ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY New York State Colleges OF Agriculture and Home Economics AT Cornell University Cornell University Library TP 405.C69 Sorghum; its culture and manufacture econ 3 1924 003 616 954 Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003616954 . HONDURAS SORGHUM. SORGHUM ITS CULTURE AND MANUFACTURE ECONOMICALLY CONSIDERED AS A SOURCE OF SUGAR, SYRUP, AND FODDER BY PETER COLLIER, Ph. D Late Chemist of the United StatesDepartment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. CnsrCJNJSTATI EOBBET CLARKE & CO 1884 CONTENTS CHAPTER I. Conflicting opinions on essential points during the investigations at the Department of Agkicultuke 1 History of the development of the beet sugar iNDUgTEY in Europe 12 Necessity for further research 14 Future' PROSPECTS of the sorghum sugar industry 19 CHAPTER II, Chemistry of sugak 22 Sources OF sugar 25 Statistics of sugar 41 Bibliography OF SORGHUM 42 CHAPTER III. history of sorghum 50 Botany of sorghum 54 introduction of sorghum into the united states 64 Hybridization of sorghum 69 CHAPT'ER IV. Varieties of sorghum cultivated in the United States 73 Significance of the names of the varieties of sorghum 79 Table for identification of varieties 98 Comparison of soegkums from different countries 101 CHAPTER V. Selection and preparation of ground, planting, and cultivation 108 Selection and preparation of seed 114 Time from planting, to reach certain stages of development 121 Time for harvesting crop 122 Importance of an even crop 126 Effect of removing seed, etc 138 Effect of stripping cane 140 CHAPTER VI. Effects of temperature and rain-fall on sorghum 145 Effects of frost on SORGHUM 154 Effects OF FERTILIZERS ON sorghum 162 Composition of soil as affecting sorghum 177 fvJ VI CONTENTS. CHAPTER VII. Development of suckose and glucose in soeghhm 185 Average results of analyses of different varieties of sorghum 198 Comparative value of different parts of the stalk 225 General analyses of sorghum juices , 238 Chemical composition of sorghum 250 CHAPTER VIII. Extraction of juice from cane 257 Roll mills 261 Various methods for the extraction of juice 280' CHAPTER IX. Defecation, principles of 28T Defecation -with lime 293- Other agents in defecation 29S Sulphurous acid and sulphites in defecation 305 Experiments in defecation 308 CHAPTER X. Concentration or evaporation op juice 325 Methods of evaporation 327 Vacuum Pans 341 Multiple effects 35& Separation of sugar from molasses 362' Sucrates of lime and strontia ' 370 CHAPTER XI. Waste products from sorghum 376 Seed, composition, and feeding value 377 Bagasse, loss of sugar in 38i Experiments in saving sugar from bagasse 387 Leaves, food value 390 Bagasse as food, fuel, and as material for paper 392 Scums and sediments, value 401 Sorghum as a forage plant '. 407 CHAPTER XII. Statistics of production of sorghum in the United States 40S Production of sugar from sorghum 417 Sorghum compared with other leading crops of United States 419 Marketing of syrups 424 Central Factories 425 CHAPTER XIII. Maize sugar, history of 427 Detailed analyses of the juice of several varieties of maize 431 CONTENTS. Vll Average results of analyses of many varieties of maize 435- Sugar and ripe grain from maize 441 Comparison of the juices of sorghum and maize 443' Pearl millet, sugar from 445 CHAPTER XIV. Exhaustion of soil by growing sorghum 447 Exhaustion, how prevented in growing sorghum 449 Average yield of principal crops in each state of United States, from 1868- 1872, and from 1872-1880, compared 452 Value of ash constituents of principal crops of United States 463 How exhaustion of soils may.be prevented by use of fertilizers 466 CHAPTER XV. Method of analysis of sorghum and maize juices used by the author in his investigations ; 469' Comparison .of analyses with polarization of juices 477 Specific gravity of juices 484 Tables of average composition of sorghum juices at different specific grav- ities 489' Tables of average composition of maize juices at different specific grav- ities 497 Preparation of ee- agents foe analyses of sorghum and maize juices 603 CHAPTER XVI. Methods of manufacture of different sorghum sugar, and syrup makers . . 504 Expeeiments in soeghum sugar manufactuee, on a large scale, at the De- partment OF Agriculture, at Washington 513 Causes op failure in the manufacture of sugar at the Department of Ag- riculture, AT Washington 537 APPENDIX. Statistics, furnished by the Bureau of Statistics of the Treasury Depart- ment 541 PREFACE. It is the purpose of this work to present, in a systematic manner, all the most important facts relating to the econom- ical production of sugar, syrup, and fodder from sorghum. The attempt has been made to separate that which is demon- strable from the vast accumulation of statements, true and fanciful, which have been given publicity since the first in- troduction of sorghum into the TJuited States. "While chemist of the United States Department of Agri- culture, in the years 1878 to 1882 inclusive, the writer en- joyed exceptional advantages for the scientific study of dif- ferent varieties of sorghum during all stages of development. The large amount of analytical work then accomplished, to- gether with numerous laboratory experiments in various di- rections, have served to demonstrate many important ques- tions previously unsolved or in dispute, and have led the way for larger practical experiments. All the material thus ac- cumulated has been condensed and classified in this volume, and it is hoped that it has been so presented as to render it serviceable and comprehensible alike to farmers, sugar mak- ers, and chemists. In like manner, the actual working results of numerous practical experiments in the production of sugar from sor- ghum have been given in detail, together with illustrations and descriptions of all necessary apparatus. Credit has been given to other investigators, and, so far as is known to the author, all important results obtained by others have been included in this work. There is no longer any reason to doubt that, when mature, (ix) X PREFACE. most varieties of sorghum contain an amount of crystalliza- ble sugar sufficient to yield & very substantial profit to those who employ proper manufacturing methods. As in all new and great industries, there are still many unsolved questions relating to the perfection and cheapening of working proc- esses. It must not be expected that all beginners will be successful, for the neglect of necessary precautions is very likely to be followed by failure ; but, with proper conditions and attention to the rules for practice here laid down, it is believed that the successes will greatly outnumber the fail- ures. There was a time in the earlier years of the present cent- ury, when sugar seems to have been considered a luxury, chiefly to be enjoyed by the wealthy, and when the average annual supply fell short of ten pounds per capita, l^ow, sugar may safely be classed among the staple articles of food which we term necessities, and the average consumption is about forty pounds per year for each person in the United States. The sum annually paid to foreign nations for this great amount of sugar exceeds one hundred million dollars, and the first cost is further augmented by the tax of nearly fifty million dollars which is levied by our government. In the matter of supplying our own demands, this country has never been able to make much headway, our present ca- pacity being equal only to about one-eighth of the total con- sumption. Because the tropical sugar-cane can only be suc- cessfully grown in a very restricted area, and also owing to the fact that early frosts endanger the crop and compel sugar makers, in our southern states, to work up the canes while immature and containing less than the maximum amount of sugar, the production of all our sugar from the cane, within our present boundaries, can not be considered probable. PREFACE. XI la sorghum, we have a plant botanically related to the tropical sugar-cane, and resembling it in capacity for the pro- duction of sugar, while it possesses the very important ad- vantage that it is much more hardy, and, like Indian corn, to which it is also related, may be easily and successfully cul- tivated in nearly every state of the Union. It is the author's belief, based upon the actual experience of four seasons' constant experimentation, that the sorghum plant is destined, sooner or later, to furnish not only all the sugar needed in this country, but also a very considerable proportion of that required by foreign nations. That these are not the unwarranted opinions of an enthusiast, will ap- pear from the report, upon this subject, by the special com- mittee of the ]!^ational Academy of Sciences, which is here included. It is the fortune of most investigators, who are so daring as to show, in advance, the great possibilities of some new industry, to meet ridicule, and even hostility from those who fail to comprehend the full import of the discoveries which have been announced. The writer has not been spared this infliction ; but, as an offset, he has already had the satisfac- tion of witnessing the actual production of good sugar from sorghum on a large scale, and at moderate cost. If, in part, as a result of his labors, the sorghum sugar in- dustry shall ultimately be established in this country upon a sound basis, any personal inconvenience will be amply com- pensated by the great satisfaction attending the success of an enterprise of such consequence. It is hoped that this book may be of service to many who shall undertake the cultiva- tion of sorghum and the manufacture of sugar, and that it may also serve to extend an industry both promising and im- portant, as a new source of national wealth. ■Washington, D. C, March, 1884. SORGHUM; ITS OIJLTUEE AISTD M AJJ^UFACTURE, CHAPTER I. (a.) Conflicting opinions on essential points before the investigations at the Department of Agriculture. (&.) History of the development of the Beet Sugar Industry in Europe, (c. ) Necessity for further research. {d. ) Future prospects of the Sorghum Sugar Industry. PRELIMINARY. In 1877, when the author was invited to take charge of the Chem- ical Division of the Department of Agriculture, at Washington, the Commissioner of Agriculture, General Wm. G. Le Due, directed him to undertake the investigation of sorghum and maize as sugar pro- ducing plants, since the results, recently secured in Minnesota, from a variety of sorghum known as the " Early Amber,'' had again aroused the public interest, which for some years had been dormant, as to the possibility of producing our own supply of sugar. The in- vestigation was begun during the season of 1878, and with results so satisfactory and surprising, that it was the determination of the De- partment to prosecute them to the end. From each of four varieties of sorghum grown upon the grounds of the Department, there was made a large quantity of excellent sugar by processes practically identical with those used upon the sugar plantations of Cuba and Louisiana; and the quantity of sugar obtained from the crop, was fairly comparable with that obtained from the sugar-cane. These investigations were continued by the author during the years 1879, 1880, 1881, and 1882, although without the facilities, during the last two years, to make them fully successful. The result has beeu, that the sorghum sugar industry, during the past three or four years, has been developed to a degree that, while it has hardly reached the proportions which its ardent advocates have anticipated, has at least confounded and silenced those who have from the iirst predicted failure. It is hardly surprising, that the results obtained at the Department 2 SORGHUM. of Agriculture, in the investigations of sorghum and maize, and the predictions based upon these results, should have met with much in- credulity ; since it is well known that, during the past thirty years, these plants have been the subject of repeated, though incomplete, investigations by many whose official position and professional staud- ingweresuch as to entitle them to the confidence of the community. Naturally, results which have often been at variance with their own, have met with a revision of unusual severity by other invest igatoi-s ; but, since the methods by which these results were obtained were the best known, a cordial acceptance of them has been given, so far as I know, without exception, among scientific men. With another class the case has been quite different — those who, Bourbon-like, neither learn nor forget. From them there has been, from first to last, only ungenerous criticism or actual hinderance ; which has been so unjustifiable and so marked as to prompt one of our lead- ing papers editorially to declare, of one of this class, that " his entire course in the matter has been vinreasonable, obstructive, and, apparently, malevolent.'' One of the most efiective and frequent methods of this class in belittleing the work at the Department of Agriculture, and opposing the acceptance of the important results obtained by means of these investigations, has beeu to assert that, " after all, there was nothing new in all this, for it had all been done twenty years ago." Such and similar statements have been urged to cast doubt upon this whole matter; to destroy public confidence in the. truth of the results obtained ; to prevent their practical acceptance by the people : and thus to prevent the realization of those practical results which have been predicted and based upon the general acceptance of these results. That such predictions have not been fulfilled, is the exact measure of responsibility resting upon those who have thus, from whatever mo- tive, misled the people. It is needless here to enter into any discussion as to whether all these facts were known and recognized twentyyears ago — as to whether or not, in all this work done at the Department of Agriculture, from 1878 to 1882 inclusive, there was any thing new. It is simply a mat- ter of fact and or record ; and it may be best, before proceeding further, to learn what was the state of our knowledge previous to these investigations. CONFLICTING OPINIONS ON ESSENTIAL POINTS. The following citations are by no means an exhaustive summary; but are, probably, sufficient to show the wide differences of opinion on CONFLICTING OPINIONS. 6 nearly every important point of the subject entertained by the several authorities quoted. A few only of the more important points of this inquiry have been selected as illustrations, and the conclusions reached are grouped under each head and chronologically arranged. Of the hind of Sugar present in the juice of Sorghum, a. In a paper by D. Jay Brown (Annual Report, Department of Agriculture, 1856, p. 310), he says: Mr. Hervey, of France, contends that there is no uncrystallizable sugar pre-existing in the cane (sorghum), and that the formation of glucose (grape sugar), or molasses, is only owing to the action of the salts contained in the liquid during the manufacturing process. 6. Dr. C. T. Jackson (Annual Report, Department of Agriculture 1857, p. 187), says: There is no doubt that this plant (sorghum), when unripe, contains only grape sugar. e. Dr. J. Lawrence Smith, in a paper detailing the results of his in- vestigations of sorghum (Annual Report, Department of Agriculture 1857, p. 192), says: This result settles the question that the great bulk of the sugar contained in the sorgho is crystallizahle, or cane sugar proper. And again, giving his final conclusions, he says : 1. The sorgho contains about 10 per cent of crystallizable sugar. 2. The sugar can be obtained by processes analogous to those employed for extracting sugar from other plants. In an article entitled " Contributions to the knowledge of the nature of the Chinese sugar-cane " (Transactions New York State Agricultural Society, 1861, p. 785), by Dr. C. A. Goessmann, he says, p. 789: The facts so far obtained prove, that, besides cane sugar, no other kind of sugar exists in the juice of the ripe and sound sorghum-cane. Again, in describing the general properties of the sorghum-cane juice, he says, p. 798: I have already mentioned, that the results which I obtained entitled me to be- lieve that cane sugar is the only kind of sugar that exists in that juice. And on page 808, he says, of results in extracting sugar from sor- ghum : These results are very encouraging, as they show that more than half the sugar, or 5 per cent out of 9. to 9J per cent, in the jiiice can be sepa- rated. When Achard established the first-beet sugar manufactory in Silesia, he was able to separate only from 3 to 4 per cent of sugar, although lOi per cent was present; and the French manufactories were quite contented, when they succeeded in extracting from 4 to 5 per cent of sugar. The history nf the de- 4 SORGHUM. velopment of the manufacture of beet sugar may be studied with great advan- tage by those interested in the sorghum. d. Dr. Thomas Antisell, chemist, Department of Agriculture (An- nual Report, Department of Agriculture, 1866, p. 48), says: The sorghum, while it contains some cane sugar in its early juice, loses it as it advances in life ; and, in all cases, by the usual methods of defecation and classification, its existing sugar is almost wholly converted into uncrystalliiable sugar. Again, Dr. Antisell says (Annual Report, Department of Agricul- ture, 1867, p. 33) : The attempt to separate and crystallize the cane sugar of sorghum on a large scale, has been wholly unsuccessful, and, as a sacchariferous plant, it is only valuable for molasses. e. Dr. C. A. Goessmann, chemist of Massachusetts State Agri- cultural College, under date January 25th, 1881, says : The sorghum juice furnishes, when properly treated, a good syrup ; yet it is of little importance for the production of sugar. /. President Stockbridge, of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, in his Annual Report, December, 1881, p. 19, says: The experiments with sorghum, as a sugar producing plant, forever settled the fact that no known variety of it can be profitably employed for the purpose, unless chemical science can discover a law by which glucose can be changed for cane sugar. The Best varieties of Sorghum for the production of Sugar. In the Sorgho Journal for February, 1869, p. 9, the editor, William Clough, says: The Oomseeana is altogether the best, Neeazana is next, for making sugar. It is not worth while to try to make sugar of any other variety which we now possess. Again, p. 26, he says : It [the Oomseeana] is the only cane upon which the operation for sugar can be conducted with any certainty. Again, he says: Spend no time in attempting to make sugar from any but the Oomseeana or Neeazana varieties. Again, same page, he says : Its syrup does not tend to granulate. Time for harvesting and working the Sorghum, and when the maximum of Sugar is present in t]ie juice, a. In the Annual Report, Department of Agriculture, 1854, p. 222, M. Vilmorin, of Paris, is quoted as concluding that CONFLICTING OPINIONS. 5 The proportion of sugar in tte stalks continued to increase until the seeds were in the milky state. * * * The ripeness of the seeds does not appear much to lessen the production of sugar, at least in the climate near Paris; but in other countries, where it matures when the weather is still warm, the efifect may be different. h. J. H. Hammond, Silverton, S. C. (Annual Keport, Department of Agriculture, 1855, p. 282), found, by his experiment (he records one only) with sorghum, taken before the seed was in the milk, when it was in the milk, and when it was mature, that The youngest canes had rather the most, and the oldest rather the least, sac- charine matter. * * * Beginning to cut the cane as soon as the head is fully developed, it may be secured for a month before it will all ripen: how long after that, I do not know. c. Dr. C. T. Jackson (Annual Report, Department of Agriculture, 1856, p. 307) found that The juice from stallss with quite ripe seeds was by far the sweetest, while the green ones, which were just in flower, contained but very little saccharine matter. Upon page 312, Louis Vilmorin is quoted as saying : The crystallization of the sugar of the sorgho, it seems, should be easily ob- tained in all cases where the cane can be sufficiently ripened ; and, as the pro- portion of the sugar is an unfailing index of ripeness, it follows, that we could always be sure of obtaining a good crystallization of juices, the density of which exceeds 1.075, while weaker ones could not yield satisfactory results after concentration. Again, he says, same page : This difficulty [of purging, through presence of gum] only presents itself in the employment of unripe canes; for, as soon as the juices attain the density of 1.080 and more, they contain little else than crystallizable sugar, and their treatment presents no difficulty. d. Dr. C. T. Jackson, in his report (Annual Report, Department of Agriculture, 1857, p. 187), says: A ripe plant yielded a juice of 1.062 sp. gr., which yielded 16.6 per cent of thick syrup, which crystallized almost wholly into cane sugar, the whole m^ss becoming solid with crystals. And he concludes : Prom these researches, I am fully satisfied that both the Chinese and the African varieties of sorghum will produce sugar of the cane type, perfectly and abundantly, whenever the canes will ripen their seeds. Again, he says : The unripe canes can be employed for making molasses and alcohol, but, as before stated, will not yield true cane sugar. ' e. The committee of the United States Agricultural Society, ap- b SOEGHUM. pointed to investigate the subject of sorghum, in their report (Annual Keport, Department of Agriculture, 1857), say : Where the plant was well matured, the juice yielded from 13 to 16 per cent of dry saccharine matter, from 9 to 11 per cent of which was well-defined crys- tallized cane sugar. * « * A. palatable bread was made from the flour ground from the seeds. * * ® Paper of various qualities has been manu- factured from the fibrous parts of the stalks. /. J. N. Smith, of Quincy, 111. (Annual Eeport, Department of Ag- riculture, 1862, p. 134), says: The syrnp [from sorghum] will not make sugar if the cane is cut before the seed is in the dough. * * * The crop should be allowed to stand in the field as long as possible, without being in danger of frost. g. L. Bollman, Bloomington, Iowa, upon page 147, he. cit., says: To me it is obvious, that the chief requisite for sugar making from the sor- ghum canes is their perfect maturity, and such maturity is dependent on correct cultivation and late cutting. h. J. Stanton Gould, in a report on " Sorghum Culture," made to the New York State Agricultural Society, 1863 (Transactions New York State Agricultural Society, p. 752), says: The seed of the cane [sorghum] continues in the dough for about a week. It is the general impression that the cane should be cut during this period, as it is then supposed to have the greatest amount of saccharine matter; at least, this is thought to be true of all the varieties except the white imphee, which is usu- ally cut just as it is going out of the milk, or just entering the dough. i. William Clough, editor Sorgho Journal, Cincinnati, Ohio (Annual Eeport, Department of Agriculture, 1864, p. 59), says: The precise period most appropriate for harvesting the cane, is when the sac- charine properties are fully developed, and before any supplementary action sets in. This will be found to be at the time when the seed at the middle of the panicle is just beginning to harden, or to pass from the fluid or milky state. Again, he says (Annual Report, Department of Agriculture, 1865, p. 312) : Until recently, the opinion has prevailed, that cane for making sugar should be thoroughly ripe ; that it could not remain standing in the field too long, pro- vided it escaped the frost: but, lately, this notion has been somewhat modified. * * * Something like a case for early or premature harvesting has been made out. The matter can not, however, be considered as definitely settled until the results of the season of 1866 shall have been determined. After the next year, it will be fully understood. The precise stage of maturity most favorable for the production of crystallizable sugar, according to the new the- ory, is just after the seeds are formed, and before they begin to harden. j. Prof. Henry Erni, chemist. Department of Agriculture, 1865, p. 48, says : CONFLICTING OPINIONS. 7 Contrary to my expectations, I found that the expressed sorgho juice of ripe cane, whether neutralized by li me or not, refused to crystallize ; for what solidified or granulated after long standing of the syrup, was grape sugar. And, in a foot-note, he says : The juice from unripe cane readily crystallized. h. In a pamphlet entitled " The Sorgho Manufacturer's Manual," by Jacobs Brothers, Columbus, Ohio, 1866, p. 4, it is stated that The cane is in the best state for harvesting when part of the seed is beginning to turn black; or, in other words, when the seed is in the dovghy state. I. A correspondent of the Department of Agriculture (Annual Re- port, 1867, p. 359) says : I take the sorghum (Otaheitana) when just fairly in bloom. In no case do I allow the seed to mature when I wish to make sugar ; but, for No. 1 syrup, I let the cane mature. m. The Sorgho Journal, William Clough, editor, February, 1869, p. 26, speaking of Neeazana, says : Do not mind the panicle; if the juice has a clear, sweet taste, even if the panicle is only in bloom, cut and work' the cane. Again, p. 92, under an article entitled " Immature Cane best for Sugar," it says : The theory that cane should be harvested before fully ripe, when designed for sugar, has been further confirmed by the experience of this year. The other idea, that the cane should be fully ripe, was never confirmed by facts. Page 58, it says : The weight of evidence, just now, is in favor of cutting as the seed is passing from the milk to the dough state. Again, p. 73 : Cut the cane as soon as the seeds are formed. * * * Cut the cane as soon as they acquire a clear, sweet taste. This may occur, in some seasons, when the cane is in the flower; and, in other seasons, not till the seed is fully formed. n. E. W. Skinner, of Sioux City, Iowa, says CAnnual Report, De- partment of Agriculture, 1873, p. 393) : The best syrup is made from cane not fully ripened. 0. In his report on " Early Amber Cane," by Dr. G. A. Goessmann, of Amherst, Mass., 1879, he says, p. 9 : The safest way to secure the full benefit of the Early Amber cane crop, for syrup and sugar manufacture, is to begin cutting the canes when the seed is full grown, yet still soft. p. In the Sorgho Hand-Book, published by the Blymyer Manufac- turing Company, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1880, it is directed, upon p. 8 : The cane should be cut when the seed is in the dough. » SOEGHUM. q. In a " Eeport on the manufacture of sugar, syrup, and glucose, from sorghum," by Professors Weber and Scovell, of the Jllinois Indus- trial University, 1881, p. 22, they say : The proper time to begin cutting the cane, is when the seed is in the harden- ing dough. r. Vilmorin, of Paris, in the Journal d' Agriculture Pratique, February 17th, 1881, p. 230, says : The period during the development of the plant (sorghum) when the juice is purest and richest in sugar, is that which precedes the maturity of the seed. It is at that point when the interior of the seed has the consistence of soft dough, easily crushed under the finger-nail, that the plant should'be cut and pressed. Prompt worhing of the Sorghum after cutting. a. Dr. J. Lawrence Smith, in his report (Annual Eeport, Depart- ment of Agriculture, 1857, p. 192), says: The uncrystallizable sugar forms rapidly after the cane is fully ripe and re- cently cut. And again, as the result of his examinations, he says : Hence, it is evident that no time is to be lost, after cutting, in expressing the juice. b. D. M. Cook, Mansfield, Ohio (Annual Eeport, Department of Agriculture, 1861, p. 311), says: Let the cane fully ripen, if possible. If the cane is fully ripe, it may be worked into syrup and sugar with advantage, as fast as it is cut up ; but if the juice is not perfectly matured, it should be allowed to " season " a few days (by having the cane cut up, bound in bundles, and shocked under a barn or shed for a few days). c. In an article on " Sorghum culture and Sugar making," by I. A. Hedges (Annual Eeport, Department of Agriculture, 1861, p. 297),. he says : After the canes have been topped, stripped, cut up, and tied in bundles, they may be set up in the open air, or, more preferably, under.shelter, and kept for some weeks. Such keeping improves the juice, not only in flavor, but also in saccharine richness, from 1 to 3 degrees B. This improvement takes place upon the same principle, and from similar causes, which determine the sweet- ening of acid fruit after pulling, viz., the change of gum and starch into sugar. d. J. H. Smith, Quincy, 111. (Annual Eeport, Department of Agri- culture, 1862, p. 134), says: The cane should be cut and brought to the mill and crushed on the same ^ay; and the topping of the cane,,and the stripping of the leaves from the stalks, should proceed no faster than it is cut and brought to the mill, if the vciy best results are desired, and all danger of souring is to be avoided. * * * It is much better, therefore, not to give the cane any rest, after being stripped and topped, till the juice is expressed and run into syrup. ~ * * When the- CONFLICTING OPINIONS. 9 cane is ripe, it should be immediately cut; for, if sufifered to remain, after it is ripe, in connection with the roots, a deteriorating efifect upon the quality and flavor of the syrup will be the result, and, at the same time, the quantity will be greatly diminished. e. William Clough, editoi* of the Sorgho Journal, says (Annual Re- port, Department of Agriculture, 1865, p. 312) : It would be best to allow but little time between harvesting and working the cane, and on no account should it be stored and allowed to remain long in large shocks. It is almost demonstrable, that no cane sugar is developed under any circumstances after the cane is harvested. The changes that occur after the cane is cut, if any, must be in their nature depreciative, consisting in the trans- formation of crystallizable to uncrystallizable sugar. /. The Sorgho Manufacturer's Manual, Jacobs Brothers, Columbus, Ohio, 1866, p. 4, directs that The cane should be cut and shocked in the field, with tops on, and in this condition it may remain several months before being worked up, for the cane matures and forms more saccharine matter. g. A correspondent (Annual Report, Department of Agriculture, 1867, p. 359) gives his method of working : I strip, cut, and work up the cane the same day, if possible. h. E. W. Skinner, Sioux City, Iowa (Annual Report, Department of Agriculture, 1873, p. 393), says: As soon as matured, cut, pile, and cover with leaves ; never allow it to stand, after maturity, in connection with the roots. i. The Sorgho Hand-Book (Blymyer Manufacturing Company, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1880, p. 8) directs, that The cane should be cut several days before grinding, as it will be more free from impurities if cured for a few days before going to the mill. j. Professors Scovell and Weber, in their report, 1881 (Illinois In- dustrial University), say : The cane (sorghum) should be worked up as soon as possible after cutting. Tlie necessity of further investigatimi of Sorghum. a. D. J. Brown (Annual Report, Department of Agriculture, 1856, p. 313) says: Let the same skill, directed by science, be applied to the making of sugar from the sorgho sucrfi, and we may reasonably expect the happiest results. b. Dr. J. Lawrence Smith (Annual Report, Department of Agri- culture, 1857 p. 192) further says : On investigating the sugar bearing capacity of the Chinese sugar-cane, the' first step required was to ascertain the true chemical constitution of the juice extracted from the plant. From various conflicting statements on the subject nothing satisfactory could be gleaned ; some of the best authorities insisting 10 SOEGHUM. that there was not any crystallizable sugar in the juice, or but a very small portion, while others, equally as strong, held the contrary' opinion. c. Dr. J. Lawrence Smith (Annual Eeport, Department of Agri- culture, 1857, p. 192) further says : It is not to be forgotten that sugar making is an art, and can not be prac- ticed by every one with a mill and a set of kettles. * ® * What was neces- sary for the beet root is doubtlessly required for the sorgho, namely, a thorough study of its nature, with a process of extracting the sugar especially adapted to it. d. J. Stanton Gould, "Eeport on Sorghum Culture" (Transactions New York State Agricultural Society, 1863, p. 740), says, in view of the discordant testimony concerning the sorghum question : These conflicting opinions might easily be reconciled by a few well-directed experiments. Again he says, same page : After the most careful inquiry, orally and by letter, I am unable to find that any such experiments have ever been made. Again, he says (p. 747) : These experiments are not conclusive, and the whole question needs a, care- ful and accurate investigation. e. Dr. J. M. Shaffer, Secretary Iowa State Agricultural Society, says (Annual Report, Department of Agriculture, 1868, p. 515) : The production of sugar (from sorghum) is rather the result of accident than of any well-digested system for its extraction. From the foregoing discordant statements upon some of the more important points selected for comparison, viz. (1) the kind of sugar found in the sorghum ; (2) the best variety of sorghum for the pro- duction of sugar; (3) the time for harvesting, and when the maxi- mum of sugar is present in the juice ; (4) the prompt working of the canes after cutting, etc., it is not a matter of wonder that the com- mittee of the National Academy of Sciences, in their report on the " Sorghum Sugar Industry," should have said : It is evident that nothing was definitely determined, even on points where work in the laboratory, and the exercise of analytical skill, were apparently sufficient to settle most doubts, aside from economic questions, relating to methods of manufacture. Such, we find, was the condition of the "sorghum sugar question" up to a period immediately preceding the researches undertaken by the United States Department of Agriculture, in 1878, by their present chemist. Dr. Peter Collier. Nor that they should have, in view of the results of these investi- gations, reported as to the CONFLICTING OPINIONS. 11 Value of the research, in a material seme, to the naiion. Aside from the value of this research from a scientific stand-point — illustrating, as it does, the importance of obtaining, from an extended investigation, the facts and their mutual relations in an agronomic problem — the results obtained appear to this Committee to possess a high value, in a material sense, to the nation. Whether the cultivation of a crop like sorghum, deriving its support largely from the atmosphere and water — since it appears to thrive best upon light soils — may or may not reward the cultivator better than the growth of cereals, it cer- tainly adds a new factor to agriculture, of value, not only as a sugar producing plant, but also as a food plant of no mean quality. It thrives over a very wide area; and, as we have shown, develops in the warm and temperate latitudes more than a single crop per annum, and becomes, certainly, in one of its varieties, perennial. But the work is also of national importance in its relation to existing indus- tries, and especially to that of the cultivation of the sugar-cane and sugar pro- duction therefrom. In this country the sugar planter has to contend with obstacles unknown to the resident of tropical countries. A greater degree of skill and knowledge is here required for the attainment of the same result that elsewhere is reached through the normal operation of natural causes, almost without effort on the part of the planter. Such skill and knowledge can only be attained by a care- fully conducted experimental inquiry, such as this investigation exhibits. The methods developed in the course of this investigation are also applica- ble, with but slight modification, to the cultivation of the sugar-cane, and there can be little doubt but that the ultimate effect of such investigations will be to stimulate the Southern sugar planter to similar experiments for the ascer- tainment of the most favorable conditions for the prosecution ofhis own special industry, depending on the culture of tropical cane in subtropical climates, ■where it never attains its its fullest development, and is consequently subject to many adverse conditions unknown in the tropics. As a work of national importance, calculated directly to benefit widely sepa- rated sections of the country, it is one that has been wisely undertaken and encouraged by the Department of Agriculture, and is deserving of every aid that Congress may be willing to'grant for its encouragement and prosecution. The sugar planter of Louisiana and Texas may possibly discover that he has at command, in one or more of the larger varieties of sorghum, which, like the so-called " Honduras," " Mastodon," etc., attain at maturity, say in four or five months, a growth of 18 to 20 feet in height, and a weight of 2 to 5 pounds per stalk, a sugar-producingplant thoroughly adapted to his climate and soil, equal, and possibly superior, in productive capacity of cane sugar, to the "Ribbon," "Red, or "White" cane now grown there, and escaping the perils from frost which always attend the cultivation. of the cane in those regions where the si>fi- son is never long enough to parmit its full maturity. Of the early maturing varities, like " Early Orange," it will be possible, in Southern latitudes, to make two crops of sugar and seed in one season, and 12 SOEGHUM. these, alternating with varieties of longer periods, may extend the sugar crop- over nearly half the year.* The late Hon. J. P. Updegraff, of Ohio, in debate, upon the floor of the House of Representatives, declared, that The distribution of sorghum seed, by the Department of Agriculture, had brought to the agriculture of this country a greater return than the whol& amount which that Department has ever cost since its foundation. Yet it is only a few years since the distribution of sorghum was ridiculed. And the Hon. J. H. Burrows, of Missouri, in the course of the same debate, declared, that The importation and introduction of the sorghum, or African, cane, is on& among the many of the practical results of the Department of Agriculture; and, to the people of the North, fell like a blessing from a war-clouded sky. HISTOEY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE BEET SUGAE INDUSTEY DT EUEOPE. To those at all familiar with the early struggles of nearly every great industry, there is nothing surprising in the experiences which those have been compelled to undergo who have labored to develop th& sorghum sugar industry. The prejudices of ignorance, the arrogance of conceit, and the malevolence of jealousy, have conspired to belittle- and misrepresent, to hinder and obstruct every attempt, to ridicule, rather than encourage : such has been the reception which has been accorded to those who have taken the lead in this enterprise. The history of the development of the beet sugar industry, pre- sents much to encourage those who have engaged in the efforts to pro- duce sugar from sorghum and maize ; and a brief account will in- terest and encourage those who hope to see sorghum sugar produced in sufficient quantity to supply all our wants. In 1747, Margraff, a member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, succeeded in securing from the beet root crystallizable sugar ; and he * We cite, in this connection, the following letter from Col. H. B. Richards, of La Grange, Texas : " But now let me tell you about ray Orange cane. It is no longer doubtfiil at all but that the Orange cane will become, in this climate, perennial; and, after this year, I will only plant every two years. I have tested it now effectually for two years, and am convinced that the stubbles will stand colder weather, and more of it, than those of the Ribbon cane. " My cane, from last year's stubbles, has larger stalks, is taller, and, in every way, ahead of the earliest seed cane at this time. » » * " Yours truly, " HENRY B. RICHARDS. " La Grange, Fayette County, Texas, April 8th, 1882." BEET SUGAR INDUSTRY IN EUROPE. 13 "urged upon the Academy the importance of his discovery, believing that Europe would find in this root the basis of an immense industry. But his important results appear to have been forgotten, until nearly a half century later, his pupil, Achard, again took up the work of his master, aud produced from beets a considerable quantity of sugar. In 1797, he published his results; and, in 1799, presented a sample of the sugar, and submitted his method for its extraction, to the Institute of France. The interest aroused in the Institute was such that a commis- sion was appointed by the Institute to examine the results and meth- ■ods of Achard, and to repeat his experiments. This commission con- sisted of MM. Cels, Chaptal, Darcet, Fourcroy, Guyton, Parmentier, Tessier, Vauquelin, and Deyeux, names eminent in the annals of science. The report of this committee, although fully sustaining the methods and results of Achard, was without apparent result until nearly ten years after, when M. Deyeux, one of the committee, at the request of the Minister of the Interior of France, again repeated the work of Achard, and was again successful in obtaining ' ' sugar perfectly crys- tallized, of great whiteness, brilliant, and sonorous — in a word, enjoy- ing all the properties of the finest cane sugar." About the same time, MM. Barruel aud Isnard undertook experi- ments for the determination of the quantitative and economical aspects of this question, and found that they were able to extract one and one- ■half per cent of Muscovado sugar, at a cost of thirty cents per pound, •while the refined sugar cost forty cents per pound. February 20th, 1811, the Socifetfe I'Encouragement pour ITndustrie Rationale received samples of beet sugar produced by M. Drappiez, a pharmacist of Lille, who also, in a memoir, laid before this society his methods for its extraction. M. Drappiez obtained by his method one and three-tentlis of one per cent ■of sugar from the beet root, at an estimated cost of eighty cents per pound. About a month later (March 25th, 1811), Napoleon issued his £rst decree, now famous for the encouragement and the impulse it gave to this struggling industry. By this decree, there was appropriated one million francs ($200,000) to provide for the planting of 32,000 hectares (79,040 acres) in beets ; "for the establishment of six experimental schools, for giving instruction in the manufacture of beet sugar, con- formably to the processes of chemists ;'' as also for the experiments and instruction in processes for the manufacture of indigo. In addition, it was decreed, that the importation of sugar and indigo from England and her colonies should be prohibited. It is interesting to observe that, at this time, the value of the sugar and indigo imported into France 14 SOEGHUM. amounted to 100,000,000 francs (820,000,000), so that the amount appropriated for the encouragement of efforts to produce these two com- modities amounted to one per cent of the amount paid for them to for- eign countries. In 1882, the United States imported over one hundred million dollars worth of sugar and molasses, and the duties paid upon the same amounted to more than fifty million dollars additional ; and the amount appropriated by Congress for the purpose of investigations on sorghum was ten thousand dollars. .. It is also interesting to observe, that the six experimental schools es- tablished were "to give instruction in the manufacture of beet root suo-ar, conformably to the processes of eliemists." This tells the whole story : it fully explains how, from such small and unpromising beginnings — from a root inferior, in every way, to the tropical cane — from the pro- duction of sugar costing eighty cents per pound — this industry has developed to that degree, that the beet root is to-day, and for many years has been, the only rival of the sugar-cane in producing the world's supply of sugar. The acorn has become the oak. The predictions of Margraff, in 1747, are to-day accomplished facts. Europe lias found, in the beet root, the basis of an immense industry. The reason for this, is found in that decree of Napoleon — than whom, whether in peace or in war, Europe has never had his superior in the field — the decree of Xa- poleon, that the manufacture of beet sugar should be taught in the schools "conformably to tlie processes of chemists." The beet sugar industry is one of the proudest triumfJhs of science. About its cradle, all the sciehces have stood as foster parents ; and im- proved methods, improved machinery, improved cultivation, improved varieties, have marked each step of its progress. But for the careful supervision of science, its present proportions were impossible : and so soon as that supervision shall be withdrawn, or shall be given iu equal measure to the production of sugar from sugar-cane or sorghum the beet sugar industry must inevitably perish ; but its history has shown the value of science to the arts, and has done much to silence the sneers of the ignorant at laboratory work. As evidence of the rapid devel- opment of this new industry, we may recall that there was produced in France, from beets, in 1826, only 1,500 tons of sugar, and in 1875, 462,259 tons; and, at the present, 38 per cent of the world's supply of sugar is obtained from beets, and 62 per cent from the sugar-cane. NECESSITY FOR FUETHEK EESEAECH. To those engaged in the development of the sorghum sugar industry, it is hardly necessary to say, that, great as are the strides which have been made during the past few years in our knowledge of sorghum as NECESSITY FOE FUETHER EESEAECII. 15 a sugar producing plant, there yet remains many questions of the great- est practical value, concerning which we know very little indeed ; and it is to be hoped that we have long ago ceased to speculate, when ac- curate and repeated experiments alone can assist us in a correct solu- tion of these questions. It is proposed to indicate a few of the more prominent questions con- nected with this industry, which are of practical importance, and await solution. It must not be forgotten that, owing to the number of conditions which affect each experiment, but few of which we may take cogni- zance, that no conclusion may be safely drawn from one, or even many results ; but, at the same time, every carefully recorded observa- tion is of value, and will serve in the final determination of the truth. Not alone in this, but in every other inquiry is it true, that hasty gen- eralizations are the very bane of science ; and yet we have seen how this unfortunate tendency has retarded the development of this indus- try for over a quarter of a century. From a single poorly conducted ex- periment, it was decided that, practically, no sugar could be made from sorghum, owing to the inversion of the Sugar, which, through some mistaken method of manufacture, resulted iu this one case. From the examination of a single one of the hundred varieties of sor- ghum, the sweeping conclusion was published, by one who should have been an authority in agricultural science, that no variety was of any value for the production of sugar. Through imperfect methods of test- ing, one finds the seed of sorghum a rival of tan bark in its con- tents of tannic acid, despite the fact that such a discovery would render sorghum unique among the cereals ; another fails to find in. the juice of sorghum a trace of glucose, although it is never absent ; while still another bases a method for the extraction of sugar upon his dis- covery (?) of crystals of sugar in the fresh stalks of sorghum. Let each remember that, for every incorrect observation or result reported, there is necessitated at least ten times the labor to disprove it — and they may be less disposed, without repeated confirmation, to publish, although it is to be hoped they will not neglect to record. Above all, let us not consider that we are bound, at the present, to pro- fess complete knowledge concerning the entire subject; for we may feel no hesitation in confessing our ignorance, which our attempts to conceal makes too evident. At a recent meeting of sorghum growers, the question as to the soil best adapted for the cultivation of the plant was under discussion. All must admit that is a question of extreme practical importance. After a long discussion, with the presentation of as many views as 16 SORGHUM. there were speakers, it was at last settled, by the passage of a resolu- tion, that such and such and such a soil was the best adapted for the growth of sorghum. Than this, nothing could be more unwise, more unscientific, or more utterly foolish. As wdl might the convention have resolved that a solar eclipse should take place the next week or the next month. Accumulated facts, and not resolutions, are impera- tively demanded. A leading agricultural writer, not long ago, de- clared, that "the conversion of amber cane (one of the varieties of sor- ghum) into crystallized sugar of standard excellence, in paying quanti- ties, and with a fair margin of profits to all concerned, is a result not only never yet reached, but made simply impossible by tlie force of natural laws." Strong words, indeed ; and yet, within three months of the time the above was written, there was produced, within 300 miles of this pa,ragrapher, notwithstanding the forces of nature he had so confidently declared as in opposition, 160 tons of excellent sugar, at good profits, mainly from the very variety he had named as being incapable of yielding sugar. This new industry has very much conservatism of such sort to contend with. It has, also, beyond doubt, many practical problems yet to solve ; but this may be confidently asserted, that, thus far, there has nothing pre- sented itself which has long stood in the way of an advance, which, during the past three years, has been most remarkable. As with the beet sugar industry, many experiments have proved fail- ures; and many persons have been found, as then, who, from the first, have declared that the manufacture of sugar from sorghum was a com- mercial impossibility. But, in spite of adverse criticisms, partial fail- ures, and the opposition of interested parties, the beet sugar industry in Europe has been, and to-day is, one of the greatest industries of that country; and, as we have seen, provides, at a profit more or less great, fully two-fifths the sugar of the world. It must not be, however, sup- posed, that all the practical questions which may arise shall prove as of easy and speedy solution as those, the solution of which have suf- ficed to place the sorghum sugar industry fairly upon a basis of profit. The development of any new industry of great magnitude, and in- volving so many conditions conspiring to help or hinder its greatest success, is sure to bring to light many important questions bearing upon the cheapening and simplification of manufacturing processes, the many quesiions concerning the cultivation and management of the crop, which the results of only a series of years of observation and experiment can bring to a reliable conclusion. That it is a wise and enlightened policy for this government, whether state or national, to encourage in every legitimate way the thorough investigations of these great economic questions, which have so much NECESSITY FOR FUETHER RESEARCH. 17 to do with the material prosperity of the country, seems hardly a- question admitting an intelligent doubt. Already New Jersey and Massachusetts have by means of bounties stimulated experiments in this direction, which, in New Jersey at least, have already led to most important results. New Jersey, in an " Act to encourage the manufacture of sugar in the state," provides, that one dollar shall be paid by the state to the farmer for each ton of material out of which crystallized cane sugar has actually been obtained ; and it provides, also, a further bounty of one cent per pound to be paid to the manufacturer for each pound of cane sugar made from such material. Massachusetts passed an act pro- viding that one dollar be paid for each 2,000 pounds of sorghum cane, or sugar beets, used in the state for the manufacture of sugar. Several of the states have, by appropriations, provided for the con- tinuance of investigations looking to the economical production of sugar. The general government has for the past two years, in spite of a persistent and determined opposition from a source as surprising as it has been inexplicable, continued to make appropriations for the prosecution of those investigations, which have already resulted in the accumulation of most of the facts which are thus far established be- yond question, and which have been recorded in these pages. In the words of the Committee of the National Academy of Sciences, " the fruits of this policy of the general government are already be- ginning to show themselves in the decided success which has attended the production of sugar from sorghum on a commercial scale in the few cases in which the rules of good practice, evolved especially by the researches made at the laboratory of the Department of Agriculture, have been intelligently followed," and they conclude their report in these words: "The sugar producing industry of the whole country, both that of the tropical cane in the South and the sorghum over a far wider area, will derive yet greater benefits from the continued in- vestigations of the chemist of this department, to whose former work we are already so much indebted." A few of the points which are at present awaiting investigation, may be briefly summarized. Even granting that the questions already settled have sufficed to place this new industry upon a safe and profitar ble footing, it by no means follows that it rhay not be made far more profitable. To this end there yet remains a vast amount of work de- manding further investigation. The unanimous testimony of sugar manufacturers conclusively proves, that, at present, fully one-third the sugar present in the cane or sorghum is lost through the imperfect methods for its extraction. 18 SORGHUM. That such a loss is permitted to continue, is a reproach to the industrial science of the country. The variety of soil best adapted to the development of sorghum ; the effect of the various fertilizers upon the several varieties of soil ; the effect of our climate and soils upon the sugar producing capacity of the many varieties of sorghum ; the effect of various methods of cultiva- tion of the plant ; the possibility of producing by skOlful hybridiza- tion varieties more valuable than any now known; the growing and ex- amination of varieties as yet unknown to this country ; the various methods of defecation and their relative value; these, and many similar questions, wiU at once arise to the mind of any one familiar with what has already been accomplished. Concerning each and all of these important questions, our knowledge at present is almost nothing. In view of the wide area over which this plant may be grown in this coimtry, with the great diversities of climate, it is by no means im- probable that a variety of sorghum may be developed, combining the excellencies of several and surpassing aiiy now known. Such results have been secured with the beet, so that the average per cent of sugar present in the best varieties now grown, has been increased one or two hundred per cent over that originally present in the root. Certainly, with such results already the reward of investigation, it is to be con- fidently anticipated that no efforts will be spared that similar results may reward those engaged in the investigation of the sorghum, a plant which is most remarkable for the great adaptability it possesses, as evidenced by the numerous varieties grown in every quarter of the globe. Even while engaged in writing, the author has received several varieties of seed from Asia and Africa, wholly new to this country, and mention has been made in this volume of some twenty or more varieties from southern Africa, quite unlike any previously grown in America. The practical determination of what is known as " available sugar," is also a matter of great importance ; since it may be found that the methods for its estimation in the juices of the sugar-cane and the beet, are inapplicable to the juices of sorghum. In the purging of sorghum and corn-stalk sugar, it happens very often that this operation is of unusual difficulty, owing to the presence of a certain gummy substance ; and this practical difficulty has been by some so magnified, that the economical production of sugar from these two plants has been confidently declared impossible. In the experience at Washington, as well as that at many other places, this peculiar substance has been found often to be present in FUTURE PROSPECTS OP SORGHUM. 19 quantity so small as to offer little, if any, resistance to complete purg- ing in the ordinary centrifugal. It is a matter of very great practical importance, to determine those conditions which ptevent its being produced in the manufacture of the syrup ; since in no case has its presence been detected in the freshly expressed juices of either sorghum or maize. It appears to be formed by transformation of other constituents of the juice in the progress of syrup production. In fact, unless the sorghum sugar industry shall prove to be unlike any other which has been developed, we may safely predict that many questions similar to the above will, from time to time, arise and demand solution. It is worse than idle to dogmatize upon such questions ; but dogmas will prevail in the future, as in the past, where carefully ascertained experimental results are wanting, and it is only the results of careful research which can clear the way to the establishment of this industry upon the basis of the greatest economy. To such an end whoever contributes, even in the least degree, may consider himself a public benefactor; and whoever, either through ignorance or wickedness, shall hinder the consummation of a result so greatly to be desired, shall receive, as he will most justly deserve, the execration of his fellow men. FUTURE PROSPECTS OF THE SORGHUM SUGAR INDUSTRY. From the results already secured and recorded in this volume, there would appear no good reason to doubt, that, within a few years, we may render ourselves wholly independent of other nations for our su- gar supply. It may appear somewhat hazardous to venture any prediction ; but I think such a result will be accomplished within the next decade, and that, by 1900, we shall export sugar produced from sorghum to Europe. That such a result appears possible, yes, most probable, rests upon these few well established facts : 1. About 38 per cent of all the cultivated land in the United States, including the grass land, is at present devoted to the cultivation of maize : thus showing that the conditions of soil and climate in our country conspire to make the production of maize profitable. 2. The demands made upon the soil, and the conditions of climate necessary to the full development of sorghum, are practically identi- cal with those made by and necessary to maize. 3. The methods' of cultivation of the two crops are identical; so 20 SOEGHUM. that, in every townsliip of the country, these methods are practically understood. 4. , The greater part of the maize consumed in this country, is used for the purpose of feeding and fattening swine ; and numerous analy- ses of sevei"al different varieties of sorghum seed, have shown that the proximate chemical composition of sojghum seed is identical with that of maize, the sorghum seed differing no more from maize in com- position than does one variety of maize from another. 5. Numerous feeding experiments have established the fact, that, for feeding and fattening purposes, sorghum seed is the equivalent of maize, and may be substituted for it. 6. As much sorghum seed may be produced from an acre as of maize, on the same land ; and wherever maize may be grown success- fully in this country, one variety or another of sorghum may be as successfully grown. 7. Fully ninety-nine per cent of the sorghum now grown in the world, is grown solely for the seed and the forage obtained in the leaves ; and abundant testimony is given, that, for the seed alone, the crop may be profitably grown, while many of those using the stalks for syrup and sugar declare that the seed enables them to produce the stalks free of all cost. 8. It is only after the seed of any variety of sorghum is quite ma- ture, that the maximum of sugar in the stalks is attained ; so that there is nothing to prevent the securing of both the maximum of seed and the maximum of sugar from the crop of sorghum. 9. Many thousands of analyses of over fifty varieties of sorghum have conclusively established the fact, that, at maturity, the stalk of sorghum contains an amount of sugar equal to that found in the best sugar-cane grown in Louisiana ; and already, by processes and appara- tus identical with those employed upon the sugar plantations of Cuba- and Louisiana, several hundred tons of sorghum sugar have been put upon the market in competition with sugar from the tropical sugar- cane. 10. The testimony of numerous manufacturers of syrups jfrom sor- ghum, shows that the syrup may be manufactured at an expense vary- ing in different localities, and with different manufacturers, from 12 to 25 cents per gallon, from cane delivered free at the mill, even when working with small mills instead of the improved appliances of the large plantations. 11. A yield of 6 to 8 pounds of sugar from the gallon of syrup, made at the proper time, may be fairly expected ; and thus the sugar would cost, according to the expense of manufacture above given,. FUTURE PROSPECTS OF SOEGHU^. 21 from 1^ cents to 4 cents per pound, without any allowance for the molasses. 12. Excellent sugar has been made from sorghum : and where ac- curate account of all expenses was kept, including cultivation of crop, but no account made of the seed, the expense of production of the sugar did not exceed 4J cents per pound. 13. In view of these results, I have no doubt that sugar may even now be produced at an expense of not over 2 cents per pound ; and I believe that, within a decade, it will be produced at an expense of not over 1 cent per pound. 22 SOEGHUM. CHAPTER II. (a.) Chemistry of Sugar, (i.) Sources of Sugar, (c.) Statistics of Sugar. (d.) Bibliography of Sorghum. CHEMISTRY OF SUGAE. Under the name, sugar, the chemist iuchides a number of different organic compounds, most of them being vegetable in their origin. They are all soluble in water, though in different degrees ; and are all characterized by a sweet taste, though possessing different degrees of sweetness. They are neutral in their reactions with vegetable colors; but, in the compounds they form, play the part of acids. They are all remarkable for their effects upon a beam of polarized light, which, when passed through solutions of any one of the sugars, is rotated to the right or the left. The direction and the degree of rotation is con- stant under the same conditions of density of solution and temperature for the several sugars. The principal members of this groiip of sugars, are : 1. Cane sugar; also known as sucrose and saccharose, CjaHjaOn. This sugar is found present in the juices of the sugar-cane, Saccha- rum officinarum ; maize, zea mais ; sorghum, Sorghum saccharatum ; beets, Beta vulgaris; sugar maple, Acer saccharinum; several species of the palm, and many other plants. The pure sugar, from either of the above sources, is identical in all its properties — as crystalline form, chemical composition, degree of solubility, sweetness, and rotatory power. 2. Glucose, CgHjjOg. Under this name is grouped two principal compounds : (a) Dextro-glucose, or Dextrose, which rotates the polar ized beam to the right ; and (6) Laevo-glucose, or Laevulose, which rotates the beam to the left. Dextro-glucose is known as grape sugar, starch sugar, fruit sugar, honey sugar, diabetic sugar, according to its source. Sweet fruits and honey contain this form of glucose, associated with, cane sugar and laevo-glucose. Laevo-glucose has the same chemical composition as dextro-glucose ; but is distinguished by its left-handed rotatory power. This form of CHEMISTRY OF SUGAR. , 23 glucose is obtained, together -with dextro-glucose, in the fermentation of cane sugar, which, under the action of the ferment, splits up into equal parts of dextro and laevo-glucose. And, since the left-handed rotation of the latter is greater than the right-handed rotation of the former, the solution of cane sugar — which, at first, was right-handed in its rotation of the plane of polarized light — after fermentation is found to be left-handed, or (as it is termed) inverted ; and hence the name " inverted sugar," which is a mixture of these two forms of glucose. The formula which represents the final results in this process of fer- mentation is, in Cane sugar -(- water. Dextro glucose. Laevo-glucose. Ci2H220,i + HjO = CgHijOg + CgHijOg. One molecule of cane sugar uniting with one molecule of water, and then breaking up into one molecule of dextro- and one molecule of laevo-glucose. This change in cane sugar is readily brought about, also, by the ac- tion of dilute acids. If, to a dilute solution of cane sugar, a few drops of sulphuric or hydrochloric acid be added, and the solution be heated at a temperature of 90°C. (194°F.) for half an hour, it will be found that the cane sugar will have entirely disappeared from tlie solution, and, in its place, will be found its equivalent of inverted sugar. This is the method pursued in the determination, by analysis, of the cane sugar in juices of sugar producing plants. (See chapter on Methods of Analysis.) It is, however, to be remembered, that this change is effected by the heat in the presence of an add, and very speedily in such circum- stances: but heat alone efleets this change very slowly, indeed, if at all ; although the contrary opinion is very generally entertained by. those who have never subjected the matter to the test of experiment. A series of experiments are given in the Journal Fabr. Sucre, by M. Pellet, showing the amount of inversion of solutions of cane sugar at dif- erent temperatures and degrees of concentration. The experiments were, in each case, continued for four days (96 hours) : Sugar in 100 c.c. At 25° C. At 50° C. At 75° C. 10 grams. .5975 grams. 3.0216 grams. 8.8100 grams. 30 grams. .5275 grams. 2.9200 grams. 7.1825 grams. 60 grams. .1025 grams. .6450 grams. 6.4900 grams. 90 grams. trace. .1500 grams. 3.9776 grams. It will be seen, that the extent of inversion was dependent upon tem- perature and concentration of the solution ; and that a solution contain- ing 60 grams, of sugar in 100 cubic centimeters of solution (about the consistency of a syrup), even after four days' heating at a temperature 24 SOEGHUM. of 75°C. (177°F.), had only 5.49 grams, of the riugar inverted, or 9.15 per cent of the amount ; so that, in ordinary work, the inversion of sugar by heat alone may be regarded as very slight. In the presence of a slight excess of lime, it has been found that a solution of cane sugar remains unchanged, even after prolonged boil- ing for thirty-six hours. The practical importance of th^g fact is obvi- ous to the sugar manufacturer, since, by proper defecation with lime, the acids present in the saccharine j uices of plants are neutralized and rendered inert. 3. Lactose, or milk sugar, CuHijO,,. This sugar is that which gives to milk its sweet taste. Lactose, although having the same composition as cane sugar, differs from it very greatly in all its properties, in crystalline form, degree of solubility, and sweetness, and in its rotatory power, which, though right-handed as is that of cane sugar, is far less in degree — the relative degrees of rotatory power of the four sugars mentioned being as follows : Cane Sugar, right-handed 73°8 Milk " " ■' 59°3 Dextrose, " " 56° Laevulose, left " 106° at 14° C 58° at 90° C Lactose, also, in ordinary fermentation, produces Lactic Acid instead of glucose. The formula representing the results of the fermentation, being : Lactose -\- Water = Lactic Acid. C„H,,0„ + H,0 = 4 CsHeOs The one molecule of lactose taking up one molecule of water and being then broken up into four molecules of lactic acid ; this result constituting what is known as the souring of milk. The relative solubilities of these several sugars in cold water, are as follows : 1 part Cane Sugar in X its weight of water. 1 " Glucose " IX " " " 1 " Lactose " 5 times its weight of water. Cane sugar is readily obtained in crystals by the evaporation of its solution in water, as in the familiar form of the so-called granulated sugar, which may be seen to be composed of well defined crystals, also in the well known form of rock candy, in which crystals an inch in diameter are often found. Glucose also crystallizes both in its anhydrous form, and also in combination with water. The crystals of glucose, however, are gen- erally a collection of minute needles clustered into granular masses, or, if the solution is concentrated, uniting to form a semi-solid mass ; as SOUECES OF SUGAR. 25 frequently occurred iu the earlier efforts in making commercial glucose, where the fluid syrup, after standing a short time, was found to have been entirely changed into a solid mass of crystals of hydrated glucose. Lactose is easily obtained crystallized, although the form of its crystals, its comparative insolubility, and its low sweetening power, will enable one to readily distinguish it from either of the other sugars mentioned. , It is also to be observed, that each of these sugars are composed only of carbuu, hydrogen, and oxygen ; the lasttwo elements existing always in the proportion to form water, and hence the name carb-hydrates which has been applied to compounds of this class. Since, now, these three elements exists in the atmosphere in inexhaustible quantity, it will be seen that the production of sugar need necessarily never result in the exhaustion of the soil. This matter will be hereafter discussed. SOURCES OF SUGAR. It has been already stated that cane sugar, or sucrose, is found in the juices from the stalks of the sugar-cane, maize, sorghum, and many similar plants ; also in the juices of the beet root, the sap of the sugar maple, and of many species of the palm. It is, besides, a constituent of honey, and of fruits. A comparatively smaU amount is obtained from the palm, while the maple sugar is an article of local consumption. It is estimated that, in 1850, there was exported of palm sugar 10,000 tons from that portion of North-eastern India lying near the mouths of the Ganges. About 20,000 tons of maple sugar is pro- duced annually in the United States, in 18 states. The commercial supply, however, of this important product, is ob- tained almost exclusively from two sources, viz : the several varieties of the sugar-cane, and the beet root, the former furnishing about 62 per cent, and the latter 38 per cent of the world's sugar. The actual production of cane sugar in tons in the years 1875, 6, 7, 8, 9, 80^ was as follows : 1875 1878. From Sugar-cane 3,396.478 From Sugar-cane 3,395,478 " Beets 1,168,281 " " Beets 1,398,061 1876. 1879. From Sugar-cane 3,292,137 From Sugar-cane 3,6.iO 390 " Beets 1,360,731 " " Beets 1,549,224 1877. 1880 From Sugar-eane 3,337.410 From Sugar-cane 2,327,000 " Beets 1,103,466 " " Beets 1,670,000 Note— See Appendix. 26 SOEGHUM. The several countries producing this supply, are as follows : Cane. 1875. Cuba 700,000tons. Porto Elco 80,000 British, Dutch, and Danish j „-„ „„„ West Indies. i ■ ^"."™ Java 200,000 Brazil 170,000 Manilla 130,000 China 120,000 Mauritius 100,000 Martinique & Guadaloupe 100,000 .Louisiana 75,000 Beet Sugar. 1875. German Empire 346,646 tons. France 462,259 " Russia and Poland 245,000 " Austria and Hungary 153,922 " Cane. 1875. Peru 50,000 Egvpt 40,000 Central America, and Mexico , 40,000 Reunion .S0,000 British Isles and Penang 30,000 Honolulu , 10,000 Natal 10,000 Australia 51,000 Total 2,186,000 Beet Sugar. 1875. Belgium 79,7^6 tons. Holland and other countries.. 30,000 " Total 1,317,623 The Consumption per capita of Sugar in the World. The amount of sugar consumed per capita differs very greatly, and represents to a certain extent the relative degree of luxury of the several countries. According to the statement of Lock, Wigner & Harland, the fol- lowing represents approximately the number of pounds annually con- sumed in the several countries per capita : Aggregate pounds Consumpt'n per cwt. head. Australia 1874 1,713,142 85 90 Great Britain 1875 18,374,54.S 62 80 British America . . 1875 1,721,386 51 40 River Plate States.. 1874 1,000,000 43,90 United States 1873 13,040,500 37.80 Denmark 1873 53.%831 33 .TO Holland 1874 800,000 25 03 Belgium 1874 1,000.000 23 19 Sweden 1873 630,741 16 90 Germ an y 1874 6,120,000 16 60 Switzerland 1873 381 , 295 15 . 90 France 1874 Austria, Hungary ..1874 Norwav 1873 Portugal 1874 Brazil 1874 Greece .1871 Peru 1874 Russia and Poland, 1874 Turkey 1874 Italy 1873 Spain 1873 Aggregate pounds Consumpt n per cwt. head. 5,000,000 15 50 3,400,000 15 10 193,086 12 70 300.000 8,40 642,857 8 00 86,800 6 60 570,000 5 61 4,000,000 5 40 500,000 3 80 865,350 3,60 81,817 .54 Countries Supplying United States with Sugar. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Cuba 1,008,413,671 $41,039,048 Dutch E. Indies, ... 26,187,830 Spanish Possessions. 110,445,708 3.572,400 British W. Indies) oq oio ica Porto Rico 70,1.55,045 2,610,418 and Honduras! ^■5,'!i-!.io» French W.Indies) Aae.moR'i i 7-^1 a^ia Briti.sh Guiana 21,865,691 and Guiana.) ■■ 4»,bs/,^6a i,/.>i,4o» sandwich Islands.,. 20,978,374 Brazil 40,010,416 1,329,938 Valu^. 1,052,953 844,144 912,101 1,051,987 The above are the principal sources. Twenty-one other nations furnish the remainder, which constitutes about 3 per cent of the whole amount. From the statistics it appears, that, during the past 20 years, the United States have produced less thau 13 per cent of their sugar sup- ply, and little more than 21 per cent of the molasses consumed. SOURCES OF SUGAE. 27 Sugar Product of Louisiana, 1823-1877. AMEKICAN ALMi. Hogsheads. 1823 : 30,000 1824 : 32,000 l«i5 30,000 1826. 45,000 1827 71,000 1828 88,000 1829 48,000 1832 70,000 1833 75,000 1834 100,000 1835 30,000 1836 70,000 1S37 65,000 1838 70,000 1839 11 5,000 1840 87,000 1841 90,000 1842 140,000 1843 100.000 1844 200,000 1845 186,000 1846 140,000 1847 240,000 1848 220,000 1849 247,923 1850 211,201 1851 236,647 1852 321,934 1853 419,324 1854 346,635 NAC, 1880, p. 32. Hogsheads. 1855 231,427 1856 73,296 1857 279,697 1858 362,296 1859 221,840 1860 228,753 1861 459,410 1863 76,801 1864 10,387 1865 18,070 1866 41,000 1867 37,647 1868 84,256 1869 87,090 1 870 144,881 1871 128,461 1872 108,520 1873 89,498 1874 116,867 1875 144,146 1876 169,331 1877 127,753 1878 213,221 1879 169,972 1880 218,314 1881 122,982 1882 241,220 Average weight Qf the hhd. is reckoned at 1137 pounds net. Average Yield of Sugar per Acre. Louisiana 1,200 Queensland 2,9,58 Natal Sandwich Islands Figi Surinam 1,960 Maximum reported. 7,840 7,000 12,000 5,000 Pds. Maximum Pd. reported. Demerara 4,480 Mauritius... 3,500 5,.500 Philippines 1,680 2,800 Java, about 8.360 Rio Janeiro 2,100 Jamaica 1,344 5,600 India, average 896 The following statistics of the acreage and production of sugar and molasses in tlie United States, is from the Annual Report of the De- partment of Agriculture. Sugar-caiie. (1879 Census.) States. Acres. Alabama 6,627 Florida j.... 7,938 Georgia 15,053 Louisiana 181,592 Sugar. Molasses. States. Acres. Sugar. Molasses. Hhds. Gallons. Hlids. Gallons. 94 795,199 Mississippi . 4,555 18 536,625 1,273 1,029,868 South Carolina. : 1,787 229 ■ 138,944 601 1,565,784 Texas . 10,224 4,951 810,605 171,706 11,696,248 Total 227,776 178,872 16,573,273 Maple Sugar. Lewis S. Ware gives the following table, showing the total product of maple sugar in the United States : 1861 42,000,000 pounds, 1862 44,000,000 " 1863 41,500,000 1864 40,500,000 1865 39,740,796 1866 37,532,000 1867 35,654,000 1868 3.3.421,000 1869 29,114,500 " 1870 28,443,645 pounds. 1871 30,766,000 1872 31,682,000 " 1873 82,157,000 1874 33,044,200 1875 43,197,9.30 1876 43,288,080 " 1877 41,000,000 " 28 SOEUHTJM. Of tMs amount, over 50 per cent is produced by tlie states of New York and Vermont, 20 per cent by Ohio and Michigan, while the re- maining 30 per cent is divided between 14 of the northern states. Production of Sugar from Sugar Beets. France. — Authority, Corenwinder and Macarez, Lille (Special Re- port, Department of Agriculture, on " Culture of the Sugar Beet") : Teom 2,200 Pounds Roots. Pounds Sugar. ■ Pounds Molasses. 1873-4 124.74 79.20 1874-5 128.26 74.80 187.5-6 117.04 80.96 1876-7 97.68 69.96 1871-8 133.65 77.88 Average 120.27 76.56 .Equal to 5.47 per cent sugar from beets. From "A Complete Treatise on the Fabrication and Refining of Beet Sugar," by L. Walkofi", we learn that the average per cent of sugar from beets, in 1872-3, was, in Bussia and Poland, 7.0 per cent. Germany 8.5 " " ■ Atislria and Hungary 9.6 " " During the season of 1879-80, there were worked in Germany 4,628,748 tons of beet roots for sugar. The average product per acre ■was 11.09 tons of roots. From 1,174 tons of roots there was obtained 100 tons of all sugars, or 8.52 per cent of the weight of roots. This yield is equal to 1,890 pounds of all sugars to the acre. The following tables give the statistics of the production, importa- tion, and consumption of sugar and molasses in the United States from 1790 to 1882, inclusive. From 1878 to 1882, inclusive, no allowance is made for sorghum or maple sugar, owing to the lack of reliable statistics as to their produc- tion. Since 1878, the amount of sorghum and maple molasses is esti- mated at 15,000,000 gallons of the former, and 2,000,000 gallons of the latter, although the production of sorghum syrup is probably very largely in excess of the above estimate at the present time. The tables are taken from the Report of the Department of Agri- culture for 1878. Explanations and Remarks on the Tables. In making thorough examination of the question of sugar pro- duction in the United States, a collateral inquiry has resulted in information which is appended at this time, for the atten- tion, not only of the legislative powers of the country, but of all , SOUECES OF SUGAE. 29 those interested in commercial transactions with sugar and its allied products. The tabular statement of the tariff on sugar, extending from 1790 to 1882, inclusive, compiled with care, has been subjected to such re- vision, as, I believe, entitles it to the confidence of those who wish to investigate this subject, or to predicate legislation thereon. The Imports and Exports are taken or compiled from the "American State Papers" and the statistics of " Commerce and Navigation." The "Differenee'' is obtained by subtracting the exports from the imports, or the reverse ; if the export item exceeds the import item, a minus sign is used to designate such excess. "Value" signifies the difference between the value of the imports and the value of the exports, and is, therefore, the cost of what is con- sumed. From 1867 to the present date, the amounts in the value col- umn are quoted from the statistics of "Commerce and Navigation." "Price," or "Average per pound," is obtained by dividing value by the quantities in the column of foreign consumption. The annual amounts "Paid for customs'' from 1867 until date, are quoted or compiled from the statistics on " Commerce and Naviga- tion ;" previous to that year, they are found by multiplying the quan- tity consumed by the rate of duty on each kind or grade of the article under consideration. For instance, refined sugar comprises different grades, with a corresponding variety in the rates of duty. The "Rate," or "Averixge rate of duty," is the result of dividing the Paid for customs by the amount consumed. The column of Domestic produce is estimated and collected from va- rious sources, and, although not absolutely correct, forms the best known data of the sugar produced in the United States. The figures in Domestic exports are quoted from the ' 'American State Papers" and statistics of " Commerce and Navigation." Previous to 1867, Foreign consumption is deduced from the imports and exports ; after that time, the amounts are taken from the tables of home consumption in the statistics of " Commerce and Navigation." Domestic consumption, previous to 1867, is the difference between do- mestic production and exports ; subsequently, the amounts are copied from the statistics of " Commerce and Navigation." Total consumption and Average per capita are interesting and impor- tant, as showing the rate of increase in the consumption of sugar with the increasing population ; also, the fluctuations from year to year, caused by changes in the tariff laws, or by wars or other disturbances. 30 SORGHUM. TABLE Imports, Exports, Cost, Production, and Consumption of Cane, Maple, and Sor- Yeaes. 1790. 1791. 1792. 1793 1794. 1795. 1796. 1797, 1798 1799. FIBST DECENNIDM. 1800. 1801. 1802. 1803. 1804 1805. 1806 1807. 1808 1809 SECOND DECENNIDM. 1810. 1811 1812. 1813 1814 1815. 1816 1817. 1818. 1819. THIRD DECENNIUM. 1820. 1821. 1822. 1823. 1824 1825. 1826. 1827.. 1828. 1829. FOUKTH DECENNIUM. FIFTH DECENNIDM. i8;n. 18.32. 1833. 1834. 1835. 1836. 1837. 1838 1839 Imports. Exports. Difference Founds. 18,229,419 24,901,639 a 24,420,372 a 47,762,505 a 48,70.5,900 63,783,405 69,469,154 72,765,821 87,523,918 103,846,468 113,839, 136,628, 98,630, 73,822, 128,722, 186,471, 199,13.3, 220,669, 104,411, 76,7.53,. 55,104, 77,200, 83,409, 33,397, 29,464, ■ 45,043, 55,110, 93,147, 68,358, 73,944, 6 66,730,179 69,515,701 88,310,686 60,791,470 94,462,057 71,772,468 84,935,959 76,702,280 56,936,418 63,308,621 86,490,113 109,231,168 66,488,891 97,734,438 115,392,096 126,038,333 191,428,305 136,149,761 153,883,863 195,289,024 Founds. 49,787 75,661 1,197,916 4,611,988 20,762,221 22,117,267 35,8.32,790 38,570,051 51,740,717 79,054,040 56,557,455 97,734,211 61,180,288 23,226,453 74,172,220 122,808,993 145,630,841 143,119,605 28,962,5: 46,297,338 47,024,002 18,268,347 13,927,277 6,617,288 762 3,188,718 17,723,96: 20,195,168 22,057,904 11,267,182 31,389,109 20,061,725 14,446,860 21,459,024 14,128,429 21,836,771 21,146,856 15,343,530 10,691,088 12,343,478 9,725,342 22,680,947 17,536,028 6,619,154 13,969,203 7,257,476 34,492,282 41,124,819 11,624,324 13,154,653 Founds 18,179,632 24,825,978 23,222,456 43,150,517 27,943,679 41,666,138 23,636,364 34,195,770 35,783,201 24,792,428 56,782,296 38,894,725 37,450,487 50,595,750 .54,.550,449 63,662,780 53,502,596 77,549,494 75,4.59,260 31,556,056 8,080,720 58,932,247 69,482,679 26,779,750 29,464,181 41,8,54,444 37,386,414 72,852,200 46,301,0.32 62,677,476 35,341,070 39,4.53,976 73,863,826 39,332,446 80,323,628 49,935,697 63,789,103 61,358,750 46,216,330 50,965,143 76,764,771 86,660,221 48,962,863 91,115,284 101,422,893 118,780.857 156,938,023 95,024,942 142,259,539 182,134.371 Valde of Foreign Sugar Consumed. Value. Dollars. Paid for Customs. 7,999,772 6,913,370 1,779,881 4,171,756 2.617,965 3,569,920 3,385,958 2,718,296 2,807,599 3,946,547 3,639,488 2,001,303 4,329,474 4,703,312 6,243,360 9,681,940 4,546,128 6,697,656 8,939,000 Dollars. 185,649 383,2.34 355,969 688,812 469.847 651,101 355.789 589,567 641,247 3,026,964 1,272,833 978,401 689,446 1,235,077 1,573,714 1,544,023 1,396,316 1,993,139 1,763,008 752,126 410,4,52 1,502,465 1,765,403 1,.364,527 1,603.279 2,130,779 1,911,861 2,225,944 1,415,565 1,911,250 1,076,982 1,202,360 2,268,782 1,189,907 2,,500,127 1,507,043 1,961,327 1,872,943 1,422,184 1,559,174 2,362,165 2,669,860 1,498,399 2,,328,990 2,675.155 3,053,723 8 948,104 2,390,031 3,617,377 4,693,141 (a) These imports are for calendar vears, and not fiscal years. (6) Estimated by taking tlie mean between 1819 and 182'l, there being no statistics of imports on record. (c) The only reliable -values on record, from 1790 to 182.3, are those of 1807 and 1816 wliioh arelound in "Pitkin's Commerce of the United States." ' SOURCES OF SUGAE. 31 ghum Sugar, Candy, and Melado, in the TJ. S., for each fiscal year from 1790 to 1882. Total. Domestic. Produce. Exports, Consumption. Foreign. Domestic. Total. '^tiSn''^" S B p, P* O O (S Dollars, 9,992,911 9,044,149 2,969,788 6,671,883 4,125,008 6,531,247 5,258,901 4,140,480 4,366,773 6,298,702 6,309,.348 3,499,702 6,658,464 7,278,467 9,297,073 13,630,044 6,936,159 10,315,033 13,532,141 Pounds, 12,000,000 13,000,000 11,200,000 14,215,000 16,240,000 13,290,000 15,340,000 12,400,000 14,499,500 16,600,000 16,000,000 20,000,000 21,000,000 20,200,000 22,499,500 25,299,500 28,000,000 28,000,01)0 31,000,000 34,000,000 39,000,000 38,603,070 41,000,000 42,600,000 45,000,000 43,000.000 46,000,000 45,000,000 47,500,000 59,000,000 51,000,000 65,000,000 58,000,000 57-650,000 63,960,000 63,650,000 84,975,000 117,005,000 132,599,575 90,014,890 119,815,000 123,625,000 121.125,000 116,860,000 121,625,000 152,500,000 72,150,000 120,850,000 113,075,000 117,850,000 Pownds. 97,029 924,181 390,445 510,578 139,986 20,362 287,921 762,321 244,242 142,600 732,320 756 16,692 79,577 180,863 111,894 80,055 80,836 181,119 185,658 59,033 63, 77, 226,016 255,447 323,826 532,996 1,623,866 2,237.619 856,022 517,076 2,463,841 870,506 1,571,108 2,150,769 3,019,451 5,109,926 Pounds. 18,179,632 24,825,978 23,222,466 43,150,517 27,943,679 41,583,263 23,719,289 34,195,770 26,936,602 33,639,027 16,418,071 68,932,247 69,482.679 26,779,750 29,404,181 41,854,444 37,388,414 72,8V2,200 46,301,032 62,677,475 35,341,070 39,453,976 73,863,826 39,332,446 80,3J3,628 49,935,697 63,789,103 61,.358,760 46,246,330 50,965.143 76,764,771 86,650.221 48,952.863 91,115,284 101,422,893 118,780,857 156,936,023 95,024,942 142,259,539 182,134,371 Pounds. 12.000,000 13,000,000 11,200,030 14,215,000 16,240,000 13,290,000 15,340,000 12,400,000 14,499,500 16,600,000 16,000,000 20,000,000 21,000,000 20,102,971 21,.575,319 24,909,0,55 27,489,422 27,860,014 30,979,638 33,712,079 38,237, 38,358, 40,857, 41,767, 44,999, 42,983, 45,920. 44,819, 47,388, 49,919, 50,919,164 64,818,881 57,814,342 57,690,967 63,896,132 63,572,201 84,748,984 116,749,553 132,276,249 89,481,894 117,691,134 121,.S87,381 120,268,978 116,.332,924 119,161,159 151,629,494 70,.578,892 118,699,231 110,066,649 112,680,074 Pounds. 30,179,632 37,826,978 34,422,456 57,365,517 44,183,679 64,873,263 39.0.69,239 46, .595, 770 41,436,102 50,239,027 72,146,185 69,630,836 61,246,015 69,606,055 84,523,906 86,221,788 83,342,065 106,409,508 99,462,523 63,797,149 54,655,760 97,291,075 110,339,989 68,547,430 74,403,425 84,837,762 83,.'!06,837 117,671,. 93,689,138 112,597,420 86,260,234 94,272,85" 131,678,168 96,923,413 144,219,760 113,507,898 148,638,087 178.108.303 178,621.679 140,447,037 194,465,905 208,037,602 169,221,841 207,448,208 220,584,052 270,4l!),351 227,514,915 213,724,173 252,316,088 294,814,446 Numher. 3,929,214 4,049,247 4,172,945 4,300,425 4,431,802 4,667,292 4,706,926 4,850,718 4.998,706 6,161,117 5,308,483 5,47,5,.386 5,647,864 5,825,758 6,009,469 6,198,868 6,394,211 6,595,718 6,803,567 7,018,007 7,239,881 7,449,832 7,665,973 7,888,280 8,117,036 8,352,429 8,696,645 8,845,887 9,103,3-54 9,365,460 9,638,453 9,917,091 10,205,565 10,604,195 10,813,777 11,132,991 11,4.59,903 11,803,775 12,167,956 12,608,898 12,866,029 13,205,429 13,615,826 14,019,343 14,420,731 14,814,243 15,270,483 15,711,264 16,120,891 16,599,492 Pounds. 12.64 J- 10.1 )■ 11.91 ■ 15.40 32 SORGHUM. TABLE Years. POEEIGN. Imports. Exports. Difference Value of Foreign SuGAK Consumed. Value. Paid for Customs. 1840 1841 1842. 1843 1844. 1845. 1846. 1847. 1848. 1849. SIXTH DECENNIUM. 1850. 1851 . 1852. 1853 1854 1855.. 1856. 18.57 . . 1858.. 1859 , SEVENTH DECENNIUM. I860. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864 3865. 1866. 1867. EIGHTH DECENNIUM. 1869. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875 1876. 1877. 1878 1879. NINTH DECENNIUM. 1880. 1881. 1882 TENTH DECENNIUM. Pounds, 120,-941,277 184,264,995 173,864,844 a 71,339,050 186,808,695 iis.eBe.cie 128,032,840 236,970,894 257,144,861 259,326,584 218,439,055 380,423,569 457,544,544 464,427,281 455,964,452 473,884,218 545,262,754 777,003,115 519,240,945 655,868,415 694,879,795 809,813,489 557,143,184 522,131,247 632,248,612 651,971,882 1,000,076,709 849,108,911 1,121,221,670 1,247,885,371 1,196,829,389 1,277,525,009 1,509,249,507 1,568,393,877 1,701,354,312 1,797,586,800 1,494,065,427 1,623,973,537 1,607,120,651 1,834,403,349 1,829,.355,368 1,946,804,201 1,990,234,525 Pounds. 18,947,018 11,814,266 12,897,703 1,886,976 4,475,032 13,799,P37 20,570,023 8,394,918 13,120,769 17,149,994 14,153,065 6,387,108 9,57.3,357 18,981,701 52,019,584 33,716,323 23,341,474 14,731,801 74,910,624 33,608,653 34,016,070 80,408,714 23,652,146 16,165,557 27,271,713 30,743,484 8,580,092 12,210,707 16,112,818 17,828,678 Pounds. 101,993,719 172,450,715 160,965,852 69,444,470 182,329,492 101,865,203 107,458,852 228,573,926 214,008,984 242,169,247 204,272, 374,014, 447,937, 445,418, 403,894, 440,114, 521,872, 762,1.37,' 444,330, 622,003, 660,777,373 729,404,775 633,691,039 502,448,466 605,949,979 614,067,543 991,496,61'- 835,416,841 ,105,108,862 ,230,056,693 18,383,902 10,364,161 12,122,2S0 23,930,453 19,310,777 11,200,867 15,870,600 3,122,956 6,016,856 10,389,906 10,501,791 9,728,295 6,625,199 1,178,495,487 1,267,160,848 1,497,127,227 1,644,463,424 1,682,043,535 1,786,385,949 1,478,194,827 1,620,860,681 1,501,103,696 1,824,013,443 1,818,853,677 1,937,076,906 1,984,609,326 Dollars. 4,223,754 7,950,808 5,773,297 2,439,402 6,884,601 4,063,202 4,324,562 9,406,444 7,276,241 ,953,667 ,483,178 ,924,707 ,934,467 ,467,108 ,323,505 373,859 731,898 ,083,918 ,670,426 29,291,087 27,254,957 19,049,781 17,642,237 27,069,139 23,li96,358 40,182,049 b 38,513,056 43,434,090 48,258,660 60,270,688 60,849,370 76,029,865 79,613,278 81,491,851 71,800,598 67,030,351 73,780,829 82,669,480 69,964,666 72,197,267 88,372,629 91,752,196 Dollars. 2,574,145. 4,385,295 4,169,017 1,795,020 4,572,952 2,573,331 2,687,142 3,165,490 2,632,732 2,152,872 2,086,099 4,014,954 4,177,41»' 4,180,341 3,440,133 3,997,052 6,412,158- 12,519,569 4,580,140 5,880,902 7,029,861 10,011,9.32 10,724,725- 10,272,961 12,317,647 18,972,632, 30,633,113 6 28,589,781 30,465,442. 30,929,337 36,829,037 30,758,657 28,876,131 29,842,942. 32,499,835, 34,662,057 39,450,917 35,274,468- 37,080,803 38,074,137 39,804,805 46,325,011 46,994,644 (a) These statistics are from October Ist, 1842, to June 30th, 1843, nine months. Co) The "Values," "Paid for Customs," and foreign sugar consumed, are quoted, from the consumption tables in the Annual Reports of the Bureau of Statistics. SOUECES OF SUGAE. 33 I. — Continued. Total. Domestic. Produce. Exports Consumption. Foreign. Domestic. Total. Popula- tion. ta a ta h CO — -H gC R P. P- O O 03 Dollar n. 6,797,8 12,1136,108 9,9-12,314 4,2:54,422 11,467,4,=>3 6,636,5.33 7,1111,704 12,571,934 11,408,504 9,459,113 9,039,760 17,52S,13t 18,102,117 18,114,808 15,907,241 17,320,557 27,786,017 54,'2->l,467 23,664,058 35,551,328 36,320,948 37,266,889 29,774,506 27,915,198 39,386,7"" 42,668,990 70,820,142 67,102,836 73,889,532 79,187,""^ 97,099,725 91,608,027 104,905,996 109,356,220 113,991,680 106,462,655 106,481,268 109,055,29' 119,740,281 108,038,703 112,002,072 134,697,640 137,746,839 Pounds. 167,930,705 135,442,000 142,277,795 200,240,000 137,003,436 273,979,000 235,371,625 192,002,000 312,510,.570 292,772,000 328,785, 283,048; 310,517, 409,457, 549,283, 426,387,1 295,843, 114,405 366,540, 465,0 302,209,105 312,294,955 595,980,722 281,923,795' 128,568,644 51,903,854 58,715,045 82,698,658 76,689,844 129,142,286 132,979,178 208,196,046 186,106,426 163,955,047 141,629,424 184,536,695 214,974,47 241,286,958 155,928,057 253,847,47' 210,900,015 289,361,873 169,467,447 Pounds. 11,511,556 13,747,948 3,596,879 667,44^ 1,858,225 2,193,9' 4,237,81 1,927,472 3,513,779 2,356,104 ,244,861 ,251,369 ,498,390 ,827,331 ,893,751 ,160,945 ,271,191 ,338,247 ,201,090 ,558,' 4,466,031 6,511,134 2,7.55,252 3,595,009 2,328,488 2,132,147 4,460,138 8,197,.i50 2,282,65. 3,187,99: 4,501,221 3,945,923 4,590,98; 10,222,728 15,685,587 .35,694,888 52,024,916 54,073,314 44,093,092 72,352,964 30,142,004 22,252,833 13,814,006 Pounds. 101,993,719 172,450,615 160,965,852 69,444,470 182,329,492 101,865,203 107,458,852 228,573,926 244,008,984 242,169,247 204,272,283 374,014,916 447,937,7.34 445,418,963 403,894,136 440,114,752 521,872,706 762,137,041 444,330,321 622,003,778 660,777,673 729,404,776 533,.591,039 502,448,466 605,919,979 614,067,543 991,496,61 a 939,806,468 1,000,886,403 1,018,807,068 1,216,459,872 1,231,883,061 1,412,919,438 1,485,657,191 1,644,765,505 1,649,100,179 1,658,719,324 1,505,086,114 1,620,087,542 1,681,349,585 1,687,576,123 1,966,669,984 2,033,787,066 Pounds. 156,419,149 121,694,052 138,680,916 199,.572,553 135,145,211 271,785,023 231,133,1 190,074,528 308,996,791 290,415,896 325,541,099 270,797,419 308,019,446 403,630,261 5.39,389,883 415,226,637 286,572,691 109,067,233 3.59,339,054 459,413,393 297, 806, 593, 278, 126, 49. 54, 74,, 74, 125, 743,074 788,821 225,170 328,786 240,161 71,707 255,507 501,108 407,189 954,293 128,477,957 204,2.50,123 181,516,494 153,732,319 126,043,: 148,841,: 162,949,557 187,213,644 111,834,965 181,494,514 180,758,011 267,109,040 156,653,442 Pounds. 258,412,868 294,144,667 299,646,768 269,017,023 317,474,708 373,650,226 838,592,670 418,648,454 6,53,005,775 532,585,143 529,813,382 653,812,335 755,957,180 849,049,224 943,283,969 855,341,38(1 808,445,.397 871,204,274 803,669,375 1,081,417,171 958,520,447 1,035,188,596 1,126,816,509 780,777,252 732,190,140 663,839,250 1,045,752,124 1,014,307,.566 1,075,298,693 1,144,761,361 1,844,937,829 1,436,133,184 1,694,434,932 1,689,389,510 1,770,809,342 1,797,941,986 1,821, 66S,.SS1 1,692,299,7.58 1,7.31,922,.50' 1,862,844,099 1,868,334,134 2,233,779,024 2,189,440,508 Number. 17,070,240 17,663,990 18,065,813 18,603,956 19,102,946 19,640,029 20,225,760 20,869,760 21,609,554 22,358,293 23,191,876 23,974,993 24,843,547 25,721,956 26,615,828 27,.586,113 2,S,.349,746 29,124,515 29,966,042 .30,685.586 31,448,321 32,2:W,403 32,987,985 88,211,430 33,345,224 33,394,882 34,324,665 35,342,849 36,361,669 87,400,130 38,568,371 89,723,755 40,967,095 42,265,762 43,456,931 J4,,5,S8,0S3 45,687,668 16,761,561 47,874,486 Pounds. J 1 ' S- 18.73 • 30.18 y 28.16 38.28 50,155,783 (a) See note (6), page 32. 3 34 SORGHUM. TABLE Imports, Exports, Cost, Production, and Consumption of Vane Mo- Yeaks. Foreign. Imports. Exports. Difference. Value of cane molasses consumed. Value. Paid for customs. FIRST DECENNIUM. 1790 1791 1792 1793 1794 1795 1796 1797 179S 1799 SECOND DECENNIUM. 1800 1801 1802 1803 1804 1805 1806 1807 1808 1809 THIRD DECENNIUM. 1810 1811 1812 1813 1814 , 1815 1816 1817 1818 1819 FOURTH DECENNIUM. 1820 , 1821 1822 , ; 1823 1824 1825 1826 1827 1828 1829 FIFTH DECENNIUM. 1830 1831 1832 1833 1834 1835 1836 1837 1838 1839 Gallons, 5,992,646 7,194,606 o 5.229,915 a 4,930,141 a 3,476,906 4,425,621 . 4,965,191 3,876,420 4.629,370 4,100,242 4,092,677 5,717,290 6,833,261 6.725,400 5,747,256 9,021,700 8,597,456 8,511,234 6,489,""" 5,219,415 8,055,629 8,634,418 8,141,264 3,199,361 3,376,-367 4,752,642 8,494,248 11.480,948 12,3,53.985 10,583,298 6 9,835.140 9,086,982 11,990,569 13,019,328 13,117,724 12,535,062 13,843,045 13,376,502 13,393,651 10,150,224 8,374,139 17,085,878 15,860,553 15,693,050 17,086,472 18,971,603 18,051,784 16,451,182 21,196,411 23,094,677 Gallons. 15,537 12,721 11,338 28,733 7,216 20,124 112,257 48,559 32,350 61,911 39,122 421,628 56,9.59 38,5.52 55,2.59 48,474 53,798 40,957 7,337 33,943 40,245 18,837 8,001 1,309 11,228 29,008 14,457 11,478 20,486 82,571 39,421 13,292 3,409 18,737 15,806 50,602 20,107 30,168 36,920 27,121 17,696 29,656 18,730 58.736 50,776 42,951 90,.597 62,098 121,171 Gallons 5,977,109 7,181.885 6,218,.577 4,901,408 3,469,690 4,405,497 1,852,934 3,827,861 4,597,020 4,038,331 4,0-53,5.55 5-295,662 6-776-302 6,683,848 5,691,997 8,973,226 8,543,658 8,470,277 6,481,071 5,185,472 8,015,384 8,615,581 8,133,263 3,198,052 3,376,367 4,771,414 8,465,240 11,466,491 12,342,-507 10,562,812 9,752,569 9,047,,561 11,977,277 13,015,919 13,098.987 12,519,256 13,702,443 13,.356,395 13,363,483 10,113,304 8,347,018 17.068,183 15,830,897 15,674,320 17,027,736 18,920,827 18,008,833 16,360,586 21,134,313 22,973,506 Dollars. 1,429,195 2,026,114 1,992,681 1,702,907 3,125,532 1,707,995 2,393,945 2,633,228 2,408,911 2,543,137 2,822,309 2,812,490 2,778,983 1,475,609 988,985 2,427,708 2,61,5,' 2,862,536 2,975,223 3,062,045 4,061,240 3,411,757 3,845,701 4,327,500 Dollars. 149,428 215,457 ]56,657 147,042 104,091 132,165 145,-588 153,114 183,881 161,533 162,142 211,826 271,0-52 267,474 227,680 448,661 427,183 423,514 324,084 269,274 400,769 430,779 406,663 319,805 337,637 474,141 846,.524 573,325 617,125 528,141 487,628 452,378 598,864 650,796 654,949 626,963 689,622 667,820 668,174 1,011,330 834,702 853,409 791,545 783,716 851,387 946,041 900,442 818,029 1,056,716 1,148,675 (a) These imports are for calendar years, and not fiscal years- (b) Estimated by taking the mean between 1819 and 1821, there being no imports on record for this year. SOUKCES OF SUGAE. 35 II. lasses in the United States for each fiscal year from 1790 to 1882. Total. Domestic. Produce. Exports Consumption. Foreign. Domestic. Total. ^tSm'^' OJ !-• H > oo la Dollars. '"ifiU.mi Gallons. Qallons. 2,297,166 2,260,154 1,930,586 3,549,046 2,160,373 2,992,809 3,284,024 3,063,860 3,169,100 3,511,931 3,480,309 3,447,157 2,486,939 1,823,687 3,281,117 3,307,043 3,646,252 3,826,610 4,008,086 4,961,682 4,229,786 4,902,417 6,476,175 18,181 19,545 21^18 26,363 80,909 36,363 45,409 64,545 90,909 272,727 454,545 563,636 681,772 754,500 818,181 909,090 1,272,72" 1,363,636 1,333,333 1,500,000 1,583,333 1,666,666 1,750,000 l,83S,: 1,916,666 2,000,000 2,041,666 2,093,333 2,250,000 2,416,666 2,500,000 2,887,600 3,080,000 2,887,500 4,331,250 6,833,750 8,466,631 4,642,907 6,485,769 6,663,461 6,663,461 6,219,230 6,663,461 8,884,615 2,665,384 6,219,230 5,775,000 6,219,230 a 2,070 6,037 2,003 6,640 13,227 3,160 8,310 7,697 19,780 6,543 2,837 23,903 22,067 11,460 Gallons. 5,977,109 7,181,885 6,218,56" 4,901,408 3,469,690 4,405,497 4,852,984 3,827,861 4,597,020 4,038,331 ,053,555 ,295,662 ,776,302 ,686,848 691,997 973,226 543,658 470,277 481,671 ,185i472 8,015,384 8,615,581 8,133,263 3,198,052 3,376,: 4,741,414 8,465,240 11,466,491 12,.S42,507 10,562,812 9,752, 9,047, 11,977, 13,015, 13,098, 12,519, 13,792, 13,356, 13,363, 10,113, 8,347,018 17,068,183 15,830,897 15,674,820 17,027,736 18,920,827 18,008,833 16,360,585 21,134,313 22,973,506 Gallons. 18,181 19,545 21,818 26,363 30,909 36,363 45,409 54,545 90,909 272,727 454,545 663,1- 681,772 7,54,600 818,181 909,090 1,272,727 1,363,636 1,3.33,333 1,500,000 1,583,333 1,666,666 1,750,000 1,833,333 1,916,666 2,000,000 2,041,666 2,093,333 2,250, 2,416, 2,500, 2,887, 3,080, 2,887, 4,329, 6,828, 8,464,1 4,636,: 6,472, 6,660, 6,655, 6,211, 6,643, 8,878, 2,663, 6,195, 5,752, 6,207, Gallons. 5,977,109 7,181,885 6,236,768 4,920,95;i 3,491,508 4,431,860 4,883,843 3,864,224 4,842,429 4,092,876 4,144,464 6,568,389 7,230,847 7,260,484 6,373,769 9,727,726 9,361 ,83r 9,379,36' 7,754,39! 6,649,108 9,348, 10,115, 9,716, 4,864, 5,126, 6,574, 10,381, 1.3,466, 14,384, 12,656, 12,002,569 11,464,227 14,477,277 15,903,419 16,178,987 15,406,756 18,121,623 20,185,108 21,828,111 14,749,571 14,819, 23,728, 22,486, 21,885, 23,671 27,798, 20,761, 22,555, 26,887, 29,181, Number. 3,929,214 4,049,247 4,172,945 4,300,425 4,431,802 4,567,292 4,706,926 4,850,718 4,998,706 6,151,117 5,308, 6,475, 5,647, 5,825, 6,009, 6,198, 6,.394, 6,596, 6,803, 7,018, 7,239,881 7,449,832 7,665,973 7,888,280 8,117,036 8,352,429 8,595,645 8,845,887 9,103,354 9,365,460 9,638,453 9,917,091 10,295,555 10,604,195 10,813,777 11,132,991 11,459,903 11,803,775 12,157,956 12,508,898 ,866,020 ,205,429 ,615,826 019,343 420,731 ,814,243 ,270,483 711,264 120,891 699,492 Gallons. 1.07 1.19 1.16 1.45 1.69 (a) From 1826 to 1835, inclusive, the statistics of domestic expoits are given in value, whicli are reduced at the rate of 30 cents per gallon. 36 SORGHUM. TABLE Years. 1840 184 L. 1842 1S43. 1844. 1845. 1846. 1847 . 1848., 1849 SIXTH DECENNIUM. 1850. 1851. 1852. 1853. 1864. 1855. 18.56 1857. 1858 1859. SEVENTH DECENNIUM. 1860. 1861. 1862 1863. 1864. 1865 . 1866. 1867. 1868 1869 EIGHTH DECENNIUM. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875 1876 . 1877. 1878 . 1879. NINTH DECENNIUM. 1880 1881 1882. TENTH DECENNIUM. FOKEIGN. Imports. Gallons. 19,703,620 19,855,028 17,834,927 a 11,776,017 22,675,352 18,301,033 22,760,622 30,677,630 33,640,287 23,796,806 25,044,835 36,376,772 32,795,610 31,886,100 27,759,463 26,385,i 23,617,674 32,705,844 24,566,357 32,818,146 1,922, ,9J1 ,l.i7 ,S.")4, ,571, ,306, ,285, ,123, ,408, ,304, ,537 ,359 ,403 ,909 ,837 255 200 ,963 ,007 ,347 38,120,880 28,708,221 37,268,830 Exports. Diflference Gallons. 188,078 328,786 203,472 100,763 224,668 297,949 414,6'" 1,467,418 559,735 793,535 581,820 226,592 325,958 488,666 889,295 1,517,474 1,261,140 1,441,660 3,908,075 2,113,669 1,222,118 3,088,986 1,296,564 1,156,799 953,472 1,487,815 1,020,544 639,888 548,428 2,315,842 1,606,272 1,002,184 310,588 558,289 958,280 648,488 1,058,815 302,891 844,206 734,706 616,831 172,773 Gallons. 19,515,542 19,026,242 17,631,455 11,675,284 22,450,684 18,003,1.84 22,345,944 29,210,212 33,080,552 23,003,271 24,463,015 36,150,180 32,469,652 31,397,434 26,870,168 24,868,119 22,356,534 31,264,184 20,658,282 30,704,477 29,700,515 26,872,411 23,860,716 29,697,465 32,617,758 35,818,353 44,265,439 55,483,191 5.r,S60,007 50,988,188 54,767,265 43,399,175 44,903,815 42,975,620. 46,231,557 48,463,767 37,967,.385 29,886,072 26,645,801 87,725,641 38,043,002 28,091,390 37,096,057 Value of c.a.ne molasses consumed- Value. Paid for customs. Dollars. 2,861,261 2,542,933 1,908,131 1,116,310 2,793,555 3,072,021 3,254,075 2,740,392 3,337,865 2,636,920 2,785,117 3,663,323 3,534,277 3,587,008 2,946,662 3,190,706 4,028,488 7,748,961 2,991, .326 4,543,012 4,932,886 3,508,330 8,218,983 4,439,59' 7,005,603 6,966,428 7,495,864 6 8,916,311 11,884,702 11,847,827 11,345,631 10,953,029 10,108,889 10,424,662 11,122,174 . 10,409,255 8,712,116 7,335,194 6,874,767 6,914,983 8,997,844 6,401,214 9,714,943 Dollars. 961 88i; 525, 1,010, 810, 1,005, 872, 1,001 791, 1,777 ,312 ,573 ,388 281 139 567 :,494 ,360 ,076 885,635- 1,098,997 1,060,283- 1,076,102 883,969 957,212 1,208,546 2,324,688 717,918 1,090,823 1,183,893 709,862 1,193,036 1,781,848 2,609,421 2,865,46& 3,541,235 6 4,009,321 4,402, i-^ i-<-^-TrC>lOCrnN>-iO'-H ;_ M OJ Oi ■* X T-l o: I"- I- i-H^ ^oT crTTro — r-r^'o'x"'-r x"io i^-uocix'TTJio'co od' gOlOr— CC-:t C*l iC >f5 CO in CO-^t3Xr-llOOS-^0«E CJ -^ i^C CO "-^co '^°o >— _^co_ i> I.C i-T t-T 00 Qo 00 00 Ci^ cjT CliOXCOCOOCC-^Ci-^ c^ .-H X O M •— _'^*iCM,^'^'^ S i>i>rcrT]H"ao xco-ij-'-o-^ 'J' ot^oiOJirtira-^cotoi— -^ o H^^-CO'^r-lt- ?Ct-iO t^^ ^. tC X cr. i^ y qv --^ ~ i- x X . - -^ -^ 1— m tc X i^ i^ laa •— 1 CO ic ^o ci o 1— ■ ts ci — (c^ ^ ci r-- ■^ - _ _ _ , CO «; i.-~ o cs t-" !M CO t^ t- -a^-^i-^ f^Trf of"-— "coGii-^io ^xcoo'orjTio'^o'r^c^ i_,i I-- — X ->] — 1^ 1- CO O CO LQ X ■**" C^ n Or-. 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CI -J- 1-C -r ^ CO ■* CO l--^(N «JC^I-- t^X S 00 cTc-f oop 1-^ cf cT (rfcT o CO O t— (N ?1 — Cl C- ?7 "O -i CD (NCO ^ C-l X -r "M o^x '^ 00 cTaTr-To rn ofco'co" CO CTi I^ I"- ;T It iC IC iC CO C-I Cvl O (TO iC ■?* O O X CI (M Oi>f3 (N (M Cn" 1/3 to x" 00"<:£r cT (D cf -TjT -^ O to" CO 1"- "O T-i i^ -^ CO r* 'JO r- c^ o CO oxmi-^t-cooxxr- CO CD m to 00 i>"io -^ TT i> cTod -^ CO cf i-T oi CO CI o lo i.o :o -f or I ■ MCOXCDiQ'MfMl-^I— t^Ot^O r-.r-'iocoooj'-i(Mm,115 Adhesive Stamps 7,924,708 Flax Stuffs 6,984,375 Otlier Articles 152,163 Other Articles 59,980,603 $135,779,365 $193,561,011 135.779.365 Grand Total $329,340,376 Sugar equal 24.3 per cent of Customs. " " 14.6 " " of Entire Kevenue. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SORGHUM. The following attempt has been made towards the chronological ar- rangement of the literature of sorghum, and, although it is confessedly imperfeQt, it will at least assist those who may desire to investigate for themselves the history of this plant. Many of the most valuable articles have appeared in the current publications, of which it was obviously impossible to procure a record. At some future time the list may be brought to a condition more nearly compltete. BIBLIOGRAPHY OP SORGHUM. (Chronologically arranged.) Arduino Pietro. Memorie di osservazioni e di sperienze sopra la coltura e gli usi di varie piante, che servons o che servir possono utilimente alia tinctura all'economia, airagriooltura, etc. Tomo I. Padova, 1766. Child, David Lee. The Culture of the Beet, and Manufacture of Beet Sugar. Boston, 1840. 12°. p. 156. Notiz fiber Mais-zucker. Annales maratimes et coloniales. Paris, 1842. II T., 2, p. 346. Caiman's Rural World. St. Louis, Mo., 1848 to 1884. Moniigny. Liste de I'envoie Bulletin du cornice agricole du Toulon. 1853. Holcus Saccharatus. Revue Horticole. 1854, February, July, and November. Browne, D. Jay. Researches on Sorgho-Sucr^, Department of Agriculture^ Report, 1854, P. XII, and pp. 219-223. Chinese Sugar- Cane. Correspondence, Department of Agriculture Report^ 1855, pp. 279-285. Barral. Ueber den Zucker in Holcus Sorghum. Moniteur industriel, 1855, p. 1919. Ponsard. Verzuche mit Holcus Saccharatus. Moniteur industriel, 1855, No> 1939. Beihlen. Ueber Holcus Saccharatus. Polytechnisches Centralblatt, 1855, p. 703. Vilmorin, Louis. Le Bon Jardinier. 1855, p. 41. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SORGHUM. 43 Sorghum, Cliaracteristics of. Massachusetts Agricultural Report, 1856, pt. 1, pp. 89, 91, 98. Sorghum Saccharatum brought from China. Illinois Agricultural Report, . 1856-'57, p. 446. Browne, D. Jay. Crystallization of the juice of the Sorgho-Suor^. Depart- ment of Agriculture Report, 1856, pp. 309-313. Jackson, C. T., M.D. Chemical Researches on the Sorgho-Sucr^. Depart- ment of Agriculture Report, 1856, pp. 307-309. Brfahrungen iiber die Kultur und Ausbeute von Zucker aus Sorghum. Moni- teur industriel, 1856, No. 2049. Turrel. Ueber das Sorghum in Nord-China. Moniteur industriel, 1856, No. 2110. Zoulie. Ueber Sorghum. Moniteur industriel, 1856, No. 2110. Madmier (P.) and ((?.) Lacosie. Guide du cultivateur du Sogho-a-Suer^. Paris, 1856. Madinier, M. Department of Agriculture Report, 1856, p. 313. Vilmorin, Louis. Department of Agriculture Report, 1856, p. 312. Browne, D. Jay. Report of the United States Agricultural Society. Depart- ment of Agriculture Report, 1857, pp. 181-183. Sorghum, Experiments in the cultivation of Massachusetts Agricultural Re- port, 1857, pt. 1, pp. 117-145, 149-215; pt. 2, pp. 38, 157, 170, 222, 225, 229, 234. Sorghum Mills, Description of. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1857, p. 416. Sorghum, Loverlng's experiments on. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1857, p. 423. Sorghum, Statement of, in Ohio. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1857, p. 437. Hardy. Ueber Zucker aus Sorghum. Moniteur industriel, 1857, No. 2131. Cave. Ueber den Anbau von Sorghum auf dem Gnte de Condfi. Moniteur in- dustriel, 18'57, No. 2153. , Sorghum, Report on, at Fair. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1857, p. 142. Sorghum Sugar-Cane. New York Agricultural Report, 1857, pp. 16, 128, 135. Hyde, J. F. C. The Chinese Sugar-Cane. New York, 1857. 12°. Sorghum Saccharatum. Pennsylvania Agricultural Report, 1857-58, pp. 147, 657. Sorghum, History of Ohio Agricultural Report, 1857, p. 409. Sorghum discussed in annual convention. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1857, p. 195. Sorghum or Chinese Sugar- Cane. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1857, p. 34. Jackson, C. T., M.D. Chemical Researches on the Chinese and African Sugar- Canes. Department of Agriculture Report, 1857, pp. 185, 192. hovering, Joseph S. Sorghum Saccharatum, or Chinese Sugar-Cane. De- tailed account of experiments and observations upon, 1857. On the Identity and Hihridity o/ the Chinese and African Sugar- Canes. (Condensed from the proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History.) Department of Agriculture Report, 1857, pp. 183-185. Smith, J. Lawrence. Investigation of the Sugar bearing capacity of the Chinese Sugar-Cane. Department of Agriculture Report, 1857, pp. 192- 196. Sorghum Sugar, Condensed correspondence on. Department of Agriculture Report, 1857, pp. 196, 226. 44 SORGHUM. Stanshury, Charles F. Chinese Sagar-Cane and Sugar Making. New York, 1857. 12°. Sorghum Syrup, Statement in regard to making. New York Agricultural Re- port, 1858, p. 722. Sorghum- Cane, Letters read at a convention on. Illinois Agricultural Report, 1858, p. 306. Sorgham Cane. Wisconsin Agricultural Report, 1858-59, pp. 261, 350, 409, 412. Sorghum. New York Agricultural Report, 1858, p. 12. Sorghum. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1858, p. 9. Sorghum- Cane, Sugar from. Illinois Agricultural Report, 1858, pp. 107-109. Sorghum- Cane, On. Illinois Agricultural Report, 1858, p. 512. Olcoit, Henry S. Sorgho and Imphee. The Chinese and African Sugar-Canes. A treatise upon their origin, varieties, and culture. New York, 1858, 12° p. 352. Jackson, Ch. T. Compte rendus, xlvi, p. 55. 1858. Du Feyrat. Comparative Ausbeute aus Sorghum u. Zuckerrohr. Moniteur in- dustriel, 1858, No. 2228. Leplay, Ueber Sorghum u, dessen Zuckergehalt. Moniteur industriel, 1858, No. 2334. Comptes rendus, v. 46, p. 444. Polytechnisches Centralblatt, 1858, p. 593. Polytechnisches Jour. Ding. B, 148, p. 224. Collecianeen fiber Zucker aus Sorghum. Polytechnisches Jour. Ding., B. 148, p. 158. Bulletin de la Socifit^ d' Encouragement pour I'Industrie Nationale, 1858, p. 505. Polytechnisches Centralblatt, 1858,^ p. 1102. Hahich. Ueber Sorghum u. dessen Werth. Polytechnisches, Jour. Ding., B. 148, p. 302. Polytechnisches Centralblatt, 1858, p. 1647. Levering. Ueber den Werth des Sorghums als Zuckerpflanze. Moniteur Industriel, 1858, No. 2313. Bulletin de la Soci^te d'Bncouragement pour I'Industrie Nationale, 1858, p. 673. Sorghum Saceharaium. Essay on its composition. Michigan Agricultural Re- port, 1859, p. 213. Wagner. Ueber den Mais als Zuckerpflanze. Agronomische Zeitung, 1860, p. 12. Das Ziicker-.Sorgho, oder das chinesische Zuckerrohr (Holcus Saccharatus). Deutsche Gewerbezeitung, Wiecks, 1859, p. 443; 1860, p. 156. Pierre. Ueber das chinesische Zucker-sorgho als Putter-u. Zuckerpflanze. Bul- letin de la Socifit^ d'Bncouragement pour I'Industrie Nationale, 1860, p. 94. Anbauversuche mit der Zucker-hirse (Sorghum Saccharatum). Annalen der Landwirthschaft, Wochenblatt, Berlin, 1860, p. 350. Cook, D. M. Culture and Manufacture cf Sugar from Sorghum. Department of Agriculture Report, 1861, pp. 311-314, Sorghum. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1861, p. 52. BIBLIOGEAPHY OP SOEGHUM. 45' Sorghum as an Exhauster of Soil. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1861, p. 526. Sorghum as a Wine Plant. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1 861, p. 526. Sorghum, Growth and Manufacture, Ohio Agricultural Report, 1861, p. 210.. Sorghum Sugar. Warder's statement. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1861. p. 15. Sorghum, Culture and Manufacture. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1861, p. 208. Sorghum Sugar- Cane. New York Agricultural Report, 1861, p. 785. Corn-stalk Sugar. Department of Agricultural Report, 1861, p. 275. Sorghum Culture. Illinois Agricultural Report, 1861-'64,' pp. 553-567. Sorghum. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1861, p. 8. Sorghum. History of Ohio Agricultural Report, 1861, p. 206. Sorghum as a Forage Plant. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1861, p. 527. Sorghum Culture. Wisconsin Agricultural Report, 1861-68, p. 35. Goessmann, C. A. Chinese Sugar-Cane ; contributions to the knowledge of its nature, etc. Transactions of New York State Agricultural Society, 1861, pp. 785-811. Hedges, Isaac A. Sorghum Culture and Sugar making. Department of Agri- culture Report, 1861, |.p. 293-311. Sorghum. Illinois Agricultural Report, 1861-64, pp. 32, 67, 209, 859. Bollman, Lewis. Cultivation of tbe Sorghum. Department of Agriculture Report, 1862, pp. 140-147. Smith, J. H. Imphee and Sorghum Culture, and Sugar and Syrup Making. Department of Agriculture Report, 1862, pp. 129-140. Statistical Report. Department of Agriculture Report, 1862, pp. 552, 563. Syrup and Sugar Manufactured from Sorghum. Ohio Agricultural Report,- 1862, p. 87. Sorghum. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1862, p. 128. Sedges, Isaac A. Sorgho, or the Northern Sugar Plant. With an introduction by Wm. Clough. Cincinnati, Ohio, 1862, 12°, p. 204. Sorghum. Ohio Aaricultural Report, 1862, p. 87. Wether ell, Chas. M., M. D., Chemist Department of Agriculture. Report on Sorghum. Department of Agriculture Report, 1862, pp. 514-540. Clough, Wm. Sorgho Journal, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1863 to 1869. Gould, John Stanton. Report on Sorghum. New York Agricultural Report, 1863, pp. 735-769. Wallace, O. B. Sorghum. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1863, p. 162. Moss, James W. Sorghum. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1863, p. 244. Sorghum, Essay on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1863, pp. 137-244. Gould, J. Stanton. Report on Sorghum and Sugar Beet Culture. Transac- tions of New York State Agricultural Society, 1863, pp. 735-769. Sugar Eraporator and Mills. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1863, p, 100. Sorghum. Sugar, Protest from Exhibitors of. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1863, p. 101. Sorghum. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1863, p. 4. Sugar Mills, Ohio Agiicultural Report, 1863, p. 85. Clough. Wm. Sorghum, or Northern Sugar-Cane. Department of Agriculture Report, 1864, pp. 54-87. Sorghum Mills. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1864. Sorghum. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1864, p. 7. 46 SORGHUM. Sorghum. Mills. Report of Committee on. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1864, pp. 119, 120. Collins, Varnum B, Sorgho, or Northern Chinese Sugar-Cane. Journal North China Branch Royal Asiatic Society, December, 1865, pp. 85-98. Shanghai, 1865. Clough, Wm. Production of Sugar from Sorghum or Northern Sugar-Cane. Department of Agriculture Report, 1865, pp. .SOT-324. Sorghum, Introduction into the State. Michigan Agricultural Report, 1865, p. 17, Sorghum. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1865, pp. 14, 352. Sorghum. Premiums awarded. Illinois Agricultural Report, 1865-66, pp. 18-97. Sorghum, Report of Committee on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1865, p. 225. Tenney, A. P. Sugar Question. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1865, p. 329. Ives. Mrs. E. F. Essay on Sorghum making. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1865, p. 225. Peck, F. Botanical history of Sorghum. Department of Agriculture Report, 1865, pp. 229-307. Webster & Co., Sorgho Sugar-growers. The Culture and Manufacture of Su- gar and Syrup from the Chinese and African Canes. Chicago, 1865 (?), 32°, p. 41. Reed, W. History of Sugar and Sugar yielding Plants, and Epitome of Pro- cesses of manufacture. London, 1866, Moser, J. Versuches Stationen, vol. 8, p. 93, 1866. Jacob Brother^, Sorgho Manufacturers. Manual, etc. Columbus, Ohio, 1866. Sorghum and its Products. Michigan Agricultural Report, 1866, pp. 169-172. Sorghum in Delaware County. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1866, pt. 1, p. 188. Sorghum and Imphee. Missouri Agricultural Report, 1866, p. 28. Sorghum Mills. Illinois Agricultural Report, 1865-66, p. 202. Sorghum, Report of Committee on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1866, p. 133, 223. Sorghum, Report of Standing Committee on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1866, p. 223. Sorghum Sugar Mahing. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1866, pt. 2, p. 287. Stewart, F. L. Sorghum and its Products. Philadelphia, 1867, 12°, p. 240. Sorghum and its Products. Michigan Agricultural Report, 1867, pp. 65-67. Sorghum, Report of Committee on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1867, p. 18. Sorghum, Resolutions and Report in regard to. Michigan Agricultural Re- port, 1867, pp. 305-307. Sorghum and its Products. Missouri Agricultural Report, 1867, p. 92. Sorghum and Mcu^hinery, Awards on. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1867, p. 138_ tiorghum. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1867, pp. 62, 246; pt. 2, p. 16 Sorghum of Van Wert County. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1867, pt. 1, p. 158. Sorghum and Machinery. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1868, p. 97. Sorgho, The Journal and Farm Mechanic. Cincinnati, Ohio, Feb., 1869, 8° Sorghum, Committee on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1869, pp. 190-195. Sorghum, Products of. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1869, p. 17. Sorghum, Report of Committee on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1869, p. 179. Sorghum, Secretary's Report on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1869, p. 16. BIBLIOGEAFHY OF SORGHUM. 47 Sorghum and Imphee. Wisconsin Agricultural Report, 1869, p. 27. Sorghum. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1869, p. 16; 1870, p. 189. Breischneider. Notes on History of Plants and Chinese Botany. Peking, 1870. Sorghum Syrup. Wisconsin Agricultural Report, 1870, p. 34. Sorghum and its Products. Michigan Agricultural Report, 1870, p. 149. Sorghum, Statement as to. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1871, pp. 205-212. Sorghum, Report of Secretary on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1871, p. 23. Sorghum Sugar and Syrup, Report on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1871, p. 204. Sorghum. Abstract of County Agricultural Societies. Iowa Agricultural Re- port, 1871, p. 300. Skinner, E. W. Sorghum. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1872, p. 290. Sorghum Syrup and Sugar, Report of Committee on. Iowa Agricultural Re- port, 1872, p. 325. Cadwell, Phineas. Report of Committee on Sorghum and its Products in Iowa. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1872, p. 286. Sorghum Plant. Nebraska Agricultural Report, 1873, p. 89. Sorghum, Abstract of Report on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1873, p. 313. Sorghum, The Production of. Nebraska Agricultural Report, 1873, p. 89, Sorghum, Table of Products and Acreage. Kansas;Agricultural Report, 1873, pp. 89-126. Sorghum, Abstract of Report on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1874, p. 304. Sorghum. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1874, pp. 254, 636. Basset, N. Guide Pratique du Fabricant de Sucr6 Paris, 1875, 3 vols., 8°. Sorghum, Number of acres in. Georgia Agricultural Report, 1873-75, p. 9. Sorghum, Abstract of Report on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1875, p. 281. Sorghum. Tables of Product and Value. Kansas Agricultural Report, 1875, pp. 464-469. Sorghum. Diagram showing Product and Value. Kansas Agricultural Report, 1875, p. 460. Sorghum. Georgia Agricultural Report, 1876, p. 222. Sorghum, Abstract of Report on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1876, p. 312. Sorghum, Report of Committee on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1876, p. 224. Stewart, F. L. Maize and Sorghum as Sugar Plants. Department of Agri- culture Report, 1877, pp. 228-264. Sorghum Molasses, Gallons of. Virginia Agricultural Report, 1877, p. 43. Sorghum, Abstract of Report on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1877, p. 271. Collier, Peter. Sorghum. Department of Agriculture Report, 1878, p. 98. Maumene, E. J. Traite theorique et pratique de la Fabrication du SucrS. Paris, 1878, 2 vols., 8°. ■ Stewart, F. L. Sorghum Sugar made from Maize, etc. Washington, 1878. Sorghum. Virginia Agricultural Report, 1878. p. 31. Sorghum, Abstract of Report on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1878, p. 386. Sorghum. Introduction into the country. Kentucky Agricultural Report, 1878, p 144. Collier, Peter. Sorghum. Department of Agriculture Report, 1879, p. 36. Sorghum, Abstract of Report on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1879, p. 315. Sorghum, Production of. Kentucky Agricultural Report, 1879, p. 64. 48 SOEGHUlt; Goessmann, C. A. Early Amber Cane. Report Massachusetts Agricultural College, 1879. Sorghum, Sugar from. Vermont Agricultural Report, 1879-80, p. 260. La Sucrurie Indigine, Extraction du Sucr^ du Sorgho et du Mais, 1879, p. 130. Co'Uier, Peter. Sugar from Sorghum. Vermont Agricultural Report, 1879-80, p. 219. Stewart, F. L. Sugar from Maize and Sorghum. Washington, D. C, 1879^ 12°. p. 102. Drummond, Victor A. W. Report on the Production of Sugar from Sorghum, 1879. Sorghum- Cane. Proceedings of the Wisconsin Sugar Cane Growing and Manu- facturing Association. Wisconsin Agricultural Report, 1879-80, p. 463. Sorghum Sugar. Report on, to Johnston, Hon. J. W., Chairman of Commit- tee on Agriculture in United States Senate, 1880. Blymyer Manufacturing Company. Sorgho Hand-Book. Cincinnati, Ohio, 1880. Clough Refining Company. Clough Refining Process for Sorghum, etc. Cin- cinnati, 1880. Collier, Peter. Corn-stalk and Sorghum Sugar. Abstract of an address deliv- ered in the House of Representati'ves, Hartford, Conn., February 17th, 1880, Pamphlet, 8°, p. 23. Collier, Peter. Sorghum and Corn as Sugar Producing Plants. Address de- livered before the Connecticut State Board of Agriculture, at Willimantic, 1880. Pamphlet, 8°, pp. 23. Sorghum : Sweets of Wisconsin. Wisconsin Agricultural Report, 1880-81, p. 331. Sorghum, Statistics of. Quarterly Report. Kansas Agricultural Report, 1880, pp. 21, 22. Sorghum, Productions of. Kentuc''5y Agricultural Report, 1880, p. 140. Collier, Peter. Sorghum. Department of Agriculture Report, 1880, p. 37, and Special Report, No. 33. Ingram. W- Sorghum Cultivation in Belvoir. London, 1880. Department of Agriculture. Preliminary Report, 1880. Collier, Peter. Department of Agriculture Report, 1881, p. 17. Hedges, Isaac A. Sugar Canes, and their Products. St. Louis, Mo., 1881. Rutgers Scientific School. Seventeenth Annual Report, 1881, p. 63. Tucker, J. H.; Ph.D. A Manual of Sugar Analysis, includjng the Application in general of Analytical Methods to the, Sugar Industry. New York, 1881, 8°, p. 353. Weber and Scovell, Professors. Sorghum. Report on the Manufacture of Sugar, Syrup, and Glucose, from. Illinois Industrial University. 