet. It is hardy, and readily 
 grows in Asia from the equator to the 45th degree of latitude ; but 
 in China, although grown in most of the provinces, its cultivation 
 is chiefly restricted to the five maritime provinces, viz., Kuang- 
 tung, Pukian, Kiangse, Kianguan, and Chekiang, lying in the 
 south-east part of the empire, between the 21st and 33rd degrees 
 north latitude. It is only from these that tea is brought for the 
 great export demand, though it is grown in every other province, 
 as far north as 42 degrees for mere local consumption. It is also 
 produced in the Japanese Islands which are north of 35 degrees ; 
 in Cochin China, and, to some extent, by runaway Chinamen in 
 Luzon and Java. The climate that seems to suit the plant best 
 in China is that of the country included between the 26th and 
 35th degrees of north latitude. The plant does not yield a crop 
 under two or three years. A low alluvial soil is not favourable to 
 its growth, a hilly country being decidedly the best adapted to its 
 full development. There is little or none near Canton, for this 
 reason, and also because the climate is too warm. All accounts 
 agree that it thrives best in a temperate climate and upon the 
 sides of hiUs. The crops are gathered in the spring. 
 
'94 TEA. 
 
 Baron Mueller remarks that it seems very doubtful whether the 
 tea plant is really indigenous in the Chinese Empire, unless in the, 
 "to us, largely unknown western districts ; for, as far as we are aware, 
 it has been carried from Assam and Cachar, and possibly also from 
 Siam and Cochin, just like the coffee plant, which is not really a 
 native of Arabia, as was so long supposed, but came originally from 
 Abyssinia. The culture commenced, so far as can be historically 
 ascertained, in China, during the fourth, and in Japan during the 
 ninth century, from whence tea was obtained exclusively for every 
 other part of the globe till the time of the present generation. 
 
 Tea grows in every province in China except three or four upon 
 the northernmost Siberian border, but the quality and quantity 
 •depend largely upon the locality. The leaves resemble those of 
 the willow, and are gathered during the spring and early summer. 
 The annual average yield of a tea plant is about twenty ounce's, 
 and too much rain aifects the quality as well as the amount. The 
 plants live from twenty to thirty years, and, when old, are 
 frequently cut down, and a young shrub grafted into the old 
 stock. Quicker returns are thus obtained, but the plant does not 
 last so long. The leaves are first exposed in a cool, dry place for 
 a day or two, then rolled into a ball on a table of bamboo slats, and 
 dried in the sun. The rolling is to extract a portion of the juice 
 of the leaves. After they have been dried in the sun, they are 
 put into an egg-shaped iron pan over a charcoal fire, and inces- 
 santly stirred until a certain point of dryness is reached. The 
 operator stirs with his hands, thrusting them in all portions of the 
 pan, and practice enables him to dry the leaves almost exactly 
 alike. The raiser superintends this process, and then brings his 
 tea in bamboo baskets to the tea merchant, who adjudges its 
 quality, and buys it at prices ranging frdm 15 dollars to 20 dollars 
 per picul of 133^- lbs. The merchant mixes his purchases together 
 in a large reservoir, and at his convenience weighs out a number of 
 pounds of tea leaves ; women and children spread them upon a 
 large stage, and separate the leaves into grades according to quality. 
 The tea stalks are the lowest grade, and the sorters are paid by the 
 number of ounces of stalks they bring in. Children earn from 2d. to 
 6d. a day ; the very best workers rarely earn as much as 6d. a day. 
 
 After the sorting each grade is packed by itself in chests or 
 bamboo baskets, the first for exportation, and the latter for home 
 consumption. It is ordered by importers abroad through a tea- 
 taster, who receives a high salary. 
 
 The green and black teas of commerce are made from the same 
 plant, the difi'erence arising solely from the difference in the 
 manufacture, the green tea being made direct from the green leaf, 
 while the black is allowed to wither by exposure to the sun, or hot 
 air, before manufacture. 
 
 For Green Tea. — ^When the leaves are brought in from the 
 plantations they are spread out thinly on flat bamboo trays, in 
 order to dry off any superfluous moisture. They remain for a very 
 short time exposed in this manner, generally from one to two 
 hours ; this, however, depends much upon the state of the weather. 
 
TEA. 95 
 
 In the meantime tlie roasting pans have heen heated with a 
 Ijrisk wood fire. A portion of leaves is now thrown into each pan, 
 And rapidly moved about and shaken up with both hands. They 
 are immediately affected by the heat, begin to make a crackling 
 noise, and become quite moist and flaccid, while at the same time 
 they give out a considerable portion of vapour. They remain in 
 this state for four or five minutes, and are then drawn quickly out 
 and placed upon the rolling table. 
 
 Having been thrown again into the pan, a slow and steady 
 charcoal fire is kept up, and the leaves are kept in rapid motion by 
 the hands of workmen. Sometimes they are thrown upon the 
 rattan table and rolled a second time. In about an hour, or an 
 hour and a half, the leaves are well dried and their colour has 
 become fixed — that is, there is no longer any danger of their 
 becoming black. They are of a dullish green colour, but become 
 brighter afterwards. 
 
 The most particular part of the operation has now been finished, 
 and the tea may be put aside until a larger quantity has been 
 made. The second part of the process consists in winnowing and 
 passing the tea through sieves of different sizes, in order to get rid 
 of the dust and other impurities, and to divide the tea into the 
 different kinds known as twankay, hyson skin, hyson, young 
 hyson, gunpowder, &c. During this process it is refired, the 
 coarse kinds once, and the finer sorts three or four times. By 
 this time the colour has come out more fully, and the leaves of 
 the finer kinds are of a dull bluish green. 
 
 It will be observed, then, with reference to green tea — 1st, that 
 the leaves are roasted almost immediately after they are gathered ; 
 and 2nd, that they are dried off quickly after the rolling process. 
 
 For Black Tea. — When the leaves are brought in from the 
 plantations they are spread out upon large bamboo mats or trays, 
 and are allowed to lie in this state for a considerable time. If 
 they are brought in at night they lie until next morning. 
 
 The leaves are next gathered up by the workmen with both 
 hands, thrown into the air and allowed to separate and fall down 
 again. They are tossed about in this manner, and slightly beat 
 or patted with the hands, for a considerable space of time. At 
 length, when they become soft and flaccid, they are thrown in 
 heaps and allowed to lie in this state for about an hour, or perhaps 
 a little longer. "When examined at the end of this time, they 
 appear to have undergone a slight change in colour, are soft and 
 moist, and emit a fragrant smell. 
 
 The rolling process now commences. Several men take their 
 stations at the rolling table and divide the leaves amongst them. 
 Each takes as many as he can press with his hands, and makes 
 them up in the form of a ball. This is rolled upon the rattan 
 table, worked and greatly compressed, the object being to get rid 
 of a portion of the sap and moisture, and at the same time to twist 
 the leaves. These balls of leaves are frequently shaken out and 
 passed from hand to hand until they reach the head workman, 
 who examines them carefully to see if they have taken the 
 
96 TEA. 
 
 requisite twist. Wlien he is satisfied of tliis, tlie leaves are 
 removed from the rolling table and shaken out upon flat trays, 
 until the remaining portions have undergone the same process.. 
 In no case are they allowed to lie long in this state, and some- 
 times they are taken at once to the roasting pan. 
 
 The next part of the process is exactly the same as in the 
 manipulation of green tea. The leaves are thrown into an iron 
 pan, where they are roasted for about five minutes, and then rolled 
 upon the rattan table. 
 
 After being rolled, the leaves are shaken out, thinly, on sieves, 
 and exposed to the air out of doors. A framework for this 
 purpose, made of bamboo, is generally seen in front of all the 
 cottages amongst the tea hills. The leaves are allowed to remain 
 in this condition for about three hours : during this time th& 
 workmen are employed in going over the sieves in rotation, 
 turning the leaves and separating them from each other. A fine- 
 dry day, when the sun is not too bright, seems to be preferred 
 for this part of the operation. 
 
 The leaves, having now lost a large portion of their moisture, 
 and having become reduced considerably in size, are removed into 
 the factory. They are put a second time into the roasting pan- 
 for three or four minutes, and taken out and rolled as before. 
 
 The charcoal fires are now got ready. A tubular basket, narrow 
 at the middle and wide at both ends, is placed over the fire. A 
 sieve is dropped into this tube and covered with leaves, which are 
 shaken on it to about an inch in thickness. After five or six 
 minutes, during which time they are carefully watched, thej'' are 
 removed from the fire and rolled a third time. As the balls of 
 leaves come from the hands of the roller they are placed in a heap, 
 until the whole have been rolled. They are again shaken on the 
 sieves as before, and set over the fire for a little while longer. 
 Sometimes the last operation — namely, heaticg and rolling — is re- 
 peated a fourth time ; the leaves have now assumed a dark colour. 
 
 When the whole has been gone over in this manner it is then 
 placed thickly in the baskets, which are again set over the-, 
 charcoal fire. The workman now makes a hole with his hand 
 through the centre of the leaves, in order to allow vent to any 
 smoke or vapour which may rise from the charcoal, as well as t» 
 let the heat up, and then covers the whole over with a flat basket ; 
 previous to this the heat has been greatly reduced by the fires- 
 being covered up. The tea now remains over the slow charcoal, 
 fire until it is perfectly dry ; it is, however, carefully watched by 
 the manufacturer, who every now and then stirs it up with his 
 hands, so that the whole may be equally heated. The black 
 colour is now fairly brought out, but afterwards improves in 
 appearance; the after processes, such as sifting, picking, and 
 refining, are carried on at the convenience of the workmen. 
 
 It is evident therefore that the main part of the preparation of 
 tea is carried on upon the spot where it is grown, and that an 
 increased quantity could easily be prepared without any increase 
 either of machinery or hands for the purpose. 
 
TEA. 
 
 97 
 
 Formerly tliis delicate herb required to be so well fired and 
 ■packed by the Chinese as to stand the loug overland journey from 
 "the tea districts to Canton, where it often came into the hands of 
 the foreign shipper a whole year after it had been picked. Now, 
 within three months of the time that the leaf was growing, we find 
 the prepared article actually in the hands of the home consumer. 
 A careless manipulation and an insecure kind of packing have 
 thus been gradually adopted by the Chinese, who find all that is 
 wanted is, that the tea should arrive unimpaired into the godown 
 ■of the foreign merchant, often not three days' journey from the 
 up-country packing house. The fragrant smell of the newly- 
 ■dried herb deceives the buyer, whose home correspondent comes 
 into possession of a totally flavourless preparation. The subordi- 
 ■mate part allotted to the cultivation of the tea plant in China is 
 one of the most striking facts observed by the traveller in the 
 •country. When he first arrives in the tea districts he is led to 
 imagine himself still only on their confines ; isolated patches here 
 and there meet his eye, in place of the wholesale plantations he 
 had looked forward to, and on enquiry he finds that among the 
 enumeration of taxable lands sent in to the Emperor, tea land is 
 entirely ignored. In fact, until recently, the up-country farmer, 
 who persists in growing an inferior paddy almost on the highest 
 mountain tops, on the theory that each district should, as nearly 
 as possible, be self-supporting, grew a few shrubs in the comerof 
 his garden, or gathered for his own requirements from the wild 
 hill plant. Although of late years the country people have begun 
 to see the value placed on a hitherto almost worthless herb, the 
 cultivation of the tea plant is still far from being carried on in a 
 Teally systematic manner, and five or six piculs is a large average 
 yield for an individual farm. 
 
 In China tea nurseries are seldom extensive, but every village 
 has its one or two acres devoted to the national product. 
 
 Shanghai is the leading tea port in China, not only for shipments 
 io Great Britain, but also to America. 
 
 Tea Expobts from CmNA, in Piouis. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Black. 
 
 1874 
 
 1,444,249 
 
 1875 
 
 1,438,611 
 
 1876 
 
 1,415,348 
 
 1877 
 
 1,552,173 
 
 1878 
 
 1,517,617 
 
 1879 
 
 1,523,418 
 
 1880 
 
 1,661,325 
 
 1881 
 
 1,636,724 
 
 1882 
 
 1,611,916 
 
 1883 
 
 1,571,092 
 
 1884 
 
 1,564,452 
 
 1885 
 
 1,618,404 
 
 1886 
 
 1,654,058 
 
 Brick. 
 
 212,833 
 210,281 
 189,714 
 197,521 
 172,826 
 183,233 
 188,623 
 238,064 
 178,839 
 191,115 
 202,557 
 214,693 
 192,930 
 
 74,791 
 166,900 
 153,950 
 147,809 
 194,277 
 275,540 
 232,969 
 247,498 
 219,026 
 218,744 
 244,996 
 280,112 
 361,492 
 
 Dust. 
 
 3,504 
 
 2,594 
 
 3,798 
 
 12,157 
 
 14,236 
 
 5,269 
 
 14,200 
 
 15,186 
 
 7,367 
 
 6,125 
 
 4,212 
 
 15,505 
 
 8,719 
 
9-8 
 
 TEA. 
 
 These figures show an export by sea bf about 295,000,000 lbs. 
 In 1873 the shipments were 236,000,000 lbs., so that not much 
 progress has been made in thirteen years. 
 
 Exports of Tea from other pkinoipal Ports, in Piouls. 
 
 Ports. 
 
 Canton .. 
 Foochow 
 Ningpo ., 
 Hankow 
 Tientsin 
 
 132,406 
 606,891 
 127,059 
 771,344 
 290,204 
 
 124,870 
 677,606 
 156,742 
 794,630 
 314,605 
 
 The exports from Canton fell from 16,456,446 lbs. in 1882 to 
 13,988,827 in 1884. The tea sent from Tientsin goes principally 
 to Eussia and Siberia via Kiachta. 
 
 Exports of Tea from China, in Pictjls of 133 Iba. 
 
 Kinds. 
 
 187(1. 
 
 1884. 
 
 1885. 
 
 1886. 
 
 Black 
 
 Green 
 
 Brick 
 
 Dust 
 
 1,444,249 
 
 212,883 
 
 74,791 
 
 3,504 
 
 1,564,452 
 
 202,557 
 
 244,996 
 
 4,212 
 
 1,618,404 
 
 214,693 
 
 280,112 
 
 15,505 
 
 1,654,058 
 
 192,930 
 
 361,492 
 
 8,719 
 
 
 1,735,427 
 
 2,016,217 
 
 2,128,714 
 
 2,217,199 
 
 Sealed Ted, is a kind of coarse tea, imported into Kiachta from 
 China, thus named from being pressed into solid sealed packages, 
 w^eighing about 3 lbs. each, so firmly compacted together that 
 nothing less than hammer and chisel will break it. The leaves of 
 this tea are old and tough as leather ; the twigs and stalks are 
 intermingled, and some fatty substance is mixed with it to make 
 it cohere. 
 
 The Burmese consume an immense quantity of tea leaves pickled 
 with oil and garlic. It is a compound which is eaten, not drunk. 
 There was imported into India of this Litpet, or pickled tea, from 
 Upper Burma the following quantities : — 
 
 Maunds. 
 
 In 1878-79 it was 29,090 
 „ 1879-80 „ 11,896 
 
 Value. 
 
 £ 
 54,142 
 24,884 
 
 Maunds. 
 
 In 1880-81 it was 15,036 
 „ 1881-82 „ 5,934 
 
 Value. 
 £ 
 
 43,975 
 16,573 
 
 A kind of tea is exported from India to Ladakh, known as gola, 
 or ball tea, which is said to be a mixture of green and black tea 
 with rice water. 
 
 Brick-Tea. — Mr. James MoPherson in a communication made to 
 the " Journal of the Society of Arts," some years ago, states that 
 the commerce in brick-tea is so extensive among the people of 
 
TEA. 99 
 
 Central Asia, tliat it seems wonderful so little should be known on 
 the subject. 
 
 Kiachta, a frontier town in Eastern Siberia, was, up to the year 
 1861, the principal mart for brick-tea ; the monopoly, held by a 
 first-class guild of Eussian merchants, was abolished in that year, 
 however, and in 1862, the frontier custom-house was removed to 
 Irkutsk, since which time tea has entered the portion of Siberia 
 eastward of Lake Baikal, free of duty. Moreover, the importation 
 of sea-borne tea was legalized in April, 1862, in spite of strong- 
 protests from Kiachta ; this was intended to put a stop to the 
 contraband trade, and the high prices charged to consumers by the 
 Kiachta monopolists. 
 
 Some attempts have been made, on the part of the Indian tea 
 planters, to invite the Tibetans and others to deal with them, but 
 (so far as brick-teas are concerned) without much success. This 
 may be due to the general ignorance prevailing as to the proper 
 method of manufacture. 
 
 Mr. C. M. Grant, of Kiachta, says the coarser leaves are 
 moistened by steam, and then compressed in moulds in the shape 
 of bricks, which are stacked so that the air may freely circulate 
 and dry them ; this is for green brick- tea ; black brick-tea is 
 fabricated from the refuse black teas, or the siftings of the teas 
 prepared for the European markets. 
 
 In England the steaming process seems to strike the mind as a 
 fallacy at first, but this arises rather from its being so very 
 different from the ordinary descriptions of the method of pre- 
 paration, 1 han from any real defect or difficulty in the process 
 itself. 
 
 The allusions to the manufacture of brick-tea in the English 
 language are exceedingly rare. It is mentioned in the Asiatic 
 Journal (I think) that in the reign of Jin-Tsung (a.d. 1023-63) 
 teas were of two kinds : the first kind, called Peen-tcha, was the 
 leaves combined together in a mass in the form of a board, and 
 then dried by the action of fire. The second kind was called 
 San-tcha, being the leaves reduced to powder. 
 
 Steaming seems to have been known long before this time, 
 however, and some Chinese authors consider it to have been the 
 earliest known method of manufacture. Von Siebold mentions a 
 method of steaming used in Japan for the preparation of green 
 teas ; he says the leaves are laid on mats, in a square box or chest, 
 into which the steam is introduced from a kettle. There are 
 undoubtedly a very great many methods, just as there are in the 
 preparation of ordinary teas, and further information is _ very 
 desirable, as to the means employed by the Eussian agents m the 
 interior of Hupeh (Hu-kuang), for steaming the leaf, the ordinary 
 time employed in drying the bricks, and the temperature ot the 
 air and general state of the weather, &c. . r. j. 
 
 The utilization of the refuse of the tea manufacture is a leature 
 in Chinese economy which well deserves the attention of Indian 
 planters; and the admirable product resulting from it claims the 
 attention of philanthropists both there and at home. It is well 
 
100 
 
 TEA. 
 
 known that, from the prolonged manipulation ■u'liicli tea leaves 
 undergo, a large percentage becomes much broken, or is reduced 
 to powder, and thereby deteriorated in value. It may seem 
 strange to many why tea dust and siftings should be considered as 
 refuse at all, seeing they are still tea ; more especially when, as a 
 rule, they yield a stronger infusion than the finest and most 
 perfectly-curled leaves. This apparent incongruity disappears, 
 however, on closer investigation. "When in. the form of dust its 
 liability to adulteration with sand or other heavy foreign sub- 
 stances is vastly increased ; and in siftings, fannings, or broken 
 leaf, an irresistible temptation is offered to the introduction of 
 the broken leaves of other less valuable plants. Then again the 
 darker infusion is usually obtained only at the first maceration, 
 the boiling water so acting on the pulverized leaves that nearly 
 their whole strength is extracted at once ; whereas, with closely- 
 twisted leaves, a second, third, or sometimes even a fourth infusion 
 fails to deprive them of all soluble material. Under such circum- 
 stances the Chinese merchant, in order to encourage business in 
 good leaf, frequently sells his dust and siftings at a low figure, if 
 not at a price under cost. But it happens that a vast quantity of 
 refuse is produced in a district of the Empire so remote from the 
 " Treaty ports," where alone business can be profitably transacted 
 ■with foreigners, that some other opening had to be discovered. 
 Such an outlet the Chinese speedily found in the manufacture cf 
 brick-tea for the Eussian market. 
 
 This strange phase of the fragrant herb takes three forms : 
 Large Green, Small Green, and Black Bricks. 
 
 The large green variety is manufactured in the hilly regions in 
 the province of Hupeh, about two hundred miles west of Hankow. 
 It is fabricated out of the coarser leaves and upper twigs of the 
 iea shrub, to which are added much of the broken leaf and dust 
 resulting from green tea manipulation. The mass is simply 
 moistened by the application of steam, then compressed in wooden 
 moulds, having the chop of the manufacturer cut in relief on one 
 of the inner surfaces. The bricks are then piled up in stacks 
 protected from the sun and rain, but having a free current of air 
 circulating through and around them. When quite dry, each 
 brick is enveloped in paper ; thirty-six bricks, built into an oblong 
 figure, are covered with dry fragrant leaves, and the whole matted 
 over. Such packages are known as " baskets." 
 
 In colour this form of tea exhibits a dusky green, and is made 
 to a large extent by the Eussian agents of the Kiachta merchants. 
 Jt sells at Kiachta at about three roubles (1 rouble = 3s. 2d. 
 sterling) more per basket than that made by the Chinese; but 
 then it should be remembered it costs the Eussian agents from 
 50 to 75 tael cents (1 tael = 6s. 8d. sterling there) more at 
 Hankow. Large green bricks measure 13 X 6^ X IJ inches, the 
 weight of the basket being about 83 catties, or nearly 111 lbs. 
 avoirdupois. 
 
 Unlike the method employed in Mincing Lane for testing the 
 quality of tea, the Mongol buyer proves the soundness of his 
 
TEA. 
 
 101 
 
 purchase by placing a brick upon Hs head and pulling the ex- 
 tremities downwards with both hands ; should it neither yield nor 
 break, it is considered sound ; if it bends or fractures, it is un- 
 hesitatingly tossed aside as worthless. Occasionally a similar test 
 is practised over the bended knee. 
 
 Among all the native inhabitants of Mongolia, and a large 
 number of the Bouriaks who live in the neighbourhood of the 
 Eusso-Mongolian frontier, this description of tea is in favour. The 
 chief markets are Chang-kia-kow, Ourga, and Kiachta. 
 _ Sniall green brick-lea is always superior to large, from the 
 simple circumstance that much greater care is bestowed on the 
 selection of the materials, and during the manufacture; con- 
 sequently it commands a higher price, although its fabrication is 
 similarly conducted. It is consumed by the Siberian peasantry 
 and the better class of Bouriaks and Toungous resident near the 
 Mongolian frontier. Even the Mongol mandarins, both in their 
 native country and when attached to the court at Pekin, prefer 
 this tea. The usual size of the brick is 8J x Sj X |- inches, and 
 the principal emporiums for their distribution are Kiachta, Chita, 
 and Nerchinsk. 
 
 Neither of these two forms of brick-tea undergoes fermentation. 
 Black brick-tea, named in Mongolia " Dirintirroo," is made into 
 cubes of the same size as small green. It consists of siftings, 
 fannings, and the dust resulting from the preparation of Moning 
 and Kaisow teas for the London market, with an admixture of 
 Bohea and small twigs. Like small green, it is usually packed 
 with 64 or 72 bricks in a basket, and is in request among the 
 Tartars or Khirgis of Western Siberia. Large quantities are also 
 sold to the peasantry residing on the western shores of Lake Baikal. 
 The native markets are Kiachta, Irkoutsk, Omsk, Tomsk, Kazaw ; 
 and Nijni Novgorod and Irbit, during the fairs. 
 
 The average prices obtained by the Eussians at the markets 
 stated are as follows : — 
 
 Sort. 
 
 Basket of 
 
 Per Basket. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Large green bricks 
 Small green „ 
 Small black „ 
 
 36 bricks 
 6i „ 
 6i „ 
 
 4 taels 
 
 4 „ 
 
 4| to 5 taels 
 
 Ill lbs. avoird. 
 93i „ 
 93i „ 
 
 As already mentioned, the brick-tea of Chinese manufacture 
 fetches a rather lower price. 
 
 A few statistics may prove instructive, especially to such of our 
 Indian tea-planters as, from the favourable positions of their 
 gardens, may in future have opportunities of cultivating the brick- 
 tea trade in competition with the Eussian merchants. 
 
 The commerce, until within the last twenty years, was wholly 
 in the hands of the Chinese ; but, forecasting events, and depending 
 on the superiority of European to Asiatic manipulation, the 
 Eussian merchants of Kiachta boldly sent their own agents to 
 
102 TEA. 
 
 Hupeli, wlio have not only succeeded in producing a better quality 
 of tea, but have since then monopolized a considerable percentage 
 of the brick-tea trade. This no doubt arose partly from the fact 
 that foreigners possess an advantage over the Chinese, inasmuch 
 as they are not mulcted in such heavy inland duties. The quantity 
 of Eussian manufactured brick-tea which crosses the frontier is 
 annually increasing, whereas that made by the natives is as steadily 
 on the wane. 
 
 The sales at Ourga, the capital of Mongolia, about 200 miles 
 from Kiachta, are said to be upwards of 60,000 baskets per 
 annum (over 5,000,000 lbs.), of which nine-tenths are large green 
 brick. 
 
 The Chinese transport the greater portion of their brick-tea 
 overland via Shansi, whilst the Eussians invariably send theirs via 
 Shanghai and Tientsin to Kiachta, whence it is transported to 
 Siberia, Tartary and Eussia on the backs of camels. 
 
 In Mongolia and Tartary the method of preparing brick-tea 
 for drinking is unique, and is suggestive of a cheap and admirable 
 substitute for food during times of commercial distress and 
 famine. 
 
 It is rubbed to fine powder, boiled with alkaline steppe-water, 
 to which salt and fat have been added, the decoction being carefully 
 decanted. Of this liquid the nomadic races drink from twenty to 
 forty cups per day, mixing it first with milk, butter, and a little 
 roasted meal. But even without meal, they subsist on the beverage, 
 and maintain perfect health and a robust physique for many weeks 
 in succession. 
 
 Moorcroft says all classes of Tibetans take tea twice a day; for 
 a breakfast of ten persons, this would be the preparation. About 
 an ounce of brick-tea (Zan-cha) and a like quantity of soda, boiled 
 in a quart of water for an hour, or until the leaves of the tea are 
 sufficiently steeped. It is then strained and mixed with ten 
 quarts of boiling water, in which an ounce and a half of fossil salt 
 has been previously dissolved. The whole is then put into a 
 narrow cylindrical churn along with butter, and well stirred with 
 a churning stick until it becomes a smooth, oily, and brown liquid, 
 of the colour and consistence of chocolate, in which form it is 
 transferred to a teapot. Each person drinks from five to ten cups 
 of tea. 
 
 Ya-tcheon or Ta-tzon, the last large town of Western China, is 
 famous for its manufacture of brick-tea, which gives occupation to 
 thousands of workmen either in its manufacture or transport to 
 Ta-tsien-lou. This tea can only be made with a particular leaf. 
 The tree which furnishes it grows on the banks of the river Yaho. 
 It is not a mere shrub, like that from which the tea for Europe is 
 made, but it attains often fifteen feet in height, and the leaves are 
 large, and rough to the touch. The cultivation requires little care. 
 It is planted often on the borders of fields, or round the houses. 
 Each grower gathers his little harvest of leaves, and finds a ready 
 sale for them in the market of the town. The manufacture of 
 brick-tea is a monopoly secured to the dealers of this town, and for 
 
TEA. 103 
 
 whicli they pay a considerable sum to the Chinese Government. 
 Mr. Cooper, a recent English traveller, although not allowed to 
 enter one of these tea factories, obtained some valuable information 
 on the subject, from which we deduce the following facts. For 
 the first quality tea, the leaves are gathered in June and July, 
 before the spring rains commence. The leaves at this period of 
 the year are about an inch in length. As soon as detached, they 
 are spread in the sun, and when slightly dried or withered, they 
 are rolled with the hand until they become humid with the exuda- 
 tion of the sap. They are then made into balls, about the size of 
 a large teacup, and left to ferment. When they are in fermentation, 
 they are placed between wooden moulds or lever presses, secured 
 by pegs or bolts. These moulds are then placed over a wood fire. 
 The tea is taken out in a compact mass, and forms the brick-tea of 
 commerce. They are delivered to the merchants of the town, 
 by whom they are wrapped in yellow^ paper, on which is impressed 
 the stamp of the government and the mark of the dealer who 
 exports it. They are then placed in baskets of plaited bamboo, 
 about four feet long. One of these baskets, weighing about 
 twenty pounds, is the unit of trade. The baskets are carried on 
 men's backs to Ta-tsien-lou, a distance of two hundred miles. 
 There they are carefully wrapped in fresh hides, to prevent the 
 tea from imbibing moisture. They are then fit to be sent to Lhassa, 
 or even beyond ; Thibet, in fact, consumes the brick-tea which 
 is made in Ya-tcheon. A basket costs about twelve taels, that is, at 
 the rate of 4s. 8d. the English pound. There are two other qualities 
 of brick-tea. The second kind is made with older and yellow 
 leaves. The mode of preparing is the same. It is sent chiefly to 
 Lithang and Bathang. At the latter place it . sells for about five 
 taels the basket, or at the rate of Is. 6d. the pound. The third 
 quality is made with the waste and debris of the leaves. The 
 bricks of this quality resemble those sometimes made with the 
 young shoots of the tea! tree cut up. The manufacture differs from 
 the two other sorts, inasmuch as it is necessary to add rice water 
 to combine the substance and to make it retain the form of the 
 mould. This quality is only sold at Ta-tsien-lou and its neighbour- 
 hood, and fetches 9d. per pound. The quantity of brick-tea 
 exported annually from Ya-tcheon to Thibet is roughly estimated 
 at six million pounds. The high price of tea in the markets of 
 Thibet arises from the monopoly of the Chinese, which is increased 
 by that of the Lamas, who keep in their hands the retail sale. 
 And as tea is an article of prime necessity in Thibet, thanks to 
 this double monopoly, the Celestial Empire keeps in dependence 
 the Lamas, and by them the people of Thibet. Comparing the 
 exorbitant prices of this important commodity in the markets of 
 Bathang and Lhassa with the present moderate value of the tea 
 raised in British India, in the valley of Assam and the slopes of 
 the Himalayas, a great source of profit would arise to Indian planters 
 and merchants by opening up a means of communication between 
 Assam and Thibet. Where coin is valueless, a few handfuls of 
 tea will procure many necessaries in Thibet. 
 
104 
 
 TEA. 
 
 Exports of Brick Tea from Chika in Piouls of 133J lbs. 
 
 1874 .. 
 
 . .. 74,791 
 
 1881 .. 
 
 .. .. 247,498- 
 
 1875 .. 
 
 . .. 166,900 
 
 1882 
 
 .. .. 219,026 
 
 1876 .. 
 
 . .. 153,950 
 
 1883 .. 
 
 .. .. 218,744 
 
 1877 .. 
 
 . .. 147,809 
 
 1884 .. 
 
 .. .. 244,996 
 
 1878 .. 
 
 . .. 194,277 
 
 1885 .. 
 
 .. .. 280,112 
 
 1879 .. 
 
 .. .. 275,540 
 
 1886 .. 
 
 .. .. *361,492 
 
 1880 .. 
 
 .. .. 232,969 
 
 
 
 * This is over 48,000,000 lbs. 
 
 India. — The tea plant appears to flourish best in a subtropical 
 climate, in British India for instance, in N. lat. 25° to 28°, and 
 req^uires a most excellent soil, a very large average rainfall, and a- 
 comparative high temperature. 
 
 Planters differ in their opinions of the kinds of soil most suited. 
 for the growth of tea ; but there can be no doubt that the virgin 
 soil of the dense forests at the foot of the hills, where the climate, 
 is hot and moist, and where tea is often found indigenous, is th© 
 best. But tea will grow well in every district in Assam. 
 
 The growth of the tea industry in India has been almost unex- 
 ampled in the history of its trade. The following figures represent 
 the value of the annual exports, and there is every reasonable- 
 prospect of a continued progress, which will ultimately give 
 Indian tea a foremost place among the productions of the; 
 country : — 
 
 Exports of Indian Tea, Years ending March 31. 
 
 LbB. 
 
 1877 27,925,400 
 
 1878 33,656,715 
 
 1879 34,800,027 
 
 1880 38,405,632 
 
 1881 46,918,539 
 
 1882 49,255,342 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1883 58,233,345 
 
 1884 60,473,113 
 
 1885 65,147,897 
 
 1886 62,784,249 
 
 1887 78,702,857 
 
 1888 87,514,155 
 
 The exports in the last year were made to the following; 
 countries : — 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 United Kingdom 84,181,925 
 
 Australia 2,471,927 
 
 United States 64,324 
 
 Other countries 805,979 
 
 The value of the tea shipped in 1888 was given at £5,174,420. 
 
 This growth is very astonishing. The economic effects of the- 
 industry have not yet, however, been as fully examined as they 
 should be. The trade has expanded year by year without interrup- 
 tion, and it will no doubt continue to develop. Tea now constitutes- 
 one of the most prosperous industries of India. 
 
 This product is nearly all shipped from Calcutta. 
 
 The successful results of tea cultivation in India must be re- 
 garded under two points of view : — 
 
 1. The tea supply and tea demand in the world. 
 
 2. The tea supply in India, and the demand for Indian as op- 
 
TEA. 105 
 
 posed to CHna and other similar teas, such as those from Japan 
 and Java. 
 
 First, then, of the tea supply and tea demand in the world. 
 What is the present supply ? China stands at the head of the list.. 
 The exports from that country (for we are not concerned here with 
 what is consumed within the empire) may be put down roughly as 
 considerably over 295 millions of pounds. India comes next ; the. 
 internal consumption is a mere bagatelle, and the export may be- 
 stated at 87 millions. Perhaps 43 millions will cover the exports 
 frona the other two places named. Assuming, then, China, at the. 
 outside, to export 300 millions we have a grand total of produce 
 for the tea-drinking, but non-tea-producing countries of about 
 430 millions of pounds. 
 
 Of the above, Great Britain alone receives, in round numbers,, 
 over 223i millions— that is, over 105 millions from China, and 
 113 millions from India and Ceylon. 
 
 We have then only about 204 millions left for all the other non- 
 producing but tea-drinking countries. 
 
 It is true that some of these cannot fairly be included as con- 
 sumers of this said balance, notably Eussia and a portion of many 
 parts of Asia, to which tea is imported direct overland from China. 
 Including the tea that goes to those countries (the China produce^ 
 by-the-bye, is probably far in excess of the 300 million pounds we' 
 have assumed, but correct figures on this head are not obtainable, 
 nor do they here concern us), the fact remains that to supply all the 
 world, with the exceptions above, to which Great Britain is added, 
 only about 200 millions of pounds are available. 
 
 When we consider, as already shown, that Great Britain alon& 
 consumes nearly 185^ millions, it is evident that 200 millions is but- 
 a scant supply for all outside her — America and Aiistralia, both 
 large tea-drinking countries, with rapidly increasing populations. 
 The Australasian Colonies take over 27 million pounds ; California 
 and the Atlantic States 82 million pounds. 
 
 The continent of Europe will take more and more tea yearly, for- 
 the taste is fast being acquired. The same may be said of many 
 parts of Asia, and if tea is ever drunk by the millions in India,, 
 then — but we need not speculate so far ahead. 
 
 It is evident that, supposing the China supply to be a iixed 
 figure which will not increase, any extension in India that now 
 appears possible (the labour sets a limit to it) will not only not 
 exceed the demand, but scarcely keep pace with it. 
 
 Some have started the theory that new tea-producing countries- 
 will spring up and compete with India, notably large tracts in 
 tropical America, which have suitable climates, but I think- the- 
 fear is groundless. Two conditions are necessary for a tea-pro- 
 ducing country — a good tea climate, wliioh is more or less rare,, 
 and good and cheap labour. These China and India have, the- 
 latter in perfection in many parts; but outside these two, to 
 which add Java and Japan (the latter fails in cheap labour), what 
 country possesses the said two requisites ? 
 
 The indigenous tea tree was discovered growing wild in the- 
 
106 
 
 TEA. 
 
 forests of Assam. These forests clothe the hills which form the 
 houndary between India and China, and it is a fair assumption 
 that the plant or its seed was thousands of years ago exported 
 from India into China, where it has become an important industry. 
 Tea has not been cultivated in India for half a century, the oldest 
 company, called the Assam Company, having been founded in 
 1850. It is now cultivated in a dozen different parts of India, 
 hundreds or thousands of miles apart, some being on the north- 
 east or east, others on the north-west or south of India. The 
 chief tea-producing countries of India are Assam, Cachar and 
 Sylhet, Chittagong, Chota Nagpur, Darjeeling, Dehra Doon, 
 Dooars, Kangra, Kumaon, Nilgiris, and Ceylon. Upwards of 
 267,000 acres of jungle have beeen cleared by our countrymen in 
 India and planted with tea, employing over 300,000 people in the 
 cultivation. Most of the 85,000,000 lbs. of tea annually sent home 
 is manufactured by machinery. 
 
 For several years Indian tea was little known, and not much 
 was produced. Now India supplies the bulk of the entire con- 
 sumption of the United Kingdom. It is principally used by the 
 trade to give strength and flavour to the teas of other countries, 
 thereby covering their deficiencies. 
 
 The following table shows the growth of the trade in Indian 
 tea, and speaks eloquently of the appreciation it has secured : — 
 
 In 1860, out-turn about 1,000,000 lbs. 
 „ 1864, „ 3,000,000 „ 
 
 „ 1874, „ 18,000,000 „ 
 
 „ 1884, „ 70,000,000 „ 
 
 „ 1887, „ 88,000,000 „ 
 
 The whole consumption of the United Kingdom in 1888 was 
 185,500,000 lbs., of which more than half was Indian. 
 
 The discovery that the tea plant was indigenous in the Indian 
 forests was made about seventy years ago, and attention having 
 been drawn to its cultivation as a possibly profitable field for 
 investment, a committee was appointed to consider as to the best 
 methods of cultivating tea in India, Government gardens were 
 established in several places, and the difficulties inseparable from 
 pioneering and from establishing an enterprise about which little 
 was understood, were increased by the accepted idea that the 
 manipulation of the tea leaf was a mystery known only in China. 
 Much difficulty, too, was esperienced in procuring seeds and plants, 
 and though the real indigenous tea was known to be present in 
 the Indian forests, the supply of seeds was at first drawn from 
 China. The formation of experimental gardens was a slow and 
 laborious work. 
 
 The cultivation and manufacture of tea has now become one of 
 the most important industries of India. It is almost entirely 
 conducted with European capital, and the article manufactured is 
 of so superior a quality that Indian tea is gradually driving out 
 China and Japan tea from the markets of Europe, Australia, and 
 America. 
 
TEA. 
 
 107 
 
 There are now upwards of 3500 plantations in India with an area 
 of nearly 300,000 acres actually under tea cultivation. The capital 
 embarked m this enterprise in India is £18,000,000, and the labour 
 employed is considerable. In Assam alone there are about 280,000 
 labourers on the tea estates. 
 
 Statement of Tea Cdltivation in British India in 1884. 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 Acreage 
 
 Acreage 
 
 Total 
 
 Acreage 
 taken 
 
 
 ■^4 
 
 Province and District. 
 
 Planta- 
 
 under 
 
 Imma- 
 
 Area 
 
 up for 
 
 Approximate 
 
 gP^ 
 
 
 tions. 
 
 Mature 
 
 ture 
 
 under 
 
 Planting 
 
 Lbs. of Tea. 
 
 I"*! 
 
 
 
 Plants. 
 
 Plants. 
 
 Tea. 
 
 but not yet 
 Planted. 
 
 
 |i| 
 
 Assam, Brahma- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 pootra Valley — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Luckimpur 
 
 153 
 
 25,881 
 
 2,524 
 
 28,405 
 
 100,987 
 
 11,317,813 
 
 437 
 
 Seebsangor 
 
 232 
 
 39,021 
 
 4,863 
 
 43,884 
 
 145,256 
 
 13,164,749 
 
 337 
 
 Dumuug .. 
 
 126 
 
 13,269 
 
 3,410 
 
 16,679 
 
 40,831 
 
 4,384,141 
 
 330 
 
 Nowgong .. 
 
 70 
 
 9,251 
 
 1,600 
 
 10,851 
 
 60,099 
 
 3,074,115 
 
 332 
 
 Kamrup . . 
 
 87 
 
 5,546 
 
 797 
 
 6,343 
 
 18,557 
 
 960,668 
 
 173 
 
 Goalpara .. 
 
 8 
 
 267 
 
 228 
 
 495 
 
 1,017 
 
 85,621 
 
 320 
 
 Assam, Surma 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Valley— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kaohar 
 
 183 
 
 46,299 
 
 6,064 
 
 52,363 
 
 171,677 
 
 12,578,499 
 
 272 
 
 Silhet .. .. 
 
 111 
 
 18,624 
 
 12,208 
 
 30,832 
 
 102,294 
 
 5,560,593 
 
 298 
 
 Bengal — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Darjeeling 
 
 170 
 
 29,127 
 
 6,395 
 
 35,522 
 
 10,916 
 
 7,955,987 
 
 273 
 
 Western Dooars 
 
 106 
 
 7,648 
 
 5,615 
 
 13,263 
 
 42,432 
 
 2,673,884 
 
 350 
 
 Chittagong, &c. 
 
 26 
 
 2,706 
 
 598 
 
 3,304 
 
 18,553 
 
 763,166 
 
 182 
 
 Chota Nagpur 
 
 36 
 
 2,276 
 
 1,333 
 
 3,609 
 
 4,962 
 
 347,253 
 
 152 
 
 Punjab — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kangra Valley 
 
 1,925 
 
 6,730 
 
 1,442 
 
 8,172 
 
 1,756 
 
 1,334,002 
 
 191 
 
 N. W. Provinces — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kumaon and \ 
 Gurhwal ../ 
 
 51 
 
 2,765 
 
 716 
 
 3,481 
 
 2,278 
 
 473,137 
 
 171 
 
 Dehra Doon 
 
 34 
 
 3,729 
 
 1,217 
 
 4,946 
 
 1,635 
 
 769,213 
 
 206 
 
 Madras — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nilgiris 
 
 72 
 
 3,414 
 
 543 
 
 3,957 
 
 3,449 
 
 395,960 
 
 116 
 
 Travancore 
 
 27 
 
 818 
 
 669 
 
 1,487 
 
 1,670 
 
 105,740 
 
 142 
 
 Sundry districts 
 
 15 
 
 70 
 
 48 
 
 118 
 
 40 
 
 3,405 
 
 49 
 
 
 3,432 
 
 217,441 
 
 50,270 
 
 267,711 
 
 728,409 
 
 65,947,946 
 
 303 
 
 There are 125 joint-stock tea companies in Bengal, three in the 
 North- West Provinces, and one in the Punjab. 
 
 A table prepared of the results of the working of twenty-four 
 leading Indian tea companies, registered in London, for the year 
 1885, gave the following results : — 
 
108 
 
 TEA. 
 
 Total paid-up capital £2,531,470 
 
 Total acreage 48,158 
 
 Average capital per acre £52 
 
 „ yield per mature acre 340 lbs. 
 
 Total crop of 1885 14,637,314 „ 
 
 Average cost of tea per lb lie?. 
 
 value „ l-ild. 
 
 Dividend on crop, average 6 per cent. 
 
 The extent of tea cultivation and the out-turn in the financial 
 year 1886 in the several provinces where it is grown in India, are 
 shown in the following official statement issued by the Under 
 Secretary of State for India : — 
 
 Districts. 
 
 Assam and Kacbar 
 
 Bengal 
 
 N. W. Provinces 
 
 Punjab 
 
 Madras 
 
 Burma 
 
 Totals 
 
 Acres. 
 
 yield in Lbs. 
 
 197,510 
 
 53,617,020 
 
 68,489 
 
 14,049,681 
 
 8,493 
 
 1,520,109 
 
 7,900 
 
 1,376,732 
 
 6,370i 
 
 938,963 
 
 163 
 
 18,295 
 
 283, 925 J 
 
 71,520,800 
 
 The tea industry goes on extending. In Assam, where by far 
 the largest quantity of Indian tea is produced, the produce per acre 
 varies remarkably in various districts. In Luckimpur it is put at 
 479 lbs., in the Nilgiris at 253 lbs., while in Kamrup it is only 
 172 lbs. per acre. 
 
 The culture of tea in Southern India is mainly confined to the 
 upper slopes of the Nilgiri mountains, where the estates are located 
 at elevations varying from 3500 to 8000 feet above sea-level. At 
 higher elevations they are above fever range, and enjoy a pleasant 
 climate, somewhat like that of the south of France. In the centre 
 of the Nilgiri plateau the average maximum temperature is about 
 69°, and the average minimum about 49° Fahrenheit, and the 
 rainfall about 40 inches. Further west, the minimum and 
 maximum are 54° and 66° respectively, and the rainfall is about 
 105 inches. On the eastern slopes the temperature is higher and 
 the air less moist. The first attempt to introduce the tea-plant 
 into Southern India was made in 1837 by the Agri-Horticultural 
 Society of Madras, but it is only of late years that much attention 
 has been paid to its culture. 
 
 At present there are numerous tea estates in existence, and the 
 culture is being gradually increased. Three varieties of the plant 
 have been introduced, viz., the China, Assam, and a hybrid, or cross 
 between the China and Assam. The China plant is the hardiest, 
 but the hybrid is the most prolific of leaf, and therefore the one 
 most generally cultivated. The gardens on the eastern slopes, 
 where the rainfall is the lightest, appear to yield the finest flavoured 
 tea, but the crops are not so abundant as in moister localities. 
 The peculiarities of Madras, as contrasted with China teas, are their 
 
TEA. 
 
 109 
 
 much greater strength and stronger aroma, qualities which have 
 created a great demand in England for mixing and improving 
 China teas. 
 
 Table showinq the Percentage of Indian Tea and China Tea taken fox Home 
 CoNstiMPTiON in the United Kingdom dueing the last Twelve Yeaes. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Indian. 
 
 China. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Indian. 
 
 Cbina. 
 
 1877 
 
 19 
 
 81 
 
 1883 
 
 34 
 
 66 
 
 1878 
 
 23 
 
 77 
 
 188i 
 
 37 
 
 63 
 
 1879 
 
 22 
 
 78 
 
 1885 
 
 39 
 
 61 
 
 1880 
 
 28 
 
 72 
 
 1886 
 
 41 
 
 59 
 
 1881 
 
 30 
 
 70 
 
 1887 
 
 47 
 
 51 
 
 1882 
 
 31 
 
 69 
 
 1888 
 
 51 
 
 49 
 
 In the last three years Ceylon Tea is included ■with Indian. 
 
 In the vear 1888- 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 India sent lis 113,004,692 
 
 China only 105,^24,271 
 
 The soil along the Chundrim Kiver in Upper Burma is emi- 
 aiently suitable for tea cultivation ; the plant grows wild on all the 
 hills and attains enormous dimensions. 
 
 Ceylon. — In 1843 tea culture seems to have been tried in this 
 island, but without practical results. 
 
 In 1867 there were only 10 acres planted with tea in Ceylon; 
 in 1876, 1750 acres; in 1885 this had increased to 102,000 acres, 
 and the quantity of tea produced was in 1886-6, 6,750,000 lbs. 
 
 About 1876 the adaptation of the low lands of Ceylon to tea 
 cultivation was acknowledged, and it was also proved that much 
 which had been under coffee cultivation could be readily and 
 profitably converted into tea-producing property. The planting 
 ■of tea now began in earnest. In 1880 the export of tea from 
 Ceylon was only 114,845 lbs., and in 1887 it had risen to 
 13,500,000 lbs. There are now about 200,000 acres of tea planted 
 in Ceylon, giving employment to 1200 British managers and 
 superintendents, and 300,000 British subjects from India and 
 Ceylon. 
 
 In 1873 the exports of tea from Ceylon were 23 lbs., in 1885 
 ihey were 4,500,000 lbs., in 1886 about 8,000,000 lbs., and in the 
 near future probably 40,000,000 lbs. wiU be exported. 
 
 The area under tea in the island is rapidly extending. Some of 
 the plantations are but little above sea-level, while others run up 
 to an elevation of 6000 feet. The average altitude of the larger 
 ■districts is about 4000 feet above sea-level, an elevation at which 
 the climate is pleasant and most healthy. A railway runs up 
 into the hills and a good system of cart-roads exists, so that most 
 of the estates are already within a day's journey from Colombo, 
 ±he capital and shipping port. 
 
 The tea bushes are planted in lines at regular distances over 
 
110 TEA. 
 
 liundreds pf acres of carefully drained land, which is regularly- 
 weeded every month. The young plants if left to themselves 
 grow up rapidly and soon become trees, but it is necessary to 
 reduce them to the form of a bush to obtain within workable 
 reach the surface from which the young shoots grow, and of 
 which tea is made. The bushes are pruned down to a height of 
 about two feet, and begin to yield leaf between two and four years 
 old, according to climate and other causes. The pruning process 
 is repeated every year. Eight weeks after pruning the first flush 
 of young shoots is ready to be plucked, and, during the height of 
 the season, the flushes re-occur every week or ten days. 
 
 Coolies, having a small basket attached to their girdle, then go 
 round and pluck the bud and a couple of the tender half developed 
 leaves. At mid-day and again in the evening the leaf is weighed 
 and taken to the factory. The leaf is at once spread very thinly 
 on trays or shelves to wither. The time which the leaf takes to 
 wither — to become soft and pliable without drying up — varies 
 with the weather, but, as a rule, the leaf gathered one day will be 
 sufficiently withered the following day. 
 
 The withered leaf is then placed in the rolling machine, an 
 ingenious and effective machine which is driven by water or 
 steam power. The rolling lasts for nearly half an hour ; at the 
 end of that time the leaf has become a moist mass of twisted and 
 bruised leaves, out of which the expressed juice freely comes, 
 technically called " the roll." 
 
 The roll is then placed on trays to ferment or oxidize ; during 
 this process it changes fz-om a green to a copper colour. The 
 subsequent strength and flavour of the tea depend to a great 
 extent upon the fermentation — a chemical process, the success of 
 which is not entirely within the control of the planter, but 
 depends greatly on the weather, and takes a time varying from 
 two to six hours. 
 
 The next process is that of firing. The roll is thinly spread on 
 trays and placed either over charcoal stoves or in large iron 
 drying-machines, and at the end of half an hour it is thoroughly 
 crisp and dried, and has become tea. The tea is sorted or sized 
 by being passed through sieves of different mesh, giving the 
 varieties of broken Pekoe, Pekoe, Souchong, Congou, and dust. 
 
 Tea cannot be made from the withered leaves picked up under 
 the bushes in autumn. In the first place the bush is an evergreen, 
 and, moreover, only the young shoots described above can be 
 manufactured into tea. 
 
 Each one of the various operations connected with the cultiva- 
 tion and manufacture of tea requires to be carried out with 
 scrupulous cleanliness and chemical precision, or the tea suffers in 
 quality. Mr. J. L. Shand, of Ceylon, well observes : " The selection 
 of land, rearing plants in nurseries, felling forest, and clearing 
 land, the operation of planting, and the erection of the necessary 
 buildings and machinery, are all works requiring diligent and 
 careful supervision, and involving a considerable outlay of 
 capital." 
 
TKA. Ill 
 
 The different kinds of tea — Pekoe, Souchong, Bohea, &c. — do 
 not grow on different bushes, nor are different species of seed re- 
 quired for their production. The various marketable teas are all 
 picked in their leaf state frona the same bush, at the same time, by 
 the same hand. A succulent shoot from four to six inches long 
 runs up, when the " flush " of leaf is on, from all parts of the flatly 
 pruned bush, and these are picked off entire, stem and leaves. 
 The little unfolded leaflet at the top makes Flowery Pekoe ; the 
 next small perfect tender leaf, Pekoe ; the next larger and more 
 advanced leaf. Souchong ; and the lowest coarsest leaf, Bohea. 
 These leaves are all made into tea together, and the various kinds 
 are afterwards sorted out by hand. 
 
 The broken Pekoe, which consists chiefly of the opening-bud of 
 the leaf, gives the strongest tea, perhaps too strong a tea to be 
 infused by itself, and a mixture of Pekoe and Souchong makes the 
 most pleasant drinking tea. The final process is that of weighing 
 and packing. When a sufficient quantity has been manufactured, 
 the tea is again slightly fired, to drive off any suspicion of 
 moisture, and packed while warm in lead-lined boxes, carefully 
 soldered down to exclude air. 
 
 Mr. J. Hamilton, writing on the Tea Industry, states that 
 " Ceylon tea can be laid down in London at a cost, roughly 
 speaking, to include everything, from 6d. to 8d. a lb., varying 
 according to yield per acre, machinery, firewood facilities, com- 
 munication with Colombo, &c., and whether manure is applied to 
 the estate or not. The average sale price per pound for all Ceylon 
 in 1885 was Is. 3^d. per lb., which shows a profit of 6d. to 9d. 
 Tea from Assam cannot be laid down in the market under lid. to 
 Is. per lb.' Whether this rate is capable of reduction with im- 
 proved facilities for manufacturing and transport is at present 
 uncertain. Anyway, Ceylon will always have an advantage over 
 India of 3d. a lb. less in the cost of manufacture, owing to especially 
 favourable natural facilities." 
 
 At present, too, Ceylon averages 2d. to 3d. a lb. more for the 
 whole of her teas than India. Whether this advantage will be 
 maintained when Ceylon exports have increased largely, will 
 depend entirely on her power to keep up the quality of her teas, 
 which at present are universally liked by the trade on their own 
 merits. 
 
 It is difficult to arrive at an approximate calculation of the 
 present area under tea cultivation in Ceylon as the acreage is so 
 scattered. Ceylon seems capable of yielding a larger average 
 return per acre than the most sanguine could have expected. It 
 far surpasses the average yield on Indian estates. It is calcu- 
 lated an average yield of 400 lbs. to the acre may be looked 
 for when an estate is in full bearing up country, and a yield 
 of from 600 to 600 lbs. per acre in the low country. Some, 
 however, are inclined to place the average yield over the whole 
 island as low as 300 lbs. to the acre. Many estates up country 
 already are picking their 600 or 700 lbs. per acre off trees in 
 full bearing. At present it is premature to lay down any hard- 
 
112 . TEA. 
 
 and-fast opinion as to wliat the average yield of Ceylon ■will be. 
 It may safely be assumed that it will not be less than 300 lbs. an 
 acre, and more probably will be nearer 400 lbs. ; so, if the profit 
 realised is only 3d. a lb. (taking tea at less than half the profit it 
 now gives), the return, after paying all expenses, shows a profit 
 .<jf £5 an acre. 
 
 Tea commences to give some marketable leaf after eighteen 
 jnonths old, according to the locality. The planter generally sells 
 his green leaf at first to the nearest neighbour who has machinery 
 in operation, who readily buys it at 2d. a lb. 
 
 Straits Settlements. — Expeviments were made in 1871 by the 
 proprietors of the Alma estate to introduce the tea plant. They 
 ■have now some twenty-five acres in bearing, and the manager, 
 who has had large experience in Assam and other tea-producing; 
 .countries, considers that the trees have grown as well as could be 
 desired, whilst the strength and flavour of the leaf are excellent ; 
 hut he adds that its success as a profitable enterprise depends 
 tgreatly on an abundant supply of Indian labour. 
 
 Tea has been experimentally commenced in Perak. There are 
 about 50 acres of Assam hybrid on the Government Hill Gardens, 
 .at elevations varying from 1600 to 3000 feet, and this is pro- 
 iounced by competent authorities to be doing as well as any in 
 Ceylon. The tea made from the leaves is also of good quality, 
 but none has yet been cured or sent to market to try its value. 
 There is fine land in the low country suited to tea cultivation, 
 and what has been planted on the plains has grown luxuriantly. 
 
 The tea tree adapts itself wonderfully to varying conditions of 
 soil and climate, and is of a very hardy nature. It flourishes at 
 -the equator and equally at a far north degree of latitude in China, 
 w^here it is subjected to a severe winter, in the hot plains of India, 
 fl,nd on the Darjeeling and Nilgiri mountains, at sea-level in 
 Ceylon, and at an elevation of 6000 feet, affording a great choice 
 ■of climate to intending investors ; but a necessary condition of 
 remunerative cultivation is a large and incessant labour supply, 
 and extension of enterprise is often checked for want of this. 
 
 Java. — In 1 826 some tea seeds sent from Decima, in Japan, by 
 Dr. Von Sieholdt, were planted in the Botanic Gardens of Buiten- 
 Lzong. The plants having succeeded, the idea was entertained of 
 oommencing tea culture upon a large scale. The first plantation, 
 .of about 800 trees, was formed in 1827, and some specimens of tea 
 from the first trees grown in the island were shown at an in- 
 ■dustrial exhibition held in 1828. A second plantation was formed 
 .at Caroet, in the regency of Preanger, the first being in the 
 regency of Buitenzong. So successful was the progress made, 
 that in 1833 the number of trees in the regency of Krawang was 
 returned at more than 500,000. In Java, the best tea, with coffee, 
 is grown at a height of 3000 to 4000 feet above the level of the 
 sea. It is on the slopes of the mountains in the residencies of 
 Preanger, Bagelin, and Banjoemans that the finest plantations of 
 tea are found. The leaves are gathered after the second or third 
 jear. Up to 1842 tea was cultivated in Java exclusively on 
 
TEA. 113 
 
 Government account under the superintendence of its officials. 
 There were then 13,500,000 tea trees. 
 
 The number of labourers required for the culture and prepara- 
 tion of the tea was so large, the supervision so difficult, and the 
 result so unsatisfactory, that the Government resolved to relin- 
 quish some of its plantations to private individuals, undertaking 
 to buy the tea of them at a fixed price. This resulted in an 
 extension and improvement of the cultivation, but the purchasing- 
 price was found too onerous for the Government, and the contracts 
 were annulled after seven years' trial. The consequence of this 
 was that the cultivation of tea was abandoned in all but tho 
 regencies of Preanger and Bagelin, and the districts of Buitenzong 
 and Krawang. It was found that private individuals were able, 
 when left to themselves, to grow on more favourable terms than 
 the Government, for, while the former obtained 2 lbs. of tea from 
 seven or eight trees, the latter only obtained 2 lbs. from thirty- 
 three trees.' In 1860, therefore, the Government gave up its last 
 plantation in the regency of Bagelin. Now that it is left to its 
 own energy, without Government control or aid, it succeeds better. 
 
 In 1854 the island had 14,307,768 tea plants, from which 
 1,547,458 lbs. of tea were delivered to commerce. Nothing can 
 be more attractive than these tea plantations, each containing 
 from 70,000 to 100,000 trees, and giving occupation to from 
 twenty-five to thirty families of native labourers. The seeds are 
 sown in nurseries, from which the young plants are planted out 
 in line at a distance of about four feet from each other. The tree 
 is not allowed to exceed one and a half to two feet in height. The 
 gathering of the leaves takes place in the rainy season at the age 
 of two years. Both black and green tea are made. That known 
 as Pekoe is made from the leaves gathered at the top of the plant 
 and the extremities of the branches. It takes the leaves from 
 eight trees to make two pounds of tea. 
 
 A tea planter in Java writes : — 
 
 " I find tea pays better than coffee : in two years crops come in. 
 My tea seed I get from Bengal, hybrid Assam. I commenced 
 planting tea two years ago ; all the land drained, lined, manured 
 with ashes and buffalo manure, holes 3^ feet deep, 3^ feet wide. 
 The tea roots penetrate very deep into the soil. One man makes 
 five to seven holes a day ; each hole costs five cents, 5 by 5 feet, 
 so all the land is worked at once, and no bother afterwards. I 
 have about 70 acres planted; seed, Bengal hybrid. I am now 
 o-oing to try the indigenous Bengal, which is hardier. Elevation, 
 say 700 or 800 feet, but much moisture. Plenty of women to 
 collect the crops ; pluck leaves every thirty-five days, higher up 
 in the hills, forty-two days. I have now thirty chests each time ; 
 before June shall have fifty chests each crop. My neighbours 
 plant 2^ by 2^; I don't approve of this. They make small holes,, 
 say, 100 to 120 by a man in a day. I say, if you do a thing, if it 
 is worth doing, do it well. I look after everything myself, so have 
 plenty of work and no mistake. I avoid slopes ; use level land." 
 
 At first the culture of tea, like that of coffee, was not successful 
 
114 
 
 TEA. 
 
 in Java. But by clioosing suitable land, and calling in tbe aid of 
 the Chinese for the cultivation and manufacture, it lias prospered. 
 The cultivation is now free, and no longer a State monopoly. 
 
 It is now cultivated in the thirteen residencies ; but the principal 
 establishment, where the final preparation is carried on, is in the 
 neighbourhood of Batavia. 
 
 The first gathering of leaves is in the third year, in the dry 
 season, from January to August. 
 
 In Java the tea plant is cultivated in the elevated regions, where 
 the climate is temperate, chiefly on the slopes of the mountains in 
 the residencies of Preanger and Bagelin. Ten years ago the 
 production was about 4,500,000 lbs. 
 
 The plantations of tea in Java have not increased, but more care 
 has been paid to the culture and manufacture. The average 
 annual export in the ten years ending 1886 was 2,627,138 kilo- 
 grammes, or 5,750,000 lbs. In 1884 it was 10,853,607 lbs., and. in 
 1885, 7,393,391 lbs. 
 
 Tea Exports from Java and Madura, in Kiloskammes. 
 
 1S72 2,114,206 
 
 1873 2,075,747 
 
 1874 2,242,025 
 
 1875 2,179,791 
 
 1876 2,405,581 
 
 1877 2,553,855 
 
 1878 2,790,557 
 
 1879 2,602,235 
 
 1880 2,518,544 
 
 1881 2,203,000 
 
 1882 2,692,000 
 
 1883 2,677,000 
 
 1884 2,553,000 
 
 1885 2,423,195 
 
 1886 3,258,000 
 
 Besides the above; 700,000 or 800,000 kilogrammes are shipped 
 from other parts. 
 
 In 1885, 6,020,375 kilogrammes of tea were imported into 
 Holland, nearly half of which was received in Eotterdam. The 
 consumption of tea in Holland is a little over 1 lb. per head. 
 
 Java — Chests of 40 Kilogrammes. 
 
 Years. 
 
 1877-78 
 1878-79 
 1879-80 
 1880-81 
 1881-82 
 1882-83 
 1883-84 
 1884-85 
 1885-86 
 1886-87 
 
 Exports to 
 
 58,500 
 23,600 
 32,300 
 37,200 
 40,300 
 43,900 
 31,900 
 23,100 
 22,300 
 32,300 
 
 England. 
 
 23,000 
 25,500 
 31,000 
 12,600 
 10,100 
 30,000 
 86,200 
 47,500 
 41,600 
 48,000 
 
 Australia. 
 
 4,600 
 6,600 
 1,400 
 3,400 
 6,900 
 2,400 
 2,200 
 4,300 
 1,300 
 2,900 
 
 86,100 
 55,700 
 64,700 
 53,200 
 57,300 
 76,300 
 70,300 
 74,900 
 65,200 
 83,200 
 
 In Japan tea is cultivated from Kiusieu to Kiphon, up to the 
 39° of N. lat., but the zone found most favourable is from the 30° 
 to the 35°, especially in the regions on the coasts of the interior 
 
TEA. 115 
 
 sea. The total annual production is estimated at 40,000,000 lbs., 
 and the shipments reach 30,000,000 lbs. 
 
 Tea was first cultivated in Japan in the beginning of the 13th 
 -century. Owing to the particular condition of the climate on the 
 west coast, the tea plant in Japan grows much farther north than 
 is generally admitted, viz., to the 38th degree. Tea seeds are 
 frequently used in Japan for making a very fine oil. 
 
 Twenty years ago we used to receive three to four million 
 pounds of tea from Japan ; now it has dropped to a few thousand 
 pounds, being replaced by Ceylon and Indian teas. The exports 
 of tea from Japan now average 32,000,000 lbs. The exports have 
 been as follows : — 
 
 Year. Catties of 1^ lb. 
 
 1872 13,000,000 
 
 1882 23,589,099 
 
 1883 , 24,141,049 
 
 1884 23,233,965 
 
 1885 26,819,549 
 
 It is nearly all shipped from Yokohama, and principally to the 
 United States. The exports thence were, in 1883-84, 20,407,740 lbs., 
 and in 1884-85, 20,858,248 lbs. A considerable stimulus has within 
 the last three years been given to the cultivation of the tea plant, 
 with a most profitable result to the growers. The area of tea 
 plantations is rapidly increasing, and the young shrubs planted 
 are now coming into full bearing. 
 
 The production of teas for export is steadily increasing in Japan, 
 and it is probable that the tea of that country, which is pure, 
 delicate, and wholesome, will maintain its hold upon the taste of 
 the Americans, who have learned to like it. 
 
 Australia. — Baron Mueller considers that the extensive fern-tree 
 gullies of Victoria would be exceedingly suitable for this culture. 
 
 " The tea shrub was raised in the Botanic Garden at Melbourne 
 in some quantity as far back as 1859, and since that time, with 
 the sanction of successive Ministries, has been rather largely dis- 
 tributed to those of our colonists who wished to experiment on it ; 
 many plants were, amongst others, also sent to the Industrial 
 School Depot at Sunbury. In early age the plant is, however, 
 somewhat tender, and apt to succumb to dryness ; yet not only 
 stiU at the Botanical Garden, but also in many other of our main 
 public plantations, as well as in private gardens, there must be 
 now ample means to obtain seeds for further dissemination or test. 
 The growth of the plant alone for seed would prove for some years 
 remunerative. Already in 1862 I brought the first sample of 
 Australian tea prepared from bushes grown by myself, before the 
 London International Exhibition of that year. Subsequently other 
 samples from a laboratory constructed by me for work of this kind, 
 and until the last two years under my control, were exhibited at 
 the various great international gatherings of industrial products, 
 and one of these specimen lots may likewise be seen in the 
 Melbourne Technologic Museum. 
 
 " A damp warm climate, with rains to the extent of 70 or even 
 
 I 2 
 
116 TEA. 
 
 100 inches, well spread over the year, and copious in the spring, 
 is above all adapted for tea culture ; with a view to the amplest 
 return, tea bushes should never be shrivelled up by hot winds, or 
 oppressed by lasting frosts. Eich forest land in its virgin state 
 is preferable to any other. Wide valleys with gentle slopes or 
 undulations, or slightly elevated level lands with natural drainage, 
 are far more eligible than steep hill-sides, because the working of 
 such lands is less expensive, while the risk of any denudation of 
 the roots by washing away of earth on declivities is avoided. 
 Light loams of a reddish or yellowish colour, crumbling through- 
 out, of several feet depth, with a surface stratum of decomposed 
 forest foliage, is insisted on as the most desirable for the largest 
 and most lasting yields ; nevertheless, in many other soils the tea 
 bush will thrive." 
 
 Baron Mueller further observes : — 
 
 " I believe that products would be obtained in our ranges, 
 superior in flavour and strength, especially to the commoner sorts 
 in general use ; hence our competition with China and Japan 
 (which countries have singularly long enjoyed the monopoly in 
 this trade) should be particularly in the more precious sorts of tea. 
 The presence of so large a number of the Chinese people in 
 Australia seems to indicate much facility for turning their home 
 experience in this industry here to account. Probably neither in 
 China nor in India can land for forming new tea gardens be 
 obtained at such small cash outlay as in this and the other Austra- 
 lian colonies. The annual mean temperature of Melbourne (about 
 58° Pahr.) is slightly higher than that of the Darjeeling and 
 Neilgherries tea districts (56° Fahr.), but at Assam it is 7-L°, aad 
 so at Cachar in the principal tea regions. Though we possess in 
 Yictoria warmer tracts of country (even so far south as Portland, 
 the mean being 61° Fahr.) than that about the metropolis, yet we 
 cannot expect to realise tea harvests equally heavy as those for 
 which Assam is already so famed ; but, like every other crop, this 
 one cannot be grown in various parts of the world under conditions 
 alike excellent, and we must content ourselves with lesser results. 
 The rainfall at Melbourne averaged for some years 26 inches, but 
 rose in 1872 to 32 inches. At the eastern boundary of Grippsland 
 it was, however, recorded in 1871 at 54 inches. At Schnapper 
 Point it was, in 1872, 43 inches ; in 1874, 39 inches. At Dayles- 
 ford, 1872, 42 inches ; 1874, 40 inches. At Cape Otway, 1874, 
 42 inches. At Hastings, 1874, 45 inches. At Warrandyte, 1872, 
 48 inches; 1874, 41 inches. At Berwick, 1872, 51 inches; 1874, 
 42 inches. In our fern-tree gullies it would in all likelihood, as a 
 rule, be much more. Want of moisture cannot militate, therefore, 
 against the success of tea-growing in our forest glades, although 
 in Assam the rainfall fluctuates between 70 and 95 inches. At 
 Darjeeling it is still heavier — about 129 inches ; but the enormous 
 precipitation of moisture at the latter place is acknowledged to be 
 adverse to the best development of tea there. It is quite possible 
 that here in our colony every geologic formation and every climatic 
 tract, though otherwise not unfavourable to this culture, will not 
 
TEA. 117 
 
 yield products of equal value in flavour and taste, even if tlie most 
 careful methods were adopted to secure a proper curing of the 
 leaves." 
 
 Queensland. — Tea grows luxuriantly on tlie coast, but the plant, 
 in order to develop the full flavour of the leaf, seems to require 
 the hibernation, or rest for a period, that cannot be had in a climate 
 where the warmth and stimiilus to growth are constant. The 
 cultivation and subsequent manufacture connected with the tea 
 and coffee plants require, at certain seasons, a considerable supply 
 of light labour. 
 
 Jamaica. — In 1868 a case of tea plants was sent out from Kew 
 to Jamaica, and placed under the care of Mr. Thompson, the island 
 botanist at St. Andrew. The idea has been formed, on good scien- 
 tific authority, that the soil and climate are so well adapted that 
 the tea plant will flourish there. 
 
 For the hills, the tea plants already established here, being the 
 Chinese kind, are admirably suited ; but for the parish of Portland, 
 with its warm moist climate and splendid rich valleys, the Assam 
 kind would appear to be the most suitable. With indentured 
 ooolie labour, and an experienced planter from Ceylon and India, 
 tea might be grown in the West Indies and placed on the market 
 at a cost not exceeding l^d. to 8(Z. per pound. The advantages as 
 regards tea are that no sun is absolutely required, and no water. 
 The tea plant is most hardy ; it will grow in the old soils of 
 abandoned coffee fields, as proved in Ceylon, and it will thrive in 
 Jamaica at all elevations, from about 80 feet to nearly 6000 feet. 
 To secure the best results, it is advisable to plant tea in moist, 
 warm, and somewhat sheltered districts. 
 
 Some 600 plants of the Assam variety were introduced into 
 Jamaica from Calcutta, through the Kew Botanic Gardens, in 
 1868. Since the establishment of this small plantation, at a height 
 of 4500 feet above the level of the sea, the plants have become 
 naturalised, and can be propagated to any extent. This plant 
 grows with much vigour in the humid mountains, in localities far 
 too damp for profitable coffee cultivation. At different Exhibitions 
 the judges have considered the tea produced of good quality. It 
 has therefore been clearly demonstrated that tea of excellent 
 quality can be produced in the Jamaica mountains. 
 
 Trinidad. — Tea would undoubtedly grow profusely, but consider- 
 ing the enormous acreage now under cultivation in China, India, 
 and Ceylon, and which is being still more largely extended in the 
 latter place, and which threatens in a short time to glut the 
 markets of the world, and considering also the scarceness of labour 
 in Trinidad as compared with the three countries named, it would 
 probably be prudent to leave tea alone. 
 
 Brazil. — In 1810 a number of tea plants were introduced into 
 Brazil, with a colony of Chinese to superintend their culture. The 
 plantation was established near Eio Janeiro, and occupied several 
 acres. It did not, however, answer the expectations formed of it ; 
 the shrubs became stunted, cankered, and moss-grown, and the 
 Chinese finally abandoned them. 
 
118 TEA. 
 
 A report by M. Guillamin was presented aloout a quarter of a 
 century ago to the French Minister of Agriculture and Commerce 
 on the culture and preparation of tea in Brazil. It entered very 
 minutely into the incidents of temperature and cultivation, and 
 disclosed the important fact that the tea plant grows luxuriantly 
 with the coffee and other valuable plants of the equatorial regions, 
 and even on low-lying lands on a level with the sea, and exposed 
 to the full rays of a burning sun. 
 
 In Brazil, the culture of tea has been extended in the provinces 
 of San Paulo, Minas, Parana, and Eio Janeiro. Some few years 
 ago Brazil produced about 300,000 lbs. of tea annually, and the 
 quantity has since augmented ; but it will never send much into 
 commerce, as it has not labour to spare from coffee culture, and 
 Yerba mate tea is preferred for local consumption. The Brazilian 
 tea resembles, it is said, in flavour, the tea of Japan, and posesses 
 a fine aroma. 
 
 North America. — The American Commissioner of Agriculture 
 reported some four years ago that tea culture was just becoming a 
 feature of importance in the Western and Southern States, and 
 that in a few years enough tea would be grown in those sections 
 to meet the home consumption. The Department sent out to 
 various parts of the country over 50,000 plants, nearly all of which 
 have lived, and is now distributing seeds from plants raised in 
 South Carolina. 
 
 The adaptation of various sections to the growth of the plant 
 has been abundantly demonstrated, and plants from seed grown 
 in the Southern States have, from time to time, been raised by 
 the Department of Agriculture for distribution. So far back 
 as 1848 the late Dr. Junius Smith abundantly proved that the 
 mountains of South Carolina would produce and mature tea, 
 although it was there subjected to severe freezing and heavy falls 
 of snow. It was grown in Florida and Georgia, and even farther 
 north. In the grounds of the Department at Washington the 
 plant passed through a very severe winter without having been 
 absolutely killed. 
 
 In the present state of the labour market the Americans cannot 
 be expected to proceed on the plan of the British in the East 
 Indies and establish large plantations. It would not pay to do so ; 
 but the intelligence of the farmers of the country, and the improved 
 agricultural machinery in use, will render completely easy there 
 what proved an insuperable difficulty in India, viz., the growing of 
 tea for family use. The apathy of the Hindoo races, their dislike 
 of anything new, and the fact that tea is not their popular bever- 
 age, militated against the production of tea for their own wants 
 in anything like a general system. Isolated points occur where 
 they acquire a taste for tea, and then they grow and manufacture 
 it very well, but they cannot accustom themselves to cultivate it 
 with any care, unless under European supervision. 
 
 Experiments in raising the tea plant have been tried with more 
 or less success in Tennessee and South Carolina, but it has been 
 reserved for California to attempt the culture on a large scale. A 
 
TEA. liy 
 
 German gentlemaTi, Herr Sclmell, recently brought a small colony' 
 of Japanese to the State. Schnell had been a resident in Japan 
 for ten years, was formerly connected with the Prussian Embassy, 
 and was later on in the Japanese service. On arrival, he purchased 
 a " ranch " (farm) of 600 acres, near Placerville, El Dorado county. 
 He brought with him 6,000,000 tea seeds, and immediately planted 
 out a number of them ; but only a moderate quantity have thriven. 
 
 _ The tea shrub in California is an evergreen, from 4 to 6 feet 
 high, with a straight stem and irregular branches, the former of a 
 bright grey colour, while the latter is chestnut, the wood being 
 hard, with a peculiar odour. The leaves closely resemble those of 
 the wild rose, the colour being bright green, but deepening with 
 the advance of the season. The blossoms, at first of a rose colour, 
 assume, when full blown, the colour of a tea rose; when the 
 flowers fade away, they leave a small fruit which oo^ains the 
 seeds, these are planted in rows from 4 to 6 inches deep. The 
 proper time for planting is stated to be in November or December, 
 the sprout appearing in about a month. Within six months the 
 plant reaches a height of 14 inches, when the leaves are stripped 
 oif and placed under manipulation. The trees are annually trimmed 
 down to a height of 3 feet, and it is believed they produce a good 
 yield for upwards of thirty years. The only question as to the 
 success of tea in California is that of labour. 
 
 The following instructions have been issued for guidance in 
 North America : — 
 
 !. — Almost any good, free soil, upon which water does not 
 stagnate, will grow the plant. A good garden soil will produce 
 tea in perfection, but it will be best to describe a tea soil as a 
 sandy, chocolate-coloured loam, containing an abundance of humus 
 or decaying vegetable matter in a fit state for absorption by the 
 roots. 
 
 Propagation hy Seeds and Cuttings. — The first thing for the 
 experimental grower is to understand the best manner of raising 
 his plants. This is simple, the only precaution necessary being to 
 use fresh seed. If tea seed is kept for any length of time out of 
 the "ground it turns rancid, as the chestnut and many other oily 
 seeds are apt to do. Eipe seed is known by its dark chestnut 
 colour. As soon as procured it should be laid upon a hard surface 
 and covered with 2 or 3 inches of rotten leaves, decayed hops, or 
 almost any convenient vegetable material. In this position the 
 seed will germinate, and when the sprouts are 2 or 3 inches high 
 the young seedlings may be transferred to beds. The plants 
 can be set out in nursery beds at 3 or 4 inches apart, according to 
 the time they may possibly remain. If they are " pricked out " 
 into beds in the spring, to be finally planted out in the fall, or in 
 the fall to be planted in the spring, 3 inches will be ample ; much 
 still depend upon the time when the seed is received. If, however, 
 the plants are likely to remain in the nursery beds for more than 
 six months, it will be best to allow 4 inches between plant and 
 plant. An easier method is simply to plant the seed in the beds 
 in drills, from 1 to 2 inches deep and 4 inches apart, in a half shady 
 
120 TEA. 
 
 position ; but vacancies from bad seed cannot well be avoided by 
 this plan. By germinating the seed a full nursery is obtained 
 with very little extra labour. The seed may also be planted in 
 hills, as gardeners plant melons, the hills being 6 feet apart. But 
 here they must be weeded all the time, and, as an acre of ground 
 would have to be gone over for some 1742 plants, much extra 
 labour will be entailed by this method of planting the seed where 
 it is to remain. Better to treat it as cabbage, nurse in beds, and 
 afterwards plant out. It may be useful to suggest here that it 
 would be well for the nurserymen to turn their attention to the 
 raising of tea plants for sale in the localities where they are known 
 to thrive. 
 
 The only attention a bed of young tea plants requires is the 
 routine work of weeding, occasional watering in dry weather, and 
 possibly light shading with branches of trees in leaf, cut into 
 lengths of about a foot, and stuck among the plants until thej' 
 become established. If the pricking or transplanting out is done 
 in cloudy, showery weather, this labour may be saved. The 
 propagation of tea by cuttings is a tedious and often very unsatis- 
 factory process. The writer has put down many hundreds of 
 thousands of cuttings, with the view of perpetuating superior 
 varieties. The returns of rooted plants varied with the season 
 from 10 to 75 per cent. This method of propagation is expensive, 
 tiresome, and unsatisfactory. A much better plan will be to 
 secure a good pure lot of plants, and keep them separate as much 
 as possible. I would suggest the propriety of the Department of 
 Agriculture, and others who have the distribution of plants in 
 their hands, sending one " strain " of plants alone to given locali- 
 ties as much as possible: the Assam kinds to hot and moist 
 localities, and the Chinese type to drier and more elevated situa- 
 tions. 
 
 The Preparation of the Soil for tea should be precisely the same 
 as the preparation for any other farm crop. Secure the best 
 possible tilth, manure well, preferably with vegetable manure. A 
 crop of any cheap seeded legume ploughed in would be excellent, 
 but any available manure in which straw is incorporated would 
 answer. Plough deep and well ; even subsoil, where the experi- 
 ment is intended to be thorough, and the land wUl bear it. 
 Harrow and cross harrow. Mark out the land 5 feet by 5 in 
 straight lines, as for maize, and it is ready to receive the tea plants, 
 which plant at the intersections of the scoring. Or, if it be deter- 
 mined to grow the tea with some other crop — for instance, onions, 
 turnips, tomatoes, melons, cucumbers, pea-nuts, low-growing pease, 
 celery, or almost any crop which will not shade the plants — then 
 the latter may be planted either as subdividing hedges at any 
 distance apart to suit the taste, or they may be planted within the 
 fences. This plan is very extensively practised by the Chinese, 
 and is a great economy of labour, since then the tea needs scarcely 
 any special cultivation other than that given to well-kept hedges 
 generally. The plants may be almost any distance apart in the 
 rows, between 1 foot and 4 feet. The hedges may be clipped, but 
 
TEA. 121 
 
 a flat top is tlie most productive form as regards yield of leaf. 
 I am supposing that from one hvindred to five Imndred or more 
 plants are to be planted for family use. "When fully started, tlie 
 plantation of tea merely requires to be kept moderately well 
 weeded, and in no case must weeds be allowed to overtop and 
 shade the tea ; it is a crop requiring the full sun. 
 
 Planting. — No especial directions are necessary further than to 
 say that the plants must, if possible, be planted in the spring, in 
 showery weather, and not too deep ; anyone who can plant a 
 garden with success can manage a tea plant. A little shade may 
 be useful if hot, dry, sunny weather ensues ; a few small boughs, 
 stuck round the plants, are all that is needed to prevent intense 
 evaporation from the soil and plants. I may mention that iu deep 
 soils the tea plant has a tendency to form a long, bare tap-root, 
 somewhat resembling a root of salsify or carrot. The directions 
 given as to germinating the seed on a hard bottom were intended 
 to obviate this tendency to form a long tap-root, and start the 
 plant in the way it should go, forming fibrous roots ; but if per- 
 chance a long tap-root is formed in spite of all precautions, then, 
 in transplanting, it must be got out as entire as possible, and more 
 care will be necessary until the plant has commenced to make new 
 roots and growth in its new position. The kind of culture required 
 while the tea plants are reaching utilisable condition may be almost 
 entirely performed by horse labour, if the tea is grown in with 
 other corps. 
 
 I am not urging the formation of extensive plantations as yet, 
 and, consequently, I cannot pretend to regard the setting out and 
 tending of an ornamental hedge as anything but very pleasant 
 pastime for the intelligent farmer in his leisure hours. The base 
 of the plants should be kept free of weeds, and when 6 inches of 
 growth is made, the extremities of the shoots and the terminal bud 
 and three leaves below should be pinched out ; if this pinching is 
 done in the growing season the operator will not only be bringing 
 his tea bush into a spreading shape by the process, but will also be 
 taking off the very article which goes to make the bulk of the teas 
 of commerce. This pinching of the 6-inch shoots should continue 
 until the plants reach their third year, when a sufficient qiiantity 
 of leaves will be obtained for manufacturing purposes. 
 
 Piching of the Crop. — When the shrubs are about three years old 
 there will be a sufficient quantity of leaves obtainable to warrant a 
 muster of the women and children of the farm, each of whom should 
 be instructed to nip off the young and tender growth with the 
 finger and thumb, at the point. The three leaves and terminal 
 bud, together with the tender stalk, make the very finest class of 
 Souchong teas, often ranking, if well made, as Pekoe Souchong, 
 and worth at least 4 dollars per pound. If a coarser tea is desired, 
 the young growth may be nipped out at the point. Some may 
 question the propriety of picking the stalk, but it is as tender as 
 the leaves, and is invariably used except in Caper and Gunpowder 
 teas. The leaves may be gathered in the apron or anything else ; 
 there is no more mystery about the matt-er than there is about 
 
122 
 
 TEA. 
 
 gathering pease, or any other crop, it being only necessary to 
 select the young growth, for the coarse leaves are not worth 
 gathering ; they will not make good tea. 
 
 Having briefly treated of the picking process, I will give a 
 variety of methods by which tea is made. It takes on an average 
 4 lbs. of raw leaf to make 1 lb. of tea. 
 
 Process No. 1. — 1. Picking the leaf ; 2. Spreading 2 inches thick 
 on mats, &c. ; 3. Tossing in the hands (as hay) ; 4. Tossing on 
 flat trays ; 5. Examine for bruised red spots ; 6. Place thin on 
 mats, &c. ; 7. Cover with cloth until fragrant ; 8. Boasting on 
 pan ; 9. EoUing under the hands; 10. Drying over charcoal. 
 
 Process No. 2. — 1. Picking the leaf; 2. Spreading out thinly; 
 
 3. Tossing in the hands; 4. Boasting; 6. Boiling; 6. Boasting; 
 
 7. Boiling; 8. Boasting; 9. Boiling ; 10. Partial drying over fire ; 
 11. Exposure to the air; 12. Picking out coarse leaf; 13. Final 
 drying; 14. Packing. 
 
 Process No. 3. — First day and night: 1. Picking the leaf; 2. 
 Spreading out thinly. Second day and night : 3. Exposure to air 
 and tossing ; 4. Boasting at 180° to 200° Pahr. ; 5. Boiling out 
 juices; 6. Boasting on pan at 160° ; 7. Boiling out more moisture ; 
 
 8. Spreading out thinly. Third day and night : 9. Partial drying 
 in sun or otherwise; 10. Picking out stalks, &c. ; 11. Pinal 
 drying. Fourth day, if convenient: 12. Sifting out dust, &c. ; 
 
 13. Packing. 
 
 Process No. 4. — First day and night: 1. Picking the leaf 2. 
 Spreading out thinly. Second day and night : 3. Exposure to 
 sun, turning over, tossing, and picking out of coarse leaves ; 4. 
 Panning, at 180° to 200° ; 5. Boiling out juices ; 6. Fermentation 
 in heaps ; 7. Spreading thinly. Third day and night : 8. Partial 
 drying; 9. Picking out stalks ; 10. Final drying. Fourth day, if 
 convenient : 11. Sifting ; 12. Packing. 
 
 Process No. 5. — 1. Picking the leaves; 2. Wither in sun two 
 hours ; 3. Cool in shade one half hour ; 4. Toss and clap in hands 
 ten minutes ; 6. Cool one half hour : 6. Toss ten minutes ; 7. Cool 
 one half hour; 8. Toss ten minutes; 9. Boasting or panning; 
 10. Boiling; 11. Boasting; 12. Boiling; 13. Final drying; 
 
 14. Packing. 
 
 Process No. 6. — 1. Picking the leaf ; 2. Boasting; 3. Boiling; 
 
 4. Exposure to the air ; 6. Final drying on the pan; 6. Picking 
 out coarse leaf ; 7. Sifting; 8. Packing. 
 
 The foregoing methods have all been practised by the writer, 
 and they will all produce first-class tea in certain conditions of the 
 weather. No two days' work can be precisely alike as to the time 
 the various operations require, any more than the operations of the 
 hay-field occupy precisely the same time from year to year, but this 
 is not important. The great thing to understand at the outset is 
 the principle of tea manipulation, and, this once mastered, the 
 practice may be modified to suit everyone's circumstances. 
 
 The difference between black and green teas is entirely due to 
 manufacture. Black tea is subjected to the oxidizing influence of 
 the atmosphere, often for a considerable time; great chemical 
 
TEA. 123 
 
 cLanges ensuing. The tannin, volatile oils, extractive matter, and 
 sometimes the theine are very much toned down. 
 
 G-reen teas -undergo great changes also from the raw state, hut 
 the preservative qualities of moderate degrees of heat are brought 
 to bear upon the leaves before they have been acted upon by the 
 atmosphere, and the above chemical constituents, together with the 
 colouring matter, are better preserved than in black teas. Black 
 teas are bruised, beaten, and tossed before drying ; green teas are 
 not. Black teas are like a well-bruised apple, laid over for a day 
 or two and then dried in an oven. Green teas are like a sound one, 
 dried in like manner. These are tbe chief differences ; but to 
 make the matter more plain it will, perhaps, be best to briefly 
 state the method of procedure and the utensils required. 
 
 Tea for family use, either black or green, may be made if the 
 farmer or other operator can muster a cooking stove, or even a fire 
 on the floor, and a brick or two, over which to set an iron or a 
 block-tin pan, measuring 2 feet 4 inches in diameter and 7 inches 
 deep ; this is, perhaps, the most convenient size, but a smaller will 
 answer perfectly well as long as the hemispherical form is main- 
 tained. This is the roasting pan, and in it the raw leaves are 
 heated so as to cause them to exude their moisture. The pores of 
 the leaves open with a series of miniature explosions, causing a 
 sharp crackling sound ; this is a tolerable test of the heat ; that is, 
 the leaves should crackle, but unfortunately they will do so when 
 the pan is red hot, and liable to burn out all the goodness from the 
 leaf. 
 
 Whatever heating medium may be employed, whether sun or 
 fire, or their combinations, the leaves should be perfectly soft and 
 pliable before they can be rolled without breakage. They should 
 be moist enough to stick together. When in this state the leaves 
 are thrown on a table on which a bambop or rattan mat is nailed. 
 The Indian matting used for covering floors will answer, or the 
 table may be shallowly grooved. A board to be worked by th© 
 hands may be grooved in the opposite direction, the whole arrange- 
 ment being somewhat like a pill-making machine on a large scale. 
 Or a machine (of which there are several) may be used, where the 
 operations are sufficiently extensive to warrant its use. 
 
 Boiling. — This process has probably attracted more attention than 
 any other part of the manufacture. The object is really to extract 
 and press out the bitter juices (probably tannic acid, &o.), and it 
 accidentally happens that the leaf receives the various twists seen 
 in the commercial teas. The Chinese manage this rolling almost 
 entirely by the hands and feet. A ball of leaves is taken in the 
 hands and rolled backward and forward, on the table, the pressure 
 used being considerable ; the leaves should become quite sapona- 
 ceous, and when a quantity of juice is pressed out, and the leaves 
 twisted, they may be pronounced properly rolled. It is a good 
 plan to shake them out thinly after rolling, that the action of the 
 air may evaporate the juices ; and, in the case of black tea, oxidize 
 the leaf. Some operators allow the leaves to stand in balls for a 
 time, others warm them over the pan again ; some place them in the 
 
I2i 
 
 TEA. 
 
 sun, others in tlie shade ; some place them in heaps to ferment, 
 lioth before and after rolling. In short, the various methods by 
 which good tea may be made are simply innumerable, but the 
 principles of desiccation and manipulation must not be violated. 
 What those principles are must in nearly every case be determined 
 by practice ; for beyond the recapitulation of the process as given, 
 little more is known. I have frequently proposed the analysis of 
 the leaves of tea in their raw state to the Government chemists in 
 India, but I believe it has not yet been undertaken ; consequently 
 the effect of exposure, heat, and pressure upon the leaves can only 
 be conjectured. It would probably aid the inquiry very materially 
 if a good manipulator could co-operate with a careful analytical 
 chemist, who, for the sake of science, would be willing to investigate 
 the various changes produced by manufacture. 
 
 The business of the farmer, after rolling and expressing his tea 
 in various ways, suited to his fancy or convenience, will be finally 
 to dry it over charcoal fires or on the iron pan. The latter will 
 invariably produce a tea of stronger quality, partaking more or 
 less of the characteristics of a green tea, even though black in 
 •colour. When the tea is thoroughly dry it may be packed in 
 wooden or in tin boxes, always taking care they are perfectly dry 
 and air-tight. 
 
 The cultivation of tea has been introduced into the Fiji Islands, 
 INatal, and the Straits Settlements ; the growers in all these 
 •colonies being satisfied that the yield per acre, and the quality of 
 the manufactured leaf, justifies further extension, though the 
 ■enterprise is still in comparative infancy. 
 
 Fiji. — The cultivation and manufacture here is quite of recent 
 ■date. The tea manufactured on the first estate gained such universal 
 favour that it sold readily at from 2s. to 3s. a pound, and the 
 demand is at present far in excess of the supply. There were about 
 ■300 acres under tea, and the production in 1886 was 2J tons ; 
 since then it has increased rapidly, and in a few years will be able 
 to supply the Australian markets. 
 
 Natal. — A small number of plants were sent from Kew to Natal 
 •of the China variety, and shortly afterwards an immigrant ship 
 conveyed some seed from India, which was procured by the 
 Association of Planters, and distributed through the country. The 
 growth has been successful, and a large tract of land is being taken 
 Tip for extension, and the local demand for the markets of the Cape 
 Colony, Orange Free State, and the Transvaal, which now take up 
 a considerable quantity of China tea (for the inhabitants are tea 
 ■drinkers) will be supplied from this source. 
 
 Some ten years ago, on the decline of coffee, tea growing was 
 entered on by a few, and there are now twelve planters who have 
 '600 acres under culture, which yielded 31,000 pounds in 1886, and 
 all this formed a local consumption. The tea possesses fine flavour 
 and strength, and promises to make its way on its own merits. 
 
TEA. 125 
 
 YEKBA MATE, OE PAEAGUAY TEA. 
 
 Yerba mate is a product which, although it does not enter into- 
 European commerce, deserves notice from, its extensive consumption 
 in many of the South American States. In the former edition of 
 the work full details were given of the mode of collecting and pre- 
 paring the leaves, &c., and it is therefore only necessary now to- 
 give a more abridged description. The yerba mate is obtained 
 from some species of holly, which have been well described by 
 Mr. J. Miers in a paper on the history of the mate plant, in the- 
 ' Transactions of the Linnean Society.' * He shows that besides- 
 the Hex Paraguariensis, St. Hil., there are several other species and 
 varieties employed. Dr. H. Demessey also published a good account 
 of it in his ' History, Physical, Economic, and Political of Paraguay,' 
 two vols., Hachette, Paris, 1865. The portion relating to mate or 
 Paraguay tea was also published as a separate treatise, with 
 illustrations, during the Paris Exhibition, 1867, by Bouchard- 
 Huzard. Eobertson, in his ' Letters on Paraguay,' London, 1839, 
 vol. ii. p. 134, gives some interesting details, but it is unnecessary 
 to go back to former years ; I prefer to give the present aspect of 
 the trade. 
 
 In their wild state the trees are about the size of orange trees. 
 The trunk is from 2 to 3 feet in circumference, and has a smooth 
 whitish bark, and the boughs, which resemble those of the laurel, 
 are leafy and tufted. The leaves are evergreen, and when full 
 grown are about 4 inches long, thick, glossy, and orenate at the- 
 edges, of a dark-green colour above, and paler underneath. The 
 flowers are small and white, growing in clusters. The berries are 
 red, very smooth and similar to the Christmas hoUy. The leaves- 
 of this Bex yield the same bitter principle, theine, which is found 
 in the Chinese tea plant. Although the former may not afford so 
 much of the agreeable narcotic oil as the latter, in consequence of 
 the careless and primitive manner in which they are collected and 
 prepared for use, yet they produce a most agreeable and refreshing 
 beverage, which forms the staple drink of the South American 
 Eepublics. 
 
 As far back as the seventeenth century the yerba mate was com- 
 monly drunk throughout the State of Paraguay. There can be 
 little doubt but that the aboriginal Indians taught the use of this- 
 tea to their Spanish conquerors, and the early Jesuit missionaries 
 planted great numbers of the tree before their expulsion, since 
 which time its cultivation has been neglected. The expeditions to- 
 collect and prepare it start from Assuncion, the capital, to the 
 yerba groves, a distance of 200 miles, and are generally composed 
 of forty to fifty persons mounted on mules, having with them other 
 mules and bullocks. On reaching a locality where the trees are 
 abundant, wigwams are erected and the tatacua constructed. This 
 consists in clearing a small space of ground, the soil of which is 
 
 * Also in ' Annals and Magazine of Natural History,' 1861, No. xlvii., p. 389. 
 
126 TEA. 
 
 then beaten down ■with, heavy mallets until it becomes quite hard 
 and level ; at the four corners of this space sticks are driven into 
 the ground, from which a sort of net made from strips of hide is 
 stretched, a fire is kindled beneath, and the leaves on the boughs, 
 as they are brought in from the surrounding forests, are scorched 
 by being placed on the net, care being taken that no ignition takes 
 place. The scorched leaves and small twigs are then pulverised 
 into a coarse powder by means of a rude wooden mill, and fre- 
 quently stamped with blocks into dust, after which process they 
 are ready to be weighed and put up into packages for export. Half 
 a bullock's hide in a green state is used to form a kind of sack to 
 hold the tea, being first sewn up at the sides. The tea is then 
 pressed down until it is quite full, the mouth is then sewn up, and 
 the package, which usually weighs from 200 lbs. to 260 lbs., is left 
 to dry and tighten in the sun for a few days, until it becomes as 
 hard and impervious as a stone. Such a mode of collection and 
 preparation is indeed primitive, and the twigs impart a woody 
 flavour to the tea, otherwise very agreeable. 
 
 In Paraguay this tree combines, as it were, the properties of 
 cultivated and wild plants. Indigenous to the country, the tree 
 forms entire forests called " yerbales," in the central, eastern, and 
 northern regions of the Eepublic. The Jesuits having formed 
 vast plantations of it round their residences, these have con- 
 tinued, and their produce forms in what are still called Missiones 
 the principal article of commerce at the present day. The Govern- 
 ment monopoly of the sale of yerba, and a heavy duty imposed on 
 its export, formed at one period the principal source of revenue in 
 Paraguay. 
 
 There appears to be a considerable difference in the quality and 
 estimation of the mate, according to the locality from which it is 
 derived ; whether this arises from the difference of the plant or 
 mode of preparation does not appear. 
 
 That of Paraguay is the most bitter and aromatic of all, and the 
 most esteemed ; it yields four times the quantity of infusion that 
 the mate of the Missiones or of Paranagua does. Hence, although 
 dearer in price, it is the most economic. A coarse kind is made in 
 Parana, Brazil, from the leaves alone, and these being unpulverized, 
 are used in the same way as Chinese tea. 
 
 At first Europeans do not like mate, it having a herby and 
 somewhat bitter taste, but among the inhabitants of the South 
 American States it is a much prized article of luxury and necessity, 
 and is the first thing offered by them to their visitors ; indeed, 
 their tables are rarely seen unoccupied by it ; and the " gaucho " of 
 the plains will travel on horseback for weeks, asking no better fare 
 than dried beef washed down by copious draughts of mate. The de- 
 mand being great and increasing, there is unfortunately continually 
 going on a rapid destruction of the tree. The Jesuits foreseeing this, 
 started large plantations in Paraguay, and at their branch missions 
 in the provinces of Parana and St. Pedro do Eio Grande, some of 
 which still exist and furnish the best tea made ; and of late years 
 some of the landowners, sensible of the short-sighted policy pur- 
 
TEA. 127 
 
 sued, have establislied many plantations with the best results, as 
 the quality of the tea improves with the cultivation of the tree. 
 
 It is difficult to get at any consecutive or reliable returns for the 
 entire traffic in this commodity, the production of which is carried 
 on in such a desultory and rude manner, and extends over so vast 
 an area of wild country. A careful consultation of the official 
 returns of the several Eepublics and of Brazil, as well as British 
 consular reports, enables me, however, to make an approximate 
 estimate of the trade and consumption. 
 
 Forty thousand arrobas (or 10,000 cwts.) were imported into the 
 Argentine Republic in 1870. In the next two years the consump- 
 tion was as follows in the Argentine Confederation : 
 
 Description. 
 
 Paraguay Yerba 
 BrazUiarL „ 
 
 Total 
 
 1871. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 260,000 
 17,688,000 
 
 17,948,000 
 
 1872. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 3,356,000 
 23,506,000 
 
 26,862,000 
 
 The total consumption of yerba in the Argentine Eepublio in 
 1872 thus averaged 13 lbs. per head of the population, against 
 2 lbs. of coffee, and only ;j lb. of tea. Altogether, nearly 
 27,000,000 lbs. appear to have been consumed in the Eepublio 
 during that one year. Surprising as this amount is at first sight, 
 it is explained by the fact that yerba constitutes the only vegetable 
 nourishment of many classes of the communit3^ In the rural 
 districts, as well as the smaller towns, this herb is considered a 
 regular form of diet, and not, like tea in England, a mere ac- 
 companiment of the breakfast table. The method of manufacture 
 is to mix ordinary sugar with the decoction of yerba until a thick 
 syrup is produced, when it is ready for drinking. Probably the 
 nourishing properties attributed to the herb by the natives are 
 derived from this mixture of saccharine matter. As might have 
 been expected from the prevalence of this practice, the annual 
 consumption of sugar in the Argentine Eepublio is enormous. 
 Viewing the extreme popularity of yerba in South America, it 
 seems strange that it has not yet been introduced into Europe, as 
 an addition to the food supply. 
 
 Mate is a dietetic product little known in Europe, but the use of 
 which is general in the States of South America and certain 
 provinces of Brazil, where its therapeutic vii'tues are considered 
 equal to its nutritive properties. It contains principles which are 
 considered equal to those of tea, and more active in their analogy 
 than those of coffee. 
 
 The tree attains a height of 15 to 18 feet, and in Brazil grows 
 on the wooded regions of Eio Grande, Parana, and the province of 
 St. Catherine. The importance of the local consumption is shown 
 by tte custom returns, and there is also an export of 65,000,000 lbs. 
 annually, principally from Parana, where the consumption is 
 
128 TEA. 
 
 about 9,000,000 lbs., while in Eio Grande do Sul the provincial 
 consumption is four times as much, not counting large quantities 
 consumed by the aboriginal races. 
 
 Mate is held in high estimation by the pastoral population in 
 the agricultural districts, replacing advantageously wine and 
 spirits. Strangers resident in Brazil also take to it and appreciate 
 it. From various analyses it is found that mate contains, like 
 coffee, three main principles, an alkaloid, essential oil, and gum 
 resin. The quantity of alkaloid is said to be larger than in tea 
 and coffee, the proportion of gum relatively more considerable. It 
 has the double advantage over tea and coffee, that it does not 
 affect the nerves, and is much cheaper, being sold at 2d. to 4(f. 
 per lb., and 1 lb. will produce 20 quarts of infusion. If it 
 were better known in Europe, a large commerce might be carried 
 on in it. 
 
 Senor Arata who has devoted much time and skill to the subject, 
 has given the result of some chemical examinations he made. 
 Among the soluble principles is an average of 1 • 300 of caffeine. 
 The quantity, however, was found to be very variable in plants 
 analysed, necessarily resulting from different species, and stages of 
 preparation. The Paraguay and Missione plants contained the 
 most, and the Paranagua and Argentine the least. Senor Arata 
 made a careful research for the caffeic acid and the caffeates that, 
 some say they have found in mate, but hitherto with negative 
 results; the same remark applies to a volatile acid. 
 
 The tannin of mate is peculiar, it does not tan hides, and requires 
 a special method for its extraction ; the average amount obtained 
 by the ordinary method is not more than 12 per cent. ; but the 
 whole quantity present amounts to about 16 per cent. Com- 
 paring mate with the other caffeic substances, it ranks between 
 coffee and tea for the proportion of caffeine it contains, and has 
 the largest proportion of mineral salts. 
 
 The action of mate, like that of all other caffeic substances, is 
 upon the nervous system ; but though it contains a large quantity 
 of caffeine it does not exalt the peripheric nerves like tea, nor the 
 cerebric like coffee, but rather contributes in a high degree to the 
 indolence and drowsiness of the ordinary drinkers of mate, whose 
 mental faculties become at length disarranged and impoverished ta 
 a lamentable degree. At least this opinion is enunciated by 
 Dr. Bialet in the Bevista Farmaceutica of the Argentine Pharma- 
 ceutical Society. It accelerates (he further adds) the cardiac 
 contractions, producing many more affections of the heart than tea. 
 or coffee. Upon the digestive organs it acts variously ; no other 
 beverage disturbs them so much, though there are persons who 
 can tolerate its use. It accelerates the peristaltic movements, and 
 produces an irritation of the organs generally. The effects are 
 produced in whatever way the mate may be taken, but the most 
 injurious effects are produced upon the mucous membrane when 
 the mate is taken hot and is sucked through a " bombilla," as it 
 then passses into the mouth uncooled by previous contact with th°- 
 mouth. When the u^e of mate is prolonged it becomes an im- 
 
TEA. 129 
 
 perious necessity, such a gloominess following abstention from it, 
 that habitual drinkers will rather go without food than without 
 mat6. The moderate use of two or three doses a day during the 
 summer heats or great fatigue is convenient, but it should be 
 taken in a cup, for the indiscriminate use of the same bombiUa by 
 different persons may become the vehicle of contagion for the most 
 repulsive complaints. 
 
 Of the various analyses of the mate that have appeared in books, 
 not one up to the present time deserves much credit. 
 
 The value of the exports of mate from Brazil in 1881 and 1882 
 averaged £304,000. 
 
 Paraguay exported in 1 882 mate to the value of £200,000. There 
 the annual production is estimated at 5^ million pounds. 
 
 Exports of Mate from Brazil. 
 
 Kilogrammes. 
 1839-40 .. .. 2,549,303 
 1879-80 .. .. 14,063,731 
 
 KilogrammeB. 
 1880-81 .. .. 14,275,036 
 1881-82 .. .. 15,952,872 
 
 In 1866 it was estimated that 6000 persons were employed in 
 preparing mate in the Brazilian missions. It is for the most part 
 sent by carts to Itaguy, a small town on the banks of the Uruguay, 
 and from there goes by water to the Bjver Plate. In the year 
 ending June, 1858, 2,650,000 lbs. were Slipped from that port. 
 At Montevideo the Brazilian mate is preferred to that from 
 Paraguay. About 100,000 cwts. are produced annually in Parana, 
 v/^here it is indigenous ; the finer kind is exported to La Plata, the 
 coarser goes to Chili. In 1854 there was imported into Chili 
 144,792 arrobas. 
 
 The shipments from three ports in Brazil in 1863 amounted to 
 129,028 cwts. In 1865 the total shipments from Brazil to the 
 neighbouring States exceeded 260,000 cwts. Chili is said to take 
 now about 40,000 arrobas of 25 lbs., and Peru 100,000 yearly. 
 
 It might be worth while to attempt the introduction and 
 acclimatization of so useful and ornamental a tree in some of our 
 British colonies, such as Queensland and Natal, where the climate 
 is somewhat similar to Paraguay. Looking at the use of its leaves, 
 we see no reason why it should not be cultivated with remunera- 
 tive profits. 
 
 Such a valuable plant, doubtless, is worth the attention of some 
 colonial planters, and with a careful collection of leaves only, and 
 a better method of drying them, the tea would be rendered both 
 grateful and palatable. But we have been so much accustomed to 
 tea leaves being curled up and not powdered to dust, that possibly 
 some prejudice might exist against using it in the form of powder, 
 although the infusion is thereby very readily made. 
 
] 30 SUGAR. 
 
 SUGAR 
 
 Tb.e luxuries of man soon become his necessities, and he works 
 with intense thought and labour for things of which he once was 
 wholly ignorant. This is the case with sugar. No longer than 
 five hundred years ago our European race did not know sugar at 
 all. A hundred years ago it was a great luxury. Now it is sold 
 at 2^d. per pound, and used in abundance as an every-day article 
 by the poorest people. The sugar of commerce is an artificial 
 article, like our distilled liquors, yet the saccharine principle, a 
 distinctive element of food, is found in almost all the plants we 
 use, especially the most valuable. It is met with in the stalk of 
 the maize, and molasses has been repeatedly made from Indian 
 corn. The beetroot contains it in large quantity, and most of the 
 sugar now used in France and in Europe is made from the beet, its 
 culture having been forced by the Emperor Napoleon by means of 
 high import duties. Several other vegetables contain the saccharine 
 principle, which is thus diffused through the vegetable world as 
 an essential element of human food. When we treat it, therefore, 
 as a necessity of life, we are jiipt far wrong ; for, in one form or 
 another, we must consume It. The fruits contain it, and many 
 trees, as the maple, hickSpr', and the palms. We are thus invited 
 to use the saccharine eUment with all our food, and as the concen- 
 trated form is the most convenient and manageable, we make it 
 artificially. 
 
 The term sugaays a general one, applied to several compounds 
 of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (carbo-hydrates), all of which 
 possess a sweet flavour. Of the various sugars, only four are of 
 importance, namely, cane sugar (sucrose), grape sugar (glucose, or 
 starch sugar), fruit sugar (fructose, inverted, or uncrystallizable 
 sugar), and milk sugar (lactose, or lactine). Cane sugar occurs 
 abundantly in the sugar cane, the sugar grass (Sorghum saccharatum), 
 several varieties of the maple, in beetroots, mangels, carrots, 
 turnips, pumpkins, chestnuts, and many other plants. Grape 
 sugar is found in fruits, especially when they have been dried and 
 kept for some time ; and this sugar is produced from starch by 
 the action of sulphuric acid, and during the germination of seeds. 
 Eruit sugar, or fructose, is found in a great variety of fruits, and 
 cane sugar is converted into this substance by prolonged boiling. 
 Treacle consists of a mixture of 50 parts non-crystallizable sugar 
 and a little grape sugar, 25 parts water, and 25 parts of saline 
 matter. The quantity of starch sugar manufactured for sale is 
 trifling (36,400 cwts.), but enormous amounts of this saccharine 
 substance are incidentally produced in the manufacture of malt 
 liquors and alcohol. Cane sugar, as a commercial product, is at 
 present obtained from only three sources, namely, the sugar cane, 
 the beet, and the maple. Sugars may be divided into two 
 catagories : — 
 
 1. Pure crystallized cane sugar. 
 
 2. Impure sugars. The latter generally consist of a small 
 
CANE-STOAR. 131 
 
 quantity of inverted engar or glucose. Certain salts generally 
 described in analyses as ash, and in the case of very inferior sugars 
 other organic matter, which may he generically described as dirt. 
 This explanation will enable the reader to understand the 
 following typical analyses, made by Mr. Gr. E. Halse, chemist, of 
 Mark Lane : — 
 
 White crystallized and loaf: — Per cent. 
 
 Cane sugar 98-00 
 
 Glucose '50 
 
 Water 1-00 
 
 Ash -30 
 
 Organic matter other than sugar -20 
 
 100-00 
 
 Fine pale yellow crystallized : — Per cent. Per cent. 
 
 Cane sugar 96-00 to 98-00 
 
 Glucose 1-00 „ -50 
 
 Water 1-50 „ 1-00 
 
 Ash 1-00 „ -30 
 
 Organic matter other than sugar .. -50 „ -20 
 
 100-00 100-00 
 
 Low to good yellow crystallized and grey 
 
 refining crystals : — -Per cent. Per cent. 
 
 Cane sugar 93-50 to 96-00 
 
 Glucose 2-50 „ 1-40 
 
 Water 2-00. „ 1-20 
 
 Ash 1-50.,, 1-00 
 
 Organic matter other than sugar .. -50 „ -40 
 
 100-00 100-00 
 
 Muscovado, Dutch Nos. 9 to 14 : — Per cent. Per cent. 
 
 Cane sugar.. 84-00 to 93-00 
 
 Glucose 6'00 „ 3-00 
 
 Water 5-50 „ 2-00 
 
 Ash .. 1-50 „ 1-00 
 
 Organic matter other than sugar .. 3-00 „ 1-00 
 
 100-00 100-00 
 
 Though the manufacture of sugar was commenced in the West 
 Indies early in the sixteenth century, yet its use_ in domestic 
 economy did not become general in Europe or America before the 
 beginning of the last century. In the year 1700 only 10,000 tons 
 were used in Great Britain, though the English were at that time 
 the leading manufacturers of sugar. The consumption of sugar in 
 the British Islands in the year 1875 was 900,000 tons, andin 1888 
 1,287,000 tons, supposing all imported taken for consumption. In 
 almost every country the consumption of sugar is increasing. 
 
 Production. — The production of sugar now exceeds 6,000,000 
 tons, of which 2,500,000 tons are obtained from beet, 2,600,000 tons 
 from the cane, and the other 900,000 tons from the palms, maple 
 
 K 2 
 
132 
 
 SUGAR. 
 
 tree, sorghum, &c. The United States and the United Kingdom 
 are the principal consumers, taking each in round numbers 
 1,000,000 tons. Of late years in North America the proportion of 
 sugar consumed exceeds 1,250,000 tons. 
 
 The Wokld's Sugar Pkoduction. 
 
 I. Cane Sugar. 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 Trinidad 
 
 Barbados 
 
 Jamaica 
 
 Antigua, Nevis and St. Kitts 
 
 Martinique 
 
 Guadaloupe 
 
 Demerara 
 
 Reunion 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 Java 
 
 East Indies (export) . . 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Manila 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Peru 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Total .. .. 
 
 II. Beet Sugar. 
 
 Germany 
 
 Austria 
 
 France 
 
 Russia 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Holland and other countries 
 
 Total . . . . 
 Add to this Cane sugar 
 
 Total .. .. 
 
 Ton8. 
 
 600,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 55,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 18,000 
 
 48,000 
 
 52,000 
 
 105,000 
 
 37,000 
 
 105,000 
 
 320,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 190,000 
 
 215,000 
 
 110,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 Tons. 
 
 627,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 65,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 18,000 
 
 16,000 
 
 42,000 
 
 41,000 
 
 90,000 
 
 36,000 
 
 128,000 
 
 380,000 
 
 45,000 
 
 220,000 
 
 190,000 
 
 94,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 Tons. 
 
 555,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 58,000 
 
 58,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 23,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 56,000 
 
 126,000 
 
 38,000 
 
 120,000 
 
 311,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 290,000 
 
 122,000 
 
 128,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 Tons. 
 
 661,058 
 72,128 
 57,947 
 58,511 
 23,670 
 22,700 
 50,526 
 48,032 
 84,544 
 32,176 
 87,448 
 
 206,612 
 27,963 
 
 102,509 
 
 126,198 
 64,277 
 60,000 
 40,118 
 
 2,095,000 
 
 2,172,000 
 
 2,130,000 
 
 1,826,417 
 
 800,000 
 342,000 
 290,000 
 525,000 
 50,000 
 37,000 
 
 1,155,000 
 
 558,000 
 
 308,000 
 
 386,000 
 
 88,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 986,000 
 446,000 
 474,000 
 308,000 
 107,000 
 40,000 
 
 358,048 
 209,000 
 462,263 
 222,000 
 70,000 
 20,000 
 
 2,044,000 
 2,095,000 
 
 2,545,000 
 2,172,000 
 
 2,361,000 
 2,130,000 
 
 1,341,311 
 
 826,417 
 
 4,139,000 
 
 4,717,000 
 
 4,491,000 
 
 3,167,728 
 
 Tbe following may he taken as a rough estimate of the pro- 
 duction of sugar over the globe in 1876 and 1886 : — 
 
 ,? Cane sugar 
 Beetroot sugar 
 Palm „ 
 
 1 Maple „ ' 
 ! Sorghum „ 
 
 isle. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 2,140,000 
 
 1,320,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 Tods. 
 
 2,635,000 
 
 2,546,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 23,000 
 
 25,000 
 
CANE-STTGAE. 133 
 
 Estimate of Van Dddok db Wit & Co., Amsterdam, for 1883. 
 Cane Sugar. 
 
 West Indies — Tons. 
 
 Cuba 530,000 
 
 Porto Eioo 71,000 
 
 Jamaica 22,000 
 
 Martinique 47,000 
 
 Guadaloupe 60,000 
 
 Trinidad 52,000 
 
 Barbados 55,000 
 
 San Domingo and St. Vincent 20,000 
 
 Demerara 120,000 
 
 Antigua and St. Kitta 23,000 
 
 Surinam 12,000 
 
 Asia — 
 
 Java 290,000 
 
 Manila 170,000 
 
 British India 65,000 
 
 China 25,000 
 
 Siam 5,000 
 
 Africa — 
 
 Ee'union 40,000 
 
 Mauritius 120,000 
 
 Egypt 35,000 
 
 Natal .. .. 12,000 
 
 America. — 
 
 Louisiana 111,000 
 
 Venezuela and Honduras 5 , 000 
 
 Brazil 250,000 
 
 Peru 30,000 
 
 Oceania 200,000 
 
 Australia 60,000 
 
 non-expokting cotintries — probable looal consumption. 
 Cane Sugar. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Spain 15,000 
 
 French Cochin China 26,000 
 
 Japan 15,000 
 
 British India and China 1,500,000 
 
 Chili 15,000 
 
 Mexico 80,000 
 
 Canada 5,000 
 
 California 5,000 
 
 Argentine Eepublic 5 , 000 
 
 Total Cane sugar 3,907,000 
 
 Total Beet sugar 2,285,000 
 
 6,192,000 
 
 Beet Sugar. 
 
 Germany 930,000 
 
 Austro-Hungary 450,000 
 
 Prance 450,000 
 
 Euesia and Poland 300,000 
 
 Belgium 110,000 
 
 Holland and other countries 45,000 
 
 Total Beet sugar 2,285,000 
 
134 
 
 S0GAE. 
 
 Peoduotion of Cane and Beet Sugab in 1885 and 1886. 
 (From the Circulars of Messrs. C. Eukb & Co., and Mr. F. C. Licht). 
 
 Countries, cane sugar. 
 
 1885. 
 
 * Java 
 
 Surinam 
 
 Cuba 
 
 *Manila 
 
 *Porto Eico 
 
 Brazil 
 
 *Mauritius 
 
 *India . . . . 
 
 Natal 
 
 Jamaica 
 
 Barbados 
 
 Trinidad 
 
 *Briti8h Guiana 
 
 Australia 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 *Martinique 
 
 *Guadaloupe 
 
 *Beunion 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Peru 
 
 Sandwich Islands . . . . 
 
 Hayti 
 
 St. Domingo 
 
 Nossi Be 
 
 St. Lucia 
 
 St. Vincent 
 
 Grenada 
 
 Tobago 
 
 St. Kitts and Nevis . . 
 
 Antigua 
 
 Montserrat 
 
 Argentine Republic 
 *China 
 
 St. Croix 
 
 Guatemala 
 
 Honduras 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Dominica 
 
 Total tons of Cane 
 
 Germany 
 
 Austria 
 
 France 
 
 Eussia 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Holland and other countries 
 
 Total tons of Beet 
 Grand total 
 
 Tons. 
 
 328,577 
 
 6,283 
 
 731,723 
 
 181,148 
 
 63,914 
 
 249,821 
 
 114,198 
 
 59,253 
 
 13,250 
 
 25,000 
 
 40,780 
 
 49,175 
 
 111,856 
 
 87,000 
 
 127,958 
 
 30,199 
 
 36,678 
 
 34,732 
 
 51,700 
 
 35,000 
 
 92,050 
 
 12,269 
 
 2,916 
 
 585 
 
 4,240 
 
 6,644 
 
 78 
 
 1,678 
 
 14,676 
 
 13,114 
 
 1,448 
 
 28,000 
 
 86,586 
 
 11,130 
 
 10,000 
 
 2,051 
 
 34,500 
 
 2,740 
 
 2,702,850 
 
 838,131 
 377,032 
 298,407 
 537,860 
 48,421 
 37,500 
 
 2,137,351 
 
 4,840,201 
 
 Tons. 
 396,372 
 
 5,430 
 631,967 
 203,490 
 88,959 
 190,000 
 127,540 
 64,349 
 11,456 
 25,361 
 66,200 
 64,634 
 96,058 
 81,245 
 94,375 
 38,786 
 41,131 
 37,973 
 45,035 
 31,719 
 76,496 
 15,484 
 
 2,221 
 412 
 
 6,252 
 
 7,425 
 612 
 
 2,636 
 14,619 
 13,455 
 
 1,150 
 25,280 
 93,657 
 12,257 
 
 9,200 
 
 1,708 
 27,025 
 
 2,652 
 
 2,634,621 
 
 1,154,817 
 
 557,766 
 
 308,410 
 
 386,433 
 
 88,463 
 
 50,000 
 
 2,545,889 
 
 5,180,510 
 
 * Exportation only. 
 
CANE-SUGAR. 
 
 135 
 
 As Bhipments are in most oases tlie only data to be oWained, it 
 must be recollected that the figures given are far from representing 
 the total production. This is especially the case with such 
 countries as China, India, Central America, Brazil, Peru, and 
 Egypt. 
 
 Besides the quantity imported into the markets of the civilised 
 world, as much more, it is estimated, is probably consumed locally 
 in the producing countries. In India the local consumption has 
 been roughly estimated at over 1,000,000 tons. 
 
 Consumption. — The following are the latest statistics of consump- 
 tion of sugar and molasses in the various countries, deduced for the 
 most part from official documents, and the balance of imports over 
 exports. In the European beetroot sugar-producing States it is 
 not always possible to arrive at correct data of the actual con- 
 sumption, and those countries with a star (*) prefixed are mere rough 
 estimates, being for the most part producing countries for which 
 there are no reliable returns of consumption. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Europe — 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 Holland 
 
 ^Belgium 
 
 *German Empire 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Norway 
 
 ♦France 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Portugal 
 
 *Spain 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Greece 
 
 Italy 
 
 *Egypt 
 
 Boumania 
 
 America — 
 
 *United States 
 
 *British America 
 
 Brazil 
 
 *Peru 
 
 Eiver Plate States 
 
 *Otlier American States 
 
 West Indian Islands (British and Foreign) 
 
 Australia 
 
 *India, China, the Eastern and Pacificl 
 
 Islands / 
 
 Japan (imports) 
 
 Aggreg^e Consumption. 
 
 Cwts. 
 17,432,034 
 232,860 
 305,440 
 
 4,794,170 
 400,000 
 999,055 
 334,143 
 11,744,154 
 714,118 
 483,020 
 
 1,130,800 
 
 500,000 
 
 87,000 
 
 1.095.835 
 
 1,000,000 
 156,860 
 
 22,549,480 
 
 1,357,100 
 
 700,000 
 
 570,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 25,000,000 
 
 1,300,000 
 
 The differences of consumption shown in this table are startling, 
 but they are owing not only to variations in the wealth of the 
 countries named, but to those of their climate. Countries in which 
 wine is made and fruit ripens, consume less sugar than those situate 
 under more inclement skies. Thus, Austria and Switzerland, 
 
136 
 
 SUGAR. 
 
 thougli richer than Sweden and Denmark, consume less sugar thau 
 the latter, where no wine is made. 
 
 The consumption of sugar has been greatly on the increase in 
 Ihe United Kingdom. Of the total imports less comes, however, 
 irom our own possessions than formerly. 
 
 South Africa 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 British India 
 
 Straits Settlements . . 
 British West India Islands 
 British Guiana 
 British Honduras . . 
 
 Total . . . . 
 
 1876. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 29,376 
 
 585,395 
 
 430,772 
 
 116,664: 
 
 3,532,426 
 
 1,210,193 
 
 34,615 
 
 5,939,641 
 
 104,986 
 853,663 
 
 •2,148,245 
 
 3,106,894 
 
 The following figures, giving the official consumption per head 
 of the British population at decennial periods, show that we are 
 nearly the largest consumers of sugar of any nation on the globe : — 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Eaw Sugar. 
 
 Refined. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 
 Lba. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 
 
 1855 
 
 29-22 
 
 
 29-22 
 
 
 
 1865 
 
 37-05 
 
 2-73 
 
 39-78 
 
 
 
 1875 
 
 53-97 
 
 8-88 
 
 62-85 
 
 
 
 1885 
 
 58-53 
 
 15-75 
 
 74-30 
 
 
 
 1887 
 
 54-00 
 
 21-00 
 
 75-00 
 
 
 Of late years, owing to the bounty given by the French, we have 
 been receiving large quantities of beetroot sugar yearly ; thus, in 
 1875 102,300 tons were imported from Germany, Prance, and 
 Belgium, and in 1887, 767,366 tons. Good cane-sugar has been 
 driven out of the market by inferior beetroot sugar, which for 
 household purposes is 30 per cent, inferior, as every housewife may 
 know by filling two large cups of tea and putting in each pre- 
 cisely the same weight of cane and beet sugar, and tasting the 
 saccharine difference. Now that the bounty has been abolished 
 this is likely to be altered. 
 
 Until within a few years ago British Guiana was the only 
 English colony besides Mauritius in which vacuum-pan sugar was 
 made, suited to the wants of the British grocers, but of late 
 Barbados, Jamaica, and some other of the British West India 
 islands have carried out this improvement. 
 
 In 1875 we imported 16,264,711 cwts. of raw sugar and 
 2,860,T76 cwts. of refined, besides 768,410 cwts. of molasses and 
 237,997 cwts. of liquid glucose or starch sugar, and of this 
 quantity only 750,944 cwts. were re-exported. In 1887 there was 
 
CANE-SUGAR. 
 
 137 
 
 imported into the United Kingdom 17,955,229 cwts. of raw sugar, 
 7,010,762 cwts. of refined, and 305,538 cwts. of molasses. 
 
 An estimate of the consumption of sugar made by Charles 
 Bivot, and published in a work at Amsterdam, gave the following 
 proportionate consumption of sugar in different countries for 1882 : 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 France 
 
 Germany 
 
 Russia 
 
 Austria Hungary 
 
 Italy 
 
 Spain 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Norway 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Greece 
 
 Europe 
 
 United States of America 
 
 Tons. 
 
 900,000 
 
 265,000 
 
 280,000 
 
 250,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 90,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 36,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 35,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 12,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 2,233,000 
 800,000 
 
 Kilogrammes per 
 
 29-35 
 7-35 
 6-5 
 3-09 
 5-55 
 3-25 
 303 
 8-40 
 8-80 
 5-55 
 
 08 
 
 50 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 90 
 
 ■i 
 
 7-3 
 16-16 
 
 SoGAK Consumption in the United States, accoeding to Bouohereau. 
 
 1876 
 1877 
 1878 
 1879 
 1880 
 1881 
 
 Tone. 
 745,269 
 745,250 
 773,472 
 831,896 
 922,109 
 ,008,932 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1882 1,077,949 
 
 1883 1,164,391 
 
 1884 1,265,383 
 
 1885 1,245,574 
 
 1886 1,388,371 
 
 The largest imports, 48 per cent., are from Cuba. The other 
 supplies come from the Sandwich Islands, which exports 215,000 
 tons, Philippines, Brazil, India, and Germany. 
 
 AvEKASB Annual Consumption of Sugar (Cane and Beet) per Head 
 in Various Countries. 
 
 New Zealand 
 South Australia 
 Western Australia 
 Victoria . . 
 Tasmania 
 United Kingdom 
 Queensland . . 
 New South Wales 
 Denmark.. 
 Holland .. 
 Switzerland .. 
 Trance .. 
 
 Lbs. 
 118-77 
 102-11 
 93-51 
 90-75 
 90-49 
 68-99 
 62-93 
 60-95 
 29-69 
 28-37 
 22-81 
 22-61 
 
 Lis. 
 
 Sweden 17-25 
 
 Belgium 15-74 
 
 Germany 15-01 
 
 Austria Hungary . . . . 13-23 
 Norway 11-37 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Boumania 
 
 Bussia 
 
 Servia 
 Italy.. 
 Finland 
 
 9-56 
 7-71 
 7-69 
 5-11 
 4-41 
 3-20 
 1-32 
 
138 
 
 SUSAE. 
 
 In Victoria 14,000,000 lbs. of sugar are used annually in the 
 manufacture of beer, which is much more than many countries 
 consume altogether. 
 
 Eakge of Prices of Stjgab per Cwt., in DECKNinAL Periods. 
 
 1787 
 1797 
 1807 
 1817 
 1827 
 1837 
 1847 
 1857 
 1867 
 1877 
 1887 
 
 Raw. 
 
 ,s. 
 
 d. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 50 
 
 to 78 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 121 
 
 4 
 
 68 
 
 , 
 
 , 114 
 
 
 
 78 
 
 
 
 
 186 
 
 8 
 
 56 
 
 , 
 
 , 100 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 
 
 
 186 
 
 8 
 
 81 
 
 , 
 
 , 100 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 
 185 
 
 
 
 64 
 
 , 
 
 , 80 
 
 
 
 57 
 
 
 
 
 160 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 , 
 
 , 70 
 
 
 
 43 
 
 
 
 
 110 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 , 
 
 , 56 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 
 175 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 , 
 
 , 61 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 , 
 
 , 41 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 6 
 
 
 53 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 6 , 
 
 , 36 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 9 , 
 
 , 17 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 Molasses. — Besides sugar we receive much syrup or molasses. 
 The largest quantity now comes from the United States. The 
 following were the countries which furnished us supplies in 1875 
 and 1886 : 
 
 Bussia 
 
 France 
 
 Egypt 
 
 United States of America 
 Spanish West India Islands 
 
 Australasia 
 
 British West India Islands 
 British Guiana 
 Other countries 
 
 Total ,. .. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 103,089 
 36,762 
 
 366,916 
 75,569 
 55,549 
 
 113,187 
 
 2,897 
 
 14,444 
 
 768,410 
 
 Cwts. 
 3,820 
 
 375,750 
 
 7,'574 
 33,095 
 
 10 i 251 
 
 430,490 
 
 It is a remarkable fact that the West Indians should export 
 their molasses in such a state that it contains large quantities of 
 extractable crystallizable sugar, and that a large and profitable 
 trade should be carried on in its extraction both here and in the 
 United States. Molasses proper ought to contain no extractable 
 crystallizable sugar, and if it does contain any it ought to be 
 called syrup, and not molasses. By cutting the canes at the 
 wrong period, by keeping them till acids form, by boiling the 
 juice in such a way as to ensure the acidity spreading as far as 
 possible, the planter creates very much more than the unavoidable 
 amount of molasses, worth from half to one-third the price of 
 sugar; and he still further carelessly wastes his resources by' 
 letting large quantities of extractable sugar remain in the 
 
CANE-SUGAR. 
 
 139 
 
 The colonial planter ought to study what is done on the 
 Continent, in order to extract the last possible fraction of sugar 
 from molasses. For instance, his attention should be directed to 
 applying to the cane some modification of the supersaturation 
 process of M. Marguerite, or of the osmogene process of M. 
 Dubrunfaut, both of which processes are founded on strictly 
 scientific principles. 
 
 Bum, another product from the sugar-cane, which we require 
 largely for the supply of our navy, is furnished almost entirely 
 from our own colonies. The imports from these in 1875 and 1886 
 having been, from 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 British West India Islands 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 Other Colonies 
 
 Total .. .. 
 
 18V6. 
 
 Galls. 
 583,365 
 3,445,566 
 3,624,294 
 
 7,653,225 
 
 1886. 
 
 Galls. 
 
 116,976 
 1,600,168 
 2,850,925 
 
 247,550 
 
 4,815,619 
 
 Varieties of the Sugar Cane. 
 
 The sugar-cane {Saccharum officinarum, Lin.) has a jointed stem 
 from 6 to 12 feet high or more, solid, hard, dense, internally juicy, 
 and hollow only in the flowering tops. 
 
 It succeeds in almost all tropical and sub-tropical countries, 
 reaching in South America and Mexico an elevation above the 
 level of the sea of about 5000 to 6000 feet. It is cultivated in 
 most parts of India and China, up to 30° to 31° N. lat., the 
 mountainous regions excepted. 
 
 In the United States the profitable culture of the cane ceases at 
 32° N. lat. ; in Japan it is carried on with advantage to 36° N. lat. 
 and even further northward. The average yield of raw sugar even 
 there is 3300 lbs. per acre. There is a particular kind in China 
 (S. sinense, Eoxb.) which is hardier, and bears the drought better 
 than the ordinary cane ; this kind needs renewal only every third 
 year, and ripens in seven months if planted early in spring, but if 
 planted in autumn and left standing for fuHy a year the return of 
 sugar is larger. 
 
 In most of the torrid parts of the New World and in many of 
 the islands of the West Indian group, species of the genus 
 Saccharum have been found in an indigenous state. In the culti- 
 vated parts of Trinidad three species were met with : S. contractum 
 Poit. ; S. polystachyum, Sw. ; and S. duhium, H. B. The variety de- 
 nominated the ribbon-cane, from its variegated coloured stripes, is 
 also indigenous to that island, and to the neighbouring continent. 
 This cane is remarkably hardy, but is less productive than the 
 Otaheite cane now generally cultivated, and which was taken to 
 
140 SOGAE. 
 
 the West Indies in 1769. Tlie purple cane, a native of tLe 
 American continent, has been grown in the islands, but is found 
 inferior to the Otaheite cane. 
 
 The sugar-cane is found spontaneous in India, Cochin China, and 
 the South Sea Islands. A very saccharine but hard cane is wild 
 in New Guinea. 
 
 In an account of the Society Islands and their principal vegetable 
 products, by M. Cuzent, some interesting details are given of the 
 varieties of sugar-cane cultivated there. 
 
 Eight species are enumerated. 
 
 1. Saccharum atroruhens, called locally To Uti. The stalk is of 
 a fine violet colour, large, and contains much juice, the pith is also 
 of a violet hue. This variety is cut at about fourteen months. It 
 is not indigenous, but was imported from Batavia in 1782 by 
 Bougainville and Blight, who also introduced into the various 
 colonies the varieties of canes with green and yellow stems known 
 in the Antilles under the name of Tahiti canes. 
 
 2. S. rubicundum. Native name Eutu or Eurutu. The stem is 
 of a clear violet, with white pith ; the young leaves are violet 
 coloured. This cane comes from Cook's Archipelago, and takes its 
 native name from the island of Eurutu. 
 
 3. S. fragile. Native name Irimotu. This has a green stem, 
 which is fragile and breaks with a straight fracture without 
 splintering; the pith is white. It is rich in juice, but is little 
 cultivated, because its stem is so pubescent, and the hairs enter 
 the skin in cutting the cane, and also attack the respiratory 
 organs. 
 
 4. S. rubicundum variety. Native name Oura. This is the ribbon- 
 cane, having a violet stem with longitudinal bands of a bright 
 yellow ; the pith is white. This grows to a great size, especially 
 in humid soils. 
 
 5. S. ohscurum, Trin. Native name Piavere. This is the Creole 
 cane ; it has a light red stem, and does not grow so large as the 
 preceding varieties, the internodes are also less distant. The pith 
 is white, and the juice not being so rich it is regarded as an 
 inferior species. 
 
 6. S. glaber. Native name Vaihi-uouo, or simply Uouo, white, 
 from the colour of its stalk. It does not contain so much juice as 
 the other species, but its sap is more rich in crystallizable sugar. 
 It was introduced from the Sandwich Islands, whence the name 
 Vaihi, which is given to those islands by the Tahitians. 
 
 7. S. fragile variety. Native name Avae. This has a yellow 
 stalk banded with clear green, having some resemblance to No. 6 
 Vaihi. The pith is white, tender, and very juicy, hence the 
 natives chew it in preference to the other kinds, but the sap is not 
 very rich in crystallizable sugar. 
 
 8. S. fatuum, Beohey. 
 
 There are also two other indigenous varieties met with on the 
 flanks of some of the mountains, which are not large, and designated 
 by the natives under the generic name of To-Aeho. The first, 
 called To-Patu, is red, and contains more juice than the second, the 
 
CANE-SUGAE. 141 
 
 stalk of which is white. These varieties belong to the species 
 known as S. spontaneum, Lin., or S. floridulum, Labill. 
 
 The Tahiti canes j'ield a fourth more juice and a sixth more 
 crystallizable sugar than most of the other canes grown in the 
 colonies. The botanical names given above are on the authority of 
 M. Pancher, botanist at New Caledonia. 
 
 The Salangore cane, an eastern variety, has been introduced 
 into Brazil and the French West Indian colonies ; in the former it 
 has become diseased, but in the latter it is well spoken of. 
 
 The Salangore cane is spoken favourably of in Jamaica ; it grows 
 with great vigour under irrigation, and the number of shoots 
 springing from each cane is remarkable. This variety should be 
 planted wider apart than the space allotted to other kinds of cane. 
 
 The time has come when the yield of the cane must be increased, 
 and it is well known that certain species are more susceptible of 
 improvement than others. This law runs throughout the vegetable 
 kingdom, and people who cultivate vegetables for manufacturing 
 purposes always therefore not only seek for what grows best, but 
 for what will yield most readily to cultivation. The beetroot- 
 growers, by acting according to good judgment on this point, have 
 devoted so much attention to the selection of the richest varieties 
 of their plant, that they have raised its saccharine strength from 
 barely 4 per cent, to 8 and even 12 and 15 per cent., and this 
 within less than fifty years. On the other hand, it is undeniable 
 that the cane-growers have remained content with the gifts of 
 nature, and have done very little towards raising the quality and 
 productiveness of their plant. The humble root which rivals the 
 cane has been doubled and trebled in richness, whilst the sugar- 
 cane has remained comparatively stationary. 
 
 The results obtained from the trial of the Salangore cane at a 
 plantation called Grand Pare, situated near Basseterre, are specially 
 noteworthy. Planted at the full distance apart (two yards by two 
 yards), which is an essential condition, and manured at the right 
 times, the Salangore cane grows with such vigour, and in such 
 thick tufts, that in five or six months it forms so thick a green 
 covering tbat weeds cease to grow about it. The weedings are 
 thus notably reduced. The cane goes through the period of 
 flowering without injury. The tufts yield from twenty-five to 
 forty canes. In consequence of the enormous quantity of canes 
 produced by each tuft, the weight to the acre is much above that 
 of an ordinary acre of canes. In one case sixteen tufts of canes, 
 which were far from being the finest in the field, were cut in a 
 square space of 38 • 45 metres, and they weighed 367 kilogrammes 
 Met, from which, in proportion, we should find, in round numbers, 
 100,600 kilogrammes to the hectare. In Guadaloupe, an average 
 of 40,000 kilogrammes of cane to the hectare is obtained, whilst at 
 ■Grande Pare 30,000 only are obtained. The average at Beauport 
 was only 27,000 kilogrammes to the hectare. The bagasse of the 
 Salangore cane gives so much fuel that only a small addition of 
 straw is required, and this quantity leaves as much upon the 
 ground for the use of the plantation as other kinds of canes. 
 
142 SUGAR. 
 
 The juice of the Salangore cane is abundant, and the yield per 
 acre is considerably superior to that of other canes. 
 
 Experiments in shortness of time to ripen, gallons of liquor per 
 acre, saccharine strength per polariscope, and other particulars 
 are required before the planter can know the relative value of the 
 different kinds. There is not the least reason to doubt that with 
 selection and good nursing very superior and fixed qualities can be 
 obtained in the sugar-cane, as freely as they have been in wheat, 
 turnips, beet, fruit, garden flowers, and domestic stock. Tropical 
 staples are ages behind Europe in this respect, and have hence 
 grand possibilities in ovo, but they will not be realised without 
 effort, judgment, and perseverance. According to a Barbados 
 piaper, a foot in length of sugar-cane grown in that island weighs 
 three-quarters of a pound, and a bunch of canes grown in one hole 
 weighs 54 lbs. on an average, which yield 4 gallons of liquor or 
 juice, from which 4 lbs. of muscovado sugar are got. Of the 54 lbs., 
 the juice weighs 50 lbs. An acre of ripe canes, planted 6 by 5 feet, 
 gives 1462 bunches, or 5808 gallons of juice, or 5808 lbs. of sugar. 
 At 50 lbs. of cane to the hole (or hill), an acre of canes, planted as 
 above, would weigh, when cut, 72,600 lbs., or 36 tons, 90 per cent, 
 being juice. It takes thus 36 tons of cane to give 2 J tons of raw 
 sugar, or 360 tons from a lO-acre field to yield 25 tons of sugar 
 For the first six months the plant requires but little rain to keep 
 it in vigour ; but afterwards it needs a constant supply, and an 
 increase of growth in the last three months of the year. 
 
 The multiplication of all sorts of sugar-cane is usually effected 
 from top cuttings, but this cannot be carried on for an indefinite 
 period from the same original shoots without deterioration ; and as 
 seeds hardly ever ripen on cultivated canes, new plants must from 
 time to time be brought from a distance. 
 
 Excessive rains produce a rank luxuriance of the canes at the 
 expense of the saccharine principle. Eich manuring is necessary 
 to attain good crops, unless in the best virgin soil. The lower 
 leaves of the stem must be successively removed (a process called 
 " trashing "), also superabundant suckers, to promote the growth 
 upwards and to provide ventilation and light. Moderate vicinity 
 to the sea is favourable to the growth of the cane. The average 
 yield of sugar varies from 1^ ton to 3 tons per acre. 
 
 The following description of varieties of cane has been published 
 by Messrs. Ohlendorf : — 
 
 The Otaheite or Bourbon cane is probably the kind of cane 
 planted over the largest area. "Whether the so-called Otaheite and 
 the Bourbon cane are two distinct varieties, or have the same 
 origin, seems to be doubtful. The Bourbon cane is certainly not 
 indigenous in the island of Bourbon (Eeunion), but came originally 
 from the coast of Malabar. It was transferred to the "West Indies 
 from Bourbon, and has spread over most colonies. 
 
 There are two Otaheite canes, the yellow or straw-coloured, and 
 the purple-striped or ribbon. 
 
 "With a good soil and favourable season plants of the first year's 
 growth often attain the height of 12 to 14 feet, measuring 6 inches 
 
CANE-SUGAE. 143 
 
 in circumference, with joints 8 or 9 inches apart. They attain 
 maturity in ten to twelve months; hut on very rich land or in 
 wet seasons it may be expedient to allow them even fourteen 
 months. 
 
 The purple-striped Otaheite cane is very much like the ribhon- 
 cane of Batavia in appearance, but the former has broad purple 
 stripes on a greenish yellow ground, whereas the latter is of a 
 blood-red on a transparent, straw-coloured ground. It is a hardy 
 and esteemed description, of large size, soft, juicy, and sweet, 
 and yields sugar in uniform quantities, though of a rather dark 
 colour. 
 
 Batavian canes are of four descriptions, viz., the yellow violet, 
 the purple violet, or Java cane ; the transparent or ribbon cane, 
 and the Tibboo Batavee, or Batavian cane. 
 
 The yellow violet differs from the Bourbon in being smaller, less 
 juicy, considerably harder, of slower growth, of much darker 
 foliage, and more erect. When ripe it is usually of straw colour ; 
 its skin or rind is thick, and the pith is hard, but its juice is rich 
 and abundant. The yellow violet contents itself with a soil of 
 inferior quality. 
 
 The purple violet, or large blaak cane of Java, is fully as thick 
 as the Otaheite, with joints varying from 3 to 7 inches apart. In 
 height it is usually about 8 or 10 feet, with leaves of a brighter 
 green than the yellow violet. 
 
 Very frequently a white resinous film is seen encrusted on the 
 joints of this cane, sometimes lying so thick that the purple of the 
 cane itself is in some joints almost hidden. 
 
 When in perfection it yields a very sweet and rich juice. It is 
 very hardy, thriving well in poor, dry soils. In Jamaica it is 
 often planted in the outer rows of the cane fields, to stand the 
 brunt of trespassing cattle. 
 
 The Malays term it Tibboo Etam, or black cane. 
 
 The transparent, or ribbon cane, is much smaller than the 
 Otaheite ribbon cane. It is of a bright transparent yellow, with a 
 number of blood-red streaks or stripes running the whole length 
 of the stalk, and varying in breadth from J to 1 inch. It grows 
 from 6 to 10 feet high, with joints from 4 to 8 inches apart, and 
 4 inches in circumference. It is generally planted in light sandy 
 soils where no other cane will thrive. Although its rind is thick 
 and its general texture hard, yet it yields a good quantity of juice 
 of excellent quality, which is easily converted into fine whit© 
 sugar. 
 
 The Tibboo Batavee is common in the Straits of Malacca, where 
 it is cultivated by the Malays. In appearance it is much like the 
 yellow violet, except in the peculiarity of its colour, which is 
 rather greenish, with a pink shade in parts ; in some of the lower 
 joints this pink colour is very bright and pretty, whilst in the 
 upper joints it is more faint and delicate. 
 
 Ilcist Indian Ganes. — The large red canes of Assam are very 
 juicy and sweet ; the sugar produced from them is of an exceedingly 
 fine grain and good colour ; they are strong in growth and fully 
 
144 SUGAR. 
 
 equal in size, as well as in quantity and quality in juice, to the 
 Otaheite. The red cane of Bengal (Tibboo Merah) is a large and 
 fine cane much used about Calcutta for sugar manufacture. 
 
 The next large canes are the black and the yellow Nepal, large- 
 sized and firm-looking canes, fully equal in appearance to the 
 Assam. 
 
 As to the small-sized canes cultivated in India, they are very 
 numerous, the most common being the Kajlee and the Pooree. 
 They are inferior to the colonial kinds. 
 
 The Chinese sugar-cane possesses the advantage of being so hard 
 and solid as to resist the forceps of the white ant and the teeth of 
 the jackal — two great enemies to the East Indian sugar planta- 
 tions. It is difficult to express the juice with the Bengal native 
 sugar mill ; but the cane bears drought much better than the 
 sorts in general cultivation, producing a profitable crop even to 
 the third year. It is extremely hard and prolific ; during very 
 hot seasons it remains uninjured in every respect, whilst other 
 canes are all either burnt up or eaten out of the ground by the 
 white ant. 
 
 As the rains come on the China cane springs up wonderfully, 
 many roots having no less than thirty shoots, which by September 
 become fine canes about 12 feet in height, 3 inches in circum- 
 ference, with joints 6 to 8 inches apart. 
 
 The elephant cane, of Cochin China, has been stated to reach a 
 height of 11 feet and a diameter of 7 inches in six months. This 
 variety is only cultivated for eating or chewing, and might prove 
 to be a good sugar-producing cane. But as varieties, especially in 
 the case of sugar-canes, often improve by change of climate and 
 soil, perhaps this might succeed better elsewhere. 
 
 The Straits Settlements grow eight kinds of sugar-cane, foremost 
 among which is the Salangore, called by the Malays Tibboo 
 Cappor or Tibboo Bittong Beraboo. This is one of the finest 
 canes known, attaining a weight of 25 lbs., a height of over 13 feet, 
 and a diameter of 3 inches under favourable conditions. 
 
 It ratoons better than any other kinds in the Straits. As plant 
 canes they have given an average of 6500 lbs. of granulated sugar 
 to the acre, sometimes increasing to 7200 lbs. 
 
 The Salangore cane grows firm and strong, remaining much 
 more erect than the Otaheite ; it affords an abundance of juice, 
 which is sweet, easy of clarification, boils well, and produces a 
 very fine fair sugar of bold and sparkling grain. 
 
 The varieties known in the South Pacific Islands are very 
 numerous, and some of them are accredited with marvellous 
 results. One variety grown on the Sandwich Islands, on 30 acres 
 ■of good land under irrigation, is said to have given an average 
 yield per acre of 12,000 lbs. (6 hhds.) of No. 16 sugar, 
 
 A great number of varieties of cane have been brought over 
 from Mauritius and the East to the West Indies, and recently 
 three new varieties have been made known, called the Caledonian 
 Queen, green Salangore, and a violet Salangore. 
 
 It is well known that the old varieties grown for many years 
 
C^NE SUGAR. 145 
 
 deteriorate, and it would therefore seem to be imperative for the 
 sugar planter to look for other varieties giving better yields. 
 
 The canes from the South Pacific Islands seem to deserve 
 attention in this respect as well as some from the East. 
 
 Mr. Preston of Trinidad thus speaks of these varieties : — 
 
 The Caledonian Queen is a pale or greenish purple cane, close- 
 jointed, and extremely vigorous. The leaves are remarkably broad, 
 and their bases are nearly destitute of the setae, or " cowitch," 
 common to most canes. This cane is said to attain enormous 
 dimensions in the East, and to be one of the most sacchariferous. 
 The short joint is a feature which is generally considered objec- 
 tionable, accompanied as it usually is by great hardness of cane 
 tissue. In this respect, however, the Caledonian Queen cane is an 
 exception, and the ready way in vrhich both length of joint and 
 diameter of cane is affected by manure, indicates great variability 
 of habit, and suggests gigantic growth under the influence of rich 
 alluvial. 
 
 The green Salangore is so named from its retaining a green 
 colour on the cane much longer than usual, although when fully 
 ripe the colour of the cane is yellow, but not so bright a yellow 
 as that of a well-ripened Otaheite. This variety is the freest- 
 growing of all the varieties grown, except the giant Claret cane, 
 and its erect habit is even more striking than in that variety. 
 Both in respect of length of joirrt and diameter, it is equal to it, 
 thus being the largest yellow cane grown here. The foliage is 
 large and heavy, but completely deciduous, so that the operation 
 of " trashing " is with it reduced to a minimum. The most 
 striking feature in this cane, besides its size, is the broad white 
 rim just below each joint. 
 
 The violet Salangore has the habit of erect growth more 
 strongly developed than is seen in any other of the canes 
 enumerated, as it is distinctly the longest jointed and tallest, 
 with a full average diameter of cane. The leaves are long and 
 narrow as compared with the well-known Otaheite. 
 
 The remarkably erect habit of growth in these two Salangores 
 is a character which, considering the influences most conducive 
 to a highly saccharine juice and a large yield of sugar per acre, is 
 of importance, and on this account it is deemed desirable that they 
 should be brought into notice, if only for experiment. 
 
 One of the most commonly observed facts on a sugar estate is 
 that canes grown erect, and therefore enjoying full sunlight and 
 air, are yellow and full of sugar, whereas canes lying on or near 
 the ground, and thus deprived of light and air by their erect 
 companions, are green and deficient in sugar. The erect or 
 decumbent postures of the cane are in a measure dependent on 
 soil, and the kind of culture they are treated to, especially when 
 young, but under any circumstances a marked disposition to 
 maintain an erect habit of growth is an obvious advantage in 
 respect of the sugar yield. 
 
 It is generally admitted that a yield of 3 hogsheads per acre is 
 
146 SUGAR. 
 
 a maximum yield, and of rare attainment; a larger yield is 
 scarcely thought of, even as a possibility, yet it is a fact that a 
 yield of 2 J or 3 hogsheads is attained from fields in which a very 
 large portion of the canes are trailing, that is to say, green and 
 deficient in sugar. The question naturally arises as to what the 
 yield would be if all such canes (being erect and therefore rich in 
 sugar) were up to a high level yield. In this view it is not 
 difficult to imagine a yield of 4^ or 5 hogsheads per acre. 
 
 Jamaica. — Much attention has been devoted to the care and 
 culture in Jamaica of new varieties of cane, of which sixty have 
 been reared and distributed. Forty-two of these were introduced 
 from Mauritius in 1882, the remainder from the Southern States of 
 America, while special canes such as the Elephant cane and the 
 Salangore cane, were either received from the Eoyal Gardens at 
 Kew, or from the Botanical Gardens, Martinique. Of the ordinary 
 Jamaica canes, which have been under general cultivation in that 
 island for many years, there are kept for comparison with the new 
 eanes, the following, viz., the Otaheite, the Bourbon, the Trans- 
 parent, the Violet, the White Transparent, and the Common 
 Transparent. 
 
 Mr. D. Moriis, now Assistant Director at Kew, when in the 
 island filling the office of Colonial botanist, reported thus on the 
 new varieties introduced : — 
 
 With the view of placing in a succinct form the relative merits 
 of the new varieties of sugar-canes, I have during the past year 
 prepared a description of each variety as they appeared to me in 
 the field, to which, by the kind assistance of Mr. A. J. Pine, the 
 intelligent Manager of Mona Estate, I have been able to add the 
 percentage of juice and trash, the density of the juice, and other 
 information calculated to be of value to the planter. It should, 
 however, be mentioned that the measurements and yield here 
 given of the several canes, are not to be taken as their ultimate 
 standard ; but rather what they have so far attained under the 
 conditions which obtain at the Hope. The land on which they 
 are grown is rather poor in nitrogenous compounds, of a dry 
 gravelly texture, and what planters would term " old cane soil," 
 pretty well worn out. 
 
 There is no doubt that soil and climate greatly affect the 
 quality of the juice, and also the quantity and quality of the 
 sugar produced by the plant. This is shown by the fact that a 
 variety of cane, strong, healthy, and yielding profitable returns in 
 one district, when removed to another only a few miles away, has 
 been known to lose many of its good qualities. 
 
 A descriptive summary of the new canes is as follows : — 
 
 1. Tourlwury.—Oi stout habit; 10 to 14 canes in a clump; 
 about 8 feet high ; length of joints 4 inches, circumference 4 
 inches ; colour white ; leaves light green, 4 feet 6 inches long, 
 IJ inches broad; healthy cane evidently suitable for moist 
 districts; does not stand drought well. Percentage of trash 25 J; 
 juice 741 (6-9 gals.) ; density of juice 1-064 : Arnaboldi 21. 
 
CANE SOGAK. 147 
 
 2. Cuapa. — Of slender habit ; 18 canes in a clump ; average 
 height 9 feet ; colour Mack; lengthof joint 4 inches, circumference 
 4 inches ; leaves heavy, 4 feet long, 2^ inches broad ; stands 
 drought well ; not liable to get lodged ; free from rust. Per- 
 centage of trash 31i; juice 68-^ (6 '3 gals.); density of juice 
 1-066: Arnaboldi22r 
 
 4. Batramic. — Of strong habit ; 12 to 14 canes in a clump ; 
 average height 7 feet ; colour striped ; length of joints 4 inches, 
 circumference 4 inches ; leaves heavy, 4J feet long, 3 inches broad ; 
 stands the drought well ; not liable to get lodged ; " a strong cane." 
 Percentage of trash 33 J- ; juice, 66| (6 -2 gals.); density of juice 
 1-074: Arnaboldi, 24. 
 
 5. Waphendnow. — Similar to last in habit and colour ; a strong 
 cane. Percentage of trash 31; juice 69 (6 '4 gals.); density of 
 juice 1-066 : Arnaboldi 24. 
 
 6. Tihoo. — Prolific cane ; 12 to 14 canes in a clump ; average 
 height 8 feet ; colour striped ; length of joints 3 and 4 inches, 
 circumference 5^ inches ; leaves heavy, broad, and abundant ; 
 stands drought well; not liable to get lodged. Percentage of 
 trash 31^; juice 68 J (6 '4 gals.); density of juice 1-069: 
 Arnaboldi 24. 
 
 7. Hillii. — Of slender habit; 16 canes in a clump; height 
 9 feet ; length of joint 5 and 6 inches, circumference 3 J inches ; 
 leaves heavy, round stem, 4 feet long, 3 inches wide ; stands 
 drought well ; stools freely ; a prolific small black cane suitable 
 for poor soils. Percentage of trash 35; juice 65 (6-0 gals.); 
 density of juice 1-067 : Arnaboldi 22. 
 
 8. Seele. — Of stout habit; 12 to 16 canes in a clump; height 
 8 feet ; colour a greenish yellow when young, white when matured ; 
 length of joint 4 inches, circumference 3 inches ; foliage very 
 heavy, length 4 feet, breadth 3 inches ; stands drought moderately 
 well ; a good cane for experimental trial in good soils. Percentage 
 of trash 30; juice 70 (6-5 gals.); density of juice 1-082: 
 Arnaboldi 28. 
 
 9. Tsaquia. — Of stout free habit ; 15 canes in a clump ; height 
 7 feet ; colour brown with white stripes ; length of joint 3 inches, 
 ■circumference 5 inches ; foliage rather heavy ; stands drought 
 fairly well ; somewhat liable to get lodged and with rust on upper 
 joints. Percentage of trash 37; juice 63 (5 • 8 gals.) ; density of 
 juice 1 - 084 : Arnaboldi 28. 
 
 10. Bouronappa. — Of stout vigorous habit ; 20 canes in a clump ; 
 height 8 to 10 feet ; colour light purple ; length of joint 3 and 4 
 inches ; circumference 4J inches ; foliage rather heavy ; stands 
 drought well : from its luxuriant quick-growing habit liable to 
 lodge, but is one of the finest canes of the series as regards 
 luxarianoe of growth, and should prove an acquisition in districts 
 with moderate ' rainfall. Percentage of trash 40 ; juice 60 
 (5*6 gals.); density of juice 1-079 : Arnaboldi 26. 
 
 11. Barhley. — A white cane similar to last; fewer canes in the 
 stool but of stouter habit ; foliage heavy; stands drought moder- 
 ately well ; free from rust and of free vigorous growth. Percentage 
 
 L 2 
 
148 SUGAR. 
 
 of trash 34; juice CG (6"1 gals.); density of juice 1"078: 
 Arnaboldi 26. 
 
 12. Pine. — Of liglit habit; 12 canes in a clump; height 9 feet 
 colour white ; length of joint i inches, circumference 5 inches 
 leaves light, 4 feet long, 3 inches broad ; stands drought well 
 stools moderately well. A fair hard cane, very healthy and clean. 
 Percentage of trash 30; juice 70 (6-5 gals.); density of juice 
 1-078: Arnaboldi 26. 
 
 13. Nagapoury. — Of strong vigorous habit ; 16 canes to a clump; 
 colour cream white ; length of joint 4 inches, circumference 5 
 inches ; foliage heavy ; does not stand drought but grows well in 
 fairly moist situations ; an excellent cane under irrigation. Per- 
 centage of trash 31 ; juice 69 (6-4 gals.); density of juice 1*065 ; 
 Arnaboldi 21. 
 
 14. Naga. — Of fine slender habit; 20 and 25 canes to a clump; 
 colour black • length of joint 4 inches, circumference 3 inches ; 
 leaves moderately heavy but narrow; stands drought well; 
 evidently an excellent cane for arid districts or as a fodder plant 
 on poor soils. Percentage of trash 35 ; juice 65(6-0 gals.) ; density 
 of juice 1-072 : Arnaboldi 24. 
 
 15. Tsirribic. — Of stout habit; 15 canes to a clump; height 9 
 feet ; colour yellow with purplish stripes ; length of joint 6 inches, 
 circumference 5 inches ; foliage light and leaves narrow (2 inches) ; 
 stands drought moderately well. A good striped cane of fine 
 attractive habit. Percentage of trash 33; juice 67 (6-2 gals.); 
 density of juice 1-082 : Arnaboldi 27. 
 
 16. Vulu-Vulu. — Of stout habit; 10 fo 12 canes in a clump; 
 height 8 to 10 feet ; length of joints 4 inches, colour fine yellow ; 
 foliage light ; stands drought well ; not liable to lodge ; free from 
 rust. Percentage of trash 35-75; juice 64-25 (5 -9 gals.); density 
 of juice 1-078: Arnaboldi 26. 
 
 17. Kalcm cane. — Of stout habit; 16 to 18 canes in a clump; 
 height 10 feet ; colour black violet ; length of joint 3J inches> 
 circumference 5 inches ; foliage very heavy and of a dark green ; 
 as in most of the black or violet canes this stands drought well ; it 
 is free from rust and not liable to get lodged. Percentage of trash 
 36 ; juice 64 (5-9 gals.) ; density of juice 1-084 : Arnaboldi 28. 
 
 18. Egyptian cane. — Of vigorous habit and quick growth ; 30 to 
 40 canes in a clump ; height 7 to 8 feet ; colour striped green ; 
 length of joint 4 inches, circumference 3 inches; foliage light and 
 narrow ; a fine clean healthy cane, very hardy and likely to thrive 
 in dry districts. Percentage of trash 41; juice 59 (5-4 gals.); 
 density of juice 1-077 : Arnaboldi 27. 
 
 20. Brisbane. — Similar to the Malay cane already tested and 
 distributed as No. 76. 
 
 21. Grand Savanne. — Of strong compact habit with stout joints ; 
 20 canes to a clump ; height 10 feet ; colour light purple ; length 
 of joints 5^ inches, circumference 5^ to 6 inches; foliage dark 
 green and broad ; a good cane in appearance but not yet tested. 
 
 22. Bourow. — Of light graceful habit ; number of canes to a 
 clump 12 to 16; height 8 feet; colour at first green, then a golden 
 
CANB SUGAR. 149 
 
 yellow ; foliage light and narrow ; does not stand drought well 
 but grows rapidly under irrigation; not liable to get lodged. 
 Percentage of trash 37; juice 63 (5 "8 gals.); density of juice 
 1-074: Arnaboldi 24. 
 
