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_ Cornell University Library 
 
 QE 262.C2H75 1899 
 The geology of the country around Carlis 
 
 3 1924 004 551 721 
 
M Cornell University 
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 the Cornell University Library. 
 
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16 & 17 NEW SERIES. 
 107 OLD SERIES. 
 
 MEMOIRS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 
 
 ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 THE 
 
 GEOLOGY 
 
 OF THE COUNTEY AROUND 
 
 CARLISLE 
 
 (EXPLANATION OF SHEET 107, WITH PARTS OF 101 & 106 OLD 
 SERIES ; . SHEETS 16 & 17, WITH PARTS OF 12, 18, 22 & 23 
 NEW SERIES). 
 
 BY 
 
 T. V. HOLMES, F.G.S. 
 
 PITBUSHBD Br OBDEB OP IDE lOKDS OOMMISSIONEKS OF HEE MAJESIV'S IBEASUEV. 
 
 LONDON: 
 FEINTED FOR HER MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE, 
 
 By WYMAN and SONS, Limited, Fetter Lane, E.G. 
 
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 Price Is. 3d. 
 
LIST OF MAPS, SECTIONS, AND OTHER PUBLICATIONS OF THE 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 Sliji Maps are those of the Ordnance Survey, geologically coloured by the Oeological Survey of the United Kingdom, nndei 
 the Superintendence of Sir ABCH. GrBIKiE, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Director General. ' 
 
 (For Maps, details of Sections, and Memoirs issued'by the Geological Survey, see " Catalogue.") 
 
 ENGLAND AND WAIiES.-(Scale 1 inch to a mile.) 
 
 Maps marked * are also published as Drift Maps. Those marked t are published only as Drift Maps. 
 
 6heetS'3», 6, 6«, 7*, 8*, 9, 11 to 22, 25, 26, 30, 31, 33 to 37, 40, 41, 44, 47«, 64*, 66t, 69t, 70«, 83», 86*, price 8*. 6*. each. 
 
 Sheet 4, 6«. Sheets 2* 23, 24, 27 to 29, 32, 38, 39, 68, 84t, 86+, is. each. 
 
 Sheets divided into quarters ; all at 3«. each quarter-sheet, exdeptiog those in brackets, which are Is. 6(2. each. 
 
 1^ 42, 43, 45, 46, NW, SW, NE*, SK*, 48, DfWf, SW*, NEt, (SE*), (49t), SOt, 51* 62 to 57, (57 NW), 69 to 63, 66 SW't, NEt, 
 »W*, SEt, 67 Nt, (St), 68 Et, (NWt), SWt, 71 to 76, 76 (N), S, (77 N), 78,-:7'9, ,JfW* SW", STB*, SE*, 80 NW*, SW*, NE*, 
 !*'E* 81 NW* SW, NE, SE, 82, 83*, 87, 88, NW, SW*, Nl, SE, 89 NW* SW*, Nil, SE*, 90 (NE»), (SE*), 91, (NW*), (SW*), 
 NE*, SE*, 92 NW*, SW*, NE, SE, 93 NW, SW, NE*, SE*, 94 NWt, SWt, (NEt), SEt^ 95 NW*, NE* (SE*), 96 NW*, SW* 
 NE*, SE* 97 NW*, SW* NE*, SE, 98 NW, SW, NE*, SE, 99 (NE*), (SE*), 100* 101 SE, NE* NW*, SW*, 102 NW* NE* 
 SW*, SE*, 103*, 104* 105 NW*, SW*, (NB»), SE*, 106 NW* SW* NE* SE* 107 SWt, NE*, SE* 108 SW* NE*, SE», 109 NW*, 
 SW*, SE*, 110 (NW*), (NE«), SE», SW*. 
 
 New Sefies.—!. of Man*, 36, 46, 46, 66, 57, 8s. 6d. I. of Wight, with Mainland*, 330, 331, 844, 346, 8«. 6d. 232*, 248*, 249*, 
 263* 267t, 268*, 283t, 284t, 299t, 300t, 328t, 329*, 330*, 331*, (332*), (333*), 334* (341t), 342t, 343t, S50t, 366t, (366t). 
 
 GENERAIi MAP :— (Scale I miles to 1 Inch.) 
 
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 HORIZONTAL SECTIONS 
 
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 VERTICAL SECTIONS. 
 
 1 to 82, England, price 3s. 6d. each. 
 
 COMPLETED COUNTIES OF ENGLAND AND WALES, on a Scale of 1 inch to a mile. 
 Sheets marked * have Descriptive Memoirs. Sheets or Counties marked t are illustrated by General Memoirs. 
 
 63 NE, 62 NE, 63*, 64*, 7ft*, 71 SB, 
 
 AN6I.ESEY+,— 77 N, 78. 
 
 BEDFORDSHIRE,— 46 NW, NE, SWt, SEt, 62 NW, NE, 
 
 SW, SE. 
 BBRKSHIKB,— 7*, 8t, 12*, 13*, 34* 46 SW*. 
 BKECKNOCKSHIREt,— 36, 41, 42, 66 NW, SW, 57 NE, SE. 
 BUCKINGHAMSHIRE,— 7*, 13», 45* NE, SE, 46 NW, SWt, 
 
 62 SW. 
 CAERMARTHENSHIEEt,— 37, 38, 40, 41, 42 NW, SW, 56 SW, 
 
 67 SW, SB. 
 CABRNARVONSHIREt,— 74 NW, 76, 76, 77 N, 78, 79 NW, 
 
 SW. 
 CAMBRIDGBSHIRBt,— 46 NE, 47*, 51*, 62 SE, 64*. 
 CARDIGANSHIREt,— 40, 41, 66 NW, 57, 58, 5J SE, 60 
 
 SW. 
 CKESHIEE,— 78 NE, NW, 79 NE, SE, 80, 81 NW*, SW*, 
 
 S8 SW. 
 CORNWALLt,— 24t, 26t, 26t, 29t, 30t, 31t, 32t, & 33t. 
 CUMBERLAND,— 98 NW, SW*, 99, 101, 102, NE, NW, SW*, 
 
 10« SE, SW, NW, 107. 
 DENBIGHt,— 73 NW, 74, 76 NE, 78 NE, SE, 79 NW, SW, SE, 
 
 80 SW. 
 DERBYSHIREt, -62 NE, 63 NW, 71 NW, SW, SB, 72 NE, 
 
 72 SE, 81, 82, 88 SW, SE. 
 BBVONSHIREt,— 20t, 21t, 22t, 23t, 24t, 26t, 26t, & 27t. 
 DORSETSHIRE,— 16, 16, 17, 18, 21, 22. 
 DURHAM,— 102 NE, SE, 103, 105 NE, SE, SW, 106 SE. 
 ESSEX,- 1*, 2*, 47*, 48*. 
 FLINTSHIRBt,- 74 NE, 79. 
 
 GLAMORGANSHIREt,— 20, 36, 37, 41, & 42 SB, SW. 
 GLOUCESTERSHIRBt,— 19, 34*, 35, 43, NE, SW, SE, 44*. 
 HAMPSHIRE,— 8t, 9t, 10*, lit, 12», 14, 15, 16. 
 HEREFORDSHIRE,- 42 NE, SE, 43, 55, 56 NE, SE. 
 HERTFORDSHIRE,— It NW, 7* 46, 47*. 
 HUNTINGDON,— 61 NW, 62 NW, NE, SW, 64», 65. 
 KENTt,— It SW & SE, 2t, 3t, 4* 6t. 
 LANCASHIRE, -79 NE, 80 NW*, NE, 81 NW, 88 NW, SWt, 
 
 89 90,91 92SW,98. 
 
 LEICESTBRSHIRE,- 
 
 SW. 
 
 LINCOLNSHIREt,-j64*, 66*, 69, 70*, 83*, 84», 85*, 86*. ^ 
 
 MERIONETHSHIREt,— 59 NE, SB, 60 NW, 74, 76 NE, 
 
 SE. 
 MIDDLESBXt,— It NW, SW, 7«, 8t. 
 MONMOUTHSHIRE,- 35, 36, 42 SB, NB, 43 SW. 
 MONTGOMERYSHIRBt,— 56 NW, 69 NB, SE, 60, 74 SW 
 
 SE. ' 
 
 NORFOLKt,— 50 NW* NE* 64*, 85*, 66*, 67*, 68*, 69. 
 N0RTHAMBt0NSHIRB,^64*, 45 NW, NB, 46 NW, 62 NW 
 
 NE, SW, 53 NE, SW, dtSE, 63 SE, 64. 
 NORTHUMBERLAND,— 102 NW, NE, 105, 106, 107, 108*, 109, 
 . 110, NW* SW*, NE*, SE. 
 NOTTINGHAM,^70*, 71* NE, SE, NW, 82 NB* SB*, SW 83 
 
 86, 87* SW. 
 OXFORDSHIRE,— 7*, 13*, 34*, 44* 45* 6S SE*, SW. 
 PEMBROKESHIREt,- 38, 39, 40, 41, 68. 
 RADNORSHIRE,— 42 NW, NE, 66, 60 SW, SE. 
 RUTLANDSHIRE,— this county is wholly included within 
 
 Sheet 64*. 
 SHROPSHIEE,-65 NW, NE, 56 NE, 60 NB, SE, 61, 62 NW, 
 
 73, 74 NE„SE. 
 SOMERSETSHIREt,— 18, 19, 20, 21, 27, 35. 
 STAFFORDSHIRE*,— 64 NW, 55 NE, 61 NE, SE, 62, 63 NW 
 
 71 SW, 72, 73 NE, SE, 81 SE, SW. 
 SUFFOLK,— 47* 48*, 49* 50* 61*, 66* SE*, 67\ . 
 SURREY,—! SWt, 6t, 7*, 8t, 12t. 
 SUSSEX,— 4*, 6t, et, 8t, 9t, lit. 
 WARWICKSHrRE,-44* 45 NW, 53*, 54, 62 NE, SW, SE. 
 
 63NW, SW, SE. 
 WESTMORLAND,-97 NW*, SW*, 98 NW, NE*. SB*, 101, 
 
 SB*, 102. 
 WILTSHIRE,-12*, 13*, U, 15, 18, 19t, 34*. and 35t. 
 WORCESTERSHIRE,-43 NE, 44*, 64, 66, 62 SW, SE, 
 
 SB. 
 YORKSHIRBt ,-85-88, 91 NE, SE 92-97* 98 NE», SE*. 102 NE, 
 
 SE, 103 SW, SE, 104*. 
 
16 & 17 NEW SERIES. 
 107 OLD SERIES. 
 
 MEMOmS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 
 
 ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 THE 
 
 GEOLOGY 
 
 OF THE COUXTl;V AKOUSI) 
 
 C A R I, I S L E 
 
 (EXPLANATION OF SHEET 107, AVITH PARTS OF 101 & 106 OLD 
 SERIES; SHEETS 16 & 17, WITH PARTS OF 12, 18, 22 & 23 
 NEW SERIES). 
 
 UY 
 
 T. V HOLMES. F.G.S. 
 
 PUBLISHED BY ORDER Or THE LORDS OuMMlSsjr.NEKS 01' HEK MA.TESTY'S TKEASURV, 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 FEINTED FOE HEE MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE, 
 
 By WYMAN and SONS, Limited, Fetter Lane, E.C. 
 
 And to be purchased, either directly or tlirougli any Bookseller, from 
 
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Ill 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The district around Carlisle described in the following 
 Memoir was geologically surveyed more than twenty years 
 ago, under the superintendence of Mr. W. T. Aveline, 
 District Surveyor, by Mr. T. V. Holmes, who has prepared the 
 present Explanation. So widely and deeply is the ground 
 <;overed with Drift, that the solid rocks only rarely appear at 
 the surface, as may be seen by comparing the two editions ol 
 the maps. It accordingly became a difficult task to ascertain 
 the arrangement of the more " solid " rocks underneath the 
 superficial accumulations. In the execution of this tasK 
 important divergences of opinion arose between Mr. Holmes 
 on the one hand, and Mr. Aveline and the late Sir Andrew 
 Ramsay (then Director-General) on the other. Mr. Holmes 
 interpreting the structure solely from the evidence he had 
 gathered in the area itself, believed the Lias to rest 
 unconformably, partly on the Gypseous Shales, partly on the 
 Kirklinton Sandstone, and partly on the Stanwix Shales. 
 On the other hand, reasoning from the stratigraphy of the 
 rest of the country, Mr. Aveline held that the Gypseous 
 Shales (which are known only by borings) probably belong to 
 the same ^sub-division as the Stanwix Shales, and that the 
 Lias here, as elsewhere, rests conformably upon these 
 -representatives of the Keuper Marls in Cumberland. The 
 ultimate adoption of this latter view upon the maps neces- 
 sitated the introduction of a fault along the north-eastern end 
 ■of the Liassic outlier. 
 
 The publication of this Explanation has been delayed in 
 the hope that additional deep borings might help to settle 
 the problem, but none have been made since the completion 
 -of the Survey of the district. 
 
 In the Carlisle region, as in Devonshire, no definite plane 
 of separation can be satisfactorily traced between the Permian 
 .and the Triassic formations. 
 
 ARCH. GEIKIE, 
 
 Director-General. 
 
 Geological Survey Office, 
 J28, Jermyn Street, London, S.W. 
 23rd Februar}-, 1899. 
 
ty 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 page: 
 Preface by the Director- General iii 
 
 Chapter I. — Introduction. Area, Physical Features, Geological 
 
 Description, Table of Formations - i 
 
 Chapter II. — The St. Bees S.-^-Ndstone and its relations .to 
 • THE bordering Strata 8 
 
 Chapter F 1 1.— Strata overlying the St. Bees Sandstone. 
 
 The Gypseous Shales 21 
 
 The Kirklinton Sandstone - 23' 
 
 The Stanwix Shales - 33 
 
 . . The Lower Lias - 35 
 
 Relations between the Tri is and Lias 39 
 
 Chapter IV. — The Glacial Drift and other Superficial 
 - Deposits. 
 
 Glacial Drift 43. 
 
 Valley Gravel, Alluvium, Peat-mosses, Blown Sand an i Recent 
 
 Marine Deposits - 47' 
 
 Appendix I. — Borings, etc. 52 
 
 Appendix II. — List of works bearing on the Geology of the Carlisle 
 
 Basin 58 
 
 Index 61 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Fig. I. Faults in Shalk Beck in Shaly beds at the base of the 
 
 St. Bees Sandstone 14 
 
 „ 2. Inlier of Carboniferous Limestone near Shalk Cottage 17 
 
 „ 3, Section through Bown^ss and Abbey Town showing the 
 Gypseous Shales above the St. Bees Sandstone and below 
 
 Drift 22 
 
 '„ 4. Section on the Hetherburn, above Hethersgill, showing the 
 
 , shaly beds and breccia at the base of the St. Bees Sandstone 25- 
 
 „ 5. Section at Cliff Bridge, Kirklinton 26, 
 
 „ 6. Junction of the St. Bees and Kirklinton Sandstones on the 
 
 north side of Carwinley Burn 30 
 
 7. Plan of ground north-east of Aikton 36- 
 
 „ 8. Plan of ground south-east of Aikton 37 
 
 „ 9. Section near Carwinley Burn 40- 
 
 „ 10. Section from Rockcliff to Carlisle 41 
 
 „ n. Section across the Carlisle Basin - 41 
 
 „ I',?. Section at Durran Hill, Carlisle 44 
 
 „ 13. Sections at the Waterworks Extension, Stony Holme, Carlisle 57 
 
 1876. Wt. 11140. 500.— 4/99. Wy. & S. 
 
THE GEOLOGY 
 
 OF THE COUNTRY AROUND 
 
 CARLISLE 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 Area. 
 
 The southern boundary of the country here described con- 
 sists of the faulted line, along which the Triassic (St. Bees) 
 Sandstone is thrown down against the underlying Carboni- 
 ferous and other rocks which lie on its southern side. This 
 line is a series of zig-zags, and ranges across the country 
 from Maryport, past Aspatria and Brayton Hall, reaching- the 
 Caldew a little north of Rose Castle. West and north the 
 boundary is formed by the Solway and the Scottish Border 
 line. East of the Esk and Liddel Water", and as far souih as 
 the river Line, the total breadth of Permian and Triassic 
 rocks is included, and the line between them and the 
 Carboniferous beds forms the boundary. South of the Line, 
 to the Carboniferous inlier at Hethersgill and to the Eden 
 about Warwick, and thence round to the Caldew at Rose 
 Castle, the St. Bees Sandstone is described, only so far 
 as is necessary to show its relations to the overlying beds. 
 The boundary therefore in this quarter, though vague and 
 undefined, may be said to run through Laversdale, Newby, 
 Warwick, Wetheral, Brisco and Raughton. 
 
 The district lies in the following one-inch Ordnance maps. 
 It includes the whole of 107 (S.E., S.W., and N.E.), equi- 
 valent to sheets 1 6 and 1 7 New Series, with a varying breadth 
 of the northern part of loi N.E. and N.W. or 22 and 23 New 
 Series, and of the western border of 106 S.W. and N W., or 
 12 and 18 New Series. 
 
 The six-inch maps of Cumberland wholly or partly included 
 are Nos. 6, 9a, 10, 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 27, 28, 
 29. 30, 35. 36 and 37. 
 
 Physical Features. 
 
 The rocks of this district rarely attain a height of 400 ft. 
 above the sea, and very seldom even of 300 ft. Their greatest 
 altitude is between Shalk (Chalk or Shawk) Beck and Rose 
 
 1876. A 
 
2 PHYSICAL FFATURES. 
 
 Castle. The general slope of the ground is ^^°^ f%^° 
 west, or from south-east to north-west; ^^ ^^h^^" ^^°"^'' i^ 
 the landward margin of the district towards ^e Solway into 
 which flow all the streams draining the country. Only a 
 very insignificant proportion of the whole surface is free from 
 Glacial drift or other superficial formations, the few spots at 
 which the underlying rocks may be seen bemg here and 
 there along the courses of the rivers and brooks. A straight 
 line drawn from Allonby, north of Maryport, to Rockcliff, 
 near the mouth of the Eden, would divide a south-easterly 
 district, mainly drift-covered, from a north-westerly one so 
 entirely covered as to present not a single section m anything 
 but superficial beds of some kind, such as Glacial dritt. 
 Alluvium, peat, shingle or sand. It will therefore be obvious 
 that information as to the "solid geology"— or rocks below 
 the superficial beds— is somewhat scanty, especially as, unlike 
 the Coal- measure country to the south, there are very tew 
 borings or sinkings to compensate for the lack of natural 
 sections. The English shore of the Solway, north of Allonby, 
 is, as just remarked, destitute of sections. On the Scottish 
 shore they are very few and far between ; but, on the whole, the 
 northern is less persistently drift-covered than the southern 
 side. On both may be seen extensive alluvial and peaty 
 flats, and on both are to be found, at various levels, the 
 gravel mounds and ridges called Eskers. These latter are 
 most abundant between Allonby and Abbey Town in Cumber- 
 land,* and, on the other shore, north of the town of Dumfries 
 and in the neighbourhood of Cummertrees. On both sides 
 of the Solway the average height of the land and the amount 
 of bare rock visible gradually increase as we recede from 
 that estuary. 
 
 The Glacial Drift, with which the surface not peaty or 
 alluvial is covered, is usually gravelly rather than clayey, 
 making a light rather than a heavy soil, and forming gently 
 undulating ground, Its ridges are here and there very dis- 
 tinct and regular, and their course for a considerable distance 
 strictly parallel. In other places no clearly defined features 
 exist. I have occasionally spoken of the Glacial Drift (ex- 
 cluding eskers) by the general name of " earthy gravel," as 
 it is usually more earthy or clayey than the clean sand and 
 gravel of the Eskers, and, on the other hand, is less stiff, and 
 contains fewer angular or subangular and more well-rounded 
 stones, than Till or Boulder-clay. 
 
 The Eskers cover but a very small portion of the surface of 
 the district. They are found at various levels, and are often 
 more conspicuous than their mere height above the sea 
 would make them, from the contrast of their steep sides with 
 the low and gentle undulations of the earthy gravel, also 
 from the irregularity of their occurrence, and their generally 
 unique appearance. The difference between a district 
 
 * Excludii.g the Eskers of the neighbourhood of Brairipton, as mostly just outside 
 this district. 
 
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 3 
 
 formed of earthy gravel and one where eskers prevail is well 
 shown on the railway between Carlisle and Brampton. 
 From Carlisle to Heads Nook the contours are low and 
 regular. Between Heads Nook and How Mill an esker tract 
 is entered, and its characteristics are very obvious between 
 How Mill and Brampton. 
 
 The extensive estuarine flats bordering the Solwiy, where 
 not peaty, are usually sandy or loamy. The soil is often 
 more or less peaty for some distance outside the area mapped 
 as peat. The chief low-level peat-mosses, or those resting 
 on the estuarine flat, are the moss which occupies most of the 
 Bowness peninsula, Wedholme Flow, Drumburgh Moss, and 
 the series of mosses north of AUonby, drained by Holme 
 Dub and Black Dub. Besides these, on a somewhat higher 
 level, are Solway and Scaleby Mosses and the group between 
 Rockcliff and Westlinton. AH the above, with others that 
 might be mentioned, contain large stores of fuel and are 
 much excavated in consequence. Where the peat is very 
 thick the moss assumes a low dome-shaped contour, the 
 centre being 15 or 20 feet higher than the circumference. 
 This dome-shape is most striking at Scaleby Moss, where 
 the peat is very thick and the area of tbe moss comparatively 
 small. Many non-peaty alluvial flats, not bordering the 
 rivers, oecur here and there, as in the neighbourhoods of 
 Burgh and Rockcliff. Most of them were doubtless, at no 
 very distant period, morasses or shallow lakes, though now 
 for the most part excellent grass-land. The rivers of the 
 district also run through valleys with broad alluvial flats and 
 higher terraces of river-gravel. In some places, such as the 
 Eden just below Newby, and the Esk about Netherby, the 
 remains of two or three older terraces may be seen, in 
 addition to the lowest flat. 
 
 Though much of this district is rather below than above 
 the Cumberland average as regards scenery, it is by no means 
 destitute of landscape beauty. It is almost everywhere re- 
 markable for the fine panoramic views it affords, bounded on 
 the north and west by the Scottish hills and the Solway, on 
 the south by the mountains of the Lake Country, and on the 
 east by the Crossfell range of hills. The following streams 
 deserve mention as combining beauty with geological interest, 
 at the spots here given:— Shalk Beck, for the two miles 
 directly south of East Curthwaite; the Roe Beck, about Gates- 
 gill just above its junction with the Caldew ; the Petterill, 
 from Wreay Bridge to the bridge about two miles lower down ; 
 and the Eden at and above Wetheral. All the above are on 
 the south-eastern margin of the district. Crossing the Eden, 
 the Hether Burn is well worthy of a visit, both near its junc- 
 tion with the Line, and, again, higher up, in the neighbour- 
 hood of Hethersgill. The Line, from Cliff Bridge, Kirk- 
 linton, as far as Shank Bridge, five miles higher up, will not 
 lose by comparison with any of the streams already men- 
 tioned. Besides the beauty of the river, and the antiquarian 
 
 1876. A 2 
 
4 PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 interest imparted by the presence of the Border towers of 
 Shank and Brackenhill,. the Line is here conspicuous for the 
 almost continuous series of geological sections it presents. 
 The charms of the Line, at and above Kirklinton, are the 
 more worthy of notice here, as, from the position of the 
 neighbourhood as regards railways, they are much less known 
 than they deserve to be. From the bridge over the Esk at 
 Longtown very beautiful views may be obtained looking either 
 northward or southward. Geologically, however, the Esk is 
 of little interest below Kirkandrews Tower, above which are 
 numerous sections. Carwinley Burn, whose outfall is at the 
 sharp bend made by the Esk just above Netherby, is a stream 
 of the highest interest and beauty in the lowest mile or so of 
 its course. Lastly, Glinger Burn, west of the Esk, though 
 decidedly inferior in every respect to the streams already 
 mentioned, is worthy of notice as the only burn showing 
 sections west of the Esk within the English border. The Sark, 
 which divides England from Scotland, shows nothing but 
 superficial beds till we ascend its course nearly as far as the 
 spot at which Scots Dyke approaches it, and there St. Bees 
 Sandstone is visible. Where the Sark skirts the western 
 side of Solway Moss, at a spot called Black Brows, there is a 
 cliff of drift capped by eight or nine feet of peat. On its 
 eastern and southern margins Solway Moss is bounded by a 
 belt of drift, varying in width from 500 or 600 yards to less 
 than 200, and rising to a height of from 20 to 30 feet above the 
 broad alluvial flat of the Esk. The height of this belt is 
 slightly greater than that of the peat at the edge of the moss, 
 but less than that near the centre by about 20 feet. 
 