1881. Vilmorin, Andrieux. Le Sorgho suer^ de Chine et le Sorgho hatif du Minne- sota, ou Sorgho sucrfi ambrfi. Journal d' Agriculture practique. May 8th, 1880, and February 17th, 1881. Spoil's Dictionary. Article, Sorghum. London, 1881. Ware, L. S. A Study of the Various Sources of Sugar. Philadelphia, 1881. Sorghum, Sugar from. Kentucky Agricultural Report, 1881, p. 83. Sorghum, Cultivation and Manufacture of. Kentucky Agricultural Report 1881, p. 72. BIBLIOGEAEHY OF SOEGHUM. 49 Kolischer, Theo. Sorghum, Sugar from. Kentucky Agricultural Eeport, 1881, p. 86. Iioche, Wigner, and Harland. Sugar Growing and Refining. London, 1882. Experimental Farm, Madison, Wisconsin. Experiments in Amber Cane, 1882. Biot and Soubeiran, Zucker in Mais. Polytechnisches Jour.' Ding., 86 s., 213. Pallas. Mais Zucker. Polytechnisches Jour, Ding., 94 s., 326. Br^vet^s d'invention. Paris, T. 46, p. 146. Vorschlag. Zu einer Production von Zucker aus Holcus Sorghum. Tech- nological Repository, Gill v. 10, p. 119 ; Franklin Jour., 1 s.„ v. 1, p. 201. Pallas. Zucker aus Mais. Polytechnisches Jour. Ding., 63 s., 156 ; Jour, des con. usul. etprai, Paris, T. 26, pp. 97, 109. , Neumann. Zucker aus Mais. Polytechnisches Jour. Ding., 67 s., 300. Collier Peter. Department of Agriculture Report, 1881-82, p. 379. Van Buren, Thomas B. Sorghum in Japan. Commercial Reports, Consuls, 1882, No. 25, p. 97. National Academy of Sciences. Report of Committee on Sorghum Sugar In- dustry. Washington, 1882. Report. Miss. Valley Cane Growers' Association. St. Louis, 1882. Eeport. Wisconsin State Cane Growers' Association. St, Louis, Mo., 1883. Report. Northern Cane Growers' Association of New York. Elmira, N. Y., 1883. Collier, Peter. Sorghum as a Sugar Producing Plant. Special Report Dep't of Agric, 1883. SorgTium and Beet Boot Sugar Industry. Department of Agriculture. Special Report, 1883. Siorer, P. H. Sorghum Sugar. The Nation, vol. 31, p. 58. Kittell, T. P. Sorghum. Hunt's Merchants' Magazine, vol. 48, p. 17. 4 50 SOEGHUM. CHAPTEE III. (a.) History of Sorghum. (6.) Botany of Sornhum. (c.) Introduction of Sorghum into the United States. (d.) Hybridization of Sorghum. HISTORY OP SOEGHUM. This interesting and valuable plant, vvhicli, for one purpose or another, has been cultivated, from the earliest historic periods, over an extent of territory as wide as that occupied by any of the other cereals, is in its early history very obscure. It origin is supposed to have been in India, the fruitful source of so many other cultivated plants ; and thence it has been carried over a large portion of Asia, Europe, and Africa. Cultivated not only in India, but China, over the wide territory of Central Asia, Syria, and Arabia, and thence into Africa and Europe, until it occupied nearly the whole of Africa and the southern half of Europe, this plant has supplied the wants, as food or forage, of perhaps as large a number of the earth's population as any plant. Although its great value has so long been known, it appears destined to be, in the future, of far greater value to the agri- culturist than it has been in the past. Whether or not the many varieties of this plant now in existence have resulted from a common origin, remains, and perhaps must re- main, an open question. Certain it is, that the numerous varieties, together with the closely related species, have long engaged the atten- tion of botanists. The following quotations will show some of the points in the history of this plant. In his " Principal Plants used as Food by Man," Dr. F. Unger says: The common Indian millet (Sorghum vulgare, Pers.) was introduced into Egypt by Arabians, and is a characteristic plant of Africa, not because it was originally indigenous there, but because it is principally cultivated in this country, on the east and west coast of the northern half to Timbuctoo; in Abyssinia, from sea level to 8000 miles elevation. Although its native country can not be positively ascertained, it can scarcely be any other land than India. Even in the time of Pliny it was known in Europe, and in the 13th century had extended to Italy, and at beginning of 16th century reached France under name of Saracen millet. It is now grown in Hungary, Dalmatia, Italy Portugal. The different varieties of the Indian millet, however, are not well defined at the present day. It is doubtful whether the Sorghum bicolor, Willd and the Sorghum Usorum, Nees, are entitled to a specific rank. HISTORY OF SOEGHUM. 51 In his "Manual on Physical Geography," Professor Gustav Adolph von Kloeden, Berlin, 1866, says : • Sorghum (Holcns) saccharatum (Halapense andropogon), a variety of S. vul- gare, or of the Durrha, is the sugar-cane of Northern China, aud by the Zulu Kaf- firs called Imphee. The Japanese cultivate it only for the sugar and the alco- hol, and for that purpose it is now cultivated in the United States. In the year 1851, this plant became first known in Europe. .In France, it is cultivated in the Drome, East Pyrenees, the upper Marne, Gironde, Gers, etc. , also in Al- geria, where it is extensively cultivated. It grows from 9 to 18 feet in height. When the cane is cut, there grow 5 to 20 canes from the root. It is an ex- cellent food for cattle. The seed coming from the East Indies, are used in England for puddings. From the common Durrha the Kaffirs make a flour, and they plant close by their huts 15 varieties of the Imphee, which they chew for the sweet juice. They call it also Mabali. The stronger varieties seem to be Koom-ba-na, Shla-goon-dee, and Oom-see-a-na; the tallest are the Vim-bis-chu-a-pa and E-a-na-moo- dee. This variety of Sorghum prows also in Nubia, and in the Oases, and it is called in Egypt Bali, Arabic Durrha. In Egypt, there are six varieties culti- vated. The common Sorghum (vulgare) is the principal grain food in Africa: it is made into bread, or eaten as musb. It is the principal nutriment in many parts of India, where it is called Jovavi, and in the dry regions of Arabia, in Syria, where it has been cultivated since time immemorial. In Egypt, Nubia, where it is called Durrha, it grows from 5 to 20 feet in height, and in Senegambia, where it I'eaches 15 feet in height. It is cultivated in Hungary, Dalmatia, Italy, and Portugal. In the West Indies, it is called Guinea Corn. In China and Cochin China, the S. saccharatum is also cultivated. Marshilla, Sorghum bi- color, is cultivated in Abyssinia at 8,000 feet above the sea. In Borneo, they grow a kind called gussub, which is used exclusively as food, and they make the Kaddel from it as a delicacy. The Nubians make from the sorghum a fermented beverage called Buzah. Chambers' Encyclopcedia says : The common Durra, Doura, Durra Millet, Indian millet, Sorghum, S. vulgare, or Andropogon sorghum, Holcus sorghum, Joar and Jowaree, in India, native of East India; cultivated extensively in Asia, and may be called the principal corn plant of Africa. Also cultivated largely in South Europe. Rival of maize in amount of seed. Leaves and seed are used as food for horses and cattle. The seeds of the Shaloo or Sugar Grass (S. saccharatum) are more pleasant than those of Doura to taste. It is cultivated in warm parts of Asia and Af- rica, and has diffuse aud very spreading panicle. The moist piih is eaten. It is cultivated in the United States as Chinese sugar-cane. Kaffir-corn (S. caf- frorum) has a very diffuse umbel-Hke panicle, with branches bending down all around. Has sweet pith. Largely cultivated in South Africa, both by Gaffers and colonists. By latter, the grain is used for horses. 52 SORGHUM. Dr. S. Wells Williams, the distinguislied Chinese scholar, in a com- munication to the Committee of the National Academy of Sciences, engaged in the investigation of the " Sorghum Sugar Industry," in reply to the question, " Is it known how long sorghum has been culti- vated in China as food, or for making spirits ?" says : To this question it is hard to make any satisfactory reply, inasmuch as no Chinese books contain illustrations of grains or plants used, in ancient times, nor are there found among their monuments pictures of these similar to repre- sentations of ancient Egypt, Assyria, Greece, etc. As to the history of this grain in China, Dr. Bretschneider, of the Russian legation at Peking, and foremost among the authorities upon Chinese botany, says {concerning the plant called Shu) : " This cereal is teparately described in the Pun Tsao (Chinese Herbal), published A. D. 1570. The grain is called Hwang- mi, and is said to possess much glutinous matter. It is used for manufacturing alcoholic drinks. This corn was known to the Chinese in the most ancient times. It seems to me that the meaning of the character Shu, in ancient days, was not glutinous jnillet (aa Dr. Legge states in the Shu King], but rather sor- ghum, as Dr. Williams translates."* If this deduction is true, the cultivation of this plant dates from about 2000 B. c. The precise uses of this grain in an- cienf times can only be inferred. If the identity of the Shu (mentioned in the classics) with sorghum could be proved beyond question, this grain would rank in age as grown in China with any in the world. Sorghum is seldom used in China now as food for man ; the great food staples of Northern China are wheat, pulse, maize, and Italian millet (Setaria). Buck- wheat, panicled millet, and the sweet potato, may be included as secondary sta- ples. Rice is imported to the north from the southern provinces. I have never seen the broom corn grown in China. The twenty or more varietieswhich President Angell brought from China could, probably, be increased in numberif the collection were made from a more extended area. The uses of this plant for fuel, tend to increase attention to the development of its stalk rather than the grain. The plant often attains a height of 15 or 16 feet. The common practice of stripping ofif all the leaves within reach upon the growing stalk, for feeding cat- tle, increases very materially its woody fiber. Cutting the stems while in their prime of growth, and chewing them green, as southerners do the sugar-cane, is not unusual in the north. The Chinese do not possess the art of refining sugar or making syrup to per- fection. Even in the cane-growing districts their employment of molasses is small; none of this is ever made from sorghum, to my knowledge. *As to the sugar-cane, the same writer adds: "I have not been able to find any allu- sion to it in the most ancient of Chinese works (the five classics); it is first mentioned by writers of the second century b. u. * * * One says, 'it grows in Cochin Chinn. It is several inches in circumference, ten feet high, and resembles bamboo. The juice is very sweet, and, dried in the sun, changes Into sugar.' " HISTORY OF .SOEGHUM. 53^ Dr. E. Bretschneider, physician to the Russian legation at Peking, ■who is quoted in the foregoing notes from Dr. Williamsj says, in his essay, or memoir, on the study and value of Chinese botany, page 46 : The true sugar-cane (Saooharum officinarum) growing in China, must not be confounded with what is called Northern China supfar-cane. This is Sorghum saccharatum, a plant now-a-days largely cultivated in Europe and America for the purpose of manufacturing sugar from it. This plant was first introduced from Shanghai into France by the French consul, M. Montigny, in the year 1851, wlience it spread over Europe and America, after it was proved that it is very lich in sugar. Dr. Bretschneider then relates substantially the same statements respecting Mr. Collins astonishing the natives by making sugar from sorghum; which Dr. Williams also mentions. On page 45, after discussing the meaning of the Chinese terms ap- plied to these plants, he adds, in conclusion : It seems to me that the meaning of the character translated Shu in ancient times, was not glutinous millet (as Dr. Legge states in his translation of the Shu King), but rather sorgho, as Dr. Williams translates. It seems, then, that the term Chinese sugar-cane is a misnomer, only so far as the plant was not recognized as a sugar producing plant by the Chinese, while the original seed of the Sorghum saccharatum, ac- cording to these authorities, was undoubtedly imported into France from China. The above statement is very interesting, in connection with the names of those varieties of sorghum received through President Angell from Northern China. Each of these was called Liang, which was interpreted millel, though they were, undoubtedly, specimens of sor- ghum. As will be seen, however, Dr. Williams mentions jsanicW mil- let as one of the secondary staples grown in China. Besides the com- mon name Liang, the additional names, Hwong-mao-nien, translated yellow-cap-glutinous, were given; and the name of the grain grown by Dr. W. is Hwang-mi. In this connection, the following quotation from a letter received from John Thorne, Esq., is of interest. It would appear that, if the identity of Hwang- mi and Hwong-mao was established as the grain of' the plant " Shu," that the cultivation of sorghum in China is verified by historical evidence extending back nearly 4,000 years. The note of Dr. Collier I inclose, and note what he says about the meaning of the word in Chinese. I fancy Hwang-mao the same as H. mi, or, better, "shu," which is a radical, and means millet. See Williams' Ch. Dict'ry, Bad. 54 SOEGHUM. 202. The appearance of the grain is cap-like, growing in even rows, corn high, and beautiful to look at, in all of the North China provinces. I have not seen it, except to a limited extent, in the provinces watered by the great river (Yang Tse). Dr. Williams' Report, p. 57, is a very accurate one, and I can add nothing thereto. " Pao Liang," which is also understood in China as a millet produc- tion, is a spirituous liquor much used by the Chinese, north, south, east, and west. I have tasted it, but, like all the Chinese distillations, in failing to purify from " must," is objectionable. Other grains are also distilled in China ; but none, I think, to the same extent as the millet plant. BOTANY OF SOEGHUM. In the Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture, 1865, p. 299, F. Pech has collected many historical and botanical references to sorghum, which have been verified by reference to the several author- ities, and are here appended. Pliny the elder, who lived in the first century, in his Natural History, Lib. XVIII, ch. 10, says : Milium intra hos decern annos ex India in Italiam invectum est, nigrum color, amplium grano, arundineum culmo. Adolerat ad pedes altitudine sep- tem, praegrandibus culmis lobas vocarit, omnium frugum fertilissimum. Ex uno grano sextarli terni gignnntur. Seri debet in humldas. — Within the past six years, a millet has been imported into Italy from India, of a black color, /abounding in seed, and with a reed-like Ftalk. It attains a height of seven feet, and has very large stalks, which they call lobas ; and of all grain it is the most fruitful. Prom a single kernel, about three pints of seed is produced. It should be planted in moist ground. And a note appended to the above, by Scaliger Exercit, 292, p. 869, says: Hoc sorghum vocari apud nos populares. — This plant is called sorghum among our people. The name milium, or miUet, means thousands, referring to its numer- ous seeds, and is, of course, as applicable to sorghum as to millet, and was, probably, applied originally to all plants of this general character. Pliny, 32nd chap., Book VI, speaking of Insulae Fortunae (Canary Islands), asserts, on authority of Juba : Arbores similes feralae, ex quibus aqua ex premitur, ex nigra amare, ex can- didioribus Jucunda. — Trees similar to the giant fermel, from which juice is ex- pressed, which from the black variety is bitter, and from the whiter variety is sweet. Since sugar-cane is not reported as having been introduced upon these islands earlier than 1420, it would appear that the above refer- ence of Juba must have been to the sorghum. Fuchius, of Belgium, describes, in his History of Plants, in 1542, BOTANY OF SORGHUM. 55 a plant under the name of Shorghi, which is precisely the true popu- lar name of the Sorgho in the East Indies. Jerome Fragus, in describing the plants of Germany, in 1552, gives the description of the same plants, under the name of " Panicum Di- oscorides et Plinii" (bread millet of Dioscorides and Pliny), thus showing that the plant referred to by Pliny was the same as that men- tioned by Dioscorides, the Greek, and was already cultivated in Ger- many. Conrad Gesner, in his Hortus Germania (German garden), in 1591, names the same plant Sorghum. Matthioli, an Italian, in his Commentaries on Dioscorides, in 1595, describes it under the name of Milium Indicum (Indian millet). Lobel, a Belgian, in 1576, describes the plant as the " Sorgho melica Italorum " (sweet sorghum of the Italians). Dodon, a Belgian, in 1583, in his Pemptades, names it " melica, sive sorghum" (honey, or sorghum). It will be observed, here, that a distinction is made in these plants, then cultivated in Italy and Germany — reference being made to the sweet character of one variety. And a Roman writer, Lucian, the Syrian poet, who wrote about the second century, says, verse 237, Book III, " Quique bibunt tenera dulces ab aruudine succos " (Those who drink the sweet juices from the tender cane), may refer to Sorghum saccharatum. Belloni speaks of it as Sorghum Insubrum, thus locating it as al- ready established in Northern Italy. Lonicer, a German, 1589, and Gerarde, an Englishman, 1597, de- scribe several varieties of sorghum, as sorghum panicum loculere. Bester, a German, 1613, ^Iso describes it as milium Plinii : thus showing that the plant described by Pliny had been cultivated in Eu- rope from his day down to the seventeenth century. In 1623, Gasper Bauhin, in his Pinax, includes all the above names as synonyms, under the descriptive phrase of "milium arundinaceum subrotundo semine, sorgo nominatum " (a reed-like millet, with nearly round seed, called sorgo), and with the observation, that the seed varies in color from a brownish red to black, and from white to yellow ; these names represent one or more species. And, in his Historia Plantaruni, Liber XVIII., Art. Sorghi, Bau- hin, says of the seed : " Appensa haeret copiosissima, quae lentibus aequalia compressa non nihil oblonga, nunc alba, nunc fusca et quandoque nigra." — It is in the greatest 56 SOEGHUM. • abundance, and is compressed similar to lentils, somewhat oblong in shapOf white, dark, and sometimes black in color. And of the stalk, he says : Eiu's tamen calamus, nori ut vulgarium arundinum inanis est, sed saccha- riferarum arundinum modo, alba farctus. medullii. — Yet the stalk of this reed is not worthless, like the common reed, but is, in fact, a sugar bearing reed, filled full of a white pith. And he quotes Dodonius as saying, in Hist. Lat. Frum : Melica,siTa sorghum, Lusitanis milium Saburrum appellatum nonnuUi tamen Panicum peregrinum at Indicum cognominant. — Melica, or sorghum, called by the Lusitanians Saburrum millet, yet sometimes they call it foreign, or In- dian Pauicum. And he concludes as follows: Nos eorum sententiam probamus qui milium Indicum Plinii esse conclu- dent. — We agree with the opinion of those who consider it to be the Indian millet of Pliny.) Frequent reference is made to the white, sweet incrustations upon the joints of an Indian reed, to which the name Saccharum was given by Dioscorides ; and which is supposed to be the earliest reference to sugar. It is probable that this substance was similar to, if not identi- cal with, a similar exudation from the joints of a hollow reed growing in our Western territories, and which is annually gathered, in consid- erable quantity, by the Indians, and is known as Piute sugar. It is allied to manna in composition, and is not cane sugar. Besides the many quotations given, there are many others whick could, with equal force, apply to either the sugar-cane or the sorghum, as, for example, Varro (68 b. c), says : India non magna nimis arbore crescit arundoillius i lentis primetur radicibus humor dulcia qui nequeant succo condendere nulla. — There grows, in India, a reed, not much less in size than a tree, from the pliant stalks of which is ex- pressed a juice which the sweet honey can not surpass. From Bauhin to the present day, botanists have been more careful in their determinations of those plants so closely allied. Linnoeus places them under his genus Holcus, under the specifica- cation of H. sorghum for the Indian millet, and H. saccharatum for the Chinese cane. Persoon, after a careful study of these plants, has divided the Lin- nsean genus Holcus to form a new one, which he calls Sorghum. The name sorghum is from Shorghi, the common name of the plant in the East Indies. BOTANY OP SOEGHDM, 57 Botanical Description. Generic characters : Spikelets (flowers ■with their husks at the end of the small branches), two or three together on the slender ramifications of the panicle (seed head) , the lateral ones abortive, or reduced to a mere pedicel ; the middle or terminal ones fertile. Glumes (the husk or hull) coriaceous (leathery), closely bearded or downy^ becoming indurated after the anthesis (blooming), with or without awns. Palea (inner husk) membranous ; stamens, three ; styles, two, with bearded/ stigmas. Stout, tall grasses, with solid stalks with pith. Specific Name, Sorghum Saeoharatum. Botanical Names. Milium quod ex India, in Italiam invectum, nigro colore. — Pliny. Sorgo melica Italorum. — Lobel. Melica, sive sorghum. — Dodon. Melica forte a milica sagina, aliis saginanda calamagrostis Dioscori- des. — Coesalpin. Milium arundinaceum sub rotundo semine, sorgo nominatum. — G. Bauhin. Sorghum. — Eumphi. Milium Indicum arundinaceo caule, granis flavescentibus. — Herman. Holcus saccharatus. — Linnaeus. Milium Indicum sacchariferum altissimum seminibus ferrugineo. — Breynuis. Holcus dochna. — Foskal. Holcus caifrorum. — St. Clair. Andropogon saccharatum. — Kuntz. Sorghum saccharatum — Persoon. Holcus caffrorum. — Thunb. Holcus caffir.^ — Arduini. Sorghum Arduini. — Jaquas. Sorghum caffrorum. — Beauvois. Description of Plant. Root, fibrous; culm (stalk) thick, stout, solid, 'with pith, from six to twelve leei high ; leaves lanceolate, acuminate, downy at base ; flowers forming a large, more or less diffiisely spreading panicle, with the branches more or less verticillate, often nodding when in fruit; glumes (husk) of the perfect flower hairy, downy, and persistent ; from the East Indies. Cultivated. William Henry Harvey, F.R.S., in "The Genera of South African Plants," London, 1868, gives the generic characters of this plant as follows : 58 SORGHUM. Sorghum. — Spikelets at the ends of twigs of a branching panicle — either female, male, or neuter — dissimilar. Outer glumes, two ; in the fertile and male spikelets coriaceous, hardening with scarcely obvious immersed nerves; in the neuter spikelets membranous, nerved; flowering glumes thinly membranous ciliate, the lower neuter, the upper fertile, with a short twisted awn, or awnlessi Palea small, narrow scales, fimbricate. Seed thick, short, hard, closely- wrapped in the hardened glume and palea. ^ Nees, 1. c, p. 85 : Tall, strong, broad-leaved grasses, with villous or pubescent glumes; grain used as food in India. Holcus eaffrorura, described by Thunberg, in his " Flora Capensis," and later (1780) introduced from South Africa into Italy by Peter Arduino, was found by Sprengel to be identical with S. saccharatum, to which he also referred S. arduini, Jaqu., and the S. cafirorum, Beauv. Nees agrees with Sprengel ; but states decidedly that two distinct species are cultivated on the Cape of Good Hope; as is seen from a note appended to his description of the following species : " Species altera in hortis Coloniae culta quae Holcus caffrorum. Thunb. Flora. Cap." Sorghum TJsorum. N. v. E. This species, referred to above by Nees, has been described by Thunberg, in his Prodromus Floro Capensis, as Holcus caffrorum, and has subsequently been mentioned as S caffrorum panicula compactiori. Eoem and Schlut. Recognizing it as a proper species in his Agrostographia Capensis, Nees applied to it the name of the Caffir tribe, " Us," among whom Drege found the plant extensively cultivated. Dr. Charles Mohr, of Mobile, Ala., who has recently investigated the subject, writes, that There can scarcely be any doubt that all the South African varieties, with more or less closely contracted panicles, can be referred to this species. The many forms under cultivation can be reduced to those specifically distinct types. Adopting the view that Sorghum vulgare is the parent plant of these species, and all of theni can be separated in two races, distinct in habit and geographically in their ancestry, as has already been shown by Pech, in his Botanical History of Sorghum (Annual Report, Department of Agriculture, 1865) : 1. The race of the sorghos chiefly of Asiatic origin, with the branches of the expanded panicles more or less drooping, characteristic of the Sorghum sac- Icharatum. 2. The race of the Imphees, or the exclusively African race, the closely con- tracted panicle more or less dense, with erect adpressed ramifications, the type of Sorghum TJsorum. BOTANY OF SOEGHUM. 59 By the crossing of these races, and the inter-crossing of the resulting hybrids, many varieties have been produced. Introduced into regions of different lati- tudes, exposed to influences of various conditions of climate and soil, these were subjected to further modifications, which, permanently retained by inheri- tance through future generations, show their peculiarities less in the morpho- logical features than in their physiological relations, of much more importance to the cultivator, by their influence upon the life of the plant and the product of its activity. In the endeavor to attain those modifications which shall ap- pear most favorable under given conditions, in respect to the time required for ripening, the percentage of sugar, and also the capacity of resisting unfavorable influences, the number of permanent variations is constantly increasing in the United States. The difficulty of assigning them their proper places, and discovering their relationship and ancestry, increases with the obliteration of the original type. In general, the following well established varieties can be regarded as belong- ing to the first of these races : regular Sorgho, Chinese sugar-cane, Honduras, Mastodon, Honey cane, Sprangle top. Honey-top, Link's hybrid, and other va- rieties produced by crossing with varieties of African ancestry with rather ex- panded panicles. To the second, or the African race, belong the Liberian, Imphee, Oomseeana, Neeazana, White African, with the varieties produced in this country known as Black top, Bear tail, Iowa Red top, White mammoth, Wolf tail. Gray top. The Early Amber and Early Orange are forms of prominently African type. The identification of these various sorts is extremely difficult, and can only be ac- complished by artificial methods, regardless of their natural affinities, as has been successfully attempted by Dr. Collier. C. G. Nees ab Esenbeck, in liis Agrostographia Capensis, 1853, p. 86, classifies the sorghums as follows : 1. Sorghum hicolor. — Willd. Holcus bicolor. — Willd. Andropogon cernus. — Kunth. 2. a. Sorghum saccharaium. — Pers. Sorghum saccharatum. — Pers. Holcus saccharatus. — Kunth. Holcus Caffrorum. — Thuub. Holcus Caffer. — Arduini. Sorghum Caffrorum. — P. de Beauv. Sorghum Arduini. — Jacq. Holcus dochna. — Forsk. 6. Rubens. Sorghum rubens. — Willd. Andropogon rubens. — Kunth. 3. Sorghum JJsorum. — N. ab. E. Holcus Caffrorum. — Thunb. Sorghum Caffrorum panicula compactiori apud. — R. et Sch. S. 4. Sorghum halapense. — Pevs. Holcus halapensis. — Sibth. Trachypogon avanaceus. — N. ab B. 60 SOEGHUM. AndropogOB halapensis. — Kunth. Andropogon avanaceus. — Michx. Blumenbachia halapensis. — Kohl. Bentham, in Genera Plantarum, III, p. 1135, considers the whole genus sor- ghum as comprised in two species, S. vulgare and S. halapense. This final coQclusion of such eminent authority, is evidence of the plastic- nature of this plant, which, by variations, has adapted itself to the various cli- matic conditions under which it is grown, and gives reason to hope that, in the hands of the intelligent cultivator, it may develop other varieties more valnable- for the purpose of sugar production than any now known. The genus Sorghum (of which Sorghum vulgare is the accepted type) is in- cluded in the natural order Graminaceje, to which natural order belongs, ateo, the tropical sugar-cane (Saccharum officinarum) ; but it should be remarked that, between the genus Sorghum and the genus Saccharum, there are classed by botanists the three genera, Erianthus, Briochrysis, and Ischaemopogon. Vid. Grisebach's Flora of the West India Islands, pp. 560, 561. While, therefore, the two plants are somewhat closely related, this relationship does not warrant the assertion made by a recent writer upon this subject, "that the name sorghum is a mere disguise, for the reason that it is nothing more nor less than a sub-variety of sugar-cane, which may explain why it is that thfr reader and the investigator have so frequently been misled." To the unscientific observer, a growing sorghum plant would seem to combine many of the exterior characteristics of sugar-cane. I here append parallel statements, prepared by Dr. George Vasey, Botanist of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, which show the differences between the genera Sorghum and Saccharum, upon which botanists base the opinion that sorghum is not " a sub-variety of sugar-cane." Sorghum vulgare. Saccharum officinarum. Flowering spikelets, two or three to- The flowering spikelets are placed^ gether, on the ends of the branches of at short intervals, on the joints of long, an open panicle; these spikelets are slender branches of the panicle, usu- of two kinds, viz., one sessile, single ally in pairs, one of which is sessile^ flowered, fertile spikelet, and accom- and the other pedicellate. They are- panying this, one or two others, which each surrounded at the base with a cir- are short stalked, or pediceled, and cle of silky white hairs, which are contain male flowers, or sterile flowers ; longer than the flowers. The spikelets or sometimes these disappear, leaving are usually single flowered ; the sessile only the stalks or pedicels. The fertile one fertile, the upper sometimes male spikelet consists of a pair of thick, only. The glumes are soft and char- coriaceous or hard glumes, and of two taceous, the palets thin and transpa- very thin hyaline palets, one of which rent, and awnless. usually has a twisted awn or beard, The most striking differences be- twice as long as the spikelet. In some tween the two genera, are in the size varieties, the glumes and seed are more and consistence of the flowering or- |or less hairy, and in others nearly gans, in the manner of branching of smooth. The seed is large and round, the panicle, and in the presence in Saccharum of the long hairs at the l>ase of the spikelets. BOTANY OF SORGHUM. 61 The above will suffice to settle a question, whicli could not have arisen but that a recent writer, who, by some, might be assumed to speak with authority, has in his writings confounded the sorghums with sugar-cane, while he places a single variety of sorghum appa- rently in a genus by itself. The Agricultural Character of Sorghum: Under this head the Committee of the National Academy of Sci- ences say in their report : The cultivated varieties of sorghum, considered botanieally, are cereals. They belong more especially to that very small group of cereal species which have been cultivated from the dawn of history, and have developed along with our civilization. During ages of culture they have so changed under the hand of man, that we are ignorant as to their native countries, and know not what their -original wild progenitors were. Their descendants now exist in a vast number of varieties, which differ so greatly among themselves, that neither scientific botanists nor praetical cultivators are agreed as to what are true species, and "what mere varieties which have arisen in cultivation. The cultivated varieties of sorghum have been placed in the genera Holcus, Andropogon, and Sorghum, by different botanists — the latter being the name now accepted. A generation ago, botanists grouped the numerous cultivated varieties into a considerable number of distinct species, without agreement as to how many: five or six were generally believed to exist. Certain varieties of durra, with the grain in a somewhat loose panicle, and which were more especially culti- vated in Asia and in southern Europe, were classed as one species called Sor- ghum {Holcus or Andropogon) vulgare ; the varieties with the grain in a densely contracted panicle, grown more largelj' in Africa, and known as Guinea corn, Egyptian durra, Moorish millet, etc., were grouped into another species called S. cernuum ; the variety best known as chocolate corn was the S. bi<:olor ; broom corn, and all the sugar producing kinds, were" classed together as S. ■saccharatum ; and other specific names were applied to smaller groups of these varieties. But the investigations of modern science have gradually led to the belief, that all the numerous varieties once classed in the several species above enu- merated had a common origin and constitute but a. single species, to which the old name Sorghum vuJgare is now applied. This is now the belief of the most eminent. botanists of the world. Some even go further, and believe that all the cultivated varieties of the genus, includ- ing the spiked millets {Sorghum {Holcus) spicatum), are the descendants of a single original parental species. These conclusions have a most important bearing upon the subject of this special investigation. It is a law of nature, that the longer a species is cultivated and the wider its cultivation extends, the more easily it changes into new varieties, and the wider the differences between the varieties become. Some species, however, have a 62 SOEGHUM. much greater capacity for variation than others, and Sorghum vulgare stands pre-eminent among the useful plants for this character. The usefulness of any agricultural species is intimately correlated with its capacity for variation in cultivation, for this means capacity for the improve- ment of varieties by the only means known to cultivators by which such im- provements may be effected. It also means capacity for adaptation to varied conditions of soil, climate, and natural surroundings, and, furthermore, adap- tation to various methods of culture, and to various uses. It is a sort of plas- ticity which allows the species to be molded in the hands of the intelligent cultivator. This species (Soisghum vulgare) has varied more widely under cultivation than any other cereal, unless it be Indian corn. The varieties differ in all their characters — in height, fruitfulness, habit of growth, grain, staljr, leaf, panicle, chemical composition, preference of soil, climate, and exposure; and so on, tO' all the differences in which species themselves differ. Its cultivation has ex- tended to most of the warm, and many of the temperate, climates of the globe, and it has adapted itself to the varied uses and more varied agricultural methods of nearly all the civilized races of mankind. The agricultural success of any plant in a country depends, in part, upon its. fitness to the soil and climate, and in part to a variety of other conditions, one of which is, that it must fill some place in the agriculture of that country better than the other species competing with it. Sentiment and local customs are also factors, but which have less force in this country than in others. Durra, Guinea corn, broom corn, and, probably, also chocolate com, were in- troduced into this country in colonial times. During the days of more imper- fect tools and machinery, and of diflBcult. transportation, all pur agricultural crops were, of necessity, grown upon a much smaller scale than now ; and, on most farms, a greater variety of crops were grown than now. Most, if not all, the agricultural plants of the Old World were tried here, and many had a wide and sparse cultivation until well into the present century, and then disappeared under the new conditions of our agriculture. The cultivation of others became epecialized. Varieties of this species may .be found in both these categories. Durra and Guinea corn were both widely introduced, and they lingered in cul- tivation until crowded out by, Indian corn. They were dropped just as many other minor crops were : they did not fill a place in our modern agriculture so well as some other species did, and now are only found in regions where Indian <;orn does not grow so well, particularly in the states which border on Mexico. Chocolate corn (the old S. bicolor) was cultivated here and there as a poor sub- stitute for coffee; but, under the changed conditions of things, it has entirely disappeared from our fields and gardens, crowded out by imported and better coffee. Broom corn, also introduced in colonial times, was widely cultivated: forty years ago, very many persons grew enough for their own use or for local sale. It supplied a certain want better than any thing, else, consequently, it could not be crowded out; but, under the conditions of modern agriculture, its cultivation has become specialized anl concentrated in fewer localities, in some of which it has assumed an importance found nowhere else in the world. It has been greatly improved, and the cultivation of American varieties has now ex- tended to the Old World. About thirty years ago, the sugar yielding sorghum was introduced. Pilling BOTANY OP SOEGHUM. 63 a certain place on our farms better than any other plant previously tried, it spread in cultivation with a rapidity no other agricultural plant ever did before in this or any other country, and is the only one adapted to a wide region in- troduced into the United States since colonial times which has become of suffir cient importance to be enumerated in the census. It has become the " sor- ghum" af common language, and its cultivation has extended the whole length and breadth of the country. Its adaptation to our soil and climate is abundantly demonstrated, and its capacity for improvement also thoroughly proved. The Department of Agri- culture has already examined more than forty varieties, some of which have originated in this country. We have, now, varieties with very unlike charac- ters: some mature in eighty days, others require twice as long a time, and one variety has become, in a sense, perennial — a fact not true of any other cereal species grown in the country. They vary in habit of growth and in sugar con- tent ; the two extremes have been developed here — the one as rich as Louisiana sugar-cane, the other,, the broom corn, so poor in sugar. Belonging to such a plastic species, with such adaptation to a wide range of soil and climate, with such capacity for modification and improvement, already in such wide cultivation, and promising to meet such a definite want in our ag- ricultural production, it is certaiu that, in obedience to natural laws, some of the existing varieties maybe greatly improved, and that new ones maybe made, some of which will better serve the ends we are now seeking than any varieties we now have. No efForts have yet been made to i ucrease the sugar content by sysLem- atic, intelligent, and long continued selection. In the light of the successful results of experiment in this direction with sugar beets, and with the abundant experience we have with other species as to other results attained by such pro- cpsses, we have mucli to hope as to improvement in this character with a spe- cies which has been so variously molded to the uses of man. Agriculture, however intelligently pursued, is more of an art than a science. Hence, the ultimate profitableness of any agricultural crop introduced into a region new to it, qan only be determined by actual trial through a series of years. The nature of the economical problem is such that science can not predict the result. It can, however, render great aid in making success more probable, and in hastening it where it otherwise might be much delayed. It can suggest means and methods, can indicate promising directions for experiment, can aid in foreseeing and overcoming many difficulties, suggest remedies for mishaps, and, in a multitude of ways, aid in solving the practical problem. This is es- pecially true when the crop is to be manufactured into a commercial product, and emphatically so in the production of sugar, the whole economical aspects of which have been changed by the aid of modern science. No agricultural species can be cultivated profitably every-where within its range of actual growth, and it is yet to be demonstrated where the best regions are for the most profitable growth of sorghum. This is only partly an agricul- tural problem ; it is as intimately related to the question of winning the sugar in the best form and at the least expense. For the solution of the latter, scien- tific work is needed. It can ultimately be done in the sugar-house; it may be more quickly done, and with vastly greater economy, if this be aided by the scientific laboratory. The profitable production of sugar from cane, as now pursued in Louisiana, and from beets, as pursued in Europe, was achieved only 64 SORGHUM. by such aid. The methods of extracting sugar from these two great sources are very unlike, and each was developed along with scientific investigation in- stituted for each special plant. Sorghum still needs this. The work so nobly begun and successfully pursued by the Agricultural Department, is still incom- plete and unfinished. To use an agricultural simile, the crop has been sown, but the harvest has not been reaped. Agriculturally, the sorghum question is solved so far as it can be, until sci- ence now does her share. That the crop may be widely and economically grown, containing a satisfactory amount of cane sugar, is sufficiently proved. All the problem remaining unsolved relates to the extraction of sugar. In view of the magnitude of the interests involved, the results already obtained, and the wide attention the matter is now receiving, we feel that there are moat en- couraging indications of practical success. nSTTEODUCTION OF SORGHUM INTO THE UNITED STATES. In 1850, M. de Montigny, the French consul at Shanghai, China, sent to the Geographical Society of Paris a lot of plants and seeds from China, and among them sorghum seed grown upon the island of Tsung-miug, at the mouth of the Yang-tse-kiang river. It is said that but one seed germinated, and that from the single head 800 seeds were obtained, which were bought by the firm of Vil- morin, Andrieux & Co., of Paris, at one franc each. In 1853, Wm. E. Prince, of Flushing, Long Island, N. Y., imported from France the black seed variety of Chinese sorghum into the United States of America, and in 1854 a few pounds of this seed was distrib- uted. In 1855, a large hogshead of the "seed was disposed of in small quantities throughout the country. The first lot of sorghum seed sent out by the Agricultural Depart- ment at Washingtom was in 1856, and, about this same time. Orange Judd distributed to the subscribers of the American Agriculturist 25,000 packages of this seed. In 1857, Leonard Wray, an English merchant, brought from Natal, South Africa, 16 varieties of sorghum seed, which were sent to South Carolina and Georgia and grown there. To these African varieties the general name Imphees was given, while to the variety from China the name Chinese Sugar-Cane was given. In 1840, M. d'Abadie sent to the Museum at Paris the seed of 30 kinds of sorghum from Abyssinia, and it is said of several of tliese, that the stalks had a sweet juice. But whether any of these seeds were planted, does not appear to be a matter of record, and the cultivation of sorghum during these later years appears to INTRODUCTION OF SOEGHUM INTO THE UNITED STATES. 65 have begun ■with the introduction of the China variety by M. de Mon- tigny, in 1850. Although throughout France and in Algeria the cultivation of sor- ghum rapidly spread, and many experiments were undertaken in the production of sugar from this jolant, the new and growing beet sugar industry resulted in the abandonment of all efforts with sorghum, and it has been mainly in the United States that sorghum has been grown as a sugar producing plant during the last quarter of a century. Even here the crop has been chiefly used in the production of syrup, sugar having been only an accident of manufacture rather than the result of intelligent efforts for its production. For several centuries, however, before the importations of M. de Montigny, sorghum had been extensively grown in Europe ; not, in- deed, as a sugar plant, although, so early as 1776, Pietro Arduini, of Florence, had succeeded in making sorghum sugar. He says, that the seed of ths sorghum he experimented with was of a clear brown color. In 1859, E. T. Teas, of Dunreith, Ind., reports to have imported From Vilmorin, Andrieux & Co., of Paris, a few pounds of Chinese cane seed, and that in this lot of seed, upon planting, he found a single plant, the seed of which had thoroughly ripened before the rest of the plants were in full bloom. The seed from this plant was care- fully preserved, and is said to be the source of the Minnesota Early Amber, so narned since it was very early, gave an amber colored syrup, and has been grown extensively in Minnesota of late years. On the other baud, Mr. Leonard Wray at once recognized this so- called Early Amber, from the wood-cuts of the ripened panicle, as one of the 16 varietes of Imphees which he introduced in 1854, and he savs the name is Boom-vwa-na. In this connection, it will be interesting to know the names and de- scriptions of the several varieties which were introduced by Mr. Wray, which were as follows : Vim-bis-ehu-a-pa. — This is the largest and tallest of the whole ; full of juice, very sweet; requiring from four to five months to come to maturity ; grows to a height of ten to fifteen feet ; from one and a half to two inches in diameter at the lower end; usually cracks or splits as it ripens ; juice contains fourteen per cent of sugar ; seed head large and beautiful, twelve to eighteen inches in length ; plump seeds, sandy color, strongly held by a sheath, which partially envelops them. E-(MicHnoo-dee. — Next in size, and very similar in habit and value ; 5 66 SOEGHUM. not as coarse, softer, and more juicy ; fourteen per cent of sugar in juice ; seed heads large, stiff, erect ; seeds round, plump, of a clear yellow color ; ripens two weeks earlier than last variety. E-en-gha. — A fine, tall kind, from ten to twelve feet high, more slender than either of the foregoing, exceedingly graceful in appear- ance, ripens in four months ; fourteen per cent of sugar in juice ; seed , head large, and very pretty ; seed upon long, slender footstalks, which are bent down by weight of seed, forming a graceful drooping ; seeds a dull yellow color, rather long and flat. Nee-a-zorna. — Held, by the Zulu Kaffirs, to be the sweetest of all the Imphees ; ripens in about three months ; stalks soft, and more abound- ing in juice than any; fifteen per cent of sugar; small size, tillers greatly, having sometimes fifteen stalks to one root ; juice mucilagin- ous, and abounding more in fecula than some other varieties ; seed^ heads very bushy and bunchy when ripe ; seeds round, large, and plump. Bomn-vwa-na. — Most excellent and valuable variety; juice never contains less than fifteen per cent of sugar ; resembles the E-en-gha, but stalks brighter and more slender ; stalks have a pinkish tint, and seed cases have pink and purple hue, mixed with a yellow ground ; short, stiff footstalks; tillers very much, giving ten to twenty stalks for one root, which seldom weigh more than one pound each ; makes beautiful sugar ; reaches perfection in three to three and a half months. Oom-see-a-na. — Distinguished by the purple or black appearance of its seed heads, the sheath, or seed cases, being of this color, and not the seed itself; seed head stifl", erect ; short, strong footstalks ; seed large, round, and full ; growth and goodness of juice very similar to the Boom-vwa-na ; stalks small, numerous. Slila-goo-va. — Slightly inferior to the three last mentioned ; ripens in three and a half months ; tall, good sized plants; chief distinction, ex- ceeding beauty and elegance of seed head ; footstalk extremely long, drooping gracefully ; seed cases, or sheaths, vary in color from a deli- cate pink to red, and from a light to a very dark purple, but each color is very bright and glistening. Shla-goon-dee. — Sweet and good ; under favorable conditions, pro- duces fine sized stalks ; seed heads very stiff, erect ; seed vessels com- pact and very close; usually requires three ancj a half months to reach maturity. Zim-moo-ma-na. — Likewise a sweet and good variety; seed heads upright, compact, and fine; seeds plump, very numerous. E-both-la, Boo-ee-a-na, Koom-ba-na, See-en-gla, Zini-ba-za-na E-thlo- sa. — These last six are merely mentioned by Mr. Wray, with the re- ESfTEODUCTION OF SOEGHXTM IN'TO THE UNITED STATES. 67 mark, that they "form the remainder of fifteen varieties, each differing slightly from the others in saccharine qualities, as well as appearance ; but still easily distinguished from each other by any one who has studied them." J. H. Smith, of Quincy, III., who, in 1862, reports the results of his investigations upon sorghum, says : Of the Chinese cane, we have known but one description, as before stated. "We have cultivated six different kinds of the African canes. And he enumerates six of those names already given. The following letter from Mr. Leonard Wray, is especially interesting in connection with this discussion of the Imphees : Perak, via Penang, September 1th, 1882. To the Commissioner of Agriculture, Washington, U. S. Dear Sie: I am pleased, beyond measure, to find that the United States Gov- «rnmenthas at last awakened to the great value of the "imphee varieties," which I introduced into your country ; and has taken the most certain course to verify, by scientific tests, the truth of my printed statements respecting them, published in English, and also in French, in 1854, copies of which I gave to Mr. D. J. Browne, of the Patent Office, in Washington. You will find the contents of this, my pamphlet, in a, little book by H. S. Olcott, published by Moore, of Fulton street. New York, in 1857; andifyoudorae the honor to read that, you will, I am sure, fairly acknowledge; that every state- ment I therein made is strictly proved by the valuable results of the able men whom you selected to conduct your experiments. I must, however, mention that the last chapter oi my pamplet — viz, that on the manufacture of the imphee juice into sugar — is omitted in Olcott's little book. It is most gratifying to see the "thorough" manner in which your Department has gone into, and decided these important questions. I first became acquainted with these plants in March, 1851 (thirty and one- half years ago), just after my arrival in Natal, South Africa; and, in 1854, I grew them in several parts of France, in England, Spain, Italy, and in various other places, so that I may claim to know their merits; and 1 now say, that all I said and wrote about them at that time, I am fully prepared to stand by, and substantiate the truth of In fact, your admirable Department has, in its recent scientific demonstra- tions, abundantly and authoritatively confirmed my facts, and thereby rendered an inestimable service to your country, and to other countries also. I hope and trust you will continue it. Looking at the beautiful plates in your reports, I can not but express my ad- miration, and, at the same time, my astonishment, at the very remarkable con- stancy of the "types" maintained by the different sorts of imphee shown. For instance, I may mention Plate 1, facing page 8, in Special Report, 33. This is there called " Imphee," "Liberian" and "Sumac;" but I distinctly recognize it as my " Koom-ba-ua," one of the very sweetest and best I had. (I inclose you Bome very old seed.) Plates 2, 3, and 4, are my Neeazana, and its sports. 68 SOEGHUM. Plate 5 is my En-ya-ma, which I see figures as " White Mammoth." I in- close some of my old seeds of it. Plate 7 is my Oom-see-a-na. Plate 8 seems to me to be the "Chinese sorgho." Plate 9 is an Oom-see-a-na kind (no doubt a "sport"). Plate 10 is undoubtedly my " Vim-bis-chu-a-pa," which, to please General Hammond, I nicknamed Sorgho Ka-bal (or Sorgho Brother). Some grew to six pounds weight when "topped," and I had the head of one such until about nine months ago, when I unluckily threw it away (it was twenty inches long). I see you call it by the names of Honduras, Honey, Mastodon, etc. Plate 1 1 seems to be no other than my Boom-vwa-na, one of my special favor- ites. Please see the description in my little pamphlet (in Olcott's book, 1857), and I think you will not long be in any doubt about its origin, bogus stories notwithstanding. Plates 12 and 13 are both my imphees, and T had some growing here twelve months ago; but the seed unfortunately got spoiled. The seed you were kind enough to favor me with, I have sown, and had sown by my friends here; and mine are now eight inches high, being only sixteen days' growth. I may mention that I soaked my seed in a strong solution of sugar with a little salt, camphor, and soap-suds, for twenty hours, and I think they are growing much more vigorously than those not so treated. I shall continue to watch them. Pray, do not think me ungrateful, when I say that I felt disappointed in not finding any "Minnesota Early Amber," nor any "Oomseeana," among the seed you sent me; and I trust you will forgive me, if I trespass so far on your kindness, to beg that you will be so good as to send me some of thdse two kinds, also as "White Mammoth" and "Sumac," all of which I particularly wish to have. Even one hundred or two hundred seeds of each of these four sorts will be am- ■ pie for me to propagate from ; and these might come in a letter direct to me here (and not by Singapore). In such case, the correct address is, " Perak, via Pinang, straits of Malacca," nothing more. I need not say, also, how thankful I shall feel for any of your instructive re- ports, or other information you may be kind enough to bestow upon me. I will, by no means, neglect to send yon a goodly assortment of such seeds as I think you will be glad to have, as soon as they are ready. With many excuses for so troubling you, I beg to subscribe myself, dear sir. Yours, very faithfully, Leonard Weat. In explanation of the above letter, it is necessary to say, that the plates referred to by Mr. Wray, were of the ripened panicles, or seed heads, of several varieties which had been grown at the Department of Agriculture at Washington, from seed received from different parts of the United States. Not unfrequently the same variety came under several different names: e. g., Plate 1 was received under the names of Liberiau, Imphee, Sumac, Chinese. Mr. Wray recognizes it as his Koom-ba-na. Plates 2, 3, 4, were from seed named,' respectively, Nee- azana, Wolf Tail, Gray Top. They are, without, doubt, very closely INTEODUCTION OF SOEGHUM INTO THE UNITED STATES. 69 ■allied, if not identical, varieties. Mr. Wray recognizes them as Ws -original Neeazana and its "sports." Plate 5 was received from Western Missouri under the name of " White Mammoth." Mr. Wray recognized it as his Ea-ya-ma. This name does not appear in liis list already given, but it will be re- membered that he is reported to have introduced sixteen varieties, and ■only fifteen are mentioned in his list. Besides this, " White Mam- moth" is the most characteristic of all the varieties grown in this country, and can not possibly be confounded with any other. The seed is almost as white as rice, and the glumes are quite black. It is especially interesting, also, that this was one of the two varie- ties of which Mr. Wray sent specimens of his old seed, and both speci- mens received from him were at once recognized as the identical ones which he declared them to be from the plates, viz. : Liberian (Koom- ba-na) and White Mammoth (En-ya-ma). Plate 7 was grown as Oom-see-a-na, and such Mr. Wray declares it to be. Plate 8 was grown from seed received from Hon. D. Wyatt Aiken, of South Carolina, and by him called " Black Top." Mr. Wray thinks it the original " Chinese Sorgo." Plate 9 Mr. Wray pronounces an Oom-seea-na sport. It is "Link's Hybrid," which Mr, Link, of Greensville, Tenn., found in a field of " Honduras " sorghum. Plate 10 is from seed which has come under the names Honduras, Mastodon, Honey Top, Texas Cane, Honey Cane, and Sprangle Top. .Mr. Wray is positive that it is his old Vim-bis-chu-a-pa. Plate 11 is the Early Amber. Mr. Wray's Boom-vwa-na. Plates 12 and 13, Goose Neck and White Liberian, respectively, he also recognizes as among those varieties he imported. The great im- _ portance of this matter will be discussed in another place, but it is re- markable that these varieties should have so persistently retained their characteristics during over 30 years of continuous cultivation. Hybridization of Sorghum. The letter from Mr. Wray, and these reports from Natal, have much value, since they throw more light upon a matter of very great prac- tical importance, and fully confirm the experience of the last five years at the Department of Agriculture at Washington. Mr. Wray writes, that he is " astonished at the very remarkable con- stancy maintained by the several varieties" which he had introduced .a third of a century before. It certainly is remarkable that Mr. I J SOEGHUM. Wray should be able, even from plates, which fail to represent many of the marked peculiarities of the different varieties, to have at once recognized almost every one as among those introduced by him. Perhaps nothing has been more generally believed, than that the greatest care was necessary to avoid the hybridization of the different sorghums. At least a score of so-called hybrids have been received from one sec- tion and another of the country ; and generally, along with the state- ment as to the desirable qualities of this new variety, the information is given that a little seed may be had at quite an advance over the price of common varieties. It is reported, that, owing to the marked success which attended the production of sugar from sorghum at Rio Grande (near Cape May), New Jersey, the seed obtained was by certain thrifty farmers of that vicinity, sold under the name of " Cajae May Hybrid,'' although it was no other than the common Early Amber variety. It is probable, that, in the hands of an expert hybridist, there may be originated many new varieties, and possibly those surpassing in excellence any now known; but, at present, the so-called "hybrids" have not resulted in any such way, and, so far as they really exist, are only accidental. During the past five years there have been cultivated in Washington, in all, at least 100 varieties, and upon the same plat of ground. These varieties were grown in rows, separated from each other only three feet, and, although it is possible that crosses have taken place, and remained unobserved, it is certain that no evidence has been seeu of such fact: and this is the more remarkable, since, day by day, throughout the sea- son, the different varieties were subject to careful observation. As has been said, those speciniens of seed received from foreign countries, have been found to contain generally several varieties under one name, differing very widely among themselves, and giving evi- dence of an admixture, in the samples received, of several distinct varieties. No such result has ever been observed in the samples of seed received from various sources in the United States — since generally ripened panicles have been sent to the Department instead of the cleaned seed — ^and in no case was it found that two distinct kinds of seed were present upon the same panicle. This result is entirely at variance with the universal experience in growing different varieties of maize in the same vicinity; and in this regard the two plants, which, in many respects are similar, could hardly be more unlike. It would appear incredible, if this tendency to "cross" or "sport" INTEODUCTION OF SORGHUM INTO THE UlOiTED STATES. 71 ■was in any degree marked, that these many varieties could have been grown by our farmers for thirty years, and have so entirely maintained their identity. In regard to the "White Mammoth," the En-ya-ma, of Mr. Wray, the only specimen received at Washington came from Western Missouri. Of all the varieties, none is more marked than this one ; and yet, grown year after year beside a score of varieties quite distinct, it lias steadily maintained its integrity, not a seed of any other variety is found upon its panicles ; nor has it, so far as careful obser- vation extends, in any way affected its neighboring varieties. The contrast with maize could not be more noticeable. Under similar con- ditions, hardly an ear of maize in the field would be found uniform as to its seed. In this connection, a portion of a letter from Ephraim Link, of Greenville, Tenn., one of our most intelligent cultivators of sorghum, will be of interest. It accounts for the origin of the so-called " Link's Hybrid," one of our most valuable varieties of sorghum ; but it will be seen, that there is not the slightest evidence of hybridization given. Indeed, under the circumstances, it appears impossible that hybridization could have taken place, since the single original head of "Link's Hybrid" was found in a field of Honduras. It would seem most likely that, unless this was simply a sport, remarkable for its persistence in retaining its valuable peculiarities, it may have been one of the original Imphees introduced by Mr. Wray, and which, but for the careful observation of Mr. Link, might have been quite lost. It is remarkable, that, of the varieties introduced by Mr. Wray, he is now able to at once recog- nize so many among those cultivated in America; while, of the large number recently received by the author from Natal, not one is to be confounded with either of those hitherto examined. Frcym letter of Ephraim Link. Perhaps six years siace, I procured my first Honduras seed from Mississippi, and readily found it much superior to any of the varieties I had before culti- vated, and discarded all others in the endeavor to prevent any hybridization. It remained seemingly pure and fully satisfactory for several years, during which time I furnished the Department at Washington seed for distribution to the amount, in three years, of 50 bushels or more. In ray crop of 1879, 1 saw a good many heads indicating a mixture, for which I could not account, and which I had been so careful to avoid, unless the contamination occurred the first year, when another variety grew a little distance off. If so, the contami- nating principle lay dormant three years and had developed only that year. I sent to a friend in Texas for an entire renewal of seed for the planting of the spring of 1880, and found that, and the crop of last year, to be very pure, and to ripen two or three weeks sooner than the same variety before grown. Here 72 SOEGHUM. also is a locked mystery I fail to understand. Also, four years ago I found a head — a clear sprout in the Honduras — entirely different in appearance from it, propagated it, and found its yield and richness in juice second to no other, and its syrup freer from the sorghum flavor than any I ever made. I sent General Le Due a specimen of the syrup and seed, and he ordered all the seed I had, about 14 bushels. In his report of the analysis of varieties, he calls it " Link's Hybrid." It grows to good size, stands well, ripens before the Honduras, and I predict for it a high place among varieties. Ephraim Link. Greenville, Tenn. VAKIETIES OF SOEGHUM CULTIVATED IN THE UNITED STATES. 73 CHAPTER IV. (a.) Varieties of sorghum cultivated in the United States. (6.) Signification of the names of the varieties of sorghum, (c.) Table for Identification of varieties. {d.) Comparison of sorghums from different countries. VARIETIES OF SOEGHUM CULTIVATED IN THE UNITED STATES. DuEiNG the seasons of 1879, '80, '81, and '82, there were received, at the Department of Agriculture, the seed of very many distinct va- rieties of sorghum, from different parts of the country ; and these have heen cultivated, and subjected to a careful examination, during the entire period of their growth, for the purpose of determining their actual and relative value for sugar production. In the case of many of them, cultivation and examination were continued during the four years ; and since the several varieties of seed were planted on the same plat of ground, and upon the same day, and were subject to the same climatic conditions during growth, their relative value, under the con- ditions of climate prevailing at Washington, is established. What these conditions of soil and climate were, will be presented in another chapter. It often happened that the same variety of sorghum seed was re- ceived from several localities, under as many different names ; as, for example, the same seed came as Chinese, Liberian, Oomseeana, Sumac, Imphee ; and, it is interesting to observe, that its origin was, by one referred to China, and by another to Liberia, West Africa ; although I find no record of any sorghum seed having been received from any other African locality than Natal, in South Africa. Many other samples of seed were obtained, which, upon being culti- vated, produced plants very closely resembling each other, if, indeed, they were not identical. It is quite probable that the slight differences existing between the so-called Honduras, Mastodon, Honey Top, Honey Cane, Sprangle Top, and Texas Cane, are the result of variation pro- duced by the different climates and soils in which these canes have been grown during the past thirty-four years, since their introduction by Mr. Wray. The same appears true of those varieties known as the Early Orange, Orange, Wolf Tail, Gray Top, each of which bears a close resemblance to the Neeazana, another of Mr. Wray's original importations. So, too, 74 SOEGHUM. the Early Amber, Early Goldeu, Golden Syrup,- and at least three others, which have been sent as "new varieties" without name, are so nearly alike as to trouble one to distinguish them ; and these are recognized, also, by Mr. Wray, as identical with, or but slight varia- tions from, his original Boom-vwa-na. Relative Lengtlu and Weights of the different Varieties of Sorghum. In the following table will be found the average length of the sev- eral varieties of sorghum, as grown upon the experimental plat of the Department grounds ; the average weight of the entire plant ; of tlie stalk topped and stripped of its leaves, and ready for the mill ; as, also, the number of stalks of each variety upon which such averages are based. This table will enable any one to determine the relative amount of either variety which may be grown upon an acre, since these several varieties were grown from seed planted the same day, and upon a plat of ground which insured practically uniform conditions in every re- spect, since the culture of all varieties was the same. It will be observed that the average loss, by stripping and topping, is, in the case of the sorghums, 24.6 per cent, and of the maize 38.4 per cent. RELATIVE LENGTHS AKD WEIGHTS OF THE DIFFEKENT VARIETIES OF SORGHUM. Name. SoTiKCE OP Seed. CO d i a CI 'a> t s ■a p. ft. Early Amber D. Smith, Arlington, Va Plant Seed Company, St. Louis, Mo 111 104 98 101 62 54 48 100 50 ioo 101 43 51 52 105 94 92 104 41 •93 34 Feet. 8 70 8 70 8 70 8.50 8.46 8 54 7 48 8.59 9 54 8 26 9.435 8 854 7.326 8.398 7.694 9 057 8,238 7 547 9 144 7 95. 8.06 Lbs. 1,390 1 410 1.370 1..370 1.629 1.317 1 409 1 654 1.637 1 678 1 779 1.901 1.261 1,510 1,512 1,738 2,115 1,450 1,562 1 722 1,449 Lbs. 0,960 1 004 Early Golden 1 001 Goldeu Syrup White Liberiah. . . . Early Amber Black Top Sorghum . ■Alrican Sorghum . . White Mammoth Oomseeana Ke^ular Sorgho Hybrid Sugar (lane Oomseeana Sorghum . Neeazana :.. noose Neck Early Orange W. H. Lytle, Yellow Springs, Ohio Bush G. Learning, Decatur, Neb 1 001 1 337 979 D. VV. Aiken, Cokesburv, S. n W. E. Parks, Carlisle, Ky Amos Carpenter, Carpenter's Store P.j 0., Mo i Blvmyer & Co., Cincinnati, Ohio Blymyer & Co., Cincinnati, Ohio E. Link, Greeneville, Tenn 0,961 1 155 1 353 1.169 1.26l> 1 379 D. W. Aiken, Cokesburv, S. C W. H. Lvtle. Yellow Springs, Ohio P. P. Ramsey, Belgrade, Mo I. A. Hedges, St. Louis, Mo Blvmyer & Co., Cincinnati, Ohio E. Link, Greeneville, Tenn D Smith, Arlington, Va 1.140 1 089 1.255 1.467 1 047 New Variety 1.181 1.225- 1.277 Wolf Tail E. Link, Greeneville, Tenn VARIETIES OP SOEGHUM CULTIVATED IN THE UNITED STATES. 75 Relative Lengths and Weights, etc. — Continued. Name. Gray Top Liberian Liberian Ooiuseeana Kumac Mastodon Imphee Kcw Variety Sumac Honduras Honey Cane Sprangle Top ... Honduras Honey Top or Texas. Honduras Sugar Cane Hybrid Sugarcane Bear Tail Iowa Red Top New Variety . . ^V. India Sugar Cane White African... . Goose Necli White Imphee Hybrid, No 4 Sugar Cane ..... ... New Variety . Min'sota EarlyAmber Holcus Saccharatus Holeus Sorghum . . Holcus Cernus, white. Honey Cane New Variety .. Chinese Imphee . New Variety Standard, No. 2. ... New Variety Source of Seed. H. C. Sealey, Columbia, Tenn Blvmver & Co., Cincinnati, Ohio W. H. Lytle, YeUow Springs, Ohio W. I. Mayes & Co., Sweet Water, Tenn. . . W. Pope, Jones Switch, Ala D. W. Aiken, Cokesbury, S. C D. W. Aiken, Cokesbury, S. C J. W. H. .'■alie, Strafford. Mo J. H. Wighton, Slount Olive, Ala Arsenal, Washington, D. C J. H. Clark, Pleasant Hill, La W. Pope, Jones Switch, Ala E. Link, Greeneville, Tenn , Brussels, Wo L. Brande, Maversville, Texas C. E. Miller, Effingham, 111 .1. C. Moore, San Diego, Cal E. Link, Greeneville, Tenn Jacob Latshaw, Cedarville, 111 Jacob Latshaw. Cedarville, 111 F. W. Stump, Marshall, 111 D. C. Snow, Lamoile. Inwa John N. Barger. Lovilia, Iowa (; N. Gibson, Shelbyville, Ky John N. Barger, Lovilia, Iowa Will N. Wallis, Collin County, Texas John N. Barger, Lovilia, Iowa John N. Barger, Lovilia, Iowa Vilmorin, Paris Vilmorin, Paris Vilmorin, Paris Vilmorin, Paris J. H. Clark. Pleasant Hill, La D. B. Bradford , Elizabeth City, N. C W. A. Sanders, Sander.'.', Cal Richard Haswell, Armstrong Grove. la.. Isaac O. Harrell, Greeneville, Tenn Hampden Sidney Coll, Va Feet. 7.419 8.61 8 29 8.11 8.70 11.33 8 84 8 33 8.68 10 09 11.35 11.07 11 60 11.48 11.76 6 82 8 fl.T 9 29 8 06 8 :?!l 8 34 7 K9 7.7.') 8.19 7 50 8 79 6 6.'; 6 73 7 30 7 88 7.69 8 26 10 23 Lbs. 1 661 2 370 2 154 2 337 2 177 2 612 2 057 1 786 2 041 1 633 2,771 2 37.S 2 .Sl: 2 617 2 579 1 08!) 1 869 1 700 1 383 1 329 1 309 2 107 1 .AU 1 8,52 1.309 1 410 1 324 1 184 1 441 1.933 1.036 1 855 2 193 w Lbs. 1 189 1 807 1 803 1 729 1 6:a 1 928 1 543 1 20O 1 528 1 269 2 289 1 854 2 143 2 181 2 079 731 262 331 065 009 037 lOrW 1.045 1 835 911 1 065 0.971 884 1.097 0.722 746 1.245 1 765 1 260 1.128 1 040 1 488 800 In the above list, sixteen States are represented as furnishing seed ; and four varieties were obtained from France, among which is our own Early Amber, which already appears to be grown there from seed imported from America. Although, some thirty years since, we ob- tained our Chinese varieties of sorghum from France, and having, at the present time, many of them extensively cultivated in the United States, nearly all, if not every variety, of these Chinese sorghums seem to have disappeared from France, since the large house of Vilmorin & Co. were unable to send even a single specimen. The local names of the above mentioned varieties (as, for example, West India sugar-cane), must not be confounded with the real sugar- cane of Cuba and Louisiana ;' for the so-called sugar-caues, represented 76 SORGHUM. by the above numbers, are only varieties of sorgbum, a family of plants quite distinct from the true sugar-cane. Varieties of Sorghum received from Africa, China, and India. In 1881, tbe author received through President Angell, Minister to China, six varieties of sorghum seed, the names of which were as follows : Hwong-mao-nien-liang — Yellow-cap-glutinous-millet. San-sui-hoong-liang — Separated-headstalks-red-millet. San-sui-pai-liang^ — Separated-headstalks- white-millet. Er-chiu-hung-liang — Second-autumn-red-millet. Ma-wei-nien-liang — Horse-tail-glutinous-millet. Ta-min-hung-liang — Large-people's-red-millet. Also, through W. T. Thiselton Dyer, Esq., Assistant Director of the Eoyal Gardens, Kew, England, thirteen varieties of sorghum seed from the Botanical Gardens at Natal, South Africa, and from the Gordon Memorial Mission of Natal ; also, through Mr. Dyer, two va- rieties from Cawnpoor, India. The names of these were as follows : From Natal. Undendebule. Umgatubanda. Ukubane. Ubehlana. Jyangentombi. Ufatane. lyenga. Unkunjana. Ibohla. Hlogonde. Dindemuka. Unhlokonde. Uboyana. • From India. Black Sorgho. Red Sorgho. Upon planting these, it was found that very many more varieties could be distinguished than had been recognized by those sending the seed ; and it was found that there were at least 14 instead of 6 of the Chinese, 26 instead of 13 of the African, and 3 instead of 2 of the In- dian. This appears the more remarkable, since, in a letter from the Assistant Secretary for Native Afiairs, J. Shepstone, Esq., of Natal, he says : "The natives that I have spoken to ouly know of six varieties of the 'Imfe.'" Besides these specimens of seed, the author received from Wm. Kelt, Esq. , Director of the Royal Botanical Gardens at Natal, ripened panicles of the several varieties mentioned below, for the greater fa- cility of identification : VARIETIES OF SORGHUM CULTIVATED IN THE UNITED STATES. 77 lyenga Imphee. Dundemuka Imphee. Ufatana Imphee. Uukunyana Imphee. Ubehlana Imphee. Hlogonde Imphee. Undendebule Imphee. Umgatubanda Amabele. Also from Dr. Dalzell, of the Gordon Memorial Mission, Natal, the following list of ripened panicles : U-Dwe Imphee. Dindemuka Imphee. M-behlnna Imphee. Hlogonde Imphee. lyenga Imphee. Ukabane Amabele. U-fengkule Imphee. Umquatabanda Amabele. Ihlosa Imphee. The differences in the spelling, of what are obviously the same names in the several lists, is retained. It will be observed that there are twelve varieties in the two lists of ripe panicles, and that four of the varieties in the list of seeds are not represented among the lists of panicles. We have then sixteen named varieties received from Natal in these several lots, although the natives knew of only six, as was reported. This is the exact number of varieties which Mr. ^Vray brought from Natal in 1854 ; but it is to be noticed, that of his list only four of his varieties, in name, bear any resemblance to those in the above lists, viz: lyenga, which may be his E-en-gha. Ihlosa, which may be his E-thlo-sa. Ibothla, which -may be his E-both-la. Hlogonde, which may be his Shla.-goon-de. Supposing the above four to be identical, it would seem that at least 28 named varieties have already been received from Natal. The thirteen specimens of seed received were planted, and twenty- six varieties were observed among them, and not one resembled either of the numerous varieties grown in America the past thirty years, and which have been grown at the Department of Agriculture, in Wash- ington. Either the effect of climate and cultivation has been such as to materially change the character of those varieties introduced by Mr. Wray, or else there must exist, under cultivation in South Af- rica, a much larger number, of varieties than those already received from there. Since Mr. Wray so readily recognizes his old varieties from the plates published in the reports of the Department of Agri- culture, it would hardly seem possible that any change has resulted ; and the conclusion appears well founded, that these numerous varieties 78 SORGHUM. have already, throiigli centuries of cultivation in Africa, become per- manently fixed in their character. Besides the above foreign varieties, there have been grown, at the Department of Agriculture, at Washington, during the past five years, nominally, sixty distinct varieties of sorghum, from seed received from different parts of the country : and, at the present time, the author has in his possession full ripened panicles representing all these, as, also, each of the foreign varieties already mentioned, besides many specimens of seed from what purport to be new varieties, which have been sent in to be planted, in order that their comparative value for the purpose of syrup and sugar production might be determined. In the current n§ws concerning this industry, mention is often made of other varieties, at least, under names new to the author, and it is, without doubt, true that there exists, at present, in the United States, at least one hundred varieties of sorghum, more or less distinct. There is lit- tle reason to doubt, that, should a careful examination be made in those sections which have already so abundantly supplied us with new varieties, the list might be very greatly extended. Indeed, when we remember that, so far as our knowledge extends, India is the original home of the sorghum, and that, for thousands of years, in all proba- bility, it has been subjected to cultivation there, it seems more than probable that very many varieties now unknown to us, and, possibly, surpassing in value any we now possess, might be found there. More than twenty years ago, Mr. J. H. Smith, of Quincy, 111., in an article upon sorghum, says, in reference to this very point : " Is there any way in which the Agricultural Department at Washington could spend money to better advantage, than in sending an experienced agent to the countries from which these canes have originated, for the purpose of obtaining aU possible knowledge concerning these important acces- sions to the agriculture of our country ? " A distinction is made in the sorghums received from Natal, most of them being called Imphees : but two are called Amabele. Professor von Kloeden speaks of the native Kaffirs calling the fifteen varieties which they cultivate Imphi or Mabali ; and he mentions Bali as the name under which tlie sorghum is grown in Egypt, where six varieties are cultivated. I have not met with these names elsewhere in the literature of sor- ghum. But the use at Natal as a specific name is interesting, and it will be observed, in the plates showing the ripe panicles of these two varieties, that they are peculiar in having large, prominent seed ; in fact, the Umgatubanda is remarkable for the size of its seed. Analysis also shows the juice of these two varieties to be very infe- SIGNIFICATIOSr OF NAMES OF VARIETIES OF SORGHUM. 79 rior in its content of sugar to the other African varieties, and compara- tively of little value. From the above considerations, it would appear as though there existed very marked differences between these two groups of sorghums, not to be accounted for by cultivation, so far as we know. In the Report of the Government Farms, Said a pet, Madras, India,' Sept. 7th, 1882, mention is made of three varieties of sorghum as be- ing there under cultivation experimentally : Black Cholum (Sor- ghum vulgare). Planter's Friend (Sorghum kaffrarium), Chinese Su- gar-cane (Sorghum saccharatum). The last two were used in making syrup, and preference was given to the Planter's Friend for its greater saccharine value. Mention is also made of broom millet ( a variety of sorghum), and of the Early Amber sorghum, from the United States of America ; and it is reported that the syrup of the Early Am- ber crystallizes far more rapidly, and to a much more considerable ex- tent, than the syrup of either Sorghum saccharatum or Sorghum kaf- frarium. The refuse caues (bagasse), after crushing, are far more pal- atable to stock than refuse of sugar-cane ; and, judging from its appearance and general character, the refuse sorghum must be far more digestible. SIGNIFICATION OF THE NAMES OF THE VARIETIES OF SORGHUM. It will be observed that in the names given to the different varieties of sorghum, there is a tendency on the part of those cultivating them to describe them by their physical peculiarities. Thus, we have the " Sprangle Top,'' which has a loose, waving seed head ; the " Sumac," which in its close, compact panicle, resembles the seed head of our common Sumac, so well known to our farmers; the "Goose Neck," owing to the bent culm of this variety, a characteristic which is not uncommon with several other varieties. So, too, in the Chinese names, we have the " Separated Head Stalks," red and white; the Horse Tail, etc. Also, in the South African varieties, the same tendency appears in their names : as, for example, " Jyenga " means " loose headed, wav- ing ;" " Hlojonde " is " long headed," etc. In this connection, the following letters will be found of interest, being in reply to letters of inquiry as to the significance of those names of the Imphees found current in sorghum literature, of which names a list was sent. Two of the varieties of sorghum received from Natal, viz. , Ukabane and Umgatubanda, are called Amabele, while the remainder are des- ignated as Imphees. 80 SOEGHUM. The following letters were received through the kindness of Mr. Dyer, of the Royal Gardens, Kew, to whom a list of the Imphee names had been sent. The one is from the Assistant Secretary of Na- tive Affairs at Natal, the other from the daughter of the late Bishop of Natal : Secretary of Native Affairs to Colonial Secretary, Natal : I can not give the meaning of the generic lerm, "Imfe," nor can I find na- tives that can do so. The natives that I have spoken to only know of six varieties of the "Imfe," of which I will give the names and derivations: Ist. " lyenga " — Bnticer — from its drooping or waving ear or head of corn. 2nd. Umbemba — Sprouts or shoots. This cane invariably having small shoots from each joint. 3rd. " Uzimumana "—The enwrapped — from the close adherence of the outer leaves to the cane. 4th. Umapofu — The yellow — from its yellow color. 5th. Ihlosa — The prominent — from its growing generally higher than other corn wilh which it is sown. 6th. Unfenkulu — The great Imfe — from its large size. The names given in the list inclosed by you, are, I believe, repetitious ob- tained from different tribes, many having names according to the dialect spoken. Tiie names are also badly spelt. (Signed,) J. Shepstone, Ass' t Sec'y Jor Naiice Affairs. Nos. 2, 3, and 4 of this list are new names, for they neither appear in the list of names of Mr. Wra/s varieties, nor in that of the seeds and panicles received by me from Natal. Lid of Imphees returned by Miss Colenso. " Undendebule." Not recognized, but the word ukudendebuleka means " capable of being peeled straight down through the joints.'' " Umkunyana.'' Not recognized, but the word should mean "rather hard." " Unhlokonde," " Hlgonde," " Slagonda." The first means "long head ;" the others are the same word misspelt. " Ibohla " probably means " causing flatulence." " lyenga," " Eeuga," "Engha." The first means " loose headed," " waving ;" the others are the same word misspelt. " Umnyani-mude — "with long flower stalks or head." The head in this variety is still longer than that of the " Unhlokonde. " Booravana," " Boom-vwana," Booena." The first means "small red " or " rather red ;' the last two are misspelt. " Uzimumana," ." Liramoomana," " Zimmoomana." The first means- " close," " thick headed." The last two names are misspelt. SIGNIFICATION OF NAMES OF VAEEETIES OF SORGHUM. 81 " Hlakuva." Called so after the castor oil plant ; the seeds being thought to look alike. A very small headed, short variety. " Zimbazana." Called so after "Izimba," a variety of "Kaffir corn," because very like it. "Izimba" is used as grain in making beer. "Zimbazana" may be used so, also. "Ihlosa'' — ^" budding," "beginning to swell." A variety which looks young when already grown. " Elwofla," " Ehahla." Not recognized, but evidently the same. " Koombana," " Koombanna." Not recognized, but evidently the ' same. "Ubayana," " Ukubane," " Ubehlane," " Jyangenbambi," " Din- demuka," "Ugabane," " Umgatubanda," " Oomseeana," "Neeazana," " Sangokahea," " Vimbischuapa." None of these names are recog- nized. The following plates show the ripened panicles of several of the more characteristic varieties of sorghum — of those grown in the United States, and of those grown from seed received from South Af- rica, China, and India. The labels attached to the engravings, which were made from pho- tographs, were, in every case, two inches by one in actual size, so that the dimensions of each panicle may be readily ascertained by this scale of measurement. The Black and Red sorgho. Plates I and II, are from Cawnpore, India; Plates III and IV are two varieties from Northern China; Plates V and VI are two of the new South African varieties, called Amabele ; Plates VII, VIII, and IX, are of the new South African varieties, called Imphees ; Plates X, XI, XII, XIII, XIV, XV, are of characteristic varieties grown during the past thirty years in the United States, being either the original varieties introduced by Mr. Wray, or varieties which have proceeded from them. If is possible that some of them may have had a Chinese origin, though they par- take rather of the general African type. The names given to these six American grown varieties, have been those names by which they have been generally known in this coun- try, although, as has been remarked, the same variety has been re- ceived from several localities under different names ; for example, the Liberian, Plate XII, has been received under the names Imphee, Chinese, Sumac, and Liberian. The frontispiece represents a hill of the variety known as Honduras,, which has also been received under the names Mastodon, Sprangle Top, Honey Top, Texas Cane, Honey Cane. It is possible that two or 6 82 SORGHUM. three of the larger varieties introduced by Mr. "VVray may be con- founded under these several names, but, at the present, the identity of each has not been established. The compact heads of the African varieties is a marked feature ; but that is not a characteristic of those which are valuable for sugar, since two of these, Plates V and VI, which are called Amabele, are practically worthless for sugar, although, like the other African varieties (Imphees), they have compact panicles or seed heads. The two varieties from Northern India have loose, waving heads, but are very valuable for sugar, as the analysis, page 101, will show. The presence of these two distinct classes from South Africa, with their wide difference in sugar content, is highly interesting, es- pecially in view of their being recognized as belonging to distinct families. It will be seen that the per cent of sugar in the juice of the two Amabeles averages 4.90, while in the seventeen Imphee varieties it averages 11.82 per cent. HGNinCATION OF NAMES OF VARIETIES OF SORGHUM. 83 Plate I. 84 SOEGHUM. Plate II. SIGNIFICATION OP KAMES OP VAEIETIES OF SOEGHUM. 85 Plate lU. 86 SOEGHUM. Plate IV. eiGNinCATIOK OF NAMES OF VAKCETIES OF SOEGHTJM. 87 Plate V. 88 SOKGHTJM. Plate VL SIGNIFICATION OF NAMES OF VARIETIES OF SOEGHUM. 89 Plate VII. 90 SOEGHUM. Plate VIII. eiGHIElOATION OF NAMES OP VAEIETIES OF SOEGHCM. 91 Plate IX. 92 SOEGHUM. Plate X. SIGNIFICATION OF NAMES OF VAEIEXIES OP-flQEGHUM;. 93 Plate XI. 94 BOEGHUM. Plate Xn. HGNinCATION OF NAMES OF VARIETIES OF SORGHUM. 95 Plate XIII. 96 SORGHUM. Plate XIV. SIGNIFICATION OF NAMES OF VAEIETIES OF SOEGHUM. 97 Plate XV. 98 SORGHUM. SYNOPTICAL TABLE OF THE VARIETIES OF SORGHUM CULTIVATED AT THE DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE DURING THE YEARS 1879-80- 81-82. The following table can not claim any great degree of botanical ac- curacy, as it has been worked out from single dry heads, and without a careful comparison of the varieties growing in the field. It is be- lieved, however, that it will be of great assistance in aiding the prac- tical farmer to distinguish, with the aid of the illustrations, whatever variety he may have under cultivation. It is based upon a similar table prepared by Mr. F. Peck, and pub- lished in the Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture, 1865 : The Ripe Chrain. I. Longer than the glumes (husks). (A.) Panicle or head dense. 1. Glumes black. a. Inconspicuous. Liberian, or ImpJiee. Head short, 6 to 7 inches long, dense, cylindrical, ob- tuse ; general color dark brown. Glumes small, obtuse, black shining; outer one hairy on the margin. Seed smallest of all varieties, round, obtuse, tapering to the base ; hilum or point of attachment of a lighter color and prominent. h. Conspicuous. Seeds brown; effect of head black. (Grain at' times hardly longer than the glumes.) Oomseeana. Head slender, erect, 8 to 9 inches long ; branches closely appressed, but not dense. Glumes black, pointed; outer one keeled, smooth and open. Seed deep brown, and visible between the open glumes ; plane convex, acute at both ends. BlacTc Top. Head larger and broader than the preceding, blacker and more dense; seed lighter. Bear Tail. Denser head and longer glumes than in preceding, re- sembling in some respects a compacted Early Amber. Iowa Red Top. An Oomseeana cane, with large, prominent seeds and smaller glumes. Seeds white. TABLE FOE IDENTIFICATION OF VARIETIES. 99 White Mammoth. Head very dense, expanding toward the flattened top. Glumes shining black, prominent. Seed white, largfe, flattened ; hilum inconspicuous, 2. Glumes light-red brown. Seeds white. White African Head slender, 7 to 8 inches long; branches closely com- pressed but not very dense. Glumes large, light red, shining. Seed large, white. Seed yellowish brown. Neeazana. Head 5 to 8 inches long, dense, cylindrical. Glumes pointed, somewhat hairy; outer one gray: inner one black, smaller, and inconspicuous. Seed long, flat; hilum inconspicuous. Synon. White Imphee, Early Orange. New Variety (Salle), similar to Neeazana, but both glumes are at times light colored and hairy. Wolf Tail. Head 9 to 10 inches long, slender, dense. Glumes almost white, shining, somewhat downy. Seed shorter than in Neeazana, long, round ; hilum slightly flattened. Gray Top. Head similar to Neeazana, but glumes brown, shining, ob- tuse, short. Seed short, long, large, prominent, round; hilum only slightly flattened ; distinguished by its brown glumes and the prominence of the large round seeds in the head. 3. Glumes gray. Bice, or Egyptian, Corn. Head heavy, bending the culm, dense, obtuse, cylindrical. Glumes gray, prominent, wooly, persistent. Seed large, flat, white, round in outline, width greater than the length ; prominent in the head, and easily shaken out. (B.) Panicle not dense. Glumes black. Regular Sorgho. Head loose, 10 to 12 inches long. Glunjes black, shining, open, displaying the seeds. Seeds large, flat, obtuse. Hybrid Sorghum. Hybrid of B. Link. Oomseeana of Blymyer. 100 SOEGHUM. New Variety of E. Link. These are hybrids of the Liberian or Imphee vari- ties with the Honduras or Chinese varieties, and bear the characteristics of both races. Here, also, might be mentioned — African of Parks, of Kentucky. Hybrid of Moore. II. Equal to the glumes. (A.) Glumes closed, or nearly so. Red, and palet awned. Honduras. Head 1 foot long, thin, loose, spreading, nodding. Glumes reddish brown, shining, somewhat hairy, acute at both ends; inner one keeled. Seed long, very acute at the base, obtuse at the apex; plane convex; hilum conspicuous, with a prominence at the base, and a rcund mark at the upper edge. Synon. Mastodon, Honey Cane, Sprangle Top, Honey Top. These all vary slightly, so as to be distin- guished in the field ; but not, however, by descrip- tion. Deep chocolate palet, awned. Hyhrid of Wallis, Collin county, Texas. Similar to the Honduras, except in the deep brown glumes and more compact head, showing its Imphee affin- ities. (B.) Glumes open. Under this head might be sought Regular Sorgho and Black Top, classed as having the grain longer than the glumes. m. Shorter than the glumes. (A.) Glumes black. Culm erect. Early Amber. Head slender, erect; branches appressed, pointed, 9 to 10 inches long. Glumes large, smooth, shining, acute at both ends, con- cealing the seed or open, flattened on both sides. Seeds long, obtuse, light colored; hilum large, with a prominence in the center. Synon. Early Golden, Golden Syrup. Culm erect, or often bent with heavy heads. Ooose Neck. Head inverted on the bent, culm; somewhat loose, 8 inches long. Glumes shining, downy at the tips, flattened. Seeds smaller than Amber, long, acute at the base, obtuse at the apex, somewhat flattened. COMPARISON OP SOEGHUMS FEOM DIFFERENT COUNTEEES. 101 (B.) Glumes purplish. White Liberian. Head slender, erect, or goose-necked ; branches appressed, pointed. Glumes large, smooth, shining, acute at both ends, often not covering the seed. Infertile ones often very prominent and purplish gray. Seed large, long, and similar to the Amber, but hilam more prominent. Synon. Sugar-cane (Barger). COMPARISON OF SOEGHUMS GEOWN FEOM SEED EECEIVED FEOM CHINA, NATAL, INDIA, AND FROM THE UNITED STATES. These several varieties were grown upon the same plot of ground, in Washington, D. C, in the year 1882, and the results obtained are, therefore, comparable. The number of analyses made of each group, the average weight of stripped stalks, the percentage of juice expressed, and the average per- centages of sucrose, solids not sucrose (including glucose), and availa- ble sugar, in the juices, are given, for several stages of development. The poor quality of the Chinese varieties is seen in the light weight of the stalks, the small percentage of juice expressed (though the same mill was used in all the experiments recorded — a total of 984), and in the lower percentage of sucrose and available sugar. It is, however, to be remembered, that these Chinese seeds were obtained from about Peking, while the original Chinese sorghum seed imported into France by M. de Montigny, according to Dr. Williams, was grown upon the island Tsung-ming, which lies at the mouth of the Yang-tse-kiang river, some 700 miles south of Peking. It is not im- probable that this warmer region had developed a variety richer in sugar than those of Northern China, where, as Dr. WiUiams says, the uses of the plant for grain and fuel may have developed qualities, dur- ing the centuries of its cultivation, fitting it for such purposes, but at the expense of its sugar content. Comparison of 14 Chinese sorghums, 26 African, 3 Indian, and 20 American : Percentage of Sucrose in Juice. Chinese. African. Indian. American. Seed in milli 6.90 8.72 8.07 8.91 Seedindougli 8.23 9.49 10.36 11.53 Seed, liard ■• 8.93 10.20 9.62 11.67 Sucker seed in milk 9.57 10.83 12.03 12.01 Sucker seed in dougli ' 9.61 12.24 11.85 12.80 Average 8.65 10.30 10.37 11.36 102 SORGHUM. Comparison in Weight of Stripped Stalks and Juice. Chinese. African. Indian. American. No. analyses 136 384 50 414 Weight, pounds 85 1.58 1.13 1.14 Juice, per cent 43.29 60.80 61.19 60.13 Percentage of available Sugar in Juice. Chinese. African. Indian. American. Seedinmilk 2.10 3.66 3.28 3.43 Seed in dough 2.83 4.64 - 6.97 6.42 Seed, hard 4.51 6.41 5.36 7.11 Sucker seed in milk 5.18 6.70 7.68 7.69 Sucker seed in dough 4.98 8.46 7.75 8.91 Average 3.92 5.97 6.01 6.71 Percentage of SoUds not Sucrose {including Glucose) in Juice. , Chinese, African. Indian. American. Seed in milk 4.80 5.06 4.79 5.48 Seed in dough 5.40 4.85 4.39 5.11 Seed, hard 4.42 3.79 4.16 4.46 Sucker seed in milk 4.39 4.13 4.35 4.32 Sucker seed in dough 4.63 8.78 4.10 3.89 Average .' 4.73 4.32 4.36 4.65 From the above tables, the general resemblance between the Afri- can, Indian, and American varieties is noticeable, as to their quality of juice and its amouilt ; but, while the Indian and American varieties have about the same weight, the average of the African varieties is much greater — the proportion between the African, American, Indian, and Chinese, in weight, being as follows : 100 : 72 : 71 : 54. It will be seen, also, that the average content of sugar is a little greater in the American varieties than in any of the others, and this result may be due to the effects of our climate during the thirty-three years of their cultivation in the United States ; or, to the fact that some principle of selection has prevailed during their cultivation, since, as is well known, their value as sugar producing plants has been steadily kept in mind. Whichever view is taken of the matter, the practical conclusion is most favorable, for it appears hardly probable, that, by chance, such varieties only were introduced at that early day as were the best for sugar. It would seem, then, possible that, by more intelligent and systematic selection and cultivation, we might be able to produce a va- riety heavier than any yet known, and with a higher content of sugar. Similar results with other cultivated plants are, by no means, excep- tional. The following table gives the relative heights and weights of the av- erage sorghums from China, Africa, India, and the United States ; also, the average length and weight' of the panicles. COMPAEISON OF SOEGHUMS FEOM DIFFBEENT COUNTKIES. 103 /Season of 1882. 10 Chinese. 20 African. 3 Indian. 18 American. Average height of stalk feet. 9.6 8.4 8.3 9 " weight of stripped stalk... pounds. .746 1.44 1.20 1.13 " " panicle ounces. 3.925 3.88 2.83 2.68 " length of " inches. 15.1 10.93 9.00 10.06 The following table presents in detail, for comparison, the analyses of the four classes of sorghums, all of which were grown side by side, in- 1882, at Washington. Those analyses only are included which were made after the seed had become hard. 104 SOEGHXTM. Average Results in 1882, 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 83. 34. 35. 37. Vabiety. Hoong Mao N^en Liang (a) San Sui Hoong Liang (a) . . " ' (6)-- San Sui Pai Liang (a1 (6) Er Chiu'Hung Liang (o) . . . Ma Wei Nien Liang Ta Min Hung Liang (a) . - " m... Co).. Undendebule XJknbane (o) W Jyangentombi (a) Ifi) Ibolila Dindemuka Uboyana Umgatubanda Ubehlana (a) (6) Uf atane (a) " (!>) " (c) Unkuniana(a) (6) (c) Hlogonde (a) (5) UnUokonde White Impliee White African White Mammoth West India New Variety (Stump) Earlv Amber •. New Variety (H. S. Coll.)... Bear Tail Iowa Eed Top Red Sorgho Black Sorgho (a) (6) Link's Hybrid Standard (Harrall) Neeazana Gray Top White Liberian New Variety (Link) New Variety (Haawell) Chinese Impnee New Variety (Bradford) 1 13 1 9 13 17 12 15 1 1 23 15 9 5 1 4 24 20 7 14 2 22 9 9 15 10 11 18 18 4 13 15 8 17 15 22 21 23 2 18 12 1 8 18 26 21 54 19 19 21 5 •S'.S o c JS 0)0 .61 .44 .75 .79 .76 .58 .68 .65 .85 1.35 1.28 1.31 .86 1.05 1 24 1.45 1.28 1.85 1.68 1.71 2.25 1.47 1.34 1.65 1.43 1.72 1.58 1.40 1.35 .95 1.05 1.38 1.46 1.25 .95 .80 .76 .97 1.12 1.41 .92 1.28 1.64 1.51 .76 .99 .82 1.28 1.02 1.06 1.50 36.82 40.19 32.45 40.66 42,94 38,68 39.54 38.70 39 11 46.66 56.07 59.27 53.75 58.23 65.72 66 21 60,82 62 06 60 35 62,80 61 58 57 89 60,90 58.96 62 89 62.73 60.57 57.54 57.86 59,93 62,08 56 79 62.69 58.93 67.03 5f 53 59 95 57.03 64 82 57.67 61.54 65.75 60.43 55.66 53.69 61.30 56.11 56.07 66.79 53.48 55,36 5§ 2 28 .71 2.37 .75 .84 ,65 .60 .83 1.93 1.10 .83 1.18 .S5 .88 1.30 2.49 1.01 1.72 .97 1.24 1 61 1.51 .98 1.20 1.96 1.71 1.28 1.35 1.44 1.84 1.34 1,28 1.23 2.38 1.24 1.15 1.17 1 85 1.58 1.45 .97 1.15 .84 .59 1.92 1.26 1.25 1.28 1.54 1,16 1,91 COMPABISON OF SOEGHUMS PEOM DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 105 After Seed was Hard. ro-g la ii Is tsS. Si S.S ON i 9.3 ' 9.13 3.80 4 62 1060 ...^...... ■'"si"" 9.3 6.25 2 97 .91 1053 334 13M 8 93 3.85 4 33 1060 siis" ""97 ' 4 16 ■■■■ 9^6 9.45 3.94 4 67 1061 10.30 97 4 12)^ 9.6 9.79 3 84 5 30 1062 9.88 90 6K 13 9 4 8 27 4.63 3.04 1060 9.46 104 3M 14 10.0 8 56 4 07 3 63 1055 8 69 117 m 15 9.6 9.64 1.95 2 34 3 29 5 76 7 19 9 52 1058 1061 1077 9.64 10 96 13.57 4 4 5K 19 19 13 10 63 'Hi'" 13-64 9.6" 11.98 2.78 S 02 1067 12 05 100 3>i 14K 9.C 5.27 3.20 1 72 1039 5.33 116 4 13>i 5.6 13.45 3 10 9.47 1074 13-41 116 2K lOK 8.6 6.49 2.31 2 88 1042 6.52 136 4« sy^ 7 9.77 2.37 4 91 1061 9.68 , 115 iK iSii 11.4 11.05 2.54 7 50 1064 10 95 136 2X 8 8 11.16 2.51 6 93 1065 10,94 143 5K 11 « 8 2 4.62 2 67 .88 1043 4,24 115 4X K 7.0 11.82 2,71 7,87 1069 11,64 124 3 15X 9 12.57 2,03 8 94 1069 12,31 143 1 9 8.3 12 09 2.66 7 92 1069 11 75 124 8 10 8 10 13.59 3 07 9 64 1075 13,68 143 !>y^ 8K 6 1 10,85 2 68 6.97 1073 M3 5 lUi 7,8 10.11 2,06 6 09 1062 ■ 9,'32" 143 2>i 10 H 9.2 9,86 2 67 6 48 1059 8 50 136 6 14' 10 6 11 70 2.47 7 95 1066 11 62 143 4 8 7.5 12,44 • 2 81 8 28 1U71 11 63 129 6 13 8.9 12 99 2.64 8.91 1070 12 22 129 3 7^ 7.4 11 99 2.14 8.01 1065 10 68 115 3X 10 9.2 11.81 2.89 7 58 . 1069 12 01 107 3 8^ 8.1 11.62 2.92 7.42 1068 11 17 115 4 lOK 9.6 11 58 3.14 7.21 1067 12 02 115 3 9 10.3 11.34 2 61 6.35 1073 10 93 115 3 9 8.6 11.87 3 22 7.41 1067 12,01 100 IK 9 9 2 13.08 2 97 8.96 1073 12 72 107 2 10 9 10 53 3 10 6.26 1063 10.99 100 1^ 10 9.6 11.52 2 38 7.S9 1065 11 24 ll.'i 1« 10 9.4 11.07 2 19 7.30 1062 10 68 107 rx 9 8 4 12.27 2.91 7 91 1071 12 02 131 2 8 9.2 nil 3 15 6 99 1065 11 21 110 3 11 7 6 11.70 2.54 8.01 1063 11.68 110 3>^ 8 8.0 14.21 3.10 10.27 1075 14 24 130 3 13 9.3 14 25 3 17 10,49 1076 14,. 35 129 3 12 9 8 13 11 2.86 8 33 1075 12 99 100 3 7 7.3 12 01 2.91 7,84 1068 11.68 107 3X SH 8.0 12.40 2 96 8.19 1070 11.94 100 l>i 11 9.0 13 60 3 00 9.32 1076 13.67 104 2 10 9.7 11.46 3 03 6 89 1066 11.19 95 3K 9K 9.6 13.49 3 12 9.21 1076 13 37 97 3 12 10.3 9.97 2.43 5.63 1060 9.66 124 4K 13 8.6 106 SOEGHUM. Character of the Varieties of Sorghum as to Habits of Suekering. Owing to the importance of having a uniform crop of cane without any admixture of immature stalks, for the purpose of sugar produc- tion, observations were made in the field upon the several varieties of sorghum under cultivation in 1882 for the purpose of determining their character in respect to throwing up suckers from the roots and offshoots from the parent stalk. The following different classes appeared pretty well defined ; but it often happened that one variety would have the characteristics of two or more classes : First class. — A single stalk from the seed, without suckers from be- low or offshoots from the stalk. Second class. — Two or more stalks from the seed, maturing with equal rapidity, and without suckers or offshoots. Third class. — A single stalk from the seed, with no suckers from the roots; but with oflTshoots from the upper joints of the parent stalk. Fourth class. — A single stalk from the seed, without offshoots ; but with suckers springing up from the roots, and maturing much later than the original stalk. Fifth class. — A single stalk from the seed, with no suckers from the roots; but with offshoots from every joint of the parent stalk. It will, I think, be obvious that, other things being equal, the sev- eral varieties of sorghum will, for the purpose of sugar production, be valuable according as they belong to the above classes in their order, viz, those of the first or second class most valuable ; those belonging to the third next, and so in order. It was generally found, however, that each variety belonged to two or more of the above classes ; and below is given the results of observa- tions upon fifty-two varieties, October 14th, one hundred and forty- three days after planting, see page 121 : Class 1.— Nos. 86, 10, 11, 16c, 17c. Class 3.— Nos. 36, 7, 8a, 12, 14, 16a, 166, 18a, 21, 22, 25, 28, 29a, 296, 33, 35, 37, 39, 406. Class 5.— Nos. 2, 3a, 4, 5, 6, 34. Classes 1 and 2. — Nos. 96, 15a. Classes 2 and 3.— Nos. 9a, 9c, 13, 17a, 176, 19, 23, 30. Classes 2 and 4. — No. 1. Classes 3 and 4.— Nos. 20, 24, 26, 27, 32, 36, 38, 40a. Classes 3 and 5. — No. 31. Classes 1, 3, and 4. — No. 186. COMPAEISON OF SOEGHUMS FROM DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 107 Nos. 1 to 6, inclusive, were Chinese ; Nos. 7 to 19, African ; Nos. 29 and 30, Indian ; and the remainder from the United States. It will of course be understood that the above classification is only relative ; and upon other soils, and in different conditions than those which prevailed with the plat upon which the above varieties were grown, these sorghums would pass from one to another of the classes. This classification, however, will show the relative tendency of these varieties under conditions which were for each the same ; and for any" soil or any climate the choice would be fully justified of only such varieties as stood near the head in the above classification. Of course the relative weight of crop of each variety, its time for maturing, and its relative content of sugar, are also to be taken into consideration in selecting the variety best adapted to any given locality. 108 SOEGHUM. CHAPTEE V. (a.) Selection and preparation of ground, planting, and cultivation. (5.) Selection and preparation of seed. (c.) Time, from planting, to reach certain stages of development. (d-) Time for harvesting crop. (e.) Importance of an even crop. (f.) Effect of removing seed, etc. {g.) Effect of stripping cane. SELECTION AND PEEPAEATION OF GEOTTND, PLANTING, AND CULTI- VATION. In general, the sorghum crop, in its demands upon the soil and cli- mate, and in its method of planting and cultivation, very closely re- sembles Indian corn (Zea mais) , with which every one is practically familiar. But this general statement demands modification. During the earlier stages in the life of the sorghum, the plant is feeble, and liable to be easily choked by weeds. Although the resemblance in its culture is so close to that of maize, and the expense generally regarded as about the same per acre, it is to be remembered that it is a crop which, for seed, forage, sugar, and syrup combined, far surpasses maize in value, and that any increase in the aggregate value of these prod- ucts (which -may be secured by greater care in the preparation of the soil and cultivation of the crop), will be fully justified by the economi- cal results. It is, of course, hardly possible to lay down directions as to each de- tail of cultivation applicable to every soil and locality ; but, in gen- eral, such soil and such culture as would secure a good com crop will suffice. Like maize sorghum requires, for its best development, heat and light; but, unlike maize, it is found to successfully withstand even prolonged drought, provided only that it shall have secured a fair start : and, in fact, the maximum of sugar has been found, in every variety of sorghum under examination, to have been developed during a season of drought (that of 1881) so severe that the crops of maize, in the same section, were almost a complete failure. This subject will be considered in another part of this volume in detail. For the growing of sorghum, then, good corn land should be selected,. SELECTION AND PEEPAEATION OF GROUND, ETC. 109 with a ■warm exposure ; and the crop, if in drills, should be planted with them generally running east and west, so that the fullest access of sun and heat may be secured. If practicable, the field should be chosen so as to be sheltered from heavy winds, which, by prostrating the crop, increase greatly the ex- pense of harvesting, and injure its quality. The character of soil and fertilization necessary, will be the subject of a special chapter. Preparation of tJie Soil. Having selected the field, the aim should be to put it in a condition of perfect tilth, more like a garden than a field, by continual cultiva- ation, efiectually destroying weeds, and. thoroughly pulverizing the soil, so that subsequent cultivation is rendered easy and rapid. To this end it should be constantly remembered, that any additional labor at the outset, in preparing the soil for the crop, saves more than its equivalent in after cultivation, and greatly increases the value of the crop. The main points are, first, to see that the weeds shall not be allowed to get the start of the crop ; and it is, therefore, to be ad- vised strongly to run a cultivator over the ground, and drag and re- diag the ground within a day of the time of planting, so that no weeds shall have even a day's start of the crop. Next to secure at the outset a good, even stand of cane, and avoid any occasion for replanting : not so much on account of the trouble and additional expense, as that, by replanting, it is impossible to have all the crop come to maturity at the same time — a matter of the utmost importance in the production of sugar. Owing to the importance of having a field free from weeds, it would be well to have sorghum follow some hoed crop (as corn, potatoes, or tobacco) ; or, if such land is not available, to secure the destruction of the weeds by fall plowing and continuous working of the land until ready to put in the seed. By deep fall plowing a deep tilth is secured, favorable to the full development of the roots of sorghum, and assists it to withstand drought ; also, it will tend to destroy, through winter freezing, those weeds which may give trouble in the spring. Especially is this treatment necessary upon new land. In the spring, after having thoroughly broken up the ground by deep plowing, the drag, roller, or smoothing harrow, should be used, after the ground is warm, until the soil is suitable for a garden, free from weeds, lumps, and litter, smooth, and ready for planting. 110 SORGHUM. Tiine for Planting. The time for planting will, of course, depend upon the locality. The main thing desired, is that an even, uniform stand shall be se- cured at the first planting, free from weeds as possible. Since the weeds and foul seeds are always ready to start so soon as the warmth is sufficient for germination, it is well to defer planting until the growth, fairly begun, shall be stopped by the cultivator and har- row, and the weeds destroyed. By so doing the ground is made warm as well as clean. Nothing is gained, and sthere is great risk, in planting too early. As a rule, the planting is to be done only at the time when the ground is so warm and moist that the germination of the seeds shall proceed at once with- out interruption. If planted at such time, the plants will make their appearance within throe or four days. The testimony is almost universal, that the latest planting has se- cured the best crop, and required the least care in its production. By late planting, the crop has a better chance with the weeds, and by proper cultivation for the first month, will quite overshadow and destroy them. Amount of Seed for Planting. The number of seed, of course, varies with the kind, and with the different lots of the same variety, but averages about 25,000 to the pound. Professor Henry found 27,680 seed of the Early Amber; and I found in one specimen from Virginia, 19,000 ; and in another from Minue- ' sota, 31,800 seed to the pound. Owing to the extreme importance of securing a good stand of cane at first planting, it is always best to plant two or three times as much seed as will be necessary in case it all grows. By this means, of course, in most cases, it will be neces- sary to thin out the plants, which involves little work, as it may be speedily efiected by the hoe, so soon as the cane is about five or six inches high. In the event of failure more or less complete to secure a good stand, the choice is presented of either replanting the whole, if there remains time, or to make the best of such as may have started. In this latter case most persons will be greatly surprised to find how large the crop is at the harvest. In any event, do not plant in the vacant spaces of the field, unless the object is only the production of syrup from the crop. For sugar, this second planting would practi- cally be worse than useless. Two quarts of seed, if fairly distributed, would be quite enough to the acre ; and if all the seed was good, there would be need even then of thinning out the crop : but, as equal distribution of so small an SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF GROUND, ETC. Ill amount of seed is practically impossible, it is better to plant at least three or four quarts to the acre, with the expectation of thinning out at the proper time. Method of Planting. Having thoroughly prepared the ground, the planting may be done in drills or in hills, as in each locality may have been found to give with corn the best results. Of course, no general rule will apply ; for not only is there a difference in the soils, but also in the several vari- eties of sorghum. Of those who advocate planting in hills, some de- clare that the crop is thus better able to stand up in the wind — a most desirable result ; also that, by an opportunity for cross cultivation, the weeds are more readily kept down. The several methods of planting recommended by cultivators are given below, and for the convenience of those who may wish to know the num.ber of stalks to the acre, and estimate the weight of crop of the several varieties df sorghum, from the table, page 74, giving the aver- age weight of the stripped stalks, the following table has been prepared, giving, according to the several modes of planting, the Number of Sialics per, Acre. In drills 4 feet a jart, and 3 stalks to the foot = - 32,670 " 3i " " 3 " = . 36,300 " H " " 2 " = 24,200 3 " 3 " = 43,560 3 " 2 " 29,040 " 3if. " " 3 " / " = = 34,090 hills 4 feet by 4 feet apart, and 6 stalks to the hill = 16,400 " 3J " 3i '^. 5 = 17,730 34 " 2 " 4 = 24,895 3 "3 " 6 = 29,040 "3 "3 " 4 = 19,360 "3 "2 « 4 = 29,040 " 4 " ^■ " 4 = 21,780 " 3^ " H " 6 . ' " = 32,120 Upon good, strong land the cane may be planted in drills three feet apart, with stalks only four inches apart in the drill, giving 43,560 stalks to the acre. It is thought that, by close, planting, the growth of weeds is more speedily checked by being sooner overshadowed by the sorghum plants ; also, that the growth of suckers is fiar less. On the other hand, the exclusion of light and heat retards the production of ^ugar in the plant; and, if the stalks are. too close, their development is less, and 112 SOEGHUM. they are inclined to be long, spindling, and weak, with low content of sugar. It is very much to be desired that careful comparative ex- periments shall be made, to determine the relative effects of open and close planting, since a maximum weight of stalks per acre may be at the expense of the possible amount of sugar, or even of syrup. Recent results with maize give reason to believe, that, should the distance between the drills or hiUs of sorghum be very much increased over that at present given, the result would be found very satisfactory. Marking the land may be done after the rolling, vsith an implement consisting of a plank resting upon three or four short runners at least 3 inches wide, so as to give a good track fixed at the proper distances ; and great care should be exercised to have the rows as straight as pos- sible, for the convenience of after cultivation. The planting may be done by hand, or with the planter. The one horse "Keystone Planter" is reported by Professor Henry, of Wiscon- sin, to do perfect work, planting about an acre an hour, with the rows four feet apart, dropping the seed regularly every ten inches, and cov- ering it half an inch, three-fourths, or an inch as may be desired, and at an expense of not over 25 cents per acre for planting. The "Mound City One Horse Corn Drill," and the " Union Planter," are also said to give entire satisfaction. The price of the above planters is about $18. In using them, it is necessary that the seed shall have been Plate XVI. carefully cleaned and free from hulls. The depth to which the seed should be covered will depend much upon the soil ■ and its conditions of moisture and temperature. Unless the soil is very dry, a half inch is the proper depth ; and deep planting should be carefully avoided. The light one horse planter is much to be preferred to the two horse, especially if the ground by thorough preparation has been mellowed, SELECTION AND PEEPAEA'flON OP GROUND, ETC. 113 since there is danger that the heavier planter may plant the seed too deep. This planter is represented in Plate XVI. Cultivation. The main object after the planting of the sorghum, is to keep the weeds in subjection until the crop has so far advanced as to be able to care for itself. It is now that the previous cultivation of hoed crops upon the field, the fall plowing, the frequent cultivation and harrowing of the land up to the day of planting, are seen to have been of great value. After planting, these last operations are continued uninterruptedly until the plants are about two feet high. It is a common practice, a few days after planting, to drag the field over once or twice with a light harrow ; and this is even done after the cane has made its ap- pearance. But, if the seed was planted when the earth was thoroughly warm and moist, and directly after a thorough cultivation, harrowing, and rolling of the land, it will be found that the weeds will have made no appreciable start before the cane is so well up that the bills or drills are easily recognized, and then the work with the cultivator and the hoe should begin, and be continued. So soon as the plants are about six inches high, they should be thinned out, and this operation may easily be performed with the hoe. After the plants have attained a height of 12 or 18 inches, care should be taken to avoid deep culti- vation, especially near the plant, in order not to disturb the rootlets of the growing plant, which extend out near the surface. In short, the care of the crop, after planting, is practically identical with that of maize, with this difference, that the young sorghum is more delicate and requires more attention than does maize. At the present, it is hardly known whether hiUing or flat culture is best|; but at the first it is best to leave the land level, in order that the harrow may reach the weeds. By many it is asserted that the hilling results in throwing out of suckers, a most undesirable result, although it does not as yet appear established as an effect of hilling. It will probably be found, in each locality and season, that the course to be pursued will vary with the conditions prevailing, and that neither the one course nor the other will be found best for general appli- cation. In certain sections of the country, the best results have been se- cured by what is termed ridge culture. Instead of marking, as usual, 8 114 SOEGHUM. for the planter, the land is thrown up into ridges and the seed planted upon these. This method is especially adapted to a wet, backward season. On the other hand, in Southern Kansas, where there is a lack of sufficient moisture, the opposite system, known as " listing," is said to give excellent results with both sorghum and maize. In this method, by means of the Usting plow (subsoil), furrows are laid in the jSeld . and the seed is planted in these, where is found moist earth, and where the roots, going deeper, are able to reach the necessary supply of moisture. SELECTION AND PEEPAEATION OF SEED. The first thing to be considered in the production bf a crop of sor- ghum, is the selection of that variety which has been found, by actual and continued experience, to be suited to the particular locality where the crop is to be grown. Since, practically, there is no difference in the demands upon the soil which one variety makes as compared with another, the main thing is to select that variety which in the given locality will mature long enough before frost occurs to enable the crop to be worked up. By consulting the tables on pages 121 and 122, it will be seen that the period from planting to maturity varies with the different varieties from 90 to 170 days, and that between these limits all those cultivated will mature their seed. The farmer generally has a choice of several varieties, all sufficiently early for his climate and locality; and, in such case, it is desirable to make actual test of several, in order to learn which he had best adopt. Owing to exposure, the crop may be liable to be prostrated by heavy winds, in which case those varieties best able to withstand such storms are much to be preferred. A short, heavy stalk, with a relatively small panicle, is then to be chosen, and reference to the table upon page 74 will be a guide in such selection. More frequently it may happen that, owing to the length of .season in certain localities, several varieties may be planted, which, by reach- ing maturity in succession, will enable the farmer not only to secure his crop of seed from each, but to prolong his season for working up the crop for sugar, having each crop ready for the mill when it has reached its best condition. For example, one might select the follow- ing varieties: Early Amber, Link's Hybrid, Early Orange, Liberian, and Honduras, the number of days-required from planting to matur- ity being, respectively, 90, 105, 116, 130, and 140; or, for the Early Amber, the White Liberian, and for the Early Orange, the White SELECTION AND PEEPAEATION OF SEED. 115 Mammoth could be substituted. All the above are among the best of our varieties. Other things being equal, it is desirable that those varieties be se- lected which shall give the heaviest crop, since, if worked at their best, the amount of sugar or syrup produced is proportioned to the weight of the cane ; and, by reference to the tables on pages 74 and 75, it will be seen that, generally, the weight of the crop is nearly pro- portioned to the time necessary for it to mature. For example, we find the average weight of the stalks, of the above varieties, as cut in the field, and after stripping, to be as follows : Average weight of Average weight of stalks as cut. stripped stallts. Early Amber 1.39 pounds. .96 pounds. Linli's Hybrid 1.90 " 1.38 " Early Orange 2.12 " 1.47 " Liberian 2.26 " 1.81 " Honduras 2.54 " 2.14 " A field, then, which would produce a crop of ten tons of Early Am- ber stripped stalks, would produce over twenty tons of Honduras stripped stalks. But the advantage of a prolonged season for working up the crop would prove so great that the diflference in yield of crop would be more than compensated. Tlw Choice of Seed. Having selected the proper variety for cultivation, the selection and testing of. the seed is of first importance. It is by many urged that, for cultivation in any northern locality, seed should be obtained further south ; not that earlier maturity is thus secured, but a heavier crop. It being asserted, as the result of experi- ence, that, after two years' planting, there was a marked falling off' in the weight of the crop. The general opinion prevailing among those who hold to this view, is seen in the following from the proceedings of the Minnesota Cane Grower's Association : The weight of opinion was decidedly in favor of seed brought from the lati- tude of St. Louis. Some cane growers had sent their seed to Missouri and Kansas, to have a crop grown and its seed returned. Among the decisive facts reported, Mr. Miller stated that his seed, imported from Southern Indiana 11 years before, had produced, on its first sowing, stalks from 12 to 15 feet high ; but, by planting the seeds of each crop, its successors showed a declining height of cane, ur.til it grew but 7 or 8 feet high. Mr. Wylie had averaged, with seed brought from the South, 273 gallons per acre; the following year, using liis own seed, he obtained bnt 223 gallons, a falling off of 50 gallons. The president of the convention had found, as a general thing, that the deterioration of seed was 116 SOEGHUM. not very marked till the third year. The southern seed did not excel so much in an earlier ripening of the crop as in its increased product, the excess, in some cases, amounting to one-third. The sentiment of the convention was expressed in the following resolution: Resolved, That Early Amber cane seed, grown in the latitude of St. Louis, is the best seed for Minnesota for two years. If every statement in the above be accepted -without question, the conclusion expressed in the "resolution" appears by no means estab- lished, since we might expect a falling off in crop, as with Mr. Miller, if the sorghum was continuously grown upon the same land, and espe- cially as nothing is said about any means for keeping up the fertility of the soil. In the case observed by Mr. Wylie, a difference of less than 20 per cent in the product, and that but for a single year, is a result which, in one place or another, is experienced every season with all our crops ; and often, as in 1881, over nearly the whole country, and with almost every crop grown. Such differences are readily explained upon other- grounds. In a matter of so great moment as this — the proper selection of seed — it is most unfortimate that such questions are settled by " resolution," rather than by careful experiments. Hasty generalizations are the- bane of science ; and the history of this sorghum industry during the past thirty years, well illustrates the fact, that the extent of our knowledge is not always measured by the amount of our experi- ence. In connection with this matter, the following results with seed of ap- parently the same varieties, grown in all parts of the country, planted the same day and upon the same plat of ground, are of in- terest. Variety Honduras (^planted May Qth, 1880, at Washington, D. C). Source of seed. South Carolina. I^ouislana Maryland Alabama Tennessee Missouri Texas Local name. Mastodon Honey Cane.. Honduras . . . Sprangle Top, Honduras Honey Top... Honduras May 11th. Few up. All up. More up. Few up. May 14th. All up. Days to Average weight maturity. stripped stalks. 