 23. Liguanea. — Of short stunted habit ; number of canes in each 
 •clump 10 to 12; height 6 to 8 feet; colour dark purple or black; 
 length of joint 3^ inches, circumference 5 inches ; foliage light ; 
 length 44- feet, breadth 3 inches; stands drought very well. 
 Percentage of trash 33^-; juice 66f (6 "2 gals.); density of juice 
 1-076; Arnaboldi 25. 
 
 24. Norman. — Of strong habit and erect ; number of canes in 
 «ach clump 14; height 11 feet; colour light purple or mauve; 
 length of joints 5 inches, circumference 6^ inches ; foliage pale 
 green with a light purplish vein running down the centre of each 
 leaf. Percentage of trash 36; juice 64 (5-9 gals.); density of 
 juice 1-082 : Arnaboldi 27. 
 
 25. Green Sose-Mibbon. — Of stout upright habit ; number of canes 
 in each clump 18 ; height 10 feet ; colour pale yellow ; length of 
 joint 4 and 5 inches, circumference 6 inches ; foliage coarse and 
 heavy. This cane stands drought moderately well ; is somewhat 
 liable to get lodged and shows rust. Percentage of trash 39 ; 
 juice 61 (6-6 gals.); density of juice 1-064: Arnaboldi 21. 
 
 26. Daura. — A weak yellow cane apparently of little value. 
 
 27. Nain. — Habit strong, with large stools ratooning freely; 
 canes in each clump 35; height 10 feet; colour light brown; 
 length of joint 5 inches, circumference 5 inches; foliage of a fine 
 texture and dark green, leaves short and broad. This cane stands 
 drought well ; a clean healthy cane of very vigorous habit. Per- 
 centage of trash 34 ; juice 66 (6-1 gals.) ; density of juice 1 • 066 : 
 Arnaboldi 23. 
 
 28. Queensland. — Of upright habit ; canes in each clump 30 ; 
 height 12 feet; colour pale yellow; length of joint 6 inches, 
 circumference 5 inches ; foliage large and heavy ; grows well in 
 dry situations ; liable to get lodged ; free from rust. Percentage 
 of trash 37-66; juice 62-34 (5-7 gals.); density of juice 1-068 : 
 Arnaboldi 23. 
 
 29. Ko-Keia. — Slender upright habit ; canes in each clump 35 ; 
 height 8 feet ; colour white with red stripes ; foliage moderately 
 Jieavy. A prolific useful cane for fodder purposes. Percentage of 
 trash 38 ; juice 62 (5 • 7 gals.) ; density of juice 1-079 : Arnaboldi 26. 
 
 30. Lahina. — Of rather delicate habit at first but afterwards a 
 strong fine cane; canes in each stool 18; height 9 to 11 feet; 
 colour yellow; length of joint 5 inches, circumference 5^ inches; 
 foliage pale green and moderately light. This cane does not 
 stand drought well and is liable to get lodged. A bright free- 
 growing cane under irrigation, very much like the best type of 
 Bourbon canes. Percentage of trash 37 J ; juice 62J (5-8 gals.) ; 
 density of juice 1-076 : Arnaboldi 26 (Beaume 10). 
 
 31. Keni-Keni. — Of slender habit; 12 to 15 canes in a clump; 
 8 to 10 feet high ; length of joints 5 inches, circumference 4 
 inches ; colour white ; leaves green, 4 feet 6 inches long, 2j inches 
 
150 SUGAR., 
 
 broad; fine healthy cane suitable for " seasonable " districts ; does 
 not stand drought well. ' Percentage of trash 33; juice 67 
 (6-2 gals.) ; density of juice 1-080 ; Arnaboldi 26. 
 
 32. China. — Very similar in habit, size and characteristics to 
 last. Percentage of trash 35; juice 65 (6-0 gals.); density of 
 juice 1-066: Arnaboldi 22. [Canes Nos. 28, 30, 31 and 32 all 
 partake of general characteristics and belong to the best type of 
 ■white canes.] 
 
 33. Po-a-ole. — This would appear to be identical with the 
 Mauritius cane No. 96 already described and tested in 1880. "A 
 stout black cane of fine habit and growth, leaves rather heavy ; 
 stands drought well; rind rather hard; not subject to lodge; 
 makes a good grain of sugar and yields at the rate of 2^- hogsheads 
 per acre." 
 
 34. Eo-poapa. — Of strong rapid growth; 18 canes in a clump; 
 about 11 feet high; length of joints 4 inches, circumference 5. 
 inches ; colour white ; leaves moderately heavy, 5 feet long, 2J 
 inches broad ; stands drought well ; not liable to get lodged ; a 
 fine white cane, one of the best in the collection for dry districts ; 
 always healthy and throwing good large stools. Percentage of 
 trash 28; juice 72 (6-4 gals.); density of juice 1-063 : Arnaboldi 
 21 (Beaume 8-2-5). 
 
 35. Lakoua. — Of upright and somewhat slender habit; about 
 12 feet high; length of joints 6 inches, circumference 4 inches; 
 colour white ; leaves dark green ; 5 feet long, 3 inches broad ; 
 healthy, vigorous cane and free from rust. Percentage of trash 
 30^; juice 69^ (6-4 gals.); density of juice 1-074 : Arnaboldi 24 
 (Beaume 9-4-5). 
 
 36. Vituahuala. — Strong vigorous habit; 30 canes in a clump ; 
 about 11 feet high; length of joints 3 inches, circumference 4 
 inches ; colour pale when young growing into a light purple ; 
 leaves dark green, 4^ feet long, 3 inches broad ; somewhat liable to 
 lodge ; free from nist. Percentage of trash 24 ; juice 76 (7-0 gals.) ; 
 density of juice 1-055 : Arnaboldi 18 (Beaume 7-|). 
 
 37. Sacuri. — Of strong habit and very rapid growth ; 20 canes 
 in a clump; average height 11 feet; length of joints 6 inches, 
 circumference 6 inches ; leaves somewhat heavy, 5 feet long, 
 3 inches broad ; likely to lodge ; free from rust. Percentage of 
 trash 25 ; juice 75 (7-9 gals.) ; density of juice 1-076 : Arnaboldi 
 25 (Beaume 10). 
 
 38. Cuban.- — Habit light ; 12 canes in each clump ; height 10 
 feet; joints long and straight; leaves light green, 5 feet long, 
 2^ inches broad ; suitable for moist districts only ; a clean healthy 
 cane resembling the Bourbon. Percentage of trash 33J ; juice 66|- 
 (6-2 gals.) ; density of juice 1 - 074 : Arnaboldi 24 (Beaume 9 - 4-5). 
 
 39. Home. — Habit strong; 20 to 25 canes in each clump; 
 height 10 feet; colour pale, with purple and violet stripes; 
 length of joint 4^ inches, circumference 5 inches ; leaves heavy, 
 6 feet long, 3 inches broad ; stands drought well, and not liable to 
 get lodged. Percentage of trash 24^ ; juice 65^ (6 - 1 gals.) ; 
 density of juice 1-076 : Arnaboldi 25 (Beaume 10). 
 
CANE SCGAE. 151 
 
 40. Samuri. — Of slender habit ; 16 canes in each clump ; average 
 height 8 feet ; colour black with pale purplish stripes ; length of 
 joints 2^ inches, circumference 4 inches ; leaves light, 5 feet long, 
 2^ inches broad, rather hard rind ; stands drought well. Per- 
 centage of trash 40 ; juice 60 (5-5 gals.); density of juice 1"079 ; 
 Amaboldi (Beaume 10 J). 
 
 41. Breheret. — Of strong habit; 14 canes in each clump; 
 height 8 feet ; colour black ; length of joints 2J inches, circum- 
 ference 5 inches ; foliage light ; 4 feet long, 2^ inches broad. 
 The joints of this cane are strikingly short and heavy ; it stands 
 drought well, and would be very suitable for dry districts. Per- 
 centage of trash 33J ; juice 665- (6 • 2 gals.) ; density of juice 1 • 079 ; 
 Amaboldi 26 (Beaume 10 J). 
 
 42. Mamuri. — Of strong habit and rapid growth, 30 to 40 canes 
 in each clump ; height 10 to 12 feet ; colour light brown with the 
 outer epidermal layer dry and chaffy ; length of joints 4 inches, 
 circumference 3 J inches ; foliage light ; leaves 4 feet long, 3 inches 
 broad ; a clean, healthy, but somewhat peculiar-looking cane ; 
 stands drought well. Percentage of trash 34 ; juice 66 (6 • 1 gals.) ; 
 density of juice 1-084; Amaboldi 28 (Beaume 11- 1-5). 
 
 The Elephant cane continues to maintain its pre-eminence as a 
 rapid grower with early maturity ; but it requires very rich soil, 
 a, moist climate, and to be taken off as soon as it is ripe. It 
 ratoons well the second year, but like most vigorous growers it 
 requires to be renewed in the third or fourth year. In favourable 
 localities the Elephant cane, where it has been tried, throws 
 immense canes, looking almost like clumps of bamboos : the yield 
 per acre has not, however, been quite equal to the show of canes, 
 but it has yielded at the rate of two to two and a half tons of 
 sugar per acre, which is far beyond the average of ordinary canes 
 in Jamaica. 
 
 The Salangore cane is in fair demand by planters. 
 
 As a rule new canes are not kept sufficiently distinct on estates 
 where they are tried, and hence it is very difficult to obtain 
 reliable information as to their merits. It is very evident that 
 unless each cane can be grown on a sufficiently large scale to allow 
 it to be kept entirely distinct in the several processes of grinding 
 and making into sugar, it is impossible to draw final conclusions 
 from the results. 
 
 The introduction and experimental cultivation of new varieties 
 of canes in a sugar-growing colony like Jamaica is an important 
 element which I regret to say the planters, as a class, do not 
 appear to realize so fully as they might. If, however, it is only 
 kept steadily before their mind, the important fact that there are 
 innumerable varieties of the sugar-cane plant, and that to obtain 
 the best results each description of soil, whether loam, clay or 
 gravel ; each aspect, whether warm, cool or sheltered ; each 
 locality, whether dry, moist or wet, whether flat, sloping or steep, 
 whether subject to spells of drought or continuously bathed in 
 mist and moisture, whether warm and forcing, or cool and retard- 
 
152 SUGAE. 
 
 ing, -wliether possessing an equable temperature varying but 
 sligJitly between day and nigbt, or subject, as most closed-in 
 valleys are, to great alterations between day and night — all these 
 several conditions require their special variety of cane, and it 
 is only by careful and systematic experiment, and by observant 
 and intelligent culture, that these varieties can be found and 
 utilized. 
 
 As one of the most important elements in the improvement of 
 the sugar industiy in Jamaica, it is a matter of regret, as 
 already mentioned, that more attention is not given to the 
 selection of certain varieties of canes, and the special adaptability 
 of such canes to certain conditions of soil, aspect, rainfall, and 
 climate. 
 
 Again, in the selection of cane plants it is a question whether 
 the practice which obtains in Jamaica and some of the older 
 sugar-growing countries of taking cane tops for the seasons' 
 planting from thrown-up or exhausted fields, does not seriously 
 aifect the yield and productiveness of estates in this island. This 
 practice, adopted piobably in the first instance fiom motives of 
 economy, is now continued and upheld, and, I may add, even 
 warmly defended, as the most efficient and orthodox sj'stem of any 
 for the intelligent sugar planter to pursue ; but it is very probable 
 that the continued planting of the immature portions of the sugar- 
 cane in this manner has been in a great measure the cause of its 
 deterioration, and that it has contributed a much larger share 
 than is supposed, towards rendering sugar estates in this island 
 less productive than otherwise they might be. It is a subject of 
 general experience that the sugar-cane in common with most 
 other plants is found to deteriorate in course of time, and this is 
 no doubt due to careless cultivation, unsuitable soil and climate, 
 and want of care in the selection of plants and tops. On the other 
 hand, where a careful system of cultivation is pursued (by which is 
 implied thorough tillage of the land, and the application of 
 suitable manures), and where, after careful trial, a proper selection 
 of plants is made and maintained, the most successful results have 
 been realized. 
 
 It may possibly be remarked that just now, when the sugar 
 industry is so depressed and expenses have to be kept at the 
 lowest pitch, is not a favourable time for initiating any large 
 departure from the established system of cultivation as hitherto 
 pursued. The subject, however, is one which no one interested 
 in the welfare of this important industry can overlook, and the 
 sooner it is faiily and thoroughly investigated the better will the 
 sugar-cane estates be able eventually to hold their own against 
 the keen competition offered by those of the beet, the sorghum, 
 and other sugar-yielding plants. Unless the best and most 
 productive varieties of canes are adopted for cultivation ; unless 
 the most efficient and economical methods of tillage and culture 
 are introduced and maintained ; and, again, unless the manu- 
 facturing processes from first to last keep pace with the improve- 
 ments so rapidly and effectually adopted in other countries, the 
 
CANE SUGAE. 153 
 
 ■outlook for sugar-cane cultivation is far from what its friends 
 "would desire it, and far also from what might reasonably he 
 expected from the natural advantages offered by the country for 
 the successful prosecution of this important industry. 
 
 One of the chief means for effecting improvement in sugar 
 ■cultivation in this island would be the establishment of nsines or 
 central factories, supported by sufficient capital to equip them with 
 the best and more recent machinery, and to turn out sugars of the 
 highest and best qualities. There are several localities, such as 
 the neighbourhood of the Eio Cobre Irrigation Works, the Plantain 
 Garden Eiver district, Luidas Vale in St. John's, and St. Thomas- 
 in-the-Vale, where central factories might be established, and 
 where, in addition to canes grown by the factory itself, large 
 quantities might be grown by European proprietors and settlers, 
 and sold to the factory at a certain rate per ton : this rate being 
 fixed each season in strict accordance with the yield of the canes, 
 and the quality of siigar obtained therefrom. 
 
 The present sugar estates in Jamaica being small, and (with 
 few notable exceptions) indifferently supplied with machinery, 
 can ill afford to enter into competition with more favoured 
 countries ; and the only practical solution of the present difficulties 
 would be larger and fewer estates, the establishment of central 
 factories, and the fuller utilization of the labours of the small 
 negro settlers by purchasing their canes, and working them up 
 into the best class of sugars. With regard to the latter sug- 
 gestion, I believe it is generally recognised that while the negro 
 in many districts is disinclined to work regularly and continuously 
 on sugar estates by task work, or for a daily wage, he is ever 
 ready to cultivate his own ground, and to devote much time and 
 labour upon it. Now if we were to take a hint from the beet- 
 root growers, and by the establishment of central factories 
 encourage the small proprietors and Sfttlers to grow canes, and 
 sell them at a fixed rate per ton, the factory by its more efficient 
 and better machinery would be able to turn out the best qualities 
 of sugar at a low cost, and compete successfullj'- with other 
 countries. 
 
 This cottier system (if I may so call it) of sugar-cane cultivation 
 would, I believe, be the means of utilizing, to a fuller extent than 
 has ever been done before, the labour power of the negro population 
 in this island, and the subject is worthy of the serious attention of 
 all those who have its welfare at heart. 
 
 I suppose that there is no cultivation with which the negro is 
 more familiar, or one to which he takes more readily than that of 
 the sugar-cane. At present this knowledge, as also the time and 
 rattention of the negro in the lowland districts, is expended in 
 raising canes that are manufactured by the rudest appliances into 
 ihe commonest and worst classes of sugar, fit only for local 
 consumption. 
 
 Very few complete analyses of the entire plant seem to have 
 been made, the tpst of the juice being usually deemed sufficient. 
 The following is the composition of the entire cane : — 
 
154 
 
 SUGAR. 
 
 Per cenfr. 
 
 Water 71-04 
 
 Sugar 18-02 
 
 Cellulose 9-56. 
 
 Albuminous matter 0-55 
 
 Fatty and colouring matter 0-35 
 
 Salts soluble in water 0-12; 
 
 Insoluble salts 0-16 
 
 Silica 0-20 
 
 100-00- 
 
 Popp ForND in EiPE Sugah Canes from 
 
 
 Martin-que. 
 
 Central Egypt. 
 
 Upper Egypt. 
 
 
 Water 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Glucose 
 
 Celluluse 
 
 Ash 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 72-12 
 
 17 -SO 
 
 0-28 
 
 9-30 
 
 0-40 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 72-12 
 
 16-20 
 
 1-30 
 
 9-20 
 
 0-35 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 72-13 
 
 18-10 
 
 0-25 
 
 9-10 
 
 0-42 
 
 
 99-90 
 
 99-17 
 
 100-00 
 
 In the Juice of the Cane. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Crystallisable sugar 19-64 
 
 Non-crystallisable sugar 0-30 
 
 Ash 0-25 
 
 Moisture 79-44 
 
 Organic matter, &c 0-37 
 
 100-00 
 
 Analyses of Vakious Species of Sugar Cane, made by Dn. Icebt. 
 
 Diard 
 
 Guirogham 
 
 ), 
 
 ,j 
 Pinang . . 
 
 Bellougot 
 
 Bamboo . . 
 Tahiti . . 
 
 Water. 
 
 Per cent. 
 0-698 
 0-703 
 0-682 
 0-703 
 0-697 
 0-678 
 0-690 
 0-716 
 0-703 
 0-729 
 0-695 
 0-669 
 0-703 
 
 Per cent. 
 0-200 
 0-197 
 0-209 
 0-186 
 0-196 
 0-196 
 0-198 
 0-197 
 0-203 
 0-197 
 0-190 
 0-214 
 0-210 
 
 Fibre. 
 
 Per cent. 
 0-102 
 0-100 
 0-109 
 0-111 
 0-107 
 0-126 
 0-112 
 0-087 
 0-094 
 0-084 
 0-115 
 0-117 
 0-107 
 
 The quantity of cane grown per acre weighs from 30 to 40 
 
CANE SffGAK. 155' 
 
 tons, SO that witli a percentage of sugar of 18 per cent., tlie 
 crop of one acre wotild contain from 5 to 6 tons of sugar. 
 
 However, 18 per cent, is rather a high percentage, and in wet 
 seasons, or in ratoons, the juice is not so sweet. 15 to 10 per- 
 cent, of sugar may be taken as more correct for a general crop, 
 consisting partly of plant canes, and partly of first and second 
 ratoons. 
 
 This would still give from 4 to 5 tons of sugar per acre ; hut 
 unfortunately, planters seldom make more than 2 to 3 tons per 
 acre, as a large quantity of sugar remains either in the megass, or 
 is lost in manufacture. 
 
 The sugar-cane contains about 88 per cent, of juice, of which 
 the best mills generally express only 70 per cent., and inferior 
 mills only 60 to 65 per cent. ; thus nearly 20 per cent, of 
 juice is left in the megass, representing about 4 per cent, of" 
 sugar. 
 
 In an elaborate report on the yield of sugar in Eeunion, on 
 estates belonging to the Credit Foncier Colonial, which are well 
 managed, and which have first-class machinery, it is stated that . 
 of 16 per cent, of sugar contained in the cane — 
 
 4 per cent, is lost in the megass, 
 2J per cent, is lost in manufacture and molasses, 
 and only 9| per cent, of actual sugar is recovered. 
 
 16 per cent. 
 
 This result is still a very good one, for most usines make only 
 6 to 7 per cent, of sugar, or only about 50 per cent, of the actual) 
 percentage in the cane ! 
 
 Professor Harrison, in his recent investigations on three different 
 estates in Barbados, ascertained that about 40 per cent, of crystal- 
 lisable sugar was lost. He found the cane to analyse about 17 
 per cent, of sugar, and the juice about 19 per cent. 
 
 The mills yielded from 69 to 65 per cent, of juice, thus over 
 20 per cent, of juice was left in the megass. 
 
 The juice is expressed by heavy mills, and various means are- 
 used to increase the yield, but it has not yet been possible to 
 recover all, or nearly all, the juice the canes contain. 
 
 Much more satisfactory results are obtained in the manufacture 
 of sugar from beetroots on the Continent, where the juice is- 
 extracted by diffusion, and this is one reason why beet sugar 
 manufacturers have been able to compete successfully with cane 
 sugar in spite of great natural disadvantages. 
 
 Of course bounties given by continental governments on ex- 
 ported sugar have greatly assisted the beet sugar manufacturers, 
 and have been the means of encouraging the beetroot cultivation,, 
 but if planters in the colonies could only get all the sugar they 
 grow, viz., 4 to 5 tons per acre, they would soon destroy the been 
 sugar industry in spite of bounties and other advantages. 
 
 Beetroots contain from 11 to 12 per cent, of sugar, and about 
 
1S6 SUGAE. 
 
 13^ tons of roots are raised per acre, yielding about Ij tons of 
 sugar. 
 
 The contineutal sugar factories obtain about 9J per cent, of sugar, 
 
 and 2 per cent, of molasses. 
 
 11^ per cent. 
 
 Thus little or no loss of sugar is experienced. 
 
 The extraction of the juice by diffusion, -which works so suc- 
 cessfully with beetroot, has recently been also introduced in the 
 colonies, and although it meets with great difficulties, it would 
 appear that the general adoption of the diffusion process in the 
 colonies may still be the means of enabling planters to hold their 
 own in the sugar market. 
 
 Trials made witir the diffusion process in Java have shewn that 
 only 1 per cent, of sugar remained in the megass ; therefore, of 
 16 per cent, of tugar which the cane contained, 14 per cent, was 
 extracted by the diffusion process. 
 
 The trials are still being continued, and it remains to be seen 
 whether this 14 per cent, can be turned into actual sugar ; but it 
 seems already to be settled that diffusion of canes is practicable, 
 and any minor difficulties will no doubt be overcome in time. 
 
 A great consideration for planters is the question of fuel, which 
 is so very expensive in the colonies, and hitherto the megass from 
 the mills, after drying, has been nearly sufficient to boil down the 
 juice. The megass obtained by diffusion is much wetter and 
 difficult to dry to make it fit for fuel. 
 
 If other colonies would follow the example of the Java planters 
 and make further trials with the diffusion process, no doubt rapid 
 progress would be made in the improvements of manufacture, so 
 that it may be possible in the end for planters to regain their 
 former prosperity. 
 
 The enormous increase in the production of sugar will prevent 
 prices from regaining for the future the former high level, and 
 our colonies can only hope to compete successfully by increasing 
 the yield, and reducing the cost of production. 
 
 American Pboddction of Sugar. 
 
 Sritish Guiana. — This is essentially a sugar-producing colony. 
 
 There were 1C5 sugar estates in active operation in 1885, 
 Jiaving an aggregate area under cane cultivation of 75,344 acres. 
 The sugar crop for that year yielded about 107,028 hogsheads, 
 The sugar factories here are among the finest in the world. The 
 crop of the colony, on an average, exceeds 110,000 tons ; and in 
 1884 rose to- 139,296. The sugars exported have justly a well- 
 known reputation, the term " Demerara crystals " having become 
 a household word. 
 
CANK S0GAE. 157 
 
 All classes of sugar are mamifactured in the colony, from the 
 Muscovado sugar made by the old process of boiling in open 
 kettles, and known to our ancestors as brown or moist, in distinc- 
 tion from lump or refined, to the clear white crystals, polarizing 
 99 • 50 per cent, of pure sugar, obtained by boiling in vacuo cane 
 juice cleaned and clarified by the latest and most approved 
 methods. 
 
 A sugar estate here is divided into fields of from 5 to 10 acres 
 in extent by a series of cross canals, and the method of planting 
 the cane is simple and easy when labour is at command. The 
 brushwood and grass having been cut down and weeded, are 
 piled into rows, 6 to 8 feet apart, across the intended beds into 
 which the field is to be divided. These beds are formed by digging 
 open small drains, 2 feet wide and 2 feet deep, at intervals of every 
 30 or 36 feet, across the entire field, beginning within a few yards 
 of the canal, in the centre of the estate, and running to the side 
 draining trenches, into which they empty themselves. The soil 
 from these small drains having been carefully thrown upon the 
 beds, so as to raise and round them off in the middle, narrow 
 banks or ridges of earth are made across them, from drain to drain, 
 parallel to and equidistant between the rows of grass and brush- 
 wood ; and in these spaces, between the banks of earth and grass, 
 the canes are planted in line, each line being 3 or 4 feet apart, and 
 each cane plant 9 or 10 inches from the next. The plants are 
 procured by cutting off the tops or upper joints of growing canes 
 into lengths of 10 or 12 inches, which are thrust in a slanting 
 direction into the well-stirred ground, and in ten days or so the 
 long grass-like leaves begin to spring from the eyes at every 
 joint. These young canes require to be kept well weeded, and 
 moulded about the roots from the ridges of earth or decaying grass 
 on either side of them, which had been previously prepared for 
 that purpose ; and this must be repeated as long as there is room 
 for the labourers to pass between the rows, which, according to 
 the season, will be until the plants have attained the age of six or 
 eight months, after which time the spreading of numerous leaves 
 from each stock will have covered the surface of the field with so 
 dense a jungle as in a great measure to prevent any further growth 
 of weeds. When about nine months old, the cane throws out its 
 " arrow," a long reed-like stem, surmounted with a tuft of waving 
 downy blossom. At this period the plant is poor and weak, and 
 little more than a mass of water ; it soon, however, recovers, and 
 in twelve or thirteen months from the time of planting is considered 
 at maturity, having then sometimes attained a length of 20 to 25 
 feet, but more frequently of 10 or 12 feet, about as thick as the 
 wrist, and divided into joints like a bamboo. When ripe, the canes 
 are cut down to the very ground, in lengths of 8 or 4 feet, and 
 thrown into punts, which are towed along the canal by mules or 
 oxen to the wet dock at the door of the sugar mill. Immediately 
 after cutting, the large quantity of " trash," or dry leaves, is rolled 
 clear of the cane stumps, and heaped in rows, there to decay and 
 form a rich manure for the succeeding crop. In a few dajs the 
 
158 SUGAR, 
 
 stumps throw out their shoots, and the same routine of cultivation 
 is repeated for twelve months more, any vacant spaces where plants 
 may have missed being carefully supplied. The canes of the first 
 year are called "plant canes," those of the second and subsequent 
 years being distinguished as " ratoons "; and these ratoons have 
 been known to be produced from the first plant for twenty years 
 and upwards, the canes having been annually cut down and the 
 stumps allowed to shoot again. But this continued reproduction 
 from the same stocks of course causes the canes to degenerate, and 
 Tto yield less abundantly. An acre of newly planted land will give 
 2 tons of sugar for the first year, gradually falling off to not more 
 than one-fourth of that quantity as the stocks become old. The 
 productive power of the greater part of the soil of British Guiana, 
 indeed, appears to be unlimited. As an instance, it may be men- 
 tioned that, on an estate in Essequibo, the return obtained in 
 1851 from certain lands, which had been properly worked and 
 perfectly drained, amounted to a fraction within 4 tons of sugar 
 per acre. 
 
 The plan on which a sugar estate in this colony is laid out is 
 described in the first ' Eejport on Thorough Drainage,' by the late 
 JDr. Shier, agricultural chemist to the colony : 
 
 " The plantations are generally narrow rectangular strips of 
 land with a facade or water frontage on the coast, the rivers, or 
 •canals. The facade varies from 100 to 300 Ehynland rods (12 '32 
 feet). 
 
 " Exceptional cases occur where, from an estate being prevented 
 from extending far back, extra facade has been allowed, giving 
 to the estate more of a square form. Every estate is bounded by 
 four dams ; the front dam, excluding the sea, river, or canal ; the 
 back dam, parallel to the former, and excluding the bush water, 
 which, in heavy weather, is very considerable, and would inundate 
 the cultivation. The clay thrown out in forming the adjacent 
 •canals or trenches affords the material;of which the dams are formed. 
 Along each of the remaining sides there runs a dam from front to 
 back. The produce is brought to the buildings (often situated in 
 front) by canals. In fact, water transport of produce is universal. 
 The arrangement of the navigation system is very simple. From 
 front to back, and right in the centre of the estate, there runs a 
 dam called the middle walk, with a canal on each side of it. These 
 are termed centre canals, and are wide enough to admit of two 
 punts passing each other. The dam forms a path for the cattle 
 that draw the punts. At regular and comparatively short intervals 
 branch canals strike off at right angles from the centre canals, and 
 proceed to within a rod of the draining or side-line trenches, which 
 are parallel to the side dams before described, and adjacent to 
 them. These branch canals constitute the transverse boundaries 
 of the fields, and navigation canals thus lie on three sides of every 
 field, and admit of canes being carried by a short path to the punts. 
 On some estates there is only a single centre navigation canal. 
 These canals are principally supplied by the rain, but in protracted 
 droughts, and especially when they are shallow, they are liable to 
 
CANE SUGAR. 159 
 
 mn sliort of water ; hence -whenever access can be got to creek, 
 lake, or bush water, it is brought from behind to supply the 
 navigation system. In other instances salt water has to be taken 
 in from the front when a cane crop cannot otherwise be got off the 
 ground. The drainage of an estate is equally simple. Prom back 
 to front, and immediately adjacent to the side-line dams, run the two 
 main draining trenches, generally dug considerably deeper than the 
 navigation canals. The small drains, again, cut at distances two 
 to three rods apart, commence within a bed of the middle-walk 
 side of the field, and terminate in the side-line draining trenches, 
 being dug with a fall in that direction. The small drains are thus 
 at right angles with the main draining trenches. In the front 
 dam the sluices or kokers are placed. Sometimes there is only one 
 •on an estate, but generally two, one at the end of each draining 
 trench. The main draining trenches are generally connected 
 tpgether by a trench running along behind the front dam." 
 
 The old processes employed in the manufacture of sugar are as 
 follow : — 
 
 The cane-juice is received from! the mill into cisterns or boxes, 
 where such a proportion of lime is added as is considered necessary 
 for its proper defecation. It is thence run into a series of cast-iron 
 vessels called " coppers," which are built into brickwork, and 
 heated by the direct action of a single fire in the ordinary manner. 
 In these the juice is, as far as possible, cleansed by means of 
 skimming, and evaporated down, until it has reached that degree 
 of concentration technically known as the " striking point," when 
 it is transferred into shallow wooden vessels and allowed to 
 crystallize. 
 
 Bisulphite of Lime. — This agent has been used in the manufacture 
 for many years, but at the present time much more extensively 
 than ever. It is in some cases used even when the ordinary process 
 is followed. There are several establishments in or near George- 
 town for the manufacture of bisulphite of lime, so great is the 
 demand. The apparatus for the manufacture of sugar is now 
 wonderfully compact and perfect. The improvements likely to 
 be made will, no doubt, be in the substitution of shallow evaporating 
 vessels for the taches or teaches at present in use. 
 
 As an improvement upon this rude process, separate defecating 
 vessels or clarifiers, heated either by steam or by the open fire, 
 have been introduced on the majority of estates, and in some 
 instances vessels in which the defecating liquor is allowed to 
 subside previous to being run into the coppers, have also been used 
 with advantage. 
 
 For upwards of forty years vacuum pans have been in use on 
 some plantations in this colony. Of late years their use has been 
 greatly extended, and, from present appearances, it is likely 
 that at no distant date no important estate in the colony will be 
 without one. The advantages attending the use of the vacuum 
 pan are chiefly these : 
 
 (1) A much more speedy manufacture of sugar than by the 
 ordinary process. 
 
160 SUGAE. 
 
 (2) The production of a sugar (groceiy quality) which goes^ 
 directly into consumption, without passing through the hands of 
 the retiner. 
 
 (3) The avoidance of all loss from drainage on the homeward 
 voyage. 
 
 The loss from drainage of molasses of common process sugars is- 
 estimated at 10 per cent, of the original weight. 
 
 On plantations where the vacuum pan is used the process may 
 be thus stated : As the cane-juice falls from the mill rollers it is 
 mixed with a certain proportion (half per cent.) of bisulphite of 
 lime. It is then thrown up to the clarifiers, and boiled by means 
 of steam. A due amount ot milk of lime is added, and the contents 
 of the clarifier allowed to remain at rest (half an hour) till the 
 impurities have settled, when the clear juice is run down to the 
 copper wall. In some cases filtration through bag filters is 
 practised as the juice leaves the clarifier. On some estates the 
 contents of the clarifiers, at a boiling temperature, are run into 
 subsiding vessels, in which the sediment takes place, from which 
 the juice passes either through bag filters, or at once to the copper 
 wall. On the copper wall the cane juice is evaporated to a density 
 of from 25° to 30" of Beaume's saccharometer, when it is either 
 taken directly into the vacuum pan or is first passed through bag, 
 filters. When the syrup is sufficiently concentrated in the vacuum, 
 pan, i.e., crystals are ^formed to the satisfaction of the pan boiler^ 
 the contents are run into shallow wooden coolers, and after a 
 short time transferred in portions to the centrifugal machines, in 
 which it is freed from molasses. In some cases, while in the 
 centrifugal machines, syrup is used to brighten the colour, and in 
 other cases a small quantity of water. The sugar is then removed 
 from the centrifugal machines, and at once packed into hogsheads. 
 The sugar thus manufactured in this colony is of a pale straw 
 colour, uniform crystal (not too large) of great brilliancy, and 
 dry. 
 
 JTrom the various improvements introduced, the manufacture of 
 sugar is now a very speedy process ; for instances are known 
 where from canes in the field in the morning,' the sugar has beeni , 
 on shipboard before night. 
 
 The late Sir K. Schomburgk, in an interesting pamphlet on 
 British Guiana, observes that 8 hogsheads of sugar per acre is an 
 ordinary crop, 5000 to 6000 lbs. (53 cwts.) per acre not extra- 
 ordinary ; and that on an estate called " Mary's Hope," on the' 
 Courantine coast, 8000 lbs. = 73J cwts. have been produced. In 
 British India the produce is only from 12 to 15 and 20 cwts. per 
 acre, on the very best land. In Trinidad the produce cannot be 
 estimated at less than 20 cwts. per acre. 
 
CANE SUGAR. 161 
 
 Distillation of Eum. 
 
 The quantity of rum manufactured in British Guiana is very con- 
 siderable. Formerly it was estimated that for every hogshead of 
 sugar produced by an estate, there should also be produced a 
 puncheon of rum. This estimate still holds good on estates whex e 
 the ordinary process of the manufacture of sugar is practised ; but 
 on estates where improved methods, with the use of the vacuum 
 pan, are followed, the quantity of rum does not exceed one-half of 
 this old estimate. The great object of proprietors is to extract the 
 largest amount of sugar from the cane juice, and diminish as much 
 as possible the production of rum and molasses. 
 
 The rum produced in Demerara does not bring so high a price 
 in the market as that of Jamaica ; not that less skill is employed 
 in its manufacture, for no expense has been spared to obtain the 
 best machinery and make use of the best methods. The reason of 
 the inferiority arises chiefly from two causes : 
 
 (1) From the very impure cane juice obtained from the sugar- 
 cane grown in the colony. So much salt still remains in the soil 
 that on many estates the presence of salt in the cane juice can 
 readily be perceived by the taste. 
 
 (2) From being unable to employ water for condensing the 
 spirit at a lower temperature than 84° Fahrenheit. 
 
 In Jamaica the spring water brought from the mountains is of a 
 much lower temperature. 
 
 10,349 puncheons of molasses were exported from Guiana in 
 1885. 
 
 Jamaica rum is the finest in the world, holding the first place in 
 all markets for quality and merit, and commanding a higher price 
 than the rum of any other country. It has always carried off the 
 highest awards at the different International Exhibitions where it 
 has been shown. In the year 1834 as much as 3,500,000 gallons • 
 of rum were exported from Jamaica. Between 1870 and 1880, the 
 average annual export was about 20,000 puncheons of 84 gallons. 
 Since then the quantity shipped annually has ranged between 
 1,500,000 gallons and 2,000,000 gallons. In 1885 2,080,471 gallons 
 were imported into England. In addition to the rum exported, 
 about 4000 puncheons are yearly made by the large proprietors 
 for home consumption. 
 
 Jamaica has an advantage over all other cane-growing countries, 
 its rum being worth from two to three times the price of the rum 
 of other places. As first-class rum pays better than sugar, it is an 
 object with the Jamaica planter, in most cases, to make a great 
 quantity of rum, and on many estates as large a proportion as he 
 can without injuring its quality. In 1838 the proportion of rum 
 made was about 36 puncheons to every 100 hogsheads of sugar, 
 now about 176 puncheons are made to every 100 hogsheads. 
 The average quantity made yearly in Jamaica for the last ten 
 years has been about 25,000 puncheons. This is chiefly to be 
 ascribed to the adoption of the centrifugal machine, and other 
 
162 
 
 SUGAR. 
 
 improvements, by which a larger proportion, of molasses than 
 hitherto has heen saved and utilized in the distilleries. 
 
 Formerly England received nearly all the rum shipped from 
 Jamaica, hut during recent years the United States and Germany 
 are becoming direct importers on a considerable scale. 
 
 The small settlers do not manufacture rum from the sugar 
 produced by them, as the working of stills of a smaller capacity 
 than 300 gallons is under such legal restrictions, as almost to be 
 prohibitive. In 1855 we imported as much as 8,714,337 gallons of 
 rum, but now we do not receive so much. All sugar-producing 
 colonies mate more or less rum, but the smaller colonies use up 
 locally what they make. Of 6,378,000 gallons received in 1887 
 nearly all came from our own colonial possessions. In 1886 
 British Guiana sent us 2,851,000 gallons of rum, and the West 
 Indian islands 1,600,000 gallons. It is curious to notice how this 
 single colony is outstripping the West Indian islands in the 
 distillation of rum. Ten years ago the quantity was about equal : 
 now Demerara has doubled its production, and surpasses the other, 
 sugar colonies combined. In 1885 British Guiana exported 
 28,353 puncheons, against 33,400 puncheons in 1884. The largest 
 shipment was 36,219 puncheons in 1876. 
 
 In Trinidad only 13,000 gallons of rum were exported in 1876, 
 but the quantity shipped had increased in 1886 to 72,525 gallons. 
 In Tobago there are thirty-two stills on the sugar estates, but 
 only seventeen in operation. In 1857 St. Kitts exported 681,857 
 gallons of rum; and in 1882 only 287,284 gallons; British 
 Honduras has thirty stills on the sugar estates, but only exports 
 about 28,000 gallons. Ten years ago, Mauritius shipped 1,000,000 
 gallons of rum, but now exports 30 per cent. less. The French 
 sugar colonies send their rum to France. Guadaloupe produced, in 
 1885, 600,000 gallons; Martinique, 3,000,000 gallons; Eeunion, 
 700,000 gallons. In some of these colonies rum passes under the 
 name of Tafia and Guildive. 
 
 Cuba exported, in 1880, 9,873 pipes of rum of 125 gallons. 
 
 About 4,000,000 gallons of rum are taken annually for home 
 consumption in the United Kingdom, and the supply of the Eoyal 
 and Merchant navies. 
 
 From Brazil the exports of rum have been as follows : 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 1839-40 1,509,170 
 
 1879-80 827,082 
 
 1880-81 
 1881-82 
 
 Gallons. 
 676,250 
 530,250 
 
 Formerly the molasses from British Guiana was exported to 
 Great Britain and purchased by refiners, but lately a great deal 
 has been sent to the United States, where a higher price has been 
 obtained. It may also be stated that a considerable proportion of 
 the sugar of the colony has gone to the same market. 
 
 Eum when rectified is colourless and possessed of a peculiar 
 (dour, arising, it is said, from an essential oil contained in the rind 
 of the cane, and which finds its way, in the skimmings of the cane 
 
CANE SUGAR. 163 
 
 juice, during its evaporation, in tlie sweets used in setting up 
 liquor for fermentation. Eum is coloured by caramel prepared 
 from good muscovado sugar. 
 
 The proper manufacture of good colouring matter for rum is 
 very important. For this purpose the best sugar should be 
 selected, and placed in sufficient quantity in a pan on an indepen- 
 dent fire. The sugar must be constantly stirred with a wooden 
 paddle during the action of the fire on the pan, in order to 
 prevent its getting a singed taste or fiavouv ; and when it comes 
 to a consistency, making it difficult to keep it in motion with the 
 paddle, the fire must be withdrawn, and high wines gradually 
 added to it, under the agitation of the paddle, until it comes to a 
 consistency of thick cream, so that the whole will be perfectly 
 dissolved. After this, it should be put into a cask placed on end, 
 with two cocks, one about 6 inches from the bottom of the cask, 
 the other about 2 inches from the bottom, and allowed to remain 
 undisturbed, in order to its depositing the sediment left in it, 
 .until it runs off from the upper cock entirely free from sediment. 
 It may then be used for colouring the rum, and about three pints 
 of good colouring matter, well concentrated, ought to be sufficient 
 for 100 gallons of spirit ; but different markets require different 
 shades of colour, and to regulate the shade of colour must be left to 
 the judgment of the person entrusted therewith. Great care 
 should always be taken that the colouring matter does not impart 
 any cloudiness to the rum, because when rum is cloudy the value 
 of it is very greatly deteriorated. 
 
 Colouring matter should be made in large quantitj', because the 
 longer it is kept the purer it becomes. The strength of the rum 
 generally exported is about 35 per cent, overproof. 
 
 French Guiana. — Sugar cultivation has been almost abandoned 
 here. In 1885 there were less than 100 acres under sugar cane, 
 and the produce was but 100,000 lbs. of sugar and a little 
 rum. 
 
 Surinam. — Sugar is the staple product of this Dutch colony, and 
 the manufacture is steadily carried on, although the production of 
 sugar shows no increase, the average crop being about 10,000 to 
 12,000 tons per annum. 
 
 Several of the wealthiest owners of estates have introduced the 
 vacuum-pan process, making their sugar thereby, and thus ren- 
 dering it more marketable and of higher value. They have also 
 been erecting first-class distilleries on their estates, as, the price 
 of molasses being low, they find it more profitable to distil than to 
 sell the molasses. 
 
 Guatemala produces about 2000 tons of sugar yearly. 
 
 Brazil. — Sugar is one of the great articles of export from Brazil, 
 but it has not made the same progress that coffee has done ; its 
 culture has indeed in some provinces been stationary, owing to 
 the preference given to the growth of coffee and cotton, which are 
 for many reasons supposed to be more advantageous to the planter, 
 as requiring less capital and labour. The culture of the sugar- 
 cane is in general carried on in the most primitive manner, and, 
 
 M 2 
 
164 SUGAR. 
 
 owing to the rudeness of tlie macliinery and the want of know- 
 ledge of the latest and most improved processes of manufacture, 
 the quality of Brazilian sugar is, with some few exceptions of note, 
 greatly inferior to that of other American countries. However, in 
 this as in most other matters, the Brazilians are seeking to put 
 themselves on an equality with other nations, and many enter- 
 prising planters are availing themselves of the latest improve- 
 ments that machinists and scientific men have placed at their 
 disposal. 
 
 The variety of cane grown by preference in this country is 
 the Salangore, as the Cayenne cane, so long in use (from the 
 negligence exhibited in its culture), became a victim to the epi- 
 demic that attacked it, whereby it lost all its saccharine qualities. 
 But all recent introductions in Brazil present the same phenomena 
 at the onset as was the case with the Cayenne cane ; and new 
 substitutes will be of little avail if the method and care in its 
 cultivation be carried out in the old fashion. 
 
 About seventeen varieties of this plant have been acclimatized 
 and cultivated in Brazil, and considerable quantities of plants are 
 annually distributed to planters by the Imperial Institute of 
 Agriculture. 
 
 The whole belt of soil from the Amazon to San Paulo is suitable 
 to the cultivation of the sugar-cane, although it is more fully 
 developed in the northern provinces of Pernambuco, Alagoas, 
 Sergipe, Bahia, and Eio Janeiro. 
 
 Its cultivation is remunerative, especially the species called 
 Salangore, which yields 11 to 14 per cent, of juice. An active, 
 intelligent labourer is supposed to take care of two hectares. The 
 cost of production in Eio, where wages are high, is about £14 
 per hectare. In the manufacture of sugar great advantage has 
 attended the use of steam as the boiling medium of liquids at a 
 low temperature, and that of turbines for the forced clearing of 
 the crystallized material. 
 
 The old system of planting, as handed down from colonial days, 
 is carried on, but there are indications of an awakening spirit to 
 adopt superior methods. Ploughing and manuring, as understood 
 by an Englishman, are almost entirely ignored. There are within 
 the province of Bahia 1400 " engenhos " for manufacturing sugar, 
 besides a great number of small growers, who make a coarse sort 
 of sugar (rapadura), in ordinary use among the population of the 
 wild extent of this country, and not brought to market. 
 
 Nearly all the soil of Brazil, especially those provinces situated 
 between Eio Grande do Nord and Eio Janeiro inclusive, are 
 especially favourable to the growth of the sugar-cane. Often the 
 plantations last sixteen to twenty years, yielding good results. 
 At Matto Grosso there are plantations of forty years' cultivation 
 which are yet vigorous in production. The sugar-cane reproduces 
 itself with such intensity in this province on the borders of the 
 livers, that it is often necessary to prune the canes. The culture 
 of the cane is profitable in Brazil, even in silicious soils which are 
 less favourable for the growth. In newly-cleared lands there will 
 
CANE SUGAK. 1G5 
 
 be often obtained at tlie end of fifteen montHs 20 tons of cane per 
 hectare (of 2^ acres). Fifty or sixty central sugar works have 
 been established in fourteen provinces, which means a guaranteed 
 interest from Government of 7 per cent, on their capital. 
 
 The larger planters manufacture their molasses into rum, and 
 many of the small growers produce a superior quality of spirit 
 (tafia) which is much prized. 
 
 The average export of sugar from Brazil in the twenty-five years 
 ending in 1865 was 41,000 tons. The total from 1864 to 1872 
 averaged 142,000 tons, but in late years the production has doubled 
 — reaching 250,000 tons. The exports were : — 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1879-80 100,000 
 
 1880-81 80,000 
 
 1881-82 .. , 123,000 
 
 British Sonduras. — The soil of this colony allows the sugar-cane 
 to ratoon freely for, it is said, thirty years, and produces two to 
 three tons on the average to the acre annually for the first two or 
 three years. 
 
 The number of estates, as well as the area actually under canes, 
 has greatly diminished. In 1876 there were 9636 acres under 
 cane ; there are now only 2300 acres, and twelve estates have 
 dwindled down to four or five. The exports of sugar have 
 averaged the last few years about 2000 tons, and the rum shipped 
 has dropped from 66,000 gallons in 1871 to 8677 gallons in 
 1881. 
 
 The chief cause of this decline is the labour supply and the 
 competition between mahogany culture and the planters. The 
 Bourbon cane is that exclusively cultivated here. 
 
 The sugar-cane succeeds very well in most of the countries of 
 Mexico and Central America, south of 28°. The most productive 
 plantations are on the declivities of the table-land, and in the 
 lower plains to the elevation of 5400 feet above the sea ; but in 
 places well sheltered the sugar-cane grows nearly as high as 7000 
 feet. The plantations are most numerous in the valley of the 
 Eio Santiago, and on the plains towards the Pacific. Their 
 produce is very considerable, but nearly the whole of the sagar is 
 consumed in the country. 
 
 Colombia. — The sugar-cane has hitherto been cultivated in Car- 
 thagena only in small quantities for making rum and a spirit 
 called anisado. The climate and rich soil are peculiarly adapted 
 to the growth of the sugar-cane. The chief di£S.culty is labour, 
 and they have imported Indian coolies from Jamaica. Mexico 
 produces about 5000 tons. 
 
 The sugar-cane is among the chief objects of culture in Sal- 
 vador, the export of sugar ranking third of the articles of 
 commerce. Land is cheap and labour plentiful. The machinery 
 erected in the large sugar factories is of the finest English or 
 German make, with all the latest improvements. The native 
 mills are, however, of wood, worked by oxen. The juice extracted 
 
166 SUGAE. 
 
 is toiled over open fires until it granulates. Directly the rainy- 
 season is over, in November and December, tlie ploughing begins. 
 "When once planted, the cane yields from five to eight crops before 
 it is exhausted, and where the land is very rich it has been known 
 to yield in succession eighteen to twenty crops. A manzana (100 
 square yards) is estimated to produce about 1500 cwts. of canes, 
 yielding from 9 to 10 per cent, of sugar. 
 
 The agricultural future of Guatemala lies in sugar. The cane 
 grows well, and is unusually full of saccharine matter ; sugar land 
 is abundant ; labour is generally cheap, although somewhat scarce ; 
 and roads and railway's, to secure exportation, are being slowly 
 but surely made. 44,000 quintals were exported in 1883, and it 
 has been stated that, in spite of the expense of conveying it to the 
 coast and placing it on board ship, the greater part of it realised a 
 profit of £2 a ton in London. The following statistics are fur- 
 nished by the Government for 1883 : — 2247 estates, with an extent 
 of 13,667 English acres, planted with cane, produced during the 
 year 154,596 arrobas (an arroba equals 25 lbs.) of sugar, valued at 
 1 dol. 75c. the arroba ; 67,183 loads of " panela," unrefined brown 
 sugar, valued at 8 dols. a load ; 159,184 arrobas of syrup at 25 c. 
 the arroba ; and 64,497 quintals (a quintal equals 100 lbs.) of 
 muscovado, valued at 2 dols. the quintal. 
 
 Venezuela. — This State has never been a sugar-exporting country, 
 and the export which has been carried on may be said to have 
 been almost exclusively confined to brown or muscovado sugar. 
 
 The variety of cane chiefly cultivated here is the Otaheite, 
 which has superseded the Creole cane. There are about 100,000 
 acres under culture with sugar-cane. The production in 1884 was 
 76,320 tons, nearly all of which, as well as the rum made, was 
 locally consumed, the exports of sugar being now only 681 tons. 
 Some years back, owing to a demand, 1000 to 2000 tons were 
 exported. 
 
 Peru. — The sugar-cane grows here with the greatest luxuriance ; 
 the cultivation is regulated by irrigation, and the cane grows 
 without intermission by ratoons. The cane has 65 per cent, of 
 juice of an average density of 10 degrees. In Northern Peru a 
 ton of canes gives 200 gallons of juice, yielding 1"35 lbs. of sugar 
 per gallon, or 270 lbs. from a ton of canes — 8^ per cent. The first 
 planting in Northern, or more tropical, Peru takes fifteen months 
 to mature, after that twelve months ; but in Southern Peru the 
 first plant canes take twenty-four months to mature. Three or 
 four ratoon crops are obtained before replanting is necessary. The 
 green and the ripe cane are seen in the same field (though the best 
 season for planting is November) ; they may be cutting at one end 
 and planting at the other, so that the ground is never idle. 
 
 Manufacturing the sugar is carried on for eight months, the rest 
 of the year being given to repairing the irrigation channels, the 
 buildings, &c. These particulars refer to the Pacific slope of the 
 country and its lower part. The cane is cultivated on both ; but, 
 while it will grow at 6500 feet elevation on the eastern slope, 
 4500 is its limit on the western slope. In some of the mountainous 
 
CANE SUGAR. 
 
 167 
 
 parts of the former the juice will not crystallize, and is distilled 
 into rum (aguardiente), of which the natives are very fond. There 
 it ripens in seven or eight months from planting. The great 
 sugar district is in North Peru, west slope. There are about 130 
 large sugar estates on the coast. 
 
 The average yearly produce there from 1869 to 1873 was ahout 
 36,000 tons; from 1875 to 1880, 68,092 tons. The crop in 1875 
 was 60,000 tons, and, 1876, 70,000 tons; about 6000 tons go to 
 Chili. The average total crops were in 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1853-67 42,078 
 
 1869-73 61,863 
 
 1875-80 84,496 
 
 Louisiana. — In 1872-73 the crop was 108,520 hogsheads of 
 sugar, and 8,890,640 gallons of molasses, made by 1181 sugar- 
 houses ; since then the production has been 
 
 Hogsheads. 
 
 1874 116,867 
 
 1875 144,146 
 
 1876 169,331 
 
 1877 127,753 
 
 1878 213,221 
 
 1879 169,972 
 
 Hogsheads. 
 
 1880 218,314 
 
 1881 122,982 
 
 1882 241,220 
 
 1883 221,515 
 
 1884 170,431 
 
 The product of a hand on a sugar estate is put down at the 
 cultivation of 5 acres, producing 5000 lbs. of sugar and 125 gallons 
 of molasses. Two crops are made in succession on the same land, 
 one of plant cane and one of ratoons ; it then lies fallow two years, 
 or is planted with Indian com or peas. An acre yields about 
 1200 lbs. of sugar. 
 
 While the sugar-cane contains nearly twice as much sugar as 
 the beetroot, in the process of extraction more sugar is obtained 
 from the latter than the former. Millions of pounds of sugar are 
 thrown away in Louisiana every year. The sugar exists in the 
 cane in a crystallized form, and cannot be pressed out. It must 
 be dissolved out by water. The fact that the Louisiana sugar 
 industry needs the aid of science fully to develop the wealth of 
 the State need not be longer concealed. The agriculturists of 
 Europe call in science to their aid, and are thus enabled to compete 
 with their less enterprising competitors who are blessed with 
 superior natural advantages. 
 
 The following figures are well worthy of perusal. They are 
 from parties well versed in the subject. The amount of beetroots 
 contained in an acre weighs, on an average, 30,000 lbs. The cost 
 of cultivating beetroot in Germany is 16*55 francs; the internal 
 revenue, 19 "95 francs — 6-70 dollars per ton of 2200 lbs. Culti- 
 vation of beetroots in France, 18 francs; internal revenue, 32-35 
 francs — 10-07 dollars for 2200 lbs. Percentage of sugar in roots 
 in France, 5 to 12 per cent. ; percentage of sugar in roots in 
 Germany, 6 to 13 per cent. The internal revenue is in France 
 fixed on the juice after it is extracted from the beets; in Germany 
 
168 SUGAR. 
 
 it is levied on the -weight of the beets. Quantity of sugar manu- 
 factured from 100 lbs. of beets in France, 7 lbs. = 14-28 per cent. ; 
 quantity of sugar manufactured from 100 lbs. of beets in Germany, 
 8 lbs. = 12*5 per cent. In both France and Germany the average 
 per cent, of molasses is 3 -SB per cent. An acre of sugar-cane 
 (canes that are brought to the sugar-house to be manufactured 
 into sugar) costs in culture in Louisiana 50 dollars. In one season 
 148,740 acres of canes were taken to the mill in Louisiana. The 
 average quantity of canes per acre was 44,068 lbs., and the coet 
 per 2200 lbs. 2-50 dollars. That year 6,553,108,807 lbs. of canes 
 were passed through the mill ; the juice produced had a density of 
 8° Beaume, equal to 14-4 per cent, of pure sugar per 100 lbs. 
 juice ; but only 12 -96 lbs. of sugar for the 90 lbs. juice contained 
 in 100 lbs. of canes. When the sugar is drawn from the batterie 
 or strike-pan it contains water of crystallization equal to 15 per 
 cent., which, added fo the 12- 96 of sugar, are thus divided: — 
 8-942 sugar, 5-962 molasses — 14-904 per cent. 
 
 The question now comes. Can machinery be made that will 
 extract the whole of the sugar from the cane? Many of the 
 machineries now in use in Europe for the manufacture of beet 
 sugar would exhaust almost the whole of the saccharine contained 
 in the sugar-cane. But those apparatus cost very high in money, 
 and require a great many hands to work them ; presses to operate 
 on 500,000 lbs. cane in 24 hours would necessitate from 48 to 50 
 hands to attend to them ; to the juice water must be added at the 
 rate of 25 to 80 per cent. The quantity of sugar left in the pulp, 
 from 1 to IJ per cent. Diffusion to work the same quantity of 
 cane would require, to attend the diffusion vessels, &c., 20 to 25 
 hands; some 20 per cent, of water is added, and the cosettes or 
 slices return ^ per cent, of sugar. The use of centrifugals or 
 turbines to displace the saccharine from the pulp would be very 
 costly. A sugar-house to work 600,000 lbs. (nearly 230 tons) can© 
 per day would require 115 hands, to be all the time on duty. The 
 cost of a beetroot manufactory is from £32,000 to £40,000, and 
 some run as high as £160,000, £200,000, and even a great deal 
 more. One in the Grand Duchy of Baden, " "Waghausel," manu- 
 factures nearly 60,000 tons of sugar yearly, and has cost over 
 £1,000,000. Many of the planters are of opinion that beetroots 
 would be profitable in Louisiana as a sugar-rendering plant, and 
 could be cultivated in lieu of the sugar-cane. Sugar could not b& 
 made from beetroots with the existing machinery. Peligot is 
 right when he says : " If in Europe we had the sugar-cane, we 
 would furnish sugar to the world, and so cheap as to defy com- 
 petition." The apparatus used in Cuba will do better than either 
 presses or diffusion, the tanks being so constructed that a very 
 dense juice is produced. If the mill would give juice at ■ 8° 
 Beaume, the displacement apparatus with the same canes would 
 furnish juice at 8° - 6 to 9° Beaume. If more fuel is required, it is 
 simply because a larger quantity of sugar is produced. Two or 
 three hands can work the apparatus. Only one-half of the power 
 is required to slice canes that is now used to press the cane with 
 
CANE SUGAR. 169 
 
 rollers. The bagasse or trash used in Cuba contains 13 '5 lbs. of 
 sugar to 100 lbs. bagasse (each 100 lbs. of canes giving 40 lbs. 
 bagasse, 250 lbs. canes gave the 100 lbs. bagasse), and a little over 
 10 lbs. of the 13 "5 lbs. of sugar were extracted. Had sliced canes 
 been used instead of bagasse, the exhaustion would have beeti 
 much more complete. In evaporating sugar in Louisiana, fuel 
 equal to 1 lb. of coal is used to evaporate 3 lbs. of water. In 
 Europe 1 lb. of coal evaporates 6 lbs. of water in manufacturing 
 beetroot sugar. 
 
 The following details of the sugar-cane, its contents, and the 
 manufacture of sugar from it, are well worthy the attention of all 
 interested in its culture : — 
 
 1240 gallons of juice at 8° '5 Beaume produced on a plantation 
 1048 lbs. of sugar and 480 lbs. of molasses. 
 
 One gallon of juice at 8° • 5 Beaume will weigh 8*96 lbs. avoir- 
 dupois. Therefore, 1240 gallons of juice will weigh 11,111 lbs. 
 
 100 lbs. of cane contain 90 lbs. of juice; then 11,111 lbs. of juice 
 are produced by 12,345 lbs. of cane. 
 
 At 8° '5 Beaume the juice contains 15 "3 per cent, of pure and 
 dry sugar. If so, 11,111 lbs. of juice, having that density, will 
 produce 1700 lbs. of sugar. 
 
 When the sugar is taken out of the boiler it is combined with 
 water of crystallization, which being added to the 15 • 3 per cent, 
 of pure and dry sugar = 17 ■ 695 per cent, of sugar and molasses ; of 
 this three parts are sugar and two parts are molasses, and we have 
 for the 11,111 lbs. of juice at 17-595 per cent. = 1655 lbs., of which 
 1173 are sugar, and 482 molasses. 
 
 This plainly demonstrates that the loss in the manufacturing 
 was 427 lbs. of sugar and molasses. Also, we can perceive that 
 with 11 '8 lbs. of cane, 1 lb. of sugar and 0-48 of a pound of 
 molasses were produced; that, had there been no loss in manu- 
 facturing, 10*5 lbs. of cane would have produced 1 lb. of sugar 
 and 0"66 of a pound of molasses; and that, if no molasses had 
 been produced, but the whole juice had been converted into sugar, 
 1 lb. of sugar would have been produced by 7 • 26 lbs. of cane. 
 
 The land, according to quality, can grow or produce in Louisiana 
 from 13,000 to 45,000 of canes to the acre ; the length of the canes 
 will vary from 3 to 8 feet, their weight being on an average 10 
 ozs. avoirdupois to the running foot. 
 
 Canes 4*5 feet long, weighing each 3 lbs., and growing 350 per 
 row, of 100 feet long, would give 61,125 lbs. to the acre. As an 
 average, the acre can be set down at 60,000 lbs. 
 
 When canes are cut before they are injured by the cold, they 
 can be kept for making sugar from three to four months. They 
 lose some of their water of vegetation ; the sugar does not change 
 in the least, and stays in perfect preservation. 
 
 The joints of a cane that has dropped its leaf contain only 
 crystallizable sugar. The buds, or young suckers of the joints, 
 produce the larger part of the colouring matter found in the juice. 
 In Louisiana the density of the cane juice varies from 6° to 10° 
 Beaum^, 8°'5 Beaume being the average; 15-33 per cent, of 
 
170 SUGAR. 
 
 pure, dry sugar. Different species of cane contain from 12 to 16 
 per cent, of vegetable fibre, and bence from 84 to 88 per cent, of 
 juice. 
 
 Witb displacement of methodical washings, the sugar contained 
 in the sugar-cane can be easily exhausted. When thoroughly 
 defecated, the juice of the cane is very easily manufactured into 
 sugar, and the whole of the sugar-cane can be made to crystallize. 
 
 The planters require from 35 to 55, and even more, pounds of 
 cane to make 1 lb. of sugar and 0" 66 of a pound of molasses. The 
 average for the State is 2*25 lbs. of sugar and 1 • 50 lb. of molasses 
 to 100 lbs. of cane. 
 
 It has been demonstrated that 10*5 lbs. of cane can easily pro- 
 duce 1 lb. of sugar and • 66 of a pound of molasses ; then 6,000,000 
 lbs. of cane will produce equal to 
 
 571,428 1bB. ofsugar, atSc 45,713 24 
 
 380,952 lbs. molasses, at 4 c 15,238 08 
 
 60,951 32 
 
 Expenses, culture 5,000 00 
 
 Manufacture 11,951 32 
 
 Taxes, overseer, engineer, &c. .. 2,000 00 
 
 18,951 32 
 
 Total $42,000 00 
 
 Six million lbs. of cane manufactured into sugar of firsts, seconds, 
 &c., would produce 750,000 lbs. of white sugar and 140,000 lbs. 
 molasses. 
 
 Concrete sugar contains 10 per cent, less water than ordinary 
 sugars, which usually have sugar three and molasses two parts. 
 Thus, 6,000,000 lbs. of cane manufactured into concrete would 
 produce 867,510 lbs. ofsugar. 
 
 India. — The sugar-cane is a native of India and Indo-China, 
 where it was exclusively cultivated from remote ages down to the 
 middle of the thirteenth century. At this period the trade ex- 
 tended itself into the countries beyond the Ganges, and the 
 cultivation was speedily taken up in Arabia, Syria, and Egypt. 
 Gradually the plant was introduced into Cyprus and Sicily, and 
 thence into Madeira and the Canary Islands, ere long becoming in 
 Spain a favourite object of culture. In the beginning of the 
 sixteenth century the sugar-cane was imported into St. Thomas 
 and St. Domingo, where its culture was rapidly developed, and a 
 systematic trade established in those colonies. 
 
 The sugar-cane was doubtless known in India from time im- 
 memorial, and grown for food, as it still is in the present day, 
 chiefly in those regions which are unsuited for the manufacture of 
 sugar. From the elaborate investigations of Eitter it appears that 
 it was originally a native of Bengal and of the Indo-Chinese coun- 
 tries, as well as of Borneo, Java, Bali, Celebes, and other islands 
 of the Malay Archipelago ; but there is no evidence that it is now 
 found anywhere in a wUd state. 
 
 The extraction of the juice from the cane — the first step toward 
 
CANE SUGAE. 171 
 
 the manufaotm-e of raw sugar — was in early times effected hj the 
 rudest appliances. The stump of a tree, the upper part of which 
 was carved into a rude resemblance of a human head, was regarded 
 as a deity, which enabled the ancestor of the poor ryot of the 
 present day to obtain the juice which would yield the much- prized 
 sweet crystals. Into the hole representing the mouth of the 
 figure, or into one made lower down, was inserted the end of a 
 long pole, which served as a lever to crush the juice from a piece 
 of cane placed between it and the stump. The Buck Indians or 
 Caribs of British Guiana, it is curious to remark, now employ an 
 almost exactly similar contrivance for a like purpose.* 
 
 This ineffective method gave place to one by which the juice 
 was crushed out in a mortar. The primitive mill still used in 
 Dinajpur is an adaptation of this plan, and is constructed as 
 follows : — A sound tamarind tree being selected, is cut down at 
 about two feet from the ground, where it may be a foot and a half 
 or more in diameter. The stump is then hollowed out in the form 
 of a mortar, and from the bottom of the hollow a hole is bored a 
 little way perpendicularly. The exterior of the stump is next 
 pierced by a hole which meets the previous boring obliquely, and 
 thus affords an outlet for the juice, which runs into a strainer 
 fixed over an earthen pot sunk in the ground amongst the roots 
 of the tree. The pestle, it is to be observed, does not pound the 
 pieces of cane, but crushes or squeezes them. It consists of the 
 trunk of a tree, some 18 or 20 feet in length and about a foot in 
 diameter, rounded off at the larger end, which is placed in the 
 hollow of the mortar in an inclined position. A pair of oxen are 
 yoked to a horizontal pole, which is supported at the outer end by 
 a bamboo hanging by a notch made in the root end from the upper 
 and smaller end of the long pestle, while the other end is attached 
 by a loop to a bamboo hoop which encircles the stump, and thus 
 acts as a runner. The pestle, therefore, forms a double-armed 
 lever, the fulcrum of which is situated at the edge of the mortar, 
 the cane being crushed between the sides of the pestle and mortar 
 respectively. The force with which the pestle acts is increased 
 by the driver sitting upon the outer extremity of the horizontal 
 pole, and sometimes by weights being added. Such a machine, 
 however, is totally ineffectual to crush the cane until it has been 
 first cut into small pieces. To this end a bamboo stake is driven 
 firmly into the ground and a deep notch made in the end projecting 
 upwards. The attendant passes the canes through this notch, 
 which slits them longitudinally, while he cuts off the slit canes, in 
 lengths of about a foot each, with a rude chopper. 
 
 The sugar mill of Chinapatam is a slight improvement. Instead 
 of the standing stump of a tree being used, which could only be 
 done when a suitable tree grew on the desired spot, the mortar is 
 carefully fashioned out of the trunk of a tree some 10 feet long, 
 8 feet of which is firmly embedded in the ground. The hollow, 
 for two-thirds of the depth, is in the shape of an inverted trun- 
 * Eev. W. H. Brett's 'Indian Tribes of Guiana' contains a coloured plate 
 representing Caribs crashing sugar-cane in this manner. 
 
172 SUGAR. 
 
 cated cone, the remaining third being cylindrical, with a hemi- 
 spherical projection at the bottom, like the lower part of a common 
 beer bottle. A forked branch of a tree is worked down to a beam 
 or plank some 4 or 6 inches in thickness, and varying from near 
 18 inches in breadth at the single end to less than a foot at the 
 forked ends, when, by-the-way, it has much Ihe appearance of a 
 monster boot-jack. This beam is placed horizontally with the 
 hollow against the mortar, and the bullock-driver sits on the un- 
 divided end to which the cattle are attached, while the beam 
 turns round the mortar like a screw-key which, if too large, would 
 slip round a nut. The pestle is a piece of hard wood of the usual 
 form, which is pressed down by a beam, one end of which is 
 attached either directly over or near above the undivided end of 
 the lower beam. There is a hollow on the under side of this 
 upper beam immediately over the mortar, in which rests the top 
 of the pestle, the other extremity being pulled downwards by 
 cords attached to the forked ends. By tightening or slackening 
 these cords the upper beam acts as a regulating lever to give the 
 pestle more or less force. The whole arrangement when at rest 
 has very much the appearance of a huge lime-squeezer. 
 
 The transition from the arrangement last described to the 
 vertical wooden roller mill, now in use in other parts of India, 
 was but natural. We find in this mill the same idea of a lever 
 pressing upon the top of the pestle applied to another purpose, in 
 the beam which is fixed to the top of the longer of the two rollers 
 which projects above the framework in which they are placed. 
 The other roller, which is only the height of the frame, is turned 
 by the four spiral grooves and ridges at the upper end, being 
 jammed against corresponding grooves and ridges on the long 
 roller. The transmission of motion by means of the cog-wheels of 
 modern times is thus seen to have had its origin, probably many 
 centuries before the Christian era, among the ancient inhabitants 
 of India. 
 
 To place two such cylinders of hard wood in a frame, horizon- 
 tally instead of vertically, so that they could be turned by two 
 men, one at each end, and could be easily moved from place to 
 place, was the simplest way of meeting the requirements of those 
 who had but little cane to squeeze. Its cheapness, however, was 
 probably the greatest inducement to its adoption. Such mills are 
 in common use near Calcutta. They are almost universally em- 
 ployed by the Chinese, amongst whom they are conveyed from 
 place to place, along the rivers and canals in the sugar districts, 
 by migratory sugar boilers. Being temporarily erected in some 
 central s]Dot, where the produce of several farms can be con- 
 veniently brought, the workmen are kept in constant employment 
 until the canes near at hand are all cut, and another move becomes 
 necessary. 
 
 We thus find in the records of the ancient arts of Hindostan 
 roller mills for crushing cane, both vertical and horizontal, which 
 are barely improved amongst the same people at the present day, 
 and are exact prototypes of the machinery now in use. 
 
CANK StJGAK. 173 
 
 The first mills tised in more modern times were known as edge- 
 mills, and are now chiefly used for crushing oil-seeds, apples ia 
 cider districts, and in tanneries. A large heavy wheel, generally 
 of stone, was made to revolve vertically upon its edge in a small 
 circular area, some 8 or 10 feet in diameter, by cattle or wind 
 power. The pieces of cane were strewed in the concave path of 
 the wheel, and the juice flowed away hy a channel formed for the 
 purpose. Pere Lafitau relates the donation to the Convent of St. 
 Benoit hy William II., King of Sicily, of such a mill for crushing 
 sugar-canes, along with its privileges, workmen, and dependencies, 
 which remarkable gift bears the date 1166.* 
 
 In the next century we find mention of the use of vertical 
 wooden rollers in Europe, the introduction of which is generally 
 attributed to Gonzales de Velosa. In the fifteenth century their 
 use crept to Madeira and the Brazils. Early in the century 
 following, roller mills were established in Hayti and in other 
 places, contemporaneously with the spread of cane cultivation. 
 The old vertical wooden mill is still to be found in many places in 
 the West Indies and elsewhere. 
 
 From wooden rollers to those of stone, and then of iron, the 
 progression was unavoidable. Many examples of stone roller 
 vertical mills are still in existence, while vertical mills with iron 
 rollers are even now comparatively common. Ligon states that 
 when he visited Barbados in 1647 the planters were ignorant of 
 many things, and amongst others he mentions " the true way of 
 covering their rollers with plates or bars of iron. This information, 
 it appears, they obtained from Fernambuck (Pernambuco), in 
 Brazil, whence they had gotten plants." 
 
 Cattle gave place subsequently to wind and water power, both 
 of which are still largely used in remote districts. The use of 
 steam has enabled boiling houses to be erected, and consequently 
 estates to be established in situations where it had been impossible 
 to do so previously. Its employment as the motive power in 
 estates' boiling houses may now be said to be general, although it 
 offers a method of economizing labour in many operations to 
 which it has been seldom or never applied as yet, the advantages 
 of which, even at the present day, remain to be estimated at their 
 true value. 
 
 Within the last forty years mechanical engineers have brought 
 the old model horizontal roller mill to the highest state of per- 
 fection. The first letters patent ever issued in England, in 
 connection with sugar manufacture, were granted to " Willoughby, 
 Francis, Lord ; Hyde, Laurence ; and De Marcato, David," for the 
 " makeinge and frameinge of sugar mills ; " and are dated and 
 numbered A.D. 1663, February 4 — No. 141. Mills have since been 
 made of three, four, and five rollers ; but those consisting of three 
 rollers have iDeen found to give the best results with the least 
 expenditure of power. Since the above date, upwards of 100 
 patents have been taken out relating to machinery for extracting 
 
 * ' Histoire des D&onvertes et Oonqu^tes des Portugais.' 
 
174 SUGAR. 
 
 the juice from the sugar-cane, all of which, with some dozen or so 
 of exceptions, are merely adaptations of, or improvements in con- 
 nection with, roller crushing mills. 
 
 The inspissation of the juice appears to have been carried on in 
 India from the earliest limes of which any account is discoverable. 
 Although the mill was universally without shelter, the boiling 
 apparatus, on the other hand, was invariably covered by a shed. 
 The range consisted of a series of (generally) eleven earthen 
 boiling pots, suspended between two parallel mud walls about 
 20 feet long, 2 feet high, and 18 inches apart, the interstices 
 between the pots being filled in with clay. A flue was thus 
 formed, at one end of which was a large circular iron pan, exactly 
 like the present copper, under which was the fireplace — a hole dug 
 in the ground. The iron pan served as the teache. 
 
 The arrangement just described has undergone no alteration 
 or improvement up to the present day; neither has the process 
 adopted, which is as follows : After the juice has been concentrated 
 to the consistence of syrup — goor or jaggery, as it is termed — it is 
 placed in pots and handed over by the ryot, or farmer, to the 
 goldar, or sugar boiler. When it has to bear carriage a long 
 distance it is further concentrated by the ryot, until it resembles 
 an inferior description of concrete. By the goldar the pot extract 
 is put into bags of coarse gunny or jute-cloth, which are hung 
 over a number of large earthen vessels, and on water being 
 sprinkled on the tops of the bags, the molasses drains away by 
 displacement. The sugar from the bags is then mixed with water 
 in a pan like a large copper, sunk in a cylindrical cavitj' in the 
 ground, which serves as a fireplace. After being allowed to boil 
 for a short time, an alkaline solution prepared from the ashes of 
 the plantain stem is added, and subsequently some milk. The 
 liquor is next strained through cotton, and the former process is 
 repeated until a sufficient concentration has been attained. It is 
 then poured into earthen pots with curved sides, large at the top 
 and pointed at the bottom, where they are plugged with a plantain 
 leaf and placed in a curing shed on a wooden grating at some little 
 distance from the ground. Here they are allowed to drain into 
 vessels placed underneath. A layer of moist leaves of the Valis- 
 neria spiralis is placed on the top, which after some time is removed, 
 and, the crust being broken, fresh leaves are added, and the process 
 is repeated until complete crystallization has taken place. 
 
 Grurh, or unrefined sugar, is the result of boiling the cane juice 
 in shallow iron pans to the consistence of gum, when it is made up 
 into round balls or cakes. In this form most of the people of India 
 eat their sugar. The raw produce, which goes by the name of 
 goor or jaggery, is made chiefly by a number of farmers acting in 
 concert. The process is carried out in common by the association, 
 but is specially deputed to some of their number, who confine 
 themselves to this branch, the produce of each man's land being 
 sent to the common factory. The goor is then handed over by 
 the ryots to another distinct caste, the goldars, who make the solid 
 sugar, some of whom again are sugar-boilers or refiners, and others 
 
CANE SUGAE, 175 
 
 confectioners, wlio make candy, &c. The vital principle of 
 division of labour is thus most strictly carried out, the whole 
 manufacture involving at least the employment of two sections of 
 one caste, and, where it is largely followed, two distinct castes and 
 no less than five or six sub-classes, which implies its division into 
 as many different branches. 
 
 The canes to be used for sugar and jaggery are taken direct from 
 the field to the shed and a press. When about twenty chatties of 
 juice have been obtained the boiling begins, and lasts for an hour. 
 To each boiler of juice a viss of lime is added. When boiled the 
 mixture is poured into an iron vessel, and after being stirred for a 
 while is poured out again on a mat, on which the sugar dries and 
 becomes hard. It is then broken up and packed for market in 
 baskets of five maunds each. 
 
 The goor of the Sahitru districts in Sind varies in appearance 
 and substance from that of other parts. It is remarkably hard, 
 and requires some exertion to break it, and is at the same time of 
 a very deep colour. This is doubtless owing to the nature of the 
 sugar-cane, which is quite different from that of Southern India. 
 It is a thin, cane-like plant, seldom much thicker than a small 
 finger, very hard, and yielding little juice, so that to see the 
 business of expressing the juice therefrom, one would imagine it 
 scarcely worth the trouble. The flavour of the goor, however, is 
 good. A superior kind of native spirit is made from this goor, 
 which is very generally drunk by all classes without exception, 
 although strictly forbidden in Mahomedan and Hindoo law. There 
 are several kinds of it, which vary in price according to quality. 
 The liquor is, however, intrinsically the same, the good or bad 
 quality of it depending upon the quantity and variety of spices 
 added to it. 
 
 Several varieties of sugar-cane are cultivated in India, such as 
 the country cane, the original form of the species ; the riblDon cane, 
 with purple or yellow stripes along the stems ; the Bourbon or 
 Tahiti cane, a more elongated, stronger, more hairy, and very 
 productive variety. Saccharum violaceum, Juss., the Batavian cane, 
 is also considered to be a variety ; but the larger S. cMnense, Eoxb., 
 introduced from Canton in 1796 into the Botanic Gardens of 
 Calcutta, may be a distinct species ; it has a long, slender, erect 
 panicle, while that of S. officinarum is hairy and spreading, with 
 the ramifications alternate and more compound, not to mention 
 other differences in the leaves and flowers. 
 
 In Assam sugar-cane is grown only to a small (but increasing) 
 extent ; it has been made the subject of some interesting experi- 
 ments. The average weight of cane per acre is about 13 tons ; 
 the yield of the juice per 100 lbs. of cane ranges from 40 to 50 lbs., 
 and the weight of goor, or raw sugar, from 7 to 10 lbs. It results 
 that the sugar-caue of Assam yields only about half as much goor 
 to the acre as the sugar-cane of Eohilkhand. In the North- West 
 Provinces sugar-cane is cultivated chiefly in Saharanpur, Muzaf- 
 farnagar, Meerut, and Eohilkhand ; though it requires both manure 
 and irrigation, it is a remunerative crop. Great improvement has 
 
176 
 
 SUGAR. 
 
 recently been introduced into the process of crusliing by the Bihia 
 mill, patented by a European inventor. The area under cane in 
 the North-West Provinces and Oudh was estimated to be over 
 1,067,000 acres in 1883 ; one-fifth of this is irrigated from Govern- 
 ment canals. The maximum average produce of raw sugar (goor 
 or jaggery) is estimated at about 30 cwts. per acre, which makes 
 the total yearly production over the above area 32,000,000 cwts. ; 
 this, at 7s. 3Jd. per cwt., equals £11,666,000. The Punjab, 
 Madras, Bombay, Burma, and the native States, produce sugar in 
 quantities of which it is difficult to get reliable figures ; but sup- 
 posing it to be half as much as that of the Gangetio Valley, the 
 total would be 111,000,000 cwts., or 51 lbs. per head of the popu- 
 lation. This does not include the produce of sugar from the 
 palms, which is considerable in some parts of India. The exports 
 of sugar are comparatively small. The following were the 
 shipments in : — 
 
 1883 
 1884 
 1885 
 1886 
 
 Bengal. 
 
 Cwts. 
 1,428,360 
 1,777,157 
 1,251,059 
 1,331,103 
 
 Madras. 
 
 Cwts. 
 617,531 
 685,742 
 495,047 
 506,062 
 
 Indian Sugar — ^Expoets by Land, Cwts. 
 
 Year. 
 
 1885-86 
 1886-87 
 1887-88 
 
 Refined. 
 
 51,322 
 
 101,046 
 
 85,635 
 
 Unrefined. 
 
 82,292 
 
 89,924 
 
 112,388 
 
 Exclusive of Bengal, there were, in 1887, the following areas 
 under sugar-cane, viz. : — 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Madras 46,624 
 
 Bombay 70,180 
 
 North-West ProTinoes 787,938 
 
 Oudh 142,484 
 
 Punjab 331,521 
 
 Central Provinces 47,833 
 
 Lower Burma 10,538 
 
 Assam 20,660 
 
 Berar 5,402 
 
 1,463,180 
 
 Sugar, or jaggery, was manufactured from the following areas 
 in 1881-82 :— 
 
 Sugar-canes 69,383 
 
 Cocoanut palms 5 , 7O6 
 
 Palmyras 24,884 
 
 Date palms 1,575 
 
 Sago palms 19 
 
CANE SUGAR. 
 
 177 
 
 Total Sugar Exports from India. 
 
 3867 
 
 Cwta. 
 221,006 
 
 1877 1,144,467 
 
 1878 908,212 
 
 1879 368,546 
 
 1880 373,242 
 
 1881 644,531 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1882 988,341 
 
 1883 1,428,360 
 
 1884 1,777,157 
 
 1885 1,251,059 
 
 1886 1,837,165 
 
 One of the chief obstacles to Indian grown sugars participating 
 more largely in the demand for refined sugars is the defective 
 system of expressing the juice, a system which causes vinous 
 fermentation. The exports, chiefly of raw sugar, or goor, in cwts., 
 have been as follows : — 
 
 Year. 
 
 1880-81 
 1881-82 
 1882-83 
 1883-84 
 1884-85 
 1885-86 
 1886-87 
 
 Eeflned. 
 
 Cwts. 
 18,915 
 34,010 
 111,274 
 203,698 
 55,323 
 24,942 
 33,340 
 
 Unrefined, 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 515,259 
 
 883,483 
 
 1,207,424 
 
 1,426,827 
 
 1,015,596 
 
 1,142,598 
 
 953,066 
 
 The refined goes chiefly to Ceylon, the unrefined to the United 
 Kingdom, Egypt, and other countries. The imports of refined 
 sugar into India are becoming yearly more important, as the 
 prejudice of the natives against this kind is removed ; the average 
 receipts now (chiefly at Bombay) being 1,600,000 cwts. yearly. 
 
 There are four joint-stock sugar manufacturing companies in 
 India, one in Bombay, one in Bengal, one in the North- West 
 Provinces, and one in the Pimjab, viz., the Ahmedabad Sugar 
 Candy Manufacturing Company, at Bombay ; Carew and Company, 
 Bengal ; the North of India Sugar Eefining and Distilling Com- 
 pany, and the Punjab Sugar Works Company. 
 
 Taking an average of five years, the price of Indian goor, or 
 jaggery, is only a Uttle over Is. 3Jd. per cwt., or less than half the 
 price of colonial sugars. It is not to be expected that the neces- 
 sarily domestic nature of the sugar industry of India can ever be 
 improved to equal in quality of produce the careful scientific 
 manufacture of the large sugar estates in the Colonies, with their 
 costly machinery, and all recent improvements. Were the 
 Indian ryot to step out of the rut to produce a better article, no 
 one would give him a corresponding price for it. 
 
 Siam. — Next to rice, sugar is the largest article of export from 
 Siam. Nachonyhaisi and Petno are the principal sugar districts; 
 but it is also produced at Paklat, Bangpasoi, Chantibon, and 
 Petchabure in considerable quantities. The owners of the mills 
 seldom cultivate the canes themselves, but purchase them standing 
 in the fields from the growers, who have usually money advanced 
 to them by the mill-owners at the commencement of the season, to 
 enable them to plant on their ground, they in return being bound 
 to sell all their canes at a fixed price to the person lending the 
 
178 SUGAR. 
 
 money, besides paying interest at the usual rate. The cultivation 
 of the sugar-cane has greatly increased. It is mostly in the hands 
 of the Chinese. 
 
 The extraction of the juice from the canes, and its manufacture 
 into sugar, are carried on in a very primitive manner, without any 
 of the modern improvements to obtain from the cane the largest 
 possible quantity of a superior quality of sugar. The greatest 
 quantity of sugar is made in the neighbourhood of Bangkok and 
 the adjacent provinces, to where the tidal waters extend. Here 
 irrigation in cases of drought may be carried on with the greatest 
 convenience ; and were there sufficient labouring hands to attend 
 to its cultivation, ten times the quantity of sugar now produced 
 might be raised in those localities to which the tidal waters extend, 
 setting aside other places appropriate to its cultivation. With 
 better machinery the manufacture might be greatly improved, for 
 the culture is very careless. 
 
 "White or clayed sugar, red unclayed, and yellow, are the three 
 descriptions brought to market. The yellow is always deficient 
 in grain. Most of it comes from up the country, and from 
 Chantibon ; it seems to be a peculiar description of sugar, and the 
 Chinese manufacturers say they are unable to granulate it ; it is 
 usually pretty dry. 
 
 The best sugar is procurable in March and April ; that which is 
 made in the two following months is mostly from the second 
 boiling, and is much lower in quality. The quantity produced 
 ranges from 100,000 to 150,000 piculs, about 500 tons. The 
 value of the sugar exported from Siam was, in 1880, £24,377, and 
 in 1881, £26,000. Palm sugar is manufactured to a considerable 
 amount at Pitchabure, but it is all consumed in the country. This 
 is not the same as the date sugar known in Europe. 
 
 A company called the Indo-Chinese Sugar Company was estab- 
 lished here some years ago, which received a large grant of 3,000 
 acres from the Government at a yearly rental of 2s. 3d. per acre 
 for the land under cultivation. Instead of the old hoe system of 
 culture, steam ploughs and cultivators have been introduced, and 
 large sugar mills on the newest principles erected. 
 
 China. — Although we have no data to guide us as to the sugar 
 production of China and the local consumption, yet by going 
 through the trade returns of the several ports, we glean some idea 
 of the export trade as shown in the shipments for 1871, which 
 were as follows : — 
 
 PiculB. 
 
 Swatow, brown 461,420 
 
 white 516,595 
 
 Canton 316,183 
 
 Shanghai 538,533 
 
 Amoy 194,406 
 
 Formosa, brown 560,510 
 
 white 26,544 
 
 Chefoo 7,930 
 
 Total 2,622,121 
 
 Eiiual to about 3,277,651 cwts. 
 
CANE SUGAR. 179 
 
 The imports of native sugar at the other ports for the same year 
 were as follows : — 
 
 PicUlB. 
 
 Ningpo 87,000 
 
 Kiukiang, foreign 22,075 
 
 native 16,000 
 
 Chefoo 394,285 
 
 Tieutsien 325,647 
 
 Newehang 80,042 
 
 Hankow 283,010 
 
 Cliinkiang 285,149 
 
 Total 1,493,208 
 
 Or in round numbers about 1,866,500 cwts. 
 
 A considerable trade is done at Swatow in sugar for the supply 
 of the northern part of the empire, there being 821,961 piculs of 
 brown, and 995,937 of white exported in 1884, which shows a 
 steady increase in the rate of production. A large sugar refinery, 
 the property of the China Sugar Eefining Company, of Hong 
 Kongj has been erected here, and is now actively at work. 
 
 From Amoy the export of sugar for 1884 was 243,186 piculs, 
 against 201,716 piculs in 1883. 
 
 From Takao in Formosa, 734,653 piculs of sugar were exported 
 in 1883, and 897,110 piculs in 1884. Sugar plantations are 
 numerous there. 
 
 The following have been the exports of sugar from China in 
 piculs of 133 lbs. : — 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 1876 1,263,444 
 
 1877 1,275,656 
 
 1878 585,246 
 
 1879 726,834 
 
 1880 1,238,194 
 
 1881 957,564 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 1882 1,061,760 
 
 1883 1,373,169 
 
 1884 1,571,106 
 
 1885 827,236 
 
 1886 612,478 
 
 It requires ten months, from the time of planting, before 
 the crop is matured and ready for harvesting. From the roots 
 of the crop being well fertilised with the oil-bean cake in a 
 semi-liquid form, a second crop is produced ; even a third is. some- 
 times secured from ratoons. If the soil is not sufficiently fertile 
 for a third crop, the roots are removed, the land cultivated and 
 manured as for the first crop, and cuttings are planted every two 
 years. 
 
 Two distinct kinds of cane are grown in China, one being ol 
 a dark purple colour; this is better for sugar than the other, 
 which is green and quite tender. The latter is principally sold in 
 pieces about 8 inches to 10 inches in length to the natives, who 
 eat it in its raw state. 
 
 Three kinds of sugar are manufactured, viz., rock candy, green 
 sugar, and clayed sugar. 
 
 The Chinese method of pressing sugar is most rude. The cane 
 is passed between two perpendicular granite cylinders ; one, being 
 turned bv oxen, gives a motion to the others by means of cogs cut 
 
 N 2 
 
180 SUGAE. 
 
 on the granite, and shod with hard wood. The juice is thus 
 expelled, and runs through a channel cut for that purpose into a 
 large wooden tub, from which it is removed to the boiling hut 
 closely adjoining. These cylinders are not at all firmly fixed, 
 depending altogether upon their weight to keep them in position. 
 An improved cane-mill was imported by an English firm, but the 
 natives refused to try it. 
 
 Cochin China. — The sugar-cane is largely cultivated here (about 
 22,000 acres) by the natives for their own use. There are great 
 numbers of sugar houses, producing various kinds of sugar, 
 according to the nature of the soil and the modes of culture and 
 working. There are four varieties of sugar-cane grown, the white, 
 red, green, and the red and white ; but the first of these gives the 
 best results in the hands of the natives. The sugar obtained from 
 it is tolerably white. A good deal is also made from the red cane, 
 but in consequence of the imperfections in the mode of manu- 
 facture, the sugar is almost black. The canes are planted about 
 the month of January, after the soil has been just turned over 
 once, and on good lands the first crop is obtained in twelve months. 
 During the two following years, without any more labour, they 
 get further crops of cane by ratoons. The cane, when cut, is 
 crushed in rough stone mills, and the juice is received in holes in 
 the ground, from which it is taken to be evaporated. Fresh 
 sugar-cane is sold in all the markets, at an exceedingly low price, 
 as a sweetmeat, of which the lower orders of the Annamites and 
 the children are excessively fond. 
 
 Japan. — The provinces where sugar is mostly grown are Ise, 
 Owarii, Totomi, Siiruga, Aki, Ku, Awa, Sanuki, Tosa, Hizin, and 
 Satsuma. Sanuki has the reputation of producing the best kind 
 if white sugar, and Satsuma the better quality of the darker 
 description. Consul Eobertson thus describes the mode of cul- 
 ture : — " At the commencement of the cold weather, small bundles 
 of sugar-cane roots are planted in rows, stem down and roots 
 upwards, on a slope of about 45 degrees. The following spring 
 they are taken up, and about 2 inches of cane, both above and 
 below the joint having been cut off, they are planted out in the 
 proportion of about 900 lbs. weight of cane to one quarter of an 
 acre of ground. The soil is well looked after in the spring, and a 
 quantity of small holes dug here and there. Into these the lees of 
 oil are poured, and they are then filled up with earth, in which 
 the cane slips are now planted out ; that is, as soon as the cane 
 slips show signs of budding, or of having taken root. "When 
 planted, a little liquid manure is applied. After the lapse of 
 fifteen days, the slips or roots will have attained to a growth of 
 about 7 or 8 inches. At this stage fish manure, mixed with the 
 lees of oil, is applied. In droughty seasons the ground is also 
 watered. There are three kinds of insects which do much harm 
 to the sugar-cane in Japan, and against the ravages of which some 
 precaution has to he taken. 
 
 During the winter the canes which have attained the highest 
 growth are either broken oft' just above the roots, or are cut with a 
 
CANE SUGAB. 181 
 
 sickle. The canes are then stripped of their leaves, and are made 
 lip in bundles, each of about 80 lbs. weight. A quarter of an acre 
 ■of ground will produce about 10,800 lbs. of cane, and this quantity 
 of cane will turn out from, 6 to 7 piculs (798 to 930 lbs.) of sugar. 
 The sheds in which the cane is crushed are generally about 24 feet 
 •equare, and in each there are three crushers worked by oxen. The 
 teeth of the crushers are kept constantly fed with cane, about 
 4 or 5 feet being inserted at a time. A workman stands behind, 
 on the watch for any canes that may slip through the crusher 
 without being caught in the action of the mill, and canes that have 
 80 passed are handed to a third man, who feeds the mill from the 
 opposite side. 
 
 The mill having a reverse action, it thus results that no one 
 cane is lost. The cane-juice is now removed to a separate place, 
 in quantities of about 200 lbs. weight at a time, and the mill is 
 cleansed after each such removal. The syrup goes through no 
 less than four refining processes, and is afterwards removed to 
 where it is to be made into sugar. The working up of about 
 2,220 lbs. weight of canes is considered a fair day's work. As 
 regards the further process with the syrup, about 133 lbs. weight 
 are poured into two tubs containing half of the above quantity. 
 Pires are then lit under the boilers, and the contents of one tub 
 poured into the boiler. A small quantity of lime is then mixed 
 with the syrup, which is skimmed when at boiling-point. The 
 clearness of syrup will be the test of its having been sufficiently 
 boiled. If the syrup is thick, or in any way impure, it shows that 
 either too much or too little lime has been put in. The syrup is 
 now placed in a tub, in which it is allowed to settle, fresh syrup is 
 again poured into the boilers, and boiling goes on as before. As 
 80on as the syrup is once more at boiling-point, that which has 
 been already boiled is poured in and mixed with it, the white 
 froth being skimmed off and placed in an empty tub. The syrup 
 is now divided between the two boilers, and allowed to simmer for 
 about two hours, being constantly skimmed during this time. In 
 order to ascertain the amount of boiling which the syrup has 
 undergone, a bamboo is inserted, and on withdrawal the drops are 
 allowed to fall into a saucer containing water. If the drops con- 
 geal rapidly, the fires are at once withdrawn from the boilers, the 
 syrup promptly poured into coolers, arranged in sets of four, and 
 constantly stirred. So soon as it has sufficiently cooled, it is 
 poured into tubs, one man attending to each tub. To make the 
 very best quality of sugar, a picul of ordinary sugar is divided 
 into nine parts, and each is wrapped in a hamper cloth ; they are 
 then placed in receptacles, pressed down with heavy weights, and 
 are thus sweated for one night. On the following morning the 
 «ugar thus sweated is placed on a table and kneaded for about two 
 hours, after which it is again wrapped in cloths and the same 
 process gone through for three successive nights and days. On 
 the fourth day it is placed in clean receptacles, and is now termed 
 first quality sugar. 
 
 To obtain a superfine quality, the sweating and kneading ia 
 
182 
 
 SUGAR. 
 
 gone tkrougli for an extra day. A picul (133 lbs.) of ordinary 
 sugar will thus he made to yield about 60 lbs. of first quality 
 sugar ; the remaining 80 lbs. are, of course, not wasted, but from 
 it are obtained about 40 lbs. of a sugar known to Japanese under a 
 particular name, and the residue also finds its way to market. 
 Second quality sugar is known as "jui-mai," and is made by 
 sweating a certain quantity of coarse sugar. 
 
 Sugar is generally known to the Japanese under three headings, 
 white, black, and candied ; but the two former are again known 
 under a variety of names. A good deal of black sugar is produced 
 in the Loochoos, in Sakurajuna, Araki, Hanaoka, and Jaramidzer. 
 
 Any marked difference as to good or inferior kinds of black 
 sugar depends on the quality of the canes and the skill of the 
 workmen, but the above-mentioned places have always well sus- 
 tained a reputation for providing the best sugars. 
 
 Sugar-candy is made by boiling down a certain quantity of best 
 quality sugar, and adding the white of egg. Split pieces of young 
 bamboo, about an inch in length, are then put into the syrup, 
 which crystallizes around them. A good deal of sugar candy is 
 made in Osaka. 
 
 Either Japan sugar cannot compete with that produced in 
 China, or the supply is not equal to the demand, for the import of 
 China sugar is always an important item in the trade returns in 
 Japan ; they have been as follows : — 
 
 1882 
 1883 
 
 Cwts. 
 94-1,000 
 1,000,000 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1884 1,400,000 
 
 1885 1,221,000 
 
 Borneo. — The sugar-cane is grown by the natives sufScient for 
 their own consumption. 
 
 In 1863 an English company was started, and 200 acres planted 
 with cane, and sugar and rum are now articles of export to 
 Singapore. 
 
 Owing to the heavy fall in price, consequent on the over- 
 production of beetroot sugar, cane-growing has been but little 
 tried by European planters in North Borneo as yet, and nearly 
 all that has been grown has been sold in the local markets 
 for chewing purposes. Some few experiments in sugar-making, 
 however, have shown that the cane contains an unusually large 
 percentage of saccharine matter. Of the canes tried, Sumbelowan 
 (yellow, streaked with green) gave the best results, yielding 
 syrup of a density of 10 • 5 Beaume ; Tubu Puteh, or Lahinia, as 
 it is called in Australia, giving a result of 9 ■ 5 per cent. 
 
 There is now reasonable expectation that some recovery in price 
 may be looked for, but it is not therefore to be supposed that priaes 
 will ever quite regain their former level, and it is clear that only 
 those places that are possessed of the greatest advantages in the 
 way of cheap labour, cheap land, suitable soil, favourable climate, 
 and great facilities for transport and export, will ever be able to 
 successfully compete against the lower prices caused by the large 
 Continental production of beetroot sugar. All these advantages 
 
CANE SUGAR. 183 
 
 are possessed in an eminent degree by British North Borneo. 
 There seems little donbt but that this settlement, when sugar- 
 makiiig is undertaken seriously, will soon take the lead as one ' of 
 the largest Eastern sugar-producing countries. 
 
 Mauritius. — This is. now one of the principal British sugar- 
 growing colonies. About 1750 the sugar-cane was first iatroduced 
 into the Mauritius. In the commencement it made but little 
 progress, but as the cane began to be better appreciated its culti- 
 vation increased with marvellous rapidity, until it has now become 
 the chief, almost exclusive, resource of the island. The white cane 
 which is indigenous to the islands of the Pacific is said to have 
 been first planted in the Mauritius, but the disease with which 
 this variety had been attacked considerably restricted in after 
 years its cultivation. Of twenty varieties which have been intro- 
 duced at different periods, the following six are said to be the most 
 commonly cultivated in the island : — 
 
 The white cane of Otaheite. 
 
 The bajnboo cane of Batavia. 
 
 The Guinghau, or violet-striped cane. 
 
 The Bellouguet, or purple Java cane. 
 
 The Pinang cane. 
 
 The Diaid cane, with which the white Bellouguet is generally confounded. 
 
 The last is a recent importation from Batavia. It is a hardy 
 plant, thrives well with moderate care and attention, produces a 
 greater quantity of stems than the white cane, but does not hold 
 in the ground so well, which is a disadvantage in a climate subject 
 to high winds and hurricanes. It yields well both in respect of 
 the number of canes and the quantity of juice, which is superior 
 in quality to that of most of the other species. 
 
 . The Pinang cane is a very fine species, producing, after the 
 Otaheite, the longest and thickest canes, but it does not, like the 
 Diard and some other species, give so many stems. It is a tender 
 plant, and requires a great deal of care. 
 
 There are two species of BeUouguet, the one white, the other red. 
 Both species, like the Diard, give a great many stools and require 
 a great deal of room to allow for spreading, without which the 
 stems grow meagre ; but planted wide apart and carefully tended 
 this species will produce well. The white is preferred to the red, 
 on account of the superior quality of the sugar made from it. 
 The red gives a sap strongly coloured. It is very difflcult to 
 remove this colouring matter, which injures the quality of the 
 sugar. Both species require sheltered situations to come to 
 perfection. Their roots growing laterally and horizontally, they 
 have no hold in the ground. The great quantity of stems they 
 produce offers a larger surface to the action of a high wind than 
 the roots are calculated to bear ; they are therefore easily uprooted, 
 and considerable loss is the consequence. 
 
 The Bamboo cane is the hardiest of all the species ; but it is not 
 much admired, owing to its partaking partly of the nature of 
 
184 SITGAE. 
 
 the reed from which it derives its name. The stem is hard and 
 dry; hut in exposed situations and in marshy ground it grows 
 well and produces a fair return. It requires less attention and 
 stands drought very well. The quality of the sugar made from 
 the juice of this cane is inferior. 
 
 There are many other species cultivated ; but none are of 
 sufficient importance to require separate mention. In good soU, 
 canes may, with attention and suitable manure, be cut for six or seven 
 seasons running without its being requisite to replant. This is 
 considered the longest time canes will yield a profitable return in 
 the best soils, in the lower portion of the district. In the higher 
 parts, the cane plant is never expected to last more than three 
 seasons, and only two on poor soils, or where stones are com- 
 mon. 
 
 Mr. J. Home, the sub-director of the Eoyal Botanical Gardens, 
 Mauritius, in a Eeport in 1875, stated that the introduction and 
 propagation of new varieties of the sugar-cane had been given up, 
 for the present at least. It had been of good service to the colony, 
 and, instead of the sugar crops depending upon the health of three 
 or four varieties of the sugar-cane, the planters had now a choice 
 of nearly one hundred. A great matter is the choice of healthy 
 cane tops for planting. None but tops of the most vigorous and 
 healthiest canes should be selected. Through neglect of this, the 
 canes deteriorate, till at last whole fields come to be planted with 
 cane tops which are unhealthy and positively diseased. The 
 Sandwich Islands, and perhaps New Guinea, are the places to 
 which the planters of Mauritius will have to look for new varieties, 
 more prolific, hardy, and healthy than those they now possess. 
 One variety, called " Puollese," has been known to yield an average, 
 per acre, of 12,000 lbs. = 6 hhds. of No. 16 sugar, on an extent of 
 30 acres of good land, which had been irrigated. It is reported to 
 be hardy and to grow freely, in its native country, at an elevation 
 of 2000 feet above the sea. 
 
 The principal improvements made in the manufacture are the 
 vacuum pan and the centrifugal drying machines, of which there 
 are many at work, particularly in the higher parts of the district, 
 where, from the nature of the climate, they are indispensable. 
 The advantages of both are undeniably great. Samples of sugar 
 made with the two improvements combined show that sugar can 
 be made directly from the cane juice which will bear comparison 
 with the best refined sugars ; the crystals are larger, better defined, 
 and when " clairced " are perfectly white, even without the aid of 
 animal charcoal. The superiority of these methods over all others 
 is incontestable. The sugar far exceeds in quality sugar made in 
 any other way : it is made, dried, and is ready for shipment the 
 day after the operation is commenced. All the inconveniences of 
 the old system, which required at least fifteen days to perform 
 what is now done in forty-eight hours, have vanished. The syrup, 
 which formerly remained in large tanks till it was fermented and 
 unfit for any other purpose than to make rum, is now converted 
 
CANE SUGAE. 185 
 
 into sugar immediately, and almost all the crystallizable portion 
 at once obtained. 
 
 The improvement next in importance is the process of making 
 sugar called Wetzell's, from the name of the inventor. The 
 operation is not so perfectly performed as in the vacuum pan. 
 The quality of the sugar is consequently inferior ; but still it is 
 a great improvement on the old method, — the apparatus is less 
 expensive, can be made in the colony, and with the aid of 
 " turbines " sugar of fine quality is produced. The crystals are, 
 however, smaller and not so clear and well defined as in vacuum- 
 pan sugar. These machines are employed on many estates, and 
 the result obtained is satisfactory. 
 
 The great superiority of the Mauritius sugar arises from the 
 manufacture by Dr. Icery's process of purification by monosulphite 
 of lime without filtration by animal charcoal. The syrups remaining 
 from the turbinage of sugar when treated with monosulphite of 
 lime give most advantageous results. Under the influence of this 
 agent, syrups become purified, decolorized, and crystallized with 
 remarkable facility. Manufactured by this process, syrup sugars 
 have a perfect grain and fine colour, not entirely due to the 
 direct influence of the substance employed, but to the preparation 
 to which the veson or juice has already been submitted, and the 
 absence in the syrup of those foreign soluble matters which are the 
 principal obstacles to the crystallization of the sugars of the second 
 boiling. 
 
 In Mauritius by the processes used, all things being equal, the 
 proportion of sugar from a barrel of cane juice (which weighs from 
 530 to 544 lbs.) will depend not only on the relative richness of 
 the liquid, but also on the various circumstances in which the 
 manufacture may be placed. The average yield may be taken at 
 S5 lbs. of sugar per barrel of juice, and the average yield of sugar 
 per acre ranges from 3500 lbs. to 5500 lbs. 
 
 Dr. leery made numerous analyses upon the various species of 
 mature canes cultivated in this island, but grown in localities 
 difiering in soil and temperature. The result of his observations 
 was the following average percentage of the composition of the 
 juice : — • 
 
 Water 81-00 
 
 Sugar 18-36 
 
 Mineral salts 0-29 
 
 Organic substances 0-35 
 
 Total 100-00 
 
 Cane sugar (Cjj Hn On) is distinguished from all other kinds by 
 the property it has of crystallizing in large rhomboidal prisms, 
 and the facility with which it is possible to obtain it in this state, 
 when dissolved in water. 
 
 There is a large consumption of Mauritius sugar in Australia 
 and India, where the coarser quality is principally sent. 
 
 The number of sugar estates and their acreage in 1876 were : — 
 
186 
 
 SUGAR. 
 
 District. 
 
 Pamplemouses 
 Eivifere du Eempart 
 
 Flacq 
 
 Grand Port 
 Black Eiver . . 
 Plaines Wilhenis . . 
 
 Mokha 
 
 Savanne 
 
 Sugar 
 Estates. 
 
 Acres Cultivated. 
 
 29 
 
 11,414 
 
 22 
 
 12,250 
 
 38 
 
 26,851 
 
 31 
 
 22,548 
 
 11 
 
 4,940 
 
 19 
 
 12,750 
 
 17 
 
 11,133 
 
 29 
 
 20,290 
 
 The following figures give the exports from Mauritius : — 
 
 Year. 
 
 1877 .. .. 
 
 1878 .. .. 
 
 1879 .. .. 
 
 1880 .. .. 
 
 1881 .. .. 
 
 1882 .. .. 
 
 1883 .. .. 
 
 1884 .. .. 
 
 1885 .. .. 
 
 1886 .. .. 
 
 Average 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Kum, 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 2.763,477 
 
 1,000,534 
 
 2,613,798 
 
 982,614 
 
 2,112,838 
 
 849,321 
 
 2,208,604 
 
 689,323 
 
 2,212,228 
 
 845,139 
 
 2,366,590 
 
 923,770 
 
 2,311,420 
 
 552,243 
 
 2,503,047 
 
 706,988 
 
 2,294,506 
 
 825,256 
 
 2,360,220 
 
 758,480 
 
 23,746,728 
 
 
 2,374,672 
 
 
 In 1867 the exports were 100,000 tons, now they average nearly 
 120,000 tons. 
 
 Beunion. — There are about 80,700 acres under cane in this island, 
 and sixty plantations, all with steam-worked mills, the average pro- 
 duction being about 34,000 tons. The yield in 1885 was 30,347,421 
 kilogrammes of raw sugar, and 1,308,811 kilogrammes of clayed 
 sugar, and 4,066,000 kilogrammes of molasses. There are thirty- 
 three distilleries, which made 2,897,836 kilogrammes of rum. 
 
 Mayotte. — In this French African Island there are 5000 acres 
 under sugar-cane, and here and at Nosse-Be about 3322 tons are 
 produced. There are sixteen plantations, of which twelve possess 
 steam mills. 
 
 St. Marie and Madagascar also produce about 600 tons. 
 
 Straits Settlements. — In Province Wellesley considerable improve- 
 ments have been made in agricultural operations of late years on 
 the estates of European planters; the Chinese are also entering 
 largely into the cultivation of sugar, and are obtaining steam 
 machinery to replace the old cattle mills, which they have hitherto 
 employed in grinding the canes. 
 
 Philippines. — The sugar-cane is cultivated in Negros, Panay, 
 Cebu, Luzon, and in nearly every part of the Archipelago ; the 
 yellow variety being generally raised in the province of Pampanga 
 
CANE SUGAB. 
 
 187 
 
 (Luzon), and the purple in Negros and Panay. The shoots are 
 planted in the month of February, and the crops are cut in 
 the January following. The yield of raw sugar from cane planted 
 in an indifferent soil is about 12 piouls (15 cwts.) per acre; in the 
 best soils about 40 piculs, the average therefore being about 
 20 piculs. The best quality is from Pampanga, and the worst from 
 Taal or Batangas. The native apparatus for crushing the cane, 
 which consists of two stone cylinders with wooden teeth, is now 
 being superseded in many places by iron rollers from England. 
 Steam sugar mills have also been erected on several estates. It is 
 impossible to compute the total production, as there are no statistics 
 on the subject, and we can only get at a few particulars of the 
 shipments from different ports. 
 
 The exports of sugar from Iloilo, island of Panay, were in 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1855 750 
 
 1856 850 
 
 1857 1,800 
 
 1858 1,290 
 
 1859 5,427 
 
 1860 7,048 
 
 1861 
 1862 
 1863 
 
 1883 
 1886 
 
 Tons. 
 
 4,598 
 
 12,586 
 
 15,677 
 
 93,750 
 
 198,185 
 
 Previously to the year 1867 the greater part of the sugar made 
 in the Philippines was forwarded to England ; but a large quantity 
 is now taken by the United States. 
 
 Shipments of sugar from the whole of the Archipelago : — 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 1862 1,302,484 
 
 1863 1,172,050 
 
 1864 1,035,027 
 
 1865 896,832 
 
 1866 855,280 
 
 1867 1,015,887 
 
 1868 1,180,567 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 1869 1,101,500 
 
 1870 1,256,582 
 
 1872 1,530,641 
 
 1873 1,429,322 
 
 1874 1,653,128 
 
 1875 2,017,361 
 
 The Philippines in 1879 exported 135,698 tons of sugar ; now 
 the shipments exceed 200,000 tons. The annual crop of Iloilo now 
 exceeds 1,250,000 cwts. The island of Negros contributes three- 
 fourths of the sugar shipped from Iloilo, the quality of which is 
 improving every year. Cebu also exports sugar. 
 
 Java. — The sugar culture in Java is one of the chief supports of 
 the Treasury. The principal points of the contracts which formerly 
 existed were that the Government assisted the planter in making 
 ready his fields, in planting and cutting the canes, and some- 
 times in bringing the canes to the mill; while, in return for 
 this assistance, he ceded to the Government a certain portion of 
 his produce at a fixed price. It was found, however, that these 
 conditions did not suit the present times, and in 1870 a measure 
 was introduced and passed by the Chamber, in which several 
 important modifications were made. The chief was that, instead 
 of as hitherto paying Government in kind, planters could pay 
 
188 
 
 SUGAR. 
 
 Government a certain sum of money in proportion to the product and 
 extent of their estates. The consequence of this was that in 1872 
 a very much larger quantity of sugar than heretofore passed through 
 the hands of the commercial community. In 1863 the exports were 
 130,000 tons; in 1873 the production was estimated at 2,500,000 
 piculs. It has since nearly trebled. 
 
 Java Sogak Ceop. 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 1881 4,606,780 
 
 1882 4,809,322 
 
 1883 5,348,867 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 1884 6,493,000 
 
 1885 6,260,000 
 
 1886 6,145,000 
 
 China takes about 1,000,000 piculs of this. 
 The exports of Java sugar have been as follows : 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1875 207,187 
 
 1876 198,949 
 
 1877 232,355 
 
 1878 230,971 
 
 1879 195,657 
 
 1880 234,122 
 
 Tods. 
 
 1881 209,831 
 
 1882 332,921 
 
 1883 307,897 
 
 1884 359,036 
 
 1885 420,393 
 
 The Netherlands Indian Agricultural Company had in working, 
 in 1886, thirty-one sugar factories, which produced 954,844 piculs 
 of sugar, and 9,544 piculs of sack sugar. 
 
 The following shows the comparative yield of sugar in the 
 different residencies, in bouws of If acres, and in piculs : — ■ 
 
 
 1885. 
 
 1886. 
 
 
 Bouws 
 Planted. 
 
 Yield per 
 Bouw. 
 
 Bou-ws 
 Planted. 
 
 Yield per 
 Bouw. 
 
 Cheribon 
 
 Tigab 
 
 947 
 2,097 
 
 603 
 
 507 
 1,776 
 3,259 
 
 520 
 1,356 
 
 50| 
 971 
 
 79J 
 79^ 
 88| 
 95f 
 92 
 
 926 
 2,117 
 
 603 
 
 500 
 1,927 
 3,372 
 
 569 
 1,371 
 
 80| 
 
 77 
 
 78 
 83| 
 
 90 
 90J 
 
 
 Madioen 
 
 Kedirie 
 
 Soerabaya 
 
 Pasaroean 
 
 Probolingo 
 
 
 11,067 
 
 85i 
 
 11,385 
 
 85ft 
 
 The exports from Netherlands India of sugar on private account 
 were in 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1875 209,738 
 
 1880 222,242 
 
 1885 420,393 
 
CANE SUGAR. 
 
 189 
 
 ScGAK ExpoBTED from Netheelands India, in Kilogeammes. 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Java and Madura. 
 
 Other Parts. 
 
 
 
 1872 
 
 194,806,209 
 
 82,173 
 
 
 
 1873 
 
 195,702,548 
 
 264,663 
 
 
 
 1874 
 
 199,109,568 
 
 6,256 
 
 
 
 1875 
 
 209,719,408 
 
 19,326 
 
 
 
 1876 
 
 221,164,475 
 
 41,952 
 
 
 
 1877 
 
 223,468,279 
 
 43,021 
 
 
 
 1878 
 
 236,292,842 
 
 834,650 
 
 
 
 1879 
 
 191,434,000 
 
 35,607 
 
 
 
 1880 
 
 222,222,574 
 
 19,917 
 
 
 The following table shows the destination of the Java sugar 
 exported in 1885, in kilogrammes : — 
 
 Holland 25,057,000 
 
 Suez Canal, for orders 128,747,000 
 
 England 130,592,000 
 
 France 22,404,000 
 
 Turkey 556,000 
 
 Italy 3,239,000 
 
 Spain 13,239,000 
 
 Portugal 31,310,000 
 
 America 1,68], 000 
 
 Egypt 17,461,000 
 
 British India 909,000 
 
 Singapore 14,292,000 
 
 Hong-kong 11,215,000 
 
 China 6,308,000 
 
 Australia 13,185,000 
 
 420,367,000 
 
 Queensland. — The sugar industry rose in 1878 to 16,000 acres, 
 and there were 68 mills at work, nearly one-half in the Southern 
 district, 17 in the Central, 16 in the Maokay district, and two in 
 the Cardwell district. The produce in that year was 270,510 cwts. 
 It has now reached over 56,000 tons. The exports alone are shown 
 to have been in 1885, 749,273 cwts., and in 1886, 880,262 cwts. 
 Considerable quantities of sugar are shipped to the neighbouring 
 colonies, where it commands a good price. Queensland, besides 
 providing for its own consumption, is able to supply Australasia 
 with an article of superior description. The sugar plantations in 
 Queensland continue to give promise of very satisfactory returns. 
 
 The suitability of the soil in many parts of the colony, and its 
 tropical and semi-tropical climate, directed the attention of the 
 colonists at an early period of its history to the growth of sugar- 
 cane as a promising industry. As far back as 1862, an experi- 
 mental patch of 20 acres is noticed in the official records, planted 
 in the neighbourhood of Brisbane. The experiment gave good 
 hope of success, and the attention of cultivators was attracted by 
 it. Eegular plantations were formed in the Brisbane district, and 
 
190 SUGAR. 
 
 near Maryborougli, which in 1865 returned 316 and 112 acres 
 respectively under cane. Experimental patches were tried else- 
 where, some in places where the industry has not since taken root. 
 But in that year 20 acres were tried near Mackay, a locality 
 which to-day is the main centre of sugar cultivation. The in- 
 dustry showed signs of vitality, and the Legislature encouraged it 
 by granting land on easy terms to sugar cultivators. In the year 
 1866 sugar mills first appear in the official returns; two in the 
 Brisbane district, one on the Mary Eiver. As a consequence there 
 is an actual recorded production in the statistics of 1867, to the 
 amount of 338 tons of sugar and 13,509 gallons of rum. The 
 cautious hesitation with which the new industry was at first 
 regarded began now to be thrown aside. Planters sought for cheap 
 coloured labourers, it being considered that the constant petty 
 work which had to be performed in the sweltering heat that 
 prevails between the tall rows of cane would be too trying for 
 the constitution of Europeans. South Sea Islanders were ac- 
 cordingly brought to the colony, and the trade in kanaka 
 " recruits," as they are called, became so considerable that the 
 Legislature passed an enactment to check the abuses which had 
 sprung up in connection with it. 
 
 In the year 1868 the recorded production of the plantations 
 amounted to 619 tons of sugar and 36,599 gallons of rum ; in 1869, 
 5165 acres of land were put under cane. By 1871 the production 
 of sugar had reached 3762 tons, of rum 112,979 gallons, and the 
 staple was exported to the value of £16,262. It was also recorded 
 that 65 sugar mills were in existence. The progress was rapid. 
 In the next year, 1872, ten more mills were added to the number, 
 the production of sugar was 6266 tons, of rum 161,473 gallons, 
 and the export had reached a value of £36,803. But the industry 
 was about to receive a check. The hesitation with which its first 
 introduction had been received yielded to a headlong rush of 
 cultivators eager to share the fortune it seemed to promise. 
 Farmers in some districts abandoned every other kind of culti- 
 vation and planted cane right up to the walls of their cottages. 
 On the Mary particularly, the settlers threw themselves entirely 
 into the new cultivation. It appeared to them to be exempt from 
 the limitations that bound every other kind of agriculture. The 
 cane was planted in newly-cleared land, by making holes in the 
 unbroken surface and laying the " sets " in them to grow. Very 
 little weeding was done, and the cane, left almost to itself, grew 
 luxuriantly and apparently free from any disease. And while the 
 small settlers went on in apparent confidence that the ordinary 
 laws of nature would be suspended in favour of sugar growers, the 
 planters and millowners proceeded in many cases on a not much 
 wiser plan. Money was borrowed for the purchase of expensive 
 plant, on a scale and on terms which no industry, however profit- 
 able, would justify. The money was expended also with very little 
 knowledge ; almost any man who had lived on a plantation in the 
 older sugar-producing colonies obtained ready employment from 
 the Queensland sugar growers, and was entrusted with the direction 
 
CANE SUGAR. 191 
 
 of work that sometimes involved large expenditure. In reality it 
 was a continuation of tlie experiment of sugar growing on a large 
 scale and in a costly manner. The relations between millowners, 
 who in all cases had plantations of their own, and the neighbour- 
 ing farmers who looked to them for the disposal of their cane, 
 became also very unsatisfactory. Both parties had rushed into 
 the enterprise with a vague confidence that it would come out 
 right, and it failed to do so. Quarrels and misunderstandings 
 arose between the two, and there appeared to be a strong proba- 
 bility of a reaction. And to add to the difficulties of cane growers, 
 a new disease made its appearance among the cane. Up to that 
 time one variety, the Bourbon, had mainly been grown. It was a 
 large, rather soft cane, that grew freely, and yielded great 
 quantities of juice. But, exposed in the southern districts to the 
 rather violent variations of a sub-tropical climate, and cultivated 
 in the rough-and-ready manner described, it succumbed in many 
 places to the attack of a kind of rust which entirely puzzled the 
 cane growers and defied any attempt at cure. 
 
 The lesson was a sharp one, but the industry had become too 
 firmly rooted to be overthrown. A number of speculative men 
 who had overstrained their means in order to embark in it had to 
 succumb, but cane growers found a way out of their difficulties. 
 The practical experience gained during the years in which cane 
 growing had actually been carried on in Queensland served to put 
 the industry on a sound footing. There were plenty of men by 
 that time who had learned the business in the actual field, and 
 sugar mill, and on Queensland soil. The cultivation of the cane 
 was better understood, and although the introduction of new 
 varieties of it did not actually banish rust from the fields, it at 
 least served to reduce it from an evil of the first magnitude to the 
 rank of one of those minor difficulties which all cultivators have 
 to encounter and overcome. Continual progress was made in the 
 art of manufacturing sugar, till it equalled in appearance and 
 value the best production of Mauritius and the West Indies. The 
 progress of the industry has since been very satisfactory. In 1877 
 the number of acres actually put under crop was 15,220, and there 
 were 12,243 tons of sugar and 196,662 gallons of rum manu- 
 factured. The production, it must be remembered, is confined to 
 the higher grades of sugar, so that the average value of the 
 product is high. In the year mentioned the value of sugar 
 exported was £180,668. Of that amount the value of raw sugar — 
 almost entirely of the highest grades — was £133,297, that of 
 refined sugar £47,871. In 1878, a year of general drought, the 
 export of sugar was valued at £119,018 and of rum £6208; in 
 1879 the value was £275,769 and £10,463. To these values must 
 of course be added the amount consumed in the colony itself. 
 The export of sugar for the years 1878 and 1879 averaged a value of 
 a little over £12,000. In a carefully compiled report on the sugar in- 
 dustry of Queensland published by Mr. H. Ling Both, he calculates 
 the average local consumption of sugar and molasses at 92-13 lbs. 
 per head of population, which was in 1879 about 220,000 souls. In 
 the same work the crop of 1879 was estimated at about 18,200 tons 
 
192 SUGAK. 
 
 of sugar, and the probable output for tlie year 1880 at about 
 21,000 tons. The sugar industry of the colony is now firmly 
 established. Its main centres are the Pioneer Eiver, of which the 
 port is Mackay, the Mary Eiver with Maryborough as the port, 
 and the rivers emptying into Moreton Bay. Of these the relative 
 importance can be seen by the following division of the 1879 
 crops, which is given in the work already quoted at 9600 tons for 
 Mackay, 6750 tons for Maryborough, and 2200 tons for Brisbane. 
 Sugar is also grown on the Herbert Eiver near Cardwell, and the 
 yield is estimated at about 760 tons. The industry is about to be 
 established on the Lower Burnett near Bundaberg. But it is in 
 the far north that the most promising development of sugar cul- 
 tivation seems likely to take place, on a splendid piece of country 
 on the Johnstone Eiver, near Mourilyan Harbour, north of 
 Cardwell. It is calculated that in this locality there are 300,000 
 acres of good sugar land watered by several navigable rivers, and 
 near to an excellent harbour. Cane is being grown on a small 
 scale near Cairns, and is found to thrive. But the sugar lands on 
 the Queensland coast must amount to many million acres. Even 
 in the established centres of the industry only a fraction of the 
 available soil has yet been broken up for cane. At Mackay, where 
 the greatest progress has been made, there are only about 12,000 acres 
 actually cultivated, and it is estimated that there are at least 
 70,000 acres of good sugar land untouched. Not only is a par- 
 ticular kind of soil needed, but many other conditions must be 
 present before a settler can profitably grow sugar-cane. No 
 apparatus has yet been brought into actual use which gives satis- 
 factory results on a small scale, and extensive sugar factories can 
 only be erected by settlers having the command of a good deal of 
 capital. Cane also is a bulky crop, and cannot be profitably carted 
 any great distance to a mill. Its cultivation, therefore, was at 
 first confined to the banks of rivers where punts could ply between 
 the mills and the cane fields. The difficulty of carriage is now being 
 overcome by the use of tramways, but they also are expensive works. 
 In short, cane growing has hitherto been an industry in which only 
 capitalists have been able to engage with a hope of profit. Even 
 under this restriction it has made, and is making, great progress. 
 
 Wherever the cane has been planted it has been successful, no 
 matter whether in the colder latitudes of the South, or the dry 
 regions of the Burdskin, or the rainy zones of the Tropics. The 
 energy and skill of the colonist has been such that climatic 
 difficulties were in each of these localities overcome, and a first- 
 class sugar manufactured. The conclusion, therefore, is that the 
 sugar-cane is a plant pre-eminently suitable for culture in this 
 colony. It is to be noted that in the South the system in vogue 
 has been so shaped that it embraces small-sized mills with peasant 
 proprietorship, as befits the closer settlement by a class of German 
 farmers, the greater abundance of European labour, and the cooler 
 climate ; that in the middle districts, where there is stiU a close 
 settlement and a moderately cool climate, the same principle of 
 farm cultivation is in practice; but that the manufacturing is 
 undertaken by refineries of gigantic size and capabilities, whose 
 
CANE SUGAR. 193 
 
 Tindergrotmd pipes are as an arterial system drawing the life-giving 
 cane juice from the widely-separated farms. But that, as soon, as 
 the tropical line is crossed, the development of the industry has 
 only heen effected by a system of large estates, owned by capitalists 
 who have spent freely their tens and tens of thousands "of . pounds 
 before gaining any returns ; and that attached to each ' of these 
 mills is a large area of cane, the cultivation "of' whichi' is only 
 carried out by the employment of hundreds of South Sea' Islanders 
 as labourers. The suitability of this system of 'working for the 
 tropical regions is evidenced by the fact that every establishment 
 started, from Mackay northwards to Cooktown, has been founded 
 and carried on to success on these lines. 
 
 The whole coast-line from the New South "Wales boundary to 
 Cooktown, a distance of nearly 1300 miles, is dotted at intervals 
 of from 50 to 100 miles, according as there are creeks and^ rivers, 
 with centres of this industry — centres which, but for the check 
 owing to the fall in price of sugar and the uncertainty of a due 
 labour supply, would have spread until hundreds of thousands of 
 acres would have been under waving sugar-cane. 
 
 In 1884 there were 157 mills at work, producing 34,148 tons of 
 sugar and 144,000 gallons of rum, and there were over 4,000,000 
 gallons of molasses as the by-product of the sugar-cane. 43,500 
 acres were actually under culture with the cane. 
 
 The processes in use for obtaining the largest amount of sugar 
 from the juice, Mr. Eoth tells us, are manifold, such as the 
 Ehmann and Bernard process, and common lime process. There 
 are 16 mills provided with Dr. Icery's monosulphite of lime 
 apparatus; this process appears to succeed well with open pan 
 sugars, but vacuum pan owners do not appear to be successful in 
 its application. One mill makes use of an adaptation of the above, 
 namely, monosulphite of magnesia ; one uses bag filters, and one 
 applies Eathorne Gill's galvanic apparatus. A mill at Mackay 
 makes use of animal charcoal. Fryer's concretor is in use on one 
 plantation, and at Yangarie Eefinery Boivin and Loiseau's sucrate 
 of hydrocarbonate of lime process is in use. Only one mill makes 
 use of a cane-juice heater. There are 15 vacuum pans in the 
 colony. The sugars are all centrofugated. 
 
 The average yield per acre in Queensland is about 25 per cent. 
 As the density in Queensland varies from 7^° to over 12° Beaume, 
 one may for the future expect a higher yield than hitherto. 
 
 The following may be taken as the average yield per acre in 
 various countries : 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Demerara 4,480 
 
 Louisiana 1 , 200 
 
 Mamitina 3,500 to 5,500 
 
 Jamaica , 1,344 
 
 Philippines 1,680 
 
 India 896 
 
 Brazil • 2,800 
 
 Java about 3,360 
 
 Queensland 2,800 
 
 
 
194 SUGAE. 
 
 England has always been considered the greatest consumer of 
 sugar, her consumption in 1883 and 1884 being from 71 to 72 lbs. 
 per head, but in the last two years this has dropped to 70 and 
 66 lbs. ; but Australasia a few years ago consumed 78|~ lbs. per 
 head ; indeed, Queensland consumed over 92 lbs. per head, and in 
 Victoria, in 1886, the imports over exports show an annual 
 consumption of about 94 lbs. 
 
 The varieties of cane grown in Queensland are the black 
 Cheribon, the Chigaco, a small yellow cane (name uncertain), a 
 hairless variety, leaf with smooth edges ; the violet cane, ribbon 
 cane, and bamboo cane. 
 
 In New South Wales in 1872 there were 1994 acres under sugar- 
 cane, which yielded 25,000 cwts., and 2399 acres unproductive 
 The yield of sugar in 1868 was 30,000 cwts. 
 
 In the year ending April 1st, 1883, there were 67,021. cwts. of 
 sugar-cane grown in the Eichmond Eiver district, and 100,391 
 cwts. of sugar produced at the mills in the Clarence Eiver district. 
 
 In 1885 there were 9583 acres of cane productive in the colony, 
 and 6888 acres unproductive ; 4,786,947 cwts. of cane were grown, 
 and 369,280 cwts. of sugar produced at the mills. Of these there 
 were 83 worked by steam and 19 by cattle; 622,601 gallons of 
 molasses were produced, and 193,343 proof gallons of rum distilled. 
 There were four sugar refineries in the colony, which turned out 
 380,550 cwts. of sugar. 
 
 Victoria. — The sugar-cane having been successfully grown in 
 Spain and other countries on the Mediterranean Sea, Baron Mueller 
 remarks that it is worthy of further trial whether in the warmest 
 parts of Victoria, under similar climatic conditions, sugar from 
 the cane can be produced with advantage. Though the plant wUl 
 live unprotected in the vicinity of Melbourne, it does not thrive 
 there sufficiently for remunerative culture. But it may be other- 
 wise in East Gippsland, or along the Murray Eiver and its lower 
 tributaries. For fuller information, the valuable work of Mr. 
 A. McKay, ' The Sugar-cane in Australia,' should be consulted. 
 
 Egypt. — The sugar-cane was unknown to the ancient Egyptians : 
 it does not appear in those painted and sculptured tombs which, 
 like the Etruscan, have preserved the details of domestic life in 
 remote ages. The date and doum palms, still familiar to the Nile 
 voyager, are portrayed there, as well as the lotus and papyrus, 
 now almost extinct, but never the sugar-cane. Nor is it enumer- 
 ated, as it surely would have been if known at the time, among 
 the vegetables, " the leeks, and melons, and cucumbers," for which 
 the Hebrews longed, when wandering on the nitrous plateau of 
 the great desert El Tih. And if identical, as supposed, with " the 
 sweet cane " or " calamus," which formed part of the composition of 
 the holy ointment for the Tabernacle, and is mentioned in 
 Solomon's Song and the Prophecy of Jeremiah, it was even so late 
 as the Jewish monarchy brought " from a far country." Hence 
 Dioscorides and Pliny have erred in calling it a native of Arabia, 
 and it is correctly omitted from the list of indigenous products of 
 that country by a most careful writer, Niebuhr the botanist. It 
 
CANE SUGAE. 195 
 
 was probably transplanted from India or CKina in early times, 
 during one of the many migrations which, brought the hordes of 
 Eastern Asia to the shores of the Mediterranean. It is mentioned 
 by Greek and Boman authors. The Crusaders found it in Egypt 
 and Syria. Their antagonists, the Saracens, carried it with them 
 into Spain, where it flourishes still in the semi-tropical climate 
 from Malaga to Motril, having become the parent of a more 
 important cultivation in North and South America. 
 
 About the year 1500 Giovanni Lioni says that it abounded in 
 the Thebaid and the north of Africa, and that a considerable trade 
 in sugar was carried on with Nubia. 
 
 Bruce, the traveller, saw it in Upper Egypt, and in our own 
 day Dr. Lepsius, of the Prussian Exploring Expedition, found at 
 Kemlin, in the province of Sennaar on the Blue Nile, under the 
 15th parallel of north latitude, a sugar factory and manufacture of 
 brandy from sugar-cane, conducted by a German, named Beauer, 
 and worked by Arabs and slaves. The principal sugar-growing 
 district in Egypt at the present time extends from Minieh, 28° 10' 
 N. lat., to Erment above Thebes, 25° 30' N. lat., occupying both 
 sides of the Nile valley, where it is broadest and richest, above the 
 Delta. The field of canes is, however, interrupted, as in the 
 West Indies, by Guinea corn and vegetables, as well as by cotton 
 and tobacco, and a considerable space is filled with groves of date 
 palm, the fruit of which is an important staple in Egypt, and 
 contributes largely to the revenue. 
 
 When Mehemet Ali declared himself sole proprietor of the soil 
 of Egypt, a measure justified according to M. Clot. Bey by the 
 precedent of Joseph, he established large sugar estates and fac- 
 tories on the Nile, the first of which was founded at Eeramoon, in 
 1818. These were originally managed by English, French, and 
 Italians, though now almost entirely by native Egyptians. The 
 works thus built, the surrounding land was parcelled out among 
 the Fellaheen, or peasantry, who were furnished with plants and 
 rude instruments of culture, and compelled to bring in a certain 
 amount of canes per acre, for which they received one-third of the 
 produce in coarse black muscovado, the rest being refined, and 
 sold by the Viceroy in the towns at a price which, in times of un- 
 usual abundance, he kept up by exportation. Since his death the 
 system has been much modified ; the land has in most instances 
 been resold to the former proprietors, and the factories have passed 
 to the princes of the Viceroy's family. 
 
 In a country like Egypt it is extremely difficult to arrive at any 
 accurate statistics. Egypt is fully capable of producing 50,000 
 tons of sugar, but has not yet reached that figure. 
 
 The sugar industry of Egypt has made a great extension of late 
 years, which can best be judged of by the following statistics. In 
 1833 the production was only about 2510 tons. The exports have 
 since been as follows : — 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1853 29,276 
 
 1863 7,657 
 
 CwtB. 
 
 1873 711,327 
 
 1875 901,535 
 
 2 
 
196 SUGAE. 
 
 The small exports of 1863 to 1866 were due to the extension 
 given to cotton culture in preference to sugar, owing to the scarcity 
 of that staple. 
 
 There is perhaps no other instance of a continuously rapid rise 
 in the production of a staple article of commerce, and which, with 
 the annexed Soudan and other districts, bids fair to go on ad- 
 vancing in an equally rapid rate. To the seventeen sugar works 
 previously belonging to the Khedive five more have been added 
 since 1872. The annual production of these twenty-two works is 
 about 14,625 tons. The Khedive has 55,000 acres under sugar- 
 cane, and private individuals 35,000. The production of canes is 
 about 53,550 kilos, per hectare (2J acres), and the yield of sugar is 
 8 or 9 per cent. About two-thirds of the sugar produced is white 
 and one-third red sugar. 
 
 There are 20 sugar estates with 70 mills. From 1869 to 1878 
 the average yearly production of sugar was about 28,000 tons; 
 in 1878, 37,733 tons were exported. 
 
 Zanzibar. — The soil of this island is eminently adapted for the 
 growth of sugar ; labour is cheap, ground rent very low, and every 
 condition exists for securing an ample return for capital sunk in a 
 sugar factory. Sugar to the value of £3000 was shipped in 1864. 
 
 Natal. — In 1884, 29,066 acres were under sugar, and the produce 
 leturned was 18,771 tons, of which 11,785 tons were exported. 
 The yield varies from 1 to 4J tons per acre. The latter is excep- 
 tional, and 2 tons may be taken as an average on fairly good 
 estates. There are 62 sugar mills in the colony. 
 
 The principal article grown on the coast is sugar. Eum is 
 distilled on the sugar plantations to a considerable extent, and 
 meets with ready sale in the colony and for export ; 274,281 proof 
 gallons were made in Natal in 1884, about half of which is locally 
 consumed. The duty levied is 4s. 6d. per gallon. 
 
 The varieties of cane grown here are the Bourbon, black Cheribon, 
 yellow and ribbon. On some of the estates the sugar is manufac- 
 tured by the common process, viz., flat open battery and Wetzell 
 pan. As an instance of the cheapness of the plant used, that on 
 one estate, J. Johnston and Sons, Helmsfield, cost but £1300 
 beyond their own labour, and consists of mill, two clarifiers, flat 
 battery of four pans, with iron teache and dipper. The liquor is 
 reduced to about 26° Beaume in the teache, from whence it is 
 skipped into a reservoir ; after subsiding a short time it is run into 
 a steam pan and finished. The pan is heated by steam coil, the tem- 
 perature being kept down to about 180° by lathed revolving drums. 
 
 Besides the home consumption, the following figures show the 
 progressive exports of sugar : — 
 
 Cwta. 
 
 1860 24,369 
 
 1865 74,185 
 
 1870 106,572 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1874 136,656 
 
 1884 2S5,700 
 
 Jamaica. — The exports ;of sugar from this island have varied of 
 late years from 29,000 liogsheads to 38,000 hogsheads; of rum. 
 
CANE SUGAR. 
 
 197 
 
 from 16,000 punclieons to 25,000 puncheons. There was, in 1874, 
 47,565 acres under cultivation with sugar-cane in the island. The 
 attention of sugar planters here has been for some years past given 
 rather to improvement of cultivation than to increase of acreage 
 under canes. 
 
 This calculation gives only about three-quarters of a hogshead 
 (or 12 cwts.) as the average produce in sugar for an acre of canes 
 in the colony. The extreme smallness of this return is owing to 
 the system of more or less permanent ratooning practised in small 
 parishes, where on some estates a complete field of yearling plants 
 is hardly ever to be seen; the plants that fail being replaced 
 yearly, plant by plant. Of course the produce is very small, but 
 so also are the expenses and the risk; and it is the opinion of 
 some that the financial result of this cheap system (which avoids 
 the chance of the loss of a field of young plants from a drought) 
 is good. However that may be, the practice greatly reduces the 
 average produce of an acre of cane throughout the colony. 
 
 The following shows the exports : — 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 1866 33,637 
 
 1867 31,206 
 
 1868 36,259 
 
 1869 29,268 
 
 1870 31,966 
 
 1871 37,010 
 
 Comparison of progress : — 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 1872 85,553 
 
 1873 28,428 
 
 1874 28,398 
 
 1875 27,847 
 
 1880 32,118 
 
 1882 38,392 
 
 Year. 
 
 1854 
 1864 
 
 1874 
 
 1885 
 1886 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 558,571 cwta. 
 622,498 „ 
 
 29,398 hbds. | 
 
 499,713 cwts. 
 329,206 „ 
 
 1,665,932 galls. 
 1,280,854 „ 
 29,378 „ 
 and 19,351 puns. 
 2,080,471 galls. 
 1,476,356 „ 
 
 The consumption of sugar in the island is estimated at about 
 6000 hogsheads. 
 
 In Jamaica, in the Government botanic gardens, eighteen se- 
 lected varieties of new canes have been planted out, and as many 
 more are under trial, to ascertain which are the best for general 
 cultivation. Encouraging accounts have been received from dif- 
 ferent parts of the island of the Salangore cane, which grows with 
 great vigour, and the "number of shoots from each stool is remark- 
 able. It requires to be planted wider apart than the space allotted 
 to other canes. 
 
 Colonel Stewart's patent for desiccating cane juice by sulphurous 
 acid gas injected into the liquor has been adopted on Bushy Park 
 estate, St. Catherine. On Belmont estate, in the same parish, the 
 double retort system of distillation has been introduced. The high 
 price obtained for rum caused sugar to be sacrificed to a large 
 extent, and the manufacture of rum increased from an average of 
 two-thirds to almost a puncheon for a hogshead. 
 
 / 
 
irs 
 
 SUGAE. 
 
 At Nightingale Grove and Wales estates in Trelawney, centri- 
 fugal machines have been erected. In Westmoreland a few more 
 centrifugal draining machines have been introduced, and Wetzell's 
 pan and centrifugal machines have been set up at Holland estate 
 in St. Elizabeth. 
 
 Sugar cultivation used to be carried on among the peasantry to 
 a large extent, for a return presented to the Legislative Council 
 in 1871 showed no less than 5615 small sugar mills to be in use. 
 The average make of these is about two hogsheads per annum. In 
 some cases the sugar thus produced was sent down to the coast 
 and exported, but by far the largest part of it is consumed in the 
 island. Since then the number has been reduced concurrently 
 with the abandonment of sugar cultivation by many of the smaller 
 settlers for banana and other products. There are now about 
 4700 of these small sugar mills. Centrifugal apparatus and other 
 scientific machinery have come into operation, and, out of the 224 
 sugar estates in operation in 1880, 94 were vrorked by these 
 modem appliances. Cultivation among the large proprietoirs has 
 been considerably extended in many cases, and several abandoned 
 properties have been reclaimed and irrigation adopted on a large 
 scale with gratifying results. 
 
 Barbados. — This small island usually produces a large quantity 
 of sugar, but the crop is of course affected by seasons and other 
 causes. There are about 100,000 acres under cane. 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 1854 50,000 
 
 1864 37,038 
 
 1874 47,355 
 
 1875 65,000 
 
 1876 37,346 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 1877 47,879 
 
 1878 43,509 
 
 1879 43,398 
 
 1880 46,867 
 
 1887 68,872 
 
 and 355,205 gallons of rum. 
 
 The new method of stirring the sugar by the oscillating process, 
 after it has been poured from the copper into the cooler until the 
 granulation is complete, instead of allowing it to cool in a solid 
 mass as by the old process, is now very general. The stirring is 
 commonly effected by a disc revolving in the cooler, which takes 
 up and scatters the fluid sugar. The result is that the sugar 
 crystallizes in larger grains, and parts more quickly and entirely 
 with the molasses, so that there is less drainage on the voyage. 
 Sugar made in this way sells for nearly 2s. a cwt. more than the 
 produce of the same land made by the old process. 
 
 Tobago. — The sugar-cane is at present the staple article of pro- 
 duction. There are 66 sugar estates in the island. Of the mills 
 on these estates 24 are worked by steam, 6 by steam and water, 11 
 by water, 10 by wind, and 5 by cattle. All the estates are culti- 
 vated more or less on the Metayer system. There are 32 rum 
 stills on the estates, but only about half are at work. 
 
 Tortola cannot now, as in her palmy days, boast of wealthy 
 estate proprietors, and the relation existing between the labourer 
 and the estate owners here is very different from that in other and 
 larger colonies. The principle upon which they work is this: 
 
CANE SUGAE. 
 
 199 
 
 those small farmers wlio cultivate canes upon their own land 
 allow to the owner of the sugar works one-third of their sugar as 
 payment for its manufacture. Others who cultivate a plot be- 
 longing to the same owner as the sugar mill receive one-half of 
 the sugar as their proportion, the other half being claimed by the 
 proprietor of the land and sugar mill as an equivalent for rent and 
 manufacturing expenses. 
 
 St. Kitts. — The agricultural progress of this island is shown in 
 the annexed table, exhibiting by quinquennial averages the exports : 
 
 Year. 
 
 1853 to 1857 
 
 1858 „ 1862 
 
 1863 „ 1867 
 
 1868 „ 1872 
 
 1873 „ 1877 
 
 1878 „ 1882 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 100 lbs. 
 647,733 
 787,856 
 846,843 
 
 1,012,297 
 748,602 
 
 1,114,269 
 
 Molasses. 
 
 Bum. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 1,078,914 
 
 681,857 
 
 1,396,070 
 
 738,229 
 
 1,427,652 
 
 314,903 
 
 1,642,535 
 
 273,460 
 
 1,236,586 
 
 529,967 
 
 2,224,723 
 
 287,284 
 
 The agriculture is of the most advanced and scientific character. 
 The old wind and cattle mills have been almost entirely superseded 
 by the steam engine. 
 
 Sugar is almost the chief product of Nevis. 
 
 It may be well to publish here for reference by the planter the 
 analyses of twelve different specimens of canes, by Dr. Stenhouse : — 
 
 
 Trinidad. 
 
 Berbice. 
 
 Deme- 
 rara. 
 
 Gre- 
 nada. 
 
 Jamaica. 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 SiUca .. .. 
 Phosphoric acid 
 Sulphuric acid 
 Lime . . . . 
 Magnesia . . . . 
 Potash . . . , 
 
 Soda 
 
 Chloride ofi 
 
 Potassium..; 
 Chloride of) 
 
 Sodinm ../ 
 
 46-97 
 3-76 
 6-66 
 9-16 
 3-66 
 
 25-50 
 
 3-21 
 2-02 
 
 42-90 
 7-99 
 
 10-94 
 
 13-20 
 9-88 
 
 12-01 
 1-39 
 
 1-62 
 
 46-46 
 8-23 
 4-65 
 8-91 
 4-50 
 
 10-63 
 
 7-41 
 9-21 
 
 41-37 
 4-69 
 
 10-93 
 9-11 
 6-92 
 
 16-99 
 
 8-96 
 2-13 
 
 46-48 
 8-16 
 7-52 
 5-78 
 16-61 
 11-93 
 0-67 
 
 3-95 
 
 60-00 
 6-66 
 6-40 
 6-09 
 13-01 
 13-69 
 1-33 
 
 3-92 
 
 46-13 
 4-88 
 7-74 
 4-49 
 11-90 
 16-97 
 1-64 
 
 7-26 
 
 17-64 
 7-37 
 7-97 
 2-34 
 3-93 
 
 32-93 
 ^, 
 
 10-70 
 
 17-20 
 
 26-38 
 6-20 
 6-08 
 5-87 
 6-48 
 
 31-21 
 .. 
 
 11-14 
 7-64 
 
 62-20 
 13-04 
 
 3-31 
 10-64 
 
 5-63 
 10-119 
 
 0-80 
 
 4-29 
 
 48-73 
 2-90 
 5-35 
 
 11-62 
 5-61 
 7-46 
 
 16-06 
 2-27 
 
 64-69 
 8-00 
 1-9 
 
 14-36 
 6-30 
 
 11-14 
 
 0-84 
 3-83 
 
 The first seven were all fine canes with the leaves ; the eighth 
 had no leaves ; No. 9 but few leaves ; No. 10 was in full blossom, 
 and had been manured with pen manure ; No. 11 were old ratoons 
 manured in the same way ; and No. 12 were young Mont Blanc 
 canes, manured with pen manure, guano, and marl. This is a 
 valuable analysis, from having been made from entire canes. 
 
 By comparing these elements together we observe that the pro- 
 portion of potash and silica is great in all of them ; phosphorus, 
 sulphur, and lime also exist in considerable quantities in all the 
 specimens, while soda is variable in some and non-existent in 
 others, and chloride of sodium, or common salt, is abundant in the 
 Demerara specimen, and varies much in the different specimens. We 
 may therefore conclude that the sugar-cane is a plant requiring : — 
 
200 
 
 SUGAE. 
 
 Istly. A considerable supply of those two substances found 
 generally coexistent with nitrogenized compounds in all animals 
 and vegetables, viz. phosphorus and sulphur. 
 
 2ndly. A large supply of potash and silica, particularly the last. 
 
 3rdly. That ■ lime . and magnesia are also essential ingredients- 
 (the first in the larger quantity), while soda is not essential to its 
 growth, and that common salt, while appearing also to be an 
 essential ingredient, is not so in any large quantity, but if pre- 
 sented to the cane may be absorbed by it to a great extent, no. 
 doubt injuriously. 
 
 Dominica. — The following gives the exports for this island some 
 years ago, but I have no more recent details : — 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Molasses. 
 
 Rum. 
 
 
 
 
 cwts. 
 
 galls. 
 
 galls. 
 
 
 
 1867 
 
 56,337 
 
 54,400 
 
 55,063 
 
 
 
 1868 
 
 68,942 
 
 95,520 
 
 49,740 
 
 
 
 1869 
 
 65,650 
 
 90,940 
 
 45,719 
 
 
 
 1870 
 
 73,203 
 
 88,732 
 
 86,021 
 
 
 
 1871 
 
 66,220 
 
 94,015 
 
 40,615 
 
 
 Moniserrat. — A principal export of this island is sugar ; in a 
 good year the crop will yield 2500 hogsheads and 400 puncheons 
 of rum. Many sugar works are furnished with steam engines, 
 but others still rely on wind, water, and cattle power. A large 
 proportion of the agricultural labourers and rural artisans, car- 
 penters, masons, &c., are owners or renters of pieces of land, 
 ranging from half an acre to two or three acres in extent, and 
 planted in canes or provisions. The lower slopes of the loftier, 
 and the summits of the lower, hills of this mountainous little 
 island are marked by the clearings of these small cultivators, 
 and nothing can surpass the vigour and energy with which this 
 peasantry of African descent labour on these holdings of their 
 own. Here and there may be seen the creaking cattle mill and 
 even windmill which, with a little boiling house, some labourer 
 or mechanic, intelligent, frugal, and enterprising beyond his 
 fellows, has contrived to erect, and to this little factory his neigh- 
 bours carry their bundles of ripe canes to be converted into sugar, 
 one-third of which is kept as remuneration for the manufacturer. 
 The sugar lands of many proprietors of considerable importance 
 are cultivated more or less on the half system, a system by which 
 the peasant occupiers of small plots of land are bound to grow 
 canes which are brought at crop time to the works of the proprietor,, 
 who retains half the sugar produced as rent for his land. 
 
 Antigua. — The average production of sugar in this island is about 
 15,000 hogsheads, of molasses 7000 puncheons, and a very little rum. 
 
 St. Lucia. — In possessing a central sugar factory, perfectly 
 equipped 'with the best machinery, St. Lucia is almost alone 
 amongst the British possessions in the West Indies. Not only has 
 the original factory, in which the Government has a considerable 
 
CANE SUGAR. 
 
 201 
 
 stake, been at work for some years, but two or three attempts 
 bave been made quite recently to follow the example of its success. 
 The island appears better suited for sugar cultivation than its- 
 neighbours, inasmuch as the valleys, which run down from the 
 sea, spread out into plains inland, instead of being more and more 
 confined by ,» mountains. Had it not been for the low price of 
 sugar of late years there would probably have been at least three 
 sugar factories working full time in the colony, and, in any 
 case, no colony will in future do better in sugar than St. 
 Lucia. 
 
 The increased production of sugar in St. Lucia is attributed both 
 to extended area of cultivation and to improvement in culture. 
 That less energy is shown in the latter respect is considered to be 
 owing — in a measure — to the extraordinary fertility of the soil, 
 which,' not uncommonly, produces a crop from the same cane 
 plants for twenty years in succession ; whereas, in most other 
 countries, the fields require to be planted every two or three years. 
 The system of agriculture, as in most of the West India Islands, 
 is somewhat rude ; but signs of efibrts to improve it are not 
 altogether wanting. Virgin soil is being broken for the purpose 
 in all dii-ections ; and, while no estates have latterly been abandoned, 
 some havebeen" reclaimed, and others, which a few years ago grew 
 little else but , weeds and trees, are now yielding abundant 
 crops. 
 
 Besides extension of cultivation, there is a progress in manu- 
 facture which makes further improvement probable, and will 
 certainly render it more easy. There are four large central 
 factories fitted with every modern improvement, which, situated 
 in localities favourable to cane cultivation, manufacture the canes 
 of contributory estates into pure white crystals on the most 
 economic principle. The shipments of sugar and its products 
 have been as follows : — 
 
 Year. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Molasses. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Molasses. 
 
 1870 
 1880 
 1881 
 
 lbs. 
 12,444,153 
 14,742,880 
 11,318,050 
 
 gallons. 
 
 2,461 
 250,000 
 226,800 
 
 1882 
 1883 
 1884 
 
 lbs. 
 16,813,860 
 17,090,356 
 18,976,592 
 
 gallons. 
 304,500 
 209,250 
 335,900 
 
 Grenada. — There are very few estates under cultivation with 
 sugar, and the produce is chiefly consumed locally. The great 
 difficulty with which planters here have to contend is the paucity 
 of labour and the. badness of the roads. Whereas in this island 
 nature is so bountiful that a family. with but little labour can 
 laise their own fruit and vegetables on an acre or two of land, 
 where also, from the habits of the negroes and the climate, their 
 wants and requirements are but few, it cannot be expected that 
 they will labour, on estates more days than sufficient to supply 
 such requirements. The exports are about 3000 tons of sugar and. 
 50,000 gallons of rum. 
 
202 
 
 SUGAR. 
 
 St. Vincent. — The following table gives a comparison of the 
 exported produce of this colony some years ago : — 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Rum. 
 
 Molasses. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Rum. 
 
 Molasses. 
 
 -. 
 
 hlids. 
 
 puns. 
 
 puns. 
 
 
 hhds. 
 
 puns. 
 
 puns. 
 
 1862 
 
 8,503 
 
 1,827 
 
 305 
 
 1867 
 
 11,137 
 
 1,683 
 
 1,209 
 
 1863 
 
 8,756 
 
 1,554 
 
 409 
 
 1868 
 
 11,248 
 
 1,634 
 
 1,359 
 
 1864 
 
 8,163 
 
 1,284 
 
 1,418 
 
 1869 
 
 11,164 
 
 358 
 
 3,783 
 
 1865 
 
 8,454 
 
 1,794 
 
 916 
 
 1870 
 
 12,948 
 
 2,155 
 
 1,638 
 
 1866 
 
 10,984 
 
 1,796 
 
 1,063 
 
 1871 
 
 13,315 
 
 2,656 
 
 953 
 
 In the good old times the profit on a hogshead of sugar was 
 between £30 and £40. 
 
 Although no additional land has been brought into cultivation, 
 by more attention to clearing the canes and a greater use of 
 manures, a rather larger yield per acre has been obtained. 
 
 Trinidad. — About £1,000,000 a year is the value of the products 
 of the sugar-cane in this island in good years. 
 
 The exports were in — 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Molasses.' 
 
 Rum. 
 
 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 galls. 
 
 galls. 
 
 
 
 1854 
 
 50,055,998 
 
 782,401 
 
 285,446 
 
 
 
 1864 
 
 79,109,650 
 
 1,576,105 
 
 60,075 
 
 
 
 1874 
 
 99,739,550 
 
 1,697,131 
 
 39,761 
 
 
 
 1884 
 
 122,071,040 
 
 2,245,650 
 
 43,581 
 
 
 
 1885 
 
 142,640,960 
 
 2,416,761 
 
 72,525 
 
 
 In 1796, 159 sugar plantations produced 7800 hogsheads of 
 sugar ; in 1802, 192 estates produced 15,461 hogsheads. 
 
 A large TJsine has now been for some years at work for the 
 Colonial Companyin the midst of their estates in Naparima, Trinidad. 
 
 In Trinidad, as in all the other West Indian colonies, sugar is 
 the great staple industry. Here, however, it is not, as in most of 
 those colonies, the only one on which the colony depends, nor was 
 it even the first in the field, for cacao had been cultivated for a 
 century or more before the first sugar estate was established. 
 The Otaheite sugar-cane was introduced into Trinidad from 
 Martinique by M. St. H. Begorrat in 1782, and the first sugar 
 estate was established by M. Picot de Lapeyrouse in 1787. From 
 that time up to the date of the capture of the island by the British, 
 the cultivation of the sugar-cane increased steadily but slowly. The 
 British occupation seems, however, to have given a great impetus 
 to the sugar industry, the exports of sugar having more than 
 doubled during the first six years thereof. 
 
 In Trinidad there are about 62,150 acres under cane and 21,279 
 under cacao and coffee. 
 
 Cultivation at the present time is carried on under great dis- 
 advantages, principal among which, in addition to the low price of 
 sugar, is the great scarcity of labour which prevails at the most 
 critical period of the growth of the cane. 
 
CANE SUGAE. 203 
 
 The cost of production is strongly influenced by the labour 
 supply, and the temptations to settle in the woods and cultivate 
 provisions on their own account, are sufficient to draw a steady 
 stream of labourers away from the sugar estates. Considerable 
 numbers also find their way to the cacao plantations, their loss to 
 the sugar estates being made up by fresh importations at the 
 expense of the planter. 
 
 It will thus be seen that the latter has to bear the greater part 
 of the cost of the development of the island, and this fact has more 
 to do with the apparent cost of production of sugar than any serious 
 defects in the present system of manufacture. 
 
 With the close of the crop in the month of May, commences the 
 rainy season. At this time, as the cane cultivation is quite young, 
 it is important that it be kept perfectly clean and free from water. 
 But this is also the time for planting rice and ground provisions, 
 and large numbers of labourers who gladly work on the estates for 
 the eight or nine months previously, betake themselves to their 
 own patches to establish their crops. The effect on the cane 
 cultivation can be readily imagined, and it will be understood 
 that their return, at the end of from two to three months, is too 
 late to prove of much benefit. 
 
 . As important factors in keeping up the cost of production, some 
 stress has been laid upon slovenly manufacture and waste in the 
 sugar works. Sweeping charges of this kind are most unjust. 
 Individual instances of carelessness are not wanting, but, on the 
 other hand, there are not wanting instances of the application of 
 great energy and intelligence. 
 
 West Indian Sugar competes with Beet upon very unequal terms. 
 In addition to the Continental bounties it is handicapped by the 
 cost of an expensive system of Immigration, the distance from the 
 coal pit and the market are serious drawbacks. 
 
 The cost of production of a ton of West Indian Sugar in the 
 best regulated factories at the present moment, cannot be taken 
 at less than £11 10s., the charges being much in the manner 
 shown : — 
 
 Growing — . £. s. d. 
 
 Cultivation, cutting, and transport 3 6 2 
 
 Stock 12 8 
 
 Maintenance 8 2 
 
 Hospitals for immigrants 05 6 
 
 Management and sundries, including immigration 17 6 
 
 Manufacturing 5 10 
 
 £11 10 
 
 Of this sugar not more than 75 or 80 per cent, is fit for direct 
 consumption, the remainder being syrups at a polarization of 
 88 or 90 per cent. Up to the present time the extraction of the 
 juice has been effected by crushing in powerful mills, but diffusion 
 on the continental system is now exciting some attention. It, 
 however, involves a question of fuel which in the West Indies is 
 always a seriousone, and as the exhausted cane slices could not be 
 
204 
 
 SUGAK. 
 
 used in the furnaces witliout an expensive process of drying, its 
 advantages are by no means a settled question. 
 
 Since then the cultivation has been gradually extended, until 
 sugar has become the chief product of this colony, the exports in 
 1885 reaching 63,679 tons, besides 2,216,761 gallons of molasses, 
 and 72,525 gallons of rum. 
 
 Pkoduce of the Colony Shipped. 
 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Total 
 
 Molasses. 
 
 Rum. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Muscovado and Vacaum-pan. 
 
 Concrete. 
 
 Sugar 
 reduced 
 to Hhds. 
 
 Pans. 
 
 Tierces. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 j 1 
 
 Puns. 
 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 Tierces. 
 
 Barrels 
 and bags. 
 
 Hhds.l Tierces ^^^fll 
 . andoags. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1868 
 
 46,955 
 
 6,727 
 
 3,539 
 
 600 
 
 339 
 
 
 52,708 
 
 16,524 
 
 726 
 
 315 
 
 imj 
 
 49,373 
 
 7,476 
 
 2,629 
 
 1,637 
 
 
 
 56,322 
 
 19,801 
 
 968 
 
 102 
 
 1870 
 
 ,S9,516 
 
 6,060 
 
 2,062 
 
 1,515 
 
 134 
 
 
 45,418 
 
 12,678 
 
 684 
 
 2 
 
 1S71 
 
 56,648 
 
 11,407 
 
 4,098 
 
 155 
 
 3,592 
 
 
 67,315 
 
 19,560 
 
 994 
 
 260 
 
 1872 
 
 43,840 
 
 9,202 
 
 2,369 
 
 
 2,415 
 
 
 51,881 
 
 14,510 
 
 733 
 
 91 
 
 1878 
 
 50,079 
 
 8,248 
 
 2,231 
 
 
 2,583 
 
 
 57,571 
 
 14,071 
 
 782 
 
 57 
 
 1874 
 
 41,412 
 
 8,496 
 
 7,601 
 
 
 1,836: .. 
 
 49,250 
 
 14,676 
 
 814 
 
 352 
 
 1875 
 
 57,308 
 
 13,172 
 
 29,071 
 
 
 3,053 .. 
 
 71,758 
 
 19,965 
 
 1,143 
 
 366 
 
 1876 
 
 45,917 
 
 9,538 
 
 31,249 
 
 
 2,912 .. 
 
 58,123 
 
 17,378 
 
 1,001 
 
 128 
 
 1877 
 
 35,785 
 
 9,621 
 
 34,834 
 
 
 2,418! .. 
 
 48,165 
 
 11,972 
 
 1,075 
 
 1 
 
 1878 
 
 47,459 
 
 11,345 
 
 44,166 
 
 
 3,054 
 
 .. 
 