 On the middle of the extensive plain between Solway Moss 
 and the Esk, and just touched upon by the Caledonian Rail- 
 way in its course between Floriston and Gretna, occurs a 
 patch of peat, which, though of little or no importance as a 
 store of fuel, is most interesting from its strange history. It 
 is all that remains of the mighty mass of peat that covered 
 about five hundred acres of the alluvial flat, on the bursting 
 of Solway Moss rather more than a century ago. The scene 
 of devastation was visited by the Rev. William Gilpin (a well- 
 known traveller in search of the picturesque) a few months 
 after the overflow.* He has left a most vivid description of 
 the appearance then presented by the plain, and of what he 
 could learn respecting the outbreak itself. He says : — 
 
 "On the i6th November, 1771, in a dark tempestuous night, the 
 inhabitants of the plain were alarmed with a dreadful crash which they 
 could in no way account for. Many of them were then abroad in the 
 fields watching their cattle ; lest the Esk, which was rising violently in 
 the storm, should carry them ofif. None of these miserable people 
 could conceive the noise they heard to proceed from any other ciuse 
 
 * Observations relative chiefly to Picturesque T!e-uty made in the year 1772 on 
 Several Parts of England, p-rlicularly the Mcun'oinsand Lakes of Cumberland and 
 Wesin)oielind. By t^ e Rtv. William Gilpin, M.A., Preb. Salisbury and Vicar of 
 Boldre. 
 
SoLwaY moss. 5 
 
 than the overflowing of the river in some shape, though to them un- 
 accountable. Such, indeed, as lived nearer the source of the e.uption 
 were sensible that the noise came in a different direction, but were 
 equally at a loss for the cause. In the meantiaie the enormous mass of 
 fluid substance, which had burst from the moss, moved slowly on, 
 spreading itself more and more as it got possession of the plain. Some 
 of the inhabitants through the terror of the night could pUinly discover 
 it advancing, like a moving hill. This was in fact the case ; for the gush 
 of mud carried before it through the first two or three hundred yards of 
 its course a part of the breastwork (of peat), which though low was jet 
 several feet in perpendicular height. But it soon deposited this solid 
 mass and became a heavy fluid. One house after another it spread 
 round — filled — and crushed into ruin ; just giving time to the terrified 
 inhabitants to escape. Scarce anything was saved, except their lives ; 
 nothing of their furniture, few ot their cattle. Some people were even 
 surprised in their beds and bad the additional distress of flying naked 
 from their ruin. The morning light explained the cause of this amazing 
 scene ot terror, and showed the calamity in its full extent ; and yet 
 among all the conjectures of that dreadful night the mischief which 
 really happened had never been supposed." 
 
 Mr. Gilpin remarks that, though the first shock was the 
 most tremendous, the inundation continued still spreading for 
 many weeks till it covered the whole plain — an area of 500 
 acres— lying in some parts 30 or 40 feet deep. The overplus 
 found its way into the Esk, and annoyed the fish so much 
 that no salmon ventured into the river that season. He was 
 assured that many lumps of peat floated out to sea and were 
 taken up some months after at the Isle of Man. At the time 
 of Mr. Gilpin's visit the peat on the plain had been set on 
 fire in order to consume it. With some difficulty he 
 managed, with others, to reach the place whence the inunda- 
 tion had come forth, but found very little change in the surface 
 of the moss, considering the vastness of the discharge. From 
 this higher ground, being to windward of the smoke, they 
 obtained a clear view of the plain and the course of the 
 irruption over it. Here and there the broken rafters of a 
 house or the top of a blasted tree were seen. But, he 
 continues, 
 
 " though this plain had once been the pride of the country, lands 
 which in the evening would have let for twenty shillings an acre, by the 
 morning light were not worth sixpences. On this well cultivated plain 
 twenty-eight families had their dwellings and little farms, every one ot 
 which, except a few who lived near the skirts of it, had the world totally 
 to begin again." 
 
 The agency of fire was found competent only to reduce the 
 drier parts of the mass on the plain, and then only near the 
 surface. The bulk of the peat was removed by the help of 
 running water, in accordance with the plan of a man named 
 Wilson. From the reservoirs formed by a little stream at the 
 highest part of the overflowed ground, he cut channels in 
 various directions to the Esk ; and when the water was let off, 
 he placed numbers of men by the stream, who rolled into it 
 large masses of mossy earth, which had been hardened by 
 the sun. The stream tumbled them into the river, and the 
 river conveyed them to the sea. 
 
6 GEOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION. 
 
 Improved drainage of the Moss has rendered the occurrence 
 of any similar event nowadays almost, if not quite, im- 
 possible. 
 
 Geological Description. 
 
 The lowest bed we have to deal with is the St. Bees Sand- 
 stone.* This is so called because it may be best observed in 
 the lofty cliffs of St. Bees Head. There is a still older Red 
 Sandstone known as the Penrith Sandstone, which is well 
 developed in the locality whence it derives its name. Though 
 not found within this district, it may be seen close to the 
 border in the Roebeck, Petterill, and Eden, and deserves a 
 brief notice here. It is usually of a bright red colour, often 
 verging on scarlet, though buff beds are not uncommon ; and 
 is remarkable for being false-bedded on a scale that gives it 
 a very singular and unmistakable appearance. The St. Bees 
 Sandstone is of a deeper, more brick -red tint, with less 
 inclination towards scarlet. Like the Penrith stone it 
 occasionally exhibits buff-coloured beds. Little nodules of 
 red clay, rain-pittings and ripple-markings are common in 
 it ; and it is not usually false-bedded. Both Penrith and 
 St. Bees Sandstones are much quarried for building. 
 Between them is a considerable thickness of red sandy shale. 
 
 The Penrith and St. Bees Sandstones are so unlike in 
 appearance that there is usually but little difficulty in 
 distinguishing them even in hand-specimens, and still less in 
 a quarry or river-cliff. Perhaps the best place on the 
 borders of this district for studying their respective 
 peculiarities is on the Petterill, between the bridge at Wreay 
 and that at Newbiggin. The St. Bees Sandstone is seen in 
 the quarry near Newbiggin Bridge, and the Penrith 
 Sandstone half a mile higher up the stream. Red sandy 
 shales, with gypsum, lie between them. 
 
 In Dumfriesshire St. Bees Sandstone is seen between 
 Annan and Kirtlebridge. The red sandstone in the 
 neighbourhood of Dumfries, ranging from Caerlaverock 
 Castle to Dumfries, and thence for a few miles northward 
 of that town, with the same general direction, corresponds 
 exactly, in appearance, to the Penrith Sandstone. This last- 
 named area, however, being completely isolated, the exact 
 .relations of the rock composing it to the St. Bees Sandstone 
 of Annan and, consequently, to the Penrith Sandstone of the 
 Eden Valley, must remain doubtful. 
 
 A third sandstone, usually red, but with much greater 
 thicknesses of whitish stone than the St. Bees, remains to be 
 described.! This is the overlying Kirklinton, Rockcliff and 
 Cummersdale Sandstone. It resembles the Penrith Sand- 
 stone rather than that of St. Bees in colour. It is like the 
 former also in being very false-bedded, though not on so 
 
 * Lower beds are only touched upon incidental Ij-. 
 
 + I here omit to notice the Gypseous Shales, as they are nowhere visible. 
 
TABLE OF FORMATIONS. 7 
 
 larg^e a scale as the Penrith rock. It is usually very soft, and 
 being almost useless as a building- material is scarcely ever 
 quarried. This sandstone and the characters distinguishing 
 it from that of St. Bees, may perhaps be best studied in 
 Carwinley Burn. There the Kirldinton stone is well shown 
 between the outfall into the Esk and Carwinley Mill, and the 
 St. Bees Sandstone is seen above the Mill. Their junction 
 at the Mill is very clear and distinct. 
 
 The Shales overlying the Kirklinton Sandstone vary 
 considerably in colour and hardness. Their most character- 
 istic tints are red and greenish-grey. They may be seen 
 towards the base of the river-cliff at Etterby Scaur ; between 
 the North British railway-bridge and Grinsdale ; and at Beau- 
 mont, all on the Eden. Their junctions with the Kirklinton 
 Sandstone may be best observed at Westlinton, and near 
 Cliff Bridge, Kirklinton. No evidence of the Rhaetic Beds 
 has been obtained. 
 
 The Liassic rocks of the district are so little exposed at 
 the surface that the evidence as to their lithological 
 character derivable from sections is of the most trifling 
 nature. However, the evidence of borings and of a sinking 
 tends to show that the unseen strata of this period resemble 
 those visible to the eye, and consist like them of dark- 
 coloured shales with bands of bluish limestone. They are 
 best shown a little west of Great Orton, in the stream 
 which runs to Flat. 
 
 Table of Formations. 
 
 Post-Glacial 
 
 Glacial Drift 
 
 Lower Lias 
 Rhsetic Beds ? 
 
 Keuper 
 
 and 
 Bunter. 
 
 Basalt 
 
 Represented on Map. 
 /Red and green shales. 
 
 Kirklinton Sandstone. 
 
 ^St. Bees Sandstone. 
 Whin Dyke. 
 
 Tidal Beach and Raised Beach. 
 Blown Sand. 
 Alluvium and Peat. 
 River Terraces. 
 
 Sand and Gravel (Eskers, &c.). 
 Earthy gravel and Boulder Clay. 
 
 Dark shales and bands of limestone. 
 
 {may be present, but not proved). 
 
 Grouping of T. V. Holmes 
 Stanwix Shales. Red and 
 
 green shales. 
 Kirkhnton Sandstone. 
 Gypseous Shales. Red 
 
 shales with gypsum. 
 St. Bees Sandstone, 
 
 [Note. — The Gypseous Shales are, in the opinion of Mr. T. V. Holmes, 
 older than the Kirklinton Sandstone, but this was not the view taken by 
 Mr. Aveline and other officers of the Geological Survey and expressed on 
 the Survey map. Mr. Holmes' views were published, with a sketch-map, in 
 the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, vol. xxxvii. 1881.] 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 The St. Bees Sandstone and its Relations 
 TO the Bordering Strata. 
 
 In the consideration in detail of the geolog-ical structure of 
 the Carlisle Basin it will be best to begin at Maryport, and 
 thence to proceed along the Permo-Triassic boundary, via 
 Aspatria and Brayton to Rose Castle on the Caldew. East 
 of the Caldew the route will be by Wetheral, Hethersgill, 
 Kirklinton and Netherby to the Scottish border, and will 
 end with a brief reference to the Scottish side as far as 
 Annan. 
 
 At Maryport the St. Bees Sandstone appears here and 
 there on the foreshore north of the harbour, and in the 
 quarries in the face of the old sea-clifE The most northerly 
 of these quarries is not quite a mile from the harbour. Thence, 
 northward along the shore, nothing appears, for about a mile 
 and three quarters, but the Raised Beach with a little Blown 
 Sand resting upon it, and a sandy foreshore with many 
 scattered boulders derived from the Glacial Drift. A little 
 patch of St. Bees Sandstone, however, becomes visible on 
 the foreshore in front of Swarthy Hill. This is its most 
 northerly exposure along the coast on the English side of 
 the Solway. It is not visible on the shore between Maryport 
 Harbour and St. Bees Head in a southerly direction. 
 
 The line separating the St. Bees Sandstone from the 
 Carboniferous rocks to the south ranges from Maryport 
 inland in a north-easterly direction, and is for some miles 
 nearly a straight line. The exposures of the rock, however, 
 in this drift-covered region are so few as usually to leave 
 much to be desired in the way of evidence, though near 
 Maryport the want is not very serious. St. Bees Sandstone 
 appears in the quarries situated where the roads to Bank End 
 and Allonby meet that from Maryport to Birkby. One quarry 
 is between the Bank End and Allonby roads ; the second is 
 on the eastern side of the latter road. Between the Bank 
 End and Allonby roads the stone is seen in the Birkby road, 
 and within Nether Hall park, where it abuts against an old 
 alluvial terrace. 
 
 No exposure of the strata is seen west of Birkby Mill along 
 the railway between Maryport and Dearham, and the river 
 Ellen affords no section. On the eastern side of the Mill, 
 however, Carboniferous rocks appear, showing that the 
 boundary with the Permian or Triassic strata in this locality 
 is somewhere between Birkby Mill and the above-mentioned 
 quarries. Passing Dearham station. Carboniferous rocks are 
 visible close to the Birkby Brick and Tile Works. On 
 ascending the beck, north of the railway, they may be seen 
 
CARBONIFEROUS AND TRIAS. 9 
 
 about 3 50 yards above its junction with the Ellen ; indicating 
 that the boundary is not far south of Crosby. Sections on 
 its probable line between Nether Hall park and Crosby are 
 entirely wanting. 
 
 North-west of Crosby, St. Bees Sandstone appears in a 
 bank on the south side of Brunsow Beck, close to the road 
 between Crosby and Allerby, and, again, in the quarries on the 
 east side of Allerby Hall. Many fragments of it may be seen 
 on the isolated hill that is somewhat conspicuous about 500 
 yards due east of the northern end of the village of Allerby. 
 This hill is on the northern side of the road from Prospect 
 to Bull Gill railway-station, and on the eastern side of 
 that from AUonby and Hayton, close to their point of 
 junction. 
 
 Turning from the drift-covered fields to the railway and 
 river, the purple-grey sandstone, seen in many quarries 
 between Rose Gill and Crosby Collieries, deserves a brief 
 mention here, though it is not Triassic but Carboniferous. 
 It is supposed to be the well-known "Whitehaven Sandstone," 
 but is so intermediate in appearance between common buff- 
 coloured Carboniferous and ordinary red Triassic sandstone, 
 that any person expecting to see either brick-red Triassic or 
 brown or buff Carboniferous stone, might be puzzled as to its 
 true connexions. There can be no doubt, however, that it is 
 a Carboniferous rock. This purple-grey colour is by no 
 means uncommon in Carboniferous rocks of all ages in 
 Cumberland east of this locality, though a decided contrast 
 to that of the Carboniferous beds hitherto visible west of 
 Rose Gill. 
 
 On the horizon of the boundary there is no appearance of 
 Triassic rock between the hill last-mentioned near Allerby 
 and a mound showing many fragments of St. Bees stone 
 about 400 yards S.W. of Gallowbarrow Cottage. This 
 cottage is on the west side of the road between Prospect and 
 Hayton. An old coal-shaft about 470 yards north of Westmoor 
 Cottage, in which the St. Bees Sandstone was not pierced, 
 affords some indication as to the boundary-line, from the 
 Carboniferous side. Beyond this pit the line bends so as to 
 run a little north of the junction of the four roads at Prospect, 
 and thence in the direction of Oughterside Farm. The old coal- 
 pits are the only visible evidence as to the geological boundary 
 between the two last-named places. Between Oughterside 
 Farm and the road from the village of Aspatria to the railway- 
 station many fragments of St. Bees Sandstone may be seen 
 in the fields on the hill-side ; while close to the village, on the 
 north and west, St. Bees Sandstone is abundantly exposed. 
 The boundary-line runs along the hill-side, south of, but 
 nearly parallel to, the course of the long village street, but 
 there is no surface evidence as to its exact position. Thence 
 it proceeds, in a nearly straight line, across Brayton Park a 
 little south of the Hall, and keeps a little south of Baggrow 
 Quarry, which is in St. Bees Sandstone. 
 
iO CARBONIFEROUS AND TRiAS.> 
 
 About Maryport, Oughterside and Aspatria, colliery work- 
 ings have, here and there, touched the Triassic area, and 
 though only a very small portion of it has been thus proved, 
 yet, where touched, the line of demarcation between the 
 Carboniferous and Triassic rocks has always been found to be 
 a faulted one. Such is the case in the Ellenborough Colliery, 
 in the Crosby and Aspatria Collieries,* and also, at Bank 
 End Pit, Oughterside. t Between Aspatria and the Waver 
 the collieries give no- assistance. 
 
 East of Baggrow Quarry purple-grey (Carboniferous) sand- 
 stone may be seen on Watch Hill, while, on the other hand, 
 Triassip rock is visible in the upper part of a streamlet 
 running northward to Crookdake Hall. The exact spot is 
 where the little plantation stands, about 400 yards E. of the 
 road traversing the southern end of Crookdake, and almost 
 the same distance from the nearest house of that village. 
 Southward thereis an oldquarryof purple-grey (Carboniferous) 
 sandstone a few yards north of the junction between the road 
 ranging between Kinggate and the National School, N. of 
 Priestproft Colliery, and that passing the Parsonage and 
 Leesrigg in the direction of Whitehall. 
 
 Triassic rock is to be seen about Crookdake Mill, and on 
 ascending Crummock Beck, its most southerly exposure 
 appears about 600 yards beyond the Mill. Above this point 
 Crummock Beck shows no rock. Eastward, the Little Waver 
 is devoid of sections, and the country between the two becks 
 is entirely covered by Glacial Drift. On the other hand, the 
 most northerly evidence of the existence of Carboniferous 
 •rocks between the above streams is a bore-hole on the south 
 side of the railway, two-thirds of a mile S. of Blaithwaite 
 siding. Soon, however, we approach the Waver, which 
 shows sufficient rock to enable us to fix the line of demarcation 
 within a few yards. South of Pasture House, and for more 
 than 200 yards N. of it, purple-grey (Carboniferous) sandstone 
 and shale are visible. But 100 yards north of the most 
 northerly Carboniferous rock visible, red sandstone appears 
 close to the water's edge. The exposure is, unfortunately, a 
 small one, and the intervening area shows nothing but some 
 rather wet ground. However, the marked difference between 
 the purple- grey Carboniferous and the brick-red Triassic sand- 
 stone is as evident here as in places where the sections are 
 incomparably finer. 
 
 Between Aspatria and the point on the Waver we have now 
 reached, the boundary-line probably continues to be a faulted 
 one, though the paucity of evidence prevents absolute 
 certainty on this head. A glance at the map shows tha,t it is 
 almost a straight line, if it be drawn at equal distances S. of 
 the most southerly exposures of Triassic rock. The dip of 
 
 * "On Probable Extension of the Coal Field under the R-d Sandstone of Cumber- 
 land. By IMatthias Dunn, North Eng. Tnst. Min. Eng. Vol. xiii. 
 t Authority of the late J. Fletcher, M.P,, F.R.S, 
 
ST. BteES SANDSTONE. 1 I 
 
 the St. Bees Sandstone in the quarries N. of Aspatria, in that 
 close to the railway midway between Aspatria and Bray ton, 
 and in those at Baggrow, varies but very slightly both in 
 amount and direction. The direction is from 20 to 30 degrees 
 N. of W. and the amount from S to 9 degrees. The small 
 amount of the dip, and the regularity as regards direction, 
 suggest an absence of faults of any importance in the St. 
 Bees Sandstone itself in this locality. The presumption 
 therefore seems to be decidedly in favour of a faulted line. 
 
 Very soon after crossing the Waver below Pasture House, 
 the boundary-line changes the direction it has hitherto taken, 
 and ranges north of west and south of east for more than two 
 miles. Though much of the country is drift-covered, the 
 various becks which collectively make up the Waver show 
 many important sections, and the records- of the workings 
 of Bolton Colliery prove that the Triassic boundary here- 
 abouts is a line of fault.* As regards visible evidence. Parson 
 Bridge is the spot around which the most important sections 
 appear. Below Parson Bridge the Waver shows many Car- 
 boniferous sections till we decend to the spot N. of Pasture 
 House, at which we found the red Triassic stone. The fields 
 north of the Waver, between that place and Parson Bridge, 
 afford no evidence, being entirely drift- covered. A few yards 
 north of Parson Bridge, however, there is a large quarry in 
 St. Bees Sandstone, a,nd another above the bridge but south 
 of the stream. Beyond this, towards Islekirk Hall, St. Bees 
 Sandstone with the underlying'shaly beds is well shown, as 
 far as and a little beyond the foot-bridge. Thence, to the junc- 
 tion of Thackthwaite and Townthwaite Becks, the stream 
 shows nothing but drift. Above the junction Carboniferous 
 rocks speedily appear in both becks. Pow Beck shows many 
 Carboniferous sections, the lowest being close to its outfall 
 at Parson Bridge. The dip of the Triassic stone, which is 
 towards the Carboniferous bedsi, combined with the close 
 proximity of sections in the two formations about Parson 
 Bridge, would be enough of themselves to establish the 
 existence of a faulted boundary. A plan of the workings of 
 Bolton Colliery is prefixed to the paper by Mr. Matthias 
 Dunn before mentioned. 
 
 From Parson Bridge, westward, the faulted line j.anges in 
 the direction of Crossbill till it abuts against the fault from 
 Aspatria to the Waver. East of Parson Bridge it must keep 
 a little north of the many old coal-pits between Pow Beck 
 and Boltonwood Lane, and of the sections seen in Town- 
 thwaite and Thackthwaite Becks, above their junction. 
 
 Though the fault does not bound the Triassic beds east of 
 the road from Pligh Hall to Westward Church (or there- 
 abouts) it may exist nevertheless. But on proceeding 
 eastward of the road just mentioned, across the drift-covered 
 fields to Park Wood, the sections in Silver Beck, which runs 
 
 * See Mr. Matthias Dunn's paper before referred to. 
 
12 TRIAS. 
 
 through the wood, are found to be uniformly Carbonifei-ous. 
 Such is the case also in Wiza Beck, between Westward 
 Park and Rosley. Between Westward Park and the church, 
 the Wiza affords no sections, nor do the fields on either side 
 of it. 
 
 The little stream that runs into the Wiza from the south- 
 east, passing close to Westward Church, is the most important 
 source of evidence existing hereabouts. In the upper part of 
 its course, about 300 yards east of the farm called Church 
 Hill, blocks of Carboniferous sandstone may be seen, though 
 there is no satisfactory evidence that any of them are in 
 place. Under the circumstances, however, their mere 
 presence at this spot is worth recording. Descending the 
 streamlet we find, on the south side of the church, the most 
 easterly exposure' of the Triassic rock in the immediate 
 neighbourhood. Below its junction with the Wiza there are 
 sections in St. Bees Sandstone as far north as Jackson Bridge, 
 a considerable amount of red sandy shale being interbedded 
 with it. At and near the church, and about 300 yards west 
 of it, its dip is south-easterly or towards the Carboniferous 
 rocks, which, so far as it goes, gives a presumption that the 
 boundary between the Carboniferous and Triassic formations 
 is here, as ftirther west, a faulted one. 
 
 This faulted line appeal's to be identical with one which is 
 known to extend from Plumbland and Torpenhow to High 
 Hall on Townthwaite Beck about a mile south of Westward 
 Church. Its course is nearly parallel with that which, ranging 
 from Aspatria and Brayton Hall in a north-easterly direction 
 to the Waver, divides the St. Bees Sandstone from the Coal- 
 measures. But the more southerly fault from Plumbland to 
 High Hall forms the boundary between the Coal-measures on 
 its northern or downthrow side, and Lower Carboniferous 
 rocks on the south. North of High Hall, as we have seen, it 
 separates the St. Bees Sandstone from Lower Carboniferous 
 beds and apparently continues to do so towards the north- 
 east as far as Westward Cottage. 
 
 North of the Wiza, rock may be seen in the following 
 places. .St. Bees Sandstone is visible in the fields between 
 Beckbottom and Greenrigg, in the beck between Studfold and 
 Speedgill bridge, and in Boston Beck from the Westward 
 Cottage northward. On the other hand, Carboniferous 
 fragments appear in considerable numbers on the surface in 
 and around a small plantation about 300 yards north of the 
 farmhouse called Beckbottom. Nearly midway between, and 
 m a straight line with Lowling and Beckbottom, is another 
 small plantation, and in and near it Carboniferous sandstone 
 and shale appear. They may also be seen in the stream 
 runnmg north-west from Lowling to a distance, measured in 
 a straight line, of 600 yards north of the farmhouse. 
 