128 1.99 pounds. 133 2.24 148 1.24 " 153 1.87 157 2.11 " 163 2.14 " 164 2.16 " SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF SEED. 117 Variety Liberian. Source ot .seed. Local name. May lltl!„ May 14th. Days to maturity. Average weight stripped stalks. Few up. All up. ■ Few up. Allup. ,127 .131 134 187 1S2 155- 168 1.77 pounds. 1.88 1.85 " 1.36 1.64 " Ohio :.. Virginia.'.'.'."!!::!!! Alabama Liberian . . Chinese. .. Sumac South" Carolina IihpheS . . 1 58 " Alabama Sumac. .-. . . L54 Variety Early Amber. Source of seed. Local name. May nth. May 14th. Days to maturity. Average weight stripped stalks. Early Amber . . " Golden.. Golden Syrup.. Early Amber. . All up., Few u'p. All up. Allup. 77 80 80 87 89 1.06poonds. 1 02 " Minnesota Ohio Kansas 1.02 1.02 .99 From t!he above it would appear, that there was no difference notice- ably due to the locality whence the seed was obtained, either in the rapidity of germination, in the. weight of the crop produced, or in the time required for maturity. In this last particular, there is a great difference, as, for example, in those varieties classed as Liberian and !H!onduras : but it will be ob- served, the specimen of Liberian requiring most time to reach maturity came from Alabama ; the specimen, of !Honduras which required the longest time to mature came from Texas ; and the specimen from IMis- souri was practically identical, not only in this respect, but in weight of crop. The Testing of Seed. Owing to the fact that, tlirough lack of care in the harvesting and curing of the seed, its vitality may be destroyed, it is a precaution which should never be omitted by the farmei*, that he should, shortly before the time for planting, make a careful test of his seed, in order to determine its vitality ; otherwise, he may find, when it is too late, that his fields require replanting, the season being too short to permit this with any assurance of a mature crop of cane. In order to test the seed, it is only necessary to take a shallow box, with a cover (an empty blacking-box will do, but it should be carefully washed clean) ; the box should be half filled with clean sand — uot earth nor gravel, but sand — and this sand should be saturated with 118 SORGHUM. water ; then allowing the excess of water to escape by inclining the box. Into the box, an average sample of 100 seed should be dropped upon the moist sand ; and, being covered, it may stand in a moder- ately warm room, at about 70° P.* Every day, the cover should be removed, and after from three to five days, those seed which retain their vitality will have germinated, and may be counted. By this means, one may easily learn the per cent of vitality of his seed, and it will be found that fairly good seed will give at least 90 out of 100. Of course, if the percentage is less, a proportionally larger amount of seed must be used in planting. Owing to the importance of secur- ing at the start a uniform stand of cane, and to avoid the danger of re-planting, as well as expense, it would be well, in every case, to du- plicate the test of the seed, to be assured against failure from poor Seed. The Preparation of Seed for Planting. According to the testimony of many, the plants will come forward more rapidly if the seed is soaked in lukewarm waterf)rtwenty-four hours before planting — and, indeed, it has been advised by some to sprout the seed before planting; but even the advocates of either soaking or sprouting seed admit that there is risk of losing the seed, if the ground should, at planting, prove too cold or too dry. By reference to the tables just given, it will be seen that, of all the varieties planted, and of the seed received from so many sources, there was not one which was not fully up within a week after planting ; and the same was true of all the forty eight varieties planted at that time. If properly planted, and with the ground in good condition, it is questionable whether there is any gain in soaking or sprouting the seed, while there is far more danger of losing it if the weather is un- favorable. It may happen that the seed is liable to be destroyed by wire-worms,, as was the case in one of the fields of the Department of Agriculture,, at Washington; and, in tliis case, a stand was only at last secured by rolling the seed, first in coal tar, and afterward in plaster (gypsum) powder. Whether this remedy was efficacious can hardly be affirmed, since it may have been, tiiat, by the time of this planting, the worm* were either dead or had secured other subsistence. It would appear best to plant the seed in its ordinary condition, and, in case the ground is very dry, but warm, to plant a little deeper tlian usual, and to take care to press the earth firmly about the seed, with, roller, hoe, or foot. "* TIME FROM PLANTING KEQUIEED, ETC. 119 TIME FEOM PLANTING EEQUIEED BY THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF SOE- GHtM TO REACH CERTAIN STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT. The following table will give the number of days required by 31 American varieties, and 3 received from France, to reach certain stages of development. This table can be only regarded as relatively true for the several varieties as the season of 1881 was in Washington (where these were grown), one of almost unprecedented drought, as will be seen by reference to tables giving the meteorological data for the several years of experiment, the results of which are largely re- corded in this volume. For the purpose of accurately recording the observations in the field from day to day, the following list of stages was made out : stage. Development of Plant. 1 About one week before opening of panicle. 2 Immediately before opening of panicle. 3 Panicle just appearing. 4 Panicle two-thirds out. 6 Panicle entirely out; no stem above upper leaf. 6 Panicle beginning to bloom on top, 7 Flowers all out; stamens beginning to drop. 8 Seed well set. 9 Seed entering the raillcy state. 10 Seed becoming doughy. Seed doughy, becoming dry. 11 12 Seed almost dry, easily crushed. 13 Seed dry, easily split. 14 Sucker in bloom. 15 Sucker seed in milk. 16 Sucker seed in dough. 17 Sucker se6d hard. 18 After sucker seed hard. By the sucker in this case, is meant the off-shoot from the upper joints of the parent stalk upon which, if the season permits, panicles will mature. It will be seen, by consulting the table, that the Honduras variety was a month later than the Early Amber in showing its pani- cle, and that before the Honduras was in bloom the Early Amber was quite ripe. 120 SOEGHUM. DEVELOPMENT OF SOEGHUM — DATS AFTER PLANTING — SEASON OF 1881, AT WASHINGTON, D. C. Early Amber Early Golden White Liberlan Black Top African White Mammoth Oomseeana Regular Sorgho Link's Hybrid Sugar Cane Goose Neck Bear Tail Iowa 14ed Top New Var., Btump's. . . Early Orange Orange Cane Neeazana Wolf Tail Gray Top Liberlan Mastodon Honduras Sugar-cane Hybrid, Wallis "White Imphee Goose Neck White African West India Sugar Cane Hybrid Lib. & Oom . Holcus Saccharatus. IIolcus Sorghum, . . . Holcus Cernus Houey Cane Height. ■a i M ^ W 3 bo 3 s ■a ■§ . 1(19 2.9 6.4 8.6 72 77 85 92 102 109 2 8 5 10 8,0 72 75 79 82 92 105 2.6 5 8 9.0 K2 90 97 105 112 122 2.0 4.6 8 3 K(l 8,5 92 102 112 118 2.4 4.8 8. '4 77 82 87 92 105 2.8 5.2 7.6 92 102 lOo 2.3. 5.2 8.6 97 102 107 1.9 4.2 7 3 92 102 108 112 1.9 4.4 7.6 92 1U2 109 2.4 4.8 8 6 102 109 1.10 4.0 7.6 72 70 80 87 97 105 2 fi 4.10 7.0 72 77 82 90 102 112 2.6 5.10 9 82 90 9V 109 1.8 4.0 7.10 82 87 92 102 112 1.6 4.2 8 6 75 79 82 90 97 105 2.3 5.0 8.0 90 1U2 10/ 112 1.8 . 4.4 7.0 72 77 8d 92 2.6 5.4 * 7.0 72 77 82 92 2.0 4 8 6.3 82 92 102 112 2.3 5.4 8.6 80 8b 92 3 5 6 10 6 87 98 9!) m 2.8 5 9.3 102 107 112 2 4.8 «.6 108 days after planting. Feet. In. 9.0 8 9 8.6 6 6 8.0 9.9 8 9.6 11 2 11 9.6 9 9.0 9.6 9 3 9.0 7.9 11.0 9.0 9.6 11.0 11.0 7.6 9.0 8.6 9.0 8 6 8.6 7.6 6 6 10.0 11.0 9 6 12.0 The following table is similar to the last, and gives the time required to reach certain stages of development by several new varieties received from China, Africa, and India, for purpose of comparison with sev- eral American varieties. These results were secured in Washington, in 1882, and these results are to be compared fairly with only those obtained the same season, since, as will be seen upon page 147, the climatic con- ditions of 1881 varied greatly from those prevailing in 1882. This matter will be again discussed. TIME, FEOM PLANTING, TO REACH CERTAIN STAGES OP DEVELOPMENT. The following table gives the number of days, after planting, re- quired by the several varieties to reach certain stages of development. TIME FEOM PLANTING EEQUIEED, ETC. 121 This table can be regarded as only relatively true, for these varieties, during the season ' of 1882, which season was remarkable for an unusual rain-fall during the summer months, thus retarding the devel- opment of the plants, probably, beyond the period they would require under ordinary conditions of climate. A reference to the meteorological data of this year, as compared with 1881, will make the difference in the two years manifest: TIME, FROM PLANTING, TO REACH CERTAIN STAGES OP DEVELOPMENT. Variety, go so O.S lo lb 2 3fi Zb 4 5 6 7 8rt 86 9a 96 9c 10 11- 12 13 14 15n 156 Ifia 166 16c 17rt 176 17c 18(1 186 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29a 296 30 31 Yellow Cap Glutinous. Separated Head Stalks Fed. .. Separated Head Stalks White Second Autumn Red. . Hor.se Tail Glutinous.. Large People's Red. . 'Undendebule Ukubane Jyangentoinbi. lyenga Ibohla. Dindemuka . . . Uboyana Umgatubanda. Ubelana. Ufatane . Unkunjaila. Hlogonde. . Unhlokonde White Imphee White African White Maminoth West India New Variety, Stump Early Amber New Variety, H. S. Coll. . Bear Tail iowa Red Top Black Sorgho Red Sorgho Link's Hybrid... . Standard Harrall . Neeazana Gray Top 9 3 9 3 9.6 9.6 9 4 10 9 6 9'B 9 6 5 6 8 6 7,0 9 11 4 8.0 8.2 7,0 9.0 8.3 8 10 6,1 7.8 9 2 10.6 7 5 8.9 7.4 9,2 8,1 9,6 10,3 8,8 9,2 9,0 9 6 9.4 8,4 7,6 8,0 9,2 9.3 9,8 7,3 8.0 100 100 109 100 79 79 93 93, 100 86 86 86 102 86 81 81 9B 93 110' 97 86 100 86 100 93 100 93 100 93 100 93 100 100 109 93 109 72 79 86 86 100 65 ' 65 79 79 74 BO 77 79 , 88 107 86 100 107 100 100 107 143 107 108 108 107 115 115 107 108 93 93 ICO 100 106 86 93 79 100 93 102 107 107 86 93 74 81 90 95 115 93 107 110 114 111 124 124 107 115 115 124 124 124 124 124 124 124 107 100 107 107 110 93 100 90 107 100 99 99 110 115 124 93 100 81 97 97 90 104 117 124 100 116 116 136 115 136 143 115 124 124 143 143 143 136 143 129 129 115 107 115 115 115 100 107 100 115 107 110 110 131 130 129 100 107 122 SOEGHTJM. Time, from Planiing, to Reach, etc. — Continued. f o J3 . ^ <=^'i be bD M ^ ci M K! W (S K Oj s p p n n ft 35 White Liberian 9 93 65 79 90 98 3fi 88 86 72 811 93 100 37 New Vnrietv, Link 9 7 81 81 88 95 104 38 New Variety, Haswell 9,6 74 67 81 88 95 30 10.3 74 67 81 88 97 ma New Variety, Bradford 8.6 74 74 88 104 124 406 7. 74 104 124 TIME FOE HAEVESTING CEOP. When the Maximum Content of Sugar is Present in the Sorghum. No conclusion established by the work of the Department of Agri- culture, practically considered, is of greater importance than the pos- itive ascertainment of that period, in the development of the several varieties of sorghum, when their juices contain the maximum of cane sugar. Conflicting Testimony Before this Investigation. On this point, there has existed, during the past twenty years or more, the greatest discrepancy in statement ; and the general opinioo prevailing has been very wide of the truth, as established by all these experiments. As evidence of the great diversity of opinion concerning this impor- tant matter, which existed previous to the experiments at Washing- ton, the following quotations are made from the reports of various experimenters : a. In his report on " Early Amber Cane," by Dr. C. A. Goessmann, of Amherst, Mass., 1879, he says, page 9: The safest way to secure the full benefit of the Early Amber Cane crop, for syrup and sugar manufacture, is to begin cutting the canes when the seed is full grown, yet still soft. b. In the " Sorgho Hand-Book," published by the Blymyer Man- ufacturing Company, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1880, it is directed, upon page 8 : The cane should be cut when the seed is in the dough, and several TIME FROM PLANTING EEQUIEED, ETp. 123 'before grinding, as it will be more free from impurities, if cured for a few days before going to the mill. ' '' c. In a pamphlet entitled " Sugar Making from Sorghum," pub- lished by the Clough Eefining Company, page 5, directions are given to Harvest as soon as the seeds begin to form^ and before they get hard. Grind the cane, if possible, soon after it is cut. d. In a pamphlet entitled ' ' The Sorgho Manufacturers' Man- ual," by Jacobs Brothers, Columbus, Ohio, 1866, page 4, it is stated, that — The cane is in the best state for harvesting when part of the seed is begin- ning to turn black ; or, in other wordp, when the seed is in a doughy state. The cane should be cut and shocked in the field, with tops on ; and in this condition it may remain several months before being worked up, for the cane matures and forms more saccharine matter. e. In a "Report on the Manufacture of Sugar, Syrup, and Glucose from Sorghum," by Professors Weber and Scovell, of the Illinois In- dustrial University, 1881, page 22, they say: The proper time to begin cutting the cane, for making sugar, is when the seed is in the hardening dough. The cane should be worked up as soon as pos- sible after cutting. /. J. Stanton Gould, in a "Report on Sorghum Culture," made to the New York State Agricultural Society in 1863, page 752, says : , The seed of the cane (sorghum) continues in the dough for about a week. It is the general impression the cane should be cut duringthis period, as it is then supposed to have the greatest amount of saccharine matter; at least, this is thought to be true of all the varieties except the White Imphee, which is usually cat just as it4s going out of the milk or just entering the dough. g. In conclusion, we quote from Mr. Gould's paper, as illustrating the chaotic state in which our knowledge was prior to the work at the Department of Agriculture. Upon page 740, he says : These conflicting opinions might easily be reconciled by a few well-directed experiments. Again, he says, same page : After the most careful inquiry, orally and by letter, I am unable to find that any such experiments have ever been made. Again, he says,' page 747 : Thpse experiments are riot conclusive, and the whole question needs a care- ful and accurate investigation. As the result of such an investigation; we call attention to the aver- age results of the past years, as shown 'in the tables ^iven in tliis volume, from which it will be seen that,' during each of the past three 124 SOEGHUM. years, it has been demonstrated beyond any reasonable doubt, that the value of the sorghum for the production of sugar increased, upon an average of the 35 or 37 varieties tested, fully 500 per' cent, and in many cases 1,000 per cent, after the period when, according to the authorities cited, it was recommended that the crop should be cut up. It will be observed, also, how completely at variance the above quoted authorities are in reference to the subsequent treatment of the orop after cutting it up, the one recommending that it he stored, even for months; the other, that it be immediately worked up. The im- portance of this latter course of treatment can hardly be overesti- mated, as appears from data herewith presented. I remember, in 1881, that an Ohio farmer, who met me one day as I was looking over my sorghum plat in Washington, and who did not know that I had any interest in it, told me that the crop ought to have been worked up long be- fore, for it was suffering. He also told me that he had grown sorghum for 20 years in Ohio. Now this was during the latter part of July, when, according to his twenty years' experience, he was sure that the crop was deteriorating. Well, that plat contained some 35 varieties, and it had been daily examined for at least two months before this, and it was examined daily for at least three months after the time when this farmer, with his 20 years' experience, was con- vinced that it was suffering. The results of all these examinations are published, and are accessible to you all. If you examine them, you will find that after the time when this farmer would have it cut up, and worked it, this crop increased in the amount of avail- able sugar at least 200 per cent. Length of Period for Working Sorghums. Eeference has already been made to the very great diiference exist- ing between the different varieties of sorghum, as to the length of time needed for them to reach maturity. It is not known thaf experiments have been made to determine this difference accurately, until those lately made at the Department of Agriculture. It has also been shown, as already remarked, that those varieties requiring long periods for their complete maturity, have been the varieties largely cultivated in the Northern States during the past thirty years. The results given in the Annual Eeport of the Department of Agri- culture, page 180, Table 96, show not only the number of days from time of planting, to complete maturity of each variety, but also the number of days during which the several varieties were in a condition for working in this latitude. By thi^ table, the farmer in any section of the country, may be able to select such varieties as the nature of his climate will give him reason to believe may be successfully grown ; or, if his season permits, he may select several varieties, which, coming to maturity in succession, will OTIME FROM PLANTING EEQUIEED, ETC. 125 enable him to extend his working season, and yet have his cane of each sort in the best condition for sugar or syrup production. Planted, as these several varieties were, side by side in the same soil, and on the same day, the comparative results given in the table referred to are fully trustworthy, and could have been secured in no other way. These results are of direct practical value to the sorghum grower,, and were confirmed by the experience of 1881 and 1882. Period for Working the Sorghums. In the following table is given the working period for the different varieties of sorghum, the number of analyses made during this period, and the maximum, minimum, and average per cent of available sugar (luring this period. The average number of analyses of each variety is 15, so that these results may be relied upon with confidence. The entire period is from July 30th to November 17th, thus allowing 110 days in the latitude of Washington for working up the crops, which may be so planted or selected among the different varieties as to enable each crop to reach its maximum value at the time of being worked up. The average minimum of available sugar of the thirty-five varieties, is 6.44 per cent, while the average maximum is 12.51 per cent. The average of the best half of the thirty -five varieties, during the entire period, is 10.97 per cent, while the average of the poorer half during- the entire working period, is 8.63 per cent. The average of the entire number during their entire working period, is 9.77 per cent of avail- able sugar. It will be remembered that these varieties were planted April 29th, so that the length of time for each to reach the condition represented by these averages maybe readily determined, and are given in one of the columns. As will be seen, this period varies from 92 to 139 days, and several of these later maturing varieties appear even in this latitude to have failed in reaching their best condition, as will be seen in the fact that their maximum of available sugar falls far below that of other varieties, of shorter periods of development. In fact, many of these varieties can not be successfully grown for sugar, perhaps, except in the Gulf States. Owing to the fact that the amount of syrup which may be produced from a juice depends upon the sum of the sucrose and glucose, it is obvious that syrup may be produced from the canes in any condition of maturity ; but even for syrup production, it will be seen by reference to the tables of analyses of the several varieties, that the maximum of syrup may be produced at the same period when the sorghum may be 126 SOEGHUM. most profitably worked for sugar, since at that time the sum of the two sugars is also at itg maximum. For the production, then, of either sugar or syrup, it is desirable that only such varieties should be grown in any locality as may be able to reach full maturity. PEKIOD rOK ■WORKING THE DIITEBBNT VARIETIES OF SORGHUM. Variety. Early Amber Early Golden White Liberlan Black Top .........'...! African AVhite Mammotli Qomseeana Rejrular Sorgho Link's Hybrid Sugar Cane Goose Neck Bear Tail Iowa Red Top New Variety Early Orange Orange Cane Neeazana Wolf Tail Gray Top Liberian Mastodon Hondnras Sugar-Cane Hybrid No. 4 White Imphee Goose Neck White African West India Sugar Cane. Sugar Cane New Variety of Liberian and Oomseeana Minnesota Early Amber Honey Cane a 106 110 no 110 76 8,i 4'J 75 18 106 97 103 16 66 70 92 72 86 71 89 94 90 38 41 25 62 8 56 72 97 49 23 51 63 15 From Aug. 3 July 30 July 30 July 30 Aug. 16 Aug. 24 Aug. 29 Aug. 16 Aug. 25 Aug. 3 Aug. 12 Aug. 6 Aug. 29 Aug. 16 Aug. 11 July 30 Aug. 19 Aug. 23 Aug. 20 Aug. 20 Aug. 15 Aug. 19 Sept. 2 Aug. 30 Sept. 2 Aug. 19 Aug. 26 Aug. 16 Aug. 19 Aug. 10 Aug. 14 Sept. 7 Aug. 8 Aug. 8 Sept. 16 To Nov. 17 Nov. 17 Nov." 17 Nov. 17 Oct. 30 Nov. 17 Oct. 10 Oct. 30 Sept. 12 Nov. 17 Nov. 17 Nov. 17 Sept. 14 Oct. 10 Oct. 20 Oct. 30 Oct'. .30 Nov. 17 Oct. 30 Nov. 17 Nov. 17 Nov. 17 Oct. 10 Oct. 10 Sept. 27 Oct. 20 .Sept. 3 Oct. 10 Oct. 30 Nov. 15 Oc.t. 2 Sept. 30 Sept. 28 Sept. 30 Sept. 30 B Pr.ct. 6.06 7.06 6.71 6.71 7.70 5.16 8.46 4.37 8.90 7 39 7.98 8.17 10.09 7.43 9 26 5 5.2f> 6.83 4 95 2.52 7.15 3 3-; 4.64 3.64 1.80 2 96 8 85 8.08 6 78 4 93 7 6.61 6 81 8.23 7 22 Fr. ct. 14.62 14 00 14.77 15.12 15.15 14.00 12 51 13.46 11 76 14 63 14 87 12.81 - 11.90 11.59 14.17 14.56 15 05 12. .35 11 44 9 07 12 21 9. 11. 11 87 8 39 10.31 10.20 15.36 12. r 12 04 14.10 11.2' -60 beta Pr.ct. 10.12 10.02 10 41 10 61 11 08 9 82 10.60 10 76 9 78 11.02 11 36 10.86 11 34 9.76 12 64 11.63 10.73 9.91 9 56 6.78 9 67 6 79 8 56 8,66 6.66 7 82 9.45 11 90 9 29 8 21 10 70 8.76 9 84 8 30 12.17 10 78 8 16 7 68 gip. Says. 96 92 92 92 108 117 122 109 118 96 106 99 122 109 104 92 112 116 113 113 108 112 126 123 126 112 119 108 112 103 107 131 101 101 139 IMPOETANCB OF PROMPTLY WORKING THE CEOP AFTER CUTTING. To this point, also, reference has been made already. Its importance can hardly be overstated. If departure from this rule is at any time admissible, it is at least safe to say, that the conditions which would warrant such departure are as yet not determined. Prompt working of the cane so soon as cut is always safe, and any delay is fraught with unavoidable risk of loss. This conclusion is established, as well by the work of others as by that of the Department of Agriculture. TIME FOR HARVESTING CROP. 127 The following results are reported by Professors Scovell and Weber, of Illinois Industrial University: Change of sugar after cutting the cane. — On October 23rd, 1880, an analysis was made of the juice of the Orange cane, which had been cut, stripped, and topped October 2nd, and placed under shelter until examined. Juice whitish. Specific gravity 1.091 Grape sugar percent.... 14 66 Cane sugar per cent.... 3.55 A sample of cane, cut August 25th, 1880, without being stripped and topped, was preserved in a warm room, where it had become dry long before it was ex- amined. On April 3rd, 1881, it was analyzed, and showed 12 per cent of grape sugar, and no trace of cane sugar. Professor Svpenson and Henry, of Wisconsin State University, give the following report of experiments in this matter. It is to be regretted that the percentage of juice expressed in each experiment was not given, in order that the real loss of sugar could have been determined, as it was doubtless much greater than the several analyses of the juice would indicate : Effect of leaving Cane cut in the Field. A number of stalks still in good condition, the juice of which contained 9.50 cane sugar and 3.25 glucose, were cut and Itft in the field ten days, during almost constant rain. At the end of the ten days the juice contained 5.98 cane sugar and 6.15 glucose. Some Early Orange cane was also cut September 20th, when the juice contained 10 50 cane sugar and 4.95 glucose, and was left in the field till November 2nd, when the juice contained 13.80 glucose, while not a trace of cane sugar was present. These experiments show conclusively, that if cane is cut or injured and left exposed to rain, the destruction of cane sugar goes on very rapidlj', being in time entirely changed into glucose. The rapidity of the change depends, of course, in great degree, on the weather. Effect of leaving Cane cut under Shelter. In order to ascertain the effect of leaving cane under cover, two tons of Early Amber cane were cut, the juice containing 10.02 per cent of cane sugar and 3.23 per cent of glucose. One-half was topped and stripped, and both lots wore placed on the floor of the barn. The change taking place may be seen from the following table: Septembek 20th. The cane freshly cut OcTOBEE 4th. After two weeks : (Stripped) ( Unstripped) October 19th, After fnur weeks : (Stripped) ( Unstripped; 128 SORGHUM. After 6 weeks ; (Stripped)... After ]3 weeks : (Stripped; NovEMBEB 2nd. December 20th. Cane sugar 8.26 Glucose. 3.74 To judge by the table, the cane eb?.nges very slowlj', but in reality (he lo.'^s of sugar is quite rapid. If.no loss of sugar took place, the. juice would of course become richer in sugar, on account of the evaporation of part of the water. In reality this is not the case. The cane sugar becomes gradually changed to glucose, which in tarn is destroyed by fermentation. In this, way the juice may become even richer in sugar, but the quantity of juice ia greatly diminished. The juice becomes also very acid. The effect produced by shock- ing the cane in the field was tried, with very unsatisfactory results, the canfr sugar being destroyed very rapidly. In the following table is given the comparative results obtained in the manufacture of syrups from several varieties of sorghum. In the- one case, the crop had been suckered, and the stalks were cut and promptly worked ; in the second case, the crop had not been suckered, but was promptly worked after cutting ; and, in the third'-' case, the crop had been unsuckered, and was allowed to remain from one to four days after having been cut, topped, and stripped, before it was brought to the mill for pressing. In each case the juices expressed and the syrups made from them were analyzed with the following results. The amount of any single lot of stalks was generally too small to permit a lot of syrup to be made from it, but each lot of juice and of syrup was so near alike in quantity, that the ayerage fairly shows the effect of suckers, and of lack of promptness in working. It will be seen, that, of the sixteen varieties of sorghum experimented upon, the presence of suckers had, in five cases, lowered the available sugar to a minus quantity, while the average of the sixteen juices showed a loss of over 48- per cent of the available sugar, and of nearly 42 per cent in the syrups- made from their juices: also, that, in none of the eleven syrups, and in but one of the sixteen juices from the stalks which had been kept for a few days before working, was the available sugar other than a. minus quantity. TIME FOE HAEVESTING CROP. 129 EFFECT ON SORGHnM OF LETTING IT LIE AFTEK C0TTING UP. Per Cent of Available Sugar. Suokered and promptly worked. Unsuokered and promptly worked. Unsuokered and work after one to four day Juice. Syrup. Juice. Syrup. Juice. Syrup. 10.87 35.90 12.05 28.16 — 9.90 -45.50 10.63 35.18 12.76 23.90 —10.10 —36.72 11.20 37.40 9.61 16.19 —13.43 —68.60 8.10 20.20 .09 21.56 — 1.49 -28.40 7.81 2.22 6.26 — .65 ^5.78 8.18 1.84 35.12 — 7.27 -12 20 5.45 —1.05 18.30 — 9.68 — 2.50 7.26 — .01 6.36 — 1 67 —11.34 7.10 3.16 4. SO — 2.98 — 5 68 9 91 5.97 25.06 — 2 24 — .04 9.52 8.02 20.34 — 3.84 - 3.82 4.30 — .65 — .65 .23 — .99 — .99 .50 — .33 —10.30 6.95 3.42 — 1.85 1.97 .78 — 9.12 Average, 6.87 32.17 —23.60 Experience of Dr. C. A. Goessmann with Sorghum cut some time before Working. Dr. Goessmann, of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, in his report of experiments upon the Early Amber Sorghum, gives a similar series of results of analyses of juices entirely comparable with those just given. ( Vide, report on " Early Amber Cane, by Professor C A. Goessmann, 1879.") His results are so valuable, as fully confirming our own, and establishing the fact, that, what has been found true during the past four years in this latitude, is equally true in Massachu- setts — viz : that certain of the varieties of sorghum may, even in that high latitude, attain a content of sugar fully equal to that of the sugar cane of the tropics, that his analytical results of examination are here appended. Of these, there were but eighteen complete results ; and, for purpose of comparison, the results here attained of the average of juices having the same specific gravity as those analyzed by Dr. Goess- mann, are given in the table alongside. It will be observed that the results attained by him, from August 15th to September 18th, in- clusive, are almost identical witih my own, showing, from the first, a gradual increase in the sugar ; 9 130 SOEGHUM. COMPARISON OF RESULTS OBTAINED BY DR. GOESSMANN, AT AMHERST, MASSACHU- SETTS, WITH THOSE OBTAINED AT THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. GOESSMANN. Collier. 1878. § 1 CO o u 3 3 §5 P 3 Eh to S CO o a 3 3 3 2 as 02 bH ■3 § O d Aug. 15 16 20 24 27 30 Sept. 2 ;.. 9 9 18 18 18 18 21 0.00 0,00 2.15 3 00 4.13 3.81 4 41 6.86 6.81 7.65 8.49 5.85 .60 2.48 4.06 3.47 3.70 3.65 4.00 3.85 3.21 3.77 3.57 3.16 3.16 10.00 1,017 1.023 1.032 1.035 1.040 1.0.S8 1.043 1.048 1.052 1 054 1 056 1 046 1 052 1.053 1,061 lOCO 1.082 1 060 1 073 1.072 1 061 1.066 1.909 1 052 1 076 1.062 1 070 1.075 1.062 1.071 1.074 1 061 1.063 1.071 1.067 1 075 1.068 2 48 4 06 5 62 6 70 7.78 7.81 8 26 10 07 10.58 11 22 11.65 9.01 10.60 '4^42 6.11 7.40 8 35 7 86 9 21 10 07 10 82 10.86 11 57 9 48 10 82 11 '00 12 61 12.45 16.20 12.45 14.68 14.62 12.61 13 54 14 11 10.82 15 13 12 75 14.43 15.18 12 75 14 35 14.91 12.61 12.81 14 35 13.79 15 18 13.81 of (21) ""i'.ib 2.16 3.29 4.41 3.43 4.95 6 08 7.64 7.74 8.61 5.72 7.64 7..'>8 9.88 9 80 15.06 9.80 12 83 12.94 9.88 11.46 12.30 7.64 13.66 10.24 12 69 13 47 10 24 12.54 13 22 9. 88 10.16 12.54 11.80 13.47 11.84 .327 3.95 4.41 3 94 4.48 4.26 3.99 3 18 3 12 2 96 3 76 3.18 3 42 2.73 2 65 1 14 2 65 1.85 1.68 2 73 2,08 1 81 3.18 1.47 2 51 1.84 1.71 2.61 1.81 1.69 2.73 2.66 1.81 1.99 1.71 1.97 1.023 1 032 1.036 1 040 1 038 1.043 1.048 1.052 1.054 1.0.i6 1.046 1.052 1 053 1.061 1.060 1.082 1.060 1.073 1,072 1,061 1 066 1.069 1 052 1.076 1.062 1.070 1.075 1.062 1 071 1.074 1 061 1.063 1.071 1.067 1.075 1.068 « 3 17 23 18 21 22 36 43 49 52 30 43 23 76 100 25 100 76 82 76 74 75 43 68 73 82 67 29 Sept. 25 26 28 8 16 6,27 Notdefd 3 61 11.91 16 '66 11 77 18.18 Oct. ] 14''78 14.10 10.43 3 4 7 8 9 10 6.16 9,94 5.27 Not det'd 8.62 4.16 5.16 7.57 11 14 Not det'd 10.42 16 73 89 76 16 17 Not det'd Not det'd '" '?!57 9.22 18 19 20 ie'.sb 89 69 67 56 22 23 24 Not det'd 5.50 Not det'd 8.30 11.30 8,63 Average 247.56 11.79 43 52 2.07 After the first analysis, under date September 18th, the results, as will be seen, are widely different. In explanation of this, Dr. Goess- mann has given ample reason in hisreport accompanying these analyses. In regard to these early analyses (before September 18th) he says, the juice from the freshly cut canes grown upon the grounds of the Agri- cultural College, was " treated without delay ;" and of those subsequent to September 18th he says: ''A part of our cane, after being cut, was left upon the field for about ten days before being ground and pressed.'' TIME FOE HARVESTING CROP. 131 He says, thalf'the results of these experiments "admit of no other explanation, but that the best course to pursue consists in grinding the matured cane as soon as it is cut.'' In regard to the remainder of the experiments recorded by him, he says: Some of the cane sent on (by farmers growing it near the college) was ground soon after it had been cut; other lots had been cut weeks before their turn in the mill came round. It will be observed, then, that only those analyses made previous to September 18th, are of freshly cut cane ; and these analyses fully agree with the average of my results >vith all the varieties of sorghum ex- perimented with. It will be observed, also, that, just as he found in those canes which were brought in some days (or even weeks) after they had been cut, so, too, my results show the inversion of a large amount of sugar ; and, except in the sum of the sugars present in the juices, these results are not at all comparable with those secured by analyses of juices of the same specific gravity from freshly cut canes. It will also be of interest to remember, that the last examinations made by Dr. Goessmann of the canes grown under his supervision, were made only nine days after he describes the "seeds as still soft;" and, by reference to the tables, p. 000, it will be seen that, during each of the past four years, I found that it is just at this period of development of the plant that the sugar in the juice becomes practically available, and that there- after it rapidly increases in quantity. Inversion of Sugar in Cut Canes. The effects of this inversion of sugar, due to allowing the cut canes to remain some time before working, will be seen in the following re- sults with three varieties grown on the department grounds and promptly worked ; these same varieties grown by Mr. Golden and not promptly worked ; and three of the results of Dr. Goessmann, of which three he reports that the first analysis was of canes which, "after being cut, were left for three weeks upon the field,'' the second analysis of "cane several weeks old when ground," the third analysis of canes topped, cut up, and "left upon the field nine days." These are the only cases mentioned in his report in which the time is given during which the canes, after being cut up, remained unworked. The close agreement of results attained with those from Mr. Gold- en's canes is obvious, and the great difference between these and the results from canes promptly worked up, show the great importance of 132 SORGHUM. this matter to those hoping for good results in the production of sugar. INVERSION OF SUGAR BY CANE3 NOT BEING WORKED PROMPTLY. Department ground. Mr. Golden. Dr . Goessmann. ^ b >. Varieties. I 1 1 bo i cm 'i i dj V f3 o CU P O (D A O E3 O o A m 03 « H CO m B CQ ai H Early Amber, . . . 1.087 16.06 1.38 17 44 1.063 3.75 10.85 14,60 1.082 6.27 11.91 18.18 Earlv Golden 1.088 15.93 1.37 17.30 1 009 3 66 11 69 15.35 1.075 (VI 10 42 While Liberian. 1.083 16.03 1.37 17.40 1.070 2.30 13 25 15.55 1.052 60 10.00 10.60 It is possible that there may exist certain conditions of climate and crop, when the cane may be kept even weeks after cutting without great loss of sugar, but the above experiments conclusively prove that such a course is extremely hazardous, and that the only safe course to follow, is to work the cane as soon after cutting it (never more than twenty four-hours) as possible. In harvesting the sorghum, it is often the case that those stripping the cane may get ahead of those cutting, or the mill in pressing the cane, and it is to be remembered that so soon as the plant has been mutilated by stripping off the leaves, or by bBing broken down by the wind, there is opportunity for the air to have access to the juices of the cane, as is the case in cutting it up, and that fermentation and consequent inversion of the sucrose is liable to at once begin. A single experiment appears to have been recorded, showing this ef- fect, by Professor Swenson. Effect of Leaving Cane Stripped in t/ie Field. One part of a patch of Minnesota Early Amber cane was stripped of leaves- and left standing in the field from September 15th to September 22nd. It was then cut, and the juice, together with some that had not been stripped, was an- alyzed, with the following result: Cane stripped for one week. Same cane not stripped. . . . Cane sugar. 11.05 12.98 Glucose. 3.25 2.78 The diminution of sugar is undoubtedly due to the fact, that the latent leaf buds found under each leaf begin to develop into new leaves. These new leaves- are formed partly at the expense of the sugar in thft ciin». IMPORTANCE OP AN EVEN CROP, ETC. 133 The following analysis is given by Messrs. Scovelland Weber, show- ing, that little if any inversion could have taken place in the cane while standing two weeks in the field, after having been stripped: Effect of Stripping and Allowing to Stand. On October 2nd, 1880, an analysis was made of the juice of cane which had been stripped on the 18th of September — the cane not otherwise disturbed^ with the following result : Specific gravity of juiqe 1.074 Grape sugar per cent. •• 1.82 Cane sugar per cent-.. 13.11 This subject needs further investigation. THE IMPORTANCE OP AN EVEN CROP, WITH NO SUCKERS, IN THE PRO- DUCTION OP SUGAR. The experiments at the Department of Agriculture, in 1881, have fully confirmed the practical wisdom of a course which is pursued by the sugar planters of Louisiana and Cuba, viz., the exclusion from the matured crop of all immature canes, if the production of sugar is con- templated. This point, if previously recognized by sorghum growers, has never been properly understood and considered as it deserves to be. Danger from Suckers. It is important also to remember that, owing to the tendency of sor- ghum to send up suckers from its roots from time to time during the season, there is the liability of having in the crop canes of every stage •of development, and the injurious effect already shown is sure to result. It is, therefore, necessary, in order to secure the best results in the pro- duction of sugar, to see to it that either the growth of these suckers be prevented, by removing them from time to time during the season, or that they be thrown aside when the crop is harvested as worthless, ex- cept for the production of syrup. To demonstrate this point, the plat of sorghum, grown upon the grounds of the Department of Agriculture at Washington, in 1881, and containing 34 varieties, was divided into two nearly equal parts, one portion of which was carefully kept free from suckers through the season, and the other portion, after having been thinned out like the former, was allowed to send up any suckers which would grow; and, when harvested, these suckers were included in the crop, weighed, stripped, and worked with the other stalks of the unsuckered portion. The difference in the results of the above treatment is manifest in the following table, which gives the weight of crop, and the analyses of the juices from the suckered and unsuckered canes: 134 SOEGHUM. 1) 2 S ^ •pais ■310 ns 50^ p3J33[Dns incoT-ioomcii-i'rftiacooo-JSDi^c^eooiccc^eo OI"-«OCOOC«lirtOCOiOi-(WOi-'OiOI>i-i«"0100iOiracOWI>E^Oia»OSO>C*«DO'OrHlO a^aaifot^o^a^Oi S" ■psja ■J[3tlS jo^ ■"*l>iOOJ^(Nl-*c'OiOCOOOOOCOSiO p8J8Hons CO CO CO -Tj* CO CO C-l C^ (N CCCOMC^ MlM CQ« C^WCM WC4 O) r -tC^CCtNCOCO -MCO oj 0} a> 00 -T 1-* Ii7 00 li XiX CO X«C :o M2tOrf"COOlO'--HeDOTj"-gocCOOl'- r 3> coo ir OOOOOCCOOtACOi-Hr- I — lO I (NO I =^° p9ja3ions eOiatOlOCOCMCO'Mi-'^^--0'MT-lT';-^«^COW^r-IOSOt>Oit*0 a"" . CD l^ «3 iO «0 CO «Mn « 1.- ^ to eO -X) ;D O lO lO O ^ lO'^iousiniaiO'O r~0(Nxaii.--i-(ooi-*MM^'(ocom'OOOOca-HOO(Mi-'C3C^ C ■p9.I3 ■Jf DllS JO^ !NCOC^MCOC^C^^C^c3c-lCCOC-)N ~ ■" OO c^cor]«c^cocO'^ic^co^oi;H;^CNC>5^^?s I ^m p3J32[0nS t:^^^^'"^'^'™'^:^'^ — — "^coT^rTC-r"'" — XI-- — ?Tvc— ■oox;iC-r.— 'NOi~ -^j-n o^'>i^=co_x;_:o__co jt_c« = i-'-'__o_'*co-ro-r ^i=^0 3:(--'-T-t :-i — cc ocio c^c-^r^l-lc^I-^cOr^c^^co:NCOr^■?^■^lc^oQc■JC^c^co?4cJCMCOC0COT0M o C O a => a s« 6-1 -< THE IMFOETANCE OF AN EVEN CROP, ETC. 135 From the preceding table, it will be seen that, while the average crop was the same from the suckered and unsuckered plats, and the percentage of juice also practically the same, the composition of the juice varied very widely, and, in every particular, was strongly in favor of the suckered stalks, so far as the production of sugar is con- cerned. The average results of the thirty-four varieties show the relative composition of juices to be as follows : Suckered. Unsuck- ered Ratio. Specific gravity per cent Sucrose " Glucose " Solids " Available sugar " Stripped stalks, per acre pounds Juice percent 1.075 13 17 2.14 3 10 8 29 22,525 48.9 1 059 10.55 2 95 3 68 3.79 22,589 49.9 100 100 lOQ ; 100 ; 100 ; 100 ; 100 78. 7 80 1 137.9 115.5 45.7 100 3 102 It will be seen that, although there is a much greater amount of glucose and solids in the juice of the unsuckered canes, the specific gravity is less, and the sucrose is a fifth less, while the available sugar is only 45.7 percent of the amount present in the juice of the suckered stalks. By reference to the table it will be seen, that several of the varieties show no difference between the suckered and unsuckered portions, while in fact, some of them, as Nos. 1, 2, 18, show an amount of available sugar greatest in the juice of the unsuckered canes. The explanation of this is probably that, owing to the fact that these varieties had so long reached maturity, while the more advanced suckered canes had begun to fall off in their content of sugar, the unsuckered portions of the cane were largely composed of suckers, which had themselves had time to reach their complete maturity, and, consequently, they had brought up the average of the juice, rather than to have lowered it. It is also to be observed, that, in the case of several of these varie- ties, we have results fairly comparable with what might be expected upon a large scale ; for, although, as has been already stated, the anal- yses made during the season in the laboratory were of stalks taken from the suckered portion of each variety, and although exactly one-sixth part by actual weight, on an average, was taken from each variety, and that, whenever a stalk was cut down there would spring up suckers in its place, which were included in the final cutting, generally, as we have seen, with the effect to lower the average sugar content, it is yet true that many of these, as we may term them, culled rows, gave averages 136 SOEGHUM. in sugar fairly comparable with the average results from our Louisiana sugar-cane. The average of Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 11, 12, in available sugar, is 12.53 per cent of the juice. The average crop of stripped stalks per acre actually obtained of these seven varieties was 26,667 pounds. A good mill would give 60 per cent of juice, or 16,000 pounds, and 12.53 per cent of this amount would give 2,005 pounds of sugar per acre, as the average product to be expected from the results obtained. The following table gives the results obtained in working up the juices from these several lots of suckered and unsuckered sorghums, and the available sugar produced from each in the syrups, as also the available sugar present in the juices, for purpose of comparison. By available sugar, is meant the difference between the sucrose and the sura of the glucose and other solids. Sucrose— (glucose, plus solids not sugar)=available sugar. It will be seen that the average available sugar, from the thirty-four varieties of sorghum which were suckered was 8.29 per cent of the juice ; while from the unsuckered plat the average of thirty-seven va- rieties was only 3.9 per cent of the juice. Also, that while the former gave syrups averaging in available sugar only 32.17 per cent of their weight, the latter gave syrups averaging in available sugar only 18.71 per cent of their weight, or 58.2 per cent of the former. It will also be remembered, that the amount of* stalks grown per acre was practi- cally the same, whether the crop had been suckered or not. Also, that the suckered portion had been, during the season, culled of exactly one- sixth of its weight of stalks for purpose of analysis, and that these stalks, after being cut, sent up numerous suckers, which really lowered the average per cent in available sugar which would have been other- wise attained. THE IMPOisTANCE OF AN EVEN CROP, ETC. 137 PER CENT OF AVAILABLE SUGAR IN JOTCES OF SORGHUMS AND IN SYRUPS. No. TAEIBTIES. Early Amber Early Golden White Liberian d.0 Black Xop African WJiite Mammoth Oomseeana Regular Sorgho . . . Link's Hybrid do Susar Cane Goose Neck Bear Tail Iowa Red Top New Variety Early Orange ... do Orange Cane Neeazana Wolf Tail Gray Top Liberian Mastodon Honduras Sugar Cane Wallis Hybrid White Imphee Goose Neck White African West India Sugarcane New Variety Early Amber Holcus Saccharatus Holcus Cernus Honey Cane Honduras Neeazana Liberian Average.. DEPARTMENT GROUNDS. Suckered. Unsuckered. Juice. Syrup, 36.90 Juice. 12.05 12.76 9.61 V.38 .09 2.22 3.51 1.84 —1.05 7.58 9.10 7.70 — .01 3.16 6.97 8.02 4.76 10.19 5.18 .S.42 6.26 " !78 .93 — .33 — .61 —1.65 .82 —2.67 6.22 4.81 1.89 6.52 9.49 — .94 9.70 6.71 Syrup. 28.16 23.90 16.19' 2l!56' 6.26 ' 35.i2' 6.36 ' 4.60" 20.34 The suckering then of the crop, or. at least the careful exclusion of suckers from that portion of the cane which is intended to be worked for sugar, is of the most imperative importance. For sugar production they are far worse than worthless. But they may be used for the manufacture of syrup, since both glucose and sucrose enter into its composition ; and, in fact, the pres- ence of the suckers in the crop would very easily prevent the crys- tallization of the syrup which the manufacturers' of syrup frequently find a serious disadvantage. It is not shown that the growth of suckers has any injurious effect upon the cane, their presence being largely due to the rank growth of 138 SORGHUM. the crop on strong soils, and in favoring circumstances, and it is not ad- vised that they be thrown away, but that they only be used in the manufacture of syrup. EFFECT OF EEMOVING SEED DURING DEVELOPMENT OF PLANT. During the experiments upon sorghums grown on the grounds of the Department for the past five years, much annoyance has been oc- casioned by the multitude of English sparrows, and it was almost im- possible to save any seed from the crop, except of such varieties as appeared less attractive to these birds, or from such panicles as were protected against iheir invasions. It was at least a matter of doubt whether this removal of the seed during the plant's development had not had an effect upon the sugar content of the juices, since, as is ob- vious, the production of the seed is at the expense of constituents of the juice of the plaut; and if this process is arrested by any removal of the seed before reaching maturity, it would appear natural to expect some result upon analysis of the juices of such plants. That such a view has widely obtained, among those engaged in the investigation of the production of sugar from sorghum and maize stalks, is clear from the advice frequently given to remove the ears of corn so soon as they appear, if the maximum amount of sugar in the juice from the stalks is desired.* For the purpose of securing the seed of the new varieties from Africa, India, and China, as also to learn whether to any extent ray results in past years had been vitiated by these deprediations of the birds, care was taken, in 1882, to protect certain panicles of each va- riety grown, so soon as they came into .blossom, by enveloping them in bags made of tarlatan. In this way I was able to secure well developed heads of each, fully set with seed. * Professor Weber reports the following analyses made of two stalks of sor- ghum, which had been planted at the same time; but the one, A, had been topped while it was in blossom, while B, had been allowed to retain the pani- cle, and the seed wa^ in the condition of " hardening dough : " A. Sucrose, 12.62 per cent, Glucose, 2.58 per cent. B. Sucrose, 7;80 per cent. Glucose, 4.80 per cent. There was a corresponding increase in specific gravity. This is an important result, and apparently indicates that the production of the highest content of-sugar is incompatible with the production of graih; and since the grain is alone sufficiently valuable to pay all the expense of culti- vating the crop, it will be admitted, as most desirable, that this question, as to the practicability of the two crops of grain andgugar, be set at rest by. decisive experiments. EFFECT OF EEMOVING SEED, ETC. 139 In the examinations made there were taken for analysis one stalk, the panicle of which had been thus protected, and another at the same time, of the same variety, and, so far as other indications showed, at the same stage of development, but the seed of which had been taken by the birds. Tliere were made during the season, in all, 136 pairs of analyses of most of the varieties under examination. The results of these analyses are given in the following table. In the first table there are given 92, and in the second 44, pairs of analyses. It will be observed, that in the 92 pairs there is a result indicating an earlier stage of development in those stalks upon which the seed was kept, while in the 44 pairs this difierence is not marked. EFFECT OF REMOVING SEED. stage of development Percent juice Specific gravity Per cent glucose Per cent sucrose Per cent solids Polarization Per gent available sugar. Number of analyses Seed removed. 10 42 55.775 1.0717 .968 12.659 2 978 12.734 8,650 92 Seed on. 58.063 1.0607 1.403 9 958 2 945 9 883 5.670 Per cent. 84.0 104.1 84 7 144 9 78 7 98 9 77 6 65.5 Seed removed 11 67 56.569 1 06614 1.207 n 336 2,983 11 484 7.076 44 Seed on. 10 36 56.488 1.0673 1 083 12.076 2 72.1 11 864 8.342 44 Per cent. 89 5 99.9 101 7 89 7 106 5 91 3 103 3 117.9 In the third and sixth columns is given the per cent of the average results secured from the analyses of those canes with full seed heads, of the average results obtained from the analyses of those canes from which the seed had been removed. It will be observed, that in the average results of 92 pairs there is an increase in juice of 4.1 per cent, and of glucose 44.9 per cent, and a decrease of every other element of the analyses: of sucrose, 21.3 per cent; of solids, 1.1 per cent; of available sugar, 34.5 per cent ; and a decrease in specific gravity. It is also noticeable that, while the average stage of development was about midway between the tenth and eleventh in those stalks from which the seed had been removed, it was below the ninth stage in the stalks of which the seed had been protected. The averages from the 44 pairs give results indicating almost the opposite effect, for it will be noticed that, although the teudenc}' of the removal of the seed is to hasten the development and maturity of the plant, the average amount of juice and its specific gravity is prac- tically the same; the amount of sucrose is greater, and that of glucose much less, the solids also being less, so that the per cent of available 140 soEGiruM. sugar is increased 17.9 over that present in those juices from stalks not bearing seed. The practical conclusions from these results are, that there is no in- compatibility between the maximum crop of ripe seed possible, and the maximum content of sugar in the juice of the stalks ; and that, owing to the more rapid development of the cane from which the seed has been removed, the time necessary from planting to the maturity of the crop would be shortened from seven to ten days for each of the varieties, if the seed was removed early. . By comparing the average results above given, it will be seen that in the one case the stalks with the seed on had not yet attained their max- imum, while in the other case they had done so, and those with which they were compared, being without seed, had attained their maximum sometime before, and had retained it until the others had caught up with them in their sugar content. It is also to be observed, that those varieties in the first case where the difference was so much iu favor of the stalks without seed, were largely the later maturing kinds, while iu the second case the varieties are chiefly those maturing earlier. An average of the number of days required from planting to matur- ing, as shown by the experiments of 1882, gives for the varieties of the first lot 120 days, and for those of the second lot 112 days, thus confirming the conclusions above given. EFFECT OF STRIPPING CANE. On account of the trouble in stripping the stalks, experiments were made, in 1879, with stalks unstripped, the tops alone being removed; and these experiments appear to prove that this troublesome operation of stripping may be avoided without any diminution of the amount of juice or of sugar obtained therefrom. Below are the results obtained from stripped and unstripped sor- ghum, calculated to the raw stalks used. By raw stalks is meant the stalks as they were cut in the field, leaves, tops, and all. stripped sorghum (two experiments) Unstripped sorghum (five experiments).. Average per cent of juice to raw stalks. 35 02 40.60 Average per ctnt syrup in juice. 1.5 00 IS. 47 EFFECT OF STEIPPING CANE. 141 From the above it will be seen, that not only was an increased amount of juice obtained, but that this juice gave an increased percent- age of syrup, and there appears nothing unusual in the treatment of this juice from the unstripped cane, nor was there any appreciable dif- ference in the readiness of the syrup to crystallize, nor in the charac- ter of sugar finally obtained. At the time of these experiments, the mill used w^as an old one, and the amount of juice expressed much less than should have been ob- tained; but recent experiments seem to show that the conclusions- from' those experiments were fully- justified. Those conclusions were as Ibllows : Although perhaps further experiments are desirable before consider- ing this point as settled, it would appear from the above that not only was stripping unnecessary, but that it really involved a loss in the amount of sugar to be obtained ; at least the above results indicate a difference of twenty per cent increase in product of syrup in favor of the unstripped cane. It is not improbable that the above result is due to the fact, that the leaves in passing through the mill tended to fill up the interstices between the compressed cane, and thus prevented the ex- pressed juice from flowing through between the rolls with the bagasse. In case of discoloration by action of moisture or other causes, it will, however, be advisable, and probably necessary, to strip the stalks. Mr. Shoemacker, West Salem, Wis., reports as the result of three experiments, that " all three were in favor of unstripping." Henry Lindley, of Mazomanie, Wis., reports as the result of his in- quiries, that pressing with the leaves on make no difference in either the quality or quantity of the syrup produced. Another manufacturer reports to the Wisconsin Cane Grow- ers' Association, that he never strips his cane, and finds no trouble in making good syrup. Is unable to see any difierence in the syrup, from stripped and unstripped cane. It is customary to deduct 200 pounds from each ton, for leaves when the cane is unstripped, and then allowing the same price for the cane,, whether stripped or not. At the Champaign Sugar Works, Illinois, they did not strip the cane. At Eio Grande, New Jersey, they did not strip any of their cane, and they found no trouble crystallizing their syrup in the vacuum pan. In fact, there is no doubt but that the amount of juice which a given lot of cane will yield, is appreciably greater if the cane is- 142 SOEGHUM. passed through the mill with the leaves on, than if it is stripped ; but owing to the fact that the juice from the leaves is impure, containing an excess of glucose and solids, it is found that the presence of the leaves on the cane causes a gain of about 6^ per cent in the amount of syrup, and a loss of about 6f per cent in the amount of sugar to be obtained. This matter will be again discussed at another place, page 144. In those cases where the sorghum was stripped and topped, the fol- lowing percentage of stripped stalks, and of leaves and tops, was ob- tained : Sorghum. Per cent of stripped stalks. Per cent of leaves and tops. 72.67 72.55 27 33 Average 72.61 27.39 In 1882, as the average of eight experiments, the relative weight of stripped stalks to leaves was as 100 to 17.68, this would give the amount of leaves as 15 per cent of the topped stalks. Comparative Analyses of Juices from the Stalks and Leaves of Sorghum. Owing to the trouble and expense involved in stripping the canes for the miU, the following analyses were made for the purpose of deter- mining the effect of leaving the cane unstripped. In the eight experi- ments below recorded, the stalks were topped as usual, and the blades from each lot weighed, passed through the mill, and the juice ex- pressed. The juices from stalks and leaves were then analyzed as usual. In the Annual Report Department of Agriculture, 1879, page 59, it will be seen that, as the result of seven experiments, two with stripped and five with the unstripped stalks of sorghum, there was an increase of juice calculated to the raw stalks (i. e., to stalks as cut in the field without topping or stripping). This would indicate that stripping was not necessary, and actually resulted in loss of syrup, if not in sugar. To more fully determine this, the above-mentioned experiments were made, and the results are given in the following table : EFFECT OF STRIPPING CANE. 143 COMPAKATIVB ANALYSES OF JUICES FROM THE STALKS AND LEAVES OF SORGHUM AT DIFFERENT PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT. *: «. a cl a ft to OT 03 ID 1^ =!l ■r-.£Q > 13 Condition of plant. p. a; o 6 1? =3 is ■3 s li 0) CM c3 w to s 3 a 3 Lbs. Lbs. 1 2 3 4 5 10 23 7 81 6 85 7.58 7.25 4 IB 1 73 1 54 1 35 1.07 62 02 64 Oil 67 89 64.67 62 61 37 03 25.00 26 64 27.77 26.40 6.344 4 998 4 650 4.900 4 539 1.759 .433 .410 .374 .282 1.022 1.047 After bloom 1 051 Seed in milk 1 059 Seed in dough 1.070 Sucker seed in dough . . li 13.02 1 91 62 27 26.86 8.108 .513 1.068 " 7 11 18 1 96 60 3^ 27.86 6 744 .546 1.072 Sucker seed, hard 8 16 34 2 80 54.09 34.83 8.838 .975 1.061 " ' i) 12 70 2 13 62.35 34 61 7.918 .737 1.074 Sucker seed in milk.. 10 18.02 3 70 61.31 34 25 11.048 1.267 1 074 Sucker seed in dough . . 11 14.49 2.90 67.55 32 43 8.339 .941 1.075 12 13 41 2.34 57.811 ,W 12 7.763 .822 1.068 ^ " « a, {Q 03 S» ?i"ja Ol 04 oj .11 ? Op, Oh c u oj 6 G o 3 o C3 S aJ a S » a 'C o 3 a) CJ •S CU & a o Ot d r-^ O 3 a > cc 3 CO i-s m 03 o Ul t-3 CQ Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Per cent. cent ceiit cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. 1 Sept. 7, 17, and Oct. 5, 15. . . . 18,23 .SO 3 00 54.17 1.089 17,09 ,86 3,64 43 83 1.088 2 Sept. 7, 17, and Oct. 5. 15.... 17 41 .81 2 76 58 86 1 084 16 89 1 11 3.19 52.80 1,085 3 Sept. 7, 17, and Oct. 5, 15... 18 30 ,86 1,77 63 51 1 087 16.88 105 2,88 53,72 1,086 4 Sept. 7, 17, and Oct 5, 15 . . 19 58 ,95 2 75 69 51 1,095 15,24 1,27 3 86 50 54 1 080 5 Sept.7, 17, andOct.5, 15... 14,08 2,03 2 32 64.45 1,074 17 01 ,49 2 98 50,46 1,086 6 Sept. 7, 17, and Oct. 5, 15 . . . 18.38 1,48 3,95 45.14 1 098 17.69 ,67 3,12 59 30 1 087 7 Sept. 7, 12, and Oct. 7, 17.... 16 00 1,73 2 40 62 01 1 083 15 65 1,62 1,52 63 64 1,080 8 Sept. 7, 12, and Oct. 7, 27 ... 16,86 1 07 2,20 56 95 1 083 12 56 2,44 1,79 62,21 1 072 9 Sept. 8, 12, and Oct. 7, 17.... 16 99 1.38 2,7li 60 94 1.086 10,16 3.52 2,07 62,16 1 063 10 Sept. 8, 12, and Oct. 7, 17. . . . 17.86 .83 3,39 67,69 1.089 18,18 .80 2 85 68 33 1,090 H Sept. 8, 12, and Oct. 7,17.... 18.86 .66 3.33 54,69 1 094 17,03 1.03 2.56 59.-56 1.086 12 Sept. 8, 14 16.12 ,79 4 87 60,83 1,083 19 51 55,68 1 093 13 .Sept. 8, 14 16.91 1,81 3,00 57,38 1 084 15,70 'i'.'is 4 81 63 01 1.069 14 Sept. 8, 14 16. S9 1,90 3,25 64,38 1 084 17,54 1,.55 3.77 52,40 1,087 15 Sept. 8, 14 16 93 1,26 3 88 68,16 1,087 18,28 ,77 ,8,94 60 10 1 087 16 Sept. 8, 14, 19, and Oct. 17. . . 18,81 1,26 2 97 63,87 1,098 18,61 1 14 3.16 59 00 1,091 17 Sept. 9, 14, 27, and Oct. 18... 17 38 2 29 4 94 55 77 1 093 19 20 1 54 2 61 51,49 1 092 18 Sept.9,11, 27, anrtOct.l8... 16,46 2 58 3 9,S 58 05 1 086 17,79 2,85 3.55 56,79 1,089 19 Sept. 9, 14, 27, and Oct. 18. . . 17 20 2 00 4 67 64,48 1 089 15 79 2 06 4,52 60 35 1 084 20 Sept. 5, 14, 27, and 0(;t..l8. . 15,. 15 4 30 2 89 62,78 1,0S9 15,95 1,96 4,23 61,53 1 084 21 Sept. 9, 14, and Oct. 3, 12 ... 16 02 1 53 62,50 1.094 18,69 1 09 59,77 1.690 22 Sept. 5, 15, and Oct. 3, 14. . . 14,40 3 00 3 06 61 71 1,080 13 96 1,93 '6,05 59 53 1 075 23 Sept. 9, 15, and Oct, 3, 14 13,00 4,71 3 65 67,62 1 081 14 23 2,94 4,14 59 04 1 081, 24 Sept. 9, 1.1, and Dot. 3, 14. . . . 14.27 1,51 2.51 66 00 1,073 11 31 2,64 5 03 60 07 l,0ii4 25 Sept. 5, 15, and Oct. 3, 14. . . . 13.45 3,26 1,92 67,92 1 073 14.23 2 55 5,43 59 56 1 076 26 Sept. 9, 15, and Oct. 3, 14. . . . 9 80 5,18 4,40 59 53 1,073 11,14 3,73 3,82 63 11 1,070 27 Sept. 9, 15, and Oct. 3, 15 13,05 4,16 2 2S 62 78 1 077 11,65 3,82 3 68 62,24 1 070 28 Sept. 9. 15, and Oct. 3, 15. . . . 19,25 1,48 2 41 61.00 1.089 16,73 ,86 4,38 57.02 1,083 29 Sept. 9, 15, and Oct. 4, 15. . . . 16 00 1 83 2 00 60 10 1.077 14,37 1,21 5 27 57,58 1,079 30 Sept. 9, 15, and Oct. 4, 15 16 14 1,70 2,40 58 77 1 077 14,62 1 33 4 47 61.09 1 077 31 Sept. 9, 15 18 87 1 70 3 07 62 55 1 087 14 47 2 54 4,26 57 55 1 081 32 Sept. 9, 15 15 80 3,07 1,13 58 "39 1.075 13 38 . 2'57 4^30 68,81 1 074 33 Sept. 9, 15 15 13 2,72 2 33 61,72 1 075 14,70 2,14 3.28 58,64 1 076 34 Sept. 9, 15 15,90 1 38 2 68 57 33 1 077 n 52 1 87 5.04 62 83 1 066 37 Sept 7,17 12 57 99 4,19 32 36 1 073 13 61 ,68 4^31 45.27 1 075 88 Sept.7,17 Average 8.97 5,19 1.01 69,64 1.059 13.07 2,83 2.09 61.62 1,070 16.02 2.06 2.98 59,64 1.0832 15.40 1.803 3.694 57.80 [.0802 EFFECTS OF TEMPEEATUEE AND EAIN-FALL ON SOEGHUM. 153 AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF THIRTT-SIX VARIETIES OF SORGHUM BEFORE AND AFTER THE RAIN-FALL OF SEPTEMBER IOtH AND llTH. Sucrose per cent. . Glucose per cent . Solids per cent Juice per cent.. Specific gravity. Available sugar per cent Before. 16.02 15 40 2.06 1 80 2 98 3 69 59 54 57 80 1 083 1 080 10.98 9 90 After. From the above it will be seen, that the. results of this storm, as shown in these analyses, show an average loss of Per cent. Sucrose 3 9 Glucose 12.6 Juice 2 9 Specific gravity 3.6 Available sugar 9.8 The gain in solids was 23.8 per cent. The above results are rather surprising, and certainly opposed to the view generally entertained. Without accepting them as wholly con- clusive, it must be remembered that they are the results of a very large number of determinations, and of a very large number of dis- tinct varieties. If it shall hereafter be shown that such a result in- variably follows a rain-fall, it would appear that the explanation is, that, by such rain-fall, a vigorous growth in the plant is excited, and that the material i'or this rapid development of the plant is derived from the stored-up food (mainly sugar or starch) present. This would account for the loss in sugar ; while the water, being simply the vehicle for transporting such food, is evaporated from the foliage more rapidly than it is absorbed by the roots. The following report submitted by Professor Scovell, of the Cham- paign Illinois Sugar Company, is interesting as bearing upon the im- portance of favorable climatic conditions. It will be seen that his ex- perience accords with that in Washington. A cool, wet season re- sulted in the growth of sorghum comparatively poor in sugar. Ill order to get a correct idea of the season's work, the condition of the weather as compared with other years, is of material consideration. In our section of the country, t^ie weather this year, so far as planting, culti- vation, maturing of the crop, and thedevelopmentof the cane sugar in sorghum is concerned, has been the most unfavorable of any year within our knowledge. I submit, herewith', a synopsis of the weather report, as given by the Signal Service Station at Champaign, showing a comparison of the seasons oi this and last year. 154 SORGHUM. MONTHBY MEAN TEMPERATUKE. 1881. 1882. May 67.4 55.8 June 69.3 69.1 July 76 9 70.1 August 76.7 70.7 Average 72.4 66.4 KAIN-FALL DURING THE SAME PERIOD. 1881. 1882 May 3.63 8 .'i.5 June 4.71 9 93 July 1.07 2 44 August 64 4.87 Total 10.05 25.79 Prom these results,' we find the average temperature during the growing season of cane this year, fully 6° F. below that of last year, and the rain-fall ex- ceeded that of last year by fifteen (15) inches. The season was too wet to cultivate the crop properly, and too cold for the proper development of the sugar in the cane. This last is readily shown by a comparison of the amount of sugar found in the cane this year and Is^st. Last year we found in the Early Amber cane, at its maturity, an average of Per cent. Cane sugar 12.08 Grape " 2.47 And a specific gravity of 1 .070 "while this year, the same variety under like circumstances, only revealed the presence of Per cent. Cane sugar 8 20 Grape " 3 66 And a gravity of 1,060 We began planting sorghum the 2nd of May, and finished the 22nd of June. The varieties planted were Early Amber, Early Orange, and Kansas Orange. The land upon which the sorghum was grown, was rich prairie land, which had been cultivated for upward of twenty years. The preceding crop was broom corn. As before stated, the extremely wet spring gave the crop a very late start, and the weeds had the advantage. Just as the last difficulty was overcome, the chintz bugs made their appearance, and threatened the destruction of the whole crop. With the exception, however, of lessening the yield somewhat on a thirty-eight acre field, the damage done by them was nominal. EFFECTS OF PEOST UPON SOEGHUM. The investigations concerning this question, practically reconcile the discordant reports in regard to this matter. It has been shown that, when fully matured, the sorghum withstands even hard frosts without detriment — but that, if immature, the effect is most disastrous. It is shown also, that this disastrous resvlt is due not directly to the effect of the frost, but to the subsequent warm weather, which rapidly induces fermentation with inversion oi sugar in the frosted and imma- ture cane. EFFECTS OF FEOST UPON SORGHUM. 155 For the purpose of learning the effect of frost upon the sorghum, the following examinations were made in the fall of 1881, at the Depart- ment of Agriculture, at Washington. An average was taken of all the analyses made of each variety of sorghum under cultivation, just before the dates of the first frosts, which occurred October 6th and 11th, viz.: those analyses which were made September 27th, October 3rd, 4th, 5th, 7th; also, those analyses made immediately subsequent to these frosts, viz : on October 14th, 15th, 17th, 18th. The results are given in the following table: T ABLE SHOWING EFFECT or FIRST FKOSTS. Just before October 6th and 11th. Just after October 6th and Hth. a5 c " >, V 6 1^ s ■o . a at s, 3 3 o 3 m ho o 3 3 o ■3 CO 3 CQ bo Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. 15.24 .87 2.76 54 28 1.078 14 82 1 16 4 60 67 90 1.078 13.56 1.89 2.15 51.18 1 073 14 12 1 18 4 14 57 93 1.075 16 32 1.08 2 74 44 64 1.087 16,59 1 U9 5 11 .55.81 1.088 11 85 1 11 8.05 55.10 1 068 16 24 1.27 4 20 .55 80 1.0.H2 12 58 .70 2.40 .51.31 1 068 14 65 40 5.03 57 44 1.078 15 36 .98 2.C8 58.06 1.082 13 97 3 28 4 33 52.07 1.084 14 77 1.31 3.65 59.89 1.082 11 99 1 16 3.73 58.13 1.069 17.22 .95 2.94 48 46 13 88 2 44 3 97 55 23 1 084 12.54 2.12 2.58 61.19 1.070 13.24 1 85 3 45 58 00 1.076 17.38 .."il 4 12 58 02 1 090 16 30 40 3 80 54 60 1 085 16 .S9 .42 3 38 57.25 1.085 16.13 .59 4 87 52 91 1 088 17.40 .78 55.58 1 089 13.90 1 78 4 44 47 .38 1 081 16.57 1 52. 3.14 55 84 1.083 14.72 1.64 2 .'.0 58 99 1 079 18 15 1.39 4 40 55 99 1 094 IS 55 1 50 3 59 56 95 1 078 16.68 1.56 49.29 1 089 14. 39 1.73 2.93 58 07 1 081 14.14 2.60 3 67 46.V!9 1,080 15 23 1 96 2 01 58.. 51 1.082 16 10 .94 4 20 53 87 1 085 15 60 1 20 3.47 ,58.75 1.085 15.78 1.26 4.01 57.97 1.083 12 41 2.67 1 81 65 80 1.969 15.77 1.72 4 23 55 99 1 084 12 44 3 02 2 63 60 34 1 075 15.91 1 27 3.66 51.72 1.082 9 45 1.58 2.81 62 71 1 053 14., ■15 2 .31 3.11 57 28 1 079 4 64 4.77 2 CI 67 Ml 1 048 16 22 1.66 4.17 57.98 1.088 10 19 2.46 3 28 56 11 1.067 11 70 4.14 2.74 63 72 1.071 6 50 3 98 2 97 59 7:! 1 052 16.35 1.20 4 15 56 77 1.085 7 27 1.07 3 14 64 03 1.045 14 86 l.,W 3.27 52.94 1 082 12 15 1 92 1 96 60.39 1 071 13.50 1.43 3.34 1.078 11 69 1 28 4.00 59 51 1 066 Av'ge. 15.28 1.41 3.37 64.82 1.0814 12 91 1.82 3.49 58 09 1.0738 AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF THIRTY-SIX VARIETIES OF SORGHUM BEFORE AND AFTER THE FROSTS OF OCTOBER 6tH AND IItH. Before. After. Sucrose per cent Glucose do Solids.'. do Juice do Specific gravity Available sugar percent 15.28 12 91 1.41 1 82 3.37 3.49 54.82 58.09 1 081 1.074 10 50 7 6 156 SOEGHUM. From the above averages, it will be seen that the- results of these frosts show an average loss of — Per cent. Sucrose 15 .5 Specific gravity »o Available sugar _ 27 .6 And a gain of — Per cent. Glucose 29:1 Solids 36 Juice 6.0 The above results accord with the general belief as to the injurious effects of frost upon the cane. It would appear from the increase in glucose and decrease in sucrose, that the effects of frost were to pro- duce an inversion of the sugar present in the juices of the plant. If we consider the average results produced in. a few of the different varieties of cane, viz., Mastodon No. 24, Honduras No. 25, Sugar Cane No. 26, Wallis' Hybrid No. 27, White Imphee No. 28, and White Mammoth No. 7, for example, we shall find the effect even more marked. For purpose of comparison, I have given the average results of analyses of the above varieties by themselves, and also the average results of several other varieties by themselves, viz., Early Amber No. 1, Early Golden No. 2, White Liberian Nos. 3 and 4, Black Top No. 5, African No. 6, Kegular Sorgho No. 9, Link's Hybrid Nos. 10 and 11. AVERAGE KESULTS OF ANALYSES OF NOS. 7, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, MADE JTTST BEFORE AND JUST AFTER THE FROSTS OP OCTOBER 6tH AND llTH. After. Sucrose per cent Glucose do.. . Solids do Juife do Speci'flc gravity , Available sugar per cent 8.34 2.50 3 01 61.34 1 056 2.83 AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF NOS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, MADE JUST BE^ FORE AND JUST AFTER THE FROSTS OF OCTOBER 6tH AND IItH. After. Sucrose per cent Glucose do.. Solids do.. . Juice do.... Specific gravity Available sugar per cent 15.06 1 25 • 4.39 55:83 1.082 9 42 ' EFFECTS OF FEOST UPON SORGHUM. 157 The effects of these frosts were far more disastrous upon the first group of sorghums selected, than upon the last group ; for, arranging the results side by side, this difference in effect, produced is readily compared, thus : First Group. Second Group. Sucrose Glucose Solids ....■ ^. Juice per cent ...do do do LO.SS Gain Loss Gain T.OSS Loss 44.1 26.3 15.9 i QJ QJ h- ^ O 3 3 1 i m a o Variety. o fl a (3 P ^ S ^ " ammonium sulphate, 116 " calcium sulphate. Upon plat B there was applied : 21 pounds of potas-iium sulphate, 104 " calciura sulphate. Upon plat C there was applied : 50 pounds of superphosphate, 104 " calcium sulphate. Upon plat D there was applied : 50 pounds of bone meal, 104 " calcium sulphate. The above amounts are equal to an application per acre as foUows: Plat A: 87 pounds kainite, 37 " ammonium sulphate, 774 " calcium sulphate. PlatB: 175 pounds potassium sulphate, 807 " calcium sulphate. Plat C: 417 pounds superphosphate, 867 " calcium sulphate. PlatD: 417 pounds hone meal, 867 " calcium sulphate. ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZERS USED UPON SORGHUM PLAT. Superphosphate of lime: Per cent. Soluble phosphoric acid 9 ,77 " Insoluble phosphoric acid 3 .63 Reverted phosphoric acid 69 Nitrogen (=N H 3 2 .45 per cent) 2 .02 Commercial kainite; Per cent. Potassium sulphate 24 74 Sofiium sulphate 18 92 Sodium chloride 15 .54 164 SOEGHTJM. Bone meal: Per cent. Ph osphoric acid 21 . 96 Nitrogen (=N H s 5 . 22 per cent) : 4 ■'iO' Sulphate of ammonia: p^^ ^^^|. Pure ammonium sulphate.. 98 39 Sulphuric acid (S Os) 59 o* AmmoniaCNHs) 25-34 Sulphate of potash: Per cent. Pure potassium sulphate ?5 J2 PotashCKaO) 63.37 Sulphuric acid (S Os) 45.42" The superphosphate was such as is commonly sold in this vicinity ; it -was a good article, hut not of the highest grade. The' same may be said of the kainite. The other fertilizers were of higher grade. It was- thought best to show the effect of each fertilizer on each cane in the various stages of its growth. For this purpose, the results are classi- fied in the three tables to correspond with a content of sucrose ; in the first set below 5 per cent, in the second set of 5 to 10 per cent, in the third set of 10 to 15 per cent, and in the fourth set above 15 per cent. It will be understood, that the results embraced in th.e third and fourth sets are those attained during the period when most of the canes were in the best condition for working ; those in the first and second sets are- equally valuable as helps in settling the efiect of the fertilizers on the immature growing cane; while the final averages must, after all, give the most accurate general idea as to the efiect of each fertilizer on each cane during the whole season. We do not feel warranted in drawing any definite conclusions from these final averages ; the close agreement between the averages drawn from so many results, seems to point to the fact that the soil originally contained sufficient food for the proper development of the sorghum plants, and that the addition of these special fertilizers was unnecessary, and resulted in no marked change in the composition of the sorghum juices. In fact, the analyses made the year before showed the canes t» have the same composition as they this year were found to have, and equally large crops of four varieties of sorghum were then obtained. These results must not be taken to prove, however, that on certain soils, which are deficient in one or more essential constituents of plant food, the addition of proper fertilizers will not be of great value. Certainly, such additions to poor soils are likely to increase the crop : whether the quality of the juice will be improved, must yet be de- cided. EFFECTS OF FEETILIZEES ON BOEGHUM. 165 Effects of Fertilizers on Sucrose, Glucose, and Solids, in Sorghum Juices. The three tables -whicli follow represent 634 analyses, made for the 3)urpose of determining what, if any, differences in the composition ■of sorghum juices are caused by the use of different fertilizing ma- terials. 166 SOEGBtUM. Percentage op o o 1 Yabiety. First Set.— Average su- crose below 5 per cent. Second Set.— Average sucrose 5 to 10 per cent. .a a) < 5 1 1 1 8 41 9 17 8 17 10 62 8,02 9.02 8 42 ll.Oli 7 62 ii's2 10.55 7,22 ? 7.84- 9 55- 'i Early Golden 4 7 44. 5 White Libenan 2 20 fi 7 Black Top . . 8 African q White Mammoth 8,66 B,20 9,15 9 01 9 67 9 06 8 47 9 .50 10 70 8 19 in 11 1? Hvbrld IS ■Sugar Cane 14 9 86 8 27 9 63 9 47 7. 52 9.21 8 00 8 93 8.52 8 74 9.05 8 23 8 75 8 58 8 95 9 35 8 18 12 58 7 61 8 31 8 26 8.48 8 89 8 43 8 77 8 24 8 80 7.83 S 21 8.26 7 .51 8 00 7.01; 7 71 In Neeazana 9 08 9,3S 8,78 9,15 8 66 Ifi Goose Neck 8 81 17 8 87 H Neeazana 9 08 iq New Variety M Chinese 8,33 9.43 8.29 9 09 8.58 9.03 9 73 91 WolfTail 10 72 « 8 33 2;^ 8 75 ?A l-iberian 8 71 M Oomsceana 8 38 2li "4:94 4 '70 27 Mastodon 8 76 28 8 88 29 30 31 New Variety Sumac Honduras 'l'4fi 3,80 3 O.T 3 .'i'i 3 11 3 34 3.10 3 87 3 lis 4 0.-) 3.30 3.38 6.59 ' 'S 9n 4 0.-) 3.59 3 40 2.89 3 29 2,27 '4:38 4 34 3.71 3 68 3 47 3 3!) 3.71 7.42 "O 68 8 46 b 74 8.35 6 89 7 68 8 55 7.97 ■■fi'.85 8 OS 7 39 7 99 7.17 7.72 7.41 8 07 8.54 7 8'' 39 Honey Cane 6 66 33 34 Sprangle Top Honduras 8.47 7 71 3-> Flouey Top, or Texas Cane 7 8'^ 35 37 Sugar Cane , 8 89 Averages 3.23 3.98 4,02 3 72 8 17 8.12 8.31 7.65 C. H. D. A. C. A. B. D. EFFECTS OF FERTILIZEBS ON SORGHUM. 167 Glucose) in Solids. Third Set. — Average sucrose 10 to 15 per cent. FonKTH Set.— Average su- crose over 15 pir cent. Final Aveeages.=Av- erage sucrose for each cane. i ■< ri C O ■< ri d ci •< fq d u u u h ^ ^1 u u ^1 M M o 12; o 3 d ■ N 3 < i-i s 1 N s - 0^ N d 3 3.48 3.41 3.24 3..W 3 19 3144 2 95 3.06 4 26 '3^98 2.36 2.70 2 Early Amber 4 86 3.62 2.51 3 Early Golden 5 White Liberian 3.12 6 7 Black Top g African, 2 01 2 07 2.44 2,49 1 97 1 44 2 29 2 29 2 61 2.58 2 69 2 56 2 69 2.42 2 10 2.14 2.53 "2.82 2 0.1 1 73 3.68 2 40 3 53 2 59 2.55 2 47 2,74 2.06 '1 83 2.74 2.90 ■ 2 .50 2 46 2 46 1 91 2.50 '2.57 "2 74 2 28 2 32 2 50 2.29 2 27 2 88 2 .31 2 .58 2 .59 1 76 1 98 1.89 2.14 2 10 2 33 White Mammoth Oom,sGeaiia 2 02 2.38 2. 33 2 90 2 80 2 70 2 02 2 25 m . . . .. :':::: 12 13 14 1.3 Hi Hybrid HuffiirCane Oomseeaua ... Neeazana. Goose Neck 17 18 ■ 1') New Variety '>0 2 37 2.36 2 73 2 57 2 80 2 55 2 54 21 Wolf Tail , ''■^ ''1 Jjiberian 25 Oomseeana 1:25 ' 1A2 ?7 Mastodon ''H "2.12 2.90 1 99 2 25 2.37 2 07 1 91 2.53 3 13 2 17 2.44 2 89 1 76 2 12 1 79 2 15 1 92 2.75 29 30 New Variety 2 79 2 01 1 7i 1 72 1 68 1,37 3 01 "2.50 1.82 1.81 1.78 1.63 1.60 2.29 2.04 1.90 1.83 1.49 1 37 1.49 2.73 2 85 "i'm 2.15 J 84 2 16 1 91 1,79 2.80 31 1 11 1 76 1 78 1 39 1 57 1 59 3.37 3-' 33 34 35 Honduras Honey Top or Texas Cane. . 3fi Averages 1.72 1.81 1 80 1 RR 2 39 /in 2.34 2.46 Order '. ■ B. C. A. D. D. B. A. C. EFFECTS OF FEETIUZEES ON SOEGHUM. 171 SOLIDS NOT SUGARS. Third Set. — Solids corre- Fourth Set.- -Solids corre- FlNAI.AVERAGES.- -Av- spondingr to average Su- spoiiding to average su- erage solids lor the crose 10 to 15 per cent. crose above 15 per cent. row. (U u 0) f» t^ N fa fH fa fa fa fa fa fa fa 3.50 3.28 3 34 3.30 3 22 3 08 3 46 3.49 3 44 3.28 3 35 3.30 3 28 3 08 3 44 3 54 3 35 3 04 3 IB 3 26 3.03 8 24 3 OS 3 33 3 21 3.03 3 15 3 15 2 98 3 28 3.10 3 04 2 87 2 92 2.86 3.16 5.23 2 90 3 04 2 89 3 34 3 In 3.43 3.41 3.21 2.54 3 75 2.81 3 10 2 89 3 23 3 38 3 41 3 21 '319 2 83 "s^ig '■"s'si 3 23 3 31 3.4() 3 14 3 42 4.03 3.16 3.02 2.95 3 00 2.67 3 06 3 39 3.02 3 17 3 18 3 60 2 78 2 89 3 O.i 3 24 3.22 2.86 3.19 3 08 3 14 2.82 3 16 3.36 3.43 3 27 3.90 3 69 :i 62 3 43 3.22 3 49 3.88 3 27 3 49 3 06 3 65 3-74 4 69 3 15 3 79 3-02 2.77 3 43 2.96 2 97 2 98 3 32 2 94 2.98 2.96 3.06 3 30 4.28 4.25 4.73 2 89 2.81 3 02 3 21 2.94 3 11 3 01 3.35 4.47 3.63 3.37 4 43 2.85 2 99 2 90 3.32 3.21 3.03 2 85 8.10 3 13 3.09 2 81 3 01 3 03 3 26 3.01 3.28 4 81 5.14 8 IS "2 96 3 35 2 96 3.66 3.66 3.34 2 90 2 85 3.31 2 83 3 33 3 65 3 55 3.16 3.36 4 22 4.66 4 92 3 17 3 flJ 3.02 2 95 3 §1 3 35 3 60 3 54 3.24 3 10 3 11 3 26 3 77 3 49 3.37 3 63 3 20 3.89 3.37 3 37 3 11 3 13 3 15 3 08 2 93 3 41 3 31 3 18 4.12 4.02 3 33 3 93 3.89 3.84 5 07 4 45 3.24 2 97 2 811 3 30 2 69 3 34 3.40 3 12 4 04 5.10 3 97 4.22 2 56 3 27 2 83 3 19 2 83 2.94 3 21 3.1C 2 61 2 52 2 73 2 60 3 89 3 5C 3.40 2 02 3 25 2 86 2 89 2 9C 3 83 3 17 2 58 2 91 2 95 2 92 3 25 2 75 2 60 2 84 2,51 2 18 2 04 2 15 2 79 2 85 2 92 3 21 2 OS 2 24 2 V 2 26 2 93 2 96 3 17 3 03 2 11 2.31 2.1s 2 02 3 23 2 92 2.89 2 97 2 15 2 13 2 14 2 25 2.81 2.96 3 60 3 7£ 2 01 1 94 2 21 1 94 3.77 2 83 4.34 2.89 2 86 2.42 3.22 3.17 3.20 3.30 3.71 3 43 4.04 4 29 2 93 2 86 2 89 3 00 D. D. D. A. C. A. C. A. C. B. B. B. 172 SORGHUM. Effects of Fertilizers on the Ash of Sorghum Juices. A small number of determinations (34) were made of the ash of various sorghum juices ; it was originally intended to make a larger number of estimations for the purpose of showing the effect of these four fertilizers on the amount and composition of the ash in sorghum canes and juices. The pressure of other work and the limited num- ber of assistants prevented the completion of the work, and the results here recorded are given for what they may be worth. If these results are considered sufficiently numerous to warrant any conclusions, it appears that the amounts of ash are least with fer- tilizer A, and increase regularly in the order A, B, C, D. I seems hardly safe, however, to draw any conclusions. We can safely infer, however, that the ash in sorghum juices does not vary greatly from 1 per cent. The following are the results obtained : EFFECT OF FERTILIZERS ON THE ASH. No. OF CANE. ■■s ' u m i3 ■s d s ■■s 1 No. OP CANE. < u 3 u ■3 1 1 22 1.46 ■ 2 .95 23 3 : 1.13 1.13 1.12 24 4 '. 25 26 ' ' M 5 6 !90 1.13 27 .85 .... .95 7 .91 '".iV i.W .84 1.23 I'.OS' i'.ii i'.ds" 1.00 l.U LOs' '1.12" 28 8 9 10 29 30 31 11 32 33 12 13 Si 11 85 15 36 .37 10 (Uupl.) No. estimations. . ■ '.04 5.83 6 .97 ' ' '.si' .88 12.59 12 1.05 '871' 8 1.09 16 17 18 .91 .82 1.03 .88 .88 I'.is ' 9.6i* 8 19 20 21 ' Effect of Fertilizers upon the Production of Sugar in Sorghum. Many experiments have been made with a view to the determination of this question. A limited number of these being taken, conclusions apparently well established would follow from such limited examina- EFFECTS OF FERTILIZERS ON SORGHUM. 173 tion. The result, however, of all the experiments, including 34 analy- ses of the ash of juices from sorghum grown upon plats differently fertilized, leaves the matter wholly undecided. In the literature of sorghum respecting fertilizers very much may be found, as in that upon sugar-cane and beets, which appears to be well established, at least it is with great confidence asserted ; but it is very doubtful whether any conclusion as to the effect of one or another fertilizer upon a sugar producing crop rests upon data in- volving over 34 analyses of ash — and, as has been said, even this number fails to prove any thing as to the effect of variofls fertilizers upon sorghum. The following report upon experiments in the use of fertilizers upon sorghum, in 1881, is made by Prof. George H. Cook, Director of the New Jersey Experiment Station, at New Brunswick, N. J.: For the study of the effect of fertilizers, sixteen adjoining plats, of one-tenth acre each, were measured off, fertilized as stated in the table, and planted May 23rd, 1881, with Early Amber seed. The cane was doubtless injured by the unusually severe drought: it was noticeable, however, that it suffered much less from this than corn planted on neighboring field. It was harvested on the first of October. For samples to represent each plat twenty average canes were cut from ten different rows, immediately weighed, and after they had been stripped and top- ped, again weighed and passed singly between the rollers of a heavy cane mill. The juice from each lot of twenty cane, after it had been carefully mixed, was used for the analysis. The determinations of cane sugar were made by means of the polariscope, using solutions clarified with basic lead acetate and 50 per cent absolute alcohol. The plan of the experiment was, to ascertain the effect of each of the fertil- izing material applied singly and in combination on the production of sugar — to compare the effect of muriate of potash with that of sulphate of potash — and to determine whether by increasing the amount of phosphoric acid uted per acre, an advantage would be gained. The action of the fertilizers is best studied in the table under the heading, pounds of extraetable sugar per ton of cane and per acre. It was expected that phosphoric acid would materially hasten the maturity of the cane; it appears to have exercised no decided influ- ence in this respect. It caused, however, an increase of 250 pounds, or nearly 30 per cent, of sugar over that yielded by plat No. 15. Muriate of potash used alone increases the gross weight of stalks very much more than sulphate of potash; it increases too the yield of sugar per acre. It is a fact, however, of especial importance to the manufacturer, that the yield per ton is 20 per cent greater from the plat No. 12, on which the sulphate was used, than from the muriate plat No. 4. Muriates, too, if taken into the sorghum juice, can not be removed by the process of manufacture now used, and inter- fere seriously with the crystallization of sugar. 174 BOEGHUM. As has been well known for many years past, crude barn-yard manure must not be used directly on sugar producing plants. Plat No. 11 draws attention once more to the fact. No noticeable increase in the amount of sugar was caused by it; but a point of much greater importance, is the positive statement of experienced men that sugar will not crystallize from syrup of canes which have been fertilized with it. A heavy dressing on corn land loses its injurious qualities in the course of a year, and sorghum following in rotation is benefited by it. The expression '' extractable sugar" has been used in this table to indicate that a portion only of the total amount of sugar has been extracted by the mill ; the bagasse or crushed cane, when it is burned under the boilers or thrown on the compost heap, still contains one-third of the sugur produced by the plant. If the profits of the business are so large that manufacturers can content them- selves with two-thirds of the sugar, farmers should endeavor to turn this bagasse into food for sheep, by the process of ensilage. After a struggle which haS now lasted more than twenty-five years, sorghum to day does not occupy its true position among sugar producing plants. Its advocates justly claim that this is due to our lack of information, not only in regard to the manufacture of sugar from it, but also in respect to its proper cultivation. o a in o , o S ,£3 * ■a •p o T-l OJ of.'S 1^ •a II & S u ft.ti ftC --?, O o a II •r-l O .3" ■§1 p. -2 1 1 o • ft &3 ,11 ftg to O u w m "5 o »ft Hi ft S ■c ■o 'O ■^c g •O n 'Sm c a fl Co Co S-S ^ s = i § Pa 5 a a o ft o p. •a a* a fto &g o o o o o o o ft o ft a CO lO s ;! s in Cost of fertilizers per acre — fO 00 $6 10 $7 50 .$3 40 $13 60 fO 00 $9 50 $11 ,00 Pound.s of sorglium per acre, . . 11,515 13,365 14, 820 16, 000 14,440 11,170 11,640 12,390 Founds of stripped aud topped cane per acre 8,400 9,890 11,263 12,160 10,830 8,378 8,846 9,293 Percentof juice extracted from stripped and topped cane 69 67.0 66,4 63,0 66,8 64,2 65,1 64,3 Pound.s of juice extracted per acre 5,851 6,626 7.479 8,269 7,234 5,379 5,759 5,975 Per cent of sugar in juice 9,70 9,43 9,00 9,27 9,68 9,94 10,51 1168 Pounds of extractable sugar per acre 568 625 673 767 700 635 605 696 Pounds of sugar extracted per tonofcane 135 126 120 126 129 128 1,37 150 Pounds of clean seed per acre. . 1,020 1,351 1,298 1,246 1,344 1,132 1,038 1,067 * 16 per cent phosphoric acid. EFFECTS OF FEETILIZEES ON SOEGHUM. 175 go? V o oT J pounds) ) (Chloride of potassium (15 ■pounds) \ " t Superphosphate (15 pounds) j /Chloride of potassium (7^ pounds)i " Barn-yard manure No manure Mixed minerals and nitrogen Mixed minerals and two-tnirds nitrogen. Mixed minerals and one-third nitrogen. Mixed minerals and one-sixth nitrogen.. Mixed minerals and one-twellth nitrogen Mixed minerals and no nitrogen Nitrogen on plat. Pounds. 1.2 1.2 .4 .2 .1 Cane sugar. Per cent. 10 91 10.19 10.57 10.54 10.95 10 77 10.17 10 S3 10.87 11 63 11 34 10 92 10.41 10 10 11 59 10.47 Glucose. Per cent. 2.80 2.77 2.77 2 80 2.78 2.56 2 85 2 85 2.76 2 80 2.94 2 86 2 90 2 87 Stripped stalks. Pounds. 828 864 796 762 910 776 578 616 472 578 .548 560 618 590 * The "nitrogen mixture" consisted of sodium nitrate, ammonium sulphate, and dried blood in equal parts. 176 SORGHUM. The "superphosphate" contained about 16 percent of phosphoric acid. The " chloride of potassium " contained about 50 per cent of potash. The " mixed minerals" was composed of two-thirds of superphos- phate, and one-third chloride of potassium. The amount applied to one-twentieth of an acre, besides the nitrogen mixture in the experiments Nos. 11 to 15 inclusive, was the same amount used in experiment No. 8, viz.: Superphosphate 15 pounds, and chloride of potassium 7^ pounds. The yield of stripped stalks upon the two plats with no manure, Nos. 1 and 10, differs as widely as any of the others, one being 828 and the other 616 pounds, while the sucrose and glucose in the two are practi- cally alike in quantity. Also Nos. 3 and 11 give 795 and 472 pounds of stripped stalks respectively, though both received the same amount of nitrogen. This result by itself, would make it appear that the " mixed minerals " upon plat 1 1 had been injurious ; but, in No. 8, the yield was about the same as in No. 3. Again, in contrasting Nos. 9 and 10, we have an apparent falling off in weight of stalks (a surprising result), while the content of sugar is practically unchanged. It will be seen that Professor Cook obtained, by the use of barn yard manure, 9,405 pounds of stripped stalks, while the average of his two no manure plats gave only 8,392 pounds, and the percentage of sugar in the juice was practically the same in both, viz.: 9.57 per cent with barn-yard manure, and 9.82 per cent without manure. As to the effects of barn-yard manure, Professors Weber and Scovell, of Illinois Industrial University, report as follows : To ascertain the effect of manure, a field was selected which had been used as a barn-yard for several 3 ears- A part of the cane was planted directly on the rotten manure pile. An analysis was made of a sample taken from this part of the field, as well as of a part away from the manure pile. The seed ia each case was iu the '' hardening dough." The following is the result of the analysis : Manured— Sp. gr. 1 063. Grape sugar 2,65. Cane sugar 10.89. Unmanured—Sp. gr. 1.074. Grape sugar 2.65. Cane sugar 13. i)7. The lower specific gravity of the juice from the plat so highly manured, is what might be expected from a rank growth under such circumstances, and the longer time necessary to its complete maturity. It would have been interesting to have had the analysis of this cane a month later, to have seen whether it would not bave shown an- increase in specific gravity and sugar content. COMPOSITION OF SOIL AS AFFECTING SOEGHUM. 177 At least the experience as recorded, is not against the use of barn- yard manure, as a fertilizer for sorghum. It appears from these results, that, although this question of the fer- tilizers is one of great practical importance, the data attained by ex- periments thus far, is by no means sufficient to enable one to draw re- liable conclusions. It is especially important that we guard against the tendency to hasty conclusions, which is the greater if our limited data apparently confirms our preconceived notions. COMPOSITION OF SOIL AS AFFECTING SOEGHUM. The character and composition of the soils best adapted to the culti- vation of sorghum for sugar production, as also the proper method of fertilization necessary for the best results, are obviously matters of fun- damental importance. At present our knowledge is very limited, and the number of care- fully ascertained facts so small, as hardly to warrant more than con- jecture. In many respects, the habits of the sorghums, and their demands upon climate and soil, are almost identical with those of the several varieties of maize ; and yet there appear to be, in certain respects, marked differ- ences. It is known that, when fairly established, the sorghums, as a class, are capable of sustaining a period of drought which would prove fatal to maize ; and not only this, but that such drought and the accompanying high temperature, results in the development of an un- usual amount of sugar in the plant. — (See Annual Report Depart- ment of Agriculture, 1881-82, page 456.) It will be seen, by consulting the results of our experiments as to the effects of fertilizers- upon the sugar content and ash in the juices of the several sorghums (see page 172) that, although a very large number of determinations were made, the average result of all was such as to leave the matter wholly unsettled. To those who may desire to aid in these and similar investigations, a careful study of these results above referred to, may be helpful as show- ing the extreme danger of hasty generalizations ; for any half dozen of the analytical results, selected at random and considered alone, would, in most cases, warrant a conclusion, more or less decided, which the in- crease of testimony renders less and less probable. The results of the past year, 1882, at Rio Grande, N. J. (where they produced 320,000 pounds of sugar, and where, upon fields identical in character there was great variation in the amount of crop produced), 12 178 SORGHUM. were such as to awaken great interest in these questions of soils and fertilization. Besides, the juices of the sorghums there grown proved to be remarkably pure, comparing well even with the best sugar-cane juice. Therefore, average specimens of the soils from the several fields were obtained, and a record of the yield of crop, and the fertil- izers applied to each, was also secured from the president of the Sor- gh'jm Sugar Company, George C. Potts, Esq., of Philadelphia, Pa. Rio Grande is a small hamlet some 6 miles north of Cape May, N. J., in latitude 39° north, and longitude nearly 2° east from Washing- ton. It is situated upon a sandy peninsula, about 5 miles in breath, with the Atlantic upon the east, and separated from the main-land by the Delaware Bay, at this point about 20 miles wide. Average sam- ples of soil from six fields were selected for analysis, viz : A. Harm farm.- — This field received an application of 300 pounds of Peruvian guano per acre. The average yield of stalks was Z\ tons per acre B. Michwine farm. — This farm also had 300 pounds Peruvian guano per acre. The average yield was 5J tons of stalks per acre. C. Hand farm. — This field received an application of 300 pounds of Peruvian guano and 30 bushels of lime per acre. The average yield was 7-| tons of stalks per acre. D. Neafie farm. — This field received same amount of guano and lime as C. Average yield per acre, 8 tons stalks. E. Uriah Creese farm. — Same amount of guano and linje as C and D. Average yield per acre, 15 tons stalks. P. Bennett farm. — Same amount of guano and lime as C, D, and E. Average yield per acre, 17 tons stalks. Prom the above results, it will be seen that the application of the expensive fertilizer, Peruvian guano, was without any apparent benefit, while the application of lime seems to have been beneficial, although it is to be regretted that we have not the data for comparing the yield of these fields with and without the application of fertilizers. With the exception, only, that the amount of pebbles of an apprecia- ble size, one-twentieth to one-quarter inch in diameter, was more in some of the samples than in others, there was to the eye no noticeable diiference in the character of the soil. The samples were passed through sieves of 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 meshes to the inch, and the following results obtained : The colunjn marked residue, consisted of pebbles which would not pass through a sieve of twenty meshes to tl;e inch, or rather of one-twentieth inch di- ameter. The column marked 20 was that portion which, passing meshes of one-twentieth inch, would not pass those of one-thirtieth, etc. COMPOSITION OF SOIL AS AFFECTING SOEGHUM. 179 Besides these six sampleaof soil from Rio Grande, N. J., analyses have J)een made of several other soils, upon which sorghum was grown the past year, as follows : G. Grounds of the Department of AgrieuUure. — The recent treatment of this plat, is given in the annual reports of the past three years. The sample for analysis was taken November, 1882. H. Soil No. 1. — Oreat Bend, Kas. — ^This soil has been cultivated for six years. The yield was lOJ tons stalks per acre. No fertilizer used. I. Soil No. 2. — Great Bend, Kas. — This soil was plowed for the first time. The yield peracre was 8 tons of stalks. No fertilizers were used. J. Soil from Rising City, Nebr., upon which 18 tons per acre of sugar beets were grown, which gave, on analysis, an average of 12.27 per cent of sugar in the juice. K. Soil from Hutchinson, JiTas. -Yield of sorghum, 6 tons stalks per acre. L. Soil from Sterling, Kas. — Under cultivation for three years in cerealcrops. Ablack, sandy loam. Average yield per acre, 7tonsstalks. M. Soil from Sterling, Kas. — A black, sandy loam. Under cultiva- tion for seven years with crops of cereals. Crop very promising, but destroyed by hail. N. Soil from Sterling, Kas. — Black, saudy loam. Under cultivation for five years in cereal crops. Average yield per acre, 12 tons of stalks. O. Soil from Sterling, Kas. — A strictly sandy soil, in cereals for five years. Average yield per acre, 10 tons of stalks PER CENT OF SOILS PASSED THROUGH SIEVES. Residue. 20. 30. 40. 60. 60. 70. 80. 90. Total. A 27.8 22 7 3.0 5.7 8.2 5 5 6.5 2.2. .3 .2 ,7 1 8 4.9 1 .9 4.2 5 1 6.7 7.2 6 2 6.9 1.6 1.1 .3 .5 .3 3.0 1.4 .9 1.6 5.9 8.9 17 6 16.7 12.2 18.6 6.6 2.9 .9 1 .8 7 4 3.3 3.3 9.2 3.6 7.8 16.5 13 6 8.7 12.6 7.2 3.3 1.0 1 S 5.6 3 2 7.6 8 6 2.6 5.0 8 8 9.6 7 5 5 7 3 9 3 7 1 2 .1 .7 6 1 2.1 6 5 11 3 3 6.0 8.8 8.2 6 9 9 4 3 6 2.6 .7 .6 .9 3 1 2 7 4 2 9.3 4 3 U 2 11.4 9.8 9.8 9 7 5.1 7 3 2 2 .1.1 2.1 4 « 4.2 9 6 14 6 3.9 6.4 10 6 12 8 3 8.0 7.9 6.8 4.5 1.5 2 4 6 3 3 12 9 14.7 448 26 9 16 6 17.2 32 2 20.7 58 6 70.1 88.9 95 8 91.6 64.8 74 9 64 1 29.8 B 100 1... 100 D : ...'... 100 E y 100 100 G. 100 H I 100 100 J. 100 K 100 L.. 100 M N 100 100 The mechanical condition of a soil determines often its degree of fertility, quite as much as chemical composition. This state of ex- treme comminution is said to account for the great fertility of the tchernoz^me or black soil of Southern Russia, which, upon chemical 180 SOEGHUM. analysis, does not appear any better than ordinary soils, and yet its productiveness is such that, as has been said of it : The Russian proverb, " One can not distinguish the generous from the rich,'' may be most appropriately applied to the tchernoziSme. It appears rich be- cause it is generous. It is commonly known, that the mineral matter, which composes the larger part of every good soil, has been derived originally from rocks which, during compa;ratively recent periods, geologically speak- ing, have been disintegrated by one agency or another, and that those supplies of mineral food necessary to the plant, in any soil, must have previously existed in the rocks from which this soil was produced. But those agencies, as frost, water, attrition, the carbonic acid and oxygen of the air, which have in the past reduced these rock masses to every degree of fineness, from small pebbles to impalpable powder, are still operative ; and gradually, year by year, day by day, new supplies of mineral food are being unlocked from these rock fragments and made available to the plant. Besides, it will be seen, that, as this pulverization goes on, the surface exposed to the action of these agen- cies, above mentioned, increases in geometric ratio, and so, in conse- quence, the disintegration becomes proportionately the more rapid. To illustrate : Suppose a block of granite 1 foot square to be broken into cubes of 6 inches square, there would be obviously 8 cubes pro- duced, and the surface exposed in the first case, being 6 square feet, ■ 6 ^ '■^ ■s CD Variety OF SOIL. '3 .s •1 03 .§•3 i oa 3i bo 3 DC 6 a S.2 3 •c 'iv. §• « tu*^ o J^ Q.O t: oi > IZi t" En > CO O . o ■< Prairie — 1 27 (Manured 3j ) years ago) No manure. Amber., 1 068 2 47 12.48 "1 2 7 Amber.. 1,074 3 65 10 10 3 27 (Manured 4( 1 years agoi Amber.. 1 070 3.26 12 52 Grape, 2.94 Cane, 11.28 4 Unknown .. No manure. . . Amber.. 1 070 2 71 10.77 5 Very old... No manure. . . Amber.. 1.070 2 61 10.51 Virgin j 6 No manure. . Amber.. 1.070 3 92 3.00 2.65 11.89 13.66 13.37 X Grape, 3.46 \ Cane, 12.77 prairie ( 7 No manure. Amber.. 1 072 Timber ( laud...i 8 Unknown . . (Barn-yard j J manure..! Amber.. 1-074 ■ 9 10 Manured 4 1 years agoi Amber.. 1.067 3.46 12.49 Grape, 3.07 10 12 No manure.. . Amber.. 1,074 3.10 13 18 'Cane, 12.87 11 4 No manure. . . Amber.. 1 076 2.97 13 64 12 4 No manure.. . Amber.. 1,070 2 98 12 80 13 Many No manure. . . Amber.. 1.066 3.16 11.76 Miss'ippi sand > 14 Amber.. 1.063 2.61 13,47 land...) X Grape, 2.39 .15 .\mber.. 1 056 2.18 11.14 \ Cane, 12.30 DEVELOPMENT OF SUCROSE AND GLUCOSE IN SORGHUM. 185 CHAPTER VII. (a.) Development of sucrose and glucose in, sorghum. (6.) Averatie results of analyses of different varieties of sorghum. (c.) Comparative value of different parts of the stalk. (d.) General analyses of sorghum juices. (e.) Chemical composition of sorghum. DEVELOPMENT OF SUCROSE AND GLUCOSE IN SORGHUM. For the purpose of determining the condition of the sorghum plant, in the several stages of its existence, there were planted upon the grounds of the Department of Agriculture, at Washington, in the spring of 1879, four varieties of sorghum, viz., Early Amber, "White Liberiau, Liberian, and Honduras. On the 18th of July, when the plants had attained such develop- ment that their panicles or seed heads were just beginning to appear at the top, one or two stalks were selected of each variety, the juice ex- pressed and analysed ; and this examination was continued, at inter- vals of a few days, during the entire season, and after severe frosts. The detailed results of these analyses will be found on page 189. The foUowing chart graphically represents the results of the analyses. The line which represents the "Average sucrose in sugar-cane,'' is the average per cent found in triplicate analyses of the three principal varieties of sugar-cane grown in Louisiana. These canes were anal- yzed by the same methods used in the analyses of the sorghum juices. The line representing the average per cent of sucrose in sugar beets, is from the results of analyses of thirteen specimens of sugar beets grown upon the Agricultural College farm, Amherst, Mass., and anal- yzed by Professor Goessmann (vide Massachusetts Agricultural Re- port, 1870-71). It will be observed how closely the Early Amber and the Liberian correspond in their development, being almost identical, and yet being clearly distinct varieties. Wliile these two varieties attain a content of sugar in their juices equal to the average in juice of the sugar-cane by the middle of August, the Liberian does not reach this condition until the last of September, and' the Honduras not until the middle of October. After having attained approximately the maximum content of sugar, this condition is maintained, for a long period, affording ample time to work up the crop. , , , 186 SOEGHUM. It is doubtless true, that had the season been longer, it would have been found that the Liberian and Honduras, having once attained this full devolnpmeut of sugar, would also have retained it; but, as is seen by the chart, the heavy frosts and subsequent warm weather which happened about October 24th, caused a rapid diminution of sucrose in each variety, and a corresponding increase in glucose. The -converse of what is found true of the sucrose is clearly shown as to the development of the glucose, and it is seen that a minimum quantity once attained is continued along time, and that this minimum is quite as low as the average amount found present in the sugar-canes. It was most unfortunate, as tending to retard the development of the sorghum sugar industry, that Dr. C. A. Goessmann, through his examination of canes, which, through long keeping after being cut up had suffered an inversion of their sugar, should have concluded his report, made in 1879, on the Early Amber cane, in these words : " The presence of a large amount of grape sugar in all the later stages of the Early Amber, as well as of all other varieties, of this species, is a seri- ous feature in the comj)osition of the juice, impairing greatly the chances for a copious separation of the cane sugar by simple modes of treatment." This sweeping conclusion is quite at variance with the results which have just been recorded, and does not appear to be justified by the facts upon which it is based, as will be seen upon page 129. It is obvious that the results depicted upon the chart are not to be taken as entirely exa,ct, but the general fact represented is, without doubt, true, and with a still larger number of observations, the ap- proach to true curves would be found nearer than here represented. An average of all the examinations made of these four sorghums, during these periods when they were suitable for cutting, gives the following results: Early Ambpr. from August 13th to October 29th inclusive, 15 analyses, ex- tending over 78 days, 14.6 per cent sucrnse. White Liberiati, from Aucust 13th to October 29th inclusive, 13 analyses, ex- tending over 18 Hays, 13.8 per cent sucrose. Liberian, from Senlember 13th to October 29th inclusive, 1 analyses, extend- ing over 46 dais, 13.8 per cent sucrose. Honduras, from October 14th to October 29th inclusive, 3 analyses, extend- ing over 16 days, 14.6 per cent sucrose. It will be seen, that, in the four varieties grown, it was most fortu- nate to have had those diifering so widely from each other in nearly every respect, except only the all-important one, their practical equal- ity in their content of sugar after they had reached maturity. When each variety had quite matured, the greater portion of each was taken, and samples of excellent sugar was made without trouble, aud in considerable quantity, from each. DEVELOPMENT OF SUCEOSE AND GLUCOSE IN SOKCnUM. 187 c 3 — ~ P 3 c 3 ■^M ~ c ) — c 3 t. 3 n 1 f; r t; "TT ~ 3> < «> £> (D * I rt» (D » •. > H (2 "I CD r^ 1? trl n> C5 < CA Cfl ll ly in c t> 3^ m o 1? o 3 |P o H CD m: * 33 (P » IH 3 s 3 IP w \ '. W (r m (Q ^" ^ a 11 T / / N V 94 o s w o 9B 3 '■ \ fT> 3 ?n ro ■■ » in 1 :' n 1 Au q I o .- O 3. s z i> i ■ 2 ■■;, \ c z C -^ 1 7 ■ ■^ f ^ ^ 3 w i \ -^ 11 IN '/ ^ ■ -.., ' 13 X ■^ "• IS , / \ -^ 17 ■J \ ( 1Q i / 1 -^ i 91 \ ^ \ 9,i ii \' / 9ri A ■^ 1 97 / \ 1 ^ 99 \ 1 J1 / /" \ 1 \, ■ 1 S( p: 9 1 '1 / , 'n 1 \ / / \ \ ^ 1) --. \ \ 8 J / {■ \- 10 ' "•'^ I 19 s ', 14 / \ 1 : [ U, \ 1 ■ t 18 \ 1 20 . ^ 99 . N 1 94 S 1 96 'N [ ■ 1 9R \ 1 N 1 A [ 30 j 1 k l\ 1 t. 2 / \ : 1 \ 1 4 1 1 ;■ 1 1 6 j /" 1 1 8 f V 1 \ 1 10 j ; / j 19 I- , 1 ) 14 j-' 1 K IP ', ' 1 \i 1 18 ' 1 - 1 20 \\ ; 9? \\ / 24 ll \ /* f \ 96 ,', \ / / 1 28 ;o n''' ' 1 ^ -' 30 A ./ / f N V 1 f V 1 -■• / ^ t 3 ' .■- i ^ '' / 5 j s^ ■-, s. ;^ / / 7 . ^ — ^ ^ 3 ^ k % o IS 1 ^ c ? T rp c i ^ dn k J CO ^ G3 ~ 1 f^ _c J 4- L^ O) -fj _ L 188 SORGHUM. After the encnnraging results of 1879, which have just been re- corded, the examination of many other varieties of sorghum and maize was continued at the Departmentof Agriculture in 1880; 1881, and 1882, including, in all, the examination of about 100 varieties of sorghum and 20 varieties of maize, for the purpose of determining the nature of certain changes going on during the life of the plant, and especially to determine that period when, in each variety, the content of sugar was at its maximum, as, also, to learn the length of time during which this practical maximum was retained. To this end, the examinations were, in some instances, begun so soon as a stem had fairly formed in the plant, in order to determine how early in its life the presence of sugar could be detected ; and, in all cases, the examinations were begun long before even the panicle had appeared, and before any one would think to work the crop for either sugar or syrup. These examinations were continued almost daily with each variety, till long after frosts, and the results of each variety were tabulated, and may be found in the Annual Reports of the Department of Agriculture for those years. The interest and value which these results have, in giving, as they do, in a condensed form, the life history of these plants, is such that the detailed examinations of three varieties is here given. The following tables show the results of the analyses of three varieties of sorghum stalks, made during the season of 1881, at Washington, D. C. — the date of each analysis, the dimensions and weight of the stalk, the percentage of juice obtained from the stalk and the specific gravity of the juice, the per cent of sucrose, glucose, and of the solids not sucrose nor glucose present in the juice. In addition, there is given the percentage of sucrose present, as determined by the polari- scope, which will be found to correspond closely with the percentages of sucrose as determined by analysis. An examination of these tables of analyses reveals the following facts : In the earlier stages in the growth of each plant, the amount of crystallizable sugar (sucrose) is small ; but, as the plant matures, the sucrose rapidly increases until it equals from 12 to 16 per cent of the juice. The " solids not sugar" in the juice also increase from the first, but very much less rapidly than does the crystallizable sugar ; at the same time, the uncrystallizable sugar (glucose) steadily diminishes, so that the purity of the juice (shown in the column ■ marked "available sugar"; increases constantly until the cane is ready to be worked. These facts, and the inferences to be drawn from them, will be more fully discussed in ci^nnection with the general averages deduced from these figures. See page 189. DEVELOPMENT OF SUCROSE AND GLUCOSE IN SOEGHUM. 189 EAELT AMBER. 1 S .si ■d o 6 6 ^ 4i a a (30 i H rt bo 3 to CD a a, 1 p a o s 3 CD P. P. 'E 1-3 CO s o 3 g 3 o 3 1 U stage. Feet. Inch. Lb. £6. Pr. ct. Pr. ct. Pr.ct. Pr. ct. Pr. ct. Pr. ct. June 27. . . . 9 6 2.0 2.8 5. .8 .6 .6 35 .8 27 .6 55,80 56 44 53,69 1,014 1 017 1 028 1 25 2 21 3,15 ,07 .70 1.15 1.91 -3,09 Julv 5 .. i July 16 ... "i'.eb — 4^65 Julv 16 ... 2 5.5 .6 ,8 ,6 62,29 1 026 2,92 1.52 1,45 —2 85 July 11 3 5. .7 1,4 1,1 70 85 1 021 2.20 .58 4 10 —5,72 Julv 14 .. 4 5.5 .8 ,9 .7 63,50 1 026 2 96 1 32 Julv 15... 4 7 5 .9 1 3 .9 66 26 1 023 2 60 30 350 — 580 July 15.... 5 S 5 1.1 1.9 1 1 63 80 1 ()2:i 2 61 ,99 2 80 —4 42 July 20 . . . G 7 5 .7 1,1 ,9 68 23 1 047 3.17 3 10 2 42 —2 49 Julv 23.... 7 8 ,6 96 8 65 79 1 041 3,64 4,83 3 63 —2,34 July 23... 8 7 7 .6 1.02 8 65.81 1,036 3.57 3 53 3.27 -3 31 July 25 . 9 7 4 .7 1.1 9 62 68 1 040 2 68 7 33 2.47 . 2 18 7 02 July 25 ... 9 6 5 .8 1.0 ,8 69 48 1 047 2 75 7 12 2 54 1-83 7.25 Julv 28 ... 9 2 7 5 .7 1 8 1,4 67 23 1 0.53 2 87 8.41 1.87 3 67 7 96 July 29 . . . 10 2 7.2 .6 2.0 1,8 m 00 1,0.58 3,02 9,02 2,75 3 2,-1 9.18 Julv 29 10 1.057 2 82 9 49 2 87 3 80 9 21 Aug. 1 ... 11 2 8. "".6 l'.7' 'i!5 64 66 1,066 2 47 12 2,') 2 87 6 91 11 39 Aug. 8 . . 12 7,8 .6 1 1 .9 63 37 1 072 1 86 12 96 6 04 6 06 12 82 Aug. 13 . 13 8,0 ,6 1,0 .8 64.51 1,071 1 57 14 27 3 SO 9,40 13,89 Aug. 18... 14 7,8 ,7 1 3 1.0 63 59 1 083 1,56 14 S3 3 93 9.35 Aug. 24 ... 15 8 ,6 1,9 1,4 56,10 1 083 .98 16,47 2 91 12.58 Aug. 26 . . . 15 7 4 .7 1 4 9 63 25 1 OSO ,76 16 43 3,06 11 61 Aug. 27.... 15 9,4 .7 1 4 1,0 56,01 1 091 1.11 16,13 ?7.42 Aug. 31.. . 16 8 5 .6 1,7 1 3 62 77 1 091 1 09 18.43 3.27 14 07 Sept. 3... 17 7 5 .7 1.4 1,0 52 88 1.091 .80 18,61 ?6.81 Sept. 7 .. 17 8 5 .8 2,9 2,1 54,17 1.089 .80 18,23 3.00 ■"i4!43 ?i6'92 Sept. 10 . Sept, 17 . . . 18 18 9,5 9 2 ,5 .6 2 1 1,1 1.6 .8 49,91 43,83 1 089 1 0S8 1.26 .86 17 65 17,09 4 16 3,64 12 14 12 59 Oct. 5... After 18 9.0 .7 1,3 .8 64 28 1,078 .87 15.24 2.76 1161 Oct. 15 ... ....do... 8.0 .7 1.7 1.3 57,90 1.078 1.16 14.32 4.60 8,56 13 96 Oct. 22.... ...do... 7.3 ,5 1.1 .7 56,l.'i 1 076 1,27 14 23 3.60 9 96 17,01 Oct. 27 ... ...do ... 7 5 .8 1.1 .8 56.90 1.083 92 15.76 4 18 9 66 Oct. 29 .. ....do ... 2 8 5 i 2 1.6 57,82 1 077 .89 12.65 5.77 5.99 i4!76 Nov. 2... ....do.... 2 S 3 .5 1,9 1.3 61.98 1 074 1.23 13,91 3.24 8 44 Nov. 4 ... ....do... 2 7 3 .6 1.3 1.1 59 96 1 069 1.02 12 .59 3,41 8,16 12^76 Nov. 7 ....do... 2 8,4 .8 1,7 1.2 50 00 1,076 .83 14,01 3 51 9 67 14,03 Nov. 9.... ....do... 1 9 .6 1,1 .9 54,. 52 1 074 ,89 13,82 3,72 9,30 13,97 Nov. 12 . . . ...do.... 1 80 ,8 1,0 .8 48 86 1.077 ,82 14.00 3,84 9 34 13 86 Nov. 15 ... ....do... 1 7,2 .6 1 .7 55 42 1 073 95 14 27 2.20 11 12 14,09 Nov. 17. . . . ....do ... 1 5,7 ,8 1.1 ,8 53,96 1,075 1 46 13,03 4.25 7.12 190 SORGHUM. LINK S HYBRID. ■3 a p. s ■ 0) s 3 1 a 1 Ml s .1 1 3 ■3 •a •t 1 CD ■■3 >, S3 p '3 a S 3 a 1 OS 3 S m H g. 1 . P h^l n Eh m >-s CO 5 m CO < Stage. Feet Inch. Lb. Lb. Pr. ct. Pr.ct. Pr.ct. Pr. ct. Pr.ct. L .7 1,1 1.5 1.6 1.1 1.2 70.69 72,45 1,017 1,025 1.47 2.19 .93 2.22 3.10 2.51 —3.64 —2.48 i 2 7. .9 1 5 1.2 66,00 1,030 2.13 3.04 1.18 — .27 3 7,7 .8 1.7 1.8 68,52 1,033 2.39 4.34 3.14 -1.19 4 9.0 .9 1.8 1.4 65,19 1,047 2.39 7.46 1.86 3 21 5 9.7 .8 1.7 1.4 67.64 1.049 2. ,72 7.21 2.22 2.27 6 1.047 2.84 7 05 .71 3.50 6 "9:7 ■■■■.9 "2.0 "i'e 6l!69 1,052 2.48 7.90 2.54 2.88 6 9 8 .8 3,5 2,8 65.29 1 062 2 15 10.66 3.06 6.45 7 9 1 1.0 1,2 .9 63.72 1,052 2.61 8.01 3.87 1.53 8 9 7 .9 1,7 1.3 67.50 1,064 2.70 11,25 1.56 7 00 9 11.1 .9 1.7 1.3 63. .39 1 069 1.98 12.22 2.54 7.70 10 1 071 2.06 12 79 2.42 8. SI IC li.'2 "1.0 "2.0 "i'.'i 64 07 1,071 2 03 12.46 2.78 7.65 11 11.0 .9 1.8 1.5 64.04 ■1,082 1 69 15 73 2.54 11.50 11 1 082 1.69 15.87 2 64 11 54 12 il 1 "".9 "i'.'i "1:4 65 -il 1 082 1..38 15.. 58 3.51 10 69 13 10.5 .9 1.6 1.3 63,20 1,082 1 58 16.41 2.43 12.40 14 11 2 .9 1.7 1.5 62.81 1,089 1 21 18.05 3.28 13 56 14 1 088 1.65 17.20 3.67 11 98 16 "n.i "".9 "i.h "i'3 54 '59 1.094 .66 18.86 3 33 14.87 16 11.0 1.0 1.8 1.5 ,59.56 1 086 1.03 17.03 2.56 13 44 17 11.2 .8 1.8 1 4 55.21 1.091 .34 18.28 V7.09 ?10.85 After 18 11-3 1.1 2.1 1.7 57.25 1 085 .42 16.89 3.38 13,09 ..do... 10,5 1 1.9 1.5 52 91 1 088 .59 16.13 4.87 10,67 ...do .. 9.9 1.0 1 8 1.3 5S 56 1,080 .42 15.32 3.32 11 68 ...do .. 11.6 .9 1.9 1 4 56,83 1,085 .49 16 22 4 81 10 92 ...do... 11.0 1.0 1.6 1.2 54,78 1,074 .44 13.77 5.43 7 90 ..do... 9 .8 1.5 1.1 69.75 1,079 ..37 14 92 4 91 9,64 ..do ... 11.2 .7 1.5 1.2 54.32 1.085 .29 15.89 4.55 11 05 ...do... 11 .9 1.8 1 4 58.93 1.074 .39 13.11 5 12 7 60 ..do... 11.2 1.0 1.6 1.3 55 76 1.082 .21 15..% 4.30 10,85 ..do... 10.4 .9 1 5 1.1 58.18 1 073 .47 12.15 6.27 6,41 ..do.... 11.0 1.0 1.6 1.5 61,68 1.079 .37 15.14 3.35 11 40 ..do 10.9 1.0 1.4 1.0 59.74 1.082 .43 13.68 4.96 8.29 July 8 July 18 July 19 July 20 July 27 July 28 July 29 July 30 Aug. 2 Aug. 5 Aug. 10 Aug. 15 Aug. 19 Aug. 19 Aug, 25 Aug. 25 Aug. 29 Sept. 1 Sept. 5 Sept 5 Sept. 8 Sept. 12 Sept. 19 Oct. Oet. _. . Oct. 25 , Oct. 28 Oct, 31 Nov. 2 Nov. 4 Nov. 7 Nov. 10 Nov. 12 Nov. 15 Nov. 17 Pr. ct. 7.17 6.68 6.50 7.96 '7!69 10.65 12.12 12.19 15! 14 15.31 17.10 13.69 16.22 16.38 15.46 DEVELOPMENT OF SUCKOSE AND GLUCOSE IN SOEGHUM. 191 NEW VAMETT. — F W. STUMP. m 1 U-. 1 1 '3 3 ■d o 6 u ri oj ■§ .Q _ba U> bo a Oi c3 S "53 M s > S3 3 3 3 10 3 i i 1 o a a i a (1) s c ■a P. .2" 0) O 3 £3 s g 0) g 3 3 1 1 "C A n !2i 1-1 s H M ►^ m 3 CO O) 21 —4 59 July 18. 2 6.0 .6 7 ,6 70 26 1.025 3 64 .39 4 31 —7,56 July 11. 3 6 6 .9 1 4 1,1 V2 40 1.023 3 11 .74 2 74 —5,11 July 12. 3 6 5 .7 1 2 1 72,67 1 023 3 06 1 37 3 39 —5,08 July 13. 4 6.7 1.0 1.2 1.0 73.03 1 025 3 29 1.00 3 31 —5 00 July 13. 5 7 .9 1.3 1 1 70 95 1 026 3 33 ,41 4 73 —7 65 July 15. 6 85 .8 1 3 1 1 64.20 1,026 4 32 ,81 2 37 —5 88 July 19. V 8 3 .6 1.1 .9 68 61 1 042 3 63 4 92 ?+1.29 July 20. 8 84 .8 1 6 1.3 69 86 1 045 3 33 6 00 '2 '44 + .23 July 20. . 9 84 .6 1.2 .9 69 30 1.042 3.54 5, '28 3 03 —1.29 July 21. * 9 9.0 .6 1.2 1.0 70 02 1.042 3 36 8 54 ?+5 18 July 23. 10 8 7 .7 1.3 1.1 69 81 1,048 3 U 7 23 "4:38 — 26 July 26. 10 8 6 .7 1.4 1,2 71 59 1,050 3 27 7 39 2 19 +1 93 6 80 July 27. 10 8 7 .7 1.6 1 3 72,68 1.050 3 29 7 52 2 57 1 66 7 46 July 28. 10 8 5 .8 1.3 1 1 69 C9 1.058 2 95 9 38 2 79 3 64 9,39 July 29. 10 8.2 .7 1.0 ,8 71,55 1 056 4 20 7 .58 2 32 1 06 Aug. 5. 11 8.8 .7 1.4 1.2 65 42 1.073 1.61 14,54 3 37 9 56 Aug. 10. 12 8.1 .8 1.5 1 3 67 07 1.070 2,47 13.06 1,76 8 83 ISM Aug. 10. 12 9 .8 1,6 1,4 67 60 1,073 2 ai 13 76 1 76 9 77 12 38 Aug. 15. 13 8 2 .7 2 1,2 61 19 1 082 1.01 17 19 1 62 14.56 16 41 Aug. 20. 14 8.6 .8 1 5 1,1 58 41 1.US3 1.15 16.40 3.96 11.29 16 53 Aug. 25. 15 7 7 .7 1 2 1,0 61.11 1 086 1 65 17,25 2.28 13 37 Aug. 30. 16 9.0 .8 1.2 1 60 25 1 088 1 14 17 46 3 36 12.96 17 58 Sept. 1. 16 9 .8 1 6 1 2 58 60 1 087 1,09 18,13 2,85 14.19 Sept. 5. 17 9.0 .8 1,5 1 2 60 72 1 091 1 51 18,48 2 64 14.33 Sept. 8. 17 9 2 .8 1,4 1 2 63.87 1 098 1,26 18 81 2,97 14,58 is'™ Sept. U. 18 9,0 .9 1.3 1,1 69.00 1,091 1.14 18.61 3.16 14.31 Sept. 19. 18 8 1 .7 1,2 .9 55 . 58 I 089 .78 17 40 ?5,92 ?10 70 Cot. 11. After 18 8.0 .8 1,4 .9 59,39 1.086 1,15 17.18 2.71 13 32 Oct. 17. ...do... 9.5 .8 1,3 .9 47,. 38 1.081 • 1.78 13.90 4.44 7 68 Oct. 25. ....do.... 9.0 .9 1,1 .8 53,72 1.071 2,50 11.11 5 01 3 60 9 '73 Oct. 28. ....do... 8.6 .7 1,3 1.0 56,68 1,084 .88 15.77 4,56 10,33 15.37 Oct. 31. ...do... 8.0 .7 1.3 ,9 61.22 1,067 1.85 12.04 3 63 6 56 11,76 Nov. 3. ...do.... 8.7 .8 1.7 1.2 57.93 1.074 .81 14,70 2,78 11,11 13 64 Nov. 5. ....do... 8.5 .8 1,1 1.0 54,48 1.068 1.42 12 25 2,90 7 93 11.49 Nov. 8. ....do... 10.0 .6 1.8 1.1 53,24 1.058 1.82 9 33 4 25 3 26 Nov. 11. ....'do... 9.4 .9 1.6 1.2 57.29 1,080 1.04 14,29 3 79 9 46 1.3 95 Nov. 14. ....do... 82 .7 1.0 .8 55.00 1 071 1.52 12 19 3 42 7 25 12 04 Nov. 16. ....do.... 9 • .7 1.0 .8 56.43 1.073 1.53 12,74 3 70 7-45 12,32 Nov. 18. ....do.... 9.5 .8 1.0 .7 51.70 1.065 1.98 9.76 4,59 3.19 8,97 Analyses of Three Varieties in Different Stages. The following tables, from the Annual Report, Department of Agri- culture, 1881-82, represent the average results of the analyses of three varieties in the several stages of development, each table con- taining only the analyses of a single stage, and the general average of all the analyses of all varieties at each separate stage is given. An examination will show that there is practical agreement in all these sorghums, the only difference being in the time from planting necessary for the different varieties to attain to any given stage. 192 SOEGHUM. EARLY AMBER. ■M .^ , CJ V o a; 0) i d "0.2 >2 a> CU 2 o 1 CO 3 w If s 2 '3 S a. > > OQ ■< O « o 02 CQ H S ■< < < Fret Fret Prct. Prct Prct. Prct _1 Julv 1 July Ifi July 1 July. 9 2 1 1.73 3.15 .39 1.15 1.91 2.65 4 03 6.95 60 12 53.69 1 016 1 1.028 2 July 10 July 11 Jul\ 14 July 11 July 13 Julv 1.5 1 1 2 2 92 2.20 2.78 1.52 .68 .81 1.45 4 10 3.60 5.89 6.88 5 27 63 29 70.85 64.38 1 026 3 1 021 4 1.012 6 July 15 Julv 18 1 2.61 .99 2.80 6.40 63 80 1.023 6 Julv 20 July 23 Julv la July 20 1 1 3.17 3.64 3.10 4.83 2 42 3,63 8.69 12 00 68.23 05.79 1 047 7 1.041 8 July 23 July 25 1 3.67 3 53 3.27 10,37 65.81 1.036 9..- Julv 26 July 27 3 2.73 7 62 2.29 12 64 7 41 2.60 66.46 1.047 10 Julv 29 July 30 2 2 91 9.26 2 81 14 98 9.19 3.54 60 00 1.057 11 Aui;. 