 62,579 
 
 19,085 
 
 1,474 
 
 2 
 
 1879 
 
 46,712 
 
 14,406 
 
 70,429 
 
 
 3,084 
 
 
 67,175 
 
 14,578 
 
 ,898 
 
 511 
 
 1880 
 
 36,794 
 
 12,199 
 
 71,114 
 
 
 2,427 
 
 
 .55,433 
 
 12,846 
 
 888 
 
 170 
 
 1881 
 
 32,721 
 
 9,352 
 
 63,773 
 
 
 
 11,221 
 
 48,330 
 
 12,876 
 
 790 
 
 10 
 
 1882 
 
 39,808 
 
 11,945 
 
 86,329 
 
 
 
 17,758 00,782 
 
 17,937 
 
 109 
 
 80 
 
 Exports of sugar from Trinidad :- 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1860 540,678 
 
 1870 819,043 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1880 1,067,680 
 
 1885 1,273,580 
 
 Bahamas. — The sugar-cane grows luxuriantly in many of the 
 islands of this group, and is largely cultivated. The production is 
 about 2500 tons. 
 
 Martinique. — In this island the number of hectares under 
 culture with^ the cane in 1874 was, 19,314, and there were 564 
 sugar pieces and small plantations.' The number of labourers 
 employed was 33,643. There were 88 sugar estates possessing 
 steam mills, and 14 central Usines or sugar works. There are now 
 519 plantations with 56,000 acres under culture. 
 
 The production has been as follows : — 
 
 Year. 
 
 1865 
 1874 
 1885 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Kilos. 
 32,691,550 
 38,6.53,000 
 39,736,204 
 
 Molasses. 
 
 Litres, 
 
 7,909,700 
 
 6,206,000 
 
 17,240,000 
 
 Rum. 
 
 Litres. 
 
 6,220,500 
 
 5,320,000 
 
 12,000,000 
 
CAHE SUGAE. 205 
 
 Martinique has reduced its production of sugar to distil more 
 rum. 
 
 The imports of French colonial sugar at Marseilles were in 
 
 Eilos. 
 
 1884 39,698,000 
 
 1885 32,591,000 
 
 1886 40,265,000 
 
 From Guadaloupe 20,000,249 
 
 „ Martinique 8,977,775 
 
 „ Beunion 15,911,255 
 
 „ Mayotte, Nosse'-Be .. 845,745 
 
 40,265,024 
 
 The sugar crop of Martinique is probably less than one-half of 
 that of Trinidad ; the superior quality, however, manufactured by 
 the XJsines raises the value of the crop much more in proportion. 
 
 The finest soil lies to the north and north-east of the island, 
 where the estates are on a much larger scale than on the south 
 side ; the soil is volcanic, and cartage of canes or produce practic- 
 able at all seasons. 
 
 The seasons also are not so marked on the north of the island, 
 less rain falling in the dry season than elsewhere ; so much so that 
 sugar making and cultivation may be carried on at almost any 
 period of the year. The showers fall principally in the early 
 morning. 
 
 There are no Usines to the north. The largest estate there 
 makes nearly 1000 barriques, equal to about 450 hogsheads of a ton 
 weight. The average crop of an estate is, however, from 500 to 
 600 barriques. 
 
 The Usines are principally erected in the southern part of the 
 island, in the direction of and beyond Fort de France (as it is now 
 called), where the country is more level, and the facilities greater 
 for bringing the canes by rail to the Usines. The estates by which 
 these Usines are now fed were formerly small properties, with 
 inferior machinery of little power, making each from 140 to 180 
 tons of sugar. These small estates now grow more than double 
 their former crops, which are manufactured on the Usines into 
 sugar of three qualities, i.e. first-class sugar, of large and strong 
 crystals, and to all intents and purposes white ; the second-class 
 article, made from the molasses boiled a first time, resembles the 
 ordinary crushed sugar imported from England, but is not quite 
 so white ; the third-class is superior in colour to the best musco- 
 vado, though somewhat inferior in grain. 
 
 The greater number of the Usines are in the vicinity of the 
 Bay of Fort de France, within easy water communication, or having 
 tramways from the establishments to their wharves. 
 
 Most of the Usines make only first jet, i.e. sugar extracted from 
 the cane juice, and second jet, that made from the first molasses. The 
 difierenoe in the two classes of sugar is trifling, but third and 
 fourth jet are much inferior, and require a great extent of cooler- 
 
206 
 
 SUGAR. 
 
 room, the masse-cuite of these jets having to remain at times six 
 to eight weeks in the coolers to granulate, and most Usine directors 
 prefer to convert their second molasses into rum. The rum made 
 in these factories is of very superior quality. 
 
 The following schedule shows the number of pounds of canes 
 ground to make each hogshead of 1102 lbs. of sugar; and canes 
 ground for each 100 lbs. of sugar, made in the year 1871, in three 
 Usines, with the expenses in francs for the canes taken to make 
 each hogshead, manufacturing or current expenses of the factory 
 per hogshead during the twelve months, and net profit. 
 
 Name of Usine. 
 
 Number of lbs. of 
 Canes gronnd per 
 
 Cost per Hogshead. 
 
 Net Profit 
 to Dsine 
 
 Hhd. 1102 
 lbs. Sugar. 
 
 100 lis. 
 Sugar. 
 
 Canes. 
 
 General 
 Expenses. 
 
 Total. 
 
 per Hhd. of 
 1102 lbs. 
 
 La Eenty .. .. 
 
 Fran5ois 
 
 Pointe Simon.. .. 
 
 14,007 
 18,853 
 15,056 
 
 1,275 
 1,257 
 1,368 
 
 frs. cts. 
 143 43 
 139 31 
 153 98 
 
 fis. cts. 
 77 24 
 81 52 
 71 29 
 
 fra. cts. 
 220 67 
 220 83 
 225 27 
 
 fra. cts. 
 107 68 
 129 96 
 100 55 
 
 Average .. .. 
 
 14,305 
 
 1,300 
 
 145 57 
 
 76 68 
 
 222 26 
 
 115 73 
 
 Equal in sterling 
 
 to 
 
 £ s. d. 
 5 16 5i 
 
 £ s. d. 
 3 14 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 8 17 9i 
 
 £ 5. d. 
 4 12 7 
 
 
 
 Thirteen tons of canes for one ton of sugar. Or, in other words, 
 for each hundi'ed pounds of canes purchased by the TJsine, the 
 planter received 9fd. ; the general expenses of the Usine were, 
 during the twelve months, 5^d. on every hundred pounds of canes 
 ground, and the profit on each was 7f d. 
 
 Formerly few estates' mills, driven by steam or water power, 
 extracted more than 50 per cent, weight of juice from canes ground ; 
 windmills and cattle mills seldom or never did this ; and under 
 the bad system of defecation and concentration generally practised 
 on small estates, one pound of dry sugar per gallon of juice was 
 considered the average yield. Under such circumstances, the 
 planter who is relieved from the trouble and expense of manufac- 
 ture, and receives for his canes the value of 6 per cent, of dry 
 sugar— good fourths — drives a profitable business, unless he can 
 have at his disposal capital sufScient to erect a good plant. 
 
 One hundred pounds of canes yielding juice of 10° B. will, at 
 60 per cent, extraction, give, in cane juice, 4*714 gallons. 
 
 Gallons. 
 55 pel cent, will give 5-185 
 
 60 
 
 J> > 
 
 65 
 
 )J J 
 
 70 
 
 
 75 
 
 
 80 
 
 3J 7 
 
 5-657 
 6-128 
 6-600 
 7-071 
 7-543 
 
 In Guadaloupe there were, in 1874, 20,686 hectares of land under 
 culture with sugar-cane. The number of sugar works was 495, of 
 
CANE SUGAK. 
 
 207 
 
 whioli 59 had mills worked by steam, 80 hj water-power, and 
 80 windmills, and 1 hj cattle ; 264 plantations without works are 
 served either by the 11 central steam Usines, or other mills 
 conveniently situated. The number of labourers employed was 
 44,856. There are now 610 sugar plantations ; 27 are worked by 
 steam; 118 by wind, water, or earth ; 8 are central steam works; 
 and 469 are small properties, which have no sugar mills. The 
 produce made was in 
 
 1865 
 1874 
 1885 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Kilos. 
 30,328,452 
 40,775,732 
 44,497,720 
 
 Litres. 
 4,311,972 
 3,400,438 
 4,000,000 
 
 Rxun, 
 
 Litres. 
 1,819,312 
 1,849,385 
 2,314,000 
 
 St. Croix. — The aid of steam in breaking up the heavy soil of this 
 island is much desired, but the total failure of a steam-traction 
 plough, introduced in 1862, has hitherto discouraged the planters 
 from again risking so heavy an outlay. 
 
 St. Croix produces about 6000 tons. 
 
 The exports in 1870 were 22,968,214 lbs. of sugar, 437,058 gallons 
 of rum, and 730,677 gallons of molasses ; in 1871 the quantity of 
 sugar exported was 25,223,547 lbs. 
 
 In 1873 the exports were 9,852,803 lbs. of sugar, 144,041 gallons 
 of rum, and 354,442 gallons of molasses. 
 
 Colonel Stewart's process for improving the quality of sugar has 
 been introduced, and resulted in making a superior article, where 
 proper chemical knowledge has regulated the proportions of lime 
 and sulphur required in the manufacture, having also due regard 
 to the character of the water, which is often mixed with mineral 
 deposits, as it is raised from a great depth and frequently through 
 a lime or marl substratum. 
 
 Porto Bico. — The average crops were in 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1853-57 80,743 
 
 1869-73 95,532 
 
 1875-80 73,098 
 
 The largest crop was 103,304 tons in 1871. The average, it will 
 be seen, is about 83,000 tons. The following shows the shipments : — 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1875 82,135 
 
 1876 68,830 
 
 1877 62,328 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1878 82,974 
 
 1879 68,225 
 
 1883 79,738 
 
 The finest qualities of sugar are produced in the divisions of 
 St. Juan, Mayaguez, and Ponce, and the muscovado sugars in 
 Vieques, Naguabo, and Arroyo. The Americans take the greater 
 portion of the former. 32,282 gallons of rum were shipped in 1873. 
 
 Cuba. — This island has always been a large sugar-producing 
 
208 
 
 SUGAE. 
 
 colony, and has steadily maintained its progressive increase and 
 the quality of the sugar produced, notwithstanding many adverse 
 ■circumstances. The sugar crop and export last for about four, or 
 at most six, months of each year. 
 
 Two facts strike the spectator who is accustomed to the culture 
 and manufacture in the British West Indies, namely : 
 
 1. The inferiority of the culture of the cane in Cuba compared 
 to that in Demerara, Barbados, Trinidad, Jamaica, &c.,, and the 
 smallness and poor quality of the different species of canes in the 
 Cuban fields. 
 
 2. The vast superiority in Cuba of the manipulation of the cane 
 juice, and the excellence and high quality of the sugar produced. 
 
 There are about 1400 sugar estates in the island. 
 
 In 1840 the sugar crop was 143,600 tons; in 1853, 267,850 tons. 
 
 In 1855 the exports from Cuba were 1,905,580 boxes of sugar, 
 256,100 casks (of 30 gallons) of molasses, and 31,214 pipes of rum. 
 
 In 1863, 40 per cent, of the sugar and 77 per cent, of the 
 molasses went to America ; 34 per cent, of the sugar to England. 
 In 1878, 64 per cent, of the sugar and 91 per cent, of the molasses 
 went to America, and 25 per cent, of the sugar to England. 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Molasses. 
 
 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 
 1864 
 
 515,090 
 
 203,450 
 
 
 
 1865 
 
 619,780 
 
 218,075 
 
 
 
 1866 
 
 612,180 
 
 241,150 
 
 
 
 1867 
 
 597,146 
 
 226,200 
 
 
 
 1868 
 
 749,389 
 
 286,151 
 
 
 
 1869 
 
 726,237 
 
 279,570 
 
 
 
 1870 
 
 725,505 
 
 245,870 
 
 
 
 1871 
 
 547,179 
 
 184,965 
 
 
 
 1872 
 
 708,234 
 
 285,441 
 
 
 
 1873 
 
 796,179 
 
 242,308 
 
 
 
 1874 
 
 666,000 
 
 , , 
 
 
 
 1875 
 
 700,000 
 
 .. 
 
 
 
 1876 
 
 566,266 
 
 .. 
 
 
 
 1877 
 
 500,000 
 
 •• 
 
 ^ 
 
 Exports. 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 
 1869 
 
 739,406 
 
 1878 
 
 474,429 
 
 
 
 1870 
 
 659,886 
 
 1879 
 
 623,935 
 
 
 
 1871 
 
 470,941 
 
 1880 
 
 495,429 
 
 
 
 1872 
 
 630,862 
 
 1881 
 
 449,067 
 
 
 
 1873 
 
 714,960 
 
 1882 
 
 381,681 
 
 
 The quality of the sugar exported from Cuba is excellent, and is 
 superior to most of the sugar produced elsewhere, from the 
 
CANE SUGAE. 209 
 
 scientific way in whicli it is manufactured from the cane juice. 
 The sugar works on most Cuban estates are as good as any of the 
 large German beetroot sugar factories, where the newest and best 
 appliances are ever in use. 
 
 Sugar is exported from Cuba chiefly in boxes or cases, of which 
 about 3 J are equivalent to one hogshead. The hogshead generally 
 weighs net about 1500 lbs. English. They are smaller than the 
 Jamaica hogshead. 
 
 The molasses produced in Cuba is not large, as will be seen by 
 the previous statement, and much of it is now re-worked for 
 sugar ; a very small quantity of rum is exported, in casks of from 
 110 to 120 gallons. 
 
 New Caledonia. — The sugar industry was oiily commenced here 
 in 1870; now there are 7 mills, and 1000 tons of sugar are 
 produced. 
 
 At Tahiti there are about 250 acres of land under sugar-cane, 
 and three small sugar mills in operation. In 1874 there were 
 290 acres, and the produce was 40,000 kilos, of raw sugar, and 
 71,400 kilos, of turbined. The quantity is now only 71,600 kilos, 
 of sugar and 75,000 litres of rum. 
 
 Hawaiian Islands. — The climate and soil of these islands are 
 peculiarly adapted to the production of sugar, as the cane has 
 continuous summer, so that a single crop can have from sixteen to 
 twenty months, the time usually occupied to complete its growth. 
 
 There were in 1868 10,260 acres planted with cane, and the 
 monthly expenses were about £980. The actual cost of producing 
 ■sugar on an old plantation free from incumbrance does not exceed 
 Hd. per pound for all grades manufactured. 
 
 Sugar is the great staple of the country, and immense capital 
 and energy and great intelligence have been expended upon the 
 industry. The result is an increase in the yield from 12,000 tons 
 in 1875, to 75,000 or 100,000 tons in 1887. There are fifty sugar 
 estates with mills, besides 75,000 acres of land possible for 
 cultivation of the cane. The planters of Hawaii have two 
 methods of producing sugar-cane, viz., where they depend upon 
 the natural rainfall, and where they resort to irrigation. The 
 best cane for planting is that which has the shortest joints. The 
 distance between the joints proper varies from 2 to 10 or 12 
 inches. Long-jointed cane is considered best for grinding. The 
 cane when cut is delivered on the corner of the three roller mills, 
 and with the assistance of two men to feed it, passes through the 
 rollers under heavy pressure, and the juice, to the extent of 
 from 50 to 66 per cent., is extracted. The cane residuum, or 
 bagasse, is passed through a second mill, where from 10 to 15 
 per cent, more juice is extracted. This is called double crushing, 
 and if water is used on the bagasse before the second grinding, it 
 is called maceration. As the juice is extracted it is pumped 
 through the heaters into the clarifiers, or large iron tanks, with 
 copper or brass steam coils, in which the juice is heated to a 
 temperature of 200° to 210°, and lime is added to correct the 
 acidity and aid in defecation. The juice is afterwards thoroughly 
 
 p 
 
210 SUGAE. 
 
 cleaned by means of heat, and the water evaporated from it until 
 the concentrated liquor stands at about 26° to 30° Beaume, when 
 it is ready for the vacuum pan. The work of the vacuum pan is 
 to take in a certain quantity of this concentrated liquor at a 
 temperature not above 150° Fahr., and to boil it down to what is. 
 known as the striking point, that is about 40° Beautne. When the- 
 sugar boiler considers that he has obtained the right quantity and 
 density, he admits a charge of cold liquor, which has the eifect of 
 separating the small particles of saccharine, or cry stallisable, sugar, 
 and is called " starting the grain." After proper boiling or con- 
 centration, another charge of cold liquor is taken into the pan, and 
 the eifect is to build up or enlarge the grain .so started, and the 
 operation is continued until the vacuum pan is sufficiently filled 
 with sugar of the required grain. Closing in, or finishing the 
 strike, consists of boiling the mass to such state or consistency as 
 is best for drying, and the vacuum is then broken, and the whole 
 mass discharged into a receiver or mixer ready for the dryers. 
 The drying is done by centrifugal motion, which separates the 
 molasses by whirling them through fine wire cloth or screens, and 
 leaving the dry sugar in walls on the inside. The dry sugar is 
 put into bags or other receptacles, ready for the market, while 
 the molasses are rebelled in the vacuum pan, and made into sugar 
 of lower grade. 
 
 Fiji. — Prior to 1875, in which year these islands were acquired 
 by Great Britain, only one or two mills of small capacity were at 
 work. This condition of things continued with but little im- 
 provement till 1881. In that year the Colonial Sugar Eefining 
 Company of Sydney, encouraged by certain facilities offered to it 
 by the Government, and the guarantees which intending planters 
 willingly gave, decided to erect a large central factory in the 
 district, through which runs the broad and navigable river, the 
 Eawa. Other companies, as well as some private individuals, also 
 began about this time to turn their attention to the cultivation 
 of the rich alluvial flats which are to be found along the course of 
 other watersheds. Moreover, on more than one of the islands of 
 the group, the extensive areas of purely volcanic soil were found 
 admirably adapted to the growth of the sugar-cane, and have 
 accordingly been utilised for the purpose. With such vigour 
 have these several enterprises been conducted, that there are now 
 no less than twelve mills in existence, having an aggregate power 
 equal to the production of 30,000 tons of dry sugar during the 
 seven months from June to December, which constitute the best 
 season for crushing. There are no less than thirteen plantations 
 affiliated to the Colonial Sugar Eefining Company alone ; and for 
 the purpose of bringing the cane to their mill from a limit of 
 15 miles above and 10 miles below it, it is found necessary to 
 keep two powerful steamers, six steam tugs, and some fifty lighters,, 
 capable of carrying 40 tons each, in constant employment ; on other 
 estates, where the land carriage is used, many miles of permanent 
 tramway have been laid down, and long lines of laden trucks are 
 drawn by locomotives to the rollers. The plantations vary in. 
 
MAPLE saGAE. 211 
 
 area from 60 to 700 acres, while the fact that the planters are 
 desirous of extending their cultivation to the utmost would seem, 
 to furnish sufficient proof that, bo far, their eiforts have been 
 attended with success. Plant cane, eighteen months old, has heea 
 known to yield as much as 70 tons to the acre, but taking on© 
 season with another, and assuming the crop to consist of two- 
 thirds ratoons and one-third plant canes, it is not safe to reckon 
 on more than 28 tons to the acre, but in some instances far higher 
 results are obtained. However, taking these figures, it will be 
 seen that the planters can with safety rely upon a gross profit of 
 £14 at least, whereas with prudence the cost of cultivation, when 
 the plantation has been opened up, will not exceed £10 10«. The 
 capital required to open up an estate of 100 acres, so as to produce 
 the above results, wUl not exceed £2,700. With the most 
 modern appliances for manufacturing, the yield of sugar is at the 
 rate of 8 per cent, of the quantity of cane passed through the 
 rollers, and the cost of producing the ton of sugar is £10. In 1885 
 there were 12,000 acres under sugar. The sugar exported has 
 been in 
 
 Tons. 
 
 188i 8,729 
 
 1885 10,586 
 
 1886 16,000 
 
 MAPLE SUGAE. 
 
 Although the sugar obtained from the sap of the maple is not a 
 tropical product, yet I include a short notice of it here as 
 supplementing to a small extent the supply of sugar in North 
 America. 
 
 The sugar maple {Acer saccharinum) flourishes throughout most 
 of North America. Its height is often upwards of 100 feet. In 
 the production of sugar an orchard of maple trees is equal to a 
 field of sugar-cane of the same area. An open winter, constantly 
 freezing and thawing, is the forerunner of a bountiful crop of 
 sugar. Maple sugar has an after-taste of vanilla flavour which 
 distinguishes it from all others. 
 
 In the older States of the Union the great demand for timber 
 and fuel and the increased cutting tend yearly to lessen the 
 amount of sugar produced. In the more recently settled States 
 of the north-west, maple sugar is on the increase. 
 
 The maple sugar crop of the year 1855 was officially estimated 
 at Washington at about £550,000. Maple sugar being a product 
 of the forest, is chiefly confined to those regions of the interior 
 where it is a cheap and ready substitute for the more costly 
 product of the cane. The sugar-cane can only be raised in the 
 extreme southern latitudes of the United States, whereas the 
 sugar maple flourishes in the greater part of the inhabited sections, 
 and though the sugar produced from it is inferior to that of the 
 cane, yet, as it requires but little care, it is much cheaper. 
 
 p 2 
 
212 SUGAR. 
 
 In 1860 the production in the States was oificially given at 
 15,520 tons, in 1855 at 14,500 tons, in 1858 at 24,000 tons, in 
 1860 and 1861 at an average of 27,000 tons, in 1870 at 13,000 
 tons, and in 1872 it was only 16,000 tons. Estimating the sugar 
 and syrup obtained at 60,000,000 lbs., worth 10 cents a lb., this 
 gives a total value of £1,200,000. 
 
 Maple sugar as an article of merchandise seems, however, in a 
 fair way of extinction. The maple forests of New England are 
 being yearly cut down and converted into broom handles. 
 Thousands of splendid trees are annually felled. At the present 
 rate of destruction, maple sugar will before long be unknown in 
 the trade. The whole amount of maple sugar reported in the 
 States was, according to the latest official agricultural statistics, 
 about 40 million pounds annually, but this was considered to be 
 one-third below the actual quantity made. According to the 
 last census returns, Vermont reported a yield of almost 10 million 
 pounds. The production of New York is somewhat larger, but 
 nothing compared with the difference in area. The only other 
 States which return more than a million pounds are Michigan 
 4 millions, Ohio 3J millions, Pennsylvania nearly 3 millions. 
 New Hampshire 2J millions, Indiana 1^ millions, Massachusetts a 
 few pounds more than a million. The total production of maple 
 molasses is 1^ million gallons, of which Ohio returns nearly 
 400,000 gallons, Indiana nearly 300,000, Kentucky 140,000, and 
 Vermont only 16,000 gallons. In addition to the large pro- 
 duction of maple sugar in the States, the estimated quantity 
 manufactured by the Indians living east of the Mississippi 
 is 10 million pounds per annum, and the quantity manu- 
 factured by those living west of the river is set down at 20 
 million pounds, but is probably much greater. Of the American 
 States, Vermont makes by far the largest quantity in pro- 
 portion to its territory, and in some of the northern districts of 
 this State the use of cane sugar is almost unknown. Many 
 improvements have been made in the manufacture of maple sugar 
 during the last few years ; formerly the highest attainments in 
 this manufacture only resulted in the production of a fine 
 muscovado-like sugar ; but now, by improved processes, specimens 
 are annually exhibited at the various agricultural fairs, vying 
 with the most beautiful loaf sugar. This has been eifeoted by 
 greater attention to cleanliness in the preparation of the sap, and 
 the improvements in the graining and refining the sugar. A few 
 years ago a premium was awarded by the Oswego County 
 Agricultural Society, New York, to Mr. E. Tinker, for the follow- 
 ing improved method of preparing maple sugar: The sap is 
 boiled in a potash caldron kettle to a thick syrup ; strain it when 
 warm, let it stand twenty-four hours to settle, then pour it oif, 
 leaving back all that is impure. To clarify fifty pounds, take 
 one quart of milk, one ounce of saleratus, and the whites of two 
 eggs well mixed ; boil the sugar again until it is hard enough to 
 lay upon a saucer, then let it stand in the kettle and cool. Stir it 
 a very little to prevent it caking in the kettle. Eor draining use 
 
PALM SUOAE. 213 
 
 a tube, funnel-shaped, fifteen inches square at the top, and coming 
 to a point at the bottom. Put in the sugar when cold, tap at the 
 bottom, and keep a damp flannel cloth of two or three thicknesses 
 on the top of the mass. When drained dissolve the sugar in pure 
 warm water, and clarify and drain as before. 
 
 It is about the close of April that the collection of the sap is 
 made. Eeaumur's thermometer rises about midday to 50°, and 
 falls each night to zero, or below. In Canada an incision or a 
 hole is cut in the trunk a few feet from the ground ; in the United 
 States the large branches are also punctured ; a recipient is placed 
 to catch the sap. To save transport and to accelerate and simplify 
 the manufacture, a rough shed is run up in the woods, and a large 
 boiler is suspended over a brisk fire. The sap is thrown into it 
 and stirred with a wooden spade. When it boils, it thickens, 
 changes its white colour into a golden yellow, and is poured out 
 into wooden moulds, in which it solidifies on cooling ; sometimes it 
 is turned out into earthen pots, which bleaches it, but the quality 
 is sacrificed to colour. In the work of Michaux on ' The Forest 
 Trees of North America,' some interesting details will be found 
 of the process as carried on in the States. They commence there 
 tapping the trees in February and March ; a cold and dry winter 
 is much more productive of sap than a humid and variable one ; 
 and a fine sunny day after a frosty night causes the sap to flow 
 more abundantly, and a tree will occasionally yield two or three 
 gallons. Michaux states that three persons can attend to 250 
 trees, which would yield 1000 lbs. of sugar, or about 4 lbs. per 
 tree. The period during which the sap flows from the trees is 
 about six weeks, at a time when there is little to be done in 
 farming or other operations. The maple sugar product of Canada 
 was stated in 1849 at 2,303,000 lbs. for the Lower Province, and 
 4,161,000 lbs. for Upper Canada. The census of 1861 gave the 
 total at 10,000,000 lbs., exclusive of what was used locally 
 without being brought to market. In 1870 it was returned at 
 20,556,049 lbs. 
 
 The produce of sugar is about one potind to five gallons. 
 
 Maple sugar is made not so much as an article of commerce, as 
 for the home use of the producers. A considerable proportion of 
 the maple sap product is also preserved as syrup without crystal- 
 lisation, and in this state it is used as sweet sauce, and for various 
 culinary purposes. 
 
 PALM SUGAE. 
 
 In British India and several parts of the Eastern Archipelago, 
 sugar is made from the sap of some of the palms, such as the 
 Indian wild Date palm of Bengal {Phcenix sylvestris), the Palmyra 
 palm (Borassus flabelliformis) of Southern India, Bombay and 
 Burma; the Coconut palm (Cocos nucifera), the Gomuti palm 
 (Saguerus \_Arenga\ saccharifera), the Nipah palm (Nipa fruticans), 
 and the Kittool palm of Ceylon (Caryota wens). About 50,000 tons 
 
214 SUGAE. 
 
 of palm sugar are produced in Bengal alone, and a good deal in 
 Siam; probably 150,000 tons is below the mark for the entire 
 produce. Palm sugar or jaggery is not granulated, nor are its 
 particles free, but it is a coagulated mass, smooth, adhesive, and 
 gummy to the touch. Palm sugar is collected in large quantities 
 by the natives in Java, and sold in the markets in packets enveloped 
 in leaves. I have preferred to treat of this manufacture under the 
 head of " The Useful Palms," to which section the reader is 
 referred for full details. 
 
 BEETEOOT SUGAE. 
 
 Of all the plants experimentally tried for sugar, the beet 
 proved the most promising, but forty years elapsed before 
 the manufacture of beet sugar was enabled to cope successfully 
 with colonial sugars. From France, the culture spread through 
 Belgium, Germany, and far into the interior of Eussia, and now 
 there is produced on the continent of Europe 1,200,000 tons, of 
 which about one-fourth is manufactured in France. 
 
 The manufacture of beet sugar on the continent having lost the 
 advantage of protective duties and bounties on export, it is not 
 necessary now to go into elaborate details as to the extent of 
 production and processes of manufacture. It will suffice to give a 
 few general statistics as to the principal producing countries. 
 
 The manufacture has been unsuccessfully attempted in England 
 and Ireland. In New Jersey, California, Canada, and parts of 
 Australia, attempts have also been made to grow the beet for sugar 
 production. Owing to the smaller quantity of saccharine in beet- 
 roots than in sugar-cane, and owing also to the more intricate 
 and complex combinations in which that saccharine matter is 
 found in the root than in the cane, greater ingenuity and a more 
 careful application of scientific processes are needed in the one 
 than in the other. 
 
 In 1887, in the annual report of the Eotterdam Chamber of 
 Commerce, it was estimated that the system of protection or 
 bounties on beet sugar production involved a loss of the following 
 sums to the Continental States : — 
 
 £ 
 
 France 3,250,000 
 
 Germany 1,885,000 
 
 Austro-Hunjjary 500,000 
 
 Belgium .. " 812,000 
 
 £6,447,000 
 
 The production of beet sugar in the two chief European pro- 
 ducing countries is thus given in the annual report of the Marseilles 
 Chamber of Commerce, in tons ; 
 
BEETROOT SUGAR. 
 
 215 
 
 Year. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 France. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Germany. | France. 
 
 1877-78 
 1878-79 
 1879-80 
 1880-81 
 1881-82 
 
 373,000 
 426,000 
 409,000 
 559,000 
 599,000 
 
 397,000 
 432,000 
 277,000 
 233,000 
 393,000 
 
 1882-83 
 1883-84 
 1884-85 
 1885-86 
 1886-87 • 
 
 825,000 
 925,000 
 
 1,150,000 
 838,000 
 
 1,012,000 
 
 423,000 
 450,000 
 325,000 
 298,000 
 500,000 
 
 The export of beet sugar, raw and refined, from Germany and 
 France has been, in tons : — 
 
 Year. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 France. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 France. 
 
 1877 
 1878 
 1879 
 1880 
 1881 
 
 99,000 
 141,000 
 137,000 
 298,000 
 320,000 
 
 269,000 
 202,000 
 186,000 
 161,000 
 161,000 
 
 1882 
 1883 
 1884 
 1885 
 1888 
 
 482,000 
 600,000 
 750,000 
 540,000 
 682,000 
 
 164,000 
 184,000 
 111,000 
 74,000 
 139,000 
 
 Prom the statistics published by Mr. F. 0. Licht, I give the 
 following figures : — 
 
 Total Production iu 1886. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Cane sugar '. ., .. 2,247,000 
 
 Beet sugar 2,620,000 
 
 4,867,000 
 
 For the total consumption of the world, no reliable figures can be 
 given. That of Europe and North America has been estimated at : — - 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Europe 2,549,029 
 
 North America 1,028,429 
 
 3,577,458 
 
 Tlie production ot beet sugar in 1886 exceeded that of 1885 
 by about 500,000 tons. It even surpassed the large crop of 1884. 
 This enormous increase was due to the protection unwisely 
 granted to this branch of agriculture in nearly every country. 
 
 Austro-Hungary. — The number of factories declined from 232 in 
 1883, to 212 in 1886. In 1885, the quantity of beetroot used was 
 4,340,190 tons, and the sugar exported 370,459 tons, on which a 
 drawback was received of £2,764,272. 
 
 There were, in 1885, 367,457 acres Under sugar beet in Austria, 
 and 94,732 acres in Hungary. 
 
 Eussia makes about 538,000 tons. 
 
 France. — There were in 1885, 478,306 acres under sugar beet, 
 the yield being 107,919,200 owts. of roots. The number of 
 factories declined from 521 in 1876, to 391 in 1887. The 
 quantity of beetroot used in 1886 was 3,400,000 tons, and the 
 
216 
 
 SUGAR. 
 
 sugar made, excluding molasses, was 265,071 tons, of which 
 139,856 tons were exported. 
 
 Belgium. — In 1888, there were 80,589 acres under sugar beet, 
 which produced 17,160,786 cwts. of roots. The number of 
 factories is 113, a decline of 50 or 60 from ten years previous. The 
 raw sugar produced was about 95,000 tons. 
 
 Holland has about 53,000 acres under sugar beet, and Sweden 
 produces about 800,000 cwts. of beetroot, the sugar made by 
 these two countries being about 37,500 tons. 
 
 German Empire. — The present number (1887) of factories is^ 
 401, the largest number, 312, being in Prussia, after which come 
 Brunswick and Anhalt with about 30 each, and the other smaller 
 States with from 3 to 6 each. The quantity of beetroot worked on 
 in 1886 was 8,306,671 tons, from which nearly a million tons of 
 sugar were produced, besides molasses. The sugar duty paid 
 was over £7,060,670. The exports in 1885 were 673,727 tons, on 
 which a drawback was paid of £5,656,258. 
 
 The exports of raw beet sugar from Germany (the Zollverein)k 
 have been as follows : — 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1877 44,903 
 
 1878 99,347 
 
 1879 105,431 
 
 1880 :97,835 
 
 1881 252,088 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1882 289,771 
 
 1883 436,789 
 
 1884 524,662 
 
 1885 444,205 
 
 1886 452,192 
 
 The shipments in 1886 were to the following countries : — 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Sweden 7,933 
 
 Hanse Towns 73,520 
 
 Holland 52,897 
 
 Belgium 1,418 
 
 United Kingdom 288,599 
 
 United States 24,552 
 
 Other countries 3,273 
 
 452,192 
 
 GLUCOSE, OE STAECH SUGAE. 
 
 There is another description of sugar now manufactured largely, 
 which has to be taken into consideration by the sugar planters, 
 as it is used a good deal in brewing, by confectioners and 
 others, and that is glucose or sugar made from potato and other 
 starch. The quantity manufactured in Germany is large. There 
 are 717 factories, and these made the following quantities of sugar 
 in 1876 :— 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1. Solid glucose 116,109 
 
 2. Molasses or syrup 220,452 
 
 3. Coloured starch or caramel 21,017 
 
 Total 357,578 
 
STARCH SUGAR. 217 
 
 In 1880, 29,000 tons were made, and with the imports 54,000 
 tons were exported. 
 
 The cultivation of potatoes, for the purpose of obtaining their 
 starch, covers a large extent of territory on the Continent. The 
 method pursued in nearly all of the refineries is identical. The 
 wet starch is first put in a large mash-tub, where, under constant 
 stirring for an hour, it is entirely dissolved in water and dilute 
 acid. Prom the mash-tub it is run in vats, where it can be 
 boiled by steam ; here it remains, if for sugar four or five hours, 
 for syrup two or three hours. It is then put into the neutralizing 
 tanks, to be treated with carbonate of lime, and left until the 
 sediment, chiefly composed of gypsum, has settled — this usually 
 requires six hours. The sweet liquid thus obtained is evaporated 
 in vacuum pans, filtered, and left to crystallize, if sugar is to be 
 made, or is else manufactured into syrup. 
 
 In the United States a large quantity of glucose is made from 
 maize. The idea was first introduced to notice there in 1867, and 
 now a large portion of the Tndifin corn crop is used in making 
 glucose. The product is surreptitiously mixed with cheap brown 
 sugar, whitening it up to a higher-priced white grade ; and the 
 syrup, either mixed or unmixed with the true saccharine article, 
 is palmed off as genuine cane or maple syrup. The profit from 
 this underhand business is large. A bushel of corn is said to yield 
 30 lbs. of grape sugar, or three gallons of the syrup, and while 
 the sugar costs only 3^ cents per lb. to make, it is sold at 
 7 cents, the syrup being quite as valuable. 
 
 The Chamber of Commerce of New York, in its annual report, 
 expresses the belief that the output of this sort of sugar is now 
 not less than 1000 tons a day for the whole countiy, and that in 
 New York the glucose manufacture is interfering seriously with 
 the legitimate importation from the West Indies, &c. At Chicago, 
 commanding as it does the corn region of the West, glucose is 
 made largely, and a new factory about to be started there is to 
 consume 15,000 bushels of corn per day. 
 
 The great increase in the vine-growing districts of America has 
 occasioned an enlarged demand for glucose, and the manufacture 
 of this article appears destined to assume very large proportions 
 in the United States, where Indian com can be obtained in 
 unlimited quantity at a very low price. 
 
 The manufacture of starch sugar has been long known in 
 Japan. Millet and rice are used for the purpose, and after being 
 steamed, they are mixed with a certain quantity of malt or 
 ferment, and kept for several hours at a fixed temperature in closed 
 vessels, after which the liquid portion is strained, and concen- 
 trated by evaporation to a strong syrup, or a solid mass, which is 
 formed into bars while still hot. It is called Ame, and con- 
 stitutes a kind of confectionery. 
 
218 
 
 SUGAR. 
 
 SORGHUM SUGAE. 
 
 Attempts iiave been made from time to time to introduce and 
 extend the cultivation for sugar of a species of millet or sweet 
 cane, the Sorghum saccharatum, Pers., Andrcpogon saccharatus, Eoxb. 
 This grass, allied to the Sorghum vulgare, or Dhurra plant of North 
 Africa, and the Guinea corn of the West Indies, is grown in the 
 north of China for the extraction of sugar. In New South Wales 
 it has been found to stand frost better than the sugar-cane proper, 
 and is little affected by floods. It comes to maturity in five 
 months, and therefore may be employed as an interval crop, 
 alternating with sugar-cane, and keejping the sugar mills going. 
 When not grown for sugar, the plant yields abundance of 
 valuable food for cattle, at the rate of 30 to 40 tons of cane per 
 acre. 
 
 In France M. Vilmorin states that it is capable of yielding on 
 an average, from an acre of land, 26,000 lbs. of juice, containing 
 from 10 to 13 per cent, of sugar; and that this is more than the 
 average yield of the sugar beet. It is alleged, however, that the 
 plant is adapted to only a few parts of the south of France. 
 
 Mr. Leonard Wray asserts that some of the varieties of Sorghum 
 which he introduced from Natal gave 30 cwts. of sugar per acre, 
 ihat it has yielded from a poor haudmill 68 per cent, of juice, 
 containing 15 per cent, of sugar. Where the sugar-cane has 
 yielded 80 it has given 25, but then there is often a second and a 
 third crop to be obtained within the year. This plant can in 
 many localities be advantageously utilized for preparing treacle. 
 For this purpose the sap is expressed at the time of flowering 
 and simply evaporated ; the yield is about 100 gallons from the 
 acre. 
 
 It is grown in France and Algeria for alcohol chiefly, in Italy 
 for its syrup in wine-making. 
 
 In the North-western States of America where it flourishes, there 
 were, in 1864, 366,670 acres under sorghum, and sorghum sugar 
 was selling at Chicago at 4Jd. per lb. In 1860 nearly 7,000,000 
 gallons of sorghum treacle were produced in the United States. 
 This had increased in 1870 to 16,050,089 gallons, and 24 bogheads 
 of sorghum sugar were made. 
 
 In the State of Kansas there were 23,026 acres under sorghum in 
 1875. The produce was 2,542,512 gallons of syrup. 
 
 In 1876 it was estimated officially in the United States that the 
 production of sorghum syrup was 11,000,000 gallons annually, 
 worth about 7,000,000 dollars. In Ohio 506,000 lbs. of sorghum 
 sugar were produced. 
 
 The grain is altogether valueless in a country where maize is 
 grown so universally, and yields such an immense produce. Hence 
 the plant is grown principally for syrup, of which in 1883 some 
 30,000,000 gallons were extracted. 
 
 The Champaign Sugar Works, Champaign, Illinois, were the 
 first large sorghum sugar works ever started in the United States, 
 
SORGHUM SUGAR. 219 
 
 They have ground the stalks raised on about 1000 acres of land, 
 and the result is a perfect success in the way of making a first- 
 class quality of sugar that polarizes 98 degrees, and much sweeter 
 "than sugar made from cane or beetroots. For years experiments 
 have been made to find out some way to change sorghum syrup into 
 «ugar. The attempt was unsuccessful until lately, when the State of 
 Illinois offered a bounty to any one who would succeed in granu- 
 lating the syrup into sugar. Experiments made at the State Uni- 
 versity of Illinois, in Champaign, by Professors Weber and Scovell, 
 i succeeded in accomplishing the result. A ready sale is found for 
 all the sugar and syrup made, and the success there will cause a 
 large number of sugar works to be erected all over the West, for 
 sorghum cane will grow where corn can be raised, and where 
 farmers can make $15 an acre in raising corn, they can realize $30 
 an acre in raising sorghum cane to sell to these factories. 
 
 The result of this discovery is likely to make as great a change 
 in America as the making of beet sugar has in Europe. The 
 •Champaign Sugar Works have introduced all the modern im- 
 provements. The machinery, boiler, and vacuum pans were made 
 by the Atlantic Works in Brooklyn, N.Y. They use both the 
 Weston and Hepworth centrifugals. The refuse stalk called 
 "bagasse" is carried on conductors directly from the grinding mill 
 • and dropped into the furnaces in its green, wet state. The boilers 
 are set with the Jarvis patent furnace, and hot air is discharged 
 directly over the fires, igniting the gases generated by the burning 
 fuel. The intense heat made by joining the gases with hot air is 
 said to cause the green crushed cane or bagasse to burn very well, 
 on something the same principle as tanners burn their wet bark 
 from the leaches. 
 
 The Jarvis furnace is now in successful operation in the islands 
 ■ of Cuba and Santo Domingo, Guatemala, and the Sandwich Islands. 
 In the West Indies the bagasse has to be dried before using. In 
 the United States, at New Orleans, and the West, much of this 
 material has heretofore been thrown away, and coal or wood used 
 for fuel, because, although the wet bagasse could be burned, 
 but few of the sugar manufacturers would use the improved 
 furnaces necessary. 
 
 Sorghum is cultivated to a considerable extent in the Ohio belt of 
 counties, Western Virginia. It is used entirely for the manufacture 
 of molasses for home consumption, where the locality has been 
 more or less denuded of its maple trees. Most persons prefer the 
 . syrup prepared from the maple to the molasses from sorghum, as 
 the latter has too commonly from imperfect ripening an acid taste. 
 This cane succeeds well, and in good soil, when well manured, 
 yields from 200 to 300 gallons per acre. The total production 
 for the State of West Virginia was given in 1876 at 780,829 
 gallons. 
 
 The chief merit of the sorghum is, however, as a forage plant, 
 and its value for feeding stock cannot be surpassed by any other 
 crop, since a greater amount of nutritious fodder can be obtained 
 by it in a shorter time, within a given space, and more cheaply. 
 
220 SUGAR. 
 
 It cannot be propagated by cuttings like the cane, but ratoons 
 "when the stems are cut down. 
 
 Dr. P. Collier, the chemist of the Department of Agriculture, 
 Washington, examined in 1880 thirty-eight varieties of sorghum, 
 grown in and received from fourteen different States, and nine 
 varieties of Indian corn. The results of analyses made (1318 in all)' 
 of the sorghums, showed them to yield on an average 1662 
 pounds of available sugar. Prom four of these varieties, the 
 sugar was extracted in quantity and at a rate of fuUy 2000 pounds 
 per acre. 
 
 In the earlier stages of growth the amount of crystallizable 
 sugar (sucrose) is small, but as the plant matures the sucrose 
 rapidly increases, until it equals from 12 to 16 per cent, of the 
 juice. The " solids not sugar " in the juice also increase from the 
 first, but very much less rapidly than does the crystallizable 
 sugar. At the same time the uncrystallizable sugar (glucose) 
 steadily diminishes, so that the purity of the juice increases 
 constantly until the cane is ready to be worked. Aided by 
 Government grants, these experiments were reported so suc- 
 cessful in 1887, that they have, "it is confidently believed, placed 
 sorghum sugar-making among the profitable industries of the 
 country." 
 
 The State of Kansas has been the first to demonstrate that it is 
 practicable to extract sugar from sorghum. Mr. Fisher, the British 
 Consul at Chicago, in an official report published in 1888, states 
 that the experiments show that, taking 7^ tons of clean canes as an 
 average yield per acre of land cultivated with sorghum (and good 
 cultivation can increase the yield to 10 and even 12 tons), this 
 will produce 700 lbs. of sugar, 1000 lbs. of molasses, 900 lbs. of 
 seed, 1500 lbs. of fodder, and 1500 lbs. of exhausted chips (dried), 
 and that the total value of sugar, molasses and seed is about £1118. 
 For the corresponding gross yield of 10 tons of sorghum at 8s. per 
 ton, the farmer will make £4 per acre for his crop, or more than 
 double the yield of a crop of wheat or maize, while as a gross 
 product of agriculture and manufacture, it is said that six times 
 as much per acre will be realised from this industry as is usually 
 realised from cereals in the State of Kansas. Sorghum seed is 
 said to be of about equal value with Indian corn for feeding 
 purposes. Mr. Fisher describes in detail * the working of one of the 
 experimental factories during 1887, and the various processes 
 through which the cane goes. 
 
 The farmer's part is the most important of all, and it is thought 
 that much may be done by experiments to improve the canes, on 
 the same principle as beet for sugar has been improved, by 
 careful nursing, producing different hybrids, and preserving seed 
 only from such cane as has been shown by analysis to contain the 
 greatest amount of sugar. It is also thought that the length of 
 the season for working sorghum may be extended by the develop- 
 ment of earlier varieties and by cultivation. 
 
 * Miscellaneoua Series of Eeports to Parliament, No. 83. 
 
MAIZE SUGAR. 221 
 
 In 1888 at one manufactory at Fort Scott, Kansas, there was 
 made : — 
 
 $ 
 
 500,000 lbs. sugar at Scents 25,000 
 
 100,000 gallons of syrup at 20 cents 20,000 
 
 The State bounty at 2 cents, per pound 10,000 
 
 Making a total receipt of 55,000 
 
 MAIZE SUGAE. 
 
 At the time of the Continental War, when France and a con 
 siderable portion of Europe was deprived of colonial produce, 
 attempts were made to undertake, on a grand scale, the manufacture 
 of grape sugar, and experiments were made with different 
 plants in order to obtain sugar ; the maize was one of these, and 
 Parmentier pursued his researches in order to extract sugar from 
 it ; this, however, he only succeeded in doing in the form of non- 
 crystallizable syrup. These researches are set forth in his work 
 ' On the Manufacture of Syrups,' which bears the date of 1813. 
 Ten years later, Marabille of Pa via, extracted sugar from the maize ; 
 then came Burget, Deyeux, Pietet (1821), Dr. Neuhold, Pallas 
 (1824), Biot and Soubeiran. But no part of these experiments 
 established the fact that a really crystallizable sugar could be 
 made from maize; syrup only was extracted. In 1842 some ex- 
 periments were made in Louisiana, which clearly proved that the 
 sugar corn contained a large portion of crystallizable sugar, but 
 the extraction seems to present great difficulties. At what par- 
 ticular period in the growth of the plant the sugar is crystallizable 
 and what quantity can be practicably extracted from it, is the 
 important point not yet resolved. 
 
 An average of twenty-six analyses of nine samples of maize, 
 made by Dr. P. Collier, of Washington, in 1880, showed them to 
 contain in their juice an amount of sugar greater in quantity than 
 the average of the best thirty of sixty specimens of sugar beet 
 grown in different parts of the States. After a large crop of ripe 
 corn had been gathered, the stalks yielded at the rate of over 
 SOO lbs. of sugar to the acre, and there appears no reason to doubt 
 that this result could be obtained upon a larger scale. 
 
( 222 ) 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 THE USEFUL PALMS, AND THEIE ECONOMIC 
 PEODUCTS. 
 
 The number of known species of palms is over one thousand.. 
 Although chiefly natives of tropical regions, we may learn from 
 Von Martius's great work that there are many extra-tropical 
 members of this princely order which were known to him in 1850, 
 when that masterly work was concluded. Several of the latter 
 furnish useful products to commerce, such as the dwarf palm 
 (Chamseroj)S Tmmilis). 
 
 There is scarcely any family of trees that are more generally 
 useful in tropical climates than the palm tribe. Many a single 
 member of this family has numerous special and important 
 economic uses, rendering it invaluable to the natives. Some palms 
 are very widely diffused over the globe, others are at present 
 restricted to certain countries, but there is no reason to doubt that 
 by a little careful management several of the most useful could be 
 introduced and acclimatized in other quarters. Numerous races 
 depend almost entirely upon the palms for many important pro- 
 ducts ; wood and leaves for habitation, bark and leaves for fabrics 
 and cordage, buds and fruit for food, and sap for sugar and spirit. 
 "With the view of diffusing practical information concerning their 
 growth and useful products, I furnish such information concerning 
 principal palms as I have been able to collect. 
 
 The Coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera) is one of the most useful trees 
 of tropical regions ; all its parts are utilized, but its fruit is the 
 most important product. In preparing plantations, the nuts for 
 sprouting should be chosen from those thoroughly ripe, having full, 
 large eyes, and such as have been gathered from trees past the 
 middle age — not, however, from aged ones — and from clusters con- 
 taining few fruits. These, if carefully planted, are said to ensure 
 the timely sprouting and steady growth of the plant as well as 
 future luxuriance, longevity, and unintermitting fruitfulness. 
 Such nuts as are gathered from February to May are generally the 
 richest in oleaginous properties, and hence should be preferred. 
 Nuts taken from older trees have the eyes small, and the sprout 
 will in consequence be thin, weak, and disproportionately long ; and 
 the future tree, if able to bear fruit, irregular and deficient in 
 
THE COCOXUT PALM. 22$ 
 
 produce. Those mits which may be taken from trees of immature 
 age will, if planted, rot away at the eye ; and the plants, if any be- 
 successfully reared, on transplanting will grow very rapidly and 
 acquire bulk, but the fruit will drop before the kernel acquires- 
 consistency, the root stalks break, and the trees entirely fail before- 
 mid-age. 
 
 The nxits for seed should not, on being gathered, be allowed to- 
 fail to the earth, but be lowered in a basket or fastened to a rope. 
 If let fall, the polished cover to the fibres will be injured and 
 collect damp about the nut, or the shell inside may be cracked, and 
 the water disturbed. These are fatal injuries, for even if the plants, 
 still grow, they will on being transplanted not make fresh shoots, 
 but produce weak trees having their fronds constantly drying up,, 
 nuts rarely matured, and often even without kernel in those 
 which appear perfect. If the nuts are allowed to dry on the tree- 
 before gathering, the plants are liable to be lost, not having water 
 inside to cherish the growth of the sprout (before the actual roots 
 shoot into the soil). 
 
 The seed nuts, after being gathered, should be carefully kept for- 
 not less than a month before they are planted (in order that some- 
 of the moisture be absorbed, and thei hard outer skin or rind be- 
 rendered dry and waterproof). If the seed be immediately planted,, 
 the outer pod with the containing fibres will rot, and there will be 
 no sprout. The eye will rot, or be a long time sending out the 
 shoot, which will inevitably produce a weak, profitless plant. On. 
 the other hand, should a longer time intervene between gathering 
 and planting seed than prescribed, the capsule of the fruit will fall 
 off, and consequently the exposure to damp and rain will affect the 
 eyes ; there will then be no plants, or very indifferent ones. The- 
 seeds should be planted on an elevated plot or bed of land, where- 
 water will not stagnate. The plants will be strong if the nuts- 
 are placed on the hard sandy courtyard of the planter's dwelling- 
 house; or if placed in flower-pots with good soil and sand in them,, 
 no damage will be done by white ants, and very few will fail to- 
 germinate. If, however, they are placed on a hard soil which the 
 roots cannot penetrate, and exposed to the sun, the water inside 
 will dry up, damage will be done by ants, and those few that- 
 throw out shoots will be weak, and on transplanting, the roots will 
 break and the sprouts be severed from the nuts. If, on the other 
 hand, they are deposited on uneven ground or too moist soils^ 
 both the fibrous covering and the eyes will rot, and the seeds come 
 to grief. 
 
 Nurseries should be somewhat exposed to the influence of the 
 sun, though not too much heat; plants thus grown will, even 
 though deficient in stature, be strong, and when transplanted wilL 
 not fail nor suffer from heat. Should plants, however, have but 
 little sun, no great harm is done ; but if they be grown entirely 
 under cover, insects will infest them, the stems will be longv 
 tapering, and weak, the fronds will be often unable to sustain 
 their own weight, and when transplanted, each auccessive hot 
 season will affect the trees. 
 
224 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 Tlie planting of the nuts should take place from January tc 
 April, and also in August, provided the rains are not heavy, and 
 then the planter may expect fruitful trees to be produced wher 
 grown ; but nurseries formed during the heavy monsoon will 
 generally fail, or produce trees which will yield small nuts. Toe 
 much moisture of every kind is injurious to plants. 
 
 The seed beds, where the plants are to be nursed, should be well 
 dug to about two feet deep, and all stones, roots of trees, &c., 
 removed ; the coconuts should then be laid along flat on their side 
 in the soil, in such a way that all but two inches of them be 
 buried, the interval between the nuts being about a foot at least. 
 Should the spaces be too great, the plants will have too many roots, 
 and the sun will not be shaded from them by the fronds, which 
 will be shown by the pale green of the leaf But should the nuts 
 be placed too close to each other, the young shoots will be then 
 meagre and quickly spindle up ; the roots too will twist together 
 and be broken when the plants are taken up to be transplanted. 
 Though manuring is of little use before they have taken root, yet 
 in order to prevent white ants, &c., a mixture of salt and ashes, or 
 ashes alone, should be put into the trenches made in the beds for 
 receiving the coconut. Sand alone, or salt with ashes, sand, and 
 paddy husk, form another mixture to be placed between the earth 
 of the bed and the nuts, which latter should be covered with the 
 compost. Black salt, ashes made from the coconut husk and fronds, 
 with sea sand, is the best mixture. If this precaution be not used, 
 many of the nuts will be injured and the plants grow pale and 
 weak. 
 
 The next care is to water the nursery, which should be done 
 only every second or fourth day according to the dryness of the 
 weather, simply keeping the soil moist ; for if the ground is too 
 damp, rot is engendered, but if too dry the coconut water inside 
 the nuts will evaporate and the shoots dry up. A careful 
 observance of these instructions will cause the shoots to sprout 
 generally within six months from the time they are placed in the 
 •ground. 
 
 Some place the coconuts intended for seed, tied together in 
 pairs by a strip of the covering on the cadjan, over the roof tree of 
 the dwelling-house, or on branches of jack trees, freely exposing 
 them to sun, dew, and rain. But when the shoots are a few inches 
 long, they are taken down and placed in a nursery tUl transplanted. 
 Such plants are seldom lost, and make no great delay in yielding 
 fruit. Once the tender shoots begin to appear, no great care is neces- 
 sary for manuring, but the greatest attention should be given that no 
 cattle or insect, &o., injure the shoot itself, else the slightest blow 
 or abrasion will cause a want of vigour ; but on the other hand, 
 some suppose that unless either ashes alone, or mixed with salt and 
 sand, or these separately, be applied to the plants every month, a 
 want of colour will be visible in the opening leaves, or ants and 
 other destructive insects will be fostered. Plants are removed for 
 transplanting generally in the second or third month, sometimes 
 even in the ninth month, but rarely so late as the fifth month ; 
 
THE COCONUT PALM. 225 
 
 but in ordinary cases, if they be transplanted six months after the 
 shoot makes its first appearance, their safe growth and vigour may 
 be looked for. In low-lying lands, however, it is preferable to have 
 plants of one year's growth, though they are more difficult in 
 managing. The only benefit to be expected in transplanting older 
 plants is that the planter looks for an earlier return, and in planting 
 these on the banks of the rivers or low lands formed from the wash 
 of the monsoons, the crops will not be deficient. Plants left too 
 long in the nursery and then removed are apt to have the fibrous 
 supports at the foot of the fronds decay, so that these hang down, 
 wither, and dry up, and new fronds and leaves do not make their 
 appearance for four or more months, and these generally die pre- 
 maturely. Some of the planters give it as their opinion that the 
 transplanting may be effected from January to May, and again in 
 August, October, and November (i.e. omitting the wet months). 
 Perhaps, however, the general rule should be, that in low, damp 
 situations planting may be effected during the hot season, in salt 
 luarshes and on hill-sides during the monsoon. It is said that 
 those trees planted from January to June will yield fruit for eight 
 months in the year, and those planted in October for six months, 
 while those planted in June and July in the heavy rains will 
 scarcely be fruitful at all. Different places and soils require 
 different seasons for this operation, to be learned only from ex- 
 perience or observation of neighbouring gardens. Soils suitable 
 for a coconut plantation are variously described as below, par- 
 ticularly observing that stony grounds, or those overlying rooky 
 foundations, are to avoided : — 
 
 1. Soils mixed with sand, either dark-coloured or river-washed. 
 
 2. Where sand is mixed with clay, ferruginous earth, or black 
 mould. 
 
 3. Clayey soils where the under strata consists of sand. 
 
 4. Sand and clay, even when mixed with gravel and pebbles. 
 
 5. The sea-shore, banks of backwaters, rivers, tanks, and paddy- 
 fields. 
 
 6. Alluvium of rivers and backwaters, provided a yard and a 
 half of land is to be generally seen above water level. 
 
 7. Marshy land even in brackish soils (but not where salt is 
 formed in crystals by evaporation). 
 
 8. All level lands exposed to the sea breeze where the soil is 
 good, as the valleys between hills, tanks, and ditches which have 
 been filled up. 
 
 9. Lastly, even the floors of ruined houses well worked up, and 
 any places much frequented t^ cattle and human beings, on account 
 of the ashes and salts of ammonia from the urine, &c., deposited 
 day by day in the soil. 
 
 Sunlight is most beneficial to the coconut tree ; it increases the 
 number of successive fronds and the crops of fruit, while if much 
 shade is caused by trees of other kinds, there is a tendency in the 
 lower part of the coconut stem to thicken, while the upper part 
 grows thin and attenuated, with fronds at considerable intervals 
 and little fruit. 
 
226 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 Exposure to regular breezes is also beneficial, for the constant 
 movements of the tree tops have a tendency to strengthen and 
 enliven the whole tree. The difference is easily seen by com- 
 parison with those in sheltered positions. The holes or pits into 
 which the plants are to be transplanted should be severally 12 
 yards distant on backwaters, but where a deep alluvial soil is 
 found, 8 or 10 yards are enough. These distances are necessary, 
 otherwise the trees, not having room to expand their tops, repel 
 each other and grow in diagonal positions, and are easily blown 
 down or overset. Too close a neighbourhood also tendsto draw up 
 the trees into long feeble stems, shoots, fronds, and small fruit. 
 In a level, loose soil the hole should be a cube, of a yard and a 
 half, on hiU-sides 2 to 2^ yards, but in low grounds half or three- 
 quarters of a yard deep with one yard square is sufficient. If the 
 pits are not wide and sufficiently deep, the roots soon appear above 
 the surface of the surrounding ground, and the hold upon the 
 earth is weak, nor is sufficient nourishment obtained, and the 
 monsoon storms quickly overturn the tree where the soil is marshy, 
 though the hole need only be large enough to contain the seed and 
 roots, and in a cold clayed ground the boles are filled with sand and 
 the plants deposited in it. Again, in low marshes, banks or 
 terraces should be thrown up and consolidated previous to planting. 
 If in any of these cases plants of two or three years old are used, 
 the pits must be at least 2J yards every way. The pits should be 
 dug from two to six months before planting, and then prepared 
 first by having heaps of fuel and weeds burned in them, and sub- 
 sequently by manuring. The fresh earth is supposed to be full of 
 ants and worms, and itself injurious to the new plant, and to hinder 
 growth ; on the contrary, there are some planters who deny this 
 statement and think the burning and manuring not to be necessary. 
 In low-situated plantations new holes may be preferred and quick 
 planting. No time should be lost in the removal from the nursery 
 to the pits, indeed the day should not pass — in which case within 
 the month new roots and fronds may be looked for ; but where 
 this proves impracticable, if the plants are kept cool and in 
 shade, four to six or eight days have been known to intervene, but 
 followed by very great loss in the number of successful trees. 
 Inside the pits smaller ones should be made and filled with salt 
 and ashes mixed with mould, into which the young plants are to 
 be planted, with the nuts just covered with this compost. Some 
 shade must be afforded, and care taken that the plants be not 
 shaken or removed from their first position, and occasionally water 
 should be sprinkled over them. The compost must be used when 
 there is but a small proportion of sand in the soil. Ashes will 
 suffice on the sea-shore, and sand in marshy and loamy soils. The 
 roots of a plant under a year which are broken (but according to 
 many planters all found on the nuts in the nursery) should have 
 their ends cut, as new ones are supposed to be hastened by the 
 process. Turmeric and arrowroot are often planted in the same 
 pits with the coconut, as they are supposed in some way to repel 
 white ants, rats, &c. After the plants are in, little sheds with 
 
THE COCONUT PALM. 227 
 
 twigs and branches should be made to protect them for the 
 next six months from too great heat of noon-day sun ; this 
 prevents withering of the leaves or any check to the growth 
 of the roots. 
 
 On dry soils the plants ought to be watered twice a day for the 
 first month, once a day will suffice for the next five, or until the 
 moonsoon showers come on, and once every two or three days 
 during the dry seasons of three following years, according to cir- 
 cumstances. On hill-sides it is usual to water during the hot 
 weather, even till the first buds appear ; and on sandy plains on 
 the sea-coast, when the trees are in full bearing, eight or ten feet 
 of bamboo (with the divisions at the joints broken to form the 
 pipe) is often driven down by the side of the coconut tree, and cool 
 water from weed-covered tanks is poured down to refresh the roots 
 and lower soil. The soil round the young plant is often kept 
 damp by a bed of leaves, particularly such as will not be eaten by 
 white ants. If the soil is naturally poor or of a hungry nature, 
 salt, ashes, paddy husks, goats' dung, and dry manures may be 
 applied- for the first year, but in after seasons, fresh ashes, decayed 
 fish, carrion, or other refuse is preferable, also oil-cake. 
 
 If the soil at the foot become too rich, the larva of a beetle, a 
 large grub with a reddish-brown head, soon finds its way to the 
 roots and into the stem, hence though the foot of the tree may 
 enlarge, the stem does not develop itself, the new leaf-spike at the 
 crown becomes yellow, fades, and is not replaced, nor does it open 
 out into the usual frond, and in two or three months, sometimes a 
 a little longer, the whole tree top is aifected and drops down 
 piecemeal to the ground. It would appear that fear of this 
 evil is the reason why ashes alone are recommended by so many 
 cultivators. 
 
 As soon as the new fronds have divided into the long side leaflets 
 or lost their connected form, which is at the end of the first year, 
 the soil should be dug up and ashes applied about once a month. 
 When the tree is two years old, and henceforward at the com- 
 mencement of every monsoon in May and June, the whole of the 
 soil, a yard or two round the stem, must be opened out and ashes 
 •with dry manure applied and left open to the air; and in October, 
 when the rains have ceased, this freshened earth should be replaced 
 and levelled. As the tree gets older and the depression at the foot 
 is gradually filled up, it may not in after years be necessary to 
 dig so deep as for the earlier growths. If the opening out of the 
 roots and manuring be thus annually attended to, the tendency to 
 form a sort of bulb on the surface and throw roots above the soil 
 will be checked ; the old worn-out rootlets are cut away, strong 
 roots from other trees and all weeds are removed, and the process 
 acts both as " a wintering and pruning," as recommended by 
 scientific gardeners in Europe to productions of their own gardens. 
 Cattle are most destructive the first two years, in eating off the 
 ends of the fronds and stripping the leaflets; if the plants suffer 
 often in this way, the growth is entirely stopped ; sometimes the 
 new leaf-spike is pulled out, and the tree dies. Should the heart 
 
 Q 2 
 
228 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 of the stem and top not be injured, the tree will still remain an 
 unsightly object, and often entirely profitless and barren. 
 
 From the time that the leaflets become fully developed and 
 distinct from each other, till the period that the spathes (or covers 
 to the flower) make their appearance, the fronds should be shaken 
 and weighed or pressed downwards each month, so as to keep them 
 from each other and make them spread, and careful examination 
 should be made lest rats, beetles, or worms have made nests upon 
 the head, or bored into the cabbage heart of the palm, and this 
 often. Some planters sprinkle ashes and salt about the spike 
 shoots to keep insects away. The dried fronds, old spathes, fruit 
 and blossom stalks, and ragged fibres should be removed at stated 
 periods of perhaps a month, or as often as the nuts may hereafter 
 be gathered. The application of salt and ashes to the tree tops is 
 usual at least in March and October to keep oif the swarms of 
 insects, particularly red ants, which live upon the juices of the tree 
 and render them fruitless. 
 
 Distinct leaflets will begin to show themselves at the end of the 
 first year, and be completed at the end of the second, on each 
 frond, which will be 3 inches thick in the stem or leaf stalk next 
 the parent trunk. 
 
 In the third year the bottom of the frond will assume somewhat 
 the form of a horse-shoe where it clasps the main tree ; and in the 
 fourth year the trunk of the tree will appear slightly above ground, 
 and is then called " a coconut tree with the elephant's foot," and 
 will have not less than twelve fronds. About the fifth year the 
 trunk is fully manifested, and there should be about twenty to 
 twenty-four fronds ; when a luxuriant well-grcwn tree begins to 
 bear fruit, there will be no less than thirty-six of these branches or 
 fronds. If a tree receives much attention, and is close to a hut or 
 stall for cattle, these processes may be hastened, but on a rocky 
 hillside they will be much delayed, two or more years being 
 required in addition to each stage. 
 
 Spathes or shoots, from which eventually the flowers are to 
 appear, will begin to make their appearance in the sixth year, but 
 some kinds of coco palm, as the Nicobar, even before this ; but on 
 other soils seven to fifteten j-ears may pass without the slightest 
 appearance of the spathes. The height of the stems at this 
 important period, in some kinds of tree usually, and in all when 
 influenced by the soil, will be only a foot or two above the ground, 
 while in other places the stem may be 16 feet high. For the first 
 few months these flower shoots are deceptive, and only dry up, 
 but within the year begin to retain their blossoms and bear a few 
 fruit, yielding abundantly in three or four years after their first 
 appearance. 
 
 In six months from blossoming the nuts will have the kernel 
 begin to solidify, and in a year the fruit is fully ripe — even sooner 
 if the season is very hot and dry. 
 
 The produce of the tree in full health and properly tended is 
 much dependent on soil and climate. The average may be put down 
 at 120 nuts in the twelve months, while in a low and sandy soil it 
 
THE COCONUT PALM. 229 
 
 will amount to 200, and when planted in gravel and laterite foun- 
 dations, not 60 ; the most productive months are from January to 
 June, that is for ripe nuts, the heat bringing them quickly to 
 maturity. 
 
 It is calculated that where the roots of the trees can reach water, 
 and the soil is alluvial, the trees will bear from eight to ten 
 bunches or crops of fruit; in other and higher lands not more 
 than six. 
 
 One hundred coconuts perfectly grown and carefully dried will, 
 it is generally calculated, yield when pressed ten to thirteen 
 edangalies (each containing 92 cubic inches) of oil (40 nuts to an 
 imperial gallon). Inferior coconiits will vary from three to nine 
 edangalies ; fruit taken from trees on salt marshes have the 
 least oil. 
 
 When the trees begin to show the fruit-shoot, or spathe, it is 
 often thought advisable to extract the juices for toddy, and not 
 allow the blossoms to be grown ; but this only in the monsoon, 
 and for that season only. This is supposed to render the future 
 fruit bunches more numerous and give the sap a tendency to flow. 
 In some places trees are never allowed to bear fruit, but toddy is 
 always extracted. Drawing toddy for a few months is thought to 
 check the habit in some trees of dropping immature fruit, and 
 again of preventing injurious animals and insects from infesting 
 plantations, the frequent visits of the men to the trees being a 
 check to their forming nests and otherwise remaining hid in the 
 tree tops. 
 
 While" certain of the fruit-shoots are cut for toddy the others 
 will still produce coconuts, as well as those previously developed ; 
 but if three or four be used for this purpose, the others will dry 
 away or be of very little use. Even when a spathe is partly used 
 for toddy and left, provided the part containing the buds remains 
 undestroyed, a few fruit may be produced on that stalk. 
 
 Five parras, of ten edangalies each, of good arrack may be made 
 from a single tree devoted to this purpose during a single year ; 
 but some very good trees will give, though rarely, eight to ten 
 parras. 
 
 Gathering some of the tender coconuts from the earlier bunches 
 will develop the succeeding bunches greatly, and strengthen the 
 whole tree very materially. It is not, however, recommended to 
 cut the fruit stems or stalks out before they are matured and dry, 
 as it causes the tree to bleed and lose its most valuable juices ; 
 hence, in order to prevent the possibility of injury to the tree, 
 owners should permit none but mature fruit to be taken. 
 
 The number of fronds which dry and fall off from a tree is eight 
 or ten in the course of the year, principally in the hot season. It 
 is usual to cut these off, but if done too early, those next the one 
 cut are affected and fade ; hence only those turning brown should 
 be removed, and leaving a small portion of the foot stalk on the 
 tree. It must be remembered that the drooping leaves are intended 
 to protect the tree stem from the burning sun. 
 
 Thirty species of the coconut are described and named in the 
 
230 
 
 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 Names. 
 
 1. The green coconut .. 
 
 2. The black or dark . . 
 
 3. The native 
 
 (a) GoTilpatra . 
 (6) Ditto.. . 
 
 East as in the subjoined, list; but cultivation and incidental 
 natural causes have much to do vrith this diversity, and in a few 
 cases these are but imaginary distinctions : — 
 
 Description, 
 The fruit and fronds are of a bright green. 
 These are of a dark green. 
 The fruit has a yellow tinge. 
 
 iThis name is given to what is supposed to be 
 the best kinds, one variety yellow and the 
 other a light brown or light colour, and 
 of beautiful form. 
 The nut has a strong red tinge. 
 Is brighter than the last. 
 Even the pulp and fresh fibres of the husk 
 round the nut are pink, and the fronds 
 are reddish. 
 The nut has a beautiful fading blush, the 
 
 fruit being small in size, but numerous. 
 The nut and fronds have a grey bloom. 
 The pulp is creamy and thick. 
 The fruit is long, aud the ridges well de- 
 veloped. 
 The nut is long and pointed, with a large 
 base. 
 14. The Oora The nut is pointed at each end, and oblong. 
 
 6. The reddish coconut 
 
 7. The red ditto .. .. 
 
 8. The crimson . . 
 
 9. The sunbright 
 
 10. The white 
 
 11. The milky 
 
 1 2. Oblong oval 
 
 13. The Tanjore 
 
 15. The globular 
 
 16. Small round . . 
 
 17. Minute coconut 
 
 18. The weighty coconut 
 
 19. The heavy ditto 
 
 20. Male coconut , 
 
 ..■} 
 
 21. Foreign coconut 
 
 22. The island coconut 
 
 23. The Portuguese 
 
 24. Shanar or Ceylon 
 
 25. The Dutch .. 
 
 26. The Goa Two fruits only 
 
 dark green. 
 
 The bunches contain many large round 
 
 fruit. 
 Fruit more numerous, but also very round. 
 A dimioutive fruit, but made up by number. 
 Fruit few, but large and heavy, with thick 
 
 kernel. 
 The eyes of the fruit are small, but the copra 
 
 or dried kernel is very full of oil. 
 There is a peculiarity in the fronds, and the 
 
 leaflets do not separate from each other. 
 Evidently from the Maldives ; both the nut 
 
 and fruit-stems reddish. 
 The same as above. 
 
 Nut large and red, fronds slightly bluish. 
 Fruit, &c., a pale red colour. 
 ~ ' " 'on each bunch, and these 
 
 27. Jaffna coconut 
 
 28. Palamcotta 
 
 29. The ship coconut 
 
 30. TheMaldive 
 
 Here again the fruit is large, but few in 
 
 number. 
 The fronds of this tree are pale yellow. 
 Stem or trunk of the tree and leaves small, 
 
 and all tinted with black spots as if 
 
 blighted. 
 The covering of the fruit is of a whitish or 
 
 washed-out blue. 
 
 The red and black kinds are generally supposed to be the most 
 fruitful, although with careful cultivation of any of the above 
 described, none need be disappointed in the returns, and this will 
 be in proportion to the labour bestowed. 
 
 Trees growing in the most fertile soils will live for a century, 
 others less favoured from sixty to eighty years only ; the former 
 will yield their fruit commencing at the tenth year, and with rare 
 intervals continue until their sixtieth year, and then gradually 
 decrease in fruitfulness till they decay. 
 
THE COCONUT PALM. 231 
 
 Although its real locality is bordered by the tropics, and the 
 tree is an inhabitant of the coast regions, it grows in India up to 
 Lucknow, 26° 60' N., and is cultivated far in the interior of the 
 peninsula, yet in the first case it does not fruit, and in the second 
 it becomes stunted and languishes. Its tall trunk often attains a 
 height of 90 feet, with a diameter of 3 feet at the base and 1 foot 
 at the summit. In favourable localities each peduncle will bear 
 from five to fifteen nuts, and a tree in full vigour may have eight, 
 ten, or a dozen of these peduncles flourishing in the course of five 
 or six weeks, so that a tree can yield 80 to 100 nuts in the year. 
 These ripen successively, and there may thus be seen at the same 
 time flowers and fruit. 
 
 Prom the fruit is obtained many articles of luxury and trade, 
 thus, first, the husk. After the thick green external pellicle is 
 stripped off the shell, it is placed to dry in the sun ; this being 
 fibrous, is beat into a sort of hemp, and is known in this state by 
 the name of Goir. It is spun into cables, ropes, and yarn of every 
 dimension and size, from a single pack-thread to a cable for a first- 
 rate man-of-war ; and it is preferable for ship's use, as it is elastic 
 and becomes as hard as iron when tarred and soaked in salt water, 
 but it is more unwield}' for stowage than hemp rope. Large 
 quantities of it are annually sent from Ceylon, Bombay, and parts 
 of the Malabar and Coromandel coast. 
 
 The albumen, or kernel, produce s oil by J poiling it in water, after 
 it has been pounded or rasped. Grated, a sweet milk, used as a sub- 
 stitute for cow's or goat's milk, is obtained, and by various prepara- 
 tions, jelly, copra, butter, candles, and sugar are produced, and, by 
 fermentation, vinegar. The oil it yields is used at table, and is equal 
 in quality to oil of almonds when fresh ; but it soon becomes rancid, 
 and in this state is only employed locally bv ^painters. o r to burn in 
 lamps. The natives of India use it in quantities for anointing 
 their persons ; it gives a fine gloss to the skin. A soap is also 
 manufactured from it, which, with the exception of one prepared 
 from the coratoe {Agave Americana), and discovered by Dr. Eobinson 
 about eighty years ago, is the only one known soluble in salt 
 water. 
 
 The kernel is used as a fattening substance in the dairy, aviary, 
 &o., and there is not any description of animal, graminivorous, 
 carnivorous, or herbivorous, that does not feed on it with avidity. 
 It is wholesome food for man, beast, and bird. 
 
 The milk of the coconut effervesces with an acid extract, and 
 the acid precipitates in a greyish hue, which becomes of a rich 
 violet colour by the addition of a fixed alkali. It is with this that 
 most cottons are dyed. This emulsion mixed with quicklime 
 causes the alkali to become rose-coloured. Dyers use this milk 
 with great advantage in dyeing black linens, silks, and cotton 
 stuffs. 
 
 The nut when it is gathered young contains an opaline water, 
 which is quite clear if filtered, and is utilized for drinking. In 
 countries where potable water is not obtained, only the milk or 
 water of the coconut is drunk ; it is an agreeable, nutritive, and 
 
232 
 
 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 healthy beverage. The gelatinous albumen when young is easily 
 detached from the shell with a spoon, and may be eaten with 
 satisfaction. It is a delicate food, which is too little appreciated 
 by Europeans, as it contains all the constituents of wholesome 
 nourishment. As it ripens the albumen hardens and becomes 
 almost hornj-, and the oil increases, although in this state it is 
 still edible, but indigestible, and only eaten associated with other 
 food. The following shows the composition of a young coconut 
 and a ripe coconut : — 
 
 Husk and shell 
 
 Kernel 
 
 Water 
 
 Totals 
 
 Young Nut. Kipe Nut. 
 
 1-760 
 0-090 
 0-300 
 
 0-816 
 0-434: 
 0-250 
 
 2-150 
 
 1-500 
 
 Coconut Oil. — Copra or copperah, the dry albuminous pulp, con- 
 tains 54-3 percent, of oil; dried at 100° it yields 66 per cent. 
 This oil, which is the most important product, is prepared in 
 various ways.- If it is intended for perfumery use, and is required 
 colourless, the following process is employed : The kernel is 
 plunged in water and boiled for a few minutes, then taken out, 
 grated and placed in the oil press ; the emulsion thus obtained is 
 boiled until the oil rises to the surface. This process, however, is 
 not cheap enough for the ordinary practice of commerce, and 
 common rude oil mills are used. These cost about £10, and will 
 last for five years. They are worked by a man, a boy, and two 
 oxen ; working eight hours a day they will operate on 130 lbs. of 
 copra, from which they will obtain 41 litres. 
 
 The characteristics for determining the purity of the coconut oil 
 are its points of congelation and density. It solidifies at 18°. 
 Taking the mean of the three following averages, the weight may 
 be easily ascertained : — 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 25 
 30 
 35 
 
 Density. 
 
 0-9188 
 0-9160 
 0-9116 
 
 Weight of Hecto- 
 litre. 
 
 Kilos. 
 91-880 
 91-500 
 91 - 166 
 
 Vast quantities of the oil are burned in lamps throughout the 
 whole Indian Archipelago and the Pacific Isles. A tumbler half 
 filled with water has oil poured in to the brim. Two lighted 
 sticks are the wicks, which burn brilliantly. Every native glories 
 in a display of lamps in the house and about the grounds at the 
 approach of night. When first taken out of the boiling pot the 
 oil has a rich flavour, but soon becomes rancid. So copious is the 
 supply, however, it can always be had fresh and sweet^for the 
 
THE COCONUT PALM. 
 
 233 
 
 table. Like olive oil in Syria, it is butter, lard, or oil, according 
 to circumstances, in cookery. Soap is made with it, lamps sup- 
 plied, leather dressed, hair and skin anointed, and cosmetics are 
 fabricated for beautifying the homely faces of women. 
 
 The following have been the imports of coconut oil in the 
 United Kingdom in the last half century : — 
 
 . Cwts. 
 
 1870 198,602 
 
 1880 318,454 
 
 1888 197,773 
 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1840 .. 
 
 . .. 42,428 
 
 1850 .. 
 
 . .. 98,040 
 
 I860 .. 
 
 . .. 194,309 
 
 Oil Machinery. — The manufacture of coconut oil may be very 
 profitably combined with the preparation of the fibre in one 
 factory. 
 
 The following machines and apparatus are necessary for pro- 
 ducing the oil : — 
 
 Improved circular cutting machines, for reducing the kernel to 
 small thin slices or shavings. 
 
 Edge stone runners for grinding down the kernel to pulp. 
 
 Improved steam pans, fitted with agitators, so arranged that 
 every part of the pulp or copra is thoroughly separated, and 
 exposed to a temperature varying (according to operator's desire) 
 from 120° to 180° Fahr., or higher if required. Valves, cocks, and 
 all other suitable fittings for the discharge of pulp or copra. 
 
 Steam heater for receiving pulp from steam agitator. 
 
 Hydraulic presses for expressing the oil, specially designed for 
 the purpose and of unusual strength, including plates and woollen 
 bags and fibre mats, as may be required. 
 
 Pumps for presses, made in the most improved and superior 
 manner, with all necessary safety and self-acting relief valves, 
 cocks, and mountings, pressure gauge, &c. If required, one set of 
 pumps and gearing may be arranged to work two or more presses. 
 
 Iron tanks for receiving the oil from the presses, of capacity to 
 contain one day's make of oil. A gun-metal pump is employed for 
 raising the contents to large settling tanks. These are generally 
 made of cast-iron, in plates of a convenient size, and properly 
 prepared for re-erection, with bolts, nuts, washers, &c. 
 
 The settling tanks should be of sufficient capacity to contain 
 four days' produce of oil from the presses, and fitted with the 
 necessary gun-metal test cocks and glass gauges, draw-off cocks, 
 and valves. 
 
 The following estimate of machinery, capable of producing 
 about 250 gallons per day, is furnished by Messrs. Priestman Bros., 
 of Hull. In calculating production, 1000 nuts will average 
 32 gallons of oil : — ■ 
 
 Two improved disc-cutting machines 58 
 
 Granite edge stone runners, with entablature, self-contained 
 
 and complete .. 168 
 
 One improved steam pan, with stirrers and driving gear . . 50 
 
 Steam receiving pan 29 
 
 Two hydraulic presses, with double pumps, stop valves, and 
 
 connections 380 
 
234 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 Connecting pipes, or oil conductors from presses to oil-receiv- £ 
 ing or spell tanks 15 
 
 Oil-receiving or spell tanks, to contain say 400 gallons each, 
 with fittings 36 
 
 Gun-metal lift and force pump, for raising oil to settling or 
 storing tank 20 
 
 Large cast-iron storing tank, to contain 1000 gallons, with 
 gun-metal cocks complete 86 
 
 Ten horse-power horizontal steam engine, of first-class make 
 and finish, steam boiler, fitted with all mountings and 
 furnace fittings complete, also steam and feed-water pipes 
 and feed-water heater 330 
 
 Complete set of best shafting, with pulleys, plummer blocks, 
 couplings and leather belting for the machines 80 
 
 Set of plates, mats, and bags for the hydraulic presses . . . . 60 
 
 Packing and delivery in London 50 
 
 If it is desired to erect a factory to manufacture both coir fibre 
 and coconut oil, one engine can readily be adapted to 'work the 
 whole of the machines. To drive the machines specified in the 
 foregoing estimate, and also the coir-fibre machines, a 14 horse- 
 power engine would be required for the combined arrangement. 
 The engine, complete with Cornish boiler and all necessary mount- 
 ings, fittings, and connections, all of best materials and workman- 
 ship, would cost £450. Packing and delivery in London, £10. 
 
 The coconut shell furnishes cups, which, carved and set in 
 silver, are a great ornament. It also makes small baskets, 
 ladles, spoons, and other such domestic articles, and fanciful orna- 
 ments. By being burnt and pulverized, and prepared with other 
 ingredients, it produces blacking not inferior to Day and Martin's, 
 lampblack, black paint, &c. 
 
 Goconut_ Fihre or Coir . — The fibrous husk of the coconut is not its 
 least valuable product, and gives rise to a very large trade, both 
 in the East ^and to Europe. At first it was only used in this 
 country for stuffing mattresses and cushions, but its applications 
 have been enlarged and its value greatly increased by mechanical 
 processes; for in a small pamphlet, issued by Mr. Treloar, he 
 states that its natural capabilities having been brought out, coir 
 has been found suited for the production of a variety of articles of 
 great utility and elegance of workmanship, table mats, fancy 
 baskets, and bonnets. Instead of being formed into rough cordage 
 only, and mats made by hand, by means of ingeniously constructed 
 machinery, the fibre is rendered sufficiently fine for the loom, and 
 matting of different textures with coloured devices is produced, 
 while a combination of wool in pleasing designs gives the richness 
 and effect of hearthrugs and carpeting. Brushes and brooms for 
 household and stable purposes, matting for sheepfolds, pheasantries 
 and poultry yards, church cushions and hassocks, hammocks, 
 clothes lines, cordage of all sizes, and string for nurserymen and 
 others, for tying up trees and other garden purposes ; nose-bags 
 for horses, mats and bags for seed crushers, oil pressors and candle 
 manufacturers, are only a few of the varied purposes to which this 
 fibrous coating of the coconut is now applied. 
 
 When the landholder gets his nuts down from the tree, they are 
 
THE COCONUT PALM. 235 
 
 given over to be peeled. The peeling process is done in a very- 
 quick and dexterous manner hj the natives. For breaking the 
 nuts and drying the kernels, nothing is charged ; but, according 
 to the usage of the country, the breaker and preparer get the 
 shells of the nuts. The husks, however, remain the property of 
 the owner, and formerly used to be sold off for local consumption. 
 But since coir yarn began to be so largely exported to England, it 
 is seldom that the owners sell off husks as fuel, as they find that 
 by burying them and then offering them for sale, they realise 
 double the amount that they would when fresh. The best place 
 for burying the husks is the river-bank where there are strong 
 currents. At ebb-tide large pits are dug, and the husks counted 
 and thrown in ; and before the flood commences, they are covered 
 up with mud, leaves, &c., and made quite secure. When the 
 monsoon sets in, and the freshes come down, the pits are under 
 fresh water, and from husks so rotted the best-coloured fibre is 
 made. The reddish stuff known in the market as Codangaloid 
 fibre is generally prepared from husks buried in places where the 
 water is throughout the year saltish. The older the pits the better 
 the quality of the fibre, and shrewd purchasers always bear this 
 fact in mind when speculating in the article. Some years back 
 the husks used to be kept in the pits for more than a year, but 
 now they are not kept above six to eight months, for as soon as it 
 is believed that they are rotten enough to throw out the fibre 
 when beaten, they are removed. If kept above fifteen months, 
 however, they spoil, and the fibre obtained is generally of a bluish 
 colour, and of thin, poor staple, which is unsaleable in England. 
 When a purchaser comes forward, the husks are either counted 
 and delivered over, or, as is more usually done, the cadjan specify- 
 ing the number buried in each pit is handed over and the bargain 
 is supposed to be concluded. The stench emanating from the pits 
 is often intolerable, and during the fibre season, travelling along 
 the banks of the backwater is not a very pleasant thing. The 
 purchaser hands over the husks to women, who beat out all the 
 fibre with short heavy clubs ; and as labour is very cheap in the 
 interior, this process is not a very expensive one. They have to 
 clear the fibre of all pith, wash it clean and expose it to be dried, 
 and in a half-dried state it is bundled up and brought into market 
 for sale. In Calicut and other ports on the Malabar coast, the 
 fibre is prepared by a different process, and hence the very un- 
 desirable quality of the yarn of those places. In Cochin and 
 Travancore the natives seem to be more alive to the importance of 
 bringing the article to market in its best condition, as they find 
 that it pays them to do so. 
 
 The constantly increasing demand for the prepared fibre is 
 sufficient to induce many planters to cultivate largely the growth 
 of the coconut. 
 
 The short, woody, and apparently intractable fibres lining the 
 inside of the husk of the coconut constitute the material which 
 Hindoo ingenuity had long since converted into excellent cordage. 
 A quarter of a century ago this was its only use ; now a large 
 
236 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 industry has been created in it for matmaking and brustmaking, 
 and we now import into the United Kingdom coir fibre, yarn, and 
 cordage, to the collective value of about £300,000. 
 
 In 1845 under 10,000 cwts. of coir rope and fibre of all kinds 
 were shipped from Ceylon ; in 1870 it had increased to 58,000 cwts., 
 and in 1886 to 82,000 cwts. 
 
 The pericarp of forty nuts furnishes about 6 lbs. of coir. There 
 are several ways of stripping the fibre from the husk. One is by 
 placing a stake or iron spike in the ground, and by striking the 
 nut on the point the fibre is easily stripped. The tannin which 
 this substance contains prevents the fibre from rotting. The fibre 
 is rather difficult to twist, but coir yarn is made into ropes, and 
 forms the strongest, lightest, and most elastic cables for ships. 
 Before the husk is put into water to steep it should be well beaten, 
 for the purpose of loosening its texture, principally that of the 
 outer surface, which is hard and compact, so that the water may 
 penetrate it with more ease. It is then left to steep for two or 
 three dajs, and again beaten, until the separation is accomplished. 
 Care should be taken that the husk is kept moist, because if allowed 
 to become dry the ligneous fecula or spongy pulp, which is found 
 intermixed with the fibre, adheres still more strongly to it. In 
 some islands and parts of the coast where there are no running 
 streams, holes are dug in the sand below high- water mark, and the 
 husk buried several days previous to be being beat. 
 
 The separation of the husk is commonly done by tearing it off 
 with the hands, aided by an axe. A simple application of the foot- 
 power used in the common turning-lathe or knife-grinding wheel 
 would enable one man to do the work at present the task of several. 
 A double koife acting crosswise could be made to out the nut and 
 husk in two, and so prepare it for the extraction of the substance. 
 Small, fiat, pliant instruments would then easily extract the pulp 
 from the shell of the nut, and leave it fit for the oil press. 
 
 About four days' maceration in fresh water is requisite. After 
 this the husk must be beaten till the fibres separate, when it 
 should be well washed, dried, and packed in pressed bales. For 
 the purpose of beating it out, an instrument in the form of bars, 
 somewhat in the form of a gridiron, should be used. It is obvious 
 that this process might also be advantageously performed by 
 machinery. One person can beat out with the hand, according to 
 the age of the nut furnishing the husk, from 7 to 14 lbs. per day — 
 say on an average 10 lbs., but by the use of proper instruments 
 his work might be increased fourfold. 
 
 Machines. — The requisite machinery is simple in construction, 
 and is easily worked by ordinary labourers. The following are 
 required for the cleaning and preparation of the fibre, viz. : — 
 Tanks for soaking the fibrous husks, for " roller mill." 
 Holler mill for straightening the husks and preparing the fibre 
 for the " breaking-down " machine. This is made on the most 
 approved design, with fluted rollers, self-acting adjusting blocks, 
 and screws, wheel gearing, driving pulleys, &c., the whole complete 
 and supported in a massive oast-iron frame. 
 
THE COCONUT PALM. 
 
 237 
 
 Breaking-down mill, of improved construction, the revolving 
 drum accuratelj' centred on shaft, and fitted with best selected 
 steel " spikes " (so arranged that, if required, any number of these 
 " spikes " may be easily removed, repaired, and replaced), " feed " 
 and " fence " motion, with wheels and hopper gearings, brush fence, 
 and driving pulleys complete, all mounted on substantial cast-iron 
 frame. 
 
 " Willy " machine, designed and constructed for receiving the 
 fibre from the " breaking-down mill." This machine separates the 
 different qualities of the fibre, and removes all dust, shorts, and 
 refuse, leaving clean fibre. The machine is made in a very sub- 
 stantial manner, is self-contained, fitted with all gearing complete, 
 and mounted on strong cast-iron frame. 
 
 Hydraulic press, for baling coir fibre for shipment, of the most 
 improved design, and fitted with pumps and gearing complete. 
 
 Shaftings, pulleys, plummer blocks, bolts, leather belting, &c. 
 
 The following will be the approximate cost delivered in London 
 of the plant, to clean say 7000 to 8000 husks per day : — 
 
 £ s. 
 
 One crusher mill 32 
 
 Six breaking-down mills 185 
 
 One Willy machine 39 10 
 
 Superior hydraulic press, with doable pumps 
 
 and fittings 230 
 
 Shafting, belting, pulleys, &c 70 
 
 Twelve combs, assorted 5 
 
 Eiglit horse-power high-pressure engine, with 
 
 large boiler 270 
 
 Packing for shipment 27 
 
 The foregoing machines, when all working properly, and with 
 nuts of good quality, should produce from 32 to 35 cwts. of fibre, 
 and 7 to 8 cwts. of brush fibre per day of ten hours. 
 
 One thousand husks of average size and good quality prepared 
 by this machinery should produce 4 J to 5 J cwts. of fibre, and about 
 1 cwt. of brush fibre. 
 
 It is assumed that " soaking tanks " of wood or brickwork in 
 cement can be made on the spot, and used in place of iron tanks, 
 and therefore these are omitted in this estimate. 
 
 The cost of a single "breaking-down mill" will be found from 
 the price given in above estimate for six machines. 
 
 Coir (excluding Oobdage) Shipments from India. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1877 176,684 
 
 1878 41,016 
 
 1879 189,782 
 
 1880 132,572 
 
 1881 129,913 
 
 1882 230,299 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1883 173,209 
 
 1884 176,930 
 
 1885 239,379 
 
 1886 207,224 
 
 1887 220,969 
 
 1888 186,405 
 
 Considering the wide-spread range of this palm, it is strange 
 that the import of coconut oil has made such little progress 
 compared with its great rival, the African oil palm. One reason 
 
238 
 
 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 may possibly be tbat tbe fruit is more generally used for food, and 
 for the refresbing drink in the nuts when young. The coconut 
 palm is cultivated in great abundance on tbe Malabar and Coro- 
 mandel coasts, Ceylon, tbe Laccadives, and everywhere in the 
 Straits Settlements, and the Islands of the Eastern Archipelago. 
 In the Madras Presidency there are no less than 218,000 acres under 
 coconuts. 
 
 Exports from India. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 1885. 
 
 1886. 
 
 188Y. 
 
 1888. 
 
 Coconuts No. 
 
 Copra .. .. cwts. 
 
 Coir 
 
 Coir manufactures „ 
 Cordage and Rope „ 
 
 253,582 
 64,323 
 15,581 
 
 221,554 
 32,140 
 
 255,525 
 
 21,755 
 
 8,995 
 
 198,229 
 
 ■ 28,755 
 
 253,630 
 9,337 
 
 12,347 
 208,622 
 
 28,256 
 
 263,000 
 
 21,027 
 
 7,912 
 
 178,493 
 20,137 
 
 In the WestJudies, Centr al America, and Brazil, the coconut 
 is extensivelygrown ; there are groves~Df- it fui about 280 miles 
 along the coast of Brazil. From Para alone 7J million coconuts, 
 worth £130,000, are annually shipped to the United States and 
 elsewhere. 
 
 The annual produce of the plantations on the Island of Itamarca 
 on that coast is about 400,000 nuts, which would yield more than 
 2100 cwts. of coir. This island is but three leagues in length, and 
 as the coast alone is planted with these palms, and they are thus 
 productive, what might not all the coconut groves yield, which 
 extend along the coast from the river San Francisco to the bar of 
 Maranguape, a distance of 94 leagues, all cultivated with coconut 
 trees ? 
 
 The most valuable product of commerce in Malabar is that from 
 the coconut tree. 
 
 Many years ago Dr. Eoyle estimated the average produce of 
 coconuts from the whole of Malabar at from 300 to 400 millions 
 annually, valued at £50,000, and copperah, or the dried kernels, 
 was exported for as much more. Thirty years ago there were 
 in Travancore more than 5J million coconut trees, and since 
 that period the cultivation has largely increased, as the demand 
 for the oil and the coir has advanced. Prom Cochin more than 
 3000 tons of oil are exported. During the last fifteen years the 
 natives of Cochin have been bestowing a vast amount of attention 
 on coconut cultivation, and some idea of the rate at which this 
 is carried on may be realised from the fact that paddy (rice) land is- 
 converted into coconut plantations, and large portions of the 
 backwater are reclaimed, and at once planted with coconut trees. 
 
 Besides those grown locally, there is a large annual import of 
 coconuts into Bengal. 
 
 Six or seven millions are imported annually into India from, 
 the Straits Settlements, two millions from Ceylon, and from six 
 to ten millions from the Maldives. 
 
 Ceylon. — The great importance of this palm in Ceylon may be 
 
THE COCONUT PALM. 239 
 
 estimated from the fact that the value of the coconut plantations 
 in the island are estimated at £15,000,000. In 1865 there were 
 332,890 acres under coconuts, chiefly situated in the north- 
 western, northern, and southern provinces. 
 
 Mr. Ferguson, in his work on Ceylon, states that there are now 
 probably thirty millions of coconut palms cultivated in Ceylon, 
 covering about 550,090 acres, nearly all owned by natives. The 
 annual yield of nuts maybe taken at 1100 millions. There are 
 nearly 3000 native oil crushers driven by bullocks, besides several 
 establishments where steam is used for the oil presses. The value 
 of the exports of this palm in 1886 he gives as follows : — 
 
 £ 
 
 Oil_ 400,000 
 
 "^S^x-^ 60,000 
 
 Arrack^ 20,000 
 
 -;es5Sir 100,000 
 
 - Poouae 10,000 
 
 '3Iuts_^" 10,000 
 
 -IHiscellaneoua Products .. .. 5,000 
 
 £605,000 
 
 while the value of the products locally consumed he estimates at 
 1^ million pounds sterling. 
 
 Assuming 550,000 acres, at an average of 60 trees to one acre 
 (there are sometimes more, sometimes less), and 35 nuts a year for 
 each tree (a good plantation will sometimes give 80, and in ex- 
 ceptional cases more; others, of course, will usually give less), this 
 gives 33 million trees and 1,155 million nuts. Of the ordinary nuts 
 about 100 would be required to make 2^ gallons of oil. At 12i 
 gallons to the cwt., this comes to 2,310,000 cwts., at say 26s. the 
 cwt. Poonao is of value as manure ; each nut will give ^ lb., worth 
 6s. 6d. the cwt. 
 
 The nature of the different exports for 1886 were : — 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Oil 234,308 
 
 Copra 127,899 
 
 Poonac 42,484 
 
 Coir rope 7,816 
 
 Coir yam 74,146 
 
 Coirfibre 17,219 
 
 The value of the products of this palm exported from Ceylon in 
 1884 was in round numbers about £800,000, and of other palms 
 £85,000. The average annual export of oil in the three years 
 ending 1884 was nearly 4,000,000 gallons, and of coir 99,600 cwts. 
 
 The price of coconut oil in the English market has fluctuated a 
 o-ood deal. In 1878 it fetched about 43s. 6d. and in 1886 it was 
 only worth 27s. 6d. a cwt. 
 
 So far back as 1857, the value of the products of the coconut 
 shipped from Ceylon, exclusive of those used in the island, was 
 £274,462, thus made up :— 
 
240 
 
 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 Coconuts 
 
 Coir rope 
 
 Coir yam 
 
 Copra or dried pulp 
 
 Oil 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 420,857 No. 
 
 18,881 owts. 
 
 31,652 „ 
 
 20,381 „ 
 
 1,767,431 galls. 
 
 £. 
 
 3,717 
 
 13,984 
 
 21,364 
 
 12,143 
 
 223,254 
 
 Value. 
 
 Cochin China. — There are nearly 60,000 acres planted with 
 coconuts, which yield ahout 9000 nuts per acre, and 1000 nuts 
 give there 15 or 16 gallons of oil. 
 
 In the French colonies of Pondicherry, Karikal, Mahe, and 
 Yamaon there are about 12,000,000 nuts produced and 1,000,000 
 gallons of oil. 
 
 In Netherlands India there are 32 varieties of the coconut palm 
 described in Filet's ' Plants ' of that region. 
 
 In 1884 copra to the value of £300,000 was imported into 
 Holland, chiefly from Java and the other islands under the Dutch 
 rule, and re-exported. 
 
 The oocouut palm flourishes everywhere in the islands of the 
 Eastern Archipelago, inland as well as on the sea-shore, which is 
 somewhat strange, for in many places there is a theory that sea air 
 is a necessity for it, whereas in the Philippine Islands groves of 
 countless thousands of them exist far inland, bearing heavily and 
 looking extremely healthy. In North-Eastern Borneo the only 
 groves known, one at Malapi and one at Segaliud, bear nuts 
 larger than the average. The demand for coconuts and copra is 
 very large, and with cheap labour North Borneo is able to produce 
 nuts at a lower rate than almost any other coiintry. The great 
 point in its favour is that, owing to the suitability of the soil and 
 climate, trees bear fruit much earlier than in most other 
 countries. 
 
 A considerable number of trees in a grove should be beginning 
 to bear at from four to five years of age. The uses of the coconut 
 palm are manifold ; the nut is almost a necessity all over India 
 and Malaya for curry-making. The dried kernel, known as copra, 
 is in steady demand in England and elsewhere for oil-making and 
 other purposes. Tapped trees yield coconut beer or " tuba," as it 
 is called in the Philippines, and some sugar. The refuse of the 
 kernel after the oil has been extracted (known as poonao in Ceylon) 
 is used for manure and as food for cattle and pigs ; the fibrous 
 husks yield coir for yarn rope, and mat-making. 
 
 This palm requires considerable care and cost to bring it to the 
 state of bearing fruit. The ripe good-sized nuts from an old tree 
 are in India kept in a well of water for three months, until they 
 germinate ; they are then piit into the ground in beds of fifty or a 
 itiundred and watered every day. In three months more they 
 begin to grow up, and after three years or more they may be 
 transplanted in regular spaces of 15 to 20 feet, watered regularly 
 every other day, and manured occasionally. In about 12 or 15 
 
THE COCONUT PALM. 241 
 
 years they come to bearing, but the yield is in proportion to the 
 care taken to water and manure. At this stage the value of the 
 tree is from £2 to £3. 
 
 The natives have this palm generally about their dwellings. The 
 annual value of the produce from the trees in the Archipelago is 
 estimated at £2,500,000, and by greater care and attention it might 
 be double. There were in 1874 in Amboyna 507,349 trees; in 
 Banca, 122,898; in Minahassa, 605,300; in Gorontalo, 261,950. 
 
 In Java and Madura there are more than 20,000,000 trees. There 
 are large plantations of coconuts in the Seychelles, and a good 
 many in the Mauritius ; 40,000 or 50,000 nuts are shipped yearly 
 from the latter island, and 100 to 400 cwts. of coir cordage. 
 
 Coconuts are grown in small quantities throughout the Straits 
 Settlements, but it is only here and there that plantations of any 
 magnitude are met with. 
 
 There is, perhaps, no tropical colony that has so many advan- 
 tages for coir-making as the island of Penang. At present all the 
 use the palm is put to, with the exception of making a rope for a 
 well bucket, or for some other trifling domestic purpose, is for fuel. 
 In the oil factories the husk is used as firing in boiling the kernel 
 into oil, as well as in boiling rice and curry in the kitchens. 
 About a couple of million nuts are also shipped from the Straits 
 Settlements with the husk on. 
 
 Coconuts growing in laangrove soil on the side of creeks, and 
 more or less saturated_withsalt, have their milk brackish, and the 
 sap from which it is secreted must be saline also. These trees do 
 not suffer from the attacks of the rhinoceros beetle. Trees planted 
 in such a situation are found to bear much sooner than those 
 planted on a sandy soil. It is true that the milk of the nuts 
 produced by such trees is slightly brackish, but the kernel is as 
 thick as that of coconuts grown on sandy soil, and produces as 
 much oil. The chief requisite with regard to a plantation in such 
 a situation is attention to the drainage. Drains should be cut 
 longitudinally between each row of trees and cross ones at greater 
 intervals. These drains must be kept clear, so as to allow the salt 
 water to flow in and out freely. The tide is found to deposit 
 amongst the trees a very fertilizing matter. If the drains are not 
 attended to and the water stagnates, the trees get dwarfed and 
 become thin towards the top, thereby preventing them from having 
 a large crown. 
 
 In New Caledonia this palm is abundant on the north-east coast 
 of the island, but is rare on the opposite coast, and while it 
 flourishes on the northern aspect, it declines towards the south. It 
 may be added, however, that nowhere does it vegetate so well as 
 on the islands approaching the Line. It bears from 60 to 80 
 fruit. This palm is widely spread over the Pacific Islands, and a 
 considerable trade is carried on in coconut oil. 
 
 In the French Oceanic Islands there are about 900,000 acres 
 covered with coconut palms, which produce about 1,500,000 nuts 
 and nearly 2,000,000 kilos, of copra. 
 
 In the Marquesas Islands this palm extends from the sea coast 
 
 R 
 
242 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 to the mountains, and there are about 400,000 trees. The Samoa 
 Islands ship 3000 tons of copra, principally through a Hamburg 
 commercial company. 
 
 From the Friendly Islands a few hundred tons of copra are 
 shipped. The manufacture is carried on there in the rudest 
 manner. The nut is scraped and placed, mixed with a little sea 
 water, in hollow logs to putrefy. The oil disengages itself, and is 
 collected at the bottom of the trough. 
 
 Fiji. — The coconut, one of the most beautiful of the palms, is 
 certainly the most generally valuable. It is grown altogether 
 within the Tropics, but its favourite localities are on the low- 
 lying coast lands of the West India Islands, tropical Africa, India, 
 the Malayan Archipelago, Straits Settlements, and the islands of 
 the South Pacific. 
 
 The South Sea Islands have been celebrated for many years for 
 the vigorous growth of their coconut palms. These palms were 
 not cultivated except in the most crude and primitive manner, 
 yet, withal, the produce has been truly marvellous. 
 
 However, within the last ten years considerable attention has 
 been called to this product, and a number of large plantations 
 made. Since Fiji was created a British dependency considerable 
 sums have been invested in planting and cultivating coconuts. The 
 cultivation on many such plantations is thorough and systematic, 
 and the appearance of those coming into bearing is such as to 
 gratify the planter and promise very handsome returns. 
 
 The smaller islands of Fiji, and the coasts of the larger islands, 
 are peculiarly well suited to the cultivation of the coconut, as here 
 you have the sea breeze blowing all the year round over your land 
 and trees. Sandy beach flats, almost level with the sea, are the 
 favourite haunts of the coconut, and there its greatest vigour is 
 attained. 
 
 The more elevated lands when near the sea are also eminently 
 suited to it, especially if the geological formation be coral or well- 
 disintegrated volcanic rook. Some persons have asserted that the 
 tree will not thrive nor bear fruit at any great elevation above 
 sea-level. This may be true on very large islands or continents, 
 but the opposite has been proved in Fiji, where in the far interior 
 of Viti Leva coconut trees bear well. It therefore may be con- 
 sidered as certain that in the parts of Fiji suitable, and where soil, 
 •&C., is favourable, the coconut palm will flourish well inland and 
 up to, at least, an elevation of 500 feet. 
 
 The area planted with coconuts in the Fiji Islands exceeds 
 10,000 acres. The declared value of the copra exported in 1878 
 was £123,000, since then it has declined. The coconuts exported 
 in 1887 were to the value of £2220. About fifty coconut palms are 
 planted to the acre, and, in full bearing, yield an annual crop of 
 about 100 nuts each tree. The acre will thus produce, say, a ton 
 of copra, worth on the plantation £12 10s., besides fibre, hundreds 
 of tons of which are exported to Sydney, and used in various 
 manufactures. 
 
 Probably no crop or product is to be found where so large a 
 
THE COCONUT PALM. 243 
 
 return is obtainable at so small a risk as tliat of coconuts. In 
 Fiji, where the coconut thrives so luxuriantly, it is without doubt 
 destined to be, with sugar, coffee, and tea, a great source of wealth. 
 Amongst other products of the coconut palm that of fibre is 
 probably the second in value, the kernel of the nut standing first. 
 This husk is removed by the clever use of a steel-pointed stick 
 stuck in the ground, it is then placed in large tanks filled with 
 water ; steam is applied, and the husks are allowed to soak for 
 twelve to twenty-four hours. 
 
 They are then passed between very powerful fluted metal rollers, 
 which flatten them out to some extent and softens the woody 
 matter they contain. 
 
 From this the husks are passed to the " devil," which is a 
 machine having a large cylinder or drum filled with sharp steel 
 teeth. The cylinder is driven by steam power at a very high 
 speed, and, the teeth operating on the husk, reduces it to coir fibre. 
 There are different kinds of " devils " or coir machines. Some 
 in use in Fiji have been made in Sydney, and do their work fairly. 
 These machines, however, turn out only one quality of coir. On 
 the other hand, there are a number of very superior English-made 
 coir machines, which turn out coir of various qualities, and in very 
 marketable condition. 
 
 The chief market hitherto for the coir fibre made in Fiji has 
 been Australia and New Zealand ; but, as the production increases, 
 a further market will have to be found amongst the greater 
 centres of population. 
 
 The husks from 7000 coconuts produce about one ton of fibre, 
 which is of the value on the estate in Fiji of from £5 to £15 per 
 ton, according to quality. Brush fibre or bristles is worth from 
 £16 to £30 per ton, and yarn from £20 to £30 per ton in Fiji. 
 
 The cost of labour to produce one ton of fibre, exclusive of cost 
 and wear of machinery, may be put down at from £5 to £10. 
 
 The exports of copra from Fiji in 1887 were to the value of 
 £59,241, and of fibre £1032. In 1885, 6235 tons of copra were 
 shipped. 
 
 From the Tuamotus Archipelago a few thousand tons of copra 
 are shipped, but this is nothing to what may be expected. The 
 single island of Anaa, it is stated, has more than 7,000,000 coconut 
 palms. Assuming half of these are too old or too young to fruit, 
 there remain 3,500,000, and, supposing 1,500,000 of these required, 
 to nourish the 1600 inhabitants and their live stock, there would 
 remain 2,000,000 to furnish the raw materials of commerce. As a 
 very ordinary tree would furnish 25 nuts yearly, this would give 
 50,000,000, and, as 100 nuts yield 50 lbs. of copra, we have a 
 total of 25,000,000 lbs. available for export. It might yield 
 12,000 tons with proper management. 
 
 For preparing copra it is well to collect only ripe nuts, and 
 not to break the nut until a month or six weeks after it has been 
 gathered; the copra then dries more quickly, is richer in oil, 
 and does not turn mouldy. 
 
 Jamaica. — Ten or twelve years ago no less than 20,000 coconut 
 
 E 2 
 
44 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 palms were planted on the long sandy spit known as the Palisadoes', 
 running from Kingston to Port Eoyal. It is a generally accepted 
 opinion that this tree flourishes luxuriantly in all maritime tropical 
 regions, on the arid sandy sea-shore as well as in the richest 
 valleys. There can, however, be no doubt that the tree grows 
 with far greater luxuriance under favourable conditions of abun- 
 dant moisture and rich soil, and it is in consideration of this that 
 the annual yield of each tree is estimated at the low rate of 2s-. 
 The land on the Palisadoes is composed chiefly of sand, with am 
 admixture throughout its greater extent of a rich vegetable mould. 
 Severe droughts of from six to nine months' duration are fre- 
 quently experienced, and, although the tree may flourish in 
 proximity to the sea, a greater rainfall on this sandy soil would 
 double the return. The extremely arid condition of the Palisadoes 
 and the neighbourhood of Kingston, probably the driest spot in 
 the West Indies, has been brought about by the wholesale de- 
 struction of the primeval forest over hills and plains to the extent, 
 including the continuation of the plain to the west, of from four 
 to five hundred square miles. Along the line of the shore the 
 palm luxuriates throughout this district, but, on receding to the 
 distance of half a mile, it ceases to present a flourishing aspect, 
 until we reach the hills or the plain beyond the arid region where 
 it again acquires the necessary condition — moisture. It would be 
 a matter of some importance for statistical as well as utilitarian 
 purposes to ascertain what number of coconut trees there are in 
 the island. In the East Indies these palms are carefully enume- 
 rated, and in some parts a yearly tax is levied on each, and 
 even mortgages are commonly secured to the extent of 2s. a tree. 
 The 6,000,000 nuts, worth about £20,000, exported annually from 
 Jamaica, give a very imperfect idea of the value of the tree to the 
 colony. In each of several parishes, for instance, St. Thomas, 
 Portland, and St. Mary, there must be over 100,000 fruiting trees, 
 and the number is being constantly increased. Wherever the tree 
 abounds, the nuts form an important article of food among the 
 peasantry, either in their natural state or manufactured into oil. 
 By the peasantry, however, the husk is not turned to any account, 
 and is only manufactured to a very trifling extent in prisons, 
 whilst if, at a moderate computation, we estimate the number of 
 bearing trees at 1,000,000, each yielding on an average 60 nuts, 
 the husks, if utilised, would give at least £50,000. Fifty million 
 nuts made into oil would yield 1,000,000 gallons, which, at 4s. per 
 gallon, would be worth £200,000. Factories established where 
 the trees abound would, in addition to expressing the oil, utilise 
 the valuable coir, which would in itself be a source of considerable 
 profit. Coconuts abound around nearly the whole sea-board of the 
 island ; and within thirty miles of Kingston they are obtainable 
 in large quantities, at 100 per cent, less than they are bought for 
 in town. It is a pity that the highly valuable products of this 
 palm are not turned to better account, and it would be a great 
 boon to the colony if private enterprise would initiate a system of 
 manufacturing oil for island consumption and coir for exportation. 
 
THE COCONUT PALM. 245 
 
 &s the nuts could he obtained in quantities to meet any demand, 
 and brought to town in the coasting droghers. How many 
 liundreds of acres are now covered with this stately palm, and 
 how many thousands of the nuts annually fall to the ground, 
 almost useless to the proprietor ! 
 
 It is a low and safe estimate to take the value of the produce of 
 an acre of coconuts in bearing at from £8 to £10. On the sea- 
 shore these trees begin to bear in six or seven years. A great 
 part of the waste shore of this island is very suitable for the 
 growth of the coconut ; and the demand for this most useful of all 
 fruits, even where no machinery has been erected for the prepara- 
 tion of its products, is unlimited. The disease which destroyed 
 the coconut palm in some West Indian islands is unknown in 
 Jamaica. Of late years coconut trees have been planted, especially 
 on the north side of the island, more extensively than ever 
 before. 
 
 Mr. D. Morris thus reports on coconut production in Jamaica : — 
 ''Owing to the facilities afforded by the markets of the United 
 States and Great Britain there is a great and increasing demand 
 for coconuts all the j'ear round. They seldom sell locally for less 
 than 60s. or 60s. per thousand, while in times of scarcity the 
 produce has readily obtained 70s. per thousand. At, say, 60s. per 
 thousand, trees bearing at an average 50 nuts per tree would 
 represent an annual value at the rate of 3s. per tree. The general 
 impression in Jamaica is, that a coconut tree is worth ' a dollar a 
 year.' In some cases this may be somewhat above the mark, 
 whereas in favourable districts, such as Morant Bay and others, 
 bearing trees may yield on an average as high as 100 nuts and be 
 worth 6s. or even 8«. per tree. A coconut plantation in Jamaica, 
 well-established and in full bearing (say at the end of six years, 
 with 60 trees to the acre, and yielding an average of 40 nuts per 
 tree) may be safely assumed to be worth at the rate of from £8 to 
 £12 per acre ; much, however, depends on the locality and the 
 care taken to harvest the produce. The cost of establishing a 
 coconut plantation till it comes into bearing cannot be more than 
 £8 per acre. It appears to take about six to eight months to raise 
 plants from seed nuts. If kept quite moist and buried in shaded 
 nurseries, they will sometimes only take five months before they 
 are ready to be planted out. From the time the spathe bursts till 
 the nuts are mature and full, a period of generally from nine to 
 ten months elapses. Placing the value of the nuts at 40s. per 
 thousand, and 5600 nuts to the ton of copra, this would give £11 
 as its first cost per ton. To this must be added cost of preparation 
 and shipping expenses, which would be not less than £6, hence, 
 with coconuts at 40s. per thousand, the cost of placing a ton of 
 copra in the London market would be about £16. At the present 
 high price of coconuts it is certainly more remunerative to sell 
 them as they are ; but should the price of coconuts fall below 40s. 
 per thousand, it would be better to make copra, and ship the 
 produce in that state. In the Pacific Islands and other places 
 remote from good markets for fresh nuts, the manufacture of copra 
 
246 
 
 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 has become a large and important industry. The extension of 
 coconut plantations in Jamaica may, therefore, he undertaken with 
 every confidence that they will prove of a thoroughly remunerative 
 character, and this, it must he noted, without any reference to the 
 husk, which, with suitable machinery, might in itself form the 
 basis of an important industry." 
 
 The cost of establishing a coconut plantation in Jamaica, in- 
 cluding all expenses until it comes into bearing, does not amount 
 to more than £8 per acre, and when well established and in full 
 bearing (say at the end of eight years, with sixty trees to the 
 acre) it may safely be assumed to be worth at the rate of £!(> 
 per acre. 
 
 In Trinidad great attention has of late years been given to coco- 
 nut production. In 1863 and 1864 only 250,000 were shipped 
 annually, but in 1884 and 1885 the number had risen to 10,000,000' 
 and 11,000,000. The civilized world of the temperate zone can 
 absorb all the oil and fibre the tropics are likely to send for 
 generations to come, however great the supply. The trees are 
 always in bearing, but in some quarters, at least, the Trinidad 
 planters confine themselves to three great regular pluckings at 
 four months apart — namely, in April, August, and December. 
 The cultivation is extending on the shores of the colony. 
 
 The coconut palm grows luxuriantly all along the sandy shores 
 of the southern and eastern coasts of this island. Although the 
 simplest, it is far from the least profitable of the agricultural 
 industries of the colony. The fact that the number of coconuts 
 exported from Trinidad has risen from 4,500,000 in 1876 to 
 11,300,000 in 1884, clearly proves that this industry is a paying 
 and progressive one, and it is also one suitable for small capitalists 
 who can afford to wait for a return. 
 
 Beyond the purchase money of the land and the expense of 
 putting in the plants, but little expenditure is necessary, and 
 when fully established — say at the end of eight years — it will 
 give regularly a net income of from 3s. id. to 48. 2d. per tree. 
 
 The expense of maintaining a coconut plantation, when once 
 established, is practically nothing. In Trinidad the coconut palm 
 has been known to flower when only three years old, and generally 
 bears at between five and six years ; it does not, however, bear 
 fully until eight years old. There are now three coconut oil 
 factories in the island. The quantity of oil manufactured annually 
 has hitherto been only about 45,000 gallons. 
 
 This, though a very profitable industry, takes a good many 
 years before any returns are apparent. The planter must not 
 expect that all lands are suitable for coconut cultivation, nor that 
 it will thrive too far inland, as the coconut palm prefers the 
 proximity of the seashore. This tree will not bear much before it 
 is eight years old, but experiments are being tried in Trinidad to 
 make it a shade-tree to the cacao tree, growing beneath it instead 
 of employing the quiet-growing Bois immortelle. 
 
 The idea is, of course, to derive in course of time a crop of 
 coconuts as well as the cacao from the same land. A coconut 
 
THE COCONUT PALM. -247 
 
 plantation costs very little indeed to keep up when once formed, 
 but, of course, it involves a lock-up of capital for a good many 
 years. 
 
 Seventy coconut palms to the acre would be the right quantity 
 planted about 25 feet apart ; seventy such trees in full bearing 
 will yield 5000 nuts per annum, and would net from £3 to £4 per 
 thousand in Trinidad as an average price. London alone imports 
 about 12,000,000 per annum, and New York immense quantities, 
 large numbers are also consumed locally for making coconut oil. 
 
 The coconut can be grown in unlimited quantities on the eastern 
 coast of the island, where two factories have been established for 
 some time for the preparation of oil and fibre. The difficulties of 
 procuring labour in that remote part of the island, and of shipping 
 the produce on an exposed coast, have hitherto retarded the com- 
 mercial success of these establishments ; but, if these difficulties 
 can be overcome, a large extension may be given to this branch of 
 colonial industry. 
 
 There is a considerable demand for coconuts in the United 
 States, but then the American captains require them to be de- 
 livered husked, and they must be large and spherical. As the 
 fibre could be so readily utilized in the States, it is rather singular 
 the traders do not offer to buy the nuts, as picked, at the low rates 
 current in these islands, and husk and sort them after arrival in 
 America, selling the large handsome nuts to the first-class fruiterers, 
 confectioners, and grocers ; the smaller nuts to the street-seller, 
 and the husk to the mat, mattress, and brushmaker, the rancid 
 nuts, if any, going to the soap-boiler. In Trinidad there is grown 
 a goodly proportion of lusty, handsome nuts, as there are first-class 
 soils for the tree, an equatorial climate and prolific bearers. 
 Planting is always extending, at Mayaro, Icacos, Irois, Carenage, 
 and other places, leaving many virgin beaches, along which, sooner 
 or later, they will be dotted. 
 
 A couple of men in the vicinity of Key West, Florida, have 
 started a grove of 4000 coconut trees on a small island, and the 
 young plants are said to be thrifty and vigorous. They had no 
 trouble in germinating the nuts, but their chief trouble was the 
 annoyance of rats, which eat down the shoots, and to some extent 
 check their growth. At six or seven years of age the trees begin 
 to bear. The coconut shows fruit at all stages of development, 
 from the flower to the ripened fruit. Besides being highly orna- 
 mental in appearance, the fruit is an article of considerable 
 commercial importance, as the demand from the factories that 
 prepare it in a desiccated form, and also its large employment in 
 confectionery, are constantly on the increase. The estimated 
 value of the yield is from $7 to $10 for -each tree, and the culti- 
 vation is not as careful or expensive as that required for the 
 orange. Many others are contemplating engaging in this industry 
 in that State, around the coral reefs in the southern part. The 
 coconut palm attains great age and is a certain producer ; there- 
 fore the result cannot fail to be highly profitable to those who 
 engage in the business. In a few years the Keys will, no doubt, 
 
248 
 
 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 present a beautiful appearance, fringed by a border of this most 
 graceful variety of the palm family. 
 
 Coconuts are imported in large quantities into New York, 
 and the confectioners in that city use up about 500,000 of them 
 per month. One house (Croft, Wilbur & Co.) has a contract for 
 100,000 per month. They come from Jamaica, Cuba, and the 
 Spanish Main, and sell from ^37 • 50 to $50 per thousand. 
 
 The African Oil Palm (Elmis guineensis, Lin.) i^, after the coco- 
 nut palm, one of the most important in a commercial point of 
 view, since it furnishes to British commerce about 50,000 tons of 
 oil annually, of the value of one miUion sterling, besides the 
 quantity locally consumed as food in Africa, and sent to other 
 countries. It is distinguished by its decumbent trunk, and bears 
 clusters of one-seeded fruits (drupes), with oily husks of a bright 
 vermilion or a more or less yellow colour. The range of this palm 
 is not as yet well defined, but appears to extend from the coast of 
 Guinea to the south of Fernando Po, and grows as far up in the 
 interior as Zheru, a distance of 400 miles from the sea, or the 
 mouth of the Min, one of the embouchures of the Niger. 
 
 The oil palm does not grow near the coast, and the produce is 
 brought down on the heads of carriers to the Gold Coast from an 
 area extending 40 miles inland, and by canoe down the Volta 
 river from a greater distance. 
 
 This African palm was introduced into Java twenty or thirty 
 years ago by Dr. W. H. de Vriese, and in 1871 Mr. Denison 
 planted 5000 trees at Koripan in Buitenzoeg. In 1876 700 trees 
 were introduced into our colony of Labuan by Sir J. Hooker. 
 The tree yields about 20 lbs. of nuts in a season, of which there 
 are two. They bear in 7 to 12 years, and continue bearing 35 to 
 40 years. It takes 30 to 35 lbs. of palm fruit to make a gallon of 
 oil. In trade the oil is distinguished into hard and soft, according 
 as it contains stearine. 
 
 Captain Burton, in his ' Lake Eegions of Central Africa,' states 
 that this palm is known by the Arabs to grow in the islands of 
 Zanzibar and Pemba, and more rarely in the mountains of Usagona. 
 It springs up apparently uncultivated in large dark groves on the 
 shores of the Tanganyika, where it hugs the margin, rarely grow- 
 ing at any distance inland. This fine palm is also tapped, as the 
 date palm is in Western India, for toddy, and the cheapness of this 
 timbo — the sura of Western Africa — accounts for the prevalence of 
 intoxication, and the consequent demoralization of the Lake tribes. 
 
 The principal ports in the Bight of Benin from which palm oil 
 is exported are Badagry, Porto Novo, Whydah, Aliquah, Lagos, 
 and Palmas. 
 
 Palm oil is exported from the following rivers : — Brass, New 
 Calabar, Bonny, Old Calabar, Bemba, Cameroons, and also from 
 Fernando Po. Independent of these, in the rivers Malunba, 
 Boreah, and Kampo, palm oil is brought by coasting vessels. 
 Bonny supplies the largest amount of palm oil that is brought 
 from any river in West Africa. 
 
THE AFRICAN OIL PALM. 
 
 249 
 
 The process of extracting the oil is simple. The clusters or 
 iDrauches of fruit, which contain perhaps as many as 4000, are 
 gathered hy the men, and thrown indiscriminately into a trench 
 or pit, and so left until they become somewhat decayed. The fruit 
 is afterwards pounded in a mortar to loosen the husky fibre cover- 
 ing the nut. This done, they are placed in large clay vats filled 
 with water, and two or three women tread out the semi-liquid oil, 
 which comes to the surface as disengaged from the fibre, when it 
 is collected and boiled to get rid of the water. The inner surface 
 of these clay vats having at first absorbed a small quantity of oil, 
 is not afterwards affected by the water or oil. The oil is collected 
 in pots, containing from three to twenty gallons. 
 
 M. Boussingalt has shown, from information collected,* that the 
 average production of oil from palms is at the rate of 900 kilos, 
 per hectare, that is to say, superior by a third to the production of 
 oil from the olive in the §outh of Europe. 
 
 This vegetable fat is stated by A. C. Oudemans, jun., to have 
 the following remarkable composition : stearin, palmitin, myristin, 
 laurein, elain, caprin, caproin, and caprylin. It is used with the 
 other solid fats for making soap and candles, and for railway 
 grease. The price of the oil has fallen very much of late from 
 35s. a cwt. to 21s. a cwt. The enorriious progress that has been 
 made in the commerce in this article is shown by comparing the 
 imports of 1840 with those of the last six years, which have 
 averaged 48,000 tons, and this is only the British imports. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1840 315,504 
 
 1850 447,797 
 
 1860 804,326 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1870 868,270 
 
 1880 1,032,823 
 
 1888 955,369 
 
 Marseilles also receives over 1500 tons direct, and the United 
 States some quantity. 
 
 The oil rivers of Biafra and Benin extend over 800 miles of 
 coast, and include the island of Fernando Po. The chief exports 
 consist of palm oil and palm kernels. 
 
 The Fernando Po oil crop never exceeds 400 tons a year, and 
 yet, from the number of oil palms there, at least 4000 tons might 
 be obtained, but the 26,000 aborigines do not care to produce 
 more. More oil palms might be grown, for there is abundance of 
 room for them in the oil district, though it is but a mere fringe of 
 the African continent. But the natives never think of planting 
 oil palms. The river chiefs, now oil brokers, were slave brokers 
 formerly. 
 
 Our imports of palm oil now reach nearly 50,000 tons, of which 
 more than half is re-exported. The greater part of our imports 
 come from the British settlements on the west coast of Africa. 
 
 The following table gives the quantity of palm oil imported into 
 the United Kingdom for a series of years : — 
 
 * ' Eoonomie Burale,' t. i. p. 350. 
 
250 
 
 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 
 
 1840 .. . 
 
 .. 315,504 
 
 1864 .. . 
 
 
 1841 .. . 
 
 .. 402,126 
 
 1865 .. . 
 
 
 1842 .. . 
 
 .. 424,242 
 
 1866 .. . 
 
 
 1843 .. . 
 
 .. 418,429 
 
 1867 .. . 
 
 
 1844 .. . 
 
 .. 414,648 
 
 1868 .. . 
 
 
 1845 .. . 
 
 .. 505,704 
 
 1869 .. . 
 
 
 1846 .. . 
 
 .. 366,853 
 
 1870 .. . 
 
 
 1847 .. . 
 
 .. 476,301 
 
 1871 .. . 
 
 . .. 1 
 
 1848 .. . 
 
 .. 510,218 
 
 1872 .. . 
 
 . .. 1 
 
 1849 .. . 
 
 .. 493,331 
 
 1873 .. . 
 
 . .. 1 
 
 1850 .. . 
 
 .. 447,797 
 
 1874 .. . 
 
 . .. 1 
 
 1851 .. . 
 
 .. 608,550 
 
 1875 .. . 
 
 
 1852 .. . 
 
 .. 523,813 
 
 1876 .. . 
 
 
 1853 .. . 
 
 .. 636,628 
 
 1877 .. . 
 
 
 1854 .. . 
 
 .. 752,618 
 
 1878 .. . 
 
 
 1855 .. . 
 
 .. 810,394 
 
 1879 .. . 
 
 
 1856 .. . 
 
 .. 786,701 
 
 1880 .. . 
 
 . .. 1 
 
 1857 .. . 
 
 .. 854,791 
 
 1881 .. . 
 
 
 1858 .. . 
 
 .. 778,230 
 
 1882 .. . 
 
 
 1859 .. . 
 
 .. 685,794 
 
 1883 .. . 
 
 
 1860 .. . 
 
 .. 804,326 
 
 1884 .. . 
 
 
 1861 .. . 
 
 .. 740,332 
 
 1885 .. . 
 
 
 1862 .. . 
 
 .. 865,890 
 
 1886 .. . 
 
 . .. 1 
 
 1863 .. . 
 
 .. 790,224 
 
 1887 .. . 
 
 
 Cwts. 
 666,582 
 798,724 
 799,210 
 812,080 
 960,059 
 814,520 
 868,270 
 
 ,047,882 
 
 ,006,497 
 .,017,947 
 
 ,067,767 
 904,562 
 879,824 
 897,264 
 670,797 
 881,329 
 
 ,032,823 
 826,891 
 813,870 
 749,422 
 841,012 
 905,439 
 
 ,004,419 
 966,536 
 
 Palm-Jcernel Oil. — The kernels, with the exception of an insig- 
 nificant quantity used for the manufacture cf oil for domestic 
 purposes in Africa, were formerly thrown away. Attention was 
 first drawn to their utilization in Liberia. Within the last fifteen 
 years they have been more generally collected and employed. The 
 shell being broken, the kernels are shipped to be pressed for oil, 
 &c. A vast extension of the African trade has arisen out of this 
 new article of export. 
 
 The following shows the sources of our imports of palm kernels 
 in the year 1886 : — 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Lagos and Gold Coast 412,280 
 
 Other West African Settlements . . . . 5 , 442 
 
 rrench Possessions 8,261 
 
 Fernando Po (Spanish) 1,493 
 
 Portuguese Possessions 72 
 
 West Africa not designated 498,761 
 
 Foreign countries 78,085 
 
 Otiier British Possessions 35 
 
 Total 1,004,419 
 
 It has been estimated by competent authorities that from the 
 60,000 tons of palm oil shipped there must be 10,000,000 bushels 
 of kernels, equal to 223,000 tons in weight. The average yield 
 from these kernels being about 30 per cent., if all were utilized 
 this would furnish 76,000 tons more of oil, worth at the current 
 price about £1,520,000. If we add to this the value of the oilcake, 
 112,000 tons at £6 per ton, we should have a very large increase to 
 the value of the oil-palm trade with Western Africa. 
 
 Palm-nut oil is obtained on the coast from the seed or kernel, by 
 roasting, beating, and boiling. In Liberia, on a small scale, a 
 
THE AFRICAN OIL PALM. 
 
 251 
 
 bushel of kernels was found to yield two gallons of oil, but with 
 good presses a very much larger yield than this is obtained. 
 
 The kernel, which is nearly white, is covered by a thin brownish 
 layer of woody fibre, and in consequence of this the palm-nut meal 
 has a light-brown or dirt-coloured appearance. The size of the 
 kernels varies from that of a hazel nut to that of a small pigeon's 
 egg. They are very hard, nearly inodorous, rather insipid to the 
 taste, and extremely rich in fatty matter, possessing the con- 
 sistency of butter, with the useful property of not readily turning 
 rancid. The extraction of the oil necessitates the reduction of the 
 kernels into a tolerably fine powder, and the application of power- 
 ful crushing machinery and gentle heat. Notwithstanding these 
 means, the cake or meal left in presses contains usually a larger 
 proportion of fat than is found in most other kinds of oilcake. It 
 surpasses all other articles of cattle food in its theoretical value as 
 a fat producer, as the following analysis by Dr. Voelcker will show. 
 In the best linseed cake the percentage of oil rarely amounts to 
 12 per cent., indeed 10 per cent, may be taken as a fair average : — 
 
 Moisture 7'49 
 
 Fatty matters 26-57 
 
 Albuminoua compounds * (flesh-forming matters) . 15 • 75 
 
 Staroli, mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre . . 37 • 89 
 
 Woody fibre (cellulose) 8 '40 
 
 Mineral matters (asb) 3-90 
 
 Total 100-00 
 
 * Containing nitrogen, 2-52. 
 
 In 1863 the palm-kernel trade, then newly introduced, furnished 
 2665 tons of kernels from Lagos. The progress that has been 
 made since is shown by the following figures : — 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1865 2,631 
 
 1866 7,216 
 
 1867 13,619 
 
 1868 15,498J 
 
 1869 20,394 
 
 1870 15,894 
 
 1871 19,375 
 
 1872 16,870 
 
 1873 16,410 
 
 1874 25,192 
 
 1875 26,454 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1876 30,305 
 
 1877 30,875 
 
 1878 27,873 
 
 1879 27,839 
 
 1880 29,632 
 
 1881 20,801 
 
 1882 28,592 
 
 1883 25,821 
 
 1884 29,773 
 
 1885 30,805 
 
 From the other ports the quantities received have been : — 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Gold Coast. 
 
 Gambia. 
 
 Sierra Leone. 
 
 
 
 1879 
 1880 
 1881 
 
 1882 
 1883 
 1884 
 1885 
 
 Tons. 
 
 6,218 
 
 11,447 
 
 6,288 
 
 8,155 
 
 7,429 
 
 38,702* 
 
 35,796* 
 
 Tons. 
 
 41 
 
 228 
 
 109 
 
 358 
 142 
 119 
 223 
 
 Bushels. 
 513,258 
 366,318 
 388,915 
 
 CwtB. 
 
 180,800 
 193,075 
 194,131 
 202,643 
 
 ' 
 
 * These include the Lagos exports. 
 
262 
 
 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 The value of the palm kernels now shipped from the single port 
 of Lagos averages nearly £300,000 per annum, or more than that 
 of the palm oil, which in 1885 was but £218,410. 
 
 At Eotterdam there was received in tons : — 
 
 Year. 
 
 1884 
 1885 
 1886 
 
 Palm Nuts. 
 
 4,947 
 4,249 
 3,095 
 
 2,580 
 3,036 
 1,868 
 
 There was shipped from the Congo State, in 1886-87, 3568 tons 
 of palm nut kernels, and 1,328,290 kilos, of palm oil. 
 
 The Gomuti Palm {Arenga saccharifera, Lab. ; Saguerua BumpMi, 
 Eoxb. ; Borassus Gomutus, Lour. ; Gomulus saccharifera, Spr.) is one of 
 the most useful palms, and occurs in a wild state throughout the 
 islands of the Indian Archipelago, but is more common in the 
 interior, principally in the hilly districts, than on the sea-coast, 
 and is also very generally cultivated by the various people who 
 inhabit that region. It is indigenous to Sonda and the Philip- 
 pines, and is cultivated generally in tropical Asia. This palm 
 attains a height of thirty or forty feet, and besides its saccharine 
 sap furnishes a highly valuable black fibrous substance, Ejoo 
 fibre, superior in quality, cheapness, and durability to that 
 obtained from the husk of the coconut, and renowned for its 
 power of resisting wet. It is used by the natives of the Indian 
 islands for every purpose of cordage, domestic and naval, and is 
 known as Tsongli. Underneath this material is found a substance 
 of a soft gossamer-like texture, which is imported into China. It 
 is applied as oakum in caulking the seams of ships, and more 
 generally as tinder for kindling fire : it is for the latter purpose 
 that it is chiefly in request among the Chinese. 
 
 The principal production of this palm is the toddy (from the 
 Sanscrit Tdde), which is obtained according to Crawfurd in the 
 following manner : One of the spadices is on the first appearance 
 of fruit beaten on three successive days with a small stick, with 
 the view of determining the sap to the wounded part. The spadix 
 is then cut a little way from its root (base), and the liquor which 
 poui s out is received in pots of earthenware, in bamboos, or other 
 vessels. The Gomuti palm is fit to yield toddy when nine or ten 
 years old, and continues to yield it for two years, at the average 
 rate of three quarts a day. 
 
 When newly drawn the liquor is clear, and in taste resembles 
 fresh must. In a very short time it becomes turbid, whitish, and 
 somewhat acid, and quickly runs into the vinous fermentation, 
 acquiring an intoxicating quality. In this state great quantities 
 are consumed ; a still larger quantity is applied to the purpose of 
 yielding sugar. With this view the liquor is boiled to a syrup, 
 and thrown out to cool in small vessels, the form of which it takes, 
 
THE GOMUTI PALM. 253 
 
 and in this shape it is sold in the markets. This sugar is of a 
 dark colour and greasy consistence, with a peculiar flavour ; it is 
 the only sugar used by the native population. The wine of this 
 palm is also used by the Chinese residing in the Indian islands iu 
 the preparation of the celebrated Batavian arrack. 
 
 In Malacca, the Gomuti, there termed Kabong, is principally 
 cultivated for the juice which it yields for the manufacture of 
 sugar. Like the coconut palm, it comes into bearing after the 
 seventh year. It produces two kinds of " mayams " or spadices, 
 male and female. The female spadix yields fruit, but no juice, 
 and the male vice versa. Some trees will produce five or six female 
 spadices before they yield a single male one, and such trees are 
 considered unprofitable by the toddy collectors ; but it is said that 
 in this case they yield sago equal in quality, though not in quan- 
 tity, to the Cycas circinalis, though it is not always put to such a 
 requisition by the natives ; others will produce only one or two 
 female spadices, and the rest male, from each of which the quantity 
 of juice extracted is the same as that obtained from the coconut 
 spadices. A single tree will yield in one day sufficient juice for 
 the manufacture of five bundles of jaggery, valued at two cents 
 each. The number of mayams shooting out at any one time may 
 be averaged at two, although three is not an uncommon case. 
 When other occupation or sickness prevents the owner from manu- 
 facturing jaggery, the juice is put into a jar, where in a few days 
 it is converted into excellent vinegar, equal in strength to that 
 produced by the vinous fermentation of Europe. Each mayam 
 will yield toddy for at least three months, often for five, and fresh 
 mayams make their appearance before the old ones are exhausted ; 
 in this way a tree is kept in a state of productiveness for a number 
 of years, the first mayam opening at the top of the stem, the next 
 lower down, and so on, until at last it yields one at the bottom of 
 the trunk, with which the tree terminates its existence. 
 
 Dr. J. E. de Vry states that, although the natives in Java extract 
 it by a very rude and entirely primitive mode, this palm contains a 
 great proportion of cane sugar. He thus describes the process, 
 which differs little from that pursued for obtaining sap and sugar 
 from other palms : — 
 
 " As soon as the palm begins to blossom, they cut ofi' the part cf 
 the stem that bears the flower; there flows from the cut a sap 
 containing sugar, which they collect in tubes made of bamboo 
 cane, previously exposed to smoke, in order to prevent the fermen- 
 tation of the juice, which, without this precaution, would take 
 place very quickly under the double influence of the heat of the 
 climate and the presence of a nitrogenous matter. 
 
 " The juice thus obtained is immediately poured into shallow 
 iron basins, heated by fire, and is thickened by evaporation, till a 
 drop falling on a cold surface solidifies ; this degree of concentra- 
 tion attained, the contents of the kettle are put in forms or great 
 prismatic lozenges. Several thousand pounds of sugar are thus 
 obtained yearly. I have collected some of the sap in a clean glass, 
 bottle, and I found that the unaltered juice does not contain any 
 
254 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 glucose, but a nitrogenous matter, wliich, by the heat of the 
 climate, quickly converts a part of the cane sugar into glucose. 
 In order to prove, -without employing any artificial means, that 
 the juice exuding from the tree contains pure cane sugar, I 
 collected a sample directly in alcohol ; the nitrogenous principle 
 is thus eliminated by coagulation; a mixture of equal parts of 
 juice and alcohol has been, after filtration, evaporated on the sand- 
 bath to the consistence of syrup. I brought this syrup with me 
 on returning from Java, and during the voyage it became solid, 
 presenting very fine and well-defined crystals of cane sugar, 
 immediately recognized as such by all the experts. At the Con- 
 gress of Giessen I spoke of the preparation of sugar from palms as 
 the only rational mode of obtaining sugar in the future, basing 
 my opinion on the following grounds : Sugar, by itself, being only 
 composed, in a state of purity, of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, 
 does not take anything from the soil ; but the plants now mainly 
 cultivated for extracting sugar, viz., the Beta vulgaris and the 
 Saccharum officinarum, require for their development a great amount 
 of substances from the soil in which they grow, whence it follows 
 that their culture exhausts the soil. But this is not the only evil ; 
 what is worse is, that the space now occupied by beetroots in 
 Europe, and by sugar-cane between the tropics, might and ought 
 to serve for the culture of wheat or of forage in Europe, and for 
 rice under the tropics ; and it is my opinion that, considering the 
 increase of population, the time is not far distant when it will be 
 absolutely necessary to devote to the culture of wheat or rice the 
 lands^now employed for beetroot or cane. While the cane and 
 beetroot require a soil fit for cereals, the Arenga palm prospers on 
 soils entirely unfit for their culture, so unfit, indeed, that one 
 might try in vain to grow on them rice or cereals. This palm 
 thrives in the profound valleys of Java, and in some parts of the 
 island extends from the shores of the sea to the interior, where 
 the tree is found in groups, and it is very possible to make rich 
 plantations of that fine tree. There is one drawback, but not a 
 very serious one ; the tree must be eleven or twelve years old 
 before it will yield sugar. When, however, it commences, the 
 operation can be repeated during several years, and the prepara- 
 tion of the sugar becomes a continuous industry, and not an inter- 
 rupted one, as it is now. According to my average, a field of 
 thirty ares (f acre) planted with those trees should produce 
 yearly 2400 kilogrammes of sugar in a soil quite unfit for any 
 other kind of culture." 
 
 Like the true sago palm, the Gomuti affords a medullary matter 
 from which a farina is prepared. In Java it is the only source of 
 this substance, which in the western and poorer part of the island 
 is used in considerable quantity and offered for sale in all the 
 markets. It is smaller in quantity than the pith of the true sago 
 tree, more difficult to extract, and inferior in quality, having a 
 certain peculiar flavour from which the fariaa of the true sago is 
 free. Dr. Eoxburgh observes, " I cannot avoid recommending to 
 every one who possesses land in India, particularly such as is low 
 
THE WILD DATE PALM OF INDIA. 255 
 
 and near the coasts, to extend the cultivation of this useful and 
 elegant palm as much as possible. The wine itself and the sugar 
 it yields, the black fibre for cables and cordages, and the pith for 
 sago, independent of many other uses, are objects of very great 
 importance. Prom observations made in the Botanic Garden at 
 Calcutta, well-grown thriving trees produce about six leaves 
 annually, and each leaf yields from 8 to 16 ounces of the clean 
 fibre. They are in blossom all the yearj one lately cut down 
 yielded about 150 lbs. of good sago meal." 
 
 The interior of the small fruit are prepared and extensively used 
 as sweetmeats by the Chinese in Sumatra. 
 
 The Wild Date Palm of India. — The following paper, on " The 
 Manufacture of Date Sugar," is by Mr. S. H. Eobinson, of 
 Calcutta : — 
 
 Phoenix, the genus to which the date palm belongs, comprises 
 nine known species, of which six are indigenous in India, and are 
 distinguished as: 1, acaulis ; 2, dactylifera ; 3,pu8illa; 4, farini- 
 fera ; 5, sylvestris ; 6, paludosa. Of these No. 4 produces sago of 
 an inferior quality, and the leaves of all the species furnish 
 materials for mats or thatch for houses. The sugar-yielding 
 variety. Phoenix sylvestris, is known as the wild date of Bengal. 
 Phoenix dactylifera is the name given to the true date palm of 
 Arabia and Africa ; but as it appears to be undistinguishable from 
 the Bengal variety, except in size and vigour of growth, there 
 seems little doubt that any apparent difference is due only to 
 superior cultivation and variety of climate or soil, and to its being 
 always a cultivated tree in Bengal ; the specific name sylvestris 
 may have been originally given owing to its inferiority in size to 
 the African or Arabian tree, with which European botanists were 
 more early familiar. 
 
 The date palm, when not stunted in its growth by extraction of 
 its juice for sugar, is a very handsome tree, rising in Bengal to 
 from thirty to forty feet in height, with a dense crown of leaves 
 spreading in a hemispherical form from its summit. These leaves 
 are from ten to fifteen feet long, and composed of numerous 
 leaflets or pinnules about eighteen inches long. The trunk is rough, 
 from the adherence of the bases of the falling leaves, which serves 
 to distinguish it at a glance from the smooth-trunked coconut 
 palm, which in its leaves only it resembles. Like all of the 
 Phoenix genus, the trees are dioecious, and the fruit hangs in dense 
 bunches from the centre of the crown of the female tree ; it flowers 
 about April or May, and the fruit ripens in July or August ; the 
 latter is, however, of a very inferior description in Bengal, and is 
 seldom gathered except for seed, from which the young trees 
 are raised. The fruit, indeed, consists more of seed than of pulp, 
 and altogether is only about one-fourth the size of the Arabian 
 kind brought annually to Calcutta for sale, and, when fresh im- 
 ported, a rich and favourite fruit there. This inferiority of the 
 Bengal fruit may no doubt be attributed to the entire neglect of 
 its improvement there from time immemorial, and, perhaps, in 
 
256 THE USEFUL PALMS.' 
 
 some measure to the practice of tapping the trees for their sap, so 
 universally followed in the districts around Calcutta, its principal 
 range of growth. 
 
 The date tree is met with in almost every part of Bengal Proper, 
 hut it flourishes most congenially, and is found plentifully only in 
 the alluvial soils which cover its south-eastern portion, excepting 
 only such tracts as suffer entire submersion annually from the 
 overflow of the rivers, as is common in portions of the Dacca, 
 Mymunsing, and Sunderbund districts. The extent of country 
 best suited for its growth, and over which it is found most plenti- 
 fully as above indicated, may therefore be taken as within an area 
 stretching east and west about 200 miles, and north and south 
 about 100 miles, and comprehending by a rough estimate about 
 9000 square miles — ^within an irregular triangular space. 
 
 The practice of extracting its juice, however, for the production 
 of sugar extends at present over a much smaller area, probably 
 not more than two-thirds of the above-described space ; and if we 
 consider further, how small a portion of these favourite date dis- 
 tricts are as yet occupied by date tree cultivation, the room for its 
 future extension, even if confined to these tracts alone, appears a 
 wide one indeed. If we trace an irregular parallelogram, stretch- 
 ing eastward from Kishengunge, in the Nuddea district, to Backer- 
 gunge, and from Mahduppore, in Furreedpore district, southward 
 to the borders of the Sunderbunds, we shall find a space of about 
 100 miles long by 80 broad, and comprehending the district of 
 Jessore, with portions of Furreedpore, Nuddea, and Burrisaul, to 
 which the product of date sugar is mainly confined, although 
 the goor — or the first raw produce made by boiling down the 
 juice — is found commonly manufactured for native consumption 
 on the spot, in many localities situated beyond these assumed 
 limits. 
 
 Throughout the present date tract, the quantity and quality of 
 the sugar produced vary considerably. The high and dry lands of 
 parts of Kishnaghur and Pubna yield a strong well-crystallized 
 product, though less in quantity than from trees of the Jessore 
 and Sunderbunds soils, in which, with a more rapid growth of the 
 tree and a greater flow of sap, a less rich, though still good and 
 grainy sugar is produced. The cultivation in these districts is 
 accompanied by a great advantage, in the cheap and abundant 
 supply of fuel for boiling the juice and refining the sugar; and 
 there is probably no part of Bengal where the cultivation may 
 be extended with more profit than in the elevated lands of the 
 Sunderbund grants. 
 
 The young plants are raised from seed sown during the rains, 
 and are ready for planting out in the following April or May, after 
 the first showers of the season have moistened the ground suffi- 
 ciently. Before the date sugars became important as a staple for 
 export, and the cultivation extended, the trees were seldom seen 
 planted elsewhere than along the hedge-rows or boundaries of 
 the fields, or on spots where they did not interfere with the 
 growth of cereals or other field crops. Gradually as date produce 
 
THE WILD DATE PALM OF INDIA. 257 
 
 became more valuable, systematic plantations appeared, and fields 
 were set with, trees ten and fifteen feet apart, but witbout much 
 regard to order or regularity of distance. After planting, no 
 manuring or further expense was incurred, except, perhaps, in 
 supplying fresh plants in place of those destroyed by cattle. 
 
 The spaces between the trees are generally occupied by oil 
 seeds or other dry-weather crops, and thus the cost of a native 
 plantation is reduced, whilst the trees benefit by the plough- 
 ing, which loosens the earth, and the ground is kept free from 
 weeds. 
 
 At the expiry of the fifth year from the planting of the young 
 tree in the field, it is ready to be tapped for its juice. This is the 
 average time allowed, though it maj- be varied a year sooner or 
 later by the difference of soil and climate. The first year a young 
 tree is tapped, it is reckoned to yield only half the usual quantity 
 of juice produced by a full-grown tree; in the second year of 
 tapping it is reckoned to yield three-fourths of full average 
 quantity, and it is not till the third year of bearing that it is 
 considered as in full yield. 
 
 The process of tapping and extracting the juice commences about 
 the 1st of November. Some days previously the lower leaves of 
 the crown are stripped off all round, and a few extra leaves from 
 the side of the tree intended to be tapped. On the part thus 
 denuded a triangular incision is made with a knife about an inch 
 deep, so as to penetrate through the cortex and divide the sap 
 vessels, each side of the triangle measuring about six inches, witli 
 one point downwards, in which is inserted a piece of grooved 
 bamboo, along which the sap trickles, and from thence drops into 
 an earthen pot suspended underneath it by a string. The pots are 
 suspended in the evening, and removed very early the following 
 morning, ere the sun has sufficient power to warm the j uice, which 
 w^ould cause it immediately to ferment, and destroy its quality of 
 crystallizing into sugar. 
 
 A plantation is always divided by the cultivator into seven equal 
 sections, and one such section is tapped daily. The cutting is 
 made in the afternoon, and the pot suspended as above mentioned. 
 Next morning the pot is found to contain, from a full-grown tree, 
 ten seers of juice, the second morning four seers, and the third 
 morning two seers of juice (the seer is about 2 lbs.) ; the quantity 
 exuding afterwards is so small, that no pot is suspended for the 
 next four days. On the evening of the seventh day it again comes 
 to the turn of this section of trees to be cut, which is effected by a 
 thin slice being pared from the triangular face, which, by again 
 dividing the sap vessels, causes the juice to flow afresh as at first. 
 Ertch section is thus cut in succession, and the process is repeated 
 throughout the goor season, which usually terminates about the 
 15th of Pebruary, after which the heat of the weather causes the 
 juice to ferment so rapidly, that it is no longer convertible into 
 into sugar, and consequently not worth the labour of extraction 
 and evaporation of its water, as molasses only would be the 
 product. Juice produced during the day-time of the cold season 
 
258 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 is of similar quality, and for the same reason is allowed to run to 
 waste. 
 
 Daily at sunrise, throughout the goor season, the industrious 
 ryot may be seen climbing his trees, and collecting at a convenient 
 spot beneath them the earthen pots containing the juice yielded 
 during the past night. Under a rude shed, covered with the 
 leaves of the date tree itself, and erected under the shade of the 
 plantation, is prepared the boiling apparatus to serve for the goor 
 season. It consists of a hole of about three feet in diameter sunk two 
 feet in the ground, over which are supported by mud arches four 
 thin earthen pans of a semi-globular shape, and eighteen inches in 
 diameter ; the hole itself is the furnace, and has two apertures on 
 opposite sides for feeding in the fuel, and for escape of the smoke. 
 The fire is lit as soon as the juice is collected, and poured into the 
 four pans, which are kept constantly supplied with fresh juice as 
 the water evaporates, until the whole produce of the morning is 
 boiled down to the required density. As the contents of each pan 
 become sufSciently boiled, they are ladled out into other earthen 
 pots or jars, of various sizes, from five to twenty s§ers of contents, 
 according to local custom, and in these the boiled extract cools, 
 crystallizes into a hard compound of granulated sugar and molasses, 
 and is brought to market for sale as goor. 
 
 The subsequent processes by which the goor is deprived more or 
 less of its molasses and impurities, and the drier and more merchant- 
 able kinds of sugar are prepared for market, will now be briefly 
 described. These processes are always conducted by a distinct 
 class of operators, who purchase the goor from the cultivators, and 
 bring it to various stages of purity and dryness under different 
 denominations. 
 
 1st. Khaur is made by filling the goor into coarse sacks or gunny 
 bags, and pressing them between bamboos lashed together, or 
 beneath heavy weights, until 30 or 40 per cent, of the entire weight 
 is forced out in the shape of molasses. The residue is then mixed, 
 packed in clean bags, and is ready for sale. 
 
 2nd. Pine khaur or nimphool is made by repeating the above 
 process for making khaur ; the only difference being that the khaur 
 is sprinkled and mixed with water before subjecting it to the 
 second packing and pressure. This causes a further portion of the 
 molasses to be washed out and separated from the mass, and the 
 product is lighter coloured and finer than the khaur, and about 
 50 per cent, only of the original weight of goor remains. A third 
 application of the same process is sometimes resorted to, which 
 carries away another 6 per cent, of the original weight, and leaves 
 a residue still drier and lighter coloured than the ordinary 
 nimphool. 
 
 In all nimphool and khaur sugars, however, a certain portion of 
 water or moisture remains, it being never subjected to any sun- 
 drying or other process for evaporating the water, and this renders 
 it liable to deliquesce and sweat through the bags in which it is 
 usually packed. This is specially the case in damp weather, and 
 loss of colour and acidity follow in a few weeks. 
 
THE WILD DATE PALM OF INDIA. 259 
 
 3rd. DuUooah, or doloo, is made by filling the goor into round 
 baskets or conical earthen vessels, holding two or three maunds 
 each. The baskets being of an open fabric, and the cones made 
 with a hole at the apex, the molasses drains from the goor into a 
 vessel placed beneath, the process being encouraged by a stratum 
 of three or four inches thick of a wet grass or aquatic weed called 
 " seala " placed on the surface of the goor. The moisture from 
 this attenuates the molasses in the goor, and assists the draining. 
 As soon as the weed is dry it is removed, and the upper stratum 
 of the goor, now deprived of its molasses, is scraped off with a 
 knife to the depth of two or three inches ; and a fresh top of seala 
 or wet weed is applied. When dry, a further portion of sugar is 
 cut off as before, and this is repeated until the basket or cone is 
 emptied. The sugar, as scraped off, is exposed in the sun on mats 
 to dry, and is then mixed and packed for sale ; and is, when well 
 made, a dry, light, sand-coloured duUoah. Thirty to forty per cent. 
 of produce, varying with the quality of the goor, is made in this 
 way from a given quantity of the latter. The resulting molasses 
 having by the operation of the weed a small portion of the sugar 
 crystal melted with it, is subjected to a boiling to evaporate the 
 water, and an inferior, weak-grained, and dark-coloured goor is the 
 result. This is again subjected to the weed-draining as before, 
 and a further portion of 10 to 15 per cent, weight of the original 
 goor is obtained. Dullooahs, if well dried before being packed, 
 may be kept without deteriorating for several months if the 
 weather be dry; but they always imbibe moisture, and sustain 
 consequent injury from the damp air of the rainy season in 
 Bengal. 
 
 4th. Pucka Cheenee, or gurpatta, is the native refined sugar 
 made by subjecting khaur to a process somewhat resembling that 
 of the English refiner. The khaur is melted in water to the 
 consistency of thin syrup, which is then placed over a fire in an 
 earthen pan, and brought to boiling point, the defecation being 
 assisted by potash temper and sprinkling in of cold water. After 
 skimming, it is filtered through a cotton cloth, and the clarified 
 syrup boiled briskly until the water is evaporated to such a degree 
 as to allow the sugar to form a hard crystal as it cools. It is then 
 poured into an earthen cone, and, when cold, the plug is withdrawn 
 and the syrup allowed to drain from it, assisted, as in the duUooah 
 process, by the application of the damp weed or seala. As it 
 becomes whitened by the latter, it is scraped off, sun-dried, and 
 packed for sale. The syrup, as it collects from the cones, is boiled 
 up with fresh goor, and produces, by the same process, an inferior 
 or second quality of gurpatta ; the syrups of the latter are once 
 more boiled alone, and produce a still inferior weak and reddish 
 sugar, called by the manufacturers " jerunriee," which is literally 
 " lasts." Gurpatta, if well made, and pure from mixture of other 
 kinds, is of a bright and clean aspect, fine and dry; and, if pro- 
 tected from the weather, will keep without injury throughout the 
 rainy season. The ordinary yield of gurpatta from three maunds 
 (40 seers each) of good goor is reckoned as follows : — 
 
 s 2 
 
260 
 
 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 Mds. srs. 
 
 First or wLite gurpatta 20 
 
 Inferior or mixed ditto 10 
 
 Syrup or jerunaee 10 
 
 Molasses 1 28 
 
 Loss 12 
 
 Total 3 00 
 
 6tli. Dobarah is a quality superior to gurpatta, being a good 
 white, dry, and well-crystallized sugar. The process is similar to 
 that of the gurpatta ; but the material used being duUooah instead 
 of khaur, a purer sugar is obtained, which much resembles the 
 crushed refined sugar of the European refiner. 
 
 In the district of Jessore alone, in 1882-83. it is stated that there 
 were 24,122 acres under date cultivation, and that the value of 
 refined and coarse date sugar for that year was calculated at 
 £484,624 in this one district alone. 
 
 The following further details are given by Babu Eamshunker, 
 Sen., Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Jessore : — 
 
 In May and June seeds are gathered from under old date trees 
 and sown broadcast in a nursery near enough to the rj'ot's house. 
 They sprout forth within fifteen to thirty days, and sooner if there 
 is an intervening downpour. The seedlings are then fenced round 
 in order to save the tender leaves from the bite of the goat or 
 cattle. As soon as two leaves appear a weeding begins, which is 
 kept up twice in the year as long as the plants continue in the 
 nursery for two or three years. After this term, when the rains 
 begin to fall copiously, they are transplanted into an open garden, 
 which is prepared by four or five ploughings and manured with 
 sweepings and cowdung. A high and rich ground is always 
 preferred ; but soils which are of a mixed nature and easily yield 
 to the plough are better adapted than the low and saline. 
 
 The trees are planted in even rows seven or eight cubits apart in 
 order to allow sufficient space for intermediate ventilation and the 
 turning of the plough and ladder within the intervening space. 
 The ground is ploughed, and the soil around the tree is turned up 
 with the spade twice a year, as otherwise the overgrowth of the 
 straw grass (iilu) chokes up and kills the tender plants. The side 
 leaves of the plant are cut off every year in winter for the 
 convenience of cultivating the gardens with cold-weather crops, 
 which are generally sown therein as long as the plants are young 
 and their leaves short ; but when they have spread out so much as 
 to obstruct heat and light, the cultivation of other crops is put off. 
 The raising of these crops in the date gardens, instead of interfering 
 with the trees, is rather conducive to their growth, as the soil is 
 kept clean thereby and ulu grass {Saccharum cylindricwni) kept 
 back. In gardens where the trees are wide apart, the aus man is 
 cultivated, and an average crop is always obtained. . 
 
 Inundations injure the trees when they are young ; for if the 
 water rises high, it deposits its loam on the tender head leaves, and 
 thus sufiboates the plant to death. The fouler and higher the 
 
THE WILD DATE PALM OF INDIA. 261 
 
 ■water, the greater is the danger to the date tree. Young and 
 robust trees escape storms and cyolones scatheless, but the tall ones 
 are many a time and oft pressed down by the force of the wind, 
 and although not quite uprooted, placed permanently in a slanting 
 position. There is a kind of larva called maira or kora, which 
 destroys the plant in large numbers by boring out the heads and 
 eating up the top leaves. 
 