 Crossing the road from Curthwaite to Rosley and 
 continuing to ascend the brook nearest the road, on the 
 east side of Westward Cottage, Triassic and Carboniferous 
 
ST. BEES SANDSTONE. 1 3 
 
 rocks both appear, with an obscure tract between them. 
 The former rocks are seen about 90 yards, the latter about 
 160 yards, south of the ford. A thin band of limestone, 
 dipping about 25 degrees N.W., is the Carboniferous bed 
 nearest the most southerly exposure of Triassic rock. 
 
 From what has just been said it will be seen that after 
 leaving the Wiza, the boundary-line crosses the road 
 from Warblebank to Rosley somewhere between the former 
 place and the farm called Oxrigg, and curves slightly so 
 as to keep a few yards south of the road at Brackenthwaite, 
 where it meets that from Crags. Then, keeping N. of 
 the various exposures of Carboniferous rocks W. and N.W. 
 of Lowling, it crosses the Rosley and Curthwaite road, in 
 a line with the southern boundary of the garden of Westward 
 Cottage, so as to intervene between the Carboniferous 
 and Triassic rocks on the east side of the road. 
 
 In short, as the only evidence as to the nature of the 
 boundary between Brackenthwaite and Westward Cottage is 
 what has been stated, and as the surface-features are, as 
 usual, simply drift features, it seems best to assume the 
 continuation of the fault, which appears to be the most 
 probable boundary about Westward Church, as far as 
 Westward Cottage. The boundary at Westward Cottage 
 it not likely to be a fault of any great size, as the Triassic 
 rocks of the immediate neighbourhood are shaly beds, 
 probably identical with those seen towards the base of the 
 St. Bees Sandstone in Shalk Beck. 
 
 Between Westward Cottage and the Triassic sections in 
 Shalk Beck are the St. Bees Sandstone quarries at Howrigg. 
 The direction of the dip in them is about 20 degrees E. of 
 North, the amount varying from 14 to i6 degrees. 
 
 Half a mile E. of Howrigg quarries, are the still more 
 important ones of Shalk * Beck. If we ascend the beck from 
 East Curthwaite southward we gain an excellent notion of 
 the characteristics of the St. Bees Sandstone, a thickness 
 of some hundreds of feet of it being here exposed. A 
 considerable mass of buff-coloured stone appears at " Tom 
 Smith's Leap," a rocky promontory overhanging the beck 
 a few yards north of a straight line drawn from Barnrigg 
 to Shalk Lodge. Eighty or ninety yards above "Tom 
 Smith's Leap," in the river-cliff on the west side of the 
 stream, five small faults are beautifully shown. Their down- 
 throw is to the south in every case, and they are all 
 
 *The name of this beck ort the maps is "Chalk"; on the quarry carts, 
 ' Shawk ;" while Mr. Jacksnn of St. Bees (in a letter to Mr. R. Russell), expressed 
 himself in favour of "Shalk," as having the greatest weight of authority in its 
 fav^llr. 
 
 The Rev. W. Gilpin, in the work from which I have already quoted, remarks: — 
 " At a place called Chalk-cliff (which by the way is a cliff of red stone) this legionary 
 inscription is engraved in the native rock : — 
 
 LEG II AVG 
 
 MILITES FEC 
 
 C O H III C O H I I I I " 
 
H 
 
 TRIAS. 
 
 included in a space about 40 feet long, the cliff being 20 feet 
 high. The amount of throw varies from S inches to about 
 35 inches. 
 
 Fig. I.— Faults in Shalk Beck in Shaly beds at the baoc of 
 the St. Bees vSandstone. 
 
 The rock traversed by these faults, and all the Triassic 
 beds higher up the stream, except the thin breccia more or 
 less developed at the very base of the formation, consist of 
 red sandy shale or shaly sandstone, with occasional harder 
 bands. About 250 yards above the group of faults the stream 
 makes a sharp turn eastward, and runs through small alluvial 
 flats. On the east side of the road leading past the lime-kiln 
 towards Shalk Cottage the breccia may be seen. It is com.- 
 posed mainl}. of angular fragments of Carboniferous lime- 
 stone in a reddish matrix. The small faults lower down 
 seem to have united tog'ether in this direction to form a fault 
 which may be seen on descending the bank east of the road 
 beside the lime-kiln. East of the line of fault is Carboniferous 
 Limestone, hard, compact, and light in colour, with very few 
 indications of fossils. It is much obscured by tumbled drift. 
 The drift is here thicker than lower down the beck, being from 
 20 to 30 feet, instead of 8 to 10 feet as in the neighbourhood 
 of " Tom Smith's Leap." The limestone is best seen near the 
 most easterly point reached by the old course of the stream. 
 
 About 100 yards above the southern end of the new channel 
 the base of the Triassic formation is very well shown on the 
 right (or eastern) bank of the beck. The unconformity is 
 clearly marked, also the contrast in colour between the 
 purple- grey Carboniferous beds and the brick-red Trias. A 
 few yards further on, just beyond the sharp easterly turn 
 made by the stream, the junction appears very plainly beside 
 the footpath on the left bank ; and here a little fine breccia is 
 perceptible. 
 
 For a space of between 650 and 700 yards above the spot 
 at which the unconformity is best seen, the beck flows over 
 Carboniferous sandstones and shales. The Triassic outcrop, 
 on the left bank, may be traced with some approach to 
 certainty. It appears to recede gradually from the stream 
 till it attains a distance of about 250 yards from it. Some- 
 thing similar, no doubt, takes place on the right bank, but 
 drift obscures everything on that side. 
 
ST. BEES SANDSTONE. 1 5 
 
 The field on the left bank of the stream, and due E. of the 
 more northern of the two farms alike called Greenquarries, 
 has an abundance of angular fragments of Carboniferous 
 sandstone and shale on its surface, at 50 to loo yards from 
 the beck. On ascending the stream, and approaching the 
 southern hedge of the field, I'riassic fragments alone are 
 visible. And the field beyond, adjacent to the road, is 
 covered with excavations in Triassic rock, from the beck to 
 the farm-road on its western border. A fault ranging nearly 
 E. and W., and having a downthrow to the south, has again 
 brought ill the Triassic beds. We will now consider the 
 evidence as to its position, and the area occupied by this 
 Triassic tract. 
 
 East of Shalk Beck the country is entirely drift- covered, 
 and there is no evidence of the fault whatever. At a distance 
 of about 300 yards, due west of Greenquarries, many angular 
 fragments of red rock appear on the surface ; but with this 
 exception the country enclosed between the Westward 
 Cottage and Howrigg sections on the north, the Shalk Beck 
 sections on the east, the road from Rosley Rigg to Shalk 
 Beck on the south, and that from Rosley Rigg to Curthwaite 
 on the west, is entirely barren of sections. Crossing the 
 Curthwaite road, however, sections in the brook between 
 Rosley Rigg and Lowling throw some light on the matter. 
 In the field adjoining Rosley Rigg farmhouse, but on the 
 west side of the road, coarse purple-grey Carboniferous 
 sandstone appears in the little beck, and as we descend 
 tov/ards Lowling, the rock is seen to within about 25 y^rds i f 
 the northern hedge. But close to this hedge, throughout the 
 ne3;t field, and for 50 to 60 yards in the field beyond that, 
 the streamlet cuts through red shaly beds. Beyond this, 
 again, we soon see Carboniferous sandstone and shale. The 
 nature of the junctions is not visible, but we have here 
 sufficient evidence to warrant the extension of the fault in 
 this direction a little beyond the most northerly exposure 
 of red rock. Westward of this point :he fault probably 
 bends slightly towards the south, but how far there may be 
 Triassic rock on its downthrow side there is no evidence to 
 tell. It is improbable, however, that there is much Triassic 
 rock west of Rosley Rigg. We have seen that the greater 
 part of the field west of the farmhouse shows Carbonifetous 
 beds ; there is also Carboniferous rock in the little plantation 
 on the south side of the house. Retracing our steps towards 
 Shalk Beck, nothing but Carboniferous rock is seen south of 
 the road, though Triassic strata are visible in the beck close 
 to the bridge on the north side. But immediately south of 
 the bridge there is an interval of about 300 yards in which no 
 section appears. 
 
 Thus, while at Rosley Rigg the Triassic outcrop — if it be 
 one — can hardly be south of the Shalk Beck road, it is also 
 not likely to come many yards south of it between the two 
 farms called Greenquarries. East of the beck it probably 
 
1 6 TRIAS. 
 
 soon abuts against the fault, which here, as at Rosley Rigg, 
 appears to bend gently southward : the two lines would 
 consequently soon meet. Surface-features are here, as usual, 
 of no help, being either wholly drift-features, or so naasked 
 by drift that their interpretation must always remain in the 
 highest degree doubtful. 
 
 One thing only remains to be settled west of Shalk Beck, 
 and that is, the Triassic boundary between Westward Cottage 
 and that stream. I have already remarked upon the non- 
 existence of sections in the fields through which the boundary 
 runs. It may or may not be a faulted one throughout. 
 Its course is probably from Westward Cottage in a south- 
 easterly direction to some point not far from the northern 
 Greenquarries, where it may abut against the east and west 
 fault which crosses Shalk Beck north of the road between 
 Rosley Rigg and Shalk Beck. This last-named fault soon 
 abuts, east of Shalk Beck, against another fault of very con- 
 siderable importance, which with a N.E and S.W. range and a 
 downthrow to the north, forms the southern boundary of the 
 St. Bees Sandstone from its point of junction with the 
 Greenquarries fault to the Petterill at Newbiggin. 
 
 The country between Shalk Beck and the Caldew is 
 singularly destitute of sections even for this part of Cum- 
 berland; and consequently, though there; can be little doubt 
 as to the main geological features, anything like precision of 
 line is unattainable. It is therefore impossible to say more 
 about the point at which the Greenquarries fault abuts 
 against the Rose Bank and Newbiggin fault than that it is 
 probably somewhere between Landsceugh and Mossend 
 Cottage. The course of the Rose Bank fault, between Shalk 
 Beck and the Caldew, is probably from a point midway 
 between Shalk Side and Hayrigg, S.E. of Rosley, towards 
 Rose Bank, in a nearly straight line. Carboniferous rocks 
 exist on both sides of it from Shalk Beck to the point at 
 which the Greenquarries fault abuts against it. Beyond this 
 spot northward as far as the Caldew, the St. Bees Sandstone, 
 with the sandy shales at its base, is brought in on the 
 northern side ; while on the south all that can be said is that 
 Rose Castle and grounds are almost certainly on Permian 
 rocks, while Moss End may be on either Triassic or 
 Carboniferous, and Park House is certainly on Carboniferous 
 rocks. For, besides the want of sections, much depends on 
 which of certain faults south of the Rose Bank fault, are pro- 
 longed, and which terminate : points which there are no means 
 of settling accurately. East of the Caldew, the effect of the 
 Rose Bank and Newbiggin fault is to separate the St. Bees 
 Sandstone, on its north side, from the Penrith Sandstone and 
 Lower Gypseous Shales on the south. The existence of the 
 fault is a legitimate inference from the fact that along its line, 
 E. of the Caldew, St. Bees Sandstone only is to be seen 
 on the north side, though nothing but the existence of such 
 a fault could prevent the appearance of the Penrith Sand- 
 
ST. BEES SANDSTONE. 
 
 17 
 
 stone and Gypseous Shales at certain spots where only St. 
 Bees Sandstone can be seen. Another fault forms the 
 boundary between the Lower and Upper Red rocks from 
 Newbiggin to Brackenbank S. of Wetheral. 
 
 Perhaps it may be well to say a few words on the presence 
 of Carboniferous Limestone at Shalk Cottage, and its possible 
 extension eastward (under the drift) uncovered by the St. 
 Bees Sandstone. It seems to me that a tunnel driven into 
 the bank eastward, at the spot where the limestone appears, 
 would probably show a state of things like that indicated in 
 the diagrammatic section below ; the amount of ground bare 
 of Triassic rock being very small. 
 
 Fig. II. — Inlier of Carboniferous Limestone near Shalk 
 
 Cottage. 
 
 OldCourse of Booll 
 
 Ca.rbortirert)tjLS 
 SlraJls.Cott&g'o Ijitn.es to n^ 
 
 AllvLvLcUIFiat, 
 
 Small inliers of Carboniferous rock, such as the Shalk 
 Cottage inlier probably is, may be seen on ascending the 
 Roebeck. The lower is in the immediate neighbourhood of 
 Gatesgill, the higher due east of Raughtonhead. They tend 
 to illustrate the uneven nature of the Carboniferous foundation 
 on which the Permo-Triassic rocks repose. 
 
 The line of junction of the St. Bees Sandstone with 
 lower rocks has now been traced as far as is, at present, 
 necessary. For some distance north of Wetheral, there is no 
 need to do more (in order to understand the geology of 
 the Carlisle Basin) than to note the connexion between 
 the St. Bees Sandstone, as the base, and the beds overlying 
 it. For this purpose it is sufficient to be familiar with the 
 St. Bees Sandstone near the line of outcrop of the overlying 
 beds. Certainly there is no need to consider the lower 
 boundary of the broad unbroken belt of St. Bees Sandstone 
 about Brampton and Walton. Where, however, it occupies 
 but a comparatively narrow space, as between the Line 
 and Esk, it may be worth while to note both lower and upper 
 boundaries and it is there desirable to do so for other 
 reasons, bearing on the overlying beds. 
 
 The space of ground covered by the St. Bees Sandstone 
 in the country hitherto traversed, together with the nature of 
 the beds directly overlying it, and the area occupied 
 
 1876. ^ 
 
1 8 TRIAS. 
 
 by them, now call for consideration. To do so most 
 advantageously it will be best to begin operations near 
 Maryport and travel eastward. 
 
 On the coast, as before remarked, the most northerly 
 exposure of St. Bees Sandstone is at Swarthy Hill. It is 
 well shown, a little inland, close to Hayton Castle, and in 
 Aigle Grill. Between Aspatria and West Newton the 
 largest tract of counti-y aijproximately free from drift is to be 
 seen within the district ; and there are many quarries 
 therein. The most northerly section hereabouts is in the 
 village of West Newton. After passing across a tract of country 
 without sections, we may see St. Bees Sandstone in the 
 railway-cutting on the west side of Leegate Station. Then, 
 ■ traversing another drift- covered area, we come to two 
 districts south of Wigton where the rocks are shown, viz., 
 near Jackson Bridge, and at Speedgill Bridge. The first- 
 named bridge is on the road from Wigton to Red Dial; the 
 second is about a mile to the east. Beyond this, again, 
 red rock is well shown in Boston Beck, the most northern 
 point at which it may be seen being about 400 yards south of 
 Boston Bridge : it appears as far north in Shalk Beck as 
 East Curthwaite. Between East Curthwaite and Dalston no 
 rock is visible. 
 
 It may be well to mention now the sections in St. Bees 
 Sandstone near the line of the Rose Batik and Newbiggin 
 fault. West of the Caldew there are sections in the little 
 plantation on the west side of the road between the gates 
 of Rose Castle and the lodge of Holm Hill : also on the east 
 side of Hill Top, towards Hawkesdale Lodge. There are 
 also some exposures in the course of the brook called Gill Beck, 
 These are close to the road between Hawkesdale and Cumdivock, 
 and both above and below it. East of the Caldew, there 
 is a quarry beside Pow Beck, just above Pow Beck Bridge, 
 and near the farmhouse called Low Pow. The next sections 
 are quarries on the south-eastern side of Blackball Park. 
 Then St Bees Sandstone is seen in Woodside Beck, a few 
 yards above Woodside Bridge, and in Newbiggin Quarry. 
 Its last appearance west of the Eden is in the cutting on the 
 Midland Railway south-east of Cumwhinton. There are 
 also many fine sections along the Eden between Bracken- 
 bank and Wetheral Railway-bridge. 
 
 Descending the Caldew, St. Bees Sand.stone first becomes 
 observable in the right bank about 500 yards south of the 
 house known as Bracken How, and thence it is seen at 
 intervals as far as the house itself. The dip is about 5 degrees, 
 and its direction about 20 degrees W. of N. Then at 
 Buckabank, beside the weir, the rock again appears ; also in 
 the river-bed (when the stream is low), just above Dalston 
 Bridge, Below the bridge it does not again become visible 
 till we approach the outfall of Pow Beck into the Caldew. 
 It may be seen in the river-bed about 150 yards above 
 ^ud the sam? 4ist;ance below, the outfall. Pqw Beck itself i§ 
 
BASALT. 19 
 
 barren of sections below the place where the old quarry 
 (already mentioned) may be seen close to Low Pow. All the 
 little tributary becks about Dalston show nothing but varieties 
 of drift. 
 
 Basaltic dyke. 
 
 Returning to the Caldew, the next rock to be noted is the 
 basaltic dyke, the only igneous rock in the district. It 
 may be seen, though the exposure is but a slight one, in the 
 bank bounding the alluvium of the Caldew, on its right side, 
 below the junction with Pow Beck, and opposite Dalston 
 Hall, at the spot at which railway and river begin to run 
 side by side for about 200 yards. 
 
 On the bank on which Dalston Hall stands, no traces of the 
 dyke appear, nor is it observable anywhere in Cumberland 
 west of the Caldew. This dyke is evidently identical with 
 that which crosses the Petterill above Wreay Bridge, the 
 hill known as Barrock Fell, and the Eden just above 
 Armathwaite ; and it might therefore be naturally expected to 
 appear (if at all) where it is here seen. It has been con- 
 jectured that this dyke is also identical with one seen in the 
 county of Dumfries near Caerlaverock Castle. But the 
 distance between the locality just mentioned and Dalston, 
 together with the total absence of any evidence of its existence 
 west of the Caldew in Cumberland, must prevent this view 
 from being received as more than a conjecture. Another 
 point in connection with this dyke should not be omitted — 
 its probable influence, if any, as a fault. Messrs. Goodchild 
 and Colvin, my colleagues working in the country S.E. of this 
 district, have informed me that the dyke has often little or no 
 effect as a fault, though sometimes coinciding with one. The 
 probability is, therefore, that it has little or no effect as a 
 fault here. 
 
 About 240 yards below this dyke is a river-cliff composed 
 of yellowish and greyish sandstone. This is probably the 
 highest bed of the St. Bees Sandstone. My own reasons for 
 this supposition are the following. 
 
 Judging from the great thickness of gypseous shales found 
 overlying the :rt. Bees Sandstone in the borehole a little south 
 of Abbey Town — the existence of which I mentioned in the 
 preliminary sketch of the geology of the district — it seems 
 probable that the line approximately marking their outcrop, 
 below the drift, will not range far northward of the exposures 
 of St. Bees Sandstone at West Newton, Wigton, and Curth- 
 waite. We have traced the St. Bees Sandstone in the Caldew 
 as far north as a spot a few yards S. of the basaltic dyke ; 
 and this question now arises — Is there any evidence bearing 
 upon the position of this greyish bed in the details of the 
 
 J876, P % 
 
20 TRIAS — ST. BEES SANDSTONE. 
 
 A bbey Towu borehole ? For though the line from West 
 Newton and Wigton is pointing in the direction of. this 
 neighbourhood, that fact alone would certainly not be 
 conclusive against the hypothesis that this river-cliff is 
 composed of rock on a quite different horizon, brought in 
 by the dyke acting as a fault, or by some other fault not 
 actually seen. But the evidence of the Abbey Town borehole 
 is, I think, sufficient to turn the scale. It thus' ends [See 
 Appendix p. 54) : — 
 
 Ft. in. 
 
 Blue shale- 3 o 
 
 Grey sandstone - - - - i 6 
 
 Red, blue and grey sandy shales - - 7 6 
 
 Grey sandstone and blue sandy shale - 24 6 
 
 Soft grey sandstone - - 12 6 
 
 Soft red and white sandstone 6 o 
 
 Soft red sandstone (^aj-f 7;o//row«rf)- - - 32 o 
 
 87 o 
 
 The lowest bed is St. Bees Sandstone of the ordinary type. 
 My colleague, Mr. R. Russell, and I had an opportunity of 
 examining the cores showing this lowest bed ; and we came to 
 the conclusion that the grey stone of the Caldew river-cliff 
 appears to be represented in the boring by the grey sandstone 
 and shale directly overlying the red rock in which the boring 
 ends. 
 
 I am glad to have my view as to the position of this bed 
 somewhat confirmed by the opinion of my colleague, Mr. J. G. 
 Goodchild. He also thinks that the beds between Bracken 
 How and this spot are higher than any he has seen in the St. 
 Bees Sandstone of the Eden valley district, where the top 
 beds are cut off by the great Pennine fault. 
 
 Having traced the line of demarcation, on the south, 
 between the St. Bees Sandstone and the Carboniferous and 
 Lower Permo-Triassic rocks, and also the approximate 
 line of junction of the St. Bees Sandstone with the rocks 
 immediately overlying it from the coast North of Maryport 
 as far as the Caldew, we have now to consider the nature of 
 the beds directly overlying the St. Bees Sandstone. 
 
21 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Strata Overlying the St. Bees Sandstone. 
 The Gypseous Shales. 
 
 Without the evidence of the two borings at Abbey Town 
 and Bowness, the existence of the hundreds of feet of the 
 Gypseous Shaly series would be entirely unknown. For in 
 the River Caldew, below the spot we have reached opposite 
 Dalston Hall, soft red false-bedded sandstone alone is seen 
 at Cummersdale and Holme Head, while on the north similar 
 sandstone may be seen at Rickerby, Grinsdale and 
 Rockcliff on the Eden, on the River Line at Kirklinton, 
 and in the streams known as the Hether Burn and Carwinley 
 Burn east and west of the Line. I have called this rock the 
 Kirklinton Sandstone, because its junction with the St. Bees 
 Sandstone can be seen only in and near the parish of that 
 name. But as the evidence — to be noticed later — points to 
 the conclusion that the Kirklinton Sandstone rests uncon- 
 formably on that of St. Bees, while there is no presumption 
 whatever that the Gypseous Shales at Abbey Town are 
 unconformable to the St. Bees Sandstone, it seems best to 
 consider now what is known of the Gypseous Shales. This 
 course, which resembles that followed in the case of the 
 St. Bees Sandstone, of proceeding from the south-west 
 towards the north-east, seems indeed to me the mos 
 advantageous in every respect. 
 
 I have already mentioned that the most northerly 
 exposures of St. Bees Sandstone, in Cumberland west of the 
 River Caldew, are south of a line drawn from Allonby Bay 
 to West Newton and thence through Leegate Railway 
 Station to Dalston Hall. Between the places just mentioned 
 and the Solway nothing is visible but Glacial Drift, 
 Alluvium, and Peat, except where between Aikton and Great 
 Orton a little Lower Lias may be seen. North of the Solway, 
 St. Bees Sandstone appears near Annan and at TordofF 
 Point. Thus, but for the boring at Kelsick Moss, about a 
 mile south of Abbey Town, and another at Bowness on the 
 Solway, we should be ignorant of the existence of any 
 Triassic formation above the St. Bees Sandstone west of the 
 Caldew. The boring near Abbey Town was made in the 
 years 1875-76. The following is a brief abstract of it : — 
 
 ft. in. 
 
 Alluvium - - . - - - . 12 6 
 
 Glacial Drift ... 186 o 
 
 Shales of various colours, red predominatiug, with gypsum 734 6 
 
 Sandstones and shales - 87 o 
 
 Left off at a depth of 
 
22 TRIAS — GYPSEOUS SHALES. 
 
 This boring, as already remarked, ended in St. Bees 
 Sandstone. (See p. 20, also Appendix, p. 54.) 
 
 The Bowness boring is described as being near Bowness, at 
 the west end, at High Water Mark. Below is a brief abstract 
 of it (see Appendix, p. 54] : — 
 
 Soil and Glacial Drift 
 
 Metal of various colours, red predominating, with 
 alabaster and occasional bands of stone 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 4' 
 
 
 
 367 
 
 
 
 408 
 
 
 
 The boring terminated in red stone. 
 