1 Aug. 3 1 2.47 12 25 2 87 17 59 11 39 6 91 64.66 1.066 12 Aug. 8 Aug. 13 Aug. 9 Aug. 12 1 1 SB 12.9li 5 04 19.86 l-> 8' 6 06 13 1 1 57 14.27 3 30 19 14 13.89 9.40 64 51 1.071 14 Aug. 18 Aug. 16 1 1.6.> 14.83 3 93 20 31 9.35 63.39 1 083 15 Aug. 26 Aug. 19 3 .95 16 03 2 97 21 44 12 11 58 45 1 085 16 Aug. 31 Sept. 5 Aug. 26 Sept. 3 1 1 09 18 43 3 27 22 79 14 07 52 77 1 091 1.090 17 2 .80 18 42 3 00 22 22 16.92 14 62 53 53 18 Sept. IX Oct. 10 Sept. 10 '' 1 06 17 32 3 94 22 32 1 089 1,078 After 18 2 1.01 14.78 3 68 19 47 13.96 10 09 56 09 After 18 Ont. 2(1 1 1 27 H 2.S 3 50 19 00 17 01 9 40 56.13 1.076 After 18 Oct. 30 4 1.01 13.75 4 16 18 91 13.76 8.49 .59.16 1 076 After 18 Nov. 30 3 .83 13 94 3 69 18.48 13 95 9.40 51 .12 1.075 After 18 Nov. 17 2 1.20 13.65 3.22 18.07 14.09 9.23 54.69 1.074 LINK S HYBRID. Before 1, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 After 18 After 18 After 18 After 18 After 18 July 8 July 18 July Julv 8 16 1.47 2.19 .93 2 22 3.10 2 51 5. 50 6 92 70.69 72 46 July lii Julv 20 2.13 3.04 1.18 6 3.1 66.00 July 20 Julv ■Art 2.. 39 4.34 3,14 9 87 —1.19 68.52 July 27 Julv 27 2.72 7.46 1,86 12 01 7.17 2.84 65 19 July 28 Julv 29 2 66 7.47 1,62 11,75 6.59 3.18 67.64 Aug. 1 July 30 2.31 9 28 2,80 15,39 7.96 4.17 03,49 Aug. 6 Aug. 2 2.61 8.01 3,87 14,49 7.69 1.53 63,72 Aug. 10 Aug. 4 2.70 11.25 1,55 15 50 10.65 7.00 67.60 Aug. 16 Aug. 6 1.98 12.22 2,54 16,74 12 12 7.70 63.39 Aug. 19 Aug. 12 2.0.5 12 03 2,60 17,28 12.19 7 98 64 07 Aug. 25 Aug. IV 1.69 15,80 2.59 20 08 15.23 11.52 04.01 Aug. 29 Aug. 19 1.38 15 58 3.51 20 47 10.69 65.11 Sept. 1 Aug. 2.-> 1.58 16 41 2,43 20,42 12.40 63.20 Sept. 6 Sept. 1 1 38 17,63 3.48 22 49 17.10 12.77 62.81 Sept. 8 Sept. 8 .66 18,86 3. S3 22,85 14.87 54,59 Sept. 12 Sept. 12 1 03 17 03 2.56 20,62 13.44 69.56 Sept. 19 Sept. 19 ..34 18,28 ?7.0!l ? 25,71 10.86 56.21 Oct. 10 1 .42 16,89 3.38 20.69 13.00 57.26 Oct 20 o 50 1> 73 4 09 20 32 14 75 11 14 fi5.73 .56.42 Oct. 30 4 .45 15 20 4.92 20 57 14.45 9.83 3 .36 13 54 4 89 18 79 Nov. 17 2 .40 15.41 4.15 19.96 15.39 10.86 60.71 1.017 1.025 1.030- 1 0:!3 1.047 1 048 1 057 1 0,')2 1.064 1.0IJ9 1,071 1 082 1 082 1 082 1,088 1.094 1.086 1.091 1 085- 1.084 1.081 1.076 l.OSO' DEVELOPMENT OF SUCROSE AND GLUCOSE IN SORGHUM. 193 NEW VARIETY. — P. W. STUMP. 1.. 2.. 3.. 4.. 5. 6.. 7.. 10 11 12 13 34 15 Ifi 17 18 After 18 After 18. After 18 After 18. After 18. OS g ■0.2 la Julv Jiilv Julv Julv Julv Julv July July July July Aug. Aug. ,AUg. Aug. Aug. Aug. Sept. Sept. Oct. Oct. Oct. Nov. Nov. t>J3 ^ bo <1 1.020 1 025 1.023 1.025 1.026 1.026 1.042 1.045 1.042 1.052 1.073 1.072 1.082 1.083 1.086 1.087 1.095 1.090 1.086 1.076 1.073 1 070 1.069 Oeneral Averages for each Stage in 1880. The following table, deduced from the results of 2,739 analyses of sor- ghum canes, made at Department of Agriculture, Washington, presents, in a condensed form, a very correct idea as to the actual development of the cane itself, and of the changes in the juice. Among the points of most practical interest may be mentioned the following : 1st. The changes in height, weight, diameter, and total and stripped weight, are not sufficiently important to require comment. 2nd. The percentage of juice extracted from the stripped stalks gradually increases up to the eleventh stage, then slowly diminishes until the close of the season. 3d. The specific gravity of the juice, the percentage of sucrose, the percentage of solids not sugar, and the available sugar, regularly in- crease (with but one or two exceptions) until the close of the season ; and the percentage of glucose in the juice as steadily decreases from the first. It will here be noticed, that the sucrose increases in the juice much more rapidly than do the solids not sugar; and this fact, taken together 13 194 SOEGHXTM. with the steady decrease of glucose, is the explanation of the equally steady increase of the available sugar, which represents the compara- tive purity of the juices. 4th. It is stated in the discussion of the table of specific gravities, that the proper stage in the development of sorghum at which to begin the manufacture of sugar, is when the juice has the specific gravity ^1.066, corresponding with 6.6 per cent of available sugar. Confirmation of this statement is here fLirnished by this table, and we further see that this specific gravity (1,066) is attained when the cane reaches what has been named the " 13th stage." By reference to the table describing these stages, it appears that the seed of the plant should be quite fully developed and hard. By these three indications, every cane grower can judge for himself as to the proper time to work up his sorghum crop, in order that he may obtain satisfactory results. At the same time, an analysis of the juice is always valuable, and should be made when practicable. GENERAL ATEBAGE FOR THE STAGES, AS DETERMINED FROM THE RESULTS OF THE SAME STAGE FOR ALL VARIETIES OF SORGHUM, IN 1880, AS DETERMINED AT DE- PARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. o m J3 ii .S.3 50 51 58 43 ; 93 2 15 —3.49 1 49 35 -4.67 3 24 7-31 10 05 11 40 8 35 9 51 11.23 9 78 4 53 11 33 9.60 -4.28 —3.35 —2 77 — 1 91 — .94 1. 1.49 8 34 4 6 59 6 28 65 0.92 6.73 7.44 8 119 6 65 6 37 —3.82 —4 45 —3 92 -4 29 —3 81 —2 87 -1.98 - .64 1.14 2 86 4.14 6.34 7.61 8.87 9.24 11 14 11 02 11,77 9 83 6 79 Development. First stage Scconii stage Tliird stage Fourth stage Fifth stage Sixth slage ■ Sevenlli stage Eighth stage Ninth stage Tentli stage Eleventh stage Twelfth stage — Thirteenth stage.. Fourteenth stage Fifteenth stage Sixteenth stage , . . Seventeeth stage. , Eighteenth stage Nineteenth stage. Twentieth stage.. . Total.. No. of analyses. 1879. 1880. 68 69 57 70 75 62 70 111 266 217 . 16G 170 183 191 217 339 197 191 • 30 1881. Average results, 1879, 1880, 1881. Pr.et. 1 2,32 2 8: 3.35 4 23 5 16 6 39 7.23 8 74 9.69 10 53 11.41 11.75 12 13 12 09 12.79 14.07 12 80 14 01 11.95 Pr ct 3 86 4.03 4 02 3.94 3 89 3 88 3 85 3.80 ^26 2.76 2 60 2 19 2.09 1.92 1 87 1 63 1 57 1 71 2 18 1.72 Pr ct. 1.89 2.05 2 04 2 33 2.36 2 68 2 41 2.53 2 44 2 .50 2 72 2.84 2 82 2.95 3 11 3 28 3.92 3 34 3.31 3 81 ,5-w 1 028 1 032 1 033 1.035 1 043 1 045 1 048 1 033 1 037 1 060 1 002 1 000 1 008 1 008 1 008 1 071 1 078 1 071 1 0^0 1 009 Pr ct. 60.41 02.26 03 71 64 34 63 00 65.17 05.11 06.25 06 15 03 49 05.22 li:!.19 62 90 61.20 60 90 61 10 59.98 61 03 56 74 58 43 ct. .18 —3 76 —3 24 —2 92 —2.02 —1.30 .13 .90 4.04 4. 49 5.31 38 6 84 7 26 7 11 7.80 8.58 7 75 8 52 6.42 74 109 97 122 129 117 116 157 315 285 230 224 ail 230 2.58 385 240 238 86 Graphical Charts. The preceding results will appear more clearly by representing them graphically ; and in the following charts the percentage is indicated, for the sucrose, glucose, solids not sugars, and available sugar, by the numbers given upon the right and left hand margins, while the dates 200 SOEGHtJM. are given upon the upper margin of each sheet. For convenience of platting upon the same sheet, the per cent of juice given upon the charts should be multiplied by five in every case, and the specific gravity is represented by having .001 in specific gravity equal to one- fifth of one per cent as given upon the chart. Each point indicated by a break in either of the lines representing the above constituents, the specific gravity or the juice, represents the average result actually obtained in the several analyses of a juice at any given stage of development. The beginning of each line and the end represent the average results of the first and last stages, and the intervening breaks the successive stages from the first to the last : AVEEAGE EESULTS OF ANALYSES OF SOEGHUM, ETC 201 r^ ^ e JT" r Jj ■f* 3r^ ■^ "5 U 3 ;^ ~ "^ N ^ *». c 31 CO 3! F? ^ " o c 3Q -° £» e» - < \ : \ > s D s i d SahiJ ^ 3^ \ t I* \ (- 03 \ 1 ES- s >" ^ c 1- (« s -St; i \ C^ > , '-, I \ ^^ ''-^^ < -^ '-. '^ ^, CD - ■ ' v,,.,^^ ^•^, 7-th- -Sta ge >-. ^ ^/ "* / ^ o "■. / 1 O - \ / 1 Jo-- ■■ ■■- \ 1 ^. :^ n ? -^ ■^ S. u" e S \ ~; \ \ _1 u \ 1 IT i \ [v . c n \ s -^ > \ "S -St 09 lis 3 \| -N ■^5- Zal" B , '\ \ . e ■1-2 B \ ■* V - V ^ a 1 \ ' / \ 1 i- P : 1 r _»_* i . 1 / t ■ \ z o G ; "^ \ ~J o — ^ \ f > 3 ( f) ^ CD -J ai t- -1 <-- 2.- / ; r 3- =■ y- o. 52- t «-- I 3. Cfl / ' J. — :: i : u W — _ ■~)~ ~ ~ CD / _ ._ : r £ SQ _ -D \ ~ r 1 s s w W \ 3. a. Q. (= \ V " r a 3^ ^ \ / ~ ■ — ~ ~ 1 1 g. =1 ?, 3 / "~ : c ^ V) -* \ ■ " XJ _ _ ~ c ~ — ~ ~ 3 ~ . f<. — ~C 5~ — ^ cJj J^ t>i c -il Tl ^ C D_ -L 3 cG -^--^ > ch ^ J_ CO -J — ■i — ^ _J — — 202 soEGHrnvr. AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF SOEGHUM, ETC. 203 c ~ L a — - - ~rt c ■^t- (. - c - - c "1 ---t -r r- 0:1 "t" ir -sT ~t uo m Jl -i n » r i> — u ~i ■n 1 . ' 1 \ \ i \ \ 1 \ : > \ 1 ■.. 3 i -Sta a> ' \ 1 '. a > \ >. \ \ r x» \ i t^ s a r? IT" ■, m \l -i CA s. , \ > I V V 3 »> s s r 1 \ > 7 h; sta \ \ s '. « \ I : \ o \ ■ \ \ : \ ^ i;; \ / \ <- EU S / I \ \, 9 h^ S a s N S _ f T x> s \ c 3 [U ' M O w r s S \ — 3 "5? \ \ -^ ? I- \ \ tv -s ta Cf/ 11 i; \ n 1 \ S^ ^ la; o ;l \ c II 1 II N s » 1 s , \ CO — 05 =* ; s \ ^ - =! \ S, ■— • o \ ^ z = =r M- O o —a>— 3 S, s \ \ ■ I c^ _C v> 1 \ -J en Cu — . \ .. \ \ > i? 3 — =f 3- 3- cu r* - \ u -T 0) 2, w \ / \ s r * sn k ^ ^ c -f- o V) — "^ ? _ A J- ^j \.^' ni -r. i / 3 m o. E. o o \ ; CO 5' 3 (T CD CD \ V ~ ~ • B> a. 3 o c /\ \ ~ ■ » = — V) l^ >: y tfi \ ^ o / / 1 ~ ~ ■ / \ h- ff / \ ^ L_ _ J- ^ "- Q- _ _ IZ 1^ _ _ 1^ _ o - _ _ _ _ 'm tv 3 "c 3 ~" £ ^ 3 t 3 'l'^ c ) _!!! li_ ^ <. 3 _C L. -Hi \ r 3_ _C t. -fs- J=. S- cr> iL CO 204 SOHQHUM. -^ -f - c 3 -D p= ^ c 3 ^H — -^ r C E= CO , (. s ir ^ ^ c 5 C J 1 '^ — CNJ V} — o \ S 'n , s .' \ 1 \ / ■ c / t ^ / ■. t- / • \ ^ \ ^ CO e \ 1 r 3 o ^ F o \ ■a < \ \ 0) N t; J ■ V I \ l\ 'J. 1 UJ UJ '~ ) o CO Z > «* o « -1 o UJ U2 ( =■ c 3 ; A c 3 ^- : d 3 c t 0} r C3 1. 5 ^ CO 1 Cf >! ^ 9 zz » AVERAGE RESULTS OP ANALYSES OF SOEGIIUM, ETC. 205 In 1882, there were grown upon the grounds of the Department of Agriculture, at Washington, 78 varieties of sorghum, consisting largely of varieties quite new to the United States, from South Africa, China, and India. The Chinese varieties, and several of those from Africa, proved to be comparatively worthless for sugar ; but, since the average results of the entire number grown and examined during the season only serves to confirm fully the results already recorded as to the gradual increase of sugar in these plants, the analyses are here given : AVEKA.GB RBSITLTS 0! ANALYSES AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT. 78 VARIETIES GROWN IN 1882. C3 Development. P.1 1:0} u o si C3 Per cerit available sugar. 2 4 •> Head swelling Head fully out 66.97 63.04 60.22 63.90 63.77 60.88 58.11 58 07 56.71 58 06 52.90 1.034 1.040 1.044 1.049 1.060 1.065 1.0606 1 0627 1.0668 1.070 1.0731 3.255 4.398 4.59 3.89 3.32 2 90 2.171 1 33 1.203 1 12 1.45 3.78 3.85 5 14 6.47 7.38 8 45 9 88 10 48 11.418 12. 2i 12.63 1.275 1 265 1.50 1.67 2.17 2.41 2.666 2 885 3.274 3.10 3.52 3.98 4.195 5.77 6.64 6 66 8 87 9.80 10:447 11.603 12.40 12.33 — 75 — 1.S13 — 95 e, 0.88 •>^ After bloom 1.85 85 187 Seed in milk . Seed in dough .S.20 5 054 •>nii 233 94 199 134 Sucker .seed in milk Sucker seed in dough . . . . Sucker seed hard 7.426 8.19 8.56 Comparison with Foreign Varieties. In 1882, examinations were made of a large number of varieties quite new to this country, from seed received from Africa, China, and India, and the results of these analyses are given by themselves for the purpose of comparison with the analyses of those varieties which have been cultivated in the United States for the past thirty or thirty- five years. Comparative Value during Working Period (i. e. , after seed was hard) of 14 Qdnese, 26 African, 3 Indian, and 20 American Varieties of Sor- ghum, seepage 102. PER CENT AVAILABLE SUGAR IN JUICES. Chinese *-89 per cent. African 7.19 Indian 6.93 American 7-90 " Analyses of Other Varieties of Sorghum (Sorghum Vulgare). The following analyses will show how widely these varieties of sor- 206 SOEGHDM. ghum under consideration differ in composition and in value, as sources of sugar, from other members of the Sorghum family to which, botanicaliy, they are so closely allied : ANALYSES. — JUICES BROOM COHNS. Variety. No. Anal. Sucrone. Glticose. Solids, pr. ct. pr. ct. pr. ct. Valley 6 1.45 1.55 2.25 Chinese Evergreen 5 2.40 2.25 2.49 Evergreen 4 2.50 1.97 2.40 Average 15 2.12 1.92 2.38 ANALYSES. — JUICES DOURA CORNS. Variety. No. Anal. Sucrose. Glucose. Solids, pr. ct, pr. ct. pr. ct. Rice, or Egyptian! 17 6.57 .84 3.49 Doura 6 5.77 2.33 2.71 Brown Doura 2 '3.70 1.75 8.70 "White Doura 1 8.70 1.90 7.00 Average 26 6.19 1.71 5.48 Comparison of Sugar- Cane with Sorghum. The results represented upon the tables and charts which have been given, will appear the more surprising if compared with the average analyses of the juices of sugar-cane. ■ Analyses af Louisiana Cane. The following analyses of specimens of Louisiana cane, were made at the Department of Agriculture, by the same methods pursued in the analyses of the sorghum ; so the results are entirely comparable. AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF SORGHUM, ETC. 207 o oo o ooooooco Portion. I Number of stalks. I Total weight, in pounds. Weight of leaf top. I Weight of bare cane. "Weight of top, stripped. Total length to end of leaves, in feet. Length of bare cane. Length of leaf top, stripped. Diameter at butt, in feet. Diameter at first leaf. I Number of joints in butt. W O I Number of joints in middle. -1 -1 00 mo Qi I— -I— ■cat^c^o'oco oo ooooo UTi^csiy CO M o CO gi era CJl en O -^ 0> O ■ CO CC CJ" CO -^i CO CO ro W CCtO M Cn31COi~*b3' g S3 g ■ to' 8§3: KS So. 3S -J s CJiCn- sis: ■ MM*] iO'-'O Length of first joint. Length of second joint. Length of middle joint. Length of first leaf-joint. Per cent of water in cane. Weight of juice, in pounds. Specifio gravity of juice. Per cent of solids in juice. Glucose, per cent of, in juice. Sucrose, per cent, of, in juice. Per cent of solids not sugar, in juice. Polarization, per ct., sucrose. 208 SOEGHUM. ANALTPES OF SUGAK-CANE JUICES BT KEGINALD M. SANDYS. A-. Ribbon Cane, Sagua la Grande. B. Second years' stubble. C. Red Plant Cane. D. First year's stubble— one-half red, one-half ribbon. E. Creole Cane. F. Japanese Caoe. A. B. 0. D. E. F. Average weight of canes pounds ... 3.03 2.81 4.12 2.56 1.31 1.67 Specific gravity juice Jjeauine. .. 8.6° 8.5° 8.4° 8.6° 6 5° 7.0° Per cent sucrose 12.80 13.17 12.62 13.60 4.51 4.93 /■ Per cent glucose 1.52 .82 114 .90 719 768 Per cent mineral and vegetable matter 1.14 1.09 1,18 1.00 Quotient of purity 82 .86 .84 .87 .39 .3» For purpose of further comparison, the following analyses of sugar- canes and juice of the sugar-cane grown in Madras, India, are given below. The canes were divided into upper, middle, and lower thirds : each third being two feet in length, except the lower thirds of the se- lected canes, which were three feet in length : Bundle of medium good canes. Bundle of selected canes. Upper third. Middle third. Lower third. Upper third. Middle third. Lower third. Bagasse 7.630 10 630 2.640 .307 78.334 .459 8 470 13 310 1,510 .259 75 612 .839 8 300 13.370 1 540 .233 76 122 .455 7.580 9 490 2 430 ,545 79 484 .471 8 650 13,640 .736 .363 75.628 .983 8 290' Glucose 710 Ash 349- Water.. ... 75 945 100 000 100.000 100.000 100.000 100.000 100. OOO ANALYSES OF EXPRESSED JUICE. Sucrose Glucose Ash 11 510 2,860 .333 .497 84.800 14,550 1.650 .283 .917 82.600 14.580 1,680 .255 ,485 83,000 10,270 2.630 .590 .510 86.000 14.930 .806 ,398 1,076 82.790 16. 110' .776 381 Undetermined Water 934 82.800- 100,000 100.000 100.000 100,000 100,000 100. OOO Chem. C'ent. Blatt., February, 1880. AVERAGE ANALYSIS OP ELEVEN SUGAR-CANNES. Water 73,74 per cent. Sugar 15.07 percent. Fiber 9.51 per cent. Salts 36 percent. Other solids 1 .32 per cent. 100. AVERAGE RESULTS OP ANALYSES OF SORGHUM, ETC. 209 Twenty-five samples of sugar-cane juices, from the many varieties of this plant grown in Louisiana, Cuba, Jamaica, Martinique, Guada- lupe, and the East Indies, analyzed by several chemists, give the fol- lowing average composition : Sucrose, 13.28 per cent ; other solids, 2.71 per cent. If, now, as in the case of the sorghums, we subtract the sum of the solids (which was made up of ash, glucose, and other unde- termined substances) from the sucrose, we have, as available sugar in these juices, an average of 10.57 per cent — an amount even less than that found present in the average juice of thirty-five kinds of sorghum for long periods, as will be seen by reference to the charts and tables. Analysis of Juice at Different Stages. It has been supposed by some, that the increase in the amount of sugar at certain periods- is due to the drying up of the plant, and the consequent concentration df the juice by evaporation. This view, although apparently supported by some facts, is probably erroneous, since (as will appear from the results of our determinations, as shown upon either of the charts showing the average results for a year) the amount of juice varies but little during the year ; but, owing to continuous increase in the sucrose, glucose, and other solids, during the season (as shown by the analyses, and indicated by the steady in- crease in specific gravity), it follows, of necessity, that the amount of water in the juice must as steadily decline. This, however, would hardly appear as the result of a drying up of the plant; since, as has been shown, neither the amount of juice, nor its composition, suffers any great change, even when a heavy rain-fall succeeds a period of prolonged drought. It appears rather a normal condition of the plant's growth ; and the production of sugar seems to be accompanied by the elimination of a certain amount of water. If, at any time, we might look for more concentration of juice by the evaporation of water, and the consequent increase in the percentage of the several constituents of the juice, it would seem to be during the later periods of the plant's growth. If, now, we take the results for the past season, as given in the geueral averages, we find that, for exam- ple, the amount of total solids obtained in the juice were, in the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth stages, 12.35, 12.56, and 12.30 per cent of the weight of the stripped stalks ; but the amount of water in the juices at these periods was, for these respective stages, 51.19, 47.69, and 46.65 per cent of the weight of the stripped stalks. As will be seen,' there is, in the above results, a slow diminution of water, but no corresponding increase of the solids. 14 210 SORGHUM. The following table gives the results for the season of 1881, showing the per cent of juice, and of each of its constituents, as also of avail- able sugar, calculated to the stripped stalks : PEKCESTAGE OF SUCROSE, TOTAL SOLIDS,. WATER, AND AVAILABLE SUGAR, IN STRIPPED STALKS, OBTAINED IX JUICE AT DIFFERENT STAGES. '3 ^ a 3 "rt "3 Stages. 60 o o o o to ■3 9."5 S O^ O £g" c" ■Sn-gJ* a; .Si ■3 " ° o o ^3 ^n^s s^ So p4 £ « O to O X W e. Ch — ^ 1 65 30 67.13 1 018 • 1 025 3 66 4,60 61 64 02 53 .58 .81 2 38 3 69.48 1 0-29 5 2S 64 20 1 28 40 4 68.02 1 029 5 67 62 35 1.37 5' 5 68.18 68 07 1 032 1.035 6 .» 6 85 61 79 61 22 1 90 2.45 6 51 7 67.21 67 81 1 W2 1 048 7.96 8 6S 59 .53 59 13 3.17 4 12 A'. 9 C6.76 1 052 9 21 57 53 4.99 .76 15.20 45 10 67.91 1.056 9 96 57 95 5 95 1 94 38,80 60 11 Co 81 1.061 10 44 55 40 6 58 2 73 54 60 53 12 ('.2 44 1 068 11 at 51 40 7 50 8 96 79 20 44 13 02 50 :i8 92 1 071 1.075 11 57 11 25 50 90 47 67 8 16 8 24 4.76 5 23 95 20 104 60 40 14 37 15 (l:; .t4 1 077 12 35 51 19 9 11 5.87 117.40 37 16 CO 2.1 1 082 12 5li 47 69 9.63 6 71 134.20 40 17 5S 9.3 1 081 12 .'SO 46 65 9 40 6.50 130 00 37 18 •w n 1 OSl 12 12 44 39 9.39 6 65 133 00 45 19 57 22 1 080 11 80 45 42 8 71 5 G2 112 40 43 20 5S 45 1.069 10 20 48 25 6.95 3.97 79.40 370 It will be seen in the foregoing table, that there is an uninterrupted increase in the percentage of sucrose, total solids, available sugar, and specific gravity, with a corresponding decrease in the percentages of water, to about the sixteenth stage. During the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth stages, the per cent of available sugar in the stalks remains nearly constant, and at, its maximum ; although the per cent of sucrose and of available sugar in the juice obtained, as has been shown, is at its maximum at the eighteenth stage. The number of pounds of available sugar to be obtained from a ton of stalks, at the difierent stages, is also given in a separate column. From these results, it would appear, as the average result of 122 analyses of thirty-five varieties of sorghum, that 133 pounds of suo-ar from a ton of stripped stalks is not beyond the limits of even proba- bility. It will also be seen that these same stalks, if cut while the seed is in a doughy condition, as shown by the ninth stage, would yield only 15 pounds of sugar per ton of stalks. AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OP SORGHUM, ETC. 211 PractkaJly Idttle Difference in the Varieties of Sorghum as to their Content of Sugar. The results of the investigations at the Department of Agriculture have shown the remarkable uniformity of the several varieties of sor- ghum as sugar producing plants when fully developed; and have also shown the different varieties to vary widely in the time required for their full development, varying, as has been shown, year after year, fully three mouths as between the earlier and later maturing varieties. This fact of the wide variation in different varieties in their period of reaching full maturity, although previously recognized, has not re- ceived the consideration which its extreme importance demanded, as is €vinced by the fact, that at present, as for the past thirty years, those varieties are largely grown in the northern states which could only reach maturity at rare intervals and in exceptional seasons in these latitudes. This satisfactorily accounts for the occasional production of crystallizable sirups, and the general failure to secure similar results continuously. Comparative Value, During the Worlcing Period of the Different Varieties of Sorghum. From the following table it is possible to judge quite accurately as to the comparative values of the different canes for the production of sugar. These values are applicable more especially to the latitude of Washington, and it will be seen later that certain canes which do not stand high in the list, when grown in this section, are very likely to prove valuable where the growing season is longer. Again, those which mature quickest, and also have a long working period, are the ones especially recommended for culture in more northern latitudes. In this table the canes are arranged in the order of their compara- tive value, as shown from the large number of analyses recorded. It must not be inferred, however, that it is possible to state positively that this order may not be somewhat modified by future experience : it certainly would be somewhat changed were any one characteristic of the juice used as the basis of comparison to the exclusion of all others. It has been attempted to give due weight to all the factors which tend to show the good or bad qualities of the canes. Among the points which have the most direct bearing on the determination as to the value of any cane for any locality are the following : 1. Other things being equal, that cane is best adapted to any local- 212 SOEGHTJM. ity which most quickly reaches the working stage, and longest con- tinues workable. It will be noticed that, judged by this rule, th& first eight varieties are superior to those that follow.' It appears, also, that these varieties matured in from 77 to 89 days, and con- tinued workable from 87 to 107 days, or, on .an average, over three months. It is very important to have sufficient time in which to work up the crop. 2. The average purity of the juice is another very important consid- eration. This is shown by the column headed " average exponent ;" by this term is meant the percentage of pure crystallizable sugar in the total solids of the juice. As has already been stated in the discussion of the table of specific gravities, the exponent should not fall below 70 for the best results. 3. The average available sugar in the juice has very much to do with its value. The figures in this column were calculated by multiplying- the figures in the column showing " average per cent sucrose in juice" by the corresponding figures for " average exponent." 4. The pounds of juice per acre has much to do with the amount of sugar that can be obtained. As will be seen, the various canes do not difier very materially in the percentage of juice they can furnish ; hence, the pounds of juice per acre depend more directly upon the number and weight of canes which can be raised. By reference to the tables for each variety, it will be seen that several of the varieties standing low in this list (Honduras, Honey Top, etc.), furnish canes much heavier than those standing near the first of the list ; hence, if an equal number of such heavy canes could be grown on an acre, the amount of juice must be correspond- ingly greater. If, then, the quality of the juice from heavy canes is as good as^ that from the light, and the season for working is greater, the heavy canes would be preferable, because they would furnish the larger amount of sugar per acre. Unfortunately, this is not the case in this latitude. The first two columns in this table show, that the heavier canes do not attain their full growth and maturity in time to be worked up into sugar. It is fully believed that these heavy canes are well adapted to the more southern parts of the United States, and that in those regions they will reach full maturity in time to leave an ample working period. In fact, several examinations of canes sent from South Ca,rolina in 1879 con- firm these statements. If it be supposed, for the sake of comparison, that an equal number of canes of each variety can be grown on an acre of land, the results AVERAGE EESULTS OF ANALYSES OF SOEGHUM, ETC. 213 jjiven in the last three columns will- show what amounts of stripped stalks, juice, and available sugar, can be obtained on an acre from each variety of sorghum. The number of stalks per acre has been placed at '24,000, which is believed to be a fair estimate. In comparing these figures with those in the three columns just pre- ceding them, which represent actual results of analyses, it will be seen that the figures do not difl^er greatly. 6. After all, the real test of value for any cane, is the amount of ■crystallizable sugar that can be actually separated from the juice ob- tained from the stalks grown on an acre. This amount will depend -very greatly on the quantity and quality of the canes, and upon the promptness and care with which they are worked up after cutting. The figures here given in explanation of the various points which have been discussed, have been derived from very carefully conducted work, and they are offered as fair statements of what can and should be at- .tained by careful workers. Among the essential points worthy of repetition are the following : 1. Select a cane that matures quickly, and has as long a working period as possible. 2. Do not work the cane too early ; the seed should be well matured and quite hard, and the juice should have a specific gravity of 1.066 or higher. 3. After cutting the canes, work them up without great delay. It is best to draw directly from the field to the mill as may be needed. 214 SORGHUM. oocOCOCOCOOCOCOTjiOaiOtOOiCCtOT -S(NgCO0-*i-' = «>OI^CJWCOQ0-^ 4"c^"rH.--;r^"T4"i-rofcicvrMcicM".--rc^~.--rc'fc^rwc-rc^^ lbs 15,317 15,023 14.695 14,023 20,371 14,023 13,977 17,517 19,740 17,859 18,669 26,836 13,461 17,4211 16,267 18,934 21,903 l.%241 18,470 19,773 19,223 18,144 27,983 27,777 26,291 23,675 30,695 23,386 15,181 22,486 16,990 34,987 ■J9..580 33,011 33,129 34,510 11,163 padduis O0OO00OOOOOOOOOO0OOQ0O0COOOO3OOO0OC ■(MQOOOQO- — r-OPlT; :)ooc-ioooi-0'*fNcii-i>in-i3Cicc'a'o- ■aioK J ad 3XqTt[I'BAV r'u5'MQOOtCC^'-"o5'-''^COCQCOCOC JCOCOifSCOCO^COOOO 5A— tCODCOOClOiQW c vn^io Oi c-i^fff^OT f- O) m ■3 JOB jad 'aoinf O^^TjiQOXCOO-^OI , . ,■! CO Ol O ... _ _. _. -sc-iiMi— i-iCiO-^^MiO'— io^-1-itrOOi— lOl>lOooc^loOsOr■ ■^coooT-ll-oiooo^^- -^aJOiXoCiHa^i-^i^co-Wi-iecoiCiiMo __- CO (>L^i -!r^ci3 1> 1^ m o; aa T '^00 "* oTc co~co"co CO r-Fto i-n cc ■* '^cc'cT c-f cTx'oTco oQofi-i tj; co •m"^'*'-^© o cTo'i-^c^ IT-I— — i-lc5(N(N'N>->C^'-'C>lr-COCOCMCC(N padduis t'^i~-^Ci"Tir,oc-fr^^i-4'aroio"'--^— c-f co'i-^'otTo'o o'rH oTo -i^io c5s^ lo'iCci" r^ 1--. ci -Tp iQ (M I— ^H ,— c a> oi o"-'* — c-f co"i— "atTo'o o'l-To ■8DlTlC 3uao I8d a3Bi9AY OCOOCCXOCOO)COi-'l-*lOCO- ■j-BSns aiquiTBAT? iuaoaadaSBJOAV - too to OS :i O X O l'- Cixxo saioixocoxooaioit-ocjoioxo^ojoiciot^c: ooot^r-oxxic ■:juauodxa -jaAy - tr 'M to ci .ra aoinC HI spios jaqi^o ^liaoaadaSBiaAy CiCOCi3!NCOCOCCCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOC^COCOOOa3NCOCQCOCOx}ic;iHTnxr^"* -XClXXiHCvlrH-yXr-ll.'-Oi-iCitD*H!N CNCJM '3upiioA\. JOj sJivp JO 'OSJ •Xjunj'Bia; o^ sX-gp JO -o^r I|«^Ih^^ sl-|-^'=^*^'^.f^'< g;-^^;3d|aM^i i~ O 03 ■ k'C — :o&^ AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF SOEGHUM, ETC. 215 General Besults of Analyses Bearing upon the Question of Available Sugar. By reference to the table giving the general results of all the analy- ses of the several varieties of sorghum, in 1879, 1880, and 1881, the aggregate number of analyses being 4,042, and the varieties analyzed being about 40, these results having been obtained from as many varieties by so large a number of separate analyses made in successive years, the general conclusion reached appears established beyond ques- tion. During the early stages of development of these plants, up to and including the sixth stage, the available sugar is given as a minus quantity, i. e., the amount of sucrose in the juice is less than the sum of the glucose and other solids. Also, in the seventh stage, the availa- ble sugar is practically none, being only .13 per cent, and this stage represents the period when the seed is in the milky state. It is, then, obviously absurd to expect to obtain any sugar by working up the crop until it has advanced beyond this condition toward maturity. It will also be observed in the table, that, during these early stages, the amount of this minus available sugar remains nearly the same, the Average for the first five stages being — 3.22 per cent; and also, that the available sugar, after it first appears, rapidly increases in quantity, and remains practically constant through the several subsequent stages; and in this it agrees, as will be seen, with the development of the sucrose, which, at a certain period, is very rapid, and afterward nearly constant through the season, while, as has been remarked, the sum of the glucose and solids is nearly the same throughout. In the table, is given the average of the determinations for each stage of development for all varieties. In addition to the columns giving the average results of the several determinations given for each variety, there is.given a column showing what is termed the percentage of available sugar present in the juice, i. e., the amount of sugar which may be obtained as sugar from the juice, for, as is known, the amount of sugar to be obtained from any specimen of juice, depends obviously upon the amount of sugar present ; and not alone upon this, but also upon the amount of glucose, and other matters present, since, as is well known, the effect of these is to prevent the crystallization of a portion of the sugar present, and, hence, to increase the relative amount of molasses, the rnolasses con- sisting of glucose, water, mineral matters (the ash), and more or less sugar, which practically can not be recovered as such. Now, this mo- lasses producing (melassigeiiic)' property of the several impuritiespresent in the juices of cane, sorghum, and beets, has been a subject of con- 216 BOEGHUM. siderable experiment, but at the present time the exact effect of each impurity is not known. The average of thirty-four analyses of sorghum juices, made in this laboratory, shows an average percentage of ash equal to 1.06; the maximum being 1.66 per cent, and the niinimum being .82 per cent. We may, then, safely estimate the ash as being about one per cent of the juice. Now, while all authorities are agreed as to the melassigenic effect of certain of the mineral constituents of the ash, there is much difference as to the action of other mineral matters ; and while some of these are regarded as quite indifferent in their action, other constituents of the ash are shown to strongly favor the crystallization of the sugar. For example, potassium carbonate increases the quantity of molasses pro- duced, potassium sulphate appears to have no effect, while magnesium sulphate seems to favor the crystallization of sugar, and thus decrease the amount of molasses. It is highly probable, that much of the good effect attributed to the use of sulphurous acid, as an aid in the crystallization of syrups, is due to the fact, that it converts the harmful alkaline carbonates into the inert sulphates. In the reports of my work, I, in accordance with a common practice among sugar makers, made use of the so-called " ex- ponent," which represented the relative purity of the different juices. This " exponent" was the percentage of sucrose in the total solids of the juice ; and this represented the percentage of the sugar present in the juice, which could be in practice obtained as sugar. While this method of calculation is doubtless, at least approximately, correct, when applied to those juices which are generally worked up for sugar, it is obviously erroneous when applied to juices poor in sugar, and with comparatively large amounts of other solids. I have, therefore, adopted a method for calculating the available sugar, viz.: — the difference between the per cent of sucrose and the sum of the per cents of glucose and solids not sugar, and although confident that all the experiments of Marschall, La Grange, and others, go to prove that the amount of available sugar thus shown is beyond question too low, it is at least safe to err upon this side rather than the other. If we apply these two methods to two specimens of juice, one good and the other poor, it will be seen that for the good juice, the two methods approximately agree, while for the poor juice, they differ widely, and there is no doubt but that the method of the exponent is in such a case inapplicable; e. g.: Juice A contains, sucrose, 3.51 per cent; glucose, 4.50 per cent; sol- ids, 1.78 per cent. The exponent would be 35.85, and the available AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF SORGHUM, ETC. 217 sugar 1.26 per cent; or, by the other method, 3.51— (4.50+1.78)= —2.77. Juice B contains, sucrose, 15.30 per cent; glucose, .87 per cent; solids, 2.95 per cent. The exponent would be 80.02, and the available sugar, 12.24 per cent; or, by the other method, 15.30— (.87+2.95)= 11.48 per cent. It is from the above assumed cases obvious, that the last method of calculation, although giving probably too low a result, is one of gen- eral application, since no one would regard it as possible practically to obtain any sugar from a juice having the composition of the one marked A. It will be seen from the tables, that the available sugar begins to show itself quite late in the development of the plant, generally about the seventh or eighth stage, and it is obvious that, previous to this .period, the available sugar exists, as we may say, as a minus quantity; but owing to the practical importance of this matter, its discussion wiU be again taken up. Danger of mixing Immature mill Mature Cane in Worhing. It is of greatest practical importance, also, to consider the effect of mixing immature with mature canes in the working, If, for example, a ton of sorghum in the tenth stage was mixed with an eqUal quantity in the third stage, and the mixed juices togetlier boiled to a syrup, it is doubtful whether any sugar would be obtained, for, as will be seen, the first lot would yield a juice having 4.49 per cent of available sugar, the second lot of juice would have — 3.24 percent, and the mixed juice would, of course, have but .62 per cent available — so small a quantity as to be practically valueless. It is, then, to be remembered, that, for the purpose of sugar making, every unripe cane allowed to go to the mill is not only worthless in itself, but far worse than worthless, since it causes the loss of sugar otherwise available. This fact will more clearly appear, if the necessary calculations are given of the results. Supposing that the mill gives 60 per cent of the weight of stalks in juice : we should then have 1,200 pounds of juice from each ton of stalks, and the former would give 4.49 per cent of sugar, or 53.88 pounds, while the latter would give — 3.24, or minus 38.88 pounds, the difierence being 15 pounds of sugar from the two tons of stalks, equal to .625 per cent of 2,400 pounds of juice. We thus see that, by mixing in the immature canes, we really obtain only about one-fourth the sugar which the one ton of good cane would have yielded alone. The above facts are practically understood by the sugar planters of 218 SOEGHUM. Cuba and Louisiana, for they are careful to cut off and leave upon the field the upper and immature, portion of the sugar-cancj knowing by experience that, by sending it to the mill, it results in actual loss in their product of sugar. That their practice is entirely justified by the results of analysis, will be seen by reference to the table below, which represents the average results in each case of four analyses of the juices from the butt, the middle, and the top, of three varieties of sugar-cane grown in Louisiana. TABLE SHOWING RELATIVE VALUE OP DIFFERENT PARTS OP SUGAR-CANE STALK. Butt. Middle. Top. SncTose Per cent . . Glucose. . " 15. 3G .75 .24 14.37 1.068 12.95 1.42 .68 10.8,5 1.061 3.21 .3 68 • Solids " Available sugar " 2.23 2 70 Specific gravity 1 .038 From the above results, there would seem to be, in the immature sugar-cane top, a close resemblance to the immature stalk of sorghum, and yet the analogy ceases so soon as the sorghums have attained full maturity; for, as the results of very many analyses show, there is prac- tically no difference in the juice from the upper or lower half of the sorghum stalks. This difference is probably due to the fact that, owing to the short season, comparatively, it is impossible for the sugar-cane to reach, even in Louisiana, a condition of full maturity. The .Increase in Sugar during the later Stages in the Development of the Sor- ghum is not the Result of a Loss of Water or Drying Up of the Plant. This is a matter of such great practical importance to the manufac- turer of sugar from the sorghums, that a fuller discussion of the facts obtained by analysis is justified, since, if it were true that the absolute amount of sugar present in the plant was at its maximum during the early stages in its development, it would certainly be advisable that the crop be worked at such time as showed the greatest per cent of juice, since, obviously, a larger per cent of the sugar actually present in the plant would be extracted by pressing the cane at such time as showed the maximum per cent of juice. It is true, as will be seen, that the per cent of juice expressed by the mill is greatest in the earlier stages of development ; and it is also true AVERAGE RESULTS OP ANALYSES OF SORGHUM, ETC. 219 that the actual amount of water present in the plant, and in the ex- pressed juice, is less at the later stages in the plant's life. But it is obvious that, if the increased per cent of sugar, as shown in the juice at these later stages, was due simply to loss of water through a drying up of the plant, then it would necessarily followthat, by such evaporation, the relative percentages of the several constitu- ents present in the juice would be maintained; but such is far from being the case, as will be seen by the following table ; for, while the sugar and the solids not sugar increase, it will be seen that their in- crease is by no means proportional, the sucrose increasing from the first to the seventeenth stage 688 per cent, while the solids increase only 135 per cent ; besides, glucose, instead of increasing, as would be natural and inevitable, if we regard the matter as simply one of loss of water by evaporation, decreases 65 per cent. But it is obvious that, if the water present in the juice at the differ- ent stages be multiplied by the per cent of the several constituents, as, e. g., sucrose, the series of products would necessarily be a constant quantity ; but, on the other haud, we find that the sucrose increases 606 per cent, the solids 111 per cent, while the glucose decreases 68 per cent. Such a result is wholly at variance with the view, that the increase of sugar is only apparent and due to the evaporation of water. It will be observed that the actual increase in sugar in the plant is in reality greater than is shown in the above results, since it is obvious that a larger proportion of that present in the plant is expressed at the time when the amount of water is at its maximum, viz., during the earlier stages, and that a larger proportion is left in the bagasse during the later stages. 220 SOEGHUM. TABLE SHOWING THAT THE INCKEASE IN SUGAR DORING THE LATER STAGES IS NOT DUE TO A DRYING UP OF THE PLANT. a3 ts a> tH o o V a; "o 'a 1 1 o o 3 •4H Stages. o « o o a i:; a ^ c a X X X o ZJ o o u o fi FLh Sept 14... 14 . •a... 21... •28.. 21-i... Oct. H .. 8... 10 .. 11 .. 12 IS .. Ifi Deo. s... New variety (H. S. CoU) . . . White Liberian (Nesbit) New variety ( H. S. Coll) . . . White Liberian (Nesbit). . . . .... do New variety (H. S. Coll) . . Suclcers from rows 2, 3, 4, 5 Leaves from rows 2, 3, 4, 5, Neeazana Link's hybrid White Liberian (Nesbit) . . White Liberian ^Learning) Ta-Min-Hung-Liang New variety (R. Haswell) . . Average 62.2' 6(1.32 64.09 62.35 56.82 00.16 62.02 37.03 57 55 61 31 .■i7 80 58 86 48.58 39 25 1 068 1.072 1.061 1.074 1 068 1 (163 1 022 1.025 1.075 1 074 1 0118 1.070 1 054 1.095 1.15 .93 1.06 .98 .88 1.05 2.04 1.40 1.75 .611 .94 .72 .58 3.34 n 79 13 31 12 18 13 83 12 04 10.79 .66 .27 13 00 14.27 n 81 12 14 7,94 15 17 56.62 1 0702 1.17 12.36: 3 26 3.28 1 57 2 65 3 28 3 34 2.53 4.45 3.79 2.71 3 07 3 68 3 69 2 61 3 08 Date. Variety. a 3 s ■: o <4-( o "~* ■o o d .JJ O a e! M OJ oj a '3 12.06 37.73 3106 468 84.93 13.60 39.68 2532 410 83.81 11 16 45 91 2825 437 84 53 13 65 37 65 2860 505 82,34 12 35 43,18 8494 417 &S 06 10.61 39 85 3964 407 89 73 1 31 37.98 2541 136 94 65 — .98 62.97 571 45 92 12 13.27 42 45 3203 439 86 29 14 21 38.69 46G8 525 8,S 75 11.38 42.11 2878 42(1 85 41 12.49 41.14 2766 339 87.74 7.45 51 42 479 13.72 60.75 1449 302 79.18 12.16 43.38 86.52 Sept. 14 14 21. 21 23. 23. Oct. a. 3. 10. 11. 12 13 16. Deo. 8 New variety (H. S. Coll). . . White Liberian (Nesbit) .. New variety (H. S. CoU) . . White Liberian (Nesbit) . . do New variety (H. S. Coil).. . Suokers from rows 2, 3. 4, 5, Leaves from rows 2, 3, 4, 5. . Neeazana Link's hybrid White Liberian (Nesbit). . . . White Liberian (r.,earning) Ta-Min-Hung-Liang New variety (R. Haswell).. Average 16 07 16.19 15 47 17.66 11 94 10.27 5.35 7.88 13.71 11 25 14.59 12.26 20.82 224 SOEGffUM. Dried Juices. Date. Variety. 3 O 21 ^ CJ H « Q> O Q> U J3 'o W ooo6oac»o — '~'"'~- coooo ■ ooo lit ooinC joauao jbj eO 00 ao iH ti eOC-l(N JMCO OiOif cococo^c]cccoeoTfco-'j'coeoeore ire 10 (MiMtN(NCN'M(N(N^ • +3^^ 573 o M IB (« C '-'Tl t- tH L. t- 2 1) a> vJ3,3 o o o a) OJ [=. td fc, X' 03 -CCS O 0) Mm CJ to pd o b a> flj d) cosi>'- UOJg 0000 m 3S ^S^ SOOiNWcCNcOWOCia ::i c bo ■ -£■§§ g a3 3 3 S "^^ •3 o3.3 ^ »: .^ bbbDbbbntbfcibbbJb'S.Q.'^eo.iJ-w CJ CJ O OOlz; U 0) CU EU TALUE OF DIFFEEENT PAETS OP THE STALK, ETC. 227 "uoij'BZTj'Bxod iq asojD -us JO juaO J9d Pg'BJOAV 'uoi-nizuTiioU Aq s^jiUL Ml esoaoua 30 -luoj J9j •uonKzuvxod Xq sdoj JUS -ns lou 'spnos oSBjaAv f; es t- lO (M 00 r- "rillUq UlOiJ 901111! fauSiis 3otu splits ?gB •sdo^ OTGJj oDinC UT (j'bSus ^oiij sptfog CO -a* fl CO ffi-r-tiO Tj* -^ -^ O ■^ Oi O .-i (N i-i r-l tH '(N ■ CO O CO CO C*l CT CO 00=. op ■COCCCO -ns JO 5U30 J3d oSuioAv ■^i— i-tcoTf^^'^-^-^ooTfTfic-'ji.tjiiraict-o 1-. miM m (M CO CIO -n^S JO jaao J9d eS'BjsAv ci m CO 00 CO ?o CO J-l "siijiiq uiojj aoiiit in ssoJOUH JO luoo" joj l-0 010P::COOsOCQt-lf;i-COOOl.^r-tl-iCCOO Tftcc 00 ■ (N C-l W •bdoj TUOJJ DOinl" ui asojons jo luao J'Ij (C(NCO ■sianq luojj 8»[ii[ UI OSOOrug JO ^U3j' J8J ■^000 CO CO CO -SdO) UIUJJ 3DUlC ui ssooniS JO luoo' jbj i-c;-TfOCJ^di-'::o Cl O -.S t> O I- Cl t- C Oi ^ COCO c-i c •sjinq UIOJJ 30TnC lu spTxos JO :(uaD jaj :? i-~ CT i~ ci ~. r- i-~ lO ■sdo5 uiojj 3DmC UI spjios JO ^iiaD jad H CO O CI I~- ■ 01 O QC 00 CC' C^iOCO CSOC06 •3DIllC JO a'iia'bjS oyio3ds a'^u'jaAv t-'T OO-MOi-HiOfflOr-iliDCOCTlCCi-'-^CCCO ■* --C L- I- 00 X 00 1- I- r- X I- OCX 1- 1- CO 00 Qc I- cooocoooooooooc 00000 OOlOCO'^) I— CO i-~ I— 0000 ■sqjnq laojj 9DinC JO .tjiA-DiS ogioadg dC^OOnOi-HTX-rriCOC-. CV :3OCC-*C0 Tf -^ 1^ CO X » ■» t— I- I^ 1^ l^ i- I"- I> 00 X' CC I- 00000000000000 00000 c; . . O C aJ 3 m CO « — .. t «j (fl « O 1-T3 a M t- t- S * o o o !» ^. CO 0) 0) ' CO CD C K ooScjasoj wSQ : a- ST„5s m ::^ ^ ■^ g I'm ^- !5 (U rJ >. >> bn bb bi fee bi fci) bo bo's, o, a 0-0.+^ +5 *^ *i ^ ^^-^JC>IC^C^CMCJlMCMCM o ci - =^ -m ^ - J. ■ .rH a -Q — ;^ i^ '^ '- " ^ *^ "3 c3 cj >^ r:"^ "^ m w: « c ^ t O O Q ^ ^ > _ ^ O C C QJ CJ.S r^ — 7- O 03 s [i. fcL, £l( X CB >-s >. M «a OJ OJ tt) a) com capi2ie5 : .&'g o 3, 30e«100QOCOiOOI— COCOi-HoaO m ^ c2 cd .= c a a Qj o o o ^^ coO VALUE OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE STALK, ETC. 229 ■ado OS -T.T'Biod itiao jad aSujOA y t^o • ■ ■ ■ ; ; -5f CO ■ ■ ■ ■ r~i ! '. '. I \ '' '' ' ' zz^ '■ ^ '■ ~ ■ lOCO ■ - ■ ■ '. : : : : : : ^ : : ~ tHCIt-I • ■ ■ CO I- CO lO O O CJ lO O O r- 'M tri d w CT. uO oca; I— I— 1--^ oii 'rjTCOoomoNa;cjr-* ■—I c-i 1— I c-j CI QC Ti yy 'Meieoc^w?'] oi-i— f^i.-*a3i— I 'Loc^i-^ Oi-(io-*TPi-(;oi— t JO OOmf TTI OdOOST-IB^OlL A'q OSoioUS JO aUr')0 .ISrT •siioj JOODTnCtU odoosTJBiod .{q osoiotlsf lo jiTSo .i3fX ■suuq luoaj ooTTiCuTiTiSns aouspiiog 'sdo3 laojj •aoinC u] asojo -nS 1U9D i^d 93BJ3AV to 00 ■aojnC HI 9S0J -niS 3U30 J8(i s'Sbjsav lO-T'^Ol-^OOXOlrHCii— I TPCOCCMfMrtrHr-ti-HW •sjjTiq uioj; ODinC UT asoaons jo juao" joj CICO c toi.-:'- S-fTOTIOOCOrfTtlWCCCJ in-* coco 'sdoi vjoii aajnC tit asojDus JO jaao" jaj -( T i~- c:^ -u- 00 tp I— — I coco t-OO r- ■sijnq uioaj somf UT asoontg jo tnoo' jbj O CJ Xi CTi I— t f^lCC Ot^OCJ r -I C-] m CI a. or :7i r~c;co CO "SdOJ, tUOJJ DOltlC UT asooniS jo luao ja^x (MOJtDOOCM(NCD-^ m-*CO(MC0 I- CO — 1- S-p o i^ X X X X X X X -^. X r— i^ I— I— «> X i^ 0000000000000000000 CO m o 1- 0000 ■sunq TUOJJ aoTuC JO jCjtabjS ogioadg X X ■■T 1— I— I CO O r-l I— O I— I r- O r^ CI "T^l T X ~- O -Tf -« -j: 1^ X X X X 1^ X X X X !•- X t- l~- ^O I- I— 0000000000000000 00 00 i-H X iC l~- 10 O -i X 0000 SCSI'S M CQ M O 5s M tn t. *; ~, o o o > >? to tifl fair tail ti tii be fcb-S. a.Q. a,Q.« 4-J -M -4-: >- - a w c oi rt .g.'3 a c 0) o o o 230 SORGHUM. •sdoj moij aojnf JO ^^.iawjS ojjioadgi C-; T -^ ^:d I— I-* CO 30 00 CO ao I— t— CO osoooooooooooo ■ «c i-oo ■ ooo -TI3 in oomC JO :juao joj •i l^ u:: O i-O I- •spunod O O O O O 7C iC I— T '-C t; l-Trr-(7l~li-iOiOCCOT OO CO C^l O Ci 1-- CO rH X O I- ■annq raoJi nnmC jo ]q^i9A\ 00000-rO-^l~-OOWXi-^ •^ 1— I !•- 1-- cj ■^ i-H X >— I CI 1— ira 1-- Its OOOOOOliOi-ll— CD (O CO :c i-l CO M -^ m CO y; oi I— I— 1 1-* i^ c-i ic r-1 Cl ;D l^ m lO 1- Cl Ci iC 1-- O r-^ c l-^ I"- ^ 1"- ' - •■"- 1"- cv: ..t 1-* cs 30 -^ I-" X >f: o uo oc I— ffl OiOi— iTfoQcooOil— i—iif:cooDO CO X 1> 1^ t^ I"- 1*- 1"- O l"^ ^ ^ ^ •> ^ 1 '■ ^- "M CC CI — C; C7 '-'3 . .. •ClCICiCKMC^CJC) i : r : - .— — cc .— X ift c- 'O ooicjccc^oco (N M (M (N X lis Cfl « en Ot Cr: iC i:^ O XOOlOtNClifTX-^XC^IC^OtC^CO i-H ri OJ (M M CO r-i M t-^ C^ CI CI C-l IM' CJ O O X X CI 13 1-* I- o c: CC iC -^ 1— I— .eOifSCJOX'^Cl^-^-rCCCl e-j--^ ri: ^?IrolralnT>^co-T-:f^^Tf:co CC C. 05 iC m TO O Cl ^1 CI X ^- lO OQ cs X X I— i— Ci o I- X X v: X 1^ X OO^OOCi— oooc:ooo i-<'rc-^'MCiOcnOi— lOO CJ !M CI !N W CI d CI ci r-i CI CI (M ^1 i> lO -rp m 'O O 1^ lO C» CI CM M O C) i-H CJ CI CI CI CI CI CI . Ci X -P ■ O-^ Ci ■ CO cc tr •sdoj aioij QoxnC jo '^xiSia/VV ■ lO OC 1^ ■atiua Til jaj-BAV JO q.u80 aad'oSujaAy III J31TIAV JO 1U.B0 jaj ■do; UI I31TtA\. JO %U3D J.a p., (nt3 :; b£?. sc ■ i zj ^ o :>* r"-r-*S 1 O OJ OJ ^ ■ t- t- s 6r5 BJ M *^ '-' D^3 q! s recce o m d cj o (U o o mcooDco q; Oi a> '-^ VJCOCOO VALUE OF DIFFERENT PAETS OF THE STALK, ETC. 231 "UOT'JtJZT.T'Opd jCq DSOJO ■ -fl^T? rH.H S-i lO c-i lO CO lO -od Aq 'asjQjous lu'ao ja^j. (M CI -od Xq 'asojons :^it30 J9«i spuos 4'uaD i9d aSujoAy •snnq UI0.1J 'ooinC in jtjgns 3011 5j'p!'[os m CM X-H c •sdui uioai 'DomC ui attSng 30H s'pi'ioa 'osnjo -ns jiiaD lad aS-BjoAy r-i CO (O CD 'M C~ r-? -? >— I L-? -T ^? 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P : - J F ^ boo* II fa {/J a) H e 3 I ;; 8 ,C 0) s ^ ■ C ■ c3 cj d as o a> s & ■ "ra o : ■ ■" 03 *-i cot. oJ^ re r; «3 C f.. C tsJO mm CJCSC100i0 05lOiC5"*-^0000 l-.-iiO-:l<-T T-l>-l p.-« -t^ ^-J *» (N'«S'tOT)'-*iOi.-.- eoTfintoxciocoO'— ^if503l-.- TT COI^ i-ltDTI— '(NCSOOODI-Tf OOtM C^CDCOCOCrOTTi.-^iO i-li-li-li-ir-ir-ir-iM.-H,-H CO -^ -^ lO lO <0 <0 IO (S -^ I— I- 1^ CO OOOOOOOOOOOOOO •s^inq JO ODtnCTiiadoasuupd Aq' a'sojons lu'ao j^rX •sdo? '8doos|jtitod jCq asojons ;uaD lej '901 n C TIT J-bSuS 50U SpiioS 'liiao jnd oSujoav ■sjinq luojj aomC UI juSus %ou spiiop ■sdoi uiojj aoTnC UT JB3ns loa spi'iog TOOJj QOinC -ns '10 Jd'd ■atiijo tit 8S0J0 oS'BjeA'v cocomi-io •DllliO UI 3 SOD to r-< Tp Tji un IO iH r~ lo lO •s;inq UI osojons JO aomC l.uaD jaj CO 1-- r- 1-- CO cocoico m •ydoi. in asojonw JO aomt ■ 3uao ja^r O .* CO O r-i cc cc m cc i>. III aso.iniS JO aottif iuao ja'd: ■sdoi lit asoon[S JO aoinC ^uaa Jaj: CO CI CO CO CD ic o CO ■5}' Tji 0C1> •aoinf ut sp!ios luao aad aSuiaAY •siltiq uiojj aoiDp UI spips ^uao iB^ Ci >ra -jc I- lO 'W (M 12 t— 1 O O CO TJ- f- ..j< 'sdoi UIOJJ aotnC lit spi[os luao ja'ci •aotnC JO XjiabjB ogioads' aSbjaAy ■snnq UIOJJ OiJinC JO XiiABja yg load's OOSOOOOOOOOOOO r coci o CI r !/:> CO i^ CO hJD^ O 5^ cs ' 60 SI :S.-S S2 £ ii'S -2 S ■s 3 5" o O C ;- rtJ3 ■aT3 <1) (U CICsOSOOiOCsiQCi-^TfOC: QO l-r-iCCrf-rJ- r-irH(N.-r-trHr-(C^iM r-.ecimens of Honduras sor- glium ' tops . 13.85 Average per cent of solid matter in juice from 20 specimens of Honduras sor- ghum .. butts . 13 82 Average per cent of solid matter in juice from 23 specimens of W'hite Liberian sorghum tops . 16.91 Average per cent oi solid matter in juice from 22 specimens of White Liberian sorghum butts . 16.71 Average per cent of solid matter in juice from 19 specimens of E.arly Amber- sorghum tops.. 17.59 Average per cent of solid matter in juice from 21 specimens of Early Amber sorghum ".butts.. 16 75 Average per cent of water in tops, 79 specimens 72 4.> Average per cent of water in buttb, 79 specimens, 74 51 Average per cent of juice from tops, 50 specimens 43 96 Average per cent o)' jnice from butts, 51 specimens 46 90 Averageper cent of solids in juice from tops, 77 specimens 16 18 Average per cent of solids in juice from butts, 80 specimens 16 02 Average specific gravity of juice from tops, 84 specimens 10 71 Average specific gravity of juice from butts, 84 specimens 10 70 From the above comparison it will appear, that there exists no marked diflferenee in the amount of juice present in the upper and lower halves of the canes, nor in the quality of this juice, as indi- cated by either the relative specific gravities or the total aiiiount of solid matter present in the juices. It will also appear that, during this early and immature state of the plant, the relative amount of crystallizable sugar (sucrose), as com- pared with the total sugars present, is much greater in the lower half of the canes. This condition remains, apparently, until the seed has reached the milky state, at which time the juices in both parts of the plant appear to be of equal value. But it must not be understood that the maximum content of sugar in the plant has been reached at VALUE OP DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE STALK, ETC. 235 this- period of development, since, as will be seen by the tables, this is far from the fact. From this period in the plant's development, until the perfect ripen- ing of the seed, the juices appear to uniformly increase in their con- tent of crystallizable sugar, and to decrease in their content of un- crystallizable sugar. Still later in the growth of the plant, there was observed a slight deterioration in the quality of the juices from the lower halves of the stalks, and they were generally found to be somewhat inferior to the juices at this time present in the upper halves. It was also found that, in the early examinations, the specific gravity of the juices from the lower halves was almost invariably greater than that of the juices from the upper halves, and that equal specific gravities indicated an equal- ity between the juices, not only in their content of sugar, but in the relative proportions of sucrose and glucose. It appears probable that this deterioration of the juice from the lower part of the cane marks the incipient stages of death, and the ultimate decay of the plant, the roots and leaves failing in their office t'j supply the full amount of nourishment which the plant requires. It begins to feed upon itself, so to speak ; and it is to be observed, that, at this period, the oflfehoots from the upper joints of the stalk begin a. vigorous growth, and appear to live as parasites upon the parent stalk. Several experiments were also made with both corn-stalks and sor- ghum to determine the relative value of the upper and lower half of the stalks, with the results given in the following table : < Percentage of juice to stalks. Specifio gravity of juice. Percentage of syrup in juice. Corn-stalks, Ijutt ends, No. 3 29.04 19 94 47 19 41 49 4.'!.lfi 34 09 3053 1050 ]0r,9 1062 1057 1039 14 62 13 46 16 47 i-orghum, top ends. No. 9 14 70 14,26 Nos. 8 and 9 were the butts and tops of the same stalks, and were cut just after a rain, as were also Nos. 10 and 11, from which the rain had evaporated, and the difl'erence in yield of juice and syrup between butts and tops is nearly constant. The increase in specific gravity of the juice from butts over that from the top is also worthy of notice. From the above table the conclusion from the average results is, that the proportion, by weight, of sugar in the lower half of the stalk, is to the sugar in the upper half as follows : Com butts to corn tops as 159 to 100 ; sorghum butts to sorghum tops as 131 is to 100. As 236 SOEGSUM. will be seen by reference to the first table, the stalks of both com and sorghum in the above experiment were divided almost equally by weight into butts and tops, so that the above proportion fairly repre- sents the proportion of yield of sugar in the upper and lower half of the cane. There was a marked difference in the appearance of the juice as it flowed from the mill (that from the butts being lighter in color, especially in the experiments with corn) ; but, after the clarifi- cation, no appreciable difierence could be observed, nor was there any difference in the product except the quantitative one above mentioned, which was, however, a marked difference ; also, there was a marked difference in granulation in favor of the juice from the butts. The following analyses are reported by Professors Scovell and Weber. It will be observed that the great difference in the analyses does not accord with the slight difference in specific gravity. Comparison of the lower and upper half of ike cane. — The two follow- ing analyses were made to show what part of the cane is richest in sugar : Anther — October 2nd, 1880. — Juice obtained from the upper half of the stalks after topping as usual : Specific gravity 1.069 Grape sugar percent... 2.94 Cane sugar • percent ... 9.67 Amber^ October 2nd, 1880. — Juice obtained from the lower half of stalks : Specific gravity 1 070 Grape sugar percent.... 1.94 Cane sugar per cent. . . . 11.64 The Encyclopedia of Chemistry II., 901, gives the following anal- yses by F. N. Gill, Madras, India, of the top, middle, and butts»of two samples of sugar-cane : Water. Sugar. Fiber, Salts. Glucose. Unknown. Top 78.33 10.63 7.63 .31 2.64 .46 Middle 75,6] 13.31 8.47 .26 1.51 .84 Butt 76.12 13.37 8. SO .23 154 .46 Top 79 48 9.49 7.58 .55 2.43 ,47 Middle ': 75 63 13.64 8 65 ,36 ,74 ,98 Butt 75,95 13,85 8 29 .35 .71 .86 It will be seen that the sugar-cane closely resembles sorghum, in the relative value of the juices from different parts of the stalk. The inferior quality of the tops is due to the fact, that the growing part of the cane is always in a condition of immaturity ; and, knowing this, the planters are accustomed to leave, as trash in the field, the upper portion of the cane, knowing that it is worthless for sugar making. Owing to the fact that it is often advised to cut the crop two or three joints above the ground, under the belief that the butts were worthless for either syrup or sugar, the following experiments were VALUE OP DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE STALK, ETC. 237 made to ascertain whether such a course was advisable, in fact, whether it did not involve a large waste of sugar. Since, in the ex- periments above recorded, the stalks were divided, as nearly as possi- ble into halves by weight, it might still be true that the butts of the cane were practically worthless; therefore, in the following experi- ments, the stalks were cut as low down as possible, and were divided into butts, middle, and tops, the analysis of each of which appears in the following table. In each experiment 27 or 29 canes were taken. In the one case the seed was hard, and in the other in dough. In the former, each cane was divided in about equal parts by length into butt, middle, and top ; and, in the latter case, the portion called butt was such portion as might na- turally be left upon the field if the crop should be cut at the second or third joint. It will be seen that, in this latter case, the relation of butt to middle and top was in length as 1 to 8, and in weight of strip- ped stalk as 1 to 4.6 : ANALYSES OF JUICES FROM BUTT, MTDDLE, AND TOP, OF SORGHUM ST.ILKS. a ■a X o o ■X 6 a> CJ o (h M 0- ^ V 4 7 94 4 22 4 80 2 48 61,21 58 79 1.00 ft** 10 77 11.33 3 03 3 3S 10.54 11.10 fi 71 ... do . do . 7 13 do do ,. 27 Entire cane r, fi 20 84 12 59 fiO 41 La^i 10 92 3 34 10.61 6. 53 White Liberian — Dougli 29 Bntt ...... 8 3 .51 1.91 54 43 .S5 12 65 4 07 13 09 7 73 do .do . 2!) Middle .... 2.H 8.73 5 13 58 80 .94 n M 3 84 12 14 (i 86 do . .do1. . oq Top 3 7 7 fi!f 4 40 59 23 73 11 8' 4 47 12 09 6 n'> do ..do .. 29 Entire cane G 8 19 77 11.60 58.19 88 12.04 3.28 12.28 7.88 From the above table it will be seen that there was practically very little difference in the juice obtained from butts, middles, or tops, either in the amount expressed by the mill or in its composition. It will be also observed that, in the maturercane, the juice from the butts was in its per cent of sucrose and available sugar slightly less than that from the middle, while that from the tops was best of all. In the cane, howr ever, the seed of which was in the dough, exactly the reverse was true, the juice from the butts being the best of all. It is, therefore, safe to say, that the crop should be cut as near the roots as possible, whether intended for sugar or syrup, since, as will be seen, the butts, though only about 9 inches long, equaled about one-fifth the weight of the cane. 238 SOEGHtTM. GENEEAL ANALYSES OF SOKGHUM JUICES BY VAEIOUS PERSONS. The following published results of analyses of sorghum juices are given for purpose of confirming, so far as they go, the more extended results secured at the Department of Agriculture already recorded, and also as evidence that these results are not exceptional, since they have been, to a great extent, reproduced in many sections of the country, notably in Massachusetts, by Professor Goessmann ; in New Jersey, by Professor Cooke and Mr. Hughes; in Wisconsin, by Pro- fessors Henry and Swenson ; in Illinois, by Professors Weber and Scovell ; and in Indian'a, by Professor Wiley ; as also in France, by M. Louis Vilraorin. In reviewing these several reports, it will be seen that, in very many instances, they are vitiated by the absence of certain data which would greatly increase their scientific and practical value, and the con- clusions often are hardly such as are justified by data so limited. For example, M. Louis Vilmorin, in 1853, liad secured results from sor- ghum fairly comparable in the content of sugar shown to be present in juice, with those more recently obtained ; but at present no one, I think, will agree with him in saying that the maximum of sugar is reached "when the seeds are in the milky stage," and his conclusion as to the sugar being more abundant in the middle of the stalk than in the lower or upper portion. The very close resemblance between the analyses of Prof. Henry, showing the "Development" of sugar, to those obtained at the De- partment of Agriculture, is marked ; and, his conclusion, that " the cane sugar gradually and rapidly increased, while the glucose slowly decreased, from the time of flowering to the maturity of the seed," is the exact result established, year after year, with every variety of sor- ghum cultivated at Washington. It is, however, to be regretted, that the examinations of the cane were suspended October third, as the iu- crease in sugar, constant up to and including that date, would doubt- less have increased after, and have fully confirmed, for Wisconsin, re- sults thus far secured at Washington, and shown to be true in Boston, Mass. , by Prof. Sharpless, in his analysis of the sorghums grown by Henry B. Blackwell, in 1882, in the juice of which 18 per cent of sucrose was found, equal to the best sugar-cane of Cuba. In view of such a result, it is hardly to be. wondered at, that the leg- islature of Massachusetts should have provided by law a bounty to encourage the development of this new industry. The analyses of Professors Scovell and Weber, in the main, sustain those made in Wisconsin and Washington, but appear to justify the conclusion that the maximum content of sugar is at the time when GENERAL ANALYSES OF SORGHUM JUICES, ETC. 239 the seed is in the " hardening dough" state. But it is to be said, that only two varieties were carried beyond that state of maturity ; and this matter is one of such great practical importance, that a fuller dis- cussion of these apparent exceptions appears justiiled. Their results with these two were as follows, averaging the analyses : Orange. Amber. Development. i o ,3 i o 1 i o 3 3 o o BegiriniTig to head .... . . 10 5f) 10.62 10 55 10 65 10. 7« 5.70 6 10 5 90 4 n 4-02 4.90 7.12 B 01 9.76 11.41 10.58 10 66 in 67 10 69 10.68 8 89 6 43 3 SO 3.02 2.65 3.38 8 42 10 30 In hardening dough . . VI 56 Ripe seed 10 93 From this it appears that these results show, that as at Washington so in Illinois, the " Orange " cane was at its maximum content of sugar when the seed was ripe, and had increased 1.65 per cent in amount over that present when the seed was in the "hardening dough." On the other hand, the "Amber" had fallen off 1.63 per cent in its content of sugar between the " hardening dough" stage and ripe seed. In neither case were the examinations, as reported, carried beyond this stage, and as the matter stands there is at least an even case. In explanation of such a result with the Amber, it has been found often true of many varieties, that, during the period of ripening of the seed, there is a slight falling off in the content of the sugar in the juice, as though the demands of the plant at this period for mate- rial from which to elaborate the seed was a little in excess of the pro- duction of this material, and that there was, therefore, a drawing upon the supply already stored up in the plant ; but it was found invaria- bly, as an average result of all the varieties under investigation each year, that, so soon as the seed had ripened, this slight deficiency in sugar in the juice was not only speedily made good, but that the amount of sugar actually increased in the plants. This will be made clear by the consideration of analyses made in Washington of a few of the many varieties which have shown such deportments ; as, for example, Early Amber, Early Golden, Golden Syrup, Early Orange, Neeazaua, and others. But by reference to the charts showing the average results of all the varieties for 1879-82, it will be seen, that the maximum of sugar was in every case attained after the seed was ripe, and was maintained long afterward. 240 SORGHUM. M. Louis VUmorin on Sorghum. M. Louis Vilmorin, of Paris, the, well-known seedsman, in 1854, published in the Bon Jardinier Almanac for 1855, pages 41-53, an ar- ticle on Sorgho Sucre of much interest, from which it appears that sor- ghum was grown as a sugar plant at Florence, in 1766, by Pietro Ar- duiuo, and also that M. d'Abadie sent to the Museum in Paris from Abyssinia a collection of seeds containing thirty varieties of sorghum, some plants of which attracted attention from the sugary flavor of their stems. M. Vilmorin calls attention, especially, to the fact, that while the seeds of sorgho from the new importation of Montigny from China, in 1851 (see Dr. Williams' notes on the Chinese sorghum, p. 53), were black, and apparently identical with those of the old col- lections, the seeds of the Florentine plants were described as of a clear- brown color, corresponding to well-recognized difierences in the sugar sorghum. I have not extracted any sugar from sorghum ; I have only made some deter- minations by means of the saccharometer, and verified them generally by means of evaporation and a treatment with alcohol. The following are the results presenting the proportion of sngar existing in the juice from plants gathered at Verri^res : Per centum. October 13th, 1853 10.04 November 28111, 18.53 13,08 Novomber 28th. 1853, second experiment 14.06 October 13th. 18,54 (without inversion) 10.14 November 15th, 1854, crystallizable sugar, 11% per cent ; uncrystallizable sugar, 4>i per cent 16.00 Our calculations, on the basis given above, would show that the returns of one hectare of sorghum would be as follows : Stalks and leaves kilograms.. 77,270 Net stalks do 49,300 Juice, at 65 per cent to the weight of stalks (271 hectoliters) liters . . 27,115 Sugar, at 8 per cent to the juice kilograms.. 2,1(19 Absolute alcohol, at 6.3 percent to the juice liters.. 1,708 The analogous returns from the beets would be as follows: Roots, weight to the hectare .kilograms. . 45,000 Juice, at 80 per cent to the weight of roots do.. .. 36,000 Sugar, at 6 per cent to the juice do . 2,160 Absolute alcohol, at 3 per cent to the beets liters . . 1,360 The 8 per cent sugar on which I have calculated the yield of sorgho will, per- haps, be considered as too low; but it should not be forgotten that it refers to the crystallizable sugar that can actually be extracted, and I do not, therefore, believe my estimate too low. If I were to make a comparison between the "sorgho" and the "sugar-cane" in a more southerly climate, I have no doubt that the figure representing the product in sugar would rise, to a far higher value ; but I lack the data required for such a comparison. After examining the chances of the industrial culture of sorgho, and the con- siderations that may lead to the adoption of this plant, I have only to furnish GENERAL ANALYSES OF SORGHUM JUICES, ETC. 241 some data obtained from our first experiments, which may afford some indica- tions for further study, or some guide for the first attempts in manufacture. One of ihe points which I have endeavored to establish, without, however, obtaining complete success, was this, viz: What is the time, during the period of vegetation, when the stalks begin to contain sugar, and, consequently, what is the moment when the manufacture may commence? It appeared tome that this time coincided with that of the appearance of the ears; but the proportion of sugar existing in the cane keeps on increasing up to the time when the seeds pass into the milky stage. I have noticed that the richness in sugar in a plant while blooming, diminished gradually from the lower to the upper part of the stalk in the spaces between the joints, and also that the lower portion of each one of these interspaces is younger and less rich in sugar than the upper one. Such being the case, the middle of the stalk is the richest portion, for the lower joints are hard and small. I have not been able to ascertain it with exactness, but I suppose that at a later period the spaces between the joints in the lower part of the stalk become impoverished, or, if the juice does not grow poorer, it at least diminishes in quantity. The ripeness of seeds does not seem to reduce, to any considerable degree, the production of sugar, at least in our climate; but as maturity is reached at the end of the season, and our plants, consequently, continue to advance in richness with the development of vegetation, the effect of maturity on these phenomena can hardly be determined. This question can be solved only in those countries where the seeds of the plant mature before the warm season is over. According to M. de Beauregard's report, addressed to the " Cornice de Toulon," maturity would seem to have had no injurious influence within the limits of his experience; and he considers seed and sugar as two products, which can be obtained jointly. On the other hand, the Zulu Caffres are accus- tomed to snatch, by an abrupt pull, the panicles away from iheir plants as soon as they show themselves, in order to increase the sugary quality of the stalks. But this question has, after all, no importance in respect to France, since here ripeness will never take place too soon to prove detrimental. The following analyses were made by Professors Henry and Swenson, of Wisconsin State University, in 1881-2, and, as they say, the con- clusions to be drawn from them are very indefinite. It is unfortunate that the development of each sample is omitted from their report. 16 242 SOEGHUM. Character of soil. Sandy loam Bandy loam Cliiyey Clayey Clay loam Sandy loam ^ Heavy clay loam. Sandy loam Light loam Light loam Black loam Clay Prairie loam Randy loaTn Clay land Clay land Pandy loam BJaclc loam Very sandy Sandvloam Clay Wash of harn-yard . Clay Olay soil . . Black soil.. a May 15. May 20. May 15. J'ne23. May 26. May 15. May 20. May 15. May 12'. May 26. May 26, June 3. June 1. May 5. June 1. May 10. May 16. May VI. May 25. May 12. May 24. May 15. May 20. May 20. Oct. 5 Oct. 5 Oct. 6 Oct. 5 Sep. 6 Oct. 10 Oct. 10, Oct. 6, Oct. 6 Oct. 6. Oct. 12 Oct. 12. Oct. 12 Sep. 24. Sep. 28. Sep. 26. Oct. 6 Oct. 8. Oct. 11 . Oct. 2 Sep. 10. Sep. 10. 18 12>i lOX 12>£ HX 103i 9X \t% 5>^ 13 12 nji 15>i 8 12 14 83i 11 llK l)>i 12113 12 65i 6 4Ji 9| 5 1214J^ 12,11*5 1215Ji 48.0 60 63.1 68.8 62.8 52.0 65.5 55 8 59.0 56.0 .50.0 61.5 S2.0 .51.1 56.4 54 3 58 58 1 60 54.3 63.6 71 6 57,7 51.8 58,8 .55 5 51.7 68.7 49.0 7.29 11,14 6.50 9.92 6.25 12,83 10 94 4 8.98 7.01 6.77 7. 13.11 13.63 10,8' 6.00 6.23 6,21 7 61 6,59 10. .31 4.70 9,07 4,50 8,70 5 77 8 6 6,4:3 7.16 ■- 9 a! Oct. 8 Oct. 8 Oct. 10 Oct. 10 Oct. 10 Oct. 10 Oct. 11 Oct. 11 Oct. 11 Oct. n Oct. 11 Oct. 11 Oct. 12 Oct. 12 Oct. 12 Oct. 12 Oct. 12 Oct. 14 Oct. 14 Oct. 14 02 < let. 14 49 Oct 14 36 Oct. 14 60 Oct. 14 20 Oct. 21 60 Oct. 21 Oct. 21 Nov. 2 Nov. 2 Nov. 2 Variety. Early Orange, Early Amber. Early variety. Karly Amber. Early Amber. Karly Amber. Early Amber., Early Amber. Early Amber. Early Amber. Early Amber. Early Amber. Early Amber. Early Amber. Early Amber. Early Amber. Early Amber. Enrly Amber. Early Amber. Early Amber. Early Amber. Early Amber. Early Orange. Stewart's Hybrid. Golden Imphee. Early Amber. Early Amber. Kansas Orange. Early Amber. Early Amber. ' It is hardly possible to draw any definite conclusions from the above analy- ses, as many samples were not received for several weeks after being cut. It will be seen, however, that nearly all those samples which were analyzed within bat a few days after being cut contain u large proportion of cane sugar, while those which were analyzed afler a longer period of time show a high content of glucose and a low proportion of cane sugar. This corroborates my statement in the first part of this report, and shows the necessity of working up the cane directly from the field, in order to get the best results. It will also be seen, that all the samples conspicuous for their high content of cane sugar are raised on a light soil, usually sandy loam, while those raised on heavy clay land contain large proportions of glucose. It, therefore, appears that, in order to obtain a maximum content of cane sugar, the cane should be grown on a light soil. For making syrup alone, the cane raised on clayey land will do about as well, as the high content of glucose will not materially afifect the quality of the syrup. Twenty-six varieties of cane were grown on the university farm during the past season, some of which were from seeds kindly sent by Dr. Collier. The following table shows the results of my examinations: GENERAL ANALYSES OF SOEGHXJM JUICES, ETC. 243 Variety of Cane. Chinese, No. 1 (Chinese, No. 2 Chinese, No. 3 Chinese, No. 4 (Chinese, No. 5, . . . Chinese, No. 6 — India, No. 1 India, No. 2 Honduras Miller Htnmp Goose Neck White Mammoth. Gray Top I^eea^ana ^ Karly Amber Link's Hybrid Honey Liberian Kansas Orange Early Orange White Liberian. . . Canada Amber — Texas Amber Illinois Amber — Lbs. Oz. 9^ 9 1 4 1 6 M 1 fi 10 ^ 1 6 1 1 i 13 1 3^ 1 2 1 12 2 2 1 (i^ 1 sa 1 14 1 H>5 12 1 -2^ 1 2 Stage of the seed Dough Milk Milk Dough Dough Milk Hard dough Hard dongh Dough liipe Doughy.. .. Dough Milk Milk. . .. Hard dongh Kipe Milk Milk Ripe Hard dough Dough Doughy liipe Ripe Ripe o V O t. 3 P< 7.28 7 71 7 2li 7 l 244 SOEGHUM. September 29:* Cane sugar 8.59 Glucose 3.50 Ser/'i'niber29:* Cane sugar 8 fiO Clueose '. 3.50 September 29:* Cane sugar 8.fil Glucose 3.44 Octobers: Cnne sugar , 12.67 Glucose 2.43 From these we see that the cane sugar gradually and rapidly increased, while the glucose slowly decreased, from the time of flowering to the matur- ity of the seed. During the latter part of September, most of the cane was lodged by a very violent wind and rain storm. The juice from the stalks that were lodged was charged with a red coloring matter, the inside of the entire stalk being in many cases of a bright red color. Several of the stalks con- tained but a small portion of red coloring matter, but instead had a peculiar yellow and watery appearance, and quite a disagreeable taste. The juices from these contained on an average only 8 per cent sugar, and 4.8 per cent glucose. The following letter, giving the results obtained by Mr. Blackwell, will be read with interest: Maike Beet Sugar Company, 5 Park St., Boston, December 1th, 1882. To the Cane Growers' Association, St. Louis, Mo. Gents — Having been a sugar refiner, and, more recently, the treasurer and managing director of the Maine Beet Sugar Company, which made in two years (1879 and 1880) $200,000 worth of sugar and syrup from beets, raised in New England, I desire to make some practical suggestions for the manufacture of sugar from sorghum. I have recently become convinced, by the experiments of Prof Collier, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, that the juice of well matured sorghum is equal to that of the sugar-cane. This summer, I raised an experimental crop of " Early Amber" and "White Liberian," from seed obtained at V/ashington, in my garden here in Boston. In the last week of October, I cut this cane, fully matured, and still uninjured by frost. The juice gauged 11° Baume, when clarified, and proved so fine that I had it analyzed by S. P. Sharpless, state assayer, 114 State street, Boston, with the following result: Water 78 .18 per cent. Cane SH.gar IS. " Inverted sugar 2.09 " Ash 89 " Gum, etc 84 " 100.00 This juice had been defecated by lime in excess — the lime being mostly pre- cipitated afterward by phosphoric acid. The "Ash" indicated above was largely lime and phosphate of lime held in solution, the result of defecation. This being fully equal to average West India juice. I made a few pounds of * This cane was lodged by storm. GENERAL ANALYSES OF SOEGIIUM JUtCES, ETC. 245 sugar over the open fire, without the use of bone-black, or of any chemical ex- cept lime. I send you a sample of the sugar obtained. It was not washed in the centrifugal, and so is darkened by the adhering alkaline syrup. Still, the sample polarized 90 per cent pure sugar. I got exactly one-half the weight of the boiled syrup in this sugar at the first running. The syrup I filtered through bone-black to remove the lime. Prom it I got 50 per cent of sugar at second running, a sample of which I also inclose. Thus I obtained without any method of evaporation but open fire, V5 per cent of sugar from the boiled juice. I kept a par.t of my canes for five weeks in a shed, a part of the time at a freezing temperature. December 4th, I worked some of these, and got, by the diffusion process, 10 per cent of weight of canes in excellent syrup, weighing twelve pounds to the gallon, and of quality equal to that from the same cane when first cut. I will now make a few suggestions for the profitable making of sugar from sorghum. Two conditions are needed ; 1. The cane should not be worked until nearly ripe; the seed should be hard before the cane is cut. 2. The same pro- cesses, so successfully applied to the beet in Europe, should be applied to the sorghum. These processes are, briefly, as follows: 1. The juice should be treated with a very considerable excess of lime, so as to make it decidedly alkaline, at a temperature not exceeding 160° F. With- out this excess of lime, a perfect defecation is impossible. 2. The lime, should then be almost wholly precipitated in the juice, by the injection of carbonic acid gas. 3. The slightly alkaline thin juice should then be filtered through cloth by filter presses, or otherwise. 4. It should then be passed through bone-black, and thoroughly decolorized. 5. It should then be boiled down, either by open evaporator, or, far better and cheaper, by exhaust steam in a double-effect vacuum pan to about 25° Baume. 6. It should again be filtered through fresh bone-black, to remove all color. 7. It should then be grained in the vacuum pan. 8. It i-hould be purged in a centrifugal. The first product should be standard granulated sugar; the second product should be bright yellow, and the third product light brown, refined sugar — a to- tal product of about 75 per cent of the boiled juice. The process above de- scribed will be substantially adopted when the manufacture of sugar from sor- ghum is put upon its permanent business basis. It will be done, if at all, on a large scale, and with large profit. The gumminess and diSiculty of crystallization complained of in sorghum is due either to unripeness, or to injury by frost, or to an imperfect defecation. No properly defecated juice ever needs to be skimmed while boiling It must be remembered that syrups designed for sugar require different treatment from those which arc not intended to crystallize. The presence of gum and vegeta- ble matter add to the volume of syrup, without greatly deteriorating its color, if (jarefully handled, but is extremely detrimental to crystallization. No subse- quent manipulation will cure an imperfect defecation. Another important consideration is, that the mills now in use, no matter how powerful, do notexpress more than about two-thirds of thesaccharinejuice. These 246 SOEGHDM. should bo supplemented, wherever plenty of water can be had, by a difFasion battery, whereby the whole of the sugar can be washed out of the cane by a stream of warm water (170° F.), which displaces and drives the sweet juice be- fore it. This, however, can not be profitably done without a double-effect vac- uum pan, whereby an economical evaporation is effected. The improved processes above described are not my own invention, but are used in hundreds of factories here and in Europe. They can not be patented or monopolized, and are not likely ever to be superseded, because they are the result of a century of scientific research. Yours, respectfully, Henry B. Blackwbll. Professors Weber and Scovell report the following results of their analyses, in 1880 and 1881: TABLE SHOWING THE DEVELOPMENT AKD CHANGE OF StJGAES IN SOKGHUM. u c3 tH* o a ^3 a fcB Stage of development. Date. !^ V g ^<" s>. O, y /5 1 > CD o o 'i Beginning to head Aug. 14, 1880.. Orange . . 1.05S 5.70 4.90 4.14 2 Aug. 10, 1881 Amber.. . 1 058 8.39 3 38 In "blossom 3 Aug. 2S, 1880.. Orange.. 1 062 6 10 7.12 7.77 4 Aug. 10, 1881.. Amber... 1.066 5 43 8 42 Seed soft and milky 5 Aug. 14, 1880.. Sept. 6, 1880. Amber,. . 1 065 3 34 10 75 6 Orange.. 1 068 5 00 9 13 7 Aug. 10, 1881 . Amber... 1 068 4 25 9.84 ■ 8.56 8 Aug. 12, 1881. . ..do .. 1.070 3 75 12.75 9 Sept. 1, 1881 Orange.. 1.048 6 11 3.71 10 Kept. 2, 18;-il Orange.. 1 048 6 58 6.19 Seed in hardening dough 11 Aug. 25, 1880 Amber.. 1 068 ■' 47 V> 48 12 Sept. Ifi, 18S0.. Orange.. 1.065 4 11 9 76 13 Aug. 10, 1881.. Amber... 1.074 3 65 10.10 14 AUET. 12, 1H81 .. .do... 1 074 2 65 13.37 l.T Aug. 16, 1881 . .. (io.. 1.070 3 92 11 89 16 Aug. 16, 1881 . do. 1 072 3.00 l:l 00 17 Aug. 19, 1881 , .. do.. 1 067 3 46 12 49 18 Aug. 19, 1881 . ...do.. 1 074 3 10 13 18 ■11.95 1!) Aug. 19, 1X81 ...do.. 1 076 2 97 13 64 20 Aug. 19, 1881.. ...do.. 1 070 2 98 12 80 21 Aug, 19, l.ssl ..do... 1 070 3 26 12.. 52 22 Sept. 1, 1881 r.,iberian 1 060 3.67 10,24 23 S.'pt. 1, 1881 Amber.. 1 063 2 61 13 47 •M Sept. 1, 1S81 . do. 1 036 2 18 11,14 25 Sept. 1, 1881. Clilnese. 1.0.52 4 13 8 611 Seed ripe 26 Sept. 6, 1880 . .Sept. 16, 1880 Amber 1 (164 2.13 11 42 27 .do.. 1 065 2 m 11 02 2S Oct. 2, 18.S0, ...do... 1.069 2 47 10.06 29 Oct. 6, 18S0 Orange 1 078 4 02 11 41 ■11.18 30 Sept. 9, lasi.. I. I.U . 1.070 2 93 12 48 .31 Sept. 1, 1881.. Amber.. 1 070 2 71 10 77 32 Sept. 2, 1881 . .. do... 1.070 2 61 10.. 57 33 Sept. 5, 1881 ...do... 1.067 3.16 11 70 The analyses made in 1880, numbers 1, 3, 5, 6, 11, 12, 26, 27, 28, and 29, were from cane grown upon the University farm. GENERAL ANALYSES OF SOEGHUM JUICES, ETC. FIELD CROPS IN 1882. 247 c 'A Variety. Date of plant- ing. Date of head- ing. Date of harden- ing dough. Days required. 1 2 Early Golden..., Karly Oran.ge Minn. Amber April 29 .... Augngt 8. ... August 18 ... August 8. .. August 8 August 8 — August 26 August 8, ... August 8 .. August 8 September .'>.. .September 21. September h . September ;M. Septe.vnber 5. . September 5 . September .SO. October 7 . September 5 . September 5 . September SO. 128 147 1>8 4 l."i3 •5 6 7 Missouri Amber Bear Tail iiink's rivbrid. 128 las 8 Honduras Hawmas IW) l->8 10 128 11 133 1' I.iberian Gray Top New Varietv, Stump Illinois Amber 1R September 3D. September .'i . September 5.. 1,'i.'! 14 15 August R . . .. August 8. . . 128 128 ANAl.y.'^TS OF FIELD CROPS. Variety. Specific gravity. Cane sugar. Grape sugar. Earlv Orange Link's Hybrid ! . . 1 059 1 007 1 060 10. ao 12 30 10 70 2.71 1 60 Xiberian 2 95 Pint. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Date of planting. April 20 April 20 May 26 Date of heading Aug. 1 Aug. 14 Aug. 2 Aug. 14 Date of hard ening Davs re- dough. quired. Aug. 31 L31 131 121 124 Sept. 16 512 112 112 112 112 Aug. 31 96 Sept. 16 112 ANALYSIS OF PLATS 1 TO 11. Fiat. Specific gravity. Cane sugar. Grape sugar. Sept. 2 1 14 20 S 31 3 48 2 14 20 8 31 3 48 " 3 14 20 8 81 3 48 ** 4 14 20 8 31 3 48 " 5 14.20 8.31 3 48 " 6 14.20 8 31 3 48 " 7 14 20 8 31 3,48 << 8 14 20 8.31 3,48 " 9 14 20 8 31 3 48 " 10 14 10 9 45 3 11 '< n 14 10 9 45 3 11 Oct. 21 1 1 070 11.55 1 74 <' 10 1 074 12 .55 1 52 1 1 058 8 31 3 49 *1 1 037 4 U 3 70 6 14 S 7.80 4 80 +0 17.2 12.02 2,58 * stripped one -wecli:. T Topped, while in blossom. 248 SOEGIIUM. Professor Geo. H. Cook, director of the New Jersey Experiment Station, reports the following results of his analyses of several varieties of Sorghum in 1881 : The sorghum was grown on the college farm, and the chemical work carried out iu the laboratory of the experiment station. The investigation includes the trial of diflFerent varieties of sorghum, with special reference to their time of ripening and percentage of sujar, as well as the study of the effect ofdififer- ent fertilizing ingredients, applied singly and in combination, upon the yield of sugar and seed. The field selected for the experiment is thoroughly underdrained, rather heavy piece of land, cropped last year wilh field corn grown on sod, to which a liberal dressing of barn-yard manure had been applied. On that portion de- voted to the trial of diflFerent varieties, Mape's sorghum manure was used this year immediately before planting, at the rate of 600 pounds per acre. The seeds were kindly furnished by Dr. Peter Collier, chemist of the United States Department of Agriculture. Dr. Collier, in his valuable reports, has clearly shown that the condition of the ripening seed may be taken as an index to the condition of the juice of the plant. When the seeds have become so hard that they can no longer be split with the finger-nail, the stalks will contain the maximum amount of sugar and minimum of glucose, and when this stage is reached, the plant may be regarded as matured. The importance of using great care in the choice of seed is illustrated by the following list of varieties : Wolf Tail Failed to mature before frost. Link's Hybrid do. Siberian do. Early Amber Keed failed to perrainate. Neeazana Failed to mature before frost. Go'oseNeck : Matured. Sorghum do. Early Orange Failed to mature before frost. Oom'seeana Matured. Gray Top Failed to mature before frost. African Matured. Honduras Failed to mature before frost. Chinese ■- do. Earl y Golden Matured. Of the fourteen varieties, five only matured. Their relative value to the manufacturer is shown below : a o o a 15 3 z c O . rt i Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. 11 12 12 13 10.46 8.39 5.65 7 85 8 83 4 88 4 87 06 1 ;630 1 0G30 I 0630 1 0591 14 29 18 27 10 42 13 89 1 11 2 13 4 98 61 (i R Amber '.. * n Orange Oct. 18 8 71 5.09 1 0553 13,83 OO in Oct. Oct Ont. 14 14 14 7 80 4 81 7 84 2 90 11-72 5 ,54 1 0568 1 0069 1 OS. 17 10 76 16 03 18 88 3,14 27 1,42 i 11 Orange la Amber ICept 5 days in shed. 13 Orange net. 14 2.B3 13.57 1 0709 16 20 1 00 t I'l Orange Oct. Oct. 18 21 9 S3 5 79 3.37 6 61 1 .0529 1 0529 12 70 12 40 0,40 70 1,=, Amber Ifi Orange Oct. 28 4.69 5 15 I 0453 9,84 1 36 17 Oct. Oct. Oct. 2B 23 27 6 97 9.21 7 80 5" 87 4.01 5 62 l.O.ilO 1.0.591 1,0607 12 84 18 22 13 42 00 1,28 1 48 IS Amber Very small and ripe. 19 Amber Stood in shed 4 weeks. 911 Oct. Oct. 27 27 8 06 9 03 5 43 5.53 1,0591 1 0665 13 49 14 55 1,01 1,65 Stood in shed 8 days. Stood in shed 2 weeks. 'I Orange * Upland. Sent in by car load, and stood over a week. + Creek bottom, but cut and left in field 5 days, j Cut and left in field 7 days; warm, rainy weather. 250 SOEGHUM. ANALYSIS OF JUICE OF SORGH0M, FKOM AN EXPERIMENTAL FARM. .5 s ■^o; QJ ^i .GJ vi t? p F b-"- Variety- 0) t4 a 6 6 60 3 CO o 5 > "^ ?) c'S o > a 1 to bf 3 en p- 0) 4.3 si s a fl s £S -^ (C eu3 i) c3 o M u o ^y t-.:^ _bp CJ 'is -_S^ C o o ZJ o is G. B M ?* P. Cu CL, 111 « m H PL, — 1 White Liberiaii 650 28140 185 33.7 66.3 7 00 4 27 1.64 7.50 1.0553 11 27 86 ,50 2.23 V White Liberiau..., 22U 10542 11.00 4.67 2.36 8.00 1 0536 15 67 84 33 U 00 ?, Miller Soil 1732") 1?0 34.3 65 7 5 99 3.21 1 85 800 1 0586 9.14 85 5il 6 36 4 Bear Tail 36U 17820 130 36,1 63,9 O.OG 3.75 1 .60 7.76 1 0566 9 75 86.10 4.1.1 5 MIJ 13860 fi.67 6 OB 1 10 8. 00 1.0.586 12 73 85.60 l.VV r, Goose NecJi aju 15840 80 25 75 5 63 7.64 74 7.V0 1.0566 13.27 86 20 0.63 7 Stump mi 27000 208 34.7 65 3 5.04 5 37 94 8-00 1 0586 10 41 85.60 4.U9 X 4(j,i 20025 188 41 7 58 3 10 48 6 11 1,71 9 50 1 0709 16.59 82 90 61 Honduras •m 13860 78 27.8 72.2 6 95 5 80 1 .20 7 00 1.0501 12.75 87.26 0.00 in Hoiiev hMO 27125 203 ;■« 3 61.7 6 64 «,U 1,08 7 .511 L.0555 12.75 86 50 O.Vl) 11 Link's «:i5 18425 6 23 6.19 1 01 8 .50 1 0626 12 41 84.70 2.89 1? White Mammoth.. 27f) 15725 100 36.4 63 6 7.92 4.07 1 94 7.75 1 .0.566 11 99 86 20 l.,51 IS Grny Top tiOo svn 29047 18936 207 148 34.2 40 65 8 60 6 38 8.92 4 48 4 28 1 42 2 09 5.75 8 00 1 0645 1.0,586 10 86 13 21 83 18 85 60 4 96 14 1.29 lOT Orange 1020 32500 335 32 5 67.5 6.69 5.28 1.27 8.76 1.0643 11.97 84.30 3 73 Remarks.— Nos. 1, 2, and 3, lay In shed 4 days after cutting; Nos. 4. 6, 6, and 7, lay 5 or 0. All after this were worked within 3 or 4 days alter cutting. CHEMICAL COIMPOSITION OF SOEGHUM. Professors Weber and Scovell give the following analysis of sorghum in their report : Composition of stalks of Orange Cane in 100 parts : Water 76 58 Grape i-ugar 3 00 Cane sugar • 9 77 Starch 4 12 Fiber : 4 64 Oil 07 Gums and vegetable acids 24 Soluble albumenoids 0.23 Insoluble 16 Soluble ash 08 Insoluble ash 06 99.45 According to the above analysis it will be seen, that, if in the juice we include the water and soluble constituents, there would be present 91 per cent of juice, and 9 per cent of insoluble matter, starch, fiber, ash, etc. But it is well known that in pressing the cane a certain portion of these insoluble matters are mechanically removed, and go to increase the estimated amount of juice yielded by the mill, which is * In this specimen, I think some was lost in taking to mill, or was mixed with some other variety. + An average sample of what grew on a little more than Jour acres. The total yield of the field was sixty-five tons. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SORGHUM. 251 rarely as high as 60 per cent, often not over 45 per cent, of the weight of the stalk pressed. It is clear, therefore, that there is a loss of from one-third to one-half of the juice, and approximately the same loss of the sugar present in the cane. The extent of this loss is such, that it will be more fully discussed in the chapter on " Waste products,'' page 376. Oiaracter and Composition of Sorghum Juice — Chemical Changes in Sugar Making. In order that the sugar boiler may understand the nature of this operation, and the character of the problem to be solved in defecation, as also to assist those who may desire to experiment for themselves in an effort to improve the present method, the following statement as to the character and chemical composition of the juice of sorghum is given, as also an account of certain of the chemical changes to which it is subject under certain conditions which naturally would exist in the ordinary operations of sugar making. Sorghum Juice. The juice expressed from the sorghum at or near maturity is a liquid containing quite a large amount of suspended matter, giving it a color varying from green to a deep brown. This suspended matter is depos- ited to a greater or less extent on standing, and consists of very fine starch granules, colored violet blue by iodine, and easily discolored by the acids of the juice, fiber, and albumen, with the green coloring matter of the outer portions of the stalk, and sometimes a red coloring matter from the center of the stalk. After allowing it to settle a few minutes, it has a specific gravity of from 1 .06 to 1.09, and contains in solution, in addition to the substances in suspension, most prominently sucrose, with smaller amounts of glu- cose, aconitic acid, soluble albumen, amide bodies, and inorganic salts. It can be freed from albumen, organic, and some inorganic acids, by means of basic acetate of lead — and this method of defecation is in vise in most laboratories in the analytical determination of the content of sugar in the cane. Tiie filtrate, after the addition of the acetate of lead, contains in addition to the sugars nothing which reduces Feh- ling's copper solution, with the exception possibly of a very small amount of amide substances. The fjllowing examination of a juice collected on November 2nd, 1881, though somewhat late in the season and after a slight frost, will illustrate some points in the general composition : 252 SORGHUM. WHITE LIBERIAN CANE JniCEt Per cent of juice 65 .00 Spocilic gravity 1.062 total sohds per cent.. 15.67 Glucose do 2 17 Sucrose by titration do 9 79 Wuerose by polarization do 9 15 Solids not sugar I do 3.51 Containing — Albnnien percent.. .13 Aniido bodies, including ammonia salts do 37 Nitrate of potash do 01 Inorganic nsli , do 1.12 Organic acids and fiber do 1.90 ,The inorganic part of the juice consists of soluble silica, iron, lim6, magnesia, potash, phosphates, sulphates, chlorides, nitrates. All attempts to detect gum or any carbo-hydrates other than glucose and sucrose in the juice, before it has changed its character by stand- ing, have failed. After the juice has been left to itself, with or without the addition of ferments, it undergoes certain changes. In the first place, it deposits a white substance which, under the mi- croscope, shows the organized structure of starch. The granules are, however, much smaller than most starches, and do not give as deep a blue color with iodine, the color fading out in a short time. On longer standing, there collects a greenish precipitate on the surface of the starch, containing fiber, albumen, and coloring matter. The super- natant liquor, however, never becomes entirely clear. During the course of from twenty-four to forty-eight hours in warm weather fermentation sets in, even with no addition of yeast. The pro- ducts are not strictly tlios«! of the vinous fermentation, neither are they entirely like the lactic. Much lactic acid is, however, formed, together with a large amount of mannite and a smaller amount of alcohol, acetic acid, glycerine, and succinic acid. The same thing takes place even when quite large quantities of yeast have been added to the juice. If the juice immediately on extraction is filtered through paper and allowed to stand, the cellulosie fermentation sets in, and over night white clots of cellulose, or a similar substance, settle out ou the walls of the containing vessel. What the products in solution are, under these circumstances, has not been investigated. If the expressed j uice is immediately mixed with numerous slices of fresh cane and left to itself, lactic fermentation is probably the form to be expected. The same form of fermentation always occurs on adding slices of cane to a pure sugar solution. If, however, to the juice sufficient slices of cane are added to fill the vessel as nearly as possible with them, then the mucous fermentation takes place.. After a few days the liquid becomes sticky, and alcohol precipitates from it a ropy slime, not easily soluble in water, and resembling the gum found in many sorghum syrups. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OP SORGHUM. 253 The Acidity of Corn and Sorghum Juices. The juices of four varieties of sorghum and two of com have been examined at various intervals during the growth of the canes to de- termine their acidity, and with the result presented in the following tables. . While it is impossible to draw any very definite general conclusions, owing to the great irregularity in the amount of acid present in juices expressed from canes in the same stage of development, it is apparent that in all but one of the varieties which have been examined, there is a greater amount of free acid in the juice during the later stages of growth. Two of the sorghums show besides an apparent decrease to about the eighth or ninth stage, followed by an increase later on in the development of the canes. Beyond these conclusions it is im- possible to'go. The determinations were made in the following manner : The method employed for the volumetric determination of the acid present in sorghum or maize stalk juice was as follows : 50 c. c. of the juice, usually of a greenish or greenish brown color, was titrated with a fiftieth normal solution of sodium hydrate The acid was calculated as malic acid=(H2C4H405). 1 c. c. of ^,HNaO= .00134 malic acid. 50 As the most practical indicator for the final test of saturation of the acid juice by soda solution, a dilute solution of extract of logwood was used, which, when added to the juice containing a slight excess of NaOH, turned to a bluish purple or violet color. This final reaction was made in small porcelain dishes, into which a few drops of juice were brought and some drops of logwood added by means of a glass rod. Before this point of neutrality was reached, red and blue lit- mus paper was employed. The calculation was as follows : A sample of sorghum juice, 50 c. c. required — 1. 44 c. c. of "HNaO solution for saturation ; hence 100 c. c. of juice 44X2=88.0. 2. 88 X.00134 (malic acid)= .11792. Q .11792 (malic acid) nmr-i n "^' rTiSTJh r -c e ■ • \^= .llUol gram of malic acid in 1.06b0 (specific grav. of juice) ° lOO^grams of juice. 254 SORGHUM. SORGHUM JUICE ACIUITT. Early Amber. Date, July 23 July 'At July 25 July 28 July 29 Alls. 1 Aug. 8 Aug. 24 Ans- 26 Aug. 27 Aug. 31 feiit. 3 Kept. 7 Sept. 10 Sept. 17 Stage.* 9 10 11 12 15 15 15 IB 17 17 18 18 c. c. of ^HNaO for 100 0. c, of juice. 100 120 124 96 120 156 196 192 156 338 160 192 196 236 Specific gravity of juice. 1 041 1.047 1 0-19 1 0.53 1.058 1.066 1 072 1.083 1 080 1 091 1 091 1.091 1.0«9 l.OSl 1 OSS Per cent of acid as malic. .123 .128 .153 .158 .121 .151 .195 .242 .238 .192 .167 .196 .236 .243 .291 Golden Syrup. c. e. of Ji^HN'aO Specific Per cent Date. Slago. gravity of of acid forlOOc.c. ] nice. as malic. of juice. July 27 10 132 1,039 .370 A ng. 1 u 156 1 073 .195 12 14 KiO ]»4 , 1.075 1 (183 .200 Aug. 19 .228 Aug 24 ]5 , 15 16 152 196 172 1 085 1 086 1 079 .188 -\n"- 26 . . .239 Aug. 29 : .213 Aug. 31 16 392 1 089 .236 Sept. 3 17 364 1 091 ,201 Sept. 7 17 380 1 095 .220 Sept. 17 18 252 1 087 .311 * For explanation of "stage," see page 119. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SORGHUM. Wolf Tail. 255 0. u. Of " HNaO Specific Per cent Date. Stage. 3U gravity of of acid for 100 cc. ]uice. as malic. of juice. July 21 3 128 1 043 .164 July 'li , 4 120 1 042 .154 July 29 .-...; 5 122 1 049 .136 Julv 30 6 84 1 053. .107 Aus- 1 5 92 1 034 .117 8 9 9 88 120 88 l.OliU 1 077 1 005 .111 Aw l(i . .149 Au-. 20 .111 Aug. 25 10 108 1.078 .134 AujT. 30 11 loli 1.08S .1.35 Sept. 1 12 120 1 087 .148 Sept. 5 13 152 1 084 .189 Sept. y 14 148 1 094 .181 Sept. 14 15 152 1.090 .187 Sepc '^7 ... 156 1.086 .192 Oomseeana. July Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Sept. Sept. .Sept. Sept. Sept. Date. Stage. y 10 11 12 13 cc. of .^HNaO for 100 e. c. of juice. 132 •64 92 80 92 72 62 hO 80 ICO 96 100 08 152 160 Specific gravity of juice. 1 0,32 1.0.35 1 045 1 014 1.013 1.055 1 055 1.Q62 1 061 1,072 1 075 1.073 1 065 1.076 1,072 Per cent of acid as malic. .118 .103 .118 .091 .079 .101 .101 .125 .119 .123 084 ,190 .200 Composition of Ash of Canes and Juices of Sorghum,. The actual composition of the pure ash, both of the wliole cane and the expressed juice, are matters of interest and importance. From a careful study of the following figures, it will be seen that the amount of potash extracted from the soil, is much greater than the amount of any other ash ingredient, while the quantity of phosphoric acid is small. It would seem, then, that the farmer should supply these two con- stituents, when his soil seems to need them, in about the relative pro- portions in which they exist in the ash. The following are analyses of two lots of ash from sorghum, and two samples of ash from sorghum juices: 256 SOEGHUM. ^ANALYSES OF ASH FROM SORGHUM CAXES AND JUICES. Constituents. Potash, K20 Potassium, K Sodium, Na Lime, CaO Magnesia, MsO Iron Oxide, ¥i:'0' Silica, Si02 .* . Sulpliurie acid, SO^ Ptiospiioric acid, P^O* Clilorine, CI... Manganese Oxide 49 66 4 31 13.49 10.47 5..'i5 3 64 3.91 100 00 Canes. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3 33.77 14.58 9 00 10.28 2.93 11.70 4.60 13,24 100.00 46 Juices. No. 1. No. 2, ■i-55,31 Trace 7,20 6 .S6 2 01 6 31 5 11 8 22 9,08 ■h54.76 .07 7.40 7 85 1,63 2,57 4,11 5 72 15.89 100.00 * Analyses Nos. 1 and 2 of canes and juices, were made at tlie Department of Agricul- ture. Cane Analysis No. 3 is reported by Professors Weber and Scovell, of Illinois Industrial University. fit was thought be.st In these analyses, to state all the potassium as oxide, although, doubtless, a part existed in the juice in combination with chlorine. EXTEACTION OF JUICE FEOM CANE. 257 CHAPTEK VIII. (a.) Extraction of juice from cane. (6.) Roll mills. (c.) Various methods for the extraction of juice. EXTEACTION OP JUICE FROM CANE. In the production of sugar from plants, the first step is the extrac- tion of the juice ; and in this operation the methods generally applied to sugar-cane and sorgum or maize stalks, on the one hand, and to beets upon the other, differ radically, and those methods employed with beets are in their principles and in their results vastly superior to those in general use in the production of sugar from cane. A recent writer, eminently qualified from long experience to judge of these matters, declares that " the sugar beet industry in all its de- tails has been so exhaustively investigated, in Europe, that it may, without exaggeration, be declared to be at present the most thoroughly developed department in the whole range of industrial science. The question of the successful introduction of this industry into the United States rests on purely economic considerations." In no respect is the perfection to which this industry has been brought more manifest than in the success which attends the processes for the extraction of the juice from the beets, and in no respect are the two methods of sugar production from cane and beets more at variance than in this preliminary step in manufacture. A glance at the results obtained will sufiice to show how much yet remains to be done before the sugar-cane industry shall even approach in practical economy that of the sugar beet. The results ordinarily obtained in making beet sugar are as follows : 100 pounds of beet roots give — First sugars 5.00 pounds. /Second" 1.50 Third " 50 Molasses 1.50 Loss. Sugar in pulp 50 " " " snum T. 35 " " " filters, 59 " Miscellaneous 06 Total 10.00 pounds. The above estimate is from " Sugar Growing and Eefining," page 387. With beets of higher sugar content than 10 per cent, the losses 17 258 SOEUHTJM. would be proportionately less, and vice versa; but it will be seen that only 5 per cent of the total sugar of the beet is lost in the pulp, while the amount of sugar ordinarily lost in the bagasse of sugar-cane or sorghum is fully one-third of the total amount present in the canes. This amazing loss, a loss which aggregates at least $100,000,000 worth of sugar annually, is due entirely to the imperfect extraction of the juice by the ordinary cane mill. In the main, the principle of extraction has suffered no change for centuries. The most elaborate and expensive mills of the sugar plan- tations of Cuba, capable of crushing hundreds of tons of cane daUy, are but modifications \>f the primitive mills of centuries ago, when, with greater labor and greater loss, a few armsful of cane was the daily capacity of the rude and inexpensive mill. In the hope that the skill and ingenuity, which has satisfactorily solved so many practical problems which have hindered the full de- velopment of many new industries, may be also successfnlly applied to this, it is well to consider briefly the nature of the problem to be solved. This problem — the complete extraction of the» sugar from the plant — is by no means beyond hope of satisfactory solution. It is now brought to the attention of a new class of people, proverbially clever and full of invention, and fortunate in this, that, with a full knowledge of its conditions, they are largely free from the prejudices of long established methods, the practical knowledge of which is likely to retard rather than stimulate invention. To such a class was the extraction of sugar from beets presented, and, although a comparatively new industry, it has been from its in- fancy, and to-day is exclusively, in the fostering hands of science, and, as an industry, is fully abreast of the most advanced science of the day. It is to this that the beet is entirely indebted for its success in having become the only rival practically of the sugar-cane in the production of sugar. When but a fraction of the attention which has so far advanced the beet sugar industry shall have been given to sor- ghum, there can be no doubt but that it will speedily become to us as a people the most profitable and economical source of our sugar supply. Structure of the Cane. The stalks of sugar-cane and of sorghum, when mature, very closely resemble each other in their general character. The stalk of sorghum consists of a solid stem, from f to IJ inches in diameter, and from 6 to 12 feet long, according to the variety, separated into joints from 6 to 10 inches apart. These joints are nearer together at the butt end EXTRACTION OF JUICE FROM CANE. 259' of the stalk than at the upper portion. At each joint a leaf develops alternately upon the side of the stalk, and, as the plant matures, those leaves at the lower parts of the stalk gradually die. The leaves partly enwrap the stalk, and then fall away in blades from 2 to 4 inches- in breadth, and from 2 to 3 feet in length. The stalk terminates in a panicle (seed head), which is diffuse and spreading, or close and com- pact, with seeds varying from brown to white, according to variety. By cutting across the stalk between the joints, and treating with a solution of iodine, there are seen to exist numerous large fibers, about each of which are clustered small cells of nitrogenous material, with intermediate cells of ordinary cellulai tissue, containing the sugar in solution. By splitting the stalk lengthwise through the joint, there is shown, upon the application of iodine, a belt of highly nitrogenized tissue, about one-eighth to three-sixteenth of an inch in width, while distributed along the portion of the stalk between the joints the blue grains of starch appear. The exterior of the stalk is composed of more compacted fibers of woody matter, enveloped in a hard siliceous covering, much resembling the sugar-cane, but less hard. Like the sugar-cane, a slight coating of a waxy substance (cerosie) covers th& stalk, especially at the joints. Except that the joints are not so close on the sorghum, and that the stalk is softer in its structure and gen- erally less in diameter than the sugar-cane, the resemblance of the stripped stalks of these two plants is very close. Owing to the fact, that the water present in the juice of the plant is always far in excess of the amount necessary to hold the sugar in solu- tion, there is no reason to be seen that the sugar is ever present in the fresh cane in a solid form, as has sometimes been asserted. By means of difl!usion, the contents of the cells readily pass from one portion to another of the plant ; and during the life of the plant this circulation is constantly going on, such matters of the juice as are necessary being supplied to the growing parts', while the sugar, which is being elabo- rated in the leaf cells, is accumulated in the cellular tissue of the stalk, gradually increasing in quantity as the plant approaches ma- turity. Mills for Extracting Juice. The principle of nearly every mill for the extraction of juice from cane or sorghum, at present in use, depends upon rupturing the cells of the cane by pressure, and in this way expressing the juice. In certain mills this pressure is estimated as equal to 1,200 pounds to the square inch, or a pressure upon the entire roller of 300 tons. This pressure is generally produced by three rolls — one upper and two lower — the cane passing first between the upper and one of the lower 260 SOEGHUM. rollers; and then, by assistance of a returning bar, or knife, as it is termed, the partially crushed cane again passes between the upper and second lower roller. The mills may be classed as upright, or horizon- tal, according to the position of the rolls. All mills of large size are with horizontal rollers. They are also two, three, and four roll mills, generally three. In the case of four rolls being used, it is customary to separate them, and, by means of a jet of steam or water, to moisten the partially expressed cane before subjecting it to pressure between the second pair. In the construction of mills upon this general principle, it is doubt- ful whether there is left much, if any, room for improvement. The amount of juice expressed varies from 45 to 65 per cent of the weight of the stripped cane, and in exceptional cases, where, as in competition trial of mills, every precaution is taken, the amount of juice may reach 70 per cent, but it is doubtful whether the average re- sults will equal 60 per cent of juice extracted by the sugar mills. We have seen that the average of juice present in the cane is at least 90 per cent of its weight; and there is reason, therefore, to con- sider the principle of these mills, to learn whether such waste of juice is necessary and inevitable in their use. It appears that such loss is inevitable, owing to the following reasons : 1. The cells of the cane, which contain the juice, are microscopic in size, and many of them escape rupture, even under the enormous pressure to which the cane is subjected, and it is not unlikely (though, perhaps, this can not be experimentally determined) that the elasticity of the cell walls is such, as to permit a certain degree of pressure be- fore they are ruptured. 2. Owing to capillarity, the bagasse (or pressed cane) rapidly ab- sorbs the juice the instant the pressure is removed; and, since a portion of the juice will follow the cane through the rolls, such portion is at once taken up by the bagasse. It is, of course, mathematically true, that the maximum of pressure exerted, even with the largest rolls and with the slowest revolution, is but instantaneous; and, as the escape of the juice can not be as rapid, a large share of it must be lost. In fact, such is found to be the case. Although, in common language, we often hear the bagasse spoken of as " perfectly dry," it is never found with less than half its weight of water, even after having come from the best mills ; and generally it will be found, that the percentage of water still remaining in the bagasse is equal, approximately, to that present in the cane before it was pressed. With this water is, of course, a large amount of sugar, estimated as being equal to the half of that expressed in the juice. EOLL MILLS. 261 ROLL MILLS. The following illustrations will show the different styles of mills at present in use in the United States, adapted for horse, water, or steam power. It is always advisable to have a mill at least a size larger than appears to be necessary for the remaining apparatus, since the supply of juice, for continuous work, must be maintained, and any excess may be easily avoided. It is also a matter of economy to secure the strongest mill of any given capacity; for any break down may so interrupt the work of the season as to imperil the entire crop. It is desirable, also, that the power applied be in excess of what is really demanded for regular work, since it often happens, through improper feeding, that there is danger of choking the mill, and thus causing delay, if not breakage of some of the parts. The object of the illustrations of mills, is to enable the farmer to see their general character. Those who may desire mills of larger capacity than these represented, need only to be informed that they may be secured of any capacity up to several hundred tons daily, and are, in all respects, identical with those in use upon the large sugar planta- tions of Cuba and Louisiana. These illustrations are inserted solely for the purpose of information to the reader, and not as advertisements of those who have kindly fur- nished the plates for use. There are, doubtless, other manufacturers of mills and other apparatus similar to these represented in this volume, but whose models do not appear. The general fact, however, is one that should be had in mind, viz.: that it is true economy to buy a mill of somewhat greater capacity than that which is thought necessary ; also, that extra weight and extra strength will far more than compensate for a little additional cost. 262 SOEGHUM. Plate XXII. Plate XXII. shows the Victor Cane Mill, an apparatus In very common use. It is constructed with vertical rollers, on a plan suited to horse-power, or with horizontal rollers for water or steam power. The horizontal mills are fitted with extra gearing, are necessarily heavier, and require greater motive power to accomplish the same result. The following list of sizes and capacity of mills, of this style, will be of value. These mills are made hy Blymyer & Co., Cihcinnati, Ohio : Tons cane Acres cane Size. Weight. in 12 hours. per season. No. 0, Light One-horse 390 lbs. 2 to 2^ 5 to 8 No. i; Jr., One-horse 550 " 2>^ to 3 7 to 10 No. 1, Heavy One-horse 750 " 3 to 3J^ 8 to 12 No. 2, Two-horse 875 " 4 to 5 12 to 18 No. 3, Heavy Two-horse 12,00 " 6 to 7 20 to 30 No. 4, Large Two-horse 1,300 " 8 to 9 25 to 35 No. 6, Four-horse 1,800 " 11 to 13 35 to 45 The same mill, with the sweep below, is furnished by the same parties. For many, such a mill is gieatly to be preferred, since it permits full access to the mill for bringing cane, removing bagasse, and it may be used in the second story of any suitable building. ' EOLIi MILIiS. 263 Plate XXIII. VERTICAL VICTOR MILL. [With horse-power below.] The mill with sweep, shown aboye, presents these advantages oyer the common Victor mill- 1. The mill is more steady. 2. The horses do not interfere with bringing canrto the mill, feeding or removing the bagasse. 3. The juice can flow, by gravity. to the juice tank and defecation, on lower level, thus avoiding pumping. 264 SOEGHUM. ■ H . Plate XXIV. HORIZONTAL MILL. The above represents a good form of a mill, adapted to horse-power, and with hori- zontal rolls. The size, capacitj', weight, and price list o£ these 13 as follows: Power. Size of rollers. No. 1—2 to 4 horse. 1—15 x 12. 2—15 x 9. No. 2-^ to 6 " 1— 20xl2>^. 2— 20x9>^. Weight. 2,100 lbs. 2,400 lbs. EOLL MILLS. 265 Plate XXV. HORIZONTAL, SELF-ADJUSTING ANIMAL-POWER MILL. The above plate represents a horse-powcir, horizontal roll mill, made by Geo. L. Squier, Buffalo, N. Y. The following list of sizes and, weights are given : Pearl No. 1. Main Roller, 8x8. Weight, about 800 lbs. Pearl No. 2. Main Roller, 10 x 10. Weight, about 1,200 lbs. Pearl No, 3. Main Roller, 10 x 12. Weight, about 1,400 lbs. Pearl No. 4. Main Roller, 12 x 16. Weight, about 3,000 lbs. m SOEGHUM. Plate XXVI. the Hbrizontal Victor, Illustrated In above cut, has the plan of dispensing with the ifeturn plate between the rolls. These mills have three rolls, and are made extra heavy and strong. A Bagasse Carrier, 10 to 15 feet long, is furnished, and is included in the prices given of the mills. Acres Cane Size. Tons Cane in 24 hours, per season. W.eight, ■No. 0, four horse, 16 to 20 tons, 50 to' 60 acres. 2,300 lbs. No. 1, six " 24 to 30 tons, 60 to 80 acres. 3,200 lbs. No. 2, eight " 30 to 40 tons, 70 to 90 acres. 3,600 lbs. No. 3, ten' " 40 to 50 tons, 80 to 100 acres. 4,000 lbs. No. 4, fifteen " 70 to 90 tons, 250 to 300 acres. 10,000 lbs. BOLL MILLS. 267 Plate XXVII. HEAVY HORIZONTAL HORSE-POWER MILLS, WITit SWEEP BELOW OR SWEEP ABOVE, AS DESIRED. FIVE SIZES. Ttiere are many advantages in a Sweep Below Mill, when the planter has a proper building in which to run it. The mill is placed in the second story of the building, and a shaft extends from thence to the ground, to which the team working on the ground floor is attached. The team and sweeps are entirely out of the way of the mill; the cane can be unloaded from the cart directly into the second story of the building, and piled near the mill under cover; the bagasse can be carried by a sbute^nto the cart and carted off, and the juice spouted to the defecator or evaporator, without lifting or pumping. A Feed Table or Cane Carrier can be used with the mill as described. Texas No. 0. Texas No. 1. Texas No. 2. Texas No. 3. Texas No. 4. Main Roller, 12 x 15. Rollers, 12 x 20. Rollers, 12 x 20. Rollers, 16 X 24. Rollers, 20 x 30. Weight, 2,000 lbs. Weight, 3,500 lbs. Weight, 4,100 lbs. Welghte 6,600 lbs. Weight, 13,150 lbs. The above mill, Plate XXVII, is made by George L. Squler, Buffalo, N. Y. SORGHUM. A r i'l'i EOLL MILLS. 269 The engraving, Plate XXVIII, represents the Niles Three Roll Cane Mill, which is in very general use upon the sugar plantations of Louisiana. The following lists of sizes and weights, will be of interest to those wishing to buy. They are manufactured by Blyiiiyer and Co., Cincinnati, Ohio, U. S. A. Size. Number. Length and Diameter of Rolls. Weight. Size. Number. Length and Diameter of Rolls. Weight. 3 16 in. X 16 in. 7,200 lbs. 13 54 in. X 20 in. 52,000 lbs. 4 20 in. X 16 in. 8,500 lbs. 14 54 in. X 28 in. 66,000 lbs. 5 24 in. X 16 in. 10,200 lbs. 15 60 in. X 28 in. 63,.5001bs. 6 24 in. X 20 in. 20,500 lbs. 16 54 in. X 30 in. 75,000 lbs. V 30 in. X 20 in. 22,000 lbs. 17 60 in. X 30 in. 80,500 lbs. 8 36 in. X 20 in. 30,000 lbs. 18 66 in. X 30 in. 82,500 lbs. 9 36 in. X 24 in. 35,000 lbs. 19 72 in. X 30 in. 97,000 lbs. 10 42 in. X 24 in. 38,000 lbs. 20 60 in. X 34 in. 120,000 lbs. U 48 in. X 24 in. 41,000 lbs. 21 66 in. X 34 in. 130,000 lbs. 12 48 in. X 26 in. 47,000 lbs. 22 72 in. X 34 in. 140,000-lbs. 270 SOEGHUM. .^^^^^„ EOLL MILLS. 271 Plate XXIX represents a plan of cane mill, showing tlie three rolls, cheek pieces, cane and trash carrier pulleys ; also, how they are actuated by the geared wheels by a linked iron belt. The mill as shown represents a single-geared mill — that is, the pin- ion is connected directly on the main shaft of engine, and operates into the main wheel, secured to the shaft of the top roll. A better way is to make it compound geared, speeding it so that a point on the surface of the roll will travel about fifteen feet per minute, and the engine about thirty revolutions to one of the mill. The top roll is arranged in connection with a knife, so as to direct the cane toward the center of the bagasse side, and by this, hindering it from passing out between the ends of the roUs and dropping into the juice pan, which is placed between the cheeks so as to catch the juice as it falls. The cane carrier is a long traveling table of ash slats, as wide as the rolls, secured at each end in the long links of a chain, and passing over the inboard pulleys, which have projections to catch into the short links of the chain. The outboard pulleys and shaft are plain, and se- cured to a suitable foundation. This carrier is set in action by means of a chain belt, receiving its motion from the cane roll, the shaft of it being longer on this end to receive the wheel. If the cane carrier should be too much loaded, so as to crowd the mill, the carrier can be stopped by means of the lever V, which, throws out the noiseless fric- tion clutch, allowing the carrier to be idle while the mill revolves and clears itself. The deliverer, or trash carrier, is arranged in the same manner, but has no need of the stop motion, as the trash can be carted away as fast as made. We are now making mills with steel shafts, crown wheels, and pin- ions — much stronger than wrought oi cast iron. There is also arranged, in connection with the mill, a juice tank and plunger pump, operated frorri one of the shafts by means of a crank, and of capacity about double what could be anticipated of the mill, in order that it may never choke. This mill is manufactured by Colwell Iron Works, New York, and of any size desired. 272 SOBGHUM. ^%^ Plate XXX. " , To those engaged in the examination of canes, whether of sorghum, maize, or sugar-cane, it is of the greatest importance to have at hand a small mill, by which the juice of a single stalk may be obtained for examination. To the planter who desires to learn the condition of his crop, such a mill is almost indispensable. The above plates represent mills of this discription made by George L. Squier, Buffalo, N. Y. The weight of the mills is from 170 to 270 pounds, and the rolls are from 4 inches long and 4 inches in diameter, to 5 inches long and 5 inches in diameter, and are said to give a yield of juice fully equal to the large mills. Importance of a good Mill. It is most desirable, in order to secure the best results possible, that great care be exercised in the selection of a mill, since there is, even with the best mill, a very considerable amount of sugar left in the ba- gasse. According to the testimony of an experienced sugar chemist and engineer, it is probably true that nearly, if not one-half, of the sugar present in the cane of Louisiana is left in the bagasse, for he says : To a great many it may appear startling, that about 50 per cent of the sugar EOLL MILLS. 