 When seven or eight j'ears of age, the tree is fit for yielding the 
 sap. Ordinarily the east or west side of the tree, being better 
 exposed to the influence of the sun, is chosen for tapping ; but in 
 some cases the north and south sides are also taken up if more 
 convenient for the purpose of ascent and descent. The position 
 and bend of the tree, as well as its accessibility to the climber, 
 determine the side on which the first cutting is to be made. If it 
 stands at an acute angle with the surface of the soil, the side upper- 
 most is subjected to the paring knife. Sometimes a tree in which 
 the first parings were east and west has its subsequent cuttings 
 gradually brought round to north and south, if it has been beaten 
 down by a cyclone. The tapping continues on from year to year 
 until the head of the tree presents a withered and half-dead 
 appearance. In three trees I counted as many as forty-two, forty- 
 three, and forty-four alternate notches, thus showing that they 
 had been continually tapped for those long series of years, and 
 they appeared still capable of being subjected to that process for 
 two or three years more. When on these high and tall trees the 
 head is no longer erect in position, the tapping must cease. 
 
 The implements used in cutting the tree are (1) the gachua dao, 
 a sharp and broad instrument with which the paring is made ; (2) 
 the holach or goatskin cover which the gacM or cutter fits to his 
 waist in order to prevent friction of the rope (3), called dara, with 
 which he attaches himself to the tree as he climbs up ; (4) the 
 ihungi or narrow wicker basket hanging from his waist like a 
 quiver and intended to hold the dao and nullies; (5) the akra or 
 hook, on which the juice pot is hung when he gets up and down 
 the tree with it. 
 
 Besides the cluster of date trees in and around a ryot's tenement, 
 large open gardens occupying broad areas of land are planted with 
 them. Sometimes they are planted along hedges and the boundary 
 ridges of fields. The tract of country south and west of the Naba- 
 gunga abounds with large date gardens, particularly the line of 
 country west of Magurah, where the land gradually rises higher 
 and higher as we approach the confines of the Nuddea district. 
 
 South and west of Jhenidah the. country may be said to be 
 bristling with date trees planted in square plots of ten or fifteen 
 beegahs, and these increase in number as we come nearer and 
 nearer to the Kabadak. The line north of the Kumar, being 
 subject to inundation, is not a well-planted date tract, the sugar- 
 cane'having retained its hold there to some extent. 
 
 In October the side of the tree chosen for tapping is cleared of 
 the leaves, and the bark just below the head is cut into, so as to 
 form an oblong bare surface 15 inches bj' 12 inches, in proportion 
 
262 
 
 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 to the circumference of the tree. After a week, wLen this surface 
 is perfectly dry, its upper part is skilfully pared off, tiU the white 
 and softer wood becomes visible. An indenture is then made in 
 the lower part of the pared-off surface, along the sides of what 
 appears to be an obtuse angle, with the angular point turned down- 
 wards. An inch below this point a split bamboo twig, seven or 
 eight inches long, is inserted into the tree in order to conduct the 
 sap into the juice pot as it oozes out of the white surfaces and 
 passes in a thin slow stream through the two sides of the angle 
 as it were through two drains. If there be not sufficient juice in 
 the pared-off surface, it is left untouched for a week and cut anew 
 after being well dried up. If the cut is deep before the surface 
 is dry, the head of the tree pines away and the juice decreases in 
 quantity. Careless insertion of the bamboo tube sometimes injures 
 the young plant, which may cause its death. 
 
 Date trees are divided into three classes, according to their age : 
 
 (1) The comra or chara, or young plant, yielding from half to 
 one and a half seer of sap in the first year, and two to three seers 
 subsequently per night. 
 
 (2) The mqjhari, or middle-aged, called also utit or nalgas — a tree 
 in the fuU swing of its juice-yielding career, supplying seven to 
 nine seers per night. 
 
 (3) The kahni or daria, so named from its age and yielding its 
 juice late in the season. 
 
 The trees are also classed as male and female — the former, which 
 bears no fruit, yielding the sap early in the season, being called 
 chotna ; while the latter is called haron, bearing fruits and yielding 
 the sap somewhat late. Middle-aged trees with robust heads yield 
 the largest quantity of juice ; the age at which it arrives at 
 maturity being five or six years after the first tapping. 
 
 The trees of a date grove are divided into six portions (called 
 palas) for the convenience of tapping them by turns, which goes on 
 in the order described below. I should, however, mention here 
 that the first night's juice is called jeeran, which is richer in quality 
 and larger in quantity than that of subsequent nights, the second 
 and third night's juice is called doTcat (second cut) and tekat (third 
 cut). 
 
 Juice collected in the fourth night is called jhurrah, and the day 
 juice is called ola. The colder the night, the more the yield of the 
 tree. Toggy and cloudy nights, which serve to decrease the cold 
 of the weather, tend to diminish the sap. High winds dry up the 
 moisture of the surface, and rain washes it off and lessens the 
 sweetness of the sap. I have not been able to ascertain if the 
 influence of the moon has anything to do with its increase or 
 decrease. 
 
 Various artifices are resorted to in order to prevent thefts of the 
 sap from juice pots, usually committed by boys at the commence- 
 ment of the date season. The cutter puts slices of hachari, a 
 species of poisonous Arum, purmula a nauseating leaf, and other 
 pungent vegetables into the juice pots, in order to punish such 
 night marauders who drink off the juice stealthily, and in the 
 
THE WILD DATE PALM OF INDIA. 263 
 
 morning the cutter's clamorously abusive language towards the 
 female relatives of the young delinquents scares away the whole 
 neighbourhood. 
 
 Early every morning the cutter (gachi) and his mate Qcheri) go 
 round from tree to tree, take down the pots, and collect the juice 
 in order to be boiled down into goor (molasses). Boiling goes on 
 in the date grove itself, or in some open space close by. A large 
 stove called hain, with two to sixteen eyes, over which the boiling 
 pans are placed, is fed by a strong fire. As the boiling goes on in 
 earthen pans, the scum is taken off with a ladle formed out of a 
 date branch, and green date leaves are put into the boiler in order 
 to prevent overflowing. The bubbles which appear in the boiler 
 mark the different stages of boiling, they are styled respectively 
 spider (makarsha) bubbles, mustard flower (sarea /mK) bubbles, tiger 
 (haghai) bubbles, and treacle {gwria) bubbles, which last indicate 
 that the process is nearly complete. The boiled juice is then tested 
 by pouring down a stream from the ladle. If it drops slow and 
 thick, the pan is taken off the fire, and a small quantity of the 
 boiled juice is triturated into powder on the margin of the pan and 
 mixed up with its contents, when they all granulate and coagulate 
 into goor. This process is known as hijmara. 
 
 There are three sorts of goor made from the date juice. 
 
 (1) The patali, or hard cake, which is used for local consumption, 
 and sold at Es. 2-8 to Es. 3 per maund. 
 
 (2) Khan goor is the goor of commerce, called also nagree, locally 
 consumed, but principally used in manufacturing sugar, sold at 
 Es. 1-12 and Es. 2-2 per maund. 
 
 (3) Ola or chitta goor, prepared from the date juice — syrupy 
 and devoid of granules ; chiefly used in sweetening tobacco and 
 manufacturing rum, and sold at 10 or 12 annas per maund. It is 
 sometimes mixed up with khan goor as an adulteration. 
 
 Let us now see what is the actual produce of each tree, and the 
 average income of the ryot from his date garden ; although on this 
 point no two accounts agree. 
 
 The tapping season generally extends from 5th Aghran (20th 
 November) to 13th Pulgan (22nd February), over one hundred 
 and ten days. Prom this we have to deduct foggy and cloudy 
 nights, which may amount to ten in all during the season. The 
 juice-yielding days amount therefore to fifty in all. 
 
 Now, counting according to the Bengali months, and taking the 
 average produce month by month, as in the undermentioned table, 
 we find the yield of a full-grown tree to be — 
 
 25 davs of Aghran, at 2 seers per day . . . . 50 
 
 29 "„ Pous „ 5 „ .... 145 
 
 30 „ Magh „ 8 „ .. .. 240 
 15 „ Fulgan „ 3 „ .... 45 
 
 Total in 99 days .. .. 480 
 
 Or deducting the days of rest, we have for fifty days 240 seers, 
 which is equal to 24 seers of goor, 10 seers of juice being capable 
 
26-1: THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 of producing 1 seer of goor. The price of these 24 seers would 
 equal Es. 1-3 and Es. 2 per maund. 
 
 Taking contingencies into account, the yield of a good tree may 
 fairly be estimated at 12 annas a year. Both Colonel" G-astrell 
 and Mr. Westland calculate the average produce at 5 seers per 
 tree, while the former makes the tapping nights sixty-five, and 
 the latter sixty-seven. According to Colonel Gastrell's estimate 
 the average yield of a tree is Es. 1-2-6, which is very near my 
 first estimate. Mr. Westland's estimate of each tree yielding one 
 maund of goor, valued at Es. 2 and 2-4, appears to be too high. 
 Dr. Forbes Eoyle, in his work on ' The Fibrous Plants of India,' 
 page 96, quoting from Dr. Eoxburgh, states that each date tree on 
 an average yields one hundred and eighty pints of juice, of which 
 every twelve pints are boiled down to one of goor or jagri, and 
 four of goor yield one of good powder sugar ; so that the average 
 yield of each tree is seven or eight pounds of sugar annualljr. 
 Now taking a pint to be equal to IJ pow of Bengali liquid 
 measure, each tree according to this calculation would appear to 
 yield one maund and 27^ seers of juice ; and if 9 seers or 24 pints 
 produce three-fourths of a seer of goor, we have 5f seers of goor 
 as the average yield of a tree, which at Es. 2 per maund ■would 
 amount to 4 annas 8 pie per tree ; this is a rather low estimate, 
 looking to the fact that the expenses have yet to be taken into 
 account. 
 
 The wood of the date tree is used as beams and posts in mat 
 houses, and as ladders in tanks and ghats ; it is also employed in 
 constructing temporary bridges over khals and drains. 
 
 The leaves cut off before tapping season are used as fuel in the 
 manufacture of goor, and answer the purpose a month. At 
 Kaligunge iedia patis (leaf mats) are manufactured from the 
 leaves and sewn into bags, into which sugar is put before being 
 carried to Nalchith and other places. In the two subdivisions I 
 have gone over, 4205 acres of land are occupied by date trees, 
 exclusive of those growing all round the corners of ryots' houses. 
 The approximate number of date trees in these two subdivisions 
 is 1,033,825, or about two hundred and forty trees per acre. A 
 beegah of land (one-third of an acre) is generally planted with 
 one hundred trees ; but as some of them die in the course of time, 
 the above estimate is not beyond the mark. In both these 
 subdivisions there are 2720 juice-boiling stoves or bains. For 
 each opening in which a boiler is placed, the zemindar levies a 
 tax of 1 anna 3 pie, and 6 pie for each of the side openings 
 through which fuel is applied. Although the cultivation of the 
 date tree has gone on increasing from year to year, on account of 
 the increased demand for sugar, and the shipments made to 
 Europe, stiU there are no accurate data available for the purpose 
 of ascertaining the actual proportion of increase. In 1791 the 
 annual produce of sugar cultivation was 20,000 maunds, of which 
 half was exported to Calcutta. The increase in cultivation within 
 the last century may be imagined from the fact that in the 
 subdivisions of Jhenidah and Magurah alone, comprising as they 
 
THE WILD DATE PALM OF INDIA. 265 
 
 do only one-tliird of the district, the production was 391,780 
 maunds of goor, and 137,000 maunds (82 lbs.) of sugar in the 
 year 1873, of which nearly 60,000 maunds were sent down to 
 Calcutta. There is an extensive date cultivation in the sub- 
 divisions of Jessore and Nurrail, which has not been taken into 
 account in this estimate. 
 
 Manufacture of Bate Sugar from Goor. — The season for manu- 
 facturing powdered sugar from goor begins about the 1st of 
 December, and terminates at the end of May, extending over a full 
 period of six months. 
 
 The most important place in the district of Jessore with regard 
 to the manufacture of sugar is Chandpur. The process adopted is 
 easier than at first may be imagined. 
 
 The earthen jars into which the cultivator puts his goor are 
 broken up by the sugar manufacturer, and the contents poured 
 into a wicker basket, through which the scum oozes out below 
 into a pan. On the fifth day, a river v/eed, called patta seala, 
 found in abundance in the bed of the Bhyrab and Kabadak, is 
 placed over the goor in the basket, and kept for eight days. 
 When the seala dries up, it is thrown away, and the upper 
 stratum in the basket, consisting of about 6 seers, is scraped oif 
 the surface. New seala is again put and kept on for eight days, 
 and the above process repeated. In the second and third pro- 
 cesses, the sugar is about 10 seers each time ; in the fourth 
 process the yield is 7 seers, and in the fifth 5 seers. In the last 
 stage the yield is about 1 3 seers of inferior sugar. So from 3^ 
 maunds of goor IJ maund of sugar (sold at times at Es. 10 per 
 maund) is thus obtained. 
 
 The scum which has oozed and is called mat is again boiled, 
 and sugar is manufactured from it under the above process. 
 
 The sugar thus obtained is called dalua — from its being pro- 
 duced in clods which are beaten and reduced to powder. 
 
 The manufacture of scJiacM (or real) sugar is carried on in the 
 following manner : — Goor purchased in tillias (pots) is transferred 
 into gunny bags, which are pressed betwixt bamboos in a hanging 
 posture. The granular goor which remains in the bag is called 
 Ichar, and the droppings — mat Mar — are then boiled in a pan, 
 mixed up with milk water, and passed through gunny and cloth 
 sieves, and reboiled and transferred to semi-elliptical pots called 
 bharneas, with a hole at the bottom. These pots are arranged 
 over shelves and subjected to a course of seala refining as in the 
 case of dalua sugar. The oozing during this process is called mat 
 goor. When the second course of seala is put on, the droppings 
 are called jherani, and so on. The process is repeated until the pot 
 is well-nigh exhausted. The sugar produced is called (real) 
 sugar No. 1. The mat goor of the bags and of the first refining 
 process are boiled together, and become chitta goor. By boiling 
 the jherani goor sugar No. 2 is produced by same process as 
 the real sugar. Loaf-sugar or dobara chini is manufactured from 
 the dalua or dullooah, whigh is boiled in water, and skimmed 
 with milk. It is then put into an open earthen pot perforated 
 
266 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 below. After the scum has dropped out two days, seala is placed 
 on the surface of the sugar, and after eight days it arrives at its 
 refined state. The droppings are boiled, and a kind of sugar 
 inferior to the above, called eJchara chini, is manufactured from the 
 same. The second droppings are again mtoufaotured into a sugar 
 called petiar (basket) sugar. In 1872, 170,000 bazaar maunds of 
 sugar were sold off in the Chandpur market, of which 30,000 
 maunds were for consumption in the Mofussil. 
 
 The sugar made in Calcutta from the sap of the date palms has 
 the following composition : — 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Cane sugar 87 ■ 97 
 
 Eeduced sugar 1-71 
 
 Gum 4-88 
 
 Water and volatile matter 1-88 
 
 Ash 0-50 
 
 Mannite, fatty matter, undetermined and loss 3 ■ 06 
 
 100-00 
 
 The reduced sugar contains glucose 1 • 53 per cent., and levulose 
 0*18 per cent. 
 
 The Palmyea Palm * (Borassus flabelliformis, Lin.) is one of those 
 enjoying the widest geographical distribution. A glance at a 
 map in Berghaus's or Johnston's Physical Atlas, showing the 
 range of the most remarkable plants, will help to illustrate 
 this fact. 
 
 In the Madras Presidency, sugar is extracted from the sap of 
 the pabnyra palm, and there are about 25,000 acres covered with this 
 tree, chiefly in Bellary. The spadix or young flowering branch is 
 cut off near the top, and an earthen pitcher tied on to the stump. 
 The sap runs into this pitcher, which is emptied and replaced 
 every morning after the stump has been again cut ; and this 
 process is repeated until the supply of the sap has been completely 
 exhausted. Powdered chunam (lime), which has the property of 
 preventing fermentation, is sprinkled on the outside of the 
 earthen vessel in which the sap is collected. This juice is then 
 boiled down, and the sugar obtained on drying the sediment by 
 exposure. A tribe called Shanars draw the toddy or juice from 
 the tree. 
 
 In Bengal the juice of the date palm, which is so much more 
 abundant in saccharine matter, is preferred for the manufacture of 
 sugar ; though it is not apparent why, in parts of the country 
 where the palmyra palm abounds, and the people do not drink 
 toddy, its vinous sap is not utilized in the same way as in 
 Madras. 
 
 In Ceylon there are nearly 40,000 acres covered with this palm, 
 and there are 8,000,000 trees owned by people in the Jaffna 
 Peninsula. There are about 70,000,000 nuts produced, and 
 20,000 cwts. of jaggery made from the sap. 
 
 * By W. Ferguson, of Ceylon. 
 
THE PALMYEA PALM. 267 
 
 The number of uses for which the palmyra is employed may be 
 said to be almost infinite ; indeed one of the eastern languages, 
 the Tamil, spoken in a portion of the region which the tree 
 acknowledges as its native country, possesses a poem entitled 
 " Tala Yilasam," enumerating no fewer than eight hundred 
 different purposes to which the palmyra may be applied, and this 
 poem by no means exhausts the catalogue. 
 
 The spadix bearing the fruits is generally simple, and covered 
 with a single sheath or spathe, as in the areca, catechu, and 
 coconut palms, but it is sometimes compound, and bearing two 
 bunches of fruit in a compound spathe. The fruits are, with 
 beautiful regularity, arranged round the spadix in three rows, 
 and whichever way examined are found in nearly opposite pairs. 
 Each spadix bears from ten to twenty fruits, and one of these 
 spadioes, with the fruit ripe, would be nearly as much as a man 
 could carry. Bach palm bears seven or eight of these spadices, so 
 that a tree often bears about one hundred and fifty fruits in one 
 season ; each fruit is about the size of a young child's head. The 
 fruits, when young, are pretty distinctly three-cornered, but when 
 old, the pulp round the nut swells so as to give the fruit the 
 appearance of a perfect globe. 
 
 The ripe fruits or drupes contain two or three nuts imbedded in 
 a mass of soft yellow pulp, intermixed with dark, straw-coloured 
 fibre or coir. These nuts are oblong, and a good deal flattened, 
 and covered with a mass of short fibre which adheres to them. 
 Besides this fibre they are covered with a thick shell, so difficult of 
 fracture that the Tamils say an elephant cannot break them. 
 
 The fronds are fan-leaved, armed with spines radiating from a 
 common centre, and the stipes serrated at their edges. The fan 
 part is about 4 feet in diameter. It answers as a kind of umbrella 
 when held by the stem over one's head. The spines are out off, 
 and the middle is formed into large fans, called vissaries and 
 punkahs. These are lacquered for sale, or used plain, as may suit 
 the taste of the purchaser, but one never sees a Buddhist priest 
 without one of the smaller sort, or a fan of some kind or other ; 
 of which some are heart-shaped, others circular, with handles of 
 carved ivory. 
 
 The leaves of this tree, as well as those of the talapat tree, are 
 used instead of paper by the natives. They write letters upon 
 them, which, neatly rolled up, and sometimes sealed with a little 
 gum lac, pass through the post-office. During the operation of 
 writing, the leaf is supported by the left hand, and the letters 
 scratched upon the surface with the stylus. Instead of moving 
 towards the right hand, which performs the writing, the leaf is 
 moved in a contrary direction, by means of the thumb. 
 
 All their olas or books, treating of religion, and the healing 
 art, &c., are transcribed on them, but in a language elevated above 
 the common idiom. The leaves of both these palm trees lie in 
 folds like a fan, and the sKps stand in need of no other preparation 
 than merely to be separated, and cut smooth and even with a 
 knife, after having been slowly dried in the shade, and rubbed 
 
268 THE USEFUL PAL,MS. 
 
 ■with oil. Tiieir mode of writing Tipon ttem consists in carving 
 the letters with a fine pointed style, and in order that th& 
 characters may be the better seen and read, they rub them over 
 with an ink made of lampblack, or some other substance, and a 
 solution of gum, so that the letters have altogether the appearance 
 of being engraved. 
 
 The iron point made use of on these occasions, is set either in a 
 brass handle, which the Moormen and others carry about them in 
 a wooden case, and which is sometimes six inches in length, or 
 else it is formed entirely of iron, and together with the blade of a 
 knife, designed for the purpose of cutting the leaves, and making 
 them even, set in a knife handle, common to them both, into 
 which handle it shuts up, so that it may be carried by the owner 
 about with him, and be always ready at hand. 
 
 On such slips all the letters and edicts of the Dutch Government 
 used to be written, and sent round open and unsealed. "When a 
 single slip was not sufficient, several were bound together by 
 means of a hole made at one end, and a thread on which they 
 were strung. If a book had to be made for the use of the 
 Wihares, or any other purpose, they sought for broad and hand- 
 some slips of talapat leaves, upon which they engraved the 
 characters very elegantly and accurately, with the addition of 
 various figures delineated upon them by way of ornament. All 
 the slips had then two holes made in them, and were strung upon 
 an elegantly twisted silken cord, and covered with two thin 
 wooden boards. By means of the cord the leaves are held even 
 togetherMnd by being drawn out when required for use they are 
 separatea from each other at pleasure. In the finer binding of 
 these kind of books the boards are lacquered, the edges of the 
 leaves cut smooth and gilded, and the title is written on the upper 
 board; the two oo]-ds are fastened by a knot or jewel secured at a 
 little distance from the boards, so as to prevent the book from 
 falling to pieces, but suflSciently distant to admit of the upper 
 leaves being turned back, while the lower ones are read. The 
 more elegant books are in general wrapped up in silk cloth, and 
 bound round by a riband, in which the Burmese have the art to 
 weave the title of the book. The palmyra books are never much 
 beyond 2 feet in length, and 2 inches in breadth, as the parch- 
 ment-like ribs between the little ribs will not admit of their 
 increase in size. 
 
 Narrow strips of the leaf are braided into sieves, hats, and caps, 
 baskets, mats, and bags ; the baskets are used for drawing water 
 as well as other purposes, and the bags not only for carrying rice, 
 salt, &c., in small quantities, but for storing grain, being made 
 very large and strong, while the mats are necessary for the 
 natives, not only to sit, eat, and sleep on, but for drying various 
 kinds of fruit, treading out grain, and many other purposes. On 
 the stem of the leaf is a very hard and strong covering, like that 
 on the bamboo or rattan, which, slit off, is formed into coarse, 
 strong ropes. 
 
 Each tree has from twenty-five to forty fresh green leaves upon 
 
THE PALMYEA PALM. 269 
 
 it at a time, and of these the natives frec^uently cut off twelve or 
 fifteen annually, or a greater number once in two years, to he 
 devoted to various purposes, as well as to enable the fruit to ripen 
 and increase in size. "When the leaves are intended for thatch, or 
 for making fences, they are placed flat on the ground in layers 
 over each other, and often with weights upon them to assist in the 
 process of flattening them. The thatch formed of these does not 
 last longer than two years, nor is it so handsome as that made 
 from the plaited cocoanut leaves. The leaves make very close and 
 elegant fences. 
 
 Toddy. — At the season when the inflorescence begins to appear, 
 when the spathes have had time to burst, the " toddy drawer " is 
 at work in the palmyra groves. His practised eye soon fixes on 
 those trees fit for the "scalping knife," and if they have not 
 dropped the foot-stalk of the leaves, the first operation, if the 
 trees are valuable, is to wrench them off. This done, the toddy 
 drawer, armed with his leathern protector for his breast, his 
 raceme-batten of wood, his small thongs, straight and crooked 
 knives, with the side leather pouch to contain them, procures a 
 piece of tough jungle vine, or a strip of the stalk of a young 
 palmyra or coconut tree, which he converts into a sort of loop, 
 of such dimensions as to admit of his feet getting through to a 
 space large enough to allow them to clasp the tree. This done, 
 he puts his feet in this thong, stands close to the tree, stretches 
 himself at full length, clasps it with his hands, and pulls his feet 
 up as close to his arms as possible ; again he slides np his hands, 
 and repeats the process, until, by a species of screw process, he 
 ascends to the summit of the tree. An expert climber can draw 
 toddy from about forty trees in a few hours. In Jaffna a 
 distinction is made between toddy and sweet toddy ; the former, 
 called by the Tamils " culloo," is the fermented, the latter the 
 unfermented juice. Toddy serves extensively as yeast, and 
 throughout Ceylon no other is employed by the bakers; large 
 quantities of it are also converted into vinegar, used for pickling 
 gherkins, limes, the undeveloped leaves of the coconut and 
 palmyra trees, and other substances ; but by far the greatest 
 quantity is boiled down for jaggery or sugar. About 1000 tons 
 are said to be manufactured of it in Ceylon. 
 
 According to Forbes, three quarts of toddy will make 1 lb. of 
 jaggery. Malcolm remarks that jaggery resembles maple sugar, 
 and that in the neighbourhood of Ava 1 lb. sells for the third of 
 a penny. In Jaffna 3 lbs. are sold for 2d. The usual process of 
 making jaggery, as pursued at Jaffna, is exceedingly simple. 
 The sweet toddy is boiled until it becomes a thick syrup, a small 
 quantity of scraped coconut kernel is thrown in that it may be 
 ascertained by the feel if the syrup has reached the proper 
 oonsistency, and then it is poured into small baskets of palmyra 
 leaf, where it cools and hardens into jaggery. In these small 
 plaited palmyra baskets it is kept for home consumption ; sent 
 ooastwise, chiefly to Colombo, or exported beyond seas to be 
 refined. To make vellum or crystallized jaggery, which is 
 
270 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 extensively used as a medicine, the process is nearly the same 
 as for the common sugar, only the syrup is not boiled for so long 
 a period. 
 
 The pot which contains it is coyered and put aside for some 
 months, at the end of which period the crystals are formed in 
 abundance. The juice of the palmyra is richer in saccharine 
 matter than that of most other palms, in consequence, perhaps, 
 of the tree more generally growing in dry sandy soil, and in a 
 dry climate. The great fault of the jaggery made at Jaffna 
 seems to arise from the too free application of lime, a small 
 quantity of which is absolutely necessary to prevent fermentation. 
 Jaggery forms an article of commerce from the upper to the 
 lower provinces of Burmah, and is also of importance in some of 
 the islands of the Indian Archipelago. Besides being exported in 
 large quantities from Ceylon, it forms a considerable portion of 
 the food of the Tamil people of Jaffna. Amongst a variety of 
 purposes to which it is put, is that of being mixed with the 
 white of eggs, and with lime from burnt coral or shells. The 
 result is a tenacious mortar, capable of receiving so beautiful a 
 polish, that it can with difficulty be distinguished from the iinest 
 white marble. 
 
 Timber. — A full-grown palmyra is from 60 to 70 feet high, 
 its trunk at the bottom is about 5^^ feet in circumference. The 
 wood is generally known in Ceylon and the maritime ports 
 of India. Large quantities of it are exported from Point Pedro, 
 and other ports of Jaffna, to Madras and Colombo. At certain 
 seasons of the year the felling, splitting, dressing, and exporting 
 of it give work to thousands of the Tamil people of the northern 
 peninsula of Ceylon. The trees have to arrive at a considerable 
 age before they are of use for timber ; when a hundred years 
 old they are excellent. The wood of this palm near the 
 circumference, when of sufficient age, is remarkably hard, black, 
 heavy, and durable, and universally used for rafters in pent- 
 roofed houses, for which purpose Eoxburgh states it is the best 
 wood in India. The centre is soft and spongy, containing little 
 else than a coarse kind of farinaceous matter, intermixed with 
 some soft, white woody fibres, and is cut out, as the black 
 exterior hard part only is employed. The wood is capable of 
 taking a fine polish. Its specific gravity is, according to Mr, 
 Mendis, 65 lbs. per solid foot. For house building, and various 
 domestic purposes, the timber is the most generally used of the 
 palm tribe. Pillars and posts for the verandahs tff houses, well 
 sweeps, joists, and reepers, or laths, &c., are made from it. The 
 trunk is split into four for rafters, into eight for reepers or laths, 
 and these are dressed with an adze. From the structure of the 
 fibres, it splits easily in the direction of its length, but supports a 
 greater cross strain than any other wood ; iron nails, however, will 
 rust rapidly in it. _ 
 
 Palmyra trunks split into halves, with the heart scooped out, are 
 used as spouts for various purposes, but more especially for 
 carrying away the water from the eaves of houses. The dark 
 
THE SAGO PALM, 271 
 
 outside wood of very old trees is used to some extent in Europe 
 for umbrella handles, walking canes, paper rulers, fancy boxes, 
 wafer stamps, and other articles. 
 
 Kelingoes. — The nuts are collected and buried in heaps in the 
 ground. When dug up after the space of three months, the 
 young shoots called " kelingoes " supply the inhabitants with a 
 nourishing aliment. In size, colour, and shape they resemble a 
 parsnip, and look like a cold potato. In its fresh state it will 
 keep good for a couple of months, and when well dried in the sun, 
 for a whole year. 
 
 In this state they are called odials. When reduced to flour or 
 meal, the favourite cool or gruel is made of it. 
 
 Punatoo. — The pulp of the fruit is preserved for use in the 
 following manner : — The ripe fruits are put into baskets containing 
 water, and are then squeezed by the hand till the pulp forms a 
 jelly. Layers of this jelly are spread on palmyraleaf mats todry on 
 stages. Layer after layer is deposited to the number of about 
 fifteen. These are left in the sun about a fortnight or three weeks, 
 only covered at night, and protected from the dew and rain. The beet 
 sort is called Pimatos, and the tough withery kind made from the 
 remaining fruits gathered at the end of the season, which is much 
 in favour. Tot Punatoo. Punatoo is sold by the mat at 3s. to 6s. each, 
 and is the chief food of the islanders of Ceylon, and of the poorer 
 classes of the peninsula, for several months of the year. 
 
 The Sago Palm (Sagus BumpMi, Willd. ; Sagus genuina, Eumph. ; 
 Metroxylon Sagus, Keen.) is a tree from which the inhabitants of 
 the eastern portion of the Indian Archipelago derive the farina- 
 ceous nutriment which other nations of the world obtain from 
 cereal grains or farinaceous roots. For the natives this palm is 
 a source of vegetable food more abundant and less variable in its 
 yield than rice. 
 
 After the Nipa, the Sago is in stature the smallest of the palm 
 tribe, its extreme height seldom exceeding thirty feet, but it is the 
 thickest, except the Gomuti (Arenga saccharifera), and a full-grown 
 tree can with difficulty be clasped between both arms. In the 
 early period of its growth, and before the stem has formed, this 
 palm appears altogether like a cluster of so many shoots. Until 
 the stem has attained the height of five or six feet, it is covered 
 with sharp spines, which afford it protection from the attacks of 
 the wild hog, or other wild beasts. When, from the strength and 
 maturity of the wood, this protection is no longer necessary, the 
 spines drop off. Before the tree has attained its full growth, and 
 previous to the formation of the fruit, the stem consists of a thin 
 hard wall, about two inches thick, and of an enormous volume of a 
 spongy, medullary substance. This medullary substance is the 
 edible farina, from which the inhabitants of the Archipelago make 
 their bread. As the fruit forms, the farinaceous pith disappears, 
 and when the tree attains full maturity the stem is no more than a 
 hoUow shell. The utmost age of the tree does not exceed thirty 
 years. The sago palm loves low, marshy situations, and wiU. not 
 
272 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 flourish on dry or mountainous places. Eumphius says : — " This 
 tree grows best in miry or watery soil, where men sink to the knee 
 in mud. It will also grow in gravelly soil, if only it is charged 
 with moisture, and hence no plantation of the sago tree will thrive 
 where there are not one or more rivulets of water." A bog knee- 
 deep is consequently the best site for a sago plantation. There are 
 three well-marked varieties of this palm, namely : — 
 
 (1) The cultivated, S. Biimphii, spinous, both on the trunk and 
 leaves. (2) The wild. (3) One distinguished by the length of the 
 spines on the branches. Another species destitute of spines (S. 
 loBvis, Eeinw. ; S. inermis, Eoxb.), and usually called by the islanders 
 the female sago, is grown in Java, Sumatra, Celebes, Borneo, 
 Malacca and Siam. Each tree yields about 5 piculs (about 600 lbs.) 
 of pith. 
 
 The first and last varieties yield the best farina ; the second a 
 hard pith, from which the farina is extracted with difficulty ; while 
 the third, which has a comparatively slender trunk, contains but a 
 small quantity of farina. The sago, like other palms, is propagated 
 from the seed or fruit, which is of inconstant shape and size, from 
 a prime to a pigeon's or pullet's egg. 
 
 The sago and nipa palms furnish in the Amboyna Isles a whole- 
 some and abundant nourishment, for a basket of their fruit will 
 support seven or eight persons for a week. A good tree will 
 furnish thirty baskets as an average harvest ; the fruits keep well 
 in water. 
 
 The sago of the Arenga palm is more palatable than that of the 
 sago palm, but the culture involves more care, and the product does 
 not keep so well. 
 
 The word sagu is said to be the Malay name for bread or meal. 
 
 Sago meal is eaten by the natives in the form of pottage, and 
 also partially baked in earthenware moulds into small square 
 biscuits about two inches long, two broad, and half an inch thick, 
 which will keep a considerable time. Large quantities of the sago 
 m.eal in its raw state are received at Singapore from the Eastern 
 Islands to be granulated or pearled and bleached for shipment to 
 Europe. 
 
 Sago is much used during their sea voyages by the natives ; it 
 is cooked by simply dipping the cake in warm water, which softens 
 it ; it is also sometimes made into soup. 
 
 The sago tree is found, in one or other of its species, throughout 
 the whole length of the Eastern Archipelago, from the islands off 
 the west coast of Sumatra to New Guinea. It is probably capable 
 of flourishing with complete vigour across nearly the entire breadth, 
 wherever its natural soil occurs, and certainly within 10" north 
 and south of the equator, a band which includes all the Archipelago, 
 except the Philippines. The only countries, however, where it is 
 found growing in large forests are. New Guinea, the Moluccas, 
 Celebes, Mindanao, Borneo, and Sumatra, being widely spread 
 over the Moluccas, but confined to particular parts of the others. 
 
 The native country of the sago palm appears to be that portion 
 of the Archipelago in which the easterly monsoon is boisterous and 
 
THE SAGO PALM. 273 
 
 rainy. It is most abundant in the islands distinguislied for the pro- 
 duction of the clove and nutmeg, and is to be found in its wild 
 state in immense forests. Of all the plants which afford a supply 
 of nutritious farina for human food the sago is at once the most 
 obviously easy and abundant. The mass of nutritive matter 
 which a single tree yields is certainly prodigious. Five and six 
 hundred pounds weight, it appears, is not an unusual produce 
 for one tree. 
 
 Allowing for destroyed, barren, and unproductive trees, the 
 average weight of produce may be assumed at 300 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 
 Forrest states the average produce of a Molucca tree to be 336 lbs., 
 but Rumphius makes it from 600 lbs. to 800 lbs. ; and according to 
 a writer in a Singapore paper, good Sumatra trees yield from 760 
 to 950 lbs., and the very worst 476 lbs. Perhaps, therefore, 700 
 lbs. may be assumed as an average for the Sumatra trees, which at 
 10 feet apart (the distance stated by Forrest and followed by 
 Crawfurd) would give 300,000 lbs. for the harvest from one acre; 
 and allowing that the trees are fifteen yards apart, and not seven 
 as Forrest assumes, this will give an annual average produce of 
 20,000 lbs. I believe, however, that five or six feet is about the 
 average distance of the large stems in the Sumatra forests. When 
 a plantation has once arrived at maturity' there will be a constant 
 harvest, because the natural mode of growth secures a constant 
 succession of new plants from the time those first planted have 
 begun to extend their roots, and the succession can be regulated by 
 the knife in any way the planter desires. 
 
 There is no regular fixed season for extracting the pith, which 
 is taken as occasion requires and as the individual tree becomes 
 ripe. The period of maturity depends on the nature of the soil on 
 which the palm grows. Fifteen years may be reckoned an average 
 time for the tree to come to maturity. It is not, however, by a 
 calculation of the tree's age, but by its appearance, or by an actual 
 experiment on the pith, that the period of maturity is determined. 
 The inhabitants of the Moluccas mark six stages in the progress of 
 the ripening process of the medullary substance, the first of which 
 is known by the appearance of a mealy efflorescence on the branches, 
 and the last by the commencement of fructification. The pith may 
 be extracted at any of these stages ; and sometimes the natives, 
 trusting to their experience, proceed to the harvest from the mere 
 appearance which the tree presents. More frequently, however, a 
 hole is bored in the trunk and a small quantity of the pith extracted 
 for the purpose of ascertaining the degree of its maturity. When 
 the pith is ascertained to be ripe, the tree is cut down near the root 
 and the trunk subdivided into portions of six or seven feet long, 
 each of which is split into two parts ; from these last pieces the 
 medullary substance is extracted and at once reduced to a powder- 
 like sawdust with an instrument of bamboo or hard wood. The 
 process of separating the farina from the accompanying bran and 
 and filaments is simple and obvious, and consists merely in mixing 
 the powdered pith with water and passing the water charged with 
 the farina through a sieve at one end of the trough in which the 
 
 T 
 
274 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 mixture is made. This water is again passed into a second vesselj, 
 where the farina settles down to the bottom, and, after two or mor& 
 washings, is fit for use. This substance is the raw sago meal, whichi 
 keeps without further preparation for a month. For further use-, 
 the meal is made into cakes, which remain sweet for a long time. 
 But for exportation the finest sago meal is mixed with water, and 
 the paste is rubbed into small grains of the shape and size of coriandei- 
 
 Considering that after cutting down the tree new suckers are' 
 sent out from the root, which in their turn render a harvest, audi 
 that the culture requires little care, it must be admitted that this- 
 palm is for the natives a vegetable food more rich and less variable; 
 in its produce than rice. 
 
 The sago palm is grown in different parts of the Indian continent 
 as an ornamental tree ; and as it is easy of propagation and not 
 difficult to cultivate, it might be of advantage to the country if 
 private enterprise would set on foot plantations of tliis valuable.- 
 tree in suitable localities in the plains of India. 
 
 In Borneo the sago palm is found thriving along the north coast 
 at Kaluka, Oya, Muka, and Bentulu. It is cultivated chiefly by 
 the Millanu population. This tree requires eight years to attain its. 
 full growth ; it is then out down and the heart of it extracted. 
 One tree produces about 600 lbs. of raw sago, which, after being, 
 washed and dried, gives 800 lbs. of sago flour. During its growthi 
 it throws out numerous shoots, which are capable of being trans- 
 planted, and thus a plantation is easily increased. The quaKty of 
 the Sarawak sago flour is considered to be exceedingly good. 
 
 There are now several sago factories at Saraw^ak, all belonging; 
 to Chinamen, and worked solely by manual labour. The number- 
 of hands employed in each of these is from thirty-six to forty, who- 
 manage to turn out 7000 lbs. to 8000 lbs. of sago daily. 
 
 The raw sago is brought down by natives from the interior to> 
 Brunei, and is there washed and undergoes a refining process, 
 before being shipped. The labour employed in the washing and. 
 manufacturing process is exclusively Chinese; and the three sago- 
 manufactories in Brunei were established by and belong to Chinese- 
 traders. 
 
 Whether this palm is an indigenous plant, or whether it was. 
 originally introduced and cultivated, is perhaps a question ; but so 
 abundant is its natural growth, that so long as it was only 
 required for native consumption there was never any occasion for 
 its cultivation. The palm grew wild and in luxuriance, and trees, 
 were cut down whenever required. "With the increasing demand 
 by foreign markets for sago flour, the inhabitants of the more 
 accessible and more populous districts have been induced to extend, 
 the existing area of the natural growth of the palm, by planting 
 new ground with young shoots. No further cultivation is re- 
 quired. Once planted, the young shoot in about seven years 
 becomes a tree of sufiicient maturity for the extraction of the 
 medullary pith out of which the sago flour is made, and already 
 propagating itself by sending out fresh shoots in all directions. 
 
THE SAGO PALM. 2/5 
 
 Two kinds of this palm are known in Borneo, Sagusoi Metroxylon 
 Isevis, the spineless species, and Sagus or M. BumpMi, the trunk of 
 which is armed with long and strong spikes, tending to preserve 
 it when ycrting from the attacks of the wild hog, which abounds in 
 all parts of Borneo. This palm attains a height of from twenty to 
 forty feet, and grows in vast forests, in swampy land, along the 
 banks of rivers, not far from the coast. Just before the terminal 
 spike of flowers appears, about 6 or 8 years from the time of 
 planting, the palm is cut down at the root, divided into lengths to 
 suit the manipulator, and each length split in two, when the pith 
 is scooped out by means of bamboo hatchets, a thin outside skin or 
 rind being all that is left. The pith is placed on mats over a 
 trough by the river side, and water being constantly poured over 
 it, it is trodden out by the feet of the natives, a rough separation 
 of the starch from the woody matter being thus effected, the 
 former running off with the water into the trough below, while 
 the latter remains on the mat, and is thrown away or used as food 
 for pigs. The sago, known then as Lamunta (raw) is sold to the 
 Chinese, by whom it undergoes further cleaning by means of 
 frequent hand-washing in troughs, and is then packed in gunny 
 bags and exported to Singapore. There it is either converted into 
 the pearl sago sold in the shops, or is sent direct to Europe as 
 flour for use in sizing cloths, the manufacture of beer, preparation 
 of confectionery, &o. The sago flour, boiled into a paste (boyaf) is 
 largely used as food in the place of rice in the districts where it 
 flourishes, but rice, when it can be afforded, is preferred. If the 
 palm is allowed to flower and seed, the pith of the centre is found 
 to be dried up and useless, and the tree dies. 
 
 As each parent tree is surrounded with young ones which ripen 
 in due succession, a sago plantation once made will never be ex- 
 hausted ; returns, however, should begin to come in six or seven 
 years, and not ten ; but the chief objection to sago planting is 
 undoubtedly the length of time that elapses before the plantation 
 is in full bearing. 
 
 Mr. W. M. Crocker furnishes an estimate of the cost of planting 
 this palm on a large scale in Borneo, where the cultivation is at 
 present in the hands of the natives, and yet they supply seven- 
 eighths of the sago brought into the European markets. His 
 estimate of the probable cost of and profits of a plantation of 
 2,000 acres is as follows : — 
 
 On 2,000 acres 100,000 trees could be planted, the total cost 
 at the end of ten years from the first start including interest would 
 be £17,280. The plantation would then be ready to produce 30,000 
 trees annually. And for a yearly outlay of £6,960 there would be 
 a net return of £22,500, leaving a profit of £15,550 per annum. 
 Nothing is charged for the land, as the Directors of the North 
 Borneo Company have it at their own disposal. 
 
 In Celebes all the inhabitants feed upon sago of a very coarse 
 quality, which may be said to grow spontaneously, affording them 
 abundance of subsistence. The sago plantations are situated in 
 the valleys between the mountains, in swampy ground. There are 
 
 T 2 
 
276 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 several kinds of sago tree, some of which will not produce any- 
 useful fecula or starch for the first 16 years. It is collected from 
 trees of 8 years up to 32 or 35 years of age, after which the tree 
 ■becomes perfectly hollow, and rots away from the top downwards. 
 A sago tree of 10 years' growth wiU be about 27 feet high, and 
 from 5 feet to 8 feet girth at the bottom, and is continually 
 yielding its crop. When the substance of the edible sago is 
 3 inches to 5 inches thick they cut it, and this wiU be in two or 
 three months, according to the nature of the soil ; and the oftener 
 it is cut the faster it grows. 
 
 There were in 1874, in the district of Tonsawang, Menado, 
 353,600 sago palms, and their produce was about 2500 piculs of 
 sago ; the price of the raw sago was half a florin the picul, and of 
 purified sago two and a half florins the picul. There were in 
 Billiton in the sariie year 20,630 sago trees. The produce of sago 
 in Eiouw is about 67,700 piculs. 
 
 These palms are found in every part of the Malayan Archipelago 
 and Philippines as far as Mindanao, wherever there is a genial soil 
 for them, and this consists of a marsh or bog, composed of decayed 
 vegetables, near the sea. They are most abundant in the eastern 
 parts of the Malay Archipelago, at the Moluccas and neighbouring 
 islands, with New Guinea and Borneo, and in the Philippines at 
 Mindanao. In all these sago is more or less the bread of the 
 inhabitants. These palms propagate themselves by lateral shoots as 
 well as by seed, and they die after j^roducing fruit. From the 
 first of these properties it follows that a sago plantation once 
 formed is perpetual. 
 
 The sago tree, when cut down and the top severed from it, is a 
 cylinder about 20 inches in diameter, and from 16 feet to 20 feet 
 in height. The contents would, therefore, be nearly 26 bushels, 
 and allowing one-half for woody fibre, there will remain 13 bushels 
 of starch, or say 700 lbs. 
 
 It may give some idea of the enormous rate of this produce, if it 
 be considered that three trees yield more food-matter than an acre 
 of wheat, and sis times more than an acre of potatoes. An acre of 
 eago, if out down at one harvest, will yield 5220 bushels, or as 
 much as 163 acres of wheat, so that, according as we allow seven 
 or fifteen years for the growth of a tree, an acre of sago is equal 
 in annual produce to 23 or 80 acres of wheat. It is far from being 
 either so palatable or nutritious as it is prolific, and is never 
 preferred, even where it is most abundant, to rice. 
 
 Singapore is at present the chief place of manufacture and 
 principal mart for granulated sago and "sago flour," as it is 
 termed in commerce, but which is, in fact, the fecula, or ungranu- 
 lated starch. The granulated fecula, or sago, of a dirty brown 
 •colour, used to be exported from the archipelago in small 
 quantities, but when the trade in Europe was thrown open, in 
 1814, the Chinese of Malacca began to prepare a superior starch, 
 known in commerce under the name of pearl sau-o. 
 
 All the raw sago manufactured at Singapore is brought from 
 islands to the eastward, principally from the north-west coast of 
 
THE SAGO PALM. 277. 
 
 Borneo and the north-eastern part of Sumatra, with its adjacent 
 isles, from Siak to Indragari, but a considerable portion comes 
 from places more than 1000 miles distant. 
 
 This article is very easily prepared for exportation in its raw 
 state ; the tree is cut down, then the cellular tissue is taken out 
 and made up into bundles. In this form some 18,000 or 20,000 tons 
 are annually imported at Singapore, where it is prepared by the 
 Chinese, who clear the meal or farina from the fibres of the 
 cellular tissue, when the flour is either made up for exportation in. 
 its natural state, or granulated into pearl sago. 
 
 Manufacture of Pearl Sago in Singapore by the Chinese. — The 
 tampins or leaf bags of sago having been placed in heaps in the 
 shed, the first step is to open them, cast the contents on an inclined 
 plane, about 12 feet square, surrounded by a rim rising about 2 
 inches from the surface ; the sago, massed together by having 
 remained compressed in the tampin, is here broken up by the 
 common chauti&l (a kind of hoe). 
 
 The raw sago having thus been made ready for the manu- 
 factory, the first process to which it is subjected is that of a 
 thorough washing, without which it would remain impure and 
 coloured. For this purpose strong tubs are employed, about 
 12 inches deep, 40 inches in diameter at the top, and 6 inches 
 or more at the bottom ; they are bound by three hoops, each 
 formed of about six rattans twisted together. A piece of thin 
 coarse cloth is fastened by its four corners over each tub when 
 used, and hung loosely into it. The moist sago being poured 
 into this strainer, and there broken and bruised by the hand, is 
 agitated until all its fine particles pass through the cloth and 
 descend to the bottom of the tub, while the fragments of leaf, 
 fibre, and other impurities which remain in the cloth are shaken 
 into a rude mass, which is taken up in a bowl and thrown aside. 
 The rapidity and deftness with which this and all the other 
 manipulations are performed are very striking. The sago is next 
 stirred with an oar for about an hour, after which it is left to stand 
 for twelve hours, when the water is ladled out, and the sago, 
 which fills about half the tub, is removed to undergo the last 
 purifying process which precedes the granulation. This is per- 
 formed in a mode at once simple and ingenious, the same principle 
 being availed of which serves the gold and tin miners of the 
 Archipelago to clean the ore ; the more precious matter happening 
 in all three cases to be heavier than that with which it is mixed, 
 and being thus readily separable by the action of running water. 
 
 Two tubs are placed at a distance of 10 or 12 feet from eachi 
 other, and connected by troughs, raised by a framework above 
 them. These troughs are about 10 inches deep, 14 inches broad at 
 the top and 11 inches at the bottom, one end being closed and the 
 other open, but having grooves in their sides and bottom, like 
 those of a sluice, into which a series of horizontal pieces of wood 
 or stick fit, each being about three-eighths of an inch in thickness. 
 The end of a piece of cloth, of the breadth of the trough, being 
 placed over the groove at the bottom, the shortest of the sticks is 
 
278 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 pressed down upon it, and the cloth, thus fastened, is made to hang 
 down over the edge of the trough into the tub below it. The tub 
 at the after end now receives the sago to about two-thirds of its 
 depth, when it is filled up nearly to the top with water. A man 
 now stirs up a portion of the sago with an oar till the water 
 attains a milky appearance, when he proceeds to pour it into the 
 troughs. To prevent its falling abruptly an inclined piece of 
 wood, 8 inches broad, is fixed across the trough, so as to leave only 
 a narrow slit between it and the end of the trough. The water 
 poured on this descends into the trough, and slowly flowing to the 
 other end deposits a portion of the sago in its progress. The 
 suspended cloth, becoming saturated, serves at once to maintain 
 and equalise the overflow of the water into the tub below it. 
 When the water is poured in the first waves advance rapidly and 
 carry away much of the sago, but those that succeed deposit the 
 greater part of their more solid contents, transporting into the tub 
 only the lighter fibrous particles which it is the object of this 
 operation to separate from the farina, and by the time the man 
 has performed a similar service at the other trough, and is ready 
 to pour a fresh supply into the first, the water flowing down the 
 cloth has lost its whiteness. This process is continued until the 
 deposit rises nearly to the level of the stick, when the sago next 
 to it, which generally contains some impure s^ediment, is taken up 
 with the fingers or thrown into the tub. The second stick is now 
 fixed above the first, a fold of the cloth being interposed between 
 them to prevent any liquid sago escaping through the seam, and 
 the operation goes on as before. When the milk in the upper tub 
 begins to grow shallow it is again filled up with water and more 
 sago stirred up and mixed with it. During the interval and at 
 other more prolonged interruptions, the water in the troughs has 
 had time to deposit all its contents, the last being a fine fibrous 
 matter, which, if not run over, would leave a thin yellow layer. 
 The surface is therefore washed with the hand until this layer 
 is effaced and held in suspension. When the troughs have been 
 gradually filled up in the manner described, by a succession of 
 deposits, and the wall built up to the top by the last stick, the 
 sago is left to consolidate for twelve or fourteen hours. The 
 fecula which passes out of the troughs in the current is afterwards 
 thrown into one of the tubs, whose contents are to be washed and 
 deposited in their turn, and some of it may even be destined to 
 pass through the process many times before it sinks in the trough. 
 In order to give it the degree of dryness required, it is exposed 
 for one day to the sun, in lumps about a cubic foot in size, which 
 are placed on tables standing in the open air. Large kagans (or 
 mats) are kept in readiness to cover it when a shower of rain falls. 
 It is next carried to the large shed, where it is thrown in a heap 
 on a long table and broken down into a pulverulent slate. It then 
 passes through an oblong sieve, 30 inches by 20 inches, of which 
 the bottom is formed of parallel fibres from the stem of the 
 coconut leaf, kept in their position by strings, which cross them 
 at distances of about 2 inches. The lumps which do not pass 
 
THE SAGO PALM. '279 
 
 ■through the long interstices between the fibres are thrown back 
 into the heap. 
 
 The granulation or pearling now takes place. The sifted sago 
 is placed in a cloth, of which the ends are tied to a long stick, 
 and that is kept expanded in a bag-shape by a short cross-stick. 
 A horizontal vibratory motion is given to this, the whole mass 
 Tseing kept in constant agitation and every part successively 
 •driven along the sides of the bag. This lasts for about a minute, 
 when the now granular sago is again passed through a sieve 
 similar to the preceding one, but the smaller grains which pass 
 through are those which are rejected. Those that remain are 
 "transferred to a circular sieve, of which the bottom is formed of 
 fine strips of bamboo crossing each other. The grains which 
 ■pass through the square holes thus produced form the pearl sago 
 •of commerce in the unvoasted state. Those that are larger than 
 -the holes are thrown back into the heap to run through the same 
 •course again. To assist the men the oblong sieves and the 
 granulating bag are sometimes suspended by rattans from the 
 Tafters of the shed. 
 
 The roasting takes place in a row of iron pans, each about 2J feet 
 in diameter, which are built into a platform of masonry about 
 15 feet long and 4 feet in breadth, covered with flat tiles. The 
 pans rest in an inclined position, partly against the back of the 
 'platform, which rises about a foot above the level, and partly on a 
 «mall prop of brickwork on the right side, an offshoot from the 
 vp-all. Into the top of this prop a plate is sunk in which a cloth 
 rsaturated with water is kept. Behind each pan is an open furnace 
 mouth, and a man constantly attends to the fires, keeping them, 
 supplied with a few billets of hakan wood, and regulating them 
 with a two-pronged iron fork, so as to maintain a moderate heat. 
 The pan being gently rubbed with the cloth, a man who sits in 
 ■front of it on a low stool on the platform pours into it a quantify 
 •of granular sago. This he slowly stirs for a short time with a 
 w^ooden implement, called weah, having a sharp curved edge. 
 More sago is poured in until it amounts to about two chupahs, 
 -when as it hardens he uses the weah more freely. After about 
 three minutes' roasting it is removed to a table and passed 
 through a round sieve, similar to that before described. The 
 .grains that adhere to, each other are thrown aside, and those that 
 pass through form a smoking heap, which is allowed to lie undis- 
 -turbed for about twelve hours. The grains are about the same 
 ,size as they were before roasting, and some retain wholly or 
 partially their white and- mealy appearance, but- the greater part 
 have become translucent and glutinous, and all have acquired a 
 -certain degree of toughness, although still soft. The final process 
 is another roasting, which renders them hard and tough, and 
 greatly reduces their size. The pearl sago thus prepared and fit 
 for exportation, is put away in large open tins ready to be 
 .transferred to boxes or bags when sold. 
 
 The imports of sago have steadily increased in England since 
 ithe abolition of the duty which was formerly levied. 
 
280 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 In 1830 tlie import and consumption of sago in the United! 
 Kingdom was only 3000 owts. ; in 1841 it was 52,000 cwts. ; in 
 1850, 90,000 cwts. ; in 1860, 179,825 cwts. 
 
 The following figures give the imports of sago into the United 
 Kingdom from the Straits Settlements : — 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1862 165,635 
 
 1863 128,870 
 
 1864 111,423 
 
 1865 106,409 
 
 1866 151,788 
 
 1867 142,844 
 
 1868 241,860 
 
 1869 268,978 
 
 1870 268,666 
 
 1871 227,766 
 
 1872 288,862 
 
 1873 279,766 
 
 1874 300,299 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1875 350,064 
 
 1876 338,230 
 
 1877 .339,882 
 
 1878 338,588 
 
 1879 336,827 
 
 1880 381,668 
 
 1881 410,137 
 
 1882 315,679 
 
 1883 333,335 
 
 1884 345,902 
 
 1885 362,035 
 
 1886 470,045 
 
 The chief uses of sago are for feeding stock, making starch, anc( 
 hy the cacao manufacturers for grinding tip and giving thickness 
 to their product when consumed. 
 
 The Bastard Sago (Caryota urens) is a native of the mountain- 
 ous regions of India, especially on the Coromandel and Malabar 
 coasts, and in Travancore, Mysore, and Ceylon. In Ceylon 
 about 30,000 acres are covered with this palm. It is one of the 
 largest and most charming of this beautiful tribe, having a 
 straight trunk from 40 to 60 feet high. Sugar and toddy wine 
 are both prepared from the sap of this palm, which is cultivated 
 by the people for those uses. The best trees will yield 100 pints 
 of sap in twenty-four hours; and it is on account of this pro- 
 ductiveness that it is so much valued. The sugar and wine 
 are obtained much in the same way as from the juice of other 
 palms. 
 
 Sago is prepared from the pith, and is either made into bread 
 or boiled as a thick gruel. According to Dr. Eoxburgh, " the pith 
 or farinaceous part of the trunk of old trees is said to be equal to 
 the best sago. ... I have reason to believe this substance to be 
 highly nutritious. I have eaten the gruel, and think it fully as 
 palatable as that made from the sago we get from the Malay 
 countries." * The sago is found to be an efficient substitute for 
 the staple food of the countries where it is produced, during 
 periods of famine. 
 
 A fibre is prepared from the leaves of this palm, which is used 
 for fishing lines and bowstrings. Commercially, it is known as- 
 kittool fibre and Indian gut in the English market. It is strong 
 and durable ; though it will resist the action of water for a long 
 time, it is yet apt to snap if suddenly bent or knotted. It is 
 now used in brushmaking. During late years the trade in this 
 
 * Eoxburgli's ' Flora Indioa,' vol. iii. p. 626? 
 
THE CARNAUBA PALM. 281 
 
 staple in England has been small for want of stock ; tlie piice in 
 London in July 1888 was for good extra long, lie?, to Is. per lb. ; 
 good, No. 1, 9d. to 9ld. ; common, 5d. to 6d. In 1883, 1762 cwt. 
 of kittool fibre were shipped from Ceylon, and in 1886, 2996 cwt. 
 In Ceylon the split trunks are used as rafters, and are found very 
 hard and durable. The fibre of the leaf stalks is made into ropes, 
 and used for tying wild elephants. The woolly substance found 
 at the bottom of the leaves is employed occasionally for caulking 
 ships. According to Buchanan, the trunks of this palm are the 
 favourite food of elephants. The fruit, which is about the size of 
 a plum, has a thin yellow rind, very acrid, and if applied to the- 
 tongue will produce a buining sensation. Hence the specific 
 name of the tree. The seeds are used by the Mahomedans as- 
 beads. 
 
 Another misnamed sago palm is the Cycas revoluta, Willd., a 
 native of Japan. It is in that empire grown in plantations around 
 the houses. The seeds are eaten, and an inferior kind of sago 
 made from the central stem, whence it has received the name of 
 sago palm, although the true sago, as we have seen, is the product, 
 of the Sagus Mumphii palm. 
 
 Sago is easily obtained from the interior part or trunks of these 
 trees. The process consists in pounding the spongy or cellular 
 texture of the stem — sometimes erroneously called the pith — and 
 washing it with water, which is strained, to separate the ligneous, 
 fibres from the fecula. Sago is grained by moistening the fiour 
 and passing it through a sieve into a shallow iron pot that is 
 suspended over a fire, by which means it assumes a globular form. 
 In consequence of being half baked during the process of granu- 
 lation, it m-ay be kept a long time without undergoing a chemical 
 change. 
 
 According to Dr. Hamilton, a kind of sago flour is prepared 
 from the nuts of Cycas circinalis, which is much used by the poorer 
 classes of natives and forest tribes of Malabar and Cochin. The 
 nuts are dried in the sun for about a month, pounded in a mortar, 
 and the kernel made into flour. 
 
 The Caenauba Palm. — This Brazilian palm (the Copernicia 
 cerifera. Mart.) is but little known beyond the locality where it 
 grows, but its many useful products demand for it a more extended 
 notice. It is most extensively found in the province of Ceara, 
 although it is met with in several others of the northern districts, 
 of Brazil, either isolated or aggregated in immense forests. The 
 stem (stipe), completely round and straight, attains the height of 
 48 feet, and a thickness ranging between one foot and one foot 
 and a half in circumference. The upper part of the stem contains, 
 a medullary substance (parenchyma), which gives forth the leaves. 
 The terminal bud (palmetto or cabbage palm) furnishes a delicate 
 and substantial food. In springing from the head of the stem, the 
 leaves, to the number of six or eigiit, cross each other perpendicu- 
 larly, united together by a mastic or coating which holds them 
 firmly together. The petioles remain separate, but the leaves. 
 
"282 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 re-Tinite at the top and form a round fringed body. Tlie interior 
 of the young groups of leaves is clear yellow. At this stage of 
 their development, the leaves transude a dry pulverulent ash- 
 coloured substance, which covers their interior surface and exhales 
 a particular but agreeable odour. This substance is a vegetable 
 wax ; it is detached from the leaves by the least shock \v hen they 
 begin to open, but; when the fan is expanded, the simple move- 
 ment produced by the wind is sufficient to cause this powdery 
 substance to disappear. The carnauba palm delights in dry locali- 
 iies, or, at least, ground which remains dry the greater part of the 
 year ; and yet it will stand perfectly the prolonged inundations of 
 water, provided that they do not cover completely the whole lower 
 part of the trunk. At Ceara and the surrounding country, where 
 it never rains for six months in the year, that is in the season 
 called spring by the natives, the carnauba pushes forth its most 
 vigorous strength when the season is dry and destitute of water. 
 At the time of the greatest aridity and desolation, corresponding 
 ■with the winter of the temperate zones, forests of carnaubas 
 ^flourish, blossom, and ripen their fruit. This singular plant is so 
 proof to heat that it can support without injury the action of fire, 
 for the flames, which may destroy the useless parts, only make it 
 grow more vigorously subsequently. In the times of the greatest 
 ■drought, the people give themselves up with ardour to the collec- 
 tion of the products from the carnauba, which in those periods yield 
 new and increased resources. The most important of these pro- 
 ducts is the wax. Early in the century, Manuel Antonio di 
 Macedo discovered at Ceara the carnauba wax. But, although he 
 pointed out the means of obtaining the wax, no persons appear to 
 lave occupied themselves about it. It would seem that the dis- 
 covery dates before 1810, for it was in this year, and after the 
 description of the botanist Arruda, that it commenced to be 
 known, and to produce a certain impression of novelty. The 
 Brazilian authorities were not slow to give to it the importance it 
 merited. 
 
 The greater part of the wax obtained is used in Brazil, where 
 it is employed in its raw state for lighting. In making it into 
 candles, a small quantity of tallow is added. No one is seriously 
 occupied in the scientific improvement of this product, which, 
 might become an article of considerable commercial importance. 
 Meanwhile, a few makers of candles from carnauba wax at Ceara, 
 have recourse to certain processes by which they obtain a slightly 
 improved product, but in general the candles made of it in Brazil 
 are of a very inferior quality. They are mostly used for household 
 purposes, especially for lighting kitchens — in fact, these candles 
 produce the cheapest light that can be obtained. In comparing 
 their illuminating power, the advantage is chiefly in the extra- 
 ordinary duration of these candles, as the price is not higher than 
 that of those made with other materials. Candles made with 
 carnauba wax in the crude state, give off in burning a perfume 
 which is not disagreeable. This wax received little attention tiU 
 after 1846, resulting from the great drought of the previous year. 
 
THE CARNAUBA PAtM. 
 
 283 
 
 The following gives the exports from the port of Cearafor a few 
 ■years : — 
 
 Year. 
 
 1846 
 1856 
 1860 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 lis. 
 
 52,416 
 
 83,808 
 
 136,192 
 
 Official Value. 
 
 £. 
 
 694 
 2,075 
 3,371 
 
 Prom the port of Aracati there was also shipped in 1858, 
 1,124,320 lbs., valued at £38,055. Prom special information it 
 
 1 appears that the minimum exports from these two ports in 1862 
 was 1,440,000 lbs., and the quantity consumed in the province of 
 Ceara being estimated at 1,120,000 lbs., it follows that the total 
 
 -quantity of carnauba obtained in 1862 was over 2,560,000 lbs., of 
 the ofiScial value of nearly £100,000. The value of this wax 
 
 • exported now exceeds £162,500 annually. I may' observe that ot 
 all the provinces of Brazil where the carnauba palm grows, that 
 ■ of Ceara alone gives any attention to the collection, and even there 
 
 • only the districts of Aracati and Ceara make of it an important 
 industry. I cannot but think the oflScial statistics given above 
 are far below the reality, for the province of Ceara has more than 
 
 .half a million inhabitants, and these employ carnauba wax alone 
 
 for lighting. There is also a very active commerce carried on 
 
 "with the adjoining provinces in carnauba candles, transactions 
 which do not come under the control of the customs ; and, as the 
 
 rchurches are exclusively lighted with them, these facts should be 
 taken into account in the consumption. The commerce in this 
 
 ■wax has increased considerably since 1862 ; in 1863 the official 
 
 -entries of exports through the custom-house of Ceara and its 
 outport, Aracati, were upwards of 2,000,000 lbs. of this wax. 
 
 •Supposing the local consumption to have increased in the same 
 proportion, this brings up the production of carnauba wax to over 
 
 •4,000,000 lbs. Taking these figures for basis, we may try to dis- 
 cover the number of trees required to furnish that quantity of 
 wax. The harvest of leaves is made during six consecutive 
 
 1 months by cutting twice a month, making thus twelve cuttings 
 in the year. Bach tree gives on the average eight leaves at each 
 •cutting, which forms an annual yield of ninety-.six leaves per tree. 
 Prom an interesting notice by M. C. P. de Lima, a distinguished 
 -agriculturist of Ceara, I learn that 500 leaves on good land yield 
 •32 lbs. of wax, but it takes 1200 leaves on poor land to yield the 
 
 ;8ame quantity. Taking the mean of these two quantities of 
 leaves, we find that it requires 850 leaves to obtain 16 kilo- 
 grammes, or 32 lbs., of wax. As each tree furnishes on the average 
 ninety-six leaves a year, to ascertain the annual product of each 
 tree, I take the following proportions (calculating in kilogrammes 
 
 • of 2 lbs.): 850: 16:: 96: x. The result for ninety-six leaves, or 
 for one tree, is 1*807 kilogramme. To ascertain l^he number of 
 palms necessary for the production of 2,000,000 kilogrammes (or 
 
284 THE USEFUL PALAIS. 
 
 4,000,000 lbs.) of wax, the yield of 1863, it suffices to establish the 
 following proportion : 1 kilo. 807 : 1 : : 2,000,000 : x. We find 
 the result to be 1,106,799 trees. This number scarcely represents 
 one-fifth part of the carnauba palms distributed over the various 
 provinces of Brazil. This palm thus produces an annual revenue 
 of about Is. M. per tree, which is the more important, as the tree 
 requires no outlay for culture, and suffers nothing froni drought, 
 heavy rains or fires. The vegetable wax, which covers in a light 
 powder the leaves of the carnauba, is scattered through the atmos- 
 phere, borne by the winds, when it is not collected by the hand 
 of man. 
 
 In Ceara, where the collection of the wax is carried on, they 
 have commenced to appreciate its value, and to look to its future 
 importance. A law of the province specially protects the car- 
 nauba, by imposing a fine of 2s. &d. on any one who destroys a tree 
 without the permission of the proprietor. In the province of 
 Eio Janeiro they have commenced planting the carnauba palm, 
 which has succeeded well. This is a useful attempt, because, 
 besides its commercial yield, it contributes to render wholesome 
 the locality where it grows. The collection of the wax is a very 
 simple affair. "When the leaves, comprising the network which 
 crowns the head of the palm, separate in the form of a fan, they 
 are cut, taking care to leave the sheath in the centre, which forms 
 the network of the new shoot. To effect this, a sickle or gar- 
 dener's knife is attached to a long handle of bamboo. A native, 
 well up to his work, can with this cut thousands of leaves in a 
 day. As the cutting continues for six months, one would suppose 
 that the tree would soon be deprived of its fans, but this is not 
 the case, for the vegetation is so rapid that the young shoots 
 follow immediately the removal of the leaves, and the rest of six 
 months given to the carnauba is sufficient to repair the damage 
 from the pruning to which it has been submitted. The leaves ar© 
 dried on the spot, extended in rows, the exterior on the ground, so 
 that the wax may not escape by the opening of the angles of th& 
 fan. In about four days they are collected or heaped up, and a 
 cloth sufEoiently large is spread on the ground, around which two 
 or three females place themselves, and taking the leaves beat them 
 with a stick, so that the powder which is to become the vegetable 
 wax falls on the cloth. In order that the powder may be mor& 
 easUy detached, a man splits the leaves into strips by means of a 
 stiletto. To obtain the wax this powder is immediately melted 
 in clay or iron puts, a few drops of water being added. The 
 melted wax is run into moulds of earth, by "which it is transformed 
 into cakes of about 4 lbs. ; these on cooling, however, break into 
 small pieces, owing to the brittle property of the wax. After the 
 removal of their coating, the leaves are burnt, in default of any 
 other convenient means of utilizing them ; but, independent of the 
 wax which they furnish, the leaves might be applied to economic 
 purposes. From time immemorial the aborigines of Ceara have 
 prepared from the leaves a fibre which they twist into twine more 
 or less fine, it is used for a number of purposes, such as for 
 
THE CAENAUBA PALM. 285 
 
 hammocks, cordage, fishing lines, &c. TMs industry lias made 
 much progress since the conquest of Brazil by the Portuguese, but 
 it still remains in the hands of the semi-civilized natives. The 
 leaves are reduced into fibre, without any previous maceration, by 
 first cutting them into strips, and then passing them over a rough 
 card, consisting of points of iron fixed into a piece of wood. The 
 aborigines made theirs of the teeth or bones of fish. The fibre is 
 in such general use in the province that it must be considerable. 
 The inhabitants, with but rare exceptions, sleep in hammocks, 
 ■and the cords by which these are attached to posts or trees are 
 usually made of carnauba fibre. It would be possible to form an 
 approximate estimate of the yards of cord employed for this pur- 
 pose if it were all made of this fibre. However, I may, without 
 much error, take the consumption of cords employed for this 
 purpose at one million. If we calculate them at six yards, we 
 arrive at an annual consumption of six millions of yards, supposing 
 that the cords last but one year. Besides this special use, the 
 cordage is employed for a great number of other uses — for securing 
 the loads which are carried on the backs of beasts of burden ; for 
 lashing the bales of agricultural produce for export ; for dragging 
 in imported merchandise ; for halters and ties for animals ; for 
 nets, and a variety of other purposes. We may certainly set down 
 oamauba cordage at one-third of the whole used in the province. 
 The ropes of this palm fibre, strong and handsome, have not yet 
 entered into foreign commerce. The young leaves have also 
 another and very general use in the province and in many of the 
 seaports of Brazil. A great number of articles are made of straw 
 in Europe for which the fibre of this palm is usually substituted 
 in Brazil. Thus, they make of it, and sell at very moderate prices, 
 hats, mats, baskets, brooms, mattresses, &c. These are all in fre- 
 quent and common use, and are carried by sea along the coast, as 
 well as the leaves for making them. Thus, in the year 1857 there 
 were shipped from the ports of Ceara and Aracati 30,625 mats, 
 and about half a million leaves of carnauba, officially valued at 
 X1500. Another frequent use for these leaves is to make a kind 
 of cushion for the back of beasts of burden to prevent the load 
 injuring the animal. The dry leaves are also employed for 
 thatching cottages. In Ceara and the adjoining provinces one- 
 third of the houses are covered with these leaves, which are 
 remarkable for their lightness, elegance, and durability, and form 
 an impermeable thatch. 
 
 As evidence of the wasteful destruction of the leaves by burning, 
 the following estimate may be given. A dry leaf, with the pedicle 
 removed, weighs 134 grammes. The wax powder removed from 
 a leaf is on the average 6 • 76 grammes. The number of leaves 
 burnt in 1863, calculated on the yield of 2,000,000 kilogrammes, 
 gives 296,444,446. The weight of leaves at 134 grammes each 
 would be 39,723,555 kilogrammes. The immense quantity of 
 textile material thus lost might be easily utilized for cordage, 
 straw, &c. It only involves the cost of collection, which may be 
 set down at less than 2d. per cwt. on the spot. The locality 
 
286 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 where it could be had in most abundance is the town of Limoeiro^ 
 about ten or twelve miles from the port of Aracati, for the carriage- 
 road between the two is bordered by carnauba palms. The British 
 Consul, Mr. Morgan, in 1874, estimated the value of this fibre and 
 its products at £119,500. An attentive examination of the fibres 
 and its abundance suggests its utility as a paper-making substance. 
 The scarcity of rags is becoming greater daily, therefore any raw- 
 material that can supply their place is a boon to the paper trade. 
 The pulp of the fruit has a good flavour, and the nut roasted and 
 ground has been used for coffee. Jrom the trunk a fecula, re- 
 sembling maize meal, is obtained, and also a sap like that of th& 
 coconut palm, from which wine and vinegar are obtained. The- 
 wood of the carnauba is very useful. Musical instruments ar& 
 made of it, and channels for water. The roots have the same, 
 properties as sarsaparilla. 
 
 Not only is it generally employed as a carpentry wood, but it !» 
 esteemed for joiners' and cabinet work. It is very hard, of a^ 
 yellowish red, traversed with black veins, is susceptible of a fine 
 polish, and occasionally oifers black shades of a handsome effect. 
 For general carpenters' work not exposed to the inclemency of the 
 seasons, the wood answers admirably, for in such positions it is- 
 indestructible. It has nothing to fear from gnawing animals if it 
 is felled at maturity ; but if exposed to the weather, its duration, 
 is precarious, and it decays in from ten to fifteen years. To make- 
 amends for this, it is most durable in salt water, and is much 
 esteemed for piles, palisades, &c., from its great resistance. There- 
 have been removed from old marine constructions, abandoned more 
 than a century, piles of this wood in a thorough state of preser- 
 vation. The carnauba would also be suitable for yards of vessels,. 
 as it is perfectly cylindrical, of an equal thickness throughout its- 
 length, and very elastic. M. Manoel Dias, of Aracati, thus speaks 
 of the carnauba in the Catalogue of Products shown at the National 
 Exhibition, Eio Janeiro, in 1861 : " This wonderful palm is the 
 tree of special utility. Man can with this plant alone construct 
 his house, furnish, and light it ; he can obtain from it wherewithal 
 to nourish, clothe, and heal him ; he can extract from it fecula, 
 sugar, and spirit. Moreover, it furnishes good food for cattle and. 
 the denizens of the poultry yard. No other plant has been supplied 
 by Nature with so many useful properties as the carnauba, which 
 is in the vegetable kingdom what iron is in the mineral kingdom. 
 The products of this palm can be applied to more than forty 
 diverse uses, and it may be added that the number of its various 
 applications is by no means exhausted." 
 
 The Betelnut P alm. — This palm, the Areca Catechu, is generally 
 admitted to be ihe most graceful and elegant of the Eastern palms. 
 It is extensively distributed over India, but is cultivated chiefly 
 on the Malabar coast, in the north of Bengal, and the lower slopes- 
 of the mountains of Nepal, the south-west coast of Ceylon, Siam, 
 Cochin China, Pinang, and Sumatra. Unlike the coco palm, it 
 will thrive in high regions and at a distance from the sea 
 
THE BETELNUT PALM. 287 
 
 From Ceylon the export seems to be on tlie increase, for, whilst- 
 in former years 60,000 to 70,000 cwts. was the average, the ship- 
 ments now reach occasionally 160,000 cwts., besides a large home- 
 consumption. The value of the shipments range from £60,000 to- 
 £100,000. 
 
 This palm begins to bear fruit after five years, and continue® 
 productive for twenty-five years. It flowers in April and May, 
 and the nuts are ripe in October. There are about 50,000 acres 
 under culture with this palm in Ceylon. 
 
 An extensive commerce is carried on in the East in the fruit of 
 this palm, which forms a main ingredient in the Eastern mastica- 
 tory. Blume tell us that the Asiatic nations would rather forego 
 meat and drink than their favourite betelnuts, whole shiploads of 
 which are annually exported from diiferent quarters. One hun- 
 dred millions of people use the betelnut. There are said to be< 
 twenty different species of Areca, but probably many of these are 
 only varieties. This palm often grows 50 feet high, with a diameter- 
 of less than two feet ; it has no branches. The fruit, a drupe,, 
 about the size of a pullet's egg, does not fall from .the tree even, 
 when ripe; it has a yellowish shell, thin, with arched veins, 
 cohering with the pulp all round. 
 
 It is stated that a fruitful palm will produce on an average 850' 
 nuts annually, but the mean may be taken at 300 nuts. The 
 average production in a plantation is about 10,000 lbs. of nuts per 
 acre. 
 
 A cargo of betelnuts generates so much heat that the crew 
 cannot sleep between decks. In the Cossyah or Khasia country 
 the natives measure distances by the number of mouths of betel- 
 ■iiuts chewed on the road. 
 
 In the island of Yap, Western Pacific, the betelnut tree is culti- 
 vated with the greatest care. It is a beautiful slender palm, and 
 grows amongst the coconut trees, which it resembles in appearance.. 
 The nuts are pulle d before they are ripe, and are chewed with the 
 • usual co ndiments, lime and aromatic leavesTby botBTsexesT They 
 are called ASdaca in Travancore. In the Bombay market three 
 kinds are met with : white, from Shevurdhun, which are three 
 times the value of those from other countries ; red, which are half 
 the value of the best white ; and nuts in the husk, sold by the 
 thousand. The crushed nut is generally used with the leaf of the 
 betel-pepper (Piper Betle) and chunam or shell-lime. Prepared 
 slices of boiled betelnut, called Cally-areka, are sold in Cochin at 
 about 6d. a pound. 
 
 The mastication of the betel is considered very wholesome by 
 those who are in the habit of using it. Mr. Crawfurd thinks that,, 
 like tea, coffee, and tobacco, the areca nut stimulates the nervous 
 system, and hence its general use. It may be] so, but the dark 
 hue it imparts to the teeth (although it is said to be an excellent- 
 preserver of them), together with the blackened lips and mouth,, 
 give anything but an agreeable appearance. 
 
 Betelnuts contain a large quanity of tannin, which has caused 
 them to be employed in some parts of India for dyeing cotton cloths. 
 
288 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 The exact country of the betelnut is unknown, but is supposed to 
 be the Sunda Islands ; the tree, from time immemorial, has been 
 extensively cultivated in all parts of the East Indies, so that we 
 are unable to trace it back to the spot whence it originally may be 
 supposed to have come. It grows freely in all the eastern islands, 
 from Sumatra to the Philippines, and seems to have as many 
 distinct names as there are languages. Thus in Malay and Chinese 
 it is called Pin-lang or Pinang (giving its name to the island in the 
 Straits) ; in Sumatra, Jamhi ; in Bali, Banda ; in Bugis, Bapo ; and 
 in Tagala and Bisaya, Bongo; in Achin," Penu ; in Sanscrit, 
 Goorvaka ; in Bengalee, Gooa ; in Arabic, Fofal ; in Persian and 
 Hindustani, Soopara ; and in Telugu, Poha Gliettu. Judging by 
 this, the probability is that the tree is indigenous in each country. 
 In the fresh or green state, the betelnut is an object of general 
 domestic consumption ; and in the dry state, of large exportation 
 to China and India. The most productive countries in this article 
 are Ceylon, and the northern and pouthern coasts of Sumatra, 
 towards its western extremity. At Billiton, in the Eastern Archi- 
 pelago, there were in 1874 65,223 Areca palms. 
 
 At Travancore, where the betelnut is a staple product, a quarter 
 of a century ago, there were ten and a quarter million trees 
 growing, which, at the average yield, would produce about 63,000 
 tons of nuts. In the Indian trade returns betelnuts are included 
 among spices. The following shows the imports into India, 
 which come principally from Ceylon, the Straits Settlements, and 
 Sumatra. The average imports in the five years ending 1887 
 were 15,000 tons. About 2 to 3 million nuts are received from 
 Sumatra, about 16 millions from Ceylon, and in 1886 nearly 28 
 million nuts from the Straits Settlements. In Pinang there are 
 half a million, or more, betel palms, producing upwards of 3000 
 tons. The Pedir coast of Sumatra produces annually about 4700 
 tons, of which half is exported. The Chinese receive from thence 
 3000 tons, besides as much from Cochin China. In Cochin China 
 there are about 80,000 acres planted with this palm. It takes 
 eight years before it fruits, and the aggregate bunch of nuts sells for 
 %d. to 8d. When there is not an immediate demand for the nuts 
 they are stored in the husk, but insects attack them freely. Of 
 the nuts produced in Travancore, 300 tons of prepared nuts are 
 annually sent to Tinnevelly and other parts of the peninsula, and 
 about 8,000,000 ripe nuts, in the husk, to Bombay and other places 
 by sea. The local modes of preparing the nut for use in Travan- 
 core are as follows : — Those used by families of rank are collected 
 while the fruit is tender, and the husk, or outer pod, is removed ; 
 the kernel, a round fleshy mass, is boiled in water. In the first 
 boiling of the nut, when properly done, the water becomes red, 
 thick, and starch-like, and, this is afterwards evaporated into a 
 substance like gambler or catechu. The boiled nuts being now 
 removed; sliced, and dried, the catechu-like substance is rubbed on 
 them, and when dried again in the sun they become a shining 
 black colour, and are ready for use. Whole nuts without being 
 sliced are also prepared in the same way for use. Eipe nuts, as 
 
THE BETELNUT PALM. 289 
 
 ■well as young nuts in the raw state, are used by all classes of people, 
 and ripe nuts which have been steeped or kept in water are also 
 used by the higher classes. 
 
 The nut is conical, but varies, some having an elevated apex 
 and small base, others a large base and a very slightly elevated 
 apex. The nuts are gatlnered in July and August, though not fully 
 ripe till October. The quality of the nuts does not at all depend 
 upon their size, but upon their natural appeaiauce when cut, indi- 
 cating the quantity of astringent matter contained in them. If the 
 white or medullary portion which intersects the red or astringent 
 pai-t be small, has assumed a bluish tinge, and the astringent part 
 itself be red, the nut is considered of good quality ; but when the 
 medullary portion is in larger quantity, the nut is considered more 
 mature, does not possess so much astringency, and is therefore not 
 so miich esteemed. 
 
 The areca nut fibre is worthy of notice because of its capability of 
 being turned to many useful piirposes, especially as it has a soft 
 and cotton-like feel, and is capable of being spun into twine. 
 Moreover, immense quantities of the husks are now thrown away, 
 and should this fibre be found capable of being made into paper, or 
 turned to other useful purposes, of which no doubt is entertained, 
 it may be collected in large quantities, and at little cost. 
 
 The Nagar division of Mysore, in consequence of its hill tracts 
 and moist climate, offers peculiar facilities for the cultivation of 
 this palm. So we find almost every hut sheltered by a shady 
 grove of these trees, whose slender forms sway with the breeze, 
 and whose fringy tops, whilst murmuring amid the mountain 
 solitude, cast a fragrance around from their aromatic blossoms. 
 
 The land most congenial to its growth seems to be a level cut 
 on the slope of a hill, or some sheltered valley rich in vegetable 
 deposit. That it is a tree requiring manuring like the plantain is 
 obvious, from the trees needing trencbing and manuring round 
 annually to ensure a good crop of nuts. 
 
 The ripe nuts ai-e gathered, and, after being peeled on a sharp 
 knife fixed on a board, are cut in two, and dried in the sun. Another 
 process is slicing the nut and parboiling it. 
 
 The Mysore nut is considered superior to all others, and forms 
 four-fifths of the consumption in Madras. The nut imported from 
 Ceylon and the western coast is not so much appreciated, and 
 commands a much lower price in the market. 
 
 The land devoted to the areca and coconut palms in Mysore 
 amounts to 48,000 acres, of which the bulk (43,000 acres) is under 
 areca trees. 
 
 In the northern coasts of Acheen, especially Pedir, much attention 
 is given to the Areca palm, and large quantities of betelnuts are 
 sent to Penang and the Coromandel coast. 
 
 At Pedir, Acheen, and other parts of the East, betelnuts are sold 
 by the loxa, or laxai-, which weighs about 168 lbs., and consists of 
 10,000 nuts, with from 10 to 25 per cent, added, according to the 
 bargain previously made, to make up for nuts which may be worm- 
 eaten or otherwise damaged. 
 
290 
 
 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 The following table gives the exports of Areoa nuts from Ceylon 
 in the years named : — 
 
 
 ■ Year. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 
 
 CwtB. 
 
 t. 
 
 
 
 1850 
 
 66,254: 
 
 42,907 
 
 
 
 1860 
 
 75,996 
 
 66,997 
 
 
 
 1870 
 
 76,558 
 
 65,501 
 
 
 
 1880 
 
 158,167 
 
 125,449 
 
 
 
 1886 
 
 139,492 
 
 107,390 
 
 
 In Europe there is little demand for betelnuts. Small quantities 
 are occasionally received. They are grated and given to horses as 
 a preventive of diarrhoea, and burnt into charcoal for tooth-powder, 
 and sometimes they are turned into small fancy articles, such as 
 rosaries, bracelets, etc. 
 
 The leaf of the Betel Peppee {Piper Betle, Lin. ; Chavica Betle, 
 Miq.) is inseparable from the use of the betelnut, the slices of which 
 are wrapped in a leaf of that plant, over which a small quantity of 
 chunam or lime is spread, to which a fine pink colour is given by 
 mixing a little turmeric, and flavoured with spices, which constitutes 
 the preparation known as pan. This is chewed by the natives of 
 India as a mild stimulant, especially after meals. 
 
 The shrub is cultivated all over India in most districts. In 
 1870 there were 16,000 acres covered with it in Madras. It is 
 planted in rows, requires a moist situation and a rather rich soil. 
 
 The plant has been found wild in Java, which is probably its 
 native country, and is extensively cultivated in the Malay countries. 
 In Bengal it is grown within a fenced enclosure, covered on all 
 sides and on the top by reeds. Its use is considered in the East to 
 be conducive to health. It acts as a powerful stimulant to the 
 salivatory glands and digestive organs, and has been found to be 
 an excellent preservative against scurvy in long sea voyages. 
 
 The betel pepper is cultivated at Zanzibar, where the use of the 
 betelnut prevails, as it does in the Comoro Islands and at Bombay ; 
 but the custom is not in vogue in Arabia. The betel palm is also 
 grown on the Island of Zanzibar. 
 
 The Date Palm (Plioenix dactylifera, Lin.) flourishes in all the 
 vast regions of the tropic of Cancer, from the Atlantic Ocean to the 
 valley of the Indus, between 12° and 57° N. lat. Throughout this 
 immense space, it is, with the bamboo in Eastern Asia and the 
 coconut in the equatorial regions, the most precious gift of Nature 
 to man, for it contributes to all his most essential wants, food, 
 clothing, lodging, cooking utensils, &c. 
 
 The date is the special tree of the Saharan regions. Its con- 
 stitution, temperament, and habits particularly suit it to the 
 African climate, which is especially characterized by the deficiency 
 of rain and the digressions of temperature. Its fruit is the source 
 of sustenance for the nomad or sedentary people scattered over its 
 
THE DATE PALM. 291 
 
 immense countries. It is the most common tree in all the valley of 
 the Nile, and is found in greatly increasing numbers from the 
 village of Ibrim in Lower Nubia to the Mediterranean. The dates 
 of Upper Egypt and the Oasis are the most delicate. They are not 
 left to ripen on the tree. After being gathered and exposed several 
 days to the sun they get ripe, and are then a very fine and sweet 
 fruit. The date palm has from two or six to twelve or fourteen 
 spadices. When these are too numerous, it becomes requisite to 
 remove some in order that the tree may not be weakened or thrown 
 down by the weight of the bunches, and the fruit being too numerous 
 would not be of such good quality. Four hundredweights of dates 
 have been gathered from one tree in Egypt. 
 
 Although the countries where the date flourishes best are charac- 
 terized by an absence of rain, it will not fruit without its roots are 
 well watered. Hence there is a native proverb that the date must 
 have its head in the fire and its roots in water, proving the necessity 
 of frequent irrigation. 
 
 The date palm, cultivated and attended to from time immemorial, 
 has produced in the hands of the natives as many varieties as our 
 most carefully cultivated fruit trees. Dr. Edward Vogel, who paid 
 considerable attention to this subject, writing from Murzuk, in. 
 Feddan, gives a list of thirty-seven kinds, with full descriptions 
 aud figures, in ' Bonplandia,' vol. ii. p. 74. The largest (and what 
 appears to be the best) is 21 J lines long and 10 in diameter; the 
 smallest 7J by 5. The different dates are of almost every colour 
 except pure white and black. There are not, as is the case with our 
 apples and pears, early and late sorts, but all arrive at maturity 
 pretty much about the same period (restricted to within a fortnight), 
 which falls in Fezzan about the latter part of August, in other 
 parts one or more months later. Besides those destined for home con- 
 sumption in the country, dates of a superior quality are gathered, 
 and, after being prepared with great care, fetch a good price in 
 the markets of Europe. Several Parisian merchants within the 
 last few years have given importance to this trade, by proceeding 
 each year to the seat of production in Algeria, and preparing on 
 the spot, by special modes, large quantities of dates for France, 
 which replace with advantage those formerly procured from Tunis 
 and Egypt. The region of Ziban, to the south of the province of 
 Constantino, is the part of Algeria where the culture of the date 
 occupies the largest surface, is carried on with the greatest care, 
 and where the fruit is of the best quality. This region includes 
 nineteen oases, of which Biskra is the principal. Laghouat, in the 
 province of Alger, is another centre of production. 
 
 The principal production of Touggort, Soub, and the oasis in 
 French territory is the date, and there are about 124,300 palms 
 subject to taxation, but the total number is nearly double that. 
 Each tree yields about 4s. return yearly to its owner. Estimating 
 the average yield per tree at 100 lbs., there would be a total 
 product of 62,150 owts. per annum. There are two qualities of 
 dates produced, the Deglet nour, the best, which sells at 30 francs 
 the cwt., and the Ghars, or ordinary, at 20 francs. 
 
 u 2 
 
292 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 In Goleah, in the Great Desert, there are about 16,000 date palms^ 
 of which 14,000 are in full bearing. 
 
 The best trees are those produced from slipped plants. Those 
 raised from seeds are much longer in arriving at maturity, and are 
 generally poor. When the slip, taken from the foot of the stem of 
 an adult tree, is first planted, it must be watered daily for six weeks, 
 and every other day for the next six weeks ; after which the trees 
 are watered once a week in summer, and every month in winter. 
 
 The nut does not commence to germinate under six months or a 
 year after planting, and the growth is very slow in the first twO' 
 years. In a favourable situation it will begin to fruit at six years, 
 and lasts to seventy years or more. 
 
 The tree commences to yield fruit about five or six years after 
 planting ; but it is not till after twenty or twenty-five years that 
 it comes into full bearing, and then it will endure for about one 
 hundred and fifty years. A date tree in full bearing will produce 
 eight or ten bunches, each containing 12 to 20 lbs. of fruit, which, 
 at an average of 144 lbs. of dates per tree, is at the rate of 14,400 lbs. 
 per hectare (2^ acres).* 
 
 In the oases of South Algeria 130 varieties of dates are enumerated, 
 each with a distinct name ; in Egypt they have about 50 varieties, 
 and in the Persian Gulf over 100. Although there are so many- 
 varieties of the date difiering in size, form, and quality of the fruit, 
 they may chiefly be divided by colour into three classes, red, yellow, 
 and whitish. 
 
 The dates, after having been gathered, are dried in the sun, and, 
 when quite hard, sometimes buried in the sand. They may thus 
 be preserved about two years ; but generally after eighteen months- 
 they are attacked by worms, and in the beginning of the third 
 year nothing remains of them save the stones. As an every-day 
 food, dates are considered very heating, in consequence of which 
 they are not much used on journeys, as causing great thirst. The 
 most relishing and wholesome way to eat them is when made into- 
 a paste mixed with barley. Each year the lowest ring of leaves^ 
 falls off, so that the age of a palm may be roughly calculated by 
 the notches on the stem. It will bear for at least two hundred 
 years, but after a century, its fruit begins to decline, and it is 
 generally then cut down for building purposes. Bach proprietor 
 has a right to two hours' water in the day from the stream which 
 passes by his grounds, and this right is always specified in the 
 title-deed by which he holds his garden. Before the dates are 
 ripe, each family is bound to set apart one tree, all the fruit of 
 which is consecrated to the service of the Mosque and the use of 
 the poor. Prom the juice of the tree is made a fermented wine or 
 liquor called lagmi, of which the Arabs are very fond. In its 
 fresh state it has an insipid taste like new beer. It is produced in 
 Egypt by simply making an incision in the top of the tree, reaching 
 the centre. A tube is fitted, through which the sap flows into a 
 bamboo-joint vessel. The palm thus yields about ten quarts every 
 
 * Hardy, " On the Culture of the Date in Algeria," ' Bulletin of the Sooiety- 
 of Acclimatisation,' Paris, vol. v. p. 63. 
 
THE DATE PALM. 293 
 
 morning. The Egyptians bleed tte tree every two montlis, some- 
 times every day, to prevent tlie healing of the wound. The 
 operation will kill the tree if continued too long, but cautiously 
 practised for a few days, will often invigorate a sickly or ill- 
 bearing palm. The cabbage, or heart of the date tree, is also eaten, 
 and the taste approaches that of a sweet potato, but it is never cut 
 unless the tree has accidentally fallen. 
 
 The bunches of fruit are suspended by peduncles as thick as a 
 man's fist. The yellow dates are the smallest, and the black 
 generally the largest, but there is a larger variety of the yellow 
 date. The fruit does not all ripen at once, but each date matures 
 separately, and, falling, makes way for another to ripen. 
 
 Some of the dates are palatable even in their unripe state, red or 
 yellow known in Persia as kharak. In this state the date is crisp, 
 like an apple. At first it is astringent, and then it becomes 
 sweetish. In this stage it is largely eaten in the Persian Gulf. 
 Certain varieties of dates do not ripen beyond the " kharak " stage, 
 and can only be preserved by boiling and drying ia the sun, when 
 they can be kept for a year without spoiling, while others ripen 
 to the soft and completely sweet stage, called " khoorma " in Persia. 
 The fresh " khoorma " will not keep anywhere more than two or 
 three days, if kept in a heap, as it turns sour and spoils. It requires 
 to be further cured by drying in the sun. There appears to be no 
 such thing as a whole bunch of dates ripening all at the same 
 time. As the individual dates ripen they are either shaken down 
 or picked off. Certain varieties, however, can be left on the tree 
 till the whole bunch is ripe, and sufficiently dry (like raisins) to 
 be packed and exported without further preparation. 
 
 In this dried state they form the principal food of the Arabs, and 
 are esteemed by many other nations. The' crushed dates, which 
 arrive in Europe in mass, are the inferior and damaged sorts. 
 
 At the time of the collection of the ripe fruit, receptacles, walled 
 with masonry, sometimes in the form of large oil jars, are prepared 
 in the yards of the houses to hold the dates ; these will contain ' 
 from 2000 lbs. to 6000 lbs. Men tread the dates down, adding from 
 time to time a little water to soften them. An opening is left at 
 the bottom to allow the syrupy fluid to be collected. This is eaten 
 with butter. In the winter this mass of date paste or cake, is 
 commenced upon, and it is so solid that an antelope horn, or some 
 other hard tool, has to be used to dig it out. 
 
 The date palm is found growing in Central Africa, according to 
 Dr. Baikie, as far south as Lukoja. 
 
 Its various useful products are very numerous. The petiole, or 
 leaf-stalk, is employed for fences, and other supports. The tow 
 from the leaves is spun, used for stuffing saddles, and serves as 
 tinder. The fibre it yields is of use as a textile material ; of it are 
 made ropes for wells and cordage for vessels, as it is not impaired 
 by sea water. The fibre is obtained from the terminal shoot of the 
 tree, and also from the leaves. The peduncle which bears the fruit 
 yields a very strong thread, of a silvery white, resembling that of 
 the agave, which is used in the baths as a friction rubber. From 
 
294 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 the split leaves of the palm, or witli its follicles, mats and baskets 
 are made, as well as chairs or seats, at a very low price. The trunk 
 is employed as posts by carpenters ; the wood is compact, and easily 
 cut into thin planks, which take a fine polish. It may, indeed, 
 be called the pine wood of the desert, for it is the only long and 
 straight timber to be met with in the regions where it flourishes. 
 From the unripe fruit, spirit and vinegar, and syrup or molasses, 
 can be made. The crushed kernels or seeds of the fruit are given 
 as food to domestic animals, being greedily eaten by camels, goats, 
 sheep, horses, and dogs. 
 
 In Egypt there are 4,000,000 female date palms grown, and the 
 annual production of dates there is estimated at 15,000,000 cwts. 
 annually, but they are nearly all locally consumed ; only from 300 
 to 700 tons being exported yearly from Alexandria. Those best 
 known are a stoneless kind, the dates of Assouan, Siout, Edfou, of 
 the oasis near Esneh, Helwa, Minieh, and Menchiek. The dates 
 of Upper Egypt and the oasis are the most delicate. 
 
 The fine yellow dates of Eosetta and Burlos are preserved, and 
 much sought after in Europe, and might become the object of an 
 important commerce. lu preserving them the epidermis is 
 removed, and the two ends cut ofi'; the stone is taken out by 
 means of a small piece of wood, and the fruit thus prepared is 
 boiled in water to soften and separate an astringent principle ; 
 they are then placed in a bucket to drain, after which they are put 
 in a glazed pot. There is then added some hot concentrated sugar, 
 in which they are left for six hours. At the end of that time the 
 syrup, having lost its consistency by reason of its mixture with 
 the water contained in the dates, is put on the fire and concentrated 
 as before. Some more dates are then added, in which parched 
 almonds have been placed, or some pistachios instead of the stones, 
 in order to keep them from getting out of shape. It is then boiled 
 again, until the syrup becomes more solid, and afterwards put 
 into earthenware pots. When cool a little pulverised sugar, 
 impregnated with essence of lemon, is added to flavour it. 
 
 The principal revenue in Tunis is derived from their excellent 
 dates, which are exported in large quantities. According to an 
 enumeration made some twelve years ago, there were 1,000,000 
 date trees in the Djereed, one of the most important provinces of 
 the Eegency, which are taxed by the Government. As the young 
 trees are not included, and there are grounds for believing the 
 calculations to be incorrect, it is presumed that the total number 
 exceeds 2,000,000, which produce 300,000 cwts. of dates, valued in 
 the locality at £487,000. 
 
 In a recent work on ' Tunis ; the Land and its People,' by Chev 
 de Hesse-Wartegg, we find the following :• — " The Oasis of Southern 
 Tunis — on both sides of the large salt marsh, Sebcha Pharaon, 
 which latter reaches far into Algiers — is a beautiful country of 
 palms, which is not surpassed by anything on the shores of the 
 Nile. . . . This palm region par excellence is known in Africa _ 
 under the name of' Beled-el-Djereed,' and no fruit is valued higher ' 
 than the sweet, large, and juicy Djereed date, which also fetches 
 
THE DATE PALM. 
 
 295 
 
 the highest prices in European markets. . . . Gaffa is the largest 
 oasis in the Djereed district. It possesses a pahn forest of about 
 200,000 trees, and is inhabited by from 3000 to 4000 Arabs and 
 Berbers. The number of palms in the ' Beled-el-Djereed ' is 
 enormous. The oasis of Nefzani, south of the salt marsh, contains 
 not fewer than 300,000 trees ; that of Gaffa, 200,000 ; in ' JEl Gettar ' a 
 palm forest extends over a track of land three kilometres long, and 
 the entire region north of the ' Sobcha Pharaon ' possesses no less 
 than 1,500,000 palm trees, with as many olive, orange, and almond 
 trees growing between! . . . South of the great Shott is the 
 extensive district of the oasis of Nefzani, with palm forests of more 
 than 300,000 trees, and with from 18,000 to 20,000 inhabitants, 
 living in forty villages." 
 
 The ordinary kind of dates are made into a paste or cake, which 
 forms the staple food of the Bedouin Arabs in the Sahara. It is 
 highly nutritious. The dates are sometimes eaten fried in butter, 
 or simply with fresh butter uncooked. In former times the chief 
 market for dates was Touzer, to which the merchants from 
 Ethiopia resorted with slaves, whom they exchanged for a very 
 few hundredweights of dates, but this traffic has now ceased. 
 From Morocco about 4000 owts. are sent to the London market. 
 
 Bagdad sends away 3000 to 4000 tons of dates yearly. The date 
 groves of Bussorah are of great extent and value, forming an 
 almost unbroken line of from one to three miles in depth along 
 both banks of the Euphrates and Shat-el-Arab, from Medinhab to 
 the sea — that is, for more than 140 miles — and yield annually from 
 40,000 to 60,000 tons of dates in a good season. In ordinary years 
 about 33,000 tons are produced in the Turkish portion of this 
 district, and 26,000 tons in that under Montefik rule. About half 
 the above may be roughly stated as consumed in Bussorah and in 
 the interior, and the other half exported to the Persian Gulf ports, 
 India, and England. 
 
 An average of five years — -1879 to 1883 — gives the following 
 annual trade in dates in the Persian Gulf: — ^Erom Bushire to 
 England, India, Java, Aden, and the Eed Sea, about £3,800. From 
 Muscat to India, Yemen, Zanzibar, and America, about 769,800 
 dollars. From Soor, Kharyyat, and Batuah, to other places not 
 named, about 1,539,000 dollars. 
 
 The kinds most esteemed are huUowee, zehedi, and khudtherawee ; 
 the other varieties, of which there are no less than thirty-six, are 
 known in commerce by the common name of sayr. 
 
 The import of dates into India from Arabia, Persia, and Turkey 
 in Asia, were as follows : — 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Quaotity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 
 
 cwta. 
 
 £. 
 
 
 
 1881-82 
 
 650,106 
 
 312,209 
 
 
 
 1882-83 ■ 
 
 687,845 
 
 281,872 
 
 
 
 1883-84 
 
 559,475 
 
 243,028 
 
 
 
 1884-85 
 
 610,781 
 
 280,855 
 
 
 
 1885-86 
 
 621,739 
 
 287,102 
 
 
296 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 The smaller imports in 1883-84 was the result of poor crops in. 
 the palm groves of Asiatic Turkey. 
 
 The dried dates are pulverised, and this meal is carried with 
 them by the Arabs on the journeys. By allowing the dates to 
 ferment in water, a vinous beverage is obtained, which is also 
 much esteemed. When the fruit has been left to ripen thoroughly 
 on the tree, and has attained a fine red colour, it is too soft to be 
 dried, and hence is made by pressure into a solid cake or mass 
 called " adjoue," and with us " date-cake." A great quantity 
 of this is sent from Bussorah to India. These bales of date- 
 cake are sold in Cairo during the winter. In travelling, dates 
 soaked in water form a mild and refreshing drink. 
 
 An analysis of dates gives : — 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Fine sugar 78-80 
 
 Gum 2-50 
 
 Cellulose 15-50 
 
 Fat 0-20 
 
 Other substances .^ ;-i-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 The consumption of dates is not large in the United Kingdom, 
 but of late years we have no official returns, as the Board of Trade 
 does not consider dates and various other minor fruits worthy of 
 record. In 1860 only 11,300 cwts. were received, but in 1870, 
 93,873 cwts. came in, value £70,611. Our import of dates from 
 Turkey are now about £150,000 to £200,000 in value. 
 
 The Spiny Date (^Phoenix spinoms, Thonning) is met with in the 
 delta of Nun and Brass, West Africa, and in some parts of Central 
 Africa, generally with the oil palms. The leaves are extensively 
 employed in Niipe and Yiiriya for making fine mats. This palm 
 extends from tropical Africa to the Cape Colony, where it is 
 indigenous. Dr. Kirk found the green bunches, if immersed in 
 water for half a day, suddenly to assume a scarlet hue, and then 
 the astringent pulp to become edible and sweet. 
 
 The Wine or Bamboo Palm {Raphia iiinifera, Beauv. ; Sagus 
 vinifera, Poiret ; Metroxylon mnifera, Spr.). — This West African palm 
 is constant along mouths and in deltas of rivers ; also, according to 
 Dr. Baikie, inland, iu moist places in Ibo, Benin, Yoruba, Dahomi, 
 &c. ; and still farther from the sea in Kororofa, Adamawa, Bautsi, 
 Yuriya, Gbari, Nupe, Kambari (as far as near to Yauri), Borgii, 
 Gurma, and along the road to Gonja. The greatest known distance 
 from the sea is the town of Kuno, more than 400 miles from 
 the sea. 
 
 The dried pinnse of the leaves are used for making ropes, pretty 
 bags, and mats, dyed hats, and for tying thatch ; the long midrib 
 of the leaves, often upwards of 30 feet in length, in construction 
 of roofs of houses, for poling canoes, for making seats, couches, &c. ; 
 the soft inside part for making a large kind of mat used in 
 
THE DOUM AND DWARF PALMS. 297 
 
 travelling, and called by Hansa and Niipe " Memme " ; the sap used 
 :as a kind of palm wine, termed Bourdon, and much relished by 
 ■the drunken savages of the coast. Fruit occasionally eaten (the 
 mesocarp), but bitter, and in a few places, as in Kiipa, oil is made 
 from it. The fibre of the midrib is also woven with cotton into a 
 kind of cloth in Benin and Yoruba. 
 
 The DouM Palm of Upper Egypt (Hyphene TJiebaica, Mart. ; 
 E, crinita, Gaert.), grows away from the sea. The fruit of this is 
 much larger than that of the date palm, and is equally nutritious. 
 The pulp of the fruit is brown and mealy, and has both the taste 
 ^nd colour of gingerbread ; hence one of its common names is the 
 gingerbread tree. The spongy, internal portion of the fruit of 
 this palm forms an important article of food, and when mixed with 
 an infusion of dates, it constitutes a cooling drink, much prescribed 
 by the Arabs in febrile affections as cooling and demulcent. 
 
 The kernel is turned into beads for rosaries, and little perfume 
 cakes are made of it at Kuno. The leaves are used for mats and 
 the best kinds of hats in parts of Central Africa. Dr. Baikie states 
 that the most southern station for it is Lukoja. 
 
 The Dwarf Palm (^Chamcerops liumilis) is widely spread over 
 the Algerian Tell, and particularly the departments of Alger and 
 Oran. Its presence is a sure indication of good soil, in consequence 
 of the depths of its roots, which form, at 3 feet or more below the 
 surface, an inextricable mass, the removal of which renders the 
 clearance of these palms from the soil for cultivation a serious and 
 expensive affair. The dry portion of the alluvial plain of the 
 littoral is that where they most abound, for they would perish in 
 a wet or swampy ground. 
 
 Northern Africa generally is covered and infested with this 
 shrub, which multiplies rapidly, and was long the pest and 
 grievance of the colonists, who were obliged to grub it up. But 
 now it has become a useful aid to industry, and, instead of being 
 considered a barren and worthless plant, it has become a source of 
 profit and commerce. Properly prepared, the leaves furnish a fibre 
 which, dyed black, twisted, and curled, furnishes a vegetable hair, 
 that can be employed like horsehair, as a stuffing material in 
 upholstery, or in matting. It possesses two advantages over the 
 animal fibre which have led to its extensive employment, viz. 
 those of being exempt from insect destruction, and 75 per cent, 
 ■cheaper than horsehair. The leaves are now sold on the spot for 
 about two to two and a half francs the cwt., and a man can cut say 
 400 lbs. a day. It is generally the Arabs and Spaniards who apply 
 themselves to this work. The first idea of using the leaves of this 
 indigenous plant of Algeria, as a substitute for horsehair in 
 upholstery, is due to a M. Averseng, who took out a patent for it in 
 1847. This manufacturer had great difSculty at first in carrying 
 it into execution, but the necessity for cheap articles, which 
 increases daily, greatly aided him, and established the reputation 
 of this substance. If it has not all the good qualities of horsehair. 
 
298 THE USEFUL PALMS. 
 
 it does not waTit for suppleness and elasticity, and, mixed with it, 
 greatly reduces the cost of stuffing in beds and furniture. The 
 form in which the raw material is bought for working is after the 
 leaves have been combed or stripped. This is a very simple 
 operation, which requires but cheap tools, and can be carried on by 
 women and children. A good operator on the handful of leaves 
 can prepare 90 lbs. to 100 lbs. of dry fibre, which, at the current 
 price of 12 francs the cwt., gives a return of 5^ to 6 francs per day, 
 with the mere aid of a child, eight or ten years old, to cut off the 
 leaf-stalks and gather the leaves into handfuls. Many native 
 families find their means of existence in this occupation. The 
 men cut and gather the leaves, and the women and children comb 
 and prepare them into fibre. This is a new examjDle of union of 
 the two races in labour, and a hopeful instance of their permanent 
 fusion in the future. The combing or preparing the palm leaves 
 is also a great resource for the Erench colonists in the period of 
 rest between the harvest and the first labours of autumn. The 
 fibrous thread, when dry, is handed over to the manufacturer. The 
 hair, called " crin vegetal," light or green, is twisted and curled in its 
 raw state, and packed. For black the fibre is first dyed, by being 
 passed successively through baths of sulphate of iron and logwood 
 It is then twisted, and the cord again dyed. The firm of Averseng, 
 of Alger, at their works El Afiroun, prepare annually 3,500,000 
 kilogrammes of dry fibre, representing about double that quantity 
 of palm leaves, the average yield of fibre being about 50 per cent. 
 In the department of Oran, Messrs. Giraud Brothers, in their large 
 enclosed works at Eckmuhl, covering a space of 5 acres, prepare 
 daily 60 bales of 2 cwt. each. The combing is effected by means 
 of drums with needles and knives, worked by a 12-horse power 
 steam engine, at a speed of 300 revolutions per minute. 
 
 They also heat their dye vats by steam, which is much more 
 economical than the application of direct heat. Another Algerian 
 firm, J. and J. Mathieu, whose factory is at Arbra du Dgendel, in 
 the plains of Cheliff, by a particular process, prepare a black and 
 brilliant crin vegetal without smell or dust, of which they turn out 
 1000 cwts. a month at 30 francs the cwt., the undyed being sold at 
 20 francs. This fibre, like the esparto, is also twisted into ropes 
 and cables. It has long been used as a paper-material in conjunc- 
 tion with esparto and rags. The ' Akbar,' a newspaper of Algiers, 
 is printed on paper of this kind, and quantities have been imported 
 from time to time for use at Lloyd's paper mills in Kent. It is not, 
 however, held in much estimation for paper-making, as there is a 
 good deal of waste from the tough leaf-stalks, and it requires a 
 considerable quantity of chemicals to bleach it. In 1857 the export 
 of leaves of the dwarf palm from Algeria was to the value of 
 24,000 francs ; crin vegetal, 763,000 francs. The shipments of crin 
 vegetal, which were only 19,000 lbs. in 1845, in 1860 amounted to 
 nearly 2,500,000 lbs. In 1865 they had reached treble that amoimt. 
 44,000 cwts. of crin vegetal was shipped from Algeria in 1868, 
 and the value of the fibre prepared in that year in the colony is 
 stated to have been about £90,000. 
 
THE PALMETTO. 299 
 
 The quantity of this vegetable hair seijit to foreign countries in 
 1872 was 2,394,000 kilogrammes. In 1887 the exports were as 
 much as 15,304,126 kilogrammes, valued at £88,200. The ship- 
 ments, which were formerly limited to France, are now extending 
 rapidly, demands having sprung up in various countries, especially 
 in England. 
 
 The first shipments of rough palm leaves for paper making were 
 made about 1852. In 1871 it reached the largest quantity, 
 1,171,737 kilogrammes, the exports in 1887 being only 270 kilo- 
 grammes. 
 
 There is an extensive trade carried on in other palm leaves, such 
 as the Palmetto of the Americans (Sahal palmetto, Lodd.), which 
 extends from Florida to North Carolina. 
 
 The leaves of the Saw Palmetto {Sahal serrulata) oi Avaeiica,, are- 
 used for cabbage-tree hats, and form a substantial thatch for 
 houses. They are also dried, put up into bales and sold for paper 
 stock. The tough fibrous roots, resembling in texture the husk of 
 the coco-nut, are easily formed into scrubbing brushes. The 
 leaves of Sahal Mexicana, Mart., S. umhraculiferum, Lodd., the 
 Palmetto Eoyal of Jamaica, are also used for thatching, for baskets, 
 mats, and cordage, and for sombreros, or large hats, in Mexico and 
 Central America. 
 
 S. Adansoni, another American species, has a farinaceous trunk, 
 the pith of which serves for food, and the roots are used in tanning. 
 
 Thrinax argentea, furnishes a sinnet, or chip, wliich is woven 
 into hats, and there is a large import of palm leaves for plaiting, 
 into China, but these scarcely deserve special detailed enumeration ; 
 suffice it to say, that there was imported into the port of Shanghai, 
 in 1871, 4,765,117 piculs of untrimmed palm leaves, and 231,091 
 trimmed palm leaves for making fans. 
 
 The Attalea genus of palms are nearly all natives of Brazil ; one 
 or two species yield the valuable brush fibre known as Piassaba, 
 and a species common to British Honduras (A. CoJiune, Mart.), was 
 recommended to notice some years ago, from the fact of its nuts 
 yielding a good, useful, white oil. 
 
( 300 ) 
 
 SECTION III 
 
 THE TROPICAL CEREALS AND STARCH- 
 PRODUCING PLANTS. 
 
 INDI AN C OBN (Zea Mays). 
 
 On every part of the globe where the hand of civilisation has 
 broken the turf, this beautiful grain receives a large share of 
 attention. In the western continent it is raised from Canada to 
 Patagonia and in the islands of the South Seas, through, almost every 
 variety of climate and people, and over an extent, from north to 
 south, of more than 7000 miles. It was introduced into Africa by 
 the Portuguese in the sixteenth century, and is cultivated more or 
 less from the Mediterranean Sea and the Libyan Desert to the 
 Cape of Good Hope. In Java and the Asiatic isles it forms an 
 important product. In Central Asia it is known and valued, as 
 well as in Australia and the islands of tlie Indian Ocean. In 
 Europe it is extensively produced in Hungary, Lombardy, Prance, 
 and Spain, and we might almost say from the Ural chain to the 
 Atlantic. No grain could secure sucli favour from all jjarts of 
 the world except from its intrinsic value. No other cereal, in 
 fact, except rice, is so extensivelj' cultivated. 
 
 Its flexibility of organisation makes it very easy of adaptation 
 to climate and soil. Though, it prefers moist and rich soils, with 
 strong heats, there are varieties of it which can be raised in tropical 
 climates, at a height of more than 9000 feet above the level of the 
 sea. The warmest regions of the torrid zone produce maize in 
 abundance, where three crops can be taken in a season, while the 
 short summers of Canada have a variety adapted to them. This 
 cannot be said of rice, which requires great heat, and cannot 
 endure a climate of high latitude. 
 
 Indian corn ripens at a time when most other grains have been 
 harvested ; it therefore furnishes employment, when there would 
 naturally be but little else to do. 
 
 No plant is more beautiful, and none so well suited to different 
 varieties of climate ; for ever3'where between the 43rd degree of 
 north latitude and a corresponding parallel south, it may be grown 
 in the greatest perfection. Its ease of hybridization has produced 
 innumerable varieties, suited to every kind of soil and every 
 .deo-ree of temperature, from the time-enduring hard corn of 
 
INDIAN COEN. 301 
 
 Canada to the Stowell's evergreen for boiling in tlie unripe state. 
 It is met with adaptefd to summers varying from three to six months ;- 
 thus we find it in the North requiring but half the time for its- 
 growth that is requisite in the South, and still in each locality are 
 kinds appropriate to the different lengths of summers. 
 
 United States. — We may say of the Indian corn crop of America 
 what Mr. Webster said of the turnip crop of England, that "its 
 failure for three successive years would nearly bankrupt the 
 nation." 
 
 It is the food of both man and animals; and even its stalks, 
 by proper treatment, have been rendered equal in value to the- 
 whole labour and expense of raising the crop. To it America is. 
 indebted for her fine beef, her plentiful supply of pork, and also 
 as an article of human food. It is the plant of the country ; and 
 the olive branch might with propriety be taken from the claw of 
 the national emblem, and the Indian corn grass substituted in its- 
 place. In proof of the American origin of this plant, it may be 
 stated that it is still found growing in a wild state from the 
 Eocky Mountains to the humid forests of Paraguay, where, instead 
 of having each grain naked, as is always the case after long culti- 
 vation, it is completely covered with glumes, or husks. Columbus 
 found the natives of Hispaniola cultivating it in extensive fields,. 
 and those of other places visited by him were also in possession of 
 it. The first Englishmen by whom it was cultivated were they 
 who settled in Virginia in 1760. 
 
 In England all cereals used as food for man are called " corn,"' 
 but those who first landed in America from that country found a 
 new cereal, also used as food by the aborigines. They added it to 
 their catalogue of com with the prefix of Indian. As it had been 
 for ages the main dependence of the Indians, so it has since become 
 the real staif of life to sixty millions, who now occupy their places,, 
 while it is gradually making its way to favour among other- 
 millions in Europe. Wheat can be profitably cultivated only 
 within certain latitudes, but Indian corn grows luxuriantly in all. 
 The border States of the tropics refuse to yield wheat. Louisiana 
 and Florida produce but 10,000 bushels of wheat annually, but 
 nearly 9,750,000 bushels of corn. 
 
 The annual average wheat crop of the world is about 2,000,000,000 
 bushels, of which nearly 450,000,000 may be credited to the^ 
 United States. Her Indian corn crop now averages 1,900,000,000- 
 bushels, nearly equalling the wheat crop of the whole earth. 
 
 Indian com is one of the most important and healthful articles 
 of human food that a beneficent Providence has bestowed upon 
 man ; and to its high nutritive value is due in a large degree the 
 strength and vigour of the race of men who laid the foundations- 
 of the great American Eepublic. It was much more largely used 
 fifty or one hundred years ago than now, as fine wheat flour, for 
 some not well-founded reason, has much usurped its place in bread- 
 making. In the several forms, however, of hulled corn, popped 
 corn, huminy, samp, corn starch, maizena, &c., vast quantities are 
 consumed by all classes of people in America. 
 
302 CEREALS AND STAECH-PEODUCING PLANTS. 
 
 Meal from Indian corn contains more than four times as much 
 oleaginous matter as wheat flour, more starch, and nearly as much 
 nitrogenous material, consequently in all cold climates it is admirably 
 adapted to sustain the system by furnishing heat-forming com- 
 pounds. The oil gives warmth, the nitrogenous principle gives 
 muscular strength. The combination of alimentary compounds in 
 Indian corn renders it alone the mixed diet capable of sustaining 
 man under the most extraordinary circumstances. It holds the 
 elementary principles which constitute the basis of organic life. 
 In this particular it is more remarkable than any other vegetable 
 production known to man. 
 
 Among the indigenous grains of the American Continent, Indian 
 corn (^Zea mays) thus stands pre-eminently high, as regards its 
 value to the human family as an article of food, as well as for its 
 use in manufactures. There are many species of wild rice, wild 
 oats, wild rye, millets, and other cereals, that go far to sustain life, 
 but none of them can take rank with maize in its now almost 
 numberless varieties. It is this great variety that has caused 
 a doubt with some as to these having originated from anything 
 like a single species. 
 
 Doubtless, the mere difference of latitude or length of the 
 growing season, or mode of culture, or quality of the soil, have an 
 influence in modifying a single species and the production of 
 variations from the original type. 
 
 Be this as it may, we now have varieties that seem adapted to 
 any place or climate, from the torrid, through the entire of the 
 temperate, zones of the earth, in any land or country, though un- 
 known to the rest of the world, until the discovery of the American 
 continent by Europeans. 
 
 There have been numerous disputes as to the native country of 
 maize, some writers wishing to prove that it has an Eastern origin ; 
 but it has not been found on any antique sculpture, neither is it 
 mentioned by any of the ancient writers as a cereal grain of 
 Eastern climes. St. Hilaire mentions as its native country 
 Parao-uay, Dr. CandoUe believes it to have come originally from 
 New Granada. It was found cultivated in Central America 
 already by Columbus. 
 
 Climate, combined with cultivation, has produced the varieties 
 we now find, and a very singular form of maize is met with 
 o-rowing spontaneously in the moist forests of Paraguay. Bach 
 seed of this particular corn is wrapped in a chaffy kind of husk, 
 which husk, after two years' cultivation, disappears, and the 
 kernels become bare like ordinary maize. 
 
 Maize may be said to be the most universal article of food 
 cultivated by the Indians of New Mexico, Arizona, California, 
 Nevada and Utah, while the tribes of the Indian territory consider 
 this grain their staff of life. The cultivation of this corn has not 
 been acquired by them from others. 
 
 The Indians who grow it in the primitive manner, and have the 
 original corn of America, are the Pueblos of New Mexico and 
 Arizona. The grains vary in colour through shades of pink, blue. 
 
INDIAN CORN. 303 
 
 and wMte, and the ears are generally rather small and slender. 
 The blue variety is preferred for bread, and is sorted from the 
 rest with much care and stored by itself. The cob or ear has 
 fourteen rows of grains, which are full and plump, and is 
 6| inches long and 4| inches around. The corn, after being 
 reduced to meal in a stone mortar, has a peculiar bluish-white 
 appearance. 
 
 Maize is probably, with the exception of rice, the most exten- 
 sively — that is widely — cultivated grain in the world. It extends 
 from the Azores to the most southern part of Europe, being 
 raised to a certain extent even in Asia Minor, Egypt, India, and 
 China. 
 
 Prom these original growths have come the wonderfully varied 
 and interesting varieties that now furnish so many of mankind, as 
 well as countless lower animals, with a most important article 
 of food. The hardihood of maize, the facility with which it is 
 propagated, and the extent of the geographical range in which it 
 thrives, have probably contributed to throw obscurity on the 
 history of its introduction into the different countries in which it 
 has been naturalised. 
 
 There are more thau a couple of million farmers in the United 
 States engaged in the raising of maize — spoken of over all English- 
 speaking America as " corn." Some lands produce but 20 bushels 
 to the acre, others 150, swelling the aggregate crop of the country 
 to vast dimensions. The Indian corn crop there would suffice to 
 feed not only the population of the United States, but half that of 
 Europe in addition, for a year. 
 
 Considered in its economic value, maize, according to its com- 
 position, stands in the first rank of cereals; in fact, besides its 
 proportion of nitrogenous matter, which is nearly equal to that 
 contained in any other grain, the pleasant and edible oil which it 
 contains in so large a proportion, adds to its other alimentary 
 properties. In short, very few of the productions of nature contain, 
 like maize, all the principles necessary for the nutrition of man 
 and animals. 
 
 In respect to size, there are varieties from 2 to 3 feet high, 
 up to 15 and 18 feet, with the stalks and leaves large in pro- 
 portion. The ears vary very greatly in- size and number of rows 
 of kernels, which sometimes reach 24, 32, or more. The grain 
 presents a great variety in colour, from white through various 
 shades of yellow or orange, red, brown, violet, purple, and black. 
 By the crossing of varieties, kernels of two or more colours in 
 stripes and blotches are produced. 
 
 In the Tuscarora and some others, the grain is dull and opaque ; 
 while in the so-called " flint " varieties the mass of the grain, 
 the albumen, is transparent'; the opaque kinds are very starchy, 
 while the others contain large proportions of fatty matter. In 
 the varieties known as " sweet corn " the grain is very much 
 wrinkled and shrivelled ; in these the conversion of sugar into 
 starch is arrested, and the kernel does not fiU out. The white 
 
304 CEREALS AND STAECH-PEODtraNG PLANTS. 
 
 gourd seed is the one so used for " hominy " and cakes. Corn- 
 cakes are a standing dish in America. The sort of maize known 
 as the Tuscarora is often planted to furnish the table with green 
 cobs, but it is not so fine as the wrinkled kemelled, though there 
 is considerably more starch in it than in the latter. The rice, 
 or " pop corn," abounds in starch ; red corn is simply a variety 
 of the "King Philip" sort, which is so highly esteemed in 
 England. 
 
 The quantity of maize exported from America, in the form of 
 grain and of corn-meal, is much less than that consumed by 
 animals, constituting the exports of animals and provisions. A 
 considerable quantity of Indian corn also enters into the American 
 export of spirits. 
 
 Eussia exports about 81,000,000 bushels of maize yearly ; Austro- 
 Hungary nearly 4,000,000 cwts. ; Eoumania, 668,025 tons. 
 
 Many new varieties of maize have of late been introduced into 
 India, among which may be mentioned the Cuzco, in the hills ; 
 and the Canada, Tuscarora, Golden Dent, White Tlint, and Penn- 
 sylvania yellow, in the plains. Of country varieties, the Jaunpur 
 maize has a good reputation. 
 
 The uses of oil in Indian corn are manifold. It is obviously to 
 protect the grain from rapid decomposition in the soil, from long- 
 continued wet, and to retain a portion of food until needed by the 
 young plant, as the oil is uniformly the last portion of the grain' 
 taken up. It serves to keep meal from souring readily, as flint- 
 corn meal will keep sweet for years, even when put up in large- 
 quantities, while the Tuscarora meal will sour in a short time. 
 There is from six to twelve per cent, of oil in corn, that of southern 
 growth containing less than northern. The colours of Indian corn 
 depend on that of the epidermis, or hull, and of the oil — the latter,, 
 when yellow, showing its colour through a transparent epidermis. 
 In white varieties the oil is translucent and colourless, and the 
 epidermis being also free from colour, the meal is white. The 
 golden Sioux, a twelve-rowed variety, is coloured by the oil. Eed 
 and blue owe their lively hues to the colour of the epidermis, and 
 not to the oil. On inspecting very thin slices of corn under the 
 microscope, the epidermis is found to be made up of hexagonal 
 cells, much larger than those of the glutinous and oily parts of 
 the grain. The starch globules are distinctly seen in the starchy 
 part ; a drop of diluted tincture of iodine brings out their forms 
 and character with beautiful distinctness. The phosphates are 
 probably in the state of a fijae powder, while the ammonia is, in 
 combination with the organic matters, forming a kind of amidoif 
 in the mucilage around the germ. 
 
 Dr. Salisbury has furnished an analysis of five leading varieties- 
 of Indian corn : — 1. Golden Sioux, bright yellow, twelve-rowed,, 
 frequently having fourteen rows. 2. Large eight-rowed yellow. 
 3. Small eight-rowed. 4. White flint. 5. Ohio dent, one of the- 
 largest varieties. 
 
INDIAN CORN. 
 
 305 
 
 ConatUuents. 
 
 Starch 
 
 Gluten , 
 
 Oil 
 
 Albumen 
 
 Casein 
 
 Dextrine 
 
 Fibre 
 
 Sugar and extract. 
 Water 
 
 36-06 
 5-00 
 3-44 
 4-42 
 1-92 
 1-30 
 
 18-50 
 7-25 
 
 15-02 
 
 40-85 
 
 62 
 88 
 64 
 32 
 
 40 
 
 21-36 
 30-00 
 10-00 
 
 30-29 
 
 69 
 90 
 00 
 20 
 61 
 
 26-80 
 
 5-20 
 
 13-40 
 
 49-22 
 5-40 
 3-71 
 3-32 
 0-75 
 1-90 
 
 11-96 
 9-55 
 
 14-00 
 
 40-34 
 7-69 
 4-68 
 3-40 
 0-50 
 3-00 
 
 18-01 
 8-30 
 
 14-00 
 
 Maize may be divided into two kinds, table maize and farm maize. 
 Only tbe white Georgian maize is used by the Americans for table 
 purposes, all the yellow varieties for flour and cattle food. Besides 
 being useful for human food, Indian com meal is excellent for 
 fattening stock, milch cows, sheep, and poultry. It is much used 
 in dry summers in the States as green forage, the stems being 
 then very sweet and agreeable to cattle. Where much Indian com. 
 is grown in America, the husks of the ears are saved, and used for 
 stuiEng mattresses, bolsters, &o., and it is a material always clean, 
 sweet, and elastic. Paper is also made of the husks of a good 
 quality for wrapping. The dry stems and leaves also make fair 
 fodder for cattle. 
 
 Indian corn is the staple and peculiar food crop of the_ United 
 States, although it is also grown in many other countries ; but 
 there it is harvested by hundreds of millions of bushels per 
 annum. Whenever Europe is short of food, America stands ready 
 to supply the deficiency with the excess of her corn crop, the 
 superabundance of which she is obliged at present to fatten swine 
 and live stock on, or to convert into whisky. 
 
 The varieties of com are numerous, and are continually in- 
 creasing by improvement, and the introduction of seed from one 
 section to another, and these have become considerably inter- 
 mingled. It would be almost impossible to enumerate the many 
 varieties now cultivated, or to give the reasons why one is 
 preferred above the others. With proper cultivation in an ordinary 
 season, the crop should not be less than 60 bushels to the acre ; 
 100 bushels is not an uncommon yield. The New York State 
 Agricultural Society requires a yield of 80 bushels to the acre, to 
 be entitled to a premium. 
 
 Here are the names of seventeen varieties grown there : — 
 
 No. 1. Button com. 
 
 2. Eight-rowed yellow. 
 
 3. Sweet corn. 
 
 4. Bight-rowed white. 
 
 5. Bed blaze. 
 
 6. Sixteen-rowed Button. 
 
 7. Twelve-rowed red. 
 
 8. Sixteen-rowed red. 
 
 9. Early Canada. 
 
 No. 10. Ked pop. 
 
 11. Blue pop. 
 
 12. White pop. 
 
 13. Yellow pop. 
 
 14. Mixed pop. 
 
 15. Eight-rowed yellow. 
 
 16. Ohio flint. 
 
 17. Kocty Mountain com. 
 
306 CEREAtS AND STARCH-PRODUCING PLANTS. 
 
 Two hundred varieties of Indian com were shown at the London 
 'Exhibition of 1862, from the Modena Koyal Botanical Gardens, 
 collected by the late Professor Giovanni Brignoli, and thirty-five 
 varieties by Professor Parlatore of Turin. 
 
 Common preference, as well as chemical analysis, proves that 
 the round northern yellow variety contains the most nutriment, 
 and is in all respects best adapted for the consumption of people 
 living in high latitudes. The white variety, by its resemblance to 
 wheaten flour when manufactured, meets with a ready sale where 
 the difference is not known, or where appearance is alone con- 
 sulted. The principal varieties, which may be distinguished bj' ' 
 the number of rows or grains on the cob, and the colour, shape, or 
 size of the kernels, may be classified and described as follows : — 
 
 1. Yellow Corn. — Golden Sioux, or northern flint corn, having a 
 large cob with twelve rows of moderate-sized grains ; very oily. 
 This is regarded as one of the best varieties for fattening animals 
 or for human food. By skilful tillage, 130 bushels have been 
 raised to the acre, weighing 9216 lbs. in the ear ; when dry, 
 75 lbs. of ear gave a bushel of corn shelled. 
 
 2. King Philip, or the eight-rowed yellow corn. Its ears, which 
 contain only eight rows, are longer than those of the Golden 
 Sioux, and it will yield about the same quantity of oil. It is a 
 hardy plant which belongs to a high latitude; grows to about 
 9 feet in height; stalks small; ears from 10 to 14 inches in 
 length. 
 
 3. Canada Corn, or eigliteen-rowed yellow corn, which is 
 smaller, earlier, and more solid than any of the preceding, contains 
 more oil than any other variety, except the rice corn and the pop 
 corn. It is exceedingly valuable for fattening poultry, swine, &c., 
 and is grown by many in gardens for early boiling. 
 
 4. Button Corn. — The cob sometimes grows to a length of 
 14 or 15 inches, but the grain is so compact on it, that 2 busbels of 
 small ears have yielded 5 pecks of shelled corn, weighing 62 lbs. to 
 the bushel. With proper management, an acre of ground will yield 
 100 to 120 bushels to the acre. As it is very oily, gives a good 
 yield, and ripens early, it has always been a favourite variety for 
 culture in the North. 
 
 5. Southern Big Yellow Corn. — The cob of this corn is thick and 
 long, the grain much wider than it is deep, and the rows unite 
 with each other. The grain contains less oil and more starch than 
 the northern flint kinds; yet its outward texture is somewhat 
 flinty, solid, and firm. It comes to maturity rather later, affords 
 an abundant yield, and is much used for fattening animals. 
 
 6. Southern Small Yellow Corn. — -The grains of this variety are 
 about the size and shape of those of the Tuscarora corn, but diifer 
 from them in containing an abundance of transparent colourless oil, 
 which may be easily seen through the clear pellucid hulls. The 
 farinaceous parts of the grains are white, and as the quantity of 
 oil which they contain is large, the flour or meal is more sub- 
 stantial as an article of food, and less liable to ferment and 
 become sour. 
 
INDIAN COEN. 307 
 
 7. Southern Little White Flint Corn. — The kernels of this variety 
 :are smaller than those of the preceding, and much resemble them 
 dn shape, but they are more firm and solid, contain more oil, and 
 ■consequently are of greater value for feeding poultry and swine, 
 ■and for human food. 
 
 8. Dutton White Flint Corn. — A variety, not differing materially 
 from the yellow Dutton corn, except in the colour of the oil. 
 
 9. Farly Canadian White Flint Corn. — Cultivated principally for 
 •early boiling and roasting while green. 
 
 10. Tuscarora Corn. — The ears contain from twelve to sixteen 
 TOWS of grain, which are nearly as deep as they are broad, of a 
 ■dead whitish colour on the extreme end, and entirely composed 
 within of pure white dextrine, except the germs. As it contains 
 neither gluten nor oil, it may be profitably employed in the 
 jnanufacture of starch. It is much softer and better food for 
 horses than the flinty kind, and if used before it becomes jsour, 
 auay be converted into excellent bread. It is also an excellent 
 variety for boiling when green, or in the milky state. 
 
 11. Fine White Flint Corn. — The ears of this variety contain 
 ■twelve rows of rather white, roundish, thick grains which are 
 filled with a snowy white flour composed principally of starch, but 
 •contains neither gluten nor oil. As it possesses similar properties 
 with the preceding variety, it may be profitably used for the 
 same purpose. It is also an excellent kind for boiling, when 
 green. 
 
 12. Virginia White Seed Corn. — The ears of this corn, which are 
 mot very long (nor is the cob so long as those of the big white or 
 yellow flint), contain from twenty-four to thirty-six rows of very 
 long narrow grains. These at their extreme ends are almost flat, 
 ■and grow so closely together from the cob to the surface, that they 
 "produce a greater yield than any other variety in proportion to 
 the size of the ears. They contain more starch, and less gluten 
 «,nd oil than those of the flint kinds, and from their softness serve 
 as better food for horses, but are less nourishing to poultry and 
 !swine. This variety ripens later, though it is more productive 
 than any other kind. 
 
 13. Early Sweet Corn. — There are two kinds of this corn; one 
 with the cob red, and the other white. The ears are short, and 
 ■usually contain eight rows, the grains of which, when mature, are 
 •of a higher colour, and become shrivelled, appearing as if they 
 were unripe. It contains a very large proportion of the phos- 
 phates, and' a considerable quantity of sugar and gum, though but 
 little starch. It is extensively cultivated for culinary purposes, 
 and is delicious food when boiled green. 
 
 14. Mice Corn. — A small variety, with small conical ears, the 
 ■kernel terminating in sharp points, which give them the appear- 
 ance of burrs ; the kernels in size and shape something like rice. 
 It contains more oil and less starch than any other kind, and 
 when ground, its meal cannot be made into bread alone, but is dry 
 like sand. From its oily nature, and peculiar size, this com is 
 well adapted for feeding poultry. 
 
 X 2 
 
308 
 
 EEEALS AND STAECH-PRODUCING PLANTS. 
 
 15. Pearl Corn, commonly called pop com, from the fact of its 
 being used for popping or parching. The ears of this -variety are 
 small, the grains are sound, of various shades of colour, the white 
 of a pearly appearance ; and contain -with the rice com more oil 
 and less starch than any other variety. 
 
 16. Chinese Tree Corn. — This is a pure white variety, a very 
 handsome ear, about 10 inches long, has ten rows, grain very 
 closely set, long and wedge-shaped, well filled out to the end of 
 the cob, some of the grains slightly indented. One peculiarity of 
 this com is, the ears grow on the buds of the branches, henpe its 
 name tree corn. It is said to yield from one-third to one-fourth 
 more than the common varieties ; when ground into meal , it is 
 handsomer and better flavoured than the common varieties of 
 white com. There are generally two ears on a stalt, and often 
 three. 
 
 There are many other varieties, but the foregoing list embraces 
 most of those worthy of cultivation. 
 
 The corn-growing of the States is immense. Maize is now 
 successfully cultivated in nearly every part of a tract of country 
 that extends 1000 miles from north to south, and even more than 
 that from east to west. 
 
 It is the principal grain used in all parts of the Union for 
 fattening cattle, swine, sheep, and poultry. It is used for those 
 purposes, not only on account of its cheapness of production, but 
 for its intrinsic nutritive properties. 
 
 The late Judge Buel, of Albany, was a great advocate for the 
 growth of maize. He used to say that it was as indispensable to 
 a Yankee as the potato to an Irishman, or the oat to a Scotchman ; 
 that there was no crop more beneficial to the farmer than Indian 
 corn, that it was the meat, meadow, and manure crop of the farm, 
 that it was convertible into human food in more forms than any 
 other grain, and that its value in fattening domestic animals was 
 not exceeded by any other product of the farm. The uses of 
 Indian corn are very numerous ; when very young we are told the 
 small young stalks of thickly-sown crops are cut over by the 
 Mexicans as an article for the dessert, and almost every one relishes 
 green corn in its season. Then there are various preparations of 
 the grain, such as johnnycake, hominy, mush, samp, succatash, 
 pop com, &c. ; and now it is largely used as a substitute for 
 arrowroot, known in Britain as " Oswego fiour," and " corn starch." 
 The use of the Indian com plant for soiling cattle has long been 
 known and recommended, also for winter fodder when pasturage 
 and meadow threatened to fail. 
 
 According to the report of the Commissioner of Agriculture in 
 Washington, the maize culture extended over 75,694,208 acres in 
 the United States in 1886, that being over one-third of all the land 
 under tillage in the Union. 
 
 The production of maize in the United States has gone on 
 steadily increasing, as is shown in the following official return for 
 the past ten years, in Winchester bushels : — 
 
INDIAN CORN, 
 
 309 
 
 Year. 
 
 1877 
 ]878 
 1879 
 1880 
 1881 
 1882 
 1883 
 1884 
 1885 
 1886 
 
 Production. 
 
 1,342,558,000 
 1,388,218,750 
 1,754,591,676 
 1,717,434,543 
 1,194,916,000 
 1,617,025,100 
 1,551,066,895 
 1,795,528,000 
 1,936,176,000 
 1,655,441,000 
 
 Export. 
 
 72,fi52,611 
 87,884,892 
 99,572,329 
 93,648,147 
 44,340,683 
 41,655,653 
 46,258,606 
 .52,302,550 
 64,829,617 
 
 Local Consump- 
 tion per Head. 
 
 26-38 
 26-61 
 33-00 
 31-55 
 21-79 
 29-09 
 27 -1)9 
 30-52 
 32-03 
 
 The local consumption (much of which is used for stock, &c.) per 
 head seems now to be about 30 bushels, and the percentage export 
 of the crop has declined to about 3 per cent., against 6 J per cent, in 
 1877 to 1879. 
 
 In Brazil maize is largely cultivated, especially in the southern 
 provinces, where, in the shape of bread, meal, and farina, it con- 
 stitutes a wholesome and nutritious food. It comes to market in a 
 variety of forms. As a rule, maize yields there an average of 150 
 for one ; it is not rare, however, to meet with soils which give from 
 260 to 300, and on the island of Fernando de Noronha 400 for one 
 have frequently been harvested. In the province of Parana 36 
 varieties of maize are grown. 
 
 Maize is grown in most of the South American States. In the 
 province of Parana they have about 36 varieties. The exports 
 from Buenos Ayres in 1882 were 107,327 tons, and in 1883, 
 18,634 tons. In Venezuela there are 48,750 acres under maize, 
 producing annually about 120,000 tons. 
 
 The Australian colonies are greatly dependent upon the farmers 
 of New South Wales for their supply of maize. Upwards of 
 4,000,000 bushels are grown. The yield is about 38 bushels per 
 acre. Victoria produced in 1888 318,551 bushels. 
 
 In the year 1886 there was the following extent of land under 
 culture with maize in Australasia : — 
 
 Acres. 
 
 New South Wales 
 Queensland 
 Victoria . . 
 Western Australia 
 New Zealand . . 
 
 146,957 
 
 75,566 
 
 4,901 
 
 171 
 
 4,720 
 
 Yield. 
 
 Bushels. 
 3,825,146 
 1,709,673 
 
 231,447 
 3,933 
 
 In 1885 there were 132,709 acres in New South Wales sown 
 for grain, and 4785 acres for forage for cattle. The yield of maize 
 in that year was 4,336,163 bushels. 
 
 The species grown are the yellow, red, and white varieties, with 
 grain all more or less flat, and none of the round sorts. Some of 
 
310 CEREALS AND STAECH-PEODUCING PLANTS. 
 
 the descriptions are said to develop in ninety days, and the yield' 
 of a few is 100 bushels per acre. In Queensland maize yields- 
 heavy crops upon the rich alluvial soils of the river banks. 
 
 There are several varieties of maize grown in Australia, known 
 by the names of Eichmond Eiver, Mackay, Queensland, Hogan, 
 &c. The Eichmond Eiver variety is a dwarf kind, the stalk short, 
 and the cobs small. 
 
 The Mackay has large cobs, the grain is also large, but flat and 
 square shaped. The stalk is bulky and stands 9 or 10 feet high. 
 This is a good variety, well worth general cultivation. The Hogan 
 variety is small sized and inferior to the preceding. 
 
 The rapidity with which maize has spread all over the Indian 
 Umpire, until it must now rank as one of the most important food- 
 crops, is a powerful proof of its being a modern introduction, sinca 
 so useful a plant was certain to have taken its present position 
 thousands of years ago had it existed in the country at all. While 
 cultivated extensively in every district of India, it is not exported,, 
 but is either eaten green as a vegetable or is matured as a grain 
 crop. Maize is not very much cultivated in Southern India, except 
 as a garden crop, and is not so productive as in America. It is- 
 largely grown in Upper India and the Himalayas, where it is an 
 important article of food of the poorer classes. 
 
 Maize is now widely distributed, not only over India proper,, 
 but in Burmah, and is universally used for human food. Baden 
 Powell observes in his ' Punjab Products ' that " maize grows- 
 everywhere throughout the hills, and appears to flourish well in a 
 temperate as in a tropical climate. At 7000 feet or more it is the- 
 favourite crop of the people, and for six months of the year fonns- 
 their common staple of food. Although superseded in the valleys 
 by rice, there is always a little plot of maize around the cottage of 
 the peasantry, which is reserved for themselves, while the rice is- 
 disposed of to wealthier classes. To the uplands maize is an. 
 admirably suited crop. It is very hardy, requires little rain, and- 
 is rapidly matured. In sixty days from the day of sowing the 
 cobs are fit to cut, but the grain will not keep. Weevils attack it 
 in preference to any other grain, and it is a popular saying that 
 the life of maize is only a year long." 
 
 Cochin China. — There are about 9000 acres under culture witL 
 maize. 
 
 Natal. — By far the most important grain crop of this colony is. 
 maize, which is there known as " mealies." It thrives every- 
 where, from the mountain tops to the sea, and furnishes no small 
 part of the fare in every settler's household, and is a valuable food 
 for all descriptions of stock and poultry. The average yield of 
 this cereal here is from 18 to 45 bushels per acre, although 90' 
 have been reaped. The quantity produced in 1884 was over a 
 million bushels. When finely ground it is the staple food of the- 
 natives, and has been accepted in preference to rice by the Indians. 
 The white population use it largely in place of oatmeal for por^ 
 ridge, and when broken or crushed it is the general food for horses, 
 and mules. 
 
INDIAN COE^^ 311 
 
 Fiji. — Maize is a cereal of considerable importance, which grows 
 luxuriantly and yields two crops per annum. There are ahout 
 3000 acres under cultivation, which mainly supplies the New 
 Zealand demand. The production in 1885 was 66,000 bushels, of 
 which 15,600 was exported. The home consumption has consider- 
 ably increased within the last few years. A good deal of the 
 maize-growing land has also been planted with sugar canes. 
 
 Indian corn was at one time greatly recommended for making 
 sugar, and many experiments were tried with it in the United 
 States, but it evidently did not prove profitable. This, by-the- 
 way, was no new use for this plant, as Prescott, in his ' History of 
 the Conquest of Mexico,' after noticing several of the most impor- 
 tant articles of their industry, says that the great staple of the 
 country, as indeed of the American continent, was maize or Indian 
 corn, which grew freely along the valleys and up the steep sides 
 of the Cordilleras to the high level of the tableland. The Aztecs 
 were as curious in its preparation and as well instructed in its 
 manifold uses as the most expert New England housewife. Its 
 gigantic stalks in these equinoctial regions afford a saccharine 
 matter not found to the same extent in northern latitudes, and 
 supplied the natives with sugar little inferior to the cane itself, 
 which was not introduced among them till after the conquest in 
 1519. Indian corn is also largely used for distilling all over North 
 America, and in South America it appears to have been made into 
 Oliica or maize beer at a very remote period — it was a common 
 drink of the Indians long before the Spanish conquest. It was 
 generally made in a similar manner to ordinary beer. The liquor 
 is said to be of a dark yellow colour, with an agreeable slightly 
 bitter acid taste ; it is in universal demand on the west coast of 
 South America, and is consumed in vast quantities by the Mountain 
 Indians ; scarcely a single hut in the interior is without its jar of 
 this favourite liquor. In the Western States cattle and pigs are 
 turned into the corn-fields and there fatten for the market, thus 
 saving all harvesting. In England it is used for feeding pigs, 
 either whole or ground into meal, and also for feeding cattle when 
 fattening during winter. It is excellent for feeding to milch cows 
 during winter and spring, and is sometimes fed to horses ; indeed, 
 all kinds of stock on a farm — horses, cattle, sheep, pigs, and 
 poultry — will readily eat 'and seem fond of Indian com. We 
 hear of corn being sometimes used for fuel in the West, where 
 wood and coal are scarce and dear, and com is cheap. In Illinois 
 and other parts they use the corn cobs chiefly for summer fuel ; 
 when kept dry they bum well, and are no bad substitute at that 
 season for wood or coal. There is no doubt that this plant can be 
 much improved by selection and cultivation, and that varieties 
 may be multiplied to almost any extent by judicious selection of 
 kinds, and crossing by careful impregnation. Almost every corn- 
 grower has his favourite kind; but scarcely any kind will thrive 
 better than the common eight-rowed yellow corn. Though Indian 
 corn is a tropical or sub-tropical plant, yet it is capable of being 
 acclimatised in almost any region up to nearly the 50th degree of 
 
312 CEREALS AND STAECH-PRODUCINQ PLANTS. 
 
 latitude on tlie American continent, and is adapted in some of its 
 varieties to almost any part of the country. Being a short-lived 
 annual it will succeed wherever the heat of summer is intense and 
 of sufficient duration, whatever may he the cold of winter. 
 
 In Italy maize is an iinportant part of the cereal crop, and the 
 produce exceeds 80,000,000 bushels. How largely it enters into 
 the agricultural economy of the country may be seen from the 
 fact that in certain parts, the province of Turin for instance, the 
 labourer is allowed to share the produce of the Indian corn with 
 his master. In other parts of Lombardy, besides a money payment 
 for wages, he receives a proportion also, which, when mixed with 
 rye and millet flour, is made into a coarse bread. Amongst the 
 better paid a "polenta" of corn meal is principally eaten : this, 
 mixed with vegetables and flavoured with a little bacon, is a 
 favourite dish. 
 
 In the south of Europe and on the banks of the Danube the 
 cultivation has been attended with considerable success. In Hun- 
 gary, in particular, the crops of maize are large and profitable, 
 some 3,500,000 acres yielding 81,000,000 bushels. 
 
 In the Austro-Hungarian Empire the production is returned at 
 83,000,000 bushels. In Greece the production amounts to about 
 3,000,000 bushels. 
 
 In Portugal Indian corn is the staple cultivation of the northern 
 part, and the produce amounts to about 15,000,000 bushels. 
 
 In France the production is stated to be 25,000,000 bushels, and 
 the grain is grown chiefly for poultry, which, in the sub-divided 
 condition of the soil, is one of the mainstays of the peasant farmer. 
 
 The production of maize in different countries in 1886 was as 
 follows:— 
 
 Bushels, 
 United Statea .. ..1,665,441,000 
 
 Hungary 83,000,000 
 
 Italy 82,500,000 
 
 France (with mllleO . . 26,827,710 
 
 EuBsia 16,704,727 
 
 I'ortngal 15,000,000 
 
 Busbels. 
 
 New South Wales.. .. 4,000,000 
 
 Venezuela 3,360,000 
 
 Greece 3,000,000 
 
 Natal .8,000,000 
 
 Queensland 2,000,000 
 
 Fiji 70,000 
 
 In Algeria much attention is not given to the culture of maize, 
 as it requires good land and irrigation. It is sown in March and 
 April, according to the season. The forty days' variety is har- 
 vested in June, the larger kinds in July and August. The mean 
 produce on irrigated land is 18 to 20 cwts. per hectare; on dryland 
 it is not a third of this. 
 
 There is a small sweet variety grown in Demerara, called 
 cariaca, which ripens its grain in less than two months from the 
 time of sowing. It is in every respect more diminutive than the 
 ordinary Indian corn, being very slender in its stalk, and with 
 the leaves and ears also small in comparison with the ordinary 
 kinds. The flavour of the cariaca is very fine roasted in the milk, 
 that is, before the grain is fully ripe, when it is very soft and 
 juicy. Indeed, it is usually prepared in this way, and seldom 
 permitted to arrive at maturity. You see the negroes munching 
 
EICE. 
 
 313 
 
 ■the grain off the roasted cob. The natives sometimes crush, and 
 ibake it, and it makes a nutritious, juicy sort of bread, which they 
 ■call " cachapo." 
 
 Maize Starch. — A large quantity of Indian corn is employed in 
 America and this country in making starch, or what is known as 
 ■corn flour and raaizena. In this manufacture the maize is softened 
 in a solution of carbonate of soda and crushed in mills, on which 
 -water is poured. The milky liquid which flows is diluted with 
 -water, and conveyed over a large sieve on an inclined surface, the 
 ibres, &c., being left on the sieve. The starch is deposited on the 
 inclined plane, while the fatty and nitrogenous substances pass off 
 with the liquid into the vat. The starch is collected, washed, and 
 ■dried. The residues remaining on the sieve are employed for 
 feeding stock and in paper-making, the oil or fat in soap-making. 
 
 EICE. 
 
 One of the most extensively diffused and useful of the grain 
 crops, and that supporting the greatest number of the human race, 
 "is rice. It occupies, in fact, the same place in most intertropical 
 regions that wheat does in the warmer parts of Europe, and oats 
 and rye in those more to the north. It is raised in immense 
 quantities in India, China, Java, and most eastern countries, in 
 parts of the West Indies, Central America, and the United States, 
 and in some of the southern countries of Europe. The chief food 
 «f perhiips one-third of the human race, it affords the advantages 
 attending wheat, maize, and other grains, while it is susceptible 
 of cultivation on land too low and moist for the production of 
 other useful plants. 
 
 The uri or wild rice, plentiful in the marshy tropical countries 
 of Southern Asia, is, without doubt, the plant from which all our 
 forms of cultivated rice have been derived. The probability is 
 that the cultivation of rice commenced in China and spread to 
 India, being introduced into Egypt at a comparatively recent 
 date. The Greeks became acquainted with it through Alexander. 
 In Europe it was first cultivated in 1468 in Italy. 
 
 The rice from the Southern States of America is decidedly the 
 best brought into commerce, being much sweeter, larger, and 
 'better coloured than that from Asia, where its cultivation is not 
 so well managed. It is necessary to except Bengal rice, which 
 now nearly equals that grown in the Carolinas. South Carolina 
 3)roduces the best American rice, and Patna the best East Indian 
 variety. Excellent rice is also grown in the Spanish provinces of 
 Andalusia, Valencia, and Catalonia, as well as in the marshes of 
 Upper Italy, especially Lombardy and Venice, and in the plains 
 . of Milan, Mantua, Verona, Parma and Modena, along the river Po. 
 
 The general imports of rice into Great Britain, the Dutch, 
 ^Belgian, and German ports, average about 700,000 tons ; in 1881 
 they reached 849,812 tons, and in 1887 were only 670,414 tons. 
 
314 
 
 CEREALS AND STAECH-PEODUCING PLANTS. 
 
 The principal eastern ports and coTintries from whence rice is- 
 shipped to Europe are : Java, Akyab, Eangoon, Bassein, Moulmein,, 
 Saigon, Calcutta, Madras, Bankok, and Japan. The shipments- 
 from these were in 1887 as follows, in tons :— 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Java 
 Akyab . . 
 BaDgoon 
 Bassein . . 
 Moulmeiu 
 Saigon .. 
 Calcutta 
 Madras .. 
 Banhok . . 
 Japan . . 
 
 To Europe. 
 
 18,544 
 
 164.000 
 
 340,300 
 
 118,400 
 
 48,400 
 
 25,000 
 
 49,000 
 
 3,681 
 
 63,000 
 
 33,200 
 
 Total. 
 
 71,252 
 200,000 
 567,800 
 118,600 
 
 67,600 
 303,833 
 
 Holland received 101,292 tons of rice in 1887. 
 The British imports of cleaned rice were derived from the fol- 
 lowing sources : — 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Holland 
 
 Siam 
 
 Bombay and Soinde 
 
 Madras 
 
 Bengal and Burmah 
 Other countries . . 
 
 Total .. 
 
 13?5. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 51,369 
 110,216 
 
 32,486 
 
 182,265 
 
 6,251,319 
 
 42,239 
 
 6,669,894 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 228,429 
 
 114,978 
 
 21,988 
 
 1,596 
 
 5,839,799 
 
 350,423 
 
 6,557,213 
 
 The Carolinas and Louisiana produce annually about 420,000 ' 
 cwts. of rice ; in 1880 the produce was only 250,000 barrels ; the 
 Brazilian rice comes into commerce from Eio Janeiro, and the ■ 
 Egyptian from the Delta of the Nile, via Damietta and Eosetta. 
 
 The following table shows the imports into the United King- 
 dom, of rice cleaned, and in the husk, or uncleaned, at decennial, 
 periods : — 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Cleaned. 
 
 Paddy. 
 
 
 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Qr^. 
 
 
 
 1840 
 
 443,918 
 
 42,119 
 
 
 
 1850 
 
 785,451 
 
 37,150 
 
 
 
 1860 
 
 1,535,575 
 
 516 
 
 
 
 1870 
 
 4,077,468 
 
 98,178 
 
 
 
 1880 
 
 7,889,710 
 
 
 
 It will be seen how enormously the trade has increased. About 
 half the quantity received is re-exported to the Continent, &c. 
 
EICE. 315- 
 
 The varieties of rice are very numerous in the different countries- 
 where it is cultivated. The natives of India and China distinguish 
 them a good deal by the size, shape, and colour of the grain. There- 
 are virhite and red rice, small and large-grained. The chief com- 
 mercial classifications, however, in the East are, table rice, cargo- 
 rice, and white rice. 
 
 Loureiro enumerates the following species : Oryza communissima,. 
 glutinosa, montana, mutica, and praecox, all of China ; other authors- 
 consider them only varieties df 0. sativa. Then we have 0. lati- 
 folia, Desv. of the Carolinas and St. Domingo ; 0. minuta, Presl. of 
 Luzon ; 0. Nepalensis, G. Don ; 0. perennia, Moench, and 0. platy- 
 phylla, of New Granada. 
 
 Although there are such innumerable varieties cultivated, practi- 
 cally they resolve themselves, agriculturally, into two kinds^the 
 upland or mountain rice, and the lowland or aquatic rice. Some 
 forms of rice are temperate, and grow on the hills, often ascend- 
 ing to 8000 feet in altitude ; others occur on the inundated plains,, 
 or over deep marshes, luxuriating in a tropical climate. These 
 frequently grow up with the rising water, until they attain a 
 height of as much as 20 feet. Soil, climate, and mode of culti- 
 vation, during the lapse of centuries, have doubtless all combined 
 to produce from a common stock the multitude of forms withi 
 which we are familiar. Some forms of rice are scented, while the 
 majority have no smell whatever. Scented rices are common, for 
 example, in Orissa and Behar, and are much prized by certain, 
 classes of people. The better-class natives eat the long thin 
 white rices, chiefly cultivated upon higher lands ; while the short, 
 thick, more or less reddish rices — the so-called Patna rices — are^ 
 those eaten by the mass of the people of India. The Mahom- 
 medans prefer an absorbent rice, such as that from Pilibhet. la 
 Burma, amongst many other high-class rices, a grain is grown, 
 which, while largely used for industrial purposes, is regarded as- 
 unwholesome as an article of food. One of the most curious- 
 peculiarities recently brought to light regarding rice is, that 
 while the great mass of rices contain only one grain within th© 
 husk, two or even three grains are regularly present in certain 
 other rices. 
 
 Java rice is inferior to that of Bengal or Carolina. This- 
 is not attributable to any real inferiority in the grain, but 
 chiefly to the careless mode in which it is prepared for the 
 market. In husking the grain it is much broken ; and from 
 carelessness in drying, it is very subject to decay, from imbibing, 
 moisture, and the attacks of insects. Unhusked rice or paddy 
 may be kept sound for many years ; indeed, for table use, rice- 
 a year old is usually preferred by judges. Of all the cereals- 
 it is the most compact, seldom weighing less than 65 lbs. to the 
 bushel. 
 
 Rice does not contain half as much gluten as wheat, but has- 
 one-fourth more starch in its composition, hence the preference 
 given to it by our starch-makers, both from its cheapness and 
 larger yield. 
 
316 
 
 CEEEALS AND STAECH-PKODUCING PLANTS. 
 
 Professor Jolinstoii. found tlie proportions of water in rice to be 
 as follows : — 
 
 Madras 13-5 
 
 Bengal 131 
 
 Patna 13-1 
 
 Carolina 13-0 
 
 Mr. Dugald CamplDell, in a series of analyses (published in my 
 'Technologist,' vol. i. p. 191) on the amount of starch in rice, 
 found in four samples of pinky Madras rice an average of 13-67 
 per cent, of water, and the proportions of starch in four qualities 
 were : — 
 
 First quality 76-6 
 
 Second 73-0 
 
 Third 70-2 
 
 Fourth , 69-1 
 
 Average of the four specimens 72 • 2 
 
 The following analyses are given by Dr. Watson as the com- 
 position of the several varieties of rice named : — 
 
 
 Pegu. 
 
 Bomtay. 
 
 Broach. 
 
 BareUly. 
 
 Pulut 
 ,Maulmein. 
 
 Moisture 
 
 Nitrogenous matter . . . . 
 
 Starchy matter 
 
 Fatty or oily matter . . 
 Mineral constituents (ash) . . 
 
 13-50 
 7-41 
 
 78-10 
 0-40 
 0-59 
 
 13-00 
 7-44 
 
 77-63 
 0-70 
 1-23 
 
 13-10 
 7-15 
 
 78-70 
 0-49 
 0-56 
 
 12-80 
 8-24 
 
 77-80 
 0-64 
 0-52 
 
 12.90 
 7-24 
 
 78-56 
 0-60 
 0-70 
 
 Total 
 
 100-00- 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 In Europe, America, and Africa the cultivation of rice is com- 
 paratively insignificant. It is in the intertropical countries of 
 Asia that rice is of the very first importance. Over the seaboards 
 of the peninsulas of India and China, in Japan, and some of the 
 eastern islands, it holds undisputed sovereignty. 
 