 There can hardly be a doubt that the red stone at the 
 bottom of the Bowness boring was St. Bees Sandstone, the 
 borers at Bowness, as at Abbey Town, recognising their 
 geological position at the sight of that well-known rock. I 
 need hardly add that " metal " is a term equivalent to shale, 
 and " alabaster " to gypsum. 
 
 Fig. III. — -Section through Bowness and Abbey Town 
 showing the Gypseous Shales above the St. .Bees 
 Sandstone and below Drift. 
 
 N S 
 
 Solway Bavimsas AbViejrTown 
 
 The evidence bearing on the eastward extension of the 
 Gypseous Shales is supported by a third boring, a record of 
 which was obtained for me from Mrs. Hannah Pearson of 
 Station Hill, Wigton, through the kind assistance of Mr. R. 
 B. Brockbank, the esteemed local geologist and discoverer of 
 the Tias in Cumberland. The document runs thus : — 
 
 "In the year 1781 John Brisco of Crofton bored for coal in John 
 Stordy's Gillclose to the depth of 60 fathoms and found none, found a 
 blue stone 3 fathoms from surface — continued with different stone, 
 mostly bluish till 38 fathoms, then changed to red stone or clay some- 
 times mixed with veins of while till they came to 60 fathoms. 
 
 Witness John Stordy, Orton " 
 
 It may be well to say, in the first place, that the area 
 around Great Orton long attracted seekers after coal, the 
 dark Lias shales, seen here and there in brooks, suggesting 
 affinity to the Coal-measures rather than to the red rocks of 
 West Newton or Shalk Beck, of the Caldew or the Eden. 
 The bluish stone is evidently Liassic, but the " red stone or 
 clay sometimes mixed with veins of white," describes a 
 formation resembling the Gypseous Shales and unlike 
 everything else in the Carlisle Basin. A thickness ot 
 132 feet of this formation was pierced but the bottom was not 
 
KIRKLINTON SANDSTONE. 23 
 
 reached at this, the most easterly spot at which it is known 
 to exist. 
 
 The Kirklinton Sandstone. 
 
 We may now return to the valley of the Caldew at 
 Cummersdale where we found the St. Bees Sandstone 
 succeeded northward by the soft red false-bedded stone 
 which I have called the Kirklinton Sandstone.* This rock 
 may be seen in the bank at the bend of the river behind the 
 targets. In the river-bank at Cummersdale it is far from 
 displaying the bright colour seen in the river-cliffs at Rock- 
 cliff or Kirklinton. It is destitute of hard bands, and looks, 
 where there is little of it above the level of floods, like what 
 would be called in South Yorkshire " stone bind," or " sandy 
 stone bind," rather than sandstone. It may be seen in 
 the river, when the stream is low, close to the Gasometer 
 at Cummersdale Mills, and in the left bank of the Caldew 
 at Cummersdale Print Works. The dip of the rock is a little 
 west of north. 
 
 It has been remarked that this sandstone in the river-bank 
 at Cummersdale does not show the characteristic bright 
 colour of the Kirklinton Sandstone. But this is never seen 
 in the Esk or Line, where the section rises only to a height 
 of six or eight feet above the ordinary level of the river, nor 
 is it the case in the Caldew At one spot, however, at 
 Cummersdale all the characteristics of Kirklinton Sandstone 
 present themselves. About 100 yards below the section 
 adjoining the rifle-butts the stump of an old tree may be 
 seen in the bank which bounds both the plantation and 
 the alluvial flat, on the right bank of the stream . No rock 
 is visible about the stump at a distance of 20 or 30 yards, but 
 on approaching it more nearly a small excavation, at right 
 angles to the face of the bank, becomes visible, and the 
 unmistakable colour and bedding of Kirklinton Sandstone 
 are well displayed. More than a mile lower down the 
 Caldew, at Holme Head footbridge, this rock again becomes 
 visible. But as there are no natural sections in the Caldew 
 between Holme Head and its junction with the Eden 
 north-west of Carlisle, we will now turn to the little stream 
 known as the Petterill, which flowing northward between the 
 Caldew and the Eden falls into the Eden on the eastern side 
 of the Border City. 
 
 The country north of a line drawn from the valley of the 
 Caldew at Dalston across that of the Petterill to the Eden at 
 Wetheral is entirely drift- covered. In Newbiggin Quarry 
 in the Petterill valley there is St. Bees Sandstone, but below 
 this the only section is at a spot a little above the house 
 called Petterill Bank where Kirklinton Sandstone appears. 
 
 Between the Petterill and the Eden St. Bees Sandstone 
 appears in the cutting on the Midland Railway south-east of 
 Cumwhinton. Cuttings northward show only drift. 
 
 * Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xxxvii., 1881, p. 289. 
 
24 TRIAS. 
 
 Tn the Eden there are plenty of sectiono in St. Bees 
 Sandstone between Brackenhill and the junction of the rivers 
 Eden and Irthing. Below this point red sandstone resembling 
 that of Kirklinton, may be seen when the river is low at the 
 base of the left bank of the Eden in the narrow plantation a 
 little above the farmhouse called Holmgate. The dip of the 
 rock is westerly and it may be seen about as far as the 
 plantation extends. Similar stone is visible in the river-bed 
 at Low Crosby when the stream is low. Nearer Carlisle it 
 appears at Rickerby, at the target of the Artillery Volunteers 
 at Rickerby Rocks in the Eden, and in the old quarry a few 
 yards west of them. 
 
 The only other item of evidence bearing upon the extension 
 of the Kirklinton Sandstone south and east of Carlisle is 
 that of the bore-hole at Garlands Lunatic Asylum.* Below 
 41 feet of drift, the boring penetrated red sandstone with bands 
 of white, the total depth reached being 305 feet. The sandstone 
 is described by the borer as like " Lazonby stone." Lazonby 
 is a village between Carlisle and Penrith, and the stone 
 quarried there is the Penrith Sandstone, not the St. Bees 
 Sandstone, so that it is practically impossible that Lazonby 
 stone can have been found at Garlands immediately below the 
 drift. The Kirklinton Sandstone, however, much resembles 
 the Penrith Sandstone both in colour and bedding. And as 
 there is a quarry in St. Bees Sandstone at Newbiggin, only a 
 mile and a half south of Garlands, the remark of the borer is 
 in fact good evidence of the presence of a considerable thick- 
 ness of Kirklinton Sandstone at the Lunatic Asylum. 
 Kirklinton is a remote, little-visited place, and the stone 
 named after it is almost useless for building, while the quarries 
 in Penrith Sandstone at Lazonby and elsewhere south of 
 Carlisle are necessarily familiar to all persons interested 
 in the building-stones of the Permo-Triassic rocks of 
 Cumberland. 
 
 Other borings at and near Carlisle, which are of interest 
 chiefly in connection with the extension of the overlying 
 Stanwi x Marls, need not be touched upon at this point in our 
 discussion, as we are at present concerned with the junction 
 of the St. Bees and Kirklinton Sandstones. Moreover, east 
 and north-east of Carlisle it will be necessary to consider the 
 St. Bees Sandstone only in connection with overlying beds, 
 its junction with the Carboniferous rocks eastward not 
 concerning us. All that need be said is, that in Cumberland, 
 north of the line of fault between Newbiggin on the Petterill 
 and Brackenbank on the Eden, the St. Bees Sandstone 
 is the only formation of the Permo-Triassic Series between 
 the Carboniferous rocks on the east and the Kirklinton 
 Sandstone on the west. It occupies a broad belt of country 
 on each side of the Irthing above its junction with the Eden, 
 but a much narrower one along, and north-west of, the 
 river Line. 
 
 * Information from Mr. J. A. Cory. 
 
KiRKLiNTON SANDSTONE 
 
 25 
 
 Starting northward from the junction of the Eden and 
 Irthing towards the Hether Burn, we traverse a drift-covered 
 country. The only stream crossed, Brunstock Beck, with its 
 tributaries, shows nothing but drift, and the most westerly 
 sections in St. Bees Sandstone are some old quarries south ot 
 Breaks Moss. In the Hether Burn, however, there is an 
 almost continuous series of sections from its junction with the 
 Line at Cliff Bridge, Kirklinton, to a spot about half a mile 
 eastward of Hethersgill. The junction between the St. Bees 
 and Kirklinton Sandstones in the Hether Burn is rather 
 more than loo yards below Hetherbank Bridge. It is not 
 actually seen, but the two rocks are visible within a few 
 yards of each other, the St. Bees Sandstone in the field 
 adjoining Hallfoot Mill, on the north side of the stream, and 
 the Kirklinton Sandstone in the bank of the burn where the 
 western hedge of the field approaches it. The change of rock 
 at this point is accompanied by a marked change in the 
 character of the valley of the Hether Burn. Above Hether- 
 bank Bridge, in the St. Bees stone it more or less resembles 
 a gorge ; below, in the soft Kirklinton stone, the stream 
 invariably traverses an alluvial flat, often of considerable 
 breadth. With the St. Bees Sandstone, also, quarries appear, 
 while none exist below the bridge, though indications of the 
 presence of the Kirklinton Sandstone in the banks of the 
 burn are abundant, and it forms cliffs near Cliff Bridge. The 
 dip of the Kirklinton Sandstone near the junction cannot be 
 accurately ascertained. That of the St. Bees Sandstone in 
 Hetherbank Quarries varies from about 20 degrees west of 
 south to 30 degrees south of west. Consequently, as we 
 ascend the stream beyond Howford Bridge we come upon 
 lower and lower beds, and before reaching the farm called 
 Burnside, find ourselves on red sandy shales with stony bands, 
 such as are seen in Shalk Beck towards the base of the St. 
 Bees Sandstone. Sections in these beds may be seen almost 
 as far as the farm called Grainhead. But in the large field 
 on the south-east side of the farmhouse, and at a distance of 
 about 200 yards from it, there is a beautiful section in the 
 banks of the stream showing the red rocks, with a little 
 breccia at their base, resting unconformably on Carboniferous 
 beds. (Fig. IV.) 
 
 Fig. IV. — Section on the Hetherburn, above Hethersgill, 
 showing the shaly beds and breccia at the base ot 
 the St. Bees Sandstone. 
 
■26 
 
 TRIAS. 
 
 Sections in Carboniferous sandstone and shale may_ be 
 seen for a distance of about 500 yards above the junction. 
 But I was informed by the late James Clifton Ward, then my 
 colleague, that the Carboniferous rocks here seen form but a 
 small inlier surrounded on all sides b}^ the red beds. 
 
 It is worth noting that the thickness of St. Bees Sandstone 
 in the Hether Burn from the Carboniferous inlier to the 
 outcrop of the Kirklinton Sandstone can hardly exceed 800 
 feet. 
 
 Turning from the Hether Burn westward, we find the 
 somewhat shaly beds towards the base of the St. Bees 
 Sandstone in the little brook which flows into the Hether 
 Burn from the north between Grainhead and Hethersgill. 
 They may be seen to a distance of more than 200 yards north 
 of the road,. but drift only is visible nearer the great peat-moss 
 known as Bolton Fell. Between that moss and the river 
 Line there are sections only in the course of two little 
 streams near Kirklinton Hall, the district being entirely drift- 
 covered. 
 
 I have already remarked that Kirklinton Sandstone 
 appears in the Hether Burn from Hetherbank to its outfall 
 into the Line at Cliff Bridge, Kirklinton. Indeed, within a 
 radius of about 200 yards from Cliff Bridge the lower beds of 
 the Kirklinton Sandstone are perhaps better seen than 
 anywhere else, their bright red almost scarlet colour, false- 
 bedding, softness, and mode of weathering being very 
 manifest. In the section (Fig. V.) the lower beds (A), seen 
 below the false-bedded sandstone, present a somewhat shaly 
 appearance where subject to saturation from the river. 
 
 Fig. V. — Section at Cliff Bridge, Kirklinton. 
 
 Within a few yards of Cliff Bridge the junction of the 
 Kirklinton Sandstone with the overlying Stanwix Shales 
 may be seen in two places, as will be mentioned again when 
 
KiRKLlK'TON SANDSTONE. 27 
 
 the distribution of the last-named beds is considered. At 
 present we are concerned with the relations between the St. 
 Bees and Kirklinton Sandstones higher up the course of the 
 Line. 
 
 The river Line from Cliff Bridge to Shank Castle, about 
 five miles to the north-east, is remarkable both for beauty 
 and geological interest, though the country on each side of it, 
 whether towards Bolton P'ell eastward or Longtown on the 
 west, is unusually deficient both in geological sections and 
 landscape beauty. Kirklinton Sandstone appears almost 
 continuously below the river-gravel of the old alluvial terraces 
 south of Kirklinton Hall, and as these terraces are often 20 
 feet or more above the summer- level of the river, a considerable 
 thickness of the rock is often exposed. Around "Captain's 
 Seat" the beds form a slight anticlinal. In the little stream 
 which flows through the grounds around Kirklinton Hall and 
 falls into the Line close to " Captain's Seat," Kirklinton 
 Sandstone appears as high up its course as Longcleugbside. 
 Close to, but above, the house so named, stone more like that 
 of St. Bees appears. Some Kirklinton Sandstone may also 
 be seen in the little brook east of the road between Appleby 
 House and Kirklinton Church, where it flows east of the 
 grounds of the Hall. 
 
 To return to the Line. North of Captain's Seat is Hirst 
 Wood. In this wood, and west of the farmhouse called 
 Wood, there is a quarry in rock resembling St. Bees 
 Sandstone ; and a little higher up the stream on the right 
 bank, near Broomhills, there is another quarry in the same 
 stone. From the dip, which is a little west of south, it would 
 appear that these two quarries are in the same beds. 
 Ordinary Kirklinton Sandstone may be seen both above and 
 below these hard beds which may be about 30 feet thick. 
 There are no signs of faults. 
 
 About 400 yards above the Broomhills Quarry the 
 Kirklinton Sandstone appears higher up the river-bank, and 
 is succeeded near the water's edge by St. Bees, which soon 
 occupies the whole of the river-cliff. Unfortunately there 
 are no clear sections at the junction. Higher up, St. Bees 
 Sandstone is well shown from Hanging Well to the Muckle 
 Linn, and at the latter picturesque spot itself. Here the 
 dip appears to be about south-west. Above the Muckle 
 Linn it may be seen for some distance, but at a spot due 
 south of Brackenhill Tower a fault crosses the river, having 
 a direction nearly due north and south. It probably skirts 
 the most westerly of the outbuildings of Brackenhill Tower 
 and touches the western side of the house called Kilnpool, 
 close to the north bank of the Line. East of this line of fault 
 Carboniferous rocks only are visible. For some distance 
 higher up these rocks have no special peculiarities, but 
 between Southward Ford and the huge blocks of sandstone 
 called the "Fairy Tables," the massive fragments of reddish 
 sandstone in the river-bed suggest at first sight the presence 
 
28 TRIAS. 
 
 of Permian or Triassic rather than Carboniferous rock. But 
 though outwardly their colour approximates to a Iriassic 
 brick-red, on breaking a fragment the pinkish and purple- 
 grey colours characteristic of stained Carboniferous rocks at 
 once appear, as in Shalk Beck and elsewhere south and 
 south-west of Carlisle. 
 
 Following the St. Bees and the Kirklinton Sandstones 
 westward, we find the former in the burn which flows 
 past Longtown Union Workhouse, between the farmhouses 
 known as Slealandsburn and Hallburncroft, a little north of 
 the Workhouse. Southward the stream is devoid of sections, 
 and so is the country enclosed between the Esk and Line 
 southward of Hallburncroft. But the streams on its borders 
 show that it is occupied by Kirklinton Sandstone. We have 
 seen that in the Line it appears as high up as Shieldgreen. 
 Below Cliff Bridge, this rock may be seen, north of the Line, 
 about 60 yards south-east of Bush-on-Line, and again 400 
 yards south-east of Parcelstown. South of the Line it 
 appears at Westlinton Bridge for a distance of about 300 
 yards, mainly to the westward; also about 200 yards above 
 the junction of the Line with the Esk, and again from the 
 junction to about 200 yards below Metalbridge on the road 
 from Carlisle to Gretna. 
 
 From the union of the two rivers northward there are 
 no sections in the Esk, south of Longtown. But Longtown 
 Bridge stands on Kirklinton Sandstone, which may be seen 
 to a distance of about 300 yards above the bridge when the 
 stream is low. North of Longtown Bridge nothing is visible 
 till we pass the outfall of Glinger Burn, opposite Netherby 
 Kirklinton Sandstone appears in the burn from the foot- 
 bridge between Batenbush and Glinger Mill up to the spot 
 at which the aqueduct crosses the stream, about 400 yards 
 above the Mill. Then comes an interval of about half a mile 
 in breadth with no sections. Still ascending, the burn, we 
 come to a spot about midway between the farmhouses called 
 respectively Glingerburn and Redcleugh, and thence to and 
 beyond the Scottish border line, St. Bees Sandstone may be 
 seen. Its dip varies from S.S.E. to S.E. That of the 
 Kirklinton Sandstone nearer the mouth of the burn is a little 
 west of south. 
 
 A little above the outfall of the Glinger Burn, Kirklinton 
 Sandstone appears on the right bank of the Esk in Byers 
 Wood, also at, and for some distance above, Kirkandrews 
 Church. It may be worth adding that here, as at 
 Cummersdale, the sections rise but slightly above the flood- 
 level of the stream and consequently do not display the 
 colour and other characteristics of the stone as they may be 
 observed at Cliff Bridge or Rockcliff. The highest point in 
 the Esk at which Kirklinton Sandstone may be seen is 
 about 250 yards north of the outfall of Carwinley Burn. 
 From this spot to the N.B. Railway Bridge there are no 
 sections ; but St. Bees Sandstone appears on the right bank 
 
KIRKLINTON SANDSTONE. 29 
 
 of the Esk from the bridge to a point about 800 yards north 
 of the Scottish Border. 
 
 West of the Esk the only sections within the English 
 Border are those of Glinger Burn, already described. But 
 St. Bees Sandstone appears where the river Sark meets 
 "Scots Dyke;" in the Kirtlewater, and elsewhere within 
 the Scottish frontier. 
 
 East of the Esk and north of Longtown some sections yet 
 remain to be considered. I have noted already the 
 appearance of St. Bees Sandstone between the farmhouses 
 of Slealandsburn and Hallburncroft. Nearly a mile north of 
 Slealandsburn, on the east side of Laws Hall, there is a 
 quarry in St. Bees Sandstone. Its dip is in direction about 20 
 degrees east of south, and the amount 8 degrees, and the 
 same rock is visible in the stream known as Warren Burn, 
 close to the farmhouse called Oakshawhill. Below Oak- 
 shawhill there is a more westerly exposure of St. Bees 
 Sandstone just inside the plantation. About 450 yards 
 further westward, in this wood, Kirklinton Sandstone 
 appears, and it is still better shown in the plantation west of 
 the road between Netherby and Longtown. Warren Burn is 
 here remarkably pretty and has many tiny cliffs of 
 Kirklinton Sandstone in its banks. 
 
 The nature and position of the boundary between the 
 St Bees Sandstone and the Carboniferous rocks between 
 Brackenhill Tower on the Line, and Carwinley Burn, remain 
 to some extent doubtful, owing to the absence of sections in 
 the country on that horizon. It is obvious, however, that the 
 belt of country occupied by the St. Bees Sandstone between 
 those streams is unusually narrow, whether compared with 
 the broad expanse of Sandstone around Wetheral and 
 Brampton on the one side, or in the Kirtle Water and thence 
 to Annan, north of the Solway, on the other side. 
 
 The important sections in Carwinley Burn lie between the 
 road connecting the farmhouses called, respectively High 
 Plains and Pedder Hill and the outfall of the burn into the 
 Esk north of Netherby, a distance of about a mile and a half. 
 Above the road mentioned nothing but drift is visible in the 
 bum, and this is also the case for about 500 yards below it. 
 Then the burn makes a sharp bend to the north-west, and at 
 and below this bend. Carboniferous sandstones and shales 
 appear, crossed by two faults, the only faults seen in 
 Carwinley Burn. Carboniferous rocks are visible in the 
 bum as far down as a point 200 yards below the sharp turn 
 which is about half that distance below the outfall of Whisk 
 Burn. Then red rocks appear, the lowest layer being a 
 breccia like that at their base in Shalk Beck and the Hether 
 Burn. Further on red sandy shales appear, and the more 
 stony beds of the St. Bees Sandstone gradually come on 
 above them, the dip being 5° and the direction south-west. 
 These strata may also be seen in Turn bull's Cleugh, on the 
 north side of Carwinley Burn. At a point about 230 yards 
 
30 
 
 TRIAS. 
 
 (in a straight line) above the road from Carwinley Mill to 
 Moat, the stream is crossed by a bridge. About 40 yards 
 below this bridge the Kirklinton Sandstone comes on above 
 the St. Bees Sandstone, the line of demarcation between them 
 being quite distinct. On the north side at one point there 
 appeared to be some sign of unconformity between the two 
 rocks. Below the junction there is a continuous series of 
 sections of Kirklinton Sandstone in Carwinley Burn as far as 
 its outfall into the Esk, and in the Esk for about 300 yards 
 above the outfall. 
 
 Fig. VI. — Junction of the St. Bees and Kirklinton Sand- 
 stones, on the north side of Carwinley Burn. 
 
 I have already mentioned that St. Bees Sandstone appears 
 in the upper part of the course of the Glinger Burn to 
 and beyond the border, and in the Esk above the railway- 
 bridge. It may also be seen in Moat Quarry and in the 
 cliff between High Moat and the ancient fortress known as 
 Liddel Strength. 
 
 Wherever we have traced the area occupied by the 
 Kirklinton Sandstone we have found it surrounded by 
 St. Bees Sandstone, whether south-east of Carlisle ; in the 
 district around Wetheral and Brampton, or in that of the 
 Esk and Line. It is therefore of interest to point out 
 that rock, which has all the characteristics of Kirklinton 
 Sandstone, may be seen on the right bank of the Esk, 
 opposite Canobie Church. It appears to rest on more or less 
 stained Carboniferous rocks, which are shown on the 
 other bank just below Canobie Bridge ; but the nature of the 
 junction cannot be ascertained, as it is below the level of-the 
 water. Another outlying patch of Kirklinton Sandstone 
 exists between Breaks Moss and Walton, about 2 miles 
 north-west of Brampton, where it occupies nearly a square 
 mile of country and rests upon St. Bees Sandstone.* 
 
 West of the Esk and south of Glinger Burn, the position of 
 the outcrop of the Kirklinton Sandstone thence towards 
 Gretna is doubtful. ^ Probably it underlies the south-eastern 
 half of Solway Moss and ranges to Gretna, but there are no 
 
 • This Wftltoji outlief was (napped by my colleague, Mr, E. T, Heb'ertj 
 
KIRKLINTON SANDSTONE. 3 I 
 
 sections in it between Glinger Burn and Metalbridge, which 
 crosses the Esk about 600 yards below the junction of the 
 Esk and the Line. I have already referred to the section 
 at Metalbridge. 
 
 On the other hand, St. Bees Sandstone may be seen in the 
 Kirtlewater, especially in the neighbourhood of Kirkpatrick, 
 and as far down the course of that stream as Redkirk Mill. 
 Further westward it appears at Tordoff Point, while its lower 
 beds are well shown on the railway from Annan to Kirtle- 
 bridge, north of the road connecting those places. Its dip, 
 at the last named spot, is south-easterly. Lastly, it is 
 visible in the right bank of the river at Annan, close to the 
 railway-bridge. 
 
 The shore of the Solway between the mouth of the i^nnan 
 and Lochar Moss is devoid of sections. And, as I have 
 already stated, the red rocks between Lochar Moss and the 
 river Nith strongly resemble Penrith Sandstone. 
 