273 is left in the cane after it passes through the ordinary mill. Some who doubt this base their opinion on the apparent dryness of ordinary bagasse, while others arrive at their conclusions from experiments which, from their nature, are fallacious. The fallacy lies in the high percentage of juice claimed for the mills. It is probably quite correct that, by taking a few hundred, or even a few thousand, pounds of cane, and passing them carefully through a good mill, such high percentages may be secured; but, with the average mill, grinding in the ordinary way, I have reason to believe that the percentage of juice obtained, on the whole weight of the cane, is more frequeiitl3' under fifty than over. The above estimate of loss is undoubtedly too high, but all are agreed that there is a very great loss in this operation of expressing the juice. To illustrate this more fully, let us take the average results of the analyses made in 1881 ot the sorghums during those three periods when the best results in sugar were found. The average composition of the juices at this time was as follows, and it must remembered that these canes were ])assed singly through a mill, giving, as will be seen, excellent results in juice : Per cent. Juice expressed W 57 Sucrose in juice 16,18 Glucose in juice : 183 Solids in juice 3.07 But 21.08 per cent of the juice, the amount of total solids, is 12.35, which, subtracted from the percentage of juice, leaves 46.22 per cent, as the amount of water expressed in the juice. Now, the amount of water actually presenfin the cane at this period is probably not less than 75 per cent, which would leave in the bagasse 28.78 per cent of the weight of the cane as water ; and, since the ba- gasse constitutes 41.43 per cent of the weight of the cane, there would still remain in the bagasse 69.47 per cent of its weight of water. This, to the ordinary observer, would appear incredible, since the ba- gasse is so generally spoken of as being perfectly dry when it passes from the mill. , It is obvious, therefore, that, since even a good mill leaves 38.37 per cent of the water of the cane in the bagasse, there also remains along with this water a large amount of sugar, and that this amount, if not equal to that estimated above, is yet sufficiently great to demand that only such mills should be used as will secure the greatest percentage of juice. If, in the above calculation, the amount of sugar lost is in propor- tion to the per cent of water remaining in the bagasse, it is clear that, 46.22 : 28.78 :: 9.477 : 5.901 ; i. e., while, in the expressed juice there is an amount of sugar equal to 9.48 per cent of the weight of the cane, 18 274 SOEGHUM. there is an amount of sugar equal to 5.90 per cent of the weight of the cane left in the bagasse, equal to 62.27 percent of the amount actually expressed in the juice, and equal to 38.40 percent of the total amount present in the cane, which, as will be seen, is equal to 15.38 per cent of the weight of the stripped stalk. From this it would appear, that the general estimate as to the pro- portion of sugar actually recovered in a marketable condition is not far from the truth, the several sources of loss being given as follows : Per cent. Left in bagasse 6 Lost in skimming 2.5 Lost in moiasses 3 Eaw sugar obtained 6.5 Total in cane IS . Loss of Sugar in Bagasse. In 1879, the following experiments were made at the Department of Agriculture, at Washington, to determine the loss of sugar in the Two varieties of sorghum and one of maize stalks were selected for the experiment. Carefully selected stripped stalks of each kind were taken, and, in order to obtainan average, each stalk was split length- wise into halves. The half of each kind was carefully weighed, dried, and analyzed ; the other half of each variety was passed through the mill, and the bagasse weighed, dried, and also analyzed. From the results given below it will be seen, that in each case the per cent of water present in the cane was less than the per cent remaining in the bagasse ; the average per cent of water in the three varieties of cane analyzed being 80.2 per cent, while the average per cent of water in the three bagasses is 85.5 per cent. This rather surprising result is of course due to the fact that the expressed juice, which averaged 48.24 per cent of the weight of the stripped stalks, contained a larger percentage of solid matter than did the fresh cane. It will be observed also in these results, that the amount of sugar expressed in the juice was greater in proportion than would be due to the amount of water expressed ; for, while not more than half the water was expressed, it appears that an average of four-fifths of the sugar in the cane was expressed with the water. From the published results of numerous other experiments, it would appear that the proportional amount of sugar which is expressed with the ordinary mill pressure is not a constant quantity, but depends upon the amount present, since the following results show a wide variation in this respect ; for, while the per cent of water in the Honduras and Sugar Corn was nearly the same, as also the per cent of juice expressed, the total sugar found in the EOLL MILLS. 275 Honduras was nearly twice the amount found in the Sugar Corn, and, while only 15.2 per cent was lost in the bagasse from the Sugar Com, there was 23.8 per cent lost in the bagasse from the Honduras. It is of great practical importance that this matter should be more thor- oughly investigated. LOSS OF SUGAR IS THE BAGASSE. Weight of stripped cane pounds.. Weight of juice pounds.. Weight of bugiisse pounds. . Per cent of juice Per cent of bagasse Per cent of water in cane Percent of water in bagasse Per cent of dry matter in cane Per cent of dry matter in bagasse Per cent of ."iiigarsln dry bagasse Per cent of sugars in dry cane Per cent of sugars in fresh cane Per cent of sugars in fresh bagasse Per cent of sus:ars in bagasse to that in cane Per cent of sugars lost in bagasse 1,428 80.0 20 !6' 38.1 7.63 1,390 666 724 47 91 52.09 si! 6 i6!6 21.8 3.48 45.7 23.8 75.7 243' 34.7 8.44 905 417 468 49.39 50.61 83,7 16'3 19.4 3.16 37,4 18.9 84.9 is'.i 875 415 460 47.43 .52.57 as!?" 11^3 10.1 1.14 29 15.2 In 1882, experiments were made with a large variety of sorghums, the results of which were as follows : Analyses of Bagasses from Sorghum. The following table gives the analyses of twenty samples of bagasses from nine varieties of sorghum ; also, for purpose of comparison, analyses of the juices expressed from the canes are given on page 223. Excluding the analyses of the suckers and leaves, as not being com- parable with the others, the average result of the proximate analyses is as follows : AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF EIGHTEEN BAGASSES. Percent. Ether extract (fats, chlorophyl, etc.) 1,43 Alcohol extract {sugars, salts, etc.) 20 75 Water extract (soluble albumenoids, gum, etc.) 1 ,48 Insoluble matter (fiber, silica, etc. ) 76.34 100.00 Albumenoids (N., X 6.23) S .17 Crude fiber 23 19 Sucrose 9 94 Glucose 3 84 Ash 2 77 Water ' 4 41 Undetermined 62 68 100.00 The average percentage of juice and bagasse obtained, and the com- position of the juice, was as follows : 276 Juice expressed.. SOEGHDM. Water in tagasse Dry bagasse Sucrose in juice Glucose in j uice Solids not sugar in juice Polarization of juice. . . . Specific gravity of juice, 1.0726. Per dent.. 57.61 42.39' 54 24 45.76- 12.92 1.29 2.94 12.72, ANALYSES OP DRIED BAGASSES. Date. Sept. 14 14 21 21 23 23 Oct. S 3 10 11 12 13 18 18 18 30 31 Not. 1 2 Dec. 8 Variety. New variety (H. S. Coll) White Liberian (Nesbit) New variety (H. S. Coll) White Liberian (Nesbit). New variety ;H. S. Coll). . .. White Liberian (Nesbit) Suckers froiu rows 2, 3, 4, 6. . Leaves from rows 2, 3, 4, 5. . . Neeazana Linlc's Hybrid White Liberian (Nesbit) White Liberian (Learning) . White Liberian (Learning) . Early Amber Link's Hybrid f : West India Red Sorgho West India West India New variety (E. Haswell) Average 1.43 20.751.48 76.35 3.167 19 46 IS 33 18.25 20.97 20 52 19.50 11.78 12 70 23 17 23 27 17.83 17.68 22.22 21 26 19 18 22.92 19 51 22 95 22.17 24.34 IS' 1 84 1 58 1 60 1.4(5 1 21 1.08 1.17 1,34 1.6.=) 1.79 90 1.71 1 39 1.68 1.37 1.17 2.02 1.38 1.32 77 S3 78.58 78 9' 75.71 76 78.12 84.94 80 87 73.74 73 63 79 10 79.. h: 74.88 75 SO 77.81 74 19 78.10 73.18 74 96 73 23 2 813 3.125 2 813 3 125 2.813 3 000 6,625 13 125 3.000 3 500 3.000 3.125 4 000 2 125 3.125 3 313 3 125 3 500 4. 000 3.500 Date. Sept. 14 14 21 21 23 2.^ Oct. *3 3 10 11 12 13 18 18 18 80 31 Nov. 1 2 Deo. Variety. New variety (H. S. Coll) White Liberian (Nesbit) New variety (H". S. Coll) White Liberian (Nesbit) New variety (H. S. Coll) White Liberian (Nesbit). . . . Suckers from rows 2, 3, 4, 5.. Leaves from rows 2, 3, 4, 5. . . Neeazana Linli's Hybrid White Li6erian (Nesbit) White Liberian (Leaming) . . Wh ite Liberian ( Learning) . . Early Amber Link's Hybrid West India Red Sorgho West India West India New variety (E,. Haswell) . . . Average 23 . 192 3 .84 P-i 3.25 4 25 3.25 3 75 2.75 3.75 2.00 1.25 5. 50 6.75 3 50 2.75 2 50 3 00 4,60 3 25 4' 25 4 3 50 ^ C3 +J xiii o 3 K _ a ^ C ^ ^' fin's P4 9.7,-) 7 10 8 80 7.40 10.45 7.60 .95 60 10 00 7.10 10.00 13 60 12.75 9. ,60 8 00 10 50 11 76 10.25 14 50 9.94 .84 93 .88 1.03 .87 1 00 1 58 1 82 74 1.20 89 94 1 04 .97 .89 .87 1 16 1.02 .77 1 23 .96 2,70 2.60 2.46 2 «- 3.05 2 4 10 5 90 8 00 3 00 2.60 2.85 2 70 2,20 2 95 2 75 2 60 2 95 2 6,5 3 20 2,7' t.3 4,25 3,75 4 00- 4 65 5.20 4 55 8 95 3 95 4.40 5.90- 5.15 3 80 5.65 6 00 4 30- 4 65 4.20 3 10 4 45 3 35 4.41 ROLL Mn,LS. 277 LOSS OP StTGAR IN THE BAGASSE. The most important point established by these analyses, is the very consider- able loss of sugar, owing to the impossibility of a mill to express all the juice. "We otieu hear of bagasse as coming from the mill "perfectly dry;" but it will be seen that although the juice obtained from these canes was much greater in amount (57.61 per cent) than is usually obtained in practice, still the average amount of water remaining in the bagasse was 66.26 per cent, and if to this we add the alcohol and water extracts of the bagasse, which would naturally con- stitute the juice, we should have remaining in the bagasse (20.'?5+l,48)X .4576=H).17-)-56.26=66.43 percent of juice still remaining in the bagasse; that is, 64.41 per cent of the weight of the bagasse as it came from the mill. Surprising as this may appear to those who have not considered it, there can be no doubt but that the above is eyen short of the truth. The average amount of juice obtained was 57.61 per cent, and the total su- gars in the juices averaged 14.21 per cent, or 8.19 per cent of the weight of stripped cane. The average of the dry bagasses gave 1.^.78 per cent of total sugars, or 6.31 per cent of total sugars in the fresh bagasses; it follows, there- fore, that the bagasses, as they came from the mill, contained 77.05 per cent as much sugar as was expressed by the mill from the fresh canes. Since there was 6.31 per cent of total sugars in 'the fresh bagasses, it follows that the amount of sugars in the bagasse equaled 2.67 per cent of the weight of the stripped cane ; also as the total sugars in the expressed juice was 14.21 per cent, it follows that the amount of sugars in the juices equaled 8.19 per cent of the weight of the stripped cane, and, therefore, the total sugars in the stripped cane was equal to 10.86 per cent of the weight of the cane; and there was lost in the bagasse 24.62 per cent of the total sugar present in the cane. That this estimate falls short of the truth is obvious, when we consider that the juices were analyzed the day they were expressed, while the bagasses in drying bad lost much of their sugar through fermentation, as was seen to be true in the analyses of fresh juices as compared with the analyses of the same juices when dried. Since the water contained in the plant is far more than sufiBclent to hold in solution all the sugars present, there appears no good reason to doubt that the juice left in the bagasse is identical in. its composition with that expressed ; but if we examine the average results of the analyses of juices and bagasses in the table, we find that the per cent of sucrose in the total sugars of the juices was 90.92, while in the baga.sse3 it was 72.13; while, if we examine certain of the analyses, we' find a discrepancy still greater. For example, analysis, (page 223) of the juice of Link's H3'brid, gives us in the juice 95.39 per cent of sucrose and 4.61 percent of glucose in the total sugars; while the analysis of the bagasse from this cane shows the two sugars to be in this ra- tio: Glucose, 48.74 per cent; sucrose, 51.26 per cent. Such a result is,- beyond question, due to the. fact that, during the process of drying the bagasses, there had been an inversion of much of the sucrose, and in all probability a loss of glucose by fermentation. Prof. Geo. H. Cook, director of the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Sfa- -lion, at New Brunswick, in the report on his work, alludes to the waste in the 278 SOEGHUM. use of the ordinary milla for extracting the juice, and estimates the loss as be ing equal to 40 per cent of the sugar present in the cane. When we consider the magnitude of this industry, this estimated loss assumes immense proportions. Fully $300,000,000 worth of sugar is now annually produced from cane by practically the same methods used in the production of sorghum sugar. Ac- cording to the estimate of Prof. Cook, then, it appears that there is annually lost in the bagasse two-thirds as much, or $200,000,000 worth of sugar. It would appear most desirable, that some method be devised by which this enormous waste may be prevented. The following analyses of bagasse from sugar-cane show results com- parable with the above : A. B. a Per cent of juice expressed 60 70 80 0' Per cent of water in bagasse 23 lo 2 7 2 Per cent of sugar in basrasse fiO 38 1.8. Per cent of fiber, etc., in bagasse 110 110 110 100 100 100 The percentage composition of the bagasses is as follows : A. B. c. Water 57 5 50 7 36 0' Sugar, etc 15 12 7 9 Mber, etc.". 27 5 36 7 55 100.0 100.1 100 It will be seen that, when 60 per cent of the weight of the cane was expressed as juice, there yet remained in the bagasse 15 per cent of its weight as sugar, and an amount of water quite equal to that in the unpressed cane. It appears also that even in the cane where the percentage of juice was 80, the fresh bagasse contained 9 per cent of its weight of sugar. The importance, then, of a mill which shall express the greatest amount of juice is obvious, provided the juice obtained by the increased pressure is of equal purity with that obtained by less. Upon this point there exists a diversity of opinion, but the matter does not appear to have been made the subject of such experimental investigation as its importance demauds. It seems rather, in many cases, to serve as a convenient excuse for what would otherwise appear as a wasteful method of manufacture ; as also for the makers of mills, who have found it practically impossible to surpass a certain limit in the amount of juice expressed. In several experiments with a second-hand mill, as compared with a new one, the following results were obtained : ROLL MILLS. 279 1^ o .s Q* 33 1 -^03 03 EQ MilL ■sl t.1 O 4A CU ■tJ PI P, 2,; G . s s ta « V 0) U.J7 • Ft U C3_0 t).rj t-''*i <1> S p'3 a> i .002 3 19 13 69 • 42 4 i 3 .002 3 55 13 no 58 9" 5 iK .004 4.73 12 13 111 15 6 "Hi .002 8.83 8 35 294 42 10>S 13 >^ .009 .020 12 13 15.67 5 53 1..57 442 600 61 8 89 9 16>i 18 .022 .029 17.20 18 70 1.52 .81 668 735 89 10 94 11 22 .032 20.30 .00 806 100 Experiment No. 2. — A Little Lime added to Solution. 14 1 X%. 2 iy^ 4 5)i 5.*i 7 8K lOK UK 13 15 loX 16 Vl% 20,M 23>i 26^ l-W, 31 5 .067 .041 .033 .031 .031 .023 .014 .011 .014 .0117 .005 2.34 2.38 2 43 2 57 2 6li 2 86 3 44 3 90 3 95 5.08 6 40 7 95 10-28 12 50 14 90 15.68 16 73 17 28 15 83 20 73 20.30 20.60 21 80 21.65 20,29 19 61 19 57 19 58 18 16 15 37 17.88 17 22 16 68 14 94 14 26 12.20 10 45 8.66 7.75 5.13 4.44 2 38 1,82 38 0.40 —0.30 —0 78 —0.05 2 3 4 .... 2 4 10 14 22 47 67 69 117 174 210 339 434 537 570 615 638 705 786 768 780 832 825 3 4 3 5 11 9 7 8 . . .'. ' . . 12 15 9 18 10 .■ 26 11 12 ■■■'ions' .013 .020 .025 .029 .CM .036 .0.i0 .072 .068 .104 .115 .115 30 40 13 49 57 15 62 16 74 17 78 88 19 91 20 98 21 g.i 22 101 23 104 24 100 Experiment No. 3 — Much Lime added to Solution. 1 IK wy^ 13 >i 16>i 18 22 0.000 4.003 3.110 "'2'663 " 2 577 2 563 2 520 2.549 1 541 1 321 1.226 2.31 .28 .10 .07 .05 .01 .02 .04 .04 .02 .02 .07 14.76' 6.60 6 56 6.66 6%S 7 43 7 17 6 93 6 63 6.94 6,77 7.18 87.9 95 7 97-0 97 8 99 6 99 1 98.3 98.3 99.1 99.1 97.0 2 55 3 3 65 6 4 5 54 9 64.7 6 49.7 51 4 53 1 9 55 1 10 ... 5.! 11 12 ... 54 61.4 OTHER AGENTS IN DEFECATION. 299 In considering the results of the above experiments, it i\'ill be ob- served that, in the series of the first experiment, where no lime was added, there was a continuous increase in the amount of glucose, and a decrease in the amount of sucrose, as the result of the boiling. After an interval of two hours, the actual loss in sucrose was only. 09 gram, while the increase in the glucose was .64 gram.; but the .09 gram, su- crose would furnish, by its inversion, only .0947-]- gram, of glucose, whichjs much less than the gain shown. It is probable that the com- mercial glucose was composed of other compounds largely intermediate between starch and glucose — compounds which would have no efl^ect upon Fehling's solution, but which, by boiling, were readily converted into glucose, or some copper-reducing compound. The general result, however, is manifest, viz : the rapid and con- tinuous inversion of the sucrose present, until, at the close of the ex- periment, sample 11 showed no sucrose present, and an increase of over 800 per cent in the amount of glucose. The increase in the acidity of the solution is noticeable, amounting to 800 per cent, and determined by the amount of lime required to neutralize the solution, 1,000 c. c. requiring at the beginning only .004 gram., but at the end of the experiment .032 gram. This increase was by no means constant, but was most marked after about eleven hours' boiling. In the series of experiments No. 2, where a small amount of lime was added to the solution, the solution, at first alkaline, becomes, after about nine hours' boiling, slightly acid, and this acidity increases, steadily to the end of the experiment, until, at the end of thirty-five hours' boiling, the amount of lime necessary to restore neutrality is twice as much as that originally added to the solution. After the so- lution had become distinctly acid, the inversion of the sugar became much more rapid. Also, during the earlier periods of this experiment the amount of glucose increases but slightly, although there is a gradual decrease of sucrose. This is doubtless due to the fact, that the action of the lime is maiuly exerted in the destruction of glucose, as has been shown in my reports to be true in experiments in sugar making from sorghum and maize juices. The practical point, however, to be observed is, that, so long as the solution remained distinctly alkaline, there was but very slight loss in sugar and slight increase in glucose, two desirable conditions in the economical production of sugar from sorghum. And so soon as this alkalinity was destroyed, through the formation of acid products during the boiling, the inversion of sugar became rapid, and the accumulation 800 SORGHUM. of glucose very marked. These results are, obviously, most undesira- ble in sugar making. The conclusion thus far would be, that the so- lution should, during boiling, be kept slightly alkaline. In the series of Experiments, No. 3, where a larger quantity of lime was added to the solution, its effect at the outset was to remove from tl.e solution as a precipitate about half of the sugar, and the remainder during eighteen hours of boiling was found to be unchanged in amount; on the otlier hand, the action of this excess of lime upon the glucose was very marked, effecting practically its destruction within two hours, and producing from the glucose other compounds of high color, which (.lissolved in the liquid and gave it a deep wine-red color. It would appear from this last series of experiments that an excess of lime has no action upon cane sugar, as has already been established, and that its effect is to diminish rapidly the glucose present, and darken the solution. The above experiments corroborate the results of practical working with large quantities of juice, and explain fully the loss of the glucose shown to be present in the fresh juices, but which was found in com- paratively small quantity in the syrups manufactured from these juices. Effect on Juice of Standing after Defecation. In the daily work at the Department of Agriculture, it became fre- quently desirable to keep a supply of juice over night; and it was found that, after defecating as usual with lime and heat, the juice could re- main in the defecator without suffering any detriment. As this is a matter of considerable practical importance in working up large quantities of juice, especially if the work is not carried on through the night, by enabling one to have a fresh lot of juice for the evapo- rator early in the morning, the following results of these experiments are given, including the analysis of juice before defecation and after standing over night in the defecator, of the syrups produced, and the percentage of sugar present in' the juice and obtained in the syrup. It will be seen that the results show no effects fairly to be charged against this mode of procedure. OTHER AGENTS IN DEFECATION. 801 EFFECT OP JUICE ON STANDING AFTER DEFECATION. 3 t^ Pounds juice. / Time in defecator. Pounds water added. Per cent sucrose by polariza- tion. Per cent of glucose in syrup. Percent of sucrose in syrup. Percent of solids not sugar in syiup. 1 627 5 770.5 682 1,162.5 •746 728.5 17 hours 14 5 liours. 105 30 91 32 40 36 Or, 24 71 35 23 55.40 16.15 28 00 18 00 37.00 34 40 6.50 45.32 38 05 38 00 30.60 36.39 59.85 12,98 13 45 3 4 15.3 hours 126 15.40 5 70 ■S 12 21 6 14 ' hours . . . • 17.45 +3 .§.2 Analysis of juice. Analysis of juice after defe- cation. Percent sucrose of juice in syrup . Per cent glucose of juice in syrup. Percent of glu- cose. Percent of su- crose. Percent of solids not sugar. Per cent of glu- cose. Percent of su- crose. Per cent of solids not sugar. 1 98 7 98 5 7.5 5 80 1 70.0 69.9 96 5 2 78 3 2 4 5 6 ■f.io" 6 01 1.79 6.95 14.29 1.19 1 59 3.64 "8 40' 6,91 1.84 " 7!43" 7.12 14.73 ■'■i'72" 2 05 2 60 71 8 99 4 83 1 69 7 It will be seen that in those juices which were analyzed before defe- cation, defecated and allowed to stand on an average of 15 hours, there was no loss of sucrose sustained, and that the average of the 6 experiments showed that 83.1 per cent of both the sucrose and glucose present in the juice was recovered in the syrup. Use of Clay in Defecation. In order to effect the more rapid and complete subsidence of the lime precipitate produced by defecation, it has been the practice of some sugar makers to mix, with the cream of lime, clay or finely pul- verized gypsum (plaster), whiting, sulphate of baryta, etc., the object being to entangle in the flocculent precipitate this heavier material, and thus cause its more rapid subsidence. To accomplish this, the clay or other material, is stirred up into a thin cream with water, and mixed in with the cream of lime in proportion so that for each 100 gallons of juice to be defecated there shall be added along with the lime about a gallon of the clay or other cream.' After skimming, as usual, the con- tents of the defecator are allowed to stand, to be drawn off as in the 302 SOEGHUM. ordinary defecation, or the defecator is at once emptied into a sub- siding tank where the defecated juice is left until complete subsidence is effected, when the juice is drawn off for evaporation as usual. Superphosphate of lAme. The use of this compound lias been very highly commended in defe- cation. It is added in solution to the juice just before the neutrali- zation witli lime. The superphosphate of lime forms, with some of the lime which is added in liming the juice, an insoluble phosphate of lime, which is readily precipitated, carrying with it the lighter sedi- ment which would the more slowly settle. As superphosphate of lime of a high grade may now be readily obtained in the market, a solution of it in water may be easily prepared for use. Alumina in Defecation. The use of alumina, eitlier as the sulphate, phosphate, hydrate, or in other forms, depends upon its property of forming, when precipitated from its solutions, a gelatinous mass, which mechanically entangles the impurities. rendered insoluble by heat and lime, and in its subsidence ' carrying such impurities along with it. Its use in clarifying water for the purpose of the laundry, depends upon this same principle. The various forms in which it is used, are the sulphate (porous alum so-called), and a mixture patented in England, over a half century ago, known as "Howard's Finings," which, patented iii England, October 31st, 1812, by Edward Charles Howard, the in- ventor of the Vacuum Pan, was largely used in the refining of sugar. Similar mixtures are largely used in the United States. The ob- jection to the use of alum is, that by it compounds of potash would be introduced into the juice, the- presence of which are very in- jurious. Howard's Finings may be prepared, by boiling in a convenient vessel thin cream of lime, until, after a few minutes, a sort of lime curd is formed. Then, for each 100 gallons of juice, 2-| pounds of alum are dissolved in 6 gallons of water, and 3 ounces of whiting, finely pul- verized, is added to the alum solution, the mixture being stirred until all effervescence ceases. It is then allowed to settle, and the clear liquor is poured off. To the residue from which the liquor has been drawn, enough of the curdy lime previously prepared is added, with thorough intermixture, until a slip of yellow turmeric paper is just turned a slight brownish red when placed in the mixture. Then, after letting the mixture settle and pouring off any supernatant liquid, it is OTHER AGENTS IN DEFECATION. 303 placed upon a blanket filter, until it has so far dried as to begin to crack, when it may be kept for use in defecation. The method of using this is, to mix it up into a cream and apply in the amount above stated, using for each 100 gallons as much of the finings as would be made from 2^ pounds of alum. The details of the process as given, in " Sugar Growing and Eefin- ing, " are as follows : The juice is strained before entering the defecator, and is then gently heated; to each 100 gallons of juice, 2 ounces (more is necessary with sorghum juice) of finely sifted quick-lime are made into a cream with water and added to the contents of the defecator, with thorough stirring, and the heat is increased to 82° C. (180° F.), until a thick crust forms on the surface and shows a disposi- tion to crack. This may take 15 to 20 minutes after the addition of the lime; if it is very slow in forming, the heat may be raised to 93° C. (200° F.), but not beyond. When the crust of scum has formed and shows signs of cracking, the heat is withdrawn, and the juice is allowed to stand for 10 minutes, when it is drawn off through a fine strainer into a second vessel, called the precipitator. Here, again, the juice is heated up to the boiling point, but is not allowed to boil, and the scum is removed as fast as it forms. The juice is then boiled for 10 or 15 minutes, with constant skimming, and then the " finings '' are added, with stirring, and the boiling is continued for 2 or 3 minutes more, when the juice is quickly run off into a subsiding tank, and allowed to rest for from 2 to 6 hotars. It is generally then passed through charcoal filters, and thence goes to the evaporators. It will be seen that the "finings" are composed of a mixture of sul- phate of lime, alumina, and lime, and that, in short, this mixture is used after the removal of the scum of the ordinary lime defecation, to eflfect the more complete subsidence of the precipitate, which it does mechanically. Porous alum, an impure sulphate of alumina, prepared by dissolving 4 ouQces of the salt in a gallon of water, and, after allowing it to settle, pouring off the clear solution for use, is used in a similar way, for the clarification of defecated juices and semi-syrups. BoBW alum and defecating compound are two forms of alumina recom- mended by certain manufacturers. They are prepared, being practi- cally identical, by adding to a solution of porous alum (crude alumina sulphate) a solution of sal-soda in water, until a slight permanent pre- cipitate is produced. The materials are used in connection with the cream of lime in or- dinary defecation, and also with the clay cream already referred to. A solution of water glass, basic silicate of soda, has been recom- mended — the gelatinous silica which is produced mechanically carrying down the impurities. The principal objection to several of these preparations is the intro- 304 SOEGHUM. duction into the syrup of the soluble salts of potash or soda, and their use is not to be advised under any circumstances, unless solely by way of experiment. They are nearly all based upon the principle of Howard's Finings, for which they are a very poor substitute. The use of sulphate of alumina for the removal of the potash pres- ent in the juices is, however, a most important matter, and is largely used in beet sugar manufactories and the refining of raw sugar.*, tlie potash being crystallized out as alum. Lime-Sucrate Defecation. In 1865, Boivin and Loiseau, of Paris, invented a process for the refining of raw sugars and the defecation of juices, by a process which, although complicated and requiring careful supervision, appears to have given excellent results. It is known as the lime-sucrate process, and the general procedure is as follows: The freshly expressed juice is received into a tank, where it is agitated with cream of lime, the amount of which is equal to from 1 to 2 per cent of the juice. In this form, the juice will remain unchanged, and may be kept even for weeks, if desired, When thoroughly agitated, the limed juice is treated with carbonic acid (obtained from the lime-kiln or coal furnace) in large tanks, which, owing to the frothing up of the juice in this operation, are filled to only one-fourth or one-fifth their capacity, and by means of revolving stirrers, it is kept in agitation during this process.' When the frothing ceases, the addition of carbonic acid is discontin- ued, and a portion of the juice is now tested by boiling for a few min- utes and filtering. If the filtrate is of a pale straw color, and the pre- cipitate upon the filter is not too gelatinous, indicating that not enough carbonic acid has been added, or too granular, showing that too much has been added (in the latter case, the filtered juice would be of a darker color), the operation is successful. The object aimed at is to introduce suflacient carbonic acid to nearly precipitate the lime present, and yet to leave enough in combination with sugar in the form of sucrate of hydro -carbonate of lime, that, in the boiling of the juice, the flocculent precipitate produced may carry down the impurities of the juice. This, then, is the critical point of the whole operation. When it is found that the lime remaining dis- solved in the juice is the right amount, the juice is boiled rapidly for a few minutes, and a pricipitate is thrown down containing nearly all the impurities' of the juice. It is now filtered by means of filter presses, and the juice, which, after filtering, should be of a light straw color, is again treated with SULPHUROUS ACID AND SULPHITES IN DEFECATION. 305 carbonic acid, to remove the lime -which remains and which was not thrown down by the first treatment with carbonic acid nor by the boiling. It is then boiled, passed through bag filters, after having stood in the subsiding tanks for the subsidence of the carbonate of lime, and is ready for concentration. In expert hands, the process is most highly commended. Details may be found in " Sugar Growing and Refining." SULPHXTROUS ACID AND SULPHITES IN DEFECATION. The employment of this re-agent in the defecation of saccharine juices was suggested by Proust, in 1810, and has been very general, and the results attending its use seem to justify it. This gas is the product of burning sulphur, and is readily made available by burning sulphur in such a way that the products of the combustion may be drawn from the furnace and brought in contact directly with the juice, or with water, in both of which the gas is very soluble. The bleaching properties of sulphurous acid are well known ; and it is, owing to its tendency to unite with oxygen to form sulphuric acid, one of the most powerful deoxidizing or reducing agents. It is also, by some, regarded as an antiseptic (preservative), and as a disinfec- tant ; but whatever action it may have in this way is probably due to its removal of the oxygen of the air, and the destruction of the pro- ducts of decomposition by its reducing power. It will readily dissolve in water, one volume of water at 27° C. (81° F.) dissolving about 30 volumes of the gas, or at 21° (70° F.) 38 volumes, and at 16° C. (61° F.) 45 volumes; so that it may, by being dissolved in water, be easily prepared and kept for use, the only precaution necessary being to keep it in closely corked bottles, or casks, so as to exclude the air, the oxygen of which will unite with it, and, in time, convert it entirely into sulphuric acid, a substance which exercises the most injurious action upon sugar by converting it into glucose. Sulphurous acid may be readily prepared by the reduction of sul- phuric acid (oil of vitriol) by means of charcoal, according to the following re-action : Sulphuric acid + Cliarooal = Water + Carbonic acid + Sulphurous add. 2(H,S04) + C =2H20+ CO2 + 2S0a Or, by weight, as follows ; Sulphuric acid +Charcoal = Water + Carbonic acid + Sulphurous acid. 196 parts +12 parts =36 parts + 44 parts + 128 parts. 20 306 SOEGHUM. The apparatus used by the ^.uthor for making, this solution of the gas, consisted of a small-sized hot water tank for kitchen range, ab6ut forty inches long and ten inches diameter.. Into, this, powdered charcoal and oil of vitriol were put, and the sulphurous gas passed through iron gas pipesinto a wash bottle contamihg oil of yitriol, and from thence into a barrel nearly filled with water. A safety tube was connected with the wash bottle, to prevent any possible rushing back of the water into the generator in case of the withdrawal of the heat. By this apparatus, a barrel or two of the solution may be made in a '' short time, and at an expense of not oyer seventy-five cents per barrel. For two barrels of the solution there would be required seventy-five pounds of oil of vitriol and seven pounds of powdered charcoal. When the sulphurous acid is for immediate use, and when steam is used, the use of the sulphur box is the most convenient form. This may be easily constructed by anybody, and consists of a wooden box three or four feet high and from two to three feet square, with ten or twelve partitions, slightly inclined, and reaching nearly across the box from side to side, so that the juice, entering the box at the upper end, flows across the upper partition and, falling upon the second, flows back under the place of entering, and then falls upon the third partition, and thus, running back g,nd forth over the partitions, and falling from each in a thin sheet, is thoroughly exposed to the fumes of sulphurous acid, which enter by a pipe, placed between the second and third parti- tions from the bottom, from a small furnace of iron near the box, to which the pipe acts as a chimney. Into this furnace small bits of roll brimstone, or flowers of sulphur, are placed from time to time, the burn- ing of which produces the sulphurous acid. A sliding door to the fur- nace determines the amount of air admitted, to the burning sulphur, and therefore regulates the rapidity of the combustion and the amount of sulphurous acid produced. The draught to the furnace is produced by a steam-pipe, which enters the sulphur box two or three partitions above that where the pipe from the sulphur furnace enters. Generally, it is found that from two to six ounces of sulphur are sufficient for five hundred gallons of j nice ; so that, after having ascer- tained the amount of sulphur necessary, the draft to the furnace may be so adjusted as to give the requisite quantity. Six ounces of sulphur will give gas enough to saturate four gallons- of water at 27°C. (81 °F.) ; so that, if the solution is used instead of the gas direct, the relative amount to be used may be easily ascertained. The treatment of the juice with sulphurous acid, and then leaving it from six to ten hours in the settling tanks, has already been mentioned as being successful in the removal of a large amount of impurities j. SULPHUROUS ACID AND SULPHITES IN DEFECATION. 307 and it is claimed that the sulphurous acid renders certain of these im- purities of the juice insoluble, and thus effects their removal in the set- tling tanks. This is a matter requiring and deserving very careful investigation. The general use of sulphurous acid is, however, in the sulphur box, where the freshly expressed juice, on its way to the storage tank and immediately previous to its defecation with lime, is charged with this gas ; or the juice, after defecation and the separation of scum and sedi- ment, is treated with the sulphurous acid, until the juice, which had been rendered slightly alkaline by the lime, is rendered acid again. The addition, at this stage, changes the color of the defecated juice, bleaching the color which still remains, and greatly improving the appearance of the juice. Any excess of the acid which may be added is removed readily during the evaporation, since the gas is very volatile. Any small quantity of sulphuric acid which may be present in the sulphurous acid used, will be rendered harmless by the slight excess of lime present, and will form the insoluble sulphaie of lime, which may be removed as sediment or skimmings in the process of manufacture. So far as the results of the author's experiments go, there appears to be no choice in the two methods, above described, of using the sul- phurous acid ; and, indeed, it seems that the advantages claimed for it are greatly over-estimated. It is certain that, by prompt working of the cane, the results, without its use, have proved as satisfactory as with it. In case of delay in working up the juice, it would appear that the use of the gas as a temporary antiseptic is beneficial. It is prob- ably true that, by its oxidation, it forms sulphuric acid, which, with the soluble potash salts present in the juices and retained by the syrup, forms the comparatively insoluble sulphate of potash, a salt which has been found not to retard the crystallization of the sugar in the syrup. At the large sugar factory at Aba-el- Wakf, in Egypt, the juice was first treated with sulphurous acid previous to the liming, and the re- sults showed excellent returns in sugar; but it does not appear that the good results were due any more to the use of sulphurous acid, than to the many improved appliances of this famous mill. It must be remembered, that the bleaching by sulphurous acid is only temporary, the color being only masked, but not destroyed ; so that the ap- parent action of this re-agent is very deceptive, and not comparable with that of bone-black, which completely removes the color from the juice or syrup. 308 SORGHTJM. Bisulphite of lAme. This compound, so called, exists neithei in theory nor in practice ; but the name has long been applied to the salt produced by the union of lime arid sulphurous acid, the only chemical compound of which is the sulphite of lime known commercially as the bisulphite. It may be had in quantity at a few cents (five to seven) per pound, and contaios about 30 per cent of sulphurous acid (if chemically pure, it should con- tain 53^ per cent), and, owing to its comparatively low price and great convenience in handling, is the most available form in which sul- phurous acid may be used by the sugar manufacturer. This salt is practically insoluble in water ; but is soluble in a solution of sulphurous acid, and is said to exist in such solution as the bisulphite, which in effect \t is, and in such solution it is largely prepared and used by sugar makers. In using this re-agent in defecation, the acid of the juice will liberate the sulphurous acid, and give practically the same results as by the use of the gas. Many experiments were made with a mixture of slaked lime and commercial sulphite, using the same in precisely the manner of using the lime in defecation. The mixture contained 15J per cent of sulphurous acid, 50 per cent of dry slaked lime, and the remainder moisture, sul- phate of lime, and other impurities. For comparison, certain experiments were made with the calcium sulphite alone, and the results are given at the end of this chapter. EXPEEIMENTS IN DEFECATION. During the season of 1882, there were made, in all, seventy-eight experiments in defecation, using the following re-agents : Hydrate of lime, calcium sulphite, and a mixture of these two. The results of these experiments are given in detail in the following tables : In table A, is given the variety of sorghum used in each experiment; and it will be seen that the new African varieties were used in eight of the experiments, the new varieties from India in five experiments, and different varieties grown in this country for the remaining sixty- five experiments. In each case, for purpose of comparison, the analy- sis of the j uices is given. In most cases, each sample of j nice analyzed was used for several experiments in defecation, and the syrups, in each case, were also analyzed. In Table B, the details of each experiment is given, and the charac- ter of the different syrups produced. In Table C, are giveu details of fourteen experiments in defecation EXPEBIMENTS IN DEFEC'ATIOjn. 309 of the juice and manufacture of syrup and sugar, which were carried through quantitatively. By reference to Table A, it will be seen that the average compo- sition of the juices in the seventy-eight experiments, and of the syrups made from them, is as follows : Juices. Syrups. 76.06 8.38 15,56 52.13 81 88 Per cent glucose in total solids , 7 56 Per cent solids, not sug'ar, in total solids .... 10 58 Per cent available sugar in total solids 63.81 From the above it appears, that, in the preparation of these syrups, there was an increase of 7.65 per cent in the relative amounts of su- crose, and of 22.45 per cent in the relative amounts of available sugar, over the relative amounts present in the juices from which the syrups were made, while there was a relative decrease of 9.79 per cent in the glucose and of 39.20 per cent in the solids not sugar. As it is, for the purpose of sugar production, most desirable to de- crease, as much as possible, the relative amounts of glucose and other solids, not sugar, in the syrups (or, what is equivalent, to increase the relative amount of sugar in a syrup), the above results are obviously very satisfactory. But these results do not §how what proportion of the sugar present in the juice was actually recovered in the several syrups. In table C, it will be seen that, as an average of the fourteen experi- ments, there was found, of each constituent in the several juices, and in the syrups made from them, the following parts, by weight: In syrups. SucrosQ Glucose Solids, not sugar. Available sugar. . 1,036 ■ 108 128 In other words, there was a loss of 10 per cent of the sucrose, of 27.52 per cent of the glucose, and of 42.86 per cent of the solids not sugar, and a gain of 2.83 per cent in the amount of available sugar present in these syrups, as compared with the actual amounts present in the juices from which they were made. The recovery, then, of 90 per cent of the amoiint of sugar present in the juices of sorghums, and an actual increase in the amount of available sugar, isxonclusive evidence that these juices may be manip- 310 SORGHUM. ulated with as great economy as are the juices of sugar-cane, if only due care is exercised. Of course, this loss of 10 per cent of the sugar is due to such portions as are lost in the scum and sediments of defecation, and in the skimming necessary during the evaporation to syrup. As these experiments were necessarily upon a very small scale, using rarely, for each experiment, more than a quart of juice (since, as has been mentioned, our entire plat of sorghum, of sixty-four varieties, only equaled two-ninths of an acre), it is fair to presume that the losses sustained by working such small amounts were much greater in proportion than would be neces- sary when working with larger quantities. By r.eference to page 61 of the Annual Report for 1879, it was said, as the result of certain experiments that year: We may hope, then, to secure in syrup 90 per cent of the crystallizable sugar present in the juices operated upon. And in the Annual Report for 1881-82, page 500, it is said of the experiments made in 1881 : The results show, that, in the forty experiments made, the amount of sucrose recovered in the syrups, was 87.5 per cent of the actual amount in the juice. There remains only to speak of the character of the syrups produced in the seventy-eight experiments following. In Table B, a column is given, which describes the physical character of the several syrups made, and, as will be seen, in nearly every case, crystals of sugar were present, while, in a very large number, the syrup was a semi-solid mass of sugar and molasses. In the fourteen experiments which were made quantitatively, eleven of the syrups were a solid mass of crystals ; in two of them, two-thirds of the syrups was semi-solid with sugar ; and in the remaining sample, the syrup contained a few crystals of sugar, but the analysis showed that this one had not been evaporated quite to the point of good crystalli- zation. All of the seventy^eight experiments were made by open pan evaporation. As evidence of the character of the juices used in these fourteen experiments, it will be seen that their average analysis was : Specific gravity, 1.0786. Per cent. Sucrose 13 646 Glucose 1696 Solids not sugar .'.'..'. 2 632 Polarization 13 O48 Available sugar 9 298 And the per cent of syrup made from the juices averaged 20.85. EXPERIMENTS IN DEFECATION. 311 The average composition of the juices used in the seyenty-eight experiments, was as follows : Specific gravity, 1.077. Per cent. Sucrose 13 .55 Glucose 1.15 Solids not sugar 2 .77 Polarization 13.28 Available sugar , 9.29 312 BOKGHTI&r. Table A. — expekiments Variety. Development. Jul 605 606 707 760 793 809 821 834 851 866 882 895 910 970 983 995 1008 102] 1045 White Liberian Early Amber Mixed juices from rows 25,33,34 West India Red sorgho West India II 41 «l « New variety, E. Link II II II II ■I II Standard, T. O. Harrell Seed hard, sucker in dough. Seed hard, sucker in dough. Seed hard, sucker in hard dough Seed hard, sucker in dough Seed hard, sucker in hard dough Seed hard, sucker hard, . 49 95 63 61 57.92 59.01 59.37 59.85 59.15 58.28 58.64 59.24 57.46 58.62 58.72 63.01 53.63 53 68 57.93 51.63 52.36 1 068 1 070 1.072 1.078 1.076 1.074 1.078 1.079 1.079 1.074 1.078 1.074 1 079 1.082 1.082 1.083 1.072 1.080 1.080 1 14 00 1.63 2.04 1.27 2.04 1.73 1.72 1.85 2.12 2.29 2.06 2.09 89 62 1.73 .85 1.50 12 11 13 18 12.98 13.62 12.51 13.55 13.47 13.28 12.09 12.87 12.34 14.78 15.17 14.20 14 64 12,62 16 17 15.14 2 77 2.60 1.16 2.40 3.17 2.35 2.73 Lost 2.90 2.88 2.69 2.75 8.27 2.68 2. 88 3.28 3.18 3.61 2.60 3.15 3.01 EXPERIMENTS IN DEFECATION. 313 IN DEFECATIOK. CE. SYKUP. *> C V u i e p to o 2 " is i s a « 3 OJ o ta fl s 3 OS 5I .2» II ^ at s, 03 3 ?3 S| S .if 3 a o S-- O 3 . 3 |3 §3 o o 00 DO o3 'boai B« ■3 t 1 o O H CO d .2 O "1 Op 2| 1 ?>-■ pj CO pS 'a'Z '^ K a 03 a 3 3 sk 1 !^ K *- o 3 "* 3 Z ^ OS fl3l3 tori tU 01 <» 3 *K cc Oi OJ 0) ai S « Srd ^■-J d 9, (d "E 1-5 o5 aS u bo "M o a> o o -JM 'u " 60 Ss aS V bo = S) 03 Kg K o t, o L. 3 t. & 0) K K ^ s S u 3 K o K K 3 k3 o (B-W OJ+J dj M o M ft o a lo- Variety. Development. a3 ^ o 2 >, ■Si u cd o 60 o O o U a .2 a C C >h' V a> 0) <0 Oj o c bo M a; V ? f; CM m 1.078 1.074 .58 1.99 pm 14.85 12.79 fw 1058 Standard, T. 0. Harrell New variety, E. Haswell Seed hard, sucker hard 48.70 50.72 2.82 inn <( 11 2.62 1084 Chinese Imphee, W. A.Sauders 11 K 48.46 1.078 1.95 12.98 2.96 int^ 11 t 48.56 50.67 49 47 1.085 1.079 1 077 1.12 1.33 2.09 15.47 13.90 12,99 2.21 no' tt u 11 tt 2.72 1109 Hlogonde, A— Natal 11 tt 2 65 1.077 1.148 13.55 2 79 EXPERIMENTS IN DEFECATION. IN DEFECATION. — Continued. 315 CE. SYRUP. !3 g e a o .2" =3S i g o 3 3 o ^1 1 's3 3 S C-i 3 a; s II Si P. c" o 1. c Si .2 5 a a 3 % o o 3 o 1:1 o o a b p. 1 •s 3 f^ o 9 pi 3 3 "" o a "^ c c ^ 3 t. S3 9-, « (ur3 Qj^d ?-. OS 'h vi o Oi OJ P v 03 ojri S':3 V tA tu CS b "m 5.g o.g oS) "m o 9i o V o bo a CJ bo Zs u^ o be o bo 03 u ^ t. c u o t. s t. P P< V t^ h ^s. c 3 t- o U O i. 3 t.3 'o <])■" cu+j QJ Ct a, to o M P. ifullmedium XX. Semi-solid; yellowish; very fine small XX. Solid; small xx .do., .do., do.. Part of defecated juice lost in precipitate. Slightly alka line. Slightly acid . . Neutral Dark brown Turbid; brown Clear; dark brown . Clear; bright; almost solid small XX. Clear; dark; nearly solid; small XX. Solid; small xx; dark color. Part of juice lost in pre- cipitate. do .do.. ...do.. ..do.. .. do.. Yellowish green. Green'h white Do. Do. White, foamy. Do. Clean, white* foamy. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. 21 822 SOEGHUM. EH •iniis JO laioviVTio •aoinf UT dniXg JO %u9a' J9j ■p9j8AOoaj dnj.Cs ni jBgns axq^iiBAy •dniXs ni JBSns }on spnog ■pajSAOO -81 dniAs III asojons 'pdldAOO -8j dpiAs m asoanio aiq^tlBAB JO }n80 jaj :iou spnos JO %usa joj; •OSOIOnS JO IJU80 J8J •8SOonx3 JO JU80 jaj ■dniis jojqSiajW •STSAXBUT? JO "OX •aomt nt j«3ns a^qBiiBAv •aoinf ut j^Sns :jou spttbg ■aojnC ui asojong 'aoinC nt asoon^o •j'BSns aiqBn'BAB JO jaao jaj uuSns joa spifos JO laaa jaj 'O ■ "O ^3 ^3 ^ '^'Ot^ ^J 'O XXX XXX 5000\n200\nOO "WtomeNKJsOweKaiW !«IXXX !»!>eOlf3COCOQeO j-ii-'r~^o>'£>ii^-ViDiOiaair- cs'^ooi>oo-^oaTicoo»-'*iu5Tf<->aHi>oc3QO r^t-tootocg'^eo-^io-^t^t-t'^ 5CTiaioor-ioi>oocit>t^t*o>i> cDouDtN'-iooioeot^irar-coeoco •asojons jo ?u80 jsj ■asooniS jo ;u30 iq^ •aomC JO imSia^ *SJS.ClBtlU JO -o^ 0(DI>MOOi-imCCrHOOOOeOi-( i cu ^ "3 Id o X I EXPERIMENTS IN DEFECATION. 323 Besides the experiments in defecation just recorded, and preliminary to them, the following experiments were made in the laboratory, with comparatively small quantities of juice, for the purpose of learn- ing the effects of various defecating agents, especially lime, sulphurous acid, and sulphite of lime. The results of these experiments are given in the following table, as being chiefly valuable to those who may desire to continue investiga- tions in the same direction. In each case a sample of juice was analyzed as usual, and then sepa- rate portions of this juice were submitted to different modes of treat- ment, and the resulting products were in each case fuUy examined, and the gain or loss of sucrose, glucose, and solids resulting from the sev- eral methods of defecation, were thus shown. 324 SOEGHTJM. GO'S 5J .£3 So Cm So •S^ojgS . ■g^ jpg o^ dM PS sS lllfl o O C C g.H o c w a (D QJiCC com & P'3" 2 sSSS o ;:3 o (u _ u la .£ £ +a ho *J P^ bO ;- "^ rH O "2 fti O .+3 ■2 ^2!^^ ? °ccg o « a s £2 is'' eoo »• p.c.g2i;M B^ss.la o'T o" ■" a> -ojS'S ■ N > b. >» >* £ O " R tu O . « O pj ■FH»a * -S - o «■*§ .5 .-■o o .2 -us to DO 5=^ ©•^ .. 'S's ft 2.acS. OS S " "sBo S;2&d "111 3 «::; > ■" =« 'O "I (sT a ■o 6.1 ■dcsg §§Sg '3 ~'3 1-5 fi^'-S Ss loa spnos JO 9Sl3lU30Jaj 3 •asojons JO aSmuaoja J 68 84 63 67 66.44 56.16 52.78 62.34 66 65 57.16 55.90 73.05 35.49 66.44 63,75 35 92 53.30 60.39 59.34 58 40 45.67 48.81 48.70 64.75 61 51 61.67 47 62 60,86 57,91 68 19 52,85 l-H •asoon[3 JO aSBjuaaja J •spnos i^jox ioioio^occTO««cococoiOi--icococo«)co'0>nTH-*cO"*i> rp 'com r^ iH iH i^ tH iH rH tH tH i-H I— ( ?— 1 1— ( rH iH I— ( tH i-H iH i-H I— I tH tH rH i-H tH iH ■ i— 1 1— 1 ■jB3ns ?ou spi -Xos JO aSBjnaoJSj 2,06 3,11 3 11 3,06 3,68 1,59 3,46 3,23 4 21 3,03 5 20 3, 32 2,84 2 53 2 73 2 30 2,36 1 72 1,98 3 72 3,56 2,55 2,74 2,33 3,91 2,41 1,52 ,74 ,91 4 16 ■8S0J0 -ns JO aSBjuaojaj OOCOCCQOQOt^t^f 0>-*l>0>Tj000000«>l>I>l>t-SOr-0 00 t- Oi o '3800 -niS JO 9SB)n9Di3 J ■itzi.viS omoadg !sH!!S!ll°!!!!!!!!!!H!!! Bii -jadxa JO jaqranH (DO) IX} o m lO u^ CO eococoeo CONCENTRATION OE EVAPORATION OF JUICE. 325 CHAPTER X. (a.) Concentration or evaporation of juice. (6.) Methods of evaporation. (c.) Vacuum pans. (d.) Multiple effects. (e.) Separation of sugar from molasses. (f.) Sucrates of lime and strontia. CONCENTRATION OR EVAPORATION OF JUICE. Having, by filtering and defecation, separated as far as possible the impurities of the juice, the next step in the production of sugar is the removal of the excess of water, which is always present in saccharine juices. By reference to the table on page 336, it will be seen that a solution of sugar, boiling at a temperature of 239° F. (115° C), for example, will contain 85.2 per cent of sugar and 14.8 per cent of water, and if this solution is allowed to cool down to 60° F. (15.5° C), the water present will hold in solution about twice its weight in sugar; i. e., the 14.8 parts of watei will dissolve 29.6 parts of sugar, and the re- maining portion of sugar, 55.6 parts, will crystallize out from the so- lution. As the temperature is increased, the amount of water neces- sary to dissolve a given weight of sugar becomes less, as will be seen by consulting the table on page 336. In slowly passing from a state of solution to that of a solid, those bodies, as sugar, salt, and others, which are able to assume a crystal- lizable form do so. From the composition of the juice, it wUl be seen that about 84 per cent is water; i. e., the sugar in the juice is in a solution of about five times its weight of water, and a large proportion must be removed in order to secure this sugar. In order that this matter, which is fundamental, may be thoroughly understood, a few illustrations of the principles involved are given. Common salt is soluble in about three times its weight of water. Suppose, now, that a pound of salt is dissolved in three pounds of water, and we evaporate rapidly one and a half pounds of water from the solution, it will be found that about half a pound of the salt will be thrown down as a solid, but in a fine powder. If, however, the water is slowly evaporated, we will have the salt crystallizing out in large cubical crystals. 326 SOEGHTJM. Unlike the result with salt, ■which is but very little more soluble in hot than in cold water, when we evaporate a sugar solution in the open air, we find that the whole will remain in solution; and it is only when we allow the solution to cool, that we have the excess of sugar, which the water remaining is unable to hold in solution, crystallizing out. The crystallization of sugar from its solution is a matter of the great- est simplicity. Many interested or ignorant persons have said, or thought, that there was some secret device by which the sugar could be secured ; and many have represented that, by one thing or another, crystallization could be effected. The sugar may be obtained from a saccharine juice by any body, provided only the conditions for secur- ing it are maintained ; and these conditions are very few and very simple, and will be made plain in what follows. It is also to be remembered, that no one is able to obtain sugar from a juice if it is not there ; and yet there are many whose claims are such as to lead some to believe the contrary. Crystallization is also a means of purification. To illustrate this point, suppose an ounce of common salt and an ounce of saltpeter (ni- trate of potash) are together dissolved in a half pint of water, and the solution is allowed to evaporate slowly. It will be found that the crystals of salt and crystals of saltpeter will be separately formed as the water evaporates, and if the two are carefully picked out, each will be found to be entirely free from the other — that is, the salt crystal- lizes out by itself and the saltpeter by itself Further, if to a solution of sugar there is added a solution of another substance, which does not crystallize, and evaporation takes place, the sugar will crystallize out, leaving the other substance in solution. But it is found that the presence of certain substances will prevent the crystallization of sugar to a certain extent ; also, the presence of certain others seems to favor or assist in the crystallization of sugar ; while still other substances are apparently without any effect upon the sugar present. The saccharine juice of plants, even after the most careful defecation, is found to contain, besides the sugar, substances of each of the three classes. The most important one is glucose and in- verted sugar, more or less of which is always present, and which is es- timated by sugar boilers as being able to hold in solution its own weight of sugar. If, then, a pound each of glucose and sucrose should be dissolved in a quart of water and the solution evaporated, it would be found practically impossible to recover any of the sugar — but there would be obtained a little over two pounds of molasses. So, too, the salts or mineral matters present in the juice have each their specific METHODS OF EVAPORATION. 327 effect, either to retain more or less of the sugar present as molasses, or,, as is the case with some, to cause the crystallization of more of the sugar than would have been obtained without them. Owing to this tendency of a substance when crystallizing to build up a crystal of pure material, it is found, generally, that the crystals of sugar, even when formed in a solution highly colored, are perfectly pure, and color- less as glass, and that the color of the ordinary yellow sugar is due al- most entirely to the molasses which adheres to the surfaces of each mi- nute crystal. In the defecated juice there always remains a certain amount of impurities, which may be removed in the early stages of evaporation ; and it will always be found that, as the evaporation progresses, a scum will form upon the surface, which maybe easily removed by skimming. This scum will continue to rise, until the juice has been reduced to nearly one-half its bulk, or to a density of about 22° Beaum§, specific gravity 1.092. A solution of sugar will, upon protracted boiling, suffer more or less inversion of the sugar : but it will be seen, from the experiments given upon page 297, that so long as there is an excess of lime in the solu- tion, this inversion will not take place ; also, that the effect of the heat, when lime is present, is the destruction of the glucose, with the formation of highly colored compounds, which will darken the syrup produced. In the production, then, of syrup, it is most desirable, in or- der to avoid a high color, that the removal of the water be effected as speedily as possible. METHODS OF EVAPORATION. The means by which the removal of the excess of water is accom- plished are, in principle, the same, viz., the evaporation by heat; but the methods employed are numerous. They may be classed as, 1. Evaporation in open pans over the fire. 2. Evaporation in open pans by steam, 3. Evaporation from heated surfaces. 4. Evaporation from surfaces by hot air. 5. Evaporation in vacuum. Evaporation in open Pans over the Fire. This method is the most primitive and the most inexpensive. It is in use to a greater or less extent in every sugar producing country. The following applications of this method will illustrate its exten- sive use. The so-called Jamaica train consists, generally, of four large hemi- spherical copper boilers, mounted in brick work in a row, the fire being. 328 SOEGHUM. built under one end and passing beneath each copper in succession to the chimney. This row of boilers is known as a "battery,'' and as the " copper wall." The several boilers are known as " the grande," it being the largest; "the flambeau," since it is just touched by the flames of the furnace ; " the syrup," since in it the juice is concentrated to a syrup; and " the battery," or " strike," since from this the con- centrated syrup is "struck" or dipped ofi" into the coolers for crystal- lization. The defecated juice is added to the largest pan nearest the chimney, and, as the juice becomes more and more concentrated, it is generally, by means of ladles, dipped from the one to the other until it reaches the last of the series, where it is evaporated to that degree of concen- tration which is found necessary. It is then ladled into coolers, and allowed to stand for crystallization, when the molasses is drained from the sugar, which is known in the trade as " muscovado." In this process, a very large amount of sugar is lost through the high heat of the pans, which chars a portion of the sugar and darkens the product ; but its simplicity and low cost is such, that, even at the present day, large quantities of sugar are thus produced. The same principle, although greatly perfected in details, is involved in a large number of evaporators in general use throughout the country for the production of syrup and sugar from sorghum. These need not be separately described, but the several points which constitute their im- provements over the Jamaica Train of the Creoles may be briefly men- tioned : 1. The smaller quantity of juice under evaporation at any given time, thus proportionately diminishing the amount of inversion of su- gar, and thus increasing the yield, owing to the rapidity with which the water is removed. 2. The protection of all portions of the evaporators not covered with juice or syrup from the direct contact with fire, and thus lessening the production of caramel and other products, which, besides destroying sugar, darken the syrup. 3. The introduction of devices for removing the scum during the concentration of the syrup, this greatly diminishing the labor of man- ufacture and the loss in sugar through this operation. 4. The arrangement of dampers beneath the several compartments of the pan, which in function correspond to the four boilers of the Ja- maica Train, so that the heat may be moderated under each, or, as is necessary when the syrup after sufiicient concentration is to be re- moved from the last pan, may be entirely shut ofi". 5. The very great reduction in cost in the apparatus necessary to the METHODS OF EVAPORATION. 329 manufacture of a commercial product, thus enabling one of even very limited means to provide himself with the apparatus necessary to work his crop. Another simple and effective class of evaporators, are those which practically embody the advantages of the Jamaica Train, although consisting of but a single pan. The so-called "Cook Pan" well illus- trates this class of evaporators. It is essentially an obloug pan of cop- per or iron, of a size varying from 3 J feet X 6 to 5 feet X 30, which, by a series of partitions extending nearly across the pan, and separated from each other by spaces from 6 to 8 inches, cause the defecated juice, which is admitted at one end, to pass back and forth across the pan to the other end, so that, by adjusting the supply of juice, the evapo- ration is completed in the circuit, and the syrup is obtained in a con- tinuous stream. By the interposition of gates, the pan is divided into several compartments, thus imitating in principle the Jamaica Train. The scum which rises during the earlier stages of the evaporation, is removed by skimming. In theory, nothing would seem superior to this arrangement, and the results are exceedingly satisfactory. It will be seen at a glance that the juice is exposed to heat but a minimum of time, and there would appear to be little room for improvement, so long as direct heat is used. It is worthy of note, also, that, in pans of this character, the . progress of the juice is the reverse of what it is in the Jamaica Train, the juice in the Cook Pan entering the end directly over the fire, and leaving at the end furthest away, thus diminishing the danger of burn- ing the syrup. 330 SOEGHUM. METHODS OF EVAPORATION. 331 Plate XXXII. POETABLE EVAPORATOB— FURNACE AND PAN. Tor the emaller pans, Nos. 2, 3, and 4, portable furnaces are provided. These are made of cast iron and sheet iron, heavily bound and riveted, strongly made, and the whole mounted upon rockers of angle iron— thus furnishing a complete portable furnace of iron and brick, combined in. one, with all the advantages of both, and yet so light that it can be easily handled by two men. This is the most convenient arrangement for small home operations; and, for custom work, it is well nigh indispen- sable. With it the operator can move from field to field, or from iaxm. to farm, and thus avoid the labor and expense of hauling the cane. 332 SOfiGHUM. Plate XXXIII. AUTOMATIC COOK PAN. The Automatic Cook Pan has three divisions, each performing separate offices, and all connected "by high ledges and gates, under the full control of the operator. The processes of defecation, clarification, and finishing, are systematically carried on with- out interruption to the end. The first division frees the juice from its crude impurities, whilst passing through the channels, hy the automatic action of the skimming device, which throws the scum in an opposite direction from the moving juice. In the second division, the juice is freed from its remaining impurities and reduced to semi-syrup. This division is provided with high ledges, to prevent the mixing of the juice; and is so constructed, that the scum is thrown to the opposite side, or into the trough, to "be returned to the first division for re-separation. This saves a, consider- able percentage of syrup. The semi-syrup is taken by the third division, and finished as rapidly as possible to the sugar point, and drawn into coolers. The Automatic Cook Pan secures thorough defecation, saves a large percentage of juice that would otherwise be wasted, and saves labor in skimming and fuel. Full directiou for building arch and working pan sent with each pan. METHODS OF EVAPORATION. 333 < /'ift ^ Plate XXXIV. THE STUBBS EVAPOEATOE. Plate XXXIV represents the Stubbs Evaporator. The upper cut shows the pan with two compartments. The first occupies three-fourths of the pan ; the second compart- ment the remaining fourth. The juice enters the first compartment near the smoke- stack in a regular stream, passing around the circle over the fire-box to cross-parti- tions, where it thickens to a semi-syrup. Being over the hottest part of the furnace, it raises to a light foam, which breaks to the lowest point where the cool juice enters, not only keeping back the green scum, but carrying all the scum off of thirty feet sur- face, where it is scraped off without loss of sweet. The semi-syrup is turned into the second compartment at intervals, to be finished under full control of heat governed by dampers. When done, to be run off with scraper, letting semi-syrup follow. Boil rap- idly with two inches juice in order to cleanse well. The lower engraving represents the furnace. Should be built of brick, with eight- inch wall fourteen inches above fire-grate; the balance seven inches. A sectional arch with one damper in center, hinged at the back end to swing to back wall; also dam- per acrossthe mouth of left flue. The smoke-stack stands back, as the cut indicates. The smoke-stack should be sixteen feet high, fourteen inches diameter. 334 SORGHUM. The following table has been prepared to enable the reader readily to convert the degrees of the Centigrade thermometer into degrees upon the Fahrenheit scale, although it has been the aim to give both, whenever temperature has been mentioned in the text. TARLE FOR CONTEKSION OF CENTIGRADE DEGREES INTO FAHRENHEIT DEGREES. aj ^■ ^ V h +3 H '^ hi 'i2 ^ +3 t-i +3 £ a ■a a fl J3 P ja a a a ^ a QJ ■d 0) QJ c3 ■ o Ri V o f=( O ^ u fa u b, o ^ O fe O ^, o ^ o o o o o o O a c O o o o o o O —37 —34.6 -13 8.6 11 51.8 35 95.0 59 138.2 83 181.4 107 224.6 130 266.0 —36 -32.8 —12 10.4 12 53.6 36 96.8 60 140.0 84 183.2 108 226.4 131 267.8 —35 -31.0 -11 12.2 13 55.4 37 98.6 61 141.8 85 185.0 109 228.2 132 269 6 —34 —29.2 -10 14.0 14 57.2 38 100.4 62 143.6 86 186.8 110 230.0 133 271.4 -33 -27.4 — 9 15.8 15 59.0 39 102.2 63 145.4 87 188.6 111 231.8 134 273.2 —32 -25.6 — 8 .17.6 16 60.8 40 104.0 64 147.2 88 190.4 112 233.6 135 275 -^31 —23.8 — 7 19.4 17 62.6 41 105.8 65 149.0 89 192.2 113 235.4 136 276.8 -30 —22 — 6 21.2 18 64.4 42 107.6 66 150.8 90 194.0 114 237.2 137 278 6 —29 —20.2 — 5 23-. 19 66.2 43 109.4 67 152.6 91 195.8 115 239.0 138 280.4 -28 —18.4 — 4 24.8 20 68.0 44 111.2 68 154.4 92 197.6 116 240.8 139 282 2 —27 —16.6 — 8 26.6 21 69.8 45 113.0 69 156.2 93 199.4 117 242.6 140 284 —26 —14.8 — 2 28.4 22 71.6 46 114.8 70 158.0 94 201.2 118 244.4 141 285.8 —25 -13.0 — 1 30.2 23 73.4 47 116.6 71 159.8 95 203.0 119 246.2 142 287.6 —24 —11.2 32 24 75.2 48 118.4 72 161.6 96 204.8 120 248.0 143 289 4 —23 — 9.4 + 1 33.8 25 77.0 49 120.2 73 163.4 97 206.6 121 249.8 144 291.2 —22 — 7.6 2 35.6 26 78.8 50 122.0 74 165.2 98 208:4 122 251.6 145 293.0 —21 — 5.8 3 37.4 27 80.6 51 123.8 75 167.0 99 210.2 123 253.4 146 294 8 —20 — 4 4 39.2 28 82.4 52 125.6 76 168. 8 100 212.0 12J 255.2 147 296.6 —19 — 2.2 5 41.0 29 84.2 53 127.4 77 170.6 101 213.8 125 257.0 148 298.4 —18 -0.4 6 42.8 30 86.0 54 129.2 78 172.4 102 215.6 126 258.8 149 300 2 —17 + 1.4 7 44.6 31 87.8 55 131.0 79 174.2 103 217.4 127 260.6 150 302.0 —16 8.2 8 46.4 32 89 6 56 132.8 80 176.0 104 219.2 128 262.4 151 303 8 —15 5.0 9 48-. 2 33 91.4 67 134.6 81 177 8 105 221.0 129 264.2 152 305.6 —14 6.8 10 50.0 34 93.2 58 13S.4 82 179.6 106 222.8 METHODS OF EVAPORATION. 335 By means of the following table, the manufacturer may be able to determine the percentage of total solids in his juice or syrup, by sim. ply taking the specific gravity at aity temperature not over 100° C. or 212° F. For example, a sample of syrup, at a temperature of 80° C, had a specific gravity of 1.2862 — that syrup contains 65 per cent of total solids ; and at 15° C. this sample would have a^density of 1.3211. For temperatures and percentages between those tabulated, it will be easy to make the necessary calculations. §CJio&ooioaiocnomooioaioMSo:jio Temp. C ° Temp. F ° K- I-* M M I-* per cent. 0007 0009 OOOS 0003 0000 9996 9686 9973 9958 9942 9923 9903 9881 9867 9831 9804 9775 9746 9714 9683 9652 9621 (0(0«D(DeOtDeDOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOQOOO-.oeD«D«OopOOl-'l-' — ^UJMh-l-l-I^IO OOS-aoCOCiOt-H&CieDI-'OiOiC^^l-.CSCOOh^i-' 5 per cent. «sooobooooboobb)bboooobb «0Q30iOM0iOl-'.&.C^t0t-»C0CnO00OOO»-'l-'h- 10 per cent. 1 0630 1 0632 1.0627 1 0619 1 0613 1 0606 1 0502 1 0576 1 0560 1 0540 1.0519 1 0496 1.0472 1.0448 1.0421 1 0393 1.0363 1 0336 1 0305 1.0272 1.0237 1.0202 15 per cent. 1.0861 1.0856 1.0849 1.0839 1 0832 1.0825 1.0810 1-0795 1 0776 1.0756 1 0733 1.0710 1 0685 1 0660 1 0634 1.0607 1 0578 1.0547 1.0515 1.0481 1.0447 1.0413 20 per cent. 26 per cent. 1.1337 1 1329 1.1318 1 1305 1.1296 1.1288 1.1271 1.1253 1.1233 1.1212 1.1188 1.1164 1.1138 1.1114 1.1084 1.1056 1.1027 1.0997 1.0965 1.0931 1.0897 1.0863 30 per cent. 1,1586 1 1577 1.1565 1.1550 1.1540 1 1532 1.1514 1.1495 1 1474 1.1462 1.1428 1.1403 1.1378 1.1351 1.1324 1.1295 1-1265 1.1234 1.1202 1.1169 1.1135 1.1099 35 per cent. 1.1845 1.1833 1.1819 1.1802 1.1794 1.1785 1.1766 1.1746 1.1726 1,1701 1.1677 1.1651 1.1024 1.1594 1.1567 1.1538 1.1509 1.1479 1.1448 1.1415 1.1381 1.1346 40 per cent. 1.2113 1.2098 1.2082 1 2065 1.2056 1.2046 1.202G 1 2005 1 1982 1.1958 1.1933 1.1907 1.1879 1.1851 1.1822 1.1792 1.1761 11729 1.1696 1.1664 1.1630 1.1697 45 per cent. 1.2390 1.2372 1 2355 1 2337 1.2327 1.2317 1 2296 1 2274 1 2'251 1.2227 1.2202 1.2176 1.2148 1.2119 1.2091 1.2062 1.2U31 1 20C0 1.1967 1.1934 1.1899 1.1864 60 per cent. 1.2676 1.2657 1.2638 1.2619 1.2609 1.2599 1.2578 1.2565 1 2531 1.2507 1.2481 1.2454 1.2426 1.2397 1.2367 1.2337 1.2307 1.2276 1.2246 1.2213 1 2179 1.2145 55 per cent. 60 per cent. 1.3276 1.3265 1.3233 1 3211 1.3200 1 .3189 1.3166 1 .3142 1 .3117 1.3091 1 3065 I 3038 1.3010 1.2982 1 2963 1.2923 1.2893 1.2862 1.2829 1,2796 1.2763 1.2728 65 per cent. 1.3690 1.3568 1.3545 1.3522 1-.3512 1.3500 1.3477 1 3454 1.3430 1.3405 1.33S" 1.3352 1.3326 1.3295 1,3265 1.32.33 1 3201 1.3168 1.3136 1.3103 1.3067 1.3032 70 per cent. iiiiiilislSiStoSSSiiiis 75 per cent. o f a 1^ o -r- *< t> at m ^ « o s ^ 336 SOEGHUM. The following table gives the temperatures at which solutions of su- gar of diiferent degrees of concentration boil, the percentage of sugar present in each case, the degrees Beaume and density of each at the temperature of boiling, and also at the ordinary temperature of 15° C. or 59° P. For example, a solution containing 79.5 per cent of sugar will boil at 110° C. or 230° F., and at this temperature will have a density of 38°. 5 Beaum6, or specific gravity of 1.364 ; and when cooled to 15° C. or 59° F. will have a density of 42°. 8 Beaumfe, and a specific gravity of 1.4215. TABLE OP BOILING POINT, DEGREES BEAUME, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, AND PER GENT OF SUGAR OF SACCHARINE SOLUTIONS. . (Flourens) Boiling Point. Per cent of Beaum6, Specific gravity. Temp. Temp. at temp, of at 15° 0. at temp, of at 15° C. C.° F.° sugar. observation. observation. 104.5 220.1 67.2 32.20 36 25 1.2S72 1.3350 105. 221.0 69.1 33,20 37.26 1.2990 1.3480 105,5 221.9 71.2 34.20 38.30 1.3106 1 3613 106. 222.8 72,4 35.00 39.10 1.3200 1,3720 106.5 223.7 73 4 35.50 39.65 1 3260 1.3780 107. 224.6 74.4 36.00 40.15 1.3325 1.3856 107.5 225.5 75.2 36.50 40.70 1,3385 1.3925 108. 226.4 76.4 37.00 41.10 1.3450 1.3985 108.5 227.3 77.4 37.60 41.75 1.3510 1.4080 109. 228.2 ■ 77.8 37.90 42.10 1.3562 1 4120 1G9.5 229 1 78,7 38 25 42.60 1.3606 1,4180 110. 230.0 79 5 ,38.50 42.80 1.3640 1,4215 110.5 2.S0.9 80 38.75 43 00 1.3670 1 ,4245 111. 231,8 80 6 39.00 43.30 1.3700 1 4290 Ill 5 232.7 81.4 39.30 43.65 1.3740 1 4335 112. 233.6 82.2 39.60 44.00 1.3770 1,4380 112.5 234.5 82.9 39,80 44,20 13S10 1,4415 113. 235,4 83 6 40.00 44.40 1.3835 1,4500 114. 237.2 84.2 40.30 1.3876 115. •239.0 240.8 242.6 244.4 246 2 248 257.0 266.0 85.2 85.8 86.5 87.2 87.9 88.5 91.2 92.2 40.60 40.90 41.20 41.45 41.65 41 90 ■ 42 80 43.60 1.3916 1 3955 1.4000 1.4030 1.4060 1.4085 1.4215 I.'^IS 116. 117. 118. 119. 120. 125. 130. The following table, calculated by Mategczeh, Scheibler, and Stam- mer, shows the comparison of degrees Beaum6 with specific gravity, as also with the scale of Brix, which represents the percentage of total solids present in the solution. It also gives the number of pounds avoirdupois which an American gallon of the solution of each density would weigh. For example, a juice of 10° Beaum6 would have a specific gravity of 1.0744, would contain 18 per cent of solids, and would weigh 8.96 pounds to the gallon ; or a syrup of 43° Beaumfe METHODS OP EVAPORATION. 337 ■would have a specific gravity of 1.4267, would contain 81.5 per cent of solid matters, and would weigh 11.9 pounds to the gallon : \d ^•-^ ,4) t-^H a i pq We a a i a P. i s m •a . c a CO V CD "3 f,i ■O . t£ a> ta>S o a o M i/ M" O p 3 OJ P- 0) P-M OrH QJ p. CU P.M C*"* n M ft ft fi c/J O Ck .5 1.0035 9 8 37 26.5 1 2256 48,7 10 22 1. 1 0070 1,8 8 40 27. 1 2306 49,6 10.26 15 1 0105 2 7 8.43 27 5 1 2361 50 6 10 31 2. 1.0141 3.6 8,46 28. 1,2411 61,5 10,35 2,5 1.0177 4.5 8 49 28.5 1 2467 52 5 10 39 3. 1.0217 5 5- 8 52 29 ■ 1.2523 53,5 10.44 3 5 1.0249 6.3 8 55 29,5 1.2374 54,4 10 48 4. 1.0286 7.2 8 58 .80. I 2631 55,4 10 53 4.5 1 032S 8.1 8,61' 80,5 1,2689 66,4 10 57 5. ' 1,0860 9.0 8 64 31. 1.2741 57 3 10.62 5.5 1,0397 9.9 8 67 31 5 1,2799 58,8 10.67 6- 1 0435 10 8 8-70 32 1,2859 69 3 10.72 6.5 1,0472 1J.7 8.73 32 5 1 2911 60 3 10.77 7. 1.0510 12,6 8,76 33. 12970 61 2 10.82 7.5 1.0549 13,5 8 80 33 5 1 3030 62 2 10.87 6. 1.0587 14,4 8,83 34. 1,3084 63 1 10.92 8.5 1.0630 15.4 8 86 31.5 1 3154 64 1 10 96 9. 1.0670 16.8 8,89 35. 1,3211 65 2 11.02 9 5 1.0704 17.1 8.93 35.5 1 3272 66 2 11.07 10. 1.0744 18.0 8.96 36. 1,3333 67 2 11.12 10.5 1.0784 IS. 9 8,99 36 5 1 3395 68 2 11.17 11. 1.0829 19.9 9,02 37. 1,3458 69 2 11 22 11.5 1.0869 20.8 9 06 37.5 1 3521 70 2 11.27 12 1.0909 21 7 9 10 38. 1,3585 71 2 ll.SS J2.'i 1.0950 22.6 9,13 38.5 1 8649 72 2 11,38 13. 1.0991 23.5 9 16 59. 1 3714 73 2 11,44 18.5 1.1033 21.4 9.20 89.5 1 8780 74,2 11,49 14. 1.1074 25.8 9.23 40. 1,3846 75,3 11, .65 14,5 1.1116 26 2 9,27 40.5 1 3913 76.3 11 60 15. 1.1163 27.2 9.31 41. 1 3981 77 3 11 66 15.5 1.1206 28.1 9.34 41.5 1 4049 78.3 11.72 16, 1.1249 29,0 9.38 42. 1 4118 79,4 11 77 16 5 1.1292 29 9 9.41 42.5 14187 80 4 11.83 17 1.1335 30.8 9.45 43. 1,4267 81 5 11 90 17,5 1,1384 31 8 9.49 43.5 1.4328 82.5 11.95 18. 1,1427 32 7 9.53 44, 1.4400 83,6 12 01 18.5 1,1472 83 6 9.56 44,5 1 4472 84,6 12 07 19. 1,1521 34,6 9.61 45 1 4545 85 7 12 13 19.5 1.1566 35 5 9.64 45 5 1.4619 86 7 12 19 20, 1,1611 36 4 9 68 46, 1 4694 87 8 12 26 20,5 ■ 1,1662 37,4 9 72 46 5 1.4769 88.8 12 32 21, 1.1707 38 3 9 76 47. 14845 90.0 12.38 21,5 1.1753 39 2 9.80 47.5 1,4922 91.0 12.45 22. 1 1799 40,1 9.84 48. 1,5000 92 1 12,51 22.5 1,1851 41,1 9 88 48.5 1,5079 93 2 12.57 23. 1,1903 42 1 9.92 49, 1 5158 94.3 12 64 235 1,1950 43,0 9 96 49 5 1 5238 95 4 12.71 24 1 2003 44,0 10.01 .50, 1..5319 9G.6 12 78 24.5 1,2051 44 9 10.05 50.5 1 5401 97.6 12 84 25. 1 2104 45,9 10.09 51, 1 6484 98.7 12 91 25.5 1,2153 46 8 10.13 51 5 1,5568 100,0 12,98 lis. 1,2202 47.7 10.17 22 338 SOEGHUM. Evaporation in Open Pans and by Steam. Owing to the far greater ease with which the heat may be applied and regulated, it is extensively employed, both in the operations of defecation and evaporation. In open pans it is applied by means of a coil of iron (or, preferably, copper) pipe, as in the defecator ; and since the heat may thus be applied over a greatly increased surface, and at any temperature and pressure, the evaporation is proportionately more rapid than from a pan which is heated directly over the fire. The relative evaporating capacity of pans heated by direct heat and by steam, may be learned by the following comparisons. The average evaporation from an open pan over a fire, the grate surface of which is about one-fourth to one-third the size of the pan, is about one gallon of water to each square foot of surface in the pan per hour. Pans of large size evaporate a larger amount proportionately than small ones, and with greater economy of fuel, and less relative waste. To illustrate: pans of the following dimensions are claimed to evaporate as follows : Gallons per hour. Size. Feet of surface. per foot surface. 40 X 120 inches 33K •-• 4 40 X 192 inches 53X 7 40 X 288 inches 80 1.3 44 X 108 inches 35 8 44 X 144 inches 44 11 44 X 180 inches 55 11 Experiments were made at the Department of Agriculture, by the author, with two evaporators heated by copper coils with steam at the pressure of 55 pounds. As an average of seven experiments, with two evaporators, it was found that there were evaporated four gallons of water per hour from each square foot of surface of the juice in the evaporator. One evap- orator was seven feet in diameter ; the other, four feet ten inches. Both were circular. Practically, the same results are reported by othefs in their work with similar evaporators. The importance of keeping up a brisk boiling, must not be forgotten; for it has been found that the transmission of heat from steam pipes is two and a half times as rapid when the water is boiling vigorously, as when it is at rest as in the heating up of the juice in the act of defecation. This great difierence is obviously due to the rapid circulation and dis- tribution of the heat when the boiling is going on, as compared with the very slow movements in the mass of water when not boiling. It is found, also, that the heat given out by steam coils to boiling juice, is about fifteen per cent less than that given out to boiling water. METHODS OF EVAPORATION. 339 and this result is obviously due to the comparatively sluggish juice, as compared with the water. Surface or Film Evaporation. A very large number of evaporators have been devised (some of which appear to have given excellent results in practice), based upon the evaporation of the water from thin films of juice distributed over heated surfaces, or exposed to hot and dry air. Among the many forms of apraratus constructed upon this principle, may be mentioned the following : 1. A continuous sheet of cloth, passing over two sets of rollers, at the top and bottom of a chamber through which, by means of a fan, fresh hot and dry air is made to pass. The lower rolls are placed be- neath the surface of the juice to be evaporated, so that, by the revolu- tion of the cloth, a fresh portion of the juice is constantly exposed to the hot air. 2. A long, hollow cylinder, heated by the waste steam of the sugar house, which passes through it, and which, revolving in the juice, in which it is partly immersed, presents a fresh film constantly to the air. 3. The substitution of hollow discs upon a commbn axle, the hollow axle permitting the steam to enter and heat the discs, which are caused to revolve partially immersed in the juice to be evaporated. 4. A spiral hollow coil, through which steam passes, which also re- volves partially in the juice. 5. An upright hollow cylinder (15 or 20 inches in diameter, 10 to 12 feet long), heated within by steam, over which, from the upper end, the juice is allowed to stream, the distribution of the juice over the surface of the cylinder being effected by circular troughs about the cylinder, at intervals, which, by their overflow, secure the distribution of the juice in a film, which otherwise would form streams from the top to the bottom of the cylinder. 6. Still another form is a skeleton cylinder, consisting of two steam tight circular drums, which are connected together by a series of tubes which enter the periphery of each drum, and through which the steam passes from one drum to the other. This cylinder revolves horizontally, with its lower portion dipping in the juice, and thus presents a large surface for evaporation. None of these surface evaporators permit the removal of any impuri- ties by skimming ; and they can not, therefore, be used except for the concentration of semi-syrup of 22° to 25° Beaumfe, since the juice requires more or less skimming during its evaporation, until it has reached that density. 340 SORGHUM. It would appear, however, that this priaciple possesses some valu- able features, especially if so contrived as to complete the evaporation of a given quantity of juice at once ; for it is found that the evapora- tion from a thin film is rapid, even at temperatures far below the boil- ing point, as is known to everybody in 'the familiar process of drying clothes by hanging them upon a line. The principal objection urged against all evaporators of this class, does not appear, as yet, to have been overcome in practice, viz.: the drying and adhering to the heated surfaces of a gradually increasing crust of sugar, which not only pre- vents, to a great extent, evaporation, by being a poor conductor of heat, but results in the inversion of a large portion of the sugar which is thus adhering. Pan Scale. In the process of evaporation, especially with the open pan, con- siderable trouble arises from the formation of a white scale upon the pan, which not only retards evaporation, but becomes, when loosened, incorporated with the syrup. An analysis of this scale, shows it to be composed, when deposited from sorghum juice, of a lime salt of aconitic acid. This acid has been detected in the molasses of sugar-cane, and it is probable that a similar deposit found upon the evaporators of sugar-cane jiiice, and generally called lime, is of like composition. The average of three analyses of scale, from a concretor used for the juice of sugar-cane, gave the following composition : ANALYSIS OF PAN SCALE. Per cent. Moisture 6 36 Organic 18 . 05 Insoluble 14 24 Sulphurioacid 96 Phosphoric acid 8 48 Lime 37 98 Iron 2.61 Alkalis, etc 12.37 100.00 The character of the organic matter in the above is not given, but it is by no means improbable that this scale is in part composed of the same salt. The practical question concerning it, is its removal from the pans, since, by its poor conducting power, it will cause the pans to be heated even red hot, thus burning them out ; and besides, if, cracking loose, it admits the syrup to this red hot pan, burning is in- evitable. The use of diluted acids, sulphuric, hydrochloric, or even vinegar, has been recommended for its removal ; but, if used, the pan must not long be in contact with these stronger acids, and, after their use, the VACUUM PANS. 341 pan must be repeatedly washed and rinsed with water, to remove every portion of the acid. A method which has been found effective with the open pan, has been to wipe the pan quite dry, and before using it to burn a small armful of straw or shavings under the pan, the sudden expansion of the iron by the momentary blaze cracking the scale loose, so that it may be swept out of the pan with a broom. Of course, care must be taken to avoid unsoldering of the pan in this operation, of which there is no danger if the blaze is only of short duration. It is very interest- ing to observe, that a similar scale is often found in the pans when maple sap is evaporated ; but this scale has been found to be the lime salt of malic, another organic acid. VACUUM PANS. The principle upon which the vacuum pan is based, is the fact that the boiling point of water, syrup, or any liquid, is in part, dependent upon the pressure of the atmosphere, and that the temperature at which a liquid boils, is higher or lower, according as the atmospheric pressure is increased or diminished. For example, the boiling point of water at the sea level, is 212° F. (100° C), and the pressure of the atmosphere is equal to the pressure of a column of mercury 30 inches (776 mm.) high ; but it is found that, at the summit of Mount Blanc, which is 15,560 feet above the level of the sea, water boils at 185°. 8 F. (85°. 6 C), and that the pressure of the atmosphere at the summit, is only equal to a column of mercury 17,363 inches high (449 mm.) It appears, then, an elevation of about 600 feet diminishes the boil- ing point 1°F., and this is demonstrated as due to the fact, that the pressure of the atmosphere is diminished by leaving a portion of the atmosphere below us in the ascent. Conversely, if we descend a mine, we find the boiling point increases, owing to increase of pressure, as indicated by the barometer. If, now, by artificial means, the pressure of the atmosphere is in part or wholly removed from a liquid, we find the boiling point is pro- portionably diminished ; and in fact, the boiling point of water has been reduced in a vacuum approximately perfect to 70°F. (21°. IC). The vacuum pan, which was invented by Howard in 1813, and which has come into such general use in the evaporation of liquids, works by the principle above illustrated. Its importance in sugar ihaking is due to the fact, that, by the avoidance of high temperatures, there is no danger of burning the sugar, as is frequent with open pans; and the inversion of the sugaf is reduced to a minimum. 342 soeghttm:. Also, the rapidity of the operation is greatly increased, since the evaporation in a vacuum proceeds very rapidly. The amount of vacuum in the pan is stated in inches, in the sugar house, and is determined by a barometer connected with the interior of the pan. Thus, 28 inches' of vacuum means, that the pressure within the pan is equal to only 2 inches of mercury at the sea level; 20 inches vacuum means, that two-thirds of the pressure has been re- moved from within the pan. It is obvious, that the pressure on the pan by the surrounding at- mosphere, when any thing approaching a good vacuum is attained, becomes enormous ; 28 inches vacuum is common with good pans, and a. pan 8 feet in diameter would then sustain an outside pressure of at least 200 tons. The pan, therefore, must be constructed of material able to sustain this pressure. The following table gives the boiling points for syrup in the vacuum pan, for the several degrees of vacuum which are obtained in practice. It is taken from Ures' Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures : BOILING POINTS IN VACUUM PAN. Inches ol yacuum. Temperature, Fahrenheit. Temperature, Centigrade. 26,00 17.')° 79°. 4 26.38 170° 76°. 7 26.90 165° 73°. 9 27.28 160° 71°. 1 27.64 155° 68° .4 27.95 150° 65°. 6 28.20 145° 62°. 8 28.43 140° 60°. 28.64 135° 57°. 2 28 83 130° 54°. 4 28.99 126° 51°. 7 29.14 120° 48P.9 29.26 115° 46° .1 In construction, the vacuum pan consists of a spherical or oval ves- . sel of copper or iron, from four to ten or more feet in diameter, pro- vided with one or more coils of copper tubes, to either or all of which steam may be admitted by means of cocks. These coUs occupy about one-fourth or one-third the height of the pan. From the top of the pan a large pipe proceeds, which enters first a receptacle, called the overflow, which is to catch and retain any portion of the contents of the pan which may by accident boil over. From the bottom of this receptacle a tube, provided with a stop-cock, passes back to the vacuum pan, in order that such overflow may be returned at intervals. The large tube proceeding from the vacuum pan is connected with the condenser, where the vapor escaping from the pan is condensed. VACUUM PANS. 343 and removed by the vacuum pump. Condeasation is effected by a jet of water, Bimilar to the method of condensing engines, or, when water is limited, surface condensation is made use of: the vapor passing through a system of pipes, over which water is allowed to trickle. In the one case, the water used in condensation, as also the condensed vapor, is removed by a steam pump ; in the latter, only the condensed vapor, and such uncundensed portion as remains, is removed by the pump. At the bottom of the vacuum pan a sliding valve permits the discharge of the contents, when concentration is completed. The semi- syrup is forced into the pan through a pipe connected with the syrup tank, by atmospheric pressure, owing to the vacuum in the pan. A barometer and thermometer are connected with the interior of the pan, by which the extent of the vacuum and the temperature of the contents are indicated at a glance ; also a proof stick, which enables a portion of the contents of the pan to be removed for examination without breaking the vacuum. Eye-glasses in the sides of the pan enable the sugar-boiler to watch and thus control the operations. The volume which a gas occupies being inversely as the pressure, it follows that, with a vacuum of 28 inches, a cubic foot of water (7^ gallons), which would produce, at the ordinary pressure of the at- mosphere, 1700 cubic feet of steam, would yield, at 28 inches of vacuum, 25,500 cubic feet. It is found that a cubic foot of water will produce 21,500 cubic feet of steam under a pressure of 2 inches of mercury. The pipe which is to discharge from the pan the enormous bulk of ■ rarified steam generated, must be adequate, as also the apparatus for condensation. 344 HOBGHUM. Plate XXXV. The above plates, No. XXXV, show two forms of defecators made by the Colwell Iron Works, New York, made either with east-iron, wrought Iron, or copper, with double bottoms, as shown In one plate, or with copper colls, as shown in the other plate. These vessels can be used as clarifiers, if needed ; but it is objectionable to have a ves- sel of too great a depth. Therefore, the vessels represented In Plate XXXVI are recom- mended, either being as large as occasion requires, and so arranged with a scum trough round the top, thatj in the rapid ebullition, the overflowing liquor and scum can be caught, and, by an automatic arrangement of valve, the liquor can be returned to the VACUUM PANS. 345 main body, while the scum is held in the trough, until a sufficient quantity has gathered to make it an object to ease the steam and wash out the trough. These vessels are also used as open steam evaporators, having an abundance ot heat- ing surface, plenty of high pressure steam, and proper openings for the escape ot the condensation ; for the water must not be allowed to accuinulate in the coils, if rapid and effective work is desired. The cuts show the necessary pipes and valves for the complete and successful working of the train. These vessels are also used for reducing the juice to a syrup of 25° B., preparatory for the vacuum pan. 34& SORGHUM. Plate XXXVII. DIRECT STEAM EVAPORATOR. Plate XXXVIIla a "■ direct steam evaporator," whieh receives the clarified juice from the steam elarifier shovn in Plato XXXV. The Juice is boiled by means of a coiled steam-pipe. The resulting scum boils over into a trough round the upper edge of the evaporator, and is Itself subjected to defecation afteiward. VACUUM PANS. 34/7 Plate XXXVin. ONE STOKY VACUUM.— COLWELL. S48 SOBGHUM. Plate XXXIX. TWO STOEY VACDUM.-COLWELL. VACUTTM PANS. 349 The foregoing plates, Nos. XXXVIII and XXXIX, represent two styles of vacuum pans manufactured by the Colwell Iron-Works, and the following description of the details of their construction, and the mode of their operation has been supplied by the manufacturer : Vacuum pans are of copper or iron. Copper was once used ex- clusively, but of late years cast-iron has been the choice. The heating surface is of seamless drawn copper tubes, in serpentine coils, leaving from three to four inches space between each circle, and inclining to the center, the lower coil following the dip of the bottom, and the upper coil having a dip of about four inches, taking steam on the outside, and leading the condensation out at the center through the bottom to traps — the diameter of tubes depending upon the size of pan. These coils are secured to cast braces by a cup and cover, which hold them securely from jumping during the boiling, yet allowing them to expand and contract without any strain. The braces are so arranged that they offer but little obstruction to the outflow of the finished sugar (this is a late improvement). Heretofore it was clumsy and strong, or light and weak — in the first place, holding great masses of magma at each strike of the pan ; or, in the latter case, when a very stiff boiling is made, the worms were oftimes in a ruin at the bottom of the pan. With our arrangements, the minimum of obstruction and the maximum of strength are obtained. The heating surface is the life of the pan, and if not properly arranged, properly secured, with proper inlets and outlets, the amount of work will not be up to expec- tation. • Mountings. Double steam valves, through which the steam is admitted into the coils — principally exhaust steam. That not being enough, live steam can be used at the same time, and yet not exert any back pressure upon the exhaust of the different engines, if properly managed. Eye glasses, which are placed in curb and dome to see the depth of liquor, as well as the action of boiling. Thermometer, vacuum guage, which, to be the most accurate, should be columns of mercury. A double-charge cock, with one pipe leading to the syrup tank, and another leading to molasses tanks. A butter or oil cup, for the introduction of a little oil or sweet but- ter to check the foaming. The charge cock has a small cock in its side, called the lime-water cock, for the purpose of correcting any .acidity that may occur. The draw off valve at the bottom is made much larger than for- merly, as refiners and planters find it much more economical to boil the pan as stiff as it can be done without getting it top dry (in which 350 SOEGHTJM. case it will not ruu from pan without steam pressure from within) , many boiling it so closely that in two minutes more it would be liable to set. For the economical working of a pan, a recipient is furnished. It has many nozzles, so as to connect the exhaust from the various en- gines in the sugar house, and is connected to the steam trunk with suitable openings, and these in turn connected to the valves on pan by copper pipes. To guard against too much back pressure, the re- cipient has an escape valve, loaded to a working pressure of about five pounds ; and also so arranged that, when the pan is not working, the steam can escape perfectly free. The recipient also has a water guage and outlet cock. The condensation of the eliminated vapors of the juice during the boiling, is accomplished in a condenser that is connected to the vacuum pan for the purpose of producing this eifect by the injection of cold water, which, coming in contact with these vapors, produces the vacuum desired. This condensation and injection water is drawn off' by means of a large air pump, which, at the same time, takes out any air which may have been admitted through any leaks in the machinery, together with the air which we know to be in the water. Without sufficient cold water, it is impossible to procure a perfect condensation and a proper vacuum ; and, where this occurs, it is impos- sible to do the work required of the pan. From 24 to 29 inches of vacuum are considered necessary; and if this is not shown by the mercury gauges, some imperfection exists which ought to be remedied at once. The operation of boiling is as follows : The juice is elevated into the tanks above by means of a steam pump, from whence the pan draws it. After cooking a strike, which operation lasts from four to six hours, it is thrown out by means of a valve at the bottom of the pan into a mixer (see illustration), which is sufficiently large to con- tain the entire strike of the pan. Afterward, the sugar passes from the mixer to the centrifugals through a valve opening into each of the machines, where it is purged, ready to be emptied into either boxes or hogsheads, and sent to market. This system is called purging " hot,'' and is used to-day in all the refineries of the United States and on many plantations. For raw sugar, the vacuum pan can be made to operate on the " wet " or " dry," system. The latter, which is the most modern, is preferred by all who thoroughly understand the matter, but it requires more water. A plantation having complete machinery will make six thousand barrels of sugar with greater ease and less labor VACUUM PANS. 351 than will be necessary on another plantation to make three thousand barrels where the fire trains are used. The advantage of the vacuum pan system, in respect to expense of fuel, is immense ; as the vacuum pan is worked by means of exhaust steam from the various engines and pumps of the sugar house, thus taking advantage of the latent heat in the boiling of the sugar, after the steam has done its duty as prime mover. Thus it will be seen that the employment of the vacuum pan and triple effect does not materially increase the amount of fuel necessary for the engines. The situation of the pan in the house is important, for upon its po- sition depends the economical working of the sugar house. Employing this system; the planter can have packed in boxes or barrels, and many times in the market each day, the sugar made on the previous day. With the vacuum pan only can be obtained a grain of sufiicient consistence to resist the extraordinary expulsive force of the centrifugal. With a well arranged boiling house, it is not necessary to touch the juice after it leaves the mill until sugar, dry and well purged, comes from the centrifugal, which all planters must acknowledge is a great economy of labor, time, and money. The pans can be put upon the beams of building, but the better way is to place them upon iron columns and platform, independent of building, so they will not be shaken by the high winds that visit sugar countries. In the vacuum pan system, the amount of fuel saved is considerable, and the difference in the amount of molasses obtained from a given amount of juice is as 2 to 3 — that is, the train produces three hogs- head of sugar and one of molasses ; {he vacuum pan produces five, or even seven, hogsheads of sugar to one of molasses. 352 aOEGHUM. o I ^ Plate XL represents a sectional view of the Hersey Granulator. The sugar is fed in on end through the spout by a set of rolls placed above the machine ; and, by lifting shelves on the inside of outer cylin- der, is carried up and dropped in a continuous shower upon the heating cylinder, and rolls oif by the rotation of the machine, to be again car- ried up, working forward to the opposite end by the inclination of the apparatus, and is then delivered into the screen for separating into the different grades. The heater cylinder is put centrally within the iron conveying cyl- inder, which is 23 feet long and 6 feet in diameter, the heater cylinder being 20 feet long and 36 inches in diameter, and making five revolu- tions per minute ; a striker jarring off any sugar that may adhere to VACUUM PANS. 353 the cylinder when first entering the machine, which is operated by - cams. The machine is rotated by means of outside gear on the con- vey cylinder. The current of air constantly passing through the machine carries off the moisture from the sugar through a pipe, and the dry sugar is delivered cool from the end into which the cold air is passing, so that it does not cake, and can be immediately barreled, and will not cause the barrels to shrink. The following calculations of the practical workings of the vacuum pan, are from the Encyclopedia of Chemistry, Vol. II, p. 903, Lip- pincott. " If 30,000 pounds of sugar containing 10 per cent of water, are produced in 2 hours from pan-liquor containing 50 per cent of water, equal to 27:|° Beaum6 of density, then 27,000 pounds less 3,000 pounds of water would be evaporated, which, at 28° vacuum, would equal 5,333,334 cubic feet of vapor, and the velocity of this vapor through a pipe of two feet in the cross section, would be 741 feet per second. If the condensing water was at the temperature of 60°F., and should escape by the vacuum pump at a temperature of 90°F., 24,000 pounds of steam would require 84,480 gallons of water for condensation, or 1 gallons of water evaporated would require 28 gallons of water to condense it. The steam needed to evaporate 24,000 pounds of water in the vacu- um pan, would be, at 30 pounds pressure above the atmosphere, 28,208 pounds, without any allowance for waste. An open pan would require only 14 per cent more heat to evaporate the same amount of water." It will thus be seen that the advantage of the vacuum pan (and it is unquestionably great) is not fcfund, as is by many urged, in its saving of fuel or steam, for that is small, and, besides, the apparatus is expensive, and requires expert supervision. The vacuum pan enables the juice to be concentrated at a low tem- perature, thus preventing burning entirely, and the inversion of the sugar to a great degree. The heat of the vacuum pan is generally the direct steam from the boiler, but, on account of the low temperature necessary to secure ac- tive boiling, it has been found economical to use the waste steam of the sugar mill in the coils. As an improvement upon the vacuum pan, there have been devised what are known as the double or triple effects, to be shortly described. In order, also, to avoid the effect of high temperatures upon the sugar, an apparatus similar in construction to the Cook Pan, see page 23 354 SORGHUM. 330, has been employed, with the sides and partitions higher, so that a depth of juice may be secured sufficient to cover a pipe through, which hot water circulates, by which the evaporation is kept up. In like manner, hot water has been employed in the coils of the vacuum pan, thus avoiding all danger of burning, which, by using steam, may occur when the vacuum is not well kept, as through an insuf- ficient supply of condensing water. Even in the vacuum pan, the steam generated by the hot surface of the coils is yet under the pres- sure of the superincumbent mass of syrup, which would be approxi- mately 1^ pounds pressure, equal to 3 inches of mercury, for two feet depth of syrup above the heated coil. It is obvious, therefore, that the pan should be shallow in order to secure evaporation at the low- est temperature ; but, in practice, it has been found to give better results in crystallization, by increasing the depth — ^a result which may be due to the greater freedom of motion of the contents of the pan, which the higher temperature and the escape of steam from a greater depth insures. We have seen that sugar is soluble in all proportions in water ; or, rather, that the amount of water necessary to dissolve sugar depends upon the temperature, see page 336. If, therefore, the water which is present in a solution of sugar be evaporated by boiling in an open yessel, it will be found that, as the water evapo- rates, the temperature of the boiling liquid will gradually increase, and the degree of concentration may be very accurately determined by means of the thermometer. See page 336. No crystallization of sugar, therefore, can be secured in the open pan so long as the boiling is continued ; but it is found, after the con- centration has been carried to a certain point, that the amount of sugar is so much in excess of that which the water present is 3,ble at ordinary temperatures to dissolve, that, if a portion of the boiling syrup be taken from the pan, the crystallization 'of the sugar is al- most instantaneous, and it is by means of a few simple tests that the experienced sugar-boiler in charge of the. Jamaica Train is enabled to tell, when the contents of his battery or strike pan are ready to be transferred to the crystallizing vessels. The method which is difiicult to describe, but which is very simple in practice, commonly employed, is to remove a portion of the boil- ing syrup by the ladle, and observe its character and appearance, as the last and partially cooled portion runs off; or, by taking a drop of the syrup between the thumb, and fore-finger, gradually opening them and observing the string of syrup formed, which, if of the right character, may be extended to about an inch and a half be- fore parting; the broken end partly curls up, while the string presents VACUUM PANS. 355 a granular rather than a glassy look, showing the presence of the minute grains of sugar which are formed during the cooling. Another method is to ohserve the character of the escaping steam, which no longer is continuous, but, as the time of striking for sugar ap- proaches, is in large bubbles, escaping with a puff much resembling the boiling of hasty pudding, or the last boiling in jnaking maple sugar. In the vacuum pan, however, after a certain degree of concentra- tion is reached, the temperature is no longer sufficient to hold all the sugar in solution, and the excess is at once thrown down in the form of an infinite number of microscopic crystals distributed through the boil- ing mass. The appearance of this grain is carefully watched for by the sugar-boiler; and, after its appearance, the contents of the pan and the progress of the evaporation receives his constant supervision. The object to be secured is now, by repeated additions of "pan-liquor" (as the semi-syrup, with which the vaccum pan is at first charged and afterward fed, is termed), to " build up,"'as they say, the small crystals of sugar, or " grain," until they are of appreciable size, so that their purging in the centrifugal may be easily accomplished. The dangers are that, either through increased heat in the pan, by partially losing the vacuum, or by the two great amount of pan liquor admitted in a charge, and the consequent considerable dilution of juice, he may lose the grain by its being dissolved, and he must again recover it, as at the outset ; or, by a too rapid evaporation, and the consequent excessive deposition of sugar, it may happen that the sugar is thrown down more rapidly than it can be deposited upon the crystals already formed, and a fresh crop of crystals is produced, known technically as " false grain." This " false grain " is very carefully guarded against by the sugar- boiler, and may be dissolved by a heavy charge of pan-liquor and a high heat in the pan. But it may happen when the pan is already so full as to forbid further addition of fresh liquor ; in which case, it can only be removed by means of heavy washing with water in the centrifugal or mixer, thus causing a great loss of sugar in the molasses. In working the vacuum pan, the vacuum is first created by the pump, when the semi-syrup is drawn into the pan, until the first coil of pipe is covered, when the steam may be turned into such coil, and, as the successive coils become covered with the syrup, steam is admitted to them. It then remains only to add fresh portions of the semi-syrup as evaporation progresses, until the grain is formed, when the exercise of more care is needed. After a time the full capacity of the pan is reached, and it is then necessary to remove the contents of the pan. 356 SOEGHUM. wholly or in part, into cooling or crystallizing tanks, which, being on wheels, are conveniently brought under the sliding gate at the bottom, of the vacuum pan; and as they are successively filled, they are wheeled into a warm room, where they are allowed to remain for a few hours, or even a day or two, during which time more of the sugar will crystallize. In " striking'' the pan, as the removal of its contents is termed, the steam is first turned off, the vacuum is broken, the pump stopped, and the contents discharged. It is, however, often the case, that but a portion is removed, and that then the boiling is resumed, supplies of pan sugar being drawn in from time to time, as before. Of course this results (in case no false grain is produced) in the increase in the size of the crystals of sugar ; and they are often obtained, by the re- peated partial striking of the pan, at last with a diameter from one- sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch. But this " doubling," as the operation is termed, is only possible with very pure juices, as of the best sugar-cane, since the impurities of the juice are gradually accumu- lating in the molasses, and finally become so abundant as to make purging of the sugar difiicult, if not impossible. If such " gumminess" of the molasses is not excessive, a little lime-water. drawn into the pan during boiling, is said to remove it ; but when it is such as to seriously interfere with the purging of the sugar, the strike of the vacuum pan should be complete, and the pan should be charged with fresh liquor, as at the outset. The danger of false grain being produced, is es- pecially great when, after a partial strike, a fresh portion of pan- liquor is drawn into the pan. During the entire operation, the interior of the pan may be observed through the glassesin its side, and its contents examined, from time to time, by means of the proof-stick. MULTIPLE EFFECTS. On account of the low degree of heat necessary to secure evaporation in the vacuum pan, an important modification has been made by the employment of what are known as double and triple effects. These are, in fact, a series of two or three vacuum pans, connected with each other; the first being heated, as usual, and the steam from it being used in the coils of the second pan, which practically plays the part of a surface condenser for the first pan. In like manner, the steam from the second pan passes into the coils of the third, which, in its turn, acts as a surface condenser to the second pan. Finally, a condenser and vacuum pump is connected with the last pan of the series, as to the ordinary single vacuum pan. It is claimed that, by this arrange- MULTIPLE EFFECTS. 357 ment, great economy is secured in the use of fuel, and that the expense of attendance during the concentration of the juice is greatly dimin- ished. The saving of labor secured by the employment of triple effect ap- paratus, as shown in the working of two similar estates, is as given in " Sugar Growing and Refining," page 271, as follows : The syrup and sugar produced upon each estate were said to have been identical in qual- ity and value, and both were under equally able management. On the estate using open evaporators and a single vacuum pan, the labor amounted to 58 men for 18 hours per day, or 1,044 hours per day; while the second estate, using a triple effect and vacuum pan, required, per day, 40 men for 13 hours, or a total of 520 hours of labor per day — a saving of labor, as will be seen, of one-half. Each factory turned out daily 13 tons of first and second sugars. The additional expense of the plant is obvious ; but if this saving may be counted upon as possible, the employment of this triple effect appears by far the most economical. Only such juice as has been purified to such a degree as to yield no impurities upon further concentration, is adaped for use in the triple effect, since it is impossible that these can be removed by skimming. The several pans of the triple effect are connected with each other in such way as to enable the contents of the first to be drawn into the second, and the second into the third, as the proper degree of concen- tration is attained in each. 358 SOEGHUM. MULTIPLE EFFECTS. 35!) Plate XLI represents a triple effect evaporating apparatus, as man- ufactured by the Colwell Iron-Works, many sets of which are in use upon sugar plantations, as also in the manufacture of beet sugar. The triple effect is the most economical method of evaporation, as it is all done in vacuum. A general description of this apparatus is as follows : It is composed of three cast-iron vacuum pans, so arranged that the vapor generated in the first pan passes to the heating surface of the sec- ond pan, where it boils the liquor; and the vapor thus generated passes to the third, where it boils the syrup ; while the vapor from this third pan passes to the condenser, and is drawn off by means of the vacuum pump. The first pan receives its steam from the exhaust steam recipient, which also supplies the vatuum pan. By this method, there will be required only thirty-five per cent of the steam and water for the proper operation of these pans which would be necessary were all the evaporation done in a single vessel ; but this method of evaporation will only hold good on liquor up to 28 or 30° Beaumfe. The interior heating surface of these pans consists of two-inch copper tubes, expanded into composition heads, which are properly secured in the lower curbs of the pans. There is also a suitable large circulating pipe. The mountings of the pans are about the same as in the vacuum pan. By a system of valves and vapor pipes, any of the pans can be connected directly with the condenser at will, thus making it single, double, or triple effect. The course of the liquor is as follows : The pump upon the left of the cut draws the defecated liquor from the deposit tanks; the speed being so regulated that the pan is kept at a certain level, the vacuum being about 5 inches and the heat about 180° F. It is here evaporated to a,bout 15 or 16° BeaumI, and, by means of a discharge cock and pipe, is fed into the second pan in such a quantity as to maintain a fixed level. It is here reduced to about 20° Beaum§, and a temperature of say 150° F., and, by means of a discharge cock to this pan, the third pan is supplied in the same man- ner. Here the concentration goes on till at. the finishing point, 25 to 28° Beaum6 ; then, by means of the condenser and vacuum pump, the necessary vacuum is maintained, in order to finish at as low a temper- ature as possible. It is now drawn off by means of a montjus, or pump, and passes to the clarifiers. The operation is continuous, provided there is a proper supply of defecated juice. The saving of fuel and labor by this method over the steam ' or fire trains is One of the great incentives in adopting this large piece of ma- 360 SOKGHUM. chinery. The quality of the sugar from the juice evaporated in vacuum, and the greater quantity of sugar, or, more properly speak- ing, the smaller quantity of molasses that can be obtained by this over the fire system, is another and very important reason for its adoption. If necessary, the vacuum pan, triple effect, and the different circuits of juice and water about the house, can all be operated by one engine, under the immediate control of the sugar master. Coneretors. In each of the evaporators thus far described, the object has been the concentration of the juice after defecation to a syrup, from which the sugar, after crystallizing, may be obtained, by either draining off the molasses, as with the muscovado, or open pan, fine grained sugars, or by removing the molasses by means of the centrifugal machine, as is done with vacuum pan large grained sugars. But, owing to increased expense and trouble attending the produc- tion of sugar upon the plantation, and the greater economy which at- tends the extraction of sugar where larger and improved apparatus and greater skill in supervision is secured, many attempt only the production upon the plantation of what is known as " concrete,'' i. e., the defecated juices evaporated until, upon cooling, it solidifies to a mass, which may be shipped readily, and from which the'refiners may readily extract the sugar. This concrete contains, of course, all the impurities which remain in the defecated juice and are not removed by skimming in the production of the concrete. In principle the concretor may be likened to a Cook Pan, by means of which the defecated juice is allowed to flow over a long trough, ex- posed, during its flow, to a heat which at first is sufficient to boil the juice and raise the scum, and is afterward diminished so that the juice, when at a density of about 25 to 30° Beaum6, is not heated even to 100° C. Generally, the time required for the concentration of defecated juice to 30° Beaum§ is from 8 to 10 minutes. The syrup thus obtained is, by means of revolving discs, similar to those de- scribed under Surface Evaporation (page 339), still further evaporated. This last evaporation is rendered more rapid by means of hot air, which is forced by a fan over the film of syrup upon the discs, the last evaporation being accomplished at a temperature below that of boiling water. Scrapers continually remove the solidified juice from the discs. The "concretor" is also used for the purpose of reducing the juice, after defecation, to pan-liquor, for which it is well adapted : in this way taking the place of the ordinary evaporators used for this purpose. It would seem that the use of the concretor and the preparation of con- MULTIPLE EFFECTS. 361 Crete for some central factory or refinery was worthy of careful con- sideration by those who are unable to ienter upon the expense of a sugar house, since this concrete may be kept a long time, can be shipped without loss, and worked for sugar when convenient. Its market value would, of course, be largely dependent upon its content of sugar ; but it could easily be worked over for syrup. By thus sim- plifying the necessary work upon tTie farm, in the preparation of a marketable- article, it offers unusual facilities to those entering upon this new industry with little experience and limited capital. In all the methods thus far described for the removal of water from the saccha- rine juices and the separation of the sugar, heat has been always the agent employed ; but, to the chemist and the physicist, cold presents itself as an agent well calculated to accomplish the same result, and possessing certain great advantages in its employment. Already this agent has long been considered as practically available, and numerous experiments have been made to render it effective ; but thus far no practical results appear to have been realized. One pound of water at 70° F. loses 38° in passing to the freezing point, and in the act of freezing must part with 140° more of heat; or, in other words, to freeze one pound of water at 70° F. requires the removal of heat enough to raise 178 pounds of water one degree. On the other hand, one pound of water at 70° F. requires 142° of heat to raise it to the boiling point ; and, to convert it into steam, re- quires an additional 966°. 6 of heat; or, in other words, to convert one pound of water at 70° F. into steam at 212° F. requires as much heat as would suffice to raise 1,106.6 pounds of water one degree in tem- perature. It appears, therefore, that the relative energy required to freeze or boil water at 70° F. is as 178 is to 1,108.6, or as 1 to 6.23. In evap- oration, the energy developed in the combustion of wood or coal, for example, is applied directly, and, although, through radiation, conduc- tion, and the various imperfections of the furnace, much of the energy is lost — so far as effective work is concerned, such loss may be reduced almost to its minimum ; but, in the several transformations necessary to apply the energy developed by burning coal, through steam boilers, engines, pumps, and so forth, to the freezing of water, the inevitable loss seems to more than counteract the apparent advantage the latter operation has over the former. One pound of coal will evaporate about nine pounds of boiling water, equal to 7.85 pounds of water at 70° F.; and it is claimed that one pound of water may be frozen by the combustion of three pounds of coal under the boilers of the refrigerating apparatus. But, despite this 362 SORGHUM. unfavorable showing, there are so many advantages to result from the use of cold iu concentration, that 'it is well worth careful investigation, and it is scarcely improbable that, through improved appliances, such a process may be made practical. The fact that crystallization is a means of purification, owing to the crystal during its growth excluding all foreign substances, has been referred to, page 326. The formation of ice, which is%imply the crystallization of water, is not an exception to this rule. The concentration of cider and of vinegar by the freezing of a portion of water are familiar examples. This method of concentration has been extensively used in thepreparation of salt from sea water in Northern Russia, shallow pits being dug upon the shore, into which the sea water is admitted and allowed to freeze, the ice which forms being nearly pure water. The unfrozen portion is thus concentrated to such a degree as to make further concentration by heat economical. SEPARATION OP THE SUGAR PROM MOLASSES. After the concentration of the juice has been . effected, it is neces- sary, if the open pan process has been used, to let the syrup remain in coolers or cystallizing tanks until the sugar has had time to separate in crystals. The time required for the completion of this process depends upon the character of the syrup. In case the relative amount of glu- cose and other impurities is small, and the syrup thin and liquid, a day or two will suffice ; but where the amount of sugar is relatively small, the syrup stiff and viscid, weeks, or even months, are necessary to complete the crystallization. It is found that the slower, the crystal- lization the fewer and larger the crystals, and, in some instances, crys- tals over an inch in diameter have been produced. The production of rock candy is a case illustrating this. Crystallization is facilitated by keeping it in warm rooms, as the heat renders the syrup more liquid, and gives freedom to the particles of sugar. Crystallization is more rapid from shallow coolers (6 to 10 inches) than from those of great depth (2 to 3 feet), but, when rapid, results in a mass of fine crystals difficult to free from the molasses, while the crys- tals from the deeper vessels are larger. If the concentration has been properly conducted, there will always be after crystallization a mass of sugar crystals distributed in the molasses. The separation of this molasses is accomplished in a variety of ways. The common muscovado sugar, obtained by boiling in the Jamaica Train or open pan, was drained of its molasses by throwing the mass of sugar and molasses from the coolers into . hogsheads, arranged so SEPAKATION OP THE SUGAR FROM MOLASSES. 