 Italy. — To the Moors has been attributed the introduction of 
 rice into Spain, and subsequently to Italy. From the Venetian 
 provinces it extended rapidly through the marshy tracts so 
 common in that region. The great swamps of Verona and 
 Mantua, useless for other species of culture, aiforded a profitable 
 field for rice ; in them it was early established, and has always 
 continued to be of great importance. Its progress to the eastward 
 was slow, and it was not until the middle of the sixteenth century 
 that the rice cultivation of the Milanese became of sufScient 
 extent to attract public attention to its sanitary relations. Its 
 development thus kept pace with the progress of that great 
 system of irrigation canals which had been perfected at this time. 
 
 In Piedmont and Lombardy rice cultivation is divided into two 
 classes — permanent, locally termed risage da zappa, from the use of 
 the spade in its tillage ; and temporary, risage da vicenda, which 
 
EICE. 317 
 
 forms a part of the rotation of crops in the irrigated districts. 
 The permanent rice cultivation is restricted exclusively to low 
 marshy localities, unsuited for any other culture, and is of great 
 value, being the only crop which soils so wet are capable of 
 affording when introduced into the rotation. This extends over 
 nine j'ears, generally in the following order : 1st year, wheat with 
 gi'ass seeds ; 2nd, 3rd, and 4th, meadows ; 5th, 6th, and 7th, rice; 
 8th and 9th, Indian com, or other crops, varying from year 
 to year. 
 
 A claj'ey impervious soil, with a small proportion of sand near 
 the surface, is found to he the best for rice. As the plant passes 
 its existence in water, the details of the culture are directed 
 to securing this condition. The means employed are much the 
 same in Italy as in India. The surface of rice-land is made as 
 nearly as possible horizontal, and where variations of level occur, a. 
 series of terraces is formed, each of which is carefully levelled. 
 Compartments are then marked out, of which the dimensions are 
 extremely variable, and each is surrounded by earthen walls or 
 banks about two feet high. Connection is established between 
 the compartments at high and low levels, so that the water 
 entering the first passes into the others, and thus maintains a 
 very gentle movement, which keeps the supply always fresh. 
 When the divisions are duly formed, the rice-ground is ploughed 
 and carefully weeded in spring. 
 
 If the soil be too wet for the use of the plough, as in marshy 
 localities, it is broken up by the spade, a tedious and unhealthy 
 process. After the ground has been thus prepared, water is 
 admitted for the purpose of verifying the levels, and of consoli- 
 dating the partition-walls of the different divisions. It is necessary 
 to remove all trees from the immediate vicinity, as shade is very 
 hurtful to the crop. 
 
 The period of sowing extends from the beginning of March to 
 the beginning of May. The new rice-lands are sown first ; those 
 which have been established for one or more years at a later 
 period, as the soil is benefited by exposure for some time to the 
 heat of the sun. Eice in the husk, locally termed risone, is 
 employed as seed in the proportion of from three to four bushels 
 per acre, according to the nature of the soil. It is sown by hand, 
 and as the land is literally in the state of mud, it is very 
 laborious and unhealthy work for the cultivators. It is usual to 
 soak the rice-seed in water for twentyrfour hours previously, with 
 the double object of quickening its vegetation and preventing its 
 floating on the surface of the water, as without this precaution it 
 occasionally does. 
 
 Twelve or fifteen days after the sowing the young plants rise 
 above the surface of the soil, and as they increase in height, the 
 sheet of water is gradually increased with them, so that merely 
 their tops show above it. The fields are kept in this fiooded state 
 until the plant flowers, which, according to the time of sowing, 
 takes place between the middle of July and the middle of August. 
 About this time the flooding of the crop is replaced by regular but 
 
■818 
 
 CEREALS AND STAECH-PEODUCING PLANTS. 
 
 -abundant irrigation, at intervals of a few days. When the head 
 becomes well formed, the grain of good-size, and the colour changes 
 from deep to lighter yellowish green, all use of water is discon- 
 tinued, the land is drained as dry as practicable, and in ten or 
 fifteen days afterwards the crop is ready for cutting. The rice 
 liarvest in the north of Italy ranges, according to circumstances, 
 from the middle of September to the beginning of October, and 
 ■the crop is cut with the scythe when large compartments are 
 used, and with the reaping-hook in the smaller ones. The grain 
 is made into small sheaves about 25 lbs. or 30 lbs. in weight, and 
 "with a constant length of 18 inches. When the plants are longer 
 than this they are out higher, and the stubble is afterwards 
 ploughed in as manure. 
 
 The thrashing is effected after the Oriental fashion by the 
 "treading of bullocks or horses, and the grain is subsequently dried 
 for some days by exposure to the sun. It is then stored, and, 
 
 ■ during the winter, when water is cheap and abundant, it is cleared 
 -of the husks in the rice mills attached to the farms, ■^hich are 
 
 worked by water power. Throughout Northern Italy the meadow 
 
 ■ and rice lands may be said almost to divide between them that 
 vast volume of water which is every year poured over the face of 
 the country. The average production of rice here is about 
 20,200,000 bushels. 
 
 Italy exported the following quantity of rice : — 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 1862 26,666,820 
 
 1870 86,681,044 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 1880 31,931,000 
 
 1886 24,111,000 
 
 India. — It is impossible to give anything like an approximate 
 ■estimate of the land under culture and the annual production of 
 the great rice-growing countries of the East ; but a few incidental 
 facts may be stated. 
 
 The area under rice in India may be put down roughly at 
 ^30,000,000 acres, of which. Bengal has 37,500,000. Out of 
 4,000,000 acres of cultivated land, about 3,700,000 are in British 
 JBurma annually under rice cultivation. 
 
 Estimated Acbes undek Eicb in India in 1886. 
 
 Madias 5,795,644 
 
 Bombay 1,950,527 
 
 Bengal 37,500,000 
 
 North-West Provinces 3,934,521 
 
 Oudh 2,159,525 
 
 Punjab 597,002 
 
 Central Provinces 3,170,360 
 
 Lower Burma 3,704,990 
 
 Assam .. 1,128,893 
 
 Coorg 73,805 
 
 Berai 25,833 
 
 60,040,999 
 
RICE. 319 
 
 The rice continent of the world is Asia, and in Asia, British 
 India is pre-eminent as the territory where rice cultivation most 
 •prospers. 
 
 At least three-fourths of the rice that forms the export 
 i;rade of the world is exported from British India. Bengal rice 
 "finds its way wherever coolies emigrate, and no other rice seems 
 able to compete with it in the market. 
 
 The rice exported from" Calcutta is divided broadly into three 
 qualities — table rice, ballam, and moonghy ; of these, table rice is 
 of course the best quality. Ballam is mostly Backergunge and 
 Eastern Bengal rice ; the name may be supposed to be derived 
 from the Chittagong boats of peculiar construction in which the 
 Tice is carried, called ballam boats* The moonghy is common or 
 inferior rice. To the United Kingdom the exports in the largest 
 3)roportion are of table rice ; and similarly to Bombay and Austra- 
 lia, where it is intended in the first instance as food for Europeans. 
 The rice exported from Calcutta is table rice. To the Mauritius, 
 liowever, the exports are ballam and moonghy, being in the pro- 
 portion of 150 tons of ballam and 73 of moonghy to 15 tons of 
 table rice, and the same to Bombay and the West Indies. To the 
 .Straits, to Java, to the Maldives and Laccadives, to Ceylon, to 
 Madras and the Coromandel Coast, and to the Gulfs, the export is 
 .almost entirely of ballam rice. 
 
 At the Calcutta Exhibition in 1883, 4000 apparently distinct 
 forms of rice were shown from the Presidency of Bengal, arising 
 from differences of climate and varieties of- soils, and the vast 
 antiquity of everything purely native. It is, in fact, impossible 
 to say that the corresponding rices of any two districts are the 
 same, local varieties in this being much greater than in any other 
 ■cultivated cereal. It seems probable that if all the provinces in 
 India were to be worked up with the same degree of care as was 
 ■done in Bengal, the total number of recognisable forms of rice 
 would be little short of 10,000.* 
 
 There are over 1400 different specimens of rice in the Calcutta 
 Museum. Probably there does not elsewhere exist an equally ex- 
 tensive and valuable collection of this cereal. Of paddy there are 
 in Bengal three well-recognised classes — -the Aus, the Aman, and 
 the Boro. They may be shortly distinguished as follows : — 
 
 The aus is sown froni April to May, and is cut in August and 
 September. It does not grow in water, is coarse, and is not largely 
 produced. The aman or floating rice is sown between the middle 
 ■of May and the end of June. It requires showers of rain even in 
 its early days, but the young plants should be strong before the 
 legular rains set in. It is cut in November and December, and 
 ■constitutes the staple crop of the country. The boro is sown in 
 ■January and February, or somewhat earlier ; is planted out in low 
 marshy places, and harvested in April and May. 
 
 Two harvests are all but universal in Bengal, with an occasional 
 third, but smaller onej two crops are frequently taken off the 
 isame field. 
 
 * Calcutta Exhibition, Jury Reports, vol. i., p. 254. 
 
320 CEREALS AND STARCH-PRODUCING PLANTS. 
 
 The number of varieties of paddy in the three different classes 
 together is something enormous, when compared with anything of 
 the kind to which we are accustomed in England. Ten or a dozen 
 names each would probably cover all the different sorts of wheat 
 and barley with which the practical English farmer is brought in 
 contact. But there are as many as 1300 names of paddies, and, 
 though very many of these are merely local synonyms, a large 
 number unquestionably correspond to intrinsic and seasonal 
 distinctions. 
 
 The obvious differences in the grain itself are indeed very 
 remarkable. In colour the specimens range from a bright golden 
 hue, through almost every gradation of tint, to black. And in 
 regard to size, they vary from the dimensions of a large mustard 
 seed to those of a cantaloup melon seed. Some 200 or 300 of the- 
 samples of paddy in the Calcutta Museum have been tested by 
 weighing, and of these the smallest furnished 208J grains to the 
 half drachm, the largest 54^ grains. 
 
 It has not yet been ascertained what are the external conditions- 
 of season, situation, and culture, which give the different sorts- 
 their respective economic values ; and investigation on these points 
 forms part of the work which is yet reserved to be accomplished 
 in Calcutta. 
 
 The husked rice, or rice proper in the understanding of English 
 people, exhibits, necessarily, differences of size corresponding with 
 those of its parent grain. It also varies in tint from a pure white 
 colour to a dull red. The proportionate out-tum of rice to the- 
 unhusked paddy from which it arises, depends both upon the sort 
 of grain and the process of husking pursued, probably also upon 
 other elements. Dr. Buchanan Hamilton says it amounts to a 
 little more than one-half ; and a writer in the ' Statistical Ee- 
 porter ' gives the proportion of " rice " to " paddy " at from half 
 to two-thirds. 
 
 American rice, from the careful cultivation to which it has been 
 subjected, has acquired a quality far finer than that of any other 
 rice. Persistent efforts have been made by the Indian Govern- 
 ment to introduce the Carolina varieties into India, but hitherto 
 with only moderate success. 
 
 The following figures may be useful as showing the immense 
 importance of rice cultivation. Eice is the principal article of 
 diet over Bengal proper, and among Bengalees is often the only 
 food eaten: pulse, fish, vegetables, oil, salt, spices, and other 
 condiments are only added to give the rice a relish. It is generally 
 admitted that the consumption varies from two-thirds to three- 
 fourths of a seer (about 2 lbs.) per head per diem. The population 
 of Bengal and Orissa amounts to 44,913,305 souls; this number,, 
 therefore, at two-thirds of a seer per diem, or 6 maunds per head 
 per annum, require nearly 270,000,000 maunds of rice. In Behar 
 rice is still the principal food crop, though among the poorer 
 classes, and especially in the district of Sarun, maize and barley 
 are in a great degree the food of the people. . . . The population, 
 of Behar is 20,000,000 souls, and, allowing 3 maunds of rice per 
 
EICE. 321 
 
 liead per annum, they require 60,000,000 maunds of rice. Bengal 
 and Behar together, therefore, consume about 330,000,000 maunds 
 of rice yearly, or say 12,250,000 tons; add to this an export of 
 1,000,000 tons and 2,000,000 tons for seed grain and waste, and the 
 total requirements amount to over 15,000,000 tons of rice per 
 annum. An article in the 'Indian Economist,' taking the con- 
 sumption at three-fourths of a seer per head per diem, and allowing 
 that amount for Behar, as well as Bengal and Orissa, arrived at 
 a total requirement of nearly 20,000,000 tons of rice, or say 
 765,000,000 maunds of paddy. Both these calculations exclude 
 the reserves which must be stored, and deal only with the actual 
 yearly hand-to-mouth consumption. The area under rice in 
 Bengal, we have seen, is 37,500,000 acres, and, at 20 maunds per 
 acre, these would produce 750,000,000 maunds. 
 
 In India generally, it has been said, rice is produced in every 
 variety of soil, at every altitude, and in every latitude. On an 
 average estimate the yield of one acre of rice in the fertile soil of 
 Eastern Bengal has been taken to be about 27 maunds of paddj% or 
 /, '-2,^14^1bs. Eather less than 2 maunds or about 160 lbs. would be 
 the amount of seed required in those provinces for sowing an acre ; 
 and the produce may, therefore, be estimated at thirteen or fourteen- 
 fold. This is rather an over-estimate for ordinary Bengal produce. 
 Twenty maunds of paddy or say 12 maunds of rice per acre is really 
 a very good average out-turn, and a yield of seven-fold is an 
 average beyond which few cultivators on an ordinary soil venture 
 to calculate. In the North- West Provinces the average yield of 
 rice is reported to be little over 10 or 12 maunds of paddy per acre, 
 or from 500 lbs. to 800 lbs. of cleaned rice. In the Punjab the 
 out-turn is estimated at 550 lbs., in Oudli at 649 lbs., in the 
 Central Provinces at 207 lbs., and in Mysore at 1577 lbs. of rice 
 per acre. It is presumed that these calculations are in cleaned 
 rice, as it is impossible to suppose that there can be so small a 
 yield as this of paddy or rice unhusked. The Mysore estimate, 
 however, is apparently in paddy. In Mr. Dalsell's ' Memoir on the 
 Famine of 1866,' it is asserted that the Eevenue Settlement De- 
 partment qi Madras, after inquiries and experiments extending 
 over ten years, had estimated that an acre of unirrigated land in 
 the Madras Presidency produces on the average a yield of about 
 5 cwts. or 560 lbs., and that an acre of irrigated land produces 
 10 cwts. or 1120 lbs. of cleaned rice. The yield of paddy is said 
 to be double the yield of cleaned rice. In Sindh the out-turn of an 
 acre is estimated at from 900 to 1200 lbs. of paddy. 
 
 In British Burma it is reported that one acre will produce from 
 fifty to one hundred baskets, or 2500 to 5000 lbs. of paddy, 
 according to the class of land. On the best land somewhat less 
 than one basket (50 lbs.) of paddy will plant an acre, while on 
 inferior land it takes more. The yield of paddy in British Burma 
 is, therefore, from fifty to a hundred-fold. The average on the 
 Tenasserim coast is said to be only twenty-fold. In Siam, Gochin- 
 China, and Java it is a common practice to exact two crops of rice 
 yearly from the same soil, one in April and one in October, and an 
 
 Y 
 
322 
 
 CEREALS AND STAECH-PEODUCING PLANTS. 
 
 English acre in Java so cultivated has been found to yield an 
 annual produce of 560 lbs. of cleaned rice. In the same island an 
 acre of good land yielding annually one green crop and a crop of 
 rice was found to produce 941 lbs. of clean-grained rice or about 
 1250 lbs. of paddy. 
 
 It wotdd not be difficult to reproduce many other calculations 
 that have been made of the out-turn per acre and of the remunera- 
 tive quality of rice cultivation. To do so, however, would be of 
 little use, as the calculations are mere estimates, and are often 
 evidently very inaccurate. 
 
 Eioe is the favourite food-grain of the people of Asia ; but, except 
 in Arracan, and a few other districts, in which it constitutes the 
 chief and almost only article cultivated, its use is confined to the 
 richer classes throughout the country. 
 
 In Assam and Burma rice is the sole food-crop, and in Bengal 
 about 50 per cent, of the total food-growing area is under rice, 
 which feeds about 70 per cent, of the population. 
 
 The percentage of food-growing area under crops in different 
 districts is as follows : — 
 
 Districts. 
 
 North-West Provinces and Oudh 
 
 Punjab 
 
 Central Provinces 
 
 Madras 
 
 Bombay 
 
 Berar 
 
 Mysore 
 
 Millets. 
 
 34 
 
 41 
 39 
 67 
 83 
 82 
 84 
 
 Eice. 
 
 9 
 5 
 34 
 33 
 10 
 1 
 16 
 
 Eice-eating 
 Population. 
 
 19 
 5 
 31 
 32 
 12 
 2 
 20 
 
 In Bengal, Burma, Orissa, and the eastern portion of Central 
 India, the southern part of Madras, and the Western districts of 
 Bombay, rice is the principal food. In the Punjab, the North- 
 West Provinces, and Oudh, Behar, and the northern part of the 
 Central Provinces, and Guzerat, the poorer classes live on millets, 
 grown in the rains, and also on barley and grain (Gieer arietinum, 
 and Bolichos hiflora) ; the richer only use wheat and rice. In the 
 southern part of the Central Provinces, Berar, the Bombay, Deccan, 
 and the northern part of Madras, the larger millets are the staple 
 foods. In Mysore, the small millet (raggi, Meusine corocana) is 
 the principal article of food. In Assam rice is the staple, supple- 
 mented with Indian corn and Job's tears {Goix lachryma). Wheat 
 is chiefly grown for export, and to the inhabitants of India rice is 
 the most valuable of aU the cereals. Where rice is not cultivated 
 in India as the staple food, the millets are exceedingly important. 
 With the exception of Burma, rice is grown almost entirely for 
 home consumption; and where rice cannot be cultivated, the 
 millets invariably take its place as the staple food-crop of the mass 
 of the people. The total area of land under millets has been 
 estimated as 33,228,867 acres, of which Bombay has 13 million. 
 
EiCE. 323 
 
 Madras 7j million, the Nortli-West Provinces 5^ million, the 
 Punjab nearly 5 million, and Berar a little over 2 million acres. 
 In Bengal millets are scarcely cultivated excepting to a small 
 extent by the hill tribes. In 1884 and 1885 the export of millets 
 to foreign countries was 246,000 cwts. 
 
 Eice may be said to be the staple food of the population of 
 Southern India, and the natives are very particular as to the kind 
 and quality of the grain which they use. Burma and Bengal 
 grown rice does not suit the inhabitants of Madras, being apt to 
 produce diarrhoea and indigestion. The amount of nitrogenous 
 matter in rice is small, varying from 8 to 7 per cent., and it is also 
 poor in fat. The Sanscrit name of rice, Dh^nya, or nourisher of 
 men, expresses forcibly the importance of this article to the people 
 of India. 
 
 There are in Bengal, as already stated, three distinct crops : the 
 first, grown on somewhat high ground, is the early crop, sown for 
 the most part in June, and reaped in August and September. 
 The secpnd is the main crop, sown in June and July, and cut from 
 November to January. It requires a great deal of moisture, some 
 varieties growing in several feet of water. The third is a dwarf 
 crop, cultivated in the months of March, April, and May, on low- 
 lying land, generally on the sides of marshes and pools, where 
 irrigation is easy. The ratio of productiveness is said to be, in a 
 good season, as 1 to 35. 
 
 The following figures show the rice exported from India, chiefly 
 to England, Ceylon, Mauritius, and the Straits Settlements. The 
 value of that exported is about £9,000,000 a year. 
 
 EiOE (including Paddy) — Exports from India, Yeabs ending Maboh 31. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1877 19,914,334 
 
 1878 18,428,625 
 
 1879 21,250,232 
 
 1880 22,166,308 
 
 1881 27,266,051 
 
 1882 28,888,436 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1883 31,258,288 
 
 1884 27,040,330 
 
 1885 22,051,826 
 
 1886 27,813,844 
 
 1887 26,460,500 
 
 1888 28,148,695 
 
 The exports of rice from Burma in 1885 amounted to 1,025,201 
 tons, the highest figure for- any year except 1882. The competi- 
 tion of Saigon and Bankok rice in the European markets, which 
 was considerable in 1884, fell to insignificance in 1885. The 
 export has been rather lower in the last four years. 
 
 The rice trade may be fairly called the most important, and, 
 perhaps, the most lucrative in Eangoon ; there being no fewer than 
 twenty-two firms engaged in cleaning rice. The paddy brought to 
 Eangoon is divided into three principal kinds, known as Ngatsaing, 
 Naghehouk, and Boyoot. Of these the Ngatsaing paddy is by far 
 the best; it has large broad grains, dark in colour, with a fine 
 pearly kernel. The Naghehouk has light-coloured grains, long 
 and narrow ; often the husks are only partly filled, which makes it 
 less profitable to mill than the Ngatsaing paddy. The Boyoot has 
 small grains in appearance like Ngatsaing, only smaller, and has 
 
 T 2 
 
824 CEREALS AND STAHCn-PEODUCING PLANTS. 
 
 a beard like haxlej. The Burmese prefer the rice made from 
 Boyoot paddy to any other. The paddy is always sold by measure 
 at so much per hundred baskets. A basket is supposed to contain 
 .")0 lbs. of paddy, and should be 15 inches diameter by 15 inches 
 deep. The price per hundred baskets varies from 90 to 120 rupees. 
 
 The rice sent to Europe is used for food, for conversion into 
 starch, and for distillation. What proportion is used for each 
 purpose it is impossible to say ; but the use of Indian rice for dis- 
 tillation is rapidly extending in Germany, Holland, Prance, and 
 Italy. 
 
 About four-fifths of the total exports from Burma consist of 
 " cargo rice," i.e. rice of which only one part in five is husked. 
 
 The expansion of the export rice trade of Burma is remarkable. 
 The value of the exports is now about 5^ million sterling, or more 
 than £1 per head of the population. New rice mills are being 
 built year by year at Akyab, Bassein, and Eangoon. 
 
 The narrow strip of coast between the sea and the Aeng range, 
 which we call Arracan, covers an area of about 16,250 square miles. 
 It is generally fertile. The deep lagoons which intersect it in 
 every direction afford ready means of communication, and it has a 
 fi.ne and convenient outlet for its produce in the magnificent 
 harbour of Akyab. The production has been developed by the 
 small independent owners of land, until the province now competes 
 successfully with Bengal in the supply of rice to the continent, so 
 that the exports, which in 1830 gave employment to but a few 
 coasting vessels, now require 1 million tons of shipping. 
 
 The Burmese recognize nearly a hundred varieties of rice, but 
 the principal distinctions between the different kinds are as 
 follows: — hard grain, soft grain, and glutinous rice. The 
 " Ngatsning " is the hardest grain, and the rice which is ac- 
 cordingly principally exported to Europe. "Meedo" is. the chief 
 of the soft-grain varieties. It is much preferred by the Burmese to 
 the hard-grained sorts, and it is certainly superior in taste when 
 cooked ; but the hard-grained rice is that purchased by the mer- 
 chants for export, as it keeps better, and the soft-grained rice is too 
 much broken by European machinery in cleaning. Latterly, on the 
 continent, this last objection appears to have been overcome, and a 
 greater demand is consequently springing up for the " Meedo " 
 rice for the markets of foreign Europe. The " Koungnyeen," or 
 hill rice, is called " glutinous " rice by Europeans, from the pro- 
 perty it possesses when cooked of the grains all adhering in a thick 
 glutinous mass. It is the chief article of food with the Karens, 
 and other hill tribes, but is not much eaten by the inhabitants of 
 the low swampy plains, where the common rice is grown. 
 
 Eice, although regarded by us more as a cheap luxury than a 
 necessary article of food, forms the chief subsistence of the Hindoos, 
 Chinese, Japanese, and other Eastern nations. The Burmese and 
 Siamese are the greatest consumers of this grain. A Malay 
 labourer requires 56 lbs, monthly, but a Burmese or Siamese 
 64 lbs. The South Carolina people do not consume much rice 
 themselves : they raise it principally to supply the foreign demand ; 
 
EiCE. 325 
 
 tlie swamps of that State, both, those which are occasioned by the 
 periodical visit of the tides, and those which are caused by the 
 inland flooding of the rivers, being well suited to its production. 
 The mountain rice of India is grown without irrigation, at elevations 
 of 3000 to 6000 feet above the level of the sea, the dampness of 
 the summer months compensating for the want of artificial moisture. 
 Eice, which comes to us in the husk, is called by its Indian namo 
 "Paddy." Before it can be used for food, the husk must be re- 
 moved : this is done in India amongst the poorer people by merely 
 rubbing the grain between flat stones, and winnowing or blowing 
 the husks away. 
 
 In passing between the two stones, the husk of the paddy is 
 rubbed off, and the rice and husk come out at the edges. This 
 is next carried to the top of the mill by means of another elevator, 
 and passed over a winnowing machine to remove the husk. The 
 winnowing machines usually consist of three sets of revolving fans, 
 placed one above the other, the rice passing in front of each ; any 
 rice which may be blown out is collected and passed over another 
 set of fans. The rice after coming from the farmers, is what is 
 known as five part, or " cargo rice." It consists, or is supposed to 
 consist, of five parts of rice to one of paddy, and contains a little 
 broken rice. 
 
 To obtain white rice it goes through a further process of milling, 
 and a considerable amount of skill is required in getting the 
 necessary whiteness without breaking too much. White rice is 
 generally known by three qualities — 1st and best, Europe; 2nd, 
 Straits; 3rd, Bombay. The quality depends on the degree of white- 
 ness, the kind of paddy from which it is made, and the amount of 
 " broken " which it contains. In some mills the rice, before being 
 bagged, is passed through a polisher of sheep skin to smooth the 
 surface and give it a pearly appearance. The dust or skin of the 
 rice is sold to feed cattle and pigs, and the husks of the paddy are 
 burnt. There are forty-four rice mills in India, of which forty are 
 in Lower Burma. 
 
 Siam. — The principal trade of Bangkok, and the foundation on 
 which not only its prosperity but its actual existence mainly 
 rests is rice. This article is drawn in immense quantities, not only 
 from the innumerable fields which line the fertile valley of the 
 Menam, but from the adjacent rivers which flow into the gulf from 
 the enormous watershed of the mountain crescent, which fringes 
 the northern extremity of the kingdom. The out-turn of this 
 grain in favourable years is scarcely to be calculated. It not only 
 furnishes support to the native population of Siam and the 
 Peninsula, but supplies China, Manila, the Straits, and even Java 
 and Sumatra. 
 
 Burma and Cochin-China having the advantage of telegraphic 
 communication with the rest of the world, and their trade being 
 on a more regular footing, the rice from those countries is all. taken 
 away as soon as it is ready. In Siam the export, though far less on 
 the whole than in either of those countries, continues throughout 
 the year. There is little reason to believe that Siam will produce, 
 
326 CEREALS AND STARCH-PRODUCING PLANTS. 
 
 at least for some time to come, more rice tlian she does at present. 
 Nothing is done to encourage the cultivators, and a system of 
 advances made by officials on the crops is growing up, which 
 eventually takes all profit out of their hands. 
 
 Ceylon. — The production in Ceylon in 1884 was about 5,250,000 
 bushels of rice, and 1,000,000 of Indian corn, millet, and other 
 grain, but this is quite insufficient for the local demand, as about 
 5^ million bushels are annually imported. There are about 604,464 
 acres under rice in the island, and 150,000 under maize and 
 other cereals. 
 
 In CocTiin-CMna there are 1,870,000 acres under rice, and this is 
 yearly on the increase, as there is a large demand from surrounding 
 countries, especially China and Tonkin. In Pondicherry about 
 17,000 acres, and at Karikal 11,500 acres are under rice, and the 
 produce is about 3,600,000,000 kilos. Eice is the principal produce 
 of French Cochin-China. It is planted in almost every province, 
 except some of the northern districts. The export of this grain in 
 1883 and 1884 was 8,600,000 piculs each year. There are several 
 rice mills in Saigon and Oholm. 
 
 China. — Eice culture extends over all the provinces of China, 
 which combine abundance of water with the mild temperature 
 necessary for this grain. The provinces of the south yield two 
 harvests annually. There are many varieties, as white and red 
 rice, large and small grain, the upland or dry rice, and the 
 glutinous rice. The mountain rice (Oryza montana, Lour.), dis- 
 tinguished by its long grains and epidermis, would seem to be a 
 distinct species. 
 
 The mode of culture of this plant varies considerably ac- 
 cording to the climate and circumstances. The following is the 
 method employed among the Chinese, who cultivate it to a very 
 great extent in the midland and southern parts of their dominions, 
 and the low grounds of which are annually ilooded by the Kiang 
 and the Yellow rivers. These extensive inundations are occasioned 
 by the heavy rains which fall near the sources of these rivers, which 
 have their origin in the Himalayan chain of mountains. 
 
 When the waters have receded, the earth is covered with a 
 thick coating of slime and mud, which fertilizes the ground as 
 perfectly as the richest manure. As soon as this takes place, the 
 patient Chinese surround portions of this rich soil with clay em- 
 bankments, always selecting the neighbourhood of some running 
 stream. The ground is then carefully harrowed, and the operation 
 is repeated until it works well. In the meantime the rice intended 
 for seed has been soaked in water, in which a quantity of manure 
 has been stirred ; this has forwarded its growth so much that the 
 young plants appear above the ground in two days after they have 
 been deposited in the earth. It is necessary to remark that, during 
 all the early stages of its growth, and until the seed is well set, 
 the roots of the plant must be constantly under water ; to effect 
 this, different contrivances are resorted to, to keep up an adequate 
 supply of water. 
 
 As soon as the young plants have reached the height of six or 
 
EiCE. 327 
 
 seven inclies, they are pulled up, the tops are cut off, the roots 
 carefully washed, and the whole planted out in rows, about a foot 
 asunder. In the course of its growth, it is sprinkled with lime and 
 water, which is said to destroy insects and assist in enriching the 
 soil ; the greatest care is also taken to remove weeds by hand as 
 fast as they spring up. In these tedious operations the English 
 agriculturist can form no idea of the perseverance and attention of 
 the industrious Chinese. The first crop, for they obtain two in the 
 course of the year, is harvested about May or June, and the second 
 in October or November. 
 
 The sickle employed by the Chinese for the purpose of reaping 
 the rice is, like the European instrument, bent into the shape of a 
 hook, but the edge, instead of being smooth, is notched like that of 
 a saw. The straw and stubble left after the harvest are burnt on 
 the spot and left to enrich the land. 
 
 It is calculated that the aquatic rice only yields a return of 
 25 for oae, but that it might yield up to 80. The upland or 
 mountain rice is, however, said to be more profitable, for it is not 
 Tinusual to obtain 100 to 120 for one, This abundance is explained 
 by the habit which rice has to tiller, and a single grass will often 
 produce many stems, crowned with numerous spikes of grain. 
 
 Formosa,- — The chief agricultural crop in this island is rice, 
 grown in irrigated, or rather inundated fields. Much labour and 
 skill must have been bestowed upon the levelling of the fields and 
 the provision of the supply of water, which is conducted by artificial 
 channels from elevated springs, or from the upper courses of 
 streams. The rice fields of the plain of Bangka, ten or twelve miles 
 inland, are chiefly supplied by a stream which is conducted from a 
 higher part of the Tamsuy Eiver, and is carried across another 
 stream at Kiang-beh, by a wooden aqueduct of 100 yards or more 
 in length. Two harvests in each year are obtained from the 
 irrigated fields. In November or December, after the removal of 
 the autumn crop, the fields are ploughed up. The fields remain 
 vacant for about four months, save that about the end of January 
 seed is grown in nursery patches sheltered from the north-east. 
 In February or March, the fields are in course of preparation for 
 planting. Besides the plough, two kinds of harrows are used, 
 namely (1) the " blade harrow " (locally called " Kiva-pay "), a 
 wooden frame, holding beneath it two sets of metallic blades, 
 which make parallel cuts through the clods or mud as the imple- 
 ment is drawn along by a buffalo, the driver standing on the 
 frame; (2) the "hand harrow" (or "Chew-pay"), of iron, with a 
 long row of spikes. This seems to complete the stirring of the 
 ground. In the latter part of March, or the early and middle 
 part of April, the fields, now in a state of soft mud, are planted out 
 with the young rice plants. In taking up the strong plants from 
 the nursery patches, a sort of flat spatula is passed underneath, so 
 as to take off a very thin slice of earth with the plants upon it. 
 
 In the immediate neighbourhood of Tamsuy, about a fortnight 
 before the harvest, the rice is laid down, four adjacent rows being 
 folded together, and so laid that the ears of each cross-row shall 
 
328 CEREALS AND STARCH-PEODUCING PLANTS. 
 
 rest upon the cross-row in front of it. It does not appear that this 
 practice is followed in the more sheltered inland country. In July 
 the crop is reaped. The grain is thrashed out immediately in the 
 fields. There is a tub, within which is placed obliquely a set of 
 wooden bars. The operator takes by the lower end a handful of 
 rice stalks, and gives it a few smart blows upon the bars, detaching 
 the grain, which is received in the tub. A curtain, supported by 
 bamboo sticks, keeps the grain from flying overboard. The tub is 
 dragged forward as the progress of the work requires. The ground 
 is then speedily got ready for the planting out of the second crop, 
 the young plants of which are already growing upon nursery 
 patches. In preparing the fields for the second crop, the imple- 
 ment chiefly ,used in the locality is the " lah-tak." This is a 
 wooden roller, 4 or 5 feet long, and 12 or 15 inches in diameter, 
 very deeply grooved longitudinally, so that its rectum would 
 be a seven-pointed star, and mounted in a wooden frame, in 
 which the driver stands. The lah-tak is drawn by a buffaloi, 
 over or through the wet land, the rollers revolving and stirring 
 the soft surface by the action of its grooves and ridges. Th© 
 second crop is planted out in the latter part of July or early part 
 of August, and is reaped in or about the first week of November. 
 This completes one year. In some cases the second crop is planted 
 before the reaping of the first crop, the young plants being placed 
 among those of the first crop. The planting out of the first crop 
 in the spring, and the harvesting of the second crop in late autumn,, 
 are liable to interference from the chill blasts and driving rain of 
 the north-east monsoon. The frequent prevalence of wet weather 
 in winter is a well-known peculiarity of this region. In summer 
 there is sometimes an unfavourable continuance of dry weather. 
 In the plain of Bangka, and in the regions to the south, the seasons 
 are somewhat earlier, and there seems to be some difference in the- 
 mode of procedure. The dry ground rice, grown without irriga- 
 tion, locally called " e-neap," or " i-liap," may be seen occasionally- 
 inland, and it is said to be cultivated by the wild aborigines of the 
 mountains. It appears to be very fine rice, but to yield only one 
 crop a year, and not to succeed well if the weather be dry. There 
 are fiour-mills worked by the overshot water-wheel. The wind- 
 mill, which might be very useful in China, seems to be unknown 
 to the Chinese, as it was to the ancient civilized nations of th& 
 west. 
 
 A simple contrivance, called the " water-hammer," or " water- 
 pestle," is used for the pounding, to clean away the integument of 
 the rice. The pestle is fixed like a hammer-head in the end of a 
 beam which moves on an axis. The other end of the beam holds a 
 bowl or shallow bucket, into which falls a small stream of water. 
 When the bucket is full, its weight and the impulse of the falling 
 stream send it downward, raising the pestle ; but in sinking it 
 pours out its contents and passes out of the course of the stream. 
 The pestle then falls, bringing the bucket under the stream again,, 
 and so the process repeats itself. 
 
 Japan. — The surface of the paddy fields in Japan is estimated at 
 
EiCE. 329 
 
 about 4,000,000 acres; tlie annual yield is said to amount to 
 60,512,000 hectolitres, of a total value of £6,500,000 sterling. 
 
 The young rice plants are set out in the paddy fields in regular 
 rows of bunches towards the end of May or the beginning of June, 
 having been previously raised in some different place. The harvest 
 takes place in September or October. Japan exported in 1884, 
 1,137,059 piculs of rice, or double the exports of 1882. 
 
 Eice-wine, or sake, as it is locally called, forms the principal and 
 almost the only alcoholic beverage of Japan. It is made exclusively 
 of rice. In preparing the ferment the rice is washed, steamed during 
 several hours, and spread out on mats to lower the temperature ; 
 afterwards it is kept in a warm room for several days, where it is 
 mixed with a certain quantity of rice covered with fungi ; these 
 latter spread rapidly over the whole surface of the rice, The 
 fermenting wort is made of fresh rice, also steamed, and mixed 
 with water and a certain percentage of ferment in small tubs. A 
 large cooler is filled with these mixtures, and kept for about eight 
 days at a certain temperature, which is maintained by introducing 
 a vessel filled with hot water into it. The wort first gets a sour 
 taste, whereupon the temperature is lowered ; at a later period 
 the taste becomes bitter, and the wort is cooled so as to stop further 
 fermentation. In January the real brewing begins. Again fresh 
 rice is steamed, washed with a considerable percentage of both the 
 ferment and the wort, mixed with a sufficient quantity of water. 
 The whole is then transferred into big vats, frequently stirred, and 
 left, for about twenty days, at the expiration of which period it 
 usually acquires a vinous taste. The mash is now placed in bags 
 and pressed, and the liquid runs out into casks, where it settles, 
 whence it is tapped when quite clear. The clear liquid is then 
 heated up to a certain point and kept in large butts. This sake is 
 generally drank hot at meals. The residues and the spoiled sake 
 are distilled, and the alcoholic liquid used for making the " mirin " 
 or sweet liquor. The total production of sake is estimated at 
 150 million gallons. 
 
 Java. — There are i\-re.Q principal varieties of rice reckoned here : 
 Oryza glutinosa, or Ketan ; Oryza sativa, or paddy ; and sawa {Oryza 
 montana), with a variety called Paddy Girek. This last sort falls 
 from the stem immediately after being cut. Besides these principal 
 kinds, there are more than one hundred varieties, some of which 
 are cultivated in upland grounds, but the greater part in irrigated 
 lands. 
 
 The mean temperature varies very little in Java in the various 
 regions, even at different elevations. Eice grows as well at heights 
 3500 feet above the level of the sea, where at six in the morning, 
 before sunrise, the thermometer only marks 10° Eeaum., while in 
 the day it will ascend to 20°. The stalks are, however, less heavy 
 and the grain ripens quicker than in the interior, where it will 
 not ripen under eight months. 
 
 The yield cannot well be fixed, for this depends upon the kind 
 of rice and the nature of the soil. A return of 80 to 100 for one 
 is considered very good, although this is sometimes exceeded. 
 
330 
 
 CEREALS IJJD STAECH-PEODUCING PLANTS. 
 
 The time of sowing and transplanting varies, depending upon 
 the nature of the rains, as the sowing commences in the wet 
 season. The culture of rice is the principal occupation of the 
 people, as it is not only the chief source of their food, but there is 
 a surplus for export. 
 
 The table rice is called Beras ; the glutinous rice is employed 
 for making pastry ; the red rice is given to poultry and horses ; 
 the black rice is more remarkable for its colour than for its 
 quality. In Java, as in Sumatra, there are two different climates, 
 one in the lower regions, which are tropical, and those of the 
 higher plains and mountains, which resemble the climate of 
 Southern Europe. 
 
 The other islands of the Archipelago present a variable climate, 
 tempered by the vicinity to the sea. 
 
 Java .suffers much in competition with the other producing 
 countries, such as Siam, British India, China, and Japan, the 
 price of rice having declined one-half. 
 
 Borneo. — Both the soil and climate are here very favourable to 
 the growth of rice, but little more is grown at present than would 
 appear to suffice for home consumption. It is raised in almost 
 every part of the country. 
 
 In the Philippines the hill rice is sown in May, and cut in 
 October ; whilst that of the plains is planted generally in July or 
 August, and gathered in December and January. Eice forms the 
 staple article of food for the inhabitants. Its price varies according 
 to locality. 
 
 One quinon (or about 7 acres of land) in the province of 
 Bulacan, is said to produce on the average 250 to 300 cavans 
 (96 lbs. each) of paddy. Were the system of irrigation understood 
 and generally practised, the cultivation of rice might be con- 
 siderably aiigmented. 
 
 Africa. — The cultivation of rice undoutedly dates from the oldest 
 periods of which we have any historical record. " Cast thy bread 
 upon the waters : for thou shalt find it after many days,"* evidently 
 applies to rice, which in Egypt is always sown whilst the waters 
 of the Nile stiU cover the land, the retreatiag floods leaving a 
 rich deposit of thick alluvial silt, in which the rice vegetates 
 luxuriantly. 
 
 The chief rice grounds of Egypt are in the Delta, and the choicest 
 in the environs of Damietta. The beating and husking are effected 
 with American machines. The commerce in rice centres almost 
 exclusively at Alexandria, Damietta, and Eosetta. 
 
 Eice is cultivated abundantly by the negro tribes of East Africa 
 to the Monomoisy inclusive, bearing everywhere its Malay name 
 of " padi." Cademosta met with rice on the Gambia. And Lopes 
 (a.d. 1588) speaks of " a grain brought to Congo not long since 
 from the river Nilus, and called ' luco ' ; " in which word we readily 
 recognise the Egyptian name of rice. It is also grown on the west 
 coast of Africa, and in the islands of Ceylon, Eeunion, Mauritius, 
 and Madagascar. 
 
 * Ecolesiastes xi. 1. 
 
EICE. 331 
 
 Brazil.— Ya,st plains and even slopes of hills favour throughout 
 this empire the culture of rice, which sometimes grows to 3 feet 
 in height, and produces more grain than the fertile lands of India. 
 Maranham rice rivals that of Carolina, and on the marshes and 
 "banks of the rivers of Mato Grosso, or those of San Francisco and 
 others, it grows and yields excellent crops without labour. 
 
 Wallace, in his ' Travels on the Amazon,' thus describes the 
 process by which the rice is freed from its husk at Para : — " The grain 
 first passes between two mill-stones, not cut, as for grinding flour, 
 but worked flat, and by this the outer husk is rubbed off. It is then 
 conveyed between two boards of similar size and shape to the stones, 
 set all over with stiff iron wires about f of an inch long, so close 
 together that a grain of rice can just be pushed in between them. 
 The two boards very nearly touch another, so that the rice is 
 forced through the spaces of the wires, which rub off the rest of 
 the husk and polish the grain. A quantity, however, is broken by 
 this operation, so it is next shaken through sifters of different 
 degrees of fineness, which separate the dust from the broken rice. 
 The whole rice is then fanned to blow off the remaining dust, and 
 finally passes between rubbers covered with sheep-skin with the 
 wool on, which clean it thoroughly, and render it fit for the 
 market. The Para rice is remarkably fine, being equal in quality 
 to that of Carolina, but, owing to the carelessness with which it is. 
 cultivated, it seldom shows so good a sample. No care is taken in 
 choosing seed or in preparing the ground, and in harvesting a 
 portion is cut green because there are not hands enough to get it 
 in quickly when it is ripe, and rice is a grain which rapidly falls 
 out of the ear and is wasted. It is therefore seldom cultivated on 
 a large scale, the greater portion being the produce of Indians and 
 small landholders, who bring it to the mills to sell." 
 
 United States. — Rice was first introduced into Virginia in the 
 year 1547. In 1698 about 60 tons were shipped from Charleston 
 to England. In 1718 its cultivation was commenced in Louisiana 
 by the " Company of the West." The swamps of South Carolina 
 have proved well suited for the production of rice ; and not only 
 has the cultivation been effected with trifling labour, but the grain 
 produced possesses a remarkably fine quality, being decidedly larger 
 and handsomer than that of the countries whence the seed was 
 originally derived. 
 
 In 1840 the rice crop of the United States amounted to 
 80,841,422 lbs.; that of 1850 to 216,312,710 lbs., and that of 1860 
 to 187,140,173 lbs. The production of 1870 was but 73,600,000 lbs. 
 The countries south of the United States, viz. Cuba, Porto Eico, 
 and the West Indian Islands, Mexico, Venezuela, and other Central 
 and South American States, are the largest consumers of rice in 
 the world, with the exception of China. These countries, instead 
 of seeking their supplies from the United States, now draw them 
 mostly from England, and all because the rice cannot be cleaned 
 and dressed in the United States. The duty on raw rice drives it 
 to Liverpool to be cleaned. 
 
 The rice crop of Louisiana is an industry of increasing im- 
 
332 CEREALS AND STAECH-PEODUCING PLANTS. 
 
 portanoe, and particularly so from the fact that its cultivation 
 exacts the investment of but a limited amount of capital. When 
 fields are once divided by ditches, and a substantial culvert and 
 sluice gate, to admit the water from the river, are constructed, 
 every preparation for commencing the cultivation of this product 
 has been made. The entire cost for preparing the land and for 
 seed is estimated at 3^ dollars per acre. Its cultivation and shocking 
 amount to 1 3 dollars more, and the expenditure, 6 dollars, for thrash- 
 ing and handling, sums up 22 dollars for twelve barrels of rough 
 rice, which can be produced on one acre. Milling, freight, package, 
 insurance, drayage, and commission will amount to 3 dollars 40 cents 
 more, making a total expenditure of 36 dollars 40 cents for 1200 lbs. 
 of clean rice, worth 84 dollars. It will be seen that a net profit of 
 47 dollars 60 cents per acre is thus given, making allowance for 
 the wages of labourers and every other expense. Ploughing for 
 rice entails scarcely any labour, the earth being turned up but for 
 a few inches. The same is true of cultivation, the occasional 
 flooding of the land being the chief requisite. Only during the 
 harvest season is a large force required, and the adoption of the 
 newly-invented labour-saving machines would materially reduce 
 the estimated cost. Upland rice is an important crop not only for 
 home use, but pays well for its cultivation, and should be more 
 generally looked after than it is. 
 
 Sandy land, level and fertilized, is best for upland rice. Land 
 that will yield 25 or 30 bushels of corn per acre will produce 
 50 bushels of rough grain, that will, when hulled, leave 25 bushels 
 of clean rice, say 1,200 lbs., that, at 5d. a lb., would be worth £24, 
 and the straw is worth one-third more. 
 
 THE MILLETS, OE SMALL-SEEDED FOOD-GEAINS. 
 
 The word millet has a widely extended signification, and em- 
 braces the edible seeds of various grasses, very dissimilar in habit 
 and appearance. In popular parlance the term is applied to 
 almost all the small-seeded edible grains. In many countries 
 different millets form large and important food-crops, and in 
 some years considerable quantities have been imported into 
 the United Kingdom. In 1870, we received 74,635 cwts. of 
 millet, valued at £19,864, and 70,735 cwts. of Dhurra, valued 
 at £19,491 ; since then these grains are not particularised in the 
 imports. 
 
 In England the millets are very seldom eaten as food, and yet 
 among the great variety of seed in this extensive group of plants 
 (of which we as yet know comparatively little in an economic 
 point of view) many form articles of large consumption in parts of 
 Europe, Asia, Africa, and the West Indies. They pass under a 
 variety of names in different localities ; in Northern Africa the 
 large-seeded species is known as Dhurra, and this occasionally 
 reaches Mark Lane to be ground and mixed with flour. In the 
 West India Islands it is known as Guinea corn, in India as Jowarrie, 
 
THE MILLETS, OR SMALL FOOD-GBAINS. 
 
 333 
 
 in Southern Africa as Kaffir corn, in the United States as broom 
 corn, and so on. 
 
 Of these small food-grains Eoxburgh remarks : " It is probable 
 that through the whole of Southern Asia as many of the inhabitants 
 live on the various kinds of dry or small grain as upon rice, and 
 they are reckoned fully as wholesome as that is." 
 
 Dr. Torbes Watson, in his treatise ' On the Composition and 
 Eelative Value of the Food Grains of India,' also states that the 
 millets in India occupy a position second to none in the country, 
 and form the staple food of a larger number of the population than 
 perhaps all the other cereals put together. 
 
 A third part of the inhabitants of the globe feed upon the 
 different millets, especially those of Africa, the greater part of 
 Turkey, Persia, and India. In Japan about 36,000,000 bushels of 
 ■various kinds of millet are raised annually. Millet forms the 
 principal sustenance of the people of Bokhara. The grain there 
 yields so abundant a harvest that there is a large quantity for 
 ■export. The seeds of millet are excellent for food both for domestic 
 animals and man. The grain mixed with that of wheat gives an 
 excellent bread, though a little heavy; but generally it is boiled 
 with milk, like maize meal ; it swells considerably in water. 
 Millet fattens poultry in a very short time. The stalks serve for 
 heating ovens or for cooking food in countries where fuel is scarce. 
 The panicles of some, after the separation of the grain, form ex- 
 cellent brooms ; the sale of these brooms in Italy, in Spain, France, 
 and North America, is so remunerative that they enter largely into 
 the value of the profits of culture. 
 
 Millet is considered in Texas one of the very best substances 
 for feeding horses, oxen, milch cows, and sheep during the winter 
 months. The yield is very heavy; so productive has it been 
 found that in many regions of the State it nearly supersedes the 
 use of fodder. 
 
 The two genera Andropogon and Sorghum are closely allied. Some 
 of the best authorities consider the difference so slight as to 
 warrant their union into one. 
 
 The species are very imperfectly understood, and as yet badly 
 described. Professor Parlatore, in a collection shown at the 
 London Exhibition in 1862, enumerated the following species of 
 Sorghum : — 
 
 Sorghum compacium. 
 „ durra. 
 „ nigerricum. 
 „ nigrum (S. vulgar e). 
 „ vulgare (three varieties). 
 
 Sorghum saccharatum, Moenoh. 
 ,, caffrarum, Beauv. 
 ,, cernuum (album), Willd. 
 ,, elongatum, Beauv. 
 „ glycychilum. 
 
 The specific limits of the various Sorghums are not well ascer- 
 tained. They are, however, much cultivated in different parts of 
 Africa, in the West Indies, and various districts of North America 
 and India, and have been introduced into Australia. 
 
 The large Indian Millet or Guinea Corn (Andropogon Sorghum, 
 Brotero ; Sorghum vulgare, Persoon ; Holms Sorghum, Lin.), is grown 
 
334 CEREALS AND STARCH-PEODUCING PLANTS. 
 
 in the warmer parts of Asia, and is very prolific ; the grain can be 
 converted into bread, porridge, and otber preparations of food ; it 
 is the yellow oholnm and jowarrie of some districts of India. This 
 is a beautiful grass, resembling in appearance Indian com. It 
 bears a small yellow seed, which when crushed makes a good 
 auxiliary food for cattle or sheep. It grows on all kinds of 
 cultivated soil, but best on those that are thoroughly cultivated 
 and ^ve^. manured. Indeed, few crops will pay better for high 
 cultivation. This valuable plant has attracted a great deal of 
 attention during the last few years, and has been highly re- 
 commended as a fodder crop. It is best suited for cultivation in 
 countries where the temperature seldom falls below 60°. It will 
 certainly grow in much colder climates, but scarcely pays expenses. 
 This forms with rice the staple food of the Madras Presidency, 
 with rice and bajree that of the Bombay Presidency, and with 
 wheat that of the North- West Provinces, Oudh, Punjab, and the 
 Central Provinces. 
 
 This millet may be said to be the chief dry grain crop of 
 India, although in some parts of the South Eaggy (Eleusine 
 corocana) is now commonly cultivated. It is very nutritious, 
 and contains about 9 per cent, of nitrogenous matter, and 70 of 
 starch. It is cultivated at Ghevesso and Turin for the sugar 
 obtained from the stem. This product is noticed in the description 
 of " Sugar," p. 218. 
 
 This hardy species of miUet {Sorglmm), known as Kaffir corn, is 
 raised in great abundance in all parts of the colony of Natal by the 
 natives, for food, and the manufacture of their native beer. Were 
 its uses for distillation known, a larger demand ought to be created 
 for this easily grown corn. 
 
 This grain is universally cultivated, and is in fact in some parts 
 the principal support of man and beast. It will grow upon most 
 soils, but luxuriates in the black soil. There are several varieties, 
 but principally one with red seeds and one with white. Some 
 botanists recognize at least three species in cultivation, more or 
 less extensively, in India — S. vulgare, Pers. ; S. cernuwm, Willd. ; 
 and S. hicolor, Moench ; whilst others regard them as mere varieties 
 of the one species, which is extensively grown over the world, 
 and exhibits, like all largely cultivated plants, a great tendency to 
 variation. 
 
 Dr. J. F. Watson gives the composition of this seed as follows : — 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Water 11-95 
 
 Nitrogenous substances 8 • 64 
 
 Dextrine 3-82 
 
 Sugar 1-46 
 
 Fat 3-90 
 
 Starch ' 70-23* 
 
 * With husks. 
 
 Prom an analysis of the half-grown plant raised in England, 
 Dr. Voelcker found that it contained about 2^ per cent, of flesh- 
 
RED CHOLUM. 
 
 335 
 
 forming matters, and aliout 11 per cent, of fat, or heat-producing 
 matters. The composition was : — 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 "Water 85-17 
 
 Plesh-forming matters 2'55 
 
 Fat or heat-producing matters 11-14 
 
 luorganio matters 1-14 
 
 Total 100-00 
 
 There was little or no sugar in the half-grown plant, but when 
 three-quarters grown, there was as much as 5 • 85 per cent, of sugar 
 in the lower part of the stem. We have no analysis of Indian-grown 
 plants ; but it may be safely inferred, that if such a large amount 
 of sugar was present in plants grown in a climate so ill suited for 
 the production of sugar as England, a very much larger quantity 
 would be found in plants grown in the tropics. 
 
 Among the food-grains grown in the Madras Presidency, there 
 were in 1870 devoted to — 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Ghobim (SorgTiwm vulgare) 4,855,000 
 
 'Ra.ggj (_Eleusine corocana) .. .. .. 1,611,000 
 
 YeT&gn (Panicum miliacev/m 1,605,000 
 
 Cumboo (Penicillaria spicatd) .. .. 3, 197, 000 
 
 CanalvL {Panicum italicwm) 1,018,000 
 
 Millet of various kinds 614,000 
 
 Total 12,900,000 
 
 From experiments carried on in India with plants as fodder- 
 producers, the following were found to be the results : — 
 
 Yellow Cholum, dry crop 
 
 „ wet „ 
 
 Chinese cane (^Sorghum saocJiaratum)) 
 
 dry crop / 
 
 Cumboo, dry crop 
 
 Weight of 
 
 Fodder per 
 
 Acre. 
 
 lbs. 
 10,000 
 12,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 Days 
 required to 
 produce a 
 
 Crop. 
 
 90 
 60 
 
 80 
 
 75 
 
 In Ceylon there are about 72,762 acres under these small grains. 
 
 In India where rice is not cultivated as the staple food, the 
 millets are exceedingly important. There are under culture with 
 other food grains (including pulses) 71,795,000 acres. 
 
 Eed Cholum. — This is tjie S. {Andropogon} Oafframm, Kunth, of 
 the Australians; it is a variety of the white cholum, and is 
 supposed to have been originally obtained from the south-eastern 
 coast of Africa. In America it is by many considered a better 
 sugar-producer than the Chinese species, and aU agree that its 
 sugar is much more easy to analyse. 
 
336 
 
 CEREALS AND STARCH-PRODUCING PLANTS. 
 
 S. cernuum, Willd., Andropogon cernuus, Eoxb., of ■which the 
 grain is white, forms the statt' of life of the mountaineers beyond 
 Bengal. It is much cultivated in India and other tropical 
 countries. 
 
 Sorghum or Dhurra is produced in considerable quantities in 
 middle and lower Egypt for making bread. Being 40 or 50 per 
 cent, cheaper in price than wheat, it is more commonly the food of 
 the fellah or peasant than any other grain. The late Professor 
 Johnston states that from his analysis Dhurra flour contains 11 J 
 per cent, of gluten. 
 
 Schweinfurth tells us that a large yellow- grained variety of 
 S. vulgare is known in the Khartoum markets as Soffra. The 
 panicles are about nine inches long and four in diameter. In 
 Algeria two species are grown, the Sorghum scoparium, Lin., with a 
 red grain ; and the S. vulgare, Lin., with a white grain. It is sown 
 in April, in good deep soil, when not irrigated, or in June, when 
 water can be had. These plants are, however, remarkable for 
 their resistance to drought and their power of vegetation. 
 
 The grain of the S. vulgare has a high food value both for man 
 and animals. The Arabs merely cut off the panicles, and leave 
 the green stalks standing, to feed their cattle. The grain is 
 known in North Africa under the names of bechna, dari, and 
 durra. 
 
 The dari from Jaffa is considered the best in the Mediterranean, 
 on account of its whiteness and hardness. It used to be a large 
 article of export from thence to the United Kingdom for feeding 
 and distilling purposes. Dari is used by the poorer classes there 
 for making bread. 
 
 In 1870 the land under culture in Natal with this Sorghum and 
 the produce were as follows : — 
 
 By Datives . . 
 „ Europeans 
 
 45,047 
 50 
 
 172,077 
 334 
 
 The muid is nearly three bushels. There were also forty-eight 
 acres under other millets, which yielded 1091 cwts. of grain. In 
 3 875 the land under millets was only 36,162 acres. 
 
 Sorghum (Andropogon) saccharatum. This plant can be advan- 
 tageously utilized for preparing treacle. For this purpose the sap 
 is expressed at the time of flowering and simply evaporated ; the 
 yield is from 100 to 300 gallons from the acre. 
 
 This sugar-producing millet has been already alluded to at 
 p. 218. 
 
 Broom Corn or Millet (Sorghum Bhurra). — Whether this is only 
 a, variety of Sorghum vulgare, the Holcus Dhurra, Porsk., or a 
 distinct species, it is impossible to state. Its seed-panicle is, how- 
 
ITALIAN MILLET. 337 
 
 ever, loose and spreading instead of close and compact, like the 
 principal kinds of Sorghum vidgare. One species of Sorghum, 
 described as Sorghum Dhurra, is grown in Italy, in the United 
 States, Australia, and other countries, chiefly for its panicles as a 
 brush-making fibre. 
 
 There are many thousand acres under culture with it in the 
 United States. The following is the mode of culture pursued in 
 America :— 
 
 The seed is sown with a seed-harrow or drill, as early in spring 
 as the state of the ground will admit, in rows 3 J feet apart. As 
 soon as the corn is above ground it is hoed, and soon after thinned, 
 so as to leave the stalks 2 or 3 inches apart. It is only hoed in the 
 row, in order to get out the weeds that are close to the plants, the 
 remaining space being left for the harrow and cultivator, which 
 are run in frequently so as to keep down the weeds. The cultiva- 
 tion is finished by running a small, double mould-board plough, 
 rather shallow, between the rows. 
 
 The broom corn is not left to ripen, hut is cut while it is quite 
 green, and the seed not much past the milk stage. It was formerly 
 the practice to lop down the tops of the corn, and let it hang some 
 time, that the brush might become straightened in one direction. 
 Now the tops are not lopped till the brush is ready to cut. A set 
 of hands goes forward and lops or bends the tops to one side, and 
 another set follows immediately and cuts off the tops at the place 
 at which they are bent, and a third set gather the out tops into 
 carts or waggons, which take them to the factory. Here they are 
 first sorted over, and parcelled out into small bunches, each bunch 
 being mad-e up into brush fibre of equal length. The seed is then 
 taken off by an apparatus, with teeth like a hatchel. The machine 
 is worked by six horses, and cleans the brush very rapidly. It is 
 then spread thin to dry, on racks put up in buildings designed for 
 the purpose. In about a week, with ordinary weather, it becomes 
 so dry that it will bear to be packed closely. 
 
 Carpet brooms, velvet brushes, and other kinds of brushes are 
 made of the panicles. In Victoria broom corn and millet valued 
 at £7000 are imported. 
 
 Panicums. — Panicum is the richest in species among the grasses. 
 At present about three hundred well-defined species are known, 
 chiefly tropical and sub-tropical. Many are good fodder plants, whilst 
 the seeds of several furnish palatable and nutritious table food. 
 
 In Algeria the following are grown : — P. glomeratum rvhrum ; 
 ordinary millet (P. miliaceum) ; the brown Pekin (P. Pehinensis) ; 
 the Persian millet (P. Persicum) ; another with a large spike 
 (P. monostaeJiyum, H. B.) ; bristling millet (P. ecMnatum) ; P. 
 eriogonum ; and the Hungarian millet (P. Germanicum or Italicum). 
 
 Italian Millet (Panicum Italicum ; Setaria Italica). — There are 
 three varieties of Italian millet. This grain is cultivated in many 
 parts of India, and delights in a light, elevated, tolerably dry soil. 
 It is much prized by the native Indians of all descriptions, who 
 
338 CEEEALS AND STAECH-PEODUCING PLANTS. 
 
 make cakes of it, and also a kind of porridge ; for the purposes of 
 pastry it is little if at all inferior to wheat, and when boiled with 
 milk forms a light and pleasant meal for invalids. The Brahmins 
 hold it in high estimation, indeed more than anj' other grain. The 
 seed-time for the first crop is June or July, and the harvest in 
 September. A second crop may be had from the same ground 
 between September and the end of January. This plant is com- 
 monly cultivated in the Himalayas, occasionally up to 6500 feet. 
 It is grown as a dry crop, but not to any large extent. It forms a 
 light and easily digested article of food. 
 
 Chena or Indian Millet ; Veeagoo (Panicum miliaceum, Lin.). — 
 This does not appear to be a crop worth much attention. The 
 grain is very inferior, and fetches a low price in the bazaars of 
 India, while it is a very slow grower, and occupies the land a long 
 time. Still it is extensively cultivated in most parts of India. 
 In the Deccan it is sown in June or July by hand, is sometimes 
 transplanted ; requires weeding in August and September, and is 
 reaped in November or December. The grain contains about 
 9 per cent, of nitrogenous matter, and 66 of starch, is considered 
 digestible and nutritioiis, and in some parts is mostly consumed 
 unground. 
 
 It is grown in Sicily, where it is called milium, or little millet, 
 and-,there are two well-known varieties, one with brown seed, and 
 the other yellow-coloured. 
 
 Shamay. — In Bengal Panicum miliare, Lam., is the species 
 usually known as little millet. It would seem to be a native of 
 India and China, and is by no means extensively cultivated. In 
 the Punjab it is known as huthi. In South India it is pretty 
 generally used as an article of food. 
 
 Panicum colonum, Lin. ; Oplismenus colonus, Beauv. — This small 
 grain millet, which grows wild in parts of India in sufficient 
 plenty, is collected in times of scarcity to be employed as food. 
 
 Sawa Millet (Oplismenus frumentaceus, Kunth. ; Panicum, fru- 
 mentaceum, Eoxb.). — This plant is much less cultivated in India 
 than P. miliaceum. It delights in a light, tolerably dryish soil ; 
 the same ground, according to Dr. Eoxburgh, yields two crops 
 between the first of the rains in June and July and the end of 
 January. The seed is wholesome and nourishing ; it is an article 
 of diet amongst the lower classes of the natives, and yields about 
 fifty-fold ia a good soil. The seed is light and easy of digestion ; 
 it makes very palatable puddings, which children appear more 
 partial to than those made of rice, to which grain, when boiled, it 
 bears a striking resemblance, both in taste and appearance. 
 
 CuMBOO OE Spiked Millet (Penicillaria spicata, Swartz. ; Pennise- 
 tum typTioideum, Eich. ; Solcus spicatus, Lin. ; Panicum spicatum, 
 Eoxb.). — Terminal cylindric spike erect, as thick as a man's 
 thumb, from six to nine inches long ; seed obovate, pearl-coloured, 
 
EAGQY, OR EAGGEE. 339 
 
 smooth, with hilum. It is culti-^ated almost in all parts of India, 
 «xc6pt Eastern Bengal, and used by the poorer classes in Behar, 
 the North-West Provinces, and Punjal). 
 
 This plant yields about 668 lbs. of seed and 3 tons of straw per 
 acre. In some localities the grain is called bajra or bajree, and, 
 with the usual adjuncts of a little milk, &c., forms the chief article 
 of diet of a very large number. 
 
 Compared with rice it is considerably more nutritious, containing 
 about lOj^ per cent, of gluten, and giving a proportion between 
 the carbonaceous and nitrogenous compounds of from 7 to 7J per 
 cent, of the former to one of the latter ; whereas the kind of rice 
 most rich in gluten contains only about 8J per cent, of that sub- 
 stance, and gives the proportion of a little more than 9 of the 
 non-nitrogenous to the nitrogenous, thus involving the addition of 
 a large quantity of some pulse or extra nitrogenous substance to 
 maize — ^the proportion between the flesh-forming and heat and 
 fat-yielding constituents. It is this grain which is chiefly used 
 for the Oouscoussou of Northern Africa. The seed may be planted 
 in the close of April ; in September or October the seed-spikes 
 ripen ; the stalks, chopped, are fed to cattle. With the decorti- 
 cated pith of the stalk a pleasant beer can be made by the addition 
 of hops. 
 
 This grain is, from the shape of its seed-spikes, called caXidle 
 millet. It is the " benitche " of the Arabs of Africa. The spiked 
 millet is as common in Africa as in Asia, at a distance bearing 
 some resemblance to our indigenous cat's-tail grass, or Timothy, in 
 the form and size of its spikes. Many stems often proceed from 
 the same root, and these are from three to six feet in height. The 
 fruit-spike is dense, compact, and thicker than a man's thumb, 
 from six to nine inches in length in India, or twice as long as it 
 grows in Africa. Except Sorghum, this is the most commonly 
 cultivated grain in India. 
 
 Eoxburgh says that it is sown about the beginning of the rains, 
 that is about the end of June or beginning of July, and is ripe in 
 September. It is much cultivated in the higher lands on the coast 
 of Ooromandel. The soil it likes is one that is loose and rich ; in 
 such it yields upwards of a hundred-fold ; the same ground wiU 
 yield a second crop of this or some other sort of dry grain during 
 October, November, December, and January. 
 
 The stalk is almost useless as fodder when dry, but cattle are 
 sometimes fed with it when green. The seeds are rather heating, 
 and are used in cold weather mostly as flour. In Africa a kind of 
 beer is said to be made from the malted grain. 
 
 The percentage composition of the grain is : — 
 
 Water 11-80 
 
 Nitrogenous substances 10 '13 
 
 Fat 4-6S 
 
 "Water 71-75 
 
 Eaggy, oe Eaggee (Eleusine corocana, Gaert.). — This grain is of 
 high importance to the poor of India, from its hardiness and from 
 
 z 2 
 
340 CEREALS AND STARCH-PEODUCING PLANTS. 
 
 the abundant return it gives. It will grow on almost any soil, 
 but the yield will be proportioned to the quality of the soil and t* 
 the attention bestowed on the cultivation. The seeds are usually 
 ground into iiour by the hand-mill, this being chiefly a bread- 
 grain. In the south it is very largely cultivated, and extends- 
 north over the Punjab plains to the Himalaya, where it is fie- 
 quently found as far west as the Chenab, up to 6000 and 7000 
 feet. This grain is the chief article of food amongst the poor and 
 labouring classes in Mysore and other parts of Southern India, 
 and is very nutritious; coolies and others performing hard out^ 
 door work prefer it to every other sort of grain. It is usually 
 stored in pits, and will keep good in them for many years. Eleu- 
 sine siricta is said to be the most cultivated species of the two, as it 
 is found to be the most productive. 
 
 KoDA Millet (Paspalum scrohiculatum, Lin.). — This is a common 
 and cheap grain, grown to some extent in most parts of India. It 
 delights in a dry and loose soil. The seed is an article of diet 
 with the Hindoos, particularly those who inhabit the moun- 
 tains and most barren parts of the country, for it is in such 
 districts it is chiefly cultivated, being an unprofitable crop, and 
 not sown where others more beneficial will thrive. 
 
 Another undescribed species, believed to be P. exale, is grown 
 in Sierra Leone and other places on the West African coast, where 
 it is known under the names of hungry rice and fundungi. 
 
 Tefp (Poa Ahjssinica, Jacq. ; Eragrostis Ahyssinica, Link.). — There- 
 are several varieties of this millet ; though the seed is small, it is- 
 abundant, and much used by the natives of the Soudan ; and also, 
 forms the bread- corn of Abyssinia. 
 
 STAECH-PEODUOING PLANTS. 
 
 Starch is the chemical and common name, in some instances, for 
 the feoula or amylaceous matter washed out from difierent parts of 
 several plants, such as the seeds, roots, and cellular tissue of the 
 stems. It is one of the most abundantly diffused of all proximate 
 vegetable principles. 
 
 Some kinds of starch are prepared for application in the arts, 
 and by the laundress for stiffening linen ; others are more powdery, 
 and are used for food, such as the arrowroots and corn flours ; others, 
 again are granulated like the sagos and tapiocas. 
 
 The colour of starch is usually pure white; in some cases a tinge 
 of blue can also be seen, as in some wheat starch, while that 
 from the potato has a slightly yellowish cast. The fineness of the 
 starch powder depends on the size of the individual grains, except 
 where the grains are artificially agglomerated, as in sago and 
 tapioca ; the former is in small, round, white or brownish grains, 
 while tapioca is in larger, irregular, white fragments. The in- 
 dividual starch grains vary much in size, though they are pretty 
 
AEEOWEOOT. 341 
 
 ■constant in any given species. Oat, rice, and rye starches repre- 
 ■sent the smallest grains, while those of maize starch are much 
 larger. The medium size is found in the grains of wheat and 
 arrowroot starch; the largest grains are found in potato and Canna 
 starch. In the last two the unaided eye can distinguish the 
 largest individual grains, but in nearly all others they can be seen 
 only under the microscope. The specific gravity is more than that 
 of water, though it varies much with the state of dryness of the 
 starch. Its average is given by Wiesner at 1 • 5 ; it, however, 
 varies with the different species of starch. The grains contain 
 considerable water — as high as 30 per cent, when fresh, reduced 
 sometimes to 7 per cent, when air-dry. 
 
 Under the microscope the starch grains present the form of 
 minute grains of a form and structure characteristic for each 
 species. 
 
 They are for the most part bounded by curved surfaces— spheri- 
 cal, elliptical, egg- shaped, bent-shaped, &c. — but sometimes have 
 flat surfaces as well. They usually contain a dark spot, line, 
 or cross within, which is sometimes central, sometimes eccentric. 
 This spot is called the nucleus, and is generally small and round 
 in starch found in fresh tissues, slit or cross-shaped in grains 
 which have been dried. 
 
 Arrowroot and starches are not now individually named in the 
 Board of Trade returns, but are included under the head of 
 " Farinaceous substances and manufactures therefrom." The value 
 of the imports in 1886 was £80,9,856, of which £662,526 came from 
 foreign countries. The following may be taken to have been 
 potato starch : — Germany, £364,625 ; Holland, Belgium, France, 
 and Austria, £107,360; Italy, £43,871 (probably macaroni) ; Brazil, 
 £3505, (cassava); United States, £26,918 (starch and corn meal). 
 Prom the British West Indian Islands £44,990 was doubtless 
 arrowroot, and also £9397 from South Africa, and £2632 from 
 Bermuda; £183,654 from British India was chiefly sago. 
 
 Arrowroot. — The demand for colonial arrowroots has not pro- 
 gressed, owing, probably, to the imitation potato starch, and the 
 corn and rice flours or starches so largely sold. 
 
 In 1860 arrowroot to the value of £42,404 was imported into 
 the United Kingdom ; in 1870 this had dropped to £33,063, but 
 in 1876 recovered to £56,143. In 1876 the imports into London 
 were larger, amounting to 16,673 casks and 9102 boxes and tins. 
 The imports now are about to the value of £54,000. 
 
 Bermuda. — The arrowroot from this island has always been 
 'Considered the finest and the best quality made, its superiority 
 arising either from the nature of the water or soil, or from greater 
 ■care in the manufacture. In 1851 arrowroot to the value of 
 £10,334 was shipped ; this gradually declined to £3000 or £4000 
 in 1866, and now the culture has been almost abandoned and given 
 way to more profitable crops. 
 
 In Bermuda arrowroot is planted in May, and is ripe in March 
 and April ; the time for manufacturing is in April and May, when 
 
342 CEEEALS AND STAECH-PEODUCING PLANTS. 
 
 the cold winds set in, ranging from north-west to east. The whole 
 process is done in water ; the root is grated or torn into a pulp, 
 this is strained through three different sieves, each one finer than 
 the other, left to settle in the bottom of the tubs, then collected 
 into one tub, and passed through the fine sieve into clean water. 
 When settled the brown starch is taken off the top of the white. 
 This brown starch is much more astringent and efficacious in 
 bowel complaints than the white, and is locally preferred. The 
 arrowroot is then passed through more clean water and a fine 
 sieve for the last time, and settles in the tub. It is taken out, 
 placed on cloths to harden, and then broken up fine on trays, and 
 dried in the wind and sun. Pour barrels of peeled and cleaned 
 roots will yield in good seasons about 100 lbs. of good arrowroot, 
 and will take from five to six puncheons of clear seft or tank 
 water ; it will be about twenty-four hours in the water from the 
 time of grinding till it is upon the cloths or drainers. 
 
 Jamaica. — The quantity of land under culture with arrowroot 
 varies. In 1869 there were 65^ acres ; in 1881 it had dropped to 
 25 acres. The exports in 1866 were 70,204 lbs., since then they 
 have been as follows :— 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1872 13,328 
 
 1879-80 4,480 
 
 1884-85 1,008 
 
 Lis. 
 
 1885-86 1,000 
 
 1886-87 1,693 
 
 When made by the labourers in the West Indies on a small 
 scale, arrowroot is prepared much in the same manner as potato 
 starch in this country for domestic use. The only implements 
 required are a grater and wooden troughs and trays ; when made 
 on a larger scale, as on the estates of proprietors, the crushing of 
 the root and the reducing it to a pulp are effected by simple and 
 cheap machinery (a wheel and rollers) worked by water. The 
 arrowroot is dried under sheds. Little or no use is at present 
 made of the pulp after the extraction of the starch by lixiviation, 
 but probably a serviceable paper might be made of it at a trifling 
 cost. 
 
 In St. Kitts arrowroot and tous-les-mois are produced to som& 
 small extent. 
 
 St. Vincent. — The amount of arrowroot exported from this island 
 is now about 2,000,000 lbs. 
 
 Many circumstances have promoted this increased culture. When 
 it began, the price of the article was high, and the grower obtained 
 a largely remunerative profit ; its culture was not laborious ; it 
 was subject to few risks ; it did not for its success require rich 
 land or much manure ; there was a constant and increasing demand 
 for it ; and, in consequence of the abundance of pure water, great 
 facilities were afforded for the manufacture, and that by a process 
 so simple, easy, and cheap as to require little skill in conducting 
 it, and scarcely any capital. 
 
 St. Vincent is the only arrowroot-producing colony that has kept 
 steadily progressive. There wiU necessarily be slight fluctuations 
 in the out-turn, according to season, &c. 
 
AEROWEOOT. 343 
 
 On many parts of the West African coast arrowroot is grown 
 and prepared. The Canary Islands, Liberia, Lagos, Sierra Leone, 
 and other districts produce it, but not in any quantity for shipment. 
 
 Natal. — The cultivation and manufacture of arrowroot has been 
 very largely carried on in Natal for many years. It was a great 
 favourite with early colonists, because it grows readily on coast 
 lands unsuited for sugar and coffee. Its cultivation requires only 
 a moderate capital, and yields quick and good returns. The root 
 may be grown many years in succession in the same ground. 
 
 The land to be planted is well ploughed and broken up at the 
 commencement of the rains ; old ground is better than new. The 
 sets are taken from old stools, planted thickly in a simple plough 
 furrow, and covered over with earth turned out of a parallel 
 furrow. 
 
 A sort of nursery is formed in this way: In October and 
 November the shoots are planted out in holes made about twelve 
 or fourteen inches apart, the shoot is placed in the hole, set up- 
 right and pressed round with earth. Ten men, working methodi- 
 cally in gangs, can plant an acre in a day. The only care needed 
 is to keep the ground between the plants free from weeds by hand 
 hoeing. The soil best adapted for the cultivation should be fairly 
 good, but light ; old bush or forest land is generally very excel- 
 lent ; stony and heavy soils are unsuitable, because the tubers are 
 apt to get clogged in it, their growth is stunted, and it is very 
 difScult to dig them up. 
 
 The crop is known to be ripe when the leaves fade ; at that 
 time the tubers and offsets are densely filled with starch, and 
 ready to be taken from the ground for manufacture. They are 
 dug up and turned over with a fork, while pickers follow and 
 shake off the earth and pick out the bulbs and collect them in a 
 basket; one forker keeps four pickers employed, and one picker 
 can deal with from 250 lbs. to 300 lbs. of tubers in a day. 
 
 About ten acres should be cultivated the first year, and by the 
 time the produce is harvested, there ought to be twenty acres of 
 ground broken up ready for planting, and calculated to yield a 
 double income in the following years, with a decreasing expen- 
 diture. 
 
 The manufacture requires care rather than skill, and the crop is 
 less affected by vicissitudes of weather than almost any other that 
 can be produced. The manufactory buildings may be of the 
 simplest description: all that is required being free ventilation 
 and protection from wet. The abundant water-power of the 
 colony affords ready means of working the machinery. A water- 
 wheel of 4 horse-power is sufficient to manufacture from 4 owts. 
 to 5 cwts. of starch per day ; fifteen Kafir labourers suffice for the 
 management of 26 acres of plantation. As a drawback, on the 
 other hand, the market for the starch is very uncertain and apt to 
 be easily overstocked, and the starch itself is so delicate in quality 
 that it is very liable to deteriorate and become damaged, even 
 after it has been packed and shipped. The greatest cleanliness is 
 required in its preparation. 
 
344 CEREALS AND STAECH-PEODUCING PLAKTS. 
 
 In the process of manufacture tlie tubers are pressed against a 
 revolving cylinder of rough tin (resembling a nutmeg grater), and 
 the raspings are then subjected to repeated washings ; the fibrous 
 refuse rises to the surface and is skimmed away, while the pure 
 si arch settles into a white paste, which is dried on calico trays, 
 then broken into lumps and packed in boxes for market. 
 
 During the manufacture four hands are needed in the drying- 
 house and three in the grinding-house. The arrowroot should be 
 quite cold and ready to pack on the fifth day. As it readily 
 contracts moisture from the atmosphere, it must not be packed in 
 damp weather, and it should never be forgotten that the starch is 
 apt to deteriorate in taste and colour if kept in proximity to sub- 
 stances that emit a strong odour, such as hides, sugar, or any 
 decomposing organic matter. 
 
 The yield of starch is tolerably much the same whether the 
 growing season has been wet or dry. In wet seasons the tuber is 
 large and soft, but its greater size is made up of moisture, pulp, 
 and fibre, and not of starch. About 15 per cent, of starch should 
 be obtained from good bulbs, and this percentage would give one- 
 third of a ton (worth about £13) of starch per acre. The refuse is 
 excellent for manure. 
 
 In selecting the land and site of operations, it is obvious that the 
 close neighbourhood of a good stream of water must be secured. 
 
 Much less capital is required for the manufacture of arrowroot 
 than for that of any other article of tropical produce. No more is 
 necessary than such as will just provide a residence for the planter, 
 the simple buildings and machinery for the factory, the implements 
 of husbandry, and food and wages for the labourers during the 
 planting, manuring, and manufacture of the crop. One hundred 
 acres of land should be purchased at from £100 to £200. A rude 
 dwelling and outbuildings may be erected for £70 or £80 ; machinery 
 and manufacturing appliances, £75 ; implements of husbandry and 
 oxen, £120 ; wages and food of eight Kafir labourers for a year, 
 £96 ; cost of living for the planter and bis family until the return 
 begins to come in, from £120 to £150. Taken altogether, a handy, 
 industrious, and thrifty man may reckon upon making good his 
 standing with arrowroot, if he starts with a capital of about £600. 
 
 Maranta arundinacea is the species grown. In Natal, in 1864, 
 from 226 acres, the quantity obtained was 2,347 cwts. In 1870 
 there were 386 acres under arrowroot. 
 
 The exports in 1883 were 2,053 cwts., worth £3,317. 
 
 India. — The Maranta arundinacea was introduced into India about 
 1840 by Mr. Elphinstone, and is now cultivated in many districts, 
 especially in the Madras Presidency. Arrowroot is in extensive use 
 in India, and some is also shipped to Europe. 
 
 AusTEALiAN Areowroot. — Attention has of late years been 
 directed to the production of arrowroot in several of the Australian 
 colonies, facilities having been afforded by the culture and distri- 
 bution of the several plants from the excellent botanic gardens at 
 Melbourne, Sydney, and Brisbane. 
 
AUSTRALIAN AREOWROOT. 3-i5 
 
 Ganna Aehiras, Gillies, native of Mendoza, is one of the few extra- 
 tropical Cannas eligible for arrowroot cultivation. 
 
 G. glauca, Lin., and G. coccinea, Aitkin, yield, with some other 
 Cannas, the particular arrowroot called tous-les-mois. G. flaccida, 
 Eoscoe, of Carolina, is probably also available for arrowroot. 
 
 G. edulis, Ker, the Adeira of Peru, is one of the hardiest of the 
 arrowroot plants, for seeds, even if many years old, will germinate, 
 and are commonly called Indian shot. 
 
 This species has been extensively introduced into Australia, and, 
 according to Baron Mueller, yields an excellent starch at Melbourne, 
 Western Port, Lake Wellington, Ballarat, and other localities, 
 from plants supplied by the Melbourne Botanic Garden. 
 
 The gathering of the roots in Australia is effected about April, 
 The plants can be set in ordinary ploughed land. The starch 
 grains, it is well known, are remarkably large. 
 
 New South Wales. — Maranta nobilis appears to be the species 
 chiefly cultivated for arrowroot in New South Wales. 
 
 In 1885 there were 68 acres, which produced 3,070 lbs. 
 
 Queensland. — This colony appears to be particularly suited for 
 the cultivation of arrowroot, which is gradually supplanting the 
 imported West Indian product in the Australian market. A very 
 small price, about 3d. per lb., remunerates the grower who manu- 
 factures on a large scale. The plants grown are Maranta arundi- 
 nacea and Ganna edulis. Manihot utilissima and Janipha, and a 
 Japanese variety of yam, M. Jajponica, are also cultivated. 
 
 The cultivation and manufacture of arrowroot is becoming an 
 iznportant affair in this colony. The export of the article has gone 
 on increasing for the last five or six years. In 1863 it scarcely had 
 an existence ; in 1870 the export had reached 30,000 lbs. But 
 the quantity exported is small in comparison with that con- 
 sumed in the colony ; for it is in favour with all classes of the 
 community, and forms an easily digested, but nourishing and most 
 appropriate article of food during their long, hot summer. As the 
 majority of farmers on the coast lands, and not a few of the inland 
 farmers as well, have a patch of roots and a mill and appliances 
 for reducing them, the total quantity of starch made will probably 
 be about 100,000 lbs. 
 
 Pacific Isles. — A plant largely cultivated is the Taceapinnatifida, 
 Forster, which is indigenous to the sandy shores of the South Sea 
 Islands, and is known in Oceania, but especially in Tahiti, under the 
 native name of Pia. This plant is, however, now widely diffused. 
 It is met with in China and Cochin-China, according to Loureiro, 
 is cultivated in the Moluccas, Arracan, and other parts of India, 
 iind at Zanzibar, and is found in large quantities in Cook's Archi- 
 pelago, the Hervey Islands, at Eaiatea, Huahine, Bora-Bora, 
 Maupti, the Hawaiian Islands, the Samoas, Tonga, the Fiji 
 Islands, &c. The tubercles bear much resemblance to the potato, 
 but, unlike that root, the fecula is found chiefly in the centre and 
 not towards the exterior. The proportion of starch yielded is 30^ 
 per cent. 
 
 There is a large consumption of starch in Tahiti, especially for 
 
346 CEREALS AND STAHCH-PEODDCIKG PLANTS. 
 
 cHldreii and invalids, and a considerable export of it nnder tlie 
 name of arrowroot. The principal part of that which enters into 
 commerce is made in the islands of the adjoining archipelago, 
 Eaiatea, Hnahine, Bora-Bora, and Maupiti. 
 
 From it the main supply of the Fiji arrowroot is prepared. 
 The Tacca starch is much valued locally, and particularly esteemed 
 in cases of dysentery and diarrhoea. Its characteristics are readily 
 recognized under the microscope. A Tacca occurring on the Sand- 
 wich Islands yields a large quantity of the so-called arrowroot 
 exported from there. Other species, including those of Ataccia 
 {Tacca) integrifolia, Presl., occurs in India, Madagascar, Guinea, 
 and Guiana, all deserving tests in reference to their value as starch 
 plants. 
 
 MANIOC, OE CASSAVA. 
 
 This is the plant chiefly cultivated for food purposes in Brazil 
 and in many of the West Indian Islands. No species of plants have 
 been more changed in scientific nomenclature by botanists than 
 these, for they have alternately been classed as Jatrophas, Janiphas, 
 Manihots, Gurcas, &c. I will adopt the names given by Pohl to the 
 two principal species (for most of the others seem to be but mere 
 varieties), the bitter or poisonous species, Manihot utilissima, and 
 the sweet species, M. Aipi. 
 
 The manioc would seem to be a native of Brazil ; it has been 
 introduced into India, and is grown about Calcutta, Madras, the 
 Straits Settlements, and other quarters. It flourishes better on 
 the borders of the sea and on islands than in the interior of the 
 continent. On the coast of Coromandel the roots are more fibrous, 
 and, therefore, inferior to those raised in Malabar. It is exten- 
 sively grown in Guiana, the West Indies, and various parts of 
 Africa. 
 
 The starch heated while in a moist state furnishes the tapioca of 
 commerce. Cassava is abundantly cultivated in Brazil and 
 Venezuela — especially at Caraccas, where the singularly uniform 
 temperature throughout the year is only 60° to 70° Fahrenheit. It 
 is a very exhausting crop, and stands in need of rich soil and 
 manuring. The propagation is effected by cuttings from the 
 ligneous part of the stem. 
 
 The soil destined for manioc must not be wet. In warm coun- 
 tries the tubers are available in about eight months, though they 
 still continue to grow afterwards. The growth of the plant up- 
 wards is checked by breaking off the buds. The bitter species is 
 the more productive of the two. The yellowish tubers attain 
 sometimes a weight of 30 lbs. They do not become soft by boiling, 
 like the Aipi or sweet -manioc. 
 
 The sweet species, though a native of tropical South America, 
 extends as far south as the Parana river. The root is reddish and 
 harmless, and can be used, unlike the bitter species, without any 
 further preparation than boiling as a culinary esculent, irrespective 
 of its starch being also available for tapioca. 
 
lUUIOC. OR CASSAVA. 34:7 
 
 Through, the root of the sweet tapioca there runs a tough 
 ligneous fibre, not found in the bitter, which is one mode of 
 distinguishing them. 
 
 The bitter tapioca, both as a vegetable and in the form of 
 cassava bread, forms one of the staple foods of the many races. It 
 is easily propagated by joints of the stem buried in the ground, 
 and these give a return ia good stufl', equal to about £5 to £8 per 
 acre. 
 
 The juices of this root contain prussic acid. In the process of 
 manufacture by washing and drying the poisonous matter is 
 eliminated, and the starch is sold in the market, and cassava and 
 cassava flour produced. From the former is obtained the tapioca 
 of commerce, the difference between the tapioca and the starch 
 consisting in the fact that the former is prepared by being dried 
 quickly on hot iron plates, and the latter slowly in the sun. 
 
 The manioc (Manihot uiilissitna) succeeds well in nearly all the 
 districts in the intertropical and temperate zones, but chiefly in 
 dry soils, and especially sandy ones. It is from this tuber that the 
 celebrated Brazil tapioca is obtained, the cassava flour, different 
 pastes, starch, the sauce known locally as tiicupy (^the cassareep of 
 British Guiana), and some alcoholic liquors. The cultivation 
 requires so little care, and the different preparations obtained from 
 the roots are so cheap and easily made, that even at a reduction of 
 50 per cent, on the present prices, the tapioca and starch yield 
 large profits to the growers. 
 
 The manioc is cultivated very largely in Brazil, furnishing the 
 chief aliment of the fourteen million inhabitants of the empire. 
 The harvests there are very abundant, because of the natural 
 moisture of the climate and the richness of the soil. The bitter 
 species is the most productive. The natives give it the name of 
 Mani-oca, which signifies house of Mani. From that name the 
 French have derived manioc, and the Portuguese mandioca. By 
 the Spanish it is frequently known as Tuca. It grows anywhere 
 in the moist plains near the sea, in the depths, and on the 
 hillocks and slopes, as high as 3000 feet. In the damp plains they 
 cultivate it in straight ridges ; on the hillocks, or on -tiie divided 
 lands, the cultivation is made flat. 
 
 They begin by pulling up the roots and then remove the thick 
 grey rind. Ea(^ root is then pressed by hand against the grater 
 or rasp. The fibrous pulp fa,] Is into a wet sack, and is then 
 pressed by a very pn'mitive engine, either lever or screw. It is 
 then ground and pressed again. Finally, the pulp is dried rapidly 
 by heating and stirring in a very flat basin. Thus the manioc 
 farina or flour is obtained. The same sediment serves to manu- 
 facture the tapioca. This is made by throwing it, well drained, 
 into a copper basin over a fixe, taking care not to overheat it. 
 The damp sediment begins to crisp and bake partially, forming 
 small lumps, half transparent and very irregular. 
 
 The composition of a large-sized tapering root of bitter cassava, 
 made iu Jamaica, by Mr. Louis Hoffman, island chemist, was as 
 follows : — 
 
348 CEREALS AND STAECH-PEODUCING PLANTS. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Eeddish-brown cuticle 0-45 
 
 Tunica 3-84 
 
 Starch (not including that of tunica) . . . . 23 ' 57 
 
 Fibrous residue (not including that of tunica) 10 ■ 28 
 
 Dry extract from juice 3 ■ 58 
 
 Water 58'28 
 
 100-00 
 
 An analybis, made at Washington, of a root gave the following 
 
 result : — 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Water 12-81 
 
 Ashes 1-93 
 
 Fat 2-02 
 
 Feoula, sugar, and gum 68-19 
 
 Fibre 2-27 
 
 Albuminoidis 12-78 
 
 100-00 
 
 = 2-04 nitrogen. 
 
 It produces enormoiisly, especially in dry, thin, and sandy soils. 
 The preparation of this flour is so cheap, the culture of manioc so 
 easy, and the yield so large, that although the selling price has 
 been reduced 50 per cent., yet there remains still a large profit to 
 the cultivator of a product so extended. 
 
 The labour required for its cultivation is comparatively small 
 and of the simplest kind. Except during the first month or two 
 its growth is almost independent of rainfall or irrigation. Its 
 productiveness is larger than that of any other article coming 
 under dry cultivation. The mode of prepaiing it for the market, 
 or for domestic consumption, is simple. The dietetic nature of it 
 is excellent. 
 
 From the roots of the two species many food products are 
 obtained, among others, coarse cakes made by rasping and pressing 
 the root, which are cooked on a hot plate. 
 
 No less than thirty varieties of the manioc (Manihot utilissimd) 
 are grown in Brazil, and of all the crops it is the one that gives 
 the best return and the least trouble. An intelligent planter at 
 Campos states that the square of 220 yards will grow 40,000 plants, 
 which even in inferior soil will produce regularly 80,000 lbs. of 
 farina. The preparation of tapioca is easy and inexpensive, and also 
 profitable. It has the further advantage of serving as food for cattle. 
 
 Farinha de mandioc, in its crude form, is often seen at Brazilian 
 tables, but is more frequently mixed with water and baked in thin 
 cakes, in this state forming the bread of the poorer classes. It 
 thus foi-ms a nourishing and cheap food. 
 
 Manioc meal is produced on an extensive scale in the province 
 of Santa Catharina, where they employ improved machines for 
 preparing it, especially in the settlements. These producers 
 supply the markets of the capital and of the other provinces. 
 Manioc is the staple article of food for the whole population. 
 
MANIOC, OR CASSAVA. 
 
 349 
 
 There are two modes of preparing the root — the wet and the dry 
 processes. In the first, the grated root is put into water for four 
 or six days, and afterwards kneaded with water, and pressed to 
 extract the juice. The fecula which remains is sifted and baked 
 in earth ovens, some fresh manioc paste, which has fermented, 
 being always added. There are no less than fourteen varieties of 
 the manioc distinguished in the province of Amazonas, some of 
 which mature in six and others in twelve months. 
 
 The dry process is carried on as follows : The manioc is rasped 
 by hand, water added within, and then put to be pressed ; after- 
 wards dried, sifted, and subsequently baked. In making the starch 
 the deposit in the water is left for some time to allow the starch to 
 settle down ; it is washed three times, dried in the sun, and is then 
 fit for sale. 
 
 The carima, or fine, creamy starch, is prepared by softening the 
 puba manioc in water, after which it is strained and pressed in a 
 sieve, and made into little balls, in which shape it comes to 
 market, although sometimes reduced to farina. It is used in gruels 
 and other food preparations, according to the custom of each 
 locality. 
 
 Tapioca Expobted from Beazh,. 
 
 1839-40 
 1879-80 
 
 Eilos. 
 1,088,790 
 4,158,659 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 1881 2,473,592 
 
 1882 3,127,614 
 
 The value of our imports of farinaceous substances from Brazil 
 (nearly all tapioca) were, twenty years ago, as high as £15,000 ; 
 now they are only about £3,500. 
 
 The bitter cassava is now largely grown in Travancore, where 
 the soil seems so well suited to its cultivation as to warrant a still 
 more extended growth. The produce has been estimated in Ceylon 
 at 10 tons of green roots per acre ; this weighs one-fourth when 
 dried, and if the dried roots gave half their weight of flour it 
 would amount to 2,800 lbs. per acre. 
 
 Highly cultivated land yields 20 tons of the fresh tuberous roots 
 per acre, and this in one year would be equal to 5 tons of meal. 
 Cassava cakes made of this meal are considered a great delicacy. 
 They are wholesome and nutritious. This plant grows best in, 
 dry localities. 
 
 The Straits Settlements. — ^In Singapore the tapioca manufacture 
 has been successful, but the crop is said to entirely exhaust the 
 soil in five years. 
 
 The imports of tapioca from the Straits Settlements into the 
 United Kingdom were, in 1855, only to the value of £112,000, now 
 they average about £200,000. 
 
 Manioc is much cultivated in North Borneo by the natives, and 
 some of the tubers, more particularly those fi-om the Kina Batangan 
 district, are of immense size. ShoiLld there be any permanent rise 
 in the price of tapioca, it can probably be cultivated at a lower 
 cost in North Borneo than elsewhere. 
 
350 CEREALS AND STARCH-PEODUCING PLANTS. 
 
 Sago has been described at p. 271, under tbe section of " The 
 Useful Palms." 
 
 The Sweet Potato (Batatas edulis) is most probably a native of 
 America. It is largely grown in the West Indies, and its culti- 
 vation in British India became general in the 18th century. It is 
 now cultivated to a limited extent in almost every part of India. 
 It requires very little care, and grows in any soil. There are two 
 kinds, the one with red, and the other with white tubers. They 
 are eaten by all classes of natives in the East, either roasted or 
 cooked in curry. 
 
 The sweet potato grows very well in Brazil, where it is known 
 as camote, and gives a starchy deposit of superior quality. The 
 yield is considerably more than 23 per cent. 
 
 There is a manufactory at Porto Eeal, Province of Eio, for the 
 extraction of starch from the sweet potato and transforming it 
 into glucose and alcohol. This tuber is much grown also along 
 the east shore of Virginia, Delaware, New Jersey, &c. Large 
 quantities come to New York from Norfolk and Eichmond, the 
 consumption in the States being very large. In the Southern 
 States millions of bushels are grown annually, and in the 
 Bahamas and Bermuda they form an important article of 
 food. 
 
 Thanks to Baron de Lareinty and the investigations of the 
 eminent chemist, M. Basset, the culture of Batatas edulis has been 
 carried on on a large scale at Martinique. It furnishes a spirit of 
 a mild and pleasant flavour. A distillery has been established 
 with excellent results, and it is anticipated that the culture of this 
 tuber will become a source of profit to that colony, which, like 
 others, has suffered from the sugar crisis. 
 
 The New Zealand sweet potato (Ipontiixa chrysorhiza, Forst.), 
 the kumara of the natives, is highly recommended, and has 
 been successfully introduced into Jamaica. It is a rich yellow 
 variety with fine large tubers, is very prolific, and of good 
 flavour. 
 
 This useful plant is closely related to the sweet potato (Ipomcea 
 Batatas, Poir.). It is grown by the Maories to a great extent, and 
 is, in fact, one of their chief articles of food. It seems only a 
 variety of the sweet potato, widely cultivated in the Pacific 
 Islands and elsewhere. Tubers have been widely distributed from 
 there over Europe and the "West Indies. It possesses the advantage 
 of a convenient size, resembling the common potato in this respect, 
 and may be cooked and served in almost as many ways. There 
 are about thirty marked and permanent varieties cultivated by the 
 natives in New Zealand ; some are red-skinned, some purple, and 
 others white; some are even and cylindrical, others are deeply 
 grooved or regularly channelled ; some are short and thick with 
 obtuse ends. 
 
 The young tubers when taken up are carefully scraped and half 
 dried on clean mattings in the sun, being turned every day and 
 carefully covered from the dew. When dry they are either eaten 
 
YAMS AND EDDOES. 
 
 351 
 
 or put away in taskets as a kind of sweet confection or preserved 
 tuber, and are held in great estimation by them, eaten either 
 raw or soaked, and mashed up with a little warm water. 
 
 The Yam Tribe (Bioscorea). — This family of plants is spread 
 over all the intertropical regions, and each continent possesses par- 
 ticular species. The various kinds are distinguished by the shape 
 and colour of the tubers. The West Indies is their favourite 
 country. They are there what the potato is to Ireland. The 
 negroes live almost entirely on this nutritious esculent, and 
 care for little else when they can get it. The tubers abound 
 in farinaceous matter, and often attain a large size. Yams are 
 universally cultivated among all the tribes of the islands of the 
 Eastern Archipelago, and generally most so where rice is least 
 abundant, but they nowhere form the chief bread of the people as 
 rice, sago, or maize do. 
 
 The species chiefly preferred in the West Indies are the 
 negro or red yam (JDioacorea alata), the afou or Guinea yam 
 (D. aculeata), the buck yam |(Z). triphylla), and the common yam 
 (D. sativd). 
 
 Yams are usually propagated by pieces like the potato, which 
 must be cut so as to leave some of the skin on them. They 
 require a warm dry soil, or newly-cleared rich forest land, and in 
 such situations yield in large quantities. 
 
 There is now an export of yams from Jamaica to other islands ; 
 the shipments were in : — 
 
 1885 
 1886 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Cwts. 
 24,021 
 18,142 
 
 Value. 
 
 £ 
 
 10,809 
 
 9,071 
 
 Negro Yam (Bioscorea alata). — This yam is a tuberous root, 
 weighing from 50 lbs. downwards, and constitutes the chief food 
 of the negroes. There are over 50,000 acres under culture with it 
 in Jamaica. 
 
 The Coco or Eddoe (Golocasia esculenta') is cultivated in India for 
 the tuberous roots, which are, however, inferior to yams. They 
 are the Tannias, or Tayas, of the Spanish. 
 
 The Alocasia Indica is generally cultivated around the huts of 
 the poorer classes in Bengal. Its esculent stems and root-stocks 
 form there important articles of food. 
 
 The Curcuma angustifolia is an abundant plant, wild and 
 cultivated, in some parts of India, as, for example, at Travancore, 
 where a good quantity of arrowroot is prepared from the 
 tubers. 
 
 Most of the roots which have been mentioned are valuable for 
 the starch they yield, and give a heavy return. Arrowroot pro- 
 
352 CEREALS AND STARCH-PRODUCING PLANTS. 
 
 duces atout 100,000 lbs. of roots to the acre, giving 2,000 lbs. of 
 starch; cassava and yams produce 8000 lbs. to the acre, sweet 
 potatoes 30,000 lbs. 
 
 Japanese Starches. — Some of the starches peculiar to Japan are 
 ■worth special notice ; these are the " kudzu," or starch made from 
 the root of Pueraria tuberosa or Thuribergiana ; the " kata-kuri," made 
 of the root of a kind of dog's-tooth violet ; and finally the starch 
 prepared from the root of the Pteris aquilina. All these three 
 plants grow wild, and the kudzu, which yields the best starch, is 
 very abundant in certain places. It belongs to the Papilionaceous 
 family, grows very rapidly, and in a short time its creepers cover 
 the ground, spreading over the neighbouring bushes and trees 
 their luxuriant foliage. The root is frequently over 5 feet in 
 length, and as thick as a man's arm. For the manufacture of 
 starch by the ordinary process of crushing the root, washing the 
 starch out and decanting it, moderate-sized roots, 1 foot in length 
 and 1 inch in diameter, are mostly used. The starch is of a fine 
 colour, and has a most agreeable flavour ; mixed with warm 
 water it produces a fine transparent paste. 
 
 The method of preparing the two other kinds of starch from 
 the roots of the dog's-tooth violet and the fern— the former of 
 which merits special mention for its qualities— does not present 
 any peculiarity. Both form articles of food, but the fern starch is 
 also used in various industries, as it produces a very strong paste, 
 called " shibu," on being carefully mixed with the sap of unripe 
 persimmons. The fibres of the fern root, after the starch has been 
 washed out, are made into ropes, which are used in the mud walls 
 of the buildings, so as to afford a better hold for the loam. It maj' 
 be added that the manufacture of starch sugar has long been 
 known in Japan. Millet and rice are used for this purpose, and 
 after having been steamed, they are mixed with a certain quantity 
 of malt or ferment and kept for several hours at a fixed tempera- 
 ture in close vessels, after which the liquid portion is strained and 
 concentrated by evaporation to a strong syrup or a solid mass, 
 which is formed into bars while still hot. Vendors of this starch 
 sugar are often to be met with in the streets, where, to the great 
 enjoyment of children, they manufacture all sorts of animals and 
 figures with this material, by a process quite similar to that of 
 glass-blowing. 
 
 C^^^j^tK(SecMum edule, Sw. ; Chayota edulis, Jacq.). — Thie 
 cUmbing plant of the Cucurbit family yields excellent fruit, and 
 the heavy tubercular roots contain 2b per cent, of starch. Thef 
 fruit is green, large, and covered with thorns. In the mountains 
 and inland parts of Jamaica the plant is much cultivated to fatten,-, 
 hogs with the fruit. This is sometimes boiled and serVed^up 
 at table, but the flavour is rather insipid. When sown ^n a sandy 
 soil, it grows luxuriantly in the first year, yielding abundant 
 fruit. The second year it produces tubercles, which can be taken 
 oif without killing the plant. This operation may be repeated for 
 
MAIZE STARCH. 353 
 
 six or eight years. A plant under favourable circumstances will 
 produce some 80 to 100 pints of fruit and a great number of 
 tubercles. The culture is very simple, and the chayote is not 
 subject to the diseases which affect other tuberous plants. The 
 ancient Aztecs cultivated this vegetable largely, giving it the 
 narne of Chayotli, which means squash covered with thorns. 
 
 In Europe and America starch is largely made from grain and 
 roots. Under the head of Glucose, p. 216, in the section on Sugar, 
 and under Sago and Manioc, pp. 271 and 346, some information on 
 starches has already been furnished. But the manufacture of 
 starch is carried on on a very extensive scale in Great Britain, 
 many thousand tons being made per annum, for food purposes under 
 the name of " corn flour," and for laundry purposes, for service of 
 ■calico printers and bleachers, in giving stifl'ness to the manufactures, 
 and for similar uses domestically. 
 
 The factories for making starch from rice are chiefly carried on 
 in London, Belgium, and Germany ; those of Glasgow employ 
 chiefly maize. In Prance the starches made from grain are known 
 as amidon and those from tubers as feculas. 
 
 Potato starch may be said to be of French origin, the manufac- 
 ture having commenced in 1830, and now there are 400 or 600 
 manufactories there. 
 
 ' The yield of starch froin the potato is about 13 per cent., and 
 the annual production in France exceeds 140,000,000 lbs., of which 
 40 per cent, is converted into glucose, 65 per cent, used in 
 stiffening fabrics, &c., and about 5 per cent, made into edible pro- 
 ducts — pates alimentaires. 
 
 Maize Starch. — The production of this corn flour is largely carried 
 •on in the United States, especially at Oswego and other cities. 
 
 The perfect process of manufacturing corn starch is that which 
 •economically takes from the kernel all of the starch,- and 
 thoroughly frees it from the oil, gum, and glutinous products con- 
 tained in the whole grain ; this requires many washings, in some 
 •of which chemical solutions are employed, and most careful mani- 
 pulation, with the aid of elaborate machinery, besides a great deal 
 ■ -of experience in the workmen. 
 
 The - grain first passes through immense fan mills, to remove 
 chaff and dirt, or any substances which might afterwards injure 
 the machinery. Thence it is passed to enormous vats, where it is 
 soaked, so as to render its constituents more easily separated, that 
 the starch may be extracted. After a sufficient time here the 
 grinding process follows ; and for this purpose twenty-four pairs 
 of burr stones and six pairs of heavy iron rollers are used ; these 
 mills work day and night, and, operating on wet grain, change it 
 into pulp rather than into flour, the object being to crush and 
 thoroughly disintegrate the particles. This pulp then passes 
 through a great number of screens and drum sieves, which do the 
 first part of the work of separating the starch from the hull, the 
 refuse being used as a food for cattle. * , 
 
 2 A 
 
354 CEREALS AND STARCH-PEODUCING PLANTS. 
 
 The milky fluid which results from the washing is conducted 
 into immense cisterns or vats, where it has to receive several 
 washings, during which various solvents and filtered water are 
 used for the removal of all impurities, and the separation of the 
 pure starch from all the other constituents of the grain. After 
 this is done the starch water, as it may be called, is allowed to run 
 into moulds, where, when it has entirely settled, the deposit will 
 have made a long box-like cake, which may be broken into the 
 required squares, each weighing about 7 lbs. after drying, the 
 quantity desired for each package. 
 
C 355 ) 
 
 SECTION lY. 
 
 THE PEINCIPAL YEaETABLE DYE-STUFFS 
 OF COMMERCE. 
 
 Indigo. — One of the most important vegetable blue dye-stuifs 
 m.ade is indigo. The Yaiious kinds which enter into European 
 commerce are from India : Bengal, Tirhout, Oude, Kurpah, 
 Bimlipatam, Madras, and Kurrachee. Prom the Eastern Archi- 
 pelago, Mnnil'), and Java. Prom South America : Guatemalan, 
 Mexican, New Granada, and Caracas. 
 
 The imports and exports of indigo for the United Kingdom are 
 shown in the annexed return for quinquennial periods : — 
 
 Year. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1840 
 
 65,209 
 
 40,959 
 
 1870 
 
 79,255 
 
 46,279 
 
 1845 
 
 90,424 
 
 50,380 
 
 1875 
 
 59,608 
 
 56,800 
 
 1850 
 
 70,482 
 
 54,108 
 
 1880 
 
 58,283-- 
 
 48,215 
 
 1855 
 
 59,760 
 
 64,167 
 
 1885 
 
 94,556 
 
 71,464 
 
 1860 
 
 77,321 
 
 59,366 
 
 1887 
 
 76,698 
 
 53,085 
 
 1865 
 
 66,506 
 
 66,547 
 
 1888 
 
 78,188 
 
 51,131 
 
 The great bulk of these imports, it will be seen, are re-shipped 
 to the Continent, the average quantity retained for use in Great 
 Britain being from 20,000 to 25,000 cwts. 
 
 The following shows the yariations in our sources of supply of 
 this dye-stuff in the last ten years : — 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Holland .. 
 France and French 
 Austrian territories 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central America . . 
 New Granada 
 Bombay and Scinde 
 Madras ... -^ ■• 
 Bengal and' Burma 
 Other countries 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 374 
 
 838 
 
 435 
 
 643 
 
 9,115 
 
 670 
 
 186 
 
 12,135 
 
 34,470 
 
 742 
 
 59,608 
 
 Value. 
 
 £ 
 
 12,619 
 
 19,200 
 
 12,350 
 
 13,978 
 
 183,955 
 
 18,816 
 
 6,249 
 
 279,116 
 
 1,057,036 
 
 16,534 
 
 1,618,853 
 2 A 2 
 
356 THE VEGETABLE DYE-STUFFS. 
 
 Our imports in 1886 were as follows : — 
 
 Germany 
 
 Holland 
 
 France 
 
 Austrian territories 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central America . . 
 Other Foreign countries 
 Bombay and Scinde 
 
 Madras 
 
 Bengal .. ^ 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 Other British possessions 
 
 Total .. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 85,308 
 
 Value. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 £ 
 
 204 
 
 4,936 
 
 371 
 
 8,861 
 
 449 
 
 8,933 
 
 76 
 
 2,076 
 
 334 
 
 6,267 
 
 5,971 
 
 185,134 
 
 295 
 
 5,095 
 
 10,742 
 
 133,845 
 
 22,170 
 
 417,203 
 
 44,519 
 
 1,132,158 
 
 169 
 
 3,000 
 
 8 
 
 47 
 
 1,907,555 
 
 India, it will he seen, supplies the chief portion, very little now 
 coming from America. 
 
 The imports vary considerably ; in 1883 and 1884 the imports of 
 the year exceeded 5000 tons, whilst in other years they reached 
 only half that quantity. 
 
 The plants which yield this dye-stuff chiefly belong to the 
 genera Indigofera and Isatis, but indigos are also obtained from : — 
 
 Nerium tinctorium, Eottl In the Carnatic. 
 
 MueUia sp Assam and Pegu. 
 
 Tephrosia tindoria and T. apnllinea .. .. Egypt and India. 
 
 Folygala tinctoria Arabia. 
 
 Polygonum Chinense, P. tinctorium, P. bar- 
 
 batum, and P. perfoliatum, Lin China and Japan. 
 
 Polygonum aviculare Asia and Africa. 
 
 Wrighiia tinctoria, B. Brown Pale indigo of India. 
 
 Amorpha fruticosa Carolina indigo. 
 
 Saptisia tinctoria , Wild indigo of the United 
 
 States. 
 
 The ipastel or woad of Europe is the colouring matter of Isatis 
 tinctoria. 
 
 The species described by Linnaeus were : Indigofera Anil, I. tinc- 
 toria, I. argentea and I. Caroliniana, plants which grow in a wild 
 state in India, South America, and Africa. Modern botanists have 
 largely extended the list of species. Decandolle raised the 
 number to over one hundred and forty, besides a host of varieties. 
 M. Perottet has well described, in his 'Flora of Senegambia,' 
 twenty-five species ; and in his ' Art de I'lndigotier,' Paris, 1842, 
 has published much interesting matter on the whole subject of the 
 culture and manufacture of this dye-stuff. In this he enumerates 
 and dilates on the different works and treatises, to the number 
 of about twenty, which had been published up to that date. 
 
 The greater proportion of the indigos of India are prepared from 
 Indigofera tinctoria, which is extensively cultivated for that 
 
INDIGO. 357 
 
 purpose, in Bengal and other provinces from the 20° to the 30° N. 
 lat., ■ and in Tinnivelly, Midras. There are two processes for 
 manufacturing the dye-stufi': one the dry leaf, and the other the 
 green leaf process. The latter is considered the best, and is in 
 most common use. It is as follows : When the plant begins to 
 flower, it is cut down at about 6 inches from the ground, and 
 carried to the steeping vats with as little delay as possible, strewn 
 horizontally in the vats and pressed down by means of beams fixed 
 into side posts, bamboos being placed under the beams. Water is 
 immediately run in, just sufficient to cover the plant. If water is 
 not at once let in, the plant will heat and become spoilt. The 
 time for steeping depends much on the temperature of the atmo- 
 sphere, and can only be learnt by experience and careful watching 
 of the vats ; but in close sultry weather, with the thermometer at 
 96° in the shade, eleven or twelve hours are sufficient. In cooler 
 weather, fifteen or sixteen hours are requisite. If the plant is 
 very ripe, the vat will be ready earlier than if the plants were 
 young and unripe. The following are indications that the vat is 
 ready to let off: — 
 
 1. As soon as the water begins to fall in the vat. 
 
 2. When the bubbles that rise to the surface burst at once. 
 
 3. On splashing up the surface water it has an orange tinge 
 mingling with the green. 
 
 4. The smell of the water. When ripe, it should have a sweetish, 
 pungent odour, quite different from the raw smell of the unripe, 
 green-coloured water. 
 
 About seven men enter the vat and agitate it, either by the hands 
 or with a wooden paddle, at first gently, but gradually increasing 
 as the fecula begins to separate, which is known by the subsidence 
 of the froth, and the change of the colour of the water from green 
 to dark blue. The time necessary for this beating process is 
 generally from 1^ to 3 hours. 
 
 The following tests may be employed to ascertain if the beating 
 has been sufficient : — 
 
 1. Take a little of the water in a saucer and let it stand. If the 
 fecula subsides readily, and the water remains of a Madeira wine 
 colour, the beating may be stopped. 
 
 2. Dip a coarse cloth in the vat, and wring out the water, 
 observing the colour. If green, the beating must be continued, 
 but if a brownish colour, it is ready. 
 
 3. When sufficiently beaten, the surface of the water will, as soon 
 as the beating is suspended, become of a peculiar glassy appearance, 
 and the froth will subside with a sparkle and effervescence like 
 champagne. 
 
 Three or four chatties of cold water or weak lime water are then 
 sprinkled over the surface, to hasten the precipitation of the fecula, 
 which does not completelj'' take place in less than three or four 
 hours. Tlie water is drawn off from the surface through plug-holes 
 in the wall of the vat. The fecula at the bottom is then removed 
 to the boiler. It is brought to the boiling point as quickly as 
 possible, and kept there for five or six hours. While boiling, it is 
 
368 THE VEGETABLE DYE-STUFFS. 
 
 stirred to keep tlie indigo from burning, and skimmed with a 
 perforated ladle. When snfBciently boiled, it is run off to the 
 straiiiing table, where it remains twelve or fifteen hours draining. 
 It is then taken to the presses and gradually pressed. This process 
 takes twelve hours. It is then ready to be takea out, cut, stamped, 
 and laid in the drying house to dry. 
 
 A good-sized steeping vat is 16 feet by 14 feet, by 4^ feet in 
 depth. The beating vat is somewhat shallower. Two hundred 
 maunds of the plant (16,400 lbs.) do very well to yield one maund 
 of indigo (82 lbs.). A vat of the above size holds about 100 
 maunds of plants. The plant sown in June is cut three months 
 afterwards and manufactured. A second crop will be taken from 
 it in the following August. This cutting produces the largest 
 quantity and best quality. 
 
 In the manufacture of indigo the ordinary processes of fermenta- 
 tion, of drawing off the liquor, of beating and of collecting the 
 fecula, or precipitate of indigo, from the liquor, and pressing, are 
 generally well known, and are followed with but trifling variations 
 in different provinces and manufactories in India. 
 
 The main points appear to be the watching the soaking plants, 
 so as to be able to tap off the infused liquor exactly at the right 
 point of fermentation, and next, to beat the liquor in the second 
 vat long enough. Knowledge of these things can only be acquired 
 by careful observation and long experience. 
 
 The indigo of commerce is the result of the action, by atmo- 
 spheric oxygen, on the liquor drawn from a vat in which the 
 plants have been decomposed in water, the oxidation producing an 
 insoluble granulntion of particles, commonly known as indigo 
 fecula, which is found deposited at the bottom of the vat. The 
 indigo blue is derived from a substance similar to the indican of 
 woad, that exists in the plant as a glucoside compound, and which 
 is dissolved during the steeping process. 
 
 Mr. Paul Michea, by Indian patents dated December 20, 1875, 
 and November 12, 1876, adopts some improvements in the pro- 
 cesses, and thus utilises the whole of the natural alkalies of the 
 plant. He introduces solutions of sugar or glucose in the steeping 
 vat along with the water, at a higher degree of temperature (95° 
 to 100° Fahr.) and a longer fermentation, and thus increases the 
 production of indigo blue. 
 
 Similar results are also obtained by replacing the effects of a 
 higher temperature, or a prolonged fermentation, by an artificial 
 supply of alkalies, principally ammonia. It is necessary to remark 
 tJiat the glucoside juice in the plant varies considerably under the 
 difference of latitude and the various countries where indigo is 
 grown, and also according to seasons. 
 
 It is only when the quantity of indican is deficient, as in plants 
 grown in a poor soil and under a dry climate, that the ordinary 
 manufacturing process can utilise the whole, or nearly the whole, 
 of the indican for its transformation into indigo blue ; but, on the 
 contrary, plants grown in a rich alluvial soil, and under a damp 
 hot climate, will contain an abundance of that glucoside juice which 
 
INDIGO, 359 
 
 the present process of manufacture cannot possibly utilise, so that 
 the richer the plant and the more indioan it contains, the greater 
 is the waste in the ordinary process. 
 
 The indigo plant is chiefly cultivated in Bengal, in the Delta of 
 the Ganges, on those districts lying between the Hooghly and the 
 main stream of the former river. The ground is ploughed in 
 October and November, after the cessation of the rains ; the seeds 
 are sown in March and beginning of April. In July the plants 
 are cut when in blossom, that being the time when there is the 
 greatest abundance of dye-matter. 
 
 A fresh moist soil is the best, and about 12 lbs. of seed are used 
 for an acre of land. The plants are destroyed by the periodical 
 inundations, and so last only for a single year. When the plant 
 is cut it is first steeped in a vat till it has become macerated and 
 parted with its colouring matter ; then the liquor is let off into 
 another vat, in which it undergoes a peculiar process of beating, 
 to cause the fecula to separate from the water ; the fecula is then 
 let off into a third vat, where it remains some time, and is thfen 
 strained through cloth bags and evaporated in shallow wooden 
 boxes placed in the shade. Before it is perfectly dry, it is cut into 
 small pieces an inch square : it is then packed up for sale. Indigo, 
 however, is one of the most precarious of Indian crops, being 
 liable to be destroyed by insects, as well as inundation of the 
 rivers. It is generally divided into two classes, viz., the Bengal 
 and Oude indigo. Madras indigo is not much inferior to that 
 grown in Bengal. The green leaf manufacture is followed in all 
 the indigo-growing districts of the Madras Presidency, save the 
 province of South Arcot. In the latter the dry leaf process is still 
 persevered in, but probably it is so only because of the distance to 
 which the leaf has generally to be carried before it reaches the 
 factory, and the consequent partial drying that takes place on the 
 journey. The best indigo comes from the districts of Kishnagur, 
 Jessore, Moorshedabad, and Tirhoot. 
 
 The fecula is much improved after being collected by being 
 boiled in coppers and then pressed into boxes. Indigo is some- 
 times manufactured by simply collecting the fecula, and dropping 
 it down in cakes to harden in the sun ; this is termed " gaud 
 indigo." 
 
 Good indigo is known by its fine purple-blue colour, and by its 
 fracture ; but when exposed to the continued action of air or water, 
 ■or any other agents, it undergoes certain changes, which differ 
 very materially in various grades or qualities of the article, and, 
 unless a person is a good judge, he will be unable to tell the grade 
 and quality. This can only be determined by closely examining 
 the indigo in some test process. Good indigo is always very light 
 — the lighter the better — that is, the freer it is from all foreign 
 ■earthy matters ; and if rubbed against a white cloth it does not 
 ■easily colour it. Another sure test is its handsome copper gloss. 
 This may have been caused by the rubbing of the angles of the 
 pieces while in transportation, or it may be made by rubbing them 
 with any hard substance. This copper gloss is the consequence of 
 
360 
 
 THE VEGETABLE DYE-STUFFS. 
 
 the mechanical thickening of the colouring matter with which 
 indigo abounds; in this it resembles all pure colouring matters. 
 
 One thing to be especially remarked is the fine dark colour of 
 the indigo powder, which can easily be obtained by rubbing and 
 grinding the indigo lumps. By closely observing the abov& 
 directions a person will be less at fault in his selection of an indigo^ 
 as some show a greenish colour, break with a brownish edge, and 
 have white veins through, or show white veins in the heart of the 
 lump. 
 
 The quantity of indigo exported year after year is largely de- 
 pendent on the crops, the culture of which is always very uncertain ; 
 but the value fluctuates according to the needs of the European 
 markets and the abundance or otherwise of supplies from South 
 America, as well as the quality of the dye produced in India. The 
 chest of indigo from Bengal weighs about 260 lbs. 
 
 The following shows the total exports of indigo from Britisli 
 India to foreign countries : — 
 
 1863 
 1873 
 1883 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 CwtB. 
 101,115 
 115,312 
 141,041 
 
 Value. 
 
 8,426,824 
 3,912,997 
 
 The value of the indigo exported from British India ranges fromi 
 £2,000,000 to a little over £4,500,000 a year. It is however a verj 
 variable crop. 
 
 The fluctuations in the money value of the indigo exported, 
 leaving aside the quantity retained for local use, are shown as. 
 follows : — 
 
 1851 1,980,896 
 
 1871 3,192,503 
 
 1881 
 1887 
 
 £ 
 
 3,571,581 
 3,898,409 
 
 Attention has been given of late to the cultivation of indigo irk 
 Upper Sind and in different parts of the Kurrachee Collectorate. 
 The soil there is the same as that on which indigo is so success- 
 fully raised in Bengal. The Government are willing to encourage- 
 the ryots, with whom the cultivation is rising in favour, to extend 
 it, by offering rewards to the most successful among them, and 
 giving long leases of land to parties who will venture on the- 
 speculation on a large scale. Nothing will be effectually done till 
 Europeans and European capital are engaged on it, and a fee-simple 
 of the land will soon draw these to 8ind. 
 
 In 1870 there were 267,000 acres under indigo in the Madras. 
 Presidency, and 101,000 acres under chayroot and other dye-stuffs, 
 chiefly in Bellary and Tanjore. 
 
 The returns for Bengal are not published, but were estimated at 
 710,000 acres in 1886. The following was the average under 
 indigo: Madras 292,757, Bombay 3986, North- West Provinces- 
 
INDIGO. 3 SI 
 
 458,562, Oudh 19,657, Bengal 131,926, Central Provinces, Lower 
 Burmah, and Berar 200 ; total 1,617,088 acres. 
 
 The substalice known in the market as Madras indigo is pre- 
 pared from the dried leaves instead of the fresh green twigs used in 
 Bengal and the North- West Provinces. The ripe plant is dried 
 in sunshine, and thrashed to separate the stems from the leaves, 
 which are then stored. In the course of four weeks the leaves 
 undergo a change in colour, from green to pale blue-grey. They 
 are then macerated in water, and the dye extracted in the usual 
 way. The best indigo is exported from Calcutta. That which is 
 shipped from Madras, Sind, and Bombay is of inferior quality 
 and lower price. 
 
 Indigo is a very fickle product, and is very subject to fluctuations, 
 a short crop sending up the prices to a very disproportionate figure, 
 while a large supply makes stocks saleable at only very reduced 
 rates. The quality of the crop, moreover, in each year is very 
 uncertain, the bulk of it one year being probably of good quality, 
 while in the next, on the whole, it may be very indifferent. 
 
 A good deal of indigo is used in the country by native dyers> 
 but of a kind which never goes to foreign markets. There is- 
 enough grown in various parts of the peninsula for local con- 
 sumption. 
 
 The indigo plant is cultivated to a greater or less extent in almost 
 all the non-mountainous districts of the North- Western Provinces, 
 but most extensively in those districts where canal irrigation is 
 available. In India the indigo plant is grown by cultivators 
 either on-their own account or on the account of capitalists, from 
 whom they generally receive advances to meet the expenses of 
 cultivation, and to whom they are under an obligation to sell all 
 the plants produced at a fixed rate. With all its disadvantages 
 this latter system is the only means of bringing about the applica- 
 tion of extraneous capital to land, without which the cultivation of 
 indigo would often be impossible. 
 
 The indigo of commerce results from the atmospheric oxidisation 
 of the indican dissolved in water, which forms a compound (called 
 the fecula) insoluble in water, alkalis, or acids. The process of ex- 
 tracting the dye from the leaves may be broadly considered as th& 
 extraction of the indican by continued soaking of the leaves in 
 water, and its subsequent oxidisation by agitating the solution, 
 and so exposing it to the action of the air. The plant is cut 
 before flowering to within six inches of the ground, and carried to 
 to the factory, where it is at once thrown into masonry vats, and 
 covered with water. For the European market, the sediment of 
 colouring matter which is obtained from the leaves of the plant i& 
 invariably boiled, whence the cakes are known as palcka or cooked ; 
 but a great deal of the indigo consumed in the Indian market is 
 of the hacha or raw kind, that is prepared from the unboiled 
 sediment. 
 
 A factory in which indigo is manufactured, chieflj' for export, 
 consists of a double row of masonry vats, a furnace with boiler, 
 and apparatus for straining the sediment and making up into 
 
362 THE VEGETABLE DYE-STUFFS. 
 
 cakes. To prepare hacTia indigo, all that is needed are some 
 masonry vats, which are generally sunk in the ground. 
 
 Good indigo cake should contain from 50 to 60 per cent, of 
 indigotine (or oxidised indican) ; be bright, of a dark blue colour, 
 ■with a coppery gloss, breaking with an evenly coloured fracture ; 
 and should not part with its colour by light friction. 
 
 As a rule about 73 cwts. of plant are steeped in a vat 20 feet 
 square and 3 J feet deep ; it is considered a good out-turn if this 
 gives 25 lbs. of indigo cake. 
 
 Most of the indigo for consumption in India is not boiled, but 
 prepared in the so-called Tcacha form at numerous village manu- 
 factories, which consist merely of two or three masonry vats sunk 
 in the ground without the more expensive accessories of furnace and 
 straining room. 
 
 As in the factories, the process commences by steeping the plant 
 in water, which is allowed to continue for one night. The surface 
 water is then drained off, and the soaked plants are trodden out by 
 men for about six hours. Some Dhak gum (Butea frondosa) is 
 then added in the proportion of about 6 ounces per vat ; water is 
 again run into the vat and the steeping continued for a few more 
 hours, when the water, loaded with indigo particles, is drawn off 
 into another vat, well beaten, and the fecula allowed to settle. 
 When this has taken place the surface water is drained away, and 
 the muddy-looking residuum, collected in earthen or metal pans, 
 strained and spread out on cloths resting on a layer of sand. In 
 this way the remaining moisture is absorbed. The indigo is then 
 moulded into cakes, each about the weight of 8 ounces, and finally 
 dried on ashes and in the sun, and after about a week is ready for 
 the market. The imperfect manner in which the leaves and fibres 
 of the plant are separated from the fecula and the addition of 
 foreign substances, like gum, to assist fermentation, result in the 
 production of indigo very inferior to that made up in factories 
 so called, however well suited to the moderate requirements of 
 the dyers of the country. Tor mere domestic use, when the dye is 
 to be utilised as soon as extracted, the plant is simply steeped in a 
 closed basin in water in which a little carbonate of soda or shell 
 lime has been dissolved, and kept so for five or six days, till it 
 begins to ferment, when it is ready for use. 
 
 The yield in Bengal for 1884-85 was 108,692 maunds, that of 
 1885-86 was estimated at 76,109 cwts. (1,103,693 maunds). 
 
 The cultivation of indigo in Madras is rather on the decline, 
 only 308,101 acres being under crop in 1885-86, or 21,000 acres 
 legs than the previous year. There are a great number of indigo 
 factories in Bengal, and the North-West Provinces. Many small 
 factories in these provinces, as well as in Madras, are now owned 
 and worked by natives. In the Punjab there are said to be thirty- 
 nine factories, and in Eajputana one. 
 
INDIGO. 
 
 363 
 
 Indigo Exports from Iktia, Yeabs ending Maeoh 31. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 cwts. 
 
 £ 
 
 
 cwts. 
 
 £ 
 
 1877 
 
 100,384 
 
 2,962,786 
 
 1883 
 
 141,041 
 
 3,912,997 
 
 1878 
 
 120,605 
 
 3,494,334 
 
 1884 
 
 168,590 
 
 4,640,991 
 
 1879 
 
 105,051 
 
 2,960,463 
 
 1885 
 
 154,629 
 
 4,068,900 
 
 1880 
 
 100,935 
 
 2,947,434 
 
 1886 
 
 132,495 
 
 3,783,160 
 
 1881 
 
 116,870 
 
 3,571,581 
 
 1887 
 
 138,396 
 
 3,691,677 
 
 1882 
 
 150,363 
 
 4,509,108 
 
 1888 
 
 139,928 
 
 3,898,409 
 
 Prices of good consuming quality fluctuate mucli. The price ot 
 Bengal indigo per pound on December 31st in each year was as 
 follows : — 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 1871 . . . 
 
 . ..9 
 
 1878 .. . 
 
 ...55 
 
 1872 .. . 
 
 ...69 
 
 1879 .. . 
 
 . .. 7 10 
 
 1873 . . . 
 
 ...68 
 
 1880 . . . 
 
 ...70 
 
 1874 .. . 
 
 ...70 
 
 1881 .. . 
 
 ...70 
 
 1875 .. . 
 
 ...50 
 
 1882 .. . 
 
 ...63 
 
 1876 .. . 
 
 ...67 
 
 1883 .. . 
 
 ...63 
 
 1877 .. . 
 
 ...56 
 
 1884 .. . 
 
 ...58 
 
 Of 154,629 cwts. exported in 1884, 106,069 were shipped from 
 Calcutta, 42,000 from Madras, 3,376 from Bombay, and 3,183 
 from Karachi. 
 
 The consumption of indigo in the United States has increased of 
 late in a large ratio. There was shipped from the United Kingdom 
 of Indian indigo : — 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1882 14,386 
 
 1883 12,454 
 
 1884 10,648 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1885 11,786 
 
 1886 11,001 
 
 and direct from India : — 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1884 21,194 
 
 1885 25,082 
 
 1886 20,737 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1887 28,133 
 
 1888 21,350 
 
 They also now buy largely from Salvador, and instead of 400 or 
 500 bales as in former years, they now take about one-sixth of the 
 entire crop, or, say, 2000 or 3000 bales. 
 
 The value of the indigo produced yearly may be taken at 
 £8,000,000, of which India produces one-half, and China, Manila, 
 Java, and Central America the rest. The present mode of 
 manufacturing indigo from the plant is extremely rude and 
 imperfect, and by an improved and more careful carrying out of 
 the process, great saving in colouring matter might be effected, 
 so that it may prove possible to produce a finer article at a lower 
 price. The chest of Bengal indigo weighs 260 lbs. net. 
 
 Of late years a considerable quantity of indigo leaf has been 
 
364 THE VEGETABLE DYE-STUFFS. 
 
 sent from the Mofussil to Pondiclieriy, there to be made into dye. 
 The reason for this is that the leaf is free of duty, while the 
 manufactured dye pays a duty of Es. 3 per maund. About 2000 
 lbs. of dry leaf, or 1000 lbs. of green, are required to maie a 
 maund of indigo. 
 
 In the French territory surrounding Pondicherry there were in 
 1860 1100 hectares of land cultivated with indigo, which produced 
 6,962,000 kilos, of dry leaves, from which 37,131 kilos, of indigo 
 were made ; there were then ninety-two indigo factories. 
 
 The number of indigo manufactories in Pondicherry and Karikal 
 in 1885 was but eighty-four; 395 hectares were under culture, 
 which produced 288,261,047 kilos, of dry leaf. 
 
 M. Jules Lepine gives the following as the expense of cultivating 
 a small cani (53 ares, 51 centiares) with indigo in Coromandel ; the 
 are is equal to a square of 1076 feet : — 
 
 FrancB. 
 
 Labour 9-60 
 
 Manure 7-20 
 
 Seed 2-40 
 
 Weeding 4-80 
 
 Cutting 9-60 
 
 Drying and separating the leaves 3 '00 
 
 Land tax 5'78 
 
 Total 42-38 
 
 The three cuttings made during the year produce 20 hectolitres 
 of leaves, which, being sold for 47 frs. 20 c, leaves a profit of 
 24 frs. 20 c. for the cultivator. Sometimes sesame is sown in the 
 same land, which is harvested before the indigo leaves are cut. 
 
 Cochin-China. — This invaluable plant, one of the most important 
 in modern maniifactures, and which even the aniline dyes are not 
 likely to dethrone, must be regarded as one of the chief products 
 of Cochin-China and Cambodja, where it grows with extraordinary 
 vigour. There were 332 hectares under indigo in 1885. 
 
 Of the numerous species two or three only have attracted the 
 attention of cultivators. The plants which grow in Cochin-China 
 are equal to those of India proper, and the indigotine, or dyeing 
 quality, possessed by the local species (Indigofera tinctoria), contains 
 all the necessary principles to enable the plant producing it to 
 take a high rank. 
 
 On attaining its full growth it is about 6^ feet in height, and 
 even taller if it has not been cut back. It is cultivated in beds of 
 sand, or on the light alluvial washings of the upper tertiary for- 
 mation, that is to say, in light soils seldom subject to the effects of 
 heavy floods. 
 
 Although capable of living many years, it is advisable to renew 
 the plants annually. Its growth takes place between February 
 and July. When it has arrived at maturity the leaves are col- 
 lected in bundles and carried to the factory, where the process of 
 manufacturing the paste is carried out; this, in order to be of 
 first-class quality, should be light in weight and of a very light 
 sky-blue colour. 
 
INDIGO. 365 
 
 Siam. — A small quantity of indigo is produced in Siam. In 
 1875, 481 piculs, valued at £200, were shipped. 
 
 China. — Although there exist in China varieties of Indigofera 
 tinctoria and J. anil, these are not much cultivated. Dr. Williams 
 states J. coccinea is grown, and Loureiro, I. tinctoria. In the 
 southern provinces there are plantations at Kouang-si, Kouang- 
 ton, and Fokien. Isatis indigotica, Fortune, is grown in almost 
 every province of China. Buellia indigotica is cultivated for its 
 dye in the province of Tchekiang. Preference is given in the 
 north to Polygonum tinctorium, especially about Pekin ; but P. 
 chinense, harbatum, perfoliatum and aviculare are also employed. 
 
 Indigo is cultivated and manufactured by the Chinese in Krian, 
 Perak, and in 1884, 2590 dollars' worth was exported. A good 
 deal is used locally in dyeing the dark-blue cloth that is almost 
 universally worn by the labouring classes of Chinese. 
 
 Japan. — Large indigo manufactories are now in working order 
 at Osaka, Matsubara, and Tunaki, in the province of Omi, Japan, 
 and it is proposed to establish more in other provinces of the same 
 country. 
 
 The indigo here is obtained chiefly from the Polygonum tinc- 
 torium. The plants, which grow to a height of 2 to 3 feet, are 
 cut into three parts, the upper part with the greatest number 
 of leaves being the richest in colouring substance. For the best 
 quality the leaves only are used ; these, after having been exposed 
 to the air and sun during a few hours only, when they darken 
 considerably, are put into straw bags and kept for the purpose of 
 afterwards undergoing a longer treatment. This consists in 
 moistening the leaves with a certain amount of water, the exact 
 quantity of which depends on the nature of the leaves, and the 
 greatest care must be taken to prevent its being either in excess 
 or in deficiency. They are then spread out upon and covered with 
 mats during a few days, after which the operation is repeated 
 during a period of eighty days, about twenty-five times for the 
 best, and about nine times for the inferior leaves. Having under- 
 gone this kind of fermentation they are then pounded in wooden 
 mortars, in quantities of about 30 lbs., for two consecutive 
 days, so as to become reduced to a sort of paste, which is then 
 formed into balls of a dark-blue colour. These balls of crude 
 indigo, with an addition of bran and potash lye, prepared from 
 wood ashes, form the material used by dyers in the steeping vat. 
 
 Java. — Of the products of Java indigo is a principal one, with 
 a few exceptions ; it is chiefly grown in the two residencies of 
 Sourakarta and Djoejokarta, which are not under the control of 
 the Dutch Government, but rest under their ancient chiefs, who 
 are absolute masters. The tenants have to give one day's labour 
 weekly to these chiefs or the value in kind ; but, under arrange- 
 ments controlled and recognised by tlie Dutch authorities, the 
 lands are leased for twenty years, and there are many factories 
 carried on under these terms. The production is rather declining, 
 owing to the fluctuating prices, and much improvement is re- 
 quired both in cultivation and manufacture. At the commence- 
 
366 
 
 THE VEGETABLE DYE-STUFFS. 
 
 ment of the season of 1886 the price was from 3J to 4J florins in 
 the island, hut these gradually fell to 2 florins for the best qnality 
 indigo, and 1 to 1^ florin for inferior kinds. 
 
 This price not satisfying the planters, the greater quantity of 
 the production was shipped to Holland. From 1880 to 1884 the 
 average annual export was 422,000 kilos., and in 1885 and 1886, 
 610,000 kilos. 
 
 The plant generally cultivated for this dye in the Eastern 
 Archipelago is the Indigofera tinctoria, the same usually grown on 
 the continent of India. It is said to be indigenous, at least in 
 several islands, and this would seem to be confirmed by its having 
 everywhere a native name. This name is generally the same in 
 all the languages, for there can be little donbt but that the tarum 
 of the Malay, the torn of the Japanese, the tayumand of the Tagala 
 and Bisaja, are one and the same word. But the case is different 
 with the dye, for this is always called by a foreign name — the 
 well-known Sanscrit one^ — nila, literally " blue." From these two 
 facts it may be at least conjectured that the Hindus taught the 
 inhabitants of the Archipelago the art of extracting the dye and 
 using it — that the plant is indigenous, and that the culture of it, 
 along with the art of manufacture, were conveyed from the western 
 nations of the Archipelago, those nearest to the Hindus and most 
 in communication with them, to the more remote tribes, as in the 
 instance of the people of the Philippines. All the indigo manufac- 
 tured by the natives of the Archipelago is in a liquid and fetid form, 
 and the process of drying the pure fecnla is entirely one of European 
 introduction, conducted nowhere but in Java and the Philippines, 
 and then always under European or Chinese superintendence. 
 
 Indigo is grown principally in the middle provinces, where 
 there are some eighty plantations. Mr. Joseph Sayers, of Java, 
 has carried out some improvements in the manufacture of indigo, 
 which are remarkable for the increase of indigotine obtained and 
 the uniform results shown. 
 
 Good ordinary Bengal has only an average of 61 • 4 of indigotine. 
 We sometimes meet with 75 to 80 per cent, of indigotine in very 
 fine samples of Java and Bengal indigo, but these are exceptional 
 cases. The fact is that in commerce there is generally only about 
 10 per cent, of very fine indigo, 35 per cent, of medium quality, and 
 56 per cent, of ordinary. Indeed, it may be said that not 10 per 
 cent, of the indigos of commerce contain more than 65 to 66 per 
 pent, of indigotine, which is the minimum proportion of the Sayers' 
 indigos of Java. 
 
 Indigo SHttMEHTs, kot pkepaeeu for the Local Markets, sent from Java, 
 
 in KlLOGEAMllES. 
 
 1872 33,038 
 
 1873 346,275 
 
 1874 .. •- .. 386,700 
 
 1875 323,972 
 
 1876 494,368 
 
 1877 526,706 
 
 1878 346,892 
 
 1879 365,845 
 
 1880 373,273 
 
 1881 415,000 
 
 1882 420,000 
 
 1883 442,000 
 
 1884 479,000 
 
 1885 600,974 
 
INDIGO. 367 
 
 Philippines. — The indigo plant is found in several provinces, but 
 the best quality comes from the north of Luzon. 
 
 The leaf is at times affected by the attacks of locusts and by 
 storms, but growers in good years realise as much as 90 per cent, 
 profit. The process of making the indigo is primitive enough, 
 and is somewhat as follows : — 
 
 The plants are cut in April or May, they are then placed in 
 casks filled with water. After being left to steep for some time 
 they are removed, and a certain quantity of lime mixed with the 
 water. The water is then poured into other casks, where it remains 
 until the colouring matter is deposited. As soon as this has taken 
 place the water is drawn off, and the indigo left to dry. It is then 
 cut out in small pieces. 
 
 Imperfect as this way of manufacturing the indigo is, it still 
 fetches in the market from 35 to 76 dollars the cwt. The plant is 
 rich in indigotine, but the defective preparation makes it rank 
 second in quality as compared with Indian indigo. The exports 
 in 1864 were 98 tons ; and in 1875, 3165 cwts. 
 
 Africa. — On most parts of the eastern and western coasts of 
 Africa species of indigo are indigenous. 
 
 According to Dr. Earth and other travellers who have visited 
 the Soudan, the indigo plant grows wild in all the forests. In 
 each town vats are met with, in which the plant is steeped 
 and the dye prepared into cakes. Cakes brought from the 
 Soudan and analysed were found to contain 53 to 64 per cent, 
 of indigotine. The indigo is taken by the caravans by the way 
 of Mourzouk to Egypt. In Tunis indigo is cultivated at Nabel 
 and certain parts of the coast, but of a quality very inferior to 
 that imported. 
 
 At Sierra Leone, Liberia, Abeokuta, and parts of the Niger, 
 Natal, and the Cape Colony, indigo plants are abundant, growing 
 wild, and many are utilised by the natives. 
 
 The African indigo from Egypt and Senegal, though yielding 
 a good dye, is generally much contaminated with earthy 
 matters. 
 
 Humboldt states that the indigo plants grown in Mexico are 
 I. anil, I. tinctoria, and I. disperma. This product is obtained 
 in large quantities in the States of Yucatan, Oanaca, and 
 Colima. 
 
 Guatemala. — The exports of indigo from Guatemala in 1872 were 
 , made to the following countries : — 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 England 15,598 
 
 France 3,830 
 
 Germany 10,933 
 
 United States 5,872 
 
 Belize 3,900 
 
 Total 40,133 
 
 In 1883 the shipments were only to the value of £3776; and 
 from Honduras, in the same year, £40,000. 
 
368 
 
 THE VEGETABLE DYE-STUFFS. 
 
 Nicaragua. — Indigo was the staple article for exportation in the 
 time of the Spaniards, and even for many years afterwards ; but 
 want of labour, capital, attention, and proper protection, during 
 twenty years of revolutionary tumult, has entirely suspended the 
 raising of indigo. It has been found by experience that the indigo 
 raised on the high lands of Nicaragua, although less in quantity, 
 is far superior to the San Salvador indigo, which is now represented 
 as being the best in Central America. 
 
 All the fine old indigo haciendas are mostly used for grazing 
 cattle ; no one will venture his capital in planting indigo under 
 present circumstances. The total amount of indigo exported 
 from Nicaragua in 1858 did not exceed 200 quintals. It is 
 cultivated in the Val Menier, and three crops are obtained from 
 one sowing. 
 
 Central America. — The value of the indigo shipped from Salvador 
 in 1868 was f 1,602,000. The quantity produced annually in 
 this State varies from 9000 to 15,000 bales of 150 lbs. Unlike 
 most other crops of the country, only one crop is produced each 
 year, and a smaller second crop from the same seeding. The cost 
 of production is about 2s. 8d. a pound, while in India the cost is 
 stated to be about Is. There is an export duty here amounting to 
 about 14s. per bale. 
 
 The indigo of this State is still classed in Europe under the 
 name of Guatemala ; in the country the plant is called Jiguelite. 
 Nearly all Salvador is covered with it, both wild and cultivated. 
 The soil, according to its geological composition, is said to produce 
 different results in the indigo. Thus, at the foot of the volcano of 
 San Salvador half a pound of dye is sometimes obtained from a 
 load (160 lbs.) of leaf; and at Santa Barbara and Santa Cruz, some 
 distance from the sea, 13 to 14 ounces only are obtained. About 
 14,000 serons (of 150 lbs.) are usually shipped. The difl'erent 
 grades are specified by numbers — from four to six, ordinary ; seven 
 to nine, superior. 
 
 The indigo of the Eastern Archipelago is used principally for 
 domestic and laundry purposes, for which the Central American 
 variety is, however, well adapted. 
 
 The direct imports from Central America into Great Britain are 
 shown in the following return : — 
 
 ]851 
 
 1852 
 1853 
 1854 
 1855 
 
 Cwts. 
 5,697 
 3,458 
 2,017 
 206 
 2,102 
 
 1862 4,750 
 
 1863 4,281 
 
 1864 8,731 
 
 1865 9,362 
 
 1866 5,6il 
 
 1867 10,381 
 
 1868 13,875 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1869 .. .. 15,763 
 
 1870 .. . . 12,457 
 
 1871 13,799 
 
 1872 12,901 
 
 1873 
 1874 
 1875 
 1882 
 
 7,800 
 
 10,220 
 
 9,115 
 
 7,192 
 
 1883 5,649 
 
 1884 7,418 
 
 1885 7,073 
 
 1886 5,971 
 
 More than half the crop, however, goes to America. 
 
MADDER. 
 
 309 
 
 Oolonibia. — The imports of indigo into the United Kingdom from 
 this State have been as follows : — 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1862 4,391 
 
 1863 1,368 
 
 1864 3,743 
 
 1865 2,381 
 
 1866 6,565 
 
 1867 1,338 
 
 1868 4,221 
 
 1869 847 
 
 1870 2,267 
 
 1871 4,165 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1872 3,961 
 
 1873 3,172 
 
 1874 1,301 
 
 1875 670 
 
 1882 112 
 
 1883 106 
 
 1884 4 
 
 1885 120 
 
 1886 78 
 
 Venezuela. — In former times indigo was a flourishing industry 
 here, but it has rapidly declined from several causes : among 
 others, in consequence of submitting it to alterations which lower 
 its value in the principal markets of Europe. Secondly, the 
 tedious and unwholesome labour which its manufacture requires, 
 and for which it is difficult to find hands. Hence the culture of 
 other products are preferred. It is shipped in boxes and serous, 
 in the form of irregular pieces and powder; but it is always mixed 
 with foreign substances, and very inferior to the produce of 
 Colombia and Guatemala. In order that the Venezuelan indigo 
 might attain any importance in a commercial point of view, the 
 manufacturer ought to be more careful. In 1873 the shipments 
 from Venezuela were 1633 cwts.; in 1882 and 1883 only 354 cwts. 
 The centre of the culture is San Sebastian, and Porto Cabello is 
 the principal port of shipment. 
 
 Madder. — This important vegetable dye, used in calico printing, 
 is obtained from the root of the Buhia tinctoria, a plant indigenous 
 to Turkey and Persia, and now extensively cultivated in Prance 
 and the countries of Central and Southern Europe. The history 
 of madder dyeing may be traced from its origin in Eastern India, 
 three thousand years ago, through Persia, to Adrian ople, Greece, 
 Italy, and Western Europe. The colours were first obtained from 
 a species known as Munjeet (Buhia Munjista), then came into use 
 the Turkey madder root. This plant was grown in England in 
 1624, at which time three qualities were known — cropp, fatt, and 
 mill madders. Erench madder-root has a peculiar smell, and a 
 taste between bitter and sweet. Some kinds, as those of Alsace 
 and Holland, when mixed with water and allowed to stand for 
 some time, give a thick jelly ; this is not yielded to the same 
 extent by Avignon madder. If this madder is treated with an 
 acid it produces a perceptible effervescence, owing to the quantity 
 of calcic carbonate which it contains. 
 
 The increased use of aniline dyes has led to the decline of the 
 Irade in madder roots. The total growth of madder was calculated 
 some years ago to amount to 47,600 tons, of a value of over 
 £2,000,000 sterling. The value of that used in Great Britain in 
 1874 was about £800,000; in 1888 it was but £19,292. 
 
 2 Tl 
 
370 THE VEGETABLE DYE-STUFFS. 
 
 The competition of artificial alizarine has led to the gradual 
 ahandonment of madder culture. In 1840, in all the French 
 departments, 14,674 hectares were devoted to madder, and in 
 1862, 20,466 hectares. In 1874 the total area had declined to 
 5069 hectares. The quantity produced shows a similar develop- 
 ment up to 1862, followed by a decline, as indicated in the 
 following table : — 
 
 Kilogrammes. 
 
 1840 24,872,000 
 
 1862 54,357,696 
 
 1874 17,359,600 
 
 The exports of madder and madder extract show an enormous 
 decline in value. The following marks the diminution in the 
 period from 1867 to 1876 :— 
 
 Francs. 
 
 1867 30,842,000 
 
 1876 4,607,000 
 
 The value of the alizarine imported into the United Kingdom in 
 1888 was £283,862, and of the other coal-tar dyes, £280,683. Taking 
 the lowest estimate, viz., 9500 tons of artificial madder or alizarine, 
 and calculating its selling price at £150 per ton, the annual value 
 amounts to nearly a million and a half, lit is not more than 
 one-third the average price of madder twenty years ago. Dr. P. 
 Versmann, in a paper " On Anthracene and Alizarine," read 
 before the chemical section of the Society of Arts in March, 
 1874, gave some interesting details on madder. " In the East 
 the madder plant has been known since the earliest times. In 
 Holland it has been cultivated more than three hundred years ; 
 in Prance it has risen to great importance since the middle of last 
 century, especially in Avignon, which now produces about one- 
 half of all the madder consumed, to the value of about £750,000 
 per annum. Turkey and South Eussia also supply considerable 
 quantities of high quality. Some experiments in cultivating 
 madder in Great Britain were made in Derbyshire some years 
 ago, but with indifferent results. The soil, the climate, and the 
 weather have the most decided influence upon the growth of the 
 plant, and the subsequent development of the colouring principle. 
 The Dutch madder will dye red, but not purple, and the colour is 
 notfast ; Naples madder dyes red and purple, but the colours are 
 fugitive ; that of Turkey dyes good red and purple, and is very- 
 fast. Prance supplies the market with two qualities, called rosees, 
 from their dyeing beautiful reds and pinks ; and paludes, which 
 give a good purple, besides fine reds, considered the best French 
 quality. The last name is derived from the fact that the plants 
 are grown on marshy land. The cultivation of the plant and the 
 ultimate separation of the colouring principles is a matter of much 
 time and uncertainty. The root must remain in the ground for a 
 long time— in Prance, two or three years ; in Turkey, five or seven 
 years— and, after having been dried and coarsely powdered, it 
 must be kept another year or two to develop the colouring prin- 
 ciples, which are not ready formed in the root. For many cen- 
 
MADDER. 371 
 
 turies, and until the beginning of tlie present one, the root was 
 used direct, and no attempt was made to separate the colouring 
 matters or to apply them in a concentrated and pure form, hut 
 with the development of technical industry and scientific inves- 
 tigation, the concentration or separation of the valuable consti- 
 tuents gradually commenced. The first step was the manufacture 
 of ' fleur de gar.ance,' madder deprived of all substances soluble in 
 water, and then dried again, wliich reduced the bulk to about 60 
 per cent. The washings contain a considerable amount of sugar, 
 which by some French manufacturers is converted into alcohol. A 
 ton of madder gives about 15 gallons of alcohol, of rather un- 
 pleasant flavour, but well adapted for technical purposes. Garan- 
 cine is madder further treated with sulphuric acid, which destroys 
 part of the ligneous fibre, yielding about 25 per cent, in the form 
 of a fine powder of light brown colour. Green alizarine and 
 purpurine are the results of treating madder with sulphurous acid, 
 which dissolves both ; after adding sulphuric acid to the solution, 
 and heating to 40° C, purpurine separates about ^ or ^ per cent., 
 and, on further heating to 100° C, alizarine separates about 3 per 
 cent. Yellow alizarine is obtained by further purifying this green 
 alizarine. Extracts of madder are mostly obtained by treating the 
 root with boiling water, collecting the precipitates which separate 
 on cooling, mixing them with gum or starch, and adding acetate 
 of alumina or iron. This is, in fact, a mixture of colouring matter 
 and a mordant, which may be used for printing, direct. These are 
 the principal madder preparations, many of which are manufactured 
 in this country." 
 
 The madder root season in Naples commences with August of 
 each year, and terminates in July of the following. It is custo- 
 mary to carry the residue stock of one year forward and to add it 
 to the next season's crop. 
 
 The produce of madder roots in France was in 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1857 420,000 
 
 1862 167,792 
 
 1872 238,568 
 
 The latter was equal in value to about £890,750. 
 
 A hectare in well-manured ground, and under favourable cir- 
 cumstances as regards atmosphere, will produce 12,000 lbs. of dry 
 roots, while, under unfavourable circumstances, it will not yield 
 more than one-half or one-fourth of that amount. As the yield 
 varies greatly in successive years, it is difficult to give an average 
 yield. 
 
 The foreign demand for French madder is diminishing consider- 
 ably, but for reds and rose tints madder is still preferred to the 
 artificial alizarine for violets ; however, the latter produces much 
 more economically shades fully as rich as those obtained from the 
 plant. 
 
 The madder preparation known as garancine, which is largely 
 imported from the South of France, is formed by moistening the 
 
 2 B 2 
 
372 THE VEGETABLE DYE-STUFFS. 
 
 ground root •with sulphuric acid, and afterwards subjecting th® 
 same to boiling heat by means of steam. By this process the 
 colouring principle is altered and improved, and a large proportioia 
 of it rendered soluble in water. 
 
 Madder is largely cultivated in Holland. The annual yield of 
 roots in Zealand is 14,500,000 lbs. It is in the islands of Schowen; 
 and Duiveland, and in the zone of land comprised between the 
 mouths of the West Escouit and the confines of Belgium, that they 
 cultivate the best roots and those most in esteem for their colouring 
 matter. The average yield per hectare is, for the biennial plant, 
 2000 to 3000 kilogrammes ; for the triennial, 3500 to 6000 kilo- 
 grammes. 
 
 In Bussia madder grows wild in the south of the country of the 
 Don Cossacks and in the provinces ol' the Caucasus. The principal 
 centre where it is cultivated is Kouban, in the Bakou Government, 
 and in the neighbourhood of Derbend, the average production of 
 late years has been from 200,000 to 300,000 pouds (of 36 lbs.) per 
 annum. It constitutes a very important branch of commerce iu 
 the Caucasus, and the roots sell at 7 to 8 roubles the poud. It 
 is exclusively employed in the native factories of the interior of 
 Eussia. The rapid extension of the aniline colours has, however, 
 had a damaging effect on the native production. 
 
 The Industrial Society of Mulhouse, France, a few years ago 
 published a report on the effect of the introduction of artificial 
 alizarine upon the consumption of madder. The employment of 
 the former product is constantly augmenting, and it is manufac- 
 tured on a large scale in Alsace, Germany, and Eussia. It is with 
 the extracts of madder that artificial alizarine comes in competition, 
 but only to a certain extent ; for, while it produces violet shades 
 of greater brilliancy and beauty, its reds are inferior. In order to 
 completely replace madder, another principle of that material must 
 be present in the artificial product — namely, purpurine, which 
 furnishes fine orange reds, but of which at the present time even 
 the chemical constitution is not definitely knovrai. Hence it is 
 considered that the best tints can be obtained by artificial alizarine 
 and madder extract combined, employing the latter of the shade of 
 red most closely approximating orange. 
 
 MuNJEET. — The majority of the substances used in India for 
 dyeing red partake of the character of madder. The place occupied 
 by this dye-stuff in Europe is supplied in India by the Morindas 
 and Munjeet. The munjeet of Nilgherri is referred to Buhia 
 tinctoria, and that of Afghanistan to Buhia cordifolia, Lin., or B. 
 Munjista, Eoxb. It is cultivated in Assam, Nepal, Bombay, and 
 other parts of the country, and has occasionally been exported to 
 England, but has never been much used in Great Britain, as the 
 colours produced from it are neither so fast nor so bright as those 
 obtained with the European madder. It is too expensive a dye to 
 be much used iu India. 
 
 Chay Eoot (Oldenlandia umhellata, Lin. ; Hedyotis umhellaia, 
 Lam.), another plant belonging to the order Eubiaceffi, is also 
 
SAFFLOWER. 373 
 
 known as Indian madder. It is much cultivated in sandy situa- 
 tions on the Coromandel coast, and used to a great extent in the 
 southern parts of Hindostan by the native dyers. The celebrated 
 red turbans of Madura are dyed with it, and also the Madras 
 handkerchiefs or " pulicats." 
 
 Safflower (Garthamus tinctorius) is a tall annual, rather hand- 
 some herb.' The florets produce yellow, rosy, ponceau, and other 
 red shades of dye, according to various admixtures. The pigment 
 principles are carthamin and carthamus yellow. Its colouring 
 matter, called carthamin, " safflower carmine," is a resinoid sub- 
 stance of a very beautiful, but, unfortunately, not very permanent 
 red colour. When exposed to action of air and light it slowly 
 combines with oxygen by elimination of water and carbonic acid, 
 and is converted into a yellow substance. The "pink saucers," 
 sold in shops for various purposes, contain carthamine, and, mixed 
 with talc, it forms the rouge used by females for painting their 
 faces. , 
 
 In France and Spain, the small flowers composing the heads of 
 the thistle are picked off and dried in the shade, whilst in Egypt 
 and India they are squeezed, washed with cold water to remove 
 useless materials, slightly pressed into lumps, and then dried ; 
 the latter have about double the value of the former. The 
 safflower so prepared only contains three to six parts per thousand 
 of the colour-giving principle, which has received the name of 
 carthamic acid. We also import a small quantity of " extract of 
 safflower." The dried flowers, which are very much like saffron 
 in appearance, have been employed to adulterate that drug. The 
 florets are used by the Chinese to give rose, scarlet, purple, and 
 violet colours to their silks. They are thrown into an infusion of 
 alkali, and left to macerate. The colours are afterwards drawn 
 ■out by the addition of lemon -juice in various proportions, or of any 
 other vegetable acid. The dye-stuff is imported into England 
 from many parts of Europe, and from Egypt, for dyeing and 
 painting. The dried florets yield a beautiful colouring matter, 
 which attaches itself without a mordant. It is chiefly employed 
 for colouring cotton, and produces various shades. In Bangalore 
 silk is dyed with it, but the dye is fugitive, and will not bear 
 washing. The flower is gathered and rubbed down into powder, 
 and sold in this state. When used for dyeing, it is put into a 
 oloth and washed in cold water for a long time to remove a 
 yellow colouring matter. It is then boiled, and yields the pink 
 ■dyeing liquid. The Chinese safflower is considered superior to the 
 Indian. In Assam, Dacca, and Eajpootana, it is cultivated for 
 exportation. That from Bombay is least esteemed. The mode of 
 ■gathering the flowers and preparing the dye as practised in Europe, 
 -where the plant is much cultivated, is as follows : The moment 
 the florets, which form the compound flowers, begin to open, they 
 are gathered in succession without waiting for the whole to expand, 
 since, when allowed to remain till fully blown, the colour is much 
 faded. As the flowers are collected, they are dried in the shade. 
 
374 THE VEGETABLE DYE-STUFFS. 
 
 This work must he carefully performed, for if gathered in wet 
 "weather, or hadly dried, the colour will he much deteriorated. 
 These flowers contain two kinds of colouring matter, the one 
 yellow, which is soluble in water, the other red, which, being of a 
 resinous nature, is insoluble in water, hut soluble in alkaline car- 
 bonates. The- first is never converted to any use, as it dyes only 
 dull shades of colour. The other is a beautiful rose red, capable of 
 dyeing every shade, from the palest rose to the cherry red. It is 
 therefore requisite, before the flowers can be made available, to- 
 separate the useless from the valuable colour, and, since the former 
 only is soluble in water, this operation is a matter of little difficulty. 
 The flowers are tied in a sack and laid in a trough, through which 
 a slender stream of water is constantly flowing, while, still further 
 to promote the solution of the yellow colouring matter, a man in 
 the trough treads the sack, and subjects every part to the action 
 of the water. When this flows without receiving any yellow tingo 
 in its passage, the washing is discontinued, and the safQower, if 
 not wanted for immediate use, is made into cakes ; these are known 
 in commerce under the name of stripped safflower. It is principally 
 used for dyeing silk, producing poppy-red, bright orange, cherry, 
 rose or flesh colour, according to the alternates employed in com- 
 bination. These are alum, potash, tartaric acid, or sulphuric 
 acid. 
 