 South of Metalbridge, Kirklinton Sandstone is well shown 
 in the cliff at Rockcliff on the Eden. South of the Eden, it 
 doubtless occupies a considerable breadth of ground north 
 and south of Burgh-by-Sands and is covered by the Lias of 
 Kirkbampton, Thurstonfield and Moorhouse. The thickness 
 of the Gypseous Shales at Bowness, and their apparent 
 existence near Great Orton, on the evidence of the old 
 boring there, make it probable that the line of fault from 
 Brackenbank, on the Eden, to Newbiggin, on the Petterill, 
 which has a downthrow to the north, crosseis the Caldew a 
 little below Dalston Hall and is continued beaieath the Lias, 
 through Great Orton and Kirkbampton, reaching the Solway 
 east of Drumburgh. The prolongation of this faulted line 
 westward would account in the simplest and most probable 
 way for the non-appearance of the Gypseous Shales at 
 Cummersdale, though so thick near Great Orton. For the 
 Gypseous Shales would then be thrown down north of its 
 course, so that on that side the overlying Kirklinton Sand- 
 stone wo'ild form the uppermost bed (beneath the driftj from 
 Newbiggin to the south-eastern corner of the Lias ; while 
 the fault would continue to form the boundary between the 
 Gypseous Shales and the Kirklinton Sandstone beneath and 
 northward of the Lias. 
 
 Before turning from Rockcliff to Grinsdale and Carlisle 
 this seems to be a good opportunity for mentioning the 
 existence of a boring at Justice Town, now called Linehow, 
 just above the junction of the rivers Esk and Line. From 
 Mr. R. Russell, who saw the cores, I learn that the boring 
 was 276 feet 6 inches deep. Here is a brief abstract of it : — 
 
 Sand and clay (Drift) 36 ft. 3 in. 
 Red Sandstone 240 „ 3 „ 
 
 Mr. Russell thinks that while the sandstone to a depth of 
 171 ft. is Kirklinton Sandstone, the rock below that deptl^i 
 i§ undoubtedly St. Bees Sandstone. 
 
32 TRIAS. 
 
 Between Rockcliff and Carlisle the beds seen in the course 
 of the Eden are mainly the Stanwix Shales except at and 
 opposite Grinsdale, where the upper beds of the Kirklinton 
 Sandstone appear. Close to Grinsdale Church, on the 
 southern or left bank of the river a whitish sandstone may be 
 seen close to the water's edge when the stream is low. Across 
 the river a cliff of the same rock is conspicuous at Skew Bank. 
 It is a whitish, false-bedded sandstone, and above it is a 
 considerable thickness of drift. West of Skew Bank a more 
 massive stone of the same colour may be observed in the 
 river-bed at " Carhead Stream " a little east of Cargo Beck. 
 This rock apparently overlies those in Skew Bank, the dip 
 being north-west. Cargo Beck exhibits no sections, but 
 before the great alluvial flat north of the Eden and west of 
 Cargo can be reached the Stanwix Shales may be seen, when 
 the water is low, forming the river-bed. 
 
 On the eastern side of Skew Bank the sandstone may be 
 seen to form the river bank in the field next the cliff. But 
 about 50 yards farther east a fault, having a direction a little 
 west of north and east of south, comes into view. It is not, 
 apparently, an important one. Its downthrow is to the east, 
 and it brings in the overlying Stanwix Shales on that side. 
 
 At Stainton, a mile north-west of Carlisle, a boring was 
 made " in John Haugh's field."* Here are the details : — 
 
 Soil, sand and gravel 
 
 Blue, brown and red metal (Stanwix Shales) 
 
 White-grey freestone post with soft sand parting 
 
 White freestone post 
 
 Soft white-grey post with a mixture of metal and 
 
 soft partings - 
 White post with soft partin js wiih cams of black 
 Grey metal mixed with red 
 Red post with red girdles (left off in) 
 
 Other borings at and near Carlisle show that the higher 
 beds of the Kirklinton Sandstone are white or whitish, like 
 those seen at Skewbank and bored through at Stainton. 
 
 A boring made by Messrs. Fergusson at Holme Head on 
 the Caldew, the details of which are quoted by E. W. Binney, 
 gave the following result t : — 
 
 Claydiift 9 feet 
 
 Soft white sandstone - 108 „ 
 
 Red Sandstone (not through) . 117 „ 
 
 Thickness. 
 Feet. 
 
 Depth. 
 Feet. 
 
 7 
 
 
 - 23 
 ag 78 
 
 30 
 108 
 
 144 
 
 252 
 
 - 84 
 
 336 
 
 k 54 
 
 390 
 
 I 
 
 391 
 
 - 33 
 
 424 
 
 234 feet 
 
 The railway-bridge a little below Holme Head was founded 
 upon red sandstone, and stone of the same colour was found 
 
 * From the Whitehiven Colliery Office. This is referred to as the " Sna Well " 
 Trans. Cumbe la d Asfoc, No. viii., p. 24. ^ ' 
 
 t Proc. T,it. P. il Soc. Manchester, ter. 2., vol. xiv. 
 
STANWIX SHAT.ES. 33 
 
 below* 40 feet of drift, in the excavation for the new 
 gasometer east of the Caldew and south of the bridge just 
 mentioned. East of this gasometer, and a little west of St. 
 Nicholas railway-bridge, I saw red and grey sandstone below 
 one of the railway-bridges then being built, and was told at 
 the office of Messrs Ward (the contractors) that all the three 
 new railway-bridges crossing the Caldew are founded on light 
 grey sandstone. A specimen of this rock which was shown 
 to me much resembled that of Skew Bank, Grinsdale. At 
 the Gaol, Carlisle, 250 feet of red sandstone is said to have 
 been bored through. At Messrs. Carr's, Caldewgate, a boring 
 was made 180 feet below the bottom of their well, and was 
 wholly in soft red sandstone. -j* On the other hand, I was 
 informed by Mr. John Hamilton (of Messrs. Dixon & Co., 
 West Tower Street) that the well there was sunk 43 feet and 
 bored to an additional depth of 80 feet, the whole 123 feet 
 being in white sandstone. Mr. Brockbank also ascertained for 
 me that a quarry in whitish stone, was once worked near the 
 outfall of the Petterill into the Eden. >, 
 
 Noteworthy as are the above changes of colour, in the same 
 rock, in distances so small as those just mentioned, they can 
 easily be paralleled by examples taken from Triassic rocks 
 elsewhere. I learn for instance from Mr. Aubrey Strahan 
 of the Geological Survey of the following instances. He 
 says : — 
 
 "At Frodsham, Cheshire, the upper bed of the Lower Keuper Sand- 
 stone passes from deep red to a bright buff or white in a horizontal 
 distance of 150 yard?. Four hundred yard's further on it is red. In 
 the neighbourhood of Kelsall the variations are equally sudden. The 
 Upper Mottled Sandstone(Bunter)at Beeston Castle changes on different 
 sides of the same hill — which is about iioo yards in circumference — 
 from a deep red throughout to yellow with red patches ; to yellow above 
 and white below ; and. finally, to red above and white below."| 
 
 The Stanwix Shales. 
 
 We may now turn to the variegated shaly beds overlying 
 the Kirklinton Sandstone, which may be called the Stanwix 
 Shales, as they are well shown near Stanwix, north of the 
 Eden at Carlisle, though their junction with the underlying 
 rock is visible only at Cliff Bridge, Kirklinton, and at 
 Westlinton, excluding the faulted junction, already men- 
 tioned at Skewbank. These beds are mainly red and greenish- 
 grey in colour, and vary considerably in hardness. In the 
 Hether Burn, just above its outfall at Cliff Bridge, these 
 Stanwix Shales appear for a distance of about 350 yards 
 above and 50 yards below the farmhouse called East Cliff, 
 
 * Information from Mr. R. B. Brockbank. 
 t Binney, Proc. Lit. & Phil. See. Manchester, ser. 2., vul. xiv. 
 X SeealsoStrahan,"Geology of the neighbouihoocl of Chester"(Geo'. Survey),i882, 
 p. 9. 
 
 1876. C 
 
34 TRIAS. 
 
 and theii junction with the underlying Kirklinton Sandstone 
 is clearly shown. It is equally well displayed m the little 
 plantation about midway between Cliff Bridge and High 
 Alstonby in the bank bounding the alluvial flat of the Line ; 
 also in the same bank about 120 yards east of Westlinton 
 Bridge. There are no signs of the existence of the Stanwi-c 
 Shales north of the Line hereabouts. But in the area between 
 Westlinton, Cliff Bridge and Scaleby Peatmoss the drift 
 appears to be somewhat thinner than usual, and the Stanwix 
 Shales are frequeutly visible in the little streams flowing into 
 the Line between High Alstonby and Westlinton nearly as 
 far eastward as the farmhouse called Stonystonerigg. 
 
 Between Stonystonerigg and Rickerby, on their eastern 
 margin, there is but one trifling exposure of the Stanwix 
 Shales, on the bank of the sonthern pond on the Green at 
 Houghton ; and on their western boundary, between West- 
 linton and Beaumont on the Eden, they are visible only in 
 the wooded bank a few yards north of Cargohill, a farmhouse 
 between Cargo and Rockcliff. They may be seen in the left 
 bank of the Eden at Beaumont, and in the same bank, for 
 some distance west of the North British Railway Bridge over 
 the Eden at Carlisle. On the right, or more northerly side, 
 they appear, as already mentioned, east of Skew Bank, and 
 they are known to be 23 feet thick at a boring in "John 
 Haugh's field" at Stainton. At Etterby Scaur, west of 
 Stanwix, they may be seen in the river cliff. Here, as west of 
 the N. B. Railway and at Beaumont, the shales are seen only 
 towards the base of thje river-cliff, which is mainly composed 
 of drift. In Rickerby Park I have seen the Shales in the 
 bank about 300 yards east of the junction between the 
 Carlisle and Crosby road and that which crosses Rickerby 
 Park. And in the south bank of the Eden they appeared, 
 when some repairs were being made to it, about 50 yards 
 below that end of Swift's Lane which terminates at the river. 
 Within the city of Carlisle I have seen signs of the exist- 
 ence of the Stanwix Shales in excavations of considerable 
 depth made in front of Cavendish Place in the Warwick 
 Road, and in Bank Street, also at the foot of Gaol Brow. 
 They are evidently very thin at Carlisle, and their outcrop 
 between Rickerby and the town appears gradually to become 
 an east and west line, curving from the southward bend of 
 the Eden between the Swifts and >Stcny Holme towards the 
 eastern end of Cavendish Place, and thence to the Gaol. 
 West of the Caldew the Stanwix Shales probably abut against 
 the Lias west of Newtown, their outcrop (below the drift) 
 keeping near the line of the road through Newtown westward, 
 the boring' at Stainton, due north, where only 23 feet of the 
 Shales were found, indicating that they can hardly have any 
 great extension south of the Eden thereabouts. That they do 
 not extend many yards eastward of the southern bend of the 
 Eden between the Swifts and Stony Holme was shown during 
 the extension of the Carlisle Water Works on Stony Holme 
 
LIAS. 35 
 
 in i885. I am indebted to Mr. R. S. Ferguson* for a section 
 drawn by Mr. Hepworth, the engineer, showing the strata 
 passed through in these excavations. In a letter to Mr. 
 Ferguson, Mr. Hepworth says : — 
 
 " The surface-bed is the loamy alluvium, that beneath is gravel and 
 sand, interspersed in several places with decayed vegetable matter. The 
 gravel immediately above the rock on which it lies contains large 
 boulders, as roughly shown in the sketch sent. The rock is the soft red 
 sandstone as seen at Rickerby and Holme Head." (Dated November 
 17th, 1886. )t 
 
 The depth of the soft red sandstone from the surface varied 
 between 15 ft. 2 in. on the western side of the excavation to 
 28 ft. on the eastern. 
 
 The thinness of the Stanwix Shales at Carlisle is indicated 
 by the curious fact that while, as we have seen, there are signs 
 of their presence below the drift at Cavendish Place and Bank 
 Street, where the surface of the ground is from 70 to 80 ft. 
 above ordnance datum, they were absent in the well-sections 
 at Messrs. Carr's, Caldewgate, and Messrs. Dixon's, West 
 Tower Street, where the surface is 50 ft. or less, and under 
 the various railway-bridges spanning the Caldew, where the 
 surface is between 40 and 50 ft. Yet the most northerly 
 bridge is due east of the river-cliff opposite Stainton, in the 
 base of which the Stanwix Shales appear, and due south of 
 Etterby Scaur, where they are also seen. It is therefore 
 evident that they rise gently southward between Etterby 
 Scaur and Carlisle, and rapidly thin away to nothing at and 
 west of that city. South of Beaumont there is no evidence as 
 to the exact spot at which the Stanwix Shales abut against 
 the Lias. 
 
 The Lozver Ltas. 
 
 We now come to the newest of the older formations, the 
 Lias. 
 
 For many years the limestone-bands and shales of the Lias 
 area were supposed to be Carboniferous. Mr. R. B. Brock- 
 bank was the first local investigator who ascertained their 
 non-carboniferous and probably Liassic nature. He called 
 the attention of E. W. Binney to the matter, and Binney has 
 describeil what he saw of the Lias of Cumberland. :j; 
 
 More detailed observation has added but one section to 
 those seen by Mr. Binney ; for the ground, though not 
 apparently covered by any great thickness of drift, is very 
 uniformly and persistently veiled by it. The Lias, where 
 seen, has always been found to consist of alternating bands 
 of limestone and dark shale. One spot at which it has been 
 seen is Quarry Gill, about a mile N.N.E. of Aikton. Close 
 
 * Chancellor of the Diocese of Carlisle, &c. 
 
 t This section, reduced from Mr. Hepworth's drawing, is given in the Appendix. 
 
 X Quart. Journ. Geol. See, vol. xv., p. 549. 
 
 1876. C 2 
 
36 LOWER LIAS. 
 
 to the footpath between the farmhouses called Waterfiosh and 
 Quarry Gill, but much nearer Waterfiosh, there is a well in 
 which there is a borehole in Lias limestone said to be _ 12 ft. 
 deep. In accordance with the wish of the late H. W. Bristow, 
 F.R.S., I obtained leave to have a hole dug within about 25 ft. 
 of the well. The drift at the surface was found to be 5 ft. thick, 
 the upper part sandy and the lower more clayey and darker in 
 colour. Below the drift was limestone, a dark, slate- coloured 
 stone with very few fossils. The most conspicuous among 
 them was decided by Mr. R. Etheridge to be a specimen of 
 Ammonites Johnstoni. 
 
 Fig. VII. — Plan of ground north-east of Aikton.* 
 
 About half a mile eastward Lias shale was pierced in sink- 
 ing the well at the cottage a few yards north of Park House. 
 
 About a mile and a half south of Park House is Thornby- 
 Here a brook crosses the road and runs past the south side of 
 Thornby Villa. About 300 yards above the spot at which 
 the brook crosses the road it traverses a small plantation, 
 where dark Lias shale may be seen in its banks, beneath 
 drift. And in the bed of the stream there are many loose 
 fragments of Lias limestone. In one of these fragments was 
 Ammonites Johnstoni. Binney states that several species of 
 Ammonites are found in the shales hereabouts, but that they 
 break to pieces on any attempt being made to remove them. 
 
 * Tracings from sheet 22 (6 in. map, Cumberland) showing where- Lias was seen 
 by H. W. Bristow, A. H. Green, and T. V. Holmes, Sept. 11, 1874. 
 
LOWER LIAS. 37 
 
 Fig. VIII. — Plan of ground south-east of Aikton. 
 
 X=A 
 
 TkombyVaU. 
 
 '] he Ammonite was found at the spot marked x in the Plantation. 
 
 Higher up the stream, and just below Rickerby House, a 
 little dark shale was seen. Binney learned from a well- 
 sinker of Kirkbampton named Robinson (since dead) that at 
 Wiggonby a borehole had been made in dark shales to a 
 depth of 1 20 feet. 
 
 The next, and last, spot at which Lias may be seen is about 
 three quarters of a mile due west of the village of Great 
 Orton. Here there is a large plantation, from the north- 
 east corner of which a small brook runs towards Flat. 
 Between this corner and a small plantation about 360 yards 
 nearer Flat, dark shale with bluish or slate- coloured limestone 
 bands may be seen here and there in the sides of the brook. 
 Though this is by far the finest section in the Lias of this 
 district, the amount of rock exposed is very inconsiderable. 
 This section was not seen by Binney. In the shale at this 
 place was found Ammonites Johnstoni, but the limestone 
 yielded very few fossils, though a considerable mass of stone 
 was examined for them. 
 
 As regards the thickness attained by the Lias, the 
 evidence consists of the borehole at Wiggonby, already 
 mentioned, and two at Great Orton. On visiting that place 
 in .1878, accompanied by Mr. R. B. Brockbank, we were 
 informed by Mr. Skelton Sutton of Great Orton, that a pit 
 was sunk on the land of Mercy Brisco in the year 1625. A 
 record of the fact is given in the following copy of a 
 
38 LOWER LIAS. 
 
 document preserved for many generations by the Stordy 
 family of Great Orton.* 
 
 "la the year 1625 Marcy Brisco, widow, Did sink and bore 28 
 fathonfis for coal, in John Robinson's shaw, and found nothing but a 
 sort of blue ragged stone mixed with some other metal. 
 
 (Signed) "Anthony Stordy." 
 
 The blue ragged stone mixed with some other metal is 
 evidently Lias. A second document from the same source I 
 have already brought forward when treating of the Gypseous 
 Shales and their extension eastward. From it we learn that 
 a boring made in 1781 showed the full local thickness of the 
 Lower Lias : — 
 
 Drift 18 feet. 
 
 Lias 210 „ 
 
 Depth 228 „ 
 
 The sinking and boring by Marcy Brisco were, according 
 to Mr. Sutton, in the hedge where indications of an old pit 
 are now visible. This spot is at the north-eastern corner of the 
 field on the east side of the brook in which the Orton section 
 appears. The small plantation, mentioned in describing 
 the position of this section, forms part of the northern 
 boundary of this field. I have not been able to ascertain the 
 exact position of the boring of 1 781. It was, however, at 
 Great Orton, and probably at no great distance from that 
 made in 1625, as the Lias can be seen only near that spot 
 close to Orton. And the name of the field in which the 
 boring was made, " Gillclose," affords a strong presumption 
 in favour of this view, as there only does a brook run in what 
 might be called a " gill " or ravine. 
 
 Of the fossils found in the Cumberland Lias the most 
 important is Ammonites Johnstoni, seen in all the sections. 
 In addition may be mentioned GryphcEa arcuata and Lima 
 pedinoides 'I Many examples of the genera Pecien, Lima, and 
 Pleuromya were discovered, but they were not sufficiently 
 preserved to allow Mr. Etheridge to determine with certainty 
 the species to which they belonged, t 
 
 Mr. H. B. Woodward, who examined the district in 1880, 
 observes that — 
 
 " No evidence of Rhjetic Beds is forthcoming from any part of the 
 area, and I searched carefully in the Drift-deposits to see if any 
 fragments had been preserved in them ; but without success. 
 Nevertheless it appears to me most probable that they are represented, 
 when we bear in mind that they are nearly always present in other 
 parts df this country where the Lias rests upon the New Red Series. 
 At any rate the Great Orton Boring gives us a thickness of 210 feet for 
 the Rhsetic Beds (if present) and zone oi Ammonites planorbis." % 
 
 * Given me by Mrs. Hannah Pearson, Station Hill, Wigton. 
 ^ t See Holmes, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxvii. p. 294, and . Proe. 
 Geol. Assoc, vol. vi'. p. 417. 
 X Lias of England and Wales (Geol. Survey), p. 183. 
 
RELAtlONS OF TRIAS AND I,IAS. 39 
 
 The line bounding the Lias outlier can only claim to be 
 a fair approximation to the truth, though the plateau-like 
 aspect of the country it occupies, and its somewhat greater 
 elevation, distinguish it from the ground immediately outside 
 its limits. This plateau-like appearance is most conspicuous 
 between Aikton and Great Orton ; east of Orton it is not 
 particularly obvious. Similarly, the boundary of the Lias 
 plateau is fairly distinct in some places and obscure in others, 
 the obscurity increasing where the drift features on its margin 
 become more than usually prominent. 
 
 Relations betiveen the Trias and Lias. 
 
 Before considering the superficial beds of the Carlisle Basin 
 it may be useful to sum up briefly the evidence as to the 
 Permo-Triassic and Liassic rocks, in their relations to each 
 other. Southward, we found a long faulted line, separating 
 Carboniferous rocks on the south from St. Bees Sandstone on 
 the north, between Maryport and the Caldew, near its junction 
 with the Roebeck. From the Caldew eastward to the Eden, 
 the southern boundary of the district consisted of two faults 
 abutting against each other at Newbiggin on the Petterill, 
 and dividing St. Bees Sandstone on their northern or down- 
 throw side, from older rocks belonging to the Permo-Triassic 
 series of the Eden Valley district, on the south. Between 
 these last named faults and the Hether Burn, I treated of the 
 t^t. Bees Sandstone mainly in its connection with the over- 
 lying Kirklinton Sandstone on its western margin. But 
 while, with the exception of the outlier at Canobie, the 
 Kirklinton Sandstone everywhere towards its northern limit 
 kept within the English Border, the St. Bees Sandstone was 
 found extending beyond the Border on the Esk and Sark, and 
 occupying a considerable area westward on the northern shore 
 of the Solway as far as and beyond Annan. 
 
 Then the evidence of the three borings, showing the 
 existence of a great thickness of Gypseous Shales above the 
 St. Bees Sandstone at Abbey Town and Bowness, and their 
 presence near Great Orton, was considered. As these 
 Gypseous Shales underlie a very thinly-populated country, 
 in which Glacial Drift, alluvial flats and peat-mosses cover 
 the whole surface, there is nothing in the leasl surprising 
 in the fact that their existence has been ascertained wholly 
 by means of speculative borings. That in spite of their 
 thickness west of the Caldew, the Gypseous Shales do not 
 appear in the Caldew about Cummersdale, is doubtless due to 
 the following circumstances. In the eastern half of the 
 Carlisle Basin the Kirklinton Sandstone directly overlies 
 the St. Bees Sandstone. But the evidence as to the 
 Kirklinton Sandstone tends decidedly to show that it rests 
 unconformably on the St. Bees, the unconformity between 
 them increasing northward. For we have seen that in 
 Carwinley Burn, north of Netherby, the Kirklinton Sand- 
 stone is lying upon much lower beds of the St. Bees Sane - 
 stone than in the Eden or Caldew. And at Canobie, north of 
 
46 RELATIONS OF TRIAS AND LIAS, 
 
 the Scottish Border, an outlier of Kirklinton Sandstone rests 
 directly upon Carboniferous rocks. But if the unconformity 
 increases northward we may expect it to decrease southward. 
 Therefore south-west of Carlisle, towards Great Orton, we may 
 naturally expect to find the Kirklinton Sandstone lying not 
 on the St. Bees Sandstone but on the denuded edges of the 
 Gypseous Shales. 
 
 Fig. IX.— Section near Carwinley Burn. 
 
 ^ „ . , CarwinleyBrvEra 
 
 ■^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 It is, however, by no means improbable that the actual 
 boundary-line between the Gypseous Shales and the over- 
 lying Kirklinton Sandstone is a prolongation of a line of 
 faultwhichhasbeen alreadymentioned, that from Brackenbank 
 on the Eden to Newbiggin on the Petterill. This fault, which 
 between Brackenbank and Newbiggin divides the lower 
 Permo-Triassic beds south of its line from St. Bees 
 Sandstone to the north, separates St. Bees Sandstone south- 
 ward from Kirklinton Sandstone northward between New- 
 biggin and the Caldew. Thence, to the south-east corner of 
 the Lias at Orton Park, it probably separates the Gypseous 
 Shales to the south-west from the Kirklinton Sandstone 
 north-east of its course. It may be continued still further 
 westward beneath the Lias country to a point a little west of 
 Kirkbampton, and thence to Drumburgh and the Solway, 
 but we have no evidence as to the amount of its prolongation, 
 west of the Caldew.* 
 
 The Stanwix Shales, which come next in order, rest every- 
 where upon the Kirklinton Sandstone, and their junction with 
 the underlying rock is well shown near Cliff Bridge, Kirk- 
 linton and near the bridge at Westlinton. South of the 
 Eden their extension must be very small. Between Beaumont 
 and Grinsdale the country south of the Eden offers no evidence 
 whatever. Nearer Carlisle, a boring at Stainton, north of 
 the Eden, shows the Stanwix Shales to be 23 feet thick, and 
 they appear at the base of the north bank of the Eden at 
 Etterby Scaur, east of Stainton, and in the south bank of 
 the Eden south of Stainton. Yet the rock underlying the 
 alluvium of Stony Holme, east of Carlisle, where the new 
 
 * It is obvious, however, that my explanation in no wiy depends pn the probable 
 prolongation of this fault. 
 