363 that the drippings from them could be received in a large tank. In the bottom of the hogsheads holes were bored, -which were kept open, and, in time, a large portion of the molasses would slowly drain off, leaving always a considerable portion still adhering to the crystals of sugar. It was thtis sent to market as a soft-grained, moist, yellow or brown sugar, the color being due almost entirely to the adhering dark colored molasses. Another method suitable for the extraction of sugar upon a small scale.ls to put the " mush sugar," as the mixture of sugar and molasses may be termed, into strong bags of a somewhat loose ma- terial, and subjecting them to pressure, at times taking out the bags to work over their contents, and pressing again. Claying. The fact that the color of the raw sugar was found to be due to the film of molasses adhering to each crystal, which neither draining nor pressure could entirely remove, led to the washing of the sugar with water. This was accomplished by placing the concentrated syrup or mush sugar in earthen molds, shaped like an inverted coue. At the bottom a hole, which was stopped until crystallization of the contents was completed, allowed the molasses to drain away. When this was completed, a layer of straw was spread on the sugar, over which a stiff paste of clay was put, the moisture from which, slowly percolating through the mass of sugar crystals, washed off the coating of molasses and left the crystals nearly white. Instead of clay, a piece of felt or other heavy cloth was often used. Of course, much of the sugar was dissolved by this process, and the claying was discontinued before the entire contents of the cone was made white ; so there came to be recognized in the trade different brands of clayed sugars, according to the portion of the cone from which they were taken. The dried cones were cut into portions hori- zontally, the upper and whiter being termed in French trade premier, next second, then troisieme, petit, commun, and tete, the latter being the still black sugar from the apex of the cone. These sugars have been largely made in the French colonies, China, and Cuba ; and the "Havana sugar,'' so common in our own markets twenty years ago, was a clayed sugar. At one time, it is said that there were four hundred plantations, in St. Domingo alone, which made clayed sugars. Centrifugals. The most convenient (and, at present, almost universal) method for the separation of the molasses from the sugar, is the centrifugal ma- 364 SOEGHUM. chine, introduced in 1843. It consists of a cylindrical vessel, about three feet in diameter, revolving upon an upright shaft. The outer portion of this cylinder is of wrought iron, pierced with numerous small holes. Within this, and lying against it, are one or two screens of wire gauze. This is inclosed within an outer cylinder of iron, of a diameter six or eight inches greater than the revolving drum within. The wire basket (which has an opening at the top for the introduction of the charge, and trap-doors at the bottom for the removal of the sep- arated sugar) is connected by a belt, etc., with an engine, by which it is made to revolve from 1,000 to 1,500 times a minute, thus giving at the circumference a velocity of from two to three miles a minute, for a centrifugal three feet in diameter. The mixer is a long, half cylindri- cal vessel, into which the mass of sugar and molasses from the coolers is emptied, and where (by means of a series of revolving arms, attached to a shaft running lengthwise in the mixer) the contents are stirred into a homogeneous mass. From this vessel (which, for convenience, is placed directly over, and discharges through a sliding valve its con- tents into the centrifugal) a charge is introduced after the centrifugal is set in motion, but before it has attained its maximum velocity. The centrifugal force distributes the mass equally over the gauze periphery, and the molasses forced through is caught by the outer drum, and col- lected in a receiving tank placed below. So soon as the molasses has been separated, a spray of water is thrown upon the surface of the sugar, and the residual molasses is thus removed. A jet of steam is sometimes introduced upon the outside of the perforated drum, to aid in the ready removal of the ipolasses; and, after the washing, hot air is drawn in upon the sugaf to dry it. Ordinarily from five to fifteen minutes suffices to purge one charge, although the character of the mush sugar introduced is sometimes such, that a far longer time is necessary. Vacuum pan sugars, being made up of larger crystals, are far more easily purged than the softer, finer grained, open pan sugars, and the purging of such coarse grained sugars is accompanied with less loss of sugar. The injurious eflTect of false grain is here manifest, since it tends to block up the meshes of the gauze, and thus prevent the expulsion of the molasses. The treatment of water, therefore, either in the mixer or in the centrifugal, for the purpose of dissolving these minute cr.ystals of sugar is rendered necessary. SEPAKATION OF THE SUGAE FROM MOLASSES. 365 Plate XLII. No. 1. Hand, IS-inch disk. Capacity, 60 pounds per liour. Same, for belt. Capacity, 100 pounds per hour. Same, combined for either belt or hand. Power machine, 24-inch disk. Capacity, 250 pounds per hour. 366 soeghum;. a.g &-^ I! .S 9 p. " -t! s H I, ^ § a P< o o ^ c B g ? s ° 3 S ■ p I— t 1 3 .S ^ 8EPAEATI0N OF THE SUGAR FROM MOLASSES. 367 o ro *-3 C » < IS <" 2 p £0 O el M tzl o w 2! S a o > 4 2 o g o "<1 368 SOEGlfUM. a J. 03 » 1 1 ■ _ "5 a s ^ 3|ii| " ffl .s • s IQ fO ft "U rC3 C .2 .g ■» t, 3 O <=3 O ■3 -S S « S Si a bo O B ft ° a I Eh U n !> O Pi n 3 a gj rj p-l c t; 3 F-i O d O OJ = - ;: ^ « •" c s " ^ S <15 -i^ H t>> iS - ® .U w - +3 d la " S g g "^ S S ■" -a -j .jH, T^ I^ dJ PI S £ S fe O Cl » ^ >» ^ ■— I u_ ^ 3 CI fed S d .• ^ § g t, a o « "5^ fl .S 'O 3 m 05 O C +3 » ^ g o -S ,d +^ ^t oj p p. « 3 * >; « bE S c "3 o c S ° S a f^ ■" s £ fd cy I i f-> A p. O SliTPAEATION OF THE SUGAR FROM MOLASSES. 369 Molasses. Molasses is the name given to the liquid product which is, by either of the processes given, separated from the sugar. In speaking of "available sugar" in a juice or syrup, it was ex- plained that the glucose and inverted sugar present in a syrup would prevent its own weight of sugar from crystallizing ; also, that some of the mineral matters present in the syrup, exerted a similar action in holding the sugar in solution. Molasses, then, is a mixture containing in solution all those impurities originally present in the juice, which were not removed in defecation or skimming, and the sugar which has been held in solution by such impurities. It generally holds in solution a certain amount of sugar which was not removed in the first crystallization, and this is often so great as to warrant the molasses being boiled in the vacuum pan a second, or even a third time for sugar. These successive crops of sugar thus obtained, are called seconds or thirds, and the molasses from them is also termed second and third molasses. Of course, each additional quantity of sugar taken from the mo- lasses only serves to concentrate the impurities more and more, so that the last molasses are almost worthless, except for distillation into rum, or for the production of spirits. In the crude operations of the sugar plantations, the amount of sugar left in the molasses is so great, that large quantities are imported and ■yyorked over by the re- fineries ; and the residual molasses, purified by the bone-black filtra- tion to which it is subjected, is rendered still a very acceptable com- modity for domestic use. The average percentage composition of a molasses, when all the sugar which will crystallize has been obtained, is nearly as follows : Beet molasses. Cane molasses. Cane sugar 55.00 35 00 Organic matter not sugar 13.00 10 00 Glucose trace 80 00 Water 20 00 20 00 Ash 12.00 5 00 100.00 100 00 We have then from the above, the "available sugar" from the cane as equal to the cane sugar or the sucrose, less the sum of the glucose and mineral matter, since, in practice, it appears that the sum of these above represents the amount of sucrose held in solution in the molasses. If, then, as is mostprobable, the juices of sorghum and maize are com- parable with the juice of sugar-cane in this regard, it will be seen that our estimate of available sugar has been placed too low, since, in every 24 370 SOEGHfM. case, we have also considered the organic matters not sugars as capa- ble of holding in the molasses their own weight of sucrose, while in the cane molasses this is seen not to be the case. On the other hand, the molasses from sugar beets is found to contain but slight amounts of glucose, but a very much larger amount of sucrose, and this is held in solution by the ash present, composed largely of potash salts, which have been shown by the experiments of Marschall and La Grange (La Sucrerie Indiginie, X., 259) able to hold from 3 to 6 times their weight of sugar in the molasses. SUOEATES OF LEME AND STEONTIA. In the manufacture of beet sugar, owing to tlie fact that the mo- lasses is of such quality as to unfit it for any domestic use, efforts have been made to secure from it the crystallizable sugar which it contains, and one of the most successful methods has been to combine the sugar with lime, to form the basic sucrate of lime, which may be then sepa- rated from the glucose and other impurities of the molasses, and from this sucrate the sugar is obtained by converting the lime into carbonate of lime, and thus setting free the sugar. Since this process has been by some recommended as one by which the sugar from sorghum or maize stalks might be procured readily, in a condition such as to enable it to be sent to central factories, or be- come an article of commerce, the process of its preparation will be given. The compound of sugar and lime is known as the tri-basic sucrate of lime, and consists, when pure, of one molecule (■342 parts by weight) of sugar, and three molecules (168 parts by weight) of lime, or 67 per cent sugar and 33 per cent lime. Its preparation from molasses or syrup is as follows : The molasses is mixed with about one-quarter its weight of lime, when the mass solidifies, and, after cooling, it is broken up and washed with water, by which the greater part of the impurities are removed, the compara- tively insoluble sucrate of lime being left behind. But, owing to the partial solubility of the sucrate, much of the sugar is thus lost, and, instead of water, alcohol of about 35 per cent is used to wash the mass, the alcohol being again recovered by distillation. It is necessary to have lime sufficient to fully saturate the sugar present, since several other compounds of lime and sugar may be formed which are far more soluble than the tri-basic sucrate ; and besides this compound, while comparatively insoluble in water, is readily soluble in a solution of sugar. Owing to the ease with which it would seem that this com- pound might be prepared, its convenience for shipping or storage, since it is said to keep unchanged for long periods, it is to be hoped that ex- SUCEATES OF LIME AND STEONTIA. 371 p'eriments may soon be made to determine the exact method of pro- cedure, by which the small farmer could convert the juice of his sor- ghum into a permanent, portable, and commercial product, without the trouble and expense of trying to make sugar. Sucrate of Strontia. Professor Scheibler, of Berlin, Germany, has recently patented a process, for the recovery of sugar from molasses, in which he substitutes strontia for lime, forming the tri-basic sucrate of strontia, vs'hich, like the corresponding lime compound, is afterward decomposed by car- bonic acid, and the sugar recovered. The advantage of this modification is, that the strontia compound is less soluble than that of lime, and it may be more readily obtained free from the impurities with which it is associated in its production. The details, in brief, of this process, are as follows : The molasses or syrup is diluted to such an extent, that, when heated to a tempera- ture of from 70° to 75° C. (1.58° to 167° F.), it will dissolve enough of the somewhat difficultly soluble strontia hydrate to form a tri-basic sucrate of strontia, with all the sugar present in the molasses or syrup. Or a solution of the strontia hydrate in water may be added to the molasses sufficient to form the tri-basic sucrate, allowing 364.5 parts by weight of strontia hydrate to 342 parts by weight of sugar present in the molasses or syrup to be operated upon, or 106.6 per cent of the weight of the sugar calculated to be present. The objection to this method of procedure being, that the solution would thus be rendered too dilute, since the strontia hydrate is much less soluble in water than in a solution of sugar. In practice, the diluted molasses is run into a sheet-iron vessel, sur- rounded by a steam jacket, and provided with a stirring ajsparatus, by which the molasses is stirred up with the strontia hydrate, an excess of which has been previously added in the solid condition to the sheet- iron receptacle. So soon as the sugar of the molasses has become saturated with strontia, care being taken that the temperature be not allowed to arise above 75° C, the solution of strontium j^ucrate, and the other impurities of the molasses, is drawn oS" into another vessel, leav- ing behind the excess of undissolved strontia hydrate for a subsequent lot of molasses. This second vessel receiving the solution, is also pro- vided with stirring apparatus, and, in this vessel, the solutionis heated to the boiling point, at which temperature the strontium sucrate is de- posited from the solution in the form of a heavy sandy powder, which, unlike the corresponding gelatinous and voluminous calcium sucrate, deposits quickly and may be easily filtered. The filtration of the de- 372 SORGHUM. posited strontium sucrate must be effected at a boiling temperature, and is accomplished best by means of the filter press, the last portions of the impurities still in solution being removed by steam, or the strontium sucrate is obtained by means of the centrifugal. The production of sugar from this sucrate, and the recovery of the strontia as hydrate, are comparatively simple matters. The cost of the strontium hydrate, and the large amount required to combine with the sugar, forbid this from becoming a process to be employed* by the farmer, but there appears to be no reason why it might not be used in large works where the production of the maxi- mum of sugar was desirable. The above diagram shows the arrangement of a complete char- house, filters, kilns, etc. CHAE HOUSE, KIl-NS, ETC. 373 The description of the same was prepared by the Colwell Iron- Works, of New York City. The man-holes at the bottom of the fil- ters are not represented in the plate, since the filters are in two rows with the man-holes opposite the side shown in the plate. The driers, also mentioned in the description, are not represented in the plate, but the general arrangement of this portion of the sugar-house will appear sufficiently clear to the reader. The char house is acknowledged to be the most important branch of sugar refining, for without it white sugar can not be made to advan- tage; and to properly revivify the char, much ingenuity has been ex- pended. As many as 172 distinct patents for drying, revivifying, and cooling the char preparatory to filling the filters, have been granted. The char house and filtering department should be adjacent, so that the spent char from the filters can be delivered in as short a time as possible to the driers on the top of the kilns, and the revivified char from the coolers under the kilns may be transferred to the, dusting ar- rangement and deposit tank for the char over the filters. We will now follow the course of the char, and suppose it has been received from the filter, and placed in the drier. The char, in its slow descent through the drier, constantly pre- sents new surfaces to the action of the in-goiiig air, carrying ofiT the ammoniacal gases, and leaves the drier almost at boiling point, so that after a few minutes exposure to the open air it is quite dry on the sur- face. These driers, when applied to the old style of kilns, have in- creased the capacity about 25 per cent. The char is received in a bin, which is directly over the top of the retorts ; and, as the char is drawn from the coolers underneath the kiln, the retort is charged; thus being continuous in its action, and requiring no men on the kiln head, trampling, shoveling, turning, and pitching the char about, so as to dry it as much as possible before it enters the pipes ; for it is admitted that, without the drier, fully two- thirds of the fuel is consumed to expel the moisture before the char begins to purify, filling the char house with steam and gases, while with the drier it is the best ventilated portion of the house. The char now passes to the retort pipes which, in the ordinary kiln, are of cast iron, of an oval pattern, 3x12 inches inside set — twelve or more on each side of the fire-place, which is about eighteen inches wide by eight feet long. The retorts are entirel}' surrounded by afire- brick wall, outside of which are the flues, into which the gases escape through small holes back of the retorts, Passing up these side flues, they join in front or back and are delivered under the drier into a flue, 374 SORGHUM. ■where the hot gases are distributed iuto the pipes of the drier, and through them into the chimney, at a temperature of 380° F., with a great saving of fuel. After remaining in the retort a sufficient length of time to be raised to a cherry-red heal, the organic substances which have been taken up from the juice are here expelled. At intervals, the char-slide at the bottom of cooler is opened, and a quantity of char drawn off and tested, which test, proving correct, soon enables the char-burner to tell how much char should be drawn at certain intervals : for if too much is drawn, the cliar will be improp- erly burned, and will be unsuited for use in the filters. This can be learned by practice and by test. The cooler is a sheet iron tube, con- nected with the bottom of the retort, where the char is reduced in temperature to 120° F., and is then received in barrows, or, in large houses, upon an endless carrier apron, which delivers it to an elevator, raising it to a dust box and blower, where the fine dust char is taken away, and the clean char is received in a carrier with inclined shoots, so as to fill the filters quickly and uniformly. The filters are iron cylinders and usually designed so that the height is six times the diameter, until within a few years, when filters have been made ten feet in diameter and eighteen feet high. The style of filter somewhat depends upon the size of char used, and the manner of working the house, whether very fine grain or coarse char — each size having its partisans, claiming superiority for each. The filter is filled with animal charcoal, and the liquor is let in upon it expelling the air. Great care is necessary that the whole filter should be full, and the juice not allowed to run down on one side only. After the liquor has completely filled the filter, the cock is turned on at the bot- tom, aud the liquor is conducted to the top of another filter, and also to a third, if needed, so the juice passes over a set of two or more, discharging the juice clear and colorless; this goes on until the color grows dark, or is not satisfactory, aud they are stopped, the foill filters washed out by letting the water flow in at the top, i)ressing the liquor out before it, until it does not show a trace of sweetness. The filter is then allowed to -drain. Sometimes steam is used, or an exhaugt is ap- plied to the bottom to draw off" the water — air following to fill the vacuum. The lower man hole is now opened, and the exhausted char conveyed directly to the drier over the kilns by means of a suspended rail car or elevator. The plate represents the sectional view of filter and kiln house ; the car to convey it to the elevator, the elevator to raise it up into the top CHAE HOUSE, KILNS, ETC. 375 of tlie cliar house, where it is received up3n the drier, through the drier into the cooler, through the coolers to the wagon underneath, where the finished and revivified char is re-lifted back into the filter house and departments as shown. 376 SOEGHUM. CHAPTER XI. (a.) Waste products from sorghum. (5.) Seed, composition, and feeding value. (c.) Bagasse, loss of sugar in. (d) Experiments in saving sugar from bagasse. (e.) Leaves, food value. (f.) Bagasse as food, fuel, and as material for paper. (g.) Scums and sediments, value. (li.) Sorghum as a forage plant. WASTE PEODUCTS. By those who have watched closely the development of the heet sugar industry, it is seen that its successful establishment has, in every case, been intimately connected with the most careful attention to details. Not only has the extraction of the sugar from the beet been brought to the limits of perfection, but entirely new methods have been devised, after long years of investigation, for extracting the largest attainable quantity of sugar from the syrup. The greatest attention has also been given to the utilization of the so-called waste products of the manufacture ; and where these, as an additional source of revenue, are disregarded, the industry has, at best, barely sustained itself, even in those sections where the conditions appear most favora- ble. In fact, to such perfection have all the details of the manufact- ure of the sugar been brought, that the chief care appears to be given to these minor points of the industry. The result is, that the beet is practically the only rival of the sugar-cane as a source of sugar for the world. It needs but a glance to see that nothing like such minute and careful supervision has been given to the sugar-cane or the sorghum industry. Millions of tons of sugar have, during past years, been produced from sugar-cane, by processes so crude and methods so wasteful, that it is safe to say, hardly another great industry in /the world would sur- vive such burdens of waste for a single decade. At the present, the sorghum sugar industry is setting out mainly in the course laid down by the sugar-cane manufacturers. As the reports from every section of the country unite to show that none of our common farm crops yield so large a profit as does the production of syrup and sugar from COMPOSITION OF SORGHUM SEED. 377 sorghum, it is most important that advantage betaken of every detail : attention to which gives promise of increasing the profit of this new industry. A discussion of what may be regarded as the waste products of sor- ghum is of extreme importance, and is given in this chapter. Among waste products may be classed the seed, bagasse, and leaves, and the refuse products in the manufacture of sugar, viz.: scum and sediment of the defecator, the sediments of the settling tanks, and skimmings from the evaporator. The most important of these is the seed. For this alone sorghum has, for ceuturies at least, been grown over a large portion of the globe, as maize is in the United States. The yield per acre of seed is practically the same as maize, and its uses in those countries depend- ing upon it mainly are the same as maize. Analysis shows it to have the same composition, and practical feeding experiments confirm the indications of chemical analysis that it is at least the equal of maize in its feeding valtie. COMPOSITION OF SORGHUM SEED. Analyses of several varieties of sorghum seed have been made, with a view of determining their probable value as food for animals ; and, for the purpose of comparison, an average of the analyses of the grain of twenty-one varieties of common field corn is given : ■O .a •* aj o 0) « t-t a Cl ^ JS ,Q B 1 §■ a g OJ o bjQO E>> !» u S 2 2 d ^ Xi s: > W w 3 P- 8 ,90 79 85 1 IS 22 22 1 71 74 88 1 5.-, 21 26 1 39 75 80 l.-l.-i 111 18 1 58 77 81 1 rrl 22 92 1 37 74 19 1 22 19 51 1,17 7S 10 1 8.5 22 95 2 02 73,18 1,49 22 17 1 3S 74 96 1,11 2-1 34 1 32 73,23 1 -13 20 7.-) 1,48 76 33 bcQJ 2.813 3,125 2 813 3.125 2 813 3 000 5 625 13.125 3 000 3.500 3 000 3 125 4,000 2 125 3 125 3 313 3.125 3 500 4 000 3.500 Date. Variety. ^ o J3 M o CJ r:3 ^ (K 0) a !S o o ■" '•< .p 3 CJ ^ ^ O O M ■< en 27 475 3 25 9 75 .84 2 70 21 875 4 25 7,10 93 2 60 21.600 3 25 8 80 .88 2 45 21 050 3 76 7,40 1 03 ■^ 2 95 20 775 2 75 10 45 87 3 05 21 475 3 75 7,60 L.OO 2 80 25 52."i 2 00 95 1,58 4 10 20,250 1 25 ,50 1 82 5 90 21 100 5 50 10 00 74 3.00 23 725 6.75 7 10 1,20 3 00 19 975 10 00 ,89 2 50 25 550 3 50 .94 2 83 22 025 2 75 13 ,50 1 04 2 711 22 625 2 50 12 75 .97 2 20 23 976 3.00 9 50 .89 2 93 24 400 4.60 8 on .87 2 75 25 750 8.25 10 50 1 16 2 60 23 1.50 4,25 11,75 1.02 2 93 23 975 4.76 10 25 .77 2 53 26.960 23 192 3,50 3 84 14 60 9-94 1 23 3 20 .96 2,77 Oct. Sept. 14 14 21 21 23 23 3 Nov. Doc. New variety (H. S. Coll) . . . White Liberian (Nesbit) , . . New variety (H S. Coll) . . White Liberian (Nesbit) .. New variety (H. S. Coll)... White Liberian (Nesbit) . . Suclcers from row 2, 3, 4, 5. Leaves from row 2, 3, 4, 5. . Neeazana Linlc's Hybrid White Liberian (Nesbit)... . White Liberian (Leaming) . . . do Early Amber Linlc's Hybrid West India EedSorsho West India do New variety (R. Haswell). . Average . 4.25 3 75 4,00 4.65 6.20 4 55 3 95 3.95 4.40 4 90 5 15 3 80 5.05 5.00 4 30 4.65 4.20 3.10 4.45 3.35 4 41 LOSS OP SUGAR IN THE BAGASSE. The most important point established by these analyses is the very considerable loss of sugar, owing to the impossibility for a mill to ex- 384 SORGHUM. press all the juice. We often hear of bagasse as coming from the mill "perfectly dry," but the juice obtained from these canes was much greater in amount (57.61 percent) than is usually obtained in prac- tice, still the average amount of water remaining in the bagasse was 56.26 per cent; and, if to this we add the alcohol and water extracts of the bagasse, which would naturally constitute the juice, we should have (20.75+1. 48)X. 4576=10.17+56.26=66.43 per cent of juice still remaining in the bagasses; that is, 64.41 per cent of the weight of the bagasse as it came from the mill. Surprising as this may appear to those who have not considered it, there can be no doubt but that the above is even short of the truth. The average amount of juice obtained was 57.61 per cent, and the total sugars in the juices averaged 14.21 per cent, or 8.19 per cent of the weight of stripped cane. The average of the dry bagasses gave 13.78 per cent of total sugars, or 6.31 per cent of total sugars in the fresh bagasses ; therefore, the bagasses, as they came from the mill, contained 77.05 per cent as much sugar as was expressed by the mill from the fresh canes. Since there was 6.31 per cent of total sugars in the fresh bagasses, it follows that the amount of sugars in the bagasse equaled 2.67 per cent of the weight of the stripped cane ; also, as the total sugars in the ex- pressed juice was 14.21 per cent, the amount of sugars in the juices equaled 8.19 per cent of the weight of the stripped cane, and there- fore the total sugars in the stripped cane was equal to 10.86 per cent of tlie weight of the cane, and there was lost in the bagasse 24.62 per cent of the total sugars present in the cane. That this estimate falls short of the truth is obvious when we con- sider that the juices were analyzed the day they were expressed, while the bagasses in drying had lost much of their sugar through fermenta- tion, as was seen to be true in the analyses of the fresh juices as com- pared with the analyses of the same juices when dried. As the water contained in the plant is far more than sufficient to hold in solution all the sugars present, there appears no good reason to doubt that the juice left in the bagasse is identical in its composition with that expressed ; but, if we examine the average results of the analy- ses of juices and bagasses in the table, we find that the per cent of su- crose iu the total sugars of the juices was 90.92, while in the bagasses it was 72.13. In certain of the analyses, we find a discrepancy still greater; for example, the analysis of the juice and bagasse of Link's Hybrid gives us in the juice 95.39 percent of sucrose and 4.61 per cent.of glucose in the total sugars, while the analysis of the bagasse LOSS OF SUGAR IN THE BAGASSE. 385 from this cane shows the two sugars to be ia this ratio : glucose, 48.74 per cent; sucrose, 51.26 per cent. Such a result is, beyond question, due to the fact that, during the process of drying the bagasses, there had been an inversion of much of the sucrose, and, in all probability, a loss of glucose by fermenta- tion. * Prof. George H. Cook, director of the New Jersey Agricultural Ex- perimental Station, at New Brunswick, in the report on his work, al- ludes to the waste in the use of the ordinary mills for extracting the juice, and estimates the loss as being equal to 40 per cent of the sugar present in the cane. When we consider the magnitude of this industry, this estimated loss assumes immense proportions. Fully $300,000,000 worth of sugar is now annually produced from cane by practically the same methods used in the production of sorghum sugar. According to the estimate of Professor Cook, then, it appears that there is annually lost in the bagasse two-thirds as much, or $200,000,000 worth of sugar. It would appear most desirable that some method be devised by which this enor- mous waste may be prevented. Mr. S. Bringier, in a report upon the sugar production of Louisiana, says : * These considerations give some idea of the enormous losses inflicted upon the sugar interest, and upon the country, by unthrifty methods of production. It is a stai-tliug thought, that probably a hundred million pounds of sugar are annually burned up in the bagasse of imperfectly treated canes. In Ure's Dictionary of Arts, etc.. Vol. II, page 758, it says, in ref- erence to this same matter : The average quantity of grained sugar obtained from cane juice in our colo- nial (English) plantations, is probably not more than one-third of the quantity of crystallizable sugar in the juice which they boil. And the mills do not probably average over 60 per cent of the weight of the cane in juice, or two-thirds of the amount actually present, which would show that but two-ninths of the sugar present in the cane was placed upon the market as sugar. Another eminent authority states the loss in sugar making as follows : Eighteen per cent of sugar in the cane yields not more than 8 per cent of crystallized sugar. The loss is thus accounted for : 90 per cent of juice actually present yields to the mill only 50 to 60; then, in the refining, there is a loss of one-fifth, and of the remainder only two-thirds is saved in boiling, one-third 25 386 SOEGHUM. being lost in molasseS ; in the bagasse, 6 per cent; in molasses, 3 per cent; in skimmings, 2J per cent; raw sugar, 6j per cent. A De La Cornilliere, in his work on the " Culture of tlie Sugar-cane and Sugar Manufacture in Louisiana," says : It is a well-known fact that the cane, after several pressures, even as many as eight or ten, still yields juice, attd that a complete exhaustion can only be obtained by dissolving the saccharine substances inclosed in the cellular tissues. In commenting upon these statements, Mr. Bouchereau, in his report on sugar, says : The startling facts, so well attested, that 40 per cent of the sugar products of Louisiana, through all her great past, secured in the culture, have been lost through the inadequacy of th? machinery employed in manufacture; that nearly one-half the product has been cast away from countless thousands of fields of cane, exiending back through so many years,, indeed generations; is certainly calculated to arouse the interest, not only of sugar planters, but of so- ciety at large, in all its classes and conditions, in the question of sugar produc- tion for the future, not here only, but everj-where. A writer in the Rural New Yorker says: From some careful chemical analyses of, and practical experiments with, sor- ghum-cane growing on the Univefsity farm it appears, that, from the proximate analysis of the cane, one acre of sorghum produces 2,559 pounds of cane sugar. Of this amount we obtained 710 pounds, on the farm, of good brown sugar, and 562 pounds were left in the 737 pounds of molasses drained from the sugar. Hence, 62 per cent of the total amount of sugar was lost during the process of manufacture. This shows that the method of tnanufaeture in general use is very imperfect. The 710 pounds of sugar, at 8 cents per pound, would bring $56.80. The molasses is worth, at 25 cents per gallon, $17.75,' or the products of an acre of sorghum would bring $75.55. There is no question that, with proper care and apparatus, the above yield can be readily doubled. In the above it will be observed that there is no allowance made for seed and forage. And he concludes : Nearly two-thirds of the sugar, as has been said, is left in the bagasse. This could, in great part, be removed by percolation with water, as is done sometimes in the manufacture of beet sugar. Analyses of Bagasses from Sugar-cane. The following analyses of bagasses from sugar-cane will show the ■extent of this loss in sugar: EXPERIMENTS IN EECOVERING SUGAR FROM THE BAGASSE. 387 ANALYSES OF BAGASSES — SUGAE-CANE (peLIGOt). Sugar Molasses Cellulose and salts "Water First. Per cant Per cent. 7.9 7 8 3.0 2,7 3« 6 89.5 50.5 50 AVERAGE ANALYSIS OF TWO BAGASSES (dRY) — SUGAR-CANE. Per cent. ■Sugar - 15 86 Other solids 84 14 100. The dry cane contained 27.64 per cent of sugar. The average ccimposition of the four analyses as dry bagasse, would give of — Per cent. Sugar 17.93 Other solids . 82 07 100. Or, if calculated to fresh bagasse, containing 50 per cent of water, the average would be of the four bagasses : Sugar Other solids.. Water Per cent. .... 8.97 .... 41 03 .... 60 00 100. From the above analyses it will be seen, that bagasse, as it escapes from the mill', contains about 9 per cent of sugar. EXPERIMENTS IN RECOVERING SUGAR FROM THE BAGASSE. Some experiments have been made at the Department of Agricul- ture, with a view to recover from the bagasse the sugar it contained. The apparatus consisted of a series of barrels, so arranged that, hav- ing been filled with bagasse, water was allowed to flow in at the top until the barrel was full, and then, by means of a pipe leading from the bottom of the barrel, the water flowed over into a second, and thence to a third barrel, and so on. The overflow from the successive barrels was taken when it first ran off, and the following tables will show the results secured in a large number of experiments : 388 SORGHUM. SPECIFIC GKAVITT OF DIFFUSION JUICES FROM SUCCESSIVE BARRELS. Nijmber of experiment. o V i IS 1 s > CO a a a > 3 i 1 2 3 4 5 iooi 1008 1008 1009 1012 lOOs lOilS 1013 1017 1014 1017 1020 1021 1023 1014 1019 1016 1025 1019 1025 1030 1026 1026 1022 1024 1025 1030 1030 1033 10.36 1034 1037 1030 1027 1031 1025 1034 1032 1034 1040 1040 1036 1032 1029 1030 102') 1032 1025 1030 1036 1036 1037 1038 1013 1041 1036 1032 1032 ' 'i031 1035 1030 1032 1037 1039 1043 1044 1045 1042 1039 1028 1035 1037 1032 1034 1032 1030 1038 1044 1046 1045 1049 1041 1040 1030 1036 1043 1032 1035 1039 1041 1040 1045 1046 1050 1047 1043 1044 1037 1037 1048 1035 1040 1041 1044 1047 1050 1046 1647- 7 8 ' 1048 1049 9 10 1052; 11 12 13 14 Average 1,0084 1 0179 1 .0247 1.0313 1.0322 1.0353 1.0369 1.0400 1.0425 1.0472 1.0475 1.0495. It will be observed that the increase of specific gravity was very regular, and approximately the same in the several experiments. The following table gives the analyses of a large number of the juices, which also show close agreement, and give evidence that the operation was performed without any appreciable inversion of the sugar, the ratio of sucrose to glucose in the diflTusion juices being quite as good as in the juices expressed by the mill. These diffusion juices, upon defecation and evaporation, give syrups,, in which the relative proportions of sucrose and glucose remained the same as in the juices, and in general they were like the juices ob- tained by the mill, except in being entirely free from mechanical im- purities. ANALYSES OF JUICES OBTAINED BY DIFFUSION. First experi- Second exper- Third experi- Fourth exper- Fifth experi- 1 M 03 ment. iment. ment. iment. ment. V OJ d OJ 3 2 u !Zi CQ a CQ m m en a 1 1 62 1.11 .63 .15 1.13 .30 1.21 ,34 1.36 .25 2 2 51 1.25 2.88 .71 2.61 .67 2.99 ,63 3 39 ,53 3 2.88 2,41 3.94 1.13 3.31 ,97 5.24 .94 4.05 ,72 4 3, 54 2 76 4 54 1.39 4.56 1.36 5.97 1,09 5.64 1 01 5 3.66 2.80 4 83 1 52 4.92 1.44 6,37 1.41 6.27 1 68 6 3.60 2.96 5 02 1.23 5.5] 1.27 5,97 1 67 6.11 1,90 7 4.91 1,71 6.18 1 89 6.30 1.54 6,08 2 26 6.40 2 30 8 4.37 3,15 6 32 2 10 6.77 1.75 6,00 2.69 6.28 2 39 9 2.33 3,51 6.11 1.98 5.89 2.03 6,36 2.75 6.62 2 42 10 2.95 3,25 6 90 7.46 1.80 1.89 7.70 2.09 7.32 7.81 1.78 1.97 EXPERIMENTS IN EECOVEEING SUGAR FEOM THE BAGASSE. 389 Analyses of Juices Obtained hy Diffusion — Continued. CO ■3 Sixth experiment. Seventh experiment. Average of all. 1 « « "o o o CO s i "2 o 8 -a o o 3 o 3 3 « !2i to O OD m CB m A C5 KD 1 l.« .82 .06 1.22 1.50 .59 1.23 .64 .33 2 1 61 1.92 1.24 1.41 1.78 1.00 2.49 1,07 1 12 3 . 2.00 2.57 1.35 2.25 2 42 1.35 3.38 1 59 1.35 4 2.41 2.71 1.42 2 87 3.17 1.59 4.22 1.93 1.50 5 2.55 2 98 1.54 2.54 3,04 1 58 4.45 2.11 1.56 6 2.5.1 3.46 1.74 2 46 3 43 1.97 4.44 2.27 1 86 7 2.40 2 74 1.88 2.96 3.70 2.05 5 03 2.31 1.97 8 2.52 2.99 3 31 3.70 1.52 2.02 5.38 4.88 5 85 7.46 7 32 7.81 2.57 2.73 2.38 1.52 9 2.02 10 ■ ' ■ From the above experiments it will be seen that the water, as it gradually passed through successive barrels of bagasse, increased very regularly in density and in its content of sugar, and after about four barrels of water had passed slowly through the bagasse, the water there- after passed through without taking up any sugar ; that is, the bagasse had been entirely exhausted of its sugar. It was found, as the average of nine experiments, that it was possi- ble to recover 5.98 per cent of the weight of the bagasse taken in sugars, and that, by these successive leachings, there was obtained ulti- mately a juice as rich in sugar as was the juice from the mill. Sugar from Sorghum Bagasse. RESULTS OF SINE EXPERIMENTS BT COLLIER, IN 1880. Number. Pounds bagasse. Pounds sugar. Per cent sugar. 1 693 84,17 ' 4.93 2 693 56.81 8.20 3 770 60 92 7.91 4 462 28 48 6.16 5 385 16.36 4.25 6 693 29.68 4.28 7 616 39 97 6.50 8 924 51.81 5 61 9 693 41.20 5.65 Average 5 98 The bagasses experimented upon were not from good cane, but the leachings were found to compare favorably with the juices expressed from the cane by the mill. The importance of this matter is such as to justify further experi- ment in this direction. From the above average results it would ap- 390 SOEGHUM. pear, that a per cent of sugar may be recovered from the bagasse nearly equal to that which is expressed in juice even by our best mills. After this leaching, the bagasse may be used for fuel or for the manufacture of paper pulp, and for this latter use the exhaustion by water increases its value. Edimate for a Diffusion Leach. The following estimate is based upon the experiments recorded above, and would suffice for a mill grinding about 2J tons of cane per hour. A mill expressing 60 per cent of juice, would furnish 2,000 pounds of bagasse from 2 J tons of cane. 2,000 pounds of bagasse would occupy 125 cubic feet of tank-room, and the tanks filled with bagasse would require 113 cubic feet (848 gallons) of water to fill them. To take 2,000 pounds of bagasse per hour, would require two tanks, each of 62|- cubic feet capacity, or of the dimensions 3^ X 3J X ^ feet, and would require every hour 848 gallons of water. If the dif- fusion of the bagasse is completed in three hours, then 6 tanks would be filled before the first would be empty, and 8 tanks in all, with 12 steps on which to place them, would suffice. ANALYSES OF SORGHUM LEAVES. In the following table is given the analyses of the leaves of four varieties of sorghum, and of the juices expressed from the stalks from which the leaves were taken. There is in the dried leaves an average' of 5.41 per cent of total sugars, while the average amount of total sugars in the juices from the stalks is 14.44 per cent. As has been shown in another place, there is an increase of about 6 per cent in the amount of syrup, and a decrease of about 6 per cent in the amount of the available sugar obtained when the stalks are passed unstripped through the mill, instead of using stripped stalks. But it will be seen that these leaves have a composition which shows them to be of very great nutritive value, and, as fodder, they are well worth preserving whenever one strips his cane for the mill. Indeed, their value is such that, if carefully preserved, they would easily repay the cost of stripping. For purpose of comparison, the following average analysis repre- senting the composition of five samples of hay, are given (A), and the average composition of a large number of American grasses (B), given in the Keport of the Department of Agriculture for 1879, pages 112, 123. The average of the four varieties of sorghum leaves is given in (C). ANALYSES OF SOEGHUM LEAVES. 391 Ash. Fat. N. Free. Albumen. Fiber. Nutr. Ratio. A B C 5 36 7 90 10 18 4,95 2 90 7.06 62 93 63 90 55.57 8 78 8.20 13 61 27.14 27.10 16 54 1:6 6 1:6.9 1:4.1 It appears, then, that the leaves of the sorghums have a higher nutritive ratio than our grasses or hay, and, there is present in them, •when dried with care, a large percentage of sugars and albumenoids, two of the most important constituents of animal food. ANALYSES OF LEAVES OF SORGHUM. - '■> ■ ^ • 1 bib o 13 g 2 a ■?. "S "Ho +J s " 1 t-i o I's o3 (U 6 tons of bagasse and 6.34 tons of juice. The relative proportion of leaves to stripped cane is about 1 to 5.5, and we should have 2 tons of leaves. A crop of 25 bushels of seed would not be disproportionate to such a yield of cane, which, at 56 pounds to the bushel, would be 1 ,440 pounds. The average per cent of ash in sorghum juices is about 1.0 per cent (Ag- ricultural Report, 1880, p. 125). We should have, therefore, as the total mineral matter taken from the soil by a crop of 11 tons of stripped cane, the following : ASH IN A CROP OF 11 TONS OF STRIPPED CANE. Pounds. 4,66 tons baeasse, at 1.27 per cent 93.2 6.34 tons juice, at 1 00 per cent : 126 8 2.00 tons leaves, at 2.84 per cent 113 6 1,400 pounds seed, at 1 .68 per cent 23 5 Total 357.1 396 SOEGHUM. The constituents of the ash from the several portions of the plant is iiot known, but the analysis of the ash of two samples of the entire ■cane is given, Agricultural Eeport, 1880, p. 126, and the analysis of the ash of the seed closely resembles that of maize. If, then, we cal- culate the amount of these several constituents of the ash upon such basis, we have, in the 357.1 pounds above, as follows: Pounds. Potash 180, 8 Soda 9 iime ,... 36 9 Magnesia 37.1 Iron oxide 1 : 2 Pliosplioric acid 24 2 Sulphuric acid 28.9 Chlorine 28 2 Silica 19.9 357.1 Loss of Sugar in Drying Sorghum. The following experiment was made with a bundle of Honduras sor- ghum, which, when cut, contained from 12 to 14 per cent of sugar in the juice. The cane was dried thoroughly and rapidly in a room where the temperature was about 70° F. Of this dry caue, 502 grams, were taken and cut into thin shavings and beaten in a mortar; 1,300 grams, of water was added, and, after digesting for half an hour, the juice was expressed, amounting to 1,189 grams., or 65.97 per cent of the moistened cane. The juice gave the following analysis : .Specific gravity 1028 Sucrose Per cent. . ] .52 Glucose ^ do 2.28 Solids not sugar -. do. ... 2.63 It is obvious that the sugar had been almost entirely lost during the drying of the sorghum. Since this cane was dried under circumstances even more favorable than those attending the drying of larger quanti- ties, it is clear that a very large proportion of the nutriment is lost, as in the case of corn fodder or fodder corn dried for food. The preser- vation of such food in silos would appear commendable, since, in coarser grasses, the large percentage of sugars they contain is, in the longer period required for their drying, almost whoUy lost through slow fermentation. Bagasse as Fuel. Valuable as we have shown the bagasse to be for the sugar which it contains, the paper pulp which may be produced from it, as a food to be preserved in a silo, or as a source of manure, it is yet true that, to many of our Western farmers, as to the planters of Cuba and other sugar producing regions, it is the cheapest (if not the only available) fuel, and will continue to be used for such purpose, as it has been for years. BAGASSE AS FUEL. 397 In drying the bagasse in the sun, it loses about half its weight, and the dried bagasse is found, from many experiments, to possess about half the value of coal ; so that one pound of coal is about equal, in evapo- rating power, to four pounds of fresh bagasse. A mill, giving sixty per cent of juice would then give, for each ton of cane worked, 1,200- pounds juice and 800 pounds of fresh bagasse, equal to 200 pounds of coal. This is ample for the evaporation of the juice, and it is so esti- mated upon the sugar-cane plantations. The following results, re- ported by those who have used the bagasse as fuel, with the discussion thereupon at one of the recent conventions of sorghum growers, held at St. Louis, Missouri, will be read with interest in this connection : The President. — I would like to hear from members on the use of the bagasse, in short, pointed remarks. Who has had success in using bagasse as fuel? Mr. Clements, of Kansas: We started our works with the expectation of burning coarse fuel— hay, bagasse, or something of that kind for fuel — as we had seen it used on a small scale — and with other fuels, to make up fuel for running the factory. We arranged our boilers and every thing with large furnaces — furnaces seven feet long, grates three feet in length. Back of the grates is the furnace ; the draft has all to go in the first three feet. The depth of the furnace, from the boiler grates, is thirty inches. We carry 100 pounds of steam. We found, by drying the bagasse in the sun, giving it one day to dry, it makes better fire than by letting it lay a week in the sun. After it is treated, we stack it up. This season, after we got started, bagasse made all the fuel we could use for evaporation. We started in, and used 100 tons of hay, and the balance of other fuel ; and all the fuel we had was used in the hot dry spell about the first of Sep- tember. From that we started in with bagasse — bought a few tons of hay. When we closed up, we had about .SOO tons of bagasse left over. In connection with that, during the wet spell, we had 200 gallons of semi-syrup in the tanks. We obtained coal to finish the syrup. We could not get steam over-TO pounds. I am satisfied that bagasse will make all the fuel that is required to evaporate- where steam is economically used. The President. — What do you have to pay for hay a ton ? Mr. Clements. — A dollar and a half a ton delivered at the factory. A ton of bagasse will make as much steam as a ton and a half of hay, and as much as two tons of straw. I prefer bagasse for fuel to the best wood that could be ob- tained, delivered at the factory; and it is much better than coal; you can get up steam quicker. With a boiler filled with cold water, you can get steam in thirty minutes, where coal will require an hour and a half. A Member. — Is your boiler a flue boiler ? Mr. Clements. — Tubular; one is .S J, the other is SJ; the latter makes steam easier than the other. I think a 4 inch flue is the best size. The less juice you express from the bagasse, the better fuel it makes. It requires a fireman to each boiler. We have a feeder, with a trap door to it; it is very necessary to keep it. closed, except when putting fuel in. Prof. Oulbertson, of Nebaska. — I have had a little experience in the bagasse, and coal, and straw business as a fuel ; and the experience comes pretty close,. 398 SOHGHUM. on account of our boiler capacity not being what it ought to be. It was little trouble to get steam enough with good, dry bagasse. When we first commenced we ran with bagasse for fuel, and then we used coal. With the very best firemen we could get, we had 100 to 150 gallons less a day with coal. Bagasse, in that connection, was worth twenty dollars a day to us, over and above what coal would have come to— ^taking into consideration the decrease in syrup made. Mr. Clements (in answer to an inquiry). — It would be impossible to keep the necessary fire in a furnace 28 feet long with coal. Where you can have dry ba- gasse, it is better fuel than you can get from any thing else. Mr. Stout — We use bagasse pretty much as Mr. Clements does. We use two fire trains. I have two pans, 33 feet long, with chimneys about 30 feet high. The grates are 4 feet long and 3 feet wide, and probably 2 feet from the pans. We made, on an average, this season, 325 gal- lons of syrup a day. I am satisfied it would take three cords of wood to have done that much evaporation — probably a little more. We didn't use wood — except about half a cord the day we started up, and at one time when every thing got wet. We came early to the conclusion, after burning bagasse, that, if we could not get that or straw, we would actually shut down. The fur- nace we arranged for bagasse is so we could not run with coal or wood; it might do with wood split up very fine. I have noticed frequently, in burning bagasse, the blaze came out at the top of the chimneys 30 feet high, and trains, one 28 feet and the other 33 feet long. Yon have to have the ash pit three or four times as deep (three or four feet), and you have to take it out once a day, when running. If we let it fill up, it will melt the grate in a few hours — -if we let the cinders pile up too close to the grate. In this season, the only thing we used was bagasse (except wood, a few hours), and when there came a heavy rain for a day or two, we burned a rick of probably twenty tons of dry straw. We paid a dollar a ton for the straw. A ton of straw, that cost us only a dollar, was worth more than a cord of wood. A Member. — How did you prevent burning every thing up with the draft; Wouldn't it rain fire all over your premises ?. Mr. Stout. — That height of a chimney wouldn't. Several gentlemen have asked whether they could run a small furnace — a small train — with bagasse. We did that, last season, under a Cook pan, 12 feet long, and a chimney 12 or 15 feet high. Out of that chimney it set the bagasse, in the bagasse yard, on fire half a dozen times. That was really dangerous; but with 30-foot flues, this season, the cinders came out — but it is so high before they light, I think they go out. They are very dangerous in small works, with chimneys only 10 or 15 feet high. A Member. — My chimney was 30 feet high, and my building was set on fire. A Member. — Can you burn bagasse that you grind this morning, the same day? Mr. Stout. — If it is a dry day, we can burn bagasse after two o'clock. You can burn it all that evening and all that night; bagasse that we scatter in the morning. A Member. — Can you keep it a year, and then burn it ? Mr. Stout. — Yes. A Member. — Suppose you had all wood, would you use bagasse then ? BAGASSE AS FUEL. 399 Mr. Stout. — I think I should ; I don't think it would cost as much to use the bagasse as to cut the wood. A Member. — I would like to ask Mr. Stout if he does not think a spark- arrester could be used on the smoke-stack, to avoid fire ? Mr. Stout. — I have no doubt they can. I tried a bonnet; it stopped the draft so we had to take itoflf. Railroads do that, and I have no doubt it can be fixed, and don't think there is much danger with 30-inch flues. A Member. — Is there any advantage in a crooked grate? Mr. Stout. — Yes; I think that it is an advantage, I think the grate should crook down. A Member. — What size of opening in the grate ? Mr. Stout. — Not very particular ; I think about two inches. Mr. Clements. — I find a setof grates will last longer with begasse than with coal or wood, if the fireman attends to his business. I think the distance between the grate part depends a great deal on the fineness with which you crush the cane. Mr. Frazer. — How far from the front end do you put the feed-tube ? Mr. Clements. — On a furnace five feet long, put it a foot from the end. Dr. Mayberry, of Kansas. — I live in a part of the country where we are almost destitute of fuel, except coal, and coal is high — $6.50 a ton. The first two years I ran, I ran on coal oil; it cost five cents net a gallon ; that was cash. I have tried three diSferent kinds of coal, and there is nothing makes steam for me like bagasse does. In feeding bagasse in the furnace, I want it as loose as I can get it. I crowd the furnace, and then take a long iron bar and make it loose. I have one trouble with my factory. I have not enough boiler. I can run better on bagasse than on any kind of coal. If coal was lying in piles free of charge, I wouldn't use it. I dont think that bagasse can be made into any thing that will pay as well as fuel. I have had a good many fires from a smokestack forty-six feet to the top. I think a good draft is essential. Mr. Hoyt said he had a cut of Squier's bagasse furnace, which he passed around the audience, there being no patent oh it. It has an arch in front of the pan to build the fire in, and the flame is thrown up by it against the pan. I can make a hotter fire with bagasse than with any thing else, except chemi- cals. A fork full will burn in 5 or 6 minutes. The following plate, No. XL VII, represents the bagasse furnace, invented by Isaac A. Hedges, and now manufactured by J. A. Field &, Co. , of St. Louis, Missouri. 400 SORGHUM. &- O 43 m 3 « O CO p. Oi a a aa Paper Pulp from Bagasse. From the analyses of 18 bagasses, it will be seen that the average juice expressed from the canes was : Per cent Juice '. 57.61 Bagasse 42.39 100. OO The average of crude fiber was 10.61 per cent of the fresh bagasses, or 4.50 per cent of the stripped stalks, so that each ton of stripped stalks contained 90 pounds of crude fiber. A sample of pulp made from the bagasse of sorghum was submitted for examination to one of the largest paper-makers of the United States, and was by him said to be worth 4^ cents per pound. This bagasse was treated by the ordinary processes for making paper pulp. An average yield of ten tons of stripped cane to the acre would give 900 pounds of pulp, which, at the above price, would amount to BAGASSE AS FUEL. 401 $-10.50. It appears that this material could be thus economically used, and so be another source of profit in the cultivation of sorghum. SCUM AND SEDIMENT FKOM DEFECATION. The following analyses show the average composition of several sam- ples of scum and sediments from the defecation of sorghum juices : ANALYSES OF SEDIMEKT AKD SCUM OF SORGHUM IN SUGAR MAKING. Scum. Ether extract, wax, fat, chlorophyl, etc. Alcohol extracts, sugars, resins, etc Water extract, gum, etc Insoluble in ether, alcohol, and water. . Ash, per cent Potash (K'O) Soda (NaaO) Lime (CaO) Magnesia (MgO) Sulphuric aoid'(SO») Chlorine (CI) Phosphoric acid (P^O') ' Silica Sand, etc Nitrogen, per cent Sedi- ment. Per cent. 16.23 8.06 33.81 40.86 99.01 19. 49 12.36 3 87 32 13 2.42 1.04 2.34 6.18 27 81 10.01 98 16 2.55 Per cent. 9 53 27 00 38 83 23.98 99 34 19.81 6.03 26.43 1.92 2,62 6.02 2 39 23 40 10.93 99.55 1.46 The following analyses of two different specimens of sediments and one of skimmings, show the great variation in these, due, doubtless, to the mechanical conditions prevailing in each defecation : Liberian lime pre- cipitate. Honduras lime pre- cipitate. Honduras skimmings. Moisture Ash. 9.77 21.69 17.60 10 80 3.61 6.02 22.58 5.73 2 20 Trace. 7.69 7 00 8.95 43 96 3 26 11 40 4.65 12.71 48 Trace. 5.72 14 30 14.44 Sugars Eesins and trace albumen... Gum Albumenoids ,... 15.06 5.08 11.10 8.05 5 58 Crude iiber ; 5 49 15 18 100.00 100.00 100.00 26 402 SORGHUM. The large amount of ash in Liberian lime precipitate and Honduras skimmings is due to the presence of considerable clay, which had been used to hasten the clarification of the juice. There was little or no clay present in Honduras lime precipitate. The claying seems me- chanically to have carried down a large proportion of the albumen in the Liberian lime precipitate. ^ The large percentage of nitrogenous matter, sugars, and ash, es- pecially potash, in each of the above analyses, is evidence of the great value of these waste products, and great care should be taken that they be utilized, if not as food for swine, at least as a fertilizer to be added to the compost heap, the manure pile, or to the land directly. Many farmers have used them as feeding material with excellent results, as the following testimony shows : All my scum I feed to cows and hogs. I find that by the use of the scum my cows will give a double yield of milk ; and, for my part, I would rather have milk than vinegar. As an article of commerce, vinegar has rather a dull sale with us. I find the scum makes excellent hog feed. Mr Powell, of Wisconsin. — I would like to ask if Mr. Stebbinq kept any ac- count of his hogs and cows, by which he could give the results in dollars and cents. Mr. Stebbins. — I could not definitely; I take my hired man's word for the amount of milk given by the cows. He told me they gave about double the amount of milk they did before be commenced feeding scums; and, as regards the hogs, I know they did right well when they had nothing but scum. I did n't raise hogs before I commenced my mill, and I could not give any figures. I am well satisfied with the working of the field. Mr. Powell. — Shoats and hogs will do splendidly from the skimmings; they will do remarkably welt if you will only mix the skimmings with shorts. Mr. Folger. — I tried an experiment of that kind with twelve hogs, averaging 125 lbs.; I fed them three weeks with skimmings, and the result was 50 lbs. to the hog in that three weeks — 600 lbs. difference in the weight; they aver- aged 175 lbs. at the close of the three weeks. On Sundays they were fed corn; the rest of the time merely skimmings, and nothing else. ProJ. Culberison, of Nebraska. — Last year from the skimmings of eighteen hundred gallons, and the seed from six acres of cane, the hogs weighed 2,000 lbs. more at the end of the season ; there were about thirty-five, and confined to that exclusively. Dr. Mayberry. — My pigs got nothing else than skimmings; I have thrown them a little cane seed occasionally ; and I have as fine hogs as are grown in that section of country. I have heard men say they could see themselves on them. I would rather have cane seed than corn for feeding them. Prof Henry. — I want to speak of the value of the skimmings. I have found , that, when fed to pig3, all they will eat, it gives them a very fair growth. I hope a majority of our farmers will be able to report at our next convention how skimmings work for feed. The value of the skimmings is probably from SCUM AND SEDIMENT FROM DEFECATION. 403 half to two-tliirds that of skimmed milk, and you are throwing away, at jour works, from three to ten barrels a day of it. By using skimmings you would be able to carrj' your hogs from a month to six weeks without giving them any corn at all. I made this fall a pound of pork from eight pounds of meal, and that was the result in Philadelphia, with nothing but skimmings mixed with warm water. The President. — A friend in Pennsylvania said he had his fed to his milch- cow. I never tried it, but I have it from a brother of Seth H. Uenney, who has always worked with him, although I had the opinion that if skimmings were fed to a milch-cow it would dry her up very quickly, but I was assured by him that his cows almost doubled their milk as soon as the mill commenced running and they were fed on skimmings. I would feed it to hogs, and all they wanted of it. I did one year, and my shoats did splendidly, and my large fat- ting hogs did nicel}- too. It made them fatten very fast. Do not give skim- mings to the hogs after it has fermented, give it fresh from the mill, or it will be a damage, and not a benefit. Heni-y Linley. — I can fully indorse what the president said about feeding it to hogs. I have fed my green skimmings a number of years, and I should say we should not give it to them after it has fermented. I have had pigs as drunk as could be. I generally give it to them as soon as I can, and the trouble is, I can not get half enough. The hogs prefer skimmings to milk. Vinegar from Skimmings. The manufacture of vinegar from the skimmings and sediments of defecator, evaporator, and settling tanks, has been by many rendered a source of profit. It is necessary that the clear liquor be drawn off from the tank con- taining these waste products before the acetic fermentation ' begius ; since otherwise the acetic acid formed will unite with the lime of the sediment, and destroy the vinegar. After drawing oif the clear liquor into barrels, or a fermenting tank, the remaining sediment may be used as a fertilizer. The addition of wash waters to the contents of the scum and sediment tank will sufficiently dilute them to render their content of sugar easily removed. It wiU.be found cleaner to use the scum and sediments as food for swine, and reserve in a separate tank the skimmings of the evapo- rator, sweet water from washings, etc. The following testimony from those who have made vinegar will be of interest : Mr. Powell, of Wisconsin, Mississippi Valley Cane Growers' Association. — I must say a little for my vinegar. I take the settlings and skimmings and run them right outside my mill. I have a large building, 42 x 85, two stories high. I run them outside in a large tank. I have six large tanks, holding three thousand gallons each, that I use for the storage of syrup and vinegar. A great many have wanted to know what process was used to make vinegar. Sim- 404 SOEGHUM. ply to settle oflf the thick substance from these skimmings, running the clear juice into the tanks from the outside inside, and keeping it a time — one j-ear. I want to make good vinegar. The President. — How do you reduce that, with water ? Mr. Powell. — Don't reduce it at all; just about as it comes from the mill,. settlings and skimmings, just let it stand till it works itself down to vinegar. I pump mine up and filter it through straw filters to take out any little parti- cles. I have noticed some receipts in the papers ; men want to go through a great ceremony; I think that is all wrong. The President. — How many gallons of vinegar do you make off sixty acres?' Mr. Powell. — In making 7,268 gallons of syrup I made 6,000 of vinegar. Those 6,000 gallons of vinegar needed no expense nor labor, except to provide yourself with tanks ; the tanks will probably be forty-five to fifty dollars apiece. With the exception of a little attention, while doing your other work, you need not take time specially for this, only to see that in transferring from one tank to the other you take out the impurities. I have had some covering put over the tanks, matched flooring, and those tanks have not, frozen only so that I can take a pencil and work it right round the little slush of ice on the top. The mercury indicated 30° below zero before I left home. A Member. — Do you sell the vinegar for manufactured cane vinegar? Mr. Powell. — I sell it for pure manufactured cane vinegar. The President. — How does it compare with other vinegar in price? Mr. Powell. — As far as price is concerned, I asked, until quite recently, twenty cents a gallon by the barrel. I found it accumulated on my hands, and I put it at sixteen. But I have something that is better for me- in the locality where I live. I have 10,000 gallons of better vinegar than you can buy in the city of Chicago. Three years ago I ordered from a large factory in Faribault six large storage tanks, capable of holding about 2,600 gallons each. I am using four of these to run my skimmings into. There is a class of skimmings I do not allow to go there, but that that I think is fit I run there, and there I let it stand till I get through with my other work; and, if it is too late to filter it, then I let it stand till next spring. ■ Then I filter it, open the windows and doors for free circulation of air, and you will have better vinegar than you can buy, I believe. I do not add any water to it. I filter it through a couple of barrels of straw. I believe in simplicity. These highfangled notions, that cost a great deal of money, I am going to repudiate till I know something about them. The barrels are placed one on top of the other, and the juice pumped up and al- lowed to run through them. There is not a particle of any thing in the 10,000 gallons but the skimmings; but, in an experimental way, I have taken a gallon or so and dusted in a little sulphur, and I find that it clears it a little. The sample exhibited here was nothing of the kind, however. It was drawn out of a tank containing 2,500 gallons. It commences to ferment in the tank very soon. It freezes in the winter, but that does not hurt it a particle. I do not put the green skimmings into it. I run the green skimmings outside, and they are settled till they will run comparatively clear into the tank, and the other is drawn off. eo:;gijum as foddee. 405 SORGHUM AS FODDEE. It will interest many to learn the value of sorghum for fodder, and the analyses below will show how it compares with maize for such pur- pose. Experiments have been made in substituting it for maize in the silo, with excellent results, as by its analysis we should expect. Below are given the results of the examination of the stalks of Egyptian sugar corn, Honduras, and Early Amber sorghums, and the leaves from the same. This examination was made for the purpose of determining the loss of sugar in the method employed in its ex- traction; also to determine the relative nutritive value of the leaves and stalks, pressed and unpressed. The stalks selected were split lengthwise, so that a fair average might be taken, and one-half was dried thoroughly without pressing, and the other half was passed through the mill, and the bagasse, or pressed stalks, carefully saved and dried. LEATES, STALKS, AND BAGASSE, FROM CORN AND SORGHUMS. Egyptian sugar corn, leaves Egyptian sugar corn, one half of 4 stripped stallcs, unpressed EgypKan sugar corn, one half of 4 stripped stalks, pressed. ... Honduras sorghum, leaves Honduras sorghum, one-half of 2 stripped stalkS; unpressed, Honduras sorgum, one-half of 2 stripped stalks, pressed Early Amber sorghum, leaves Early Amber sorghum, one-half of 3 stripped stalks, unpressed . ^ Early Amber sorghiim, one-half of 3 stripped stalks, pressed ■s a c a P b. •-1 vo .jj c A ^ OJ .c bD hD bD o to CJ O ^ C^ ^ A != 380 116.6 832 126 875 460 415 47.43 99.0 432 1,428 1,390 100.8 285 3 724 666 47 91 222 7 399 C51 905 99.7 157.9 147 8 458 447 49 39 67.3 84.9 88,7 76.7 80.0 84 75 75 7 83.7 A determination of the proximate constituents of the dried leaves, stalks, and bagasse, is given below, from which it will appear that there still remains a large amount of sugar in the bagasse, which the process employed failed to remove from the stalks ; also that the per cent of starch compounds is greater in the pressed than in the un- pressed stalks, and that the percentage of nitrogenous matter remains nearly the same. The nutritive value of the pressed stalks is nearly, if not quite, equal to that of the unpressed stalks, weight for weight. 406 SOEGHUM. PROXIMATE ANALTSES OF STALKS, BAGASSE, AND LEAVES OF SWEET CORN AND SORGHUM, CALCULATED TO THE DRY SUBSTANCE. ■ ^ !- a S3 o bo u O u 03 o a, S la U> a MM C3 as .13 c3 M 1 = u> t) p M B B 1-1 ►-1 ^ Organic acid, chlorophyl, color. . 7 36 5,39 2,85 1 47 2 01 1,11 1 40 3 29 1,48 Wax .91 .. 449,409 The following states, in which the interest has been and is most prominent, are thus represented by local official enumerations : Years. Acres. Sugar. Syrup. 1862 30,872 31,255 29,392 37,042 43,101 17,804 25.2.-17 212,231 23,450 ■ 2.3,072 12,932 9,426 12,108 13,144 15,9293^ 16,104M 16,305 Pounds: 27,486 27,359 41,660 56,066 46 951 20,094 28,668 27,048 21,9,S8 25,505 31,599 36,846 36.410 21,768 25,074 7.507 Ji 11,909 Gallons 2.696,l.i9 1863 2,347,578 1864 2,609,728 4,003,754 4,629,570 1,255,807 2,004,055 1,683,042 2,187,673 1,817,042 1867 1868 1870 1871 lS7i . : 968,130 692.314 1873 1874 1S75 . . 941,510 928,106 1,185,235 1,1X0.255 1,273,048 1876 ... . . 1877 1878 MINNESOTA. (No official returns of sugar.) Years. Acres. Syrup. 186S Gallons. 81,375 31 191 1869 629 728 1,244 8.59 747 1,146 1,5:^4 1,695 2.200 3,207 5,033 7,317 1870 56,370 73,425 78,095 53,226 69 -'i99 1X71 1772 1873 1874 Wn 70,479 1X76 72,489 1877 140,1-53 1X78 329,660 1X79 '. 446,946 1880 PRODUCTION AND PROFITS OF SORGHUM CULTIVATION. 411 IOWA. Years. Acres. Syrup. Sugar. 1858 5,600 Qaltons. 410,776 1,443,605 2,094,r)57 2,.W2,.S93 1,386,908 Pounds. 1862 21,496 18(i5 21,452 25,796 26,243 15,768 8,386 18G7 14,697 1869 1875 ILLINOIS. (No official returns of sugar.) Years. Acres. Syrup. 1879 17,883 9,825 Gnllnns. 1,809,400 1880 636,216 Years. Acres. Syrup, Sugar. 1872 Gallons. Pounds. 1873 1874 14,103 23,026 15,714 20,784 20,29-2 23,665 2,390,131 2,333,566 1,429,476 5-10,338 1875 1,149,0.30 1876 839.117 1877 . . l,19.'i,l)66 1878 1,166,783 1879 1,224,557 1880 For twenty-five years past, the average yield of syrup, varying from 16,000,- 000 gallons per annum to 5,000,000 or 6,000 000, has probably averaged about 11,000,000 gallons, valued at 65 cents to 40 cents. For syrup, fodder, and all purposes, the average value of the crop may have approximated $8,000,000 per annum. Mr. J. A. Field, of St. Louis, Mo., in December, 1882', sent out several hundred circulars of inquiry as to the cultivation and manu- facture of sorghum, and received replies from the following states, viz.: Vermont, New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, West Virginia, Tennessee, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Dakota, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri,^ Texas, and two provinces, viz., Quebec and Ontario, Canada : in all, 21 states, 1 territory, and 2 provinces. All our reports are for the manufacture of syrup. We have, therefore, no in- formation pertaining to the granulation of sugar from tliese sources. 412 sokghum; Tte number of acres grown by the parties making these reports was 639, with an additional amount, worked upon shares, grown by other parties, of about 900 acres, making a total of 1,539 acres. The number of gallons of syrup produced from the 639 acres was 54,245, to which must be added the product of that worked on shares, equal to 76,100 gallons, making a grand total of 130,845 galloBS. The average number of gallons per acre was 87^%. The average price of syrup was 54J cents per gallon, making the value of an acre $47.76. The aver- age cost of cultivation, harvesting, and manufacturing, was reported at 15 cents per gallon, making a total cost of $13.10 per acre, leaving a net profit of $34.66. If we add to this the average product of seed, of 30 bushels per acre, sold at 35 cents per bushel, or $10.50, we have a total net profit of $45.16 per acre. The lowest number of gallons per acre was 26. This was grown on sod ground in Kansas. On the same farm, and nearly adjoining it, was another lot, planted on old ground and properly cultivated, which yielded 200 gallons per acre. This contrast proves that the proper preparation of soil and cultivation of crop materially advance the product in this, as well as any other crop. The highest number of gallons per acre was grown from Early Orange, in Southern Illinois, producing 360 gallons per acre. A large number of the parties making these reports were new beginners. This accounts partially for the small quantity produced per acre. Others re- port a wet, cold, backward spring, followed by severe drought, as the cause of shortness of the crop. All the parties speak in the most encouraging manner as to their faith in the profitableness of the crop. Professor Henry, of the State Agricultural College, Madison, Wis- consin, reports as follows as to certain sorghum growers in that state : S. Hanson, of Whitewater, one of the oldest and most experienced growers in the state, reports 18 gallons from 10 rods of ground and 200 gallons per acre from larger pieces. Joseph H. Osborn, Oshkosh, reports the highest yield 226 gallons, with an average of 150. N. D. Comstock, Arcadia, Trempealeau county, estimates the average at 125 gallons. Maxon and Almony, Milton Junction, Rock county, estimates the average at 150 gallons. J. H. Rhodes, Sexipnville, Richland county, raised on 1 acre 170 gallons. 0. S. Powell, of River Falls, Pierce county, estimates the average crop at 100 gallons. ^ H. T. Webster, Keene, Portage county, obtained 40 gallons from 28 rods of ground. J. D. Sherwbod, Dartford, Green Lake county, reports one-third of an acre yielding 12,588 pounds of stalks, from which 79.14 gallons of syrup were made. A. J. Decker, Fond dn Lac, considers 125 gallons the average. Mr. S. Nason, of Nasonville, Wood county, where cane was grown this season for the first time, reports 800 gallons from 4 acres. Evan Brickson, Stevenstown, La Crosse county, obtained 1,050 gallons from 5 acres. The average yield of syrup on good ground, in a favorable season, may be PKODUCTION AND PROFITS OF SOEGHUM CULTIVATION. 413 set down at about 160 gallons. With such culture as is usually given to it, the yield will be about 100. It may be set down as a fact that, wherever it has been planted in the state, it has succeeded, no matter how poor the soil was. It promises to be one of the very best crops for our sandy lands, for, though the yield per acre will not be large, the syrup will be of fine quality. Land on th& experimental farm, which produced 50 bushels of corn per acre, this year gave 200 gallons of thick syrup. The following tables give details as to the crop, the products, cost of cultivation, and profits, from several cultivators and manufacturers,, and the accuracy of most of them have been established by affidavits t 414 SORGHXJM. *StM *tI0S3[DTj:a UBAa 3 07CM ■S88X SIM Woog 'h 'M 300 SCQi-H ■S88I 'SBS -n^S 'nosjapuv" 'H 'OC oooo •UBa: 'aaiiv -AV •£) ■E88I "ni 'U0}UtM -uiM CJCM ^■^ '3881 '■UU3X 'nosnqof -soqx *I88T '■q3JS[ I— -• SDOO: i~«30(0 1— CCOO ^(MXCOOCCl-i-HCOl-iO i-i O M 1^ ■ O lOr-icocr. iocoi>xoc>i 'ssst "III '.-niiAspjBAv -pa "OO II:H ViO -1 IC - ■-■ ■!** t^ 1.-* r- o ctj cc o cc oiu ■QCrOOCOI-QO'^'lO T.881 ''O 'UOSJaj^Df ''OO IBSuS UOSJ9JEJ3]* c-iorriOi— >m(0500«; i-l O I- 1-- -^ I* I-. CO 00 ,--CJ CO -H ,-1 ■S88I '-siAY 'Bajosg 'jaizBj^ "tuM "5881 *'siA\. '3^1 tip UO^ 'J83lDea T 'V lOOtDOOaO«t7JOOOOO(NCOOS Xl TTi'-- OO OOCOtOOiOi— 'CO-^i— lO CM OtO-^CO ^ CM 35 Tli-i M,-i iraO-<*tOlT^ meow •S88C 'saaqiojg; puouiiuujo; U3^t-Tr0=i0]iracci0i— ■-mOl-^OOOOl-'-iCO eo CM -^ :ri to i—i wi O CO ■ (M OJi-iCO i-H I-l .-. "* CO i-H QO lO 'S8SI 'oiitO '^A9 -U30 'Xq^iiii^ uosiaKC '3881 ["BO 'ODSp ■5o=>oiocMioooc: O :=> I -CJ •>! I-H O 1-- 'S88I C-l r^ ^1 -O -* ao o (D ro 1- ■S88[ SIM 'UOS 5iO0Ct COTTOOCOt^COtOOCOOOOOOaOCDOtOi-t _CMT>1070- to i-'l^'ttCOinoOOt* CO I-l O j^,-rira rH COOOiOOltOOiOlOfH " Q0c5 ■"* 5. 25. 75. 1-2. 79. 57. 10. 348. SO 212 50 127 50 100 00 75 00 98 00 160 00 512 00 ■ 3 00 2 511 1 r-< 1 50 2 0(1 2 12 2 00 2.00 1 25 2 00 1 50 2 SO 2 50 9.00 3 00 3 Oil 1 00 i'oo 2 00 20 00 2 00 1 50 2 50 1.00 9 00 10 30 ■1 00 34 00 10. 9. fi.75 10. 28^' 42.00 5. 33. 258. ■ 20 50 36.00 55 37 275 56 iooo 2.50 6 00 2.00 19.00 Total cost ol cue acre 26 87 15.09 20 75 33 00 CI 30 24 14 38.74 39.50 Cost manufacfg one acre 13.95 6.02 9 00 20.00 34 00 18 43 27.56 19 00 Cost of one acre at mill. . . 12.92 9.07 14.87 11 75 13.00 27.30 18 70 5.71 11 18 20 50 Profit on one acre 18.13 43.76 7 SG 74.93 16.00 30 00 26 35 30.98 24 OG 54.00 The average net profits per acre of the entire 26 reports is $32.14, and the average net profit upon each ton of cane worlced was $4.18 ; also the average number of tons of stripped cane produced per acre was 9.04, and the average value of the products of an acre was $74.64. The average cost of an acre of sorghum, delivered at the mill for grinding was $14.50, and the average cost of manufacturing an acre of sorghum in syrup was $18.50. The average price of the syrup was slightly over 50 cents per gallon, and the sugar about 8 cents per pound. It is to be observed, that very few make much account of the seed in their estimates ; but since the value of this portion of the crop has been ascertained to be equal to that of the crop of corn for feeding purposes, it can not be left out in any plan for the most profitable production of syrup or sugar. At Rio Grande, New Jersey, where this industry appears to be most permanently established, the seed is utilized in feeding and fattening swine, of which the company have several hundred, living exclusively upon the seed and bagasse of sorghum, and it is stated that the profits arising from this feature of their enterprise is such that the company 416 SOKGHOM. are enabled to grow their cane and deliver it to the mill absolutely free of all cost, so that the only expense of attending their production, of sugar and syrup is that of manufacture. Gratifying as is this result to those who desire to see the success of this new sugar industry, it can not be surprising to any one who will consider that our chief consumption of corn is for the fattening of swine, and that it is so used profitably needs no argument to prove. If, then, the seed of sorghum, equally abundant and equally nutri- tious, may be substituted for corn, the stalks of sorghum, like thos& of maize, may be regarded as being produced free of cost. Also, by means of such use of the seed and bagasSe, fertilizing material is secured. PRODUCTION OF SOKGHUM SYRUP IN THE UNITED STATES AOCOBDIKG TO THE; CENSUS OF 1860-70-80. States and Territories. Massachusetts . . Rhode Island... Connecticut. . . . New York New Jersey ,. Pennsylvania..'. Delaware Maryland Virginia North Carolina.. South Carolina.. Georgia Florida Alahama Mississippi Louisiana Texas.. • Arkansas — ^.. Tennessee West Virginia. . . ICentucky , . . . • . Ohio Michigan Indiana Illinois Wisconsin Minnesota. Iowa Missouri Kansas Nebraska California Oregon Nevada Colorado , Arizona Dakota Idaho New Mexico Utah Washington Total. Number of .gallons. 1860. 20 395 516 396 22,2'in 1,613 907 221,270 263,475 51,041 103,490 55,653 1,427 112,412 n.i,004 706,663 356,705 779,076 86,953 881,049 806,.589 19,854 14,178 1,211, .512 796,111 87,656 23,497 552 315 20 1,950 25,475 1870. 20 6,8.?2 7,»S2 17,424 213,373 65,908 28,563 329,155 621,855 183,585 374,027 267,269 67,509 180 174,309 147,203 1,251,701 780,829 1,740,453 2,023,427 94,686 2,026,212 1,960,473 . 74,478 38,725 1,218,636 1,730,171 449,409 77,598 333 3,651 1,230 1,765 67,446 612 16,050,089 » 1,163. 1,134 1,261 69,767 2i,136- 19,8.37 564,558 964,662 281.242 981,152. 10,199 1,163,451 1,062,140' 33,777 432,0.59 1,118,364 3,776,212: 817,168 2,962,965 1,229,852. 102,50* l,74r.S.53 2,265,993 314,150' 543,369 2,0(>4.020 4,129,.595 1,429,476. 246,047 2,4.59- 2,283 .350 3.227 5,771 17,012, 36 251 5.S,22l ■<• 1,472 28,444,202- PRODUCTION OF SUGAR FROM SORGHUM. 417 It appears, from the above, that the increase in production from 1860 to 1870 was 138 per cent; and, from 1870 to 1880, 77 per cent, and that, with the exception of Pennsylvania, Oliio, and Indiana, no state with a large production shows any falling off; while, in certain of the states, the increase has been remarkable. PRODUCTION OF SUGAR FROM SORGHUM. Very many manufacturers of sorghum have produced amounts of sugar fairly comparable in quantity with the results obtained from sugar- cane. Mr. A. J. Russell, who produced in 1879 over 22 tons of sorghum sugar, polarizing 96°. 5, reports that he secured 15 to 23 gallons of syrup from a ton of cahe, and obtained, as first sugar, 4J pounds to the gallon of syrup. Mr. John B. Thoms, an experienced sugar maker, reports that sor- ghum sugar may be produced at an expense for manufacture of not over 1 J cents per pounds. Professor Henry, of Madison, Wisconsin, made sua^ar in 1882 at an ■■■xpense for. cultivation and manfacture of not over 4^ cents per pound. He obtained, as "firsts,'' 45 per cent of the weight of the syrup in sugar of excellent quality ; and upon their experimental plats, Profes- sor Swenson and himself secured, approximately^ a thousand pounds of sugar per acre. The president of the Rio Grande Sugar Co. reported the expense of working the cane in the mill as not being over $1.75 per ton. Much of the cane yielded for each ton worked 65 pounds of first, besides the molasses ; and, with sorghum in good condition as to maturity, the es- timate of 100 pounds of sugar to each ton of cane is confidently made. Mr. Thoms estimates the expense of working 100 tons of cane into eyrup and sugar at $80.25 + $42 for 80 barrels, equal $122.25, or $1.22 for the manufacture of each ton of cane. These results are such as have been often reported, even by those working with far more inexpensive plants. Edwin Blood, of Stockbridge, Wisconsin, reports that, in the season of 1881, it cost him 11 cents per gallon to manufacture syrup, but in 1882 he could make it for 7|- cents per gallon. D. H. Anderson, of Kansas, reports 10 cents per gallon as the cost of manufacture of a gallon of syrup. Now, at 15 gallons to the ton of cane, it costs at Rio Grande 11| cents, and Mr. Thoms 8J cents, to manufacture a gallon of syrup — re- sults closely agreeing with the results obtained from smaller mills. 27 418 SOEGHUM. Reference to the average results of many samples of juice from many varieties of sorghum, given on page 210, will show that such es- timate is far short of the possibilities. Mr. A. J. Russell, already quoted, reports that he has obtained 280 gallons of syrup from one acre of cane, and obtained from this syrup 7^ pounds of sugar to the gallon. Tliis is 2,100 pounds of sugar from the acre, besides the seed, which he estimates at from 25 to 40 bushels to the acre, and which he sold at 50 cents per bushel. He also reports that 10 tons of cane is an average yield to the acre, and 14 gallons of syrup to the ton, and 7^ pounds of sugar to the gallon ; and that, at such yield, the sugar would not cost 2^ cents per pound ; but he says that a good season aiad good land should give 20 tons of cane per acre, 17 gallons of syrup to the ton, and 9^ pounds hf sugar to the gallon. This is a result of 3,230 pounds of sugar per acre. Of the heavier and later maturing varieties of sorghum, over 30 tons per acre have been repeatedly obtained. Geo. W. Chapman, of Stirling, Kansas, reports having obtained 33-| tons of Honduras sorghum to the acre, so that the above state- ments of Mr. Russell do not appear to be beyond the limits of possibility. At Rio Grande, New Jersey, Hon. James Bishop, Secretary of the Bureau of Statistics of New Jersey, reports that, in 1882, the product of sugar and cane upon which the state paid bounty was 5,638 tons of cane and ol9,944 pounds of sugar. Also, that 1,011 barrels of syrup were produced. That the average of the juice worked during the sea- son was 11°. 11 Beaum6, and the average purity of the juice was 84°. 16. That the first two weeks of the season more molasses than sugar was produced, viz., 112 barrels of sugar and 181 barrels of mo- lasses, but that, on the fourth week, the proportion was 130 barrels of sugar to 110 barrels of molasses. One plat of eight acres, by actual surve;^ and weight, yielded 136 tons of cane, an average of seventeen tons to theacre. Another plat of one acre yielded twenty-one tons, and a third twenty-two tons to the acre. During the season of 1883, three acres, by actual measurement, yielded 78 tons of cane, an average of 26 tons per acre. Sorghum Sugar in Japan. Consul General Van Buren, of Yokohama, Japan, in a report to the Department of State upon the agriculture of Japan, under the head of sugar, says' : The sugar o^ Japan is made from that species of the sorghum plant known as the Chinese sorghum, It grows luxuriantly in all the southern portions of ihe empire south of the 36th degree of north latitude. The whole product of the COMPAEATIVE VALUE OF SORGHUM AND OTHEE CROPS. 410 empire in 1878 was 64,297,580 pounds. Importation in 1878 was 67,434,805 pounds. For three or four hundred years, the processes of granulating and re- fining sugars have been known and practiced. . Sorghum is not grown, as with us, from the seed, but from cuttings. In September, selected stalks are cut and buried in trenches a foot deep. Through the winter, from each joint of .the stalks, fiprouts grow. In thespring, thesejointsarecutoff andsetoutin rows 15 to 18 inches apart, and about the same distance from each other in the rows. The ground has previously been thoroughly dug up and pulverized by a long-bladed mattock. The fertilizers used are ashes, fish, decomposed hay, straw and sea-weed, or night-soil. Theplantsare thoroughly hoed, hilled, and irrigated. In October and November, ther leaves are stripped oflF, and the stalks are then cut and the hard outer covering is removed, and the remaining portion is then ground be- tween rollers of slone or hard wood. The cane juice is then boiled in iron ket- tles until the granulation takes place, when it placed in bags and pressed dry. The expressed syrup is used as molasses. Dry upland soils are required for the successful growth of the cane, and the expenditure of labor and fertilizers is as great, if not greater, as for any other crop. Great exertions are being made to promote the increased production of sugar, which will probably be, in some degree, succes.sful. In fact, I am informed that large orders for the ap- paratus for sugar making have been received from districts which have hereto- fore not grown sugar-cane. Sugar Product per Acre. Nelson Maltby, Geneva, Ohio, reports that E. Winchester, of that place, obtained, from one-third of an acre of sorghum, 336 pounds of sugar and 47 gallons of molasses ; that M. D. Cole, from one-half an acre, obtained 330 pounds of sugar and 50 gallons of molasses ; also, that, from 700 gallons of syrup, Mr. Maltby obtained 4,230 pounds of sugar from the first crystallization. Professors Henry and Swenson, of Madison, Wisconsin, report, as the result from tv^o experimental plats, 923 and 998 pounds of sugar per acre, and, in addition, 1,235 and 1,042 pounds of molasses, besides 27J and 82 bushels of seed from the respective plats. COMPARATIVE VALUE OF THE SORGHUM AND OTHEE PRINCIPAL CROPS. In the Iowa Agricultural Eeport for 1872, page 268, the following , average acreage values of the leading crops grown in Iowa during the years 1862-71, inclusive, is given as the report of a committee appointed for the purpose of investigating the sorghum industry in Iowa: 420 SOEGHUM. Sorghum Corn Wheat. . . Oats .... Potatoes Average acreage value of crop. $G8 13 IS 26 13 79 11 73 55 84 Difference. $54 87 64 84 56 40 12 29 It thus appears that the acreage value of the sorghum crop was more than fiv© times (5.27) that of the average of ihe other cereals, and that the only crop which approached it in acreage value was that of potatoes. The average net profits of an acre of sorghum has been shown (page 415) to be $32.14, nearly three times the gross returns- from the cereals. For the purpose of comparison, the following tables from the Annual Eeport, Department of Agriculture, 1881-82, are given, showing the average cash value of each of the principal crops grown in the United States, separately and together for each of the states ; also, a summary of the amount of each crop grown, the acreage and value, average acreage yield and price, as also the statistics of maize and the cereals, as-a whole, from 1871 to 1881, inclusive: TABLE SHOWING THE AVERASE CASH VALUE PER ACRE OF FARM PRODTJCTS FOB THE TEAR 1881.' States. Maine New Hampshire Vermont Massachusetts . . Ehode Island... Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania . . . Delaware Maryland Virginia North Carolina.. South Carolina. . Georgia.. ..' Florida Alabama' Mississippi Louisiana Texas Arkansas Tennessee $30 94 29 7.i 30 22 24 20 20 17 18 17 37 J40 04 15 40 52 50 65 110 60 66 30 49 69 62 40 46 56 43 00 48 41 31 40 26 60 21 31 21 00 22 00 43 20 36 80 36 10 89 20 43 56 34 40 $225 12 234 30 228 00 251 52 174 86 129 00 152 49 54 08 47 82 59 34 72 33 88 43 2') 89 78 48 79 ' 54 72 40 66 41 .i;io 41 10 57 )2 32 20 S3 20 41 17 61 16 30- 20 54 14 88 18 05 17 64 17 66 18 17 19 36 21 65 19 95 19 78 18 94 17 82 13 75 18 00 16 22 COMPAKATIVE VALUE OP SOEGHUM AND OTHER CROPS. 421 Table Showing Average Cash Value, etc. — Continued. States. fl CJ . o M O 16 80 13 12 9 41 7 90 11 90 9 82 10 99 7 66 15 49 17 IB 12 05 12 19 17 04 13 62 1137 15 01 13 08 13 72 ' 9 49 9 66 11 25 10 Oil 14 11) 14 36 14 90 13 45 12 87 1144 16 % 12 OS ID 88 15 31 11 35 7 no 9 12 8 91 10 72 10 23 10 03 10 71 10 Bli 9 55 9 03 7 92 10 09 6 89 7 88 7 92 21 22 12 36 11 10 13 86 15 15 15 11 13 40 14 88 21 SO 17 40 28 53 26 77 26 33 19 40 22 19 30 69 19 33 16 36 17 79 .a si o 1 o 8 34 44 55 7 03 37 00 8 06 34 10 13 05 46 40 10 89 37 10 7 52 50 40 11) 08 63 00 10 29 61 75 11 ii; 66 11) 12 25 43 68 9 40 49 40 7 86 47 04 17 go 68 00 15 00 67 50 12150 104 00 70 70 West Virginia Kentucky — Ohio Miciiigiiu Indiana Illinois Wisconsin ... Minnesota Iowa Missouri, .... Kansas Nebraslia — California Oregon Nevada Colorado Territories 18 45 15 13 16 24 22 60 27 311 13 33 20 58 23 07 15 39 15 4S 9 22 4 89 14 55 14 91 2.5 68 20 70 17 89 42 7; 61 60 77 12 62 25 53 77 64 21) 108 25 13 62 15 60 13 54 15 12 14 64 14 82 12 44 8 44 8 28 13 75 5 83 5 40 16 47 16 91 19 50 24 00 14 88 TABLE SHOWING THE AVERAGE CASH VALUE PER ACRE OF THE CEREALS, POTATOES, TOBACCO, AND HAT OF THE FARM, TAKEN TOGETHER, FOR THE TEAR 1881. States. Avri-je \alu ! pci acre. States. Averng . value per acre. IP13 06 13 66 15 28 2:1 13 25 29 22 41 17 79 10 26 17 00 11 71 16 72 11 76 9 SI 7 62 8 37 8 72 9 68 10 49 13 03 12 76- .$13 06 9 38 Tennessee.. 14 69 13 67 Rhode Islfind. , Ohio Michigan 15 76 15 88 13 63 New Jersey. Illinois. 12 23 14 24 12 72 10 03 Virginia 11 18 9 64 8 48 California Oregon Nevad a 15 26 15 78 24 17 26 89 Lonisiann Texas 19 58 422 SOEGHUM. A GENERAL SUMMARY, SHOWING THE ESTIMATED QUANTITIES, NUMBER OF ACRES, AND AGGREGATE VALUE OF TUB PRINCIPAL CROPS OF THE FARM IN 1881. Products. Quantity pro- duced. Number of acres. Value. Indian corn Wheat Eve Oats Barley Buckwheat Potatoes bushels.. do do.-.. rto ... do. ... do do.... 1,194,916,000 383,«0.090 20,70-1,9.511 416,481,000 41,161,380 9,486,200 109,145,494 64,262,02,'5 37,709,020 1,789,100 16,831,600 1,967,510 828,815 2,041,670 $759,482,170. 456,880,-127 19,327,415 193,198,970. 33,.S(i3,513 8,.i05,70.5. 99,291,341 Total 2,175,173,064 125,-129,740 l.-570,.248,-541 pounds. - tons — .. ..bales.. . Tobacco Hay Cotton 449,880,014 3o,135.064 5,400 646,2.M 30,8,SS,700 16,710.7:;0 43,372,336 41.5,131,366 259,01li,31» Grand total 173,675,409 2,.2S7,768,5o8- TABLE SHOWING THE AVERAGE YIELD AND CASH VALUE PER ACRE, AND PRICE PER. BUSHEL, POUND, OR TON, OF FARM PRODUCTS FOR THE YEAR 18..:'1. Products. 5 ■u l! S a ui p. 5 J) 0. Products. 2 U Oh > o =y > -o. S ft go, Indian corn .bu.. Wheat dii. Rye do. Oats do. Barley... do. IS 6— 10 2- 11 6- 24 7+ 20 9+ i|10 63,6- 1 19 3+ 93.3 + 46 4— 82 3- $11 82 12 0! 10 SO 11 48 17 21 Buckwheat .bu.. Potatoes. .. do.. Tobacco. .. lbs.. Kay tons.. Cotton lbs.. 11.4+ 53 5- 695 1+ 1 14 13,3 $0 86 5+ 90 9- 9.6+ 11 S-i 10 .$9 90 48 63 13 iiJr 15 50 Calendar years. 1871 1.S72 1873 ],.S74 1875 H76 H77 1 78 1779 1,S80 ISSl Total Ann'Iaver'ge. Total pro- duction.. 991,.S98,000 1,092,719,000 932, 274.11110 8,5il,148,.5O0 1,:;2l,069,(ili0 1,28:1,827,500 1,342,0.58,1100 1,388,218,750 1,547,901,790 1,717,4.34,543 1,194.916,000 13,662.965,083 1,242,087,735 Total area of crop. Acret. .34,991, 85,5._>6. 39,197, 41.036, 4I,.S41, 49,033j 5i 1,369. 61,5,'<.5, 53,08.5, 62,317, 64,.2fi2, ,:U6,204 47,758,746 Total value of crop. $478, 435, 447, 5.50, 555, 475, 480, 441, 580, 679, 759, 534,824,375 Average value per bushel. Average yield per acre. Cents. 48 2 39 8 48 64 7 42 37 33 8 31 8 37 5 39 6 63 6 43,1 Baslxls. 29 1 30 7 23 8 20 7 29 4 26 1 26 6 26 9 29 2 27 6 18 6 Average value of yield per acre. $14 02, 12 '24 n 41 13 40 12 38 9 09 9 54 8 55 10 93 10 91 11 82 COMPAEATrVE VALUE OP SORGHUM AND OTHER CROPS. 423 The average yield and value per acre for eleven years, from 1871 to 1881, inclusive, is thus comparatively presented: Cereals. Yield •per acre. Value per acre. Corn Bushels. 26 12 2 27 6 13 9 22.0 16.1 $11 20 Wheat Oats ... 9 97 Kve 10 03 16 14 RECAPITtTLATION OF CEREAL CROPS OF THE UNITED STATES. Years. Total produc- tion. Total area oJ crop. Total value of crop. 1871 Bushels. 1,528,776,1"0 1.6r.4,.331,6ll0 1,538,892,891 1,4.54,1811,200 2,032,235,300 1,962,822,100 2,178,9.34,646 2,302,2.54,950 2,437,482,300 2,718,193,501 2,066,029,570 Acres. 65,061,951 68.280,197 74,112,137 80051,289 86,863.178 93,920,619 93,150,286 100,950,260 102.260,950 120,926,286 123,388,070 Dollars. 911,845,441 1872 1878 ■ 874,594,459 919,217,273 1874 1,015,630,570 1875 1,030,277,099 1876 935,00X844 1877 1,035,571,078 1878 913,975,920 1879 1,246,127,719 1880 1881 1,361,497.704 1,470,948,200 Total 21,884,133,158 1,008,971,223 11,713,584,307 Annual average 1,989,406,651 91,724,657 1,064,871,301 In a letter to the committee of the National Academy of Sciences, C. Conrad Johnson, Esq., an experienced sugar-boiler, after a careful consideration of the results of the investigations made at the Depart- ment of Agriculture during the years 1878 to 1881 inclusive, makes comparisons between sorghum, sugar-canes, and beets, as sources for the economical production of sugar. His results will be examined with interest. He says as follows : Having thus compared fully the chemical constituents of the canes under dis- cussion, the processes best adapted for the attainment of the ends in view, to- gether with such suggestions as may seem proper toward enabling the operation to be conducted with a minimum loss, we may return to the comparison of the actual results obtained in practice with the " available" ones presented by Dr. Collier in his tablec. If we accept it as a fact that Louisiana cane will produce on an average 2,000 pounds of sugar and I'iO gallons.of molasses to the acre (and we believe that, taking the plant and ratoons together, this will be found a high estimate), we have the following data: Average Louisiana cane: Sugar pounds 2,000 Molasses gallons ... 120 424 SOEGHUM. French teets: /, a onn Suitiir pounds — 3,600 Molasses gallons . . . • 156 Sorghum-cane: Sugar (average) pounds — j 2^374 !90 80 AGRICULTURAL EXPENSE. Average cost of working per acre: Ldiiisiana cane (estimated) ?14 00 Kruiicli beets ,, ^„^ 1$ 00 Sorghum-cane 11 60 to 17 50 TALUE OF RESULTS. Louisiana cane; «.,„„„ Sugar $140 00 Molasses , 72 00 212 00 French beets: .Sugar 189 00 Molasses 16 38 205 88 Sorghum-cane: . Sugar (average) j 54 qq 167 36 Molasses (estimated) { 48 00 *237 72 MARKETING OP SOEGHUM SYEUFS. The amount of sorghum sugar thus far produced, has had no appre- ciable effisct upon the general niarket, and has been readily sold at fair prices in the local markets. The production of syrups, however, has already reached such pro- portions as to have almost entirely supplied the demand in certain sections, and there is a great diversity in the prices received. The prices vary from 70 to 75 cents in certain places, to even 40 cents or less per gallon. It is without doubt true, that the quality varies as greatly as the price, and it is therefore a matter of great practical im- portance, not only to secure a good yield of cane, but a superior pro- duct from it — since the difference in cost of manufacture is at the most trifling between the best and poorest grades of syrup found in the market. To those who hope to establish a sure and permanent market for their syrup, it is of the greatest importance to secure a uni- form product. This is more diffcult to the small manufacturer than the large, as usually the large works are aible to retain the supervision * In considering Mr. Johnson's paper, the committee oJ the National Academy of Sci- ences romiirli that " Mr. Johnson's estimate om itted tlie value of the seed of sorghum, an item which-it is important to state, and which, in tha opinion of many cultivators, is fully equal to the cost of cultivation, or more. Evidence on this point abounds in this report."- CENTRAL FACTORIES. 425 of a skilled person, and, besides, the large quantities made each day are of uniform quality. On tlie other lumd, even the, greatest care ■will hardly preveutthe small manufacturer from now and then getting a portion of his syrup far below, or much above, his average product. It would be well if the syrups were, after cooling, put into large storage tanks, which, ^vhen the tanks were filled, could be barreled for mar- ket, thus securing at least many barrels of like character ; and if two or three such tanks should be kept of different grades, the inferior product might be kept apart from the better. To those desirous of securing for their products the highest market price, it will be found worth while to attend carefully to the packages in which the syrup is sent to market. Stout, clean casks give greater security in handling, and will generally more than pay any extra cost in the readiness w'ith which a purchaser will be found. Those who are satisfied as to the character of their syrups, should by means of a stencil plate attach their name to their packages, so that they may thus advertise their products, and secure permanent custom. CENTRAL FACTORIES. It will be found by far the most economical, if the central factory system should be generally adopted in place of many independent, and small factories. The advantages of such a system are obvious, since improved and necessary apparatus too expensive for the individ- ual could be secured. Steam could be employed with the greatest economy, and the services of an experienced sugar maker could be secured. The economical production of sugar in the small fiictory is practically impossible ; or, even if not in certain cases, its production by a well conducted central factory would be found far more profitable. The small farmer might then content himself either in growing the cane and delivering it to the factory ; or, if at a distance, he might pro- duce syrups of a high grade, i. e. containing a large amount of crys- tallizable sugar, and depend upon a local market for their disposal, or furnish them to the central factory to be worked for sugar and mo- lasses, where a larger and better product could be secured than would te possible for him to obtain on his own farm. By this means a sup- ply of syrup might be produced by the neighboring farmers sufficient to continue the work of the central factory during the winter, and un- til another crop — thus, not only keeping the necessary force for conduct- ing it constantly employed, and the machinery always in running order, but having the expensive plant at no time of the year lying idle. Already such systems hdve been introduced in many of the in- dustries of the farm, and, if wisely conducted, always with increased 426 SORGHUM. profits and less labor. That such ultimately will be the result so soon as this new industry shall have been more generally entered upon, there can be no doubt ; or, what is practically the same thing, large com- panies will be organized able to cultivate and manufacture several thousand acres of cane. A recent report of the Department of Agri- cult'jre says: "at one large factory there is reported a yield of 792 pounds of sugar, valued at 8 cents per pound, and 112 gallons of synip, valued at 40 cents per gallon, from an acre, indicating a net profit of $50.67. It should be understood, however, that this en- couraging result was not obtained by the ordinary manufacturer, but by chemists who were skilled in the manipulation of the juice, and who were working with apparatus designed especially for the manu- facture of sugar." That intelligence in the conducting of such oper- ations is of practical value none can doubt, and that sugar is to be made with apparatus designed for such purpose, goes without saying, but the report emphasizes the fact that the best results were secured by intelligent supervision, and improved appliances. MAIZE SUGAK, HISTOEY OF. 427 CHAPTER XIII. (a.) Maize sugar, history of. (6.) Detailed analjsps of the juice of several yarieties of maize. (c. ) Average results of analyses of many varieties of maize. (d. ) Sugar and ripe grain from maize. (e ) Compari.«ion of the juices of sorghum and maize. (X) Pearl millet, sugar from. MAIZE SUGAR, HISTORY OP. The presence of sugar in the juice of the maize stalk has been long known. In the "True Travels, Adventures, and Observiations of Captain lohn Smith, Account of Sixth Voj-age, a. d. 1606, London Ed., A. D. 1629," he says of Indian corn (Zea mais) : The stalke being yet greene, hath a sweet iuice in it, somewhat like a sugar- cane, which is the cause that when they gather their come greene they sucke the stalkes; for as we gather greene pease, so do they their corne, being greene, which exoelleth their olde [Maize and Sorghum, F. L. Stewart, page 17], The historian, Prescott, in his "Conquest of Mexico," says of the cultivation of Indian corn : The great staple of the country, as indeed of the American continent, was maize or Indian corn, which grew freely along the valleys, and up the steep sides of the Cordilleras, to the high level of the table-lands^ Prescott says : The Aztecs were as curious in its preparation, and as well instructed in its manifold uses, as the most experienced housewife. Its gigantic stalks, in the equinoctial regions, afford a saccharine matter not found to the same extent in northern latitudes, and supplied the natives with sugar little inferior to that of the cane itself, which was not introduced among them till after the conquest. In the United States, in the early colonial days, it appears that ex- periments on a large scale were made, looking to the utilization of cornstalks as an economical source of sugar. The entire acreage of all the cultivated land of the United States, including that in the cereals, root crops, cotton, and the grass lands, equals 132,910,281 acres. Of this area, 50,369,113 acres, or 38 per cent, is in maize. The enormous extent of this cereal becomes thus apparent. The availability of these plants as a source of sugar has been known for a long time ; but, although much has been known, little has been 428 SORGHUM. done in the way of careful investigation for the purpose of determin- ing their practical value for the production of sugar. Indeed, many of the statements made in reference to maize seem almost prophetic. It appears reasonably certain that had the matter been carefully fol- lowed up by a series of experiments, the enormous drain upon the country, which has required all the gold and silver product to supply, could not only have been prevented, but we might have been, a half century ago, the great sugar producing country of the globe. In a letter from Abigail Adams to her husband, John Adams, Sep- tember 24th, 1777, she says : An instance may be seen in the progress which is made in si-inding corn- stalks and boiling the liquor into molasses. Scarcely a town or parish within forty miles of us but what has several mills at work; and had the experiment been made a month sooner, many thousand barrels would have been made. No less than 80 have been made in the small town of Manchester. It answers very well to distill, and may be boiled down to sugar. There are two mills fit- ting up in this parish. They have three rollers — one with cogs and two smooth. The stalks are stripped of the leaves and tops, so that it is no robbery upon the cattle, and juice ground out. 'Tis said four barrels of juice will make one of molasses, but in this people differ widely. They have a method of refining it, so that it looks as well as the best imported molasses. David Lee Childs, on the culture of the beet and manufacture of beet sugar, says : Other plants usually grown in our soil are capable of furnishing sugar, and some of them may be fuund worth cultivating for that and accessory products. We have tried Indian cornstalks and the pumpkin, and have obtained from them good sugar and molasses. Perhaps these crops may alternate advantageously with the beet. If the manufaoture of sugar from the stalks of Indian corn can be reconciled, as we believe it may, with the maturity or uear maturity of the ears, this source of saccharine may superi-ede the beet root. Under date of March 13th, 1880, K S. Hiuman, of Hartford, Con- necticut, writes me as follows : I have found that, in 1717, one of my ancestors procured a patent from the general court of the colonyof Connecticut to make molasses from cornstalks, oil condition that he should make it as good and as cheap as it could be got trom the West Indies. At a meeting of the French Academy, M. Biot stated that he ha,d found 12 per cent of sugar in juice from cornstalks in one experiment^ iind 13 per cent in another. In the Farmers' Encyclopedia is the following : The juice of maize contains as much, if not a larger proportion of sugar, than that of sugar-cane. EXAMINATION OF DIFPEEENT YAEIETIES OF MAIZE. 429- In Porcher's " Eesources of Southern Fields and Forests," he says: In the first place it has been satisfactorily proved that sugar of an excellent qnalitj-, suitable for common use without refining, may be made from the stalks of maize. Again : The sweetness of the cornstalk is a matter of universal observation. Our forefathers, in the Revolutionary struggle, resorted to it as a means to furnish a substitute for West India sugar: Thaer, in his "Principles of Agriculture" (1844), says: The use of unripe maize for the manufacture of sugar has lately been again recommended, on the ground that maize is better adapted for this purpose than beet root. I have long been of the opinion, he adds, that of all plants which can be raised in this country, maize is best suited to the purpose in question; the syrup extracted from it is, before crystallization, decidedly superior to that of beet root. I have been recently informed that, over thirty years ago, there was a factory in the south of France which produced large quantities of excellent sugar from the stalks of maize, but the rapid development of the beet sugar industry caused this factory to decline, and their practical results have been almost forgotten. Also, about 1844, a cer- tain judge, of Williston, Vermont, produced a fair quality of syrup from cornstalks ; but his experiments, like those of so many others, caused only a temporary and local excitement, which speedily died away. The same is true as regards the sorghums. EXAMINATION OP DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF MAIZE. For the purpose of a thorough investigation of this matter, the au- thor, as chemist of the Department of Agriculture, at Washington, planted several of the more common varieties of maize, and cultivated them according to the general method adopted when tlie grain is the object. The several varieties were subjected to daily examination during the season, in a manner identical with that employed in the examination of the sorghum, as described on page 185. The varieties of maize planted were as follows : No. 1. Egyptian Sugar Corn. Lindsay's Horse Tooth. Blount's Prolific. Improved Prolific Bread. Broad White Flat Dent. Long Narrow White Dent. Chester County Mammoth. 18-rowpd Yellow Dent. Stowell's Evergreen. Improved Prolific. Sand ford. Early Minnesota Dent. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5. No. 6. No. 7. No. 8. No. 9. No. 10. No. 11.- No. 12. 430 SORGHUM. Each of the above varieties were planted in plats having ten rows, 24 feet in each row, and the rows 3 J feet apart. There was, therefore, of each variety planted -^-^ of an acre, or 840 square feet. In the above list of the varieties, it will be seen that white and yellow, flint and dent, common and sweet varieties, were included, so that the results secured may be regarded as by no means exceptional. Besides, these investigations were continued year after year, with sev- eral of these varieties, without any marked differences being manifest in the results obtained. The following''tabIe gives the several stages of development of the plant, as mentioned in the tables of analyses, similar to those used in the case of the sorghums. The examination of sugar, or sweet corn, since the grain is used in its immature condition, was continued with one portion of the plat after the 11th stage, at which time the ears were removed. The stalks were left standing in the field, and examined at intervals of one week after the ears had been plucked. Stages of Development of Maize. Stage — ^ 1. About a week before the appearance of the tasseL 3. Tassel just appearing 5. Tassel entirely out. 1. Ear just appearing. 9. Ear just forming grain. 11. Ear in roasting condition. IS. One week after roasting condition, 15. Two weeks after roasting condition. 17. Three weeks after roasting condition. Intermediate stages were recorded in the observations, but the above list is complete enough to enable the reader to understand the condition of the plants when examined. The following table gives the average length and weight of the several varieties of maize, as also the number of stalks of each from which the averages were taken : DETAILED ANALYSES OF STALKS OF SEVERAL VARIETIES, ETC. 431 RELATIVE LENGTHS AND WEIGHTS OF THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF MAIZE. Name. Egyptian Sugar Corn Lindsay's Horse Toolli Blount's Prolific Improved Prolific Bread. . Broad Flat Wliite Uent Long Narrow Wiiite Dent.,. Chester County Mammoth 18-rowed Yellow Dent — StoweH's Evergreen Improved Prolific Sandford Corn Early Minnesota Dent Numlier ol stalks. 58 88 23 23 19 19 2Z 20 82 26 49 52 Length. Feet. 8 35 8 93 9 65 10 03 9 48 9 18 8.49 8 24 C 08 7 37 5 94 5 78 Total weight. Potcnds. 1.710 2.933 2.065 2 865 2 616 2 S74 2 732 2 SCO 816 1 923 662 449 Stripped weight. Pounds. 1 105 1 833 1 188 1 791 1 684 1 658 1.4.59 1 560 610 1 4,^o 426- 0.295 DETAILED ANALYSES OF THE STALKS OF SEVERAL VARIETIES OP MAIZE. The following detailed analyses of one of the sugar corns, a yellow and a white deut, will give a general idea of the results obtained from each of the several other varieties examined : EGYPTIAN SUGAR CORN. w *: ■ \ o "^ *! rt 3 ba .a a i C ^ a 3 ■a 1 Is ft"-- o 3 « o V 3 3 O s 3 03 bo ai C C "o CO 3 O _3 Aug. 9 Aug, 18 Aug. 18 Aug. 2;; Aug. 28 Aug. 30 Aug. 30 Kept. 1 Sept. 1 Sept. 1 Sept. 6 Sept. 5 Sept, 8 Sept. 8 7 7 14 14 21 21 21 21 21 28 28 28 28 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 l' 2 2 2 9 3 11 9.6 9 5 9.0 9 8.'i 7 8 7 6 9.0 8 9.0 Inch. .9 1 1 1 1 1.2 1.1 1,1 1.0 1 1 1 'ii' .9 1.1 1 Lbs. 2 1 1.8 1 8 2 7 2 3 1.3 1 5 1.3 1 5 I'i' 1 5 1 8 1.8 i6s. 1.1 1.4 14 2 3 2 1 2 1 3 1 1 1 ' .8 1 3 1 6 1 6 Pr.r.t. 01. 81 00.16 61) eo 63 88 6.5,35 56 ,57 61 19 60 00 59 02 '50 14 51 12 51 79 55,21 1,043 1 0.55 1-047 1 0« 1 050 1 053 1,0.57 1.061 1,060 1,061 1 071 1 060 1 065 1,059 Pr.ct. 3. 56 3 24 2 98 2 82 3,45 1 66 1,89 1,76 2,18 2 46 6,41 ■ 3,85 2,26 2,57 Pr.ci. 5.73 7 60 7,46 8,13 7,24 9 69 10 33 12 57 11 20 11,17 9,91 9 10 11,73 11,34 Pr. r'^ 1.73 2 38 1.92 1,92 2,45 Lost Lost 1,03 2,18 1,63- 3 36 2 61 2 20 1 19 Pr.ct. 5 61 ?3,87 7 54 7 28 7,34 10 04 8 9& 10 39 10 49 11 40 10,55 LONG NARROW WHITE DENT. M 3 ■d o 0) d Date. c s C ■^ j3 '5 ft CO 0) ft 1 bo 3 3 3 to 3 3* .3 ft c > 1 3 3 M 3 9- '3 ft ft a; o 3 o 03 o !2 N C3 3 ft""* ft ^ pj (5 Eh CO ^ CD O UJ CO (1( Julv 7 1 4,3 1,3 2 7 2.0 68 84 1,019 2,21 ,23 1 71 Julv 15 2 7,6 1,0 1 9 1 4 60 27 1 024 2 41 1 83 3 96 Julv 21 3 7,0 ,8 1,5 1,0 65 97 1,029 3„54 1,43 2-56 July 21 4 7,8 ,8 1 8 1 2 65 37 1,026 3 27 1,04 3 29 July 21 5 7 8 1 1 2,4 1 6 60 27 1 023 3 48 1,60 2 34 July 26 6 9 7 1,1 1 9 1,3 60 96 1 032 3,16 3.56 2,10 2 80 July 26 7 9 5 1,2 2,2 1,4 66 83 1,033 3 69 3,06 2,16 Aug. 1 8 1 045 3 66 3 34 3 10 Aug. 1 8 10 i i 3 7 1,9 59 77 1.041) 3,16 5 81 3,12 5 36 Aug. 9 9 10,3 1,1 3 2 1,9 56,96 1 041 4,. 50 4 4(1 1 47 3 65 Aug, 12 10 10 2 1,1 3 6 ],6 59 70 1 063 4 41 8 32 2 27 8,03 Aug, 18 11 10 4 1 1 4 1 7 62 77 1 049 2„58 6 911 2 48 7 03, Aug, 23 12 9 2 1 5 4,6 2 3 62 34 1 059 1 97 10 67 2 32 i0,49 Aug, 24 13 10,6 1 2 2 7 1 8 53 .58 1 048 2 53 7 34 2 25 Aug, 26 13 9,8 1,2 43 2,1 52,05 1 062 2 36 11,62 1,98 11,61 Aug, 26 13 1 062 2 36 11,74 1 90 11 63 Aug, 27 14 9 5 1 1 3 3 1,7 67,73 1.048 3 16 7,69 2 75 7 28 Aug 31 15 10 1 4 3,4 1 6 63-55 1 042 1 ,56 5,20 3,99 6,26 Aug, 31 Sept. 2 15 1 042 1 61 5 42 3,62 16 9,5 1,0 2,2 1.4 45,96 1,0.56 3 25 9 51 3 24 9,39 Sept. 7 17 98 ,9 1,5 1 1 56,00 1 065 1 84 12 11 2 52 ?3 81 Sept. 10 18 10 5 1,3 3 8 2 5 65,47 1 n,is 2 56 10 ,59 2 06 1-0 20 Sept. 10 18 1 0,58 2,51 10 30 2,31 10 £9 DETAILED ANALYSES OF STALKS OF SEVERAL VARIETIES, ETC. 433 EIGHTEEK-KOWED YELLOW DENT. M x; •d o >> 6 aj o ed Date. O P rt ^ bJD .tf "3 P. bo S P q o > a 3 to CD 3 p. 0) a; o r:3 o S ID g s R !5 ■-q o H CO HS ■ M O m s> Ph J?ee(. Inch. its. Lbs. Pr. c(. Pi: ct. Pi: el. Pr. ct. Pr.ct. July 7 J.ulv If) 1 5,2 1.3 3 3 2.4 65 oli 1.022 3-58 .35 1.79 2 6.0 1.1 1 8 1.2 62 38 1.023 3,64 .48 3 21 Julv l.i 3 5 5 1.3 2 8 1.9 62 32 1 023 2 86 65 4 89 Julv 18 4 S 1 3 3 1 6 63.47 1 028 2 49 1 89 5 34 July 21 5 7.G 1.0 1 9 1.3 62 84 1.0'28 3 86 1 57 3 83 July 21 6 5 1.1 2 1 2 60 17 1.031 4 21 2 07 2 98 Julv 21 7 8 1 1 2 2 3 1.5 60 09 1 028 3,95 2.23 2 67 July 2e 8 9 2 1.2 2 1 5 61 03 1 032 3 96 3-36 1 40 Aug. 1 9 8 :i 1 1 3 5 1.7 60 62 1 043 3 65 5 17 2 92 Aug. 9 10 8 5 1.1 5 8 2 4 54,82 1.044 3 05 6.H7 1.38 6.40 .\ug 12 11 10 2 1 3 4 2 2.0 54 90 1 052 3 20 8 24 2. SI 7.68 Aug 18 12 8 5 1.3 3.7 1,3 55 40 1.036 3 35 4 15 2 05 ?7.48 Aug. 24 13 10.2 1,6 4 :j 2.3 58,44 1 .0.50 1 50 9 2IJ 1 81 8 56 Aug. 24 13 1.049 1 46 13,60 -2 48 8.69 Aug. 26 13 10,0 1 4 3 4 2.2 49 80 1.060 1 32 ■11.56 2 54 10.77 Aug. 26 13 1.061 1 53 11.48 2 07 10 76 Aug. 27 14 7 7 i.i 2.8 1 4 59. SS 1 051 2.80 8 18 3.39 8 34 Aug. 31 15 9 1.3 2 3 1.2 49.64 1 045 3 22 G 18 2.. 56 Sept. 3 16 8 ] 1 3 2 1 1 5 50 00 1 062 2 U 11 39 ?5.80 11.44 Sept. 7 17 9 1.2 2 3 7 37 94 1.030 1 20 ?4 35 2 12 Sept. 10 18 9.7 1.6 3.1 1 9 63 53 1 0.)7 1 66 U 79 2.78 10 86 Sept. 10 18 1 057 1.59 11 52 2 60 10. i4 The several varieties were planted April 30th, so that the date of each analysis will enable the reader to determine the time necessary to reach the different stages : The following table presents the results of the foregoing analyses by each stage, as has been explained in the analyses of sorghums, page 191 ; the average results of the analyses under each stage being given, as also a column giving the number of analyses thus averaged : EGYPTIAN SUGAK CORN. Analyses made after the ears of corn had been plucked. 1 = o = ?o S u s 6 o •O ft •M ft ■=3 a CO « o ^ •^.2 §1 (J 'B 1^ 1" as %s- o ^ Oi ■s m O -2 br,rf i? (5 •< O P4 o za m B Ph < ->J < Pr.ct. Pr.ct. Pr.cf. Pr.cf. Pr. ci. Pr. ct. Pr.ct 7. Aug. 18. Aug. 23, Aug. 31. Aug. 13. Aug. 18. 3.11 7.53 2 15 7.54 7.3L 9.97 10.98 2 27 2,37 7.39 4.66 14 ■2 3.13 7 68 12.99 14 59 59.61 59 19 1,049 1 058 21 .... Aug. 23. Aug. 30. 5 1.99 10 99 1 61 28 Sept. 6. 4 3.52 10.52 2.34 16.38 51.65 1.064 28 434 SOEGHUM. Egyptian Sugar Corn— Continued. Stage. O SB |.a II o sa ;2i i S s CO o C 3 'o CO 3 in g.2 «-^ o.S Pi o u S 1 > <1 s Before 1 1 June 13. June 20 June 27 July )0. July ]6 July 11. July 18 July 18 July 21 July 25 July 26 Aug. 4. Aug. 8 Aug. 15. Aug. 23. Aug. 27 Aug. 31. Sept. 4 Sept. 10. June 13 June 20. June 27. July 5. July 9. July 11. July 15. J.ulv 18 July 19 July 20 July 25 July 30. Aug. 5 Au,g. 14. Aug. 17. Aug. 19 Aug. 26 Aug. 30. Sept. 6. 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 3 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 Pr. ct. .94 1.17 2 20 2 33 1.32 2.38 2 49 3.29 2.94 2.04 3 07 3 65 3.22 2 96 2 19 2 40 2 7-1 2 66 2 50 Pr.c*. 25 .47 .16 37 .74 .81 2.12 89 4 06 4 42 5 07 6 7ii 3 85 6 03 9 27 11 02 4 72 13 20 7 58 Pr.c(. 1 92 1.52 1 31 . 2 81 4 90 2 19 2 3(1 1 38 2 90 1.84 2.01 2 22 2 89 1 63 2 03 4 14 5 11 2.07 1 05 Pr.ct. 2.11 3.16 3 67 5 51 C 96 5.38 G.91 5 56 9 87 8 90 10 15 11 66 9 96 9 52 13 49 17.56 10.57 17 93 11.13 Pr. c(. Pr.ci. 67.30 69.10 78.10 66 82 64 07 "66 96 64 56 63 67 63 83 60 20 62.95 61.45 64.33 57.2.1 53 99 58.38 54.71 56.08 53.63 1,016 1 014 2 3 1.015 1 018 4 1 019 5 1 021 6 1 027 7 8 1 031 9 .. 6!so 3 66 3 18 7.92 10 98 1 035 10 11 22 13 14 15 -2 26 .64 5,05 4.48 —1.13 8.47 4.03 1.039 1.043 1 053 1 062 16; 17 18 io!84 1040 1.067 1.047 LONG NARROW WHITE DENT. 1 2 8 4 6 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 July 7 July L) July 21 July 21, July 21, July 26 July 26, Aug. 1 Aug; 9 Aug. 12, Aug. 18 Aug. 23 Aug. 2,i, Aug. 27, Aug. 31 Sept. 2 Bept. 7 Sept. 10. July 15, July 16 2.21 2.41 .23 1.83 1.71 3.96 4.14 8.20 68,84 60,27 July 18, 3 54 1.43 2 56 7.53 60,97 July 19, 3 27 1 01 3 29 7.60 65 37 July 20 3 48 1.60 2 34 7 42 60 27 July 2.). 3,15 3 56 2.10 8.81 2 80 60 96 July 28. 3 69 3.05 2 10 8 90 56 83 July 30 3.36 5 57 3 11 12 04 5 36 59 77 Aug. 3 4 60 4.40 1 47 10 37 3 6.i -1.57 66 96 Aug. 5 4 41 . 8 32 2 27 15 00 8 03 1.64 69,71) Aug. 11 2 58 6 90 2.48 11 96 7 03 . 1 81 62.77 Aug. r. 1 97 10 67 2 32 14, 91; 10 49 6.. 38 62 34 Aug. 17 2 42 10.23 2 04 14 69 11. ,57 6,77 52 81 Aug. 19 3.16 7 59 2 7.") 1:1 50 7 28 1,08 57 73 Aug. 23 1..58 5 31 3 80 10 69 5 26 — .07 53 55 Aug. 27 3 25 9.51 3.21 17.00 9.39 3.02 45.96 Aug. 30 1 84 12 11 2.52 16 47 7.75 56.00 Sept. 2 2 2.53 10 44 2.18 15.15 10.25 5,73 55.47 1 019 1.024 1.029 1 026 1.023 1.032 1.033 1 045 1 041 1.0.53 1.049 1.0.59 1.057 1.048 1 042 1.056 1.065 1.058 EIGHTEEN-KOWED YELLOW DENT. 1 2 S 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 u 12 13 14. 15 16. 17 18 July 7 July 15 July 1.1, July 18 1 July 21. July 21. July 21. July 26. Aug. 1. Aug. 9. Aug. 12 Aug. 18 Aug. 2o Aug. 27. Aug. 31. Sept. 3. Sept. 7 Sept. 10 July 11. 3 58 .35 1 79 5 7"* 65.:i6 July 15 3.64 .48 8.21 7 33 02 38 July 16, 2 86 .65 4.8SI 8 40 62.32 July 18 2,49 1.89 5.34 9 T> 63.47 July 19 •3,86 1.57 2.83 ■ 8 26 62.84 July 20 4 21 2,07 2 98 9,26 60.17 July 25, 3 95 2,23 2.67 8,85 60.09 Aug. 5 3,96 3 36 1 40 8 72 61,03 Aug. 11, 3 65 5 17 2.92 11 74 — 1 40 60,62 Aug. 15. 3,05 6,87 1.38 11 .30 6 40 2.44 54,82 Aug. 19 3 20 8 24 2,81 14.25 7 58 2,23 54 90 Aug. 20. 3, .35 4.15 2 06 9 55 ?7,48 — 1 25 55 40 Aug. 23. 1 47 11 46 2 14 15 07 9,77 7.85 54 12 Aug. 25, 2,80 8 13 3,39 14 32 8,34 1.94 59,38 Aug. 28 3,22 6 18 2 56 11 96 .40 49,64 Aug. 30 2,11 11 39 6,80 19 30 11.44 8.48 60,00 Sept. 3 1.20 4 35 2 12 7 67 1.0.1 37 94 Sept. 6, 2 1.67 11.65 2,64 15.86 IC .i ' 7.4 4 63,53 1,022 1 023 1,023 1 028 1.028 1.031 1 028 1 032 1.043 1 044 ] 0.i2 1.036 1.055 1 .051 1.045 1.062 1 030 1.057 BETAILED ANALYSES OP STALKS OP SEVERAL VARIETIES, ETC. 435 The following table gives, by stages, the average results of the anal- yses of the twelve varieties examined. It will be observed that there is a general resemblance to the results shown on page 194, of the ex- amination of the sorghums — a gradual increase in specific gravity of the juice and in the content of sugar; but an inspection of the detailed analyses shows that this is not as constant as with the sor- ghums, and that the juice does not reach at any time the high content of sugar which was found in the sorghum juices. But that tliis is often so high as to give reason for belief that even cornstalks may be found a profitable-source of sugar will appear, when we consider that, of the analyses made of ten varieties of maize grown in 1880, the juice gave, of crystallizable sugar, as follows: ]24 a.nal3'ses of 10 varieties gave over 9 per cent. 90 analyses of 10 varieties gjivo over 10 per cent. 5!) analyses of 9 varieties gave over 11 per cent. 24 analyses of 9 varieties gave over 12 per cent. 8 analyses of 4 varieties gave over 13 per cent. 2 analyses of 1 variety gave over 14 per cent. 1 analysis of 1 variety gave over 15 per cent. And of eight varieties grown in 1881, seven of which were common field maize, 3 analyses of 3 varieties gave over 13 per cent. 9 analyses of 7 varieties gave over 12 per cent. 22 analyses of 7 varieties gave over U per cent. 29 a;ialyKes of 7 varieties gave over 10 per cent. 35 analyses of 7 varieties gave over 9 per cent. GENERAL RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF MAIZE BY STAGES. V > 03 . JA S % bt> 03 PI O SB g u > "M t ua •4, o m cc < ■< < Ph fi 1 37 .33 1.77 68.36 1.016 First stage w '' 49 38 2 09 64 39 1 019 R 2 77 ,64 2 70 66.92 1.021 9 9 2 81 2 S8 ,74 1 43 2 98 3 42 64.22 61 76 1.025 1 028 Fifthstage in 2 96 1 33 2.75 64 86 1.025 8 9 3 37 3 09 2.19 1,91 2.44 2 63 63 85 61.42 1.030 1 029 1 »•> Seventh stage 2 49 14 10 10 11 11 2 84 2 92 3,17 2.86 2 61 4 39 6,25 fi 26 5 61 ■5,86 2.76 2.00 2 46 2.53 2.58 62 20 60.2.) 56 77 68 13 58 57 1.0:!5 1.041 1 .04v) 1.042 1 042 133 .63 .22 .64 5.110 6 27 Tenth stH^e 6 04 5.33 Twelfth stage 5.55 Thirteenth stage IH 2,27 8 38 2.06 55 72 1.048 4.05 7.62 9 2 36 7,56 2 74 56.78 1 04) 2.4Ci 7.08 10 7 1 92 2 18 5 95 6 17 3.10 3 64 55 59 49 36 1 043 1.044 .93 3.") 7 73 7 95 Seventeenth stage 10 1 69 9 12 2.61 65.06 l.O.il 4 92 9.S6 9 1.92 8.83 2.37 54.88 1.049 4.64 8.39 436 SORGHUM. ' It is to be remembered that maize has been grown for centuries as a source of grain only, and to that end varieties have been selected and developed. It is found, even now, that very great diiferences exist in the several varieties, in regard to the juicy character of the stalk and in its content of sugar. Some varieties have a spongy stalk, quickly drying up, and yielding little juice upon pressure; others have, even when the grain is quite hard and ripe, a heavy, juicy stalk, re- sembling the sugar-cane or sorghums, and this juice is found to be rich in sugar. Differences quite as great are found in the sorghums, as will be seen upon page 101 ; and it is quite possible, if not even probable, that, by a few years of careful selection, varieties of maize may be grown, the stalks of which shall be more valuable for sugar than is the crop for grain, even though the product of this may be but little diminished. The following tables give the acidity of two varieties of maize juices — one sweet, the other field maize — which may be compared ■with similar tables for sorghum juices upon page 253 : CORN JUICE, ACIDITY. Egyptian Sugar Corn. Date. July 25 26 Aug. 1. 