 Safflower is grown, but to a limited extent, in Bengal, and does 
 not grow promiscuously all over the district. It is cultivated mostly 
 in the tract of country between the Ganges and the DhuUeseray. 
 Six seers of seeds are required to sow one beegah of land, which 
 under favourable conditions will yield about ten seers of flower. 
 The time for sowing is October and November, and the plucking 
 commences in March and April, when the petals of the flower 
 assume a deep orange colour. After being kept saturated in water 
 for one night the flowers are trodden upon by the ryots the next 
 morning. This is repeated for a few days until the impurities are 
 drained off, and the pulpy substance is then divided into cakes 
 and dried in the sun. This process of dividing them into small 
 portions is done by women, who are occupied by it till a late hour 
 of the night. It is a most profitable source of industry, for, besides 
 the sale of the flowers, the returns from which are very handsome 
 considering the trouble and outlay expended on it, a certain kind 
 of oil is pressed out of the seeds which answers remarkably well 
 for culinary as well as other domestic purposes. The seeds are 
 also consumed by the natives when cooked in milk and sugar. As 
 potash forms the preponderating element in the leaves and stalks 
 of the plant, its ashes are used as a substitute for soap by the 
 common people. 
 
 Poultry fatten on the seeds, which somewhat resemble those of 
 the sunflower. The seeds, which are called in India curdee seeds, 
 contain about 28 per cent, of oil. They are imported into this 
 country among other oil seeds. The marc, or oil cake, is given 
 to cattle. 
 
 Safflower, once one of the great staples of Eastern Bengal, was a 
 
SAFFLOWEE. 375 
 
 sure source of income to the ryot. Land subject to annual inunda- 
 tion is best fitted for tlie plant, and if it has remained fallow for a 
 time the crop gives a good return for three years. The yield is 
 good in the first year, and then somewhat less and less. The soil 
 is then given up, and rotation practised, as the crop is exhaustive. 
 After ploughing, the seed, about four or five seers in weight, is 
 either sown broadcast or put into the ground by means of pressure 
 with the finger. The field is divided into compartments in order 
 to enable the ryot to go on with weeding. Eain, when the tree is 
 a foot high, does it good, but after the appearance of the flower 
 rain injures it, and washes away the colour. One beegah yields 
 about 1 maund 10 seers of flower, the price being about Es.l05 per 
 maund of 82 tolahs — 10 annas to the seer. 
 
 The flower, after being gathered in, is trodden down in mats in 
 order to expel the viscid juice which it contains, and then taken 
 to the river and washed for three days three times ; the more the 
 flower is washed, the better is the colour, river water being pre- 
 ferred to tank water. This substance is then made up into flat 
 cakes, about a dollar in shape. Males and females both work alike 
 at the manufacture. The stalks of the plant are used as firewood. 
 When the stalks are burnt they supply a potash for bleaching 
 cloths. 
 
 The plant flowers in three and a half months, and the flowers 
 mature in about fifteen days. Thus the produce of seed sown in 
 December is gathered at the end of March, while the flowers of 
 plants sown a month later are not plucked tUl the end of April. 
 The corollas only of the flower are gathered, as they mature after 
 intervals of two or three days, and the pluckings take place 
 generally four or five times. The first flowers are generally un- 
 developed, and, being deficient in colour, yield dye of an inferior 
 quality. The last pluckings are also inferior, as the plant is then 
 old and dried up, and the colour often entirely void of that deep 
 crimson which is so much valued. The operation of plucking is 
 principally carried on by women, who are often employed in this 
 manner for eight hours a day and receive two annas (3d.) for each 
 day's work. Some skiU and much attention are required to ascer- 
 tain when the flowers are ready for plucking, and a sufficient 
 number of hands must be employed to gather all the matured 
 petals in one day, otherwise the colouring matter will be injured 
 by delay, and indeed may eventually vanish altogether. The 
 corollas of the flower when gathered are placed on a mat in the 
 shade and kneaded with the feet for about an hour on the evening 
 of the day they are plucked, and then left for the night in baskets, 
 no water being used on the first day. Next morning they are 
 placed on a mat so arranged as to allow the water to run freely 
 away, while one man kneads the mass with his feet and another 
 pours clean water on it. Filtered water is best for the purpose ; 
 but, if this is not attainable, the water must be allowed to stand 
 in vessels for twenty-four hours before it is used. Muddy water 
 often spoils the colour. After being worked up in this way for 
 about two hours, the pulp is again placed in baskets and sprinkled 
 
376 THE VtCETABIE DYE-STUFFS. 
 
 with water, so as to keep it moist until the afternoon, when it is 
 again kneaded in the manner ahove described for two hours, and 
 quantities of clean water poured on it. To make good cakes tliis 
 kneading process must be repeated morning and evening for three 
 days, and the pulp, which is thus kneaded six times, kept thoroughly 
 damp day and night in the interval, and never allowed to dry. 
 The chief components, combined with the woody fibre of safflower, 
 are:^(l) a glutinous substance; (2) a yellow colouring matter, 
 and (3) a red colouring matter. The first two are i-eadily soluble 
 in water, but not so the third, which, however, is small in pro- 
 portion to the two others. This repeated washing and kneading 
 of the pulp gets rid of the valueless and easily soluble compounds, 
 and the importance of this object readily explains how the great 
 art of making good safflower lies chiefly in the manufacture. To 
 prove whether the pulp is ready to be made into cakes, it must be 
 placed in clean water, so that any discolouration can at once be 
 detected, and when it will no longer yield colour to the water it is 
 fit to use. The cakes of safflower are made round by squeezing 
 the pulp well between the palms of the hands ; they should be 
 about ]^ inch in diameter, and about ^ inch to ^ inch thick in 
 the centre, and tapering to the edges. Large cakes are very brittle, 
 and hence small cakes are preferred by the purchasers. The cakes 
 are placed on mats in the sun to dry for three or four dayt*, and 
 are then ready for sale. While the cakes are being dried, rain or 
 damp cloudy weather is very injurious to the colouring matter, 
 and the drying process takes a longer time. As moisture dis- 
 colours the cakes, they should be kept in jars or other dry covered 
 receptacles. After the petals are plucked, as above described, the 
 plants are allowed to stand for about three weeks to allow the 
 seed to mature, and are then uprooted or cut down and spread 
 out in the sun to dry. When sufficiently dried, the plants are 
 beaten with sticks ; and the seed, which is easily separated by 
 this process, is winnowed and made into oil, which is used for 
 lighting and cooking, as well as medicinally in rheumatic and 
 paralytic complaints. 
 
 Safflower is cultivated in France and the more southern parts of 
 Europe, both broadcast and in drills. There is a very important 
 diversity, however, in the mode of manufacturing the dye. In 
 Prance the flowers are picked by hand in dry weather, and then 
 carefully dried in a kiln under pressure. In Europe the flower 
 yields two sorts of colouring matter, one soluble in water, producing 
 a yellow dye, of no great beauty, the other resinous, and best 
 dissolved by the fixed alkalies. It is the last that is esteemed so 
 highly, producing a carmine colour, exceeding in beauty and 
 delicacy any that can be obtained even from cochineal. The 
 colpur_ does not stand, however, and is principally employed for 
 imitating upon silk the colours produced by cochineal upon woollen 
 textures. 
 
 The cultivation of safflower was formerly a very large industry 
 in Bengal, but the trade is now almost entirely ruined, aniline 
 colours having driven it completely out of the market. In 
 
SAFFRON. 
 
 377 
 
 1868, 32,000 owts. were shipped to England, and in 1886 only 
 2000 cwts. 
 
 Safflower is no longer of any importance as an export from India. 
 Its last refuge was in China and Japan, where it is extensively 
 «sed for ronge, now almost the only use to which it is applied 
 outside of India. In India safflower is still on the whole largely 
 used as a dye, beautiful but evanescent ; but here, too, the coal- 
 tar colours are gradually driving it out of use. Twelve years 
 ago the exports from India were valued at £40,000; now they 
 have fallen to less than a tenth of that sum. 
 
 The flowers are picked off as they appear, leaving the flower- 
 heads on the stalk. All that is detached is the fragile-looking 
 corolla, which issues from the summit of the prickly teethlike 
 flower-head. When these are picked off, their subsequent treat- 
 ment depends on whether they are to be made up into the 
 safflower of commerce, or whether they are merely to be prepared 
 for dyeing purposes in the country. If the former is intended, 
 the florets are damped in the water and pressed into lumps. A 
 rough strainer is made by stretching a mat on a wooden frame ; 
 on this the lumps of florets are laid, and water is slowly poured 
 over them, while a man treads them out with his feet, supporting 
 himself on two sticks as crutches. In this way the yellow 
 colouring matter is eliminated from the flowers, the presence of 
 which would detract from the beauty of the crimson tint for which 
 they are chiefly prized. 
 
 Safflower intended for use in the country is not washed in the 
 method above described at the time they are picked. The flowers 
 are simply dried, in which state they are sold by the cultivators. 
 
 The dye is obtained from the petals, which contain two pigment 
 principles, viz., safflower yellow, obtained by pounding and 
 macerating the flowers with soda, and safflower red, which is the 
 dye of commerce. The Dacca safflower is the best of India, and 
 ranks next to that of China. 
 
 The exports from India have been as follows : — 
 
 Years. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 cwts. 
 
 * 
 
 
 CWtfl. 
 
 £ 
 
 1876-77 
 
 7,662 
 
 30,467 
 
 1882-83 
 
 2,333 
 
 6,449 
 
 1877-78 
 
 3,698 
 
 14,880 
 
 188i-85 
 
 2,167 
 
 8,308 
 
 1878-79 
 
 4,977 
 
 18,671 
 
 188.5-86 
 
 1,898 
 
 6,899 
 
 1879-80 
 
 2,411 
 
 18,145 
 
 1886-87 
 
 2,149 
 
 8,381 
 
 1880-81 
 
 6,675 
 
 3,511 
 
 
 
 
 There is not a very large demand for safflower in England. The 
 great centre of its iise was Lyons, where it was employed for the 
 colouring of silks and satins. 
 
 Saffron {Crocus sativus). — This is a pretty bulbous plant of the 
 natural order Iridacese. It is alike useful in food, industry, and 
 medicine. Although used to a small extent in pharmacy, and as 
 
378 THE VEGETABLE DYE-STUFFS. 
 
 a dye-stuff, its chief employment is as a condiment, and for 
 colouring liqueurs, butter and cheese. 
 
 The number of species is very great, but they may be divided 
 into those which blow in autumn and those which flower in 
 spring. The bulbs grow wild in large quantities on the sides of 
 mountains, and in the valleys of Sicily, Greece, Turkey, Persia, 
 Spain, Portugal, and other countries. 
 
 Saffron, either as a medicine, condiment, perfume or dye, has 
 been highly prized by mankind from a remote period, and has 
 played an important part in the history of commerce. 
 
 A peculiar preference for saffron as a condiment exists in some 
 countries, especially Austria; Germany, and certain districts of 
 Switzerland. The predilection prevails even in England — at least 
 in Cornwall, where the use of saffron for colouring cakes is still 
 common. Saffron is largely used by the natives of India in 
 religious rites, in medicine, and for the colouring and flavouring 
 of food. As a dye-stuff saffron is no longer employed in this 
 country, having been superseded by less costly substances. 
 
 Saffron contains a yellow matter, which, if extracted and dried, is 
 red, but when wet is yellow ; it has a bitter taste, is easily dis- 
 solved in warm water and still easier in alcohol, also in ether and 
 the essential oils. The colouring matter is about 42 per cent, of 
 the saffron. It is used in the Morocco trade for colouring skins. 
 
 The colouring power of saffron is very remarkable ; a single 
 grain rubbed to fine powder with a Httle sugar will impart a 
 distinct tint of yellow to ten gallons of water. 
 
 This plant grows wild in many countries, and is cultivated in 
 several, such as Austria, Hungary, Russia, Greece, Italy, Asia 
 Minor, Egypt, France, and Spain. The two principal countries of 
 production are the arrondissements of Pithiviers (Loiret), in 
 France, and the province of Avignon, in Spain. 
 
 The production in France was estimated in 1862 at 33,000 lbs., 
 the greater part of which was sent to Germany, the price being 
 about 75 francs the kilogramme, or a total value of 1,000,000 
 francs, equal to £40,000. 
 
 The production of saffron in France is chiefly confined to 
 three departments, Vaucluse, Charente, and Loiret, of which 
 Pithiviers in the latter produces the largest amount and of the 
 best quality. A saffron field is not in full bearing till the end of 
 the second year ; at the end of three years it is exhausted, and, 
 according to a local proverb, the land is then so poisoned that it 
 cannot be used for the same purpose for 15 or 16 years more. The 
 average crop of the second and third year varies, from 10 to 30 
 kilogrammes per hectare, or from 9 lbs. to 27 lbs. per acre of dry 
 pistils. Each acre produces 600,000 to 700,000 bulbs, and each 
 bulb two or three flowers. About 160,000 flowers are required to 
 produce 2 lbs. of fresh pistils, which, when dried, are reduced to 
 one-fifth of that weight ; the pistils are the only productive part of 
 the flower, the rest is waste. The labour of picking such enor- 
 mous quantities of flowers by hand is great, and when the crop is 
 large and labourers are scarce, the flowers are carried into the 
 
SAFFEON. 379 
 
 villages and small towns round about, to be picked by women and 
 children at home. In such cases all the world is busy saffron- 
 picking ; artisans, shopkeepers, gentlemen, and ladies, freely assist 
 in the work, the poor worlang for their own profit, the rich for the 
 benefit of the necessitous. When the pistils are separated they 
 have to be dried, and this operation is effected by placing about a 
 pound of fresh pistils at a time in a horsehair sieve, suspended over 
 a little charcoal furnace. As soon as it is dry the saffron is ready 
 for sale. Commercial travellers generally buy up the saffron, 
 which goes by the name of the most famous district, the old 
 province of Gatinais, principally for Germany, where it is said to 
 be mixed with Spanish saffron and resold as a German product. 
 
 The following is an analysis of a good saffron-growing soil in 
 the neighbourhood of the town of Pinseaux, in the celebrated 
 district of Gatinais : — 
 
 Quartzose sand 0-268 
 
 Silica and alumina • 279 
 
 Oxide of iron 0020 
 
 Carbonate of lime • 370 
 
 Water and organic matters ■ 063 
 
 Total 1-000 
 
 In the Midi the culture of saffron is only carried on in the 
 department of Vaucluse ; but the quality, although appreciated, is 
 considered inferior to that of the ancient French province of 
 G&tinais. There has long been a large commerce in saffron carried 
 on at Marseilles. 
 
 The small yield, the care required in the culture, and the 
 difficulties of preserving the product in a good state renders saffron 
 an expensive article. 
 
 Many reasons, especially cheaper labour and the rent of land, 
 and the absence of frost, have enabled the Spaniards to extend 
 the culture, so that it is ten times larger than in Prance. 
 
 The introduction of the species Crocus Mausslcerechtii from Persia 
 has been recommended of late. 
 
 The production in Spain is about double that of Prance, and, 
 adding the growth of other countries, the value of the saffron 
 produced must exceed a quarter of a million sterling. 
 
 In Sicily and in a number of the provinces of Southern 
 Germany, saffron is planted with care in gardens, and when 
 brought to perfection fine results are obtained in the shape of 
 good colouring material. Under culture it rapidly thrives, and it 
 is from these sections that a large amount of the saffron used in 
 the arts and manufactures is obtained. On the seed-bearer of the 
 flower there is a thvead-like hook or fort, which at its upper end 
 terminates in three thick dark orange-coloured nerves or masses ; 
 to save and collect these tissues the flowers are gathered in the 
 fall, just as they are breaking or a little before ; they are plucked 
 only in the morning, and these little masses are then pulled out 
 with a considerable portion of a thread-like stem to which they 
 
380 THE VEGETABLE DYE-STUFFS. 
 
 adhere. It is the dried stigmas, the trifid orange-coloured tops of 
 the central organ of the flower. The remainder of the flower is 
 nseless. The next operation, is to dry them in a graduated heat ; 
 stoves are made on purpose for this ; the heat must be applied 
 gradually. 
 
 Saffron, as it generally comes into the trade, consists of a large 
 number of crooked and mixed up threads, of a rather whitish 
 colour ; if of a very good quality it has a peculiarly sharp, rooty, 
 and pungent smell, and a bitter balsam-like taste. There are a 
 number of varieties, the Oriental from Asia, the Asiatic from 
 Turkey and other sections of the East. Since its price has risen 
 in the market there have been numerous methods of adulteration 
 invented ; these occur, for the most part, in the saffron sold in 
 France, Bavaria, and Austria. The Italian saffron is paler ; it, 
 however, dyes a very good colour. The English saffron is always 
 very dry, and is easily pulverized, and therefore is poorer. The 
 poorer saffron comes from Spain, and is made heavy by the intro- 
 duction of a fatty oil. This can be easily distinguished by rubbing 
 a quantity between the fingers, when an oilj' feeling is noticeable, 
 which is never present in the pure saffron that has not been 
 tampered with. 
 
 Mr. Henry Groves, in giving an account of saffron culture in 
 the Abruzzi district of the Apennines, states that adulteration is 
 carried out in various ways, the chief one being by mixing with it 
 shredded beef, of which a suitable piece is boiled, and then 
 shredded into small fibres, which are stained with saffron water 
 and then dried The filaments of the stamens are also dyed in the 
 same manner and intermixed. To make the saffron water about 
 15 grammes of the stigmata are tied up in a cloth and soaked with 
 a little water or wine, which after a time is pressed out, and the 
 process repeated as long as any colouring matter remains. The 
 exhausted saffron is used by the country people in their polento, to 
 which it imparts some slight flavour. 
 
 One of the richest centres of cultivation of the crocus is Safran- 
 boly, in the vilayet of Kastamouny, in the province of Anatolia, 
 near the ports of the Black Sea, and therefore not far from 
 Constantinople. Its prosperity is entirely owing to the growth of 
 saffron. The bulbs are transplanted in April ; they multiply 
 very rapidly, and in three years' time yield an abundant crop in 
 autumn, which fetches about 65 francs per lb. It is frequently 
 met with in a sophisticated state, owing to its high price ; indeed, 
 according to Pereira, it takes nine flowers to make up a grain of 
 marketable _ saffron, so that it does not require less than 4320 
 flowers to yield one ounce. Some assert that to produce 1 lb. of 
 dry saffron 107,520 flowers are necessary; while others put the 
 quantity as high as 203,920 flowers. According to Dumesnil 
 (Acad, des Sciences) 7000 to 8000 flowers are required for yielding 
 17^ oz. of fresh saffron, and this weight is reduced to one-fifth by 
 drying. The adulteration is effected by the admixture of safflower, 
 marigold, or slices of the petals of the pomegranate. 
 
 Saffron of an excellent quality is produced in the Eegency of 
 
TURMERIC. 38 1 
 
 Tunis. The culture is carried on about the town of Tastus, but 
 only on a small scale. Saffron is grown in China and Japan, and 
 the mountains of Cashmere, but it is not the same species as that 
 grown in Europe. About 260 cwts. of saffron are imported 
 annually into India. 
 
 TuEMETiic. — This dye-stuff is the produce of the rhizomes of 
 Curcuma longa. These, as entering into commerce, differ materi- 
 ally in their exterior form, and have hence been attributed to 
 different plants, but they are all the produce of C. longa. Messrs. 
 Pluckiger and Hanbury, in their ' History of the Principal Drugs,' 
 give a good definition of the two sorts of rhizome which enter 
 into commerce, the central or round, and the lateral or long. 
 " The former are ovate, pyriforni or sub-spherical, sometimes 
 pointed at the upper end, and crowned with the remains of leaves, 
 while the sides are beset with those of roots and marked with 
 concentric ridges. The diameter is very variable, but it is seldom 
 less than three-fourths of an inch, and is frequently much more. 
 They are often cut and usually scalded in order to destroy their 
 vitality and facilitate drying, as they are exposed to the sun for 
 three or four days. 
 
 " The lateral rhizomes are sub-cylindrical, attenuated towards 
 either end, generally curved, covered with a rugose skin, and 
 marked more or less plainly with transverse rings. Sometimes 
 one, two, or more short knobs or shoots grow out on one side. 
 The rhizomes, whether round or long, are very hard and firm, 
 exhibiting when broken a dull, waxy, resinous surface, of an orange 
 or orange-brown hue, more or less brilliant. They have a peculiar 
 aromatic odour and taste. 
 
 " Several varieties of turmeric, distinguished by the names of 
 the countries or districts in which they are produced, are found 
 in the English market ; but although they present differences 
 which are sufficiently appreciable to the eye of the experienced 
 dealer, the characters of each sort are scarcely so marked or so 
 constant as to be recognisable by mere verbal description." 
 
 China turmeric is the most esteemed, but it is seldom to be met 
 with in the European market. A good deal is imported from 
 Takow, in Formosa, to Chinese ports. 
 
 The plant is largely grown in many districts in India, but more 
 as a spice used in native cooking than for use as a dye. Native 
 cultivators distinguish several varieties; of the two commonest, 
 the root of one when cut has a rich unctuous appearance, and 
 this is the one which is employed for dyeing purposes ; the other 
 has a harder and dryer root, and is only used as a spice in 
 cooking vegetables and meat. 
 
 When the soil has been well ploughed and cleared of weeds, it 
 is raised according as the rains begin to fall, into ridges 9 or 10 
 inches high and 18 or 20 broad. Cuttings or sets of small portions of 
 the fresh roots are planted on the top of the ridges at about 18 inches 
 or 2 feet asunder. One acre requires about 900 such sets, and yields 
 in December and January about 2000 lbs. weight of fresh root. 
 
382 
 
 THE VEGETABLE DYE-STUFFS. 
 
 When dug up the roots are hoiled and dried in the sun ; in this 
 form they are the turmeric sold in the Indian bazaars. "When 
 the dye is to he used, the roots are again boiled and powdered 
 ■while wet. A decoction is then made of this paste in water, in 
 which the cloth is well steeped, being subsequently dried in the 
 shade. 
 
 No satisfactory statistics have been collected concerning the 
 area on which it is grown, or the total annual production. But 
 the quantity exported is shown in the Indian official returns. 
 The well-known haldi is the powder of the rhizome or root-stock, 
 which constitutes the chief ingredient in curry-stuffs. 
 
 Turmeric is cultivated all over India for its rhizomes, which 
 are used as a condiment in cooking vegetables and meat. They 
 are also used as a yellow dye, the colouring principle being known 
 as curcumin, which is soluble in alcohol or ether, and changes 
 with alkali into a deep red. 
 
 Turmeric is classed as a dye and is largely used for that purpose 
 in Europe, it is also said to be used to adulterate mustard. 
 
 ExpoETS of TuKMEBic from India. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Quautity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 1880-81 
 1881-82 
 1882-83 
 1883-84 
 
 cwts. 
 89,256 
 67, .503 
 59,041 
 71,396 
 
 £ 
 46,686 
 34,696 
 34,209 
 62,242 
 
 1884-85 
 1885-86 
 1886-87 
 
 1887-88 
 
 cwts. 
 
 75,845 
 
 156,257 
 
 140,994 
 
 162,516 
 
 £ 
 
 73,695 
 139,467 
 103,202 
 
 93,038 
 
 The shipments were made to the following countries in the two 
 last-named years : — 
 
 Countries. 
 
 United Kingdom 
 France 
 
 United States . . 
 Other countries 
 
 1887. 
 
 cwts. 
 74,188 
 24,935 
 
 2,956 
 38,915 
 
 140,994 
 
 cwts. 
 90,779 
 21,201 
 10,735 
 39,801 
 
 162,516 
 
 Madras turmeric is a fine sort, in large bold pieces, called 
 " fingers." Sometimes packages of it contain exclusively round 
 rhizomes, while others are made up entirely of the long or lateral. 
 Bengal turmeric differs from the other varieties chiefly in its 
 deeper tint, and hence is the sort preferred for dyeing purposes. 
 
 Java turmeric presents no very distinctive features ; it is dusted 
 with its own powder, and does not show when broken a very 
 brilliant colour. 
 
 Cochin turmeric would seem to be the produce of another species 
 of Curcuma. It consists exclusively of a bulb-shaped rhizome of 
 
COTCH. 383 
 
 large dimensions, cut transversely or longitudinally into slices or 
 segments. The cortical part is dull brown ; the inner surface is 
 horny, and of a deep orange-brown, or when in thin shavings of a 
 brilliant yellow. The entire rhizomes are thick, short, conical, 
 and of enormous size, some attaining as much as 2J inches in 
 vliameter. 
 
 The Curcuma longa grows wild in the province of Mysore, and 
 is probably indigenous to various other parts ; it is cultivated very 
 generally in most districts of India. It thrives well iu a rich 
 light soil, and is readily increased by offshoots from the roots. 
 
 It is chiefly used in Europe as a dye-stuff, and the powder affords 
 without a mordant a yeUow dye, which is brilliant but not 
 permanent. It is largely used by native females in India to colour 
 their faces. Mixed with the pulverised sappan wood it forms the 
 red powder used by the Hindoos, under the name of faug, in the 
 Huli festival games. It is extensively used in cooking in the 
 East, especially as an ingredient in curry powder ; indeed, there 
 are few articles of food that are not there flavoured with turmeric. 
 
 It used to be used medicinally in this country, and maintains a 
 high reputation among native practitioners in the East as a 
 cordial and stomachic, as anti-scorbutic, and stimulating the 
 digestive organs. It is frequently given in the fresh state as an 
 anthelmintic, and in diarrhoea. 
 
 CuTCH. — Perhaps less is known in commercial circles of the 
 history and origin of the inspissated extracts known as Cutch and 
 Oambier, which are now imported to so large an amount for 
 tanning and dying purposes, than of any other products. The 
 misnomer of " Terra Japonica," which was so long applied to 
 gambler in the official trade returns, has now been got rid of, and 
 the two extracts appear under their proper names. Although 
 they are frequently confounded by many, cutch and gambler are 
 obtained from different sources and different plants. It may, 
 therefore, be well to give some detailed description of them, and 
 of the great progress they have made, until our imports of these 
 two products now reach a value of about £700,000. 
 
 The cutch of commerce is obtained chiefly from two species of 
 Acacia. The common name, catechu, under which it sometimes 
 passes, is derived from Cate, a tree, and chu, juice. It is usually 
 called in India kath or kut. Perhaps the best-known use of kath 
 is as an ingredient in the prepared pan leaves, generally chewed 
 by the natives of India. The kath is pounded fine, and a little is 
 then smeared on the pan leaf, together with some lime and crushed 
 betelnuts. It is the hath, in combination with the lime, which 
 gives to the teeth and lips the red colour so unsightly to European 
 eyes; 3000 to 4000 cwts. of catechu are exported from the 
 Kumaon forests. The trees from which it is prepared are chiefly : 
 (1) Acacia Catechu, Willd. ; Mimosa Sundra, Eoxb., a tree 80 or 
 40 feet high, with dark-grey or brown bark, reddish and fibrous 
 internally. This tree is common in most parts of India and 
 Burmah, where it is highly valued for its wood, which is used for 
 
384 THE VEGETABLE DYE-STUFFS. 
 
 posts and for various domestic purposes, as well as for making 
 catecliu and charcoal, while the astringent hark serves for tanning. 
 (2) A. Suma, Kurz. ; Mimosa Suma, Eoxh., a large tree, with white 
 bark, nearly related to the preceding, but not having so extensive 
 a geographical range. It grows in the south of India (Mysore), 
 Bengal, and Guzerat. The bark is used in tanning, and catechu 
 is made from the heart-wood, but not so extensively as from the 
 former species. The process for preparing it varies slightly in 
 different districts. The tree is reckoned to be of proper age when 
 its trunk is about a foot in diameter. It is then cut down, and 
 the whole of the woody part, with the exception of the smaller 
 branches and the bark, is chopped into chips. Some accounts 
 state that only the darker heart-wood is thus used. The chips are 
 then placed with water in earthen jars, a series of which are 
 arranged over a mud-built fireplace, usually in the open air. Here 
 the water is made to boil, the liquor, as it becomes thick and 
 strong, being decanted into another vessel, in which the evapora- 
 tion is continued, until the extract is sufficiently inspissated, when 
 it is poured into moulds made of clay, or of leaves pinned together 
 in the shape of cups, or in some districts on to a mat covered with 
 the ashes of cow-dung, the drying in each case being completed by 
 exposure to the sun and air. The product is a deep reddish-brown 
 extract, with a glassy fracture, which is the usual form in which 
 cutch is known in Europe. In Kumaon, in the north of India, a 
 slight modification of the process affords a drug of very different 
 appearance. Instead of evaporating the decoction to the condition 
 of an extract, the inspissation is stopped at a certain point, and the 
 liquor allowed to cool, coagulate, and crystallise over twigs and 
 leaves thrown into the pots for the purpose. By this process 
 there is obtained from each pot about 2 lbs. of "kath," or catechu, 
 of an ashy whitish appearance. This product is brought down 
 from Berar and Nepal to Calcutta, but not exported. The cutch 
 of Pegu has a high reputation. Catechu contains about 50 per 
 cent, of tannin. It is used by dyers, not as a dye-stuff, however,, 
 but as a source of tannic acid, which it contains in a very large 
 quantity, and this has the property of forming, with a solution of 
 a salt of sesquioxide of iron, an exceedingly deep, bluish-black 
 liquid (ink). Catechu is used also in medicine as an astringent, 
 on account of the large quantity of tannic acid which it contains. 
 According to some accounts cutch, or catechu, is prepared thus : 
 The tree is cut down to about 6 to 12 inches from the ground, and 
 the inner wood chopped into small pieces, the smaller branches- 
 and bark being rejected. The chopped wood is then taken to the 
 place of manufacture, generally under trees in the open air,, and 
 placed over a brisk fire in mud jars, called garrahs, filled with 
 about two-thirds of water. This is allowed to boil down, till;. 
 with the extracted matter, it forms a liquid of syrupy consistence. 
 The contents of several jars are then poured into a larger jar, and 
 this is placed over a brisk fire for a period of from two to four hours, 
 and, when sufficiently boiled down, it is poured out over mats, 
 and allowed to dry. The wood when dry is used for fuel. 
 
GAMBIEE. 
 
 385 
 
 In Burma and Bombay th.e decoction is boiled down to a solid 
 consistence and thrown into leaf moulds, or is baked into cakes 
 and balls. This is the ordinary cutch of commerce. 
 
 This substance is apparently rarely, if ever, exported from India, 
 but may be procured from Madras and Mysore, where a consider- 
 able local trade is done in this form of cutch. It exists in large 
 slabs about an inch in thickness, prepared on the leaves of the 
 Teakwood tree. 
 
 Other kinds of catechu are prepared in India. The commonest 
 kind is palm cutch, from the nut of the Areoa Catechu. The nuts 
 are boiled for some hours in an earthen or tinned copper vessel, 
 which furnishes the astringent extract called kossa, which is black, 
 and mixed with paddy husks and other impurities. After the nuts 
 are dried, they are put into a fresh quantity of water and boiled 
 again, and this water being inspissated like the former, yields the 
 best kind of catechu, called cooney. It is yellowish-brown, has 
 an earthy fracture, and is free from the admixture of foreign 
 bodies. 
 
 The betelnuts are prepared for use in various ways. They are 
 boiled, and when the water has become red and thick the nuts are 
 taken out, cut in slices with a simple lever cutter, and dried in the 
 sun; they are then once more steeped in the liquid and again 
 dried. From the decoction of the nuts two kinds of catechu are 
 obtained : one, called cattacumboo, is used as a masticatory chewed 
 with the betel leaf ; the other, called cash cuttie, is used medicinally 
 as an astringent. 
 
 The collection and preparation of the betelnuts are described 
 under the head of the Betelnut Palm, p. 286. 
 
 The imports of cutch into the United Kingdom are about 6000 
 or 7000 tons. British India supplies the largest portion. 
 
 The total exports from India have been as follows : — 
 
 1885 
 1886 
 
 Cwts. 
 246,122 
 205,355 
 
 Cwta. 
 
 1887 199,397 
 
 1888 273,068 
 
 Gambier. — The gambler plant is a stout, climbing shrub, a native 
 of the countries bordering on the Straits of Malacca, and especially 
 of the numerous islands at their eastern end. There would appear 
 to be two species employed : — (1) The Uncaria Gamhir, Eoxb. ; 
 the Nauclea Gamhir of Hunter. (2) Uncaria acida. Hunt. The 
 cultivation and manufacture seem to have been commenced at 
 Singapore in 1819, and it rapidly extended until there were about 
 600 or 800 plantations; in 1866 the cultivation was fast disappear- 
 ing on the island. Of late years, owing to an increased demand 
 for the product, and higher prices ruling, it has rapidly recovered. 
 The culture is also largely pursued on the mainland. In the 
 islands of the Ehio Linga Archipelago, lying south-east of Singa- 
 pore, and on the Island of Bintang, the most northerly of the 
 group, there are many gambler plantations. The plant is propa- 
 gated either by seeds or cuttings, but the latter are preferred. 
 At the expiration of fourteen months the first cutting of the 
 
 2 c 
 
386 THE VEGETABLE DYf-STUFFS. 
 
 brandies, with the leaves en, is made. The plantations are oftea 
 formed in clearings of the jungle, where they last for a few years- 
 and are then abandoned, owing to the impoverishment of the soil 
 and the irrepressible growth of the " lalang " grass (Imperata 
 Koenigii, Beauv.), which is more difficult to eradicate than even 
 primeval jungle. It has been found profitable to combine with 
 the cultivation of gambler that of pepper, for which the boiled 
 leaves of the gambler form an excellent manure. The gambler 
 plants are allowed to grow from 8 to 10 feet high, and as their 
 foliage is always in season, each plant is stripped three or four 
 times in the year. The apparatus and all that belongs to the 
 manufacture of the extract are of the most primitive description. 
 A shallow cast-iron pan, about 3 feet across, is built into an 
 earthen fireplace. Water is poured into the pan, a fire is kindled, 
 and the leaves and young shoots, freshly plucked, are scattered in 
 and boiled for about an hour. At the end of this time they are 
 thrown into a capacious steeping trough, the lower end of which 
 projects into the pan, and squeezed with the hand so that the 
 absorbed liquor may run back into the boiler. The decoction is 
 then evaporated to the consistency of a syrup, and baled out into, 
 buckets. When sufficiently cool, it is subjected to a curious treat- 
 ment. Instead of simply stirring it round, the workman pushes a 
 stick of soft wood in a sloping direction into every bucket, and 
 placing two such buckets before him, he works a stick up and 
 down, in each. The liquor thickens round the stick, and the 
 thickened portion being constantly rubbed ofi', while at the same 
 time the whole is in motion, it gradually sets into a mass. It is 
 reasonable to suppose that this manner of treating the liquor 
 favours the crystallization of the substance in a more concrete form 
 than it might otherwise assume. The thickened mass, which 
 resembles soft yellowish clay, is now placed in shallow square 
 boxes, and when somewhat hardened is cut into cubes and dried 
 in the shade. The leaves are boiled a second time, and finally 
 washed in water, which water is saved for another operation. A 
 plantation with five or six labourers contains on an average 70,000 
 to 80,000 shrubs, and yields from 50 to 60 lbs. of gambler daily. 
 
 Our imports of gambler have not varied much, the average 
 quantity we receive from Singapore being about 21,000 tons; 
 the highest amount was 25,176 tons in 1871. 
 
 The imports were in — 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1866 12,8i5 
 
 1876 21,721 
 
 1886 21,798 
 
 Gambler is now grown in the Eiouw Archipelago, the West 
 Coast of Sumatra, Palembang, Banka, and Bencoolen. 
 The exports from Netherlands-India were in — 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 1875 7,430,152 
 
 1880 15,403,177 
 
 1885 8,337,449 
 
ANNOTTA, OE ARNATTO. 387 
 
 AsNOTTA, OR Arnatto. — The culture of tlie large shrub producing 
 this dye-stuff is chiefly carried on in the French colonies of 
 Guadaloupe and Giiiana, where it is known as roucou, and in other 
 parts of South America as achiote. It is washed off from the seeds 
 of a small tree or shrub, the Bixa orellana, a native of the warm 
 parts of South America, the East and West Indies, and Africa. 
 The plant is grown in the Deccan and other parts of India and the 
 Eastern Archipelago, in the Pacific Islands, Brazil, Peru, and 
 Zanzibar. The fruit is like a chestnut, a two-valved capsule 
 covered with flexible bristles, and contains a certain number of 
 seeds smaller than peas. These seeds are covered with a soft, 
 viscous, resinous pulp, of a beautiful vermilion colour, and un- 
 pleasant smell like red lead mixed with oil, and it is this substance 
 which constitutes annotta. The mode in which it is obtained is 
 by pouring hot water over the pulp and seeds, and leaving them 
 to macerate, and then separating them by pounding them with a 
 wooden pestle. The seeds are removed by straining the mass 
 through a sieve ; and the pulp being allowed to settle, the water 
 is gently poured off, and the pulp put into shallow vessels, in 
 which it is gradually dried in the shade. After acquiring a 
 proper consistence it is made into cylindrical rolls or balls, and 
 placed in an airy place to dry, after which it is sent to market. 
 It used to be most common in the form of small rolls, each 2 or- 
 3 ozs. in weight, hard, dry, and compact ; brownish without and 
 red within. EoU annotta is of an inferior quality, containing less 
 of the colouring matter ; is hard, dry, and compact, of a brownish 
 coloured exterior, but a bright red interior. The rolls come 
 principally from Brazil. The flag annotta fetches double the 
 price of roll. The other process of manufacture is that pursued 
 in Cayenne. The pulp and seeds together are bruised in wooden 
 vessels, and hot water poured over them ; they are then left to 
 soak for several days, and afterwards passed through a close 
 sieve to separate the seeds. The matter is then left to ferment 
 for about a week, when the water is gently poured off, and the 
 solid part left to dry in the shade. When it has acquired the 
 consistence of solid paste, it is formed into cakes of 3 or 4 lbs. 
 weight, which are wrapped in the leaves of the banana, and 
 known in commerce as flag annotta. This variety is of a 
 bright yellow colour, rather soft to the touch, and of considerable 
 solidity. 
 
 Labat informs us that the Indians prepare an annotta, greatly 
 superior to that which is brought to us, of a bright, shining red 
 colour, almost equal to carmine. For this purpose, instead of 
 steeping and fermenting the seeds in water, they rub them with 
 the hands, previously dipped in oil, till the pulp comes off and is 
 reduced to a clear paste, which is scraped off from the hands 
 with a knife, and laid' on a clean leaf in the shade to dry. Mixed 
 with lemon, juice and gum, it makes the crimson paint with 
 which the Indians adorn their bodies ; and they employ the leaves 
 and roots in cookery to increase the flavour and give a saffron 
 colour. 
 
 2 c 2 
 
388 
 
 THE VEGETABLE DYE-STUFFS. 
 
 It owes its value to tlie colouring matter Mxin and orellin, 
 which constitute about 20 per cent, of good dry annotta. Fresh 
 annotta contains more than half its weight of water. It was 
 formerly employed in dyeing wool and silks, but its colour, though 
 beautiful at first, soon fades, and hence it has been abandoned for 
 more permanent dyes. 
 
 Annotta is principally consumed by painters and dyers ; but it 
 is also used to colour cheese with a pale yellow or flesh colour. The 
 Dutch use it for heightening the colour of their butter, and it is 
 employed for the same purpose in some American and English 
 dairies. 
 
 In French Guiana there are 850 acres devoted to it, which 
 produced, in 1885, 74,500 kilos. In Guadaloupe there are seven 
 planters who have 1400 acres under culture ; the produce, in 1883, 
 was 700,000 kilos., and in 1885, 1,100,000 kilos. It thrives in this 
 island at an altitude of 400 to 600 yards. 
 
 Annotta bears twice a year, the spring blossoms always yielding 
 the largest crop. As soon as the pods in the bunches commence 
 drying and opening, the bunches are cut by means of a pair of 
 shears or a crooked knife. These bunches are packed in baskets 
 and transported to the shed prepared for the purpose. Every pod 
 requires to be picked with the hands, the seeds attached to the 
 white film inside being as much as possible untouched. The crop 
 is gathered from the 15th of July until the end of August, and it 
 is estimated that one hectare (2^ acres) should yield on an average 
 3500 lbs. of seeds for the two crops, or about seven casks of pulp, 
 weighing from 350 to 400 lbs. each. 
 
 For many years this dye-stuff was in demand for dyeing, and 
 proved profitable when the culture was carried on on a large scale, 
 but the aniline colours have lessened the demand. Still, many 
 thousands of pounds are exported from the two islands of Martin- 
 ique and Guadaloupe. 
 
 Some ten years ago, only 25,000 lbs. of annotta used to be 
 exported from Jamaica, but the shipments have largely increased, 
 having been in — 
 
 1885 
 1886 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 lbs. 
 268,187 
 369,284 
 
 Value. 
 
 £ 
 3,602 
 7,693 
 
 About 130,000 lbs. are shipped from Brazil, and 39,000 lbs. of 
 annotta were received from the Congo State, Africa, in the third 
 quarter of 1887. 
 
 Onoto, as it is there termed, is abundant in Venezuela ; in the 
 eastern part of the State it is known locally under the name of 
 eaituco. There is a variety with larger fruit and smaller spines 
 than the common one. 
 
 Annotta is disseminated throughout the island of Porto Kico 
 
HENNA. 389 
 
 and is tliere of spontaneous growtli, for there is no instance of any- 
 regular plantation being established. The country-people plant 
 near their homesteads two or three shrubs, for the sake of the fruit, 
 which they use as a condiment in place of saffron or red pepper. 
 A very small quantity is exported, but no other preparation is 
 given to the article than merely drying the pods in a current of 
 air under shelter from the sun, and then packing them in bags or 
 barrels. 
 
 Henna (Lawsonia alba, Lamk. ; L. spinosa and inermis, Lin. ; 
 Alcanna spinosa, Gaert.). — This plant grows plentifully in Egypt 
 and in most parts of the East, as far as India. Prom the leaves a 
 paste is compounded with which every Eastern beauty colours her 
 hands and feet. Nay, so ancient is the custom, that mummies 
 have been found with their nails dyed with henna. In later times, 
 Mahommed used henna as a dye for his beard, and the fashion was 
 followed by several of the Caliphs. The use of henna is scarcely to 
 be called a caprice in the East. There is a quality in the drug 
 which gently restrains perspiration in the hands and feet, and 
 produces an agreeable coolness, equally conducive to health and 
 comfort. It forms an important article of commerce in all the 
 Arabian towns. The production in Egypt is said to exceed 
 6,500,000 lbs. ; 2216 cwts., valued at £3545, were shipped from 
 Morocco in 1873. 
 
 Henna is largely used throughout Turkey, Egypt, Syria, Persia, 
 and India, as a substantive dye-stuff. It is but slightly, if at 
 all, soluble in cold water ; but warm water, into which a little 
 lime has been thrown, readily dissolves out the colouring 
 matter. 
 
 Henna is cultivated on a large scale at Touat ; a portion of this 
 region bears the significant name of Henna Touat. The caravans 
 of Sahara supply all the Moghreb with it, and great use is made 
 of the plant as a cosmetic. European industry obtains from it a 
 good black dye. 
 
 Henna appears to have been known in India in the time of 
 Arrian, as may be inferred from his statement that the people of 
 India daub their beards white, red, purple and green. It is used 
 by the western Hindoos, and the plant is abundantly cultivated in 
 the vicinity of Bombay. It is generally planted in India in the 
 gardens and fields around houses for the aroma of its flowers. It 
 blooms all the year round, and forms hedges in some places. The 
 leaves are used to dye the hair and skin, and it is also employed to 
 tinge the nails and the skin of the Indian women, especially those 
 of the Mussulman race ; it is mixed with catechu. Medicinal 
 properties are also attributed to it, for the natives use it in cutaneous 
 affections, in epilepsy and jaundice. 
 
 The Turks and Arabs are very fond of dyeing the manes, tails 
 and hoofs of their white or grey horses of a fine mahogany brown 
 vdth henna. 
 
 Dr. Tholozar, physician to the Shah of Persia, thus describes the 
 mode of employing henna for colouring the hair in Persia : — ^Hot 
 
390 ■ THE VEGETABLE DYE-STUFFS. 
 
 water is added to a coarse powder of tlie leaves, and the paste is 
 applied to the beard, the hair, and the nails (well washed pre- 
 viouslyj. This is done in a vapour-hath. As the paste has to be 
 kept constantly moist, this first application lasts an hour and a 
 half to two hours ; then the parts are washed with plenty of 
 water. The henna gives an orange-red colour, very beautiful on 
 a white beard, so that many old men use it ; but recently, with 
 great personages, it has become more common to keep the beard 
 white. Henna is very largely used, even by peasants. To change 
 the reddish colour to a very fine lustrous black, the parts are 
 coated, at the same sitting, with a paste formed of another powder 
 — ^that from the leaves of a kind of indigo cultivated in Persia. 
 This is called reng; it remains applied about two hours. The 
 henna gives different colours, according as it acts on white, fair, or 
 dark hair. It alters very quickly in moisture, and loses its pro- 
 perties in long sea voyages. Experience seems to have proved 
 that it gives suppleness to hair, but it causes it to whiten much 
 sooner than usual. Pair-haired people always colour their hair 
 black, but the black is not so intense as that produced in persons 
 of dark complexion. Skin, reddened and blackened with the two 
 pastes, soon regains its natural colour on being washed with soap 
 and rubbed with the fingers, whereas the dye adheres firmly to 
 the hair, which it penetrates. Eeng is sometimes used alone, and 
 gives a blue-violet colour. 
 
 Henna has been known from antiquity, and sought for the 
 perfume of its flowers. These are employed to scent the oils and 
 pomades used to anoint the body and give it suppleness. It was 
 also used for embalming, as the heads of flowers have been found 
 in mummy cases. The ancients prepared with the leaves a powder 
 called Archenda, now known as henna. The females use it to 
 improve their appearance, and to colour their hands, feet, and 
 nails of a rose-orange, a custom formerly very extended, but which 
 is not now so fashionable in the East. 
 
 Some botanists enumerate two species, L. inermis and L. spinosa. 
 while others hold that, although the leaves of the former are larger 
 than those of the latter, they are both the same species, in spite of 
 one bearing thorns and the other not. The best henna comes from 
 Mecca, and is brought to Constantinople by returning pilgrims. 
 In general appearance it closely resembles the common privet. It 
 is propagated by cuttings planted in shady situations, and is a 
 fast-growing shrub ; when the shoots reach the length of about 
 3 feet, they are out with a sickle and stripped of their leaves, 
 which are dried in the sun and finely powdered in a kind of 
 rude hand-mill. In about two months or so, when a fresh set 
 of shoots have reached the proper size, a second gathering is 
 made, each plant yielding two or even three crops a year. If 
 the plant is cultivated for the sake of the flowers, the shoots are 
 allowed to grow to the length of 5 or 6 feet before they are 
 cut. The fresh flowers, which give out a delicious odour, have 
 been sold in the streets of Alexandria and Cairo from time 
 immemorial. 
 
AtKANET EOOT. 391 
 
 Alkanet Eoot. — The dark blood-red root of AncTmsa (^AlJeanna) 
 .tinctoria, growing on sandy places around the Mediterranean Sea, 
 •enters into commerce to a small extent. It is insoluble in water, 
 but soluble in alcohol, ether, and bisulphuret of carbon. It is not 
 at the present day employed as a dye-stuff, its chief use being in 
 pharmacy to colour medicines; in perfumery to colour oils and 
 greases, to stain woods, and to give a tint to the lime-wash used 
 for the walls of private dwellings. 
 
 In China this root is used to bring out the eruption in small-pox 
 ■and to colour candles. 
 
( 392 ) 
 
 SECTION Y. 
 
 THE OIL SEEDS AND VEGETABLE OILS 
 OF COMMERCE. 
 
 Great as has been the extension of commerce and the progress of 
 our foreign agricultural supplies, the Oil Seeds of commerce are 
 yet far from commensurate to the increasing wants of Europe. 
 It is therefore a wise provision that new discoveries crop up from 
 time to time, arising from the progress of scientific research, or the 
 extension of foreign agriculture to meet in some measure these 
 increased demands. "When the oils yielded by the whale fishery 
 declined, and by their enhanced price became too expensive for 
 manufactures, increased attention was given to the production of 
 vegetable oils and larger quantities of oil seeds for crushing, from 
 Europe, Africa, and the East, were obtained. Even these were 
 found insufficient for the increased demand, till the discovery of 
 the mineral oil springs came in to supply the wants. The vegetable 
 oils, however, provide, and will long continue to do so, the bulk of 
 the consumption. 
 
 In the section on " The Useful Palms," some of the chief 
 vegetable oils, such as Coconut oil and Palm oil, have already 
 been described, and I now proceed to notice others. 
 
 The Olive. — The olive {Olea Europea) is supposed to have been 
 originally a native of Asia, and grows abundantly about Aleppo 
 and Lebanon, but it is now naturalized in Greece, Italy, Spain, 
 and the South of France, where it has been extensively cultivated 
 for an unknown length of time, for the oil expressed from its 
 fruit. The wild olive is found indigenous in Syria, Greece, and 
 Africa, on the lower slopes of the Atlas. The cultivated one 
 grows spontaneously in Syria, and is easily raised on the shores of 
 the Levant. Much attention has, of late years, been paid to olive 
 culture by the French in Algeria. Tuscany, the South of France, 
 and the plains of Spain, are the parts of Europe in which the olive 
 was earliest cultivated. The Tuscans were the first who exported 
 olive oil largely, and thus it has obtained the name of Florence oil ; 
 but the purest is said to be obtained from Aix in France. 
 
 The olive in the western world followed the progress of peace, 
 of which it was considered the symbol. Two centuries after the 
 foundation of Eome, both Italy and Africa were strangers to that 
 
OUVE OIL. 
 
 393 
 
 useful plant : it was naturalised in those countries, and at length 
 carried into the heart of Spain and Gaul. Its usefulness, the little 
 culture it requires, and the otherwise barren situations which it 
 renders productive, quickly spread it over the western face of the 
 Apennines. According to Humboldt the olive is cultivated with 
 success in every part of the old world where the mean temperature 
 of the year is between 58° and 66° ; the temperature of the coldest 
 month not being under 42°, nor that of summer below 71°. These 
 conditions are found in Spain, Portugal, the South of Trance,. 
 Italy, Turkey, and Greece. The olive also flourishes on the north- 
 west of Africa, but is not found south of the Great Desert, except 
 in parts of the Cape Colony, where it has been introduced or grafted 
 on indigenous species. 
 
 In Europe it extends as far north as latitude 44^°, in America 
 scarcely to latitude 34° — so much greater is the severity of the 
 winter on that side of the Atlantic. In the neighbourhood of 
 Quito, situated under the equator, at a height of 8000 feet above 
 the level of the sea, where the temperature varies even less than 
 in the island climates of the temperate zone, the olive attains the 
 magnitude of the oak, yet never produces fruit. 
 
 Olive oil may be said to form the cream and butter of those- 
 countries in which it is pressed ; the tree has been cultivated in all 
 ages as the bounteous gift of Heaven, and the emblem of peace and 
 plenty. There is a common saying in Italy that " if you want to 
 leave a lasting inheritance to your children's children, plant an 
 olive." 
 
 In Italy the young olive bears fruit in two years after it has 
 been placed in the plantation. In six years it begins to repay the 
 expense of cultivation, if the ground is not otherwise cropped. 
 After that period the produce is the surest source of wealth to the 
 farmer. 
 
 The exports of olive oil from the two principal producing 
 countries were as follows, according to the latest returns : — 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Spain, 1886 15,049,000 
 
 Italy, 1886 64,801,000 
 
 We receive supplies from France, Spain, Italy, Turkey, Tunis> 
 Morocco, and other countries. 
 
 Impokts of Olive Oil into the United Kingdom. 
 
 
 Tuns. 
 
 
 Tuns. 
 
 
 Tuns. 
 
 
 Tuns. 
 
 1840 . 
 
 . 8,783 
 
 1852 . 
 
 . 8,898 
 
 1864 . 
 
 16,705 
 
 1876 . 
 
 . 23,975 
 
 1841 . 
 
 . 4,734 
 
 1853 . 
 
 . 10,102 
 
 1865 . 
 
 32,005 
 
 1877 . 
 
 . 31,271 
 
 1842 . 
 
 . 14,095 
 
 1854 . 
 
 . 12,888 
 
 1866 . 
 
 23,690 
 
 1878 . 
 
 . 20,615 
 
 1843 . 
 
 . 12,094 
 
 18.'55 . 
 
 . 25,449 
 
 1867 . 
 
 19,993 
 
 1879 . 
 
 . 26,198 
 
 1844 . 
 
 . 14,962 
 
 1856 . 
 
 . 21,415 
 
 1868 . 
 
 17,585 
 
 1880 . 
 
 . 20,260 
 
 1845 . 
 
 . 12,315 
 
 1857 . 
 
 . 18,862 
 
 1869 . 
 
 28,240 
 
 1881 . 
 
 . 29,864 
 
 1846 . 
 
 . 8,534 
 
 1858 . 
 
 . 25,121 
 
 1870 . 
 
 23,202 
 
 1882 . 
 
 . 23,450 
 
 1847 . 
 
 . 8,692 
 
 1859 . 
 
 . 19,786 
 
 1871 . 
 
 38,281 
 
 1883 . 
 
 . 31,053 
 
 1848 . 
 
 . 10,086 
 
 1860 . 
 
 . 20,859 
 
 1872 . 
 
 24,025 
 
 1884 . 
 
 . 17,213 
 
 1849 . 
 
 . 16,964 
 
 1861 . 
 
 . 17,325 
 
 1873 . 
 
 35,121 
 
 1885 . 
 
 . 24,227 
 
 1850 . 
 
 . 20,784 
 
 1862 . 
 
 . 21,095 
 
 1874 . 
 
 22,720 
 
 /1886 . 
 \ Value . 
 
 . 20,664 
 
 1851 . 
 
 . 11,503 
 
 1863 . 
 
 . 19,866 
 
 1875 . 
 
 35,453 
 
 !;791,245.. 
 
:394 OIL SEEDS AND OILS. 
 
 Italy. — The olive tree demands a dry and limy soil ; its introduc- 
 tion into Italy was therefore very successful. The soil of the Apen- 
 nines, which extend through the whole Peninsula and branch off in 
 all directions, consists mostly of lime, and is very favourable to 
 the growth of the olive tree. We find the stately tree, with its 
 beautiful crown and evergreen leaves, spread over the whole 
 Peninsula where the temperature does not fall below 60°. 
 
 The best olive oils of Italy come from Genoa, Lucca, and Tuscany, 
 but excellent qualities are drawn from the Neapolitan country and 
 Sicily. The fruUino oils are thick, coloured, and only applicable 
 to industrial purposes, and so are the oils obtained from the 
 Tesidues, which are treated by sulphide of carbon. The fine and 
 ■ordinary oils are clear, limpid, and of excellent flavour. 
 
 The export of olive oil from Italy ranges from 50,000,000 to 
 ■92,000,000 kilogrammes annually, according to the crop of olives. 
 In 1874, the produce was 9,310,000 bushels ; in 1881 it was only 
 ■3,607,667 bushels from an acreage under olives of 2,211,000 acres. 
 
 The area under olive culture in Italy is now 2,258,000 acres. 
 The oil production of 1885 was stated to be 3,338,825 hectolitres, 
 -divided as follows : — 
 
 Hectolitres. 
 
 Southern Adriatic coast province 1,233,434 
 
 „ Mediterranean coast province .. .. 701,955 
 
 Sicily 659,084 
 
 Tuscany 253,675 
 
 The exj)ort of oil amounted in 1884 to 633,774 cwts., and in 1885 
 •was only 359,549 cwts. 
 
 The most extensive use is made of the olive. Its harvest begins 
 •when scarcely ripe. The green olives are put into a solution of 
 salt ; they are kept there for some time, to cause them to lose their 
 natural bitter taste, then carefully preserved in vinegar, mixed 
 with different spices, and sold in bottles or small barrels. Those 
 •of Tuscany and Lucca are considered the best, on account of their 
 light green colour and strong flesh. In all parts of southern 
 Europe they are, in this form, a daily food. 
 
 The treatment of the ripe olive is more important. They are 
 gathered in the fall, when they are as large as common plums; 
 their colour is dark green, and the soft kernel has changed ip.to a 
 hard stone, which contains a savoury almond. The flesh is spongy, 
 and its little cells are filled with the mild oil, which pours out at 
 Ihe least pressure. 
 
 The olive tree bears about ten pounds of fruit, but in very rich 
 years double that quantity can be gathered. The finest oil is the 
 so-called virgin oil. To obtain the oil no preparation is needed ; 
 the freshly gathered olives are put into little heaps, and by their 
 own weight the oil is pressed out, and is caught in some vessel. 
 It is clear, like water, has a delicate nut-like taste, with little or 
 no odour. When the fruits cease to give the oil by themselves, 
 •they are pressed with small millstones. The oil gained by this 
 process is also clear and of pleasant taste. After this treatment 
 ihe olives are still rich in oil, which only demands some work to 
 
OLIVE OIL. 395 
 
 'draw it out. To accomplish this, the fruits are put into sacks, 
 iDoiling water poured over them, and they are pressed once more. 
 The oil gained by this process is yellowish green, has a sharp taste, 
 and an unpleasant smell, because it contains some mucilaginous 
 matters. Sometimes the so-treated olives are once more pressed 
 and boiled over; the oil thus obtained is called in France " huile 
 d'enfer," and is only used for burning or similar uses. The olives 
 may also be brought to a fermentative process, before pressing 
 them, when they give more oil, but of a less fine quality. 
 
 At Marseilles the olive oils are classed into manufacturing oil, 
 for burning or for factories ; refined, oil from the pulp or husks ; 
 and table or edible oil. The latter is divided into superfine, fine, 
 half fine, and ordinary. The quantity taken for consumption of 
 the different kinds was as follows : — 
 
 1886. 
 Kilos. 
 
 EefinedoU 5,400,000 
 
 Oil of pulp or husks 4,735,000 
 
 Manufacturing oil 2,300,000 
 
 The Italians keep their oil in stone jars, as did their classic 
 
 ■ ancestors. The oil for sale is filled into barrels of oakwood im- 
 ported from Germany. The oil needs always a very attentive 
 treatment. By a long rest some slimy part of it settles at the 
 bottom; these dregs must be removed, or the oil would become 
 rancid; therefore the barrels are tapped every six months, and 
 filled anew. The treatment resembles that of wine, but with this 
 
 • difference, that oils of a fine quality can seldom be kept more than 
 three years. 
 
 The oil made in the district of Oneglia is better than that of 
 
 ■ Southern Italy, and large quantities are refined before being 
 exported. The process of refining the oil is very simple. Large 
 
 . shallow tin boxes are made, with small holes pierced in the bottom ; 
 these are then covered with a thin sheet of wadding. Four, five, or 
 more of these boxes are placed on frames, one over the other, and 
 the oil being poured into the top box, is allowed to soak through 
 the wadding and drop into the next box, and so on until it gets 
 into the last, when it runs off into the tanks. The wadding absorbs 
 all the thick particles contained in the oil when it comes from the 
 mills, and leaves it perfectly clear and tasteless. The oil thus 
 refined is almost exclusively exported to Nice, where it is put into 
 flasks, and sent all over the world as " Huile de Nice." 
 
 Syria. — Olive oil is produced throughout the country, but chiefly 
 
 • on the plains of Safet, Nazareth, and Nablono. The average 
 produce is estimated at about 7000 tuns. In 1871 about 1800 
 were exported, and prices ranged from £60 10s. to £41 10«. per tun. 
 The plantations are being extended principally on the coast line 
 Taetween Latakia and Jaffa, the climate of which is peculiarly 
 . adapted for olive cultivation. Nearly half a million of new trees 
 
 are said to be annually planted throughout the country. The 
 ■ quality of the finer sort of oil is found equal to the Italian, while 
 that from the neighbourhood of Sidon is said to rival the finest 
 
396 
 
 OIL SEEDS AND OILS, 
 
 qualities that Europe can produce. About one-half of the oil ia 
 consumed in soap-making, one-quarter in eating and burning, and 
 the remaining quarter is exported chiefly to France. The oil press 
 used is the rude native one, and there is but one European press 
 in the country. 
 
 The exports of olive oil from Greece were in — 
 
 Ocques. 
 
 1871 9,213,257 
 
 1872 2,592,543 
 
 Ocques. 
 
 1873 6,381,471 
 
 1874 2,919,421 
 
 Like most other trees that have been cultivated for a length of 
 time, the olive has produced numerous varieties ; different coun- 
 tries, and even different districts, cultivating their peculiar favourite. 
 
 The variety longifolia and its many sub-varieties are chiefly 
 cultivated in France and Italy ; the variety latifolia and its sub- 
 varieties are those chiefly grown in Spain ; the fruit of the variety 
 latifolia is nearly twice the size of the common olive of Provence 
 and Italy, but the oil is greatly inferior. 
 
 There are several varieties of olive, differing less in their fruit 
 than in the form of their leaves ; two of these have been introduced 
 into the Cape Colony, one of them from England, by Mr. Thomas 
 Berry, in the year 1821, and the other variety, I believe, from 
 France, since that period. The European olive can be propagated 
 in various ways. Cuttings of 9 inches in length, taken from one- 
 year-old shoots, may be planted in a rich light soil, and kept 
 moderately moist ; the ground ought never to be allowed to become 
 very dry ; these will root freely in a few weeks, and be fit for 
 transplanting in twelve months. In Italy the propagation is 
 conducted in the same manner in which it was during the time of 
 the Eomans. 
 
 "An old tree is hewn down, and the 'ceppo ' or stock (that is, 
 the collar or neck between the root and the trunk, where in all 
 plants the principle of life more eminently resides) is cut into 
 pieces of nearly the size and shape of a mushroom, and which from 
 that circumstance are called novoli ; care at the same time is 
 taken that a small portion of bark shall belong to each novoli ; 
 these, after having been dipped in manure, are put into the earth, 
 soon throw up shoots, are transplanted at the end of one year, and 
 in three years are fit to form an olive yard." * Truncheons, or 
 stakes of the olive, 2 inches thick and 5 feet long, may be driven 
 into the ground w^here they are intended to remain, and root 
 freely. Shoots of one or two years' growth may be laid down, 
 giving them a twist to crack the bark; or slit them half-way 
 through, when they root very readily. These operations should be 
 performed in the month of August. 
 
 In France and Italy uncertainty prevails in the crops of olives ; 
 sometimes one that yields a profit does not occur for six or eight 
 years together ; and hence it is considered that the culture is less 
 beneficial to the peasants of those countries than that of corn : but 
 
 * Blunt's ' Vestiges,' &o., p. 216. 
 
OLIVE OIL. 397 
 
 itliese circiimstances do not appear to apply to tlie southern 
 •colonies, especially as the olive may be cultivated on ground which 
 is impenetrable to the plough or spade. 
 
 France. — The olive is grown in twelve departments, all situated 
 in the south ; those where it is chiefly cultivated are : Var, 
 Vaucluse, Bouches du Ehone, Gaud, and Alpes Maritimes. The 
 extent of land occupied with this tree a few years ago was 129,143 
 hectares. The production in fruit amounted to 2,402,610 hecto- 
 litres. Allowing from this 15 per cent, for fruit eaten locally, 
 there would remain 2,000,000 hectolitres converted into oil, which 
 produced 260,000 cwts., valued roughly at 36,920,000 frs. 
 
 The olive tree is almost the only product of a large portion of 
 the mountainous district of Nice, and yields (where there is no 
 possibility of other produce requiring tillage and husbandry) a 
 small return for the labour bestowed on the trees and the manufac- 
 ture of the oil. Each little proprietor takes his olives as he 
 gathers them to a mill in small quantities, using it in common 
 with his neighbours, and paying for its use a percentage of his oil, 
 and the refuse of his olives and the oil is taken to market for sale 
 in small quantities, according to the daily produce. 
 
 More than 15,000 acres are planted with this tree in Nice, pro- 
 ducing on an average 180,000 to 200,000 gallons of oil. The tree 
 grows well even at- great elevations above the sea, and will stand 
 10 degrees of cold ; but the produce is uncertain, on account of the 
 length of time which the fruit remains on. The olive tree grows 
 slowly, and yields no crop until it is twenty years old. The olives 
 are collected about December by beating the trees, a mode of 
 treatment that bruises the fruit and injures the quality of the oil ; 
 in fact, neither olives nor oil are ever so good as when picked by 
 hand. There are 168 oil mills in the district, 115 worked by water, 
 the others by horse-power. Ten gallons of good olives will yield 
 1 to IJ gallons of oil, but the average quantity is about 10 per 
 •cent. There are very nearly 800,000 olive trees in the vicinity of 
 Nice, and each tree will give in a good year from 50 to 150 kilos, 
 of olives, according to size. 
 
 There are five kinds of olive trees principally cultivated in the 
 «outh of France, viz., Verdall, which yields good oil, and makes 
 a good conserve ; Blanquet yields a particularly sweet and 
 delicate oil (these two have low-growing branches, which enables 
 them to be picked by hand) ; Bouquettier, a very superior oil ; 
 Eedouanou, which stands cold well; Olivier de Grasse yields 
 •excellent oil, but grows high, and is not so well adapted for 
 picking. _ . 
 
 Spain. — According to ofBcial statistics a thirtieth part of the 
 whole of the cultivated land of Spain is employed in the growth 
 of olives,' the olive cultivation occupying 858,000 hectares (two and 
 a half acres) of the 26,542,030 hectares of land under cultivation. 
 Even in the Balearic Islands, where the cultivation appears to the 
 eye to be so general, one-half of the land actually remains un- 
 cultivated. Confining attention, however, to these islands, it 
 ■would appear that somewhat more than 26,888 hectares are 
 
398 OIL SEEDS AND OILS. 
 
 occupied •witli the growth of olives, the yearly produce being ahout 
 3,152,493 litres of oil, of the gross value of £123,236. No olivea 
 are grown in the island of Minorca. The districts of Ivica and 
 Palma are those which give the largest results. The total for the- 
 whole of the island shows 1 hectare of olives in every 21 hectares- 
 of land under cultivation. 
 
 The expenses of culture are considered to amount to ahout 67 
 per cent. In land that will admit of ground crops being cultivated 
 under the olive trees the practice is invariably followed. The- 
 ancient historians of Majorca recount that in olden times the olive- 
 was unknown in these islands, and that the art of grafting wag- 
 taught to the islanders by the Carthaginians. 
 
 The oil is employed for every conceivable purpose, and although 
 the consumption is very great, yet the exports increase year 
 by year. Like the vine, the Spaniards are equally careless culti- 
 vators of the olive, and from want of attention the quality of the 
 fruit is injured and the yield of oil reduced. During harvest time 
 there is often a deficiency of labour, and after having knocked down 
 the olives, it is customary to leave them in great heaps, there to- 
 shrivel up and ferment until the winter before extracting the oil. 
 This renders the very best oils unfitted for use in the cuisine of any 
 other country except Spain, where the tastes of the inhabitants are- 
 peculiar. There is no doubt that whenever the extraction of the 
 oil is made at the proper season, and precautions are taken to- 
 avoid rancidity, there will be obtained in Spain oil equally good 
 for the table as that procured even in Provence. 
 
 In countries where more care is exercised in the preparation, 
 of olive oil than is displayed here, the " virgin oil " obtained 
 from the fruit when first pressed is carefully separated, as being 
 of a better quality than that which is procured by the application 
 of hot water to the bruised fruit, and by the application of 
 greater pressure. But the quantity of virgin oil produced in 
 these islands is quite insignificant, although it is of excellent- 
 quality. All the oil that can be squeezed out of the olives by 
 means of the antiquated machinery still in use, is generally poured 
 into one common tank and left to clarify as best it may; lor,. 
 at most, the olives are roughly sorted, the inferior ones being 
 made into oil for the soap-boilers. The fruit, whether ripe, over- 
 ripe, half-green, or wholly rotten, or whether it may have been 
 knocked down by the beaters' canes, or blown down by th& 
 wind and rain in stormy weather, and trodden underfoot, is too 
 commonly all picked up about one time by the women and 
 children who are employed at the gathering season. It is then, 
 after being sorted or not, as the case may be, crushed under the 
 millstone, and the oil drawn by the appKcation of boiling water. 
 The refuse of the olives after the last crushing, which is for from 
 getting out all the oil contained in the pulpy mass, is used to feed 
 the fires required to boil the water. Probably nowhere may be 
 seen more magnificent olive trees, or better olives, than thosO' 
 grown in these islands ; but the oil, from being unrefined, is often, 
 acrid in taste and inferior to that of other countries. 
 
LINSEED OIL. SgO* 
 
 Algeria. — The climate bore is especially suited to the olive,, 
 ■which grows spontaneously at all points of the three provinces. 
 According to the latest details there are over 3,000,000 olive trees, 
 the half of which are grafted. It may be remarked here that 
 though the fruit of the grafted tree is larger and more fleshy, and 
 contains therefore more oil, that of the wild olive tree yields a, 
 finer and pleasanter kind. The production of oil is increasing 
 yearly, and there are improvements noticeable in its quality. The 
 province of Constantine furnishes annually about 150,000 hecto- 
 litres, of which one-third is exported. And although there are no 
 precise details as to the other two provinces, the production in 
 these is equally considerable. 4,648,000 kilos, of olive oil, valued 
 at £221,000, were exported from Algeria in 1887. 
 
 Morocco.- — The olive gardens of the south form picturesque 
 groves of great extent. Their produce constitutes the principal 
 wealth of the provinces of Haha and Sus. But the oil, probably 
 from the imperfect methods of preparing it, is greatly inferior to 
 that of Spain and Italy. It is, however, exported from Mogador in 
 large quantities. 
 
 Tunis. — Susa, Monastir, Media, Sfax, and Biserta are the best 
 olive districts in the Eegency, there being at the former place 
 upwards of 4,000,000 trees, and if the cultivation were more 
 energetically attended to double the crops could easily be pro- 
 duced. The olives are gathered in December and January, the 
 pickers using leather coverings to the fingers. There are two 
 kinds of oil, the " masri," strong in flavour and smell, and the " drup- 
 el-ma," which is deprived of both by being passed through water. 
 
 Linseed Oil is obtained from the seed of the flax plant (Linum 
 usitatissimum), formerly called lint-seed. We used to obtain almost 
 all our supply of this seed from Eussia, but now we get a good deaL 
 from India. Of the imports in 1875, 369,163 quarters came from 
 India, and the rest from the Continent, chiefly Eussia. The 
 aggregate value of the seed received was £4,675,242. As a 
 general rule, the colder the climate in which the seed is grown 
 the greater are the drying properties of the oil, although it is not 
 so good in colour. The East Indian seed is much mixed with 
 rape and other seeds. 
 
 There are two varieties of this oil. The most valuable is the 
 " cold drawn," which is extracted by cold pressure, and is paler, 
 less odorous, and has less taste than that obtained by the aid of 
 heat. By cold expression, the yield of oil is from 21 to 22 per 
 cent, of the seeds ; with the aid of heat, combined with a powerful 
 and long-continued pressure, as much as 28 per cent, can be 
 obtained. If a very fine oil be required, the process of cold ex- 
 pression must be pursued ; and as the utmost degree of purity is 
 the great desideratum in varnish-making, this quality is generally 
 employed by makers of high-class varnish. A very good oil, 
 however, may be obtained by a steam heat not exceeding 200°. 
 
 The marc remaining after the expression of the oil is generally 
 known as oilcake, and is an article of great importance to the 
 
400 OIL SEEDS AND OILS. 
 
 agriculturists of those countries in whioh flax is grown, being 
 extensively employed, especially in the winter season, as food for 
 cattle. 
 
 The mode of expressing the oil is as follows : The seed is first 
 passed between iron rollers, in order to crack the husks. They 
 are then introduced into a hopper, through which, by means of a 
 fluted roller, they are caused to descend between the crushing 
 rollers, after passing which they fall into a receiver. They are 
 then passed on to two vertical granite mill-stones, which bruise 
 them to a pasty mass, and this is then heated to a greater or less 
 extent by being placed in pans over an open fire, or in connection 
 with steam or boiling water. 
 
 The object of the heat is to coagulate the albumen contained in 
 -the seeds and render the oil more limpid, and, therefore, more 
 easily expressed. The mass is then transferred to a hydraulic 
 press. The method of pounding the seed in hard wooden mortars, 
 with pestles shod with iron, and set in motion by cams driven by 
 a shaft turned by horse or water-power, was formerly used. The 
 bruised seed was then transferred to woollen bags, which were 
 wrapped in horsehair cloth and squeezed between upright wedges 
 in press-boxes. This anangement, known as the Dutch mill, is 
 still obstinately adhered to in some districts of England and the 
 Continent, it being supposed to be preferable to the hydraulic 
 mills and presses, which have in modern times almost entirely 
 superseded the old method. 
 
 The manufacture of linseed oil in 1860 was estimated at 65,000 
 tuns, of which 33,700 tuns were exported. As our imports of 
 linseed are now half as much more than they were in 1860, the 
 make of oil must be proportionately larger. 
 
 Impoets of Linseed and Flax Seed into the United Kingdom. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 1840 444,759 
 
 1850 608,984 
 
 1860 1,330,623 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 1870 1,490,695 
 
 1880 1,675,271 
 
 1888 2,542,027 
 
 The Geound-Nut. — The plant {AracMs liypogsea) which pro- 
 duces the fruit, entering into commerce under the popular name of 
 the ground-nut, is a little annual, with oblong leaves, growing in 
 fours, and rather large yellow flowers, rising a little way above 
 ground. It is one of a class which bury their pods in the earth, 
 virhere they ripen, instead of raising them into the free air. In 
 ■order to eifect this, the flower-stalk, after the flower has passed 
 away, gradually curves downwards, and at length forces its end 
 perpendicularly into the soil, along with the very young pod which 
 is seated there. Having buried itself sufficiently deep, the pod 
 then begins to swell, and when ripe becomes an oblong, rugged, 
 pale brown fruit, containing about two seeds, as large as the kernel 
 of a hazel-nut. This plant is now found in a state of cultivation 
 all over the hottest part of the tropics. It was unknown until the 
 discovery of America, and every region in the old world where it 
 
THE GKOUKr-NUT. 
 
 401 
 
 is now grown owes it to Brazil ; so tliat we have in this plant a 
 further example of the rapidity with which vegetables will take 
 possession of soils where the climate is suitable, for it is grown 
 very generally in different parts of Africa, in India, the West 
 India Islands, and the United States. For the purposes of com- 
 merce, it is principally raised on the West Coast of Africa, in 
 different quarters, from Senegal to Sierra Leone and the Gambia. 
 Marseilles is the chief port to which they are shipped. 
 
 The imports of ground-nuts at Marseilles have largely increased 
 in the last twenty years. In 18(36 the imports of " arachides," as 
 they are there termed, were : shelled 1,920, in the husk 298,170 
 mescal quintals of 2 cwts. In 1886 the kinds were reversed, the 
 shelled amounting to 749,565 metrical quintals, and 131,635 of 
 unshelled. 
 
 The produce of ground-nuts in the Congo State in 1886-7 was 
 24 tons. From the West Coast of Africa the ground-nut is ex- 
 ported in the husk, from the South- West Coast chiefly decorticated. 
 The total imports at Marseilles in 1886 were 1,762,400 cwts. The 
 large imports at Marseilles from India have interfered with the 
 African supply. 
 
 The exports of ground-nuts from Gambia were in — 
 
 1879 
 1880 
 1881 
 1882 
 
 Tons. 
 22,890 
 13,824 
 16,958 
 25,524 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1883 23,076 
 
 1884 18,402 
 
 1885 12,352 
 
 The ground-nut is principally cultivated down the borders of 
 the river, and in British territory by the Serrawoolies. They are 
 a nomadic tribe of Mohammedan farmers of the Senegambia ; they 
 leave their wives and children far up the country, and wander to 
 the seaboard in search of fallow ground, to be left again as soon 
 as the crops have worn out the soil. The native has unfortunately 
 introduced, of late years, the pernicious system of beating, or 
 threshing, instead of picking by hand, whereby the nuts are mixed 
 with leaves, stalks, stones, and other extraneous substances, 
 causing large deductions in the French market, and depreciating 
 their value in the United States as an article of food, or, better to 
 be described, as a favourite dessert for the tables of the rich in 
 the latter country. The resident native, the JoUoffe, or the 
 liberated African, surrounded by his Lares and Penates, in the 
 shape of women, children, and domestic servants, or slaves, takes 
 his time to pick the nuts, saving the haulm for the Bathurst 
 market, where it meets with a ready sale as fodder for horses ; but 
 the Serrawoolie, who is anxious for quick returns, has not the 
 time, and eertaialy not the energy, to pick two acres of ground-nuts 
 between December and May, land which he can easily dress, work, 
 and sow in June and November, hence he loses the fodder, but 
 brings a larger quantity of nuts to the market. 
 
 Hand-shelled nuts may be advantageously used in Europe for 
 eating and by confectioners, but those machine-shelled are only fit 
 
 2 D 
 
402 OILS ASD OIL-SEEDS. 
 
 for oil-crushing and cattle-feeding purposes. The oilcake of the 
 nuts -when pure is highly esteemed for its fattening properties ; 
 horses, cattle, pigs, and poultry are very fond of the ground-nut 
 in its natural state. A heaped imperial bushel of the nuts 
 weighs from 25 lbs. to 32 lbs. Divested of their shell (1 per cent, 
 of the weight) the kernels furnish as much as 45 to 50 per cent, 
 of oil. 
 
 Besides the great value of its seeds for oil, this is also a good 
 fodder herb. The plant is a very productive one, and yields 
 a quick return. A light, somewhat calcareous, soil is best fitted 
 for its growth. In tropical countries half a ton weight of seeds 
 or nuts is obtained. 
 
 The oil is used for alimentary purposes, and for cloth-dressing, 
 but its chief use is for the manufacture of soap, and for lubricating 
 machinery. As a lamp oil it burns longer than olive oil, although 
 its illuminating power is less. Compared with ordinary burning 
 oils its power is feeble. It has the advantage, however, of keeping 
 a long time without becoming rancid. 
 
 Under favourable circumstances, the nuts will produce half their 
 weight of oil, and the quantity is much increased by heat and 
 pressure. In India the mean yield of oil is only 37 per cent, at 
 Pondicherry, and 43 per cent, in Madras. In Europe it is usually 
 found that a bushel of ground-nuts produces one gallon of oil when 
 expressed cold : if heat be applied a larger quantity is obtained, 
 but of inferior quality. 
 
 In Brazil this seed is known under the name of " amendoum," 
 and has long been used there parched for food and to extract oil 
 from. The oil is used for cooking, medicinally for rheumatic 
 affections, and for lighting. It is sometimes called pindar nut. 
 
 The roasted seeds are sometimes used as a substitute for chocolate ; 
 according to Dr. Davey, they abound with starch, as well as oil, a 
 large proportion of albuminous matter, and in no other instance 
 had he found so great a quantity of starch mixed with oil. 
 
 Dr. Muter, after giving the following analysis of ground-nut 
 meal, urges its more general use as an important article of food : — 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Moisture 9-6 
 
 Fatty matter 11-8 
 
 NitrogenouB compounds (flesh formers) . . . . 31 • 9 
 
 Sugar, starch, &o 37' 8 
 
 Fibre 4-3 
 
 Ash 4-6 
 
 Total 100-0 
 
 Prom this analysis it is e-vident (he observes) that the residue 
 from them, after the expression of the oil, far exceeds that of peas, 
 and is even richer than lentils in flesh-forming constituents, while 
 it contains more fat and more phosphoric acid than either of them. 
 On these grounds we are justified in urging the adoption of the 
 ground-nut meal as a source of food, it being superior in richness 
 of all important constituents to any other vegetable product of a 
 
THE GEOUND-NUT. 403 
 
 similar nature. Altliougli in the raw state it possesses a somewhat 
 harsh odour, similar to that of lentils, this flavour entirely passes 
 off in cooking, and when properly prepared it has a very agreeable 
 flavour. 
 
 This seed is held in such estimation for eating in the United 
 States (where it is known as the " pea-nut ") that flourishing sale- 
 stands are seen at almost every street corner of New York. They 
 are not much appreciated in England, except by children. In 
 America 3^ million bushels are sold annually. 
 
 There are fully 750,000 bushels sold yearly in the city of New 
 York alone. Previous to 1860 the product in the United States 
 did not amount to more than 150,000 bushels, and of this total 
 nearly five-sixths were from North Carolina. 
 
 It was estimated that Virginia, Tennessee, Georgia, and Carolina, 
 sent conjointly over 3,000,000 bushels to market in 1886, of which 
 one-fourth went to New York, As much as 10s. to 12s. is paid for 
 the bushel. The yield is from 80 to 120 bushels on an acre. 
 
 This plant has been naturalised in India for many years. The 
 ■seeds, when in season, are sold in every bazaar, and are largely eaten 
 by the natives. They are also exported to Prance and elsewhere 
 for the manufacture of oil, of which they contain a large amount. 
 In Netherlands India it is called katjang, and there is a large 
 export from Java, principally to China. 
 
 In Cochin China there are 24,000 acres under culture with 
 ground-nuts; in Senegal about 100,000 acres ; and 40,000 acres are 
 there devoted to sesame. 
 
 Senegal and its dependencies, which exported in 1840 but 1210 
 kilogrammes of ground-nuts, now produce 50,000,000 kilogrammes. 
 Cayor and Casamance furnish the largest quantities ; but some 
 •cargoes are also sent from Galam, which are more esteemed than 
 from the other localities, on account of the thinness of the husk or 
 shell and the superior yield of oil. It is one of the principal 
 resources of the country, and the production is annually more and 
 more extended, notwithstanding the impediments which the Moors 
 throw in the way of its traffic, under the dread that their gums might 
 be neglected. The principal market for Senegal proper is the large 
 village of Gandiole. About Goree, the centre of supply is Eufisque ; 
 lower down Sedhiou and Carabane in Casamance, and Albreda, on 
 the Gambia. At the Gaboon, where the population is thinly scattered, 
 and little agricultural, all that is produced is locally consumed. 
 
 According to Dumas, it was a Marseilles house that first thought 
 of introducing this substitute for olive oil. They commenced by 
 •experimenting with a few kilogrammes, and now the imports into 
 -Prance exceed 60,000 tons, of an oil-seed unknown to commerce 
 forty years previously. 
 
 In Angola the nut is called mfunda and ginguba. 
 
 The ground-nut is now cultivated on a large scale in India, 
 where the seeds form a considerable article of commerce, and there 
 is also a quantity of the oil exported. 
 
 Ground-nut oil is used in parts of India for alimentary purposes ; 
 in some countries it is sold for olive oil ; in North Arcot it serves 
 
 2 D 2 
 
404 
 
 OILS AND OIL-SEEDS. 
 
 to adulterate gingely or sesame oil, and at Pondiolierry it is mixed 
 with cocoiiiit oil. 
 
 At Mozambique the ground-nut is also largely grown. 
 
 Cotton-Seed Oil has been produced in Egypt, Prance, England, 
 and the United States : but until lately not on a very large scale, 
 or for commercial purposes. Each pound of ginned cotton pro- 
 duced, yields 3 lbs. of seed. One-half being retained for planting, 
 there remains over 1,000,000 tons which might be manufactured. 
 100 lbs. of cotton seed will yield 2 gallons of oil, 48 lbs. of oilcake, 
 and 6 lbs. of soap stuff: the total estimated value of all which is 
 upwards of £7,000,000. The oil possesses excellent lubricating 
 qualities. Soaps of every variety are made from it, and in New 
 Orleans it has been used, with commendation, as a substitute for 
 olive oil. 
 
 Numerous factories for the local manufacture of oil from cotton 
 seed are now at work in the South, and a ready sale is found for 
 the oilcake in the Northern States and in Europe, the product 
 being of much value in feeding stock. The oil is one of the most 
 useful of the vegetable oils, and brings, in New York, from 18d. to 
 20d. per gallon. The total production of cotton seed in the 
 Southern States is about 2,230,000 tons, of which nearly one-third 
 is produced in the valley of the Mississippi. The market price for 
 the seed is $12 to $13 per ton. 
 
 Cotton seed is becoming one of the principal articles of export 
 from Egypt. It has gradually risen from 1090 cwts. in 1860 to 
 250,000 tons in 1888, of the value of £1,500,000. England takes 
 nearly all of this. 
 
 Mr. McLagan, in the ' Edinburgh Quarterly Journal of Agri- 
 culture,' some years ago, gave some interesting details respecting 
 the feeding properties of the oilcake from cotton seed. Cattle 
 do not take to it at first, but eventually get to like it and thrive 
 upon it. 
 
 About 27 imperial stones of cake are obtained from 4 cwts. of 
 seed. 
 
 The following figures show the quantity of cotton seed imported 
 into Great Britain of late years. This seed was not separately 
 enumerated before 1861 : — 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1861 20,034 
 
 1862 33,162 
 
 1863 62,159 
 
 1864 84,642 
 
 1865 114,851 
 
 1866 93,957 
 
 1867 93,643 
 
 1868 94,759 
 
 1869 105,646 
 
 1870 
 1871 
 1872 
 1873 
 1874 
 
 120,304 
 172,163 
 167,904 
 207,038 
 190,591 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1875 202,205 
 
 1876 230,284 
 
 1877 264,619 
 
 1878 172,719 
 
 1879 179,166 
 
 1880 229,520 
 
 1881 232,199 
 
 1882 209,689- 
 
 1883 248,531 
 
 1884 212,928 
 
 1885 270,486 
 
 1886 255,701 
 
 1887 276,570 
 
 1888 255,500 
 
COTTON-SEED OIL. 
 
 40S 
 
 Oil-seed Calce. — The oilcakes imported are all classed together ; 
 there is, however, a large home trade in those resulting from the 
 British crushing mills. The marcs or cakes include ground-nut 
 cake, palm-nut cake, linseed cake, cotton-seed cake, and coconut 
 cake, used for cattle food ; and mustard, rape, castor-oil, and un- 
 decorticated cotton-seed cake used for manure. 
 
 The following shows the progress of our imports of foreign oil- 
 seed cakes : — 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1840 71,039 
 
 1850 65,145 
 
 1860 108,826 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1870 158,453 
 
 1880 241,157 
 
 1888 259,573 
 
 The oil cake exported from India was in 
 
 Year. 
 
 1885 
 1886 
 1887 
 1888 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 cwts. 
 146,264 
 132,230 
 171,107 
 221,559 
 
 Value. 
 
 £ 
 
 37,663 
 35,064 
 40,640 
 52,481 
 
 The production of oil cake at the port of Marseilles in 1886 was 
 185,500 tons, consisting of the following kinds, in metrical quintals 
 of 2 cwts. : — 
 
 Sesame 510,000 
 
 Ground-nut 590,000 
 
 Linseed 45,000 
 
 Cottonseed 170,000 
 
 Colza and rape 65,000 
 
 Poppy seed 70,000 
 
 Castor oil 90,000 
 
 Copra 90,000 
 
 Palm kernels 165,000 
 
 Illipe 40,000 
 
 Physic nut 5,000 
 
 Niger seed 15,000 
 
 1,855,000 
 
 The largest portion, 1,000,000, was used in France, and the rest 
 sent to Germany and other countries. 
 
 The Castor Oil Plant (^Bicinus communis). — Although a native 
 of India, this shrub is now widely distributed and cultivated in 
 various parts of the world. In its native country it is a perennial, 
 15 or 20 feet high, with a thick stein. In cold climates it becomes 
 an annual. There are many instances of perennial plants becoming 
 annuals by change of climate. 
 
 The rapid growth of the plant is illustrated by an instance 
 reported in Tennessee. A castor bean was planted in May, 1871, 
 
406 OILS AND OIL-SEEDS. 
 
 in a garden in Memphis, and in November it had grown to the 
 height of 23 feet, with a spread of foliage 15 feet in diameter. The 
 trunk, 10 inches ahove the ground, was 18 inches in circumference. 
 
 There are many varieties of this plant, hut they are generally 
 believed to be derived from a single species. The most notable are 
 Bicinus sanguineus, the stem, leaf stalks, young leaves, and fruit of 
 which are of a blood-red colour ; ij. Borhoniensis, which in southern 
 climates attains a great height ; and R. giganteus. 
 
 The following varieties may be enumerated, although described 
 by some as species : — • 
 
 1. jRicinus communis, Lin., the most widely diffiiised, with glaucous- 
 
 purple stems. 
 
 2. iJ. inermis, Jacq., a native of India. 
 
 3^ B. viridis, Willd., aJso an Indian species. 
 
 4. B. lividus, Jacq., Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 5. B. integrifolius, Willd., Mauritius. 
 
 6. jB. speciosus, Willd., Java. 
 
 7. jB. apelta, Lour. (Bottlera cantoniensis), China. 
 
 8. B. mappa, Lin. {Mappa moluccand), Amboyna. 
 
 9. M. tanarius, Linn. {Mappa tanaria), Amboyna. 
 
 10. B. armatus, or communis, Andrw., Malta. 
 
 11. B. dioicus, Forster (Mappa tanensis), islands of Southern Seas. 
 
 12. B. tunisensis, Desfont, Algeria. 
 
 t 
 
 The castor oil plant has been known from the remotest ages. 
 Caillard found the seeds of it in some Egyptian sarcophagi, 
 supposed to have been at least four thousand years old. Some 
 people imagine it to be the same plant that is called the gourd in 
 Scripture. It was called aporave by the Greeks, and ricinus by the 
 Eomans ; in Hebrew kikajon, and called by Pliny cici or kiki. It 
 is singular that the oil expressed from the seeds of the cici should 
 have been used by the ancients, including the Jews, as one of their 
 pleasantest oils for burning and for several domestic uses, though 
 its medicinal virtues were unknown. The modern Jews of London 
 use this oil by the name of oil of Icilci for their Sabbath lamps, it 
 being one of the five kinds of oil their traditions allow them to bum 
 on such occasions. The seeds are oval, somewhat compressed, 
 about 4 or 6 lines long, 3 lines broad, and 1^ line thick ; externally 
 they are pale grey, but marbled with yellowish-brown spots and 
 stripes. 
 
 The oil is obtained from the seed by expression, by boiling with 
 water, or by the agency of alcohol. Nearly all that is consumed 
 in England is obtained by expression. When the outer skin is first 
 removed by rollers, previous to crushing and heating them, a clear 
 and fine oil is produced, the outer cuticle being applicable for 
 manufacturing and other purposes. By this process the thicker 
 portion, or stearine, which is now lost (by being mixed and left 
 with the outer skin or cuticle), is obtained, and the oleaginous or 
 thin portion of the oil is not coloured and deteriorated. The oil 
 thus obtained can be purified by jets of gas, acids, and heat at 
 about 150" to 160"- 
 
 In America, the seeds, cleansed from the dust and fragments of 
 
CASTOR OIL SEED. 407 
 
 the capsules, are submitted to a gentle heat, not greater than can 
 be borne by the hand, which is intended to render the oil more 
 fluid and therefore more easily expressed. The whitish oily liquid 
 thus obtained is boiled with a large quantity of water, and the 
 impurities skimmed off as they rise to the surface. The water 
 dissolves the mucilage and starch, and the albumen is coagulated 
 by the heat, forming a layer between the oil and water. The clear 
 oil is now removed, and boiled with a very small quantity of water 
 until aqueous vapour ceases to rise, and a small portion of the oil 
 taken out in a phial remains perfectly transparent when cold. 
 The effect of this operation is to clarify the oil, and to get rid of 
 the volatile acid matter. Great care is necessary not to carry the 
 heat too far, as the oil would thus acquire a brownish colour and 
 acid taste. 
 
 In the West Indies the oil is obtained by decoction, but none of 
 it appears in commerce in this country. 
 
 In Calcutta it is thus prepared : The fruit is shelled by women ; 
 the seeds are crushed between rollers, then placed in hempen cloths, 
 and pressed in the ordinary screw or hydraulic press. The oil thus 
 obtained is afterwards heated with water in a tin boiler until the 
 water boils, by which means the mucilage and albumen are 
 separated. The oil is then strained through flannel and put into 
 canisters. 
 
 Two principal kinds of castor seeds are known, the large and the 
 small ; the latter yields the most oil. The best East Indian castor 
 oil is sold in London as " cold drawn." In some parts of Europe 
 castor oil has been extracted from the seeds by alcohol, but the 
 process is more expensive, and yields an inferior article. 
 
 Castor oil is a viscid oil, generally of a pale yellow coIouk, a 
 nauseous smell and taste. Its specific gravity, according to 
 Saussure, is 0*969 at 53° Fahrenheit. The acid taste which it 
 sometimes possesses may be removed by magnesia (Gerhardt). 
 At about 6° Fahrenheit it forms a yellow, solid transparent mass. 
 By exposure to the air it becomes rancid, thick, and at last 
 dries up, forming a transparent varnish. It dissolves easily in 
 its own volume of absolute alcohol ; castor oil and alcohol 
 exercise a mutual solvent power on each other. It is also soluble 
 in ether. 
 
 There are chiefly three sorts of castor oil found in the London 
 market ; viz. the oil expressed in London from imported seeds. 
 East Indian oil, and the American or United States castor oil. 
 Castor oil is imported in tins, barrels, hogsheads, and duppers. It 
 is purified by decantation and filtration, and bleached by exposure 
 to sunlight. 
 
 It is not quite decided how many kinds of fats castor oil con- 
 tains j according to Gerhardt several, but SaalmuUer says only 
 two. It is, however, principally composed of ricinoleine, with 
 perhaps a little stearine and palmatine, and an acid resin. 
 Its ultimate composition is shown by the following comparative 
 analyses : — 
 
408 
 
 OILS AXD OIL-SEEDS. 
 
 Carbon . . 
 Hydrogen 
 Oxygen.. .. 
 
 Total 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 74-00 
 10-29 
 10-71 
 
 100-00 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 74-18 
 11-03 
 14-79 
 
 100-00 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 74-35 
 11-35 
 14-30 
 
 100-00 
 
 Castor oil seed is gro-wn over the whole of the North-West Pro- 
 vinces ; it is not of a very good quality, the yield of oil being 
 generally inferior to the coast seed of Coconada and that of 
 Colgong. The Dessie supplies the largest quantity. 
 
 The castor oil plant is extensively cultivated all over India. 
 The plant is grown at Lucknow as a mixed crop. It is sown 
 in June by almost all the villagers, not extensively, but principally 
 for their own use. Its cultivation can be extended all over Oude. 
 The oil is extracted by bruising the seed and then boiling it in 
 water ; the oil is afterwards skimmed off. This is the only seed 
 out of which the oil is extracted by boiling, as in this case it is 
 found cheaper than the methods used for other seeds, which is by 
 pressure. The cost of the seed is one rupee per maund, and the 
 price of the oil from two to five seers per rupee, according to the 
 abundance of the crop in the season. The proportion of the oil 
 yielded is about half the weight of the seeds when boiled. 
 
 In Cuttack the plant is grown all over the province, a good deal 
 in patches of newly-cleared land, in the jungles of the Tributary 
 States and Sumbulpore. The oil is used for burning and culinary 
 purposes, and also medicinally. Both the native methods of 
 extracting oil are wasteful and tedious, and therefore expensive. 
 European oil-presses, and a knowledge of some methods of clarify- 
 ing the expressed oil, seem only to be required to render the oil- 
 seed crops of this extensive division of great value. 
 
 In a report on the industrial employment of castor oil, by 
 M. Dareste, published in the third volume of the Bulletin of the 
 Acclimatization Society of Paris, p. 349, he states that from the 
 documents he had collected he found that a hectare under castor 
 oil yielded 1800 kilogrammes. The average yield from oil-palms 
 in intertropical regions was only 900 kilogrammes per hectare, and 
 that of olives in the south of Europe but 600 kilogrammes. From 
 subsequent researches he considers that the yield of oil from the 
 castor oil plant would be even more, as he calculated the yield at 
 0'52 per cent., while subsequent trials proved that 0"62 to 0-64: 
 could be obtained, differences which result from the mode of 
 extraction employed. 
 
 Castor oil is said to be adulterated sometimes with croton oil, to 
 increase its activity ; this is a dangerous sophistication. It is also 
 mixed with some cheap fixed oils. 
 
 If cold drawn it is suited to medical purposes, but hot drawn it 
 is poisonous, and the eating of two or three of the dry and pleasant- 
 flavoured seeds is deadly, inducing Asiatic cholera. This should 
 be generally known if seeds are distributed. The easy and rapid 
 
EAPE SEED. 409 
 
 growth, the copious seeding, and the early return of produce 
 render this important plant of high value in the warm temperate 
 zone, more particularly as it will thrive on almost any soil, and 
 can thus he raised even on arid places, without being scorched by 
 hot winds. To obtain the best medicinal oil hydraulic pressure 
 should be employed, and the seeds not subjected to heat ; the seed- 
 'Coats should also be removed prior to the extracting process being 
 proceeded with. A screw-press suffices, however, to obtain the oil 
 for ordinary supplies. By decantation and some process of filtra- 
 tion it is purified. For obtaining oil to be used for lubrication of 
 machinery or other technological purposes, the seeds may be 
 pressed and prepared by various methods under application of 
 heat and access of water. For lubrication it is one of the most 
 ■extensively used of all oils. 
 
 Eape Seed. — From the seeds of Brassica camjpestris, Brassica napus 
 (Napa oleifera, Spenn.), B. annua, B. biennis, and other species, all 
 natives of Europe, is expressed the colza, or rape oil. The plants 
 are extensively cultivated in the manner usually adopted in the 
 culture of turnips, and raised solely for their value as an oil- 
 yielding plant. The seeds are perfected the second year of their 
 growth. The oil is extensively used for machinery, and for 
 burning in lamps. The refuse cake is a well-known cattle 
 food. 
 
 The seed is sown broadcast, in the month of July, upon well- 
 manured ground, and if possible during wet weather. This is the 
 seed-bed for the future plant. It should be sown as turnip or 
 cabbage seed is sown, when it is intended to transplant the young 
 plants. In the months of September, October, and November, the 
 plants are taken from the seed-bed, and transplanted for the future 
 crop. The field is richly manured with farmyard dung, spread 
 broadcast on the land, and ploughed in. The previous crop is 
 usually wheat. 
 
 The plants are then set out in rows about 2 feet distant from 
 each other, and each plant 18 inches apart. In good soil, as, for 
 instance, land partly broken up from old pasture, or from wood, 
 the crop will be much heavier, and ripen more equally, if planted 
 at a greater distance. It is usually planted in every alternate 
 furrow, but the manure plough is expressly constructed for breadth 
 of furrow. The plant is exceedingly robust, and soon recovers 
 itself after transplanting. It thus remains permanently planted 
 out until the month of February, when the horse-hoe is set to 
 work to pulverize the soil after the frosts. Good careful farmers 
 then add some artificial manure to encourage the growth of the 
 plant. The manure generally employed is guano or rape dust, 
 and the rape cake, which proceeds from the manufacture of the oil. 
 Eape cake, indeed, is one of the very best stimulants that the 
 plant can receive. After this spring manuring, the double mould- 
 board plough passes between the drills, so as to throw the earth 
 well up to the stalks of the plants. 
 
 There is another method, which is, to sow as the Scotch farmers 
 
410 OILS AND OIL-SEEDS. 
 
 do turnips, in drills (manure in drills), apply guano or bone dust,, 
 or rape dust in spring, and in damp weather. 
 
 Do not transplant at all, but thin out, and cultivate as for swede 
 turnip seed. I believe the crop would be as heavy, and the- 
 expense diminished one half, especially when labour is dear or 
 scarce. The after management of the colza seed is not difficult, 
 but requires attention. The seed, when fresh harvested, is apt tO' 
 sweat and heat. For this reason, careful farmers who wisb to 
 preserve the colour and strength of the sample, generally stow the 
 seed away with a suflScient quantity of the seed-pod or husk. These 
 substances mixed through the heap, prevent its taking heat. The 
 bulk must, nevertheless, be repeatedly turned over, and the granary 
 kept aired. The yield of oil, which is the ultimate and real test 
 of the value of the crop, varies exceedingly. This difference is not 
 so much to be attributed to the variety of grain as to the nature oT 
 the soil, the geniality of the season, and the care bestowed on the 
 culture of the plant. 
 
 Nothing more is done till harvest, which occurs towards the 
 middle of July. The chief enemy of the rape-seed crop is hail ; 
 the heavy lains of July are also often prejudicial. As soon as the 
 straw and seed-pod become yellow, the crop is ready to cut. This 
 is done by the sickle, and the reapers place the crop as it is cut 
 across the ridges, so as to leave the air to circulate as much as 
 possible. In from six to ten days the crop is ready for the flail. 
 It is a seed that sheds itself with great ease, and must be handled, 
 tenderly or much seed will be lost. The crop is thrashed in the 
 field. A large space is cleared, and a sail-cloth spread on the- 
 ground. A light species of hand-barrow or cradle is constructed, 
 and lined with canvas. It is carried by two persons across the 
 field, and they gather up the sheaves, which, as lightly as possible, 
 they deposit in the cradle or hand-crib. When they arrive at the 
 thrashing place, they simply overturn the cradle and leave the 
 sheaves on the floor. 
 
 The least possible stroke of the flail suffices to dislodge the seed. 
 After thrashing, the grain requires to be constantly turned in the 
 store, or it will speedily heat, and consume the strength of the oil. 
 The produce of an excellent crop is half a French bushel, or 2& 
 French quarts (litres), to every perch of 24 square feet. In round 
 numbers, the yield of the crop may be estimated at 25 bushels to 
 the acre, and it often exceeds this. The profit is so very consider- 
 able, that for many years it was estimated that the Norman farmers • 
 paid rent and expenses from the rape-seed crop alone. The land 
 rent may be averaged at 1 franc the perch, or 70 francs the acre, 
 which includes all rates and taxes. 
 
 If the plant be cultivated too often upon the same soil, without 
 adequate change of rotation, it will, as is frequently the case with 
 clover, degenerate rapidly, and produce an inadequate return. A 
 crop which stands well and thick on the land will not always- 
 turn out to be the best oil-hearing crop. The average is, that 
 it requires 4 hectolitres, or 400 French quarts of seed, to give- 
 200 lbs. of oil in the rough. The expressing the oil, facilities- 
 
MUSTAED SEED. 411 
 
 for purchase of steam fuel, or watfer power, and the chemical 
 processes connected with rectification, are all elements of the 
 expenditure. 
 
 Colza culture extends through the regions of the north-west and 
 the plains of the north, hut is little known iji the south and the 
 mountains of the centre. 
 
 The production of colza has much declined in Prance, owing to 
 the more extensive employment of mineral oils. The departments- 
 where this oil-seed was principally grown were Pas de Calais,. 
 Calvados, Seine Inferieure, Nord, Somme, Saone et Loire, and 
 Eure. 
 
 Imports of Bape Seed into the United Kingdom. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 1840 81,745 
 
 1850 107,029 
 
 1860 269,403 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 1870 551,107 
 
 1880 398,804 
 
 1888 279,615 
 
 Mustard Seed. — A number of species of this family are cultivated 
 for their seeds in Europe, north Africa, and northern and middle 
 Asia. By some the plants are referred to Brassiea ; others continue 
 them under Sinapis. The seeds of white mustard (Sinapis alba, 
 Linn.) are less pungent than those of the black mustard {S. nigra')^ 
 but are used in a similar manner. Dr. Masters enumerates 
 S. cMnensis, S. dichotoma, S. peMnensis, S. ramosa, S. glauca, and 
 S. juncea among the mustards which undergo cultivation in various 
 parts of Asia, either for the fixed oil of their seeds or for their 
 herbage. From 15 lbs. to 20 lbs. of seeds of the white mustard are 
 required for an acre. In the climate of California 1400 lbs. of 
 seed have been gathered from an acre. In China an oil is ex- 
 pressed from Brassiea sinensis in increasing quantities all through 
 the valleys of the Yang-tze and Han rivers. 
 
 Very primitive machinery is used for the purpose. The seeds 
 are crushed, steamed, and put into wooden cylinders, usually made- 
 by hollowing out the trunks of trees. The oil is squeezed out of 
 the mass, placed in coarse bags, by means of wedges forced down 
 by mallets, or by an arrangement similar to that by means of 
 which piles are generally driven into the earth. In the last case 
 water power is sometimes employed. The oil is of a dark yellow 
 colour, thick, and has a pleasant odour. It is used for lamps, in 
 cooking, and as a hair oil. 
 
 The seeds of S. nigra and S. alba, simply crushed and then 
 sifted, constitute the mustard of commerce. The mixture is com- 
 monly two parts of black and three of white mustard flour, but the 
 proportions used by difierent manufacturers vary. Eor medicinal 
 use the black seeds are preferable for sinapism and other purposes. 
 In rich soils this plant is very prolific. The chemical constituents 
 are a peculiar acrid fixed oil, crystalline sinapin, the fatty sinapisin, 
 myron-acid, and my rosin. 
 
 There are two sorts of mustard : the white mustard, which is 
 grown for oilcake for sheep feed, and for green manure to be 
 ploughed in for wheat ; and the brown mustard, which is chiefly 
 
412 OILS AND OIL-SEEDS. 
 
 grown for use as a table condiment. On the marshy and wild 
 coast soils of east England it is common to take three or four crops 
 of brown mustard running, and in that way to pay for the fee simple 
 of the land (from £60 to £.100 an acre), when the opportunity is 
 presented. The tillage required is next to nothing; a shallow 
 furrow is ploughed, the seed is sown broadcast, a bushel of seed 
 an acre in April, and is ready for harvesting in June or July. The 
 l-and is generally suf&ciently seeded to produce another crop ; 
 which may, perhaps, be gathered in the autumn of the same year. 
 In England brown mustard often fetches from 15s. to £1 a bushel, 
 and 40 bushels is no uncommon crop. White mustard is less 
 remunerative and less speculative. 
 
 Mustard seed is cultivated in many departments of France, and 
 especially in the Nord, Pas de Calais, Bas Ehin, and the Charente. 
 The annual produce is about 650 tons, worth £6000. Triturated 
 in special mills, mixed with vinegar, and flavoured with some 
 condiments, it is delivered to the trade ready for the table. The 
 quantity produced in France was stated in the official Catalogue 
 <3f the Paris Exhibition of 1867 at 3000 tons, of the value of 
 2,000,000 francs. 
 
 Five or six species of Sinapis are cultivated throughout India 
 for the sake of their oil, which is much esteemed in the country 
 for cooking, for medicine, and for anointing the body, which it is 
 supposed to invigorate. The true mustard is scarcely met with in 
 India. Those chiefly grown are cole seed (Brassica campestris, Linn.), 
 or Sinapis dichotoma, Eoxb., S. campestris var. glauca ; the sarson or 
 Eape, B. Toria, B. glauca, Eoxb. Brassica juncea. Hooker, Sinapis 
 juncea, Lin., is largely grown in the south of Eussia, and in the 
 steppes north-east of the Caspian Sea. Eight hundred tons of 
 the seed are used in one factory annually for making mustard, 
 and the seeds yield more than 20 per cent, of a fixed pleasant 
 oil. 
 
 The imports of colza and ravison seeds into Marseilles ranged 
 from 300,000 to 660,000 cwts. up to 1878, but they have declined 
 eince to 175,000 cwts. 
 
 Safflowee Oil. — This is a light yellow clear oil, when properly 
 refined or prepared; it is used in India for culinary and other 
 purposes. This oil deserves more attention than it has hitherto 
 received in this country ; and, if once fairly introduced, there is 
 no doubt whatever of its becoming a staple import. It is used in 
 some of the Government workshops as a " drying oil," and is 
 believed to constitute the bulk of the celebrated "Macassar oil." 
 The seed is exported under the name of Curdee, or safflower seed. 
 The Lucknow Exhibition Committee furnishes the following note : 
 In Oude it is sown in October, either alone, or at the edge of 
 wheat crops ; both light and heavy soils are adapted to it. It is 
 cultivated in every village, but not extensively. There would be 
 no difficulty in further cultivating it to any extent. The oil is 
 extracted by pressing. The cost of the seed, which is called 
 
SESAME SEED. 413. 
 
 "Barre," is 18f seers per rupee, and the cost of tlie oil from 3 to 
 4 seers per rupee. 
 
 Sesame Seed (Sesamum indicum, Dec), frequently called Til, or 
 Gingely. This is an erect, pubescent annual herb, from 2 to 4 feet 
 high, indigenous to India, but propagated by cultivation through- 
 out the warmer regions of the globe. In Europe it is only grown 
 in some districts of Turkey and Greece, and on a small scale in the 
 islands of Malta and Gozo. It does not succeed well in the south 
 of Prance. Prom southern Asia it extends eastward to Japan, and 
 is cultivated as far as 42° N. lat. It has a wide range, being grown 
 in parts of South and Central America, British Guiana, and the 
 West Indies. In the former it is known as ajonjoli, in the West 
 Indies as oily seed, and in Demerara as wangle. When parched 
 and pounded the seeds make a rich soup. Children are very fond 
 of the seeds, which have a milky flavour. In Egypt they are eaten 
 after being baked in an oven and sprinkled over bread and pastry. 
 The residual cake, after the oil is extracted, is also eaten kneaded 
 with honey. 
 
 Benni seed, as it is called in parts of Africa, is extensively 
 used in Oriental countries for aromatizing the church bread and 
 for the preparation of the renowned Chalha, which is eaten 
 during fasts by all Orientals. It consists of the finely powdered 
 seeds, which are mixed with honey, and oftentimes also with 
 sugar. 
 
 The negroes use the seeds for making a sort of beverage, some- 
 thing like coffee, by roasting and infusing them in water. 
 
 Til seed is grown in the northern provinces of Siam. There are 
 870,000 acres under culture with this oil-seed in the Madras Presi- 
 dency, chiefly in the Godavery. Three varieties of sesame seed 
 are cultivated in India, the white-seeded (Suffed-til), the red or 
 parti-coloured (Kala-tiV), and the black variety (Tillee); it is th& 
 latter which affords the greater proportion of the gingely oil of 
 commerce. A second sort of sesame oil, sometimes called " rape," 
 is obtained from the red-seeded variety. Black sesame is sown in 
 March and ripens in May. Eed sesame is not sown till June. 
 The word sesame is said to be derived from simsim, the Arabic name 
 of the plant. One of the advantages of the culture of this plant 
 consists in its quick [return of produce, as it comes to perfection 
 within three or four months.- Its capsules contain numerous small, 
 flat seeds. To collect them, the plant, when mature, is cut down, 
 and stacked in heaps for a few days, after which it is exposed to 
 the sun during the day, but collected again into heaps at night. 
 By this process the capsules gradually ripen and burst, and the 
 seeds fall out. The plant is found in several varieties, affording 
 respectively white, yellowish, reddish-brown, and black seeds. 
 The dark seeds may be deprived of a part of their colouring matter 
 by washing, which is sometimes done with a view to obtain a pale 
 oil. The white seeds produced in Sind are reported to yield the 
 finest oil. The seeds are largely consumed as food both in India 
 and tropical Africa. The island of Formosa grows a large quantity. 
 
414 
 
 OILS AND OIL-SEEDS. 
 
 and it is also cultivated in Zanzibar and Senegal. This oil-seed 
 now also appears in tlie markets of Bakel. The yield of oil from 
 the seed is about 40 to 50 per cent., and its specific gravity • 9253. 
 The JajBfa sesame seed is all exported to Prance, as it is much 
 appreciated there, and considered to be of the best kind on account 
 of its making fine oil for eating purposes. It fetches the highest 
 .prices of any in the Marseilles market. The chief place for the 
 manufacture of sesame oil is Marseilles, and the importance of the 
 "trade in it may be judged from the receipts at that port, in 
 metrical quintals : — 
 
 Year. 
 
 1855 
 1865 
 1875 
 1886 
 
 From the Levant, 
 
 159,703 
 
 60,260 
 
 125,950 
 
 117,940 
 
 From India and 
 Africa. 
 
 190,512 
 259,510 
 297,670 
 824,370 
 
 Total. 
 
 .S.50,215 
 319,770 
 423,620 
 942,310 
 
 The oil first expressed from the seeds is available for table use, 
 and may be used for all the purposes of olive oil. As its congealing 
 3)oint is some degrees below that of olive oil, it is even more fitted 
 for cool climates. The soot of the oil is used for making Indian 
 ink. This oil is probably consumed to a greater extent than any 
 other by the natives of India, and is second only to coconut oil in 
 importance as an article of commerce. The residue, or cake, is 
 eaten by the poorer classes of India as an article of food, and it is 
 greedily devoured by cattle. 
 
 In Eastern Africa the sesame grows everywhere on the coast, 
 extends far into the interior, and is known as simsim. The 
 seed is pounded dry in a large mortar ; when the oil begins to 
 appear, a little hot water is poured in, and the mass is forcibly 
 .squeezed by huge pestles ; all that floats is then ladled out into 
 pots and gourds, and used for cooking. 
 
 At Angola sesame has been cultivated for more than twenty years 
 as an article of export; it grows near the coast in soils too arid 
 for ground nuts. From Sierra Leone the exports are falling off, 
 as the following figures will show :— 
 
 Cwts. 
 1881, shipments, 28,000 
 
 1882 „ 21,216 
 
 1883 „ 21,116 
 
 CwtB. 
 
 1884, shipments, 8,561 
 1885 „ 6,458 
 
 A few cwts. are also exported from Lagos and the Gold Coast. 
 The seed is there called Beni seed. About 1500 cwts. are produced 
 in the Congo State. 
 
 Niger Seed. — Another oil-seed which enters into English com- 
 merce from India for oil-crushing, is the small black seed of 
 ■Guizotia oleifera. It is commonly cultivated in Mysore and the 
 
NIGER SEED. 
 
 415 
 
 Deccan. The oil is sweet- tasted, and is used for the same purpose 
 as gingely oil, though an inferior oil. It is the common lamp 
 oil of Upper India, and is very cheap. The seed is sown in July 
 or August, after the first heavy rains, the fields being simply 
 ploughed, neither weeding nor manure being required. In three 
 months from the time of sowing the crop is cut, and after being 
 placed in the sun for a few days the seeds are threshed out with a 
 stick. The produce is about two bushels per acre. It is also 
 called ram-til. 
 
 The progressive increase in the importation of oil-seeds at Mar- 
 seilles has been remarkable, as is proved by the quinquennial 
 returns, in metrical quintals : — 
 
 1855 753,680 
 
 1860 1,093,970 
 
 1865 1,376,770 
 
 1870 1,849,860 
 
 1875 2,228,280 
 
 1880 2,989,590 
 
 1885 3,245,200 
 
 Oil-Seeds received at Mabseilles in 1886. 
 
 Metrical Quintals 
 of two cwts. 
 
 Sesame, from Levant 117,940 
 
 „ India and Africa 824,370 
 
 Ground-nuts in shell 131, 635 
 
 „ liusked 749,565 
 
 Poppy seed 109,270 
 
 Copra 260,910 
 
 Linseed 62,080 
 
 Colza 73,245 
 
 Kape 11,695 
 
 Palm kernels 281,450 
 
 Castor oil seed 146,715 
 
 Cottonseed 213,110 
 
 lUipe and Bassia 58,255 
 
 Niger seed 21,590 
 
 Purging nuts 6,730 
 
 3,068,560 
 
 The value of the oil-seeds exported from India to Marseilles is 
 over £3,000,000. The quantities were in — 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1881-82 4,028,348 
 
 1882-83 3,923,964 
 
 1883-84 5,259,504 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1884-85 5,923,500 
 
 1885-86 5,150,681 
 
 The total quantity shipped from India in the last-named year 
 was 17,280,147 cwts., of the value of £9,948,350. Nearly half -of 
 this amount came to England, and the remainder went mostly to 
 Prance and Belgium. 
 
 The quantity and value of the various oil-seeds shipped from 
 India in 1875 was only 6,629,939 cwts., value £3,207,808. 
 
416 
 
 OILS AND OIL-SEEDS. 
 
 Oils Expokted from Ikdia, gallons. 
 
 Kinds. 
 
 1886. 
 
 1886. 
 
 issr. 
 
 Essential 
 
 Castor 
 
 Coconut 
 
 Til or Jingili 
 
 10,043 
 3,207,045 
 1,553,887 
 
 87,896 
 
 8,833 
 
 1,190,888 
 
 1,170,177 
 
 77,625 
 
 12,523 
 
 2,676,012 
 
 1,099,864 
 
 198,169 
 
 The declared, value of all these in 1887 was £748,861. 
 
 Quantity of Seeds Exported, cwts. 
 
 Essential . . 
 Castor . . 
 Linseed 
 Mohwa 
 Mustard 
 Poppy . . . . 
 Bape . . 
 Til or Jingili 
 Other sorts 
 Ground-nuts 
 
 49,616 
 
 476,396 
 
 8,746,596 
 
 37,348 
 
 659,900 
 
 4,521,933 
 
 2,616,484: 
 
 435,955 
 
 676,460 
 
 1886. 
 
 47,279 
 
 670,537 
 
 9,510,139 
 
 24,047 
 
 695,097 
 
 3,721,840 
 
 1,759,343 
 
 196,195 
 
 655,670 
 
 188?. 
 
 51,416 
 
 610,893 
 
 8,656,933 
 
 78,544 
 
 33,362 
 
 612,654 
 
 2,664,693 
 
 2,121,119 
 
 104,195 
 
 945,895 
 
 The acreage under oil-seeds in India in 1886 was as follows: 
 
 Madras 1,364,093 
 
 Bombay 2,013,527 
 
 North-West Provinces 677,450 
 
 Oudh 314,934 
 
 Punjab 752,013 
 
 Central Provinces 1,705,017 
 
 Lower Burma 
 Assam . 
 Berar , 
 
 28,251 
 163,353 
 939,082 
 
 7,957,720 
 
 The enormous amount of seeds exported from India is out of all 
 proportion to the quantity of prepared oils— hence mills for the 
 preparation of oil in India would seem likely to prove highly 
 remunerative. 
 
GOLD OF PLEASURE. 
 
 417 
 
 Oil Seeds shipped from India in 1884. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Linseed 8,543,760 
 
 Eape seed 3,945,727 
 
 TilorJingili 2,853,382 
 
 Ground-nuts • .. 712,954 
 
 Poppy 514,228 
 
 Castor seeds (1881) 10,229,109 
 
 (1885) 18,250,688 
 
 Oil Seeds shipped in' 1885. 
 
 Cwt9. 
 
 Linseed 8,746,596 
 
 Eape 4,521,933 
 
 TilorJingQi 2,646,484 
 
 Other sorts 2,286,059 
 
 The following table shows the fluctuatioii in the imports of 
 "various kinds of oil-seeds at Marseilles for ten years, in metrical 
 quintals of 2 cwts. : — 
 
 Year. 
 
 Sesame. 
 
 Ground- 
 Nuts. 
 
 Linseed. 
 
 Cotton 
 Seed. 
 
 Copra and 
 
 Palm 
 Kernels. 
 
 Colza 
 
 and 
 
 Eape. 
 
 Other 
 Sorts. 
 
 1877 
 1878 
 1879 
 1880 
 1881 
 1882 
 1883 
 1884 
 1885 
 1886 
 
 696,740 
 536,790 
 601,778 
 927,425 
 989,995 
 880,740 
 1,152,870 
 992,785 
 941,865 
 942,310 
 
 406,570 
 716,590 
 850,380 
 
 1,052,165 
 873,315 
 908,055 
 773,075 
 851,165 
 
 1,070,695 
 881,200 
 
 165,670 
 
 264,535 
 
 169,155 
 
 99,430 
 
 75,725 
 
 113,305 
 
 186,025 
 
 164,900 
 
 102,370 
 
 62,080 
 
 203,350 
 119,310 
 130,640 
 213,100 
 193,635 
 210,725 
 275,820 
 306,390 
 179,290 
 213,110 
 
 224,060 
 204,430 
 356,310 
 322,210 
 423,995 
 247,. 890 
 413,450 
 402,420 
 638,420 
 542,380 
 
 159,710 
 
 376,230 
 
 264,875 
 
 242,485 
 
 148,170 
 
 139,140 
 
 92,755 
 
 83,380 
 
 83,900 
 
 84,940 
 
 84,840 
 77,020 
 194,765 
 132,775 
 160,360 
 228,780 
 192,315 
 444,160 
 251,260 
 342,560 
 
 The total imports have risen in the ten years from 1,94.0,940 
 o 3,068,580 metrical quintals. 
 
 Gold of Pleasure {Camelina sativa, Crantz), an annual herb, is 
 cultivated in middle and southern Europe, It is readily grown 
 after corn crops, yields richly even on poor soil, and is not attacked 
 by aphis. Thirty-two bushels of seed have been obtained from an 
 ■acre, and from these 640 lbs. of oil. The return is obtained within 
 a few months. 
 
 The gold of pleasure produces a finer oil for burning than the 
 rape or mustard, having a brighter flame, less smoke, and scarcely 
 any smell. It succeeds better than any of the other cruciferous 
 oil plants on light, shallow, dry soils, and arrives so early at 
 maturity that in the south of Europe it produces two crops in a 
 season. In several of tlie more northerly districts of the Con- 
 tinent, as the north of France, Germany, and Holland, although 
 it will not produce two crops in the season, it is found very useful 
 for sowing in June or the beginning of July, when other crops 
 may have failed ; and when sown in the early part of the season, 
 
 2 E 
 
418 OILS AND OIL-SEEDS. 
 
 it can be removed in time to he succeeded by turnips, grass seeds, 
 &c. Besides the use of its seeds for oil, tlie stems yield a coarse 
 iibre for making sacks, sail-cloth, &c., and being small, hard, and 
 durable, are used for thatching temporary erections, and also for 
 making coarse packing paper. 
 
 The seed may be sown in shallow drills, 10 inches apart, by the 
 old-fashioned plan of a quart-bottle with a quill through the cork, 
 and will be ready fiDr the sickle some three months after sowing ; 
 the return of an average crop may be estimated at 300 to 1. The 
 Camelina is understood to be a non-exhauster of the soil, used as a 
 rotation crop, enabling old land to recover itself in some measure ; 
 it prefers soil of a light sandy nature, and is very hardy, enduring 
 both drought and wet. Its usefulness consists in its quality for 
 fattening stock of any kind. Two tablespoonfuls of the seed boiled 
 in a quart of water will produce about the same quantity of thick 
 jelly ; and this mixed with a suflScient quantity and bulk of food will, 
 it is considered, fatten the largest ox in a short time; the chaff 
 which is left, after threshing out the seed, is readily eaten by horses. 
 
 In some countries this plant is cultivated both for its stems, 
 which yield a fibre applicable for spinning, and for its oleiferous 
 seeds, especially in Flanders. Although the soils best adapted 
 for its culture are those of a light nature, a crop will never fail on 
 land of the most inferior description. It is usually sown in spring 
 in March or April, and in the autumn about August. The quantity 
 of seed required per acre is 14 lbs. It may be either drilled or 
 broadcast ; if drilled, the rows must be one foot apart. If sown 
 early, two crops may frequently be obtained in one year, as it is 
 fit for harvesting in three months after the plant makes its first 
 appearance. The seed is ripe as soon as the pods change from a 
 green to a golden colour. Care must then be taken to cut it before 
 it becomes too ripe, or much seed will be lost. 
 
 When cut with a sickle, it is bound up in sheaves and stacked 
 in the same manner as wheat. It is then put into a barn, and 
 threshed out like other corn. The oil is useful for burning in 
 lamps, for dressing woollen goods, the manufacture of soap, lubri- 
 cating machinery, and for painters. It is said also to be beneficial 
 in asthma. 
 
 Sunflower-seed {Selianthus annuus). —T'he highly ornamental 
 and extensive genus of plants to which this belongs derives its 
 scientific name from helios, sun, and antlios, a flower, on account of 
 the brilliant colour of the flower, and from the erroneous idea, 
 propagated by poets and others, that the flowers always turned 
 towards the sun; hence, also, the French name tournesol. It 
 appears to possess far more profitable qualities than have been 
 hitherto supposed, and may be cultivated with advantage and 
 appliedto many useful purposes. The great variety of valuable 
 properties belonging to the sunflower seed has been more neglected 
 than any other, when it ought to be paid greater attention to. 
 No plant produces such fine honey and wax, and when the flower 
 is in blossom bees abound on it. A few years ago one or two 
 
SUSFLOVVEE-SEED. 419 
 
 farmers cleared nearly £40 by their honey alone. The produce 
 ■will he according to the nature of the soil and mode of cultivation. 
 
 The sunflower has been long largely grown in parts of Eussia 
 for its oU, and the German farmers have lately taken up the culti- 
 vation. The plant grows readily in most climates. From the 
 stalks of the plant the Eussians manufacture a valuable potash, 
 and the residue, after extracting the oil, made into oilcake, is used 
 for feeding cattle. The leaves go to manure the soil. 
 
 The quantity of seed is much increased by dwarfing the plants ; 
 the best manure is said to be old mortar broken up. The plants 
 should be kept clear and free from weeds. They should have suffi- 
 cient interval between them for exposure to the sun, as under such 
 circumstances they become larger and more fully stored with seed. 
 The oil extracted from the seed is said to be superior to both 
 almond and olive oil for table use, and for use in woollen factories, 
 making soap and candles, and for lighting purposes. The leaves 
 have been manufactured into cigars, possessing, it is stated, pectoral 
 qualities which might prove more efficacious than stramonium. 
 The blossoms furnish a brilliant yellow dye which stands well. 
 
 The marc, or refuse of 50 bushels of seed, after the oil has been 
 expressed, made into cakes, will produce 1500 lbs., and the stalks, 
 when burnt for alkali, will give 10 per cent, of potash. The green 
 leaves of the sunflower, when dried and burnt to powder, make 
 excellent fodder for milch cows, mixed with bran. Sir Allen 
 Crockden, of Seal Grove, by Sevenoaks, for many years cultivated 
 the sunflower, for the purpose of feeding his stock. The oil makes 
 most beautiful soap, particularly softening to the hands and face, 
 and is most delightful to shave with. Sheep, pigs, pigeons, rabbits, 
 poultry of all sorts, &c., will fatten rapidly upon the cake, and 
 prefer the seed to any other ; pheasants in particular, causing them 
 to have a much more glossy plumage and to be plumper in the 
 body. It increases the quantity of eggs from poultry fed with 
 it. The seed, shelled, makes when ground very fine flour for 
 bread, particularly tea-cakes. It will grow in any corner that 
 may be vacant, and make all farms have a most agreeable garden- 
 like appearance. It should be planted about 6 inches apart, and 
 about 1 inch deep, and when 1 foot high may be earthed up ; 
 it will then require no further attention. The main head of 
 the plant generally produces 800 to 1000 seeds, and there are 
 usually four collaterals, producing 50 to 60 seeds each. But it is 
 not the seed only that is so valuable ; the stalk is useful also, for 
 by treating it exactly like flax, it will produce a fibre as fine as 
 silk, and in large quantities. Now that rags have become so 
 scarce, arising from the very unprecedented demand for paper, the 
 stalk might be used for paper making. On some grounds two 
 crops may be growing at the same time ; when the farmer has 
 given his early potatoes a last hoeing, he can plant his seed 
 12 inches apart in the ridges. The Chinese have it by thousands 
 of tons, and worship it. There can be no doubt that many of their 
 silk goods have a large portion of sunflower fibre in them. 
 According to Boussingault, some experiments made by M. Gauzac, 
 
 2 E 2 
 
420 OILS AND OIL-SEEDS. 
 
 of Dagny, gave tlie produce per acre of seed at 15 cwts. 3 qrs. 
 14 lbs.; the oil per acre, 275 lbs., being 15 per cent., and tlie cake 
 80 per cent. Next to poppy-seed oil, sunflower oil burns tbe 
 longest of any in equal quantities. Tbe seeds vary in colour, 
 being either white, grey, striped, or black. From them is ex- 
 pressed a palatable, clear, and flavourless oil, the demand for which 
 in Eussia is very great. It is exported from St. Petersburg at 
 about 10s. 6d. the cwt., and is said to be extensively used, like 
 cotton-seed oil, after purifying, for adulterating olive or salad oil. 
 In Eussia a considerable quantity is grown for oil pressing. The 
 plant is largely cultivated in Kiels and Podolia, eastward on the 
 black soil lands ; the stalks are used for fuel. The manufacture 
 of the oil, which was formerly confined to the Government of 
 Voroneje, has recently been carried on in that of Saratov, and in 
 the town of that name there are at least thirty oil presses. The 
 seed is supplied by the peasants of the neighbourhood. The 
 production in Eussia has been officially stated at 400,000 cwts. 
 More than 200,000 cwts. of sunflower oil is made, valued at 
 3,000,000 roubles, one-third of which is sent to Germany, where 
 the culture is now also carried on. The following practical 
 instructions may be given to produce the plant in perfection. 
 There is required a light rich soil, as unshadowed by trees as 
 possible. The earlier the seed can be got in the ground the 
 better, say the end of September or the beginning of October, as 
 the crop will be ready to harvest the latter jiart of February, 
 which will be of the greatest importance to growers. The neces- 
 sary quantity of seed required for an acre depends on the condition 
 of the soil, and varies from 4 to 6 lbs. ; but of course it is advisable 
 to sow a little more than is actually wanted, to provide against 
 accidents. The seed should be drilled into the ground ; the 
 distance from row to row 18 inches ; the plants to be thinned out 
 to 30 inches from plant to plant ; and the number of plants at 
 this distance would be about 11,000 per acre; at 18 inches from 
 plant to plant, 25,000 per acre ; and at 12 inches from plant to 
 plant, 32,000. The produce varies considerably, according to the 
 ■state of the soil, the climate, and the cultivation that is employed; 
 but the average quantity of seed may be taken at 60 bushels per 
 acre, and the yield of oil at a gallon per bushel. 
 
 The seed varies in relation of husk to kernel from 41 to 60 per 
 cent, of the former to 40 to 59 of the latter, and the percentage of 
 oil between 16;^ and 28 per cent. On the average, however, about 
 18 per cent, of oil may be obtained by expression. 
 
 Candle Nuts. — Under the name of candle nuts there are imported 
 into this country an oil seed, the hard fruit, either in the shell or 
 broken, of the Aleurites triloba and A. Moluccana. The French 
 call them Bancoul nuts, and in the Pacific islands they are known 
 as kukui. Aleurites triloba is a native of the Malay islands and 
 Assam. It is also cultivated in Lower Bengal. The kernels are 
 much relished there, having the taste of English walnuts. 
 
 Two or three species are known, spread over the Molucca Islands, 
 
CANDLE NUTS. 421 
 
 Ceylon, and tlie archipelagos of the Pacific Ocean. It is very 
 common in the forests of Cochin China, New Caledonia, Tahiti, 
 Eeunion, &c. The fruit, produced in abundance, falls to the 
 ground when it has arrived at maturity. This nut is composed of 
 a hard and ligneous shell, containing an oily kernel, of which the 
 following is the composition : — 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 "Water 5-000 
 
 Oil 62-175 
 
 Nitrogenous Bubstanoes 22 • 653 
 
 Non-nitrogenous substances 6 • 827 
 
 Mineral matters 3-345 
 
 100 000 
 
 In its normal state it contains : — 
 
 Nitrogen 3-625 
 
 According to this analysis, the kernel is rich in oil and in nitro- 
 genous substances. It is worthy, therefore, of attracting the more 
 prominent attention of manufacturers and agriculturists. 
 
 The mits analysed came from Tahiti. The French Minister of 
 the Marine distributed them to several manufacturers of oil, in 
 order to experiment on them in their factories. The following is 
 the composition of the oilcake : — 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Water 10-25 
 
 Oil 5-50 
 
 Nitrogenous substances 47-81 
 
 Non-nitrogenous substances 24 -04 
 
 Phosphoric acid 3 • 68 1 
 
 Potash l-53i 12-40 
 
 Magnesia, lime, silica, &c 7 •19) 
 
 100-00 
 
 In its normal state it contains : — 
 
 Nitrogen : 7-65 
 
 This analysis shows that the cake is rich in nitrogen and in 
 phosphates. It would be still more so if it did not contain a 
 certain quantity of the remains of the shells, which could not be 
 completely separated from the kernels. Monsieur Ed. Nay ob- 
 tained from the kernels 55 to 57 per cent, of oil, 40 to 41 per cent. 
 of cake. From these results, it must be .admitted that the cake 
 which is manufactured from perfectly shelled seeds might contain 
 up to 9 per cent, of nitrogen, and 4 per cent, of phosphoric acid. 
 It would therefore be a good manure of great value, superior even 
 to ground-nut cake. It is not good for cattle food ; at least, it 
 must be supposed so. The oil expressed from the kernels is 
 purgative, and could not therefore serve for alimentation. For 
 lighting purposes it is superior to colza oil, and can be burnt 
 without undergoing purification. A simple filtration suffices to 
 render it clear and limpid.* It also appears that this oil is very 
 
 * The Nukuhivians light their huts -with the very oily candle nut {Aleurites 
 triloba), threaded on a skewer, which does not give them much trouble. 
 
422 OILS AND CIL-SEEDS. 
 
 siccative, for when applied in layers on the hull of a ship, it pre- 
 serves it for a long time from every kind of change. Some 
 interesting experiments were made for this purpose on some men- 
 of-war in Cochin China and at Guiana. Unfortunately the hard 
 shell of the candle nut presents great difficulties, for the nut only 
 contains 33 per cent, of kernel, the remainder being the hard shell, 
 which is probably useless. It therefore results that on account 
 of the high price of freight from the places of production it cannot 
 be imported whole. The shelling must be performed before its 
 shipment. According to the experiments made by Monsieur Ed. 
 Nay, this husking is a very laborious operation, on account of the 
 excessive hardness of the shell; nevertheless, it may suffice to 
 make known the interest which attaches to this question to excite 
 the emulation of inventors. He who constructs a simple, cheap 
 apparatus, which can be transported to the colonies, to perform 
 the desired work, will probably make a good thing of it and render 
 a signal service to commerce. 
 
 A larger quantity of oil is obtained from the nut, and with 
 much less difficulty, if, after the reduction of the kernels into a 
 coarse powder, by means of a pestle and mortar, roller, or hand- 
 mill, they are submitted to a low heat. For this purpose a water 
 bath is used, care being taken to constantly stir the powder with 
 a woodon spatula, in order to diffuse the heat equally throughout 
 the whole mass. "When the substance is sufficiently heated, it is 
 placed in canvas bags and submitted to pressure. The oil escapes 
 with much more facility, the heat having coagulated the albumen ; 
 it is clear, and can be immediately filtered. The oil may also be 
 prepared by previously roasting the nuts in ovens. When they 
 are broken, the kernel then separates very easily from the shell, 
 which is not the case with the raw nuts. In the latter case the 
 fragments of kernel are separated with the point of a knife, which 
 causes a great loss of time. The oil which is obtained after this 
 roasting is of a much darker colour than that which is extracted 
 by the preceding process. In all cases the kernel must be com- 
 pletely separated from its outer shell, for in crushing the whole 
 together an enormous loss is experienced. The following are the 
 returns which were obtained, and with a stronger pressure a larger 
 quantity of oil would result : 224 lbs. of whole nuts give 4 lbs. of 
 kernels ; 224 lbs. of kernels produce 50 quarts of oil. 
 ^ At the Sandwich Islands, where it is prepared in large quanti- 
 ties, this oil is 40 per cent, cheaper than linseed oil. In commerce 
 in the Pacific it is designated under the name of Kukui oil. The 
 oil of this nut has many useful applications. In the arts it may 
 be employed in painting as a drying oil ; after having been boiled, 
 it dries completely at the end of six hours. In the manufacture of 
 soap it would replace at Tahiti with great advantage the coconut 
 oil which is used. It is excellent for lighting purposes, and burns 
 without the unpleasant odour which coconut oil gives out ; it has 
 not, like the latter, the disadvantage of deteriorating the lamps ; 
 lastly it gives a very brilliant light. It may be reckoned among 
 the drastic purgatives. Very good effects are obtained with a dose 
 
THE JAPAN WAX THEE. 423 
 
 of 15 to 20 grammes in an aromatic potion. It is said to be used 
 in Java at table, which must depend on a special mode 6f pre- 
 paration, probably the fresh kernel has alone been submitted to 
 pressure. It will thus be seen this oil merits being prepared in 
 Oceania and in New Caledonia. Indigenous to those islands, it 
 grows everywhere ; on the tops of the mountains, where it appears 
 to be most common, on the sloping and inaccessible parts, in deep 
 ravines, in fresh and fertile valleys. It is very abundant up to a 
 height of 2700 feet ; above that it becomes rare, and disappears 
 completely at 4000 feet. 
 
 The Japan Wax Tree. — In Japan a considerable quantity of 
 solid vegetable wax, which melts at 128° and congeals at 132°, is 
 obtained from the seeds or berries of several species of BJius ; that 
 which is most generally cultivated is the Rhus succedanea. This 
 is grown amongst vegetables more or less extensively almost 
 •everywhere in Japan, especially in the western provinces from the 
 south northwards to the 35th degree. 
 
 The lacquer tree (JR. vernicifera) also yields the wax, and differs 
 but little in appearance from the other species, except that its 
 geographical limit extends farther northwards, being at 38°- The 
 Rhus sylvestris, a wild species, is also utilized for the purpose. 
 The cultivated species was originally imported from the Loo Chori 
 Islands ; the growers now distinguish seven different varieties of 
 this tree. The wax tree grows in great abundance on the moun- 
 tainous declivities of the province of Kinas, and in Hiozo, Hizen, 
 Simabara, Chutugo, and Chekusin ; the fields are hedged in with 
 it. The seeds, which ripen in October and November, are of the 
 size of a small pea, and united in bunches ; the fat or wax is 
 lodged between the kernel and the outer skin. When gathered 
 they are exposed to the sun for a few days, and then stored in 
 straw. When they have attained their proper maturity they are 
 freed from the stems by threshing with flails of bamboo. They 
 are crushed and winnowed, steamed, placed in hemp-cloth, bags, 
 steamed again, and afterwards pressed in a wooden wedge press 
 by hand. In order to facilitate the flow of solid oil or vegetable 
 wax, a small percentage of oil from the Pirella ocimoides, IjiTn., 
 is added. The raw products form on cooling a coarse, greenish, 
 tallowy mass, which is remelted in an earthen vessel with water 
 and ashes; the yield is about 15 per cent, of the berries used. 
 The wax is reduced to small scraps by means of a kind of planing 
 tool, then washed and bleached in the sun and air, when it assumes 
 a pure white colour. It is much used in Japan for candles. The 
 exports of this wax from Hiozo and Osaka were 7410 piculs in 
 1874, and 10,056 piculs in 1875. Prices ranged between 11^ and 
 8^ dollars per picul. The consumption has greatly fallen off in 
 London within the last few years, owing to previous high cost of 
 the article, which induced buyers to substitute paraffin and other 
 cheaper materials, and even the above low prices have not left a 
 profit to the shippers. 
 
 The wax is now generally prepared in large square blocks or 
 
424 OILS AKD OIL-SEEUS. 
 
 cakes of 133 IIds., in place of tlie old saucers or round cakes of 
 from 4 to 4^ inches in diameter and 1 inch., thick, by which a 
 saving in fi eight is effected. The value of this wax, shipped from 
 Hiozo in 1875, was 93,277 dollars ; from Osaka, 955 piculs, valued 
 at 8986 dollars. The total value of the Japan wax exports were,, 
 in 1874, 215,642 dollars; in 1875, 186,244. Of vegetable tallow 
 there was exported from Kew Kiang in China, in 1875, 2747 
 piculs. 
 
 Poppy-SEED Oil. — The seeds yield by expression about 50 per 
 cent, of a bland and very valuable oil, of a pale golden colour, 
 fluid to within 10° of the freezing point of water. It dries easily, 
 is inodorous, of agreeable odour, and partially soluble in alcohol. 
 By simple exposure to the rays of the sun in shallow vessels, tlio 
 oil is rendered perfectly colourless. It is expressed by means of a 
 heavy cii'cular stone, placed on its edge, made to revolve by a 
 long lever, and the apparatus is worked by draught bullocks. 
 
 Mr. Bingham furnishes the following note : " The seed has no 
 narcotic qualities, but has a sweet taste, and is used, parched, by 
 the lower class of natives as food ; it is also much used by th& 
 sweetmeat makers as an addition in their wares. This and the- 
 seed of the Til (Sesamum orientale) are the only oil-seeds, with 
 the exception of the coconut, which are used for that purpose. 
 It produces, under the native method, a clear limpid oil, which 
 burns very quickly. About 30 per cent, of oil is generally ex- 
 tracted, and the cake is then sold as a food to the poorer classes. 
 The oil sells at about 5 seers per rupee at Shahabad. The 
 production of this seed is only limited by the production of the- 
 poppy. 
 
 " In Oude each ryot sows from two to four beegahs in the- 
 month of October. The oil is extracted by the common native- 
 press. The cost of the seed is 10 seers for the rupee, and the oil 
 sells for 3 seers for the rupee ; two-fifths of the weight of the seed 
 employed is about the proportion of oil yielded by the native 
 process. The poppy seed is eaten by the natives made into sweet- 
 meats, provided the opium has been extracted from the seed vessel, 
 otherwise it is bitter and narcotic, and under these circumstances 
 the oil extracted is also bitter. Used for cooking and burning." 
 
 Of poppy seed from India, the United Kingdom receives the 
 greatest share. The exports are from 650,000 to 700,000 owts.. 
 This export trade is almost entirely confined to Bengal, only a 
 very small quantity being shipped from Bombay. 
 
 In France the poppy occupies an extent of 47,078 hectares of 
 land in the region of the north-west, being grown for its seed. 
 
 Melon Seeds (jCucnmis melo). — Under the local name of " petit 
 beraf" large quantities of these seeds are collected in various 
 parts of Africa, as in Senegal, Abeokuta, &c. They yield 30 per 
 cent, of a very fluid oil, much like olive oil, which is used for food 
 and for soap-making. In China no less than 4295 piculs of melon 
 seed, valued at £3451, were shipped from Chefoo in 1875. The 
 
PHYSIO NUT — CKOTON OIL. 
 
 425. 
 
 oleaginous seeds of other cucurbitaceous plants are also used ; one 
 called the " gros beraf " is the produce of the Cucurhita inirooi\ 
 and called by the natives iam-bosse. 
 
 Physio Nut {Curcas purgans, Lindl. ; Jatropha Curcas, Lin.). — 
 This small tree or shrub is grovm in Brazil, the East and West 
 Indies, and West Africa ; but the principal seat of production is. 
 the Cape Verde Islands. In the tropics, hedges and enclosures are 
 made with this shrub, as cattle will not touch the leaves. The 
 seeds are excessively drastic, hence their general name of purging 
 nuts. They are in size and shape like those of the castor-oil 
 plant, but have a dull, black, cracked surface. 
 
 The French physic nuts or seeds of the coral plant, Curcas. 
 multifida, are as powerfully purgative as castor-oil seeds. 
 
 This plant grows in abundance in Casamanca, Gaboon, and 
 other parts of the African coast could supply this oil-seed. 
 
 The bush from which the seed is obtained is readily increased 
 by cuttings, which rapidly take root. The seeds are three or four,, 
 contained in a thin skin, which is black ; the seed is of the same 
 colour, and grows in bunches ; the stems of the bushes are not 
 strong, but they answer excellently for fences, with split bamboo 
 tied on each side to keep them straight and together. The seeds 
 are collected and the oil expressed in the usual way. 
 
 The oil obtained from the seeds is chiefly used for lamps, and 
 also in cutaneous diseases and chronic rheumatism. The Chinese 
 boil the oil with oxide of iron to make the black varnish used for 
 coating boxes, &c. The oil is viscous, of a deep yellow, with a. 
 density of 0-918. 
 
 This oil has been frequently imported into England as a substitute 
 for linseed oil. The colour is somewhat paler ; it answers equally 
 well. The seeds are known under the name of Pignons d'Inde by 
 the French, and Purgueira by the Portugese. 
 
 About 350,000 bushels are shipped to Portugal from the Cape 
 Verde Islands, the chief locality of production ; they are after- 
 wards sent to Marseilles, where 13,500 cwts. were received in 1886. 
 
 An oil obtained from another species in India {Jatropha glauca^ 
 Vahl.) is also used' locally in medicine and for lamps. In appear- 
 ance and consistence it resembles castor-oil. The seeds of other 
 species, J. multifida and J. gossypifoUus, are also purgative. 
 
 The following oil seeds were imported at Eotterdam from Africa 
 in tons — 
 
 Palm nuts 
 Palm oil . . 
 Ground-nuts 
 Sesame seeds 
 Copra 
 
 1886. 
 
 1886. 
 
 1884. 
 
 3,095 
 
 4,249 
 
 4,947 
 
 1,868 
 
 3,036 
 
 2,580 
 
 1,032 
 
 3,853 
 
 5,289 
 
 324 
 
 256 
 
 300 
 
 44 
 
 130 
 
 19 
 
 Ceoton' Oil. — This powerfully cathartic oil, well known in this 
 country for its medicinal properties, is procured from the seeds of 
 
420 OILS AND OIL-SEEDS. 
 
 Croion tiglium, a small tree, native of Hindostan, Ceylon, and the 
 Moluccas. The oil is obtained by grinding tbe seeds, placing the 
 powder in bags, and pressing them between plates of iron. The 
 oil is then allowed to stand fifteen days, and afterwards filtered. 
 The residue after expression is saturated with twice its weight of 
 alcohol, heated on the sand bath from 120" to 140° Fahr., and the 
 mixture pressed again. The alcohol is distilled off, the oil allowed 
 to settle, and filtered after a fortnight. One seer (2 lbs.) of 
 seed furnishes 11 fluid ounces of oil ; 6 oz. by the first process, 
 5 oz. by the second. Sometimes the seeds are roasted before they 
 are compressed. The seeds of C. Boxhui-ghii, C. Pavana, and G.- 
 ohlongifolius have similar purgative properties. So powerful, pur- 
 gative, and emetic, is this oil, that one or two drops are sufficient 
 for a dose. 
 
 Chinese Oils. — Among the vegetable oils in China are cabbage 
 oil or rape; Tung oil, from the berries of JDryandra eordata; 
 ground-nut oil {AracMs') ; til seed (Sesame orientale) ; tea-seed oil 
 from Thea viridis ; oil pea (DoUchos viridis) ; and the oil bean (Soja 
 Mspida). The latter product forms a considerable article of com- 
 merce in China. This pulse oil possesses a great analogy to the 
 ordinary edible oils of commerce ; its odour and flavour are agree- 
 able, and it is useful for burning. Exposed to a low temperature 
 it becomes pasty, and resinifies rapidly when exposed to the 
 atmosphere. Being a drying oil, it might serve to replace linseed 
 in some of its uses. The plant has the character of a shrub, it 
 branches near the ground, and attains a height of from 3 to 4 feet. 
 It yields about 18 per cent, of fatty matter, and the Chinese 
 regularly obtain 17 per cent, of oil from it. There are several 
 varieties of this bean, white, yellow, and green. The yellow are 
 made into a fermented mass, or cheese, called tan-fir, by macerating 
 them in water and pressing them into a cake, adding lime and 
 salt to precipitate the caseine, which is obtained in the form of a 
 jelly. It is chiefly cultivated in the north of China, particularly 
 in the province of Shantung. Upwards of 3000 junks are em- 
 ployed in its transport to the southern ports. From Che-foo there 
 were exported, in 1869, 242,224 piculs of bean-cake, and 5570 
 piculs of bean-oil, and about 10,000 piculs of the cake were 
 imported into Foo-Choo-foo, valued at £42,000. The cake is not 
 only used for human food and for stock, but also as manure. 
 
 Oil of Ben. — From the seeds of two species of a leguminous 
 plant, Moringa aptera and M. pterygosperma, is obtained an oil which 
 is valued for its fluidity. It is mild, almost colourless, does not 
 turn rancid, and is of a pleasant taste. The oleine, when separated 
 from the stearine, is highly appreciated by watchmakers, and also 
 by perfumers, as it retains the most fugaceous odours without 
 diminishing their softness. Hence it serves to fix the odorous 
 principles of certain flowers, such as the tuberose, the heliotrope, 
 and the jasmine. It is, however, rarely to be met with pure in 
 commerce, and is generally replaced by virgin olive oil. One 
 
ESSENTIAL OILS. 427 
 
 species of the tree grows in several of the West India Islands, 
 whilst the other, M. aptera, is found principally in Egypt and 
 India, whence small quantities of the seeds are occasionally 
 imported. 
 
 Essential Oils. — The cultivation of lemon and citronelle grass 
 for the distillation of essential oils in Ceylon has of late years 
 attracted a good deal of attention, and there are about 10,000 acres 
 under culture. The value of the total exports of essential oils, 
 citronelle, cinnamon, lemon grass, &c., was in 1884 £41,000. The 
 quantity reached 6,500,000 ozs. ; that of citronelle oil rose from 
 1,760,000 ozs. in 1881 to 3,335,780 ozs. in 1883 ; cinnamon oil from 
 118,762 ozs. in 1882 to 76,224 ozs. in 1883. The quantity of 
 essential oils shipped from India as stated at page 416, averages 
 11,000 or 12,000 gallons. 
 
( 428 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 THE PEINCIPAL FEUITS OF COMMEECE. 
 
 Vine Cdltdre and the Geafe. — The culture of the grape for the 
 purpose of making a beverage from the juice is, literally, " as old 
 as the hills " — it dates from the era of Mount Ararat. The vine 
 is now grown in almost every portion of the inhabitable globe, 
 but thrives best between 32° and 60° of latitude, the most favour- 
 able location for a vineyard being the southern declivity of a hill. 
 Hitherto the best wines have come from southern Europe, Madeira, 
 the Canaries, and the Cape. In Greece, Hungary, Italy, Portugal, 
 Trance, Spain, and parts of Germany and Switzerland, as many 
 persons are employed in the culture of the vine as in all the other 
 agricultural pursuits. 
 
 In the United Kingdom the grape seldom ripens well in the 
 open air, although very fine hothouse fruit is raised, but there 
 is a large import of fresh grapes from the Continent. 
 
 Of dried raisins we take for consumption in the United Kingdom 
 about 450,000 owts. per annum, and of dried currants about 
 900,000 cwts. 
 
 The muscatel grapes are those which by a costly process are 
 made into " Pasas " or Malaga raisins. There are different qualities, 
 which vary in price. 
 
 The green grapes (ZJvajpon'ore) are gathered almost entirely in 
 the provinces of Granada and Almeria. These large and oblong 
 grapes, with a thick skin, are sent, still green, during the months 
 of August and September to the north of Europe, packed in barrels 
 of 50 or 100 lbs. weight, and filled with sawdust to prevent 
 bruising and becoming mouldy. 
 
 There are imported into London about 40,000 barrels (of 50 lbs.) 
 of Spanish or Almeria grapes, which are sold at auction by the 
 fruit-brokers. This is exclusive of the Lisbon grapes (of which 
 there are no available figures), and the large imports direct to 
 Covent Garden market from the Continent. The cargoes arrive 
 at different times from about the last week in May to August. 
 The following have been the quantities of raw fruit (not otherwise 
 described) imported into the United Kingdom, which include pine- 
 apples, melons, &c. : * 
 
 * Applts were included previous to 18S2. 
 
VIXE CULTURE AND THE GEAPE. 
 
 429 
 
 Year. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 bushels. 
 
 £ 
 
 
 bushels. 
 
 t, 
 
 1867 
 
 237,598 
 
 139,079 
 
 1878 
 
 3,938,271 
 
 1,704,091 
 
 1868 
 
 337,631 
 
 160,388 
 
 1879 
 
 4,219,951 
 
 1,746,936 
 
 1869 
 
 303,565 
 
 150,619 
 
 1880 
 
 5,133,432 
 
 2,239,473 
 
 1870 
 
 252,228 
 
 131,967 
 
 1881 
 
 4,045,641 
 
 1,718,907 
 
 1871 
 
 1,128,568 
 
 596,107 
 
 1882 
 
 2,644,056 
 
 1,415,252 
 
 1872 
 
 1,691,703 
 
 1,024,685 
 
 1883 
 
 2,660,475 
 
 1,380,952 
 
 1873 
 
 1,324,608 
 
 762,710 
 
 1884 
 
 2,381,960 
 
 1,345,537 
 
 1874 
 
 2,622,914 
 
 1,109,984 
 
 1885 
 
 2,822,401 
 
 1,421,747 
 
 1875 
 
 2,220,412 
 
 986,248 
 
 1886 
 
 2,601,558 
 
 1,290,411 
 
 1876 
 
 2,372,779 
 
 1,218,625 
 
 1887 
 
 2,479,004 
 
 1,167,095 
 
 1877 
 
 3,053,724 
 
 1,481,639 
 
 1888 
 
 3,039,100 
 
 1,387,271 
 
 The quantity of wine taken for consumption in tiie United 
 Kinsfdom has been as follows : — 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Per Head 
 of Population. 
 
 
 
 1845 
 
 6,736,131 
 
 0-24 
 
 
 
 1850 
 
 6,437,222 
 
 0-23 
 
 
 
 1855 
 
 6,296,439 
 
 0-23 
 
 
 
 1860 
 
 7,358,192 
 
 0-23 
 
 
 
 1865 
 
 11,993,760 
 
 0-40 
 
 
 1870 
 
 15,079,854 
 
 0-49 
 
 
 
 1875 
 
 17,243,942 
 
 0-53 
 
 
 
 1880 
 
 15,750,828 
 
 0-45 
 
 
 
 1885 
 
 13,767,928 
 
 0-38 
 
 
 
 1888 
 
 13; 500, 109 
 
 0.35 
 
 
 The following figures show the exports of wine from some of 
 the principal producing countries : — 
 
 France, 1886 2 , 601 , 565 hectolitres. 
 
 Spain, 1886 7,639,980 
 
 Portugal, 1886 1,963,121 
 
 Italy, 1886 2,331,000 
 
 Austro-Hungary, 1886 .. .. 1,597,382 cwts. 
 
 The following shows the acreage under vines in different 
 countries in Europe : — 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Hungary 
 Austria proper 
 Italy .. .. 
 France .. '.. 
 Germany 
 
 1886 
 1885 
 1886 
 1886 
 1886 
 
 Acreage. 
 
 897,998 
 
 533,888 
 
 4,759,275 
 
 4,7)7,649 
 
 297,143 
 
 Produce. 
 
 galls. 
 
 86,520,610 
 
 88,018,700 
 
 782,427,800 
 
 668,497,148 
 
 33,067,584 
 
 France. — The vineyards of France form a very important part of 
 the agriculture of the country. The vine is cultivated in the 
 
430 FEDITS OF COMMERCE. 
 
 soutli, in Burgundy, and the borders of the Moselle and Garonne 
 The vine covered, in the close of the eighteenth century, an are 
 of a little more than 1,600,000 hectares, now it extends ove 
 ahoTit 2,500,000, very iineq-ually distributed in geventy-sevei 
 departments. 
 
 Every year above 5,000,000 kilogs. of grapes enter Paris 
 bringing to the municipality a revenue of 300,000 francs, arising 
 from the octroi duty at 5-75 francs per kilog. 
 
 The vine occupied in France, in 1871, an area of 6,043,000 acres 
 or more than 4^ per cent, of the total surface of the country. Thi 
 production of "wine was 59,025,680 hectolitres, roughly valued a 
 £62,000,000. The average produce per hectare was 24-42 hecto 
 litres, and the mean price 26-27 francs. The average return pe- 
 hectare being 642 - 42 francs. The departments where the produc 
 tion of wine was largest were : — 
 
 Hectolitres. 
 
 Herault 9,581,000 
 
 Charente Inferieure .. .^ 5,255,000 
 
 Gironde , -^y^i^ V .. .. 3,689,000 
 
 Var / ^ .. .^i .. .. 3,323,000 
 
 Charep 2,833,000 
 
 Ar-^- 2,583,000 
 
 2,341,000 
 
 1,799,000 
 
 1,566,000 
 
 ;. 1,256,000 
 
 • .. .. 1,247,000 
 
 ~V. 1,209,000 
 
 Lot. j.a,roiuie 1,104,000 
 
 Saone et Loire 1,025,000 
 
 Ar 
 
 r 
 
 These fourteen departments, of which the first eight are situatec 
 in the south, furnish of themselves 66 per cent, of the total produce 
 
 Taking the value of the yield, the departments do not stand ii 
 the same order. For instance, the most productive are (reckoning 
 in millions of francs) the following : 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Herault 198,000,000 
 
 Gironde 166,000,000 
 
 Charente Infe'rieure 105,000,000 
 
 Charente 57,000,000 
 
 Var 56,000,000 
 
 Indreet Loire 47,000,000 
 
 Gers 46,000,000 
 
 Lot et Garonne 44,000,000 
 
 Cote-d'Or 43,000,000 
 
 Saone et Loire 41,000,000 
 
 G-ard 32,000,000 
 
 The vine has barely maintained its production in the vineyard 
 which produce the choice wines, but in other localities where i 
 has been largely manured and more productive vines have beei 
 substituted for those which bear less fruit, they now obtain doubl 
 the quantity of grapes yielded thirty years ago. 
 
 The vine is trained in a hundred different ways in France. I 
 is generally propped or supported in Burgundy, Champagne 
 
VINE CULTUBE AND THE GEAPE. 
 
 431 
 
 Lorraine, Orleans, Macon, Touraine, and Berry. Most ordinarily 
 it is cultivated on trellises, more or less elevated, in Bordelais, the 
 Dauphine, and the county of Nice. It has no support in Lower 
 Languedoc, Provence, Saintonge, and Annis, and the culture is 
 called the low vine system. 
 
 Those which grow on the slopes of mountains, or in localities 
 where the temperature is not very favourable to the ripening of 
 the fruit, are supported by maples, walnuts, and willows. 
 
 The vines which furnish the choice wines do not yield more 
 than from 15 or 20 hectolitres of wine per acre. The average all 
 round is only about 1 6 hectolitres. 
 
 The price of wine has largely increased, as will be seen by the 
 following average per hectolitre. 
 
 1851 
 1861 
 
 1871 
 
 Francs. 
 10-00 
 29-00 
 29-00 
 
 1881 
 1886 
 
 Francs. 
 40-26 
 40-29 
 
 The total production of wine in France, according to 
 statistics of the Minister of Finance, has been as follows : — 
 
 the 
 
 Hectolitres 
 (22 galls.). 
 
 1860 39,558,000 
 
 1865 68,943,000 
 
 1870 53,537,000 
 
 Hectolitres 
 (22 galls.). 
 
 1875 78,202,000 
 
 1880 33,916,000 
 
 1885 31,481,000 
 
 If we take other decennial periods for comparison we find thai 
 the production in hectolitres was in : — 
 
 Hectolitres. 
 
 1852 38,060,000 
 
 1862 48,630,130 
 
 Hectolitres. 
 