41 
 
 X 
 
 ? 
 
 CD 
 
 n 
 
 5' 
 
 3 
 
 P 
 
 o 
 
 l-t 
 o 
 
 n 
 
 Cn' 
 
 tri 
 
 en 
 
 3' 
 
 
 CD 
 O 
 
 o' 
 
 3 
 
 O 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 n 
 !V 
 o 
 
 5? 
 
 r+ 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 ^^ 
 35" 
 
 r,-v. 
 
42 RELATIONS OF TRIAS AND LIAS. 
 
 reservoir is, and beneath the alluvium of the Caldew west and 
 north-west of Carlisle where the railway-bridges stand, is not 
 Stanwix Shale but Kirklinton Sandstone. The same 
 rock is found to occur at the factories of Messrs. Carr & 
 Dixon and at the Gaol. Thus the evidence decidedly favours 
 the view that the extension of the Stanwix Shales south of 
 the Eden at Carlisle is very slight, that they crop out below 
 the drift there, and underlie the Lias only towards the north- 
 eastern border of that formation . And it would appear that, 
 as the Stanwix Shales rest partly on the lower red beds of 
 the Kirklinton Sandstone and partly on the upper white beds, 
 there must be some degree of unconformity between the two. 
 
 Then, the drift- covered nature of the country being consi- 
 dered, the Lias occupies a fairly well-defined area, and rests, 
 in all probability, on the Gypseous Shales south-west of a line 
 drawn a little south of Kirkbampton and Great Orton towards 
 Orton Park, and on Kirklinton Sandstone north-east of 
 this line, except where, close to its north-eastern margin, it 
 overlies Stanwix Shales. Alike in the lowest and in the 
 highest beds visible was found Ammonites Johnstoni, a fact 
 tending to show that the Lias of this area belongs to the 
 lowest beds of the Liassic Series. 
 
 The number of the local unconformities in the Carlisle 
 Basin, and the singularly rapid way in which beds hundreds 
 of feet thick die away in certain directions to be succeeded 
 unconformably by another series is very noteworthy. But 
 the significance of these unconformities becomes,much reduced 
 when we consider the conditions under which these Permo- 
 Triassic rocks were formed. For none of them were deposited 
 in ordinary open seas but in inland seas or lakes which varied 
 very much from time to time in the size of the areas they 
 occupied and in the amount of salinity in their water. 
 When the salinity was much reduced owing to increased 
 rainfall having at once freshened the water and increased the 
 area of the lake, the Red Sand- .tones and Shales would be 
 formed ; but decrease in the rainfall and diminished size of 
 the lake would cause the water to become so intensely saline 
 that gypsum would be thrown down. Then renewed freshen- 
 ing ot the water would lead to the deposition of more Sand- 
 stone and Shale. While the deposition of the Lias marks a 
 return to ordinary marine conditions. 
 
43 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 The Glacial Drift and other Superficial Deposits. 
 
 Glacial Drift. 
 
 Very little of the tough clay known as Till, with which 
 angular and sub-angular stones are mixed confusedly, is 
 visible within the area here described, though some may 
 occasionally be seen in the higher parts of the courses of the 
 streams which run from the fells west of the Caldew to the 
 Solway. Its existence there is also suggested by the much 
 greater number of angular fragments of rock visible on the 
 surface in the Carboniferous Limestone country than on the 
 lower levels occupied by rocks of later date. Within the 
 Permo-Triassic area the nature of the Glacial Drift is 
 perhaps best indicated by the generally descriptive term. 
 Earthy Gravel, which appears to consist of more or less 
 rearranged Till. Rising here and there above this Earthy 
 Gravel the Esker mounds and ridges appear, but they cover a 
 small area compared with that occupied by the Earthy Gravel. 
 Sometimes this Earthy Gravel is found to be as clean and 
 sandy as that of the Eskers, and in other cases it has a stiff 
 and almost Till -like aspect. But the general term here 
 adopted seems to be the best that can be used as there is no 
 possibility of mapping the variations. The Esker mounds 
 and ridges are easily separated from the beds on which they 
 rest, by reason of their singular appearance and clearly 
 defined outlines. But the contents of the low, regular, gently 
 undulating ridges of the Earthy Gravel may vary very much in 
 quality — as railway-excavations sometimes show — ^without 
 the slightest change in the shape of the ground. And there 
 are large areas in which the only source of information is the 
 surface of the ploughed fields, on which the stones are seen 
 to be more or less rounded and the soil to be light rather 
 than heavy. More than nineteen-twentieths of the ground 
 within this district which rises above the alluvial flats consists 
 of Earthy Gra-vel. 
 
 A want of natural sections in the Glacial Drift is by no 
 means compensated by an abundance of sinkings and borings. 
 But were the latter more numerous they could be of little 
 value in enabling us to distinguish between rearranged and 
 other drift, though useful in showing its more sandy or clayey 
 nature. 
 
 The greatest thickness known to be attained by the 
 Glacial Drift in this district is that revealed by the boring at 
 Kelsick Moss, near Abbey Town (see Appendix), where 
 1 98 feet 6 inches of it and of Alluvium were found above the 
 Gypseous Shales. This is the more remarkable, as the 
 
44 GLACIAL DRIFT. 
 
 alluvial flat at the spot where the boring was made is about 
 27 feet above ordnance datum, while the drift ridges in 
 the immediate neighbourhood attain a height of 60 to 70 feet. 
 At the Bowness boring (see Appendix) there were 41 feet of 
 Glacial Drift at the surface, and at Lynehow 36 feet 3 inches. 
 Wells in this thinly populated district are shallow, their 
 makers seeking water, in almost every case, from the more 
 sandy and gravelly parts of the Glacial Drift, and being 
 afraid of losing it if they touch upon a porous Sandstone 
 below the Drift. 
 
 Some excavations made a few years ago at Carlisle for 
 railway-extension purposes afforded very good sections in 
 Glacial Drift, especially at Durran Hill and near St. Nicholas 
 Railway-bridge. And north of the Eden tbe widening of the 
 Caledonian Railway at Etterby also displayed the Drift ot 
 the locality. 
 
 Much of the Drift exposed at these places was gravelly, 
 but great variation was sometimes seen to take place within 
 a distance of 40 or 50 yards. Thin beds of warp-like clay 
 were occasionally visible, but only at two spots was there 
 anything like Till. Both at Etterby and Durran Hill no Till 
 appeared at first, though a little could be seen as the space 
 cleared became broader. The sketch below shows the 
 appearance it presented at Durran Hill. 
 
 Fig. XII. — Section at Duri-an Hill, Carlisle. 
 Height in centre 25 ft. 
 
 
 D. Snil and rain-wa h. A. Sand and Giavel : more sandy at b„se. 
 
 C. Till or Boulder-clay. B. Earthy drift with few stones. 
 
 At Etterby the section was not so clear. The Till, however, 
 lay on sand and gravel and above it was rainwash. Like the 
 bed at Durran Hill it was but a small cake, sand and gravel 
 alone being visible a few yards on each side cff it. The rarity 
 of Till in these excavations, and the small space occupied by 
 it where it does appear, seem to be explainable in the follow- 
 ing way. In the sand and gravel on which the Till rests we 
 have probably the stony remains of re-arranged Till, the 
 bands of red or purplish clay representing its clayey consti- 
 tuents. Into the sea or estuary in which the rearrangement 
 took place an iceberg occasionally brought a mass of Till. 
 The smaller masses were soon entirely rearranged, and all 
 traces of their former existence as Till destroyed. But now 
 and then a portion of a larger mass was preserved through 
 the deposition of re-arranged material around it. 
 
ESKERS. 45 
 
 Frequently the bands of red or purplish clay are entirely 
 devoid of stones, and where they are tolerably thick and 
 persistent, are often used for making tiles. The thickest bed 
 of this clay that I have ever seen in the district, was at 
 Langrigg tilery, about a mile south-west of Broomfield; another 
 could be seen in the tilery, close to the Maryport and Carlisle 
 railway, about a mile and a half south-west of Wigton. 
 
 Sections in Glacial Drift may be seen at various places in 
 the banks of the Eden between Etterby Scaur and RockclifF, 
 but, like all such sections, not being freshly cut they show 
 but little, being obscured by talus. Along the smaller streams, 
 whose power of sweeping down talus is very slight, a clear- 
 cut section is scarcely ever to be seen. In the Eden below 
 Rockcliff the only sections are at Raven's Bank, near Glasson, 
 and at Bowfless. Along the coast from Bowness to the 
 environs of Maryport there are no Drift sections whatever. 
 
 There are many brickfields near Etterby, north of Carlisle, 
 but as they are seldom more than five or six feet deep, they 
 are of the slightest possible value in showing the nature of 
 the Glacial Drift. Quarries in the underlying sandstones are 
 almost invariably situated where the Drift is much thinner 
 than usual or is entirely absent, the stone being generally 
 shown in some adjacent stream. Moreover as the railway- 
 cuttings are sloped and turfed as soon as possible after their 
 excavation, the only available information is often that 
 obtainable in the course of a walk over the arable fields. 
 
 Large boulders are more often to be seen near the coast, 
 especially near AUonby, than further inland. They are 
 frequently composed of granite resembling that of Criffel. 
 The largest boulder I have seen in the district is that on the 
 Green at Birkby, between Crosby and Maryport. It appears 
 to be Criffel Granite and must weigh many tons. Few stones 
 with good examples of Glacial scratches on them can be seen 
 in the fields, for limestone-boulders, which best receive and 
 retain the scratches, form but a small percentage of the total 
 number of boulders in any given area. The most common 
 boulders are sandstone of a very hard and compact nature 
 much more resembling Silurian grit than rock of Carboni- 
 ferous or Fermo-Triassic age. Igneous rocks of various 
 kinds are not uncommon. 
 
 Eskers in this part of Cumberland cover but a limited area, 
 and do not attain a size equal to those in the neighbourhood 
 of Brampton, east of Carlisle. They vary very much as 
 regards the fineness or coarseness of the materials of which 
 they are composed, being sometimes sand and fine gravel, 
 sometimes gravel more or less coarse. They may form isolated 
 mounds and ridges, as around the park at Crofton Hall, or they 
 may occupy a compact area of country, as they do between 
 Abbey Town and Allonby. In the last named place they 
 cover a conipact area of about three square miles north-east 
 of Allonby and south-west of Abbey Town, on the ridge of 
 
46 GLACIAL DRIFT. 
 
 high ground between them. From Cowper towards the north- 
 east this Esker tract is bounded by the peat-moss drained by- 
 Holme Dub as far as the Ewecross Hills. Its more northerly 
 side extends from the Ewecrosss Hills through Keld 
 Plantation, and thence, through Aldoth to Pelutho. The 
 general direction of the western boundary is from Cowper to- 
 wards New Mawbray. The base of the Esker tract varies con- 
 siderably in height above the Solway, at some places coming 
 down to the level of the alluvial flats on the north-west and 
 south-east, in others being considerably higher and rising 
 from the Earthy Gravel. The extent of this variation is from 
 30 feet to about 100 feet above the sea. The average height of 
 the ground occupied by this Esker tract is decidedly above that 
 of the country directly around it, its highest point being 155 
 feet 7 inches above sea-level and its average height from 30 to 
 40 feet above that of the Earthy Gravel. Tiie south-eastern side 
 has a very regular escarpment-like aspect, but the other sides 
 are more diversified. Outside this tract, but near its north- 
 eastern margin, are two very bold, isolated Esker-mounds at 
 Highlaws, north of Aldoth, which are worthy of especial 
 mention on account of the magnificent panoramic views to be 
 obtained from their summits. 
 
 On reaching any high point in this Esker tract the visitor 
 will be struck by the contrast it presents to the Earthy Gravel 
 districts, either near or far away. Instead of the low, gentle, 
 regular undulations, characteristic of an Earthy Gravel 
 district, he will see a disorderly accumulation of sand and 
 gravel mounds enclosing hollows, many of which have no 
 outlet, and are often peaty at the iDottom. Sometimes for a 
 short distance the higher parts of the tract have the flat- 
 topped plateau-like aspect so common with accumulations of 
 gravel. This may be well seen on the road leading from the 
 National School at Aldoth past the farmhouses known as 
 Cobble Hall and Hards. 
 
 The next group of Eskers worthy of notice is that in the 
 district between Crofton Hall and Thornby. They consist of 
 a curious series of ridges occasionally broadening into 
 circular mounds, of which Torkin, on the north side of Crofton 
 Park, is the most conspicuous example. Its summit is 191 
 feet above the sea, and this conical tree-clad hill is a well- 
 known landmark in the district. A long, winding ridge 
 crosses the road west of Dalston Hall, and may be traced 
 for some distance northward. There are also some Esker 
 ridges about Broomhills midway between Great Orton and 
 Carlisle. 
 
 On the Esker ridge at Dalston the word " tumulus " appears, 
 on the map of six inches to the mile, in two places. Of course 
 a natural mound may often have been used as a burial- 
 place under the impression that it was an artificial barrow. 
 Isolated Esker mounds must often present an extremely 
 artificial appearance to those who have not noted their dis- 
 tribution and tracked them from place to place. Consequently 
 
VALLEY GRAVEL. 47 
 
 a word of caution to the antiquary on this point may be 
 useful. 
 
 There is a fine isolated Esker ridge a few yards south of 
 Arthuret Church and Rectory, near Longtown, but the country 
 in the immediate neighbourhood is entirely devoid of Eskers. 
 The only other accumulations of Esker gravel and sand, 
 within the district, that are worth notice are in the parish of 
 Kirklinton. The first group is west of the river Line, between 
 the peat-moss called Black Snib and Brackenhill Tower. 
 The second is between the Hether Burn and the Longtown and 
 Brampton road, around the farmhouse known as Horsegills. 
 At Hill House, about a quarter of a mile north-east of Horse- 
 gills, these Eskers attain a height of 264 feet above the sea, or 
 rather more than 100 feet above the highest point on the group 
 between Abbey Town and Allonby. 
 
 Many Eskers may be seen between the Horsegills group and 
 the broad belt of Esker country around Brampton, but they 
 hardly fall within our limits. However, it is worthy of remark 
 that the Brampton EskerS cover a much larger area than any 
 group in west Cumberland, and that they may be seen at a 
 height of more than 600 feet above the sea. Isolated mounds, 
 however, appear at an equal or greater height on the skirts of 
 the mountains west of the Caldew about Caldbeck and Treby. 
 On the Scottish shore of the Solway, Eskers abound north of 
 the town of Dumfries and in the neighbourhood of Cummer- 
 trees. 
 
 Valley Gravel, Albwium, Peat-tnosses, Blown Sand, and Recent 
 Marine deposits. 
 
 From the Earthy Gravel and Eskers which form the surface 
 of the high ground of the district, we now turn to the super- 
 ficial beds which form the low ground and rest upon the 
 eroded surface of the Glacial Drift or of some still older 
 formation. These consist of the gravel and Alluvium of the 
 various streams, and the broad alluvial flats, sometimes more 
 or less peaty, bordering the Solway, together with the shingle 
 of the slightly raised beaches and other scattered shingle 
 ridges at the same level, and also the Blown Sand resting here 
 and there on the raised beach. Occasionally peat-mosses are 
 found at slightly higher levels than those of the alluvial flats, 
 as in the case of Solway Moss, or of some small mosses in the 
 Esker tract between Abbey Town and Allonby. But they all 
 rest in hollows in the older rocks already described. 
 
 The oldest of the river-deposits are the terraces of gravel 
 seen here and there along the courses of the various streams, 
 above the level of the lowest flat. There are good examples 
 of these terraces on the Esk at and above Netherby, along 
 the Caldew at and below Dalston, and on the Eden about 
 Crosby, above Carlisle. These terraces were formed by the 
 river before it had cut its way down to its present level. The 
 
48' PEAT. 
 
 terrace at Dalston is of considerable interest. A section in it 
 may be seen a few yards north of the railway-station ; it con- 
 sists of coarse gravel. On the side next the Caldew it ends in 
 a well-marked bank, rising six or seven feet above the present 
 alluvial flat of that stream. If we walk on this old river- 
 deposit from the bank westward, no stream can be seen 
 running through it east of Gill Beck, a distance of rnore than 
 a mile. The flat traversed by Gill Beck, which flqWs west- 
 ward, is perfectly continuous with that formed by the Dalston 
 gravel which here forms the water-parting between the Caldew 
 and the streams collectively forming the Wampool, which 
 falls into the Solway near Kirkbride. It would appear that 
 at one time, when the Caldew flowe(J at a higher level than it 
 now does, its channel below Dalston was along what is now 
 the valley of the Wampool, a valley between Dalston and 
 Carlisle having been formed by Pow Beck, which now flows 
 into the Caldew a little above Dalston Hall. But in course of 
 time the Caldew gradually eroded away the few hundred yards 
 of ground intervening between its own course and the valley 
 of the Pow Beck, and thenceforward deserted its former 
 course and occupied the valley of the Pow Beck. 
 
 A noticeable feature, indeed, of the river and estuarine flats 
 west of Dalston is their connection with each other, and the 
 many former changes of route on the part of the streams 
 flowing through them which they suggest. The great peat- 
 mosses known as Wedholme Flow, Drumburgh Moss, and 
 that of the Bowness peninsula all appear to rise from the broad 
 flat around them and to be simply peat-covered portions of it, 
 the result of an arrest of drainage owing to the destruction of 
 the trees of an old forest once occupying their sites, and which 
 are now plentiful near their edges. Some peat-mosses at a 
 somewhat higher level appear to occupy the sites of ancient 
 lakes. Examples of these are the moss adjoining Moorhouse 
 Tarn, north of Wigton, and probably Solway and Scaleby 
 mosses. 
 
 The peat of the low-lying mosses appears to have once 
 occupied a much larger area than it now does and to have 
 been partly removed by circum-denudation. Much peaty soil 
 still exists outside the main mass of Wedholme, Drumburgh 
 and Bowness mosses, also on the landward border of the great 
 flat west of Highlaws and Pelutho. South of Pelutho, in the 
 neighbourhood of Old Mawbray, there are Brunshaw and 
 Salta mosses, which were once, no doubt, continuous with 
 each other and with other mosses towards Pelutho, where a 
 certain amount of peaty soil still remains. Then Salta Moss 
 is continuous with the peat occupying the long winding flat 
 drained by Black Dub and Holme Dub. Eastward the peat 
 of this flat ends a little west ot Langrigg Beck, but there is 
 much peaty soil near the farmhouse called Mireside. South 
 of Salta Moss, towards Allonby, the flat is loamy, but the 
 boundary of the peat is extremely vague. The remains of 
 trees are very abundant towards the edges of some of these 
 
RAISED BEACH — BLOWN SAND. 49 
 
 mosses, the most common being those of the Birch and the 
 Scotch Fir. 
 
 The broad flats bordering on the Solway, where not peaty, 
 consist of a loam varying very much in the proportions of 
 sand and clay which it contains. Here and there slight 
 gravel mounds and ridges rise a few feet above the level of 
 the flat on which they rest. Examples of these gravel-ridges 
 exist at Dryholme, Calvo and Newton Arlosh. There is a 
 group of them between Pelutho and Beckfoot, and the village 
 of NewMawbray stands on one of them. They seldom rise 
 to a height of more than six or seven feet above the level of 
 the adjacent flat. 
 
 Besides these mounds, shingle-ridges appear on the 
 seaward margin of the broad flat between Old Mawbray and 
 Grune Point, and, north of Moricambe Bay, between Anthorn 
 and Herd Hill near Bowness, where the railway-viaduct 
 crosses the Solway. South of Old Mawbray, towards 
 AUonby, Maryport and Workington, shingle-ridges of 
 similar height, from 25 to 35 feet above the sea, may be 
 seen. They form a slightly raised beach, and testify to a 
 small elevation of the land since their formation. Between 
 Maryport and old Mawbray the raised beach is sometimes 
 bounded by a cliff, sometimes by ground above which it rises 
 a few feet, as it does between Old Mawbray and Herd Hill. 
 At Silloth, north of the lifeboat station, the alluvial clay was 
 seen underlying the shingle. This raised beach is evidently 
 of the same age and elevation as the ridges at New Mawbray, 
 Dryholme, Calvo and Newton Arlosh in the middle of the 
 great alluvial flat. 
 
 As to the age of this raised beach, the fact that the 
 foundations of a Roman Camp were discovered on it at 
 Beckfoot in 1879 shows that it can hardly have been less 
 elevated than it now is during the Roman occupation. 
 
 Here and there the raised beach is more or less covered by 
 Blown Sand. There is little Blown Sand on the Bowness 
 peninsula, but a good deal between AUonby and Silloth. At 
 Blitterlees Bank, south of Silloth the hills of Blown Sand 
 reach a height of 50 feet above the sea and have an average 
 breadth of about 450 yards. Again, between Beckfoot and 
 Old Mawbray it makes a noticeable ridge called Mawbray 
 Bank, which attains a breadth of 300 yards and is about the 
 same height as Blitterlees Bank. North of Silloth it dies 
 away, and south of Mawbray Bank it is of little importance. 
 
 A few words on the relations of the superficial beds of the 
 district to each other may now be useful. Till, as we have 
 seen, is seldom visible within this area, the chief constituent 
 of the Glacial Drift being the more or less re-arranged Till 
 mentioned here by the generally descriptive term Earthy 
 Gravel. On this Earthy Gravel Eskers appear nere and 
 there at various levels from that of the Raised Beach to a 
 height of 800 feet above the sea. A curious feature in the 
 
 1876. D 
 
50 SUBMERGED FOREST. 
 
 Esker tract between Abbey Town and Allonby is the 
 presence of irregfular hollows having no outlet, which riow 
 contain peat. It may confidently be asserted that masses 
 of clean sand and gravel, sometimes containing hollows of 
 this kind, which are distributed at various levels over a 
 gently undulating lowland country, can only have been 
 produced by the agency of the sea. It would seem therefore 
 that after the deposition of the Till a slow submergence of 
 the land took place during which the Till was much acted 
 upon- by denudation. This wouFd result in, the ■ re- 
 arrangemeiit of most of it into Earthy Gravbl. But as the 
 Earthy Gravel, on the subsequent eihergence of the land, 
 became raised more and more above sea-level it, in its turn, 
 became subject to dfehiidiiig influences and was removed or 
 re-ari'anged to i considerable extent. In certain spots ridges 
 arid mounds of re-arranged material remained, the position^ 
 arid shapes of these mounds being determined partly by 
 the' power of currents and breakers to' heap up sand and 
 gravel at particular spots, and partly by circum-dehuding 
 influehces of the same kind. In this way the Eskers 
 were formed. The Raised Beach prObably mafks the last 
 stage in this emersfence. . t . - ^ 
 
 But though the Raised Beach is evidence that a rise of- the 
 land is one of the most recent geological movements in this 
 district, the remains of a Submerged Forest off Cardurnock 
 testify that a slight sinking is a still more recerit event. This 
 sinking may have had the effect of reducing the height of the 
 Raised Beach from perhaps 60 to 70 feet above the sea to its 
 present altitude of 25 to' 35 feet. Mr. "R. B. Brockbank, to 
 whom I had written on the subject, was good;enbugh to obtain 
 for me the following information. In a letter dated February 
 lOth; 1 880, he says : — 
 
 " I found an inlelligent old man, Robert Johnston, who told me that 
 fifteen or sixteen years ago the channel, which shifts about very much, 
 in cutting its way into the sand forn.ed a steep bank on one side, 
 on the edge of the wide flat of sand which stretches away from 
 Cardurnock towards Crififel, and laid bare three or four feet of peat, 
 below five or six feet of sand. Wood was found embedded in the peat, 
 some of which was taken out by a person, curious in such' matters, but 
 when exposed to the air it soon 'merled' away." 
 