6 8 9 17 18, 23 27 31 Sept. 2 7 30 10, c. u. of N — HNaO Specific Stage. 50 gravity of for 100 c. c. juice. of juice. 9 93 1.034 10 152 1.030 11 122 1.050 11 152 1.036 12 140 1 034 11 ]24 1.043 13 164 1.038 14 184 1 083 14 92 1.053 15 148 1.062 16 136 1.040 17 80 1.061 17 104 1.073 132 1.042 18 148 1.047 Per cent of acid as malic. 121 .197 .156 .197 .181 .159 .211 .228 .117 .186 .175 .100 .129 .169 .190 DETAILED ANALYSES OP STALKS OF SEVERAL VAEIETIES, ETC. 437 Lindsay's Horse Tooth Corn. 0. u. of N -HNaO Specific Per cent Date. Stage. 50 gravity of of acid for 100 c. c. juice. as malic. of juice. Jnlv 25 9 152 1.033 .197 ■ 26 9 128 1.0.30 Ifii; Aug. 1 11 156 1.040, .201 10 11 12 14 132 118 112- 112 1.050 1.041 1 040 1 042 .168 6 .151 8 .144 23 .1-14 27 15 140 1 041 .180 31 16 116 1,050 .148 Sept. 2 17 17 56 64 1.056 1.032 .071 7 .083 10 18 124 1.061 .157 Analyses of Maize Sialics. The following table shows the average results of numerous analyses of several varieties of maize. In these averages, every analysis made during the entire period is included, and none were made until the grain was so far matured as to be at its best for feeding purposes. The average weights of the canes are a little different from those given on page 431, but those are the average weights of those stripped stalks which were analyzed, the table upon page 439 being of all the Stalk? cut of each variety. If maize was grown in drills 3^ feet apart, and the plants were 6 inches apart in the row, there would be 24,960 plants per acre. Upon first rate corn laud such a crop is possible, and there' is a column giv- ing the results per acre upon an estimate of such a crop. In one plat there were grown at the rate of 23,150, not allowing for those carried away by boys. There are also given the actual results obtained on the small experimental plats, calculated to the acre. The stalks give an average result in juice fairly agreeing with the several varieties of sorghum, and the specific gravity is also fairly good ; but the relative amount of impurities in the juices, as compared with the sucrose, is larger tlian in the sorghums. There is an idea prevalent among farmers, that the stalks of maize are dry and juiceless when the grain is ripe, but this is quite erroneous, as auY one may for himself determine. Owing to the practice of either topping the corn and allowing the ears to dry upon the butt, which is left standing in the field, or, more commonly, of cutting up the corn, and then, even after months, husking out the ears, the stalks, though juicy when topped or cut, speedily dry out. 438 SORGHUM. It appears that some other arrangement for drying and curing the ears could be devised, so that the sugar in the stalk could be secured. In the case of sweet or sugar corn, which is used for canning, there appears no reason why the stalks should not be utilized, since these stalks retain their content of sugar for weeks after the ears have been pluckfd. It seems that judicious use of these stalks would add greatly to , the profits of an industry which has reached very great proportions in ' our country. DETAILED ANALYSES OF STALKS OP SEVERAL VAEIETIES, ETC. 439 c>-'atDoo -- a ■* CO 5^0 5''=' o a fD ' o : >■ i^i. sS- O ai 1*1. O' Cn yi cji 01 rf!^ ca Qi :;i i-'intc^i— 'tomi-'OMai— T icbiioioMcoi-'totti.bs'-'o o 10 i-" 10 :^i — oi ^i — 1 CO CI 01 lf>>COCOCOtO&3tOCOtO:oD3b3 iSCOCwCTlCXi^^U^ 0000^1-' O0'ffl-J<100 hi:> 10 wl O — '-^ 00 ■ CO CJ' 00 (O ■ woo N3 - ZaCiZJI to to C7I l-i "g 00 JO Moaooi ■ coco ^^ -.T h-i lOJ^ CO IC to PC K. to O Ci OT '-g to CO ^T Cl Cl O 10 ^1 C/'i 't' p K) > OlwC14^Ji.|0.^t0t0C0-l CO O ^ O l-iMC;'rf»-cD0>OC01-'l-"-'CJi5' co:-^i'-'cooscoi:0"^toto--i.-* M. to■-'^o^ot-n-J^3l-'^ COOiCStOh-'rf'-i-'OCTiOJi-^S^ OlOOOl-'OOtOtOOWCCtOi" Number of days for working. Number of analyses. Average weight of stripped stalks. Average per cent of juice. Average specific gravity ol j uice. Average per cent sucrose in juice. AverRge per cent glucose in juice. Average per cent otlier solids in juice. Average per cent available sugar. Average per cent total sugars. Stripped stalks per acre. Juice per acre. Available sugar per acre. Total sugar per acre. Stripped stalks per ■ acre. Juice per acre. Available sugar per acre. Total sugar per acre. g3 i440 , SORGHUM. From the above table it will be seen, that five of the above varieties of field corn gave an average yield of available sugar of 527 pounds to the acre, with a reasonable possibility of averaging 873 pounds per acre. That is, the sugar present in the juice, was in this excess above the sum of glucose and other solids, and our experiments have shown that this available sugar may be increased by properly making the syrup, see page 309. It will be seen that these five varieties also give as the average of the total sugars per acre 1,195 pounds, with a reasonable possibility of 1 ,977 pounds per acre, which is equal to from 1,553 to 2,570 pounds of syrup, by allowing, as is correct, 70 per cent of total sugars for syrup. This would be equal to a product of from 124 to 206 gallons of syrup per acre, allowing 12|^ pounds to the gallon. The average actually obtained was 124 gallons, and the .iO& is at least possible. Besides the above results embodied in the table, there were made seven separate analyses of bundles of sugar corn stalks, from which the ears had been removed for canning from 1 to 6 weeks before the stalks were cut and examined. As these stalks were from a field of over 2,000 acres, the entire product of which was used for canning purposes, the results are perhaps of greater practical interest. The average available sugar in the juices of the seven lots was 6.38 per cent. The average of 57 analyses of,9 varieties of common field corn stalk, taken for analyses from 1 to 6 weeks after the ears had been removed for roasting, was as follows : Per rent juire expressed 52 66 SpeeiHo griivity of juice 1.0646. Per cent sucrose in juice 10 88 Per cent pliicnse in juice 1,04 Per cent other solids in jnice 4 10 Per cent available sugar in juice 5,74 This would give 1,053 pounds of juice, and 60f pounds of available sugar, to each ton of stalks, or 13 gallons of syrup. Sugar from Corn Stalks. The author has made many experiments for the purpose of extract- ing the sugar from maize stalks, and in every case secured such a re- sult as the character of the juice indicated. All of the experiments were by open pan evaporation, so that there would appear to be no trouble in more than reaching such results upon a large scale. The sugar extracted amounted in several experiments, in 1878, to 32 per cent, in 1879, to 39.3 per cent, and in one case to 47 per cent, of the weight of the syrup made. This sugar was by many preferred to the raw sorghum sugar. In taste, it much resembled maple sugar. SU&AE AND EIPEGEAIN FROM MAIZE. 441 An experiment made with the stalks of Egyptian sugar corn, taken after the ears had been plucked for canning, was as follows : 621 pounds stalks ivitli leaves and tops. 240 pounds leaves and tops. 381 pounds stripped stalks. 159 pounds .iuice expressed. 10. lis specific gravity of juioe. 41.7 per cent of juice from stripped stalks. 30.33 pounds of syrup made. 19.1 per cent syrup in juice. 14.25 pounds su.^ar extracted from syrup. 47 per cent of sugar extracted from syrup. 16.08 pounds of molasses remaining. The above is equal to a yield from each ton of stripped stalks of 74,8 pounds of sugar, and 84.4 pounds, or 6.75 gallons, of molasses. Nelson Maltby, of Geneva, Ohio, reports a similar result, January 8th, 1883, as follows: " I cut 200 pounds of corn stalks, when the ear was just fit for use. It made one gallon of syrup, and from this, I ob- tained 83^ pounds of sugar. I think lean improve upon this next time." His result is about 35 pounds of sugar, and 7.2 gallons of molasses to a ton of stalks. 8UGAE AND EIPE GRAIN FROM MAIZE. A small plat of three varieties of field corn (Lindsay's horse tooth. Improved Prolific, White Dent), planted in drills 3 feet apart, the stalks about 8 to 10 inches apart in the row (the rows were in all 166 feet long), was cut after the grain was fully ripe. There were left for this experiment but 142 stalks, and there was obtained from these 41.25 pounds of thoroughly ripened shelled graiu, from which, in 1880, a crop was planted and grown. (Upon an acre there would have been 17,424 stalks, in drills 3 feet apart, and the stalks 10 inches apart, and at the rate of yield obtained, there would have been 5,430 pounds of shelled corn, which, at 56 pounds to the bushel, would be 97 bushels, a very remarkable but not unprecedented yield.) After having had stalks removed for analysis, there yet remained 142 stalks to the 166 feet of row, which yielded at the rate of 69.1 bushels of shelled corn to the acre. These 142 stalks were worked for sugar, and the results were : Pounds. Weight of stalks witli leaves 222 Weiglit of leaves i',7 Weightof stripped stalks 1,m Juice expressed by mill ■ 70 Per cent of juice to stripped stalks ■ 45.16 Specific gravity of juicj , ; 1 070 Syrup made 95 Per cent of syrup from juice ' 13 .57 442 SORGHUM. Analysis of Syrup. Per cent. Sucrose 65.70 Glucose 13.07 Of this syrup, 53 per cent was obtained as excellent sugar, and 47 per cent as molasses, wliich afterward gave a second crop of sugar crystals. This result is equal to a yield of 618 pounds of sugar per acre from first crystallization, and 44 gallons of molasses, besides the crop of ripened grain. In 1881, owing to the drought, a less yield of ripe grain was ob- tained than in the last experiment, only 48.4 bushels per acre — but the available sugar in the juices gave a yield of 366 pounds of sugar per acre. While, therefore, the yield of sugar and syrup from maize is less than that from sorghum, it would appear worth while to pursue these investigations, since the results already obtained show the presence, in the stalks of our common varieties of maize, of an amount of sugar far more valuable than is the grain, and which may be readily secured by the same processes employed in the extraction of sugar from the sugar-cane and sorghum. The general practice of drying the corn upon the stalk would, of course, have to be modified, in case the stalks were to be used for syrup or sugar production ; but there is no doubt that means could readily be devised to accomplish this result. In the case of sweet corn, which is plucked while immature, there is no reason why the stalks should not be thus used ; and, since they retain their content of sugar for weeks after the ears have been re- moved, there is ample time to utilize what is largely a refuse material. Besides, if it shall be found that the profits of canning may be en- hanced by this additional product from the stalks, there is reason to believe that this business, already so extensive in certain sections of the country, might be greatly enlarged, and, by exportation of canned corn, increase a demand for the crop, which even now occupies fully 38 per cent of all the cultivated land of the United States. In 1880 over sixty-two million acres of land were in maize. Although it may be premature to declare the utilization of any portion of this enormous acreage of stalks for sugar and syrup production, it is true that at present they are, for the most part, practically wasted. It is also, be- yond question, true that they contain, at the very least, twice as much sugar as would supply the United States. That the economical pro- duction of this vast amount of sugar is only a question of time is probable. It yet remains a promising field for future investigation. COMPABISON OF SOEGHUM AND MAIZE JUICES. 443 Per Cent of Leaves and Stripped Sialics of Maize. The relative amount of leaves and tops, as compared with the strip- ped stalks of maize, is as the average of several hundred stalks of nine varieties: 59.8 per cent stripped stalks, 40.2 per cent leaves and tops. COMPARISON OF SOEGHUM AND MAIZE JUICES. The following table has been prepared from the results of analyses, made in 1880 and 1881, of 38 varieties of sorghum and 9 varieties of maize, and comprise some thousands of analyses. The average results of the analyses of all those juices falling within the specific gravities given are included, and we have those between 1014 and 1073 both for sorghum, of which there were, in 1881, 722 analyses made, and of maize, of which there were 202. So, too, in 1880, between specific gravity 1019 and 1073, there were 2133 anal- yses made of sorghum and 188 of maize juices. The analyses also are averaged of those juices between specific grav- ity 1050 and 1070, of both sorghum and maize, for 1880 and 1881 ; isince these specific gravities include those juices generally worked from syrup and sugar. There are also given the average results of those sorghum juices which were of greater specific gravity than those of maize, viz^: In 1880, from 1070 to 1090; and in 1881, from 1070 to 1095. And, finally, the general average for both years, of sorghum and maize juices between 1019 and 1073, and between 1050 and 1070. Besides the average analyses of tliese juices, the per cents of availa- ble sugar, total sugars, total solids, sucrose in total sugars, and in total solids, is given. The table represents a very large number of anal- yses, over 3,000, and a large number of varieties, 38 of sorghum and 9 of maize ; also the results of two seasons very unlike in climatic conditions, as will be seen on page 148. This conclusion, therefore, may be regarded as clearly established, which to many will appear most surprising, viz.: In every case where two juices of the same spe- cific gravity are taken, the one of sorghum and the other of maize stalks, it will be found that, in every respect, that from maize is supe- rior : First, in the content of sugar ; second, in the per cent of sucrose in the total sugar, through a less quantity of glucose; and, third, in the per cent of sucrose in the total solids. In other words, the maize juice is the purer, and, by consulting the table, it will be seen that it is very much more pure. For example : As the result of the analyses of 1880 and 1881, the juices of maize, of specific gravity between 1050 and 1070, contained 12.11 per cent on an average of total sugars, and 444 SORGHUM. 10.41 per cent was sucrose, or 86 per cent of the total sugars. The sor- ghum juices of this specific gravity averaged 12.28 per cent of total sugars, of which only 9.56 was sucrose, or 77.9 per cent of the total sugars. The per cent of total solids was in each the same, 15.17; but in the maize juices 68.6 per cent, and in the sorghum juices 63 per cent, of the total solids was sucrose. The average available sugar was, in the maize juices, 5.65 per cent, and in the sorghum juices 3.95 per cent of the juice. It is, however, to be remembered, that at present sorghum is far more valuable for purposes of sugar|or syrup production, owing to the following reasons : 1. Sorghum is far more constant in its composition, as well as uni- form, while maize appears to vary greatly, even specimens of the same variety taken at the same time from the same field. 2. Sorghum reaches ultimately a much higher content of sugar than maize, as in 1880 there were 778 analyses made of juices having a specific gravity between 1070 and 1090, and averaging 14.26 per cent of sucrose, of which 8.66 per cent was available; and in 1881 there were 485 analyses of juices of specific gravity between 1070 and 1095, averaging 15.85 per cent of sucrose, of which 10.68 per cent was available. At present no such maize juices have been obtained, except at rare intervals. 3. Owing to the habit of the plant in bearing its seed, and the con- ditions necessary for its complete development, a greater weight of crop can be grown to the acre of sorghum than of maize. But sugar of excellent quality, and in paying quantity, has been repeatedly secured from the sXalks of maize after the seed had thoroughly ripened ; and it is by no means beyond reasonable expec- tation that certain varieties of maize may be found or developed by careful selection, which shall rival the sorghum in its sugar content, and prove to be as constant and uniform as are the best of the sor- ghums. That we have in maize a plant possessing a marvelous degree of adaptability to the varying conditions of soils, climate, and- culti- vation, is known to all. In this respect it certainly equals, if it does not surpass, the sorghum, which has through centuries of cultivation produced varieties so widely different as to have perplexed the botanist. But we have large groups of the sorghum family poorer in sugar than any of the varieties of maize thus far examined, aud there is reason to hope that when investigations shall have taken the place of ridicule and dogmatic assertion, a plant so plastic in the hands of the culti- vator as maize has shown itself, may be developed into varieties equal to any at the present known as producers of grain, and at the same PEAEL MILLET. 445 time more valuable as sources of sugar. Such a result appears clearly foreshadowed in the work already done upon this distinctively native cereal Zea mais. COMPARISON OF JUICES OP SOKGHUM AND MAIZE. i ^ 3 o [c m QJ s 'P 3 V aj ttj o 13 60 3J 'o y >, vU i» rf "rt V, '? s 3 o c "3 > o O O d u-t > fcj) rf O D ♦J i'f +^ o 1 C H a p p a — "c Qi OJ 43 o 9 Qi a) . OJ a S >'■ .o J3 § '3 p rt ^ tH o ^ u c: s a QJ & •v OJ o o tu &o flj v*^ o oj ^ p >< CO cq CL, Ph Ph e^ Ph &< 'A z; 1881 Sorghum 1014-7.^ 2^-0^ 9 5 03 2 99 3 00 — 96 8 02 62.7 11 02 45 6 .722 3,S 1S81 Maize 1014-73 ■2=-<> i) 6 SI! 2.5-1 2.63 .76 8 37 69,7 10 90 53,5 202 8 1881 Sorghum 1050-70 r-r 5 9 45 2.77 3,15 3 .-13 12 22 77 3 15 37 61 5 3: 16 IS 1881 Maize 1050-70 7'-9' 5 10 ,53 2 "'5 2 47 5 M 12 7S .S2.4 15 25 71 42 8 1881 Sorghum 1070-95 9° 5-lli° 5 15 85 i 55 3 62 10 6.S 17 40 91,1 21,02 75 4 4S5 "S 1881 Sorghum 1019-73 2° 6-0°, 5.49 3 n 3,07 - 69 8 60 63,8 11 67 47 694 38 1S81 Maize 1019-73 2°. 6-9° 9 0.3S 2,64 2,60 1.J4 9 02 70,7 11 62 54,9 188 A 1880 Sorghum 1019.73 2° 6-9°. 9 6 37 3,27 9 90 . 88 9 64 66 1 11 SO 53 7 21.33 .38 18K0 Maize 1019-73 1019-79 2° 6-9° 9 2°, 6-10°, 6 7,47 7,10 1 19 3 10 2 36 3 39 1.64 8 60 10 20 ,S6 3 69 6 11 ,55 12 66 64 7 56 5 188 24X6 9 1880 Sorghum 38 1880 Maize 1019-79 2°. 6-10°. 5 7 95 1,16 3 10 3.69 S 11 87,3 12 21 65 1 196 9 1880 Sorghum 1050-70 7°-9°.6 9 67 2.67 2 62 4.38 12 31 7,S 4 14 96 64 6 1351 38 1880 Maize 10.50-70 7°-:i° 5 10 2il 1 14 3 65 6.. 50 11 4.-; 90 15,08 6S 2 114 9 18S0 Sorghum 1070-90 9°. 6-12°. 14 26 1.5li 4,04 8.66 15.82 UO 1 19 86 71 8 77S 38 80-81 Sorghum 1019.73 2°. 6-9° 9 6 93 3 19 2 65 09 9,12 65.0 11 77 50 4 2827 38 «0-81 Maize 1019-73 10.50-70 2° 6-9°, 9 7°-9° 6 6 93 9 56 1 92 2. 72 2 76 2,89 2.26 3 95 8 85 12.28 78.3 77 9 11,60 15,17 59,7 63 370 1687 9 80-81 Sorghum ,38 80-81 Maize.. 1050-70 7°-9°,6 10.41 1,70 3,06 8.65 12.11 86.0 15.17 68.0 156 9 The effects of frost upon the sugar in the maize stalk, and of allow- ing the stalks to remain unworked after having been cut, are in all re- spects identical with those which have already been fully set forth in the chapters upon sorghum, see pages 154 and 126. PEAEL MILLET. The following analyses were made of the stalks of this plant, aiid, as will be seen, the content of sugar was remarkable, after the plant had fully matured — in this resembhng the sorghums : 446 SOEGHUM. PEARL MILLET. M _ t4 ^ M 1> .^ 1 Date. Development. si 5 o la o , U [A bj: CJ ■ So 1 II O-rr, i ■Si = '3 g IB, = 15 5 3 1'c 53a R ^ ^ 1=: .. t. P t- p ■A . i-l 4 > s- C1+ (1< CQ CK CL. 04 a< Sept. 10 Stamens still on. 2 5.7 062 1.67 1 12 * 505 30.0 1.035 * 16 3.7 in Stamens (allta 2 6.7 062 1.5/ 1 04 * 480 30.6 1.034 * 1.6 1.9 16 No change in ap- pearance 2 .'> S 1)78 2.00 1 02 76,31 .373 18.6 1 049 11 17 .8 7 3 3.07 19 2 5.1 062 1.78 1.09 76.98 .406 22 8 1.049 11.53 1 5 7.0 3.03 25 Dry tops; sucker- ing « ,S 7 065 2.,W 1.49 72 00 .,54V 21 5 1.054 11.09 I.I 8 '; 1.29 29 ...do , 2 2703 1873-80 25.26 7.55 9 77 17 95 18.42 15 44 78 (1 2037 1807-73 29 71 10 00 13 18 24 97 17 31 10 4K 7:1 3 2382 1874-80 28 21 11 18 10 68 21 85 14 66 17 04 SO 2360 1861-70 29.82 8.81 11 0.1 21,97 18.4a 16.58 72.3 2669 1871-80 29 39 10 22 11 58 21 65 23 35 17 62 71 3 2528 1862-70 S3 2il U 90 13 46 28 45 2;). 15 10.21 83 II 2722 1871-80 36 30 14 39 13 811 29.17 24 2S 14.34 83 3 232S 1802-70 82.08 14 06 15 SO 31 :;0 23.25 17 4C lU 8 2738 1871-80 33 35 14 99 11 41 31 91 22 7S 16.16 80 2422 1802-72 33 09 11 72 14 73 24 32 22 86 18 24 81 1 2965 1871-80 31. E8 13 S4 14 16 25 76 22 60 15 46 69 4 25311 1802-70 M.78 13 81) IS 'M 33 08 26.94 16 37 86 3 33.15 1871-80 29,07 13 47 10 80 30 49 22 64 14.34 75 7 2720 1862-70 37 35 15 72 17 S5 37 69 27.77 20 03 116 9 3127 1871-80 82 64 12 70 15 50 31 93 20 19 15 52 90 1 271C 1802-70 33 07 15 87 19 32 35 5.S 26 72 18 85 12li li 32:lC 1.S71-80 32 67 14 07 24 35 33 98 20 33 16 02 105 6 2930 1802-711 34 64 13 73 18 41 34 98 25 78 19 25 103 3472 1871-80 35 14 10 83 16 91 34 62 23 45 17 02 92 9 2818 1802-70 31 45 14 41 17 114 28 47 24 04 20 47 90 9 3108 1871-SO 29 9'i 12 23 15 06 27 60 20 3C 17 21 76 2 2672 1S02-70 35 33 16 85 22 45 33 3C 27 41 21 72 1110 11 3474 l.S71-S() 34 43 13 76 IS 28 30 77 21 32 16 0(1 84 C 2934 1864-71 34 60 16 37 20 57 36 28 27 83 22 31 94 8 3300 1S7"-S0 33 86 12 05 16 11 30 80 22 91 18 25 81 2 2904 1862-73 37.71 10 ax 26.07 33 Of 24 06 22 57 100 9 2783 1874-80 32.85 13 38 10 56 31 4C 2^.47 21 66 118 t 3008 1860-7'1 29 96 19 06 28 86 35 111, 29 4C 22 25 108 C 2960 1873-80 26.51 18 10 19 86 36 30 20.85 127.0 3280 497 491 626 552 677 496 680 511 652 633 777 59S 744 780 721 718 659 674 083 097 702 808 872 1057 ' si'i 699 807 730 1116 988 705 ' 850 750 829 810 080 040 472 As will be observed the returns for cotton are unfortunately want- ing, owing to the fact that the annual returns for this crop, received by the Department of Agriculture, appear to have been very meager and incomplete. For convenience of comparison I have prepared the following table, in which the acreage yield of each crop for each state for the latter half — viz., for the Northern States from 1871 to 1880, and for the Southern States from 1873 to 1880 — has been calculated to the per cent of the yield per acre of the several crops during the first half. It •will thus appear, by a glance at this table, the gain or loss per cent 454 SOEGHUM. which each state has made in each crop. For example, the average acreage yield of corn in the State of Maine was 3.7 per cent greater from 1871 to 1880, inclusive, than it was from 1862 to 1870, inclusive ; while of wheat it was 7.2 per cent greater. Again, Connecticut fell off 5 per cent in its acreage yield of corn during the latter hp,lf. PERCENTAGE YIELD OF EACH CROP DURIKG LAST PERIOD, THE FIRST PERIOD BEING 100. States. Maine New Hampshire \eiiuuiit Massaujiuselts .. Rhode island.. . Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsyivania — Delaware Maryland Virginia North i'arolina., South ('arolina.. Georgia Florida Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas Arkansas Tennessee We-^t Virginia. . . Kentucky Ohio Michigan Indiana Illinois Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri Kansas Nebraska Califnrnia Oregon Average... 107.2 105 5 100.4 HI 1 * 98 8 100 98, J lOfi 6 108.6 110.9 1011 100. .ii ]17.n 111.0 100 6 92 1 11 :i 4 87 9 11)1 Si 10.-) !i 116 120 9 Iflf) li 11,5 9 97 6 80,7 8S fi 78 8 84 7 81 6 73 (i 79 2 93 99 9 104 1 109.1 109 3 101) 1 84 105 3 92 8 92 9 107.0 110.2 1011.3 92.3 113 9 11)4.0 86 * 105.7 124 5 * 98 91 1 lOi.7 81 105.0 102 5 90 96 1 92 1 8 126.0 91 88. 9 81.4 7S 3 C3.5 08 8 97.2 129.3 102.6 115.7 92.4 91 3 107.8 98.0 102 5 127.6 89.5 82.0 104 141.8 103.0 92 3 10' 105.2 80 6 119 8 11)3 6 101.9 87.4 98 4 102 5 101.9 105.9 92 1 92 6 95 5 »« 97 1 92.4 8') 1 95 1 103 8 96 9 101.3 97 o 104 8 103.1 103 7 85 1 94 99 100.2 9S.4 83.3 67 91 102 8 148.9 100 * 94 122 2 * 88.1 Hi 126 104 9 97 9 98 8 81 94 3 1(12 3 90 9 84.1 77 8 82 4 87 91 3 99 3 100.4 96.2 81. U * 107 92 92 9 10 104 i; 1113 108 6 88.5 129 107.0 100 89.0 92 84 87 6 77 4 84 9 88 4 84 73 6 81-8 85.9 85 9 94 95 4 92 8 90 9 84 80 9>i 92 ll.S l'l2 1 98 8 101 83.9 * 96 8 98 7 71.2 75.0 102.3 106 5 109 1 98 1110 4 76.9 85 6 87 77 83.4 90 1 83 84 88 116. 117.6 101.2 lUO.O 101.8 96 2 94.8 94.3 94.2 83.6 88 21 .HI. 2 80.8 111.8 101 120.4 109 9 * 112 3 117.7 85.5 100.0 97 '.'l 97.6 99.1 91 85 5 88.5 85 3 81.7 86.6 90 82.3 83 81 4 84 108 110 8 265.2 102.6 120.2 * 102.0 104.4 116. 129.9 * 104.6 100.6 85 3 94.6 127.4 122.6 116.9 108.0 145 7 124.4 92.8 91.8 101 3 100 7 107.9 86 2 84.1 SS 5 * 89 4 97.7 94 92 9 95 4 tl07.6 It will be seen that the average percentages for all the states is, with the exception of those for wheat, oats, and tobacco, less than 100, but these averages must not be taken as representing the relative production for the country at large ; since a slight decrease in those States of great productive areas would more than counterbalance a large increase in several of the smaller states, and vice versa. * Reports not given for one or both series of years. + New Hampshire's per cent, being so entirely disproportipned, is omitted in taking the average for tobacco. EXHAUSTION OF THE SOtt AND FEETILIZATION OF THE CEOP. 455 The two tables given must be studied together, since many of the states showing large percentage increase are at present very low in their actual acreage yield, in comparison with other states which have declined in their percentage yield. For example, while South Caro- lina shows an increase of 17 per cent in her acreage yield of wheat, and Connecticut a slight decrease, yet the actual acreage yield of wheat during the past few years in Connecticut is about two and one-half times greater than in South Carolina. For the purpose of showing which of the states are actually produc- ing less than the average yield of the whole country, the average acre- age yield of the principal crops in the United States is here given : AVERAGE ACREAGE YIELD OF UNITED STATES IN 1880. Corn 27 .6 bushels. Wheat 131 Eye 13 9 " Oats 25 8 " Barley 24.5 " Buckwheat 17.7 bushels. Potatoes 910 '• Tobacco 740 pounds. Hay 2,460 Cotton 184.5 " Of the 36 states given upon the table, the production is as follows: Corn 22 above the average and 14 below. Wheat 18 " " 18 Eye 20 " " 16 " Oats 20 " " 16 " Barley 7 " " 29 " ■Buckwheat 10 " " 19 " Potatoes 10 " " 26 " Tobacco 17 " " 17 Hay 20 " " 16 In the following table I have taken the average acreage yield for the United States of the principal crops in 1880 as a basis, and calcu- lated the percentage yield of these crops in the several states in the year 1879. For example, Maine produced per acre, in 1879, 16.7 per cent more corn and 4.6 per cent more wheat than the average acreage yield of these crops in the United States ; while South Carolina produced per acre but 33.5 per cent of the average acreage yield of corn in the United States, and but 52.9 per cent of the average acreage yield of wheat in the United States. I have selected only those crops of gen- eral cultivation throughout the country, and which are most largely produced. The aggregate value of the corn, wheat, oat, potato, and hay crops amounts to $1,608,007,820, equal to 83.7 per cent of the value of all our leading agricultural crops. 456 SORGHUM. PERCENTAGE YIELD OF EACH CROP IN EACH .STATE OF THE AVERAGE CROP THROUGHoni THE UNITED STATES. ' Corn. Wheat. Oats. Potatoes. Hay. Maine 116.7 14J 9 132.5 125 9 109 6 109.0 120 184 4 130 9 87 3 94 8 73.4 54 33 6 38 2 36 6 46 6 54.7 61 4 77.4 84 7 91 5 102.2 106 5 131.7 120 8 114 4 105 8 118.3 118 4 127.3 108.5 124.7 122.7 119 96.1 104.6 115.6 125.2 139.0 100.0 143.4 136 9 125.3 116.7 114.1 126.8 120 126 82.8 76.7 54 5 55.3 52.2 48.9 51 5 63.1 60 1 55 3 116 9 86 65 7 84 7 83.9 113 1 123 7 99 5 118.2 135.4 1.31.7 1.34.2 107.2 119.3 119.2 121.7 140.9 118 7 125.5 146.7 115 2 99.9 97.3 90 7 8S.7 95.3 915 75-6 81 3 94.5 87 9 80.2 74.6 81 5 Vermont Massac'ljusetts 86 9 91.7 83 8 127.1 114 3 lU.O 107.9 97 92 5 65 64 6 52 9 56.9 " 566 63.2 "ggi 67.7 57.6 85.3 78.0 109 8 114.4 103.3 102.8 96.9 107.4 82 7 93 4 105 92.0 102.1 138 2 95.3. 96 4 97 7 95 2 85 1 Maryland.; 86 9 98.0 North Carolina South Carolina. .. ... 108 2 95.1 Georgia 114 5 81 3 86 8 73 6 91.6 97.8 85 7 87.9 78 4 91 5 91.5 76.3 83.2 99.0 116.0 102.1 83.7 92 3 92.5 129.7 139.6 113.4 Mis.sissippi 1)8.3 105.7 Texas 115.4 112.8 107.2 95 9 102.8 Ohio 94.6 Michigan 98 5 102 8 Illinois 110.8 Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri Kansas 110.2 119.3 112.1 108.6 119.3 120.5 122.3 133.3 If, however, we limit our attention to the two most important cereals, wheat and corn, the latter in 1875 occupying 36.7 per cent, and the former 22.5 per cent of the entire acreage of our farming lands, and the value of these two cereals being equal to 61.3 per cent of all our principal agricultural crops, the conclusions may more clearly appear, and will fairly apply to the remainder of the crops produced. It is to be remembered that the years froni 1875 to 1880, inclusive, were years of very great productiveness for corn, while those from 1877 to 1880, inclusive, were equally so for wheat. This will appear from the fact, that, while from 1863 to 1874, in- clusive, the average acreage yield for corn in the United States was 27.04 bushels, it was, from 1875 to 1880, inclusive, 27.63 bushels, an increase of 2.18 per cent; and while, from 1863 to 1876, inclusive, the average acreage yield of wheat in the United States was 11.91 bushels, it was, from 1877 to 1880, inclusive, 13.48 bushels, an increase of 13.18 per cent. The above would certainly appear to indicate other than any ex- PERCENTAGE YIELD OP EACH CROP IN EACH STATE, ETC. 457 haustion ; but may not this increased yield during these later years have been owing to the occurrence of other favorable conditions, the continuance of which for the future we may not safely predict? If, as we have done with the several states, we calculate the average acreage yield of wheat and corn throughout the country for the first and last half of this period, we shall find that, previous to these later years of unusual production, the averages had fallen so low as to al- most overcome this increase in the wheat, and to more than do so in the case of the corn. AVERAGE ACREAGE YIELD FOR USITED STATES. Bushels. Wheat— 1803 to 1871, inclusive, equals 12.06 " 1872 to 1H80, Inclusive, equals 12.47 Corn — 1SI18 to 1871, iuolu.'^ive, equals 27.69 " 1872 to 1880, inclusive, equals 26.78 The increase in wheat, though including these four years of unusual production, is only 3.4 per cent ; while the decrease in the yield of corn, though including the past six years of good crops, amounts to 3.3 per cent. For the purpose of studying this matter more thoroughly, as also for the purpose of throwing some light upon these results, I have grouped the several states as follows, and have calculated the above results for the several groups. 1st. The New England and Middle States, viz.: Maine, New Hamp- shire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland. 2nd. The South Atlantic and Gulf States, viz.: Virginia, West Vir- ginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas. 3rd. The Central States, viz.: Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, Arkansas. 4th. The North-western and Western States, viz.-. Wisconsin, Min- nesota, Iowa, Kansas,, Nebraska, California, Oregon. In 1879 there was produced in the United States 1,547,901,790 bushels corn, valued at $580,486,217; 448,756,630 bushels wheat, valued at $497,756,630. Of these aggregates, there was produced in each of the several sec- tions of country, classified, as follows : 458 SOEGJ lUM. ^ ^ —1 a oS a c . o s o S 2 ft I, c- QJ OJ . n > CU Ph m > fl. Oh New Engl'd and Middle States. 104,117,140 $59,960,715 6.7 10.3 44,045,460 $69,999,107 9.8 12.1 North Atliiiitic 4 HiidGult'Htntes ISI.333,950 125,028,392 11 7 21.6 26,658,3(10 32,938,829 5.9 6 6 Central States. 863,746,700 289,070,364 65.8 49 8 201,691,860 226,521,303 44.9 45.6 North wes'n and Western States •895,953,000 103,950,846 25.6 17.9 159,561,010 156,656,903 35.5 32 1 1,545,150,790 "$578,010,317 99.8 99.6 43J, 856,630 $476,116,142 96.1 96.4 In territories and states not included in above 2,751,000 2,475,900 .2 .4 16,900,000 20,914,000 3 9 3 6 1,547,901,790 $580,486,217 100.0 100 448,756,630 $497,030,142 100.0 100 The average acreage yield of these several sections for the first and later half of the period during whicli reports are given, and the average percentage yield for the later half of the period, the first half being 100, is as follows : t Corn— Average yield in bushels. Wheat— Average j'ield in bushels. 2 3 P- 1st half. 2nd half. 1st half. 2nd half. New England and Middle States. Sonth Atlantic and Gulf States. . . Central states. ... Northwestern and Western States .30 86 17 38 ,30 72 34.67 32 77 15 96 29.79 32 59 U.4ri s .33 11 53 16.86 14.86 8 74 , 11.91 13.56 106 5 92.0 97.2 94.1 104.8 105 103.9 82 5 If, now, we take the average acreage yield of these two crops in 1879 as a basis, and the reported prices for that crop, we may readily estimate in bushels and money the gain or loss to these several sections in one year, in having maintained or fallen short of the average pro- duction of the first half of the period under consideration. This result will be found as follows : NEW ENGLAXD AND MIDDLE STATES. 6 5percentcorn= 6,3.54,564 bushels. Gain. 6 5 " " = $3,6.19,574 Gain. 4 8 " wheat= 2,017.349 bushels. Gain. 4.8 " " = $2,748,051 Gain. PERCENTAGE YIELD OF EACH CROP IN EACH STATE, ETC. 459 SOUTH ATLANTIC AND GULP STATES. 8 per cent eorii= l.^,76S,170 bushels. Loss. 8 " " =.1!10,872,0:U Loss. 5 " wheat= l.'2iM,liSl bushels. Gain. 5 " " = li!l,568,516 Gain. CEXTRAI, STATES- 2. 8 per cent coni= 24,881.51):^ bushels. Loss. 2.8 " " = *S,:i27.1:W Loss. 8 9 " ivheat= 7,570,724 bushels. Gain. 3.9 " " = .118, .502, 725 Gain. NORTH-WESTERN" AND WE.STERN" STATES. 8 9per ceuteorn= 24.825.95!) bushels. Loss. ■ = K 517,041 Loss. 17 5 17 5 wheat= :«,84fi,294 bushels. " =$33,230,252 Loss. Loss. Prom the above it appears that the total gain ^vas $16,478,866, and the total loss $58,947,057, or a total net loss of $42,568,191. It will, of course, be understood that owing to the different acreages of the several states thus grouped together, as also the fact that their percentages of loss or gain are unlike, the above results are obviously, at best, but approximately true. It would be necessary to consider each state by itself, to learn the exact state of facts existing relative to the production of that state ; but each for himself may readily make such calculation. I have, however, selected those states the production of which is very large of these two cereals, and we will consider them somewhat in detail. The states selected produce an aggregate of over 70 per cent of our wheat and corn, and arc, moreover, those states whose production is so largely in excess of their consumption, that it is from their surplus that we derive our large supply for exportation. It seems proper, then, to consider the past and present production of these states with unusual care. Those selected are Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Wisconsin, Minnesota, California. • o 03 o .a 0) XI a.- I' ■3 a o SS! s ffl ^«-j ■^rt oi &2 Ss Sr g-a «-^ %-= .-s gs s^ o"-* OC-l ^A ?« s^' r^5 n « o o ^ ^ o ^ Ohio 105,086,000 36,.591,7.5n 33 29 30. 36 11 90 U 39 109 2 120 9 Indiana 134.920,.500 43,709,960 33 09 31 58 11 72 13 54 95 4 115 9 Illinois 312.221.0011 185,189,20(1 44,890,830 ,32,780,880 34 78 34 04 29.07 ■ 35.14 H 80 13.73 13 47 10 83 83 5 101 4 , 97.fi Iowa 78 8 Missouri 141,9.i9,400 20,801,000 31.45 29 95 14 44 12 23 05.2 84.7 89,720,4011 02,4.59,400 18.079,500 X3,043,.590 35 33 .34 00 34 43 33 80 10 85 16 '37 13 76 12 05 97 i; 97 9 81 (J Nebraska 7.1 It 39,9r2,C.00 20,505,720 37.35 32 64 15 72 12 70 87 3 ,si) 7 1,5,715,000 31,880, ,520 33 07 ,32.07 15 87 14 07 98.7 ,S,S r, CaUfornia 2,814,000 35,000,000 37 71 32 V,:, 16 88 13.38 87 79 , 1 1,090,577,500 323,372,350 460 SOEGHUM. The above states give an aggregate yield of corn equal to 70 per cent, and of wheat equal to 72 per cent, of the total yield of the United States. ♦ The aggregate value of the corn is equal to 55.7 per cent, and of the wheat to 64.7 per cent, of the entire crops of these two cereals in the United States. From the above data, we find that the gain or loss in bushels of corn or wheat, and in value, calculated at the average prices for these crops in these several states, is as follows : Bush. corn. Loss. Bush. corn. Gain. Bush, wheat. L05S. Bush, wheat. Gain. 9,723,112 ""2,592,649 ' "i,b77,.524 6,930,819 4,100,6J5 3,328,468 3,443,508 3,969,184 3,6.35,063 7,280,000 7,647,676. 6,885,820 6,206,343 51,516.465 Illinois 6,813,091 2,153,290 1,311,647 5,068,900 201,295 36,582 Wisconsin California 73,310,613 12,313,761 33,785.211 14,533,496' Value corn. Loss. Value corn. Gain. Value wheat. Loss. Value wheat; Gain. Ohio $3,792,014 $9,177,211 8,131,364 Indiana $2,110,157 13,970,104 Illinois 622,236 $1,152,9.51 6,394,753 4,141,651 2,962,337 2,893,547 4,127.951 3,416,960 8'954,400 Inwa 1,703,273 581,. 388 275,446 1,976,871 55,160 288,998 Nebraska Wisconsin Minnesota California .$22,961,397 $4,414,250 $34,043,5.50 $17,308,575 In nearly all of these states there is a loss of both corn and wheat, amounting in the aggregate to a net loss of 60,994,852 bushels of corn, and 19,251,715 bushels of wheat, with a value for the corn of $18, 547,- 147, and for the wheat of $16,734,975, or a total loss for both of $35,282,122. This deficiency and annual loss, it will be understood, represents the diminished yield of corn and wheat of these states, through failure on the j)art of the soil, from whatever cause or causes, to maintain the same acreage yield which it had averaged from 1862 to 1870, in- clusive. Despite the very great inequalities of productiveness in the several sections of the country, which are doubtless largely due to inherent PERCENTAGE YIELD OF EACH CROP IN EACH STATE, ETC. 461 and original differences in the character of the soil, to climatic condi- tions favorable or unfavorable to agricultural production, and in part also to better agricultural methods obtaining in some sections, it is true that over large and most productive areas of our country, the fertility of the soil has suffered appreciable diminution. If we contrast the New England and Middle States, for example, with those of the Central or the North-western and Western States, we shall fi: d, although the former were but a few years ago surpassed in produciivenes? by the latter, that, during the short period of fifteen or twenty years, the yield of the latter has fallen off, while that of the New England and Middle States has increased, so that at present the acreage yield of these New England and Middle States surpasses that North-western and Western States and of the Central States. This is the more remarkable, in view of the fact that these same lands which have so increased in productiveness have been under the plow for at least a century longer than those of the West. This result is probably due largely to inherent differences in the soils of the several sections. The rocks of New England, ^vhich by their gradual disintegration have formed these lands, will probably be found richer in the mineral constituents of plant food than the rocks of the West. But it is beyond question that the early settlers upon these western lands found them rich in the elements of plant food, which through ages had accumulated. The continued cropping and wasteful methods which characterized the early years of western agriculture appear, however, to have partly, at least, exhausted these accumulated stores of food, as evidenced by di- minished crops. As is well known, the cereals require for their development large quantities, comparatively, of potash and phosphoric acid, and these two mineral constituents exist in comparatively very small quantities in the rocks or in the soil derived from them. It follows, therefore, that they would naturally be soonest removed from the soil by contin- ual cropping, and, as is known, this removal has necessitated the re- storation to the soil of these constituents through the application of products containing them. The so-called commercial fertilizers which have within the past few years been manufactured and sold in the country, especially in the New England and Atlantic States, are chiefly valuable for these two constituents. If we take as a basis for our calculation the returns for 1879, we may readily determine the amount of these important mineral constituents which is annually taken from our soil by these crops. 462 SORGHUM. In the following table this is shown, and the results are in every case an average of a very large number of separate analyses, by different chemists often, and of samples of the crop grown in different sections and different years, so that there can be little doubt but that the results are very near the exact truth. The aggregate amount of our principal crops is 106,889,390 tons, and the total mineral matter present in this crop equals 3,707,223 tons, and of this mineral matter or ash there are 1,301,224 tons of potash and 679,901 tons of • phosphoric acid. In other words, 53.4 percent of the total mineral matter necessary for the production of our crop of 1879 (and the same is practically true of every other year) was com- posed of these two constituents, phosphoric acid and potash, which, in commercial fertilizers, agricultural chemists have agreed are worth re- spectively 12 and 7 cents per pound, In the matter of fixing these prices, it must be understood that the chemists have no more to do than in fixing the price of flour or nails, or any other marketable commodity. They simply declare, from the composition and price of such fertilizing materials as are found in the market, that, in certain forms and in certain markets, these constitu- ents may be obtained at such prices. CROPS OF THE UNITED STATES OP AMERICA, 1879. -a c 56 60 32 56 4- 48 60 P. o O a 'A 36 94 21 21 43 2 39 13 34 |, c ft a < ft o 11 QJ CJ si o a a 1 o 1 ■s p. s 1 u "u - o A 1- Coni bu. . Whe.it do Oats do. Rye do. . BiVrley do . Buckwheat ...do.. Potatoes do. . Tobaf.co lbs. Hay tons Cotton lbs.. 1,547,901,790 448,756,030 363,761,320 23,639,460 40,283,100 13,140,000 181,626,400 891,278.3.10 35,493,000 2,367,5411,900 43,.';41,2.)0 ::i,462,69il 6.820,181 601,905 966,794 315,360 5,448,792 195,639 35,493,000 1,183,770 1 67 2.00 8 30 2.00 2 50 1.60 .41 20 80 6.74 1 30 27,8 31.3 15 6 28 8 21.2 14.8 60„i) 17.3 39.. 8 32.5 46.8 46.1 21 3 45 6 32.8 48,4 18.8 8.1 6.4 10.0 737,799 264,251 192,066 13,238 24,170 5,046 22,340 40,fi93 2,392,228 15,889 201,216 82,712 . 29,862 3,813 5,124 749 13,005 . 7,040 952,107 4,996 338,738 121,821 40,910 6;037 7,928 2,442 4,088 3,296 153,102 1,539 106,889,390 8,707,223 1,301,224 679,901 In the following table, the value of the potash and phosphoric acid in the several crops has been calculated, and for the purpose of com- parison the value of the several crops is given : VALUE OF POTASH AND PHOSPHOEIC ACID IN CROPS, liTC. 463 VALUE OP POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID IN THE CROPS OF UNITED STATES IN 1879. a CJ ^T3 O ^S .£3 o S.2 -■2 > .'^^fi P, *o Cj3 .fj 2og ^^ M """C u O o a ■aS o. a a,d gas ^d 5 S3 5S OS u 11 Is 3 at> > t> H H ii Corn $24,170,240 $76,297,120 $100,467,360 $,)80,48fi,217 17.3 Wheat 11,579,681) 4,180,6,><0 5:K,SJ'} 29 237 040 40,816,720 13,9!I9,0S0 1,982.700 497,030,112 120,533,294 1.1,507,431 s 2 9,818,4"0 Eye 1,448,880 12 8 Barley ' 7i7,;ieo 1,902,700 2,620,060 23,714,444 11 1 Buckwheat 104,860 686,080 690,940 7,856,191 8 8 1,904,700 976,120 2 880 820 79 153 673 3 6 985,600 791,040 1,776,640 2'>,727,."v24 Hay 133,294,980 36,744,480 170,039,460 330,801,494 51.5 Cotton 699,440 369,360 1,068,800 242,140,987 A .n7S,171,300 .$1.38,171,220 .$336,342,580 .$1,919,954,397 17.5 It will be seen that the total value of potash present in the crops is equal to $178,171,360, and of the phosphoric acid to $158,171,220, or together reaching the enormous aggregate of $336,342,580, equal, as will be seen, to 17.5 per cent of the entire value of the crops. There is also given in the table the value of the potash and phosphoric acid present in each crop, as compared with the market value of the crop, and it will be observed that in this respect there are great differ- ences between the several crops. For example, while the potash and phosphoric acid in a bushel of corn is worth 17.3 per cent of the aver- age market value of the corn, these same two constituents in a bushel of wheat are worth only 8.2 per cent of the average market value of the wheat. This result is due to the greater price which the wheat brings in the market as compared with corn ; for the bushel of wheat contains 9.1 cents worth of these two constituents, while a bushel of corn contains only 6.5 cents worth. The small percentage value of these present in the cotton crop is of course due to the fact that this crop is composed almost wholly of atmos- pheric constituents, and, so far as the fiber is concerned, makes almost no demand upon the soil for its production. The small percentage value in the potato crop is likely to be mis- leading It is, of course, because so large a percentage of this tuber is composed of water (some 90 per cent). But, owing to the very great acreage yield of this crop on good land, the actual amount of potash 464 SOEGHUM. and phosphoric acid removed is in reality very great, and, as is well known, this crop is, especially as regards potash, a very exhausting crop. The hay crop, from every consideration, deserves especial attention, occupying as it does so large a portion of our cultivated land (19 per cent), constituting one-third the weight of the entire aggregate of our crops, and removing annually from our lands an amount of potash and phos- phoric acid almost exactly equal to the amount removed by all the other crops combined. Its discussion is of the greatest importance. Owing to its comparatively cheap production, it is sold at a price in- comparably less than any other crop, and yet, as will be seen by refer- ence to the analysis given, which represents the average of 34 of our native American grasses, the demand it makes upon the soil is very great. The potash and phosphoric acid present in its ash is, at the prices we have given, equal to 51.5 percent of the average selling price of the hay itself. Fed to the animal, practically all of these two constituents are re- turned to the manure pile ; since in the animal economy but a trifling amount of potash is needed, and only so much of phosphoric acid as will suffice for the production of the bones of the growing animal. It follows, then, that the manure obtained from the feeding of a ton of hay, having an average composition such as those analyzed, con- tains an amount of potash and phosphoric acid which, at the prices given , is equal to a little more than half the average selling price of hay in the United States, which was in 1879 given at $9.32. This will be readily seen to be true, for 2,000 pounds hay with 6.74 per cent of ash would contain 134.8 pounds of ash. Of this ash 39.8 per cent is pot- ash, or 53.7 pounds; and 6.4 percent is phosphoric acid, or 8.6 pounds. Now, 53.7 pounds at 7 cents equals $3.76, and 8.6 pounds at 12 cents equals $1.03, or together $4.79, which equals 51.4 percent of $9.32, the cost of the hay. ^\^lat has been said about the feeding of hay to the animal is equally true of the cereals and other feeding crops. Unlike the vege- table world, the animal demands little mineral food, mainly phosphoric ■acid and lime, which comprises the ash obtained by the cremation of the animal. We have, then, obviously one solution as to the important question : " How shall exhaustion of our lands be prevented ?" The answer the above facts force upon us is : increase so far as possible the home con- sumption of our agricultural products, and carefully preserve and re- turn to our lands such portions of those products as are either not fed to the animal, or, if fed, are not assimilated. VALUE OF POTASH AND PHOSPHOEIC ACID IN CEO PS, ETC. 465 None need to be reminded that this practice has been repeatedly urged upon the farmer, and, indeed, thousands of practical illustra- tions abound proving that profitable agriculture and productive lauds are closely connected with flocks and herds. But if our presient methods shall continue, and our exportation of cereals increase, the time must come, unless our experience is to be wholly unlike that of other countries, when, to increase the produc- tion of our lands we must at last have recourse to the same methods which have long obtained in great Britain and upon the Continent, and in the New England, Middle, and Atlantic States of our own country, viz., the application to our soils of those mineral constituents -which now are being so rapidly removed. When that time comes, as •come it assuredly must without some modification of our methods, it will be found that the profitable production of the cereal crops at the prices we now obtain for them will be an impossibility. Indeed, al- ready in many parts of the country the continued production of corn, as in the past, is found to be almost without profit, and there have sprung up many factories hoping by its manufacture into other pro- ducts to increase the profits in its production. The manufacture and sale of commercial fertilizers has rapidly de- veloped during the past few years in our country, and already reaches an annual aggregate of many millions of dollars. In Great Britain, there was imported in a single year 394,843 tons of fertilizing materials, worth $20,049,042. Every corner of the earth and island of the sea has been ransacked, almost, to supply her with the means for increasing her crops. Within five years from the time when Liebig called attention to the deposits of guano, her importation of this most valuable fertilizer reached the enormous amount of 283,300 tons in a single year, and her consumption of superphosphate is esti- mated annually at 250,000 tons. But, in addition to this, her importations of cereals and breadstuflTs for consumption within her borders has added greatly to the aggregate supply of her material for the enrichment of her farming lands. As a result of this enrichment of the soil, we have seen the productiveness of these farming lands of Great Britain, within the past thirty years, enormously increased, until it appears, according to the authority of one of their foremost agriculturists, they have reached about the last limit of profitable production in their agriculture. In connection with this subject of commercial fertilizers, it is inter- esting to consider the results which have followed the chemical control which has been maintained over this great industry. All will under- no 466 SORGHUM. stand that the determination iu a commercial fertilizer of the amount of those constituents of which our various crops are composed, is a chemical question, and we have, in most of the states, clieniists ap- pointed, whose duty it is to analyze and report upon such' fertilizers as are offered for sale. The result of this chemical supervisiqu gives abundant evidence that this work of the agricultural cliemists of the country lias, even in a pecuniary sense, very greatly added to the profits of the farmer. The following table contains the results of analyses of commercial ■fertilizers, made by different chemists in different states during, the past thirteen years, and shows the improvement which has taken place during these years, both iu quality and price : IMPKOTEMENT IN FERTILIZEKS. Years. No. an- alyzed. Chemist. Average miirket price. Average value. Per cent of value to cost. 18(i8 16 15 11 36 10 36 57 (5(1 07 56 36 "'37'«" 34 79 .?21 36 17 CO 36 32 36 1870-2 1871-2 . . . Storer : ('oilier 64 67 ]S7S . "33'26"' 32 93 67 1881 1881 Dabiiey SO . 95 From the above results, it will be seen that, within the past thirteen years, the average price per ton has fallen from $59.47 to $34.79, or 41.5 per cent, while the intrinsic value per ton has increased during the same period from an average value of $21.36 to $32.93 per ton, or 54.2 per cent. In other words, did the same relation of value tr> cost obtain today which existed in 1868, the average ciist of the fertilizers analyzed ty Dr. Genth would have been $91.68 per ton, whereas it is $34.79, eqqal to 38 per cent only, thus showing that the purchaser of commercial fertilizers of to-day makes an average saving of 62 per- cent. Not only has this great saving been effected during the past few years, but it is to be observed, also, that the basis of valuation of these fertilizers has also been changed, and in tliis way increased greatly the benefit accruing to the purchaser and consumer of these commercial products. For example, in 1869, the value generally given to soluble phosphoric acid was 16J cents per pound, while now the same constitu- ent is estimated at 12 cents per pound. The above statement but partially represents the whole truth in this matter — for, besides these, as one might say, legitimate products, there- IMPROVEMENT' IN FEETILIZEES. 407 were sold in these- earlier days, less thaa ten years ago, as fertilizers, material not worth, in fact, the barrels in which the stuff was packed for market ; as, for example, the " What is It," as it was called, which in reality was only the powdered gangue rock of an abandoned gold mine. In another case, harbor mud was put up and sold as a valuable fertilizer. But, at the present time, owing to the careful supervision which this matter receives, it is somewhat rare to meet with such cases of fraud ; although, within a year, my attention was directed to one of my own analyses of one of these almost worthless products, where the results of the analysis had been increased one hundred fold by carefully re- moving the decimal points, in my report of the analysis, two places to the right, so that the one-tenth of one per ceut of potash present was made to appear as ten per cent, and so throughout the entire analysis. Our country has not been alone in this experience, though we have passed through it much sooner than did England and Germany. In 1835, Professor Voelcker declared ''that, if ever there was a time when the agriculturist had need to exercise special caution in the pur- chase of artificial manures, that time is the present, for the practice of adulterating standard fertilizers, such as guanos, superphosphates, and so forth, has reached an alarming extent." One of our foremost agri- culturists has recently declared that, " I have come to the conclusion that there is no way in which the Department of Agriculture can aid the farmers of this country more than by a careful analysis of the com- mercial fertilizers sold on the market. The use of these fertilizers has become a necessity in all the older states — a necessity which is to in- crease from year to year. There is not one farmer able to tell their value except by actual trial, and that must be made after his money is gone." In concluding this paper, we would say that, from the data pre- sented, it appears to be established that, during the past twenty years, the productiveness of our soil has sensibly decreased ; and in those sections where the fertility has been fully maintained, it has been largely due to the fact that our farmers have resorted to the same means which, in Great Britain and upon the continent, have abun- dantly proved sufficient to maintain, and greatly increase, the acreage yield of crops. We have also called attention to another method by which further deterioration of our lands will not only cease, but they may again in time be restored to their original productiveness. So long as a foreign demand for our agricultural products exists, and 468 SOEGHUM. increased prices shall be obtained, there is little doubt but that in the future, as in the past, exportation will continue, and the results are inevitable. So, too, the system of large farms and large crops in the aggregate, though with scanty acreage yield, is possible now with the comparatively scattered population of the great West. It is more than probable that, when our population shall have increased from 50 to 100 or 150 millions, we shall be forced to abandon methods of farming which already are regarded with apprehension by those who have investigated them. But there remain other methods than those indicated for the im- provement of our lands, the discussion of which will be reserved for another paper at some future time. ANALYSIS OF BOEGHUM AND MAIZK — METHOD. 469 CHAPTEE XV. (a.) Method of analysis of sorghum and maize juices used by the author in his investigations. (6.) Comparison of analyses with polarization of juices, (c.) Specific gravity of juices. (d.) Tables of average composition of sorghum juices at dififerent specific gravities, (e.) Tables of average composition of maize juices at dififerent specific gravities. (f.) Preparation of re-agents for analysis of sorghum and maize juices. ANALYSIS OP SOEGHUM AND, MAIZE — METHOD. Since the results which have beeu given in this volume are practi- cally those secured by the author, during his investigation of this sub- ject, as the chemist of the Department of Agriculture, at Washington, and as the conclusions are drawn from them, the accuracy of the re- sults and methods can not be too clearly established. This will be sufficient explanation for the insertion of the following : At the meeting of the National Academy of Sciences, held at Philadelphia, in November, 1881, a paper was presented by Dr. Peter Collier, on invitation, giving, in brief, some of the points brought out in the investigation conducted by him at the Agricultural Department at Washington, on the subject of sugar from the sorghum and maize. After the discussion, following the reading of this paper, a record of the meeting says : Mr. Silliman offered the following resolution, and moved its reference to the council: Resolved, That the subject of sorghum sugar, the experimental results on which obtained, during the three or four years last past, by Dr. Peter Col- lier, ot the Agricultural Department, submitted in brief, by invitation, to the Academy, at Philadelphia, in November, 1881, is, in the opinion of the Acad- emy, of sufficient importance to be referred to a committee of chemists, mem- bers of this Academy, with the request that they give Dr. Collier's results and methods a careful consideration, and report', at their earliest convenience, the conclusions to which they come. The resolution of Mr. Silliman was agreed to. This resolution was favorably reported from the council, and the following committee has been appointed by the president: Messrs. Brewer, Chandler, Johnson, Silliman, and J. L. Smith, from the' Academy. Experts, not members of the Academy : Dr. C. A. Goessman, Mas- sachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst; and Dr. Gideon E. Moore. 69 Liberty street. New York. 470 SORGHUM. It may be well to state, for the information of those interested in this matter, that the National Academy of Sciences, incorporated by Congress in 1863, is, by the fundamental law of its organization, con- stituted the adviser of the government in all matters of science referred to it for investigation by any department of the public service, and has often acted in this capacity. ^ The following is takeh from the unanimous report of this committee upon the results of the above investigation : The Analytical Methods Employed. The committee, after a careful examination of the analytical methods employed by the chemical division of the Department of Agriculture, find that they are entirely sufficient for the work to be done. The details of the processes for the volumetric determination of sucrose and grape sugar are fully exhibited. These methods have been skillfully adapted to the character of the proximate constituents of the complex juices to be analyzed, and are among the best known to science.* These methods have been employed with precautions adapted to the exigencies of the special problems for the solution of which the investi- gation has been instituted. By a judicious system of checks and con- trol, and by the reduction to the lowest limits of the personal error of the observer, the accuracy and constancy of the results have been as- sured as far as, in the present state of our knowledge, such end can well be attained. The care with which the methods for the determination of ciane sugar have been tested, and the probable error determined, enlists our confidence. The reserve with which the chemist has refrained from accepting the results as conclusive, until, by repetition and variation in the methods, he had exhausted the means at his command to prove them to be erroneous, is in the true spirit of scientific research. The analytical work prior to 1882 comprises the enormous number of nearly 4,500 analyses of forty varieties of sorghum and twelve varie- ties of maize, covering all the later stages of development of the grow- ing plant. Such an amount -of analytical work as is implied in the careful conduct of nearly five thousand quantitative analyses by the most rigid system and subdivision of labor in the work — a system in * The limits of error, as shown to the committee from a considerable number of unpublished determinations, sustain the conclusion that the method employed for the estimation of cane and grape sugars was excep- tionally accurate, and more subject to a minus error of 0.2 per cent on a 10 per cent solution of pure sugar, than to a plus error. ANALYSIS OF SORGHUM AND MAIZE METHOD. 471 ■which each assistant was, for the time, devoted exclusively to one thing, e. g., determinations of density by the balance, volumetric determin- ations of glucose and sucrose, polarizations, ash determinations, total solids, ash analyses, analyses of the seed, quantitative determinations of acids and other proximate constituents of the juicies at seventeen diflerent stages of growth of the plant and after maturity. By this system each co-worker became thoroughly expert as a specialist in his owD duty; and it was thus possible, by this system, to test the accuracy of the work by submitting identical samples in duplicate and separate numbers for analysis by the same and by different co-workers — a crucial test of verification. The committee have critically examined the work done in this way, and the details show a suprising agreement. Method of Analysis. It is obviously of the first importance that the results of analyses given should have been obtained by reliable methods. Every precaution has been taken to guard against error and to con- trol the results. In the first place, it may be remembered that each assistant, in the routine work assigned him, was necessarily free from all prejudice as to what result he was to expect, for each sample of juice, syrup, or cane examined was known only by a number, and this was known only to one who himself performed no analytical work. Every questionable result was at once repeated, and many dupli- cate samples of juice, under different numbers, and without the know- ledge of any of those engaged in the analyses, were from time to time analyzed. Each new lot of either of the re-agents employed in analysis was carefully tested, and indeed nothing was omitted which would tend to accuracy iu work. Those familiar with chemical methods, and considering the vast amount of work actually performed in these analyses, are aware that absolute accuracy is not to be expected; but whatever errors there may be are certainly within very narrow limits, and the general results fur- nished in the foregoing analyses may be confidently relied upon as being practically near approximations to the truth. The Analytical Processes for the Examination oftlw Canes. One or more stalks of the variety of sorghum to be examined were selected in the experimental field, and, after recording the stage of de- velopment and general appearance of the canes, a number was af&xed 472 SORGHUM. by which they could be distinguished during the remainder of the ex- amination. After being cut and brought to the laboratory, the length of the stalk from butt to the extremity of the head, its entire weight, and diameter at the butt, were taken. It was then stripped and topped, as in the usual way of preparation for the. mill, and again weighed. The "stripped stalk'' was then expressed in a three-roll mill, and the juice collected in a weighed flask and weighed to deter- mine " per cent of juice" in the stripped stalk. The specific gravity was determined with a piknometer, after an interval of an hour to al- low the escape of air bubbles and the subsidence of suspended starch. For the determination of the " total solids" in the juice 2"^^- were ac- curately measured into a weighed porcelain dish 6 to 7°™- wide and 1. 5 to 2<"°- deep, the bottom of which was previously covered with coarse sand to a depth of .75'='"- to insure complete desiccation. After twelve to fourteen hours' drying at 85° to 90° C. , there was no further loss of water. The weight of the residue- in grams, divided by twice the specific gravit}', gave the per cent of " total solids.'' For the determination of glucose and sucrose, lOO""^- of the juice were taken and defecated by the addition of 25*^™'- of solution of basia acetate of lead in water. The filtrate from the lead precipitate, which was perfectly clear, was, in many instances, polarized, and then devoted to the methods of volumetric analysis. Owing to the degree^ of dilution, every 10"=™^- of filtrate represented S'^™^- of juice. For the determination of glucose 10"™^- of the filtrate were taken ; for sucrose, 5"=™^-. The portion for glucose was diluted with about 50 to 75'="^- of water, and about the same amount of Fehling's solution added. The porcelain dish containing the whole was placed upon a water bath kept at such a temperature by steam, that the liquid in the dish rose to about 75° C, but no higher. After an interval of thirty minutes, the dish was removed and allowed to cool. The portion for su- crose was diluted with 100""'- of water, 5"^""- of hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.05) added, and the mixture heated in a porcelain dish on a steam bath for a half hour, the temperature not rising above 90° C. The in- version being complete, an excess of Fehling's solution was added, de- pending in amount on the maturity of the cane, and the liquid allowed to remain thirty minutes longer on the bath, after which it was re- moved. When the suboxide of copper had completely settled, in the- case of both sucrose and glucose, the supernatant liquid was decanted, into a beaker placed in front of each dish, and hot water was poured over the suboxide. This process was repeated, pouring the first liquid decanted into a second beaker, and so on until it could be poured away free from any oxide, and the original dish was nearly free from alkali. ANALYSIS OP SOEGHUM AND MAIZE — METHOD. 47& All the wash waters were then passed in order through a filter, taking^ care to bring as little as possible of the suboxide upon the filter. The suboxide on the filter and in the beakers w as dissolved in an acid solution of ferric sulphate, free from nitric acid and ferrous salt, or more conveniently in an acid solution of ammonia ferric alum (which is more easily obtained free from impurities), and poured upon the suboxide in the original dish. All the copper suboxide being dis- solved, it is brought into a liter flask, diluted with water to ahout 500<='"'-, and acidified strongly with sulphuric acid. It is then ready to be titrated in the usual manner for the amount of reduced iron, the num- ber of '^"'- of permanganate used giving easily the weight of glucose represented by the suboxide of copper, as shown in report for 1879, p. 66. This method for determining glucose depends upon the following facts : 1. That two molecules (360 parts by weight) of glucose (CgHj 2O13) will reduce from Fehling's solution' five molecules of cuprous oxide (5Ca,0). 2. That the five molecules of cuprous oxide thus precipitated will reduce in acid sol. five molecules of ferric sulphate (^e:2(^0^)^) to form ten molecules (1,520 parts by weight) of ferrous sulphate (FeS04), as is explained by the following equation: f 5CU2O 1 , rSFe, ('304)3-1 .rSH.SOilf 10 CuS 0^1 , I7l5 parts/''"! 2,000 parts J "•" I 490 parts /~ 1 1,595 pans / "•" riOFeSOil if 5H2 1 11,520 parts/ ''"l 90 parts / The ten molecules of ferrous sulphate thus formed, will decolorize one mole- cule (316.2 parts by weight) of potassium permanganate (Kj Mnj Oj), thus : f 10 Fe S O4 \ , / K2 Mn, Os \ , / 8 H, S O4 1 , / 5 Fe, (S 04)3 "I I 11,520 parts /"'" I 316 2 parts/"'" I 784 parts /"f"! 2,000 parts (^ 72MnS04-l I / K2SO4 \ , f 8H2O 1 I 302 parts / "•" L 174.2 parts / "'" 1 144 parts / By following this explanation, it appears that two molecules of glucose are exactly represented by one molecule of potassium permanganate, as will ap- pear from the following, by omitting the second and third members of the series. Thus : f2 Cs H12 06\_r5 Cu2 O\^n0FeS Oil^/Kz Mn^ 0^ 1 I 360 pans /~l715parts/ \ 1,520 parts / 1316,2 parts/ In other words, 316.2 parts by weight of potassium permanganate are equiva- lent to 360 parts of glucose, or one part of permanganate corresponds to 1.1385 parts of glucose. If, then, the amount of permanganate decolorized be multi- plied by 1,1385, it will correctly represent the amount of glucose present. So much for the theoretical explanation. In practice, it is found that each chem- ist must determine for himself his titration error by estimations made upon sugar of known purity. This individual error is due to the diflBculty in determining the exact end re- 474 SOEGHUM. action ; experience has shown, in the course of this work, that the point where the color of the permanganate barely appears in the rapidly agitated liquid, is nearly identical with the true end reaction. Some operators carry the titra- tion a little further, until a faint rose tint is permanent for about two seconds. Each man who has done this work, has carefully. determined his titration error, _ and all figures submitted have been corrected therefor. The iron solution works best if very strongly acidulated with sulphuric acid. The most convenient strength for the permanganate solution, is 4.392 grams to the liter, equal tp .005 grams glucose for each cubic centimeter. In order to determine what errors there may have been in estimat- iug glucose and sucrose by this method, the following experiments were carried out. Every portion of Fehling solution used, was heated by itself in the steam bath for au hour, to determine if it remained unreduced in absence of sugar. In all cases it was quite unchanged. Several solutions of dry granulated sugar, containing about .10 percent of impurities, were made of such a strength that every 5™'- contained .5000 grams of pure sucrose, or, on inversion, .5263 of inverted sugar. Of solution No. 1, four portions were measured out of 5'"°''" each, and submitted to the usual course of analyses, with the following result : 'd rt -c Experiment. d o . s a o o ■ 3 B a O Ph No. 1 104 2 ioa.4 Wi 4 104.5 .6210 .5170 .5220 .5225 .526:s ,526:i ,r)2f)3 .5263 98.99 No. 2 98 24 No. 3 99 18 No 4 . . 99 28 Average 98.93 The specific gravity was found by the piknometer to be 1.034. The solution contained, therefore, 9.67 per cent of sugar. By titration we find 9.57 per cent of sugar, and polarization of the solution gave 9.63 per cent of sucrose. Of the solution No. 2, nine portions were taken of 5™'" each, to six of which (Nos. 1-6) 5"™'- of the usual dilute acid were added, and to the remaining three, 10™'*; otherwise the usual course of analysis was pursued. The entire lot was carried through simultaneously on the same steam bath. The results were as follows : ANALYSIS OP SORGHUM AND MAIZE — METHOD. 475 Experiment. a i .2 GJ O O 3 5 o 5 3 Co Ko 1 104 S KO:; lOfi 6 108 ^ 107 4 1(18 1 104 6 104 4 105 2 .5'-'2.'5 .'i2(ra .,-)S30 ,.141.") .S3-n .540."i .,5230 5221) 9D.28 100 HI 101.20 102. S8 102 02 102 70 99 .S8 99 IS 99 94 9 CO Kn. 2 9 07 No. 3 9 79 Ko 4 9 9.3 Ko.5 , .. No. 6 9 86 9.93 Ko. 7 9 (il No 8 . ... 9 59 No. 9 9.06 Average .. 100.74 9.74 The specific gravity was found to be 1.034, and the per cent of sugar in the solution was therefore: By calculation, 9.67; by titra- tion, 9.74. An estimation of total solids, gave 9.70 per cent. The addition of the larger amount of acid, apparently, had the effect of lowering the per cent of sucrose found. In no case was the error in the final result sufficiently large to be of account in work on such a large scale. Fifteen portions of 5™'' each were taken from solution No. 3. Its specific gravity was 1.035, and the per cent of sucrose 9.66. Submitted to analysis in the usual way, the results were : EzpeTiment so "c s g bOtf. a . a. . '? rt c3 Number oi Number of f„ analysis. t4 P* analysis. o o •a u Qi o 'Si a W CO &( CfJ O VJ CO 305 1 042 5,40 2 72 1 69 3 06 113 1 042 5 65 3 13 ,87 3 20 107 1. 034 3 2.i 3 73 1 30 4 24 115 1 0;i4 3 26 3 83 1 25 3 72 109 1 038 8 27 4.69 1 29 5,28 114 1 038 3 27 4 SB 1 21 6 24 Ill 1 (1S3 3,38 8 SO 1 14 8 01 116 1,053 3 41 7 82 l.,57 7 no 133 1 0?2 2 10 32 96 3,07 13 44 136 1 073 1,93 12 81 3 27 13 ,-,3 158 1 068 1 063 1,072 l.l.T 2 79 ■ ,9n 11,79 10 06 13 31 3,26 2 55 3 28 12 06 10 21 13 60 160 157 ... 163 1 069 1 063 1 073 1 10 2 92 93 II 09 III 23 13 .31 3 as 2 21 3 .54 12,14 150 10 28 161 13 60 168 ... 1 0.^7 1 056 3 2:! 2 02 8 37 8 92 2-35 2 63 8 68 9 36 180 181 1 ,057 1 056 3.18 2 05 8 26 8 78 2,29 2 45 8 69 109 9.34 173 1 0i;8 1 057 1 57 1 48 12 03 2 64 3 41 12 44 8.54 179 183 1 068 1.0."i7 1,53 1 49 11 96 8 45 2,70 3 09 12 55 182 8 .-.2 189 1 05S 1 Or.7 1,069 1 056 2 13 3 29 2,44 2 42 10 41 8,50 11 65 K 86 2,50 2 24 2 79 2 24 9,01 202 203 204 205 .... 1 0.59 1.0.56 1 (I6. a H &, CQ 87 5 on ,00 4 9050 000 5.05 .00 4,94 4.89 1.015 88 2 50 00 5.00 2,50 2 50 5 00 ,00 2 50 2,4025 .0000 4 9050 2.4525 2 405 4,820 ,000 2 405 2.43 .07 4.72 2 26 2 49 4 78 00 2.38 5.25 5.02 5 38 4.96 4,25 3 49 4,92 4 04 1 .015 89 1 0143 199 1.016 200 1,016 201 .00 2.00 5,00 2 00 .0000 1 9550 4,820 1 875 .11 2 31 4,84 1,91 4 96 3 88 3,61 3 13 1 0154 r.3i I 013 1138 2 00 4,00 4 00 2 00 2.00 .00 .00 2 00 2 00 2.00 4 00 4 00 4 00 4 on 1 9550 3.9100 3.9100 1.9.5.30 1.9.)50 .0000 .UOOO 1,87.1 1.875 1 875 3.7.50 3 760 3.750 3.750 2,12 3,95 3,68 2 14 2 48 .49 .64 1 96 1 90 1,99 3.77 3,79 3 78 3,71 3,82 5.82 5,75 5 63 6,65 3,83 3 81 3,04 4 92 5.00 4 65 4 51 2 ,54 2 .58 1,013 1134 . 1 020 1136 1 020 1132 1 020 1139 1 020 1185 1 013 11S7 1 013 1133 4 00 4 00 .00 .00 3,9100 3,9100 .000 .000 36 930 3 82 3.99 ,10 ,10 3,86 3 93 3,90 3.92 1 013 lUO 1,013 39.00 39 00 38,1750 40.26 37,50 76.49 63.29 Tests of the Accuracy of the Chemical Work. In this investigation of the author, at the Department of Agri- culture, there was taken every reasonable precaution to secure accu- rate results in the analytical work. The several methods of checks and control have been such, that, although errors may exist in individual analyses, it is impossible that the general results recorded should be other than a very close approxi- mation to the truth. It will be seen in another place, that the average results in 1882 of the analyses of 855 sorghum juices gave 10.998 per cent of sucrose by precipitation, while the same juices gave an average of 10.966 per cent by the polariscope; or, as 100 : 100.255, practically identical results. During the season of 1882 there were made, in all, analyses of 24 juices in duplicate ; and, as has been said, none of those engaged upon these analyses had any knowledge of the fact that duplicate juices were present in the twenty or more samples under analysis daily. The average results of these 24 analyses, in duplicate, are as follows : 484 SORGHUM. Specific gravity 10598 1,0600 Per cent sucr6se 9.726 9 710 Per cent glucose 2 252 2.244 Per cent solids not sugar ' 2 627 2 .625 Per cent polarization 10.281 10 244 These results are practically identical. In like manner, during 1881, there were made 72 analyses in du- plicate; and, as will be seen by consulting the tables giving the results, the agreement was as close as could be expected with work of this character. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. By specific gravity is meant the relative weight of any substance, solid, liquid, or gaseous, as compared with water (which is taken as the standard for solids and liquids), or as compared with air (which is taken as the standard for gases). In the case of liquids, the determination of the specific gravity is easy, and may be found by first filling a bottle (the weight of which is known) with pure water, as rain-water, then finding the amount of water, by weight, which the bottle will hold. By then filling the same bottle with the liquid, the specific gravity of which it is desired to know (as, sorghum juice), and weighing it, we may learn the weight of a certain volume of the liquid, and also the weight of an equal volume of pure water. If, now, we divide the weight of the sorghum juice by the weight of the water, we ascertain the specific gravity of the juice. For convenience, it is customary to use bottles which hold a certain definite weight of pure water, as 100 or 1,000 grams, and then it is only necessary to weigh the bottle full of juice, and the specific gravity is at once shown by the weight. Such bottles are known as piknometers ; but they are unnecessary. The only precaution to be taken in the determination of the specific gravity of sorghum juices is, that they should be allowed to stand a sufficient length of time (from one-half an hour to an hour) after they have been expressed by the mill, to allow the small bubbles of air present to escape, since these would, of course, diminish the specific gravity of the juice. ■ Hydrometers and Saeeharometers. Anotlier method for readily determining the specific gravity of liquids is by means of the hydrometer or saccharometer, of which there are several kinds. SPECIFIC GEAVITY. 485 The principle upon which all of these instrument are constructed is, that whenever a body floats iu any liquid, it displaces exactly a vol- ume of that liquid equal in weight to the floating body. These hydrometers are glass bulbs, with a long, slender spindle, made by means of a little mercury at the lower end to maintain an erect position in the liquid. The lighter the liquid the deeper the in- strument sinks, and the. heavier the liquid the more of the spindle ap- pears above the liquid. Within the glass spindle is a scale, so that a glance enables the operator to determine the specific gravity or density. For convenience, the scale is such as to enable the operator to deter- mine either the specific gravity or per cent of any substance presumed to be present, etc.; and therefore these instruments have been prepared with scales adapted to any special purpose. We will explain those only which are in use for the determination of saccharine liquids. These are : The scale of Beaume, which is determined by marking as the point on the spindle of the hydrometer to which it sinks when float- ing in pure water, and as 15° the point to which it sinks in a solution of 15 parts by weight of salt in 85 of water. The interval between these points is divided into 15 equal parts, and the scale is continued to any number of degrees beyond. The scale of Brix, or Balling, as it is also called, gives the per cent of sugar present in any given solution ; for example, a solution marking 10° Brix contains 10 per cent of sugar, etc. The scale of Twaddle is graduated in such a manner that the num- ber of degrees given, multiplied by 5 and added to 1000, will give the- specific gravity, as compared with water taken at 1000. Thus : 10° Twaddle=1050 specific gravity. To convert BeaumS degrees into specific gravity, divide 144 by 144 less the degrees of Beaum§; thus, 17° Beaumfe equals 144 divided by 144 less 17— that is, 1.133. 486 SOEGHUM. TT Plato XLVIil. No. 1. Thermometer. No. 2. Saccharometer. No. 3. Test cup lor using saccharometer. No. 4. Proof glass. The above represents the thermometer, saccharometer, etc., which are generally used for the determination of temperature and spe- cific gravity. A better form of thermometer than above repre- sented is a plain glass stem, with bulb containing the mercury and the scale engraved upon the glass. Comparison of different Hydrometers. It has been thought best to here append a table which shall show the comparative values of the different scales. It is always preferable to use a hydrometer which shows the actual specific gravity of the juice, but those who have either the Beaum6 or Brix hydrometers can, by use of this table, make them answer every purpose. It will be noticed that the specific gravity 1.066, which was recommended as the proper indication that the juice was in a workable condition, corre- sponds exactly with 16° Brix and 9° Beaum§. SPECIFIC GEAVITY. 487 SFECiriC GRAVITY EQUITALENTS OF THE BKTX AND BEAUME SCALES. Specific gravity. l.COO .002 .004 .006 .008 .010 .012 .014 .016 .018 .020 .022 .024 .026 .028 .030 .032 .034 .036 .038 .040 .042 .044 .046 .048 .0.30 .0.53 .035 .057 .0.59 .061 .063 .066 .068 .070 .072 .074 .076 .079 .081 .083 .085 .088 .090 .092 Degree Brlx. negree BeaumS. Specific gravity. Degree Brix. Degree Beaume. Specific gravity. Degree Brix. 0. .5 1. 1.5 2. 2.5 3. 3 6 4. 4 6 5. 5.6 6, G.6 7. 7.5 8. 8.5 9. 9.6 10. 10.5 11. 11.6 12. 12 5 13. 13.5 14. 14.5 16. 15,5 16. 16 6 17. 17.6 18. 18 6 19. 19.5 20. 20.5 21. 21.5 22. 0.0 1.094 .097 .099 .101 .103 .106 .108 .111 .113 .115 .118 .120 .123 .125 .127 .130 .1.32 .134 .137 .139 .142 .144 .147 .149 .152 .154 .157 .159 .162 .164 .167 .169 .172 .174 .177 .179 .182 .185 .187 .190 .192 .195 .198 .200 22.6 23. 23.6 24. 24.5 25. 25.5 26. 26.6 27. 27,6 28. 28.5 29. 29 5 30. 30.5 81. 31.5 32, 32,5 33. 33.5 34. 34.5 35. 35.6 36. 36.5 37. 37.5 38. 38.6 39. 39,6 40, 40, 6 41. 41.5 42. 42.5 43. 43.6 44. 1.203 .206 .208 .211 .214 .216 .219 .222 .226 .227 .230 .233 .236 .238 .241 .244 .247 .2,50 .252 .2.55 .258 .261 .264 .267 .269 .272 .276 .278 .281 .284 .287 .290 .293 .296 .299 .302 .305 .308 .311 ..314 .317 ..320 .323 .326 44.5 45. 45.5 46. 46,5 47, 47.5 48. 48.5 49. 49.6 ,50 60.5 51. 61.5 52. 52.6 63. 53.6 64. 64.5 65. 66.5 56. 56.5 67. 67 6 68. 68.6 59. 59 5 60. 60.5 61. 61.5 62. «2.3 03, 63 6 64. 64.6 65. 65.5 66. 13.0 1.0 ■■■2 o' " 3'6 14.6" "i5!6 ■ " laio" 4,0 "i7,o" ■ 5!o" "is "ioio " "o'o ■■■7 ■ ■ s.b" ■■■■9.0' 20.0 21 "loo" 22.0 "'23.0 "ii " 12.0 "24'0 Degree BeaumS. 29.0 30.0 31.0 34 35 Of course the reader will Understand that the hydrometer, with either of the above scales, does not indicate necessarily the presence of sugar in a solution, but simply the relative weight of a certain volume of any liquid, as compared with the weight of the same volume of water. But, as will be seen by the preceding tables, in which the analyses of a very large number of sorghum and maize juices are given, together with the specific gravities, it is established as true, beyond question, that the specific gravity of any freshly expresed juice of either sorghum or maize, will enable one to tell its composition within very narrow limits. It is to be remembered, however, that this is only true of the freshly expressed j nice. From cane, which has suifered in de- terioration, either from having been cut a long time before pressing or 48» SOEGHUM. from the effects of a frost and subsequent warm weather — in such cases the specific gravity does not necessarily give any indication as to the composition of the juice. This is a matter of such extreme practical importance, that the fol- lowing results may be considered with interest. In 1881, there were received at the Department of Agriculture, at Washington, several lots of sorghum-cane, which had been cut several days before they were delivered. The juices from these cane proved to be in a very surprising and abnormal condition, and their analyses are worthy of careful consideration. They were as follows : JUICES FROM SORGHUMS CUT SEVERAL DATS BEFORE GRINDING. Dates. Polariza- tion. Sucrose. Glucose. Specific gravity. Solids. September 27. September 28. September 30. October 3 October 4 Average .07 .00 .00 1.04 1,05 .70 3.75 3 66 2 30 5.16 2.62 2.67 10.85 U 69 13.25 10.78 10.45 11.94 1.063 1 069 1 070 1.072 1 059 1.067 2.80 3 07 2.48 2.53 2.41 1.51 .48 11 49 1.067 2.47 We have, then, as the average of the six juices, an amount of su- crose as indicated by the polariscope only 14.3 per cent of the amount shown to be present by analysis. We have also a specific gravity of 1.067, which indicates, as the average of a large number of analyses of normal juices, a juice of the following composition, viz: Per cent. Specific gravity .1.067 Sucrose U .80 Glucose 1 .99 Solids 2.87 It will be seen that this composition resembles the average of the above six, except in this, that the sucrose and glucose appear to have changed places, the sum of the two being in one case 13.79 per cent, in the other 14.85 percent. Now, in over 4,000 separate analyses of sorghum juices from canes recently cut, there has never been found even one which approximated the composition of the average of these six juices above given. In no case has the polariscope approximately differed so widely from the results of analysis as in these, for the average results of the polari- scope, as compared with the results of analyses of all the juices ana- lyzed, gave 96 per cent of the analytical result, while these contain but 14.3 per cent. The conclusion, then, is irresistible, that these juices are wholly abnormal, and are so through the inversion of the sucrose which existed in the plant, since the average of all the analy- TABLES OF SPECIFIC GEAVITY OF SORGHUM JUICES, ETC. 489 ses made have demonstrated, that if the total of glucose and sucrose in a juice is 14 or 15 per cent of the juice, at least 12 or 13 per cent of this had existed in the plant as sucrose. If not present upon analy- sis, it must have suffered inversion — as in this case was easily rendered probable by the stalks having been cut some days before they were worked up in the mill. TABLES OF SPECIFIC GEAVITY OF SOEGHUM JUICES AND THEIE COM- POSITION. In the following tables are given average results obtained by the analysis of sorghum juices of different specific gravities, during the years 1879, 1880, 1881, 1882. These give the average results of all the juices analysed, being several thousand, obtained from over one hundred distinct varieties of sorghum, and for four successive years, so that the average results can not but be accepted as of almost absolute accuracy. In 1879, the number of varieties under examination were but four, and the number of analyses comparatively few, also the method for the correct determination of specific gravity and composition of the several juices not so well established as in the later years, but as con- firming the general fact that the specific gravities will enable one to determine the composition of his juice, the results for 1879 are also given. That such tables are of the greatest practical value to the manu- facturer of sugar or syrup, is obvious. By reference to them, the sugar-boiler can determine quite accurately the composition of any juice of which he knows the specific gravity. Al- though the varieties differ somewhat among them'selves in the com- position of the juice for the same specific gravity, still these differences are not so great as to be of much practical importance. In examining these tables, it should be remembered that the re- sults are valuable in proportion to the number of analyses from which each figure has been derived ; therefore, while the figures derived from a small number of analyses are true for the particular canes examined, it is probable that a larger number of determinations would somewhat modify the results. If only those figures are examined which are based on ten or more analyses, it will be seen that the recorded results are very seldom exceptional. Among other points shown by these tables, the following are im- portant : 1st. The amount of juice obtained seldom falls below 60 per cent 490 SOEGHUM. of the weight of the stripped stalks ; this percentage does not vary- greatly throughout the season. 2nd. The amount of crystallizable sugar (sucrose) in the juice, is at first little over 1 per cent, but it regularly increases with the increase of specific gravity. No one relationship is more evident than this close correspondence between the increase of specific gravity and percentage of sucrose in the juice; the average increase of sucrose for an increase of .001 in specific gravity (between 1.030 and 1.086), is 0,233 per cent. The following shows the average increase of cane sugar corres- ponding with an increase of .001 in specific gravity nf the juice: Between 1 .030 — 1 039 = .164 per cent sucrose. Between 1 . 040 — 1 . 049 = . 167 per cent sucrose. Between 1 .050 — 1 059 = .229 per cent sucrose. Between 1.060 — 1.069 = SnOper cent sucrose. Between 1.070 — 1.079 = .142 per cent sucrose. Between 1 .080 — 1 .086 = 164 per cent sucrose. 3rd. It is a noticeable fact that the " solids not sugar" increase regu- larly, and with almost the same rapidity that the glucose diminishes. Thus, for the specific gravities between 1.030 and 1.086, the average percentage of glucose is 2.84, and of solids not sugar 2.71, while the actual loss of glucose is 2.76 per cent, and the actual gain of solids not sugar is 2.77 per cent. From the small number of ash determina- tions (34), it appears that the average percentage of ash in sorghum juice amounts to 1.07 per cent; hence it appears that a loss of 2.76 per cent of glucose is apparently counterbalanced by a gain of 1.70 per cent of organic solids not sugar, the ash varying but slightly. These figures are subject to future revision, when a much larger number of ash determinations may render it possible to draw conclusions with greater safety. One point, however, seems to be strongly suggested, namely, that the decrease in glucose bears a much closer relationship to the increase of organic solids not sugar, than to the increase of crystallizable sugar. In other words, it seems at least possible that the commonly accepted idea that cane sugar is formed in plants only through the intervention of glucose, may be a mistaken idea. This point is a very interesting one, and worthy of careful study in the future. 4th. The percentage of total solids regularly increases, with a few exceptions, with the increase of specific gravity ; the average increase for each gain of .001 in specific gravity, is 0.17 percent of total solids. 5th. Experience has shown that the percentage of crystallizable sugar in the total solids of the juice should exceed 70, in order that good results may be had. See Table of Averages for 1880. An inspection of these tables indicates that these juices attained that TABLES OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF BOEGHUM JUICES, ETC. 491 percentage (see column headed "Available sugar") wlien the specific gravity 1.066 was reached, and this per cent was maintained, and even exceeded, until the specific gravity 1.086 was passed. After this the per cent is somewhat variable, because specific gravities above 1.086 were not attained until quite late in the season, when the plants bad nearly or quite ceased growing ; also, the number of experiments for these higher specific gravities was smaller than for the lower figures. It is safe to say that the profitable working period for sorghum canes begins when the juice attains the specific gravity 1.066, and continues until the specific gravity 1.086 is reached and frequently even longer. During this period, the canes examined furnished on an average 61.9 per cent of juice from the stripped stalks. A good mill should furnish not less than 60 per cent on the large scale. Several manu- facturers are willing to contract for mills to furnish 65 per cent. 6th. On the supposition that a good mill, yielding at least 60 per cent of juice from the stripped stalks, is used, the amount of sugar which should be obtained from 100 pounds of stalks, is found by referring to the figures in the last column corresponding with the specific gravity of the juice obtained. For example, each 100 pounds of stripped stalks, the juice from which has the specific gravity 1.073, should actu- ally furnish 7.7 pounds of cane sugar. Specifie Gravity Tables of Juices of Sorghum. In these tables the average result in percentage of juice ob- tained, the percentage of the several constituents of the juice, the available sugar calculated as the difierence between the sucrose and the sum of the solids not sucrose, the exponent of purity, by which is meant the percentage of sucrose in the total solids of the juices, and the available sugar calculated from this "exponent," as also the num- ber of analyses made, is shown for each degree of specific gravity : 492 SOKGHUM, AVERAGE RESULTS OP ANALYSES OP SORGHUM JUICES AT DIFFERENT SPECIFia GRAVITIES. 1879. 1 g o d 1 bo u ■ s o p. o 3 3 1 03 ba 3 <1 1 '0 03 - 8 3 1 t •3 6 1 1 1 1031 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1040 1 2 3 ■ 4 5 6 7 8 9 1050 1 2 8 4 5 6 7 8 9 1060 3,40 4.10 5.90 2.40 1.80 1.00 2.60 1.04 .00 1061 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1070 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1080 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1090 1 2 4.03 5.90 4,03 6,60 3.15 4.60 1.10 "3.06 ■ 2.78 2.15 1 60 1.60 2.73 1.73 1.38 1.53 1.51 1.02 1.40 1.40 1.10 2.15 1.20 2.35 1.93 2.30 8.90 ■ 5.80' 10.17 6.90 11.75 7.10 11.80 "12. 35' 9.08 12.55 12.30 14.21 13.20 13.15 13,84 13,79 13,47 14.16 13.79 14.75 15 17 14.55 15.06 12.05 14.43 16 80 .96 ■■:42- .00 1.94 .67 2,30 3,44 "l!23 ■ 5,43 1.29 3.48 1.36 1.75 3'. 45 2.46 2.74 3.72 2,48 3,62 2.32 3.62 3.1.1 3.31 5.46 3.78 .00 3.91 "e'u" 7'93 .20 7.26 8'l2 .87 9.11 7.22 11 25 8 72 7.97 10 00 9.52 8 24 10 66 8.77 11,03 10.45 9.26 10.55 4.24 8.72 14.50 3 .... 5.71 9 2 1.95 .00 1 9 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 4 3.70 4.90 5.20 5.00 4.20 5.36 5.01 4.95 4.50 3.75 4.60 4.00 2.70 3.40 4.10 4.00 4.40 4.40 4.90 5.08 0.90 .00 .93 .06 67 .61 .03 .63 1.37 1.54 ■ 8" 4 2 3 7 3 4 10 7 Q 2 i" 3 1 1 5 6.00 "7.10 ' ■6.79" 4.90 3.50 3". 52 4.40 '5!46" "5!53' 7.40 7,90 8.12 1.33 "Isi" "i'.os" .95 .81 1.84 "1.55" 3.59 2 76 12 15 11 3 2 5 2 3 1 1 2.90 2.40 9.40 10.60 1.01 .92 5.59 7.28 1 .90 17.70 3.09 13.71 1 SPECIFIC GRAVITY TABLES OF JUICES OF SOEGHUM. 493 AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OP SORGHUM JUICES AT DIFFERENT SPECIFIC GRAVITIES, 1880. 03 Q) 4^ ^-■ess 1 0} s 3 CO s g s .2 "Si per cen n strippe at 60 pi 16. in o o o 2 o a 5 a' ■So '3 Vi Q> a> <1> oj ai ti ^ u (d u^*^ •^ U u V --3 O ^ U e3 3 s d O S u M h ''I S & S 3 03 3*a 0) 0. Oi 01 o a, o « >. M ^ to ra O d m Ph Ck Ck Ph Irl M < «l f? 1.019 61 32 .67 2.20 3 12 5.99 36.73 .81 .48 1 1.021 58.30 3.91 .54 .68 5 13 10.53 .06 .04 2 1.022 69.04 3.06 1 46 1.11 6 63 25 93 .38 .23 1 1.023 47 36 3.27 1.15 1.29 5 71 20.14 .23 .14 3 1.024 60.49 3.85 1.02 1,73 6.60 IS AS .16 .10 1 1.026 62.78 4.04 .98 .91 5.93 16.53 .16 .10 1 1.027 57.08 3.41 2.09 1.61 7.11 29 40 .61 .37 3 1028 46.61 • 3.98 1.79 2.34 8.11 22 07 .40 .24 8 1.029 57.72 4.34 1.55 1.53 7.42 20 89 .33 .20 6 1.030 45.44 3.98 2.36 1 82 8 16 28 92 .58 .35 U 1.0'fl 56 01 3.82 2.66 1,5.3 8 06 33.00 .88 .53 12 1,032 60.97 3.95 2 16 2.05 8 16 26 47 .57 .34 17 1.033 60.13 4.52 2.26 1.78 8 56 26.40 .60 .36 28 .1.034 66.96 4.24 2.60 1 93 8 67 28 84 .72 .43 13 1.035 60.22 4.11 3.29 1.98 9 38 35.08 1 15 .69 23 1.036 64.28 4.56 3 12 1.59 9.27 33 66 1.05 .63 23 1 037 60.12 4.42 3.56 1.75 9.73 26.59 1 30 .78 25 .1 038 61.37 4.43 3.43 1.88 9.74 35.22 1 21 .73 21 1.039 61.30 4.14 4.00 1.85 999 40.00 1.60 .96 25 1 040 62.78 3 94 4.41 1.77 10.17 43 36 1 91 1 15 18 1 041 62.41 4 21 4.30 1.92 10 43 41 23 1.77 1.06 26 1.042 59.40 4.13 4.69 1.91 10 73 43.71 2 05 1.23 23 .14)43 64.72 4.26 4 95 1.92 11 13 44.48 2.20 1 32 22 1.044 63 98 3.79 5.23 2.17 11 19 46.74 2 42 1.45 17 1.045 64.54 3.87 5 51 2.19 11.47 48 04 2 65 I 59 24 1.046 64.34 3.76 5.72 2.10 11.58 49 34 2.82 1 69 30 1.047 65 03 3.43 6 28 2.15 11 86' 52 95 3 33 2.00 31 1.048 65.18 3.99 6.08 2.03 12 10 50 25 3.06 1.84 36 1 049 62.88 3.62 6.34 223 12.19 52.01 3.30 1.98 37 1.050 66.17 3.32 6 99 2 29 12 60 55.48 3 88 2.33 48 1.051 62.81 3.12 7.18 2 26 12 66 67.17 4.10 2 46 42 1.052 64.36 3.18 7.64 2 46 13 28 57 61 4 40 2 64 43 1.0.^3 63.95 3.42 7.58 2 31 3 31 56.95 4 32 2 59 43 1.054 63 33 3.12 7.74 2 27 13 13 58 95 4 57 .2.74 49 1 055 65.66 3.38 8 12 2.24 13.74 59.09 4.80 2,88 55 1.056 63.66 2.96 8 61 2.40 13.97 61 63 4 92 2.95 52 1.057 62.74 2.99 8 90 2.34 14.23 62.54 5.57 3.34 56 1.0.58 64 10 2.78 9 18 2 53 14.49 63 35 5.82 3.49 76 1.059 63 93 3.05 9.28 2 44 14.77 62 90 5.84 3.50 53 1.060 63 15 2.65 9.80 2.67 15.12 64 81 6.35 3.81 100 1.061 64 86 2.73. 9 88 2.75 15 36 64 32 6.36 3.82 76 1.062 63 35 2.51 10.24 2.77 15 52 65 98 6 76 4.06 73 1.063 64 74 2.65 10 16 2.95 15.76 64.47 6 55 3 93 84 1.064 63 48 2.43 10.64 2. 5 16.02 66.42 7 07 4.24 64 1.065 61.08 2.07 11.19 2.85 16.11 69.46 7 77 4.66 81 1.066 63.58 2.08 11.46 2.72 16 26 70.48 8.08 4,85 74 1.067 60.98 1 99 11 80 2.87 16.66 70.83 8.36 5,02 69 1068 63.25 1.97 - 11.84 3.00 16.81 70.43 8 34 5,00 56 1.069 61.15 1.81 12 30 3 05 17.16 71.68 8.82 5,29 75 1.070 63.45 1.84 12 59 3.00 17 43 72 23 9.09 5,45 82 1.071 62.37 1.81 12 .54 3.26 17 61 71 21 8 93 5 36 89 1.072 61.81 1.68 12 94 3.21 17 83 72 58 9.39 5.63 82 1.073 62.46 1.85 12 83 3 20 17.88 71.76 9 19 5,51 75 1.074 61.44 1.69 13.22 3 37 18.28 72 32 9.56 5,74 75 1 075 61.78 1.71 13.47 3.37 18.55 72.62 9.78 5,87 67 494 SOEGHUM. AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF SORGHUM JUICES, ETC., 1880. — Continued. 6 i 4^ Its. IJ 0) u g O p) "•^s m 1 bx) •S. •tH o ■3 Pi 3 o 1 *^ tuO C P a m 2 1 able per rose in st Iks at t juice. §, := u =3 = '^S ■ S a as cs S*.* g; SR « ^u, o m CM Ph <^ lu B H V si Is II "•a 0)1-1 OS "?^ ^ >■ t^ 0) cd bo CQ m ft. ft. ft. iS tu ft. ^ 1 014 69 10 1.17 .47 1.52 —2.22 1 1.015 75.75 1 69 .32 1.39 —2.76 2 1.016 65 70 1.36 .30 1.94 —3 00 3 1.017 68 28 2 02 .24 2 06 —3 84 4 1,018 63 90 2 08 .27 2.37 —4 18 4 1.019 65 92 1 89 .55 3.14 —4 48 3 1.020 63.39 2 77 .38 3.40 —5.79 4 1 021 65 83 2.55 .60 2.26 —4.21 4 1.022 66 39 3.35 .49 2.66 —6 52 4 1.023 62.70 3.10 .86 2 93 —8.17 6 1.024 65.43 2 53 1.60 2.85 —3.88 7 1.025 65. Kl 2 92 1.04 2.83 —4 71 6 1.026 66.97 3 10 1.04 3.11 —6 17 2 1.027 57.34 1 93 2.14 3.20 —2 99 3 1.028 60 76 2.93 1.60 3.31 -4.74 6 1.029 60 61 2.71 2 45 2.53 i'.i' J —2 79 9 1 030 56 57 2 54 4 31 2.38 8.2' I — ;6l 6 1 031 57 61 2.91 . 2 69 2 76 2.0 i —2.98 2 1.032 59.42 2.92 3 07 2.80 2 8( ) —2.65 4 1.033 6».62 3 30 2.82 2.1)1 2 2 ) —2.99 3 1 034 60.16 3 21 3 68 2.62 3 6( ) —2.16 S 1.035 51.00 2.41 4.08 2.65 3 4 ) — 99 6 1.086 56 95 2 98 3.76 2 95 4 5; i —2.17 5 1.037 55 17 2.60 4 47 2.96 4.2. —1.09 i 1-038 61.47 3 07 4 16 1.63 3.7! ! — .54 3 1 039 56.33 2 51 5 50 2.11 6.0s .88 7 1040 62.63 2 79 4.S2 2 77 6.0. — .74 7 1.041 57 47 2 74 5.49 2 24 5 0( .51 S 1.042 54 63 2.43 5.56 2 93 6.3' r .20 i 1 043 61.46 3 03 5.16 2 90 5.4' — .77 4 1044 ' 56 68 2 71 6.57 2 33 5 9S .53 6 1.045 53 22 2 99 6 97 2 96 6 3< .12 6 1.046 61.34 2 85 6.64 2 82 6.1( .97 2 1.047 56 94 2.60 7.45 1.50 7.4; 3.35 3 1.048 54 3S 2.44 7.61 2 46 6 (,S i 2 71 3 1.049 61.02 2 49 8 89 2.10 7.5] 4 30 6 1.050 57.71 2.73' 7 81 2 47 7 6' i 2 61 6 1.051 57 30 2 08 8.27 3.14 7.2( ) 3.06 2 1.052 54 90 3.20 8.24 2 81 7.5i i 2.23 1 1 053 50.75 2.75 9 10 2.10 8 6( 4.25 3 1 OH 71.39 2.92 7.64 3.86 7.5! ! . .86 -1 1.055 57.18 2 78 9 18 1.99 6 9] ' 4.41 3 1 056 63.72 2 39 10 88 2.51 9 4« 5.98 2 1 057 62 36 1 68 11. at 1.76 10 2! 7.77 8 1 058 55 47 2.64 10.45 2.19 10. 2£ 6.72 2 1.059 68.78 2.27 11 01 1.76 10 5! 6.98 2 1 060 53.31 2 12 10.62 2,44 10 5i 6.06 3 1.061 56.07 1.99 11 92 1 85 10. 6E 8.08 5 1 062 53 49 2.30 11.44 3. 46 11.31 6.68 1.963 1 064 63 ii i!29 12 '94 188 12.3- 9.77 1.065 53.90 2.05 11.92 2.36 11 .4( 7.51 1.066 1.067 63. ii 1.44 13! 88 2'86 9 '68 1.068 1.069 si! 47 2^25 12! 55 2:50 n.74 7 80 1 070 1 071 50 14 5'4i '9^91 3:35 i:i6 1 072 1073 54^89 i^re 13 '59 2!i9 9.65 AVERAGE RESULTS OF SOEGHUM JUICES. 499 Average Results of Analyses of Sorghum Juices during their Working Period. From what has been already said, it is clear that the best results in sugar or syrup can only be secured when the seed is fully matured, and when the specific gravity of the juices shall equal or exceed 1.066. If now we average the results of those analyses of sorghum juices, the specific gravity of which exceeded 1,065, we find the results given in the following tables. Although, for the greater part, the varieties under examination were entirely difierent, and, as will be seen by reference to the meteor- ological data given upon page 147, the several seasons were, in their climatic conditions, widely unlike, it will be found that the several tables give very closely accordant results; thus fully confirming tlie opinion that the character of the crop may be very closely ascertained by the specific gravity of the juice, both as to its value for sugar and syrup. AVEKAGE- RESULTS FOR SORGHUM, 18V9. [Juices above 1.065 specific gravity,] Per cent. Sucrose in juice 13 35 Glucose in juice 194 Solids not sugars iu juice 2.79 Available sugar by difference ^8 62 Exponent 73 8 Available sugar by exponent 9.85 Number of analyses, 117. AVERAGE RESULTS FOR SORGHUM, 1880. [Juices above 1.065 specifio_gravity.] Per cent. Juiee obtaiiied 60.22 Sucrose in juice 13 .85 Glucose in juice 1-64 Solids not sugars in juice 3.85 Available sugar by difference 8.36 Exponent 717 Available sugar by exponent 9.93 Number of analyses, 1,127. AVERAGE RESULTS FOR SORGHUM, 1881. [Juices above 1.065 specific gravity.] Per cent. Juice obtained 58 51 Sucrose in juice }? i. Polarization i ?; Glucose In juice 162 Solids not sugars in juice 3.m Available sugar by difference 10 12 Exponent ■ 'f 7 Available sugar by xpouent 1142 Number of analyse^, 501. 500 SOEGHUM. AVERAGE RESULTS FOB SORGHUM, 1882. [Juices above 1.065 speciflc gravity.] 1*6 r CGUt Juice obtained 51 .S^' Sucrose in juice 14.00 Polarization 13 .54 Glucose in juice : 1.53: Solids not sugars in juice 3.06 Available sugar by dififerenee 9 41 Exponent 75.3 Available sugar by- exponent 10.54 Num ber of analyses, 513. AVERAGE RESULTS FOR SORGHUM, 1879, '80, '81, '82. [Juices above 1.065 specific gravity.] Per cent. Juice obtained 56.75- Sucrose in juice 14.'12" Polarization i 13 .94 Glucose in juice 1.68 Solids not sugars in juice 3 31 Available sugar by difference 9 13^ Exponent 73.9 Available .sugar by exponent 10.43 Number of analyses, 2,348. From the above results it will be seen that, as the average of 2,348 analyses of over 100 varieties of sorghum, and during a period of four- successive years, there was found in one ton (2,000 pounds) of sor- ghum by exponent 118.3 pounds of sugar available, and by difference' 103.6 pounds; while in the several years the results were as follows : AVAILABLE SUGAR FROM 2,000 POUNDS STRIPPED SORGHUM STALKS. By Exponent. By Difference. 1879 111. 7 119.6 133.6 119,6 118.4 97 8 1880 100 7 1881 ... . ... 118 4 1882 1879-82 103.6 It would appear, therefore, clearly established, as the result of all these analyses of nearly every variety of sorghum known, that, with our ordinary mills, we may secure from every ton of stalks, if worked at the proper time, at least 110 pounds of sugar; a result fully equal to the average secured from sugar-cane in Louisiana. Average Remits of Analyses of Maize Juices During the Working Period. I The following tables give the average results secured by the analy- ses of the juices of several varieties of maize in the years 1880, 1881. If we include all the analyses of maize juices in which the specifitt AVEEAGE RESULTS OI" MAIZE JUICES. 501 gravity exceeded 1.055 for 1880, there were made in all 118 analyses, "with the following average results : AVERAGE RESULTS FOR MAIZE, 1880. [Juices above 1.055 specific gravity.] Percent. Juice obtalnecl 53.43 Sucrose in .1uiee 11.30 Glucose in juice 1.01 Solids not sugars in juice , 4.12 Available sugar=sucrose— (glucose+solids) .' 6.17 Exponent 68.8 Available sugar calculated by exponent 7.77 Kjimber of analyses, 118. AVERAGE RESULTS FOR MAIZE, 1881. [Juices above 1.055 specific giavity.] Per cent. Juice obtained 54.60 Sucrose in juice 11.72 Glucose in juice 2.27 Solids not sugars in juice 2.S9 Polarization 10.86 Available sugar=sucrose— (glucose and solids) 7.06 Exponent 71.6 Available sugar calculated by exponent 8.39 Number of Analyses, 28. The available sugar from one ton (2,000 pounds) of maize stalks was, in 1880, by exponent method of estimation, 83 pounds, a difference between sucrose and other solids of 66 pounds; in 1881, from 2,000 pounds stalks, by exponent, 92 pounds, a difference of 77 pounds be- tween sucrose and other solids. The results by polarization of the above maize juices in 1881 was 92.6 per cent of the results obtained by analysis. The Hydrometer and Ripe Seed Sufficient to Indicate the Proper Time for Working the Crop. It will be seen, by reference to the preceding tables, that it is within the means of the common farmer to inform himself accurately as to the condition of his crop by simply examining the seed, and by the hydrometer learning the specific giavity of the expressed juice. For each increase of .001 n specific gravity between 1048 and. 1086, in the year 1880, there was an average increase (glucose excepted) in the several constituents of the juice of the several sorghums as fol- lows: Per cent. Sucrose • ■ 2.51 Solids 067 Available sugar 267 Glucose minus.. .073 Number of analyses, 2,186. ■ 502 SOEGHUM. In 1881, the increase for each .001 specific gravity was, in the aver- age results for specific gravity, between 1052 and 1082 : Per cent. Sucrose 3Q5 Solids ■ 013 Available sugar 354 Glucose minus.. 062 Number of analyses, 438. • The general average for the years 1879, 1880, and 1881, specific gravity between 1048 and 1080, was for each increase of .001 specific gravity : Per cent. Sucrose 238 Solids 028 Available sugar 262 Glucose minus.. .052 Number of analyses, 2,960. For changes in specific gravity in successive stages of development,, each increase of .001 specific gravity corresponded to the following re- sults : Specific gra.Tity. Sucrose. Solids. Available sugar. Glucose. Number of analyses. 1018 to 1029 Per cent. .066 .122 .290 .299 .273 .317 Per cent. .016 .025 .011 .010 .023 .011 Per cent. — .034 .069 .062 .340 .305 .371 Per cent. .084 .028 .017 -.051 — 055 — .065 146 1029 to 1042 191 1042 to 1052 129 1052 to 1061 158 1061 to 1071 137 1071 to 1082 236 From these it will appear that the sorghum juices, after they have reached a specific gravity of about 1050, increase gradually and with great regularity in saccharine strength and in available sugar until a specific- gravity of 1080 to 1082 is attained, and that this increase is fully, upon the average, 0.3 per cent of the weight of the juice for each .001 increase in specific gravity, or an average increase between 1050 and 1082 of 9.6 per cent of the weight of the juice in available sugar. The practical importance of this fact, which appears to be demon- strated by the very numerous analyses made during the past three- years, can hardly be too strongly emphasized. By reference, then, to the table given on page 493, the farmer may, by simply taking the specific gravity of his sorghum juice, readily es- timate the approximate value of the crop for the production of sugar or syrup. PEEPAEATION OF SOLUTIONS FOE ANALYSIS OF SOEGHUM, ETC. 503 PKEPAEATION OF SOLUTIONS FOE ANALYSIS OF SOEGHUM, MAIZE, AND SUGAE-CANE JUICES. FeMing's Solution. Weigh out the following: (J4H4K Na06.4H20 crystallized Eo- chelle salt, 2595 grams ; powder it and put it in a large glass balloon flask, holding at least 20 liters ; add NaHO caustic soda, 820.8 grams, and then pour over it 7 liters of water, and shake up until dissolved. Dissolve in 3 liters of water 519.6 grams CUSO4.5H2O crystallized sulphate of copper, and add the solution of the copper salt to the so- lution of Eochelle salts and caustic soda ; then add water enough to make 15 liters in all. It is well to powder the Eochelle salts and the sulphate of copper, to hasten the solution of them. It is of advantage to place the hy- drate of soda upon the powdered Eochelle salts, in order that its solu- tion may be readily effected, without allowing it to come in contact directly with the glass. Permanganate SolvMon. 131.748 grams (132.) of crystallized permanganate of potash, K2Mn208, dissolved in 30 liters of water, gives a solution of the proper strength. 100 c. c. of decinormal oxalic acid solution should equal 72 c. c. of this permanganate solution. Basic Acetate of Lead Solution. 4500 grams of pulverized lead acetate, Pb (0311302)2, are mixed with 2700 grams of lead oxide, PbO, and 2500 c. c. of water added to the mixture. It is then boiled for two hours in an iron pot, with stir- ring, the evaporated water being replaced. Filter in bottles. Ferric Alum Solution. Ferric alum, 500 grams; water, H2O, 5 liters; sulphuric acid, H2SO4, 250 c. c. Dissolve the powdered alum in the water, and then add the sulphuric acid. 504 SOEGHUM. CHAPTER XVI. (a.) Methods of manufacture of different sorghum sugar, and syrup makers. (6.) Expferiments in sorghum sugar manufacture, on a large scale, at the Department of Agriculture, at Washington. (c.) Causes of failure in the manufacture of sugar at the Department of Ag- riculture, at Washington. METHODS OF MANUFACTUBE. For the purpose of showing the present methods of manufacture of sugar and syrup, and the variations possible, without endangering success, the following' briefly detailed methdds are given of a few of those manufacturers who have, thus far, been most successful. It is to be said, that, while the methods differ greatly, they generally agree in the importance of promptness, and in carrying forward the several op- erations in cleanliness, and especially in the greatest care in defecation of the juices. It is interesting to see that all of these reports are from the more northerly states, averaging 41° north latitude, and varying from 39° to 44°; also, that the. longitude varies from ,2° E. to 14° 5' W;, cov- ering an area of 350 by 1,200 miles; thus showing the possible area for the successful cultivation of sorghum for sugar, while the im- mensely larger area, extending from 39° north latitude to the gulf, and from the Atlantic to the mountain regions of the west, is doubtless better adapted to the growth of this plant than most of the more northern states. Thus far this new industry has been largely limited to the north and west, possibly through greater enterprise in northern farmers and capitalists, and greater readiness to enter upon new indus- tries which give promise of sucioess. Several of those whose methods are given were among, the success- ful competitors for prizes given by the Department of Agriculture for those who should report the best results in sorghum sugar making in 1882. Plan for a Cheap, Economical Home Factory. The following plate, No. XLIX, published by J. A. Field & Co., St. Louis, Mo. , presents a plan for a small sugar or syrup works, such as is in very general use among our farmers, and which, at very moderate expense, will enable the farmer to manufacture his small acreage of sorghum into excellent syrup, either for home consumption or for some central factory. METHODS OF MANUFACTURE. 505 Plate XLIX. PLAN FOR A CHEAP, ECONOMICAL HOME FACTCOEY. ^. Location of Mill. B. Pipe from Mill to Juice Vat. C. Strainer at Mill. Z). Strainer at Juice Vat. E. Juice Vat. FF. Evaporators. (?. Cooling Tank for Syrup. 506 SOEGHUM. Champaign Sugar Company, Champaign, III. PROFESSORS "WEBER AND SCOTEI.L. 1. Cane passed through a 3 roll mill, the bagasse, saturated with hot water, and then passed through a second 3 roll mill ; the juice from both mills received in a common tank. 2. Juice treated with milk of lime in defecators to neutralization, as shown by litmus paper; then heated to boiling and skimmed. After skimming, allowed to settle half an hour or more, and then the clear juice is drawn off from the sediment. 3. Juice from defecator is evaporated in open pan to 25° Beaiimfe, and the semi-syrup drawn off into settling tanks. 4. After having deposited its impurities, the semi-syrup is drawn off from the sediment and filtered through bone-coal. 6. The semi-syrup from the bone-coal filterti is evaporated t ) rae- lada in vacuum pan ; and, after being purged in centrifugal, tlie mo- lasses is again boiled in vacuum pan to 40° Beaumfe for second sugars. Agricultural Department University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin. PROPKSSOK SWEKSON. 1. Cane pressed as soon as possible after cutting, and the juice strained through a straw filter (bucket filled with straw). 2. Juice hea1;ed to lukewarmness and made slightly alkaline with lime, as shown by litmus paper, then heated to boiling as quickly as possible, and steam turned off; then skimmed, and again heated to slight boiling, the steam again turned off, and the fresh scum removed. Tliis operation is repeated two or three times, giving finally a clear juice nearly free from sediment. 3. The defecated juice is eviaporated in open pan to about 20° Beaum6, 4. From the evaporator the semi-syrup is taken to vacuum pan, and evaporated to about 42° Beau me, thence emptied into tin-lined wooden vats, each holding about 50 gallons, where it is allowed to re- main three or four days. Every step hurried as much as possible, averaging about three hours from time cane was pressed till the drawing oflT from the vacuum pan into the crystallizing tanks. This process, as will be seen, differs somewhat from the method de- scribed by Professor Swensou, and published in the Eeport of the Com- mittee of the National Academy of Science upon " The Sorghum Su- gar Industry," p. 84. The chief difference is in the method of defecation. METHOD OF , MANUFACTURE. 507 Do not allow the cane to stand stripped in the field. Work up the cane as soon as possible after being cut. Defecate the juice as soon as possible after leaving the mill. For defecation use milk of lime, freed from coarse particles by straining; add it gradually to the juice with vigorous stirring until a piece of red litmus paper is turned to a pale purple. Heat the juice quickly to the boiling point, as shown by the swelling and hreitkiug of the scum. Remove the scum after allowing the juice to remain quiet for five minutes. Draw off the clear juice through an aperture near the bottom of the defecator into the evaporating pan. And sulphurous acid to the clear juice until a piece of blue litmus paper is reddened.* Evaporate down until it reaches a density of 45° B., or, if boiled in an open pan, to a boiling temperature of 234° F. Place in a warm room to crystallize, and in about a week it will be readjr to separate. Sterling Syrup Works, Sterling, Kansas. 1. Juice received in large tanks (500 gallons), divided by a parti- tion, one side being filled with bay, through which the juice is filtered. 2. In the defecator, lime is added to the cold juice till blue litmus shows only a faint tinge of red. Then the juice is heated to 180° F. The steam is turned ofi", the scum removed, and the juice allowed to settle. 3. After settling, the defecated juice is drawn into the evaporator, heated by steam-pipes, and, with skimming, reduced to 22° Beaume. 4. The semi-syrup is now exposed to sulphurous acid fumes .as it is drawn from the evaporator into tanks, where it remains until suffi- ciently settled. 5. The semi-syrup is then evaporated in the " finisher," heated by copper coil, to 35° Beaum6, and from the finisher drawn into a cooler 12 feet long and 2 feet wide, in which it is quickly cooled by means of manifold pipe, through which cold water is circulated. 6. After cooling, the syrup is stored in large tanks until all froth has risen to the surface, and is then drawn into barrels. Nelson Maliby, Geneva, Ohio. 1. Cane crushed in 3 roll mill. Juice passes through a straw filter. 2. Juice heated in the defecator by steam to 180° F., and then *This step may be omitted if no excess of lime has been added during defe- cation. It will have no effect on the quantity of sugar obtained, but will' make a lighter colored molasses. 608 SORGHUM. neutralized with milk of lime, as shown by litmus paper, after which it is heated to the boiling point ; then steam is turned oflf, scum re- moved, and, as soon as the sediment settles, the clear juice is drawn by a swing pipe into a tank where it is treated with sulphurous acid until litmus paper is reddened. 3. The defecated juice, after addition of sulphurous acid, is concen- trated by a Cook evaporator to about 30° Beaum6, and is then con- trated in a pan, heated by steam-pipes, to a boiling point of 228° F. for syrup, and 235° F*. for sugar. The concentrated syrup is stored in room heated to from 80° to 100° r. for from 1 to 6 days, and then purged in a centrifugal. Drummond Brothers, Warrenshurg, Missouri. 1. The expressed juice is filtered throiigh a perforated tin strainer, and received in a tank, in which it is allowed to settle, the juice being ■drawn from the top into a Cook evaporator, where the only agent for defecation is heat. The scum is removed, and the semisyrup from this first pan is still further concentrated in another Cook evaporator "to 230° F. boiling point, if syrup is intended to be made, or to 234° F. for sugar. 2. From the second Cook pan the syrup (for the purpose of rapid cooling) is passed through a shallow tin trough into the storage tank. 3. For sugar, the syrup is kept in shallow tanks, in a room heated to from 80° to 90° F. 4. The molasses is drained off" through sacks. A. J. Decker, Fond du Lac, Wis. 1. Cane passed through 3 roll mill, and juice filtered through wire gauze and straw filters. 2. Lime is added in the defecators until nearly neutral, the juice remaining slightly acid^ and then by steam-pipes is heated as quick as possible to the boiling point, and the steam is turned off". The scum is removed and the sediment allowed to settle. The clear juice is then drawn ofi" by a faucet near the bottom of the defecators. If the defe- cation is good, the juice should be as clear as water. 3. The juice is evaporated in open pans heated by steam-^ipes, and the syrup is drawn into coolers of galvanized iron, with a coil of tin pipe at the bottom, through which is pumped a stream of cold water. From the cooler the syrup is drawn into large storage tanks, and, after crystallizing, the sugar is purged by means of a centrifugal. METHOD OF MANUFACTUEE. SO^ Oak Sill Rejining Company, EdwardsviMe, Madison County, III. 1. The juice from the mill passes through a long perforated screen for removing mechanical impurities, to the sulphur box, where it is treated with sulphurous acid from the burning of sulphur, the sulphur- ous acid passing over a water-trough 8 feet long (to take out any sul- phuric acid) before it reaches the sulphur box and juice. From the sulphur box the juice is, received in tanks, in which some sediment falls. 2. Milk of lime, about 12° Beaumfe, is added to the juice in the defecators before heating, and not quite to the point of neutralization, as shown by litmus paper. Heat is now applied by means of steam coils at bottom. When the first heavy blanket of scum is obtained, it is skimmed, and then another scum is brought up and removed. The juice is now boiled bri.skly for a few minutes, and then allowed to settle. The juice should then be quite clear, and is drawn into settling tanks to permit the further deposit of impurities, and then is drawn into evaporators. 3. The defecated juice is concentrated in a circular evaporator with a scum trough, into which the green scum, which at first forms, is swept as fast as it rises. When all the scum has been removed, the boil- ing is urged, with high steam (80 pounds) pressure, till a semi-syrup of 20° to 25° Beaumfe is obtained. 4. The semi-syrup is then drawn into settling tanks, if not quite clear, and is in a second circular evaporator brought to 35° or 36° Beaum§; but it is desirable to complete the evaporation before the semi-syrup is. allowed to cool. The concentrated syrup is cooled as speedily as possible, by allowing it to run over a wide surface exposed to the air before it passes into the storage tanks. 5. Before liming, good results have been obtained by adding to the cold juice in the defecator a small amount of superphosphate of lime. Jefferson Sugar Company, Jefferson, Ohio. 1. Juice from 3 roll mill, heated by steam-pipes to 180° F., and neutralized with milk of lime; then heated to boiling, skimmed, al- lowed to settle, and the clear liquor drawn off into a settling tank, where it is made acid with a solution of sulphurous acid or with the gas. 2. Evaporated to semi-syrup with skimming, in open galvanized iron pan, heated by steam, and the semi-syrup finished in a separata pan heated with steam. 510 soEGHtm. William Frazier, Esofea, Vernon county, Wisconsin. 1. Juice received from the mill into settling tanks, and drawn from the sediment into a liming tank, where it is treated with milk or cream of lime to neutralization, as shown by blue litmus paper being turned purple. 2. A long pan, 17 x 3|- feet, divided into compartments of 5, 4, and 8 feet, is used in defecation and evaporation to semi-syrup. The limed juice is drawn into the five foot compartment next the chimney, where it is slowly heated, but never boils, and is skimmed once in five or six hours. From this compartment, which is higher than the rest of the pan, it passes to the four foot compartment, where it is heated nearly to boiling, and is skimmed as necessary, and by a gate the clarified juice passes into the eight foot compartment, which is made^ like a Cook pan, with divisions 16 inches wide. While passing through tliis channel of 21 feet, it is rapidly boiled, with the removal of green scum, and then is drawn into a semi-syrup tank, and allowed to settle for about an hour. 3. To the semi-syrup is added a solution of porous alum, about one pint to 100 gallons of semi-syrup. This solution contains one-half ounce of the porous alum to the pint. 4. The semi-syrup is drawn from the sediment into a Cook pan, where it is reduced to syrup. The finished syrup runs through a wooden trough, 32 feet long, to a cooler. Paul Steck, San Francisco, California. 