 1872 5i, 920, 181 
 
 1882 38,825,000 
 
 Algeria. — In 1875 there were 12,182 hectares under culture with 
 the vine in Algeria by Europeans. Now there are 90,000 hectares, 
 and the produce in 1888 was 3,000,000 hectolitres. The natives 
 are also increasing their culture, and have many thousand hectares 
 under culture with vines. The exports of wine in 1887 were 
 793,305 hectolitres. 
 
 United States. — The geographical distribution of the indigenous 
 or wild vines of North America extends over four different botanical 
 regions. 
 
 1. The northern region, embracing all the States north of the 
 38th parallel. 
 
 2. Those of the Southern States, Carolina, Georgia, Florida, 
 Alabama, &o. 
 
 3. Those of the south-west, including Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, 
 and the eastern part of New Mexico. 
 
 4. California, Sonoma, and western New Mexico. 
 
 Besides these, European varieties have been introduced and accli- 
 matized in the valleys of New Mexico and California. 
 
 The wild or indigenous American vines are the Souppernong, 
 Vitis cBstivalis, V. punctata, and V. cordifoUa. 
 
 Those cultivated are the Catawba in the districts of Columbia 
 
432 FfiUiTS OF COMMERCE. 
 
 and Boston, tlie Clinton, Henstaw, Isabella, Hartford prolific, 
 Bartlett, amber, Labrusca, and Scuppernong. 
 
 The Hensbaw and Scuppernong contain only about 8 per cent, of 
 ■sugar in the pound weight, while the others range from 10 to 11^ per 
 cent. The Clinton and Catawba contain the most sugar and alcohol. 
 
 The production of wine in the United States has been steadily- 
 increasing. The cultivation of grapes for vintage in America has 
 increased to enormous proportions. In California, Missouri, Ohio, 
 Pennsylvania, and Michigan the industry is considered very re- 
 munerative. 
 
 Within a radius of 25 miles of Cincinnati it is computed that 
 there are 2500 acres of ground devoted to the culture of grapes. 
 In favourable seasons the average of wine per acre is 200 gallons, 
 equal to 500,000 gallons as the whole crop for the section described ; 
 worth, fresh from the press, ^500,000. 
 
 The Catawba grape, an indigenous variety, is now extensively 
 cultivated in the west and south-west, and the Catawba wine bids 
 fair to become an important article of commerce. The grape 
 culture has spread, along both banks of the Ohio, to Pittsburg 
 and Cairo, and in a southerly direction through Kentucky and 
 Tennessee to Alabama, and westerly into Missouri. 
 
 On the Ohio an acre yields on an average 500 gallons of 
 wine, an immense yield, compared with the average of Trance. 
 The wine growers of Ohio are mainly Germans and their 
 descendants. 
 
 California. — The growth of vines in California is increasing very 
 rapidly, and proper attention is being paid to the selection of sorts 
 suitable to the soil. There are upwards of 31,000,000 vines. The 
 County of Los Angeles has 4,500,000 vines, producing annually 
 1,600,000 gallons of wine. The produce of an acre is 12,000 lbs. of 
 grapes, worth 5c?. per lb. The kinds grown are the Mission grape, 
 the White Muscat, the Tokay Blassien, the Eose, the Peruvian, and 
 the Black Morocco. Up to within a few years the production of 
 wine was confined to the " Mission grape," a variety introduced by 
 the Spanish missionaries nearly a century ago. This grape makes a 
 coarse, rough wine, varying in some degree according to the soil, 
 but always inferior to that made from the vines imported from 
 Germany, Prance, and southern Europe. Wines assimilating to 
 the Hock, Muscatel, and Burgundy of Europe are now manufactured 
 in Sonoma, Solano, and Napa counties in considerable quantities, 
 and where the reqiiisite attention has been paid to their manufac- 
 ture, and they have been kept two or three years before being 
 offered in the market, the quality is excellent, and cannot fail to 
 create a demand for them in the eastern States and England. The 
 southern grape is more particularly suited to the manufacture of 
 wines resembling Port and Angelica, and the latter is decidedly a 
 eupejior article. Port is made here from very ripe grapes, those 
 that hang on the vines until after the first frosts. The foot hills 
 are particularly adapted to the cultivation of the vine, and in a 
 few years the value of the wine exports may approximate to that of 
 their grain. 
 
VINE CULTURE AND THE GRAPE. 433 
 
 The vineyard proprietors have begun to introduce Frencli and 
 Germans, in order to improve the quality of their wines. 
 
 There are more than 100,000 acres under vine. The State has 
 vinicultural land enough to make as much wine as France, 
 Germany, Hungary, and Spain combined could produce ; and there 
 is no shadow of doubt among those who have given the subject 
 the closest study, that California will in some future time out- rank 
 every other wine-growing region in the world. The foot hills of this 
 State, which are held at one-tenth the price of land in France, 
 have a vast productive capacity, and seldom fail to produce a good 
 crop. 
 
 In the early days of California wine-making it was supposed that 
 in order to make a good wine, grapes had to be over-ripe ; hence 
 the wines contained too much alcohol, and were too heavy for con- 
 stant use. Of late there has been much improvement in this 
 respect, which has been brought about by the introduction of 
 European vines, having less saccharine and more acidity than 
 the Oalifornian grape. Producers have also learned that it is 
 better to pluck the grapes before they are fully ripe than to await 
 over-ripening. 
 
 Jn the vicinity of Coloma and the portion of El Dorado county 
 sheltered by the grand old mountains, nestling by the river, 
 overgrown with verdure, are more than two score vineyards, with 
 hundreds of acres of bearing vines. No disease has ever been known 
 among vines in this region, except perhaps a little mildew, but the 
 frost and other meteorological influences sometimes injure crops. 
 
 The culture of the raisin-grape in California has attained con- 
 siderable dimensions. Ten years ago the Califomian raisin was 
 unknown, but in 1887 the production was close upon 10,000 tons, 
 and this immense production will have to be six times as large 
 before the demand for the eastern States of the Union alone can 
 be met. The price averaged by the Califomian producer for this 
 kind of fruit in the dryer is 2^d. per lb., which gives to the raisin- 
 growers of the State a total of £200,000. The average raisin vine- 
 yards of Fresno, San Bernardino, and Los Angeles are not more 
 than 20 acres in extent. From these 20-aore blocks, with the 
 vines from four years old and upwards, the net amount per acre is 
 from £15 to £50. 
 
 Mexico. — Vine culture and wine manufacture, although pro- 
 secuted on but a small scale, have been very successful, especially in 
 the northern sections of Mexico. In many of the mountains of the 
 Sierra Madre, vines grow abundantly, and show to what degree of 
 prosperity this industry may reach when the producer can iind his 
 way to foreign markets. 
 
 Brazil. — The vine has been cultivated successfully of late in the 
 provinces of Sao Paulo, Eio Grande do Sul, and also in certain 
 portions of Eio de Janeiro, and Minas GerSes. In many places 
 1000 vines would yield 10 pipes, or 4000 litres. The American vine 
 commands a preference. The wines made are all consumed locally. 
 
 In many of the British colonies the culture of the vine has 
 occupied a fair share of attention, particularly in Australia and 
 
 2 p 
 
434 
 
 FKUITS OP COMMERCE. 
 
 the Cape of Good Hope, but there are many others in which it 
 might be profitably extended. A pure unadulterated wine can be 
 supplied from the Australian colonies, not only equal, but superior 
 to the wines now in general consumption, imported into this 
 country from the continent of Europe. 
 
 Our colonies may before many years become important purveyors 
 to us of the pure juice of the grape. Hitherto they have contri- 
 buted little or nothing to our supplies, but many of them have 
 all the requisites of experience, soil, and climate, and, under 
 encouraging circumstances, will send us hereafter considerable 
 quantities. 
 
 Ths Cape Colony. — When we look back and see that in former 
 years up to 1859 the Cape colonists could ship 1,000,000 gallons 
 of wine, it seems strange to find how this colonial industry has 
 retrograded. In 1855 there were about 12,000 acres under culture 
 with the vine in the western district of the Cape Colony, and the 
 produce was 34,221 pipes of wine and 4496 pipes of brandy. Yines 
 covered 20,000 acres in 1880, and the number of vines in the 
 colony now exceeds 70,000,000. 
 
 The productive power of the vineyards here greatly exceeds 
 that of any other vinicultural country in the world, the yield 
 being 86 J hectolitres per hectare on the coast districts, and 173 
 hectolitres per hectare in the inland districts. In no country in 
 the world can there be raised even half as much wine from the 
 same area as at the Cape. 
 
 The following show the exports of ordinary Cape wines and 
 their value : — 
 
 Year. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Value £. 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Value £. 
 
 1881 
 1882 
 1883 
 
 48,770 
 
 44,088 
 
 115,499 
 
 10,299 
 21,474 
 
 1884 
 1885 
 1886 
 
 89,981 
 
 83,754 
 
 125,258 
 
 15,922 
 14,558 
 21,593 
 
 Of Constantia the exports are about 6000 to 8000 gallons. 
 
 The Cape wines, with a few exceptions, have in common a dis- 
 agreeable and alcoholic taste ; they are usually mixed with so 
 much brandy that they cease to be wines, and become liqueurs. 
 About 4000 gallons of brandy are made yearly. 
 
 Australia. — If there is one fruit more than another which luxu- 
 riates in the sunny clime of Australia it is the grape. According 
 to the statistics of 1886 there were about 23,000 acres under 
 culture there with the vine, distributed as follows : — 
 
 Victoria 10,310 
 
 New South Wales 5,840 
 
 Queensland 1 517 
 
 South Australia 4 590 
 
 Western Australia 649 
 
 Total 22,906 
 
VINE CULTUEE AND THE SEAPE. 435 
 
 The wine produced by these was, in Victoria, 1,000,000 gallons; 
 New South Wales, 666,000 gallons; South Australia, 500,000 
 gallons; Queensland, 150,000; and Western Australia, 100,000. 
 This is exclusive of the brandy distilled and the table grapes 
 sold. 
 
 Almost all the wine is consumed in the colony where it is 
 made. The local consumption of European wines shows little 
 diminution. 
 
 Australia may now be regarded as one of the wine-producing 
 countries of the world. 
 
 Australia possesses fourteen indigenous species of Vitis, but 
 most of them appear on the north coast of Queensland, but there 
 are six kinds in New South Wales, amongst them Vitis antarctica. 
 The wild vine of California, V. Galifomiea, has been introduced 
 into New Zealand and Australia ; , it is said to be phylloxera 
 proof, from being so robust, and is being tried for grafting stock. 
 It also makes a palatable wine, destined in the future to make the 
 claret of California famous. It produces tannin and tartaric 
 potash, has no striking aroma, is sufficiently neutral, and has no 
 disagreeable taste whatever. 
 
 There is little wine made in New Zealand at present ; only the 
 North Island is adapted for the growth of the grape, and its 
 culture has not become a settled industry. In Western Australia 
 there are about 650 acres under vineyards. 
 
 Although at present wine can scarcely become an article of 
 much export from Australia, it is interesting to watch the progress 
 of the cultivation and to observe the rapid development of the 
 vine. It was remarked in the Jury Eeports of the London Ex- 
 hibition in 1862 that with care and time there is every prospect 
 of these colonies becoming the great wine-growing countries of 
 that part of the world. Since that opinion was enunciated, 
 remarkable progress has been made, and the quality of Australian 
 wines received high favour at the Dublin Exhibition of 1865 ; 
 those of Paris, 1867 and 1878 ; Vienna, 1873 ; and London, 1873 
 and 1886. There is, as might be expected in dealing with an 
 area almost continental, and considering the numerous varieties 
 of the vine that have been introduced trom all parts of Europe, 
 an infinite difference in the produce. We there find wines of the 
 character of the G-erman wines, others resembling the French 
 wines, whilst some have the substance and body of the wines of 
 Spain. It was at one time considered that Australian wines would 
 not keep well, but the question has now been settled in the 
 affirmative, for their natural strength is such that they require no 
 fortifying. The raisins dried in some of the Australian colonies 
 are unsurpassed for size and flavour, and the same may be said of 
 currants. 
 
 As many vineyards will yield three tons of grapes to the acre, 
 it can be readily seen that vine growing is a really profitable in- 
 vestment. On comparison of the various figures it will be found 
 that the colony of Victoria far outstrips the older colony of New 
 South Wales, which was the first to commence the culture of the 
 
436 PEDITS OF COMMERCE. 
 
 vine. South Australia stands third in position as the fosterer of 
 the vine and wine-making, as the undermentioned figures show : — 
 
 Acres under 
 Vine. 
 
 1850 282 
 
 1860 3,180 
 
 Acres under 
 Vine. 
 
 1865 6,364 
 
 1886 4,590 
 
 hut within the last two years many new vineyards have been 
 planted, and she will soon reassume her position as the second 
 largest producer of wine. 
 
 In South Australia Nature herself is opposed to the production 
 of high bouquet wines ; there she demands consideration for body, 
 sweetness, spirit, and other high qualities of generous wines. 
 The Eiesling and Verdeilho, when not tortured, yield wines second 
 only to the Bucellas of Lisbon, and the sweeter kinds of Madeira, 
 while the Donzellinha, the Black Portugal, the Shiraz, Mataro, 
 and Grenache yield wines of the' character of good port, such as 
 it is known in Portugal, the strongest of Hermitage, and that 
 peculiar produce known as EoussSlon. The produce of the 
 Australian vineyards may vie with those of the most favoured 
 countries of southern Europe. The local consumption of colonial 
 wines increases year by year. The price is yet too high to enable 
 Australian wines to come into general consumption in England ; 
 but, if the rapid progress of production continues, there will soon 
 be a large surplus to export to other countries. 
 
 If as much well-directed care and attention were bestowed on 
 studying the true nature and capabilities of the must, as seems ta 
 have been expended on striving to force it to yield wines of a 
 French or German character, the produce of South Australia would 
 ere now have acquired even a better name than it enjoys. 
 
 In South Australia the production of Zante currants, and Sultana 
 and other raisins, is satisfactorily progressing, and many of the 
 growers are grafting their inferior vines with these valuable 
 varieties. The first sample of South Australian grown Zante 
 currants sent to Melbourne were pronounced of better quality than 
 those imported from Europe ; and, when we bear in mind the fact 
 that more than £120,000 of dried fruit is annually imported into 
 the Australian colonies, a large opening presents itself for the 
 development of this industry. 
 
 New South Wales. — The introduction of the vine into Australia 
 is due to the efforts of the late Sir W. Macarthur, who in 1840 
 received cuttings from Europe and planted them on his estate at 
 Camden Park, about forty miles from Sydney. 
 
 In 1872 the number of acres of vineyards amounted to 2466, 
 and of these 1084 acres of vines were as yet unproductive. There 
 were made 413,321 gallons of wine, 1765 gallons of brandy, and 
 508 tons of grapes were sold for table fruit, from vineyards ex- 
 ceeding one acre in extent. 
 
 In 1888 669,988 gallons of wine and brandy were made, valued 
 at £134,000. 
 
 New South Wales contains millions of acres of soil admirably 
 
VINE CULTURE AND THE GEAPE. 437 
 
 adapted for the growth of the grape, of which nearly every 
 European variety is rooted in the colony, and the produce of her 
 vineyards compares well with those of the countries of southern 
 Europe. The wines of the Albnry district, on the Murray, are 
 famous throughout Australia, and the produce of the Hunter Eiver 
 and New England country has been awarded many medals at the 
 great International Exhibitions of London and Paris. All through 
 the coast districts the grape flourishes, and generously rewards the 
 grower. It is to be found in nearly every garden, and, as an 
 article of diet, it is within the reach of the poorest in the land. 
 The consumption of colonial wine increases year by year, and it is 
 thought that the wines of New South Wales, as well as those of 
 the other neighbouring colonies, will compete successfully with the 
 light wines of France in the English market. Wine-growing is a 
 very profitable branch of agriculture in the colony, and may 
 reasonably be expected, with the growth of population to be more 
 so. It does not confine its rewards to the large capitalist, but will 
 ■amply remunerate the man of small means who has the requisite 
 skill and industry to enter upon it. One man can attend to eight 
 or ten acres of vineyard by obtaining occasional assistance, and, if 
 ha have any mechanical ability, he can, as many of the small 
 growers, who are chiefly Germans, now do, make most of his plant 
 himself. Should he have to buy the plant, he will need a capital 
 of from £50 to £100. A handy man who could do his own cooper- 
 ing would require less. A small grower could not reckon on more 
 than 200 to 300 gallons of wine per acre. The largest manufacturer 
 in the Hunter Eiver district has, in favourable seasons, and from 
 certain kinds of grapes, obtained 500 gallons per acre ; but his 
 average yield would not be more than from 200 to 300 gallons. 
 Much depends upon the soil and the variety of grape. Five 
 hundred gallons must be considered an exceptional yield. At 
 250 gallons to the acre, and Is. per gallon for his wine-juice, the 
 vigneron would get £12 10«. per acre, and 100 acres of vineyard 
 would yield £1250 a year, leaving ample margin for casualties. 
 The labour in a vineyard may be reduced to a small percentage on 
 the produce by planting in such a manner that it can be ploughed 
 in various directions, and by using suitable implements. 
 
 At Wagga Wagga, 309 miles from Sydney, there are some large 
 vineyards, from which about 7000 gallons of wine are annually 
 produced. At Albury, 386 miles from Sydney, there are 450 acres 
 of vineyard, producing 100,540 gallons of wine, 100 gallons of 
 brandy, and many tons of grapes for table use. In 1883 the vine- 
 yards cf the district of Penrith produced 16,000 gallons of wine 
 and over 34 tons of grapes for table use. At Windsor, about the 
 same distance from Sydney (34 miles), the annual produce of the 
 orangeries exceeds 600,000 dozen. At Mudgee 6200 gallons of wine 
 are made, and 77 cwts. of table grapes and other fruit produced. 
 
 Victoria. — Following in the wake of New South Wales, and 
 from cuttings obtained from Sir W. Macarthur's vineyards at 
 Camden, the vine was introduced into Geelong, and, as early as 
 the year 1851, the Hon. D. Hope had fair vineyards there in full 
 
438 FRUITS OF COMMERCE. 
 
 tearmg, and producing a drinkable wine. The year 1855 siiDwed 
 274 acres under culture in Victoria, producing 11,000 gallons of 
 ■wine. Now there are over 11,000 acres under vines and upwards 
 of 1,000,000 gallons of wine are made. 
 
 Great efforts have been made to improve the quality of _th& 
 Victorian wines by better methods of manufacture and judicious 
 blending ; skilled vignerons have also been introduced from Spain, 
 France, and Germany. Victorian wines are now not only exten- 
 sively used in Australia, but are being largely sought after in the 
 United Kingdom, the continent of Europe, and British India. A 
 large display of Australian wines was made at the Paris Inter- 
 national Exhibition of 1889, and both Victoria and South Australia 
 had tasting-bars, where wines were offered to the public. Viti- 
 culture has been most profitable to those who have undertaken it 
 in Australia, and it is believed a great future awaits this 
 industry. 
 
 In 1888, there was produced in the colony 1,167,874 gallons of 
 wine valued at 4s. a gallon, and 3352 gallons of brandy at 10«. a 
 gallon. The latter is chiefly used for fortifying the wine ; 42,38^ 
 cwts. of grapes were sold as table-fruit at £1 a cwt. The wine 
 made in Victoria, added to that exported, amounts on the average 
 to rather over a gallon per head annually. 
 
 Queensland. — There is a fair quantity of wine made in this, 
 colony, some of which is very good after having the advantage of 
 a year or two in bottle. It is almost all consumed in the neigh- 
 bourhood where it is produced, and vine-growers mostly look for 
 profit to the sale of the fruit. From the great range of soil and 
 climate, it may confidently be anticipated that some of the districts 
 will yet acquire a reputation beyond the colony for their vintages. 
 
 Tasmania. — Many years ago vineyards were established in Tas- 
 mania under vignerons brought out especially from Europe, and 
 wine — good wine, too — was made. But the industry did not then 
 take root, and it was only revived, not upon the mainland, but on 
 Maria Island, off the east coast, about 1885. The vines have 
 >ucceeded there, and wine in small quantity, of considerable merit, 
 was made there for the first time in 1888. 
 
 _ Cyprus. — This island has been celebrated from the most ancient 
 times for the superior quality of its grapes. The wines produced 
 may be classified under two distinct qualities — "sweet" and 
 " common." In the preparation of the sweet wines, the grapes, 
 after being gathered, are exposed during several days to the action 
 of the sun before being pressed, which develops the saccharine 
 matter contained in them. In the preparation of the common, wine, 
 the grapes are pressed immediately after being gathered from the 
 vine. 
 
 The Cyprus grapes are of exceptionally good quality, and very 
 moderate in price. Their culture is yearly increasing, and more 
 care is being devoted to the preparations of the wines produced.. 
 The export of wine in 1884 was about 1,500,000 gallons, of which 
 fully two-thirds went to Egypt and Turkey. The Cyprus common 
 wines are reported to be rich in colour and fuU in body, qualities 
 
VINE C0LTURE AND THE GRAPE. 439 
 
 ■which, comhined with cheapness, render them especially nseful for 
 mixing. The wines known as Commanderia have always enjoyed 
 a high reputation on the Continent when old. 
 
 The common wines are for the most part exported to Syria, 
 ^gypt> Turkey, and Trieste, hut both the common and the richer 
 vsanes are exported to Austria, Italy, and France, to be used in 
 giving strength and flavour to the fruit of poor vineyards. Cyprus 
 wine is somewhat heavy for ordinary use, and its value in com- 
 merce has been lessened by the flavour it derives from the practice 
 of carrying it to port in tarred skins. Until recent years the 
 wines were all prepared in jars, which, to make them resist during 
 the process of fermentation, were also besmeared with tar. Wooden 
 casks are now being extensively used instead of besmeared jars, 
 and the wines are thereby made more marketable. 
 
 Dried Fruit — Eaisins and Currants. — The small kind of grape 
 which produces the dried currants of commerce is grown almost 
 exclusively on an extensive scale in Greece and the Ionian Islands, 
 with a small quantity in Turkey. Oephalonia and Zante are the 
 islands where the cultivation is principally carried on. 
 
 Propagation is effected by long cuttings buried nearly a yard 
 where the soil is sufficiently deep, or in shallow soil they are laid 
 in horizontally for about 2 feet and then turned up. The 
 cuttings are supposed to root at every joint, and the depth to 
 which they are inserted is for the purpose of reaching the moist 
 subsoil in times of drought. Propagation is also carried on by 
 grafting on other varieties of the vine. 
 
 The vines are planted in rows about 6 feet apart, a single 
 shoot being trained vertically to a temporary stake about 3 feet 
 high; this ultimately forms the permanent stock, and in a few 
 years becomes sufficiently strong to be self-supporting. From 
 its summit the young wood, consisting of six or seven shoots, 
 radiates, and each of these is headed in between December and 
 February to four or five eyes, so that the stock has about thirty 
 fruit-bearing points, producing collectively from fifty to ninety 
 bunches. 
 
 The new growth radiates umbrella-fashion from the summit of 
 the stock to the ground, and the only training required by this 
 method of culture is the insertion of an occasional prop or support 
 under the heavier fruit-bearing shoots. 
 
 It is in the plains which environ the Gulf of Smyrna that the 
 grapes are cultivated, which, in the shape of raisins, form so im- 
 portant a branch of the commerce of the country. Besides the 
 currant there are three kinds cultivated — the red with large seeds, 
 the large black grapes with small seeds, and the sultanas or seed- 
 less grapes. Neither the Patras currant nor the Sultana raisin 
 appear to be intrinsically very distinct from numberless other 
 varieties of small grapes ; their special seedless character, which is 
 correlative with the diminished size of the berry, may have origi- 
 nally been due to local circumstances of soil and climate, producing 
 partially abortive blossoms and the absence of seed. 
 
440 
 
 FEUITS OF COMMEECE. 
 
 The geographical range of the successful culture of the currant 
 Yine is very limited. Patras is the metropolis, and smaller 
 quantities are grown in the Southern Ionian Isles. 
 
 In Sicily raisins and currants are chiefly the produce of the 
 islands of Patelsaria and Lipari. The black grapes or raisins of 
 Smyrna are exported chiefly to France for wine-making and dis- 
 tillation; the red and Sultanas are for the table, and fetch a much 
 higher price than the black. 
 
 Smyrna raisins are of four qualities. The best are grown on 
 the peninsula of Carabournou, at the entrance to the Gulf of 
 Smyrna ; the second quality at Vourlah within the gulf, and at 
 Phokes, just outside it ; the third at Chesme, on the coast opposite 
 to Scio ; the fourth, called Yerlis, in the neighbourhood of Smyrna, 
 and inland. Between the value of the first and last qualities there 
 is a difference of from 50 to 60 per cent. Currants are grown 
 only at Phokes. 
 
 These several descriptions of raisins appear in the market in an 
 inverse order to their quality. The Yerlis come first at the end of 
 July, those from Vourlah, Phokes, and Chesme arrive about the 
 middle of September, the Carabournou not till the end of Septem- 
 ber or beginning of October. 
 
 An acre contains about 2000 vines, and the produce of dry 
 sultanas varies from 7 cwt. up to 30 cwt. per acre, in some cases 
 rather more. This and many other sorts of Turkey fruit are cured 
 in the sun, a slight sprinkling of oil being employed to prevent 
 the too great evaporation of the moisture, and also to give the 
 fruit, when packed and shipped, a better chance of preservation. 
 
 Muscatels or table raisins from Malaga are an article of large 
 use, and have a more extensive range of quality than any other 
 fruit. They are known as layers, bunch, and loose, the last 
 description being, as the word implies, picked off the stalk. 
 
 Export of Eaisins from Spain in Kilos. 
 
 1877 37,756,000 
 
 1878 43,017,000 
 
 1879 32,527,000 
 
 1880 28,964,000 
 
 1881 36,154,000 
 
 1882 41,779,000 
 
 1883 35,897,000 
 
 1884 30,158,000 
 
 1885 33,226,000 
 
 1886 38,646,000 
 
 Imports of Cceeants and Eaisins into the United Kingdom in Cwts. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Currants. 
 
 Kaisins. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Currants. 
 
 Eaisins. 
 
 1877 
 
 1,349,965 
 
 635,758 
 
 1883 
 
 1,026,584 
 
 588,309 
 
 1878 
 
 1,087,266 
 
 450,329 
 
 1884 
 
 1,202,844 
 
 511,870 
 
 1879 
 
 1,148,512 
 
 585,538 
 
 1885 
 
 1,128,383 
 
 591,234 
 
 1880 
 
 820,146 
 
 395,290 
 
 1886 
 
 843,425 
 
 505,383 
 
 1881 
 
 1,189,830 
 
 568,606 
 
 1887 
 
 1,097,001 
 
 654,637 
 
 1882 
 
 1,012,102 
 
 548,911 
 
 1888 
 
 1,020,380 
 
 590,000 
 
 Nearly all these imports are taken for home consumption ; the 
 aggregate value of these dried fruits reaches £2,400,000. 
 
PRODUCTS OF THE ORANGE FAMILY. 
 
 441 
 
 PEODUCTS OF THE OEANGE FAMILY. 
 
 Next to the vine in commercial importance for its fruit comes 
 tlie Orange family. Although not exclusively a tropical fruit, the 
 orange is found and flourishes throughout the eastern and western 
 tropics. The latitude tinder which it is grown in Europe, Spain, 
 Portugal, Sicily, and Malta, is chiefly between 36° and 40° ; also in 
 New Zealand, New South Wales, and in Florida it grows between 
 25° and 30°. For the production of oranges all the countries 
 coming within the tropical and subtropical zones are well adapted. 
 They abound in the East and West Indies and Pacific Islands. 
 
 Formerly proximity to this country was an essential in the 
 production of the orange and lemon for commercial purposes, and 
 hence we derived our supplies almost exclusively from Spain and 
 Portugal ; but the facilities afforded by steamers now enable us to 
 obtain oranges and lemons in a good conditioB^om more distant 
 quarters. They now reach us from Malta and Sicily, West Africa, 
 Brazil, the West India islands, and the Azores. 
 
 The following figures give the imports of oranges and lemons 
 into the United Kingdom : — 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 
 
 bushels. 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 1865 
 
 1,566,745 
 
 
 
 
 1875 
 
 2,861,719 
 
 1,386,247 
 
 
 
 1880 
 
 3,658,799 
 
 1,463,019 
 
 
 
 1885 
 
 4,356,739 
 
 1,481,010 
 
 
 
 1886 
 
 4,371,405 
 
 1,480,708 
 
 
 
 1887 
 
 4,857,414 
 
 1,560,116 
 
 
 
 1888 
 
 4,879,995 
 
 1,464,640 
 
 
 The imports for 1886 were drawn from the following coun- 
 tries : — 
 
 Portugal 
 Azores . . 
 Spain . . 
 Italy .. .. 
 Other countries 
 
 Total 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 bushels. 
 114,999 
 133,290 
 3,347,157 
 631,947 
 144,012 
 
 4,371,405 
 
 Value. 
 
 £ 
 
 46,759 
 
 43,521 
 
 1,108,410 
 
 228,208 
 
 53,810 
 
 1,480,708 
 
 The Spanish and Azores oranges are considered the best. Prices 
 fluctuate a good deal, according to supply and demand. 
 
 The Orange, in the widest sense of the term (Citrus aurantium, 
 Lin.), is a native of Southern Asia. It is a tree of great longevity, 
 having been known to attain an age of 600 years and more. Any 
 
442 FEUITS OF COMMERCE. 
 
 specific differences to distinguish G. aurantium from C. medica, if 
 they ever existed, are obliterated now through hybridization, at 
 least in the cultivated forms. 
 
 Pour varieties of citroiis are described which are cultivated in 
 Sicily, and fourteen varieties of the orange, and there are several 
 kinds of lemons and limes both with sweet and sour juice. 
 
 The limit of the culture of the orange is almost about the same 
 as the olive, except that, according to Schouw, it extends a little 
 farther to the north. It crosses the northern part of Spain, the 
 extreme south of Provence, traverses Italy a little above Florence, 
 descends nearly to Greece, and, passing by the Isle of Cyprus, 
 enters Asia. In Prance the limit traversed is the country where 
 the mean temperature is 14°, the spring temperature 12°' 5, the 
 summer temperature about 21°, and the autumn temperature 14°. 
 
 The orange, lemon, lime, citron, shaddock, and forbidden fruit, 
 all belong to one genus, the Citrus of Linneeus. According to 
 Lindley, there are fifteen distinct species, with a few varieties ; 
 Steudel* enumerates, however, twenty-five, besides numberless 
 varieties. They are thought to be natives of the East, where 
 they are found growing wild, and are not considered to be in- 
 digenous to America, although one native species is attributed to 
 French Guiana. Six or seven of the choicest species are natives 
 of China and Japan, and the rest of India, and other parts of 
 Asia. 
 
 Eisso, of Nice, in his large work, enumerates forty-three species 
 and varieties of the sweet orange, thirty-two of the bitter and 
 sour, five of bergamots, eight of limes, six of shaddocks, forty-six 
 of lemons, and seventeen of citrons. 
 
 In Central India a peculiar variety of Citrus aurantium is under 
 culture, producing two crops a year. The blossoms of February 
 and March yield their ripe fruit in November and December, 
 whereas from the flowers of July mature fruits are obtained in 
 March and April. To prevent exhaustion, only alternate fruiting 
 is allowed. 
 
 As a prominent variety of Citrus aurantium may be distinguished 
 the bitter orange (C. higaradia, Loisl.). This furnishes from its 
 flowers the Neroli oil, so delicious and costly as a scent. The 
 French are endeavouring to promote the manufacture of the 
 essential oils of lemon and orange in their inter-tropical colonies, 
 Guiana, Tahiti, and Martinique. The French settlements in the 
 Pacific send millions of oranges to California, although 5,000,000 
 or 6,000,000 are produced there. The annual requirements of the 
 San Francisco market are over 12,000,000, of which 6,000,000 are 
 imported from Tahiti and Mexico. A part of the crop is made 
 into an excellent spirit, and the rest are wasted. In Martinique 
 many houses make large quantities of orange wine, which finds a 
 ready sale in Turkey and Eussia. The oranges employed for 
 these diverse uses might be first made to yield their essential oil 
 from the rind. Oil of oranges sells at about 7s. per lb., and oil of 
 
 * ' Nomenolatur Botanionm.' 
 
PEODrCTS OF THE ORANGE FAMILY. 443 
 
 citron or bergamot at 10«. to 2os. per lb. These high prices are 
 likely to stimulate an industry which has hitherto been monopo- 
 lized by Sicily. It is stated that orange flowers to the value of 
 £50 might be gathered from the plants on an acre within a year. 
 The rind of the fruit is used for candied lemon peel. It contains 
 a bitter principle, hesperidin, and limonin, in the seed. 
 
 Of the sweet orange (C dulcis, Volkamur), many kinds occur. 
 The St. Michael's orange has been known to bear in the Azores, 
 in sheltered places, 20,000 fruit on one tree in a year. Neroli oil 
 is also obtained from the flowers of this and allied varieties. An 
 infusion of the leaves of the orange, in the form of tea, is con- 
 sidered efficacious in fevers ; and when amalgamated with the 
 flowers, it acts as a stimulant, and is given as a tincture when its 
 effects are required to be energetic. The seeds contain a fixed oil, 
 of an amber colour, which is highly valued for reducing swellings, 
 and as an excellent oil for the hair. It may also be used for the 
 table. From the flowers an odoriferous perfume is extracted, and 
 they constitute an excellent stomachic. In the mandarin orange 
 ((7. ndbilis, Loureiro), the thin part separates most readily from 
 the deliciously flavoured sweet pulp. There are large and small 
 fruited mandarin oranges ; the Tangerine variety is one of them. 
 
 The shaddock, or pumpelmos (G. decumana, Lin.). This fruit 
 will exceptionally attain a weight of 20 lbs. The pulp and thick 
 rind can both be used for preserves. Citrus hergamium, Eisso. 
 Prom the fruit rind of this variety bergamot oil is obtained, and 
 also oil from the flowers. The Mellarosa variety furnishes superior 
 oil, and exquisite confitures. All the varieties of the orange tribe 
 may be raised from seed. Those thus raised will produce fine 
 fruit, and if not suffered to grow to trees, may be used as stocks 
 for budding. The bitter orange and the citron are, however, con- 
 sidered the best stocks for the sweet orange. Once fairly in 
 growth, it requires only to be attended to, and plentifully watered 
 in dry weather, with a supply of manure from the cowhouse. The 
 orange may also be propagated by layers. 
 
 The Citron, in the widest sense of the word (C medica, Lin.), is 
 indigenous to southern Asia, but is widely diffused. As a prominent 
 variety may be named the real citron (G. cedra, Gallesio). Prom 
 the acid tubercular fruit essential oil and citric acid can be obtained, 
 irrespective of the ordinary culinary use of the fruit. A large 
 variety, with thick rind, furnishes the candied citron peel or 
 succade of Italy. Five hundred or six hundred tons of candied 
 peel are said to be used in England. The cedrat oil comes from a 
 particular variety. 
 
 The real Lemon {G. limonum, Eisso). Prom the fruit of this is 
 largely pressed the lemon juice, while the thin, smooth, aromatic 
 peel serves for the production of volatile oil, or for condiments. 
 The sweet lemon ((7. lumea, Eisso) includes the pear lemon, with 
 large pear-shaped fruit. The rind is thick and pale, the pulp not 
 acid. This variety serves for particular condiments. The juice 
 
444 FRUITS OS COMMEECK. 
 
 of this fruit is especially rich in citric acid. A large variety is 
 the Eosaline lemon. Among the many cooling drinks for which 
 American hotel-keepers have a specialite, lemonade is not wholly 
 forgotten. Their demands, indeed, give activity to a flourishing 
 industry in the south of Europe. The lemon growers of Mentone 
 depend greatly on American custom, which they almost entirely 
 monopolize, as the lemons produced in the districts surrounding 
 that port, being of a very superior quality, have the merit of 
 bearing a long voyage uninjured, provided they are carefully 
 packed previous to their embarkation. The lemons cannot bear 
 the shock of removal in a cart, and are carried in baskets to the 
 packing shed, where they are severally wrapped in silver paper, 
 and laid in rows in the packing cases, care being taken to pack 
 them loosely enough to avoid bruising the fruit, and yet tightly 
 enough to prevent their becoming displaced during the voyage. 
 The American steamers engaged in this trade carry 5000 cases ; 
 each case contains 600 lemons, and therefore every vessel conveys 
 2,500,000 of this useful fruit to the United States. 
 
 The real Lime (G. Limetta, Eisso). The best lime juice is obtained 
 from this variety. In several of our colonies, especially Mont- 
 serrat, Jamaica, and Dominica, attention is now given to the pro- 
 duction of this article. 
 
 The requirements in the culture of the lime are very simple, 
 and consist mainly in keeping the trees free from weeds, allowing 
 them to spread freely, and irrigating during the dry months. No 
 pruning is required, but merely the removal of exhausted and dry 
 branches. Although the lime tree delights in a good soil, and is 
 strengthened by a degree of moisture somewhat above the average, 
 being a hardy plant it will thrive and be fruitful in soils and 
 situations that may prove too poor and dry or exposed for coffee 
 and cacao. Protracted drought is particularly fatal to the lime 
 tree. The process of extracting and preparing the lime juice is 
 most simple, consisting of submitting the fruits to the pressure of 
 a mill of no great power, and boiling down the resulting juice 
 (which may be kept a great length of time without deteriorating) 
 to the required density, and putting it into casks for exportation. 
 The density which has been found most satisfactory is reached by 
 boiling down to one-eighth the original volume. In Jamaica, 
 lime juice has been, of late years, concentrated and shipped to 
 America, to be used in fixing certain dyes. From Montserrat 400 
 to 500 puncheons of lime juice have been shipped in the year. 
 
 In an account of the Island of Montserrat, published by Messrs. 
 Sturge in 1882, they give an account of their lime tree plantations 
 there : — 
 
 " The first lime tree orchards were planted in 1852 by Mr. 
 Burke, an enterprising planter then living in the island ; but the 
 speculation was at first by no means profitable, as this is an enter- 
 prise that involves a large outlay of capital, which is for a number 
 of years unproductive, and even then only remunerative on a 
 large scale, although the low rate of wages and extent of unculti- 
 
PRODUCTS OF THE OEANSE FAMILY. 445 
 
 vated land in a salubrioiis climate, render the island of Montserrat 
 particularly suitable for the purpose. 
 
 " The lime tree grows wild in many tropical countries, hut does 
 not flourish even so far north as the Azores. It is a thorny, 
 busny, evergreen tree, with handsome, dark-green leaves. These 
 are so fragrant that they are universally used in the West Indies 
 to perfume the water in the finger-glasses at dessert. The small 
 white flowers resemble orange blossom, and the scent is equally 
 delicious. The lime flourishes best in light soil near the sea, and 
 comes into full bearing about seven years from the planting of the 
 seed. 
 
 " The plantations of the Montserrat Company already cover more 
 than 800 acres, and contain 160,000 trees. These are generally 
 planted 15 feet apart, and the high road passes through them for 
 a distance of 2 miles. No more beautiful sight can be seen than 
 these orchards when the trees are laden with their bright fruit, 
 and at the same time the air is pervaded by the luscious fragrance 
 of the blossom." 
 
 The quantity of oranges and lemons we receive in the United 
 Kingdom has doubled in the last ten years. Our imports in 1875 
 were under 3,000,000 bushels, of the value, in round numbers, of 
 £1,300,000, and now nearly 5,000,000 bushels are received, but 
 the selling prices are much lower. 
 
 Algeria. — The orange grows in all parts of this French colony 
 which are not above 2000 feet elevation, especially in sheltered 
 situations, and acquires an excellent flavour and aroma. Besides 
 the orange proper, the citron and lemon, the cedrat and the 
 pumpelmos, are grown. Among the oranges are numerous 
 varieties, among which the best known are the Portugal, Chinese, 
 and mandarin, the bigaradia, or bitter orange, useful for making 
 orange-flower water, essence of bergamot, mellarosa, &c. The 
 fruit of the orange tribe is becoming yearly an article of larger 
 importance. 
 
 The Azores.— Previously to the year 1842, from 20,000 to 30,000 
 boxes of oranges were annually exported from Payal ; but owing 
 to the attacks of the insect Coccus hesperidum, which destroyed the 
 trees, for several years no oranges were produced. The insects. 
 have, however, been gradually disappearing, and the exportation 
 of oranges is augmenting. 
 
 The exports from the Azores between 1851 and 1857 averaged 
 about 130,000 boxes. The box may be said to hold about three 
 bushels. The export of oranges averages 800,000 to 900,000 
 bushels per annum. 
 
 The trees are planted at a distance of from 25 to 30 feet apart, 
 and the ground sown with lupins, which are considered by the 
 Portuguese to be a favourite food of the orange trees. Seven years 
 elapse from the time of bearing before the orange trees come into 
 full bearing, during which space of time, more especially among 
 the poorer class of proprietors, the garden is sown with melons, 
 water melons, and other vegetables. The trees are pruned every 
 year, so that by thinning out their superfluous branches a frea 
 
446 
 
 FRUITS OF COMMERCE. 
 
 circulation of air is allowed, whicli is required for the proper 
 ripening of the fruit. The orange grounds at the Azores vary in 
 size from 1 to 60 acres, and they are rarely occupied only hy 
 orange trees. The Portugal and mandarin orange are those 
 principally grown. 
 
 Some shipments are made in what are termed Eussia boxes, three 
 of which are equal to two large or London market boxes. They 
 are also shipped in half or flat boxes, third, and quarter boxes. 
 The shipping season extends from October to April. There is 
 occasionally a considerable crop of what are called summer 
 oranges (redoltci), which are very inferior, and scarcely cover 
 prime cost and freight when sold in the English market. The 
 oranges which ripen in the summer months are not only deficient 
 in sweetness and flavour, but are far more susceptible of damage 
 in transport. 
 
 Italy. — The following shows the progress of the export trade 
 of Italy in the fruit of the Citrus family, oranges, bergamots, and 
 lemons : — 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 1874 70,403,000 
 
 1884 173,252,000 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 1885 152,008,000 
 
 1886 124,659,000 
 
 New South Wales. — Oranges and lemons are grown without 
 difficulty in this colony where the soil is heavy; they do not 
 thrive at Sydney, on account of the sandy soil. In favourable 
 situations they are as fine as can be wished. 
 
 The orange only succeeds in a very small portion of the colony. 
 The produce in these districts was, in 1882-83, about 4.000,000 
 dozen, viz. : — 
 
 Parramatta 
 
 Campbelltown 
 
 Penrith. 
 
 Windsor 
 
 Maitland 
 
 Dozen. 
 3,169,808 
 
 36,000 
 100,000 
 600,000 
 
 54,000 
 
 3,959,808 
 
 In 1888 there were 7734 acres under oranges in the colony, and 
 the yield was 8,704,677 dozen, valued at £90,674. 
 
 The mandarin orange, a celebrated Chinese fruit, is said to be 
 better at Sydney than it is at Canton. It is a very beautiful dark 
 orange-coloured fruit, with a highly-perfumed rind, scarcely 
 thicker than brown paper, and not adhering to the pulp, which is 
 exceedingly sweet, and of a different flavour to any other orange. 
 
 A considerable portion of land is devoted to the orange, par- 
 ticularly in Cumberland, where a fine market and an accommodating 
 railway are to be found. Thousands of cases come down to Sydney 
 annually from the Parramatta orangeries, and are shipped to 
 Melbourne, South Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, &c. The 
 profits of orange-growing are, when the practical management of 
 the tree is understood, very considerable ; but in many cases the 
 trees have been exhausted by being allowed to bear heavily year 
 
PRODUCTS OF THE ORANGE FAMILY. 447 
 
 after year, witliotit any attempt to recruit their jaded powers by 
 the application of manure. The plantations are generally young, 
 and the trade in oranges and lemons is likely to assume large 
 proportions ; hut the growers will have to master the principles of 
 drainage and manuring, and apply them, before they will be able 
 to preserve their trees in a healthy state. 
 
 A paper by Dr. George Bennett, F.L.S., " On the Introduction 
 and Cultivation of the Orange in New South Wales," published in 
 the New South Wales Catalogue for the Paris Exhibition, 1867, 
 and in the Intercolonial Exhibition Official Eecord, Victoria, 1866, 
 may be consulted with advantage ; also a treatise on Orange 
 Culture by Gr. E. Alderton, published at Wellington, New Zealand, 
 in 1884. 
 
 In the immediate vicinity of Sydney there exist orange groves 
 as extensive and magnificent as any which have ever gladdened 
 the eyes of travellers in Spain or the Azores ; the orange and other 
 members of the citron family grow luxuriantly in the valleys of 
 the Hunter and the Clarence; and, indeed, all along the coast 
 districts of New South Wales, over a belt of country 300 miles in 
 extent. Some of the trees in the Parramatta orangeries, half a 
 century old, have attained a height of 35 feet, and their branches 
 a circumference of nearly 100 feet. Sometimes a single tree will 
 produce as many as 12,000 oranges in a year, and the small variety 
 known as the mandarin has borne 4200 upon one tree during the 
 season. During the month of October, oranges of every kind 
 come into the Sydney market in enormous quantities, and at that 
 season 6000 dozen per week are often exported to Melbourne 
 alone. Lemon trees grow in the same orchards with the orange, 
 and are so loaded with fruit as to require support. In this con- 
 genial climate every species of Citrus flourishes, the seedless 
 St. Michael's, the large and luscious " navel " orange, the little 
 cumquat from China, and, equally well, the citron and the shad- 
 dock. From £50 to £1800 are realised by the proprietors annually, 
 as the incomes from the produce of their orange plantations, 
 according to the extent of fruit-bearing trees. The price paid by 
 the dealers on the ground for the fruit varies from 4d. to 2«. per 
 dozen, according to the kind and quality. 
 
 Few persons visit Sydney without seeing, or at least without a 
 desire to see, the Parramatta orangeries. The location is some 
 16 miles from Sydney, and about the same distance from the sea 
 in a westerly direction. As soon as a landing is effected there one 
 finds that he is in a fruit country. Oranges abound everywhere. 
 The goods traffic of Parramatta is made up largely of oranges. 
 Orange boxes, full and empty, meet the eye in all directions. 
 Every second man, woman, and child, are eating oranges. 
 
 Australia has commenced to send oranges to England, for there 
 the fruit ripens at a season of the year when the trees in the more 
 northern hemisphere have ceased bearing, and the orchards of 
 Sydney and Queensland can furnish us with shipments throughout 
 the summer months, when the Continental fruit now fails us. 
 
 The orange is a surface-feeding plant. Where old trees are 
 
448 FRUITS OF COMMEECE. 
 
 growing, the surface of the soil is an absolute network of fine 
 rootlets. These rootlets should not be injured in cultivation ; 
 hence the use of the Dutch hoe. To keep up the fertility, guano 
 is extensively used. As soon as a tree shows signs of languishing 
 it gets a dose of guano mixture, say a couple of pounds. This is 
 Bpread around the tree on the surface of the land, and is then 
 touched in with the hoe. Both trees and fruit, by this treatment, 
 are beautifully clean. 
 
 Concerning the varieties of oranges cultivated, seedlings are 
 most in favour. Next to them are grafts upon the bitter orange 
 stock. The lemon, as a stock, is considered the cause of deteriora- 
 tion in the orange, and the source of scale and other diseases. In 
 selecting seed for sowing, the planter chooses the fullest and finest 
 oranges ; he will have nothing to do with refuse fruit for such 
 purposes. . The seed is sown wide apart, that the young plants 
 may have space. The system of raising seedlings in close rows is 
 found to cramp their growing capabilities. All through there is 
 a desire to get large, vigorous, perfect trees, and to that end it is 
 not considered desirable to force them into early bearing. Seed- 
 lings take many years (five or six) to come into bearing, but they 
 make the finest trees, and that is considered all-sufiScient for the 
 Parramatta growers. 
 
 South Australia. — In this colony the orange thrives wonderfully 
 well. Whole acres of healthy trees, laden to the very ground with 
 golden fruit, may be observed around Adelaide, and in many parts 
 of the country to the north and south of the capital. In the 
 month of June the market price of oranges in Adelaide is 3d. a 
 dozen. Every year somewhere about £50,000 worth of oranges 
 are exported from New South Wales and South Australia to 
 Victoria, and other colonies where the cultivation of this agreeable 
 fruit does not appear to be attended with much success. 
 
 It is a good many years since the first orange trees were planted 
 in South Australia, and although now there are considerable 
 plantations, and every year numbers of young trees are coming into 
 bearing, some time will elapse before the colonists there are able to 
 supply their own consumption of that most delicious of fruits. 
 Thousands of pounds are sent away every year for Sydney oranges, 
 without which not more than half the local demand that exists 
 could be supplied. In regard to quality, the fruit produced by 
 the local growers bears favourable comparison with that received 
 from the sister colony, and this will be even more the case as the 
 trees get older and the horticulturists become better acquainted 
 with the proper methods of orange culture. Lieutenant Field, E.N., 
 is said to have introduced the orange tree here early in 1837 ; 
 others state that the first trees were planted by the late Mr. 
 George Stevenson in the year 1840, or thereabout, at North Ade- 
 laide, and they are, therefore, now about 35 years old. One of them 
 has been known to yield 190 dozen of oranges, which is the largest 
 authenticated yield taken from one tree in the colony, although 
 several of those at Ashford are computed to bear 150 dozen 
 and upwards. When the success of Mr. Stevenson's experimental 
 
PRODUCTS OF THE ORANGE FAMILY. 449 
 
 planting became known, several other colonists, without much 
 ■delay, set to work to secure themselves more or less extended 
 plantations of a tree of such high European reputation as the 
 orange, so that there are now a good many hundreds of trees in 
 bearing; but, for a variety of reasons, comparatively few have 
 attained anything like the productiveness for which the tree is 
 ■credited in Spain and other parts of southern Europe, where trees 
 are spoken of that yield some thousands of dozen of fruit in a year. 
 
 United States. — Oranges are cultivated in Florida as easily and 
 produce as quickly as the apple, and yield in full bearing from 1000 
 to 2500 per cent, per acre to the owner on the ground at current 
 prices, and with but trifling labour. The superior ripe fruit must 
 end ere long in supplanting the half-ripe foreign fruit of which now 
 there are nearly 1,003,000,000 of oranges and lemons imported into 
 the United States annually, to New York alone 500,000,000, or half 
 of the entire amount. 
 
 In Florida, where labour is worth a dollar a day, great attention 
 is bestowed upon orange culture, and full-bearing orange trees are 
 valued at £20 each. 
 
 Green peas, strawberries, tomatoes, &c., can be grown the winter 
 through in the open air, in profitable union with the orange culture. 
 The banana, guava, and breadfruit also thrive there. 
 
 Thirty or forty vessels are constantly engaged in carrying fruit 
 to New York from the West India Islands. They draw their 
 supplies from Jamaica, Trinidad, Cuba, and the Bahamas. West 
 Indian oranges are preferred for their flavour to those brought from 
 Europe. They begin to arrive in October, and are most abundant 
 in January and February ; Mediterranean oranges are not received 
 extensively until April or May. 
 
 Oranges and lemons, with more or less protection, grow luxu- 
 riantly along and near the line of coast of California for 500 miles, 
 
 In 1874 the county of Los Angeles had 90,057 orange trees, which 
 furnish from 1000 to 3000 fruit each, and these sell readily at 2d. 
 a piece. The tree takes 12 years to come to maturity, and the lemon 
 16 years. Many of the latter trees yield £20 profit yearly to their 
 owners. There are in the State of California 13,606 lemon trees. 
 
 Jamaica. — Several well-kept plantations are springing up in this 
 island, which will no doubt in time yield fruit superior to any now 
 exported; but the trees yielding the bulk of the present export of 
 oranges from Jamaica are self-sown seedlings, growing in cattle 
 pastures, or in the neighbourhood of coffee and provision fields, 
 and they receive little or no cultivation. The value of the oranges 
 exported from Jamaica now exceeds £50,000 per annum. 
 
 As the orange trees grow everywhere in the island without cul- 
 tivation, the oranges produced cost nothing. 
 
 A noteworthy feature is observable in the fact that Havana, 
 hitherto the chief seat of this trade, has now yielded the precedence 
 to Kingston. But it is still more important to record the fact that 
 the Jamaica oranges fetch a higher price in the New York markets 
 than any other imported oranges, and they are yearly increasing in 
 popular favour. 
 
 2 a 
 
450 
 
 FEUITS OF COMMERCE. 
 
 From this geographical position a large proportion of the fruit 
 of the West India Islands finds its way to the United States and 
 Canada, where there are over 60,000,000 of people, with all of 
 whom fruit enters largely into their daily food. 
 
 Bahamas. — The quantity of oranges shipped from the island of 
 New Providence to the United States, in the season of 1876, was 
 about 2,000,000, in 20 vessels, 6 of which took 150,000 or more per 
 load. The largest cargo was 320,000 (equal to 1280 barrels). The 
 trade is conducted in schooners, with the exception of the generally 
 smaller quantities that are carried away by the steamers which 
 call at the port. Eight of the 20 vessels carrying oranges were 
 steamers. As a barrel is stated to hold, on an average, 260 oranges, 
 the number shipped to the States from Nassau is equivalent to 
 7594 barrels. The ' Nassau Times ' states 2,000,000 were also 
 shipped to the States direct from Abaco, Andros, Bleuthera, and 
 other of the islands, and the total shipped from the group was 
 about 4,000,000 fruit (equal to 16,000 barrels), estimating the 
 average price at 30s. per 1000, worth £6000 to the growers. 
 Adding the smaller shipments to London, along with grape fruit 
 and shaddocks, it believes the crop of the season would realize 
 £7000. Extensive orange orchards having been lately planted in 
 the islands, the trade is expected to soon double itself in quantity, 
 increasing further by the greater productiveness of the trees as 
 they approach full bearing ; but with such increase a decrease in 
 price is considered possible. 
 
 In the French Pacific Islands there are about 8000 acres covered 
 with orange trees, which produce about 15,000,000 fruit. In 
 Tahiti oranges grow almost wild, and about 6,000,000 or 8,000,000 
 fruit are yielded annually. 
 
 Five or six millions used to be shipped to California, biit the 
 orange trade between Tahiti and San Francisco has declined in 
 consequence of the progress making in the culture, and the 
 abundance of the produce of Los Angelos and the south of 
 California. 
 
 Italy. — A large trade is carried on between New York and Italy 
 in green fruit. The steamers employed make the voyage in about 
 twenty-eight days, and carry from 13,000 to 15,000 boxes. The 
 box of oranges contains on an average 226 fruit ; the chest, which 
 is a box and a half, would have 340. 
 
 The following were the quantities shipped from Italy to the 
 United States in the season of 1884-85 from : — ■ 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 Catania . . 
 Messina 
 Palermo 
 Sorrento 
 Milazzo . . 
 
 Total 
 
 63,392 
 
 570,884 
 
 404,616 
 
 122,583 
 
 6,186 
 
 1,167,661 
 
 103,564 
 
 376,137 
 
 1,176,154 
 
 32,686 
 
 8,204 
 
 1,696,745 
 
PRODUCTS OF THE ORANGE FAMILY. 
 
 451 
 
 A full-grown orange tree yields from 500 to 2000 fruit annually 
 and arrives at the bearing state in three or five years, as does the 
 lemon tree ; both grow luxuriantly in most soils. The plantations 
 (in the Mediterranean countries) are called gardens, and vary in 
 size, the smallest containing only a small number of trees, and the 
 largest many thousands. The fruit is gathered in baskets lined 
 with canvas, the basket being held by a strap attached, and passed 
 around the neck or shoulders. From the garden the fruit goes to 
 the packing magazine, where it is removed from the boxes in which 
 it was placed in the gardens, and repacked for shipment by ex- 
 perienced female packers, after having been carefully assorted 
 by women, and wrapped in separate papers by young girls. As 
 many as 500 persons (mostly women and children) are employed 
 by some of the fruit growers in their gardens and magazines, in 
 gathering, sorting, and packing for shipment, the wages paid them 
 varying from 9 to 16 cents a day. In sorting, every fruit that 
 wants a stem is rejected. The boxes are then securely covered, 
 strapped, and marked with the brand of the grower, when they are 
 ready for shipment. Twenty years ago, this trade was trivial in 
 its commercial characteristics, or the inducements it oifered to 
 capitalists. Now it is progressing with giant strides into promi- 
 nence, and is a considerable source of revenue to the Italian 
 Government. 
 
 Sicilian lemons, which were formerly very plentiful, have been 
 getting scarce of late years, and the island can with difSoulty 
 supply the demand for the United States, which is always large. 
 The consequence is that prices have risen considerably, and essence 
 of lemon, which used to be 8s. per lb. is now 19s.; while boiled 
 lemon-juice is nearly doiible its former price. Leghorn was the 
 great seat of the candied citron trade, about 5000 boxes (1000 to 
 1100 tons) being exported in good seasons. But the trade has 
 declined, as more sugar is lost in making the citron than the 
 Grovernment allows drawback on. 
 
 The exports of oranges, bergamots, and lemons, are given in the 
 Italian returns in kilogrammes of 2^^ lbs. The following figures 
 wiU serve to indicate the course of trade : — 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 1862 45,829,894 
 
 1872 87,526,000 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 1882 119,439,000 
 
 1883 124,659,000 
 
 Spain. — The export of fruit forms an important branch of Spanish 
 commerce, 650 to 800 million oranges being exported annually. 
 Malaga is the centre of the dried Iruit trade ; Seville, Valencia, 
 and the Balearic islands, for oranges and citrons. The orange 
 crop in the Balearic islands is beginning to show some signs of 
 improveiment, and it is hoped by the growers that the worst of 
 the fatal disease which destroyed the trees is over, but it must be 
 some years before the exports in this fruit return to their former 
 figures. 
 
 Citrons are exported from Malaga in their green state, in cases 
 weighing 80 kilogrammes, half cases, and quarter cases, each fruit 
 
 ^ G ^ 
 
452 
 
 FEDITS OF COMMERCE. 
 
 being carefully wrapped in paper. They are chiefly shipped to 
 tlie United States. The localities of production are Pizarra, Alora, 
 aud Coin, in the neighbourhood of Malaga. Orange peel is also 
 shipped, which is largely consumed in Holland, France, and 
 Germany, chiefly for making liqueurs and syrups. 
 
 The export of oranges from Spain is shown in the following 
 return in kilogrammes : 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 
 1882 
 1883 
 1884 
 1885 
 1886 
 
 116,668,000 
 98,671,000 
 
 104,565,000 
 71,381,000 
 81,573,000 
 
 1,166,700 
 868,320 
 922,800 
 571,040 
 652,600 
 
 
 Greece. — -The Isle of Naxos, in Greece, ships to England more 
 than half a million citrons annually, but could easily export several 
 millions. They are collected and shipped as they ripen, the want 
 of labour alone prevents their being preserved on the spot. The 
 culture of citrons has been abandoned for cedrats. The gross 
 export of oranges and lemons from Greece has rather fallen off 
 of late years. 
 
 THE PINE-APPLE. 
 
 The Pine-apple (^Ananassa sativa, Lindley) is one of the most 
 esteemed tropical fruits. Formerly great attention was given to 
 forcing this fruit in England; but the large importations now 
 made at certain seasons of the year have increased the foreign 
 supplies, and somewhat reduced the price of home-grown fruit; 
 still it is brought to great perfection by our gardeners. 
 
 The pine-apple is indigenous to South America and some of the 
 West India islands.'but has become so perfectly naturalized in many 
 parts of the hot regions of Africa and Asia, that it has been thought 
 to be likewise a native of those countries. It is now found in an 
 almost wild state in most parts of India and Ceylon, and is abundant 
 also in the Malay Peninsula, the Straits Settlements, China, and 
 the Islands of the Eastern Archipelago. 
 
 The pine-apple is no doubt indigenous to Jamaica, where an 
 inferior kind, known as " cowboy macca," is still found wild. The 
 pine-apple is incorporated in the arms of Jamaica, and certainly 
 nowhere, except at Pernambuco or Singapore, can pine-apples of 
 such size and delicacy be grown as in some parts of the island. 
 Antigua is noted for its pine-apples, the Pitch Lake of Trinidad has 
 at least a local reputation, but the Bahamas export more pine- 
 apples in the fresh and preserved state than any other part of the 
 world. The chief supply of pine-apples for the English market 
 at present comes from Madeira, the Canary Islands, and the 
 Azores. 
 
 The varieties cultivated are very numerous. In the Transactions 
 
THE PINE-APPLE. 453 
 
 of the Horticultural Society of London, for 1835, Mr. D. Munro 
 gives a list of fifty-two kinds, which fruited in the Society's garden 
 atChiswick. Of these the following may be enumerated: The Queen, 
 the sort generally grown by the gardeners for the London market ; 
 the Moscow Queen, an excellent variety ; the black Jamaica ; the 
 brown Sugar-loaf, Eipley, St. Vincent, and black Antigua, excellent 
 and highly flavoured pines; Enville, a handsome fruit; Lemon 
 Queen, and white Providence, a handsome showy kind. The 
 Trinidad or La Brea pine, is a very fine large fruit, some reaching 
 at times to 28 lbs. weight. , 
 
 Bahamas. — The pine-apple is grown for export in the Bahamas 
 in fields of large size, and of considerable extent. The cultivation 
 of this fruit is carried on chiefly at Eleuthera, Abacos and San 
 Salvador, but the plants are also grown on some of the other 
 islands. Of the several varieties of pine-apple, only two are here 
 considered profitable to cultivate for export — the Spanish scarlet, 
 and the sugar-loaf. The former was introduced into the Bahamas 
 from Cuba in 1850, and is now the leading variety of commerce ; 
 the latter, a very luscious fruit, is exported principally to England. 
 As the voyage is a long one, the plant is cut off at the root, and 
 plant and fruit are shipped unseparated. They are cut in a green 
 state in order to keep during the voyage ; arriving in a sound 
 state, they pay very handsome profits. In 1872, 590,665 dozen 
 of pine-apples, valued at about £42,000, were exported. lu 1874 
 the quantity shipped was valued at £40,066, the sale of one cargo 
 in London being as high as £1000, by one of fourteen vessels 
 engaged in the trade. In 1880 about 840,000 dozen were ex- 
 ported ; in 1881, 363,000 dozen ; and in 1885, 455,965 dozen, valued 
 at £50,847. 
 
 The cultivation of the pine-apple for export was formerly con- 
 fined almost exclusively to the island of Eleuthera and its keys or 
 islets, it being erroneously supposed that the soil there was alone 
 adapted to the growth of the fruit ; but of late years the culture 
 has been extended to many of the other islands, as well as New 
 Providence, where large quantities are grown and annually 
 exported to various quarters, and, meeting with a remuner- 
 ative sale, afford both growers and shippers very handsome 
 returns. 
 
 The simple mode of testing the capability of the soil for growing 
 the pine-apple in the Bahamas is by running a knife down it in 
 dry weather, and if any portion of the earth adheres to the knife, 
 it is considered by the planter an evidence of the suitability of 
 the soil. 
 
 In the island of San Salvador there are fields of pine-apples, con- 
 taining 25 to 60 acres in a block. In good seasons the yield is 
 about 800 dozen per acre. 
 
 The season for shipments of pine-apples is from April 15 to 
 July 15. It is estimated that from 75 to 100 ship-loads of fruit 
 are sent off during the season ; about 40,000 pine-apples make an 
 average cargo, the total exports reaching 4,000,000 to 5,000,000 
 pine-apples during the season. The average price paid for the 
 
454 FEUITS OF COMMERCE. 
 
 fruit is atout 1«. 9d. per dozen for first cuttings, Is. 6^. for second, 
 and Is. 3d. for third. 
 
 An acre of good land will easily support 6000 plants of tlie sugar- 
 loaf variety, or about 5000 of the scarlet variety, and there is a 
 large quantity of land in the Bahamas eminently adapted for the 
 purpose of grovsring pine-apples, which has never yet heen cultivated. 
 The price of good land varies between £1 to £4 per acre, and 
 depends upon the size, the fertility of the soil, and its proximity 
 to a suitable place for shipping the fruit, and as much of the fruit 
 is talcen on board vessels which call along the coast during the 
 season, a plantation which borders upon some cove, bay, or good 
 anchorage, is a valuable one. The average life of the scarlet pine 
 is three years, and that of the sugar-loaf about five. The weight 
 of the fruit in the Bahamas is from 3 to 3J- lbs. 
 
 A field is generally gone over three times during the season, 
 affording three grades of fruit, called first, second, and third cuttings. 
 The scarlet variety ripens a month or two earlier than the sugar- 
 loaf Owing to the sharp serrated leaves of the plant, the gathering 
 of the fruit is a tedious and difficult matter, the men, women, 
 and children engaged in the work being obliged to wear heavy 
 canvas leggings, and gloves with gauntlets, to protect themselves 
 against the sharp spikes of the plant. The pine-apple plants 
 furnish but one regular crop during the year, although the local 
 markets are seldom without pine-apples for sale. The first cuttings 
 of the scarlet pines are made about the middle of April, and the 
 last about the 1st of July. The sugar-loaf pine is at maturity 
 during July and August. The shipping season is one of great 
 activity in the Bahamas, for when the fruit is ready for the knife, 
 it must be cut, and hurried with all speed to market, or it will 
 be lost. 
 
 The average passage to London is thirty-one to thirty-five days. 
 When ripe, they are liable to decomposition on the passage, and 
 are therefore shipped in a green state, and ripen on board. Some- 
 times on arrival, if not sufficiently ripe, they are placed in 
 warming rooms. Eainy and damp weather is very injurious to 
 pine-apples, and if combined with a long passage, will render them 
 worthless. 
 
 The number of cargoes usually arriving each season is nine to 
 eleven, and the vessels bring about 48,000 pine-apples each ; 1300 
 pines weigh about a ton. The hold of each vessel is fitted with 
 three or four racks or battens of wood, supported by upright posts, 
 thus forming three or four shelves or platforms the entire length 
 and depth of the hold, with the exception of the centre, where a 
 passage is left from stem to stern for admission. The fruit is then 
 placed, with a portion of its foliage on, to protect it from bruising, 
 in layers of about four pines deep, upon racks, which are built to 
 prevent the great pressure that would otherwise be upon the lower 
 portion of the fruit. 
 
 Within the last few years several factories for preserving pine- 
 apples have been started in the different islands. In 1872, 494,213 
 cans of pine-apples, valued at £8190, were preserved and exported, 
 
THE PINE-APPLE. 455 
 
 chiefly to the United States. In 1873 the value of the canned fruit 
 shipped was £14,700. 
 
 One factory alone in Nassau consumes about 25,000 pine-apples 
 per diem, and 200,000 to 300,000 cans of fruit are put up during 
 the season. In 1881, 287,000 tons were shipped. The wages 
 paid to the work-people are at the rate of about 2s. a day for men, 
 Is. for women, and 6d. for children, and even lower wages are 
 paid to plantation hands. 
 
 There is a large local demand of fruit for tinning, and 113,000 
 dozen were bought by one firm at Nassau, filling more than 1,000,000 
 cans with sliced pine-apples. For canning, the pines are required 
 fully ripe, and to average 15 inches in circumference, none to be 
 less than the usual shipping sizes, 13 inches and 12 inches for 
 first and second cutting scarlet, and 12 inches and 11 inches for 
 sugar-loaf. 
 
 The operation of peeling and slicing is performed on tables in 
 the yards of the waterside premises, over which an awning is placed 
 to protect the operators from the influence of the sun. About 
 20,000 pine-apples are peeled and 12,675 cans filled in a day. The 
 cans are carried to the warehouse on wooden trays (each contain- 
 ing fifteen) to be immersed iu syrup. The tops of the cans are 
 soldered on, and they are lowered in an iron framework, four 
 hundred and five hundred at a time, into the steam boiling vats. 
 After boiling, the cans are perforated at the top to allow the 
 steam to escape. They are then hermetically sealed, and spread 
 over the yard to cool. Each can of fruit, before the syrup is added, 
 weighs 2 lbs. 
 
 As it does not seed, this plant is propagated by suckers. Oc- 
 casionally the crown of the fruit (the small aggregated mass of 
 leaves) is planted; but as this requires three years to arrive at 
 fruit-bearing, and the suckers only take twelve or eighteen months, 
 the suckers are preferred for propagation. They should be planted 
 in rich red soil, about 18 inches apart, and weeded every three 
 months. Careful cultivation greatly improves the size and flavour 
 of the fruit. In the Botanical Gardens of Singapore the enormous 
 golden yellow fruit form a remarkable contrast to the puny pine- 
 apples which appear on the London fruit-stalls. A field of wild 
 pine-apples, such as cover many of the islands in the Straits of 
 Malacca, is almost as inaccessible as a field of cacti, and the leaves, 
 with their sharp points, are a formidable obstacle to the naked legs 
 of the marauders who desire to obtain the fruit. 
 
 New York now almost monopolises the trade in pine-apples from 
 the West Indies. In 1854, 20 cargoes, averaging 80,000 dozen per 
 ship, were imported there from Cuba, 20,000 dozen from St. 
 Bartholomew, and 200,000 dozen from the Bahamas. The ship- 
 ments from the Bahamas in the three years ending 1870 averaged 
 290,000 dozen, the great bulk of which went to the United States. 
 In 1871 there was a much larger shipment, amounting to 449,418 
 dozen, valued at £41,876. 
 
 The prices for pine-apples range from 3s. to 4s. per dozen, 
 plantains and bananas, 2s. to 3s. the bunch, oranges 4s. 2d. the 
 
456 FEUITS OF COMMERCE. 
 
 100. In 1872 pine-apples in New York fetched 15 to 17 dollars 
 the hundred. 
 
 There are mimerons varieties of pine-apples ; one of the best is 
 said to come from Guayaquil. Nichau, one of the Sandwich 
 Islands group, produces an exquisite fruit, such as is rarely met 
 with either in the East or the Pacific. 
 
 Although the culture of the fruit for export was at first re- 
 stricted to the Bahamas, now Jamaica, St. Bartholomew, Trinidad, 
 the Azores, and other quarters, have entered into the trade. The 
 first shipments were made in 1842 to Liverpool from the Bahamas. 
 Jamaica. — The following varieties of pine-apples are grown in 
 the Hope nurseries, Jamaica, there being a great demand for 
 suckers of the best kind : — 
 
 White Eipley, Black Eipley, Sugar Loaf, Prince Albert, 
 Montserrat, Cuban, Providence, Scarlet (Queen), Trinidad (Pitch 
 Lake), Black (Antigua), Queen, Lady Beatrice, Smooth Cayenne, 
 Thompson's (smooth), Cayenne, Moscow Queen, Lord Granville, 
 and Enville Queen. The best and most profitable kinds are said 
 to be the Eipley, Black Antigua, Black Jamaica, Charlotte Eoths- 
 child, and British Queen. In 1884 a fine selection of the best 
 English pines from Windsor Castle and Lord Carrington's nur- 
 series were introduced into Jamaica, and have done well. In 188& 
 the value of the pine-apples exported was £1434, against 14,070 
 dozen shipped in 1884, value £2110. 
 
 Notwithstanding the advantages possessed for the production 
 of this fruit, as well as the existence of a fortnightly line of 
 steamers, plying between Kingston and America, where th& 
 demand for this and other fruits is unlimited, it is a matter of 
 notoriety that the largest plantation of pines is in extent not 
 more than about a quarter of an acre, and probably the five -acre 
 plantation will comprise an area equal to the whole extent under 
 cultivation in the locality. Choice pines from this district are 
 sold in Kingston at from 9s. to 12«. a dozen. The price realized in 
 New York for the best Jamaica pines is upwards of Is. each. It 
 will, therefore, be a moderate estimate if each pine is valued at Qd. 
 In the Bahamas 20,000 suckers are usually planted to the acre p 
 but this appears excessive overcrowding, and as a consequence th& 
 plants and fruit must receive a constitutional check in their 
 maturation. The distances apart at which they are planted at 
 Hope, are 3^ feet between the rows, and 2J feet in the rows ; this 
 gives 4840 plants to the acre. Out of tliis number it may be 
 safely computed that from the first crop, sixteen or eighteen 
 months after planting, 4000 fruit will be obtained from each acre ; 
 considerably more would be procured from the second and third 
 years' crops from the suckers produced around the parent plant, 
 owing to sufficient space being provided for each plant. Now, 
 estimating the return from each crop at 4000 pines, the result, at 
 &d. each, gives £100 per acre. The pine fields ought to be cleaned 
 five or six times a year, each cleaning costing say £1 an acre, or 
 £6 for the year ; and this constitiites the whole cultivation. 
 
 Azores. — The pine-apple is now being cultivated with energy in 
 
THE PINE-APPLE. 45T 
 
 St. Michaels. The produce of the recent cultivation having 
 realized very considerable profits in the English market, and the 
 quality being recognized as superior to those of foreign growth 
 generally, conservatories on a large scale have been constructed. 
 The pine-apple of large size and of first quality now returns the 
 grower from 16s. to 20s. each, which is a remuneration of 35 or 
 40 per cent. ; and some choice specimens have been sold for as 
 much as 60s. each. 
 
 They attain to a greater size than those received from the "West 
 Indies, some weighing 12 to 13 lbs. having come to hand. Great 
 care is taken in packing them, to secure their arriving in England 
 in sound condition. The stalk is cut several inches below the 
 fruit ; an ordinary larged-sized flower-pot is then filled with 
 mould, into which the stalk is inserted in such a manner that a 
 casual observer would almost take it to be the way it was grown. 
 Each pine is then put into a skeleton wooden case made just larn;e 
 enough to hold it, so that it can be safely handled without the 
 lisk of being bruised or injured, the pine itself being frequently- 
 wrapped round with paper as a further protection. 
 
 India. — The pine-apple is said to have been introduced into 
 India by the Portuguese in 1594, and now grows abundantly at the 
 foot of the Himalayas and in Assam. It grows in thickets near 
 Eangoon, while in the Tenasserim provinces the plant has become 
 so naturalized as to appear indigenous. A bag made on the Khasia 
 hills, in Assam, of pine-apple fibre, was presented by Dr. Wallich, 
 as far back as 1836, to the local Agri-horticultural Society. He 
 mentions the enormous quantities of pines grown on that range, 
 and that the plant appears as if it were quite a natural production. 
 In the Tenasserim provinces the fruit is so abundant as to be sold 
 in the months of June and July at 2s. the boat-load. The natives 
 do not seem to be acquainted with the fibre yielded by its leaves. 
 Some attention is being given to the culture of this fruit in 
 Queensland, as there were 86 acres returned under culture with it 
 in 1876. 
 
 There are between 7000 and 8000 acres under culture with pine- 
 apples in Cochin China, with about 10,000 plants to the acre. 
 Planted 2 feet apart each way, an acre will have 10,890 plants ; 
 2 J feet apart, 6960; 3 feet apart, 4840 plants. Thus, any one 
 may calculate what an acre of pine-apple means, presuming, of 
 course, that the plants are not allowed to be overgrown with weeds, 
 and that the sort is good. The first crop of one pine-apple to 
 each plant will be reaped about eighteen months after planting ; 
 in the succeeding year the plant throws out suckers and thus 
 produces from the one root two or three pine-apples. 
 
 In Ceylon there are about 9000 acres covered with pine-apples. 
 
 Pine-apple Fibre. — The plant affords fine foliaceous fibres of 
 practical utility from the leaves, which are about 3 feet long by 
 IJ inches to 2 inches wide, strongly edged with spines. These 
 may all be worked when the fruit is cut, the plant being per- 
 petuated by shoots from its base. Two skeins of the pine-apple 
 fibre were sent by the Court of Directors of the East India 
 
458 FRUITS OF COMMERCE. 
 
 Company to tlie Society of Arts, for a report on their properties, 
 eo far back as Jamiary 1836, but the specimens were too small for 
 trial of their tenacity. 
 
 Prom some tests on the strength of this fibre when made into 
 cordage, conducted at the arsenal of Fort William, on a rope of 
 3J inches in circumference, it appears to be remarkably strong. 
 The Government proof is, that a rope of this size should bear a 
 weight of 42 cwts. ; but it bore no less than 15 owts. more, that 
 is, it broke with a weight of 57 cwts., proving incontestably that 
 pine-apple fibre possesses strength for cordage as well as fineness 
 for textile fabrics. 
 
 The pine-apple grows in great abundance in the Philippine 
 Islands, but produces only a small dry fruit. We require, how- 
 ever, more precise information to enable us to determine whether 
 this is actually the plant escaped from cultivation. Mr. Perrotet, 
 of Pondicherry, considers it a distinct species, and has named it 
 Bromelia pigna, from the Spanish name pigna, or pina, signifying 
 a cone. 
 
 In preparing the fibre for weaving, the fruit is not allowed to 
 ripen early ; its removal causes the leaves to increase considerably 
 both in length and in breadth. A woman places a board on the 
 ground, aud upon it a leaf with the hollow side upwards. Sitting 
 at one end of the board, she holds the leaf firmly with her toes, 
 aud scrapes its outer surface with a potsherd, not with the sharp 
 fractured edge, but with the blunt side of the rim ; and thus the 
 leaf is reduced to rags. In this manner a stratum of coarse 
 longitudinal fibre is disclosed, and the operator, placing her 
 thumb-nail beneath it, lifts it up and draws it away in a compact 
 strip, after which she scrapes again until a second fine layer of 
 fibre is laid bare. Then turning the leaf round, she scrapes its 
 back, which now lies upwards, down to the layer of fibre, which 
 she seizes with her hand and draws at once, to its full length, 
 away from the back of the leaf. When the fibre has been washed, 
 it is dried in the sun. It is afterwards combed with a suitable 
 comb, like a woman's hair, sorted into four classes, tied together, 
 and treated like the fibre of the lupi. In this crude manner are 
 obtained the threads for the celebrated web nipis de pina, which is 
 considered by experts the finest in the world. 
 
 In the Philippines, where the fineness of the work is best 
 understood and appreciated, richly embroidered costumes of this 
 description have fetched about £200 each. 
 
 This fine muslin-like fabric is embroidered by the nuns of the 
 convents in Manila with great skill and taste. Beautiful specimens 
 of this pina muslin were sent to the first London International 
 Exhibition, and to subsequent Exhibitions. It is sometimes, but 
 erroneously, called grass-cloth. With a magnifier the fibres may 
 be seen to be very numerous and fine, but not twisted at all, as in 
 grass-cloth or the finest muslins and cambrics. One of the coarser 
 fibres may be subdivided into threads of such fineness as to be 
 barely perceptible, and yet sufficiently strong for any purpose. 
 
 The manufacture of the pina fabric is carried on in the metro- 
 
THE PINE-APPLE. 459 
 
 politan province of Tondo. From the extraordinary facility with 
 which the pine-apple is grown in the vicinity of the equator, it 
 seems almost certain that by the application of European skill to 
 the process of separating the fibre from the pulpy matter of the 
 leaf, a valuable raw material composed of it might be obtained for 
 the factories of Europe. The fibre by the hackling process could 
 be rendered fit for the finest fabrics. The leaf consists of two 
 different structures : the upper side being of a soft or pulpy 
 character, easy of removal ; and the under side, of a harder or 
 more ligneous nature, and more difficult to separate. These two 
 external bodies hold the fibre between them. 
 
 In the Straits Settlements the Chinese labourers have taken 
 kindly to this new and promising branch of industry. The process 
 they adopt in preparing the fibre appears to be much the same as 
 that pursued in the Philippines, and is thus described in a 
 Singapore paper : — 
 
 " The process of extracting and bleaching the fibre is exceed- 
 ingly simple. The first step is to remove the fleshy or succulent 
 side of the leaf. A Chinese, astride on a narrow stool, extends on 
 it in front of him a pine-apple leaf, one end of which is kept firm 
 by being placed beneath a small bundle of cloth on which he sits. 
 He then, with a kind of two-handled plane made of bamboo, 
 removes the succulent matter. Another man receives the leaves 
 as they are planed, and with his thumb-nail loosens and gathers 
 the fibres about the middle of the leaf, which enables him by one 
 effort to detach the whole of them from the outer skin. The 
 fibres are next steeped in water for some time, after which they 
 are washed, in order to free them from the matter that still 
 adheres and binds them together. They are now laid out to dry 
 and bleach on rude frames of split bamboo. The process of 
 steeping, washing, and exposing to the sun is repeated for some 
 days, until the fibres are considered properly bleached. Without 
 further preparation they are sent into town for exportation to 
 China. Nearly all the islands near Singapore are more or less 
 planted with pine-apples, which, at a rough estimate, cover an 
 extent of 2000 acres. The enormous quantity of leaves that are 
 annually suffered to putrify on the ground, would supply fibre for 
 a large manufactory of valuable pina cloth. The fibres should be 
 cleaned on the spot. Fortunately the pine-apple planters are not 
 Malays, but industrious and thrifty Bugis, most of whom have 
 families. These men could be readily induced to prepare the 
 fibres. Let any merchant offer an adequate price, and a steady 
 annual supply will soon be obtained." 
 
 The wild brother of the pine-apple has a larger leaf and longer 
 fibre. This is the Bromelia sylvestris, or the B. pinguin of the West 
 Indies. It is known as istle, or ixtle, in Mexico, and pita and 
 pinaella in Central America and Panama. These are probably two 
 distinct species ; and there is a third, B. Icaratas, which is hardly 
 to be distinguished from them. 
 
 B. haratas is very common in the Antilles, growing in the most 
 arid spots. It makes excellent mats, hammocks, and ropes. 
 
460 FEUITS OF COMMEEUE. 
 
 Almost all the fishing tackle of the American mercantile marine 
 is made of it. 
 
 The leaves are 5 to 8 feet long, and from IJ to 3 inches wide, 
 thin, and lined with a fine tough fibre. The plant is self-propa- 
 gating, and left to itself in an open field will soon cover the 
 ground. In Central America, but particularly in Nicaragua, it is 
 so abundant in the forests as to be a serious obstruction to man 
 or beast. It is largely cultivated in the district of Coatzacoaloos, 
 in Mexico. It is indifferent to soil, climate, and season, while the 
 simplicity of its culture, and the facility oJF extracting and pre- 
 paring its products renders it of universal use. From it is fabri- 
 cated thread and cordage, mats, bagging, and clothing, and the 
 hammocks in which the natives are born, repose, and die. The 
 fibre is sometimes employed for brushes, and in paper-making ; its 
 juice is used as caustic for wounds, and its thorns serve the 
 Indians for needles and pins. 
 
 The Bromelias are widely diffused throughout the tropics, 
 growing everywhere in all varieties of soil. The plant is exten- 
 sively used for hedges, for which its strong, straight, and spiny 
 leaves admirably adapt it, and may be cultivated with a minimum 
 of labour and cost, and in unlimited quantities. It is clossly allied 
 to the pine-apple, but the fruit is different, the ovaries failing to 
 combine in one mass, as in the case of the pine-apple, the forma- 
 tion of which they well illustrate. 
 
 The wild pine-apple grows in abundance at Gaboon, Grand 
 Bassam, Assinee, Porto Novo, Liberia, and other parts of the West 
 Coast of Africa. It is emploj'ed for making nets, hammocks, 
 superior cordage, and fabrics. 
 
 THE PLANTAIN AND BANANA. 
 
 Among the splendid, varied, and profuse vegetation, with which 
 tropical countries abound in so infinite a degree, the magnificent, 
 herbaceous plant, the Plantain, usually attracts particular notice ; 
 and, together with the coco and other palms, are the productions of 
 the vegetable kingdom, which adorn the picture of the artist when 
 depicting the scenery of the tropics. The broad leaves overhang 
 gracefully the succulent huge stem of the plant ; whilst just at 
 their bases, huge clusters of fruit, of yellow, red, and other colours, 
 contrast harmoniously with their shining, dark green foliage. 
 
 The height this splendid plant usually attains is 8 feet, but I 
 have seen them reach an elevation of 12 and even 15 feet, with a 
 diameter of stalk from 1 foot to 2 feet. 
 
 The plants of the Musa tribe, though they cannot, like the 
 palms, be called the princes of the vegetable kingdom, rank first 
 in the series of endogenous plants, and are without exception the 
 grandest of the herbaceous vegetables, whether their gigantic 
 size, the breadth and beauty of their foliage, the abundance and 
 quality of their fruit, or the surpassing grandeur of their flowers, 
 be considered. They are devoid of true stems, but form a spurious 
 
THE PLANTAIN AND BANANA. 461 
 
 stem, often of considerable ttickness, from tlie leaves as they rise 
 from the root stocks, being sheathing at their base, encircling each 
 other, and enveloping layer within layer the slender flower and 
 fruit stalk. They are not confined to the tropics, but approach in 
 many parts towards the cooler latitudes of either hemisphere. The 
 plantain maybe seen laden with its enormous masses of wholesome 
 pleasant food in the mild climate of Madeira ; but its yield of fruit 
 is dependent on, and varies with, the temperature of the climate in 
 which it is grown. In this respect it is a striking instance of the 
 increasing bounteousness of nature as we recede from the poles and 
 approach the equator, and is a manifestation of the beneficence of 
 the Creator. 
 
 The plantain is universal. It is as the Penates — the household 
 god of the labourer's cottage. It grows everywhere on the mountain 
 sides, and might be cultivated to any extent. Hitherto its value 
 has been unknown. Its fruit has been consumed as a substitue for 
 bread, but for all other purposes it has been valueless. 
 
 The plantain is, to many thousands of people, what rice is to the 
 Hindoos, rye flour to the Muscovite, and wheaten bread to the 
 Englishman; it is their main dependence (in more senses than 
 one), their staff of life, grown everywhere in small quantities 
 throughout the tropics. 
 
 Those who have never lived in tropical countries are unable to 
 fully appreciate its value. Some look even with indifference upon 
 the gigantic clusters of this fruit, as they are unloaded from the 
 steamers and sailing vessels ; and yet they deserve special atten- 
 tion and admiration, for they are to the inhabitants of the torrid 
 zone what bread and potatoes are to those of the north temperate 
 zone. 
 
 The plantain is one of the most striking illustrations of tropical 
 fertility and exuberance. A plant which, in a northern climate, 
 would require many years to gain strength and size, is there the 
 production of ten or twelve months. The native of. the south 
 plants a shoot or sucker, taken from an old tree, in a moist and 
 sandy soil, along some river or lake ; it develops with the greatest 
 rapidity, and at the end of ten months the first crop may be 
 gathered, though the cluster and bananas are yet small ; but the 
 following year one cluster alone will weigh some sixty or more 
 pounds. Even in the tropics they are always cut down when 
 green, as they lose much of their flavour when left to ripen or 
 soften on the tree. 
 
 It is remarkable that the plantain and banana should be indi- 
 genous, or at all events cultivated for ages, both in the Old and the 
 New World. Numerous South American travellers describe some 
 one of these plants as being apparently indigenous articles of food 
 among the natives ; thus showing (if the plantain be a hybrid) a 
 communication between the tropics of America, Asia, and Africa, 
 Jong before the time of Columbus. (A hybrid, or mule plant, is 
 obtained by impregnating the stigma of one species with the pollen 
 of another species, but of the same genus, and what is called a 
 cross-breed is the impregnation of one variety with the pollen of 
 
462 FRUITS OF COMMERCE. 
 
 another variety of tlie same species.) The older writers on the 
 colony of Guiana, as Hartsinok, Bellin, and others, consider the 
 plantain to be a native. It is worthy of remark that Sir E. Schom- 
 burgk, during his travels, found a species of large edible plantain 
 far in the interior. The plantain is said to have been transported 
 from Guinea to the Canary Isles, and from thence to the West 
 Indies. It seems to have migrated with mankind from Asia into 
 the numerous islands in the Southern Pacific Ocean, where it is 
 universal in those which are inhabited, and has degenerated into 
 numerous varieties. It spreads from the Islands of the Pacific 
 and of the Indian Archipelago, northward to China and Japan, 
 and along the Malayan Peninsula to Chittagong. Prom Chittagong 
 northward, along the jungly base of the Himalayas, there is a 
 suitable climate as far as 30° N., for the Musa nepalensis is found in 
 Nepal. The most northern latitudes where the jilantain is cul- 
 tivated are Japan, Madeira, the north of Africa, Syria as far as 
 34°, and parts of the south of Europe. The edible plantain bears 
 at an elevation of 4690 feet in a temperature of 61° Pahr., and 
 requires 15 months to mature, but its cultivation is little benefit 
 in so high an altitude. It is the same with the cassava root. 
 The cane at 3480 feet altitude gives no sugar, and indigo at 4860 
 feet affords no colouring matter. We may here remark that it 
 was on these and similar facts that Boussingault based his theory, 
 which is that the time required by a plant to arrive at maturity 
 is as the inverse ratio of the temperature ; therefore, knowing the 
 mean temperature of any place, and the number of days which a 
 plant takes to ripen, the time required at any other point, more or 
 less elevated, can be ascertained. 
 
 There are 17,000 acres under plantain gardens in the Madras 
 Presidency, chiefly in Tinnivelly. 
 
 In Ceylon there are 24,000 acres covered with the banana. 
 The banana is like the plantain, but its stalk is marked with 
 purple spots, and its fruit is shorter and rounder. There are 
 twenty varieties of plantain in Tenasserim, ten in Ceylon, and 
 thirty in Burmah. From Asia it has been introduced into the 
 West Indies and South America, and into England in 1680. It is 
 more productive than wheat. In South America the fruit is dried 
 and preserved, while the flour is separated and made into biscuits. 
 The fruit can be kept for twenty or thirty years owing to the 
 sugar in it ; 100 parts of the fresh fruit contains 27 of dry nutritive 
 matter ; the potato gives 25. In the plantain fruit out of 100 parts 
 there are of — 
 
 Water . . . . 14 parts. 
 
 Starch .. .. 67J „ 
 Gum . . . . ii „ 
 CeUular fibre.. 4S „ 
 
 Sugar . . . . 2 parts. 
 
 Oil i „ 
 
 Albumen . . . , 4J „ 
 
 Ash a „ 
 
 A sucker attains maturity in a year ; each produces a bunch of 
 fruit weighing from 25 to 90 lbs. One tree gives 4 lbs. of fibre ; 
 600 lbs. weight of fibre might be produced annually from each 
 acre of plantains. The plantain is used as a nurse or shade to the 
 
THE PLANTAIN AND BANANA. 463 
 
 betel vine and other plants. Tlie top of the stem yields a juice 
 good for making ink. The fibre can furnish material for paper 
 and canvas ; thus the plantain gives food for body and mind. The 
 Chinese use the young shoots for paper-making ; 1607 square feet 
 of groimd yield 4000 lbs. of nutritive substance from plantains, 
 which will support fifty persons; the same space planted with 
 wheat will support only two. 
 
 It is in season all the year round. The Dacca plantain is 
 9 inches long ; in Madagascar the plantains are as large as a man's 
 forearm. In the mountains of the Philippines a single fruit or two 
 is said to be a load for a man. All the large ones require, like 
 potatoes, to be roasted. 
 
 Twelve months after planting 70 lbs. of fruit are often obtained 
 from a single plant. The south of. Spain is the only part of Europe 
 in which the banana is cultivated in the open air.* 
 
 The name of plantain and banana is very indiscriminately applied 
 in many countries where they are grown, but, properly speaking, 
 the term plantain is restricted to the larger plants, the fruits of 
 which are usually eaten cooked, while those of the banana, wlien 
 ripe, beiug more saccharine, can be eaten raw as fruit. The French 
 call the plantain "banane," and the bananas " bacoves," or fig 
 bananas. Generally the pulp contains no seeds, but in Akyab and 
 the Arracan coast there exists a species which is full of seed. 
 These are large, black, and not unlike the cotton seed. The flavour, 
 also, is very inferior. The Poyat, or Martinique banana, grows to 
 a very large size in some districts, and woiild possibly yield more 
 fibre than the common plantain. 
 
 Trinidad. — In former years, 7^ million plantains were annually 
 imported from the Spanish Main to supply the local consumption 
 in this island, 9 millions being required in Port of Spain alone. 
 Although the foreign imports are now less, yet the increased 
 extension of the cultivation is recommended. 
 
 The establishment of plantain walks for the annual production 
 of 9 or 10 million fruit will necessarily be a work of time, as 
 plants for any great number of stools require time and outlay to 
 collect and carry. A thousand plantain suckers take some gather- 
 ing, and are not as easily carried as tobacco seed, of which one can 
 put as much as will sow several acres in an envelope. It must 
 take years to establish any extensive plantain cultivation. A 
 bunch of plantains of the kind commonest here and on the Main 
 (usually called horse plantain) does not consist of more than 
 20 to 25 fruit, and as it might not be safe to reckon on more 
 than three bunches fit to gather from the stool in a year (generally 
 stated at four during the twelve months), one cannot reckon on an 
 acre, with the stools planted at 10 feet apart, producing more than 
 30,000 to 40,000 plantains per annum, as at such distance the acre 
 will hold but '430 or 440 stools. 
 
 It will be seen that it would not require more than 220 acres to 
 yield the 7 million plantains wanted, nor more than 310 acres, 
 
 * Long's ' Plants of Bengal.' 
 
464: FRUITS OF COMMERCE. 
 
 in full yield, to give the 10 millions that could be disposed of for 
 ordinary consumption. We say ordinary consumption, because 
 there are other applications of the plantain, by which it could be 
 converted into an article of commerce commanding a sale abroad, 
 the amount of which is entirely uncertain, but might easily exceed 
 the local demand for the raw article if it fell in with the popular 
 taste in northern countries. These applications have not yet been 
 tested, so far as we are aware, on a commercial scale, but they 
 undoubtedly open a great possible future for what old Dampier 
 called " the King of Pruit." 
 
 With regard to its geographical distributions, the plantain is 
 an object of cultivation over an immense zone, which extends, 
 although not continuously, from 38° N. to almost 35° S. latitude. 
 A mean temperature of from 18° to 20° Cent, suits it best, provided, 
 however, the winters are not too rigorous. In Cuba the small 
 species are cultivated in situations where the thermometer falls to 
 7° Cent., and even sometimes almost to zero. The Musa sapientum, 
 is satisfied with 18° of mean heat, but Musa paradisiacai&qmTBS at 
 least 20° to 22°, and that, too, only in the climates of equatorial 
 regions. It produces the best crops in a temperature of 24° to 28°, 
 and yields no fruit at 20°, nor at an altitude of more than 3000 feet 
 in the southern latitudes from to 10° (Humboldt). 
 
 In the Cordilleras of New Granada the banana is productive at 
 an altitude of nearly 6000 feet, but according to Boussingault, the 
 fruit never ripens at an elevation of 7000 feet. Schomburgk has 
 seen the Musa bearing fruit in British Guiana at 3000 feet above 
 the level of the sea ; the fruit was magnificent, and would have 
 borne comparison with the finest from Porto Eico. In Hindostan 
 the Musa is cultivated at an elevation of 3700 to 5000 feet, at 
 Kumaon and Gurhwal, in the middle of the Himalaya chain. 
 Major Munro found a wild species at Kondah (Mlgherris), nearly 
 7000 feet above the level of the sea. Dr. Madden also discovered 
 an indigenous Musa in the Himalaya range, to the north of the 
 province of Assam. 
 
 Asia is, as we have seen, the native country of the banana plant ; 
 many varieties are also found in the Indian Archipelago, China, 
 Cochin China, and Hindostan. On one side of the continent they 
 are spread over Polynesia, and, lately, in Australia ; and on the 
 other, in Persia, in Beloochistan, in Asia Minor, as far as Mount 
 Taurus, and in Arabia. In Africa the banana has not the same 
 importance as in Asia and America, except sometimes in Guinea 
 and Madagascar, where many indigenous Musas are cultivated. 
 It is not to be found on the eastern coast, but only in gardens 
 higher up the country, in Abyssinia, Nubia, and Egypt. The 
 northern part of Africa also possesses the plant, which has been 
 carried thither by the victorious Arabs, but no great attention has 
 ever been paid to it in that region. When we pass into Europe, 
 we see the banana appear in some gardens in Greece, in Sicily^ 
 and especially in the southern provinces of Spain. It was intro- 
 duced into the last-named. country by the Moors, who cultivated it 
 extensively in the neighbourhood of Armenia. The eastern parts 
 
THE PLAKTAIN AND BANANA. 465 
 
 of Portugal, whose marine and equal climate is singularly favour- 
 able to the naturalisation of tropical plants, include even the 
 Musa sapientum among their garden productions. The Musa 
 Gavendishii smdMusa sinensis have also been successfully introduced 
 into that country. Equatorial America has immense resources in 
 the banana ; Mexico, Central America, Colombia, Upper and Lower 
 Peru, Brazil, the Guianas, and the Antilles, more especially Haiti 
 and Cuba, cultivate this plant on a vast scale. The banana exists 
 even in Louisiana, Florida, and the other Southern States, where 
 efforts have been made for some time to extend its cultivation. 
 
 A warm and rather moist soil is best suited to the propagation 
 of the banana, that is to say, a soil in which there is a plentiful 
 admixture of clay, as in the immense valleys of America and Asia, 
 and in the grassy plains of Malaysia. It seems to like the neigh- 
 bourhood of the sea, and an atmosphere impregnated with salt, for 
 it is in that kind of situation that it appears to prosper best. In 
 Egypt it grows well in the nitrous plains of Eosetta. In the 
 majority of countries where the plantain is grown no manure is 
 necessary, owing to the decomposition of the stems and the alluvial 
 nature of the soil. But in other less favourable soils manure may 
 be requisite to maintain a vigorous and constant production. A 
 plantain walk is usually established a little before the rainy season 
 commences. The soil is loosened to a foot or less, so as to receive 
 the young plants. It is thoroughly cleansed of all weeds and 
 stones which may be there. Then shoots or suckers are taken 
 from the parent stem, of from 2 to 3 feet high, their bulbs being 
 divided from the principal bulb by means of a mattock. These 
 slips are cut about 8 inches above the neck, and placed in a 
 slanting direction in the prepared holes, and covered with earth, 
 leaving in sight only about 2 inches. The length of time which 
 elapses between the planting of the slips and their fruiting depends 
 on climate, situation, and variety of species. Thus Musa sapientum 
 fruits in the fifth and sixth month, whilst the Musa paradisiaca 
 requires ten months, and sometimes even a longer time than that. 
 Two varieties of the fig banana, the canaya and gengi, produce their 
 fruit in five months. In mountain districts, the fruit of the large 
 banana ripens only at the end of eighteen or twenty months of 
 cultivation; some varieties indeed, in such position, take three 
 years to produce fruit. The leaves of the banana afford a useful 
 shelter, and it is therefore of great service in tropical agriculture 
 to young plants, which would otherwise suffer severely from the 
 excessive heat of the sun. 
 
 In British Guiana, the plantains are set six yards apart, and 
 yams, maize, cocos, or canes planted in the intervals. 
 
 The cultivation of the plantain is one of the easiest to undertake, 
 and at the same time one of the most profitable ; when once it has 
 been planted, there is nothing more to do except realize tho 
 harvest, for the trifle of manure bestowed upon the soil two or 
 three times a year is nothing in comparison with the labour 
 necessary in Europe to bring crops to perfection. As these plants 
 renew themselves with offshoots at different degrees of develop- 
 
 2 u 
 
466 
 
 THE FEUITS OF COMMERCE. 
 
 ment, it follows that each plantation offers at the same time rows 
 whose branches are laden with ripe fruit ; rows whose branches 
 are full of blossom, and young offsets, which give promise of future 
 plenty. In the best situation, three rows are counted to each 
 cluster of bananas, sometimes four; in general they obtain five 
 rows in two years. " There is no culture that can be undertaken 
 with more confidence than that of the banana," says M. Boussin- 
 gault, "for if climatic influences should sometimes have a pre- 
 judicial effect on the crop, they could never completely destroy 
 the prospect of a harvest, as the certainty would always remain of 
 that to be obtained from the surviving and stronger growing off- 
 shoots or suckers. No other vegetable production presents similar 
 advantages — not even the maize, that crop so precious in the 
 warmer regions of the globe. 
 
 " The enormous return from this plant assures to the inhabitants 
 of tropical countries an abundant means of sustenance, and one 
 that can be obtained at a low price, as it is acquired without 
 difficulty. But in consequence of the facility with which, thanks 
 to the banana, the means of sustenance can be obtained, as the 
 proverb runs, ' Personne ne meurt de besoin en Amerique,' the 
 inhabitants have a great excuse for being indolent, which they are 
 already inclined to be on account of the climate." 
 
 The large banana is gathered at three different stages. At a 
 fourth part of its maturity, it is rather milky and contains much 
 starch. If it is roasted in ashes, or boiled in water, it forms a very 
 nourishing food, capable of being substituted for bread. If cut at 
 three-fourths of its growth, it is less nourishing, but contains 
 more sugar ; in this state, it is eaten as an accompaniment to meat. 
 Lastly, when the fruit is perfectly ripe, all the starch is changed 
 into gum or sugar ; it then develops an acid principle ; in this 
 state it is eaten either raw or in the form of fritters. The banana 
 fig, which is eaten when perfectly ripe, is rather a fruit than a 
 nutritive substance ; it is soft, full of sugar, melting, possesses a 
 powerful perfume, and forms a principal dish for dessert in 
 tropical regions. In some countries they cut them while they are 
 green, and hang the bunches in their houses to ripen. To hasten 
 their ripening in China they are covered with rice, or even with 
 lime. The Chinese also eat the flowers of the banana pickled with 
 vinegar. 
 
 The banana when plucked keeps fresh for a week ; at the end 
 of that time it becomes yellowish and more sugary ; in twelve or 
 fifteen days it begins to decompose and ferment. In America 
 there are two methods of preserving the banana ; the first, used 
 when the fruit is green, produces banana farina ; the other, when 
 the fruit is completely ripe, produces the platano-pasado of the 
 Mexicans, or the platano-curado of the province of Neyba, New 
 Granada. 
 
 There is a method of utilizing this plant, made use of in South 
 America, but it is defective in a great many points as compared 
 with that already noticed. _ They grate the fruits, having first 
 peeled them, squeeze the moisture out in a press, bake them, like 
 
THE PLANTAIN AND BANANA. 467 
 
 manioc, in an oven, and by this means obtain a coarse kind of flour- 
 But the nutritive property of this is inferior to that prepared from 
 the dried slices, for no doubt the pressure which extracts the 
 moisture expels also the soluble albumen, and other nutritious 
 qualities. 
 
 The next method of preserving the banana very closely resembles 
 that commonly used in the preparation of dried fruits, such as figs, 
 prunes, &c. The time chosen is when the fruit is quite ripe, and 
 its skin has become of a yellow colour, shaded with black. In 
 Mexico in the " terras culientes," and particularly in Mechoucan 
 and Xarisco, bananas are dried simply by exposure to the atmo- 
 sphere. According to Colonel Colquhoun, they proceed in this 
 manner : the fruits are exposed to the sun in bundles, and when 
 they begin to wrinkle they are peeled, for the skin, if left on, 
 causes a disagreeable flavour. They are kept for some time, until 
 an efflorescence of sugar appears on their surface, as on dried flgs 
 and prunes. They are then pressed in masses of about 25 lbs. each, 
 and wrapped in leaves of the banana plant, or else kept in boxes. 
 Of course, these methods can only be adopted in countries where 
 the climate is very dry. In others, recourse must be had to 
 artificial means, which are unfortunately more costly. 
 
 There are three distinct ways in which the ripe banana may be 
 dried. First, exposing the fruit to an atmosphere of sulphuric acid 
 gas before the desiccation is begun. Second, boiling rapidly very ripe 
 fruit in water which contains sulphate of lime. Third, by boiling 
 it in syrup. By either of these, the albumen and caseine of the 
 fruit coagulates, and the tendency of the banana to decay and 
 ferment is stopped at a period favourable for desiccation. 
 Experience shows that the second method is the best to employ ; 
 in moist climates, without this precaution, the fruit, instead of 
 drying, becomes damp. To expose the fruit to the sun's rays after 
 boiling, trays of bamboo, as in Mexico, or of anything which 
 permits the free action of the air and light on the fruit, may be 
 used. If rain falls, they are dried in a furnace, which must be left 
 open, otherwise the bananas bake instead of drying. The heat, 
 also, must be moderate. The bananas, when dry, are pressed and 
 packed in boxes. The fruit thus prepared is a very good article of 
 food, resembling figs, and its abundance and easy preparation 
 would render it a cheap one. 
 
 Some of the fruit of the plantain was exhibited at the Great 
 Exhibition of 1851, that had been in England for sixteen years. 
 It was still in an eatable state, and had much the taste of dried 
 figs. The cost of keeping up a plantain estate in Demerara 
 would be about £6 per acre ; and the produce of the stem alone for 
 fibre, if cut every eight months, would be 1400 or 1500 good stems 
 every cutting, or 4500 stems in two years. The average quantity 
 of fibre per stem may be put at 4 lbs., or 9000 lbs. per annum per 
 acre, at a cost of £6 ; and add £4 for the preparation for market, 
 the cost would not exceed ^d. per lb. In this way (by the succes- 
 sion of suckers) the production of the plantain is enormous ; and 
 Humboldt's statement, once thought exaggerated, that an acre of 
 
 2 H 2 
 
468 THE FEUITS OF COMMERCE. 
 
 good land in the tropics, covered with the plantain, would yield as 
 much nutritious food as 144 acres of wheat, is no longer denied or 
 doubted. 
 
 The plantain is noted for the abundance and excellence of the 
 nutritive food which it yields. The fruit is served up both raw 
 and stewed ; slices fried are also considered a delicacy. Plantains 
 are sometimes boiled and eaten with salt meat, and pounded and 
 made into puddings, and used in various other ways. In theiir 
 ripe state these fruits contain much starchy matter. 
 
 A few bananas are occasionally imported to England, but they 
 are seldom received in such perfection as to form an estimate of 
 their flavour ; nor are they at the best of times much appreciated. 
 A considerable trade is, however, carried on in bananas between 
 New York and Aspinwall, the Atlantic seaport of the Panama 
 railway. Not a steamer leaves without taking from 5000 to 8000 
 bunches, and during the year something like 200,000 bunches (or 
 800 tons) of bananas are exported to New York. They are grown 
 in plantations or walks, seven or eight miles from the town. After 
 the small bush is cut down, fire is run over the land, and the 
 suckers are planted irregularly all through, 6 or 7 feet apart. 
 The kinds principally cultivated are the doubloon, the China, and 
 the fig. The last most resembles the honey banana of Jamaica. 
 The plantain is not exported, but is only used for home consump- 
 tion. The Indians manufacture a kind of spirit from the plantain. 
 When the fruit is fully ripe, the Indian gathers it, peels oif the 
 skin and throws the fruit into a dish, where it remains for some- 
 days. After fermenting, he draws off the liquor and puts it in 
 his home-made bottle for future use. The liquor, or as the Indian 
 terms it, " rum," is said to be strong and very intoxicating. When 
 drunk to excess the effects remain for two or three days. 
 
 In Jamaica, the banana seldom comes to maturity in less than 
 twelve or fourteen months ; but in Aspinwall, six or eight months 
 are sufSoient. In Jamaica, when a sucker is planted, it only comes up 
 single and bears but one bunch of fruit ; but in Aspinwall a sucker 
 comes up with several shoots, and these bear in succession one 
 after another. The bunch of fruit is cut with as long a stalk as 
 possible, for the convenience of carrying, and it is always cut 
 green before it ever begins to ripen, or the fruit would rot before 
 they arrived at New York. 
 
 The banana is the chief fruit at present cultivated in the West 
 Indies, and this fruit is the one which in the future will be more 
 largely offered in the English market than any other. There are 
 numerous varieties of this fruit under cultivation. The Martinique 
 banana is found the most profitable to grow for export, although a 
 smaller fruit, known as the fig banana, is more luscious and more 
 highly esteemed locally as a dessert fruit. Jamaica exports 
 bananas to the value of nearly £200,000 per annum, and is capable of 
 growing fully three times the quantity now exported without any 
 diminution in the larger staples. The fruit when cooked furnishes 
 an important article of food to the negroes in the West Indies. 
 Plantain Meal.— A meal is prepared by slicing the plantain and 
 
THE PLANTAIN AND BANANA. 469 
 
 drying it in the sun, after which it is ground. It is very palatable 
 and digestive, and suitable for invalids or children. The composi- 
 tion and nutritive value of this meal closely approaches to rice. 
 One acre on an average would yield upwards of one ton of meal. 
 
 This flour of the plantain, known in many parts of the "West 
 Indies as conquintay, is highly esteemed, and extensively used 
 as a food for invalids and children. It is decidedly superior in 
 these respects to arrowroot, in consequence of its nourishing 
 and strengthening qualities. But it is scarcely known at all 
 dn Europe, where I believe it would be greatly prized. It is 
 prepared by stripping off the husk of the plantain, slicing the 
 core, and drying it in the sun. "When thoroughly dry it is 
 powdered and sifted. It has a fragrant odour, acquired in drying, 
 somewhat resembling fresh hay or tea. It is largely employed as 
 the food of infants and invalids. As food for children and con- 
 valescents it would, probably, be much esteemed in Europe ; and 
 it deserves a trial on account of its fragrance, and its being ex- 
 ceedingly easy of digestion. In respect of nutritiveness it should 
 have a preference over all the pure starches on account of the 
 proteine compounds it contains. The plantain meal would, probably, 
 be best and freshest were the sliced and dried plantain cores 
 exported, leaving the grinding and sifting to be done in Europe. 
 The flavour of the meal depends a good deal on the rapidity with 
 which the slices are dried ; hence the operation is only fitted for 
 dry weather, unless, indeed, when there was occasion for it, 
 recourse were had to a kiln or stove. 
 
 Plantain starch cannot enter into commercial competition with 
 other starches. The difficulty of separating it from the rest of the 
 constituents of the fruit, its unusual colour, and the high value of 
 the fruit in its other applications, will, probably, prevent its 
 being considered but as a curiosity. The colour resists the free 
 application of chlorine water. A few particles of the starch 
 under the microscope show irregularly oval corpuscles, and some 
 oblong, varying from ^^ to ^^ of an inch in diameter, and, 
 in most cases, :^^^ of an inch in breadth. A few globules, 
 almost spherical, are observed, measuring ^^Vtr o^ ^^ inch. 
 As the colour, however, is sufficient to identify this starch, no aid 
 from measurements or shape of its globules is required. 
 
 Vinegar from the plantain is obtained by a very simple process. 
 "When there is a temporary glut in the market, the surplus, when 
 yellow, is thrown into baskets, supported on open barrels. The 
 fruit liquefies and drops into the receiver, where the juice ferments 
 and speedily becomes vinegar. No water is used in the process. 
 
 Let us now glance at some of the uses of the stalk. The stem 
 is filled with an abundant pith, enveloped in fibrous cases, and 
 containing much starch. This boiled might serve as human food ; 
 animals like it very much. Cattle, and especially the pig, relish 
 this kind of sustenance. 
 
 A curious fact connected with the banana plant is that the sap 
 is so abundant that it escapes whenever an incision is made into 
 the outer coating. The sap has been examined and analysed by 
 
470 THE FEUITS OF COMMERCE. 
 
 FoTircroy, Vauquelin, and Boussingault. According to the last 
 ■writer it contains tannin, gallic acid, acetic acid, chloride of sodium, 
 salts of lime, potass, and aluminium. If cotton, linen, or flax are 
 dipped into it whilst perfectly fresh, it deposits a colouring matter 
 of a yellowish grey, which adheres to the fibre. When exposed to 
 the air it becomes agitated, and precipitates flocoules of a dirty 
 rose colour. This phenomenon is produced by the oxygen con- 
 tained in the atmosphere. The banana plant is used in Annam, or 
 Cochin China, and the Philippines, in the process of refining sugar. 
 Masses of raw sugar are placed in layers 1 inch thick and 1(> 
 wide, which are covered by a layer of stalk of this plant, cut into 
 small pieces. According to Grosie, however, it is the ashes of the 
 Musa paradisiaca which they use in this process. The aqueous 
 liquor that flows from the stalks filtrates through the sugarj 
 carrying away with it all impurities, and leaving the sugar in a 
 crystallized state. The sap is also of great value as a mordant in 
 dyeing ; the Malays, by means of it, fix the green colour of the 
 Dolichos Lahldb. When employed alone the sap of the cochon 
 banana communicates to fabrics a purple tint, which is durable. 
 The sap has also medicinal properties. It is used in St. Domingo 
 to stop internal and external hoemorrhage, as tannin is in other 
 countries ; and at the Philippines, to heal a species of venereal 
 disease very common in the province of Bisayas. 
 
 In Cuba, Mr. Eussell tells us, " The plantain, or banana, is seen 
 growing over the whole island, affording shade and shelter to 
 every cabin, however small or mean. Though it wants the grace 
 and beauty of the coconut palm, its form is peculiarly tropical, 
 none more so. In good soil it grows to the height of 20 feet. It 
 is -about 9 inches in diameter at the base, tapering towards the top, 
 when it sends out long broad leaves, and also a short stalk bearing 
 a heavy cluster of fruit (which, in Jamaica, I have known to weigh 
 as much as 70 lbs.). The plantain requires to be renewed on good 
 soil only once in forty years. Little care is bestowed upon its 
 culture, being planted in check rows 12 feet apart. The ground 
 usually receives two ploughings during the season. It is not 
 unfrequently seen growing, however, on the shallow soils of the 
 coral formation, where there is little for it to fix its roots, except 
 the crevices of the rock. It is largely used by aU classes, and 
 commonly pulled when green, and cooked with grease or oil. In 
 Jamaica it is roasted in the wood ashes of the kitchen fire, and 
 used as a substitute for bread, and it is also boiled and used as a 
 potato. In this form it is seen on the tables of both rich and poor. 
 For, although the plantain cannot support the strength of the 
 overworked labourer, it furnishes, when the work is light, a 
 most wholesome and delicious food. ... I rode through a field 
 of plantains attached to an estate, of 60 acres in extent." 
 
 The plantain, pr banana, is generally admitted to be a better 
 developed plant in the West than in the East Indies. All hot 
 climates seem equally congenial to its growth. It is considered 
 by the best authorities to be a native of the East Indies and other 
 parts of the Asiatic continent, and probably of Africa. Baron 
 
THE PLANTAIN AND BANANA. 471 
 
 Humboldt has, however, suggested tbat several of the species of 
 Musa may, possibly, be confounded under the names of plantain 
 and banana, and that some of these may be indigenous to America. 
 Linnaeus conjectured that the Bihai (Heliconia humilis), a native of 
 Caraccas, which produces fertile seeds, is the stock of the plantain. 
 
 Dr. Eoyle, whose opinion is more reliable on the subject, agrees 
 with Mr. Brown in thinking "nothing has been advanced to 
 prevent all the cultivated varieties being derived from one species, 
 Musa sapientmn (also called Musa paradisiaca, the banana), of which 
 the original is the wild Musa described by Dr. Koxburgh as grown 
 from seed received from Ohittagong." 
 
 The banana and plantain form a large portion of the food of the 
 , natives in New Caledonia. Before the French occupation they 
 had but four species — M. fehi, Bert ; M. paradisiaca, Linn. ; M. dis- 
 color, Hort ; and M. oleraeea. Nob. Musa sinensis and sapientum, 
 introduced only a few years, have begun to be extensively culti- 
 vated among the tribes. 
 
 The plantain loves moist situations, and requires, for perfect 
 development, a rich soil. The labourers plant it much too closelj' ; 
 it should be allowed, from root to root, a space of 14 feet good. 
 The first year's crop thereby may be reduced, but the cultivator 
 will have his reward in the subsequent yield. Besides, in wide 
 planting, the better opportunity is afforded of self-reimbursement 
 to the planter in the shape of inter-culture of other minor articles, 
 such as Indian corn, peas, &c. 
 
 Plantain Fibre. — When the fruit has arrived at maturity, the 
 stem that bore it is felled and left to rot on the ground, but this 
 might be turned to advantage for its fibre. It is stated officially 
 that the yield of fibre from thousands of acres of the plantain is 
 lost annually in the colony of British Guiana alone, for want of 
 simple and inexpensive means for separating it. Could an efficient 
 and cheap machine be invented, the fibre would be almost entire 
 profit to the planter. The banana yields less fibre than the plan- 
 tain, and it is generally somewhat discoloured or tinted. 
 
 The next point for consideration is the machinery necessary for 
 cleaning and preparing the fibre ; it is recommended that the stalk 
 be cut into lengths of about 4 feet, and also divided into four, so as 
 to be able to separate the dijBferent qualities of fibre before passing 
 through the miU, formed of horizontal rollers, by which means the 
 water and a portion of feculse or pulp would be pressed out. There 
 would still remain a portion closely adhering to the fibre to be got 
 rid of, which would require a scraping operation, which there is 
 no doubt could be performed by means of a scraper of wood or 
 metal attached to the mill, and put in motion by the same motive 
 power ; it would then require the application of water, the more 
 effectually to loosen the remaining matter ; exposure to the sun 
 would dry and bleach it after being passed through a heckle, 
 which would separate the threads. The difference in value of 
 each description and quality of fibre must depend upon its strength 
 and its fitness for the various purposes for which it would be found 
 applicable in the manufacture of cloth, cordage, paper, &c. Prac- 
 
472 THE FKQITS OF COMMEECE. 
 
 tical experience would soon prove the most effectual methods of 
 performing the several operations, and if fitted to the purposes for 
 vrhich they are required ; the most suitable localities for these 
 plantations would, no doubt, be in the mountain districts, or in 
 the plains, if well supplied with streams of water running through 
 them. Experience will soon determine which variety of Musa is 
 most valuable for producing fibre for manufacturing purposes. 
 The best plant for this purpose is that which will produce the 
 greatest return in the shortest period, requiring but little know- 
 ledge and expense in cultivation. 
 
 The one pre-eminently fitted to answer all these requirements is 
 the Martinique banana (^Musa sapienturri), requiring but little or no 
 skill and energy in its general management; for quantity, colour, 
 and texture of fibre, it surpasses by far all varieties of the common 
 plantain (^Musa paradisiaca), which is a delicate plant, and 
 frequently requires to be renewed or re-planted. The production 
 of suckers and weight of stem are at least one-third less than the 
 banana, and the fibre by no means so strong. I would also 
 recommend two other species of Musa to the cultivators of this 
 genus for their valuable fibre. One is the Musa violacea, an exotic 
 from the Philippines, and in no respect inferior to the banana, 
 except in the absence of edible fruit. The plant is exceedingly 
 prolific and hardy. The other is the one producing the well- 
 known Manila hemp (^Musa textilis^, and no expense or trouble 
 ought to be spared by the Colonial Governments to introduce 
 suckers and seeds of this most valuable plant in quantity in the 
 West Indies, as it takes a long time to obtain stock from the 
 produce of one plant. 
 
 The following is the mode of preparing plantain fibre in 
 Jamaica : — ■ 
 
 The plantain is cut when ripe, and the outside layer is split in 
 longitudinal slices and put through a mill, and afterwards boiled 
 in a copper, with a small quantity of potash, soda, or quick-lime, 
 to take off the mucilage. This layer is the coarsest, and requires a 
 longer time to boil, therefore is to be done separately. The next 
 layer is to be done the same way, and being finer and more valu- 
 able, should be kept by itself. The following layer ditto. The 
 centre part of the plantain ditto. 
 
 As the inner part is the finest fibre, requires the shortest time to 
 boil, and commands the highest price, that is the reason why these 
 boilings require to be performed separately. 
 
 After boiling, the fibre is hung up on ropes to dry, and it can 
 then be carried down and sold to the merchants, or shipped 
 direct. 
 
 Several modes have been recommended for the preparation of 
 the fibre. 
 
 1st. Beating, washing, and drying. 
 
 2nd. Simply cutting and drying. 
 
 3rd. Scraping. 
 
 If we look at the structure of the plant itself, we shall be able to 
 form an estimate of those processes. 
 
THE PLANTAi:? AND BANANA. 473 
 
 The plant is composed of at least two very visible rows of cells, 
 an innei- and outer, along its whole extent upwards and down- 
 wards, and through every layer, there being several layers. 
 
 The cells are formed of fibre, for " uprights " and " sills " and 
 " plates," and tissue, as it were for " plastering ; " the former 
 useful for ropes, fabrics, &o., the latter for paper. 
 
 Of the processes named above, the last is the only one that pro- 
 duces fibre in its pure state ; but, whether we scrape from the 
 inner or outer surface, we must lose all the tissue, and probably 
 more than half the fibre. 
 
 The first process will produce the material of the plantain stalk 
 in a fit state for shipment with partially clean fibre, but nearly all 
 the tissue will be lost. The washing, also, should be simple 
 rinsing, for allowing the tissue to remain in water tends to 
 discolour it greatly. 
 
 The second process, I imagine, would be very slow, in con- 
 sequence of the abundant water of the stalks. I apprehend also 
 the discolouration which would ensue from the process would 
 render the material all but unfit for market, except at a very low 
 rate. 
 
 It seems desirable that tbree or four objects should be kept in 
 view in any process : — 
 
 1st. Saving of the cellular tissue for paper. 
 
 2nd. Preserving the fibre of an agreeable appearance. 
 
 3rd. Ultimate freeing the fibre from the tissue. 
 
 4th. Preserving all the fibre. 
 
 And, with relation to these, the processes and mechanical 
 arrangement are to be considered. 
 
 By no process of the hand can clean fibre be profitably secured. 
 For this resort must be had to machinery. 
 
 The fibrous material, that is to say, the stalk after it has 
 undergone the squeezing process without separation of the tissue 
 or pulp, may be prepared either by hand or machine, the latter 
 being, of course, the most economical. 
 
 Squeezing, rinsing, partial separation, or " teazing " with the 
 hand, after being hung up on rails of bamboo, or other cheap 
 article, and rapid drying, may be recommended as a simple and 
 efficacious piocess for obtaining the fibrous mateiial in a favourable 
 state, and with the several objects referred to in view. 
 
 Machinery for performing this, and effecting the final separation 
 of the fibre from the pulp or tissue, must be a desideratum. In 
 the absence of such machinery, parties can only hope to prepare 
 advantageously the fibrous material by hand. 
 
 It has been supposed that boiling of the material would render 
 the separation of the fibre at a future time more easy ; but this 
 seems unnecessary. Simple saturation in water for some few 
 hours renders it fit for further process. 
 
 Much objection is felt by the labourers, from whom alone are 
 the stalks at present to be procured in abundance, to cutting the 
 stalks, from the fear of injury to young shoots by loss of manure. 
 It would be well if fear on this head could be shown groundless. 
 
474 
 
 THE FKDITS OF COMMERCE. 
 
 The Eev. "W. J. Pearson, of St. Thomas's, Jamaica, thus speaks, 
 after much practical experience in the preparation of the fibre : — 
 
 Provided the tissue remain on till it reaches England, the 
 fibrous material ought to be more valuable than the clean fibre, 
 for the worth of the pulp should exceed the cost of separation. 
 In the preparation of the material, also, it seems unnecessary to 
 preserve more than two qualities, that of outer and inner, and this 
 not from any great difference in the fibres, but from the colour of 
 the tissue, the outer being darker than the inner. Coarse and fine 
 fibres will be found in every layer, and the former are, for the 
 most part, but assemblages of the latter. 
 
 In trying the strength of the fibrous material, it will be well to 
 ascertain whether you have a thin or stout fibre overlaid with tissue, 
 otherwise the result would be deceptive. 
 
 The process of preparation, both of the material and of the fibre, 
 being tedious, it is very probable that difficulty will be experienced 
 in inducing the labourers to engage in it on their own account, at 
 any rate until the returns become certain and profitable. 
 
 The quantity of material or fibre yielded \>j a sucker is, at 
 present, so small that until results prove remunerative, they will 
 not have sufficient inducement to enter on the new source of 
 industry. From my experience, stalks do not average more than 
 1 J lb. of fibrous material, consequently of clean fibre much less. 
 The fibrous material seems almost fit for the manufacture of small 
 cordage, even as it is. 
 
 It must not be supposed that the work of preparing the 
 " material " is either easy or pleasant. To bring up the suckers 
 from the deep valleys in which they sometimes grow, is a difficult 
 task, and to carry them on the head up hill and down dale, as has 
 often to be done, is very laborious. While some suckers are small, 
 there are others frequently heavier than can be borne by one man, 
 and until the work can be carried on by cart, there is no help but 
 to divide such for long distances. The process by hand of express- 
 ing the watery parts is also very tedious, and drying and baling 
 require much care and attention. 
 
 Manila hemp takes its name from the chief city of the Philippines. 
 It is not hemp, however, but the fibre of a species of plantain 
 (M. textilis), which does not differ greatly from the edible banana, 
 and is probably a variety of the same species. Thus far, according 
 to Dr. Jagor, the serviceable fibre has been exclusively obtained 
 from the southern portion of the Philippines, all attempts to make 
 its cultivation profitable in the western and northern provinces 
 having failed. A species of banana grows in great luxuriance in 
 Western Java, but it has not been utilized as a fibre plant to any 
 great extent. Great efforts were made in Celebes to cultivate 
 this fibre, but it has been abandoned in favour of coffee, which is 
 found to be far more profitable. For domestic purposes the plan- 
 tain fibre, known to commerce also as abaca, is made use of in 
 many tropical countries, and in time will doubtless be largely 
 supplied ; but for the present the supply comes, as already stated, 
 from the Philippines. 
 
THE PLANTAIN AND BANANA. 475 
 
 There is some dispute as to the true scientific name of the 
 species of Musa from which the Manila hemp of commerce, the 
 cbbaca of the Portuguese and Spaniards, is obtained. It is no-w 
 usually assigned to M. textilis, Nees, hut probably some may be 
 obtained from Jlf. Troglodytarum, Lin., a native of the same locality. 
 Some ascribe it also to M. sylvestris and Jlf. Balhisiana. There are 
 several species of Musa wild and indigenous to the Amboyna, 
 Moluccas, and the Philippines. 
 
 The plant thrives best on the shaded forest-covered slopes of 
 volcanic mountains, such as abound in Albay and Camarines ; on 
 level ground not so well, and on marshy land not at all. The 
 plant requires, on an average, three years to produce its fibre in a 
 proper condition. For the first crop only one stalk is cut from 
 each bunch ; later on, the new suckers grow so quickly that they 
 can be cut every two months. In full growth the yield is 
 30 cwts. to the acre, whereas from an acre of flax not more than 
 4 cwts. is obtained. After the plantation is once established, the 
 plants flourish without any care or attention, the only trouble 
 being to collect the fibre. One plant may yield as much as 2 lbs. 
 of fibre, but the average is not more than 1 lb. ; on indifferent soil 
 much less. 
 
 Several grades of fibre &re derived from different parts of the 
 stem, the edges yielding thf finest. The fibre, which lies nest the 
 surface, is stripped off by hand in broad bands, and then softened 
 by being drawn backwards and forwards between a broad-bladed 
 knife and a block of wood. The fabrics woven are nearly as fine 
 as the nipis de pina (pine-apple fibre). For purity, flexibility, 
 and colour, the finest of these! plantain fabrics are said to compare 
 with cambric as cardboard (Joes to tissue paper. According to 
 Jagor, the finest stuffs requii^ so great an amount of dexterity, 
 patience, and time in their preparation, and are consequently so 
 expensive, that they cannot compete with the cheap machine-made 
 goods of Europe. Their fine warm yellowish colour also is objected 
 to by European women accustonjied to linen and muslin strongly 
 blued in the washing. By the rich half-castes, however, who 
 understand the real goodness off their qualities, they are highly 
 appreciated. In the regions where abaca is cultivated, the entire 
 dress of both sexes is made of tMs coarse cloth, called guimara. 
 For foreign markets, still coarser aM stronger fabrics are prepared, 
 such as crinoline and stiff muslin, used by dressmakers. 
 
 It is as an article for export, hovVever, that the cleaned fibre is 
 of the most importance commerciall;^-. Nearly half of the produce 
 goes to America. Much of the refi*f e is very largely used in the 
 manufacture of paper. \ 
 
 From the fibre of this plant, cordag^ mats, and wearing apparel 
 are made in the Philippines. \ 
 
 Leyte and Saniar in 1856 had a com'Rined export of 5000 tons; 
 Negros, 800 tons. South Camarines ancl Albay produce the largest 
 part of the existing export of fibre, land yield a considerable 
 quantity of remarkably good quality. \ i, i j +i 
 
 Large supplies are derived from Leyt^ Saniar, Bohol, and the 
 
 \ 
 
476 THE FRUITS OF COMMERCE. 
 
 east coast of Negros (Dumaguete), in I'ts more immediate vicinity. 
 WHle from the great island of Mindanao a further supply is 
 obtained, from the fine province of Misamis, and from the small 
 island of Carneguin, which produces nearly 1000 tons of good 
 hemp, all of which goes to Oebu. 
 
 The plantain from which it is obtained '.^g propagated with great 
 rapidity, being planted in the rainy seasoL Qne hundred plants 
 occupy about 1000 square yards of landl_ I'jj^g rude method of 
 preparing the fibre is as follows : The steni, after having attained 
 the age of between two and three years, i^ gut down and stripped 
 of its layers or folds ; these are then dividig^. into sections of 3 or 
 4 inches wide, and the pulpy or fleshy part separated by the pro- 
 cess of drawing them under a knife fixed ifQj. tjjg purpose • the 
 fibre thus laid bare is then placed in the sun .^o dry. If the plant 
 be left on the ground for any length of time ,j,fter it has been cut 
 down, the hemp made from it assumes a rgddish tinge unfitted 
 for commerce, the tannin in the sap coloiri-jng the fibre. Fifty 
 tons produce about 25 lbs. of hemp or fibre,. 
 
 The difference that exists between theg^jresof the species of 
 plantain appears to be attributable to tjje fact that some fibres 
 of wild plants, and especially those of ihi^ banana, are more or less 
 modified by cultivation. The abaca i^g found in the volcanic 
 islands of the Philippines, and in the fneigbbouring archipelago ; 
 still, it is principally in the pueblos o^ Donsol, Sorsogon, Tabaco, 
 Cameh, and Quipa, that the cultivation is carried on, and from 
 whence the best material is obtained. TJig only difierence between 
 the abaca and other species of the .^yiusa genus is the rich dark- 
 green hue that pervades every part o:f the former. The abaca has 
 very little care bestowed on its cultivation, being grown only for 
 its stalks, and it is an advantage rather than otherwise that its 
 fibres should retain their natural hoarseness and tenacity. Nor 
 does it require so rich a soil as the/^aible varieties : it is usually 
 planted on the slopes of mountains,^ where the land has been newly 
 broken up. The ground is carefuhy and frequently cleared of all 
 obnoxious weeds during the growth of the young plant, and the 
 stalk IS cut when the fruits first inake their appearance. At the 
 end ot the first crop they have, iJionthly, good suckers springing 
 up,_and that, too, during the wh5ie time that the plantation lasts, 
 which IS from five to seven year,fe. The duration, of course, varies 
 with the nature of the soil, the fertilizing properties of which tlds 
 crop exhausts very rapidly, especially as no manure is applied. 
 The textile material is obtained in the following manner: The 
 stems are cut down and stripped of their leaves. It is next divided 
 into long strips of two finger^ in breadth, then passed between a 
 thick plank, placed in a horizontal position, with a knife resting 
 edgewise. The material is, then drawn through with one hand, 
 whilst the other presses heayily on the back of the knife, and in 
 this ma,nner the pulpy matter is scraped and cleared off, leaving 
 the textile fibres bare. Tl ese are put to dry in the sun, care bein| 
 taken to protect them frq^ ^-ain and moisture. They are then 
 beaten lightly with stic^g_ again exposed to the sun, and lastly 
 
THE PLANTAIN AND BANANA. 477 
 
 the filaments are separated according to their degrees of fineness. 
 In this manner three sorts of fibre, of varying quality, are 
 obtained : the first, called bandala, from the outer sheaths of the 
 stem, which is the strongest and coarsest, and from which ropes, 
 &c., are made ; the second, known by the name of Iwpis, which is. 
 the finest, is procured from the inner layers ; whilst the third, the 
 tupoz, comes from the intermediate layers of the tissue, and from 
 this last fabrics and gauzes are manufactured. Two men employed 
 at this work, one in separating the outer coats, the other using 
 the knife, can prepare from 24 lbs. to 26 lbs. avoirdupois a day. 
 Fifty feet of land covered with plantain trees will furnish from 
 24 lbs. to 26 lbs. of abaca fibre, or 143 lbs. to 145 lbs. to every 
 2J acres. It is cut at least ten times a year, which gives a mean 
 return of 1760 lbs. of bruised abaca, worth from £6 to £10. If 
 the process be properly conducted, at least 1 lb. of thread, or, 
 taking the produce of 2^ acres for a whole year, 3520 lbs. of abaca 
 will be obtained, worth at Manila about £20. The abaca intended 
 for weaving is bruised in a mortar, and thus reduced into a kind 
 of ball about the size of a child's head. This operation has the 
 effect of rendering the threads more flexible and resistant. These 
 threads, having been joined together by women or children, are 
 woven after the manner of cotton, and the texture is immersed in 
 water with a little shell lime for a day and a night. Afterwards 
 they are cleaned in fresh water and left to dry. If mixed with 
 silk or cotton, a beautiful texture is produced, very fine and 
 valuable, and applicable to a variety of purposes. 
 
 Eoping and cordage made from abaca are employed in the 
 mercantile marine of India, and in the navy of the United States, 
 and are well known under the name of white rope or Manila 
 rope. 
 
 Machines have been invented to remove the fibre from the pulp, 
 but few are used. One was exhibited at Manila about three years 
 ago, very simple in its construction and apparently producing 
 results vastly superior to the ordinary mode I have described of 
 manual labour. The exhibition of this machine produced a great 
 excitement, and it was proposed and countenanced by the Captain- 
 General to give a large premium to the inventor. The subject 
 died away, however, and the machine disappeared from public 
 view. It is probable that the criticisms of experienced people 
 formed some drawbacks to the perfection generally ascribed to the 
 invention ; but, without possessing the slightest mechanical know- 
 ledge, the impression which its structure and effect made on 
 persons capable of judging was extremely favourable. There was 
 no intricacy in its machinery ; wood was its only material, and a 
 buffalo its moving power; a village carpenter could make one 
 from a model, and its results were tenfold or more greater than 
 by the ordinary course. I cannot afSrm that the model has 
 not been applied; but thete are circumstances or influences in 
 regard to the natives here and the culture of this production, 
 and, indeed, of all others, unfavourable to the extensive adoption 
 of machinery. 
 
478 
 
 THE FEtriTS OF COMMERCE. 
 
 ExpoBTS of Maotla Hemp from the PmLtPPiNES. 
 
 Piculs. 
 1850 124,367 
 
 1872 613,240 
 
 1873 628,066 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 1874 616,122 
 
 1875 519,392 
 
 From Cebu the exports were in 
 
 Piculs. I 
 
 1874 234,361 
 
 1875 
 
 Piculs. 
 154,922 
 
 The best fibre comes from the latitudes south of Maaila, and 
 from several islands as far as the tenth degree. 
 
 The manufacture of cloth and rope from the fibre of the plantain 
 is not a new discovery, for the Indian natives of South America 
 have long been in the habit of using it for these purposes. Dampier 
 notices the process as common in the Indian Archipelago in the 
 early part of the last century as follows : " They take the body of 
 the tree, clear it of its outward bark and leaves, cut it into four 
 quarters, which, put into the sun, the moisture exhales ; they then 
 take hold of the threads and draw them out ; they are as big as 
 brown thread. Of this they make cloth in Mindanao, called 
 eaggera, which is stubborn when new, wears out soon, and when 
 wet it is slimy." 
 
 Our direct imports of Manila hemp into the United Kingdom 
 from the Philippines have been as follows : — 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 £. 
 
 
 
 1862 
 
 173,478 
 
 1876 
 
 302,882 
 
 
 
 
 1863 
 
 312,871 
 
 1877 
 
 333,344 
 
 .. 
 
 
 
 1864 
 
 183,944 
 
 1878 
 
 425,866 
 
 .. 
 
 
 
 1865 
 
 194,851 
 
 1879 
 
 340,786 
 
 ., 
 
 
 
 1866 
 
 87,873 
 
 1880 
 
 408,639 
 
 
 
 
 1867 
 
 88,033 
 
 1881 
 
 353,770 
 
 
 
 
 1868 • 
 
 175,118 
 
 1882 
 
 373,231 
 
 830,033 
 
 
 
 1869 
 
 92,642 
 
 1883 
 
 330,385 
 
 747,597 
 
 
 
 1870 
 
 129,345 
 
 1884 
 
 348,344 
 
 651,831 
 
 
 
 1871 
 
 206,678 
 
 1885 
 
 383,760 
 
 664,565 
 
 
 
 1872 
 
 153,746 
 
 1886 
 
 304,523 
 
 436,755 
 
 
 
 1873 
 
 259,962 
 
 1887 
 
 353,605 
 
 588,944 
 
 
 
 1874 
 
 276,640 
 
 1888 
 
 695,579 
 
 1,230,742 
 
 
 
 1875 
 
 324,792 
 
 
 
 
 
 The Fig (_Ficus carica). — The ordinary fig-tree attains an age of 
 several hundred years, and in warm, temperate climes is a prolific 
 bearer. The extreme facility with which it can be propagated 
 from cuttings, the resistance to heat, and the comparatively early 
 yield and easy culture recommend it to notice. Caprification is 
 unnecessary. Two main varieties may be distinguished, that 
 which produces two crops a year and that which yields but one. 
 The former includes the grey or purple fig, which is the best, the 
 
THE FIG. 479 
 
 white fig and the golden fig, the latter heing the finest in appear- 
 ance, hut not in quality. The main variety, which hears only one 
 crop a year, supplies the greatest quantity of figs for drying, 
 among which the Marseillaise and Bellonne are considered the 
 best. The Barnisote and the Aubique produce delicious large 
 fruits, but they must be dried by fire heat, and are usually con- 
 sumed fresh. — (Mueller.) 
 
 _ The fig bears during the greater part of the year. The first 
 ripens in Turkey about the end of June, then come the summer 
 figs, which employ a large part of the population, and are brought 
 to market in large quantities about the end of October and the be- 
 ginning of November. Often there is a third harvest, which ripen 
 when the leaves have fallen. The dried figs for shipment are 
 obtained principally on the plains of Aidin, and sent by rail to 
 Smyrna for shipment, from which port about 200,000 cwts. are 
 sent chiefly to England, America, Austria, Eussia, and Germany, 
 and small quantities to Constantinople, Egypt, and Prance. Of 
 three qualities, Aidin, Ermeli, and Eleme, the last are the most 
 esteemed, fetching 15s. to 20«. more a cwt. 
 
 The Trojg^n fig is considered the best sort cultivated on Italian 
 soil, nine-tenths of the figs grown in the vicinity of Naples are of 
 this kind. It grows well in dry soil, is an excellent bearer, and 
 requires no manure, but, if reared in a damp place, it should be 
 freely pruned and earthed up. If the soil is damp, the fruit of the 
 Trojan fig must be gathered as soon as ripe, then split in two 
 from the stem downwards and exposed to the sun. There are 
 several varieties of the tree grown in Sicily, some yielding a large, 
 others a small fruit, and the fruit varies in its degree of sweetness, 
 also in colour from white to black. 
 
 The favourite ones are the Sangiovannaro, the Sottuno, the 
 Melinciano, and the Ottala. The last is considered the best for 
 drying, the fruit is longer and sweeter. In orchards the distance 
 maintained between the trees is about 26 feet. The fruit is dried 
 in the following manner : — It is gathered when partially ripe, that 
 is, when the fruit is more green than ripe, and immediately plunged 
 into boiling water, and allowed to remain only a very few minutes. 
 It is then placed in a spot sheltered from the sun, and the next 
 morning at sunrise spread upon a platform in order that it may be 
 flooded with sunlight, care being taken not to place it ■ upon the 
 ground, on account of its dampness. While drying, shallow willow- 
 work baskets are used for holding the fruit, and these are never 
 placed upon the ground, but kept in an erect position. At sun- 
 down the fruit is covered to protect it from the night dews or 
 unexpected showers of rain, and this operation is continued for 
 several days until the fruit becomes thoroughly dry. When dry 
 it is placed in layers in small boxes or baskets, these layers being 
 arranged very neatly and artistically, the fruit being pressed down 
 firmly by hand until the box or basket is full, when they are 
 securely covered and kept in a dry place for shipment. 
 
 Any rain at the end of July or during the month of August and 
 September, when the fruit is under the process of drying, injures 
 
480 
 
 THE FRUITS OF COMMERCE. 
 
 the quality, by causing it to burst, hardens the skin, gives the fig' 
 a dark colour, and spoils its keeping quality. 
 
 From Portugal the annual export of figs is about 8000 tons, but 
 varies a little, according to the crop and the quantity. From Italy 
 the export of dried figs was 80,941 cwts. in 1884, and 128,816 
 cwts. in 1885. 
 
 Although the fig-tree prospers in nearly every part of Greece, 
 it is only cultivated on a large scale, firstly, in the provinces of 
 Messina and Calames, and, secondly, in those of Andres, Carystie, 
 Tenos, Pylie, &c. Figs now constitute one of the principal com- 
 mercial products of Greece. In 1875, 250,308 cwts. were exported. 
 There are a large number of fig-trees cultivated in Egypt, and the 
 yield of fruit is about 20,000 cwts. 
 
 The imports of figs into the United Kingdom have been as 
 follows : — 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1876 163,163 
 
 1877 96,910 
 
 1878 67,243 
 
 1879 105,827 
 
 1880 85,913 
 
 1881 138,225 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1882 73,578 
 
 1883 123,434 
 
 1884 131,896 
 
 1885 113,162 
 
 1886 114,253 
 
 Italy furnishes 12,000,000 to 15,000,000 lbs., Spain 4000 to 500& 
 cwts., and Greece and Turkey small quantities. 
 
 Among other dried fruit imported into England are French plums, 
 dried and preserved plums and prunes. All dried saccharine fruit 
 are subject to a duty of 7s. per cwt. on import into England. The 
 French plums and prunes come principally from France, the dried, 
 plums from Austria and Germany. 
 
 The quantities received are shown in the following table : — 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 French Plums 
 (Imports). 
 
 Dried Plums. 
 
 Prunes. 
 
 
 
 
 cwts. 
 
 cwts. 
 
 cwts. 
 
 
 
 1877 
 
 10,707 
 
 796 
 
 16,766 
 
 
 
 1878 
 
 11,878 
 
 863 
 
 24,896 
 
 
 
 1879 
 
 7,274 
 
 842 
 
 8,777 
 
 
 
 1880 
 
 13,356 
 
 1,038 
 
 87,372 
 
 
 
 1881 
 
 10,088 
 
 721 
 
 12,864 
 
 
 
 1882 
 
 9,826 
 
 1,154 
 
 24,021 
 
 
 
 1883 
 
 13,937 
 
 1,814 
 
 25,343 
 
 
 
 1884 
 
 12,990 
 
 922 
 
 29,589 
 
 
 
 1885 
 
 14,388 
 
 7,648 
 
 27,504 
 
 
 
 1886 
 
 12,523 
 
 3,922 
 
 21,124 
 
 
 We pay France £70,000 to £80,000 for these. 
 
 The first-named, the largest and finest kind, is the Catharine 
 variety of the Prunus domesticus, and is usually packed in cartoom 
 boxes ; the common prune, the Julian variety, is packed in barrels.. 
 A large commerce is carried on in growing and preparing these in. 
 France, especially in the central and southern departments. 
 
TAMARINDS. 
 
 481 
 
 Tamarinds (Tamarindus indiea). — TMs magnificent tree, a native 
 of tropical Asia and Africa, is cultivated throughout India, Burma, 
 Java, and Sumatra, and is naturalized in the West Indies. The 
 acid pulp of the pods forms the medicinal tamarind, rich in formic 
 and butyric acid. It is shipped from Bombay and Madras to the 
 Persian Gulf, 16,500 cwts. having been exported there in 1870. 
 The fruit is largely used in native cookery in the East, being 
 eaten with rice, raw or as a condiment with vegetables, pulses, fish, 
 &c. It is dried and kept in store in almost every house in Bengal. 
 In India very little attention is paid to the preparation of the 
 fruit. It is simply deprived of its outer woody covering, and then 
 stored in mass with or without some sugar. It therefore contains 
 seeds, stringy fibres, and often bits of the pod. 
 
 It is antiscorbutic, and therefore otherwise useful and grateful 
 as a condiment. In Egypt it is met with in flattened cakes, and 
 is much used for making refreshing drinks. In the West Indies 
 it is preserved in syrup, 5000 or 6000 lbs. are exported from 
 Jamaica and small quantities from other islands. Twenty years 
 ago England used to receive 4,000,000 lbs. of tamarinds. In pre- 
 serving tamarinds, in order that they may keep well without fermen- 
 tation, the first syrup poured on them, which becomes acid, is poured 
 off and a second and even a third added. A very excellent preserve 
 is imported from Curapoa, made from the round or green pods in 
 sugar with the addition of spices. The method adopted is as 
 follows : — The green fruit, before the seeds get hard, is first peeled 
 and then allowed to remain in a solution of lime and water for 
 some hours, the seeds are then taken out, and the remainder stewed 
 with sugar and spice. 
 
 This delicious fruit is almost wholly neglected, except in the 
 vicinity of sugar estates, where it is preserved by simply pouring 
 cane liquor on the layers in kegs for private use or presents only. 
 When it is considered how universal is the growth of the tamarind 
 in the East and West Indies, how heavily it bears, and how little 
 labour is involved in getting the pods and preserving them, there 
 certainly does appear a fair opening for enterprise. 
 
 Jamaica. — The following table shows the progress made in the 
 export fruit trade of this island in ten years : — 
 
 
 r. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Tea 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18?6. 
 
 1886. 
 
 18Y5. 
 
 1886. 
 
 
 
 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 Coconuts 
 
 . . . No. 
 
 2,007,893 
 
 3,711,680 
 
 5,599 
 
 12,249 
 
 Bananas 
 
 . bunches 
 
 58,411 
 
 1,661,704 
 
 5,590 
 
 166,170 
 
 Limes . . . 
 
 . .. brls. 
 
 635 
 
 694 
 
 254 
 
 306 
 
 Mangoes 
 
 . .. No. 
 
 57,820 
 
 45,735 
 
 43 
 
 66 
 
 Oranges 
 
 . . . No. 
 
 4,673,820 
 
 38,862,374 
 
 8,272 
 
 52,464 
 
 Pineapples . 
 
 . . . doz. 
 
 390 
 
 9,557 
 
 117 
 
 1,434 
 
 Shaddocks . 
 
 . .. brla. 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 Tamarinds . 
 
 . . „ 
 
 4,082 
 
 2,121 
 
 204 
 
 29 
 
 
 15,080 
 
 232,724 
 
 •J. I 
 
482 THE FEUITS OF COMMERCE. 
 
 Natal. — There is practically no limit to the production of fruit 
 in this colony, except the capacity and distance of the market. 
 Owing to increased facilities for distribution, the Cape Colony has 
 heen found a good outlet for the great varieties which are not 
 produced there. The exports range in value from £2500 to £3000 
 a year. It must, however, be borne in mind that these figures 
 very inadequately express the return from fruit-growing. In 
 addition to the large local consumption there is a very considerable 
 manufacture of jams, jellies, and other conserves, which are sold 
 largely in South Africa and elsewhere. 
 
 Tasmania. — This island has long been famous for its fruit. The 
 apples and pears of Tasmania far surpass those of Great Britain in 
 size and appearance, and over 130 varieties are to be counted, in- 
 cluding all the best kinds of England, Continental Europe, and 
 America. The gross produce of apples in 1882 represented 142,217 
 bushels ; the produce of pears was 22,271 bushels. Single pears 
 have reached the astonishing weight of over 3J lbs. 
 
 All the early grapes ripen in Tasmania when in favourable 
 situations, and the later kinds ripen on walls. Excellent wine 
 has been made here, though but few have entered upon this as a 
 business. 
 
 Strawberries attain a remarkable size, and are more plentiful 
 than in almost any other part of the world. Easpberries are 
 equally abundant, and gooseberries are as plentiful and excellent 
 as anywhere in England. The total value of fresh and preserved 
 fruits exported in 1881 was £194,566. 
 
 Eor many years the fruit and jams of Hobart have been cele- 
 brated throughout the colonies of Australasia. There are seven 
 jam factories in the colony, which shipped, in 1882, 4,200,000 lbs. 
 of jam, valued at £100,250. The exports in later years have not 
 been so large ; in 1887, the fruit exports were valued at £91,767, 
 and of jam at £38,134. 
 
 Fiji. — The trade in gi-een fruit with the neighbouring Austra- 
 lasian colonies may be said to have commenced in earnest in the 
 year 1877, on the occasion of a monthly line of steamers between 
 Levuka and Sydney being subsidized by the Colonial Government. 
 The value of fruit exported has in-creased from £507 in 1877 to 
 £24,000 in 1885. The class of fruit exported has hitherto been 
 limited to pine-apples and bananas; but the great numbers of 
 mango-trees introduced into the colony within recent years, many 
 of which are now about coming into bearing, justify the hope that 
 this export wiU shortly be extended. 
 
 The bananas are, to a great extent, grown by natives, and 
 bought from them by the European shippers at a price varying 
 from 9d. to Is. &d. per bunch. The freight to Sydney, Melbourne, 
 and Auckland is Is. per bunch, and the fruit is sold in those 
 markets at a price varying from 3s. to 5s. per bunch. 
 
 The pine-apples are almost exclusively grown on the plantations 
 of Europeans. The productive powers of the colony in respect to 
 the growth of fruit are unlimited. Oranges, limes, citrons, lemons 
 guavas, and other fruits grow in a wild state throughout the 
 
THE MANGO. 483 
 
 country, attention not having yet been turned to the profit ■which 
 might be derived from the systematic cultivation of those products. 
 
 As these articles have proved a source of wealth in the West 
 Indies and other tropical and sub-tropical countries, it may be 
 anticipated that they will not for a much longer space of time be 
 neglected here. 
 
 The exports in 1885 consisted of 277,973 bunches of bananas, 
 80 cases of dried fruit, and 5095 cases of pine-apples. 
 
 Large banana plantations have been started, and the natives 
 enter with energy into the trade. 
 
 The passion fruits are among the most delicate and refreshing 
 of tropical fruits, and some of them have been successfully intro- 
 duced in England. The most common are the granadilla (Passiflora 
 quadrangularis), the homme d'or, or water lemon (P. laurifoUa), 
 the sweet cup (P. edulis), and the calabash sweet cup (P. malifor- 
 mis). The granadilla is a large fruit, somewhat resembling a 
 melon, but rather more oblong ; its size is frequently fifteen to 
 sixteen inches long, with a diameter of five or six inches. The 
 fruit is much valued for its soft and delicate pulp, which is very 
 cooling and refreshing in hot climates. It has a sweetish, acid 
 taste, and when ripe is of a purplish colour. 
 
 The Makgo (Mangifera indica) is the apple of the Tropics, and a 
 most nutritious and wholesome food, as well as a dessert fruit. 
 In the " Flora of British India " about twenty distinct species of 
 Mangifera are described, and it is stated that there are in all about 
 thirty species. Originally an East Indian tree, the mango has become 
 thoroughly naturalized in the West Indies, and is forming large 
 groves in waste places in Jamaica, where negroes, horses, pigs, 
 goats, and even fowls feed upon the fruits for nearly four months 
 of the year. 
 
 It is often asked, Can nothing be done with the thousands of 
 tons of mangoes annually produced in Jamaica and for the most 
 part left to lie on the ground and rot for want of using ? The 
 mango tree in all its various forms has now been thoroughly 
 naturalized in the island, and since 1790 it has spread spon- 
 taneously and abundantly everywhere. It especially afiects land 
 thrown out of cultivation, and the sides of roads and streams 
 where its seeds are cast aside by men or animals, and it practically 
 re-clothes the hills and lower slopes with forest. It thus enables 
 the land to recuperate its powers under its abundant shade-giving 
 foliage. 
 
 During the mango season (May to September) large quantities 
 of the fruit are consumed by the negroes, who practically live 
 upon it in localities where it is plentiful. All animals, without 
 exception, are fond of the mango. 
 
 As to the utilization of the fruit of the mango on a large scale 
 there is a vast and practically untouched field here for the 
 chemistry of organic products. Some would suggest that the best 
 varieties might be canned or preserved for exportation, or made 
 into preserves and jellies ; others that the grosser kinds might be 
 
 2 I 2 
 
484 THE FEIJlTS OF COMMERCE. 
 
 utilized for the production by distillation of a useful spirit ; others 
 that a starch compound might he prepared from the inner layers 
 of the flesh next the seed ; whilst, lastly, taking into account the 
 present commercial value of glucose, the peculiar form of sugar 
 which exists in grapes and other fruits, the ripe mango might be 
 made to yield large quantities of this at a small expense. 
 
 The export trade in mangoes is small and expanding but slowly. 
 The export in 1884 was 126,968, of the value of £180. The fruit 
 is very tender, and requires care and judgment in gathering, as 
 well as in the necessary packing. Gathered a little before they 
 are ripe and kept in a cool storage, there is no reason whatever to 
 doubt that mangoes might become as common in the markets of 
 London and New York as the pine-apple. 
 
 The celebrated No. 11 mango is thought by some to be evert 
 better than the newly -introduced East Indian kinds. This, how- 
 ever, is purely a matter of taste. The East Indian kinds being 
 free from the state of " stringiness," which is associated with all 
 the old Jamaica sorts, give them a great advantage, and as, added 
 to this, they possess thicker and harder skins and smaller seeds,, 
 they are much better adapted for export purposes. 
 
 In the East the natives consider this the most delicious fruit in 
 India, but Europeans do not appreciate the varieties most admired 
 by the natives. The unripe fruit is sliced and cooked in curry, 
 made into pickles, and also sliced and sold in the bazaars in the 
 dried state ; ripe fruits are made into preserves and jams by being 
 boiled and cooked in syrup. The seed inside the stone is used for 
 food by the poorer classes, especially in times of scarcity. 
 
 There are good mangoes and bad mangoes. In the former the 
 pulp is deliciously flavoured, and of a consistence somewhat like 
 butter ; in the latter it is stringy, and tastes strongly of the carrot 
 with a little flavour of turpentine. There are small, yellow, and 
 rose cheeked mangoes, large mangoes, both yellow and green. 
 The thick juice is by the natives squeezed out, spread on plates, 
 and allowed to dry, in order to form the thin cakes known as 
 Amsatta. 
 
 Dr. Bonavia, of India, writing recently on this point in the 
 Journal of the Society of Arts, remarks : "In India there are 
 hundreds of varieties of this unique fruit. Fifty or more kinds 
 might be named, which for texture and exquisiteness of flavour 
 would more than favourably compare with the same qualities in 
 the nectarine and the peach. It is only those who have been a long 
 time in India, and who have had opportunities of trying the 
 choice varieties of mangoes, that have any conception how good 
 this fruit is. Those who have not had opportunities of tasting 
 good mangoes have a notion that this fruit is like so much ' tow 
 and turpentine.' It would be as accurate to state that the 
 characters of the crab apple are those of all the hundreds of apples 
 to be found in Europe. The uncultivated seedling mangoes are 
 generally fibrous, but this does not at all prevent their having 
 very often a very exquisite flavour. To enjoy these good seedlino- 
 mangoes they must be sucked, and the native has here an advau^ 
 
THE MANGO. 485 
 
 tage over the European. The former sucks his maagoes, and 
 therefore enjoys a far more extended range of fine flavour, while 
 the civilised European wants to eat his with knife and spoon. 
 The choicest mangoes, of which there are scores, have not a trace 
 ■of fibre in their pulp, and not a trace of turpentine flavour, except, 
 perhaps, a sowpgon of it in the skin. When the skin is removed, if 
 you shut your eyes while eating them, you might often he deluded 
 into the idea that you are eating nectarines, figs, &c., and some- 
 times a delicious compound with a dash of nice mushroom flavour 
 in it. The flavours of the choice mangoes are infinite, and their 
 size varies from that of a small hen's egg to that of a good-sized 
 melon or ostrich egg. The colours when ripe are either citron- 
 yellow, green speckled with yellowish dots, yellowish white, 
 yellow with a fine crimson cheek, &c. Their shapes are either 
 round, flat, oblong, heart-shaped, &c." 
 
 In India mangoes are always plucked when still under- 
 Tipe, and then they are ripened completely among straw. Even 
 the choice kinds when under-ripe are sour and hard ; when quite 
 jipe they are perfect, and their flavour various and unique ; when 
 over-ripe they lose their rich distinctive flavours, and are not 
 nice. 
 
 The choicest variety now grown in the North-West Provinces 
 would seem to be the " Takari " mango of Futtehgarh ; the 
 " Singra " mango of Benares is either the same variety, or one 
 closely allied to it; both are rather flat. When ripened to 
 perfection, and put under ice for some time, their pulp is like a 
 delicious ice-cream, and can be scooped out with a spoon as easily 
 as an ice-cream or a stiff curd. The spoon does not fill with 
 luscious juice, as in the aforesaid " new " mango ; the pulp is 
 compact, and of the consistence of ice-cream. 
 
 Delicious mangoes are now grown in Siam, but those raised in 
 Singapore have mostly an intensely terebinthine flavour. In 
 Cochin China there are more than 2500 acres under mango trees. 
 
( 486 ) 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 THE SPICES OF COMMEECE. 
 
 Black pepper is the dried immature fruit of Pvper nigrum, a 
 climbing plant attaining tlie height of from 8 to 12 feet. The 
 herries, or, hotanically speaking, drupes, are at first green, then 
 red, and if left still longer ungathered turn to black ; but before 
 this latter change takes place the berries are gathered by hand 
 and dried in the sun, the result being an entire change of appear- 
 ance; instead of a red, smooth berry, a black, or reddish-black 
 pepper-corn, with the cortex contracted and shrivelled in such a 
 manner as to form a varied network, is obtained. 
 
 Pepper is one of the most wholesome and useful of the spices. 
 With persons in ordinary health it has the effect of stimulating 
 the stomach greatly to the performance of its functions, and is- 
 peculiarly serviceable to persons who are of cold habit or who- 
 suffer from a weak digestion. Used in moderation, pepper decidedly 
 promotes the appetite and digestion ; but its excessive use tends- 
 to vitiate the gastric juice and injure the stomach, besides pro- 
 voking inordinate thirst ; and this remark applies generally to all 
 spices. 
 
 Many of the natives of India esteem pepper as a stomachic, and 
 drink a strong infusion of it in water by way of creating an 
 appetite. They have also a method of making a fiery spirit of 
 fermented fresh pepper with water, which they use for the same 
 purpose. 
 
 Living mostly on a vegetable diet, and often consuming large 
 quantities of crude substances, the natives of India have naturally 
 sought to give a zest to their simple diet, and to render their meals 
 more digestible, by the use of pungent and aromatic condiments. 
 To a native of India a meal is nothing unless it embraces a curry, 
 and a pungent decoction, known as pepper-water, is freely con- 
 sumed when a curry cannot be had. The Hindu, as a rule, likes 
 his curry hot with pepper and cayenne, and rich with ghee 
 (clarified butter), and if these conditions are met he is not over- 
 fastidious as to flavour. The Mahomedan, on the other hand, is a 
 great connoisseur in condiments, and has expended much ingenuity 
 in inventing curries, chutnies, pickles, and such like. 
 