 The channel again shifted and the place became covered 
 with sand, and Mr. Brockbank remarks than when he saw 
 the spot there was an unbroken stretch of sand extending 
 from the edge of the marsh near Cardurnock to the place 
 where the channel then was, two and a half miles away.* 
 The magnitude and rapidity of these changes in the channels 
 of the Solway are well shown in English and Scottish 
 ordnance maps differing less than ten years in their date of 
 
 See Notes on a Submerged Forest off Cardurnock on the Solway, and on the 
 Destruction of Skinbuiness hy the sea about the year no?. Bv T V Holmes 
 Trars. C-.-m\ Assoc, P rt VI,, i8«o-8i, p. lai. ^ y ^. v. rxoimes. 
 
RECENT CHANGES. SI 
 
 publication. And they are well illustrated by the de- 
 struction of Skinburness in the time of Edward I. through 
 the erosion of the land there by the main channel of the 
 Solway, and by the ruin of Port Carlisle during the reign of 
 Queen Victoria through the desertion by the channel of its 
 forn-er course close to the port. 
 
 In conclusion, the following considerations in connection 
 with the Roman works on the Solway give some presumption 
 that there has been no perceptible change of level in the 
 district since the Roman occupation. 
 
 Dr. Bruce, the historian of the Roman Wall, remarks that 
 the Romans probably ended the Wall at Bowness, because 
 while the Solway east of Bowness has always been much used 
 as a ford at low water, no passage across it west of Bowness 
 has ever been made. But it is evident that an addition to the 
 average depth of the water east of Bowness of even five or six 
 feet would have destroyed the practice of fording there, and 
 the Romans would probably have ended the Wall opposite 
 Rockcliff: Bowness being a detached camp like those at 
 Beckfoot and Maryport. 
 
 On the other hand, greater elevation in Roman times to 
 the amount of five or six feet would probably have resulted in 
 an extension of the Wall westward of Bowness, or in the 
 building of a camp somewhere between Bowness and 
 Beckfoot, of which there is no trace. 
 
 These considerations gain a weight they would not 
 otherwise possess from the remarkable precision with which 
 the Wall was planned to go just so far as the Romans 
 thought necessary and not a single yard further. This 
 precision is well illustrated by the position of the eastern end 
 of the Wall at Wallsend on the Tyne instead of at Tynemouth, 
 which is simply the site of a detached fort. 
 
 1876. D 2 
 
52 
 
 APPENDIX I. 
 BORINGS, ETC. 
 
 Section of Borehole at Kelsick Moss, near Abbey Town. 
 
 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 
 
 Ft. 
 
 tn. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 [Alluvium] 
 
 Clay 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 
 Red Sand 
 
 55 
 
 2 
 
 67 
 
 8 
 
 
 Brown sandy Clay and stones - 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 76 
 
 
 
 
 Cobble - 
 
 
 9 
 
 76 
 
 9 
 
 
 " Bound " Sand and Gravel 
 
 I 
 
 9 
 
 78 
 
 6 
 
 
 Brown Sand - 
 
 
 9 
 
 79 
 
 3 
 
 
 Clay Sand and Gravel 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 83 
 
 
 
 
 Cobble - 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 85 
 
 
 
 
 Clay Sand and Gravel 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 88 
 
 
 
 
 Gravel 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 92 
 
 
 
 [Glacial , 
 
 .Clay 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 96 
 
 6 
 
 Drift.] 
 
 Stififred Clay 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 6 
 
 
 Stiff blue Clay 
 
 42 
 
 6 
 
 143 
 
 
 
 
 Dark stiff muddy Clay 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 153 
 
 
 
 
 Brown Clay - . - . 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 166 
 
 
 
 
 Red muddy Clay with beds of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sand - 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 174 
 
 
 
 
 Red Sand 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 179 
 
 
 
 
 Pinnel 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 181 
 
 
 
 
 Sand 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 186 
 
 
 
 
 Red Pinnel - 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 198 
 
 6 
 
 / 
 
 Soft red Micaeous Shale- 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 216 
 
 
 
 
 Red Shale and Gypsum 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 220 
 
 
 
 
 Red and green Shale with 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gpysum joints - 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 223 
 
 
 
 
 Red and green Shale with 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gypsum joints 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 235 
 
 6 
 
 
 Red Sandy Shale - 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 241 
 
 8 
 
 
 Red and green Shale with 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gypsum 
 
 25 
 
 4 
 
 267 
 
 
 
 
 Red Shale 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 268 
 
 
 
 
 Blue Shale 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 270 
 
 
 
 [Gypseous < 
 
 Red Shale 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 278 
 
 7 
 
 Shales.] 
 
 Purp'e and blue Shale with 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gypsum 
 
 32 
 
 II 
 
 311 
 
 6 
 
 
 Blue sandy Shale 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 312 
 
 6 
 
 
 Red Shale and Gypsum 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 314 
 
 6 
 
 
 Blue Shale and Gypsum 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 I'^l 
 
 6 
 
 
 Grey sandy Shale - 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 320 
 324 
 326 
 330 
 33' 
 335 
 350 
 
 
 
 
 Red Shale 
 Blue Shale 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 \ 
 
 Red Shale 
 
 Blue Shale 
 
 Red sandy Shale 
 
 Red and blue sandy Shale 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 15 
 
 
 
 8 
 8 
 
BORING NEAR ABBEY TOWN. 
 
 S3 
 
 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 
 
 Ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 Ft. in. 
 
 1 
 
 Red and blue Shale 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 375 
 
 Red Shale with Gypsum 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 381 
 
 
 Red and green Shale with 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gypsum 
 
 13 
 
 0, 
 
 394 
 
 
 Red Shale and Gypsum 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 411 10 
 
 
 Green and white Shale with 
 
 
 
 
 
 a little Gypsum 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 422 
 
 
 Red and green Shale with 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gypsum 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 444 
 
 
 Red Shale and Gypsum with 
 
 
 
 
 
 Salt 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 449 
 
 
 Red and white Shale with 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gypsum 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 454 
 
 
 Red and green Shale with 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gypsum 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 458 
 
 
 Red Shale and Gypsum 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 472 8 
 
 
 Red and white Shale with 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gypsum 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 474 8 
 
 ■ 
 
 White and green Shale with 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gypsum 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 478 8 
 
 
 Red Shale and Gypsum 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 482 8 
 
 
 Red and white Shale with 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gypsum 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 48s 8 
 
 
 Light blue Shale and Gypsum- 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 490 
 
 
 Red and green Shale with 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gypsum 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 497 
 
 
 Red Shale 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 502 
 
 
 Light green Shale and Gypsum 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 508 
 
 [Gypseous 
 
 Red Shale and Gypsum ■ 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 q2i 
 
 Shale&O ' 
 
 Red and green Shale 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 532 
 
 
 Red Shale 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 538 2 
 
 
 Green Shale and Gypsum 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 541 
 
 
 Red Shale and Gypsum 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 546 6 
 
 
 Red Shale 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 555 6 
 
 
 Red Shale and Gypsum - 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 563 8 
 
 
 Red and green Shale and 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gypsum 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 580 
 
 
 Light green Shale and Gypsum 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 591 
 
 
 Red and light green Shale 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 612 
 
 
 Red Shale and Gypsum 
 
 8 
 
 • 
 
 620 
 
 
 White sandy Shale - 
 
 
 6 
 
 620 6 
 
 
 Red Shale 
 
 44 
 
 6 
 
 665 
 
 
 Red and green Shale 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 677 
 
 
 Red and light blue Shale- 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 692 
 
 
 Light green Shale and Gypsum 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 694 
 
 
 Red Shale and Gypsum - 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 703 6 
 
 
 Red and blue Shale- 
 
 28 
 
 6 
 
 732 
 
 
 Red Shale 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 750 
 
 
 Red and blue Shale- 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 751 
 
 V 
 
 Red Shale 
 
 28 
 
 6 
 
 779 6 
 
 
 Red and blue Shale- 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 787 
 
 
 Red Shale 
 
 39 
 
 7 
 
 826 7 
 
 
 Red and blue Shale with 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gypsum 
 
 31 
 
 S 
 
 858 
 
 
 Soft white Sandstone with 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gypsum 
 
 
 6 
 
 858 6 
 
 
 Red Shale with Gypsum - 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 872 
 
 
 Red and blue Shale with sandy 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ beds and a little Gypsum - 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 902 
 
54 
 
 BORING NEAR ABBEY TOWN. 
 
 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 - - 
 
 
 
 Ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 
 Red and grey Shale 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 926 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 Blue Shale 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 927 
 
 
 
 
 Grey Sandstone 
 
 
 6 
 
 927 
 
 6 
 
 
 Red and blue sandy Shale 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 932 
 
 6 
 
 [Gypseous 
 
 Hard grey gypseous Shale 
 
 
 6 
 
 933 
 
 
 
 Shales.] 
 
 Blue Shale 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 936 
 
 
 
 
 Grey Sandstone 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 937 
 
 6 
 
 
 Red sandy Shale 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 941 
 
 
 
 
 Blue sandy Shale 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 944 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 Red and grey sandy Shale 
 Grey Sandstone and blue sandy 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 945 
 
 
 
 
 Shale - 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 969 
 
 6 
 
 [St. Bees / 
 
 Soft grey Sandstone 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 982 
 
 
 
 Sandstone.] 
 
 Soft red and white Sandstone - 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 988 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 Soft red Sandstone (left off in) 
 Total depth 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 1020 
 
 
 
 
 
 1020 
 
 , 
 
 This most important borehole was put down by the Cum- 
 berland Diamond Boring Company, of which Mr John Vivian 
 of Whitehaven was managing director, between , November 
 14th, 1875 and May i8th 1876. It ended, as I have said else- 
 where remarked, in St. Bees Sandstone. By the term 
 "pinnel," seen at the bottom of the Glacial Drift, at a depth 
 of 181 feet to 198 feet 6 ins., is meant a mixture of decomposed 
 red shale and Till. It will be noticed that sand and gravel 
 decidedly predominate in the upper half of the Glacial Drift, 
 and that clay is the chief constituent of the lower half. Also 
 that the lowest bed containing gypsum is at the depth of 933 
 feet. 
 
 Boring near Bowness, about 14 miles from Carlisle, 1809 
 {at the west end at high water mark). 
 
 
 * 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 
 
 Ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 Ft. in. 
 
 ( 
 
 Soil 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 [Glacial 
 Drift.] ' 
 
 \ 
 
 Sand and gravel - . . 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 Strong clay and tumblers and 
 
 
 
 
 gravel - 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 Sahdy gravelly clay- 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 / 
 
 Soft brown red metal with 
 
 
 
 
 
 scars in places - 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 83 
 
 
 Red metal mixed with alabaster 
 
 
 
 
 Gypseous 
 
 and red freestone 
 
 67 
 
 
 
 150 
 
 Shales.] 
 
 Brown red metal-stone and 
 
 
 
 
 
 alabaster beds in places - 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 170 
 
 
 Hard white stone 
 
 -> 
 
 
 
 172 
 
 
 Blue metal with scars of white 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 in it - ... 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 174 
 
BORING NEAR BOWNESS. 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 Thi.k 
 
 ness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 
 
 Fl. 
 
 in. 
 
 Ft. in. 
 
 / 
 
 Blue grey metal mixed with 
 
 
 
 
 
 alabaster 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 179 o 
 
 
 Brown red metal, ditto 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 182 
 
 
 Brown red metal-stone and red 
 
 
 
 
 
 freestone and girdles 
 
 15 
 
 o 
 
 197 
 
 
 Blue grey metals with soft 
 
 
 
 
 
 partings and mixture of 
 
 
 
 
 
 alabaster 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 202 
 
 
 Red metal-stone with grey beds 
 
 
 
 
 
 in it 
 
 6 
 
 o 
 
 208 
 
 
 Soft red metal - 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 211 
 
 
 Soft blue grey meial with 
 
 
 
 
 
 tnixture of red in it 
 
 9 
 
 o 
 
 220 
 
 
 S )ft red metal with soars of 
 
 
 
 
 
 grey in it 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 229 
 
 
 Brown red metal and grey beds 
 
 
 
 
 
 in it . . - 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 243 
 
 
 Red freestone with scars of 
 
 
 
 
 
 grey 
 
 33 
 
 o 
 
 276 
 
 
 Blue grey hmestone beds and 
 
 
 
 
 fGypseous , 
 
 blue metal partings - 
 
 9 
 
 o 
 
 285 
 
 Shales.] ' 
 
 Red stone mixed with alabaster 
 catheads and dun red whin 
 
 
 
 
 
 girdles 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 306 
 
 
 Grey metal-stone. - 
 
 2 
 
 p 
 
 308 
 
 
 Red stone and soft partings 
 
 34 
 
 o 
 
 342 
 
 
 Hard white grey stone 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 345 
 
 
 Red stone and soft partings 
 
 7 
 
 o 
 
 352 
 
 • 
 
 Blue grey metal and limestone 
 
 
 
 
 
 beds in it 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 
 360 
 
 
 Red stone scarred with white 
 
 
 
 
 
 and hard white girdles of 
 
 
 
 
 
 alabaster - ,_ 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 368 c 
 
 
 Blue giey metal-stone and lime- 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ stone girdles with scars of 
 
 
 
 
 
 alabaster 
 
 6 
 
 o 
 
 374 
 
 
 Red stone scarred with white 
 
 
 
 
 
 and strong bastard lime- 
 
 
 
 
 
 stone beds 
 
 3° 
 
 o 
 
 404 
 
 
 Grey stone 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 
 406 
 
 
 Soft red stone scarred with 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ alabaster 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 
 408 
 
 [St. Bees 
 
 Left off in red stone - 
 
 
 
 
 Sandstone.] 
 
 
 
 
 
 Borehole at Garlands Asylum near Carlisle. 
 
 [Glacial 
 Drift] 
 
 I 
 
 Ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 Eaith and Rubbish - 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 Sand 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 Quicksand 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 Gravel - 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 Clay _ - - -- 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 
 
S6 
 
 BORINGS NEAR CARLISLE, 
 
 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 
 
 Ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 Fi. 
 
 in. 
 
 
 Red rock (solid red stone) 
 
 52 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 Ironstone (not found in next 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 5 
 5 
 
 
 boring) 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 Red rock - - " 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 93 
 
 
 White rock (hard, hke Lazonby) 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 95 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 
 Red rock - 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 lOl 
 
 
 Red clay - 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 102 
 
 5 
 8 
 
 
 Red rock 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 109 
 
 
 White stone mixed with iron- 
 stone - . 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 III 
 
 8 
 
 
 Red rock (grows rather soft at 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the base) 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 123 
 
 I I 
 
 8 
 
 
 White stone 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 127 
 
 
 Red and white rock 
 
 44 
 
 9 
 
 172 
 
 5 
 
 
 Clayey shiver 
 
 I 
 
 9 
 
 174 
 
 2 
 
 
 Red rock with bands of white 
 
 
 
 198 
 
 
 
 rock 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 Red rock with water 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 206 
 
 5 
 
 
 Red rock with bands of while 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rock - 
 
 48 
 
 10 
 
 255 
 
 3 
 
 
 Hard red stone (rather like 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lazonby) 
 Shale 
 
 24 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 279 
 280 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 
 Lazonby stone - 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 305 
 
 
 
 
 Red shiver 
 
 Total depth - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 305 
 
 
 
 Borehole at Gaol, Carlisle. 
 No detailed account was kept. 
 
 Soil and forced earth, about 
 Red Sandstone, about 
 
 Total depth 
 
 Feet. 
 
 27 
 250 
 
 277 
 
 Section at the site of the new Gasometer on the alluvial flat of the 
 Caldew, Carlisle. 
 
 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 ' 
 
 Soil 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 Sandy clay 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 Alluvium and J 
 
 Yellow clav, stiffer 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 River Gravel. 
 
 Rough gravel - 
 
 Puiplish clay, weathering red (warp) with 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 boulders near the bottom, large and small 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 Glacial Drift 
 
 Running sand with large boulders (little water 
 
 
 
 
 in it) - , 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 Red Sandstone 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 The ubper 28 feet appeared to be river deposits, the 
 
 
 
 
 next 12 feet Glacial Drift 
 
 
 
57 
 
 Fig. XIII.— sections AT THE WATERWORKS EXTENSION, 
 STONY HOLME, CARLISLE. 
 
 (From a drawing by Mr. Hepworth.) 
 S jfiast Side h 
 
 
 n.o' u: 
 
 6" u-'e" 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 _. 
 
 ^:^'= — ■- 
 
 
 <e 
 
 — — 
 
 r-.- at ^~- 
 
 ^ — 
 
 — -^ 
 
 * 
 
 3 
 
 :z_-r . — =-- -=^^r -:-.-^ ■.=- .^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 -— — .~F^— -^^■:=-:: 
 
 : 
 
 « 
 
 T--*iLT.i". V". ■tj:.'Ar\ ■* (■ *i^ 
 
 J?:4"?.f^4''^-iV''i}' 
 
 Vr*!. 1 o-"" --*-*'"-"''- 
 
 ■'=:°'^'-v'-°-^-'?-' 
 
 Is 
 
 is 
 
 
 ■e.>?^.v'rrs*^ift5t^a: 
 
 KX^r ie:6" le.'s" 
 
 "West Side 
 9.0" 
 
 Ji. Red Sandstone. G. Gravel. A. Alluvium. Scales : vertical, four 
 times as great as horizontal. 
 
s^ 
 
 APPENDIX II. 
 
 LIST OF WORKS BEARING ON THE GEOLOGY 
 OF THE CARLISLE BASIN.* 
 
 1769. Walker, J. 
 Account of the Irruption of Sol way Moss. 
 Phil. Trans., Vol. LXII. p. 123. 
 
 1836. Sedgwick, Rev. Prof. A. 
 On the New Red Sandstone Series in the Basin of the Eden and North 
 Western Coasts of Cumberland and Lancashire. 
 Tra7iS. Geol. Soc, ser. 2, Vol. IV. p. 383. 
 
 1839. Wood, N. 
 On the Red Sandstone of the Tweed and Carlisle. Rep. Brit. Assoc, for 
 1838, Sections, pp. 78—79- 
 
 1855. BlNNEY, E. W. 
 On the Permian Beds of the North West of England. 
 Mem. Lit. Phil. Soc. Manch., ser. 2, Vol. XII. pp. 209—269. 
 
 1857. BINNEY, E. W. 
 Additional Observations on the Permian Beds of the North West of 
 England. 
 Mem. Lit. Phil. Soc. Manch., ser. 2, Vol. XIV. pp. 1 01— 120. 
 
 1859. BiNNEY, E. W. 
 Notice of Lias Deposits at Quarry Gill and other places near CarHsle. 
 Quart. Journ. Geol. 5cc., Vol. XV., pp. 549-551; Proc. Lit. Phil. Soc. 
 Manch., Vol. i. pp. 96 — 98. 
 
 i860. Dunn, Matthias. 
 On the Coal Fields of Cumberland, and the Probabihty of Coal being 
 found under the New Red Sandstone which surrounds the City of Carlisle. 
 Trans. N. Inst. Min. Eng., Vol. VIII. pp. 141—154. 
 
 1862. Gibson, Edmund. 
 A Geological Paper on the Border Districts of Dumfriesshire, Cumberland, 
 and part of Roxburghshire, including the Coal Formation of Canobie, &c. 
 Trans. N. Inst. Min. Eng., Vol. XI. pp. 65—88. 
 
 Harkness, Prof. R. 
 
 On the Sandstones and their Associated Deposits in the Vale of the 
 Eden, the Cumberland Plain, and the South-East of Dumfriesshire. 
 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, Vol. XVIII. p. 205. 
 
 1863. Dunn, M. 
 On the Relations of the Cumberland Coal Field to the (New) Red 
 Sandstone. 
 (Brit. Assoc). Geologist. Vol. VI. p. 377. 
 
 * In drawing up this list I have been much indebted to " A List of Works relating 
 to the Geology of Cumberland and Westmojland ," by Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., 
 which appears in Trans. Cumb. Assoc, Part VII. 1881-82, pp. 13-39. It m»y be 
 useful to mention that the Cumberland and Westmorland Association has ceased to 
 exist : the last part (No. xvii.) of its Traosactions for 1891-2, was published in 1893. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. M 
 
 1864. BiNNEY, E. W. 
 
 Further Observalions on the Carboniferous, Permian and Triassic Strala 
 of Cumberland and Dumfries. 
 Mem. Lit. Phil. Soc. Manck., ser. 3, Vol. 11. pp. 343—388. 
 
 Dunn, M. 
 
 On the Probable e.^tension of the Coal Field under the New Red Sand- 
 stone of Cumberland. 
 
 Trans. JV. Inst. Mm. Eng., Vol. XIII. pp. 87—89, 202—3. 
 
 1865. MuRCHisoN, Sir R. I. and Prof. R. Harkness. 
 
 On the Permian Rocks of the North West of England and their Extension 
 mto Scotland. 
 
 Qua>-t Jonrn. Geol. Soc, Vol. XX. p. 144. 
 
 Brodie, Rev. P. B. 
 Remarks on three Outliers of Lias in North Shropshire and South Cheshire 
 Staffordshire, and Cumberland, and their correlation with the main Range ' 
 Proc. Warwicks/i. Field Club, p. 6.. 
 
 Mackintosh, D. 
 
 On the Dispersal of Criffel Granite and Caldbeck Porphyry over the Plain 
 of Cumberland. 
 
 Geol. Mag., Vol. VII. p. 564. 
 
 1876. Russell, R., and T. V. Holmes. 
 
 The Raised Beach on the Cumberland Coast between Whitehaven and 
 Bowness. 
 
 Trans. Cumb. Assoc, Part I. 1875 — 6, p. 68 (Abstract). 
 
 1881. Holmes, T. V. 
 The Permian, Triassic and Liassic Rocks of the Carlisle Basin. 
 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, Vol. XXXVII. p. 286. 
 
 Notes on the Physical Geography of North West Cumberland. 
 Trans. Cumb. Assoc, Part VI. 1880—81, p. 167. 
 
 Notes on a Submerged Forest off Cardurnock on the Solway ; and on the 
 Destruction of Skinburness by the Sea about the year 1305. 
 Trans. Cumb. Assoc, Part VI. 1880 — 81, p. 121. 
 
 1882. Holmes, T.V. 
 
 On the Distinctive Colours of the Carboniferous and Permian or Triassic 
 (Poikilitic) Rocks of North Cumberland. 
 
 Trans. Cumb. Assoc Part VII. 1881— 2, p. 79. 
 
 Notes on the Geology of Cumberland North of the Lake District. 
 Proc Geol. Assoc, Vol. VII. 1881—2, p. 404. 
 
 1883. Holmes, T. V. 
 
 Water supply in the Carlisle Basin. 
 
 Trans. Cumb. Assoc Part VIII. 1882—3, P- i7- 
 
 Coal Measures below the New Red Sandstone. Discovery of Mammalian 
 Remains at Silloth. Note on Shawk Beck. 
 Ihid., pp. 208—212. 
 
 On Eskers or Karnes. 
 
 Geol. Mag., Dec. 2, Vol. X., pp. 438—445. 
 
60 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
 
 1884. Holmes, T. V. 
 
 Notes on the Best Locality for Coal beneath the Permian Rocks of North 
 West Cumberland. 
 
 Trans. Cumb. and Westm. Assoc, Part IX. 1883—4, p. 109. 
 
 Leitch, J. 
 Notes on the Geological Formation and Fossils of the New Silloth 
 Dock. 
 
 Trans. Cumb. and Westm. Assoc, Part IX. 1883—4, p. 169. 
 
 Holmes, T. V. 
 The Carlisle Water Supply. Section North of Silloth. Silloth New 
 Dock. Changes of Channel in the Solway. Short Notes. Ibid., pp. 
 313—215. 
 
 1885. Kendall, J. D. 
 
 On the Best Locality for Coal beneath the Permian Rocks of North 
 West Cumberland. 
 
 Trans. Cumb. and Westm. Assoc, Part X. 1884-5, P- i°9- 
 
 1886. Holmes, T. V. 
 
 Purple-Grey Carboniferous Rocks and the Whitehaven Sandstone. 
 Trans. Cumb. and Westm. Assoc, Part XI. 1885—6, p. 146. 
 