1. Juice heated to 120 F., and then neutralized with milk of lime, as shown by litmus test, then heating till the scum forms on surface; steam is shut off, and the juice freed from scum and sediment by passing through filter presses, then through filters of bone-black, 3 feet in diameter and 25 feet long. 2. The defecated and filtered juice was evaporated to 21° Beaum§, in double efiect apparatus, under 24 inch vacuum. 3. The semi-syrup, if not clear, is again passed through bone-black filters, and then brought to syrup or sugar test in vacuum pan ; syrup from vacuum pan run into crystallization tanks, then purged by cen- trifugals. WiMiam P. Wheeler, Chittenango, New York. 1. Juice flowed from mill through straw filter into the receiving! and settling tank, thence into defecator of galvanized iron, where it was heated to 180° F., and by milk of lime just neutralized, as shown by litmus paper ; then quickly brought to boiling point ; and, before active METHOD OF MANUFACTUEE. 511 boiling, began, the heat was withdrawn, the scum removed, and the sediment allowed to subside, which required about half an hour. 2. The clear defecated juice was drawn, by means of a stop-cock placed just above the bottom of the defecator, into a galvanized iron pan, twelve feet long and 4 feet wide, divided into three compartments, connected by gates in the partitions. The skimming was mainly com- pleted in the first and second, compartments, and the semi-syrup from the third was allowed to run in a continuous stream into a Cook pan, in which concentration was completed. The syrup was stored in a tin-lined tank until thoroughly cool. 3. The sediment from the defecator was filtered through plaited bag filters, described on page 289, and filtered juice added to the first evap- orator. Rio Grande Sugar Company, Bio Grande, N. J. 1. Juice is expressed by three-roll mill, and the bagasse is again passed through two additional rolls; the juice from both sets of rolls being received in one tank, and thence pumped to another. 2. In this latter there is added to the iuice cream of lime, com- pletely saturated with sulphurous acid, which has been passed into it. Enough of this sulphite of lime is added to render juice slightly turbid. 3. After settling, the juice is run into the defecating tanks proper, where it is heated to boiling, then skimmed, and passed through the filter press. 4. The defecated and filtered juice is drawn into the evaporators, where it is reduced by heat from steam coils until scum ceases to rise. 5. The thin syrup is taken into a horizontal vacuum pan, resembling a tubular boiler; where under about 25 inches of vacuum, it is brought to pan liquor, which is brought into the vacuum pan, and concentrated to melada. This, after storing two to five days in a warm room, in iron tanks, passes to the mixer, and next to the centrifugals. Results Obtained by Different Methods of Evaporation of Sugar- Cane Juice from Louisiana Canes. The following comparative results, obtained by different methods of evaporation, are given by McCulloh, in his report to the government, and are of interest in this connection. They were prepared for publication by C Conrad Johnson, Esq., an experienced sugar-boiler. In the following table, comparison is made between the several dif- ferent systems of manufacture, as therein given, both with respect to the amounts of sugars produced, the relative quality or grade of pro- duct, and the total pecuniary value in a relative point of view of each 512 SORGHUM. result, tlie whole being based upon an equal amount of extractable sugar in each case. VALUE OF A CROP OP CAN'E MADE INTO .SUGAR BT SIX DIFFERENT PROCESSES, INTO HOGSHEADS, WITHOUT BEING SYEUPED,. AT THE PRICE EACH CLASS HAS BEEN SOLD OR IS WORTH THIS SEASON, 1847. [The whole quantity of dry sugar being in each case 653,367 pounds, and the boiling power re- quired for each crop- being 8,000 pounds. 1 ^ «-■ rH , , ■ss u_ tfl 5 oS ",■ ^ ■^ ^rA s "c £) m V ■ •3 a c3 t-iS = S^ '*-' o? ;3 o a . o r o o Em Q tO-H o S II III r o g (^ t> H Ph f t^ o > B H 1 43,^,000 4K 19,485 ♦43,300 2 866 00 26,734 IS ,4,S12 12 25,163 12 2 433,000 4K 1!),485 153,500 23.-r 1,221 25 13,857 18' 2,494 26 26,200 61 3 433,000 5 21,650 102,000 3!^ 6,265 00 12,874 18 2,317 32 29,2.32 32 4 433,000 4 17,320 153,500 2!« 3,837 60 12,857 18 2,314 26 23.471 76 5 433,000 hli 23,815 102,000 3i<: 6.670 00 12.871 20 2,574 20 32,059 20 8 440,000 6li 2S,fi00 163,000 43< 7,742 50 11,949 20 2,,389 80 3S.732 30 +8 478,500 6 28,710 141,000 4>^ 6,345 00 10,011 20 2,008 20 37,063 20 COMPARATIVE EXPENSES, CONSUMPTION OF FUEL, PROFITS, ETC. M « ai a d (D 0) CJ '3 • & Z's. °5 1 ■BP, o t. P. •|5 °-3 03 o %■" % ■3^ ff< m •^ m 'A « 1 $7,000 7,000 1,515 1,5L) $18,163 12 19,200 87 22,232 32 14,477,37 22 885 65 $13,440 43 12,403 18 $2,000 2,500 2 . ^ 3 7,000 1,515 4 ; 8,000 8,000 200 1,948 1,948 550 650 L. $974 25 L 974 25 17,126 18 8,718 00 12,000 12,000 10,000 10,000 5 200 8 8,000 8,000 200 200 S.2, 171 75 S.2, 171 25 31,603 55 31,034 45 +8 669 10 (In the foregoing table, taken from McCulloh's report, method 1 represents " the old set of kettles ; " 2. Set of kettles for syrup, strike high pressure steam pan ; 3. Set of kettles for syrup, and strike vacuum pan ; 4. Open high pressure steam pans for syrup and strike ; 5. The same for syrup, with strike vacuum pan ; 8. Rellieux's triple and quad- ruple effect pan apparatus, clarifiers, and filters ; +8- The same, with results obtained from high boiling.) In the above table, we have the relative values of each of these methods, as far as production, value of the result, and expense attend- ing the same, are concerned, together with the relative cost of each apparatus at the date of the compilation of this table. These results EXPEEIJIENTS IN SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. 513 are alike, both \Tith reference to the total amount of gross values pro- duced and the relative economy of each method, with respect to cost of production, referred to the net product. Thus, in both instances, they stand as follows: 8, -|-8, 5, 3, 2, 1, 4; the method 8 giving the best and 4 the poorest, proving that the rules indicated by scientific investigation are substantiated by the results of practical experience. Prom these data we may conclude, therefore, that vacuum apparatus, when properly combined with suitable clarifying appurtenances, will always give the most satisfactory returns, and, in the increased value of the product, will, in a short period, repay the original first cost. EXPERIMENTS IN SUGAR MANUFACTURE AT THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AT WASHINGTON. In connection with the laboratory investigations which have been conducted upon the sorghum and maize plants during the past few years at the Department of Agriculture, there have been made, notably, duriug the seasons of 1880 and 1881, a series of experiments with ref- erence to the production of sugar from these plants upon a scale of commercial importance. A careful record was made of each detail of these several experiments, and, in view of the importance, practically and scientifically, of the results obtained, this record is worthy of very care- ful study on the part of those contemplating any attempt at sugar making. This is the more important, since the results of these practical experi- ments at Washington have been the subject of such ignorant miscon- ception and willful representation, that it is possible the head of the department felt himself justified in his efforts to invest with ridicule and becloud with doubts every effort on the part of those seeking to estab- lish an important industry. The experiments made at the Department of Agriculture were those of the "small mill" and the "large mill," as they were for convenience designated. The " small mill" consisted of a " Victor mill," with a capacity of from 40 to 50 gallons of juice per hour, defecator, and evaporator, the latter being an open pan of galvanized iron without partitions. This form was desirable, since each lot of juice defecated was converted into syrup, collected, weighed, and analyzed. Direct heat was used in both defecation and evaporation in the small mill. The "large mill" consisted of mill, defecators, sulphur box, filters, evaporators, vacuum pan, cars, mixer, and centrifugal. Steam was used throughout in the operations of the large mill. 83 514 SOEGHUM. The crops of sorghum grown for the large mill were as follows : ■ At Mr. Golden's, about one mile from Uniontown, forty-four varie- ties of sorghum, in small lots, amounting in all to 13 acres. These varieties were chiefly the same as those grown upon the grounds of the department. There was also grown by him 3 acres of the Liberian and 12 acres of the Honduras, Owing to the excessive drought, thir- teen of the small lots failed to germinate, and these were re-planted June 1st and 2nd. There were also planted upon the grounds of Mr. Carlisle Patterson, just beyond the city limits, some 65 acres of Early Amber and of Link's Hybrid, and, owing to the backward season and ravages of the wire and cut worms, this plat was re-planted three times, the last planting being completed June 18th. There was also planted upon the grounds of Dr. Dean, about one mile from Benning's Bridge, 12 acres in Honduras, 10 acres in Neea- zana, 10 acres in Early Orange, 12 acres in Liberian, and 6 acres in the eight varieties of maize planted upon the department grounds. The sorghums were planted by May 23rd, and the maize by May 25th. Dr. Dean began re-planting Honduras June 2nd, Early Orange June 7th, Liberian June 9th, Neeazana June 13th. Dr. Dean began second re-planting Honduras June 18th, Early Orange June 20th, Li- berian June 21st, Neeazana June 29th. To any one who has carefully perused this volume, it is useless to say that this delay was fatal to success in the production of sugar, and that failure was inevitable, unless all jDrevious experience was to be falsified. The failure of the crop to mature, as had been confidently predicted during the summer, was fully realized. At last, with the assurance that frosts would soon render the crop unfit even for syrup, owing to its immature state, it was resolved to begin work, since, with the lim- ited capacity of the mill, it would require at least two months to work up the entire crop of 135 acres. Accordingly, the work of cutting the cane began September 19th, and grinding began -September 26th, and was continued without any serious interruption until October 28th. At this time, the cane still remaining on the field, through the eflfect of frosts and succeeding warm weather, had become worthless. The cane from 93| acres in all was brought to the mill, the last portions of which had already become sour and offensive. Ihose portions worked were of the earliest varieties planted, since ther£ was more hope of possible success with those than with the other varieties. In the experiments with the large mill, each load of cane was EXPERIMENTS IN SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. 515 weighed, the juice measured in the defecator, of which the capacity ■was known, and at intervals during the day samples of the freshly ex- pressed juices were taken for analysis in the laboratory. The syrups produced were also carefully weighed and also analyzed. As evidence of the condition of the crop, it may be mentioned that all the seed which had sufficiently matured to make it possible to save, was carefully gathered, and the total product of the 93^ acres was about 150 bushels, or one and two-thirds bushels per acre. If we es- timate 17 bushels of seed to the acre as a reasonable crop for land of the character of that selected for growing this sorghum, it will be seen that only 10 per cent of the crop had reached maturity. As this, un. fortunately, was intermixed with the other nine-tenths in every condi- tion of immaturity, a large portion not even in blossom, the resulting syrups produced may be anticipated. On this point, the statements of Peter Lynch, the sugar-boiler, are conclusive, there being, as he says, but two days, October 4th and 5th, when he received cane in even a reasonably matured state, and from this he readily produced sugar. The report of Assistant Parsons, who- had immediate charge of the chemical and other work in the mill, will be read with interest as a conclusive .statement of the several causes of failure made by an expert of ample experience. See tables A, B, C. Since this matter is of such vital practical importance, in connection with the production of sugar from sorghum, a brief review of some of the salient points clearly established will be appropriate. Results from Analyses of Thirty-five Varieties of Sorghum grown in 1881. By reference to the table, page 198, giving the general results from analyses of thirty-five varieties of sorghum in 1881, it will be seen that the available sugar in their juices during the successive stages was as follows : AVAILABLE SUGAR. Stape. Per cent. 1. Hotheaded out " — 3.82 2 -- — 4.4!) 3! Fully headed out — 3 92 4. ... — 4 29 5. lu fu" blossom — 3 .81 6 -. -287 7. Seed in milk — 1 98 8 ' - 64 9. Seed in dough + H^ 10 -t- 2 86 11. Seed hard + ^ ^^ 12 -H 6.34 13. . .; -I- ' 61 14 -H « 87 l.V + 9 24 16 ; -Hll 14 i? . +1102 is . H-llW i5 -1-9.83 20' ■.■""..■.■.!.■.■.■..■....; -f-6.79 516 SOEGHUM. Now, a large portion of the crop was not yet in blossom, i. e., was at about the fourth stage, while not over a tenth had matured the seed, i. e., reached the eleventh stage. If we take an average of the fifth to the eleventh stages, inclusive, we shall find that, while the ninth, tenth, and eleventh stages give a total of 8.14 per cent plus, the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth stages give a total of 17.51 per cent minus available sugar, or an average for the seven stages of — 1.17 per cent. By this is meant that the per cent of sucrose was 1.17 less than the sum of the per cents of glucose and solids in the juices. It will fol- low, then, that the average condition of the crop was such as to abso- lutely forbid the hope of any sugar being produced, and that its pro- duction, at any period during the working, was only possible when a lot of cane might happen to be brought in which was considerably bet- ter than the average, as indeed occurred two or three times during the month of grinding. The following tables represent the results of the work, and it will be seen that these results are in entire harmony with the preceding state- .ments : Table A. — Canes Crushed. Eeceived from— Tons. Pounds. 'Patt-p'Tso" "P'flT"! , . . X04 99 25 80 S. M. Golden 1,304 1,060 Dr. Dean / Total 228 2,444 EXPEEIMENTS IN SUGAK MANUFACTURE, ETC. 517 :- ^ CO 00 to bJ H •* oocaca oa oi tfi. (p^ tti. aocoi— 'OOtDob oooooc «0 0ltCl-*C00i&3COtO<:jiOO|— 'OCTIiOCDCJKOtDCO OOiMMCSCDCOK-'JOOOCC--7(»CJi- CO to lO lO to to -J -C ffl Ol r i?;;^ 000 oocooo i-'bstot-'tOht.-y 3 '"'S toeoci^JiOift--; 30;^ - 033 — co bsji-toowDa^?' za'^ >*i.O(oqooo cn'^ ^ -n'^ '^ m rfi-QoO'l-'O^J <0 rf^CnMtOOJ-^ ^ o' ^ CO CJ I-- Ci 10 CS ■ CI Specific gravity. Gallons after defe- catioD. OOi 030 aito Per cent of glu- cose. Per cent of sucrose. Per cent of other solids. Per cent of sucrose by polariscope. Per cent + availa- ble sucrose. Per cent — availa- ble sucrose. -J w. Glucose. CO C71 CO COW tocoo* tP- to- Sucrose. 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"rt o 1) (^ cooeqiMoocoowt^sD -CQO(OCOOSr-|l-C^in'-'COC^ -oocic-r-t* •o«0i>'-iaccoo>05i— lOOco^.- G) S ii •-' G3 S=M PL, - - lOr^C^KNirtCOTjf'JWec ■mT(fW3OC<)-*i-IQ0C0O0Ji00lC0i-.C0e0Cpi-HOC0O(TOiO 5oC ID a _, 'S I I I I I I I .. , -..iiOi-li— KNtNCOCi I I I I I I I i-^l-H i-ICQ *-■ I I Ph .5 i-( I— I ■-• 1— I I— ItH I— I cm rH r-i I— I ■ -CMOi-'T m p. 0) S (in be s 0) d, o 3 t- o ' ' fj g Ph Efi C> irO O m O C-l O tN I— CM lO :0 -3 lO M O CI L-- 1- r-l'!itcOO(MCiq'M ^ JiCOC^CaC-TOCCMOCM CN CJ CO lO lO o IXNOCOOi CO (Die! 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SO 2.50 41 2 7 41 18 00 51.8 60,9 16.8 "i6l57 2 50 12.30 11 80 4.7 10.49 1.14 15 5 5 52 11.40 61.0 70,2 8 6 17.38 1.14 10.49 1 1 9 24 3.63 97 5 6 94 14 65 37 2 36 4 31.7 13.62 3 63 9 24 18 4 7.70 5 10 88 5 7 19 14 47 38 1 46 3 32 9 13 49 5 10 7 70 1 7 5 40 5 40 86 8 6 07 13 16 80 4 39 3 36 1 12.18 5 40 5.40 6,60 5.00 221.5 6.58 13 77 33 4 33,4 33.1 5.00 6 60 '6 7 11.30 2.80 17 3 5 43 15.60 57 4 57.9 16 4 2.80 11 30 2 2 11.60 2.30 20.0 6 76 14.39 46.3 54 4 18 3 16 46 2.30 11 60 8 90 8 7 5 58 8 06 74 9 4 46 13 82 26.3 27 8 67 5 15.18 8 06 5 58 4.80 8 3 6.01 4.89 77.7 4.55 13.82 36 35.8 39.1 .4 89 5 01 2.8 io^M 4 02 i8(3 4 '7.3:1 1847 48 '475 24 2 "'4!62 ' ■ 10 54 '3 3 6.60 1 00 10.2 2.71 9 66 39 3 47 2 17 2 15.16 1 60 6 60 "4(36 7 2 6.36 1 49 12 4 2. 81 9 48 • 41.4 46 8 12 7 10 03 1.4!' 6.36 8.60 2 3 10.90 2.40 9 5 4.28 13 5(i 52 7 62 (1 12 6 15 01 2 40 10 90 10 05 5 40 2.30 46 2 34 9 31 36 9 48 1 23 9 9.43 2 30 5.40 4 06 "3'3 4 80 3.70 39 6 2.61 10 31 27 .1 39 8 31 S 3 7(1 4 80 ,5 5.10 3 80 40 5 2.71 10 26 21.4 34 5 36.4 ■ 18.79 3 SO 6.10 8,fi 2.70 4.48 36 1 10 87 18 5 25.5 42.0 8 07 4 -IX 2 70 ,0 8.25 2.83 1.19 30.3 132 ■4:89 3 84 19 08 11.75 52 9 37 8 20.9 26 1 11.91 2.85 1 19 8.25 8.28 8.28 42 9 7.35 1.25 157.3 3.76 11 27 11 5 18 8 41 6 11.21 1 25 7.35 '5.10 54,4 68 8 24 2 3 50 3.21 11 -In 11 39 41 38.1 46 T 45 3 17.2 31 2 3.80 ■■■■5.20 "5 20 "s.sb '^0 7.40 4.20 57 6 4.09 12 94 88,1 45.3 31.2 16.24 4.20 7.40 4,6 7.90 4.50 48.8 4.10 19.23 38.1 45.3 31.2 4.50 7.90 4,5 3!70 31 9 33.0 3 88 3.31 11.88 11.24 38,1 38 7 45.3 44.9 31 2 30.9 '9.39 '3 70 ", 6 50 "6.50 632 SOEGHl'M. The experiments of 1879 doubtless explain some of the results of the previous year ; since it is probably true that, owing to the immaturity, the tops had not yet attained their maximum content of sugar. A study of the previous tables giving results of the analysis of sorghums shows that up to a certain period the lower half of the cane is the best, but that this does not remain true of the sorghum, as it does of the sugar-cane in Louisiana, since the sorghum does have time to com- pletely mature, which is not so with the sugar-cane in our country. In the following table there have been calculated from the results given of the experiments in the making of sugar the following : 1st. The percentages of the sugar present in the juices operated upon, which were obtained in the syrup. 2nd. The percentage of. crystallizable sugar (sucrose) present in the juices, which was obtained in the syrup. 3rd. The percentage of uncrystallizable sugar (glucose) present in the juices, which' was obtained in the syrup. 4th. The percentage of crystallizable sugar present in the juices, which was inverted by the process of manufacture. 5th. The percentage of uncrystallizable sugar (glucose) destroyed during the process of manufacture. The presence of the same relative proportions of crystallizable and uncrystallizable sugar in a syrup to those present in the juice from which this syrup has been prepared, by no means implies that there has been no inversion of the crystallizable sugar ; for the destructive action of an excess of lime upon glucose is well known, and is not unfrequently made available ni the production of sugar. Hence, it often happens that the relative quantity of crystallizable sugar in the syrup may be greatly in excess of that present in the juice, even after a large quantity of the crystallizable sugar has been destroyed by in- version. It is only possible, then, to determine the character of the changes which have taken place in the sugars during the process of manufacture, by quantitatively detetermiuing the amounts of sucrose and glucose in the juices and in the syrups prepared from them. Since, obviously, this is a question of the greatest practical im- ■ portance, as bearing upon the profitableness of the production of su- gar from corn stalks or sorghum, the tables following will be studied with interest. As in the previous table, there is a constant but not uniform dis- crepancy between the polarization of the syrups and the amount of crystallizable sugar found present by analysis. Almost invariably the amount of sucrose found is somewhat in ex- EXPEEDIENTS IN SUGAE MANUFACTURE, ETC. 533 cess of the amount indicated by the polariscope, and this variation is such as to forbid any supposition that it is the result of error iu ob- servation or in analytical work. This explanation may be found by consulting the following tables, in which it appears that, although there is generally about the same amount of glucose in the syrups relative to the amount present in the juice (averaging 97.1 per cent), there is still evidence of the destruc- tion of an average of 35 per cent of the glucose. This destruction of glucose appears to be compensated, in part, by the inversion of a certain portion of the crystallizable sugar, and this inverted sugar possesses such action upon the polarized ray as to render the results of the po- lariscope practically worthless. Practically, it appears that the proportion of crystallizable sugar present in the juice, which may be obtained iu the. syrup, depends greatly upon the condition of the stalks when worked. For, as will be seen, the average amount secured in all these experiments was but 77.1 per cent, still iu those syrups prepared from canes which were iu the proper condition the amount was over 90 per cent of the crystal- lizable sugar present in the juice operated upon. (See experiments, Nos. 6 and 7.) It is not improbable that even better results may be secured after further experiments shall have perfected the process of manufacture ; but in view of the fact that such results have been at- tained with the crude and simple apparatus employed in the experi- ments here recorded, this result is highly gratifying. We may hope, then, to secure in syrup 90 per cent of the crystal- lizable sugar present in the juice operated upon. The results obtained in the experiments made with stalks from Stowell's Evergreen Sweet Corn are most remaikable and demand ex-, planation. The juice obtained from these stalks gave in the laboratory excellent results, and promised a syrup of fine quality. By reference to the tables it will be seen, however, that these syrups (see experi- ments, Nos. 26 and 27) were wholly abnormal and very disappointing. These stalks were cut in Frederick, Md., October 11th, packed in a close car, and, through an oversight, allowed so to remain during op- pressively hot weather until the 15th. They were worked up on the 16th, 17th, and 18th. Upon their arrival at Washington they were found so heated as to render their removal from the car even difiicult, and yet the juice expressed from them appeared of excellent quality, but every attempt to produce from it a crystallizable syrup failed. An analysis of the syrup shewed that a very large percentage of the sugar had been inverted (in experiments, Nos. 26 and 27), and that the de- struction of glucose, in the syrup had been unusually large, while the 634 SOEGHTJM. amount of crystallizable sugar present in the juice, and recovered in the syrup, was less than 30 per cent. A few of the results attained appear to be only explicable upon the supposition that there have been slight errors in analysis; but revision of the work fails to reveal such errors, and the results are given in full, without omission, hoping that future investigation may solve difficulties which at present appear irreconcilable. ' at 5 a .*= .« d a Number of experiments. lis So ■ lis p B u a " +i HOP. ^« . S P-S c cS ■^•ri a S&p. £&S. Sf p. S'o ^ Ph ^ tu fk ^::;::::;;:;::;::::;-:::::-;::::::::-::::; ■■ '82'3" ■ 66 7' "l38 3' "■■33'8" " "oo" 3 74 7 83 3 66 1 76.0 102 1 106.0 33.9 24.0 31 8 4 18.0 5 85 1 94.4 80,2 89.1 107-8 120 9 19 8 10.9 12,0 6 • 7 92.9 77.4 89,5 91 8 79 91 7 57.7 87.1 55 7 69 7 103.6 127.7 96 5 90.7 91 2 8.3 42,3 12 9 4 3 30 3 4 7 8 14.6 9 16 4 10 13 6 11 39.1 12 82 1 80.4 86 4 79 8 67 5 68 9 91 3 114 5 98 6 20,2 32 5 31 1 28 9 13 18 14 32.5 95.6 98 7 "83 3' 110 6 ' 96 7" 1 3 16.7 16 17. 87 4 20.0 18 75.5 68 8 103 5 31 2 27,7 ]9 71 8 69 7 80 4 30.3 49 9 20 76 1 77 2 71.3 22.8 51.5 21 87.2 86 3 90.8 82 9 85 6 69 3 96 8 87 2 98.3 17 1 14 4 30.7 20.3 22 27.2 23 32.4 2.5. . 102 2 58 3 79.2 102,7 29 7 28 8 102.0 25.8 37. 5 " 70 3' 71.2 2() . 144 5 27 133 7 28... 29 ... 96 1 8.5 4 118 5 98 5 79 2 110 1 92,8 96,1 133,2 1 5 20.8 8 7 30 24 7 31 32 33 S4.9 77.5 93 7 22.5 28 8 85.5 77.1 97,0 24.2 34.7 The committee of the National Academy of Sciences, in their re- port upon the " Sorghum Sugar Industry," p. 50, in reference to the experiments of 1879 and '81, the results of which have been given in the preceding tables, reports as foUows : EXPERIMENTS IN SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. 535 Manufacture of Sugar from Sorghum. From the numerous resulis given in Dr. Collier's reports, it is obvious that the method of manufacture of syrup was such that nearly all of the sugar pres- ent in the juices of the sorghum or maize could be secured in the sjrup without inversion. This point is one of especial importance, practically, and, since the results differ so widely from those of other experimenters, they are entitled to careful consideration. A single experiment of Dr. Goessmann gave, from a juice containing 8.16 per cent sucrose and 391 per cent glucose, a syrup containing 37.48 per cent sucrose and 37.87 glucose, or as follows : Juice: Percent. Sucrose 69.33 Glucose 30 .67 Syrup: Sucrose 47.94 Glucose 52.06 From which it appears that, supposing there was no loss of glucose in the operation of making the syrup, 21.39 per cent of the sucrose was converted into glucose; or, in other words, 30.85 per cent of the sucrose in the juice was inverted. If such a result was to follow invariably, no one, we think, would hesitate to accept the following conclusion, drawn by Dr. Goesmann from the above experiment, viz.: In sight ot these facts, it will be quite generally conceded that the sugar production from syrup like the above must remain a mere incidental feature in the Amber-Cane industry in our section of the country. In 1879, the average of 24 experiments with the juices of several varieties of sorghum and maize, made at the Department of Agriculture (see Annual Re- port, 1879, p. 53), showed that the relative loss of sucrose in the syrup was only 5.35 per cent of that present in the juice, instead of being, as Dr. Goessmann found, 30.85 per cent. Butof far greater importance is the fact brought out in an average of 40 experi- ments, including all made, that there was an actual loss of only 12 5 per cent of the cane sugar; i. e., there was secured as sugar in the syrup 87.5 per cent of all the sugar present in the juice; thus showing that even the total loss by defecation, by skimming, and by inversion, was no more than that usual with sugar-cane juice, for it is estimated that only about 80 per cent of the cane su- gar present in the tropical juices is recovered in the sugar and molasses, a little over 20 per cent being lost in the manufacture. In lire's Dictionary, Appleton's edition, 1865, vol. II, p. 758, the writer upon sugar says as follows: The average quantity of grained sugar obtained from cane juice in our colonial planta- tions* is probably not more than one-third of the quantity of crystalline sugar. in the juice which they boil. Syrups and Sugar from the new Chinese Sorghums. Although the new varieties of sorghum from China were far inferior * British possessions. 536 SOEGHUM. as sugar producing plants to those received from India, Africa, or those grown in the United States, and those sending the seed confidently as- sured Minister Angell that there was no sugar to be obtained from these varieties, an experiment was made with the stalks of all of the six kinds, except No. 1 (which had been cut down), upon September 16th, with the following results : stalks, with tops and leaves' pounds Stripped stallcs obtained pounds Loss by topping and stripping per cent Juice expressed pounds Juice in stripped stalks per cent Juice lost ... . ^. pounds. Syrup made from 57 pounds juice pounds Syrup iu juice : . .percent. . 299 . ItiO .44 8S . 76 .47.50 19 9 15 79 Duplicate analyses of the above juice and syrup gave the following results : Number of analysis. Specific gravity. Per cent sucrose. Percent glucose. Per cent solids. Per cent polariza- tion. Per cent available sugar. Juice, 182. Juice, 183. . Syrup, 206, Syrup, 207. 1 0.57 1.057 1.038 1 038 8.48 8.45 5.72 1.48 1.49 .67 .69 3 41 3 09 2 92 2.48 S.54 8.52 3.59 3 87 2 13 2.38 In the above, 40 grams of syrup was diluted with 300 c. c. of water for the purpose of analysis. It will be seen that, in the 57 pounds of juice used, there was, in pounds : Sucrose 4,82 Glucose 84 Solids .'.'ilSS Available sugar 2.13 And iu the 9 pounds of syrup made : Sucrose 4.4Q' Glucose 51 Solids ! . ^ ^2^22 Available sugar 1,73. Or, there was recovered in the syrup of the amount present in the juice of: Percent. Sucrose 84 2 Glucose v.'. 60 8 Solids 119.8 Available sugar 81 3 There was nothing unusual in the character of this syrup. After a short time, it crystallized to a semi-solid mass. It would appear, therefore, that the sole difference between these CAUSES OF FAILUEE IN MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR. 537 Chinese sorghums and sorghums which have been examined heretofore is in the content of sugar and juice which these contain, and that there is no reason to doubt but that the better varieties could be substituted for them, care being taken to select only such varieties as would ma- ture in the northern part of China, where, as Minister Angell informs me, these sorghums are grown much as maize is in this country, and for the same purpose. It is interesting to observe that, in China, where for centuries the sorghums have been cultivated ; in Turkistan, where, as Mr. Kules- hoff, of the Agricultural Academy of Moscow, informs me, sorghum is one of the leading crops; and in Africa and India, where it is the leading cereal, the chief value of this interesting plant has so long re- mained unknown. THE CAUSES OP FAILURE IN THE MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR. The results of these investigations and experiments conducted dur- ing the seasons of 1879 and 1881, serve to account satisfactorily for not only the failures at Washington, but for most of the failures of those who have attempted the manufacture of sugar from sorghum during the past thirty years. As it is of vital importance that the causes of failure may be clearly understood, they will be briefly stated. The chief sources of failure are as follows : 1. The immaturity of the sorghum at the period when it is cut and worked. This may be due to late planting, as in our experience in 1881, or to the selection of a variety which requires more time for its complete maturity than the season in any given latitude may give. The importance, then, of* selecting only such varieties as will mature sufficiently long before frosts, to give a reasonable time for working the crop, can not be overestimated. The time required for the several varieties to reach a good condition for sugar from the time of planting the seed, has been found from the results of experiments in 1880 and 1881, to be as follows : 538 SOEGHUM. TIME TBOM PLANTING TO MATURITY, AND NUMBER OF DATS FOB WORKING. Varieties. Early Amber Early Golden White Liberian Do Black Top African White Mammoth Ocmseeana Eegular Sorgho Link's Hybrid Do Sugar-cane Goose Neck Bear Tail Iowa Red Top New Variety Early Orange Do Orange Cane Neeazana Wolf Tail Gray Top Liberian Mastodon Honduras . . ." Sugar-cane Hybrid, Wallis White Imphee Goose Neck White African West India Sugar-cane Sugar-cane New Variety Early Amber Honey Cane Average P.* d M 5.S IS > a 96 92 92 92 lOR 117 122 109 118 96 lOo 99 122 109 104 92 112 lir, 118 113 IDS 112 126 123 126 112 119 108 112 103 107 131 101 101 139 106 110 110 110 76 85 42 75 18 106 97 103 16 56 70 92 72 86 71 1>E 10 12 10.(12 10.41 10.61 11.08 9.82 10.60 10 76 9.7S 11.02 11.36 10 86 11 34 9,76 12 64 11 10.73 9.91 9.66 6 78 9.67 6.79 8.55 8 66 6 56 7.82 9.45 11-90 9 29 8 21 10 70 8.76 8.30 10 78 7 68 9.77 6D . 0.5 87 87 102 115 101 101 'l08 111 117 136 118 135 131 128 148 104 101 87 107 83 77 93 84 79 7 6.62 8.95 8 41 6 90 8 88 7.60 7 28 21 8.39 7 51 8.02 7.91 6 53 4 97 Average. CO o 90 92 98 102 112 112 110 98 105 10^ 117 109 104 92 115 116 113 125 113 124 129 126 137 112 119 108 112 103 107 LSI 101 101 136 7.72 110 69 9 00 8 32 9.68 10 61 11. OS 8 36 9 74 9.18 8. 53 9 95 11.36 10 03 9 58 9.76 12.64 11 63 9.47 9 91 9.56 7.59 8.59 7.41 8.23 7.60 5 77 7.82 9.45 11 90 9.29 8.21 10 70 8 76 8 .30 10.78 6 71 By reference to the experiments made with the small mill, and to the explanation of the failure in making sugar in the large mill, it will be seen that there was a difference of nearly 100 per cent between the per cent of available sugar in the juices of the suckered and un- suekered plats of sorghum operated upon. This difference was ob- viously due to the presence, along with the ripe cane, of a certain proportion of cane from suckers in different stages of immaturity, the juices from which, as we have seen, contained a minus amount of avail- able sugar, and therefore diminished the yield otherwise attainable from the mature canes. So also with the crop for the large mill, the successive plantings of seed produced a lot of cane of almost every CAUSES OP' FAILURE IN MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR. 539 degree of development, except that of complete ripeness; and the analyses of the juices and syrups showed a result which was antici- pated. It is of importance, for the purpose of sugar production, that the crop of cane be not only ripe, but that it should be carefully suck- ered ; or, if allowed to grow, these suckers should be carefully kept apart, in cutting the canes for the mill, and worked for syrup, for which alone they are suitable. It is possible that some varieties of sorghum may ba found in which this tendency to throw up suckers from the roots is not so strong, and, other things being equal, such varieties are much to be preferred for sugar production. It should be the aim, then, to secure a good stand of sorghum at the first planting, since the replanting of portions of the field would destroy the equality of the crop. Unless time should allow this second planting to mature, it would be far better to leave such portions of the field bare, unless this cane be reserved solely for syrup. 2. Another frequent cause of failure, is allowing the sorghum to remain some time after being cut before it is worked at the mill. That such a course may be pursued in certain seasons and localities without producing an unfavorable result, has been established beyond much doubt; but the climatic conditions which render such a pro- cedure possible are imperfectly understood at present. Repeated ex- periments have demonstrated that, after the cane is cut, the juice is subject to chemical changes which speedily result in destruction of the crystallizable sugar. For the present, then, the only safe course to pursue is to work up the cane within, at most, 24 hours after it is cut up. 3. A third cause of failure exists in an imperfect method of defeca- tion of the juice. The object of defecation, and the method by which it is accomplished, should be carefully studied and as thoroughly understood by the sugar-boiler as is possible. Although somewhat complex in its details, the general principles which underlie this im- portant step are few and easily comprehended. The juices of sorghum or of maize, like the juice of sugar-cane or of beets, contain, besides sugar, several other substances, the removal of which it is the object of defecation to accomplish. The more com- pletely removal of these other substances is efiected, the greater the percentage of the sugar present in the juice which may be obtained. Among these impurities of the juice are certain organic acids and organic salts, nitrogenous matters, and salts of mineral acids, together with glucose and the mechanical impurities, as fragments of cane. Th6 universal practice among sugar-makers from sugar-cane is to add to the juice an amount of lime, generally as milk of lime, sufficient 540 SOEGHUM. to neutralize the free acid found in the juice, and then to heat the juice to boiling. The effect of the lime is not only to neutralize the free organic acids, but to form with certain others of these impurities insoluble lime salts. The effect of the heat is to coagulate certain of the nitrogenous sub- stances present in the juice. Upon allowing the juice which has been brought to the boiling point to stand a few moments, there will be found a heavy scum upon the surface, consisting largely of the coagulated matters which have me- chanically entangled and brought to the surface the fragments of cane and other mechanical impurities of the juice. At the bottom of the defecator will be found a sediment, more or less abundant, composed largely of the lime salts formed, and which, generally being heavier than the juice, will soon settle to the bottom. If, however, the juice is very dense, it will occasionally happen that this sediment will remain suspended in the juice, neither rising to the surface nor settling to the bottom. In such event, it will be found necessary to draw the juice, after skimming, into a cooling tank, or allow it to remain in the defecator until these impurities shall settle ; or it may be hastened by adding to the juice, after skimming, enough cold water to dilute the juice, and diminish its density, so that the lime salts present may settle. By reference to the result of our experi- ments already given, it will be seen that this method may be pursued without loss of sugar. After the subsidence of these impurities, the juice may be drawn from this sediment, and it will be, if the operation has been properly conducted, quite clear and almost colorless. It is then to be evapo- rated to a syrup as speedily as possible, and such additional impurities as rise to the surface, especially during the earlier stage in the evapora- tion, are removed by skimming. The importance of removing all those impurities rendered insoluble by the action of the lime and heat combined, is manifest. If allowed to remain, it will be found that they are but imperfectly removed during evaporation, and remain to a great extent in the syrup, causing it to be muddy in appearance, impure in its composition, and disagree- able in quality. APPENDIX. 541 APPENDIX. The following statistics, as to the production of sugar, have been furnished by the Bureau of Statistics of the Treasury Department. ■Quantities of sugar and molasses produced in the state of Louisiana during the years from 1850 to 1883, inclusive. Year. Sugar. Molasses. 1849-50 Hogsheads. 247,923 211,203 236,547 321,9.34 449,324 346,635 231,427 73,976 279,697 362,296 221,840 228,7.53 459,410 ■a Pounds. 269,769,000 231,194,000 257,188,000 368,129,000 495,156,000 385,227,000 2,54,569,000 81,373,000 307,666,700 414,796,000 255,115,7.10 265,063,000 528,321,300 84,500,000 10,,SOO,000 19,900,000 42,900,000 41,400,000 95,051,225 99,452.940 168,878,592 146,906,135 125,346,490 103,241,119 134,.501,691 163.418,070 190,672,-570 147,101,941 239,478,753 198,962,278 272,982,899 159,874,950 303,006,258 Gfallons. 12,000,000 10,500,000 18,300,000 25,700,000 31,000,000 23,113,620 15 274 140 1852-'53 . . 1853-'54 1854-'55 1855-'56 1856-'57 . . 4,882,380 19 578 790 1857-'58 1858-'59 17,8,58,100 18,414,550 1860-'61 . . 1861-'62 1862 '63 1863 '64 76,801 10,387 18,070 41,000 37,364 84,256 87,090 144,881 128,461 108,520 89,498 116,867 144,146 169,331 127,753 213,221 169,972 218,314 122,982 241,220 a. 1864-'6o 186.V66 1866- '67 a a 1867 -'68 a. 186S-'69 5,636,920 5,724,2.56 10,281,419 10,01!),95S 1869-'70 1870-'71 . . 1871 '72 lS72-'73 1873-'74 8,203,944 11,510,828 10,870 546 1874-'75 .* 1875-'76 1876-77 12,024,108 14,237,280 13,21.S.404 12,1,89,190 15,2.55,029 9,691,104 1877-'7R . 1878-'79 1879 '80 . . 1880-'81 1881-'82 1882-'83 ■. . 15,716,755 a No data. Note.— The production of sugar and molasses in Louisiana is stated upon the au- thority of M. Champoiner for the period prior to 1861, and for the later years upon the .Authority of M. Louis Bouchereau and A. Eouchereau. 542 SOEGHDM. Quantities of .sugar and molasses prodvced in the United States during the years 1869 and 1879, according to the census. Sugar. Molasses. 1869. 1879.' 1869. 1879. Hogsheads. 92 952 644 80,706 49 49 35 1,055 1,410 2,020 Hogsheads. 94 Gallfyns. 166,009 72,008 344,339 553,192 4,585,150 152,164 Gallons. 795,169 Florida 1,273 601 171,706 18 1,029,868 1,565,784 Louisiana 11,696,248 636,625 Mi^qnuri 33,888 436,882 3,629 246,062 South Carolina. 229 188,944 Texas 4,951 810,605 Total 87,043 178,872 6,593,323 16,573,273 Production of Sugar. Table showing the annual production of beet sugar during the last five crop years from 1874-5 to 1878-9. [From "Journal de la Societe de Statlstique, Paris, 1880.J Country. Pounds. 953,709,960' 927,431,128 Austria-Hungary S94,.S47 140 473,989,0n0' 154,145,632 55 115 000' Netherlands 11,023,000 Total 1878-1879 3,470,260,860' Total 1877-1878 3,131,634,300 2,471,764,451 3,025 637 132' Total 1876 1877 Total 1875-1876 Toial 1874-1875 - 2,616,948,384 For certain countries the export is given as being more exactly known than the production. APPENDIX. 543 Europe. Spain Asia. French Cochin China (production) China (export) Japan " Siam '• Hindostan and British East Indies (export) . . .-. " " " (product consumed) Total Africa. Egypt (production) Mauritius (export) Mayotta, Nossi Bi (export) Natal Bourbon Islands (export) America. Antilles, or West Indies. Cuba (production ) . . Porto Rico (export).. Jamaica (export) . . . Hayti and Lucayos . Total. Gaudeloupe (export). Martinique " Trinidad " Barbadoes " Antigua " St. Christopher " St. Lucia " St. Vincent " Others " Lesser Antii-les. Total. Demerara Berbice (export) . Surinam (export) Cayenne " Guiana. Total Other Countries. Brazil (export) Louisiana " Peru " Mexico " Canada " California " Argentine Eepublic (export) . Total.. Grand Total America . 1,421,967,000 198,414,000 44,092,000 11,023,000 1,675,496,000 Pounds. 33,069,000 55,11,=-|,000 55.115,000 33,069,000 11,023,000 55,115,010 3,196,670,000 3,406,107,000 66,138,000 297,621,000 8.818,400 17,630,800 66,138,000 7,716,100 110,230,000 88,184,000 125,662,200 119,048,400 15,432,200 11,023,000 11,023,000 13,227,600 41,887,400 535,717,800 209,437,000 20,943,700 2,204,600 232,585,300 266,536,140 231,483,000 187,391,000 66,138,000 11,023,000 11,023,000 11,023,000 784,617,140 3,228,416,240 544 SOEGHUM. Pounds. OCEANICA. 475,091,300 Manilla " . .. 264,552,000 44,092,000 27,557,500 9,920,700 Xotal 821,21R,500 General total 1878-1879 7,952 874.040 f 1877 1878 7,605,870,000 7,475,798.600 Seasons i 1875-1876 .' '. [:""'.::::"..:. 7,.37'l, 3X7,000 1874 1875 7,605,870,000 Sugar Orop, 1880. The production of cane sugar throughout the world, for the crop year ending in 1880, will certainly exceed 4,000,000 tons, or 8,960,000,000 pounds of cane sugar produced, approximately, as follows, according to the most reliable statistics and reports : (From " Concise EesumS," by Henry A. Brown, 1880.) Countries. Tons. British India Cuba, Porto Rico Other Spanish Possessions Br. W. I., Deraerara, etc. . . China, Hong Kong, etc — Dutch Ind., Java, etc French W. I., Guiana Brazil, S. A., etc liOuisiana Mauritius Philippine Islands Egypt, etc Peru, S. A., etc Mexico Other Countries Total Cane Sugars . . . 1,550,000 700,000 50,000 250,000 250,000 220,000 175,000 130,000 125,000 125,000 120.000 75,000 55,000 .35,000 140,000 4,000,000 In addition to cane sugar, it is estimated that the production of ma- ple, palm, and sorghum sugars, in the crop year ending in 1880, will exceed 150,000 tons, and the amount of beet root sugar produced in Europe the present crop year is estimated at 1,670,000 tons, appor- tioned as follows : APPENDIX. 545 Countries. Tons. Germany France . 500,000 425,000 Austria .. 410 000 Russia, Poland . .... 225,000 110,000 Total beet 1,670.000 Total Known Production of Sugars — Crop for Year Ending in 1880. Tons. Cane sugar. .. . Beet, Europe Maple, etc Total sugar. 4,000,000 1,670,000 150,000 5,820,000 There are, however, good reasons for believing that the world's an- nual production of cane and similar sugars ' exceeds 6,000,000 (six millions) of tons, and that China, from whence sugar-cane first found its way to Europe, alone produces enough more sugar than she reports to more than justify such statement. Sugar Crop, 1881. [From the " Concise EesumS of Sugar Tariif Topics, in Defense of American Sugar In- dustries," etc., 1882. By H. A. Brown. J Genuine and authentic information from sugar producing countries, indicates that the annual cane sugar crop of the world exceeds 4,900,000 tons, and is produced, approximately, as follows : Countries. Tons. British India China, Hong Kong, etc Cuba and Spanish Possessions British West Indies, Demerara, etc Dutch India, Java, etc French West Indies, Guiana, etc ' Brazilian Empire Mauritius, Reunion, etc Manilla, Philippine Islands Louisiana, Texas, etc Egyptian Provinces Peru, South America Hawaiian Islands Mexico ; All other countries Total cane sugar tons 35 1.500,000 1,000,000 750,000 250,000 2iO,000 175,000 175,000 150,000 1S5,000 125,0(10 75,000 75,000 45,000 85,000 160,000 4,900,000 646 SOEGHUM. Added to the cane sugar crop of 1881 will be the beet sugar crop of Europe, about 1,700,000 tons, and minor crops of maple, palm, beet, and sorghum sugars, in this and other countries, estimated at 100,000 tons. Total known and estimated sugar crop of 1881 : Tons. Cane sugar Beet sugar, Europe . . Maple, sorghum, etc. Total sugar crop tons 4.900,000 1,700,000 100,000 6,700,000 Sorghum Sugar in New South Wales. In a letter recently received from Mr. A. Fairgrieve, President of the Colonial Sugar Refinery Company, Sydney, New South Wales, he gives the following data of experiments in sugar production, from two varieties of sorghum, which he calls the "Black" and the "Yellow.' He had not enough of the Yellow variety for experiments in sugar making, but obtained a yield of 6 to 9 tons of stalks to the acre, and of 1,200 to 1,800 pounds of seed to the acre. From 690 pounds of stalks, " cut just as the seeds were beginning to harden," he obtained 38^ gallons of juice, the mill giving, at the first pressure, 30 gallons, and the bagasse, being again passed through the mill, yielded 8i gallons additional. After defecation with lime, the juice had a density of 10° Beaumfe, at 80° F., and only 31 gallons of defecated juice were worked for syrup and sugar. From the 31 gallons of juice, 41 pounds of masse cuite were ob- tained, which gave, of first sugars, 12 J pounds, and, of second sugars, 5J pounds, leaving 23 pounds of molasses. It will be seen that the mill gave only 48 per cent of the weight of the stalks in juice, but the syrup yielded 44 per cent of sugar and 56 per cent of molasses. The products, then, from each ton of cane, was 52.2 pounds of sugar. 5.33 gallons of molasses. 5.36 bushels of seed. But, as the mill gave only 48 per cent of juice, while 60 should be given by a suitable mill, and since only 80 per cent of the juice ex- tracted was used in making syrup, the above results, with a good mill, APPENDIX. 547 and without such unnecessary loss of juice, would have been, for each ton of cane worked, a product of 81.6 pounds of sugar. 8.33 gallons of molasses. 5.36 bushels of seed. The above results are very interesting, as evidence that, even in far distant lands, the sorghum maintains its character as a sugar producing plant. That the product of sugar would have been much increased, by allowing still greater: maturity of the crop to be attained, can hardly be doubted, in view of the numerous results recorded. The following analyses of the two varieties of sorghum, of the ash, as also of the sugars, molasses, and the ash of the molasses, are fur- nished by Mr. Fairgrieve, and are of interest in connection with the above results : Analyses of Six Samples of Sorghum (^Dried, 212° F.) Black Sorghum. • White Sorghum. Top. Middle. Bottom. Top. Middle. Bottom. ,■30.92 5 06 » 8.67 43 95 6 73 3.26 1.41 31 60 5.22 8.56 44.96 5 02 3 19 1.45 31.70 5.19 8 58 44 10 • 5 89 3 14 1.40 25 31 10 46 1 59 53.42 3 0.) 4.10 2 07 33.89 10 70 2 29 44.33 4 30 3 49 1.00 29.48 Fruit, sugar Dextrine and staroli Woody fiber Otlier organic matters Soluble asii Silica 10 68 2 89 46 39 5 69 3 59 1.28 J.00.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100 00 100 00 The ash consisted- of : Potassium Sodium Oxygen (comb'd P. & S.). Lime Magnesia Iron and Al. phosphates. . Pho.'phoric acid Sulphuric acid .. Chlorine (comb'd P. & S.) Silica 1.14 1.20 1.17 1.60 1.25 .22 .21 .20 .38 .34 .07 .08 .08 .12 .09 .28 .26 .26 .34 .28 .23 .21 .22 .29 .22 .15 .12 .14 .18 .13 .31 .29 .29 .39 .32 .18 .17 .15 .18 .17 .68 .65 .63 .62 .69 1.41 1.45 1.40 2.07 1 00 4.67 4.64 4.54 6.17 4.49 1.24 .37 .09 .29 .24 .13 .38 .17 .68 1 28 4.87 548 SOEGHUM. Analyses of Sugar and Molasses Obtained from. Black Sorghum. Cane sugar Fruit sugar Dextrine and starch... Other organic matters Soluble ash Sand Water No. 1 sugar. 87.00 2.33 2.47 2.08 2.11 .11 3.90 100 00 No. 2 sugar. 84 20 3.34 3.69 2.95 100.00 Molasses. 44 40 12 07 .66 10 64 9.23 .00 22.50 100.00 Analysis of Ash of Molasses. Per cent. Potassium 3.16 Sodium 93 Oxygen ccomh'd P. & 8.) 65 Lime 95 Magnesia 91 Iron peroxide C6 Alumina 06 Copper oxide* 02 Phosphoric acid 87 Sulphuric acid 28 Chlorine (comh'd P. & S.) 1 27 Silica 07 9.23 Amal)ele. In a recent letter from Leonard Wray, who first introduced the sor- ghums from Africa into the United States, he writes : "The Zulu name, ' Imphee,' is the sugar producing sorghum ; whereas ' Balee' or ' Ma-bcu- lee' is the name for ' Dhura' or Kaffir corn (Sorghum vulgare)." He also says ' En-ya-ma' means food, the grain of which makes such good flour ; and he advises that the sorghum should be sown in triple rows, four feet from center to center, the triple rows being 8 inches apart, and the stalks 7 inches apart in each row, equal to 55,640 canes to the acre. Sorghum Sugar produced in 1883. According to the statement of the President of the Mississippi Valley Cane Growers' Association, there was produced at the Champaign, 111., Sorghum Sugar Works, from 145 acres, 1,435 tons of cane; and from 2,400 tons of cane, there was obtained 160,000 pounds of sugar and 40,000 gallons of molasses. The season is described as being the most unfavorable for thirty years. At Hutchinson, Kansas, some 200,000 pounds of sugar, besides a large quantity of molasses. *Probably from vacuum pan or battery. APPENDIX. 549 At Sterling, Kansas, some 200,000 pounds of sugar, besides the At Dundee, Kansas, 10,000 pounds of sugar, though their product was mainly syrup, of which 50,000 gallons were made. At Kinsley, Kansas, 10,000 pounds of sugar, and a large quantity of syrup. At Lawrence, Kansas, some 10,000 pounds of sugar. At Rio Grande, N. J., 282,711 pounds of sugar, and 55,000 gallons of molasses. A large portion of their cane failing to ripen, owing to the unusual season. The Secretary of the Kansas State Board of Agriculture reports the following summary of the year 1883 for Kansas : Acres planted in sorghum 102,042 Acres manufactured into syrup 48,271 Acres planted for forage 53,771 Tons of cane manufactured 447,859 Gallonsof syrup made 4,684,023 Value of syrup made $2,058,127.60 The entire number of counties reporting was 81, and of these. 32 grew from 50 to 500 acres 20 500 " 1000 " 10 1000 " 2000 " 10 2000 " 3000 " 5 3000 " 4000 " 4 4000 " 8000 " 10 counties produced over 100,000 gallons of syrup each, and 2 counties produced over 1100,000 worth of syrup each, while 17 coun- ties produced each over $30,000 worth of syrup. The value of syrup averaged from each acre $42.65, without count- ing the product of seed. The yield averaged 9.3 tons of cane per acre. IN^DEX. Abadie, introduction of sorghum 64 Aha-el-Wiikf, sugtirmill 280 Abyssinia, sorghum from 64 in. 50 Academy of Science on Dr. Collier's pro- cess of sngnr making 535 on method of analysis 469 on need of investigation 10 Acetate of lead, basic, now prepared . . 503 Achiird, investigation of sugar beet lo Acidityof juice during evaporation 317 liow estimated 3^3 produced in evaporation 299 sorghum and maize 253, 436 Acids, action of, on sugar solutions 23 in sorghum juice 252 Acid, sulphurous, in defecation..' 305 preparation of 305 Acouiiic acid in sorehum juice 340 Acreage product of sorghum sugar 419 yiela of sorghum seed 412 yield of sugar in different countries. 27 Acre, number of st-ilks to the Ill Acts to promote cultivation of sorghum. 17 Adams, Mrs. Abigail, "on syrup from maize 4'2S African. Indian, Chinese, and American sorghums compared 205 African, white, plare of 96 African sorghum, analysis of 250 available sugar in 126,538 African sorghums, average composition of 101 comparative value of 214 described 100 meaning of names 80 plates of 87, 88, 89, 90, 91 two classes of 78 Africa, production of cane sugar in 543 sorgrium in 50 varieties of sorghum from 76 Agrostographia Capensis, description of sorghum . 59 Alabama, production of sorghum in. 416, 408 production of sugar 1879 .... 27 production of sugar and molasses., 542 value per aore of crops in 421 yield of different crops in 453 Albumen in sorghum juice 252 Alcohol from sorghum 240 Algeria, cultivation of sorghum in 65 Alfen, G. -W., report on sorghum 414 Almony and Maxon, report on sorghum crop 412 Alum, basic, in defecation 303 ferric, solution of, how made 503 porous, in defecation 303 Alumina in defecation 302 Amabele, letti^r from Leonard Wray on 548 varieties of sorghum, plates of — 87, 88 or sorghum 78 plates of seed heads 87,88 Amber, Minnesota Early, history of 65 described 100 plate of 92 time for maturity 117 analyses of , 246, 239 America, production of cane sugar in. 543 American Agriculturist, distribution of sorghum 04 American and foreign sorghums com- pared 205 sorghums, plates of 92-97 varieties of sorghum, composition of 101 Ammonia salts, effects of on sorghum.. 163 Analy.ses by stages of development. . . .193 deficient in valuable data 238 erroneous conclusion from 2;S8 mechanical, of soils 179 ash of sorghum 547 ash of sorghum molasses 548 bagasses from sugar-cane 278, 386 beet and cane molasses 369 corn fodder 393 corn stalk juices 431 different varieties of sorghum 104 diffusion juices from bagasse 388 dried bagasses. 383 ensilage 393 fresh and dry juices 223 inverted juices 48pe, producrion of cane sugar in 543 sorghum in. ,. 50 Evaporation, action of lime during 298 and freezing compared 361 by hot water 354 by sieam and open pan 338 by triple effect 3n6 capacity of open pans 388 from surfaces 339 how increased 338 in open pan, when finished 354 in vacuum, .description of 349 phenomena attending. 299 power of bagasse as fuel 397 methods of 327 of juice 325 •^Evaporators, open steam, plates of 345 steam, p]ate of 346 test of their rapidity of work 338 Evergreen Broom corn, analysis of juice 206 Exhaustion of central grain belt of XJ. S.459 of east and west compared 461 of soil 451 of soil by growing sorghum 447 of soils, how prevented 464 not caused by sugar growing 394 Expansion of steam in vacuum 343 Expense of growing and working sor- ghum 415 Experiments at Washington, result of. .520 Experiments in defecation 296, 316, 324 diffusion 284 saving sugar of bagasse 387 sugar making at \\ashington.513, 522, 529,534 on sorghum desired 64 Exponent as indicating available sugar.216 of juice of different sorghums 214 of maize juices, average 501 of sorghum juices, average 499 Export of domestic molasses from U. S. since 1790 34 of domestic sugar from U. S. since 1790 31 of molasses from U. S. since 1790 34 of sugar from U. S. since 1790 30 Factories, central system 425 Factory, plate of cheap home 505 Failurp, cause of at Washington 514 in sugar making, causes of 537 of experiments explained 520 of sorghum crop at Washington 514 to make sugar by Or. Goessmann...535 Fairgrieve. A , on sorghum in New South Wales 546 False grain, danger from 364 explanation of 355 how removed 964 Fahrenheit and centigrade, degrees com- pared ... 334 Farm products, average acreage value of 420 Feeding experiments with sorghum seed 20, Feeding, value of sorghum leaves 391 Fehling's solution, how prepared 503 Fermentation arrested by defecation... 300 arrested by sulphurous acid 307 how prevented 284 of sorghum juice, products of 252 of sugars, products of 23 Ferric alum solution, liow made 503 Fertility of soil maintained by sugar production 449 Fertilization of soil for sorghum 447 Fertilizers, amount consumed in Great Britain 465 as affecting glucose in sorghum 168 as affecting solids in juices 170 as affecting sugar in sorghums 166 average value of 411 effect of on ash of sorghum 172 effect of on sorghum 162, 184 effect of upon sugar in sorghum . .172 for sorghum in Japan 419 frauds in.. 467 improvements in 461 on sorghum, experiments by Dr. G. H. Cook 173 on sorghum, Prof. Swenson on 175 value of, how fixed 462 Fiber in bagasse, per cent of 278 Field crops of sorghum, analysis of. . . .247 Field, J. A., statistics of sorghum 1882.. 411 Figi, yield of sugar per acre 27 Film orsurface evaporator.s 339 Finings, Howard's, in defecation 302 Filtering of juice, how effected 289 Filters, bag, construction of 289 bone coal, construction and use 374 for juice, construction of 289 Filtration by bone-black 372 Florida, production of sugar 1879 27 production of sugar and molasses.. .542 sorghum production of 416 value per acre of crops in 421 yield of different crops in 453 Flour from sorghum seed 379 Fodder corn, money value of as food. . .394 from sorghum, value of 405 Folger, Mr., on skimmings for feed- ing 402 Food constituents of bagasse 392 , for man, plants used as . ..50 value of bagasse - \ 392 ensilage ... 393 scum and sediments 401 sorghum leave.s 392 Forage, value of sorghum for 406 Fragus, Jerome, on sorghnm 55 France, analysis of sotghum grown in 240 cultivfition of sorghum in 65 production of beet sugar 28 sorghum in .' 51 sugar consum.ed ih 26 sugar product of 542, 545 Frauds in fertilizers 467 Frazier, William, method of working. 510 report on sorghum 414 Free&ing. concentration of juice by . 361 French Institute on beet sugar investi- gations 13 Frost, effect of on mature and immature sorghum 157 on sorghum 154 , upon sugar-cane 161 Frosts, occurence of at Washington, D. C, 1880-1-2 147 time of in 1881 and 1882 158 Fruit sr.gar 22 Fuchius on sorghum •. 54 Fuel, how bagasse is used as 397 value of bagasse for. 396 Furnace for burning bagasse, plate 400 INDEX. 557 Further investigation of sorghum de- manded. 9,14 Future prospects of sorghum industry 19 Gelatinous silica in defecation 303 Genera Plautnrum of Bentham, on sor- Pfhum 60 Georgia, production of sorghum in 416, 408 production of sugar 1879 27 production of sugar and molasses. . 542 value per acre of crops in 421 yield of different crops in 453 Gerarde on sorghum 55 German centrifugal, plate 366 Germany, production of beet sugar — 28 sugar consumed in 26 sugar product of 542,545 Gesner, Conrad, on sorghum 55 Gill, F. N.,- analyses top, middle, and butt of sugar-canes 236 Glucose, amount destroyed in manufac- ture 532 and sucrose, development of 185 analysis of explained 473 average of at different stages 194 average in sorghums 1879. '80, '81. .. ]9S average in 35 varieties of sorghum.. 197 averat?e per cent in juice 1880 and 1881 150 composition of 22 crystallization of 24 decrease of graphically shown ...187 decrease ot in sorghums 243 effect of lime upon 297 effect of on crystallization 326 how determined 472 in corn stalk juices 435 in juice as affected by frost 159 decrease of in plants 490 in maize juices, average 501 in juices of different densities 497 in sorghum, effect of fertilizers on.. 168 juices 104 at different stages 210 average.. 499 average results 1879 492 in juices of different densities 49:> loss of, during manufacture. . . .299, 322 of juice obtained in syrup 532 per cent in juice of crop 134 per cent nf in different sorghums. . .214 per cent of, in leaf juice 143 sorghum seed for 380 Olycerine in fermentation of sorghum ,252 Goessmann, Dr. C. A., analysis sugar beets 185 and (Jollier's results compared. . 130 as to time for harvesting 122 experiments in sugar making 129 failure in sugar making 535 on sorghum 186 time for working sorghum 7 sugar in sorghum 4,3 'Gold and silver, production of, in 1881.. 41 Golden Imphee sorghum, analysis of. . .2^2 Golden, sorghum grown by, for Depart- m.entof Agriculture 514 Golden Syrup sorghum, comparative value of J 214 described ...100 Goose Neck sorghum, analysis of. ..243, 250 available sugar in 126,538 comparative value of 214 described 100 Gordon Memorial Mission, sorghum from 76 Gould, J. Stanton, on need of investiga- tion 10 time to work sorghum 6, 123 Government, relations of, to sorghum. . 16 Grain, appearance of, in vacuum pan . . .355 Grain and sugar from corn crop 442 Grain, false, how produced 355 product, area and value of crop — 423 Granulation of sugar, how promoted — 362 not by open pan 354 Granulator, Hersey, plate of 352 Graphical chart of sorghum analyses, 1879 201 showing analysis of sorghums 201 results of analysis of sorghura, 1879.187 Grass compared with sorghum leaves. , .391 sugar, or shaloo.. .51 Gray Top sorghurh, analysis of. . . 243, 250 available sugar in 126,538 comparative value of 214 described 68,99 Great Bend, Kansas, analyses soils 179 Great Britain, consumption of fertilizers in 465 sugar eonsiimed in 26 Greece, sugar consumed in 26 Griesbach, Flora of West Indies, on sor- ghum , . 60 Guadeloupe and Martinique, sugar pro- duction of 26 export of sugar from 543 Guano Peruvian, effect of on sorghum. .183 Guiana, export of sugar from 543 French, sugar product of 545 Guinea '~;orn 61 sorghum 51 Gulf States, value of sorghum to U Gum in sorghum juice, not present 19 in syrups a product of manufacture. 19 product of fermentation 2S2 Gussub, from sorghum. ... 51 Gypsum, effect of, on sorghum 163 use of, in defecation 301 Halapense andropogon 51 Halapensis Hlumenbachia, or sorghum 60 Hammond, J. H., time for harvesting sorghum 5 Hand centrifugal, plate 365 Hanging centrifugal, plate 367 Hanson, W., report on sorghum crop .. 412 Harvesting, diversity of opinion as to time for 122 loss in, by leaving butt 237 time for 122 when and how to work 123 Harvey, William Henry, on sorghum... . 57 Havana sugar, clayed 363 Hay, acreage yield of, in different states 452 an exhausting crop 464 average acreage value of 420 compared with sorghum leaves 391 product, acreage and value of in U. S.. . 422 Heads of sorghum, plates of 83 Heat and light, effect of on sorghum . . .111 effect on juice 291 Hedges, I. A., storing sorghum aftercut- ting 8 Height and weight of sorghums 74 maximum, time to reach 120 of sorghums 105 from different countries 103 varieties of maize 431 Henry and Swenson on loss of sugar after cane is cut 127 sorghura analysis by 241 cost of sorghum sugar 417 on product of sugar 419 on skimmings for feeding 402 on sorghum product of Wisconsin. .409 on sorghum seed 380 report on production of sorghum... . 412 Hersey granulator, plate of 352 Herman, sorghum 57 558 INDEX. Hervey, Mr,, of France, sugar in sor- ghum : 3 Hill culture of sorghum ' .113 planting 11] Hindostan, sugar producegl and export- ed 543 Hinman, R. S., on corn Ptalk molasses. .428 History of beet sugar industry 12 .sorghum 50,52 Hlogonde sorghum, plate of 91 Hoeing sorghum, cost of 415 Holcus bicolor, or sorghum 59 Caffer or Caffrorum . .- 59 ' so rgh um 51 Holland, sugar consumed in 2fi sugar production of 26 Honduras sorghum, analysis of. .232, 234, 243,250 available sugar in . 126, 538 comparative value of 214 described 68,100 loss of sugar in bagasse , 275 plate of Frontispiece. time for maturity 116 working period for 1S6 Honey 22 Honey Cnne sorghum, available sugar in 126,538 comparative value of. 214 described. 100 Honey Top sorghum, comparative value of 214 described . . '. lOO Honey sorghum, analysis of 243, 250 described . 68 Honolulu, sugar production of 26 Jlorizontal mill, plate of 264 Howard's finings in defecation 302 Hungary, sorghum in 50 Hutchinson, Kansas, soil analysis 179 sugar mode in 1883 5-18 Hwang-mi, or sorghum seed 52 Hybridization of sorghum 69 important :.. IS Hybrid, Link's, described 100 Moore's, described 100 Wallis', described lUO Hydrate of alumina in defecation 302 Hydrometer, a test of composition of juice 489 good juice 501 Hydrometers described 484 diflferent one.«! compared 486 Idaho, sorghum production of 416 Identification of varieties of sorghum.. 98 Illinois Amber sorghum, analysis of 243 111. Ind. Univ. report on sorghum 414 sorghum experiments 127 Illinois, analysis of sorghums iu . . . 216 production of sorghum.in 408, 416 sorghum products, 1879, '80 4U value of farm products per acre in A.il yield of different crops in 543 Immature sorghum best for sugar. . . .7 worthless for sugar 2J7. 516 Immaturity of crop at Washington, cause -. 514 cause of failure 5-37 Imphee 51 Imphees, average composition of 101 different varieties described 66 introduction of to 0. S 64 letter ou, from Leonard Wray 548 names of 66 plates of seed heads . . 89, 90, 91 sorghums, letter of Miss Colenso. . . 80 sor^^hums, names of 76 varieties of sorghum, plates of .89, 90, 91 Importations of sugar into U. S 26 Imports of molasses in U. S. since 1790.. 34 Imports of sugar in U. S. since 1790 30 Impurities of juice, nature of and re- moval 288 Increase of sugar not due to drying 218 India, East, sorghums, analyses of 243 sugar cane, Analyses of 208 Indiana, analyses of sorghums in 249 production of sorghum in 408, 416 value of farm products per acre in. 421 yield of different crops in 453 Indian and other varieties of sorghum compared 205 Indian corn and sorghum, cultivation the same 19 and sorghum seed compared 377 land in U. H. devoted to 19 product, acreage, and value in U. S..422 sugar in the stalks of 427 varieties tested for sugar. . . : 429 Indian millet 51 sorghums, average composition of . .101 sorghums, plates of 83, M India, sorghum from 55 sorghum in ... .^ 50 varieties of sorghum from 76 yield of sugar per acre 27 Indies, East, sugar produced and ex- ported. 543 sugar product of 543 Indies, West, production of sugar in 543 Internal revenue receipts for 1881 42 Introduction of sorghum 53 of sorghum by M. L'Abadie 64 of sorghum in 1,1. S 64 Inversion of sugar after defecation 300 by not working cane soon 126 in cut sorghum 131, 488, 533 products of 23 Inverted sugar, amount in manufacture.532 defined 23 effect of on crystallization 326 Insubrnm sorghuin 55 Investigation of sorghum demanded. 9, 14, 64, 123 errors in. . . . 15 importance to country.. 11 Iowa, average value of crops in 419 productioii of sorghum in 408, 416 tied Top sorghum, available sugar in 126 sorghum described 98 sorghnm products, 1858 to 1875 411 value of fai'in products per acre in. .421 yield of different crops in 453 Isnard and Barruel, investigation of beet sugar 13 Italy, sorghum in 50,54 sugar consumed in 26 Jackson, Dr. C. T., sui^ar in sorghum 3 time for workiiii^ sorghum 5 Jacobs Brothers on time for cutting sor- ghum... : 123 storing of sorghum after cutting 9 time for working sorghum 7 Jamaica, export of sugar from 543 Train, construction of 327 how operated 354 improvements upon 328 sugar cane soil, analysis of 182 yield of sugar per acre 27 Japanese cane, sinnlysis of 208 Japan, sorghum sugar produced in 418 sugar exported from 543 Java, export of sugar from 544 sugar production of 26 yield of supar per acre 27 Jefferson, O., sugar work-s, method of working 509 report : 414 Joar^ sorghum '. 51 INDEX. 559 Johnson, C. J., methods of sugar mak- ing 511 Johnson, C. Conrad, on sorghum sugar industry 423 Johnson, Thos., report on sorghum 4i4 Jovari, sorghum 51 Jowaree, sorj^hum 51 Juba, on sorghum 54 Judd, Orange, introduction of sorghum. 64 Juice, absorf)t1on of by bagasse 260 acidity of during evaporation 317 action of lime upon 291 after defeciition, appearance of 3i6 average expressed in 1879, SO, 81 . . . ,199 amount evaporated per hour in open pan 338 amount expressed by mills . . . 104, 260 amount per acre from sorghums . .214 as abundant in late as early siages. .220 average in 3-) varieties of sorghum. .197 average per cent obtained by mill. . ,489 average per cent secured in 1880 and 1881 150 composition of in defecation experi- ments 311 composition of shown by density . . .489 composition shown by hydrometer. .501 defecated, appearance of 295 effect of heat on 291 effect of standing after defecation. 300 evaporation of 325 extraction of, methods 257 from maize, average per cent of. , .501 from sorghum, average per cent of .499 mechanical impurities and their re- moval 288 method of analysis described 471 loss of, causes fur 260 mills for expressing 259 of leaves and stallcs, analyses of 142 of maize, sugar present in.. 197 of sorghum at different stages 194 composition graphically shown 201 method of analysis 469 proximate analysis 2"i2 percentage obtained 175, 210, 248 how determined. 472 obtained from different sorghums. . 214 obtained of crop 134 of, as affected by frost 159 of in corn stalks.,.'. 437 of syrup yielded 322 purification by filters 289 settling tanks for 291 specific gravity of when workable.. .213 various methods of extraction 280 when evaporation is finished 354 when suitable for sugar making 491 Juices, analyses of fresh and dry.. 22:1 duplicate analyses of 478 from bagasse by diffusion, density of.3S8 from corn stalks, analyses of ... 4S5 from sorghums, specific gravity of, .134 inverted analyses of 488 of maize, relative purity of.. . 443 of maize, specific giavity and analy- sis 497 of sorghum, analyses of 238, 381 and maize, acidity of. 253 and maize compared 443 average analysis of 197, 500 average of 4032 204 in 1882, average results 205 average composition of 309, 310 specific gravity and analysis 493 worked at Washington, analyses of. 517 Jyangentombi, plate or 89 Kattir corn 51 Kainite, effect of on sorghum., 163 Kansas, analyses of sorghum soils ... 179 Kansas Orange sorghum, analysis of . . .243 production of sorghum in 408, 416 sorghum products, 1872 to 1880 411 sorghum sugar made in 1883 548 value of farm products per acre in .421 yield of different crops m 453 Kelt, William, sorghum seed from 76 Kenney, S. H., on fattening value of skimmings 403 Kentucky, production of sorghum in, 416, 408 value of farm products per acre in . .421 yield of different crops in 453 Kilns for bone charcoal 372 Kinsley, Kan., sugar works, sugar made in 1883 549 Kloeden, Prof. Gustave Adolph, history of sorghum 51 Koom-ba-na, description of 68 variety of sorghum 51 Kuleshoff, Mr., on sorghum in Turkes- ' tan 537 Kuntz on sorghum 57 Lactic acid, how produced 24 Lactic fermentation of sorghum juice. .252 Lactose, crvstalllzation of 25 or milk sugar 24 La Grange on available sugar 216 Laevo-glucose defined 22 Laevulose 22 Large mill experiments at Washington. 516 Lawrence. Kan., sorghum sugar made in 1883 549 Lead, basic acetate, solution of how made 503 Leaves and stalks of maize, weights of ,443 and tops, per cent of in cane 142 juice of, analysis of 142 of sorghum, analys'is of 390,392 and corn, analysis of 406 ash in crop of 395 compared with hay 391 far cattle 51 percentage of in crop 392 money value of as food 394 per cent of in stalks 143 per cent of juice from 143 Legislation to promote cultivation of sorghum , . 17 Length and weight of varieties of sor- ghum 74 Length of time for working sorghum , .214 Lesser Antilles, production of sugar in. .543 I-,evel culture of sorghum,. 113 Liang sorghum, or millet 53 Liberlwu sorghum, plate of 94 analysis of 231,234,243,246 available sugar in 126, 538 comparative value of — 214 described 98 time for maturity 117 White, described 101 working period for 186 Life of seed, how tested 117 Light and heat, effect of on sorghum — 111 Lime, action of o'l glucose 297 action of on sugar solutions. . 24 amount added in defecation experi- ' ments 316 amount of in crop of sorghum . 39^1 and magnesia in soils, relation of . is2 and sulphite of lime in defecation. 308 chemical effects of "on juice 293 cream of, how prepared 292 defecation by, how done 293 effect of during evaporation 298 effect of on juice 291 excess of. action on sugar 300 milk of, how prepared 292 sucrate, composition of 370 560 INDEX. Lime sucrate method of defecation 304 sulphate, effect of on sorghum 163 sulphite, compopitlon of 308 sulphite in defecation 308, 305 superphosphate in defecation 302 water, use of in vacuum pan 356 Lindley, fTenry, on stripping cane. . . 141 value of skimmings for food 403 Link, Ephraim, letter from about hy- brid ". 71 Link's Hybrid sorghum, analysis of. . 243 analysis of "...190,247,250 Link's Hybrid, available sugar in . .126, 538 comparative value of 214 sorghum described 99 plate of 93 sport of Oom seeana 69 Linnseus on sorghum 56 Listing, when important 114 Litmus paper, properties and use 292 Lobel on sorghum. .. .. 55 Lonicer on sorghum 55 Loss by diminished yield of crops in United States 458 in not working cane promptly 126 of glucose in manufacture 534 juice, causes of 260 sucrose in manufacture 534 sugar, actual, in manufacture 322 sugar by methods of manufacture... 17 sugar by poor harvesting 237 sugar by suckers.. 133 sugar in bagasse 174, 274, 277,383,406 sugar in drying sorghum 396 sugar in manufacture 258 sugar in stalks of maize 442 sugar necessary in manufacture 309 sugar present in su^ar-cane 535 Loss, total, by diminished crops of United States 459 Louisiana and Texas, value of sorghum to 11 Louisiana cane, analysis of juice of 207 export of sugar from 543 production of sorghum in ... .416, 408 production of sugar in 1879 .27 production of sugar and molasses . .541 sugar-cane, per cent of sugar in... .185 sugar, product of. 26, 27 value per acre of crops in. 421 yield of different crops in 453 yield of sugar per acre 27 Lynch, Peter, on cause of failure at Washington 515 Mabali, or sorghum 51, 78 Maceration, expense of 282 of cane 281 Madagascar, sugar export of 543 Madras sugar-cane, analyses of 208 Magnesia, amount of in crop of sor- ghum 396 and lime in soils, relation of 182 Maine, value of farm, products per acre in ■ 421 yield of different crops in 452 Maize, analyses of leaves of 406 and sorghum, cultivation of, the same 19 and sorghum juices compared. . . . 443 and sorghum, same conditions re- quired 19 and sorghum seed compared 377 and sorghum seed, same composi- tion 20 average acreage yield of in United States 457 average analyses of juices from . 197 average yi«ld of in different states.. .452 fodder, analyses of .S93 crop of sugar and grain from . . . . 442 Maize for sugar, fuither investigation needed 444 height and weigh t of stalks 431 juices, acidity of 436^ analyses of by suiges 435^ average analysis of 431 rich in sugar 197" specific gravity and analyses 497 sugar present in ... . 197 land in United States devoted to . . - 19 stages of development of 430- stalks and bagasse, analyses of 406 butts and tops compared 235 comparative value for sugar 439 loss of sugar in 442 stripped stalks, yield per acre 439 sugar 22 history of 427 made at Washington 521 made from stalks of 441 total value of crop in United States. .458 value of in fattening 450 varieties tested for sugar 429 Malate of lime from matile sap 341 Maltby, Nelson, method of manufac- ture 507 on sugar from sorghum 419 report on sorghum 414 sugar from corn stalks 441 Mammoth, White, plate of 97' Man ilia, export of sugar from 544 sugar production of 26 Mannite in fermentation of sorghum 252 ^[anufactule of sorghum, cost of 415- sugar 245 sugar, cost of 21 syrup, cost of 20- sugar, comparison of methods 511 from sorghum and beets compared. .424 from sorghum, cost of 417 methods employed....' 506 period for 538- syrup at Washington, method 521 various methods 504 Manna 56 Manure, effect of, on sorghum 175, 176 from stables, value of 464 Maple molasses, product in U. S. since 1790 38- Maple sugar 22 annual production of 545 annual production since 1861 27 pan scale 341 production of 25- Margraff, investigations of beet sugar. 12 Marketing of sorghum syrup and sugar.. 424 Marking the land for planting 112 Marsohall on available sugar 216- Mnrshilla, or sorghum 51 Martinique and Guadeloupe, sugar pro- duction of 2(5' export of sugar from 543- Maryland, production of sorghum in 408, 416 value of farm products per acre in , ,421 yield of different crops in 452 Massachusetts, act to promote cultiva- tion of sorghum 17 Agric. Coll., experiments in sugar making . ..; 129 early efforts in sugar making in 428 sorghum, analysis of 244 sorghum production of 416 value of farm products per acre in. .421 yield of different crops in 452 Masse cuite, analysis of 285- Mastodon sorghum, available sugar in, 126, 538 comparative value of. 214 described 68, 100 EffDEX. 561 Matthioli on sorghum 55 Mature sorghum affected by frost 157 Maturity as dependent on seed 115 days required for, by sorghum 214 of crop, shown by hydrometer 501 of sotghum, time required for 538 time from planting to 114. time of shortened by removing seed. 140 time required for 247 time to reach 105,120 Mauritius, sugar exported from 543 sugar production of 26 sugar product of 545 yield of sugar per acre 27 Mayberry, Dr., on oagassc as fuel 399 on food value of scum, etc 402 Mayotta Nossi B§, sugar export of 543 Maximum content of sugar in crop 122 Maxon and Almony, report on sorghum crop 412 McColloli's comparison of processes of sugar making 511 Mechanical condition of soils 180 impurities of juice, how removed. . .288 means of defecation 301 Merrill, N. C, on sorghum as forage plant 407 Meteorological data of sorghum experi- • ments 147 Meteorology of 1880 and 1881, compared. .148 Method and object of experiments at Washington 521 Method of analyses of sorghum juice — 469 Method of sugar manufacture detailed. .506 Mexico, export of sugar from 543 sugar production of 26 sugar product of 545 Michigan, maple sugar produced In — 28 production of sorghum in 408, 416 value of farm products per acre in. .421 yield of different crops in 463 Middle, top, and butt of cane compared. 218 Milk of lime, how made 292 Milk sugar, or lactose 24 Miller on southern grown seed 115 Miller's sorghum, analysis of 243. 250 Millet and sorghum confounded 53 Millet, Moorish 61 pearl, sugar from juice of 445 Saracen 50 spiked 61 Mill and diffusion juices, analysis of — 285 horizontal, plate of 264 Importance of a good 272 importance of a good 279 large, experiments at Washington. . .516 of Khedive of Egypt 280 which to select 261 with power below, plate 263 Mills amount of juice expressed by 260 auxiliary 280 cost, and sizes of 262 for cane, need of improvement 258 for expressing juice 259 for testing cane, plates of 272 plates of 262 principle of 269 roller, described .261 vertical, plate 262 Mineral matter of corn crop, value of 450 effect of, on crystallization 326 In crop of sorghum 395 in crops of the U. S 462 in hay, value of 464 in sorghum juice and stalk 255 of scum and sediment, analysis of. .401 action of, in syrups 216 Minnesota Early Amber, available sugar In 126 described 100 Minnesota Early Amber, history of 65 plate of 92 production of sorghum in 408, 416' sorghum products, 1868 to 1880 4101 value of farm products per acre in 421 yield of different crops in 46S Mississippi, production of sorghum iu, • 408, "tir. production of sugar, 1879 -27 production of sugar and molasses 542 value per acre, of crops in '421 yield of different crops in 45s Missouri, production of sorghum ln.408, 416- production of sugar and molasses. . .542 value of farm products per acre in . .421 yield of different crops in 453 Mohr, Dr. Charles, on sorghum 58 Molasses, amount produced in U. S 26 and sugar, value of imported in 1879. 41 cane, produced in U. S. since 1790 88 composition of 369 consumed in U. S. since 1790 34 definition of 369 domestic, consumed in U. S. since 1790 34 foreign, consumed in U. S. since 1790 34 how produced 326 how separated from sugar 362 imports, exports, consumption in imports of into U. S. since 1790 . ... 34 increased by salts 21S maple, produced in U. S. since 1790 . 38 production of, in Louisiana 641 separation of, from sugar 362 sorghum, analysis 548 sorghum, produced in U. S. since 1790 38 sugar lost in 274 sugars 369 to sugar produced, ratio of 418 value of, consumed in U. S. since 1790 34 Montigny, introduction of sorghum.. 53, 64 Moore s hybrid sorghum, described 100 Moorish millet 61 Mucous fermentation of sorghum juice. .252 Multiple effects, evaporation by 356 Multiple roll mills 280 Muscovado sugar, how prepared. . . .328, 362 Myrick, M. 0., report on sorghum 415 Names,' botanical, of sorghum ; 57 of sorghums, sigrnificance of 79 of sorghum varieties, confusion in . . . 73 Napoleon, appropriation for sugar beet 13, 14 Nason, S., report on sorghum crop 412 Natal, Botanical Gardens, sorghum from 7ft sugar export of 543 sugar production of 26 yield of sugar per acre 27 .National Academy of Sciences 52 advisers of government 470 committee of 469 on Dr. Collier's investigations 10 on method of analysis 469 on need of investigation 10 on sorghum 17, 61 on sugar in sorghum 195, 423 on sugar making ,535 Nebraska, analysis sorghum soil 179 production of sorghum in 416, 408 value of farm products per acre in. .421 yield of different crops m 463 Neeazana sorghum, analysis of 243, 250 available sugar in 126, 538 comparative value of. 214 described 99 plate of 95 662 INDEX. Neeazana variety of sorghum 66 Need ol further research on sorghum. . .123 Nees, on sorghum 58 Netherlands, production of beet sugar. .642 Nevada, sorghum production of 416 value of farm products per acre in. .421 New Hampshire, value of farm products per acre in 421 yield of different crops in 452 New Jersey, act to promote cultivation of sorghum 17 analysis of sorghums in 248 production of sorghum in 416, 408 JBio Grande method of working 511 Eio Grande soils, analysis of 178 sorghum sugar made in 1883 549 Sugar Works, cost of working cane. 417 ■ value of farm products per acre in. .421 yield of differ^t crops in 452 New South Wales, sorghum sugar in 646 New York, maple sugar produced in. . . 28 production of sorghum in 416, 408 value of farm products per acre in 421 yield of different crops in 452 New Mexico, sorghum production of 416 Niles Sugar Mill, plate of 268 Nitrate of potash m sorghum juice 262 Nitrogenous fertilizers, effect on sor- ghum 163 matters in sorghum juice ...2.52 Nitrogen manure for sorghum 176 North Carolina, acreage value of farm products in 421 production of sorghum in 416, 408 production of sugar and molasses. .542 Norway, sugar consumed in 26 North Carolina, yield of different crops in 462 Nubia, sorghum in 51 Number of stalks per acre Ill Nutritive ratio sorghum leaves and ba- gasse .. 392 Oak Hill, 111., Sugar Works, methods of working 509 report 414 Oats, acreage yield of, in different states 452 average acreage value of 420 average yield and value per acre 423 in Iowa, acreage vahie of 420 product, acreage and value in U. S. .422 Oceanica, export of sugar from 544 Ohio, maple sugar produced in 28 production of sorghum in 416, 408 sorghum products". 1862 to 1878 410 value of farm products per acre in.. 421 yield of different crops in 453 Oomseeana sorghum, comparative val- ue of 214 available sugar in 126. 538 described 98, 99 variety of sorghum 51, 66 Open and vacuum pan methods com- pared 512 Open pan evaporation 327 rapidity of 338 when completed 364 Orange Cane, available sugar in . . .126, 538 composition of 2-50 Orange sorghum, analysis of 239, 246, 250 Oregon, sorghum production of 416 value of farm products per acre in. .421 yield of different crops m 453 Osborn, Joseph H., report on sorghum crop 412 Osmosis explained 282 Otaheitan sorghum, time for working. . 7 Falm sugar ... : . , 22 amount produced 25 Panicum Dioscorides, or sorghum 65 or Bread Millet 55 Panicle, average length of 103 average weight of 103 length of , 105 weight of 105 of sorghum, plates of 83 plucked off, to increase sugar 241 Pan scale, composition of 340 how removed 340 Pao Liang, or sorghum 54 Paper, litmus, properties and use 292 Paper pulp, amount of, in crop of sor- ghum '. 400 from bagasse 400 Paper, tumeric, properties and uses 292 Parson, H. B., report of work at Wash- ington 515 Patterson farm, sorghum grown upon. ..514 Pearl Horizontal Mill, plate of 265 Pearl Millet, sugar from juice of 445 sugar made at Washington 521 Pech, F., on sorghum .55 table for identification of sorghum 98 Peligot, analyses of sugar-cane bagasses,387 Penang, sugar production of 26 Pennsylvania, production of sorghum in 416, 408 • value of farm products per acre in . . 421 yield of different crops in 452 Period during which corn stalks may be worked 439 of working crop, length of 538 Permanganate process for the estima- tion of sugars in juices 471 solutions, how prepared 503 Persoon on sorghum 56, 57 Peru, export of sugar from 643 sugar consumed in 26 sugar product of 26 Philippine Islands, production of sugar in 544 sugar-cane soil, analyses of 182 yield of sugar per acre 27 Phillips, HoUister S., on sorghum seed.,378 Phipson, Dr. T. L., analyses sugar-cane soils 182 Phosphate of alumina in defecation 302 of lime in defecation 302 Phosphates, effect of, on sorghum..'... 163 Phosphoric acid, amount of, in crop of sorghum 396 in corn crop of U. S 450 in crops of O. S 462 in crops of U. S. , value of 463 in sorghum juice and cane 256 Piknometers for specific gravity 484 Piute sugar 66 Plant cane, analysis of 208 Planter, plate of 112 Planting, amount of seed for 110 and cultivation , cost of 415 asecondtime undesirable 539 close, reasons for.' Ill cost per acre 112 importance of good 109 method of Ill method of, in Japan 419 number of stalks per acre Ill preparation of seed for 6S, 118 proper depth of 112 selection and preparation of ground. 108 time for : 110 to certain development of plant 119 to maturity of sorghum, time. ..105, 538 plants used as food for man 60 Plates of sorghum 83 Plate of steam evaporators 346 Plaster of Paris, effect of on sorghum. .16S Plaster, use of in defecation 3U1 JNDEX. 563 Plowing, cost of 415 fall, for sorghum 109 Pliny, history oi sorghum 50 on sorghum 54,57 Polarization and analysis compared 476 of maize juices, average 501 of sorghum juices 105 of sorghum juices, average 500 of sugars 22 Polarized light, effect of sugars on 22 Population of United States since 1790... 31 Porcher, on sugar from maize 429 Porous alum in defecation 303 Porto Rico, export of sugar from 543 sugar production of 26 Portugal, sorghum in 50 sugar consumed in 26 Potatoes, acreage yield of in different states 452 average acreage value of 420 in Iowa, acreage value of 420 product, acreage, and value in United States 422 Potash, amount of in crop of sorghum .396 in corn crop of United States 450 in crops of United States, amount of. 462 in crops of United States, value of . . .463 in sorghum juice and cane 256 salts, effect of on sorghum 163 Potassium, nitrate, in sorghum juice 252 Powell, O. S., on food value of scum, etc , 402 on vinegar from skimmings 403 report on sorghum crop 412, 414 Preliminary remarks. 1 Precipitate formed in defecation 295 Prescott on sugar from maize. 427 Pressure and temperature in vacuum pan 342 of atmosphere and boiling point . . 341 upon the vacuum pan 342 Prince, Wm. R., introduction of sor- ghum 64 Problems concerning sorghum yet un- solved 17 Production, acreage, and value of cere- als in United States 423 of soil, decrease in 417 of sorghum in different states 416 in United States, statistics of 408 sugar per acre 419 of sugar from sorghum, co&t of 417 in different countries 26 of svrap in United States in 1860 and 1870 409 Products of farm, acreage value of 420 of fermentation of sorghum juice.. .262 ' of sorghum, beets, and cane com- pared 424 Profit of growing sorghum 408, 414, 415 sorghum crop 426 sorghum production 412 sorghum and other crops compared. 420 sorghum, beets, and cane compared .424 Prompt working of sorghum, conflict- irg opinions 8 Prompt working of sorghum necessary. 126 Proof glass for juices and syrups, plate..486 Pulp for paper from bagasse 400 Purging by centrifugal, how done 363 of sorghum sugars 38 of sugar, how effected 362 Queensland, yield of sugar per acre 27 ■Questions concerning sorghum unan- swered 17 Rain, effect on sorghum, juices 151 Hain-fall after drought, effect on sor- ghum 151 and temperature at Washington, 1882,151 at Washington, D. C, 1880-1-2 147 Rain-fall, effect of on sorghum 145 Ransom, B. V., report on sorghum 414 Rattoon sugar-cane, analysis of 208 Re-agents for analysis of juices 503 Red Cane, analysis of juice of 207 plant, analysis of 208 Red color in sorghum stalks 244 Red Sorgho from India, plate of 84 Refining of sugar by bone-black 37^ Regular sorghum, analysis of 250 availabl e sugar in 126, 538 comparative value of 214 described ' 99 Rellieux's triple effect, compared with other methods 512 Replanting, danger of 118 in of crop unfavorable 539 Research on sorghum still demanded. . . 14 Resolution of National Academy of Sci- ences on sorghum 469 Results of sugar making at Washington. 516 Reunion, sugar production of -26 Revenue from receipts and customs, 1881 ■ 42 Rhode Island, sorghum production of ..416 value of farm products per acre in . .421 yield of different crops in 452 Rhodes, J. H., report on sorghum crop.. 412 Ribbon Cane, analysis of * 208 plant, analysis of 207 rattoon, analysis of. 207 Rice or Egyptian corn, analysis of juice. 206 described 99 Richards. Henry B., on perennial char- acter of sorghum 12 Ridge culture of .sorghum.. 114 Rio Grande, N. J., analysis soils 178 sugar made in 1883 549 sugar works, method 511 sugar works on stripping 141 on'cost of manufacturing 417 Rio Janeiro, yield of sugar per acre. . . , 27 Ripe cane only fit for sugar making 516 Ripeness of seed, time to reach 120 Ripening of seed does not diminish suo:ar 241 sorghum, time required for 247, 538 Ripe seed a test for working crop 501 Rising City, Nebraska, analysis of soil. .179 River Platte states, sugar consumed in . 26 Roll mills described 261 Rolls, multiple 280 speed of in mill 279 Rotation of polarized light by sugars 22 Rubens sorghum 59 liural New Yorker on loss of sugar in bagasse.. 386 Russell, A. J., sugar from sorghum, by. 417 Russia and Poland, sugar consumed in. 26 sugar product of 545 Russia, production of beet sugar 28 Rye, acreage yield of in different states.452 average acreage, value of 420 average yield and value per acre — 423 product, acreage and value in U. S..422 Saccharatum sorghum 51 Saccharometers described '. . . 484 plate of 486 Saccharose 22 Saccharum ofDioscorides 56 officinarum, botanical description.. 60 Salts, effects of on crystallization 326 mineral, action of in syrups 216 sugar diminished by ■ . -216 Sandwich Islands, export of sugar from. 544 sugar production of. 26 yield of sugar per acre 27 Sandys, Reginald M., analysis of sugar- . cane <■ 208 San Sui Pai Liang, from China, plate of. 85 564 INDEX. Saracen Millet 50 Scale from evaporators, composition of .340 how removed 340 SealiE;er on sorghum 54 Scheibler's, Prof., strontia sucrate pro- cess 371 Sciences, National Academy of, on need of investigation 10 Scott, N. H., report on sorghum 414 Scovell and Weber, analysis of Orange Cane 250 analyses of sorghum 239, 246 loss of sugar after cutting 127 on climate as afTecting sorghum 153 on prompt working of crop 9 on soils tor sorghum 184 on time for cutting sorghum 123 on tops and butts, value of 236 time for working sorghum 8 Scum and sediment, value of 401 Scum, appearance of in defecation ex- periments 316 formed in defecation 294 from defecator, analysis of 401 removal of in defecation 295 Seasoning of sorghum by storage 8 Seasons of 1880 and '81 at Washington compared 148 Second ana third sugars 369 Sediments and skimmings, value of — 401 Sediment, character of in defecation ex- periments 316 formed in defecation 295 from defecator, analysis of 401 in defecation, how to settle 296 in defecation, when down 296 or scale on evaporators 340 Seed, amount matured at Washington.. 515 amount of for planting 110 and sugar from sorghum 20 average acreage yield of sorghum. . .412 choice of 115 condition of in time of working sor- ghum 123 expense of gathering 415 growth of, efTect on sugar 138 heads, increase of sugar by removal of 241 heads of sorghum, plate 83 importance of testing 117 method of testing vitality 117 number of in pound .110 of sorghum and maize compared 377 ash in crop of 395 composition of 377 crops produced 414 food for man 51 for fattening 379 for horses 51 production of 378 value for feeding 395 value of 377 yield per acre 380 pays expense of sorghum crop 416 per acre, product of 175 preparation of for planting 68, 118 removal of, effect o'n sugar 138 removal of, effect on time of matnrity.138 ripening of, does not diminish sugar. 241 selection and preparation of 114 sorghum, described 58 sorghum grown solely for, in China.537 sorghum mainly grown for 20 southern grown, value of 115 used for fattening hogs 415 variety for any locality 114 Senegambia sorghum in 51 Separation of sugar from molasses 362 Settling in defecation, how effected 296 Settling tanks and sulphurous acid 306 Settling tanks for juice 291 Shaffer, Dr. J. M., on need of further in- vestigation 10 Shaloo, or su^ar grass. ... 51 Shanghai, China, sorghum from 64 Sharpless, Prof. S. P., analysis sorghum juice - . 244 Shepstone, J., letter concerning Imphees 80 varieties of Imphees 76 Sherwood, J. D., report on sorghum crop 412 Shla-goo-va, variety of sorghum 66 Shla-goon-dee, variety of sorghum... 51, 66 Shoemacker, Mr., on stripping cane 141 Shorghi, or sorghum 55 Shu, meaning of term 52 Siam, sugar exported from 543 Silica, gelatinous, in defecation 303 Silo, value of bagasse for 393 for preserving bagasse 896 Silver and gold, production of in 1881 ... 41 Skimming at defecation, how done 295 sugar lost by 274 value of for fattening hogs 402 vinegar made from 403 Skinner, E. W., time for working sor- ghum ..." •. 7 on storage of sorghum 9 Small mill experiments at Washington.. 521 Smith, Captain John, on sugar in maize. 427 Smith, Dr. J. Lawrence, on need of in- vestigation 9 on prompt working of cane 8 sugar in sorghum 3 Smith, J. H , on varieties of sorghum. . . 67 on prompt working of sorghum 8 Smith, J. N., time for working sorghum. 6 Soaking seed before planting 118 Soda salts, effect on sorghum 163 Soda, silicate of, in defecation 303 Sodium chloride, effect of on sorghum. .163 Soil and climate the same for maize and sorghum 19 at Washiugton, D. C, analysis of ...162 best adapted to sorghum, resolution. 15 decrease in production of 417 demand of sorghum upon . . ; 255 exhaustion, how prevented 464 exhaustion of 451 exhaustion of by growing sorghum 447 for sorghum, experiments by Scovell and Weber 184 for sorghum, selection of 108 not exhausted by sugar growing 394 not exhausted by sugar production. .449 Soils, analyses of 181 composition of as affecting sorghum. 177 for sugar-cane, composition of 182 how produced 180 importance of lime 182 mechanical analyses 179 of what composed 180 Solids, average in sorghums, 1879, '80, '81 198 average in 35 varieties of sorghum. .197 average of in juice at different stages 194 in juice, average per cent of 234 in ]uice, how determined 472 in juice, increase of in plant 490 in sorghum juices 105 in sorghum juice at different stages. 210' in sorghum juices, average results, 1879 492 not sugars, as affected by fertilizers. 170 as affected by frost 159 average per cent in 1880 and 1881 150 per cent m juice 134 per cent of in leaf juice 143 per cent of in different sorghums. ...214 INDEX. 565 Solids, total, in com stalk juices 435 Sorghum, advantages over maize lor sugar 444 agricultural character o£ 61 alcohol from 240 amount worked at Washington 516 analyses graphically represented 201 analyses 1S80, chart 202 analyses of 104 by Scovell and Weber 246 by stages of development 193 field crop of 247 graphically shown 187 leaves of 406 and corn stalks, comparative value of, during working period, with table 443 and maize, cultivation the same ... 19 juices compared 443 and maize, juices of, specifio gravity tables 491 requiring same climate 19 and Millet confounded 53 nd other crops compared in value.. 420 and sugar-cane compared 206 difiference between 60 and the census 63 as affected by fertilizers 163 as fodder, value of 405 ash, analyses of 547 average analyses of 197 in 1880 and 1881 150 average available sugar in 538 composition in 1880 194 of 35 varieties 197 tons grown per acre 414 bagasses, analysis of 381 bibliography of 42 bicolor 51 botanical description of 57 botanical names of 57 botany of 54 cane, cost delivered at mill 415 compared with other crops of XJ. S. .419 comparison of foreign varieties 205 comparison of several varieties 243 comparison of upper and lower halves 234 confusion of names of 73 cost of cultivation of 414 crop, ash in 395 exhaustion of soil by 447 crop produced per acre 134 cultivation of 113 detailed analyses of 189 development of sugar in 185, 246 different varieties of, described 98 effect of climate upon 145 effect of drought upon 149 effect of fertilizers on 162 effect of frost on 154 equal in sugar to tropical cane 20 examination of, described 188 expense of cutting and hauling. .. 415 expense of producing 415 extent of area for cultivation of 504 from various countries compared. . .101 further investigation of, demanded.. 9 further investigation of, needed.. .. 14 frown at Washington 514 abits of, as to suekering 106 history of 50, 52 Holous 51 hybridization of 18, 69 1mm ature, effect of frost on 157 immature, no sugar in 217 Imphees, different kinds described . . 66 importance of its introduction 63 in 1882, statistics of 411 in Indiana, analyses of 249 Sorghum in Iowa, acreage value of 420 Insubrum 65 in 1882, average analyses 205 introduced by M. d'Abadie 64 introduction into the U. S 53, 64 . investigations of errors in 15 its further investigation needed . .123 juice, analysis of 251, 3S1 analysis of ash 255 average analysis of 500 juice, effei^t on, of keeping 252 error in analysis of 470 average of 4,032 204 various analyses of 238 Sorghum, large yield of stalks 418 leaves, analysis of 390 leaves, hay, and grass compared 391 length of time for working 124 mainly grown for seed 20 method of analysis of 469, 471 National Academy of Sciences on. . 61 new varieties yet to be examined ... 18 not sub-variety of sugar-cane 60 not understood before work of Dr. Collier 2 plates of 83 prejudices against 16 problems concerning, yet unsolved. 17 products, marketing of 424 products, value per acre 414 profits of the crop 414, 415, 426 questions yet unsolved 15,18 resolution of National Acad, of Sci 469 rubens . - 59 saccharatum 51 seed, amount of crop 414 analysis of 377 and maize, same composition 20 for fattening 379 for feeding and fattening 20 heads of, plates 83 value of, for feeding 395 Sorghum, selection and preparation of soil for 108 should be encouraged by govern- ment 16 signification of names 79 soils adapted for growing 177 spicatum 61 stalks, analysis of 547 analysis of ash 255 per acre, amount of 175 proximate analysis of 250 structure of -38 statistics of the census 416 statistics of production in U. S 408 suckered and unsuckered average analyses 135 compared 134 sugar, amountproducedper acre — 419 analyses of 547 cane and beets compared 423 cost of production 21 in 1883 548 industry, predictions 19 industry, prospects of 19 in Japan, production of 418 in New South Wales 546 made at Washington 521 produced in quantity 20 syrup, cost or manufacture 20 produced in U. S. since 1790 38 sorghums, table of comparative val- ue of 214 time for planting 110 tops and butts compared 235 two crops of a year practicable 11 Usorum 58 value as a forage plant 406 566 INDEX. value of products per ton 414 value to the country 11 variation in time for maturity 117 varieties from Africa. (Jliina, India. 76 varieties of, grown in U. S 73 varieties tiie same in sugar content.. 211 varieties worlied for sugar 312 variety to be selected for growing. . .211 vulgare 61 analyses of j uices of 206 botanical description 60 waste products from 376 "weight arid length of 74 weight of grown per acre 179 weight of leaves in crop 392 when ready for working 122 South Carolina, production of sorghum.408 production of sugar, 1879 27 production of sugar and molasses. ..542 value per acre of farm products in . .421 yield of different crops in 453 Solubility of different sugars 24 Solutions of sugar compared as to den- sity 335 Spain, sugar consumed in 26 sugar production of ... .; 548 Specific gravity and analysis of juices. .489 and analysis of maize juices 497 and analysis of sorghum juices 493 and Beaiirafi compared 337, 487 average of juice in 1879, '80, '81 199 average of, of juice 234 average of 35 varieties of sorghum. .197 different scales compared 485 of corn stalk juices 435 of good juice 213 of juice and composition, relation of .502 of juice as afTeetedby frost 159 of ]uice, how determined 472 of sugar solutions of different tem- peratures 335 sorghum juice at different stages. . ..210 sorghum juices 105,134,484 table of sorghum juices 491 Speed of rolls in sugar mills 279 Spiked Millet 61 Sprangle Top sorghum, comparative value of 214 described 69,100 Sprengle on sorghum 58 Sprouting seed before planting 118 Stable manure, effect of on sorghum .175, 176 value of 464 St. Christopher, export of sugar from. . .543 St. Lucia, export of sugar from 543 St. Vincent, export of sugar from 543 Stages of development, explanation of. .197 of maize 430 time to reach 119 Stalk, different portions of compared. . .218 analyses of upper and lower halves. 234 andleaves, analjrses of juices 142 and leaves of maize, relative weights of 443 of sorghum and corn, analysis of — 406 of sorghum, average yield of 415 of sorghiim, how kept in Japan 419 of sorghum, physical structure 2-58 per acre, amount of 175 per acre, number of Ill stripped, acreage yield of 214 sugar i u a ton of 210 weight of leaves on 392 Starcii in juice, and its removal 288 in sorghum juice 251 Statistics of cultivation and products of sorghum 414 production of sorghum in U. S 408 sorghum in the census 416 sugar production and exports 542 Steam, amount produced in vacuum pan 343 and open pan evaporation 338 coils, heat given out by, to water or juice 338 Stebbins, Mr., on food value of scum, etc 402 Steck, Paul, Cal., method of sugar mak- ing 510 report on sorghum 414 Sterling, Kansas, soil analysis 179 sugar works, process employed 507 sugar made in 1883 549 Stewart's Hybrid sorghum, analysis of. 242 Stockbridge, President, sugar in sor- ghum 4 Storage of sorghum after cutting, con- flicting opinions 8. 9 Storing cane, loss of sugar in 127 Storms, effect on sorghum 244 at Washington, 1880-1-2 147* Stout, Mr., on use of bagasse as fuel 398 Striking of vacuum pan 356 Stripped and unstripped cane compared.140 stalks, acreage yield of 214 stalks, per cent of cane in 142 Stripping, effect of on quantity and qual- ity of juice 144 method of 144 not necessary 144 sorghum, effect of 140 Strontia sucra'te, composition of 371 Structure, physical, of .sorghum 258 Stubble cane, analysis of 208 Rtubbs' evaporator, plate of 333 Stump's New Variety, detailed analyses of 191, 250 Subsiding tanks for juice 291 Succinic acid in fermentation of sor- ghum 252 Suckered and unsuckered sorghum, av- erage analyses 135 compared 128, 1S4 Suckering, advantages of 136, 538 habits of varieties as, to 106 Suckers a result of hilling 113 how prevented Ill loss of sugar by 133 Sucrates of lime and strontia 870 method of defecation 304 Sucrose " 22 analysis of explained 47.S always preseat in juice 195 and glucose,- development of 185 available from one ton sorghum 500 available, when at maximum 215 average in sorghums, 1879-80-81 198 average in 35 varieties of sorghum.. 197 average of at different stages 194 average per cent in juice in 1880 and 1881 150 by analysis and polarization 476 development of in sorghum 185 early appearance^ of in sorghum and maize 195 estimated by polariscope 22 gradual increase of in plant 490 how determined 472 in corn stalk juices 435 in im mature canes 217 in juice as affected by_ frost 159 in juice, effect o£ fertilizers on 172 in juice, shown by specific gravity. .490 in maize juices, average 601 in maize juices of different densi- ties 497 in sorghum, as affected by fertilizers. 166 in sorghums by polariscope 22 in sorghum juice, average 499 In Bofghum juices 104 INDEX. 567 Sucrose in juices, average results, 1879. .492 of different densities 493 inversion of in juices 126 per cent of in different sorghums.. .214 loss of iu manufacture of syrups — 309 in leaf juice 143 in juice of crop 134 Sugar about ttie same In many kinds of sorghum 211 absolute loss of, in manufacture. . . .309 action of lime upon 297 aggregate loss iu manufacture 258 amount consumed in U. S. in 1881. . . 41 inverted in manufacture B32 left in bagasse 384 lost in bagasse of sugar-cane 387 obtained from maize syrups 440 present in maize juices 197 produced in D . S 26 produced per acre 419 and corn for canning 440 and molasses, value of imported in 1879 41 ripe grain from corn crop 442 seed from sorghum : 20 syrup, loss of in harvesting 2.'!7 syrup, marketing of 424 at different stages of development. . .210 at maximum in crop, diversity of opinion 122 available, amount in stalks 491 at different stages 194, 210, 515 average for 1879-80-81 199 average in 35 varieties of sorghum .. 197 average per cent in 1880 and 1881 150 defined 136,217 discussion of 215 increase of by manufacture 322 in juices and syrups 137 in juices at Washington 518 in juices of sorghums 134 in leaf juice 143 in sorghums 538 in sorghums, 1880, 1881 5.38 in sucKered and unsuckered canes. .129 in syrups at Washington 519, 528 from one Ion sorghum 501 .secured per acre 214 to ton of stalks 210 when present in juice 217 yet to be investigated 18 average in sorghums, 1879-80-81 198 average of at different stages. 194 average of iu sorghums, 1879 187 beet, production of by countries 542 beets, sorghum, and sugar-cane com- pared 423 by analysis and polarization 476 Sugar-cane, analysis of juice of 207, 208 analysis of top, middle, and butt — 236 and sorghum compared 206 and sorghum, difference between. . . 60 and sorghum equal in sugar 20 as affected by climate 145 ' average of analyses 208 bagasse, analyses of 386 Chinese 51 East India, analyses of 208 effect of frost on 161 molasses produced in U. S. since 1790... 38 not a variety of sorghum 60 production of, by countries 642 soils, analyses of 182 sorghum, and sugar beets compared .423 structure of 258 sugarin 185 Sugar, cause of the color of 327 chemistry of 22 consumed in U. S. since 1790 30, 31 Sugar, consumption per capita 26 consumption per capita in U. S. since 1790 • 31 corn, average juice of 431 corn, loss of sugar in bagasse 275 countries producing it 26 crystallization of 24 crystallizaiion of, how prevented. 326, 362 development of, in sorghum. 185, 243, 246 developmentof, in stalk of sorghum. 241 domestic, consumed in U. S. since 1790 31 domestic, produced in XJ. S. since 1790 31 duties compared with other reve- nues 42 effect of acids on 23 effects of lime on 24 effect on polarized light 22 experiments in manufacture of 312 exportation, statistics of 642 foreign, consumed iu U. S. since 1790 31 from beets, cost at first 13 beets developed by Napoleon 13 corn stalks, amount per acre 439 cornstalks at Washington 521 corn stalks, history of 427 Pearl Millet at Washington 521 sorghum, analysis of 548 at Washington 521 cost of production 21, 417 Goessmann on 186 easily obtained 535 in 1883 548 in New South Wales 546 not made in China 537 produced . ...^ 20 produced in Japan 418 prospects of ]9 statistics 408 syrup, yield of 20 yield per acre 175, 414 stalks of Pearl Millet 446 ton of sorghum cane of 248 Sugar grass, or'shaloo 51 Sugar house, plate of a cheap home 505 how dried for packing 352 imports, exports, consumption in U. 8 30 in bagasse, per cent of 278 in corn stalk juices 435 increased by removing seed heads. .241 increase of, graphically shown . . 187 increase of, not due to drying up of plant 161,209,218 in cut cane, inversion of 533 in juice as affected by frost 159 in ]uice proportioned to density 490 in maize and sorghum juices 196 juices, average 501 juices of different densities 497 in sorghum as affected by fertilizers. 166 discordant opinions 2 effect of fertilizers on 172 in'juiee, average 499 injuicesof differentdensities... 493 when at maximum 122, 241 inversion of, in cut canes ... 131, 488 inverted, defined. 23 its presence early in th6 season 195 loss of, by not stripping — 142 loss of, by suckers 133 loss of, bynot working proraptly.126, 129 loss of, in bagasse... .174, 2,')1, 274, 277, 383 loss of, in cut canes 131 loss of, in manufacture, experiments. 309 loss of, in stalks of maize 442 loss by present mode of manufac- ture 17 568- INDEX. Sugar lost in bagasse of corn and sor- ghum 406 lost in drying sorghum, 396 lost ill manufacture 322, 385 lost in skimming 274 made only from ripe cane 516 making at Department of Agricul- ture 513 making from beets, sorghum, and cane 424 manufacture at Washington, meth- od 521 manufacture, comparison of meth- ods 511 market value of sorghum 415 maximum results in sorghum 196 method of manufacture from sor- ghum 245 maximum found in maize 197 necessary loss in manufacture 309 not an exhausting crop 394 not diminished by ripening of seed. 241 not obtained from soil 449 not the object of the farmer 521 obtained from beets in working 257 of juice recovered in syrup 532 of milk 24 of sugar-cane lost in manufacture. .535 of U. S., whence obtained 26- per cent, density, and boiling point of solutions 336 per cent in juice of crop 134 per cent of in different sorghums.. . .214 per ton of cane 175 principle of crystallization 326 pounds from gallon of syrup 418 production and increasing fertility. .449 production of 25 of at Washington 521 of in Louisiana 541 statistics of 541 quantity decreased by salts 216 recovered from bagasses 388 relative amount of, in juice of 1880 and 1881 150 relative solubility of different 24 separation of from molasses 362 solutions, sp_.gr. compared 335 solutions, different density, [.weight of .• 337 sources of 25 to molasses, proportion of 418 total product of the world 546 value of, consumed in U. S. since 1790 ... 30 varieties of sorghum worked for 312 various methods of manufacture 504 yield per acre 175 yield of, per ton of sorghum 414 yield per acre in different countries. 27 Sullivant, Joseph, on fattening value of corn 450 Sulphate of alumina in defecation. . .302 Sulphate of baryta, use of in defecation. 301 Sulphite of lime and lime in defeca- tion 308 in defecation 305,308 Sulphur box, construction and use of . . .306 Sulphur fumes in defecation 306 Sulphuric acid, amount of in crop of sorghum 396 Sulphurous acid, action of 216 antiseptic property 307 In defecation 305 preparation of 305 properties of 305 Sumac sorghum, comparative value of. .214 described v 68 plate of 94 Summary of results at Washington 520 Superphosphate, effect of on sorghum. .163 of lime in defecation 302 Surface or film evaporators 339 Surinam, export of sugar from 543 yield of sugar per acre 27 Sweden, Norway, and Italy, production of beet sugar 542 sugar consumed in 26 Sweet corn, average analyses of juice of.431 stalks, suger in juice of 197 stalks, .sugar made from 441 Swenson and Henry on loss of sugar after cane is out 127 process of manufacture 506 sorghum analyses by 242 fertilizers on sorghum 175 loss of sugar in cut canes 132 . on cost of making sugar 417 on product of sugar 419 on yield of seed per acre 380 Switzerland, sugar consumed In 26 Synoptical table of varieties of sor- ghum 98 Syria, sorghum in 50 Syrup, amount of sugar obtained from .-.418 average selling price 412 character of in defecation experi- ments 317 cost of manufacture 417 cost of production 412 crystallization of, how effected 362 of different densities, weight of 337 expense of manufacturing 415 from sorghum, average yield per acre 412 from sorghum, cost of manufacture. 20 from sorghum, yield in sugar 20 from corn stalks, yield of sugar In . . 440 gain of by not stripping 142 now put up for market 425 made at Washington, analyses of. 519, 528 made in experiments 313 only to be made by the farmer 521 yield of, per acre 414 marketing of 424 of sorghum, total product of in U. S.416 percentage of in jiiioe 322 produced by freezing juice 362 produced In defecation experiments. 309 produced in U. S., from census 416 produced in U. S. in 1860 and 1870. . . .409- selling price of 414 uniformity in, desirable 425 various methods of manufacture . . 604 where manufactured 354 Table giving comparative value of sor- ghums 214 Talcott, H. L., on sorghum seed 379 Tanks for storing skimmings 403 Tanks, settling, for juice 291 Tannin in sorghum seed 378 Tar, coal, on seed for planting 118 Teas, E. Y., introduction of sorghum 65 Temperature and density of sugar solu- tions 335 and rain-fall at Washington, 1882 . . .151 and pressure In vacuum pan S'12 at defecation 295 at Washington, D. C, 1880-1-2 ,147 comparison of F. and C. degrees 334 effect of on sorghum 145 of boiling point and pressure 341 Tennessee, production of sorghum In . 408, 416 production of sugar and molasses . . .542 value of crops per acre in 421 yield of different crops in 453 Texas Amber sorghum, analysis of 243 and Louisiana, value of sorghum to. 11 INDEX. 569 Texas Cane sorghum, oomparatire value of 214 horizontal mill, plate of 267 production of sugar, 1879 27 production of sugar and molasses. . .542 production of sorghum in 408, 416 value per acre of crops in 421 yield of different crops in 458 Test cup for juices and syrups, plate 486 Testing of seed, importance of 117 Tests of accuracy of analysis 474 completion of evaporation 354 Thaer, on sugar from maize 429 Thermometers, degrees of compared... .334 plate of 486 Thinning out during cultivation 113 Thoms, John B., sugar from sorghum by 417 Thome, C. B., report on sorghum .415 Thorne, John, on sorghum history 53 Tliree roll mill of Egypt 280 size and cost of 269 Thunberg, on sorghum 58 Time for h ar vesting crop 122 planting sorghum 110 "working maize for sugar 439 working sorghum, graphically shown 187 working sorghums, length of \ .214 from planting to maturity 114 from planting to maturity of sor- ghum 538 length of, for working sorghum ,124 to reach certain development of plant 119 to work sorghum for sugar 214 Tobacco, acreage yield of in different states 452 average acreage valve of 420 I product, acreage, and value in U. S..422 Tops and leaves, per cent of in cane 142 Top, middle, and butt of cane compared. 218 Total solids in juices, how determined.. 471 Trachypogon avanaceus, or sorghum. . . 69 Trench culture of sorghum 114 Trinidad, export of sugar from 543 Triple effect, economy of 357 evaporators 356 comparative value 512 method of working 359 vacuum pan, plate 358 Tsung-ming, sorghum seed from 64 Turkey, sugar consumed in 26 Turmeric paper, properties and uses 292 Twaddle scale described 485 Ukubane from Africa, plate of 88 Umgatubanda from Africa, plate of 87 Undendebule, plate of 90 sorghum, plate of 90 "linger. Dr. F., history of sorghum 60 United States Agricultural Society time for working sorghum 6 United States, Introduction of sorghum into 64 its sources of sugar 26 promotion of sorghum culture 17 sugar consumed in 26 Unripe sorghum worthless for sugar — 616 Updegraff, Hon. J. P., on value of sor- ghum 12 Ures' Dictionary of Arts, on loss of sugar. 385 Usorum, sorghum 58 Utah, production of sorghum in . . .408, 416 Vacuum pan, advantages of — 341, 351, 353 and open pan, methods compared. . .512 construction of . . . '. 342 description of 349 effect of depth in 354 method of working 355 mixer, centrifugals, and pump 348 Vacuum pan, plates of 347 practical working of 353 principle of ■. 341 striking of 366 triple effect, plate 358 water for condensation 353 Valley broom-corn, analysis of juice of .206 Value, comparative, of varieties of maize 439 Value of ash in hay 464 of crops of U. S. 463 bagasse as food 392 for paper pulp 400 corn and wh eat crop of United States. 45S ensilage as food 39:1 farm products per acre, average. . . .420 grain crops per acre, average 423 products per ton of sorghum 414 skimmings for fattening hogs 402 sorghum leaves as food. 392 sorghum leaves for feeding 391 sorghum products per acre 414 sorghum seed for feeding 378 sorghum seed for food 395 sugar and molasses imported in 1879. 41 per acre of sorghum products 412 relative, of sorghum and other crops. 420 Van Buren, Consul General, on sorghum in Japan 418 Variation in seed in time for maturity . Il7 Varieties, cultivated, of sorghum, num- ber ...... 70 of corn stalks tested for sugar 429 of Imphees described 66 of sorghum, foreign, compared 205 from Africa. China, India 76 grown in U. S 73 identified 98 yet to be examined 18 for any locality Il4 to be grown 211 Varro on sorghum 56 Vasey, Dr. George, on botany of sor- ghum ; 60 Velocity of rolls in sugar mills 279 Vermont, maple sugar produced in 28 sugar from corn stalks in 429 value of farm products per acre in. .421 yield of different crops in 452 Vertical mill, plate 262 Victor horizontal mill, plate of 266 Victor mill, plate 262 Vilmorin, introduction of sorghum 64 maximum sugar in sorghum 4 sorghum analyses 240 time for working sorghum 58 Vimbischuapa, variety of sorghum. . .51, 65 Vinegar from skimmings 403 Virginia, acreage value of farm products in 421 production of sorghum in 416, 408 yield of different crops in 452 Vitality of seed, how tested 117 Voelcker, Prof., on frauds in fertilizers. 417 Volume of steam produced in vacuum pan 343 Vulgare, sorghum 51 Wadsworth, Mr., on sorghum as forage plant 406 Wallis' Hybrid sorghum, available sugar in 126,538 sorghum described 100 Washington, explanation of failure. ...520 Washington Ter., sorghum, production of 416 Waste products from sorghum 376 of sugar house, food value of . . . . 401 Water,. average per cent of in sorghum .234 Water-glass in defecation 303 Water, hot; used in evaporation 364 670 INDEX. Water in bagasse, amount of 278 in defecation, use of.. 296 loss of in plant, not due to drying up 161 loss of, in later stages of plant 161 needed by vacuum pan 353 Wax or cerosie on sorghum stalk 259 Weber and Seovell, analyses of sorghums.239 analyses of sorghum 246 analysis of Orange cane 250 on loss of sugar after cutting — 127, 133 on prompt working of cane 9 on sorghum soils 184 on time for working sorghum 8, 123 on value of tops and butts 236 on efFectof removing seed head 138 process of manufacture 506 Webster, H. T., report on sorghum crop. 412 Weeds, how avoided. .-- 109 Weight and length of^^orghums 74 of crop of sorghums per acre 134 crop worked at Washington.: , . . 516 gallon of sugar solutions of diflferent densities 337 sorghums from different countries. .103 sorghum grown per acre ... 179 stripped stalks 115 varieties of corn stalks 431 Weight, relative, at different stages 194 AVest India sorghum, available sugar in, 126, 538 West Indies, production of sugar in 543 sugar, production of.. . ; 26 West Virginia, production of sorghum in 416, 408 value of farm products per acre in. .421 yield of different crops in 452 Wheat, acreage yield of in different states 452 average acreage value of 420 average acreage yield of U. S 455 average yield an d value per acre — 423 in Iowa, acreage value of 420 product, acreage and value in U. S. .422 total value of crop in U. S 458 total yield of U. S 458 Wheeler, Wm. P., N. Y. method of sugar making.. 510 White African sorghum, available sugar in 126,538 sorghum described ^ — 99 sorghum, plate of 96 White Imphee sorghum, available sugar in 126,538 White, John D., on sorghum as forage plant , 407 White Liberian sorghum, analyses of, 228, 234, 243, 250 available sugar in 126, 538 comparative value 214 described 101 in Boston 244 working period for 186 White Mammoth sorghum, plate of ... .. 97 analyses of 243.250 available sugar in.. ..126,538 comparative value of 214 described. 99 variety of sorghum 69, 68 White sorghum stalks, analyses of.. . . 547 Whiting, use of in defecation 301 Wiley, Prof., analyses of sorghums 249 on southern grown seed 115 W^illiams, Dr. 8. Wells, on sorghum. . . . 52 Winchester, E,, on sugar from sorghum. 419 Winds, destruction caused by to crop. . .109 Winton, Wm., report on sorghum crop. 414 Wisconsin Agricultural College, analyses of sorghums ■ 242 experiments wifh sorghum 127 method of manu facture 506 report on sorghum 414 Wisconsin, analyses of sorghums in .. 242 production of sorghum in . . . . 408, 416 sugar from sorghum in 419 value of farm products per acre in . . 421 yield of different crops in 453 Wolf Tail sorghum, available sugar in, 126, 538 comparative value of 214 described 68, 99 Wood, coal, and bagasse as fuel, com- pared.. 398 Working, length of time for 214 Working period for sorghum 124 graphically shown 187 Working up crop, time for 122 Worms, wire, and cut, destroying seed. .118 Wray, Leonard, introduction of sor- ghum 65,64 letter on varieties of sorghum 67 on Amabele and Imphee 548 Yield, acreage, of different crops in U. S.452 of cane, as affected by lime 183 cane per acre of sorghum 414 central grain belt of a. S., falling off.460 sorghum, average 412 sorghum in Kansas, 418 sorghum seed perncre 380 sugar per acre in different countries. 27 Zea nrais, sugar from sialks of 427 Zim-mooma-ua, variety of sorghum.... 66 PUBLICATIONS ROBERT CLARKE & CO. JULY, 1883. CINCINNATI, O. HISTORICAL AND MISCELLANEOUS. Alzog (John D. D.) A Manual of Uni- versal Church History. Translated by Bev. T. J. Pabisch and Rev. T. S. Byrne. 3 vols. 8vo. 15 00 AsnERSoN (E. L.) Six Weeks in Norway. 18mo. 1 00 Andre (Major). The Cow Chase; an He- roick Poem. 8vo. Paper. 75 Antrim (J.) The History of Champaign and Logan Counties, Ohio, from their Firgt Settlement. 12mo. 1 50 Ballard (Julia P.) Insect Lives; or. Born ' in Prison. Illustrated. Sq. 12mo. 1 00 Bell (Thomas J.) History of the Cincin- nati Water Works. Plates. 8vo. 75 Benner (S.) 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