 To the native of India spices and condiments are indispensable. 
 Dr. Watts tells us he will eat contentedly by the stream-side a 
 
PEPPEE. 
 
 487 
 
 meal of uncooted flonr and water, provided it is flavoured with a 
 few green chillies. No luxury is more extensively indulged in 
 than pan, the stimulating preparation of betel leaf (Piper letel), 
 lime and betel nut {Areca Catechu), which is chewed by nearly every 
 native in India. Turmeric is an essential ingredient in curry, the 
 national dish. The total value of the foreign trade in spices and 
 condiments in India (imports and exports) exceeds £l,OOP,000 
 sterling. The principal articles of this trade are betel nuts, pepper, 
 ginger, cloves and cardamoms, besides minor ones, such as coriander, 
 cumin, fenugreek, turmeric, and cinnamon. 
 
 Quantity of Spices expobtbd from India, Years ending Maboh 31. 
 
 1877 18,247,955 
 
 1878 14,306,269 
 
 1879 22,382,834 
 
 1880 1-8,651,301 
 
 1881 17,671,888 
 
 1882 15,144,303 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1883 20,947,105 
 
 1884 18,514,377 
 
 1885 22,767,190 
 
 1886 25,831,355 
 
 1887 31,218,151 
 
 1888 24,381,808 
 
 ExpOBTS from India, Years ending March 31. 
 
 Kinds. 
 
 1885. 
 
 1886. 
 
 188?. 
 
 1888. 
 
 Cardamoms . . 
 Ginger 
 
 Pepper .. .. 
 Other sorts 
 
 lbs. 
 
 264,750 
 8,764,221 
 6,098,694 
 5,852,555 
 
 lbs. 
 
 299,324 
 
 10,318,411 
 
 6,146,143 
 
 7,067,477 
 
 lbs. 
 
 295,446 
 
 14,927,926 
 
 9,069,610 
 
 6,940,593 
 
 lbs. 
 
 155,201 
 
 9,510,564 
 
 7,151,836 
 
 7,564,207 
 
 The value of these spices exported was, in 1887, £612,188, and 
 in 1888, £521,786. 
 
 The black pepper imported into Great Britain principally comes 
 from India, Malacca, Java, Sumatra, and Borneo. 
 
 The varieties of pepper which enter into commerce are Pinang, 
 Tellicherry, Sumatra, Malabar, Trang, Siam, and Cochin, these 
 names indicating the localities from which they are derived. 
 
 The empire of Acheen was the chief producing country for pepper. 
 It is, however, cultivated in various parts of the island of Sumatra, 
 and at Bantam. The culture, as far as quantity is concerned, 
 may be said to be almost restricted, at present, to the east and 
 west coasts of Sumatra; the production, which used to reach 
 nearly 40,000,000 lbs. annually, has, however, greatly declined 
 of late years. 
 
 The pepper that comes to the Batavia market is received from 
 the Lampong islands off the Sumatra shores ; the quantity pro- 
 duced there is estimated, in good seasons, at about 4,000,000 lbs. 
 annually. The crop is plucked in September and following months ; 
 therefore, up to the end of January, about 2000 piculs reach the 
 Batavia market monthly, while from February to August the 
 monthly receipts hardly reach 500 piculs. 
 
488 
 
 THE SPICJES OF COMMERCE. 
 
 The pepper produced in tlie Lampong district in 1871 was 
 14,000 piculs; in 1872, 20,537 piculs. In 1872 the shipments 
 from Java consisted of 24,256 piculs of white, and 30,695 of black 
 pepper. 
 
 The production of black pepper in the Lampongs and Sumatra 
 was nearly trebled in 1886 over the previous year. The following 
 figures give the export: — 1875 to 1884, average 1,370,000 kLos. ; 
 188S, 970,000 kilos. ; 1886, 2,487,000 kilos. 
 
 The cultivation has extended, and is prosecuted with vigour in 
 the west of Java, but the soil of Sumatra is found best suited for 
 it. A large company, under the management of Baron de Lapeyrie, 
 has been established at . Langtrat to grow pepper on a large 
 scale. The shipments of white pepper were 1520 kilos, in 1885, 
 and 2600 in 1886. 
 
 The imports of pepper into China are about 40,000 piculs, and 
 all from Siam. 
 
 The unusually high prices of recent years have caused a con- 
 siderable extension in the cultivation of the plant in the Malay 
 peninsula, which used to produce 4,000,000 lbs., especially grown by 
 Chinese settlers. In 1888 a company was formed, most of the 
 members being European residents of Singapore, to work a con- 
 cession of 2000 acres in Salangore, on which pepper was to be 
 the staple cultivation. 
 
 The Chinese mode of pepper planting consists in setting the 
 pepper vines from 6 to 8 feet apart. Along with the young 
 plants, poles are placed on the ground, round which the growing 
 plants are twined and tied. After having grown for eight or 
 nine months, the plants are taken down from the poles and buried 
 in the earth, all except the tops. The buried part takes root and 
 strengthens the plant. Calcined earth, with refuse and rotten 
 fish, are used for manure. A well-drained, sloping hill-side is 
 best for pepper-growing. As a rule, the berries are three or four 
 years old. The Chinese calculate the yield of a pepper-vine to 
 average as much as 4 lbs. The cost of production with them 
 cannot be ascertained, even approximately. 
 
 The importation of pepper into the port of Marseilles has been 
 as follows, in tons, from — 
 
 Year. 
 
 British India. 
 
 Dutch India. 
 
 other Countries. 
 
 1872 
 
 240 
 
 849 
 
 393 
 
 1873 
 
 753 
 
 87 
 
 336 
 
 1874 
 
 1,357 
 
 1,139 
 
 375 
 
 1875 
 
 1,928 
 
 297 
 
 899 
 
 1882 
 
 1,2C3 
 
 474 
 
 478 
 
 1883 
 
 1,418 
 
 472 
 
 438 
 
 1884 
 
 1,235 
 
 248 
 
 179 
 
 1885 
 
 975 
 
 290 
 
 452 
 
 1886 
 
 1,438 
 
 331 
 
 57 
 
 Showing an average import of about 2000 tons. 
 
 Sixteen years ago, Aoheen used to be the country exporting 
 
PEPPEE. 
 
 489 
 
 most pepper, but the war there almost entirely stopped its cultiva- 
 tion, and the population were so reduced that there was little 
 chance of pepper-growing being resumed on any scale. In 
 Singapore and Johore, the soil, very poor to commence with, is 
 nearly all used up. In Sarawak the cultivation is extending, and 
 is a source of great profit to the grower and to the country 
 generally ; but the soil is against any very great extension, except 
 in some fa,voured spots. Owing to these causes, the price of pepper 
 is continually advancing. Fourpence a pound used to be looked 
 upon as a paying price to the grower ; but for a long time past 
 the price has been rising about a halfpenny a year, until it now 
 stands at 7jd. per lb., and the profits on its cultivation are un- 
 doubtedly something enormous. 
 
 Pepper seems to flourish in but few countries, Borneo and 
 Sumatra being almost the only two ; and owing to the disturbed 
 state of the latter, its cultivation in the former — and in British 
 North Borneo particularly — seems likely to be largely extended. 
 In fact Borneo may in time become one of the largest pepper pro- 
 ducing countries in the world. 
 
 Mr. W. M. Crocker has written a pamphlet on the cultivation of 
 pepper, containing very much valuable information, which will be 
 found useful for reference. 
 
 ExpoETS from Java and Madura. 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Clove Pepper. 
 
 White. 
 
 Black. 
 
 
 
 1878 
 
 59,175 
 
 31,422 
 
 627,289 
 
 
 
 1879 
 
 149,582 
 
 100,706 
 
 1,820,645 
 
 
 
 1880 
 
 59,175 
 
 13,349 
 
 809,474 
 
 
 
 1881 
 
 295,705 
 
 16,441 
 
 1,512,835 
 
 
 
 1882 
 
 588,795 
 
 2,000 
 
 2,866,399 
 
 
 
 1883 
 
 301,740 
 
 •• 
 
 1,324,149 
 
 
 There was receiv 
 
 'ed in Holland in : — 
 
 
 
 Pepper. 
 Lbs. 
 
 
 ^tlt 
 
 1878 . . . . 
 
 705,000 
 
 1881 . . 
 
 .. .. 371,300 
 
 1879 . . . . 
 
 . 1,372,000 
 
 1882 . . 
 
 .. .. 524,700 
 
 18 
 
 80 . . . . 
 
 420,000 
 
 1883 . . 
 
 .. .. 272,3 
 
 00 
 
 Jacobson and Sons' circular. 
 
 The exports of black pepper, on private account, from Nether- 
 lands-India, were — 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1876 627,000 
 
 1877 3,303,000 
 
 1878 2,104,000 
 
 1879 5,865,000 
 
 1880 4,251,000 
 
 1881 5,824,000 
 
 1882 7,358,000 
 
 1883 6,201,000 
 
 1884 4,451,000 
 
 1885 5,194,000 
 
490 THE SPICES OF COMMERCE. 
 
 The distinction of the two kinds is shown below : 
 
 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Black. 
 
 White. 
 
 
 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 
 
 1875 
 
 3,733,011 
 
 1,706,734 
 
 
 
 1880 
 
 4,260,970 
 
 1,458,279 
 
 
 
 1885 
 
 5,194,532 
 
 1,344,175 
 
 
 Eeoeipts of Peppek in Edkope (in bales of 1 cwt). 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Deliveries. 
 
 Stock. 
 
 
 
 1878 
 
 355,400 
 
 357,700 
 
 176,000 
 
 
 
 1879 
 
 295,200 
 
 328,000 
 
 132,200 
 
 
 
 1880 
 
 264,500 
 
 263,100 
 
 111,800 
 
 
 
 1881 
 
 265,000 
 
 268,500 
 
 132,400 
 
 
 
 1882 
 
 287,800 
 
 333,500 
 
 86,800 
 
 
 
 1883 
 
 370,200 
 
 347,100 
 
 104,200 
 
 
 
 1884 
 
 294,700 
 
 303,100 
 
 79,100 
 
 
 
 1885 
 
 286,200 
 
 287,200 
 
 78,000 
 
 
 
 1886 
 
 271,700 
 
 278,400 
 
 74,100 
 
 
 
 1887 
 
 327,900 
 
 310,500 
 
 97,400 
 
 
 Exports of Peppbb from India. 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 
 
 Lbs 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 1884-85 
 
 6,098,694 
 
 192,597 
 
 
 
 1885-86 
 
 6,146,143 
 
 214,689 
 
 
 
 1886-87 
 
 6,064,186 
 
 317,129 
 
 
 
 1887-88 
 
 7,151,836 
 
 293,137 
 
 
 The pepper vine is indigenous to the forests of Malabar and 
 Travancore. For centuries pepper has been an article of exporta- 
 tion to European countries from the western coast of India. 
 Although a product of many countries in the East, that which 
 comes from Malabar is acknowledged to be the best. In 1874 
 there were 23,179 pepper vines scattered over the territory of 
 French India. 
 
 The exports of pepper from Malabar in the seasons ending June 30 
 were as follows : — 
 
 Cwts. Cwts. 
 
 36,955 
 
 1879-80 . . . . 
 
 1880-81 60^634 
 
 1881-82 51,238 
 
 1882-83 101,483 
 
 1883-84 47,148 
 
 Its cultivation is very simple, and is effected by cuttings or 
 suckers put down before the commencement of the rains in June, 
 in a rich and tolerably moist soil. In three years it begins to bear] 
 each plant yielding on an average 2 or 3 lbs. of pepper per annum 
 up to fifteen or twenty years, after which they begin to decline. 
 
PEPPEE. 491 
 
 The crop is gathered in March or April; the fruit is plucked 
 •when not quite ripe, and usually dried on mats in the open air. 
 White pepper differs from black only in being deprived of the 
 outer skin by a short maceration in pure water, and subsequent 
 gentle rubbing ; it is somewhat smaller, of a greyish white colour, 
 and with a less aromatic taste. 
 
 The small round berry-like fruit grows somewhat loosely, to the 
 number of twenty to thirty, on a common pendulous fruit-stalk. 
 They are at first green, then become red, and if allowed to ripen, 
 yellow ; but they are gathered before complete maturity, and by 
 drying in that state turn blackish-grey or brown. When one or 
 two berries at the base of the spike begin to turn red, the whole 
 spike is pinched off. Next day the berries are rubbed off with the 
 hands, picked clean and dried for three days in the sun, or in 
 bamboo baskets near a gentle fire. 
 
 The plant is capable of growing to a height of, 20 or 30 feet, 
 but for the sake of convenience it is usually kept Idw, and is often 
 trained on poles. In places where no vines occur naturally, the plant 
 is propagated by setting slips near the roots of the trees on which 
 it is to climb. An acre of land will bear 2500 plants, and as they 
 require but little care, the cost of cultivating and bringing into 
 bearing one acre does not exceed £4 at the most, and as the annual 
 yield when the plants come into bearing is worth upwards of 
 £80, the investment is a very profitable one. 
 
 The pepper vine is hardy and easily cultivated, and as its 
 produce is of such great commercial importance, it may be well 
 worth trying whether it could not be successfully grown in other 
 localities under congenial conditions of climate and soil. The 
 choice of a proper site for the plantation is a consideration of the 
 first importance. Level ground lying along the banks of rivers 
 and rivulets is to be preferred, both on account of the vegetable 
 mould commonly found in soil so situated, as well as of the 
 facilities of water-carriage which such a situation generally 
 affords. But the land should never be so low as to be liable to 
 inundation. Declivities, unless very gentle, are to be avoided, 
 because the soil loosened by culture is liable to be washed away 
 by heavy rain. Plains, whether naked or covered with long grass, 
 will not answer, unless broken up well with the plough and 
 enriched by manure. Above all, the pepper vine loves a moist 
 climate. 
 
 In Malabar the pepper vine is often raised from seed, and experi- 
 enced men have been known to express a decided preference for 
 this mode of propagation, because the vine so raised bears for 
 fourteen years. On the other hand, though the cuttings yield for 
 only seven years, or just half the period, the crops they give are 
 greater, and the berries are both of larger size and of superior quality. 
 It is for this reason, therefore, that in Malabar the cultivation is 
 practised with cuttings or suckers, which are put down into the 
 ground before the rain sets in, in June. The soil must be rich, 
 but it should also be free from any accumulation of moisture below, 
 or the young plants are apt to rot. The cuttings are usually 
 
•1-92 THE SPICES OF COMMERCE. 
 
 planted at the foot of trees with rough bark, on which the vine as 
 it grows finds a support. The creeper will climb up about 20 or 
 30 feet, but it is purposely kept lower for facility of collecting the 
 berry. During its growth every sucker is removed, and it is 
 pruned, thinned, and kept clear of weeds. After the berries have 
 been gathered, they are dried on mats by exposure to the sun, when 
 they change colour from red to black. Much experience is required 
 as to the proper time for gathering. The trees which are generally 
 selected in Malabar to support and shade the pepper vine are the 
 jack, the mango, the cashew-nut, and other similar trees ; so that 
 the pepper is an additional crop which the cultivator gathers from 
 his orchard lands, even while they also are bearing. 
 
 Although the quality of the pepper grown in Malabar is con- 
 sidered to be better, the largest quantity of the spice is produced 
 in Sumatra, where the method of cultivation is somewhat different. 
 In that island the pepper vine is raised in plantations regularly 
 laid out. The ground is previously cleared of wood, ploughed up, 
 and sown with rice, among which the cuttings are put down at a 
 distance of five feet from each other in every direction, with the 
 green sapling of some tree of quick growth and rough or prickly 
 bark, which soon takes root and affords support and shade to the 
 vine as it grows. It grows most luxuriously in moist, rich soils, 
 provided it obtains good shade. Like most other vegetable pro- 
 ductions in hot climates, it requires but little trouble or attention 
 after it has once been planted, other than watching the proper 
 season for collecting the berry. In Sumatra, the layers or cuttings 
 are put down in September. The plant is afterwards left to itself 
 for twelve or eighteen months, it is then buried with all its branches, 
 so as to leave only a small arch of the stem above ground. Prom 
 this arch new shoots sprout out, three or four of which are allowed 
 to climb up the tree, and are expected to produce flowers and fruit 
 in a year after. It is inferred that, by this practice, the strength 
 and vigour of the plant are so much increased by the mutiplication 
 of its organs of nourishment, namely, the roots, that it will not 
 only yield a larger crop of flowers, but also bring out its fruit in 
 the greatest perfection. The neglect of this precaution might 
 seriously affect the out-turn of a crop, both in quantity and 
 quality. 
 
 The vine produces fruit in two seasons of the year. The flowers 
 of the principal crop appear in September, with the rains of the 
 first monsoon. In the latter end of December the berries begin to 
 ripen, and are gathered in January, as they get to maturity. The 
 finest berries in the second stage towards maturity are selected for 
 making white pepper. The process in Sumatra consists in steeping 
 these berries for three or four days in running water, and then 
 drying them well in the sun. The flowers of the second crop 
 appear m March and April with the rains of the little monsoon ; 
 and the fniit ripens and is gathered about July and August ; it is 
 probably to the want of moisture at the time the fruit is setting, 
 that the inferior quality and scantier out-turn of this crop is to be 
 attributed. One thousand vines are estimated to yield about 10|^ 
 
CHILLIES AND CAYENNE PEPPER. 
 
 403 
 
 owts. of pepper iu tlie course of a year : so that each vine may be 
 reckoned upon as producing 1^ or 2 lbs. of the spice. 
 
 The black berries of Embelia Bibes, Burm., are often used to 
 adulterate it in parts of India, as they so much resemble pepper as 
 to render it impossible to distinguish them by sight or by any 
 other means, and they are, withal, somewhat spicy. Although 
 there is a very heavy penalty on adulteration in this country, 
 groimd pepper is frequently sold sophisticated with starch, mustard 
 husks, linseed and capsicum. 
 
 The following have been the imports of pepper into the United 
 Kingdom since the year 1840, as given in the Board of Trade 
 returns : — 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1840 5,927,959 
 
 1850 8,082,319 
 
 1860 12,810,040 
 
 1870 19,339,491 
 
 Lbs. 
 1880 21,729,968 
 
 1887 29,704,898 
 
 1888 28,704,898 
 
 There would seem to be extraordinary fluctuations in the quantity 
 of pepper taken for consumption here and stocks held. 
 
 The average consumption of pepper in the United Kingdom 
 from 1848 to 1862, when there was a duty levied, was from 
 3,500,000 lbs. to 4,000,000 lbs. per annum, it is now about 1 0,000,000 
 lbs. ; the average quantity re-exported in the three years ended 
 1888 being about 19,500,000 lbs. 
 
 A pepperwort, the small red carpels of which inclose black 
 shining seeds of an aromatic odour, and a peculiar pungent 
 flavour, with an acrid after-taste, being stimulant, stomachic, and 
 astringent, are used for seasoning purposes in China. They are 
 brought from the Szechuan province to Ning-po, and are worth 
 $50 a picul. 
 
 Ethiopian pepper (Xylopia ^thioj^ica, N. Eich., Sahzelia) is used 
 by the natives of Western Africa as an aromatic stimulant, and 
 also as an anthelmintic. 
 
 Chillies and Cayenne Peppee. — The Cayenne pepper of com- 
 merce is obtained chiefly from the pulverised chillies or fruit pods 
 of one or two species of capsicum (^Capsicum annuum, Lin., and O. 
 fastigiatum, Blume). But a very large number of species and 
 varieties of capsicum are grown and used as condiments in all 
 tropical countries, where there appears to be a greater necessity 
 for pungent seasonings. 
 
 The generic botanical name of Capsicum is derived from 
 " kapto," to bite, on account of the hot pungent qualities of the 
 pericarp. 
 
 Among the principal species grown may be named the following : 
 — The cherry pepper or round chilli (^Capsicum cerasiforme, Willd.) ;. 
 the bonnetpepper ((7. tetragonum, Mill.) ; the bell pepper (C. grossum^ 
 Lin.) ; the spice or goat pepper (0. frutescens, Lin.) ; and the bird 
 pepper ((7. haccatum, Lin., or G. fastigiatum). The last-named two 
 are more acrimonious than the others. The fruits of these several 
 species are of various forms — round, oblong, cordate or horned, and 
 
494 THE SPICES OF COMMERCE. 
 
 either scarlet or yellow ; in some varieties they are so little pungent 
 as to he used sliced in salad, in others they are intolerably biting 
 till the mouth becomes accustomed to them by habit. The acrid 
 resin (capsicine) in the fruit renders them hot, pungent and 
 stimulating. Contrary to general opinion it has been found on 
 analysis that the seeds after removal of the pericarp, and 
 thoroughly washing and drying them, are entirely devoid of 
 acridity and pungency. 
 
 Eed pepper may be termed one of the most useful condiments in 
 hygiene. As a stimulant and auxiliary in digestion it has been 
 considered invaluable, especially in warm countries. There are 
 always a few of these shrubby plants grown about the dwellings in 
 the tropics to supply the daily wants of the table, as they are 
 generally gathered and eaten just before fully ripe. 
 
 Unfortunately, in England, Cayenne pepper is very frequently 
 adulterated, and hence reliance can only be placed on purchasing 
 from respectable wholesale houses, which have a reputation and 
 character for probity and the sale of genuine articles. Venetian 
 red, red ochre and cinnabar are often added to darken the colour, 
 although this is no sign of its excellence, for the Nepal and many 
 other Cayenne peppers are extremely light-coloured, as they will 
 naturally be if made with the ground seeds alone unmixed with 
 the redder husks of the fruit capsule. As Cayenne pepper when 
 obtained pure and used in moderation promotes digestion and so 
 prevents flatulence, and is hence undoubtedly serviceable to persons 
 of languid digestion, so if adulterated with poisonous substances 
 it is calculated to be highly injurious. 
 
 The French names for capsicums are "piment," "poivrons," 
 " pevrots," and " corail of the gardens." The Spanish name for 
 this spice is " agi " : it was formerly known under the name of 
 Oalicut pepper, and in Gerarde's time, nearly three centuries ago, it 
 was sold here under the name of Ginnie pepper, and it still bears 
 the name of Guinea pepper in France. 
 
 The natives of Brazil consume great quantities of these peppers, 
 preferring the small red ones, which are of excessive pungency. 
 AVhen they have no fish they boil several pounds of these peppers 
 in a little water, and dip their mandioca bread into the fiery soup 
 thus formed. 
 
 Chillies are largely used as a condiment, and also employed as a 
 stimulant and carminative in medicine. There are two kinds 
 common in India : the ordinary chilli, the fruit of 0. annuum, and 
 the bird's eye chilli, the fruit of G. fastigiatum. 
 
 There is an enormous consumption of chillies in India, as both 
 rich and poor daily use them, and they form an important in- 
 gredient in the curries and chutneys in general use, when ground 
 into a paste between two stones, with a little mustard, lard, oil, 
 ginger and salt, this forms the only seasoning which the millions of 
 poor in the East can obtain to flavour their insipid rice. 
 
 In 1870 there were more than 70,000 acres under culture with 
 capsicums in the Madras Presidency, the largest portion being in 
 Elistna. The exports from Madras in the four years ending 1865 
 
GINGER. 495 
 
 were 81,042 cwts. Bombay imported in 1873, 6567 cwts., prin- 
 cipally from the Madras Presidency, and exported 3323 cwts. 
 In 1871 Singapore imported 1071 cwts., cHefly from Pinang and 
 Pegu, The spice is largely consumed by the Chinese. 409 J 
 piculs of dried chillies were shipped from Chefoo in 1871 to other 
 Chinese ports. G. annuum is extensively cultivated in Bengal ; 
 there is a variety growing in Nepaul {C. Nepalensis) the taste of 
 which is far more pungent and acrid than any of the preceding 
 named species. 
 
 ChUlies or pod peppers are much used for flavouring pickles. By 
 pouring hot vinegar upon the fruits all the essential qualities are 
 procured, which cannot he effected by drying them, owing to their 
 oleaginous properties ; hence chilli vinegar is in repute as a flavour- 
 ing substance. In Bengal the natives make an extract from the 
 chillies, which is about the consistence and colour of treacle. A 
 form of soluble Cayenne was sent from British Guiana in 1867 in 
 the Colonial collection forwarded to the Paris Exhibition. 
 
 Chillies are imported here from the West Indies, Western Africa, 
 Zanzibar and Natal, but there are no reliable statistics as to the 
 quantity we receive, although it has been estimated at as much as 
 80 tons annually. 
 
 In Natal the capsicum plant grows in perfection, and yields a 
 profit to a limited number of growers. The export of Cayenne 
 pepper has averaged for ten years £600 per annum, exclusive of 
 inland and local consumption. But the export has been declining 
 for some years. The shipments of cayenne in 1880 were only 
 17,277 lbs., but in 1883 187 cwts., valued at £510. 
 
 In the West Indies the sorts grown are, G. frutescens, Lin. 
 C. haccaium, chillies for Cayenne pepper; and G. annuum, Spanish 
 pepper. 
 
 Monteiro says the chilli pepper is the universal condiment of the 
 natives of Angola. It grows wild everywhere in Western Africa 
 in the greatest luxuriance. It is eaten either freshly gathered or 
 after being dried in the sun. It has a most violent hot taste, but 
 the natives consume it in incredible quantities; their stews are 
 generally of a bright red colour, from the quantity of the pepper 
 added, previously ground on a hoUow stone. 
 
 GiNGEE. — After Pepper, Ginger probably ranks next in import- 
 ance for the quantity produced and consumed, and the aggregate 
 value of that which we receive. The declared value of all the 
 spices we import averages about £1,400,000, of which pepper 
 stands for more than two-thirds. Cinnamon is valued at about 
 £44,000, whilst ginger has now reached about £135,000, and this 
 is nearly all consumed here. According to Hanbury, ginger 
 must have been tolerably well known in England even prior to 
 the Norman Conquest. The plant affording it was known to 
 Marco Polo, who speaks of observing it both in China and India. 
 
 The root-like stem of Zingiber officinale, Eosc, is cultivated in 
 very many of the warmer parts of the world for local use, but 
 only in a few localities on an extensive scale for shipment to 
 
496 
 
 THK SPICES OF COMMJiRCE. 
 
 supply European wants. Of this well-known flavouring condi- 
 ment several varieties are known in trade, distinguished by their 
 quality, place of growth, &c. Gringers are either " coated "with 
 the shrivelled rind on, or " scraped " by having it removed. Ginger 
 is sometimes bleached by chloride of lime, or whitewashed with 
 lime and water. This spice is but little used on the Continent 
 compared with England. 
 
 The varieties of ginger which enter into commerce are Jamaica, 
 Cochin, Brazil, and Africa. The first three are scraped gingers, 
 the last-named is coated ginger — that is to say, it still retains its 
 epidermis. Jamaica ginger is the sort most esteemed, and next to 
 it the Cochin. It is generally imported in bags of 1 cwt. 
 
 The best racemes are dried in the sun after being cleaned from 
 the radicles and earth, and are known as white ginger. The 
 inferior qualities are steeped in boiling water before being sun- 
 dried, and are known as common or black ginger. 
 
 Good ginger should be fresh, dry, heavy, not brittle, of a 
 reddish-grey exterior. The iaterior should be resinous and of a 
 pungent taste. 
 
 In China the racemes, when young, are steeped in boiling syrup 
 and exported as a sweetmeat as preserved ginger. 
 
 The following table shows our sources of supply in 1875 and 
 1886:— 
 
 
 1875. 
 
 1886. 
 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 British West Africa . . . . 
 
 East Indies 
 
 British West India Isles . . 
 Other British possessions .. 
 
 cwts. 
 
 9,900 
 30,307 
 15,215 
 
 1,481 
 
 £ 
 
 19,887 
 
 85,384 
 
 54,955 
 
 3,586 
 
 cwts. 
 
 8,355 
 
 64,577 
 
 7,697 
 
 100 
 
 13,351 
 
 117,039 
 
 21,844 
 
 150 
 
 Total 
 
 56,903 
 
 163,812 
 
 82,775 
 
 156,172 
 
 Ginger, it will be perceived, comes to us chiefly from thre& 
 quarters, the East and West Indies and the Western Coast of 
 Africa. The total imports of ginger into the United Kingdom 
 have been as follows : — 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Year. 
 
 - Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 1867 
 1870 
 
 1875 
 
 cwts. 
 42,834 
 33,854 
 56,880 
 
 95,398 
 
 60,973 
 
 163,951 
 
 1880 
 1885 
 1888 
 
 cwts. 
 49,962 
 77,337 
 69,229 
 
 109 ,'545 
 134,979 
 130,207 
 
 Several of the West Indian islands used to grow ginger, 
 especially Barbados, Hayti, and Jamaica, but the cultivation for 
 export is chiefly now confined to Jamaica. 
 
 In Jamaica it is propagated by division of the root, the smaller 
 
GIXGEE. 497 
 
 pieces or protuberaiices being set, each of which throws up two 
 diiFerent stems. The first bears the leaves, and rises sometimes 
 to the height of 3 feet or more, though its usual growth seldom 
 exceeds 16 or 18 inches ; when this spreads its leaves and grows 
 to full perfection, the second stalk springs up, which is also 
 simple and furnished only with a few scales below, but at the top 
 is adorned with a roundish squamose flower-spike, and seldom 
 rises above two-thirds of the height of the others. The land 
 having been well cleared and trenched, the ginger is planted about 
 March or April. It rises to its height and flowers about Sep- 
 tember, and fades again towards the end of the year. When the 
 stalks are wholly withered, the root is thought to be full-grown 
 and fit to dry, which is generally done in January and February 
 following. When these are dug up, they are picked and cleaned, 
 and scalded gradually in boiling water. After this they are 
 spread out in the sun to dry, from day to day, until sufficiently 
 aired for packing. The larger spreading roots are generally called 
 " hands " in Jamaica, and will occasionally weigh half a pound ; 
 they are also termed " races." 
 
 The price obtained for Jamaica ginger far exceeds that realised 
 for ginger grown in any other country. Not only does this island 
 produce ginger of the finest-known quality, in the production of 
 which peculiar care is bestowed upon its cultivation and in ampu- 
 tation, but it also produces ginger of the most ordinary quality, 
 to the production of which no particular attention is devoted. 
 The value of the superior article averages over £8 per cwt. and 
 that of the ordinary quality from £3 to £4. This latter is the 
 standard price for nearly all the ginger sold in commerce, except- 
 ing the celebrated Jamaica product. A very large trade might be 
 carried on in the export of preserved ginger. The land under 
 culture with ginger varies. In 1876 there were 323 acres and in 
 1880 only 135 acres. 
 
 The following have been the exports of ginger from Jamaica of 
 late years: — 
 
 1866 1,550,166 
 
 1867 1,728,075 
 
 1868 2,036,921 
 
 1869 1,261,873 
 
 
 Cwta. 
 
 1870 .. 
 
 .. 5,431 
 
 1871 .. 
 
 .. 5,643 
 
 1872 .. 
 
 .. 5,355 
 
 1873 .. 
 
 .. 7,282 
 
 1874 .. 
 
 .. 10,551 £. 
 
 1885 .. 
 
 .. 12,313 value 20,169 
 
 1886 .. 
 
 .. 11,564 „ 20,690 
 
 1887 .. 
 
 . . About the same. 
 
 The ginger plant is extensively cultivated in India, from the 
 Himalayas to Cape Comorin. It is not exactly known to what 
 country the plant is indigenous, though Ainslie states it to be a 
 native of China, while Joebel asserts that it is a native of Guinea. 
 In the Himalayas it is successfully reared at elevations of 4000 or 
 5000 feet, requiring a moist soil. The Malabar ginger, exported 
 from Calicut, is the produce of the district of Shernaad, situated 
 to the south of Calicut. 
 
 In the Dacca district the natives cleanse the roots in boiling lime 
 
 2 K 
 
498 
 
 THE SPICES OF COilMERCE. 
 
 water, wliicli probably injures much of the fragrant pungency ; 
 whereas in the "West Indies, they use simply plain water. The 
 leaves and shoots of the broad-leaved ginger (Z. Zerumbet) are 
 used as greens in Bengal. It grows wild in the Concan, and in 
 the woods about Calcutta. The underground stem of this species 
 resembles that of ginger, but is bitter as well as aromatic. The root- 
 stocks of Alpinia Galanga, A. racemosa, and A. AllugJias, have some- 
 what similar aromatic and pungent properties, and are frequently 
 used as substitutes for ginger. 
 
 In India the cultivation is carried on in the Hill States as 
 follows. The best " races " of the previous year's crops are selected 
 and placed in a corner of the house, and smeared over and covered 
 with cow dung to prevent them from becoming dry. 
 
 When the first rain falls, the land is ploughed two or three 
 times, and then divided off into beds with a little raised edge 
 round each bed, taking care to make openings to let superfluous 
 water run off; for if water lodges on the crop the roots will rot. 
 Little pieces of the roots are then buried 3 inches deep in the soil 
 at intervals of 9 inches. The field is covered with the leaves of 
 trees to keep the soil most, and over these manure is spread to the 
 depth of half an inch. When it rains the water, impregnated with 
 manure, filters through the leaves to the roots. Artificial irri- 
 gation is given after the rains. When the plants are about 2 feet 
 high, to every shoot there will be found about eight rhizomes, or 
 parts of the root. These are dug up and buried in another place 
 for a month, then taken up, exposed to the sun for a day, and are 
 fit for use. A begah of land requires eight maunds of ginger 
 to plant, and yields 32 maunds for a first-rate crop. Ginger, 
 fit for planting, sells at 8 to 10 seers for the rupee; that 
 for use 24 to 32 seers the rupee. In order to dry ginger into 
 " sonth" or for keeping, the fresh roots are put into a basket, 
 which is suspended by a rope, and then two men, one on each 
 side, pull it to and fro between them by a cord attached, and 
 thus shake the roots in the basket ; this process is carried on for 
 two hours every day for three days. After this the roots are 
 dried in the sun for eight days, and again shaken in the basket. 
 The object of the shaking is to take off the outer scales and skin 
 of the roots. Two days' further drying completes the process, and 
 the " sonth " sells for 3 to 4 seers the rupee. Turmeric is cultivated 
 in the same manner; when ready it is dug up, steeped in hot 
 water a day and a night, and then dried. 
 
 Ginger is cultivated in many parts of India, for its rhizome is 
 used as a condiment. The export trade has increased considerably, 
 and promises a still greater increase in the future. They were 
 only 15,000 cwts. in 1870, but now exceed 100,000 cwts. 
 
 Year. 
 
 1883-84 
 1884-85 
 1885-86 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 8, 764 ',221 
 10,318,411 
 
 Value. 
 
 £ 
 106,097 
 156,857 
 154,835 
 
 Year. 
 
 1886-87 
 1887-88 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Iba. 
 
 14,927,926 
 
 9,510,564 
 
 Value. 
 
 £ 
 
 199,311 
 
 140,812 
 
NUTMEGS. 
 
 499 
 
 The African ginger is grown chiefly in Sierra Leone ; about half 
 that produced comes to England, and the other half goes to 
 America. Our total imports from West Africa have beSn as 
 follows : — 
 
 1869 
 
 CwtB. 
 
 9,566 
 
 1870 6,855 
 
 1871 5,948 
 
 1872 6,167 
 
 1873 7,655 
 
 1874 8,813 
 
 1875 9,843 
 
 1876 11,031 
 
 1877 11,937 
 
 Cwta. 
 
 1878 6,624 
 
 1879 11,951 
 
 1880 3,142 
 
 1881 645 
 
 1882 4,067 
 
 1883 4,600 
 
 1884 6,053 
 
 1885 8,355 
 
 1886 9,763 
 
 Ginger is a good deal grown in China, and largely used in its 
 fresh state as a condiment, and in medicine. Some small quantity 
 is exported dried, but it is black and hard, and not much 
 appreciated in commerce. 
 
 Ginger also appears in European commerce as a succade, the 
 young shoots of the rhizome being peeled and preserved in syrup. 
 For this purpose the rhizomes are lifted while they are yet 
 tender and full of sap, before they have become hard or woody ; 
 the roots are carefully picked and washed, and afterwards scalded 
 till they become tender enough for the purpose; they are then 
 put into cold water, and scraped and peeled gradually. This 
 operation may last three or four days, the water on the roots being 
 changed frequently. When thus prepared, they are put into jars 
 and covered with the syrup, and this is changed two or three 
 times, when they are ready for shipment. 
 
 The quantity of preserved ginger imported into England ranges 
 from 300,000 to 600,000 lbs. of the value of £11,000 to £25,000, and 
 is received entirely from India and China. The mode of preserving 
 it is to steep the racemes in vats of water for several days, changing 
 the water once. When taken out it is spread on tables and well 
 pricked or pierced wich bodkins ; they are boiled in a copper 
 cauldron, then steeped for two days and nights in a vat with a 
 mixture of water and rice flour. After this they are washed with 
 a solution of lime boiled with an equal weight of sugar, and a little 
 white of egg is added to clarify. After the ginger has been boiled 
 % second time it is put up in small porcelain jars for market. 
 
 Nutmegs. — This tree is principally grown in the Amboyna 
 Islands, Banda, and the other Moluccas. It is also cultivated in 
 Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and other islands of the Archipelago. Each 
 tree produces about 3 lbs. of nuts and 1 lb. of mace. The tree 
 which produces these spices is the Myristica moschata, Thunberg ; 
 M. fragrans, Houttuyn ; M. aromatica, Lam.; M. officinalis, Lin.; 
 a native of the Moluccas. The tree attains a height of 20 to 
 30 feet and greatly resembles our pear tree. The fruit, which is 
 singularly beautiful, is pear-shaped, about the size of an apricot. 
 As it ripens, the pulp, which is nearly half an inch thick, and 
 
 2 K 2 
 
500 
 
 THE SPICES OF COMMERCE. 
 
 of a -wMtish colour, opens and displays the rnitmeg in its Hack 
 and shining shell, encircled by a network of mace. 
 
 The tree begins to bear when ten years old, and goes on im- 
 proving during the space of a century. The fruit is gathered two 
 or three times a year. Three sorts of nutmegs are distinguished, 
 namely, the male or barren, the royal, and the queen. The last, 
 which are small and round, are preferred to the others, which are 
 large and oval. 
 
 In 1830 the duty on nutmegs was 2s. 6d. per lb. on British 
 grown, and 3s. 6d. on foreign, and the consumption was 121,260' 
 lbs., which had increased in 1837 to 134,115 lbs. In 1836 wild 
 nutmegs were admitted at Is. duty. In 1846 the rates for British 
 and foreign were equalized to 2s. 6d., and for wild lowered to 
 3c?. per lb. In 1847, a distinction was made between wild in 
 the shell and wild " not in the shell," the former being charged 
 3d. and the latter 5d. per lb. The home consumption in 1859 
 was 265,783 lbs. The duty on all spices has long since been 
 abolished. 
 
 In 1840 the imports were 113,193 lbs. ; in 1850, 315,126 lbs.; in 
 1860, 532,208 lbs.; and in 1870, nearly the same. 
 
 Nutmegs are not now specifically named in the Board of Trade 
 returns. 
 
 The imports into the London market of late years have been as 
 follows, in bales : — 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Nutmegs. 
 
 Mace. 
 
 
 
 1878 
 
 2,470 
 
 515 
 
 
 
 1879 
 
 1,870 
 
 685 
 
 
 
 1880 
 
 2,090 
 
 485 
 
 
 
 1881 
 
 2,130 
 
 545 
 
 
 
 1882 
 
 1,910 
 
 660 
 
 
 
 1883 
 
 2,600 
 
 310 
 
 
 
 1884 
 
 3,780 
 
 520 
 
 
 
 1885 
 
 4,015 
 
 755 
 
 
 
 1886 
 
 2,890 
 
 920 
 
 
 About two-tliirds of these are re-exported. 
 
 The nutmeg is propagated from fresh seeds (nutmegs) and these 
 vary greatly m size and shape, just as apples and pears do raised 
 from seeds. There can hardly be a more profitable crop than the 
 nutmeg at present prices. The annual yield of a good tree of six- 
 teen or eighteen years' growth, and covering about 600 square 
 feet surface, is about 10 lbs, which, at an average of 2s per lb 
 gives a value of produce per acre, per annum, of over £76! 
 exclusive of the yield of mape, 1 lb. each tree, which at 4s. is 
 equal to £10 more. The fruit of the nutmeg takes nine months 
 to mature. 
 
 The Banda islands, where nutmeg culture is carried on bv the 
 Dutch, are Great Banda or Lonthoir, Neira and Ay. 
 
NUTMEGS. 
 
 The sHpments of mitmegs from Banda in 1879 were to :- 
 
 Holland 1,014 piouls. 
 
 Singapore 3,196 „ 
 
 Java 6,670 „ 
 
 Muoat, say 157 ,, 
 
 11,037 piculs. 
 
 501 
 
 The following shows the average annual export of spices from 
 the Dutch Settlement in the East, in kilogrammes :— 
 
 
 18?5-?9. 
 
 1880-84. 
 
 1885. 
 
 1886. 
 
 Nutmegs 
 
 Mace 
 
 Cinnamon 
 
 Cloves 
 
 Cubebs 
 
 425,000 
 
 203,000 
 
 36,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 280,000 
 87,000 
 71,000 
 45,000 
 
 178,000 
 
 160,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 4,800 
 
 42,000 
 
 81,200 
 
 42,000 
 
 8,130 
 
 10,000 
 
 37,000 
 
 127,000 
 
 The nutmegs and mace are shipped from Banda, and the cloves 
 from Amboyna. The decrease shown is caused by the direct ship- 
 ment from the free ports of the Moluccas and Macassar, to Singapore 
 and Holland. The cinnamon is produced in Flores and Timor, 
 and the cubebs in Java. 
 
 The nutmegs are classed into medium, inferior and broken nuts, 
 and the mace into good and chips. As the consumption would seem 
 to be increasing, and the production does not keep pace, the 
 valiie is likely to rise, although the price has doubled of late. The 
 total exports from Netherlands-India have been as follows, in 
 kilogrammes : — 
 
 Year. 
 
 1875 
 1880 
 1885 
 
 Nutmegs. 
 
 1,283,848 
 1,451,540 
 1,481,248 
 
 Mace. 
 
 700,974 
 267,881 
 277,800 
 
 The shipments on private account, exclusive of government 
 shipments, from Java and Madura were, in kilogrammes : — 
 
 Year. 
 
 Nutmegs. 
 
 Mace. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Nutmegs. 
 
 Mace. 
 
 1876 
 1877 
 1878 
 1879 
 1880 
 
 425,000 
 1,609,000 
 
 448,000 
 1,423,000 
 1,351,000 
 
 258,000 
 408,000 
 341,000 
 269,000 
 268,000 
 
 1881 
 1882 
 1883 
 1884 
 1885 
 
 1,481,000 
 1,232,000 
 1,057,000 
 1,173,000 
 1,385,000 
 
 325,000 
 215,000 
 229,000 
 284,000 
 276,000 
 
502 
 
 THE SPICES OF COMMERCE. 
 
 The direct imports into Holland were as follows of the different 
 spices, in kilogrammes : — 
 
 
 
 
 
 Stock on 31st December. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Nutmegs. 
 
 Mace. 
 
 Pepper. 
 
 NatmcgB. 
 
 Mace. 
 
 Pepper. 
 
 1878 
 
 431,500 
 
 112,500 
 
 705,000 
 
 26,500 
 
 7,500 
 
 40,600 
 
 1879 
 
 440,900 
 
 123,400 
 
 1,372,800 
 
 76,300 
 
 23,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 1880 
 
 369,600 
 
 126,100 
 
 420,000 
 
 74,000 
 
 22,800 
 
 ., 
 
 1881 
 
 387,300 
 
 110,700 
 
 371,300 
 
 33,700 
 
 20,600 
 
 40,000 
 
 1882 
 
 557,200 
 
 150,300 
 
 524,700 
 
 34,100 
 
 22,600 
 
 260,800 
 
 1883 
 
 541,600 
 
 159,200 
 
 272,300 
 
 48,200 
 
 31,300 
 
 27,200 
 
 1884 
 
 503,900 
 
 162,900 
 
 131,400 
 
 32,500 
 
 18,200 
 
 15,300 
 
 1885 
 
 545,200 
 
 145,500 
 
 108,700 
 
 47,600 
 
 22,900 
 
 13,500 
 
 1886 
 
 519,000 
 
 93,600 
 
 88,300 
 
 34,300 
 
 4,600 
 
 9,000. 
 
 1887 
 
 745,200 
 
 160,500 
 
 116,400 
 
 134,800 
 
 22,200 
 
 27,000 
 
 The British production of nutmegs in the Straits Settlements 
 thirty years ago exceeded the Dutch crop, the total yield of the 
 Bandas in 1855 being but 4032 piculs of nutmegs and 1000 of 
 mace, whilst Pinang alone in that year shipped 4624 piculs of 
 nutmegs and 1340 piculs of mace, and in 1860 exported 6421 piculs 
 of nutmegs and 2094 of mace. 
 
 Tor many years the Straits Settlements were famed for the 
 cultivation of the nutmeg, but of late years the cultivation has 
 been pronounced a failure. In Ceylon the tree is now largely 
 grown. 
 
 There were, in 1860, 14,502 acres under culture with spices of 
 all kinds, namely, 13,153 in Pinang, and 1349 in Province WeUesley. 
 Pinang nutmegs are always shipped in the natural state, and not 
 limed. 
 
 Limed nutmegs are preferred in some countries. The lime is 
 said to preserve the seeds from insects, but it injures the flavour. 
 The Chinese prefer to import their nutmegs in the testa or shell, 
 as they keep good for a great length of time. 
 
 There are imported into India from the Straits Settlements about 
 500,000 lbs. of nutmegs, the imports having been as follows : — 
 
 1881-82 379,996 
 
 1882-83 457,569 
 
 1883-84 461,486 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1884-85 515,470 
 
 1885-86 521,411 
 
 Jamaica. — The cultivation of nutmegs is being continued on a 
 small scale in this island. The tree, however, is so delicate at 
 high elevations (that is above 600 or 800 feet) that it may be said 
 to be entirely a lowland plant. It requires a warm, moist climate 
 (very similar to cacao), and a deep, rich, alluvial soil, in a sheltered 
 position. It is useless to attempt to grow nutmeg trees on a 
 clayey or stony subsoil, or at any elevation above those already 
 mentioned. Consignments of very fine, selected, large, and heavy 
 nutmeg seeds have been imported from Grenada for planting, many 
 
NUTMEGS. 503 
 
 of these running from sixty to seventy to the pound, while 
 ordinary Jamaica nutmegs run one hundred to one hundred and 
 ten to the pound. 
 
 The cultivation of nutmegs is much in favour in Jamaica just 
 now. A fine nutmeg tree there is stated to have had upwards of 
 4000 unusually large fruit upon it. The value, calculating ninety 
 nuts to the pound, would be 44 lbs., worth at least 3s., or in 
 all £6 12s. 
 
 The shape of the nutmeg varies a good deal, being spherical, 
 oblong and egg-shaped, but the nearer they approach sphericity of 
 figure the more highly are they prized. Those of good quality 
 ought to be nearly round, and the largest and finest weigh on 
 the average about a quarter of an ounce each. They should have 
 an agreeable flavour, but rather bitter, and when pierced exude an 
 oily juice. 
 
 Nutmegs are valued a good deal according to size, the largest 
 being the best ; thus, those of sixty-eight to the pound will fetch 
 4s. Sd. ; while very small, one hundred and twenty to the pound, 
 vrill be worth but only half that price. 
 
 It was at one time thought, for a few years, that the culture 
 would receive a great development in French Guiana, but at last, 
 either from want of proper care, or public infatuation giving way 
 to complete indifference, the nutmeg plantations were gradually 
 given up. Notwithstanding repeated trials in various colonies in 
 the Indian Ocean, West Indies, and America, the nutmeg does not 
 seem to thrive well, and succeeds best in the localities of the Indian 
 Archipelago. 
 
 A fraud is often practised in disguising worm-eaten nuts by 
 filling up the holes with mastic. They are also often first 
 deprived of their essential oil by distillation, or steeping in 
 alcohol. Nutmegs yield when distilled with water a volatile or 
 essential oil of nutmegs, in the proportion of about 2J per cent., 
 and mace an oil of nearly similar properties. A concrete oil, 
 known as nutmeg butter, is also imported from the Moluccas ; it is 
 prepared by heating nutmegs and afterwards submitting them to 
 pressure. The Myristica sebifera, of South America, also yields an 
 oil by expression. 
 
 Wild nutmegs of a longer shape are the produce of Myristica 
 fatua, or tomentosa, and are often imported. Lieut. Cameron states 
 that in his explorations in Central Africa he met with large groves 
 of wild nutmeg trees. A wild nutmeg is also yielded by _a 
 Brazilian tree, Gryptocarya mosdhata. A false nutmeg, called in 
 Guiana the Ackawa nutmeg, is the fruit of Acrodiclidium Gamara. 
 Another kind has occasionally been imported on the Continent 
 from Madagascar and Bourbon under the name of clove nutmegs, 
 or ravensara nuts ; they are the produce of Agatho;p'hyllum 
 aromaticum. 
 
 The seeds of Monodora myristica, Gaert., are known as calabash 
 nutmegs, and possess the properties, and in some degree the 
 flavour of nutmegs. _ 
 
 There are several other kinds of nutmegs derived from different 
 
504 THE SPICES OF COMMERCE. 
 
 species of Myristica, wliich. are in use in various parts of the world, 
 but as they are much inferior in their qualities, and are not found 
 in commerce, it is unnecessary to describe them here. 
 
 Mace is the reticulated scarlet arillus enveloping the thin, dark 
 brown, glossy, oval shell which covers the nutmeg. When dry, the 
 mace becomes yellow, brown and brittle. In preparing it, it is 
 said to be first steeped in a weak salt solution, which renders it 
 supple and preserves the aromatic principle. 
 
 In 1830, the duty on mace was higher than on nutmegs, being 
 3«. 6d. per lb. on British produce, and is. 6d. on foreign ; the home 
 consumption then was 12,600 lbs. In 1835, it had increased to 
 18,835 lbs. The duty was then fixed at 2s. 6d. for all descriptions, 
 and in 1862 the consumption was 21,485 lbs. In 1853, the duty 
 was lowered to Is. per lb., and the consumption had increased in 
 1859 to 34,714 lbs. 
 
 The present production and oomsumption of nutmegs and mace 
 may be estimated approximately from the figures given in previous 
 tables. 
 
 Nutmegs and mace are employed chiefly as condiments for 
 ordinary purposes, for which they are admirably suited by their 
 agreeable taste and stimulating properties. As remedial agents 
 they owe their activity to the volatile oil which they contain, and 
 when administered in moderate quantities, produce the usual 
 efiect of the other spices. Their use requires caution in those 
 subject to apoplexy and other cerebral affections, as they possess 
 narcotic properties. Taken in small quantities these spices 
 assist digestion, dispel flatulency, strengthen the viscera, and stop 
 dysentery. 
 
 Cassia and other Spice Bakes. — Many of the trees of the 
 Laurel family, to which the Cinnamon and Cassia belong, contain 
 an aromatic principle, which resides in many parts, such as the 
 bark, leaves, and fruit. Of this we have instances in the berries 
 and leaves of the bay (Laurus nobilis), the latter being used for 
 flavouring custards, puddings, &c. Figs imported into this country 
 are also packed in bay leaves. 
 
 Laurel leaves in Greece are more aromatic than in other localities. 
 It seems as if in warmer climates the aromatic principles of plants 
 are more profusely developed, like the bitter and astringent 
 principles in the colder regions. In America the bark and wood 
 of Sassafras officinale have a pleasant aromatic odour, which leads 
 to a considerable commerce. In the United States the essential 
 oil obtained from it is used to give a pleasant flavour to efferves- 
 cing drinks, tobacco, and toilet soaps. The bark of a Brazilian 
 tree, Mespilodaphnc pretiosa, resembles the true sassafras in odour. 
 There is a thick sassafras bark produced in Burma, Martaban, 
 and other parts of India. An eastern sassafras is obtained in 
 Sumatra from Sassafras Parthenoxylon, and in Nepal from S. glan- 
 duliferuni ; while the bark of Benzoin odoriferum of North America 
 is also highly aromatic. The bark of Atherospermum moschatum of 
 Tasmania is pleasantly aromatic. The aromatic Malambo bai'k 
 
CASSIA AND OTHER SPICE BARKS. 605 
 
 {Groton Malamhd), of Central America, is said to be used in the 
 United States for adulterating spices. 
 
 The spice bnsh (Oreodaplme Galifarnica), a lofty tree, has leaves 
 which are pungently aromatic, and the spice wood (Lindera 
 Benzoin) found in "Western Virginia has a highly aromatic wood. 
 Sassafras nuts, the large separate cotyledons of two Lauraceous 
 trees of Brazil, are also occasionally met with in commerce and 
 used for flavouring. Another member of the Laurel family, 
 Daphnidium Cuheba of Nees von Esenbeck, has berries which have 
 an agreeable warm aromatic flavour, and are used as spice by the 
 Chinese. 
 
 In ancient Italy the berries and flower buds of the myrtle were 
 used as a kind of spice. The modem Tuscaus and the people of 
 Syria and Palestine still frequently substitute these for pepper or 
 flavouring. 
 
 Cassia Bark. — Messrs. Hanbury and Pluckiger have furnished 
 more ample details respecting this bark than had previously 
 been published, and they state that various species of Cinnamomum 
 occurring in the warm countries of Asia from India eastward, afford 
 what is termed in commerce cassia bark. The trees are extremely 
 variable in foliage, inflorescence, and aromatic properties, and 
 the distinctness of several of the species laid down even in recent 
 works is still uncertain. At present, neither botanists, pharmaco- 
 logists, or spice dealers are able to point out characteristics by which 
 to distinguish the barks of this group, or even to give definite names 
 to those found in our warehouses. 
 
 The bark which bears par excellence the name of Cassia, or Cassia 
 lignea, and which is distinguished on the Continent as Chinese 
 cinnamon, is a production of the provinces of Kwang-se and the 
 Kweichan in Southern China. Cassia lignea is also produced in the 
 Khasya mountains in Eastern Bengal, whence it is brought down 
 to Calcutta for shipment. In this region there are three species 
 vf cinnamon, growing at 1000 to 4000 feet above the sea-level, and 
 all have bark with the flavour of cinnamon, more or less pure ; 
 they are Cinnamomum oltusifoUum, Nees ; C. pauciflorum, Nees ; 
 and C. Tamala, Nees. G. iners, Eeinw., a very valuable species 
 occurring in Continental India, Ceylon, Tavoy, Java, Sumatra, and 
 other islands of the Indian Archipelago, and possibly, in the opinion 
 of Thwaites, a mere variety of G. Zeylanicum, but, according to 
 Meissner, well distinguished by its paler, thinner leaves, its nerva- 
 tion, and the character of its aroma, would appear to yield the 
 cassia bark or wild cinnamon of Southern India. G. Tamala, Fr. 
 Nees et Eberm, which, besides growing in Khasya, is found in the 
 contiguous regions of Silhet, Sikkim, Nepal, and Kumaon, and 
 even reaches Australia, probably affords some cassia bark in 
 Northern India. Large quantities of a thick sort of cassia have at 
 times been imported from Singapore andBatavia, much of which is 
 produced in Sumatra. In the absence of any very reliable informa- 
 tion as to its botanical sources, we may suggest as mother plants 
 G. cassia, BL, and G. JBurmanni, Bl., var. a. Chinense, both stated by 
 Toijsman and Binnendijk to be cultivated in Java. The latter 
 
506 
 
 THE SPICES OF COMMERCE. 
 
 species, growing also in the Pliilippines, probably affords the cassia 
 hark which is shipped from Manila (Pharmacographia). 
 
 The exports of Cassia hark from Java and Madura were as 
 follows : — 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 1876 5,798 
 
 1877 56,100 
 
 1878 76,097 
 
 1879 16,578 
 
 Kilos- 
 
 1880 14,995 
 
 1881 208,841 
 
 1882 53,813 
 
 1883 38,184 
 
 This is possibly the produce of Cinnamomum Surmanni, Blume, 
 C. Mamis, of Nees, known as Massoi bark. 
 
 The bark is stripped off by rnnning a knife along the branch on 
 both sides, and then gradually loosening it, after it is taken off 
 it is suffered to lie for twenty-four hours, during which it undergoes 
 a kind of fermentation, and the epidermis is easily scraped off. 
 The bark soon dries into the quilled shape in which it is brought 
 to market. In China it is used to flavour medicine, and for making 
 incense. The extreme tender ends of the branches of the tree are 
 also used as a spice. 
 
 Cassia Lignea expobted from CmNA, in Piccis. 
 
 1874 54,502 
 
 1875 53,047 
 
 1876 38,090 
 
 1877 52,417 
 
 1878 72,171 
 
 1879 99,633 
 
 1880 38,784 
 
 1881 57,456 
 
 1882 58,170 
 
 1883 76,196 
 
 1884 13,822 
 
 About 14,000 cwts. are annually imported into India from 
 China. 
 
 There is but a small consumption of it in this country — not 
 more than about 40,000 lbs. a year on the average. The bulk of 
 the receipts go to the Continent, true cinnamon bark being pre- 
 ferred here. Prom 42,000 to 55,000 cases of Cassia bark arrive 
 yearly in London. 
 
 The imports of spices of all kinds from China, including Hong 
 Kong, into this country have been as follows (the bulk of this is 
 cassia bark and cassia buds^ : — 
 
 Tear. 
 
 1870 
 1875 
 1880 
 1886 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 888,913 
 
 1,206,598 
 
 7,288,983 
 
 3,937,112 
 
 Value. 
 
 £ 
 
 32,695 
 
 35,608 
 
 145,976 
 
 43,520 
 
 Cassia Buds are the immature fruits gathered and dried of several 
 species of Cinnamon, chiefly the Chinese Cassia lignea. They 
 are used in confectionery, having the flavour and pungency of 
 cassia. 
 
 In Southern India the more matured fruits of one of the 
 
CINNAMON. 507 
 
 varieties of Cinnamomum iners, Eeinw., are collected for use, but 
 are very inferior to the Chinese cassia Touds. 
 
 When gathered young, the receptacles completely envelope the 
 embryo seed, which progressively protrudes, but continues firmly 
 embraced by the receptacle. The buds are of various sizes, having 
 the appearance of nails with roundish heads. If completelv dried 
 the receptacle is nearly black. 
 
 Cinnamon. — The cinnamon of commerce is the aromatic bark of 
 a species of laurel, Cinnamomum Zeylanicum, Breyne. Its fruit is a 
 small berry in the form of an olive, with a kernel. The bark is 
 composed of thin layers, which are separate; these, cut in 
 lengths, are exposed in the sun, and curl up in drying. Good 
 cinnamon should be iine, thin, brittle, of a yellowish brown, and 
 aromatic. It is one of the delicate spices of the table, and is also 
 used in medicine. 
 
 In the ' Peuille de la Guyane ' for 1820, of Guisan, page 339, it 
 is represented as a very hardy plant, growing well in all situations, 
 soils, and aspects, on the summits of mountains, on the borders of 
 streams which wash its roots ; in alluvial soils, thoroughly or badly 
 drained, it is stated to succeed well. This differs, however, from 
 the opinions entertained in Ceylon, where cinnamon of a superior 
 quality is restricted to sandy soils. Leblond remarks that every 
 part of the tree is important, and can be applied to some useful 
 purpose, the wood, leaves, fruit, and bark. The roots even yield, 
 by distillation, a camphor of equal quality to that ordinarily 
 used in medicine. The old trunks furnish resinous knots which 
 have the odour of rosewood, and can be advantageously employed 
 for furniture ; the leaves furnish an oil appreciated by perfumers ; 
 a distilled water from the flowers, besides the soft and pleasant 
 odour, sweetens the worst breath, animates the spirits, and diffuses 
 its pleasant perfume wherever it is used. 
 
 The cinnamon is raised most readily from seeds, although the 
 fine kinds are propagated in Ceylon by layers, and they differ in 
 the degree of aromatic principle or flavour just as much as the 
 nutmeg varies in respect of size, but the quality of the seedlings 
 can always be ascertained in the seeding bud by tasting the 
 leaves. 
 
 The roots of the cinnamon tree are branchy and ligneous ; the 
 bark of these roots has the pungent smell of camphor, with the 
 delicious odour of cinnamon, and yields camphor by distillation. 
 The wood of the tree is light, fibrous, and inodorous. The trunk 
 is from 12 to 18 inches in diameter, rising to the height of from 
 20 to 30 feet ; it grows irregular and knotty ; the external bark 
 is thick, rough, and scabrous, and of an ash colour; the inner 
 bark is reddish. The bark of the young shoot is often speckled 
 with dark-green and light-orange colours. The branches are thick 
 and spreading, and shoot forth horizontally or inclining down- 
 wards ; they are covered with numerous oblong leaves growing in 
 pairs opposite to each other. When first developed, these leaves 
 are of a bright red hue, then of a pale yellow, and when arrived 
 
508 THE SPICES OF COMMBECS. 
 
 at maturity of a dark olive colour. At full growth they are from 
 6 to 9 inches long, and from 2 to 3 inches broad. The upper 
 surface is smooth and shining, and of a darker green than the 
 under side. The petiole has the odour and taste of cinnamon. 
 The plants bloom in January and February, and the seed ripens 
 in June, July, and August. Many white flowers grow on one 
 peduncle. Their smell, though not strong, is exceedingly pleasant, 
 resembling a mixture of the rose and lilac. The fruit is an oval 
 berry, larger than black; currants, and adheres in the manner of an 
 acorn to the receptacle, which is thick, green, and hexangular. 
 The leaves when full grown emit a strong aromatic odour on being 
 bruised, and have the pungent taste of cloves. 
 
 The prepared bark of this tree is the cinnamon of commerce. 
 Diversities in the quality of cinnamon do not appear to arise from 
 any varieties of the plant, but from care and skill in the prepara- 
 tion, the soil and temperature of the country, the age and health 
 of the plant. It is rarely found worth collecting except in the 
 southern and western aspects of Ceylon. Beyond certain limits 
 the bark is never of a good quality, as it is powerfully affected by 
 local circumstances. 
 
 The Karuwa of the Malabar coast has been considered by many 
 botanists as identical with the Laurus Cassia, but it is said that 
 specific difference can be discovered between the cinnamon tree of 
 Ceylon and the karuwa. The prepared bark of the karuwa is, 
 aocording to good authority, inferior to the best Ceylon cinnamon. 
 It is, however, allowed to be superior to the produce of the 
 cinnamon tree which is found on the northern and eastern part of 
 the island. Linnasus, deceived by the name of Laurus Cassia, 
 was misled, and ascribes qualities to that tree which it does not 
 
 The cinnamon plant delights in a silicious soil, with an admixture 
 of vegetable mould, in which only it produces the sweet taste, 
 aromatic smell, and the pale brown or russet colour which renders 
 it so valuable as an article of commerce and useful as spice, for it 
 has generally happened that plants, even of the genuine kind, 
 when th.ej grow in valleys or marshy ground, or on land subject 
 to inundations, lose their characteristic properties ; two-ninths !of 
 the pi ants growing in Batticolea and Ohilaw, allowed to be of the 
 genuine kind, are deficient in smell and taste, and consequently 
 less useful or valuable ; and the cinnamon grown in the valleys 
 of Moronea Corle, the soil of which is marshy, yields a bark of 
 inferior quality. Again, the plants which are raised in Bombay, 
 from seeds and seedlings sent thither at an early period of the 
 British rule in that island, although they grew luxuriantly, pro- 
 duced bark of an inferior quality, which was not valued as an 
 article of commerce. 
 
 Besides the inferiority in smell, taste, and colour, which 
 invariably marks plants grown in any other than a silicious soil, a 
 disadvantage of no little importance to the grower has been 
 observed to follow. Whilst the stumps of plants grown in silicious 
 soil shoot forth rapidly, and are fit to be peeled a second time 
 
CINNAMON. 509 
 
 ■witliin a period of Imt four or five years, and produce bark 
 superior in quality to that peeled at first, those grown on a hilly 
 or marshy soil require not less than six years before they can 
 undergo a second peeling, and yield bark less in quantity and 
 inferior in quality to that peeled at first. 
 
 When the ground is prepared for planting cinnamon, the low 
 brushwood and young trees are cut down, but lofty trees are 
 allowed to remain at intervals, as it is found that the tender 
 plants thrive better under shade than when exposed to the direct 
 rays of the sun. The planting usually takes place when the 
 seeds are ripe; for this purpose a line is stretched across the 
 ground, and, guided by it, the planter turns up about a foot 
 square of earth at intervals of 6 or 7 feet. The brushwood and 
 branches having been previously burnt, their ashes are spread 
 upon the newly dug spots, and into each of them four or five 
 cinnamon berries are sown in holes made with a dibble ; they are 
 then covered with earth, and branches of trees are laid over tho 
 parts to prevent the earth from becoming parched, and to protect 
 the young shoots as soon as they come forth. This takes place in 
 about fifteen or twenty days ; sometimes the berries are sown in 
 nurseries, and the young plants are transplanted in the months of 
 October and November. In favourable situations shoots attain the 
 height of 6 or 6 feet in about six or seveii years, and a healthy 
 bush will then afford two or three shoots for peeling. In a good 
 soil, every second year from four to seven shoots may be cut from 
 one tree ; thriving shoots of four years' growth are sometimes fit 
 for cutting. As four or five seeds are usually sown in one spot, 
 and in most seasons the greater part germinate, the plants grow 
 in clusters not unlike a hazel bush. If the season be unusually 
 dry, many of the seeds fail, while the want of moisture is often 
 fatal to the young shoots, so that it is sometimes necessary to plant 
 a piece of ground several times successively. A plantation of 
 cinnamon, even on good ground, cannot be expected to make much 
 return until after the lapse of eight or nine years. This plant ia 
 sometimes propagated from shoots cut from large trees, by layers, 
 or, lastly, by transplanting large stumps. 
 
 The method of culture by seeds is considered the least advan- 
 tageous, as the trees are longer before they arrive at perfection. 
 
 If cultivated from shoots, the sprouts must be continually 
 watered, or they will not thrive. Those selected for the purpose 
 should be very young, not having more than three leaves ; if older 
 they die. 
 
 The third method, by layers, is recommended by Dr. Wight,, 
 since the numerous side branches which issue from the bottom of 
 the trunk always furnish a plentiful supply well adapted for 
 layering. The transplanting of the old roots is a plan of modern 
 adoption, and the practice is much approved, since they yield 
 shoots of the usual size twelve months after they they have been 
 placed in the ground. Great care is, however, necessary in their 
 removal, for should any of the rootlets, even of one-tenth of an 
 inch diameter, receive injury, the whole root will certainly perish. 
 
510 THE SPICES OF COMMERCE. 
 
 Thunberg mentions a fifth metliod. of cultivation, or rather a 
 manner of obtaining cinnamon of superior quality. When the tree 
 is cut down and a fire kindled on the spot to consume the stumps, 
 the roots afterwards throw out a number of long straight shoots, 
 which yield incomparably fine cinnamon. From these are cut 
 the cinnamon walking-sticks, which in appearance resemble those 
 of the hazel tree, and retain the taste and smell of cinnamon. 
 They have no scent, however, unless when the bark is rubbed. 
 
 The peeling process commences early in May, and continues 
 until late in October. When a Chilaw perceives a shoot of proper 
 growth, he strikes an instrument which resembles a small bill- 
 hook obliquely into the shoot. He then gently opens the gash to 
 discover whether the bark separates freely from the wood ; should 
 this not be the case, he leaves the sucker for a future time. Some 
 shoots never arrive at a fit state for decortication. Plants of 
 several years' growth sometimes bear numerous marks of annual 
 experiments made for the purpose of ascertaining whether the 
 bark was in a favourable situation for removal. 
 
 The shoots which are cut are usually from a half to three-quarters 
 of an inch in diameter, and from three to five feet long Some 
 travellers in former times asserted that the cinnamon was peeled 
 from the tree while standing, and that nature provided the 
 decorticated plant with a new bark. It is said that the experi- 
 ment has been recently tried on several plants, all of which died 
 in consequence. The shoots being cut are tied in bundles, and 
 carried to sheds appropriated to the preparation of the cinnamon. 
 
 Being cleared of small shoots and leaves, two longitudinal slits 
 are made in the bark, which is gradually loosened with the convex 
 side of the knife, and then [usually half the circumference of the 
 bark comes off in one entire slip. When the bark adheres firmly 
 to the wood, it is strongly rubbed with the handle of the peeling- 
 knife until it is disengaged and stripped off. The sections of 
 the bark thus obtained are carefully put one into the other, the 
 outer side of one piece being placed in contact with the inner side 
 of another ; they are then collected into bundles, and firmly pressed 
 or bound together. 
 
 In this state the bark is allowed to remain for twenty-four hours, 
 or sometimes for a longer period, by which means a degree of 
 fermentation is induced that facilitates the subsequent operations 
 of removing the cuticle. After being subjected to this treatment, 
 the interior side of each section of bark is placed on a convex piece 
 of wood, and the epidermis, together with the greenish ; pulpy 
 matter, immediately under it, is carefully scraped off with a curved 
 knife. This is an operation requiring some nicety, for if any of 
 the outer bark be allowed to remain, it gives an unpleasant 
 bitterness to the cinnamon. In a few hours after the removal of 
 the cuticle, the pieces are put one into the other, the bark dries, 
 contracts, and gradually acquires the appearance of a quill or pipe, 
 the whole forming a congeries of quills more than a foot in length. 
 During the first day the cinnamon is suspended under shelter upon 
 open flat forms ; on the second day it is placed on wickerwork 
 
CINNAMON. 
 
 511 
 
 shelves, and exposed to the sun. When sufficiently dry it is made 
 up into bundles of about 30 lbs. weight each ; previous to pre- 
 paring for shipment, they are subjected to the process of assort- 
 ment. 
 
 The bark of large shoots or thick branches of trees produces 
 coarse cinnamon. _ Occasionally the external pellicle of this kind 
 is scraped oif, which thins the cinnamon and improves its colour. 
 It is, however, even then thicker and of a darker colour than that 
 of good quality, while it is of a very inferior flavour, and is dis- 
 agreeably pungent. This sort is always rejected by the Inspectors 
 as unfit to be exported to Europe. The bark of very young and 
 succulent shoots is likewise of an inferior quality, and is of no 
 commercial value. It is very thin, and of a light straw colour, 
 having little flavour, and that evanescent. Shoots exposed during 
 growth to the direct rays of the sun, have their bark more acrid 
 and spicy than the bark of those which grow under a shade. A 
 marshy soil rarely produces good cinnamon, its texture under the 
 circumstances being cross-grained and spongy, while it possesses 
 but little aroma. It is hardly possible to discover the cause which 
 produces the varieties in the quality of the bark, since shoots from 
 the same tree are found to yield cinnamon of very different 
 qualities. 
 
 The best Ceylon cinnamon is thin, smooth, and of a light yellow 
 colour ; it admits of a considerable degree of pressure, and bends 
 before it breaks. The fracture is thin and splintry ; it has an 
 agreeable warm aromatic flavour, with a slight degree of sweetness. 
 When masticated the pieces become soft, and seem to melt in the 
 mouth. 
 
 From cinnamon which has been rejected for shipment an essential 
 oil is usually extracted. The best oil of cinnamon sinks in water, 
 but when inferior it is of smaller specific gravity. A very large 
 quantity of bark is required for obtaining only a small portion of 
 oil : it is reckoned that 80 lbs. of newly-prepared cinnamon yield 
 about 6^ oz. of heavy oil, and 2 J oz. of light oil. 
 
 There are 37,000 acres under cinnamon in Ceylon. The produce 
 is 1,680,568 lbs. of bark and 600,000 lbs. of chips. The value of 
 the home consumption in England and export is about £50,000. 
 Prices have, however, fallen 50 per cent, in the last six or seven 
 years. 
 
 The total exports of cinnamon from Ceylon have been as 
 follows : — 
 
 Year. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 1850 
 1860 
 1870 - 
 
 Ib8. ' 
 644,857 
 675,156 
 2,071,679 
 
 64,487 
 
 33,758 
 
 103,584 
 
 1880 
 1887 
 1888 
 
 lbs. 
 1,566,820 
 1,109,973 
 1,351,990 
 
 £ 
 99,757 
 44,436 
 
 42,845 
 
 In Java several species of wild cinnamon are met with, as 
 G. kiamis and C. sintoh, the bark of which is generally employed 
 
512 THE SPICES OF COMMEKCE. 
 
 to prepare an aromatic oil. It is not cultivated to any extent, 
 being chiefly restricted to the residency of Krawang. Mention is 
 made of it imder cassia hark. 
 
 In 1885 the Chinese plant (Ginnamomum aromatica) was intro- 
 duced into the residencies of Bantam, Banjoemas, Krawang, and 
 Preanger, in Java, under the name of cassia. 
 
 Vanilla. — One of the most profitable and least troublesome 
 cultures of humid tropical climates is certainly that of the Vanilla 
 orchid, of which there are several species, as the true vanilla 
 (Yanilla planifolia, And., Y. sativa, Scheede), V. aromatica; the 
 wild or simaroma ( V. sylvestris), a variety of V, planifolia, and the 
 pompona (F. Fompona~). This orchid is indigenous to the hot 
 regions of Eastern Mexico, but grows from thence to Peru, on the 
 American continent, and has been diffused by cultivation through 
 the West Indies, the Indian and Pacific Islands. The plant, which 
 is rather fleshy, and has large green inodorous flowers, grows in 
 moist and shady forests, climbing the trees by means of its aerial 
 roots. 
 
 The annual consumption of vanilla is about 5000 kilos, in the 
 United States, and 30,000 kilos, in France. Spain and England 
 also use some quantity. The manufacture of an artificial vanilla 
 was commenced, some ten years ago, from coniferin, a glucoside 
 occurring in the cambial secretion of firs, but this has not made 
 much progress. 
 
 Mexico. — The finest vanilla is the Mexican ; but that of Mauritius 
 is now considered equally good. The chief seats of production 
 are the coast regions of the State of Vera Cruz, the centre of 
 the culture being Jicaltepec, in the vicinity of Nantla. It is 
 likewise obtained on the western declivity of the Cordilleras, in 
 the State of Oaxaca, and in lesser quantity in those of Tabasco, 
 Cheapas, and Yucatan. The eastern parts of Mexico exported in 
 1864, by way of Vera Cruz and Tampico, about 44,000 lbs. of 
 vanilla, chiefly to Bordeaux. Since then the production seems to 
 have much declined. Papantia, Vera Cruz, produces excellent 
 vanilla. The value of the export of vanilla from Mexico in 187S 
 was 473,038 dollars. 
 
 In 1887 vanilla to the value of £17,586 was exported from Vera 
 Cruz, of which £13,914 went to the United States, £3,153 to 
 Germany, and £289 to France. 
 
 Vanilla flourishes chiefly in two places in Mexico, Papantia, in the 
 State of Vera Cruz, and Misantia ; but the first place is the most 
 important. The orchid is found wild in the forests around Papantia, 
 clinging to the trees and bushes for support. When the pods 
 ripen, in November and December, the natives go out into the 
 forests to gather them. ALL kinds are put into old sacks together, 
 and brought into Papantia to market. Here there are a number 
 of buyers, Spaniards or Americans. The pods or beans are pur,- 
 chased by middlemen, at the rate of 40s. or 50s. per 1000, taken llj 
 they are put up by the natives. One thousand good-sized green 
 vanilla beans will weigh 60 lbs. ; the same, when cured, about 
 
VANILLA. 513 
 
 10 lbs. The first fine morning planks are arranged and covered 
 with quilts or blankets, on which the beans are laid after being 
 divested of their stems. The sweating process, as it is called, then 
 takes place, and has to be repeated seven times before all the 
 water has evaporated. Then the beans are heated slightly, and 
 placed on shelves to dry and air. After this they are assorted 
 in lots of fifty beans, graded according to length. In fine weather 
 the curing process takes three weeks, but such weather rarely 
 prevails, and the curing sometimes takes from four to five months. 
 In 1888 the beans sold for 68s. per 100, which was about a pound 
 weight; but owing to a heavy crop in 1886, and the growing com- 
 petition in the business, the best beans only bring now 60s. per lb. 
 or 100, and the inferior from 30g. to 42s. The principal markets 
 for vanilla beans in the United States are New York, St. Louis, 
 and Chicago. In 1887, from the vicinity of Papantia alone, 
 60,000,000 beans were exported. 
 
 The bundles are packed in tin cases, which often hold from 
 2000 to 3000. Thesfe cases are lined with tin-foil, and a ticket 
 placed on the lid, specifying their quality, size, and quantity. 
 Some five or six of these tin cases are put into a neatly-made cedar 
 chest, which is sometimes lined with zinc and hermetically sealed, 
 so as to prevent moisture from getting to the vanilla in transport, 
 which would ruin it. These cedar cases are then sewed in mats, 
 and covered with a coarse bagging, to avoid the danger in trans- 
 port on mules. In this manner all the Mexican vanilla goes to 
 the places of sale in Europe and the United States. 
 
 The culture is very simple. Shoots about 3 feet long having 
 been fastened to trees on the approach of the rainy season, and 
 scarcely touching the ground, soon strike roots attached to the 
 bark, and form plants which commence to fruit in three years, 
 and remain productive for thirty or forty. The plantations are 
 cleared once a year from weeds and undergrowth. 
 
 Several varieties are recognised by the growers. One, the 
 " vaniUe de cochon," is so called from emitting an offensive smell 
 whilst drying. The harvest begins about December, when the 
 fruit becomes yellowish-green, as it is not allowed to arrive at 
 maturity. There are two ways of preparing it for the market. 
 In one method the fmit is allowed to dry until the pod loses its 
 green colour. Straw mats covered with woollen blankets are 
 spread on the ground, and when these are warmed through, the 
 fruits are spread on them and exposed to the sun. After a time 
 they are wrapped in blankets, and placed in boxes covered with 
 cloth, after which they are again exposed. In about twelve hours 
 the fruits should become of a coffee colour, but if they do not, the 
 process is repeated. After about two months' daily exposure they are 
 tied up in bundles of fifty, and packed in tin boxes. Five qualities 
 of vanilla pods are known : the best is the primeira, the pods of 
 whi'^h are 24 centimetres long, and proportionally thick. The 
 second quality is called cMca prima, the pods are shorter, and two 
 count as one ; the third, saeate, and the fourth, vesacate, are still 
 smaller, four of the latter being reckoned for one. The fifth and 
 
 2 h 
 
51-4 THE SPICES OF COMMERCE. 
 
 poorest quality is called hasura. The fruit is very small, spotted, 
 and much, cut or broken about. 
 
 The following is another method of preparing vanilla for the 
 market : About 12,000 of the pods are strung together by their 
 lower end, as near as possible to the footstalk ; " the whole are 
 plunged for an instant into boiling water to blanch them ; they 
 are then hung up in the open air and eKposed to the sun for a few 
 hours. By some they aire wrapped in woollen cloths to sweat. 
 Next day they are lightly smeared with oil by means of a feather 
 or the fingers, and are surrounded with oiled cotton to prevent the 
 valves from opening. As they become dry, on inverting their 
 upper end, they discharge a viscid liquor from it, and they are 
 pressed several times with oiled fingers to promote its flow. The 
 dried pods, like the berries of pepper, change colour under the 
 drying operation, grow brown, wrinkled, soft, and shrinjc to one- 
 fourth of their original size. In this state they are touched a 
 second time with oil, but very sparingly, because with too much 
 oil they would lose some of their delicious perfume." 
 
 In Guatemala the Indians of Vera Paz collect a good deal of 
 vanilla growing wild in the woods along the banks of the river 
 Poloohia, and in the forests to the north-west of Coban, and this 
 orchid is also found growing on the coast of Suchitepequez. 
 
 It appears somewhat remarkable that the cultivation of vanilla 
 in the British West Indies has not been largely undertaken, as it 
 would be attended with little difficulty, and might be made a 
 source of much profit to the inhabitants. But even in Caraccas 
 and Gruiana, where the plant grows profusely in a wild state, it is 
 almost entirely neglected. It has been attempted in Jamaica. 
 
 Brazil. — Vanilla is very badly prepared in Brazil ; in fact, no 
 attention is given to the culture — the wild pods are merely 
 collected in the woods as they ripen. These vary in length in 
 different districts. The Brazilian pods are in general much larger 
 than those grown in Mexico. Those of the province of Sergipe 
 are 8 to 10 inches long by 6 to 12 lines broad ; those of Minaes are 
 6 to 9 inches long by 4 to 6 lines broad. The ordinary pods found 
 in British commerce are from 3 to 8 inches long by a third to half 
 an inch wide. The large Pompona pods are known as vanillons 
 in France. The name vanilla is a diminutive of the Spanish 
 vaina, a pod. 
 
 The chief use of vanilla is in flavouring perfumery and confec- 
 tionery, ices, creams, and especially chocolate. One pod is sufficient 
 to flavour a pound and a half of chocolate, being ground with 
 sugar for that purpose. The fragrance is said to act upon the 
 system as an aromatic stimulant, exhilarating the mind, and 
 increasing the energy of the animal system. It is occasionally 
 employed on the Continent in cases of hysteria, and is used by the 
 Spanish physicians in America as an antidote to poison and to the 
 bite of venomous animals, as well as in other cases. A liquid used 
 in Peru, where it is known as Baume de vanille, exudes from the 
 open pods at perfect maturity. The fruits in time become covered 
 with an efiloresoeuce of fine needle-like crystals, which possess 
 
VAKILLA. 515 
 
 properties similar to those of benzoic acid ; when Viewed through 
 a microscope with polarized light, they are very beautiful objects. 
 
 In the ' Medical Flora,' it is stated that vanilla exercises a 
 powerful action on the animal economy, and justifies the attributes 
 of tonic, stimulant, and comforting, which are accorded to it. 
 The truly active and strong impression which it makes on the 
 nervous system by its fragmnt aroma, and on the stomach when 
 taken internally, is rapidly and sympathetically transmitted to all 
 the organs, the functions of which it more or less accelerates. 
 Hence, when the system is lowered, vanilla facilitates digestion 
 and nutrition, augments the cutaneous transpiration or the secre- 
 tion of urine, and acts as a tonic in various other ways. It is 
 recommended in oases of dyspepsia, melancholy, hypochondria, 
 and chlorosis, where the digestive functions are sluggish or torpid. 
 
 It is much employed by the Spaniards in South America to cure 
 various maladies, being reckoned stimulant and stomachic. 
 
 Besides the large consumption of vanilla as a flavouring essence, 
 it is also used to a small extent in scenting tobacco, snuff, and 
 cigars, and as a perfume ; and more recently a new demand for 
 vanilla has arisen, especially in Germany, the pod having been 
 found to yield a fine brown colour. 
 
 The quantitative determination of vanillin in vanilla shows that 
 the percentage of this aromatic principle varies between 1 • 5 and 
 2 "75 per cent. Mexican vanilla of prime quality was found to 
 contain 1 • 69 per cent. ; Bourbon vaniUa, 1-91 and 2 ■ 48 per cent. ; 
 and Java vanilla, 2 • 75 per cent. The vanillin in the Bourbon 
 and Java vanillas is associated with an unpleasantly odorous 
 volatile oil, for which reason the Mexican variety, notwithstanding 
 its inferiority in the quantity of the aromatic principle, is pre- 
 ferred, and commands a better price. 
 
 The pods as received in Europe are made up in packets contain- 
 ing fi.fty each, and should be fresh, unctuous, and very aromatic. 
 The gathering commences towards the end of September. The 
 pods, after they have been plunged for a moment in a vessel of 
 boiling water, to blanch them, are then hung up in an airy place. 
 The desiccation is a difScult operation, and must proceed slowly. 
 The pods are frequently oiled with mahogany-oil, to render 
 them supple and preserve them from insects ; they are also tied 
 up with cotton threads, to keep them from opening. These 
 are delicate operations, and the rareness of complete success 
 explains the high price of vanilla of the iirst quality. As 
 soon as the pods are ready, no time is lost in wrapping them 
 in oiled paper and packing them in tin boxes ; exposed to air, 
 they would speedily lose their aroma. . . . The vanilla, when 
 covered with the brilliant silvery efflorescence, caused by the 
 essential salt contained in the fruit working its way out, is 
 called vanille givree, and is preferred to all others. This efflo- 
 rescence sometimes makes its appearance on a pod two or three 
 years after its preparation for market: kept in a hermeticalty 
 closed box, it will retain its perfume for many years. Vanilla is 
 despatched in tin boxes, weighing generally from 17 to 18 kilo- 
 
 2 L 2 
 
516 
 
 THE SPICES OP COMMERCE. 
 
 grammes (or about 37 to 39 lbs.). The buyer should assure him- 
 self that the packets in the box are entire, and that the pods are 
 of the same length. Frauds are often practised in the retail sale 
 of vanilla. Some unscrupulous persons impart a perfume by 
 means of oil of benzoin to old dried-up pods, soak them in a mix- 
 ture of oil of sweet almonds and balm of Peru to restore their 
 softness, and dust them with salt to give them the desired crystal- 
 line efflorescence. 
 
 Guadalowpe. — Some attention has been given to the production 
 in this French island. In 1872, 1496 kilos, were raised; in 1874, 
 598 kilos., and in 1885, 12,000 kilos. 
 
 The culture of vanilla is being much reduced in the French 
 colonies, as at present prices it barely repays the cost of produc- 
 tion. At Mayotte there were seven growers and about 40 acres 
 under culture with vanilla, producing, in 1885, 1180 kilos. 
 
 At Nossi-be there were seven growers, and about 100 kilos, 
 produced. At St. Marie, near Madagascar, there were two plan- 
 tations which produced, in 1885, 10,000 kilos, of vanilla. In the 
 French Pacific Islands there are about 450 acres devoted to vanilla, 
 which produce 2500 kilos, of vanilla. 
 
 Beunion. — The introduction of the culture in this island dates 
 from about a quarter of a century ago. In 1861, nearly 40,000 lbs. 
 were exported, amounting in value to about £100,000. 
 
 A good deal of attention has been of late given to vanilla pro- 
 duction here. In 1874 the produce was 44,000 kilos., valued at 
 £162,000. 
 
 The gradual progress made is shown by the following figures : — 
 
 Year. 
 
 Hectares. 
 
 Produce. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Hectares. 
 
 Produce. 
 
 1866 
 1872 
 1873 
 
 223 
 
 1,562 
 
 671 
 
 kilos. 
 15,494 
 19,375 
 50,695 
 
 1874 
 1885 
 
 1,563 
 2,475 
 
 kilos. 
 
 43,959 
 
 164,357 
 
 The value of the produce in 1885 was £54,400. 
 
 The hectare is nearly 1^ English acres, and the kilo, a little 
 more than 2 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 
 In Eeunion, vanilla is prepared in two ways with boiling water 
 according to local practice, and by drying in a furnace in the 
 Mexican style. Bourbon vanilla is generally shorter and less 
 intense in colour than Mexican, and commands a lower price. 
 
 The vanilla of this island is the principal rival and competitor 
 with Mexico. There has been a very great advance in the con- 
 sumption in France within the last year or two. The imports 
 rose from 200,000 lbs. in 1880 to 260,000 lbs. in 1886. 
 
 Unless circumstances arise which are at present unforeseen, and 
 also by reason of the newness of some of the plantations, the 
 colony can produce in two or three years from 160,000 to 170,000 
 kilos, of vanilla. This cultivation is also extensively carried on 
 in Madagascar and Mauritius, and this extended production has 
 
PlMJi.NTO OB ALLSPICE. 517 
 
 created a supply too great for the demand, hence prices have 
 declmed. 
 
 Vanilla is cultivated more particularly by the small proprietors 
 than by the great. Its produce assists a part of the population 
 who are averse to work, and the small extent of whose lands has 
 not allowed them hitherto to think of attempting a cultivation 
 like that of the sugar-cane, maize, manioc, or coffee, which would 
 require the assistance of labouiers or field-hands. Provided the 
 soil be fertile, moist, and shaded, it needs but a small space to 
 accommodate thousands of vanilla plants, and the produce being 
 of considerable value, yields to the cultivator a profit which no 
 other plant on the island can give. 
 
 _ For exportation in good condition, vanilla should be packed in 
 tins well soldered, in quantities of about 10 lbs. 
 
 Mauritius.— It was from Eeunion that the vanilla orchid was 
 carried to Mauritius, and several thousand pounds are shipped 
 annually. A small quantity of that exported is not raised in the 
 island, but is imported produce. Excellent vanilla is grown in the 
 Jrieychelles, where an acre will yield 250 lbs. 
 
 There is a somewhat extensive cultivation of vanilla in Java. 
 The culture on a systematic basis was introduced in 1841 by M. 
 Teysmann, Director of the Botanic Gardens at Buitenzong. He 
 introduced the artificial process of fecundation with beneficial 
 results. In some years 2300 kilos, have been obtained; of later 
 years not one-fourth of this. 
 
 The island of Tahiti has 700 acres under vanilla, and produces 
 annually about 6000 lbs. of vanilla. It is mostly shipped to San 
 I'rancisco, where it sells at 8s. to 10s. 6d. per lb. It cannot 
 compare with Mexican or Mauritius, its pronounced odour of 
 heliotrope rendering it unfit for use in confectionery or chocolate, 
 hence it is applied to perfumery and medicinal purposes. 
 
 Among the vegetable odours assimilating somewhat to vanilla 
 are the I'aham leaves, of Mauritius, from another orchid, Angroecum 
 fragrans, which somewhat resembles the perfume of vanilla and 
 Tonquin beans. The leaves of a few other orchids, such as Orchis 
 fusca, dried carefully, also possess the odour of those of the Paham. 
 
 Pimento oe Allspice. — This spice, of large consumption, is a 
 West Indian product, the fruit of a beautiful lofty evergreen tree, 
 the Pimenta officinalis, Lindley, Myrtus Pimenta, Linn., Eugenia 
 Pimenta, Dec, almost entirely grown in Jamaica. Every attempt 
 to carry the seeds to San Domingo and Cuba, and to propagate it 
 there has failed, and, though the tree is found in Yucatan, the fruit 
 is not exported thence. 
 
 The Pimento walks are situated, in the mountains on the north 
 side of the island, where the trees grow in hundreds. It is a 
 white-trunked shapely tree, not unlike in form and growth an 
 English apple tree, but with a thicker, richer foliage and dark 
 glistening leaves, aromatic like its fruit, and resembling those of 
 the myrtle, to which family it belongs. The trunk is white, 
 because every year the bark strips. Nature seems to have in- 
 
518 THE SPICES OF COMMERCE. 
 
 tended that some useful purpose should be served by tbe bark, but 
 hitherto it has not been made available commercially. The tree 
 blossoms twice, but only bears once a year. The blossom that 
 holds and sets to fruit appears in April. The tree grows spon- 
 taneously, and seems to mock all the labours of man in his en- 
 deavours to extend or improve its growth ; not one attempt in 
 fifty to propagate the young plants or to raise them from the 
 seeds, in parts of the country where it is not found growing 
 spontaneously, having succeeded. The usual method of forming 
 a new -Pimento plantation (in Jamaica it is called a "walk") is 
 nothing more than to appropriate a piece of woodland in the 
 neighbourhood of a plantation already existing, or in a district 
 where the scattered trees are found in a native state, the woods of 
 which being felled, the trees are suifered to remain on the ground 
 till they become rotten and perish. In the course of twelve 
 months after the first season, abundance of young Pimento plants 
 will be found growing vigorously in all parts of the land, being, 
 without doubt, produced from ripe berries scattered there by the 
 birds, while the fallen trees, &c,, afford them both shelter and 
 shade. At the end of two years it will be proper to give the land 
 a thorough cleaning, leaving such only of the Pimento trees as 
 have a good appearance; these will then soon form groves, and, 
 except for the first four or five years, require very little subsequent 
 attention. In July and August, soon after the trees are in blossom, 
 the berries become fit for gathering, the fruit not being suffered 
 to ripen on the tree, as the pulp in that state, being moist and 
 glutinous, is difficult to cure, and when dry becomes black and 
 tasteless. It is impossible, however, to prevent some of the ripe 
 berries from mixing with the rest, and, if the proportion of them 
 be great, the price of the commodity is considerably injured. It 
 is gathered by the hand. One labourer on the tree, employed in 
 gathering the small twigs bearing the branches, will give employ- 
 ment to three below (who are generally women and children) in 
 picking the berries, and an industrious picker will fill a bag of 
 70 lbs. in the day. It is then spread on a terraced floor and ex- 
 posed to the sun and air for some days, in the course of which it 
 loses its green colour and becomes of a reddish-brown. When 
 perfectly dry the stalks are removed, it is passed through a fanner, 
 bagged, and is ready for shipment. The term sometimes used to 
 denote the in-gathering of the crop is not picking, but " breaking," 
 because, with each cluster of berries, a portion of the branch is 
 broken off', the tree thriving all the better for the spoliation. The 
 returns from a Pimento walk in a favourable season are prodigious. 
 A single tree has been known to yield 160 lbs. of the raw fruit, or 
 1 cwt. of the dried spice, there being commonly a loss in weight of 
 one-third in curing ; but this, like many other of the minor pro- 
 ductions, is exceedingly uncertain, and perhaps a very plenteous 
 crop occurs but once in five years. 
 
 Before the war with Eussia there was a large demand for 
 Pimento in that country for use in spiced bread, but, during the 
 blockade, it was found that a tree growing on the banks of the 
 
I'lllENJ'O Oil ALLSPICE. 
 
 519 
 
 Amoor yielded a bark which, when grated, was pungent enough 
 to yield a spice, and the Eussian market was thus lost. 
 
 The acreage under Pimento seems to vary. In 1871 it was re- 
 turned at 6902 acres, in 1874 it was only 1392 acres. Between 
 1830 and 1850 the crops ranged from 3,000,000 lbs. to 5,500,000 
 lbs. 
 
 The crops and shipments of pimento fluctuate with the seasons 
 and according to the price obtainable. This has frequently fallen 
 as low as l^d. per lb., making it scarcely worth the expense of 
 picking. 
 
 Jamaica supplies the world with this spice, which is exported in 
 large quantities from no other country. The pimento tree, which 
 is allied to the myrtle family, grows abundantly on warm lime- 
 stone hills at elevations of from 1500 to 2500 feet. Beneath the 
 trees cattle and horses are pastured, feeding on the nutritious 
 pimento grass. 
 
 The exports from Jamaica were in 
 
 Year. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 1854 
 1874 
 1884 
 
 cwts. 
 
 41,179 
 
 51,439 
 
 110,472 
 
 £ 
 
 83,158 
 36,008 
 92,796 
 
 1885 
 
 1885-6 
 
 1886-7 
 
 cwts. 
 87,447 
 61,777 
 66,000 
 
 53,867 
 
 About one-fifth of the total quantity produced is sent to the 
 United States. A large trade is now carried on in young pimento 
 stems for walking sticks and umbrella handles, some 5000 bundles 
 of these are shipped annually, valued at about £3500. 
 
 The berry of Allspice is globose, one-seeded, black, rather 
 variable in size, but commonly the size of a pea, from two-tenths 
 to three-tenths of an inch in diameter. All the plant, especially 
 the unripe fruit, abounds in an essential oil (3 to 4 per cent.), 
 which is a powerful irritant, and is often used, like oil of cloves, 
 to allay toothache. The bruised berries are carminative, stimu- 
 lating the stomach, promoting digestion, and relieving flatulency. 
 The chief use of Pimento is as a culinary spice, for which it is 
 largely employed both in Europe and America. It has an agree- 
 able pungent spicy flavour, much resembling that of cloves, for 
 which, when ground, it is often sold. The berries have a similarity 
 in smell and taste to cloves, juniper berries, cinnamon and pepper, 
 or rather a peculiar mixture of all combiued, whence the name of 
 Allspice or Jamaica pepper. 
 
 The Mexican spice called " Pimienta do Tabasco," coming from 
 Tampico, is probably the " Piment Tabago " of Guibourt. It is 
 somewhat larger and less aromatic than the Jamaica Allspice, and 
 is believed to be derived from a variety of the Jamaica species (P. 
 officinalis). The wild clove tree Eugenia (Pimenta) acris, Wight 
 and Amott, and P. Pimento, Griseb, afford analogous aromatic 
 products, but do not appear much in commerce. A Pimento planta- 
 tion was tried in Tobago, but it was abandoned for sugar cane. 
 
520 
 
 THE SPICES OF COMMEKCE. 
 
 Oil of Pimento has substantially the same composition as oil of 
 cloves. Pimento is used in tanning, striking with a persalt of iron 
 an inky black, and a patent has recently been taken out in Jamaica 
 for the employment of the leaves as a tanning material. 
 
 Cloves are the dried calyces or flower-buds of the Eugenia 
 caryophyllata, Caryophyllus aromaticus, Lin. 
 
 In British commerce they are chiefly distinguished by their 
 places of growth, and rank in the following order — Penang, Ben- 
 coolen, Amboyna, and Zanzibar. There also enter into commerce 
 as secondary products, clove stalks and mother cloves, or the dried 
 unripe fruit. Clove stalks are largely shipped from Zanzibar and 
 Eeunion. 
 
 This elegant tree grows spontaneously in the Moluccas, and was 
 from thence carried to Mauritius and Bourbon, French Guiana, and 
 the "West Indies. When the Dutch took possession of the Portu- 
 guese territories in the East Indies, they compelled the people to 
 destroy the clove trees so as to concentrate the culture in the 
 Amboyna Islands and Ternate. 
 
 The clove does not difier in its culture much from the nutmeg. 
 It commences to bear about the sixth year, and continues to yield 
 up to seventy years, yielding about 6^ lbs. of cloves per tree. 
 
 After being gathered, the cloves are prepared for shipment by 
 smoking them on hurdles, covered with matting, near a slow wood 
 fire, to give them a brown colour, and they are further dried in 
 the sun. They may then be cut off from the flower branches, and 
 will be found to bo purple-coloured within, and fit to be packed in 
 bales for the European market. In some places they are scalded 
 in hot water previously to being smoked, but it is not a practice 
 very generally in vogue. 
 
 Cloves are produced in the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba. The 
 total average quantity collected is about 7,000,000 lbs., valued at 
 £85,000. Some years ago a hurricane devastated Zanzibar, and 
 the consequence of this disaster was to destroy nearly every clove 
 tree in the island. 
 
 In Brazil the cloves of Bicypellium caryophyllatum, which are re- 
 markable for their fine aroma, are largely employed in domestic 
 and medicinal use. 
 
 The quantity of cloves received in Holland in kilogrammes 
 were : — 
 
 1878 39,100 
 
 1879 38,100 
 
 1880 2,100 
 
 1881 121,600 
 
 1882 18,200 
 
 1883 74,100 
 
 1884 16,700 
 
 1885 46,200 
 
 1886 26,100 
 
 1887 13,700 
 
 Caedamoms. — Under this name are included the fruit of many 
 species of Amomum and Elettaria. Those most cultivated for 
 commerce are the Malabar Cardamom, Elettaria cardamomum, 
 grown in Madras and Ceylon. This is the most valuable of all 
 the Indian condiments. They are extensively used by the natives 
 for flavouring purposes, and also eaten with pan, the native betel 
 compound which is chewed. 
 
CARDAMOMS. 521 
 
 The fruit whicli are obtuse at the ends are known in commerce 
 as " shorts," and those which are tapering as " short longs." 
 
 This spice plant is adapted for cultivation in most shady situ- 
 ations, at elevations ranging from 800 to 3000 feet. 
 
 The plants may be put out at five feet to six feet apart. In 
 rich cool soil, however, seven feet apart is not too wide, and, more- 
 over, it allows more room for gathering the fruit and cleaning 
 the land. Cardamoms at all elevations require shade ; it is better 
 therefore simply to underbrush standing forest or ruinate, leaving 
 light, or broken shade which would admit light, but not the direct 
 rays of the sun. 
 
 If seedlings, ten or twelve inches high, are planted they take 
 four or five years to come into bearing. If strong bulbs are 
 planted they come into bearing about a year earlier. 
 
 The cultivation is of the simplest and most inexpensive kind. 
 Being grown under shade there is but a small growth of weeds, so 
 that one or two cleanings a year would be quite sufficient. 
 
 The cardamom crop is produced on racemes, which lie close to 
 the ground and consist of small greenish pods about half an inch 
 long, which are fit to be gathered when firm and full and beginning 
 to turn of a yellowish colour. 
 
 These pods should not be pulled off the plant by hand (as then 
 they split in the curing and lose their value), but they should be 
 cut each singly by a pair of scissors, having a portion of the stalk 
 attached. 
 
 The object to be sought in the curing of the cardamom crop is 
 to give the pods when dry a light straw colour, with no black or 
 brown spots. The curing of cardamoms, which resembles that of 
 pimento, is a very simple matter in dry weather : sun drying being 
 the most effective and the cheapest. Care should, however, be 
 taken not to expose the pods too long at first to a fierce sun; a few 
 hours early in the morning and a few in the afternoon being the 
 best treatment. The slower the drying process the better, as then 
 there is much smaller, proportion of split fruit. 
 
 The yield per acre of cardamom pods in Ceylon is quoted as 
 high as 170 lbs., realizing 2s. 6d. to 4s. per lb., according to 
 quality. 
 
 Previous to the commencement of the rains the cultivators (in 
 Southern India) ascend the mountain sides and seek in the shady 
 evergreen forests a spot where some cardamom plants are growing. 
 Here they make small clearings, in which the admission of light 
 occasions the plant to develop in abundance. The cardamom 
 plants attain two to three feet in height during the following 
 monsoon, after which the ground is again cleared of weeds, pro- 
 tected with a fence, and left to itself for a year. About two years 
 after the first clearing the plants begin to flower, and five months 
 later ripen some fruits, but a full crop is not got till at least a 
 year after. The plants continue productive six or seven years. A 
 garden, 484 square yards in area, four of which may be made in 
 an acre of forest, will give on an average an annual crop of 12^ lbs. 
 of garbled cardamoms. Ludlow, an Assistant Conservator ot 
 
522 THE SPICES OF COMMERCE. 
 
 Forests, reckons that not more than 28 lbs. can be got from an acre 
 of forest. From what he says, it further appears that the plants 
 ■which come np on clearings of the Coorg forests are mainly seed- 
 lings, which make their appearance in the same gMasi-spontaneous 
 manner as certain plants in the clearings of a wood in Europe. 
 He says they commence to bear in about 3J years after their first 
 appearance. The plan of cultivation above described is that pur- 
 sued in the forests of Travanoore, Coorg, and Wynaad. 
 
 In North Candia and West Mysore the cardamom is cultivated 
 in the betel-nut plantations. The plants, which are raised from 
 seed, are planted between the palms, from which and from plan- 
 tains, they derive a certain amount of shade. They are said to 
 produce fruit in their third year. 
 
 Cardamoms begin to ripen in October, and the gathering con- 
 tinues during the dry weather for two or three months. All the 
 fruits on the scape do not ripen at the same time, yet too generally 
 the whole scape is gathered at once and dried — to the manifest 
 detriment of the drug. This is done partly to save the fruit from 
 being eaten by snakes, frogs, and squirrels, and partly to avoid 
 the capsules splitting, which they do when quite mature. In some 
 plantations, however, the cardamoms are gathered in a more 
 reasonable manner. As they are collected the fruits are carried to 
 the houses, laid out for a few days on mats, then stripped from 
 their scapes, and the drying completed by a gentle fire heat. In 
 Coorg the fruit is stripped from the scape before drying, and the 
 drying is sometimes eifeoted wholly by sun heat. — Pharmacographia, 
 pp. 644-646. 
 
 In the trade returns the lesser cardamom (^Elettaria cardamomum) 
 and the greater (Amomum suhulatum) are taken collectively. The 
 value of the exports of cardamoms from India have been as follows : — 
 
 £. I £. 
 
 1880-81 82,025 
 
 1881-82 63,631 
 
 1882-83 40,207 
 
 1883-84 56,833 
 
 1884-85 63,711 
 
 1885-86 56,000 
 
 1886-87 40,745 
 
 1887-88 20,486 
 
 The quantity exported ranges from 155,000 to 300,000 lbs. ; 
 27,000 lbs. are sent to Persia. 
 
 The value of the cardamoms shipped from Siam was in 1880, 
 £8251, and in 1881, £5671. 
 
 Ceylon exported in 1883, 21,656 lbs., and in 1886, 236,056 lbs. 
 There was a remarkable fall in price owing to this large quantity 
 being thrown on the market by the Ceylon planters. At the close 
 of 1877 less than 200 acres of cardamoms were cultivated in 
 Ceylon, while now the returns given are 7000 acres. 
 
 In 1878 15 , 973 lbs. were exported, valued at Eb. 35 , 398 
 
 1879 17,732 „ „ „ 25,127 
 
 1880 17,412 „ „ „ 30,405 
 
 1881 16,607 „ „ „ 32,250 
 
 1882 20,959 „ „ „ 41,451 
 
( 523 ) 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 TOBACCO. 
 
 Perhaps no other plant is so much used by the inhabitants of 
 the world as tobacco. It has been calculated that one-fourth of 
 the entire human family use it. 
 
 To show how extended is the culture of tobacco, even in the 
 British Possessions, at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition held in 
 London in 1B86, tobacco and cigars of local production were shown 
 by India, Ceylon, Mauritius, and the Straits Settlements, British 
 North Borneo, New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, 
 Queensland, Fiji, Malta, Canada, the Cape Colony and Natal, 
 British Guiana, Honduras, Jamaica, Trinidad, Grenada, St. Lucia, 
 Antigua, Dominica, and Bahamas. 
 
 Our Colonies and India, it is stated, have to compete mainly 
 with the home-made cigar, and not with the finer qualities of 
 foreign cigars. This fact has caused some authorities to advance 
 the idea that the present system of imposing one uniform duty 
 upon all manufactured tobaccos, whatever may be their value, is 
 unjustly severe upon our Colonial and Indian manufacturers. It is 
 admitted that they cannot compete generally with the Havana and 
 Manila cigars, and the low duty upon unmanufactured tobaccos 
 as compared with manufactured, allows the British manufacturer 
 to produce a cheaper article at home than can be sent from the 
 Colonies and India to England. It is, however, believed that many 
 of the Colonial and Indian tobaccos and cigars have properties of 
 their own that would commend them to a large number of consumers, 
 were it possible that they could be sold in England at a price that 
 would enable them to compete with the British manufacturer. 
 
 Production and Consumption. — It is difficult to obtain trustworthy 
 information regarding the world's trade in tobacco, so much is 
 used up locally in different districts. It is probable that the area 
 under tobacco is not far short of 6,000,000 acres. 
 
 The following are the official returns of land under tobacco for 
 several countries in 1886 : — 
 
 Acres. 
 
 United States 752,520 
 
 India 691,700 
 
 Austria 1-607 
 
 Hungary 14*.861 
 
 Italy 12,061 
 
 France .„I'o„, 
 
 Germany 490,321 
 
 Holland ^'^^^ 
 
 2,136,441 
 
524 
 
 TOBACCO. 
 
 China, Japan, Africa, Turkey, South America, and many other 
 countries grow tobacco largely. 
 
 The following figures show the production of tobacco in several 
 countries according to official returns for 1886 : — 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 France 436,943 
 
 United States 524,030 
 
 Germany 760,700 
 
 Holland 52,219 
 
 Italy 104,062 
 
 Austria 49,457 
 
 Hungary 918,035 
 
 Russia 530,797 
 
 Turkey 17,553 
 
 The consumption of tobacco in the United Kingdom is large and 
 progressive, as the following table will show : — 
 
 Year. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Revenue. 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Revenue. 
 
 1840 
 1850 
 1860 
 
 lbs. 
 22,971,406 
 27,538,104 
 35,106,641 
 
 3,431,908 
 3,337,258 
 5,529,400 
 
 1870 
 1880 
 1888 
 
 lbs. 
 40,845,253 
 48,191,555 
 S5, 403, 875 
 
 £ 
 
 6,433,147 
 
 . 8,433,538 
 
 8,713,944 
 
 General Imports of Tobaooo in 1886. 
 
 United Kingdom lbs. 49,691,309 
 
 Eussia poods 76,000 
 
 Norway kilos. 1,842,000 
 
 Sweden 3,445,253 
 
 Denmark punds 7,406,813 
 
 Hamburg 2 cwts. 276,151 
 
 German Empire ,, 403,964 , 
 
 Holland kUos. 13,715,000 
 
 Switzerland metrical centners 48,436 
 
 Italy kilos. 23,477,000 
 
 Austro-Hungary metrical centners 175,227 
 
 Eoumania kilos. 448,757 
 
 United States lbs. 16,712,000 
 
 The only official returns obtainable as to exports of tobacco for 
 1886 are as follows : — 
 
 United States, leaf lbs. 292,774,000 
 
 „ manufactured .. .. „ 3,266,000 
 
 German Empire kilos. 42,990 
 
 Holland „ 1,530,000 
 
 CMna(1887) piculs of 133J lbs. 55,522 
 
 India (1887) lbs. 11,440,455 
 
 The growth and preparation of tobacco of a superior kind is one 
 that might be carried on advantageously in many of our colonies, 
 and more especially the manufacture of really good cigars, for 
 which there is always a large remunerative demand. The 
 Spaniards have hitherto monopolised this trade, alleging that parts 
 of the soil of Cuba were alone suited to the production of Havana 
 
TOBACCO. 525 
 
 tobacco This assertion is now disproved, for with good choice of 
 seed, soil, curing of the leaf, and skilled manufacture of the cigars 
 J amaica now sends into the market as excellent a cigar as was ever 
 shipped from Cuba, and at a far cheaper rate. 
 
 In the colony of Victoria 2000 acres are under culture with 
 tobacco, and the yield is about 12,000 cwt. 
 
 There are some fifty species of the genus Nicotiana known, but 
 only three or four are cultivated for the leaf. The two principal com- 
 mercial forms are by some botanists treated as varieties of one 
 species.and not as distinct species. These are : 
 
 1. Nicotiana Tabacum, the most extensively cultivated kind of 
 plant, which may be at once recognised by its longish pink flowers 
 and tapering oval-lanceolate sessile leaves. 
 
 2. N. rustica, which has short, greenish flowers, and stalked, 
 ovate, cordate leaves. The leaves are coarser, and more crumpled 
 than those of the preceding. This is popularly known as the 
 Turkish form, but it is most probably a native of Mexico and 
 California. 
 
 3. N. repanda. This is not very extensively cultivated, but is 
 said to yield some of the finest qualities of Cuban and Havana; 
 tobacco. 
 
 4. N. Persica furnishes the Shiraz or Persian tobacco. 
 
 5. N. angustifoUa, a species found in Chili, yields a very strong 
 tobacco. 
 
 There is no doubt that the soil and climate have much to do 
 with the quality of the leaf. The West Indian, Latakia and 
 American tobaccos are obtained from cultivated qualities of JV. 
 Tabacum, while the Manila, Turkish, and Hungarian are reported 
 to be derived from N. rustica. The commercial forms of East and 
 West Indian tobaccos are chiefly derived from N. Tabacum. In 
 India, N. rustica is only cultivated to a very limited extent, and 
 chiefly in Eastern Bengal and Cachar, and the leaf is never ex- 
 ported to Europe. N. Tabacum has become an abundant weed in 
 many parts of India. 
 
 Climate is a most important condition affecting the quality of 
 tobacco ; and this condition has not hitherto been found apart 
 from tropical or semi-tropical countries. The West Indies have 
 always been famous for producing a tobacco more rich in aromatic 
 principle than that grown in most other countries, and this is 
 largely due to their possessing a climate both warm and moist. 
 Hitherto all attempts at producing a leaf possessing the peculiar 
 aroma of the Havana variety in parts of the world other 
 than the West Indies have been unsuccessful. In certain parts of 
 India and Ceylon, however, a cigar leaf is grown which may 
 develop into a formidable rival to that of the West Indies ; but at 
 present, owing probably to the excessive amount of potassic 
 nitrate found in the soil, the flavour is in Europe regarded as 
 coarse. 
 
 Of all species N. macrophylla is considered to possess the qualities 
 that distinguish a good tobacco in the highest degree. Some of 
 the Havana tobaccos belong to this species, as also the Ohio, the 
 
520 ' TOBACCO. 
 
 Amersfort, Turkish, and the Dutton tobaccos. The cultivation of 
 this species assumes larger proportions every year, and the number 
 of varieties and sub-varieties increases accordingly. 
 
 India. — Madras, where the climate is admirably suited for the 
 growth of tobacco, stands first with regard to the development of 
 the industry. Dindigul is the great tobacco district, and cheroots 
 are manufactured at Trichinopoli. The islands in the delta of the 
 Godavery also yield what is called Lunkah tobacco, the climate 
 being suitable and the plants being raised on rather poor light 
 soil, highly manured and well watered. 
 
 In Bombay about 50,000 acres are under culture, in the 
 Punjab over 90,000 acres, in Oudh 70,000, in the Central IProvinces 
 55,000, in Behar 20,000, in Mysore 20,000, in Burma 13,700, and 
 in Madras 73,000 acres. In Bengal, ow^ing to the absence of 
 precise statistical information, the area under tobacco is unknown, 
 but is believed to be over 300,000 acres. The area required for a 
 nursery depends on the area of ground to be planted and on the 
 distance the plants require to be set in the field. To plant an 
 a,cre with tobacco plants 2 feet apart in each direction, 10,890 ; 
 3 feet in one and 2 in .the other direction, 7260 ; and to plant 
 3 feet apart in each direction 4840 plants are required. To ensure 
 a healthy growth of the young plants, about a square inch should 
 be allotted to each in the nursery. Taking the number of 7260 
 plants as that required for an acre, and giving each plant 1 
 square inch room, an area of 7000 square inches, or 50 square feet, 
 would be required to raise plants sufficient for an acre. As, how- 
 ever, the plants are apt to be injured during their first growth, 
 and many are rendered useless in lifting them for transplanting, 
 as also a number of plants must be kept in reserve to replace those 
 that die after transplanting, the provident cultivator will do well 
 to raise double the number of plants actually needed. 
 
 It may therefore be laid down that 100 square feet of nursery 
 bed is required to raise plants sufficient for an acre. 
 
 The amount of seed required to raise plants for an acre depends 
 chiefly on the vitality of the seed. An ounce of tobacco seed 
 contains about 100,000 grains; so that, on the supposition that a 
 plant can be raised from each grain, nearly seven acres could be 
 planted with the seedlings raised from one ounce of seed, according 
 to the foregoing calculation. As, however, even the best tobacco 
 seed has not a very high percentage of vitality, between half an 
 ounce and one ounce of seed is generally sown to produce the 
 plants required for an acre. The soil of a tobacco nursery cannot 
 contain too much organic matter ; it is said that one containing as 
 much as 20 per cent, of this substance produces the most vigorous 
 plants, which develop a great number of fibrous roots. The time 
 of planting out necessarily varies in different localities and climates. 
 Where the rains are very heavy in India, the time for sowing is 
 immediately after the heavy rain of the monsoon is over. In about 
 seven weeks after sowing, the plants will be fit for transplanting. 
 
 The gross annual value of the tobacco harvest in Bengal may be 
 roughly estimated at £2,000,000 sterling a year. The average 
 
TOBACCO. 527 
 
 annual value of the export in the three years ending 1888 was 
 £130,000, but foreign cigars and tohacco are imported to the value 
 of £100,000. ^ 
 
 In 1881, the exports from India were as follows : — 
 
 Manufactured leaf 13 i67 325 
 
 Cigars .. .. ■• [\ '207,'o05 
 
 Other manufactured tobacco .. .. 198,811 
 
 13,673,141 
 
 Of the unmanufactured tobacco — 
 
 Bengal exported 7,866,363 
 
 Bombay 4,628,078 
 
 Other places 772,884 
 
 13,267,325 
 
 United States.— The production of tobacco is liable to great 
 variation, as it is a very delicate plant, the prey of adverse 
 conditions and insect ravages. 
 
 The average production in decennial periods has been as 
 follows : — 
 
 Lbs. Lbs. 
 
 1839 219,163,319 
 
 1849 199,752,655 
 
 1859 434,209,461 
 
 1869 262,735,341 
 
 1879 472,661,157 
 
 In the two decades for 1868 to 1887 inclusive, the annual pro- 
 duct ranged from 316,000,000 to 580,000,000 lbs., and the range of 
 price was 7 • 6 to 11 • 4 cents. In 1886 the tobacco crop of the United 
 States was a medium yield of something over 500,000,000 lbs., and 
 the quality was fairly good. 
 
 In 1887 the average yield per acre in the chief producing States 
 was, in Mai-yland, 638 lbs. ; in North Carolina, 485 lbs ; Tennessee, 
 430 lbs. ; Kentucky, 509 lbs. ; Ohio (including seed leaf), 615 lbs. ; 
 Indiana, 397 lbs. ; Illinois, 403 lbs. ; Missouri, 500 lbs. 
 
 The distribution of American tobacco is world-wide, including 
 nearly all the countries with which the United States has any 
 trade. The current average export in the five years ending 1886 
 was as follows, to — 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Germany 49,685,100 
 
 Great Britain 44,918,612 
 
 France 32,363,595 
 
 Italy 29,259,714 
 
 Netherlands 15,568,326 
 
 Spain 24,427,794 
 
 The home consumption in America is larger than the export. 
 
 The value of the crop produced in the year 1886-7 was 
 39,082,112 dollars, and of the tobacco exported, 20,610,386 dollars. 
 
 A large amount of the finest tobacco found in the market is 
 from the fields of Ohio. The eastern and south-eastern part of 
 the State affords the best soil for tobacco growing, and in these 
 
628 lOBACCO. 
 
 districts this product has become a staple article, affording the 
 main crop of the farmer, and, as a rule, rarely failing pecuniarily, 
 for, even in seasons when the yield is small, the price of the article 
 is proportionately large. 
 
 In growing this much-used plant, the first step is the preparing 
 of the ground for sowing the seeds, by burning logs of wood or 
 brush on the section of land chosen for tobacco beds. This is done 
 to warm the soil, as well as to supply the ashes needed in nourish- 
 ing the young plants. The burning takes place either in the fall 
 or spring previous to sowing. If in the fall, the ground is slightly 
 reburnt in the following spring. The time required for burning 
 the beds, if logs of wood are used, is generally from two to three 
 days ; if brush be used, a much less time. The earth is then dug 
 up and raked to a proper consistency. After the seeds have been 
 deposited, the bed is thoroughly tramped or walked over, in order 
 that it may retain sufficient moisture. In about three weeks the 
 young plant makes its appearance ; but it remains quite small for 
 a considerable length of time, and, in fact, the growth is hardly 
 noticeable from the time of its appearance above ground (about the 
 1st of April) until shortly before transplanting, which is generally 
 about the latter part of June. It then grows with astonishing 
 rapidity, as, when transplanted, it may have been but from 1 to 2 
 inches in height ; when ready to collect (the latter part of August), 
 it generally measures from 3 to 6 feet, and not unfrequently 10 feet 
 in height. The transplanting of tobacco is not unfrequently at- 
 tended with much difficulty, dry weather being very detrimental 
 to the plant and too much moisture equally as injurious. In the 
 former case the young plants wilt and die, and in the latter 
 instance the earth becomes hard and baked around the roots of the 
 vegetable, thus killing it. The ground is considered to be of the 
 proper consistency for transplanting after it has been thoroughly 
 moistened by rain. 
 
 Tobacco is collected from the last of August until the last of 
 October, until frost, and, if planted late, this unwelcome visitor 
 often finds a large crop not matured, which is consequently 
 worthless after the first touch of its icy breath. In collecting 
 tobacco, the first leaves gathered are called " bottom leaves," being 
 from five to seven of the lower leaves of the plant, after which the 
 plant is " topped," thus producing larger leaves, and causing 
 maturity in a much quicker time. This topping process strengthens 
 the plant materially, as, after its performance, new shoots or 
 branches will almost always spring from the axils of the leaves 
 nearest to where the tops are broken off, and often afford leaves 
 large enough to be gathered. 
 
 The next in order are the middle leaves, which are collected in 
 about two weeks after taking the bottom leaves. They consist of 
 from ten to twelve leaves from the central part of the plant, and 
 are the largest as weU as the most valuable ones of the plant 
 Finally, the top leaves are collected, in from three to four weeks 
 after taking the middle ones, provided there is no frost to injure 
 them. These are smaller than the middle leaves, and resemble 
 
TOBACCO. 529 
 
 very much those taken from the bottom part of the plant, but are 
 cleaner than these latter, which often become very much soiled 
 from their close proximity to the soil. 
 
 Among other points in cultivating tobacco, maybe mentioned the 
 worming process, which, to most persons, is an exceedingly un- 
 pleasant task. The worm which is found on the plant is not very 
 attractive in appearance, nor agreeable to handle. It is of a green 
 colour, and, when full-sized, measures about 1 inch in circumfer- 
 ence and from 2 to 3 inches in length. 
 
 After collecting the tobacco, it is taken to the tobacco house, 
 and strung upon sticks (by means of a large needle and twine), 
 called "tobacco sticks." Women are employed for this work, 
 who string from one hundred to one hundred and twenty-five 
 sticks per day. It is then placed on the tobacco scaffold, in the 
 open air, until wilted, when it is taken to the tobacco house, 
 where a gradual heat is applied until it assumes a yellow colour. 
 A higher degree of heat is then immediately applied for twenty- 
 four hours, to " kill it," as the farmer terms it, meaniag the 
 expulsion of all moisture from the leaves. The doors of the house 
 are then thrown open, and the floor often sprinkled with water, in 
 order that the leaves may again become sufficiently moistened 
 to permit manipulation. It is now rolled in bundles ready for 
 market. 
 
 The main object sought for by tobacco growers is the colour, 
 which is influenced by various causes ; among the leading ones are 
 the modes of drying and the soU upon which it was raised, as the 
 first crop of tobacco on any soil is invariably the finest. The 
 " yellow spangle " is considered the finest colour, and consequently 
 brings the highest price. The " light red " also stands high in 
 the list, and is deemed a valuable colour. There are several other 
 colours besides the two named, which go to make up the tobacco 
 seen in commerce. 
 
 The seeds which have been collected the previous autumn are 
 sown in early spring in cold frames. These frames consist of 
 large oblong boxes, without bottoms, 2 or 2^ feet deep by 3 feet 
 wide, and covered with glass. They are prepared in autumn 
 by being filled with rich earth and fertilisers. In selecting 
 a site for these frames, a sheltered spot having a southern 
 exposure is preferred. They are additionally protected from the 
 weather by being covered with straw, &c. Persons making " plant 
 raising " a specialty sow as early as the 15th of February. 
 After sowing, the frames are covered with glass alone during the 
 day, and sheltered at night. The earth being kept moist, the 
 seeds soon sprout, and the little plants appear. Additional care 
 must now be taken to admit the sun during the day and to protect 
 them from the frosts at night. Persons not desirous of having 
 plants early or for sale, do not take the precautions above enume- 
 rated, nor do they sow as early. A warm, sunny spot, having a 
 rich soil or one enriched by fertilisers, is sufficient for their 
 purpose. 2 m 
 
530 TOBACCO. 
 
 When quite young, the plants are frequently infested by the 
 " plant louse," an insect belonging to the genus Aphis. 
 
 When the plants have attained the height of several inches, 
 they are transplanted to the fields. This is rarely done before 
 the 15th of May to the 1st of June. The fields are ploughed the 
 previous autumn, as by so doing it is thought that some of the 
 insect enemies are destroyed. In the spring the soil is loosened 
 and then ploughed in such a manner as to form ridges one 
 half to a foot high, at a distance of 4 to 5 feet apart. The 
 plants are planted on the tops of these ridges, at a distance 
 of 2 to 3 feet. A wet day is chosen, as the plants require much 
 moisture to continue their growth without interruption, for at best 
 a large percentage die, owing to want of sufficient care in planting, 
 or the ravages of the " cutworm " (different species of the genera 
 Agrotis, Qortyna, &c.), which is the principal enemy at this period 
 of its growth. They are concealed in the earth during the day, 
 and go on their errands of destruction at night, cutting off the 
 plant while it is young and succulent. 
 
 After the plants have been thoroughly rooted, one of the princi- 
 pal objects is to keep down the weeds, which grow luxuriantly in 
 the rich soil. This is accomplished by hoe-harrowing and the 
 hand hoe until the plant grows too large to admit the passage of 
 a horse and harrow without injury to the leaves, after which the 
 plant is strong enough to suppress the weeds, when it grows very 
 rapidly, soon attains the height of 3 or 4 feet, and puts forth the 
 fiowering head. This is broken off when leaves are the object of 
 the cultivator ; but, when seeds are desired, the inflorescence is left 
 to develop. Cultivators differ as to the proper time to "top" or 
 break off the flower head. Some prefer to top when the stem has six 
 or eight leaves, while others think ten not too many. After being 
 topped, axillary branches are put forth, which are popularly known 
 as " suckers." These are broken off as soon and as often as they 
 appear. The whole plant is now covered by a viscid resinous 
 substance commonly called " gum," which renders it unpleasant 
 to handle. 
 
 When tobacco is ripe, or fit to cut, it assumes a peculiar yel- 
 lowish-green colour, and when the under side of the leaf is bent 
 it is brittle and breaks easily. When in proper condition to be 
 gathered, it is cut off close to the ground, and hung up to dry. 
 Various methods have been proposed for hanging it up, but the 
 most approved, and the one generally adopted, is to pierce the 
 base of the stem by a steel spear, in which is fitted an ordinary 
 plastering lath. By this means five or six stalks are slipped on 
 one lath, and handled and hung up as easily as one. The largest 
 growers have sheds built purposely for drying and curing. These 
 are closed in by alternate boards, hung on hinges, so that they 
 may be opened for the free circulation of air on favourable days. 
 Tobacco when dried and cured is of a brownish-yellow colour, 
 very crisp and brittle, and easily broken when handled, but when 
 moistened it becomes quite pliable. 
 
 After the 1st of December the tobacco is " stripped." By this is 
 
TOBACCO. 
 
 531 
 
 meant the separation of the leaves from their stems. They are 
 then assorted into two grades, viz., "fillers" and "wrappers." 
 The former consist of "ground" leaves, and those which have 
 heen torn or worm-eaten ; the latter wholly of fine perfect leaves. 
 These names are derived from the relative position the grades take 
 in cigars. The different grades are then hound into small hundles 
 by wrapping one leaf around the bases of a dozen others. After 
 being pressed in cases, it is ready for market. 
 
 A high price is generally commanded, irrespective of the species, 
 by those tobaccos that possess a large, smooth, thin leaf, which is 
 elastic, and has a fine golden colour, and a good aroma ; the ribs 
 and veins should be thin, and the former branch off from the mid- 
 rib at nearly right angles, and be far apart from each other. 
 The lower the percentage of the weight in ribs, the thinner and 
 broader the leaf, the fewer of the same that are torn, the 
 more wrappers can be cut out of 1 lb. of tobacco, other conditions 
 being equal, and consequently the higher is the price of the 
 article. 
 
 Algeria. — The cultivation of the tobacco plant has been carried 
 on very successfully for the last thirty or forty years in this 
 French province, the soil and climate being well suited to its growth. 
 The production in 1887 was 5,000,000 kilos, from 10,239 hectares. 
 The quantity exported was 612,724 kilos, of manufactured tobacco, 
 valued at 3,241,985 francs, and 4,316,677 kilos, raw in leaf, valued 
 at the same number of francs. 
 
 In 1888 France produced 24,967,261 kilos., of which Algeria 
 furnished 2,688,295 kilos. 
 
 The yearly production of tobacco in Cuba is about 300,000 bales ; 
 181,353 bales of raw tobacco were exported in 1886, besides over 
 181,000,000 cigars. In the Philippines 100,000 cwts. of tobacco 
 are produced. 
 
 The Dutch possessions in the Eastern Archipelago produce a 
 large quantity of excellent tobacco, which is held in high repute 
 in Europe and the United States of America. 
 
 The following figures show the receipts of Sumatra tobacco in 
 the Netherlands in the five years ending 1888 : — 
 
 1884 (Crop 1883).. 
 
 1885 ( „ 1884).. 
 
 1886 ( „ 1885).. 
 
 Packages. 
 
 93,504 
 
 125,476 
 
 124,721 
 
 1887 (Crop 1886).. 
 
 1888 ( „ 1887).. 
 
 Packages. 
 138,631 
 139,470 
 
 The districts where it is grown are Deli, Langkat, Serdang, 
 Padang, Bedagie, Batoe Bara, Bela, Pagoerawan, and Asahan; 
 the first three being the largest producers. 
 
 The experts of tobacco from Java were as follows: — In 1878 
 and 1879, average 14,071,000 kilos. ; 1880 to 1884, 10,092,000 
 kUos. ; in 1885, 10,472,000 kilos. ; and in 1886, 10,111,500 kilos._ 
 
 The receipts of Java tobacco at Amsterdam and Eotterdam, in 
 1888, were as follows, in bales of about 76 kilos., m all nearly 
 10,000,000 kilo3. :— 
 
532 
 
 TOBACCO. 
 
 Imaf Tobacco. 
 
 Districts. 
 
 Kedirie 
 
 Probolingo 
 
 Bezoeki 
 
 Vorstenlanden 
 
 Banjoemas 
 
 Pasaroean 
 
 Eembang 
 
 Soerabaia 
 
 Samarang 
 
 Madioen 
 
 Kadoe 
 
 Moluccas (Batjan) 
 Celebes (Menado) . 
 Borneo 
 
 Prime or 
 Wrappers. 
 
 8,216 
 
 10,517 
 
 31,826 
 
 10,662 
 
 6,384 
 
 286 
 
 2,508 
 
 144 
 
 177 
 
 81 
 
 819 
 
 898 
 
 199 
 
 31 
 
 62,748 
 
 Ground 
 
 Leaves or 
 
 Fillers. 
 
 17,302 
 
 9,736 
 
 28,805 
 
 4,850 
 
 1,250 
 
 3,446 
 
 784 
 
 233 
 
 533 
 
 108 
 280 
 
 67,327 
 
 With tlie extensive culture and production of tobacco in the 
 European States I have not to deal in a work treating specially on 
 Tropical Agriculture, hut I may state that there were 176,168 
 tohacco planters in Germany in 1886, who had 490,321 acres 
 under culture and the yield in pounds of shed-dried tobacco was, 
 85,198,427 lbs. 
 
 The average annual consumption of tobacco per head in various 
 countries, according to the latest calculations, was as follows : — 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Holland 6-92 
 
 United States 4-40 
 
 Austria-Hungary .. .. 3-72 
 
 Denmark 3-70 
 
 New South Wales .. .. 3-53 
 
 Queensland 3 '49 
 
 Western Australia .. .. 3 "26 
 
 Switzerland 2 -24 
 
 Belgium 3-15 
 
 Germany 3*00 
 
 Victoria 2-93 
 
 Finland 
 
 Lbs. 
 .. 2-73 
 
 Norway 
 
 France 
 
 .. 2-29 
 .. 2-05 
 
 Sweden 
 
 .. 1-87 
 
 Tasmania 
 
 . 1-85 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 .. 1-75 
 
 Spain 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 Italy 
 
 South Australia . . 
 
 .. 1-70 
 .. 1-41 
 .. 1-34 
 .. 1-32 
 
 Russia 
 
 .. 1-23 
 
( 633 ) 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Abaca, 477 
 Ackawa nutmeg, 503 
 Adjoue, or date-cake, 296 
 African coffee, 80 
 Ajonjoli, 414 
 Alizarine imports, 371 
 Alkanet root, 392 : 
 Allspice, 517 ' ' 
 Aman, a floating rice, 319 
 Amelonado cacao, 13 ' ' 
 ■ ' American coffees, 41 
 Annotta, 388 . 
 
 Arachides, 402 
 Archeuda, 391 
 
 Areca nuts,. exports from Ceylon, 290 
 Arenga palm, 252 i 
 
 Arrowroot in Bermuda, 341 
 Ti — in Jamaica, 342 
 
 in St. .Vincent, 342 
 
 in Natal, 343 
 
 in Queensland, 345 
 
 Aus, adiyi rice, 319 ■ 
 Australian wines, 434 
 
 Ballam rice, 319 
 
 Bamboo palm, 296 
 
 Banana, 463 
 
 Bananas exported from Fiji, 483 
 
 exported from Jamaica, 481 
 
 Banana, modes of preserving, 467 
 
 Bancoul nuts, 421 
 
 Barre seed, 413 
 
 Basket of rice, weiglit of, 321, 324 
 
 Bassia seed received at Marseilles, 416 
 
 Bay leaves, 504 . 
 
 Bean oil, 427 
 
 Bean oilcake, 427 
 
 Bechna, 336 
 
 Beetroot sugar, 214 
 
 Beet sugar made by each country, 132, 
 134 . V J 
 
 Beras, a table rice, 330 
 
 Bergamot oil, 443 
 
 Betelnut palm, 286 
 -BfiteLnuts. 386 
 
 Betel nuts, preparation of as a masti- 
 ' . catory, 288 
 
 Betel pepper, 290 
 
 Black pepper, 490 
 
 Boro, an Indian rice, 319 
 
 Boyoot rice, 323 
 BrazQ coffees, 42, 47 
 
 J analysis of, 42.' 
 
 classification of, 70 
 
 statistics of exports, 74 
 
 Brazil tea consumption, 89 ! 
 Brick tea, exports from China, lOt 
 Broom com,.336 ■ I 
 
 Cabbage-seed oil, 426 
 Cacao, botanical spidies, 1 
 
 > butter, large sales of, 8 
 
 chemical composition of, 3, 5 
 
 commercial varieties of, 5 
 
 consumption and - imports in 
 
 United Kingdom, 7 
 
 consumption in Spain, 8 
 
 culture in Brazil, 22 . 
 
 " in Borneo, 25 
 
 in British Honduras, 21 
 
 in Celebes, 24 . 
 
 in Ceylon, 23 
 
 in India, 23 
 
 . in Dominica, 1 5 
 
 in Ecuador, 11, 21 
 
 in Grenada, 17 
 
 in St. Lucia, 17 
 
 : in Haiti, 16 
 
 in Guadaloupe, 19 
 
 in British Guiana, 19 
 
 in French Guiana, 19 
 
 in Jamaica, 14, 16 ' 
 
 in Martinique, 18 
 
 in the Philippines, 24 
 
 in Trinidad, 9 
 
 exports from Sfurinam, 19 
 
 exports from Trinidad, 14 
 
 imports at Hamburg, 9 
 
 large use of; in Spain, 2 
 
 powder in Holland, '8 
 
 production of, in the world, 6 
 
 in "Venezuela, 19 
 
 Calabash nutmegs, 503 
 
 Calabacillo cacao, 13 . 
 
 Canada corn, 306 
 
 Candied citron peel, 443, 451 
 
 Candle nuts, 421 
 
 Cane sugar made in each country, 132, 
 
 134 
 
 2 M 2 
 
534 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Cape wines, 434 
 Capsiouma, 493 
 
 acres under, in Madras, 494 
 
 Caracas cacao, 5, 9 
 
 Cardamoms, exports from Ceylon and 
 
 India, 522 
 Cariaca, a variety of maize, 312 
 Carima of manioc, 349 
 Carnauba, fibre from leaves, 285 
 
 palm, 281 
 
 ■ wax, exports of, 283 
 
 Cassava, analysis of roots, 348 
 Cassia bark, 505 
 
 buds, 506 
 
 Castor oil, mode of preparing, 407 
 
 oil seed, 406 
 
 oil shipped from India, 416 
 
 ■ oil seed received at Marseilles, 416 
 
 seed shipped from India, 416 
 
 Catechu, 384 
 
 Catherine plum, 480 
 
 Cavan, a grain measure, 330 
 
 Cayenne pepper, 493 
 
 Cedrat oil, 443 
 
 Ceylon, tea culture in, 109 
 
 Chalba, 414 
 
 Chayroot, 373 
 
 Chena millet, 338 
 
 Chica, or maize beer, 311 
 
 Chicory, large consumption of, 31 
 
 Chillies, varieties, 493 
 
 China, consumption and exports of tea, 
 
 89 
 Chinese oils, 426 
 
 Chocolate consumption in France, 8 - 
 manufacture in France and Spain, 
 
 9 
 Cholum, 335 
 Cinnamon culture in Ceylon, 5 1 1 
 
 exports from Timor, 501 
 
 • oil, 427, 511 
 
 Citric acid, 443, 444 
 Citronelle oil, 427 
 Citrons from Spain, 451 
 
 ■ varieties of, 442, 443 
 
 Cloves exported from Amboyna, 501 
 
 imports into Holland, 520 
 
 Clove nutmegs, 505 
 Cocoa or eddoe, 351 
 Coconut culture in Fiji, 242 
 
 culture in Florida, 247 
 
 culture in Jamaica, 244 
 
 culture in Trinidad, 246 
 
 number of varieties of, 230 
 
 oil exported from Jamaica, 481 
 
 • oil, machinery for expressing, 233 
 
 • oil, shipments from India, 416 
 
 palm, 222 
 
 Coffee, African, 48 
 
 American, 44 
 
 - — ■ Asiatic, 44 
 
 commercial kinds of, 44 
 
 Coffee consumption in Austro-Hungary, 
 37 
 
 consumption in Belgium, 35 
 
 — consumption in Denmark, 36 
 
 consumption in France, 84 
 
 consumption in the German Em- 
 pire, 37 
 
 consumption in Greece, 37 
 
 consumption in Holland, 36 
 
 consumption in Italy, 37 
 
 consumption in Norway and 
 
 Sweden, 35 
 
 consumption in Portugal, 37 
 
 consumption in Bussia, 35 
 
 consumption in United States, 34 
 
 consumption in the United King- 
 dom, 32 
 
 consumption in various countries, 
 
 32,33 
 
 culture, 47 
 
 ■ culture in India, statistics of, 61 
 
 Eastern and Pacific, 45 
 
 estimate of qualities, 39 
 
 exports from India, 77, 78 
 
 imports into Egypt, 38 
 
 imports in Koumania, 38 
 
 imports in the United States, 38 
 
 imports in various countries, 38 
 
 in Arabia, 79 
 
 in Bolivia, 68 
 
 in Bourbon, 81 
 
 in Brazil, 69 
 
 in British Guiana, 67 
 
 in British Honduras, 64 
 
 in Celebes, 52, 53 
 
 in Central Armenia, 64 
 
 in Ceylon, 54 
 
 ■ in Colombia, 64, 67 
 
 in Costa Eica, 64 
 
 in Ecuador, 67 
 
 in Fiji, 76 
 
 in French Guiana, 68 
 
 in Guadaloupe, 86 
 
 in Guatemala, 65 
 
 in India, 57 
 
 in Jamaica, 87 
 
 in Java, 49 
 
 in Martinique, 86 
 
 in Natal, 85 
 
 in New Granada, 64 
 
 in Nicaragua, 67 
 
 in the Pacific Islands, 75 
 
 in Peru, 68 
 
 in the Philippines, 53 
 
 in Sumatra, 51 
 
 in Timor, 53 
 
 in Venezuela, 68 
 
 plant, varieties of, 45 
 
 production of the world, 29, 30 
 
 range of prices, 30 
 
 Coliune palm, 299 
 
 Coir, or coconut fibre, uses of, 234 
 
INDKX. 
 
 535 
 
 Coir, exports from Ceylon, 240 
 
 exporta from India, 237, 238 
 
 machinery for, 236 
 
 preparation of, 235 
 
 Cola nuts, production and exports of, 
 27 
 
 Colza oil,4n 
 
 Commanderia Trine, 439 
 
 Commercial coffee, means of determin- 
 ing various kinds, 42 
 
 Concrete sugar, 170 
 
 Constantia wine, 434 
 
 Consumption of sugar in United King- 
 dom, 136 
 
 Corn, a general American name for 
 maize, 301 
 
 Copra, 238, 239, 240 
 
 • imports at Eotterdam, 426 
 
 received at Marseilles, 416 
 
 Corralu, 335 
 
 Cotton seed, imports into Great Britain, 
 405 
 
 seed cate, 405 
 
 seed oil, 405 
 
 ■ seed received at Marseilles, 416 
 
 Couscoussou, 339 
 
 Crin vegetal, 298 
 
 Oriollo cacao. 13 
 
 Croton oil, 426 
 
 Cubebs, exports from Java, 501 
 
 Culloo, fermented toddy, 269 
 
 Cumboo, spiked millet, 338 
 
 Cundeamar cacao, 13 
 
 Gurdee seed, 413 
 
 Currants, British imports, 440 
 
 in Australia, 436 
 
 ^ — dried, 439 
 
 Cutch, 384 
 
 exports from India, 386 
 
 Cyprus wines, 438 
 
 Dam, see Dhurra. 
 Date cake, 293, 295, 296 
 
 palm, 290 
 
 palm, composition of sap, 266 
 
 palm, use of seeds, 294 
 
 palm, wild, of India, 255 
 
 spiney, 296 
 
 Dates, imports into India, 295 
 
 varieties of, 292, 295 
 
 Dhurra, 332, 336 
 
 Djereed dates, 295 
 
 Dobarrah, an Indian sugar, 260 
 
 Doloo, or duUoiih sugar, 259 
 
 Doum palm, 297 
 
 Dutton corn, 306, 307 
 
 Dwarf palm, 297 
 
 Ejoo fibre, 252 
 
 Essential oils, shipments from Ceylon, 
 
 427 
 from India, 416 
 
 Paham leaves, 517 
 Fibre from date palm, 293 
 
 from husk of the betel nut, 289 
 
 Ixtle, 459 
 
 Piassaba, 299 
 
 Kittool, 280 
 
 Manila, 474 
 
 Pine-npple, 457 
 
 Eaphia, 296 
 
 Fig culture, 478 
 
 imports into the United Kingdom, 
 
 480 
 Flax seed, imports of, 401 
 Flint corn, 307 
 Forastero cacao, 13 
 Fruit into London, imports and value, 
 
 429 
 Fundungi, 340 
 
 Gambter, 386 
 
 imports of, 387 
 
 Garancine, 372 
 
 Gingely seed, 413, 417 
 
 Ginger, African, 499 
 
 imports into United Kingdom, 
 
 496 
 
 Indian, 498 
 
 Jamaica, 497 
 
 preserved, 499 
 
 sources of supply, 496 
 
 Gingerbread tree, 297 
 
 Ginguba, a name for ground nuts, 404 
 
 Glucose, or starch sugar, 216 
 
 Glutinous rice, 324 
 
 Gola, or ball tea, 98 
 
 Gold of pleasure, 418 
 
 Gomuti palm, 252 
 
 Goor, 257, 263, 265 
 
 GraUadilla, 483 
 
 Grapes, import.-* into London, 428 
 
 Ground nut, description of, 401 
 
 nuts, imports at Eotterdam, 426 
 
 nut meal, 403 
 
 nut oil, 403 
 
 nuts received at Marseilles, 416 
 
 nuts, quantity produced in United 
 
 States, 404 
 Guarana, chemistry of, 26 
 
 exports of, 27 
 
 Guayaquil cacao, 11 
 Guinea corn, 333 
 
 analysis of, 334 
 
 Gurpatta, Indian refined sugar, 259 
 
 Henna, 390 
 Hominy, 304 
 
 Ilhpb seed received at Marseilles, 416 
 Indian com, 300 
 
 tea exports, 104, 106 
 
 Indican, 361, 363 
 
 Indi"-o from Guatemala, 368 
 
536 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Indigo exports from India, 364 
 
 exports from Java, 367 
 
 imports into Great Britain, 355 
 
 in Central America, 369 
 
 in Colombia, 370 
 
 ill China, 366 . , 
 
 in Japan and Java, 366 
 
 in Venezuela, 370 
 
 jilanta, 356 
 
 sonrces of supply, 355, 356 
 
 tests of, 359 
 
 weight of chest, 360 
 
 Indigotinei, 363, 367 
 Istle or Ixtle fibre, 459 
 Italian millet, 337 . 
 
 Jaggeey, 253, 269 
 
 Jam, production, in Tasmania, 482 
 
 Jamaica ginger, 497 
 
 ; rum, 161 
 
 Japan, tea exports from, 115 
 
 wax, 423 
 
 Japanese starch, 353 
 
 Java coffee, prices of in Holland, 36 
 
 exports of tea, 89 ; , 
 
 Jerunnee, an Indian sugar, 259 
 ■ Jheraui, 26i5 , , , 
 Jinjili oil and seed shipped from India, 
 
 416, 417 
 Julian plum, 480 
 
 Kabong, a name for the Gomuti palm, 
 
 . 253 , i 
 
 Kacha, i-aw indigo, 361 
 KafSr corn, 344 . ■ 
 Katjang, 404 
 Kelingoes, 271 
 Ketan, glutinous rice, 329 
 Kharak, unripe dates, 293. 
 Khaur sugar, 258 ■ , 
 
 Khoorma, a Persian name for dates, 293 
 King Philip corn, 306 
 Kiftool fibre, 280 
 Koda millet, 340 
 Kola nuts, 27 
 
 iiloungnyeen, a hill rice, 324 
 Kukui oil, 423 
 Kutki millet, 338 
 
 Lacqdeb tree of Japan, 424 
 Lagmi, a date wine, 292 
 Lagos, palm oil exports, 250, 251 
 Lamunta, raw sago, 275 
 Lemons, 443 
 Liberian coffee, 80, 81 
 Limejuice, 444 
 
 Limes exported from Jamaica, 481 
 Linseed, imports of, 401 
 
 oil, 400 
 
 Litpet, pickled tea, 98 
 
 Loxfl, a weight for betel nuts, 289 
 
 Macassar coffee, 52 
 
 Mace exported from Banda, 501 
 
 imports of, 504 ' i " l 
 
 Mackay maize, 310 
 Madder, 370 
 Maize, 300 
 +1 — analysis of, 305 
 — — in Australia, 609 
 
 in Fiji, 311 i 
 
 in Hungary, 312 
 
 in India, 310 j 
 
 in Italy, 312 
 
 in Natal, 310 
 
 ■ in South America, 309 
 
 production and export in United 
 
 States, 309 , I 
 
 — * starch,. 313, 353 
 
 sugar, 221 
 
 used as fuel, 311 
 
 variety of colours of the grain, 
 
 303 
 
 Malambo bark, 504 
 Mandarin orange, 443 
 Mangoes, 483 
 
 exported from Jamaica, 481 
 
 Manila coffee, 53 
 hemp, 474 
 
 hemp imports into the United 
 
 Kingdom, 478 
 
 Manioc, or cassava, 316 
 
 varieties of the root, 348 
 
 Maple sugar, 211 
 
 Mate", 125, 129 
 
 Mealies, an African name for maize, 
 
 310 . . 
 
 Meedo rice, 324 
 Melon seeds, 425 
 Metrical quintal, 2 owt., 416 
 Milk of the coconut, 231 
 Millets, 332 
 
 extent of culture in India, 322 
 
 Mooha coffee, 40, 41, 47, 80 
 
 Molasses exported ifrom Guadaloupe, 
 
 207 
 
 exported from Martinique, 205 
 
 exported from Montserrat, 201 
 
 exported from Trinidad, 202, 204 
 
 in Dominica, 200 
 
 production of, 1 38 
 
 shipped from Cuba, 208 
 
 Montserrat limejuice, 444 
 Moonghy rice, 319 
 Munjeet, 370, 373 
 Muscatels, 440 
 Mustard seed, 412 
 Myrtle berries,' 505 
 
 Kaghohotjk rice, 323 
 Negro yam, 351 
 Neroli oil, 442 
 
 Netherlands-India, exports of sugar, 
 188 
 
rSTDEX. 
 
 637 
 
 Ngatsaing rice, 323, 324 
 Niger seed, 415 
 
 seed received at Marseilles, 416 
 
 Nimphool sugar, 258 
 
 Nutmegs, exported ftom Banda, 501 
 
 imports into London, 500 
 
 in Jamaica, 502 
 
 in Straits Settlements, 502 
 
 On,, coconut, 231, 232 
 
 in maize, 304 
 
 palm, the African, 248 
 
 seed cake, 405, 406 
 
 seeds, acreage under, in India, 
 
 417 
 
 seeds and oils, 393 
 
 seeds received at Marseilles, 416 
 
 Olas or palm leaf books, 267 
 Olive culture, 393 
 
 oils, classification of, 396 
 
 oil, imports of, 394 
 
 oil in Algeria, 400 
 
 oU in France, 398 
 
 oU in Italy, 395 
 
 oU in Syria, 396 
 
 oil in Spain, 398 
 
 oU in Tunis, 400 
 
 Onoto, 389 
 
 Oranges exported from Jamaica, 481 
 
 Orange family, 441 
 
 peel, 443, 452 
 
 the bitter, 442 
 
 Oranges in Algeria, 445 
 
 in the Azores, 445 
 
 in the Bahamas, 450 
 
 in California, 442, 449 
 
 in Florida, 449 
 
 in Greece, 452 
 
 in Italy, 446, 450 
 
 in Jamaica, 449 
 
 in New South Wales, 446 
 
 in South Australia, 448 
 
 Orange wine, 442 
 
 Padanq coffee, 52 
 
 Paddy, unhusked rice, 820 
 
 Palm-kernels received at Marseilles, 
 416 
 
 leaves for paper, 298 
 
 nuts, imports at Rotterdam, 426 
 
 oil, imports at Rotterdam, 426 , 
 
 oil, imports into the United King- 
 dom, 249, 250 
 
 oil kernels, 250, 251, 416 
 
 Pahns, the useful, 222 
 
 Pahn sugar, 176, 213 
 
 Palmetto leaves, uses of, 299 
 
 Palmyra palm, 266 
 
 Panicums, species of, 337 
 
 Paraguay tea, 125 
 
 Pastel or woad, 356 
 
 Pea-nuts, 404 
 Pearl corn, 308 
 
 sago, 277, 279 
 
 Pepper culture in Malabar, 490 
 
 exports from Java, 489 
 
 exports from Sumatra, 488 
 
 imports at Marseilles, 488 
 
 imports into United Kingdom, 
 
 453 
 Physio-nut, 425 
 Pia, 349 
 
 Piassaba fibre, 299 
 Pignons d'Inde, 426 
 Pimento, exports from Jamaica, 519 
 Pina muslin, 458 
 
 Pinang, a name for the betelnut, 288 
 Pine-apple fibre, 457 
 Pine-apples, culture and shipments, 
 
 Bahamas, 453 
 
 in the Azores, 456 
 
 in Jamaica, 456 
 
 in India, 457 
 
 in Cochin-Ohina, 457 
 
 exported from Fiji, 488 . 
 
 exported from Jamaica, 481 
 
 export of tinned, 455 
 
 varieties of, 453, 456 
 
 Plantain, analysis of, 462 
 
 culture, 460 
 
 in Ceylon and Madras, 462 
 
 in Trinidad, 463 
 
 fibre, 462, 474 
 
 Plums, dried, and French, imports of, 
 
 480 
 Pop-corn, 304 
 Poppy-seed oil, 424 
 
 received at Marseilles, 416 
 
 Potato starch, 353 
 
 sweet, 350 
 
 Prunes, imports of, 480 
 Pumpeimos, 443 
 Punatoo, 271 
 Purging nuts, 425 
 
 received at Marseilles, 416 
 
 Purgueira nuts, 426 
 
 QuiNON, a land measure, 330 
 
 Ragoib or Baggy, 334, 335, 339 
 Eaphia fibre, 296 
 Raisins, 439 
 
 , British imports, 440 
 
 in California, 433 
 
 in South Australia, 436 
 
 of Malaga and Smyrna, 440 
 
 Rape seed, 410 „ ., . ^-.o 
 
 f_ imports into Great Britain, 412 
 
 received at Marseilles, 416 
 
 Ravensara nuts, 503 
 Ravison seed, 413 
 Red pepper, 494 
 Rice, analysis of, dlb 
 
538 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Eice consumption In India, 321, 322 
 
 com, 307 
 
 culture in Africa, 330 
 
 culture in India, 31 8 
 
 culture in Italy, 316 
 
 exports from India, 323 
 
 imports into Europe, 313 
 
 imports into the United Kingdom, 
 
 314 
 
 in Brazil, 331 
 
 in Burma, 323 
 
 in Ceylon, 326 
 
 in China, 326 
 
 in Formosa, 827 
 
 in Java, 329 
 
 in North America, 331 
 
 in Siam, 325 
 
 numerous distinct forms of Indian, 
 
 319 
 
 species of, 315 
 
 variable colour of, 320 
 
 Eum, excellent quality of Jamaica, 
 
 161 
 
 British Guiana, 161 
 
 in Dominica, 200 
 
 exports from Brazil, 162 
 
 exports from Gruadaloupe, 207 
 
 exports from Martinique, 205 
 
 exports from Trinidad, 202, 204 
 
 exports from West Indies, 162 
 
 production of, 139 
 
 distillation of, 161 
 
 Safplowee, 374 
 
 oil, 413 
 
 Saffron, 378 
 
 Sago flour, 274, 276 
 
 from the Gomuti palm, 253, 254 
 
 palm, bastard, 280 
 
 palm, varieties of, 272 
 
 imports into the IJnited Kingdom, 
 
 280 
 
 preparation of, 277 
 
 Sap of the banana stem, 47 
 Sassafras bark, 504 
 
 nuts, 505 
 
 Sawa mUlet, 338 
 
 mountain rice, 329 
 
 Saw palmetto, 299 
 
 Sealed tea, 98 
 
 Sesame, imports into Marseilles, 415 
 
 seed, 413 
 
 received at Marseilles, 416 
 
 seeds, imports at Eotterdam, 496 
 
 Shaddock, 443 
 
 Shaddocks exported from Jamaica, 481 
 
 Shamay millet, 338 
 
 Simsim, 414 
 
 Soconusco cacao, 22 
 
 Sorghums, 333 
 
 Sorghum sugar, 218 
 
 Spices, exports from India, 487 
 
 Spices, imports from China, 506 
 
 imports into Holland, 502 
 
 Starch, 340, 350, 352 
 
 , Japanese, 352 
 
 maize, 353 
 
 sugar, 216 
 
 Sweet com, 303, 307 
 
 potato, 350 
 
 Sugar, 130 
 
 analysis of various sugars, 131 
 
 average yield per acre in different 
 
 countries, 194 
 
 cane, analysis of, 199 
 
 canes, varieties of, 139 
 
 consumption in different coun- 
 tries, 133, 135, 137 
 
 from the date palm, 255 
 
 from Gomuti palms, 253 
 
 from palms, 176 
 
 exports from India, 176 
 
 production in BrazU, 163 
 
 in British Honduras, 165 
 
 in Borneo, 282 
 
 in Colombia, 165 
 
 in China, 178 
 
 in Cochin-China, 180 
 
 in Cuba, 208 
 
 in Dominica, 200 
 
 in Egypt, 194 
 
 in Fiji, 210 
 
 ia Grenada, 202 
 
 in Guadaloupe, 207 
 
 in Guatemala, 166 
 
 in the Hawaiian Islands, 299 
 
 in India, 170 
 
 in Jamaica, 151, 197 
 
 in Japan, 180 
 
 in Java, 187 
 
 in Louisiana, 167 
 
 in Martinique, 205 
 
 in Mauritius, 183 
 
 in Mayotte, 186 
 
 in Montserrat, 200 
 
 in Natal, 196 
 
 in New South Wales, 194 
 
 in Peru, 166 
 
 — — in the Philippines, 186 
 
 in Porto Eioo, 208 
 
 in Queensland, 189 
 
 in Eeunion, 186 
 
 in Siam, 177 
 
 in St. Croix, 207 
 
 in St. Kitts, 199 
 
 in St. Lucia, 201 
 
 in St. Vincent, 202 
 
 in the Straits Settlements, 186 
 
 in Surinam, 163 
 
 in Tobago, 199 
 
 in Tortola, 199 
 
 in Trinidad, 202 
 
 in Victoria, 194 
 
 in Zanzibar, 196 
 
INDEX. 
 
 539 
 
 Sugar production of the world, 132 
 
 ■ range of prices, 138 
 
 Sunflower aeed and oil, 419 
 
 Tabasco cacao, 22 
 
 Tacca starch, 345 
 
 Tamarinds exported from Jamaica, 
 481 
 
 Tangerine orange, 443 
 
 Taunias, 351 
 
 Tapioca, 347, 349 
 
 Tea, Black, manufacture of, 95 
 
 companies in India, 107 
 
 culture in Bengal, 117 
 
 culture in China, 93 
 
 in Australia, 115 
 
 in Fiji, 124 
 
 in India, 107, 109 
 
 in Jamaica, 117 
 
 in Natal, 124 
 
 in' Queensland, 117 
 
 in the Straits Settlements, 112 
 
 in Trinidad, 117 
 
 consumption in Africa, 91 
 
 consumption in America, 91 
 
 consumption in Asia, 91 
 
 consumption in Australasia, 91 
 
 consumption iu European coun- 
 tries, 90 
 
 consumption and exports, Japan, 
 
 89 
 
 consumption in the Netherlands, 
 
 92 
 
 consumption in the United King- 
 dom, 88 
 
 consumption and exports, India, 
 
 89 
 
 exports from China, 97, 98 
 
 exports from Japan, 115 
 
 exports from Java, 114 
 
 green, manufacture of, 94 
 
 imports into the United Kingdom 
 
 classified, 90 
 
 imports into the United States, 92 
 
 range of prices, 88 
 
 seed oU, 427 
 
 Teff, 340 
 
 Til oil and seeds shipped from India, 
 416, 417 
 
 seed, uses of as food, 414 
 
 Tobacco, acreage in different countries, 
 523 
 
 consumption in various coxmtries, 
 
 532 
 
 exports and imports, various 
 
 countries, 524 
 
 in Algeria, 531 
 
 Tobacco in Cuba, 531 
 
 in India, 526 
 
 in Sumatra, 531 
 
 in United States, 527 
 
 production in France, 531 
 
 production in Germany, 532 
 
 various species, 525 
 
 Toddy, 252 
 
 from the palmyra palm, 269 
 
 Tree corn, 308 
 Trojan fig, 479 
 Tuba, beer from the sap of the coconut 
 
 240 
 Tucupy, a sauce, 347 
 Tung oil, 426 
 
 Turmeric, exports from India, 383 
 Tusoarora maize, 304, 307 
 
 VANiLiiA, artificial, 512 
 
 in Brazil, 514 
 
 in Guadaloupe, 516 
 
 ' in Mauritius, 517 
 
 in Mexico, 512 
 
 in Eeunion, 516 
 
 in Java, 517 
 
 variety of orchids, 512 
 
 VaniUin, 515 
 Veragu, 335, 338 
 
 Vineyards, acreage of, iu different 
 countries of Europe, 429 
 
 Wanglo seed, 414 
 Wheat crop of the world, 301 
 White pepper, 490 
 
 Wine consumed in the United King- 
 dom, 429 
 
 in Algeria, 431 
 
 in Brazil, 433 
 
 in California, 432 
 
 in Cyprus, 438 
 
 in France, 430 
 
 iu Mexico, 433 
 
 iu New South Wales, 436 
 
 in Queensland, 438 
 
 in South Australia, 434 
 
 in Tasmania, 438 
 
 in the United States, 431 
 
 in Victoria, 437 
 
 palm of Africa, 296 
 
 produce of Australia, 435 
 
 Woad, 356 
 
 Yams exported from Jamaica, 351 
 
 Yam tribe, 351 
 
 Yellow Indian corn, 306 
 
 Yerba mate, 125 
 
 exports from Brazil, 129 
 
LONDON : 
 
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