 1887. GOODCHILD, J. G. 
 
 Ice Work in Edenside and some of the adjoining parts of North Western 
 England. 
 
 Trans. Cumb. and Westm. Assoc, Part XII. 1886—87, p. iii. 
 
 1889. Holmes, T. V. 
 
 The Geology of North- West Cumberland. 
 Proc Geol. Assoc, Vol. XI., pp. 231 — 257. 
 
 GoODCHILD, J. G 
 
 An Outline of the Geological History of the Eden Valley or Edenside. 
 Ibid., Vol. XI., pp. 258-284. 
 
 GOODCHILD, J. G., and T. V. HOLMES. 
 
 Account of Excursion to North- West Cumberland and Edenside. 
 Ibid., Vol. XL, p. Ixxxv. 
 
 1892. GOODCHILD, J. G. 
 
 Observations on the New Red Series of Cumberland and Westmorland, 
 with especial reference to Classification. 
 
 Trans. Cumb. and Westm. Assoc, Part XVII. 1891 — 2, p. i. 
 
 1893. Woodward, H. B. 
 
 The Lias of England and Wales (Yorkshire excepted). Mem. Geol. 
 Survey. 8vo, London. [Lower Lias of Cumberland, pp. 183, 184.] 
 
 1895. Russell, R. 
 
 The Extension of the West Cumberland Coalfield Southward and North- 
 ward under the St. Bees Sandstone. 
 
 Tran. N. Engl. Inst. Min. and Mech. Eng., Vol XLI V., p. 234. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Abbey Town, 2, 19, 22, 41, 43, 45, 
 
 47, 50; Boring, 20, 21, 52. 
 Aigle Gill, 18. 
 Aikton, 21, 35-37, 39. 
 Alabaster, 22. 
 Aldoth, 46. 
 AUerby, 9. 
 AUonby, 2, 3, 8, 9, 45, 47, 49, 50. 
 
 Bay, 21. 
 
 Alluvium, 2, 7, 21, 42, 47-51, 52, 56, 57. 
 Ammonites Johnstoni, 36, 37, 38, 42. 
 Annan, 6, 8, 21, 29, 3r. 
 Anthorn, 49. 
 Appleby House, 27. 
 Area, i. 
 ^Armathwaite, 19. 
 Arlhuret Church, 47. 
 Aspatria, i, 8,9, 10-12, 18. 
 Aspatria Colliery, 10. 
 Aveline, W. T., 7. 
 Baggrow, II. 
 
 Quarry, 9, lo. 
 
 Bank End, 8. 
 
 Pit, 10. 
 
 Barnrigg, 13. 
 
 Barrock Fell, 19. 
 
 Basalt, 7, 19. 
 
 Batenbush, 28. 
 
 Beaumont, 7, 34, 35, 40. 
 
 Beckbottom, 12. 
 
 Beckfoot, 49, 51. 
 
 Bibliography, 58. 
 
 Binney, E. W., 32, 35, 36, 37, 58, 59. 
 
 Birkby, 8, 45. 
 
 Black Brows, 4. 
 
 Dub, 3, 48. 
 
 Blackball Park, 18. 
 Black Snib, 47. 
 Blaithwaite, 10. 
 Blitterlees Bank, 49. 
 Blown Sand, 7, 47-51. 
 Bolton Colliery, 11. 
 
 Fell, 26, 27. 
 
 Borings, 22, 31, 32, 35, 38, 52. 
 Boston Beck, 12, 18. 
 Boltonwood Lane, 11. 
 Boulder-clay, 2, 7, 43-47, 49- 
 Bowness, 3, 21, 31, 45, 49, 51 ; 
 Boring, 22, 44, 54. 
 
 Moss, 48. 
 
 Brackenbank, 17, 18, 31, 40. 
 Brackenhil', 4, 24. 
 
 Tower, 27, 29, 47. 
 
 Bracken How, 18, 20. 
 
 Brackenthwaiie, 13. 
 
 Brampton, 2 3, 17, 29, 30, 41, 45> 47- 
 
 Brayton, 8, 11. 
 
 Hall, I, 9, 12. 
 
 Breaks Moss, 25, 30. 
 
 Brisco, I. 
 
 Bristow, H. W., 36. 
 
 Brockbank, R. B., 22, 33, 35, 37, 50. 
 
 Brodie, Rev. P. li., 59. 
 
 Broomfield, 45. 
 
 Broomhills, 27, 46. 
 
 Bruce, Dr., 51. 
 
 Brunshaw Moss, 48. 
 
 Brunsow Beck, 9. 
 
 Brunstock Beck, 25. 
 
 Buckabank, 18. 
 
 Bull Gill, 9. 
 
 Bunter, 7. 
 
 Burgh, 3. 
 
 Burgh-by-Sands, 31. 
 
 Burnside, 25. 
 
 Bush-on-Line, 28. 
 
 Byers Wood, 28. 
 
 Caerlaverock Castle, 6, 19. 
 
 Caldbeck, 47. 
 
 Caldew River, i, 3, 8, 16, 18-23, 29, 
 
 31, 33, 39, 40, 43. 47, 48. 
 Caledonian Railway, 4, 44. 
 Calvo, 49. 
 Canobie, 30, 39. 
 Captain's Seat, 27. 
 Carboniferous, i, 8-16, 20, 25, 26, 27, 
 
 29, 30, 39, 40, 42. 
 
 Limestone, 14, 17. 
 
 Cardurnock, 50. 
 
 Cargo Beck, 32. 
 
 Carhead Stream, 32. 
 
 Carlisle, 3, 24, 31-35, 40-42, 44, 47. 
 
 Basin, 22, 39, 41, 42. 
 
 Carwiuley Burn, 4, 7, 21, 28, 29, 30, 
 
 39, 41. 
 
 Mill, 30. 
 
 Chalk Beck. See Shalk. 
 
 Church Hill, 12. 
 
 Cliff Bridge, 3, 7, 25,26,28,33,34,40. 
 
 Coal Field, 10. 
 
 Measures, 12. 
 
 Cobble Hall, 46. 
 Colvin, A., 19. 
 Cory, J. A., 24. 
 Cowper, 46. 
 Crags, 13. 
 Criffel Granite, 45. 
 Crofton Hall, 45, 46. 
 Crookdake, 10. 
 Crosby, 9, 45. 
 
 Colliery, 10. 
 
 Crossfell, 3. 
 Crcsshill, 11. 
 Crummock Beck, 10. 
 Cumberland Association, 58. 
 Cumdivock, 18. 
 
62 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Cumn.ersdale, 6, 21, 23, 28, 39. 
 
 Mills, 23. 
 
 Print Works, 23. 
 
 Cummertrees, 2, 47. 
 Cum*hinton, 18, 23. 
 Cunhwaite, 12, 13, 15, 19. 
 Ddlston, 18, 19, 23, 46. 
 
 Hall, 19, 21, 31, 46, 48. 
 
 Dearham, 8. 
 Drumhurgh, 31, 40. 
 
 Moss, 3, 48. 
 
 Dryholme, 49. 
 
 Dumfries, 2, 6, 47. 
 
 Dum'riesshire, 6, 19. 
 
 Dunn, M,, 10, 11, 58, 59. 
 
 Durran Hill, 44. 
 
 Karthy Gravel, 2, 7, 26, 43-47, 49- 
 
 East Cliff, 33. 
 
 Cunhwaite, 3, 13, 18. 
 
 Eden River, 3, 6, 18, 19, 21-25, 31- 
 
 34, 39, 40, 45- 
 
 Valley, 6. 
 
 Ellen River, 8, 9. 
 
 Ellenborough Colliery, 10. 
 
 Esk River, i, 3, 4, 23,28,29-31,39,47. 
 
 Eskers, 2, 7, 43-47, 49- 
 
 Etheridge, R., 36, 38. 
 
 Etterby, 44, 45. 
 
 facaur, 7, 34, 35, 40, 45. 
 
 Ewecross Hills, 46. 
 " Fairy Tables," 27. 
 Ferguson, R. S., 35. 
 Fergusson, Messrr., 32. 
 Flat, 7, 37. 
 Fletcher, J., 10. 
 Floriston, 4. 
 
 Gallowbarrow Cottage, 9. 
 Gaol Brow, 34. 
 Garlands, 24, 55. 
 Gatesgill, 3, 17. 
 Gibson, E., 58. 
 Gill Beck, 18, 48. 
 Gillclose, 38. 
 Gilpin, Rev. W., 4, 13. 
 Glacial Drift, 2, 7, 10, 14, 15, 19,21-23, 
 25,26,32-34,38,39,43-49, 
 52, 54-56. 
 
 Scratches, 45. 
 
 Glasson, 45. 
 
 Glinger Burn, 4, 28, 29, 30, 31. 
 
 ■ Mill, 28. 
 
 Goodchild, J. G., 19, 20, 60. 
 
 Grainhead, 25, 26. 
 
 Great Orton, 7, 21, 22, 31, 37, 38, 39, 
 
 40, 41, 42 ; Borings, 37, 38. 
 Green, Prof. A. H., 36. 
 Greenquarries, 15, 16. 
 Greenrigg, 12. 
 Gretna, 4, 30. 
 
 Grinsdale, 7, 21, 31, 32, 33, 40, 
 Grune Point, 49. 
 Gryphaa arcuata, 38. 
 Gypseous Shale?, 7, 17, 19, 21, 22, 39- 
 
 43, 53-55. 
 
 Haliburncroft, 28, 29 
 Hall'oot Mill, 25. 
 Hanging Well, 27. 
 Hards, 46. 
 
 Harkness, Prof. R., 58, 59. 
 Hawkesdale Lodge, 18. 
 Hayrijjg, 16. 
 Ha) ton, 9. 
 
 Cdstle 18. 
 
 Head's Nook, 3. 
 
 Hebert, E. J., 30. 
 
 Hepworlb, Mr., 35, 57. 
 
 Herd Hill, 49. 
 
 Hetherbank Bridge, 25. 
 
 Hether Burn, 3, 21, 25, 26, 29, 33, 39. 
 
 Hethersgill, i, 3, 8, 25, 26. 
 
 High Alstonby, 34. 
 
 High Hall, 11, 12. 
 
 Highlaws, 46, 48. 
 
 High Moat, 30. 
 
 High Plains, 29. 
 
 Hill House, 47. 
 
 Hill Top, 18. 
 
 Hirst Wood, 27. 
 
 Holme Dub, 3, 48. 
 
 Holme Head, 21, 23, 32. 
 
 Holmgate, 24. 
 
 Holm Hill, 18. 
 
 Horsegills, 47. 
 
 Houghton, 34. 
 
 Howford Bridge, 25. 
 
 How Mill, 3. 
 
 Howrigg, 13. 
 
 Irthing Kiver, 24, 25. 
 
 Islekirk Hall, 11. 
 
 Jackson Bridge, 12, 18. 
 
 Jackson, W., 13. 
 
 " John Haugh's Field " Boring, 32. 
 
 Justice Town, 31. 
 
 Keld Plantation, 46. 
 
 KeUick Moss, 21 ; Boring, 43, 52. 
 
 Kendall, J. D., 60. 
 
 Keuper, 7. 
 
 Kilnpool, 27. 
 
 Kinggate, 10. 
 
 Kirkandrews Church, 28. 
 
 ■ • ■ Tower, 4 
 
 Kiikbampton, 31,40, 42. 
 
 Kirkbride, 48. 
 
 Kirklinton, 3, 6, 8, 21, 23, 24, 26, 27, 
 
 33, 40, 47. 
 Sandstone, 6, 7, 21, 23- 
 
 32, 39-42. 
 Kirkpatrick, 31. 
 Kirtlebridge, 6. 
 Kiitlewater, 29, 31. 
 Langrigg, 45. 
 
 Beck, 48, 
 
 Laversdale, i. 
 Laws Hall, 29, 
 L'lznnby Stone, 24. 
 Let-g.ite, 18, 21. 
 Leesrigg, 10, 
 Leitch, J,, 60, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 63 
 
 Lias, 7, 21, 31, 34-42. 
 Liddel Strength, 30. 
 
 Water, i. 
 
 Lima, 38. 
 
 Line River, i, 3, 4, 21, 23-31, 34, 47. 
 
 Little Waver, 10. 
 
 Lochar Moss, 31. 
 
 Longcleughside, 27. 
 
 Longtown, 4, 27, 28, 29, 47. 
 
 Low Crosby, 24. 
 
 Lowling, 12, 13, 15. 
 
 Low Povv, 18, 19. 
 
 Lynehow, 44. 
 
 Mackintosh, D., 59. 
 
 Maryport, 1,2,8, 10, 18,20,39,45,49,51. 
 
 Mawbray Bank, 49. 
 
 Metal, 22. 
 
 Metalbridge, 28, 31. 
 
 Midland Railway, 18, 23. 
 
 Mireside, 48. 
 
 Moat Quarry, 30. 
 
 Moorhouse, 31. 
 
 ^ Tarn, 48. 
 
 Moricambe Bay, 49. 
 
 Moss End, 16. 
 
 Muckle Linn, 27. 
 
 Murchison, Sir R. L, 59. 
 
 Netherby, 3, 4, 8, 28, 29, 47. 
 
 Nether Hall, 8, 9. 
 
 Newbiggin,6, 16, 17, 18,23,24,31,39,40. 
 
 Newby, i, 3. 
 
 New M awbray, 46, 49. 
 
 Newton Arlosh, 49. 
 
 Nev'town, 34. 
 
 Nith River, 31. 
 
 Oakshawhil], 29. 
 
 Old Mawbray, 48, 49. 
 
 Orton Park, 40, 42. 
 
 Oughterside, 10. 
 
 Farm, 9. 
 
 Oxrigg, 13. 
 
 Parcelstown, 28. 
 
 Park House, 16, 36. 
 
 Park Wood, 11. 
 
 Parson Bridge, 11. 
 
 Pasture House, 10, 11. 
 
 Pearson, Mrs. H., 22, 38. 
 
 Peaf, 2, 7, 21, 47-5 >• 
 
 Peatmosses, 47-51. 
 
 Pedder Hill, 29. 
 
 Pelutho, 46, 48, 49. 
 
 Pennine Fault, 20. 
 
 Penrith Sandstone, 6, 7, 16, 24,26,31. 
 
 Permian, i, 8, 16, 28. 
 
 Permo-Triassic, 8, 17, 24, 40, 42, 43- 
 
 Petterill River, 3, 6, 16, 19, 23, 31, 33, 
 
 39, 4°- 
 Physical Features, i. 
 Plumbland, 12. 
 Port Carlisle, 51. 
 Pow Beck, II, 18, 19, 40' 
 Priestcrod Colliery, 10. 
 Prospect, 9. 
 
 Quarry Gill, 35, 36. 
 
 Raised Beaches, 8, 47-51. 
 
 Raughton, i. 
 
 Raughtonhead, 17. 
 
 Raven's Bank, 45. 
 
 Recent Marine Deposits, 47-51. 
 
 Redcleugh, 28. 
 
 Red Dial, 18. 
 
 Redkirk Mill, 31. 
 
 Rhffi'iic Beds, 7, 38. 
 
 Rickerby, 21, 24, 34. 
 
 Park, 34. 
 
 House, 37. 
 
 ■ — — Rocks, 24. 
 
 River GraveN, 56. 
 
 Terraces, 3, 7, 27, 47, 48. 
 
 Rockcliff, 2, 3, 6, 21, 23, 28, 31, 32, 
 
 41,45, 51- 
 Roe Beck, 3, 6, 17. 
 Roman Camp, 49. 
 
 Wall, 51. 
 
 Rose Bank, 16. 
 
 & Newbiggin Fault,i6,i8. 
 
 Rose Castle, i, 8, 18. 
 
 G.U, 9. 
 
 Rosley, 12, 13, 16. 
 
 — '- Rigg, 15, 16. 
 
 Russell, R., 13, 20, 31, 59, 60. 
 St. Bees Head, 6, 8. 
 
 Sandstone, i, 4,6-9, 12-14, 
 
 16-31, 39, 40, 42, 54, 55- 
 St. Nicholas, 33, 44. 
 Salta Moss, 48. 
 Sark River, 4, 29, 39. 
 Scaleby Moss, 3, 34, 48. 
 Scots Dyke, 4, 29. 
 Sedgwick, Rev. Prof. A., 58. 
 Shalk Beck, 1,3, 13-16, 18,22,25,27,29 
 
 Cottage, 14, 17. 
 
 Lodge, 13. 
 
 Side, i6. 
 
 Shank, 4. 
 
 Bridge, 3. 
 
 Castle, 27. 
 
 Shieldgreen, 28. 
 
 Silloth, 49. 
 
 Silurian Grit, 45. 
 
 Silver Beck, 11. 
 
 Six-inch Maps, i. 
 
 Skew Bank, 32-34, 41. 
 
 Skinburness, 50, 51. 
 
 Slealandsburn, 28, 29. 
 
 Sol way, 1 , 2, 3, 2 1 , 39, 40, 43, 47, 49, 5 1 . 
 
 Moss, 3, 4, 30, 48. 
 
 Southward Ford, 27. 
 Spa Well, 32. 
 Speedgill, 12. 
 
 Bridge, 18. 
 
 Stainton, 32, 34, 35, 40. 
 
 Stanwix Shales, 7, 24, 26, 32, 33, 3.4, 
 
 35, 40-42. 
 Stony Holme, 34, 40, 57. 
 Stonystonerigff, 34, 
 
64 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Strahan, A., 33. 
 
 Studfold, 12. 
 
 Submerged Forest, 50. 
 
 Superficial Deposits, 43, 47-51. 
 
 Sutton, S., 37. 
 
 Swarthy Hill, 8, 18. 
 
 Swifts, 34. 
 
 Table of Formations, 7. 
 
 Terraces, 3, 7, 27. 
 
 Thackthwaite Beck, 11. 
 
 Thornby, 36, 37, 46. 
 
 Thurstonfield, 31. 
 
 Till, 2, 7, 43-47, 49. 
 
 Tom Smith's Leap, 13, 14. 
 
 Tordoff Point, 21, 31. 
 
 Torkin, 46. 
 
 Torpenhow, 12. 
 
 Townthwaite Beck, 11, 12. 
 
 Treby, 47. 
 
 Triassic, i, 8-35. 
 
 TurnbuU's Cleugh, 29. 
 
 Tynemouth, 51. 
 
 Valley Gravel, 47-51. 
 
 Vivian, J., 34. 
 
 Walker, J., 58. 
 
 Wallsend, 51. 
 
 Walton, 17, 30. 
 
 Wampool, 48. 
 
 Warblebank, 13. 
 
 Ward, J. Clifton, 26 
 
 Warren Burn, 29. 
 Warwick, i. 
 Watch Hill, ^0. 
 Waterflosh, 36. 
 Waver Colliery, 10. 
 
 River, 10, 11, 12. 
 
 Wedholme Flow, 3, 48. 
 Westlinton, 3, 7, 28, 34, 40. 
 Westmoor Cottage, 9. 
 West Newton, 18, 19 20, 21, 22. 
 West wood Church, 11, 12. 
 
 — Cottage, 12, 13, 16. 
 
 Park, 12. 
 
 Wetherrf), i, 3, 8, 17, 18, 23, 29 30. 
 
 Whin Dyke, 7, 19. 
 
 Whisk Burn, 29. 
 
 Whitaker, W., 58. 
 
 Whitehall, 10. 
 
 Whitehaven Sandstone, 9. 
 
 Wiggonby, 37. 
 
 Wigton, 18, 19, 20, 45, 48. 
 
 Wilson, Mr., 5. 
 
 Wiza Beck, 12, 13. 
 
 Wood, 27. 
 
 Wood, N., 58. 
 
 Woodside Beck, 18. 
 
 Woodward, H. B., 38, 60. 
 
 Workington, 49. 
 
 Wreay, 6. 
 
 ' Bridge, 3, 19. 
 
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 SOUTHPORT.tYTHAM, and SOUTH SHORE. By C. E. De RANOB. 6<?. 
 
 The COUNTRY between BLACKPOOL and FLEETWOOD. By C. E. DB RANOE. 6d. 
 
 SOUTHERN PART of the FURNESS DISTRICT in N. LANCASHIRE. By W. 1. AVBUNE. 6d. 
 
 BRADFORD andSKIPTON. By J. R. DAKYNS, C. Fox-STKANGWAYS, R. RCSSBIL, and W. H. DALTON. M. . 
 
 NORTH and EAST of HARROGATE. By C. Fox-STEANflWAYS. 6d. 
 
 The COUNTRY between YORK and MALTON. By C. FOX-STEANQWAYS. Is. Bd. 
 
 N. and E.of iEEDS, and near TADCASTER. By. W. T. Atblinb, A. H. Geeen (and others). (O.P.) 
 
 COUN4^,.l4!»w«en YORK & HULL. By J. R. DAKYNS, C. Fox-STRANQWAYS, and A. G. Cameeon. Is. 
 
 DRIFFIELD."' py J. R.DAKYifS and C. Fox-Steanqw AYS. 9d. 
 
 BRIDLINGTON BAY. By J. R. DAKYNS and C. Fox-Steangways. Is. 
 
 SCARBOROUGH and FLAMBOROUGH HEAD. By C. FOX-Steangways. Is. 
 
 WHITBY and SCARBOROUGH. By C. Fox-STEANGWAYS and G. BARROWi Is. M. 
 
 NEW MALTON, PICKERING, and HELMSLBY. By C. Fox-Steansways. "Is. 
 
 ESKDALE,;K(>SEDALE, &c. By C. Fpx-STEANGWAYS, C.REID, and G. BARROW, le. 6d. 
 
 NORTHALLERTON and THIRSK. By C. Fox-STEANQWAYS, A. G. CAMEEON, and G. BARROW. Is. 6d. 
 
 INGLEBOROVGH. By J. R. DAKYNS, R. H. Tiddeman, W. Gunn, and a. STRAHAN. 2s. 
 
 MALLERSTANG. By J. R, DAKYNS, R. H. TiDDEMAN (and otliers). Ss. 6d. 
 
 KIRKBY LONSDALE and KENDAL. By W. T. AVELINE, T. Mo K. HDOHBg, and R. H. TIDDEMAN. 2«. 
 
 KENDAL. By W.T. AVBLINB and T. Mo K.Hughes. 2ud Ed. by A. Strahan. 28. 
 
 NORTHERN PART of the ENGLISH LAKE DISTRICT. By J. C. Ward. . Bs. 
 
 APPLEBY, WLLSWATER, and HAWESWATER, By J. R. DAKYNS, R. H. TIDDBMAN, and J. G. GOODOHIID. 
 
 Is. 6tJ. 
 NORTH CLEVELAND. By G. BARROW. Is. 6(1. 
 OTTERBURN and ELSDON. By HUGH MiLLEK. 2s. 6d. 
 CHEVIOT HILLS. By C. T. Clouoh. Is. 6d. 
 PLASHBTTSandKIELDBR. By C. T. Clough. Is. 
 WOOLER and COLDSTREAM. By W. GuNN and C. T. CLOUGH. Is. 69. 
 NORHAM and TWEBDMOUTH. By W. GUNN. M. 
 COAST south of BERWICK-ON-TWEED. By W. GUNN. 9d. 
 329 (New Series) BOURNEMOUTH. By C. Reid. id. 
 332 ( „ ) BOGNOR. By C. Reid. 6d. 
 334 ( „ ) EASTBOURNE. By C. Reid. 6rf. 
 
 COAL-FIELDS AND OTHER MINERAL DISTRI0TS.-8<ale. six inches to a mile. 
 
 The Coal-fields and other mineral districts of the N. of England are in part published on a scale of six inches to a mile, 
 at is. to 68. each. M.S. Coloured Copies of other six-inch maps, not intended for publication, are deposited for reference .in 
 the Geological Survey Office, 28, Jermyn Street, London. 
 
 THE IRON ORES OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 Part I. The North and North Midland Counties of England (0«* <)f pritit). Part II. South Staffordshire. Price !*■; 
 Part III. South Wales. Price Is. 3d. Part IV. The Shropshire Coal-field and North Staifordsliire. Is. 3d.