rr // CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY m. ^r i B B A ^fi^i-^wn T ^ -©^ ^- f't^ii! CAYLORD PRINTED IN U.S.A. fc^?se?s3 -.'^ESt Cornell University Library PF 3111.W62 1870 Compendious German grammar / ^ 1924 026 549 323 Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924026549323 STAXDARD EDUCATIONAL WORICS. Trench Plays for Children. With Vocibularies. i2mo. Paper. I.a \"Ieille Coui^ine; _Lcs Ricuclicts, 25 cents ; Le Tebtament de Madame I'c-.Lural; La Dumoiselle de St. Cyr, 25 cents: La Peiite Manian ; Le IJracelet, 25 cents ; La Loterie de I-'rancfort ; Jeune bavante, 25. Students' Collection ot" Classic l'"rench Pi;iys. i2nio. Pajjcr. With full Notes, by Prof. E. S, Juynes. Cornciilc. Le Cid, 50 ct^nts. Racine. Athaiir, 50 cents. Moiic-re. Le lMi-->aiithrope, 50 cents. 1 be fure-umj _ in uue vol i;:mo. 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Otto's Grammar and Evans' Reader Otto's Beginning German, Keeteis' Oral Method. Witcomb and Otto's German Conversations. Lodeman's Conversation Tables. Spreohen Sie Deutsch? The same publishers also issue a large number of minor works in this department, including many com- plete dramas and novelettes by the most eminent writers in the language, annotated for the use of students. Full descriptive catalogues will be forwarded gratis, on appli- cation. ♦,♦ Any one discovering an error In any of Messrt. Henry Holt if- Go's fruf)lica(ions wilt cori/er a great favor by reporting it to the pultishers immediately. If t/ie Teacher unng the book in which this notice is printe /, will hav« tf'J Undr,/..^s to notify the Publishers of the fact, he will confer a fawr Qn (hem, and enable ihein to teitd directly to Kim ii\fomiation of new >&jki in his departrnera. A compendious German Grammar BY William D. Whitney PROFESSOR OF SANSKRIT AND INSTRUCTOK IN MODERN LANGUAGES IN" YALE COLLEGE, FIFTH EDITION, REVISED. NEW YOEK HENEY HOLT AND COMPANY F. W. CHKISIKKN BOSTON: S. R. TJRBINO Mf4^ Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year i86g, by WILLIAM D. WHITNEY, In the Clerk's Office of the District Coun >f the United States for the Soudiem District of New York. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, by W. D. WHITNEY, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D, C> PEEFAOE. The author of a new German grammar, in a community where so many are ah-eady in use, and with so much approval, may well feel called upon to explain and defend his undertaking — especially, when his work is almost entirely wanting in those practical exercises, for writing and speaking, which make the principal part of the other grammars now most in use. That system of instruction in modern languages of which the Ollendorff grammars are popularly regarded as the type, has its unquestionable advantages where learning to speak is the main object directly aimed at, and where the smallness of the classes, and the time spent with the instructor, render it possible for the latter to give each pupil that amount of personal attention and dri/Uing which is needed in order to make the system yield its best results. But in our schools and colleges this is for the most part impracticable. Their circumstances and methods of instruction render translation and construction the means by which the most useful knowledge and the best discipline can be gained. To the very great majority of those who learn German, ability to speak is an object inferior in importance to ability to under- stand accurately and readily the language as written or printed : and the attainment of the former is properly to be made pos- terior to that of the latter. One who has mastered the prin- ciples of grammar, and acquired by reading a fair vocabulary and a feeling for the right use of it, will learn to speak and to write rapidly and well when circvmistances require of him that ability. IV PEEFAOE. Moreover, there is a large and inoreasiag class of students, whose philological training has to be won chiefly or altogether in the study of the modern languages, instead of the classical — and who must win it by methods somewhat akin with those so long and so successfully followed in classical study. For the class referred to, German offers peculiar advantages, quite supe- rior to those presented by any other modern language. In words, forms, and constructions, it is enough unlike English to call forth and exercise all the pupU's powers of discrimination, to sharpen his attention to the niceties of word and phrase, and train his philological insight : while, at the same time, the fundamental relation of German to the most central and in- timate part of English makes the study instinct with practical bearings on our own tongue, and equivalent to a historical and comparative study of English itself: and, both on the esthetic and the practical side, there is no other modern literature so rich in attraction and so liberal of reward to us as the German. It has appeared to me that, in these aspects of the study, hardly suflioient assistance was furnished the teacher and learner by the grammars hitherto accessible. Three subjects especially have called for more careful exposition : the derivation of Ger- man words from one another ; the construction of sentences ; and the correspondences between German and English. I have also desired to see in some respects a more acceptable arrange- ment of the ordinary subject-matter of a grammar — one having in view the history of words and forms, although not obtruding the details of that history unnecessarily upon pupils imprepared for their study. At the same time, I have endeavored to make a really com- pendious and simple grammar, according to the promise of the title-page, a grammar which might answer the needs even of young scholars, although containing some things which they would not fairly understand and appreciate until later. That 1 shall have satisfied others' ideal of a compendious gi-ammar, by including all they may deem essential and omitting the unessen- PEEFACE. V tial, I do not venture to liope : but only trust that I may tave come pretty near to meeting the wants of many. A careful distinction of the contents of the book by vaiiety of type, according to their degree of immediate importance, has been attempted throughout. Especially, I have meant to put into the largest type (sm. pica) just about so much as the scholar ought to learn carefvilly and thoroughly in his first course of grammar-lessons, preparatory to reading. This a class should acquire, according to the ago and capacity and previous training of its members, in from twelve to twenty-five lessons ; and should then at once be put into reading, while the grammar is taken up again, and such part of what was before omitted is learned as the judgment of the intelligent teacher shall direct. It is solely as auxiliary to the first course of lessons that the Exercises are intended — to furnish, namely, to the teacher the opportunity of drilling his pupils in the practical application of the more important rules and principles while they are learning them, or gaining practice in parsing, subject by sub- ject, instead of leaving the whole work to be taken up at once when reading is begun. WliUe believing that they will bo found valuable in this way, I would not press their use, but would leave it to each one's decision whether to employ or neglect them. Nothing has been put in the largest type after the subject of conjugation is finished, nor anything anywhere in syntax : the main principles of construction, and the use of particles, are siifficiently alike in English and German to allow the pupil to begin reading without having studied them especially in German. After enough reading to have given some familiarity with forms and constructions, I would have the writing of exercises hc£;un ; and I feel confident that a better result in reading and writing together will be won thus, in a given time, than by any other method. I have myself been accustomed to prepare exer- cises for my classes, for turning into German, from whatever text VI PEEFACE. tlie class were reading; taking a sentence or paragraph, aiid putting its phrases into a different shape from that presented ill the text, so that the student shall have his main vocabulary before him on the page, instead of having to hunt for proper exjM-essions in the dictionary, with knowledge insufiicient for the task. This method I would recommend to others ; but, for the aid of those who may desire such aid, I purpose to prepare a sei'ies of pi'actical and progressive exercises as a supplement to this grammar, and to have it ready by the time that those who begin their study of German with the grammar shall be ready for its use. Some of the subjects treated in the grammar (especially word- derivation, and the relation of English and German), need sup- port from the lexicon. Considering the general deficiency of information on these subjects in the accessible dictionaries, I am endeavoring to give the beginner help till he can make his analyses and comparisons for himself, in the Vocabulary to a German Reader, which is published as a companion-book to the present one.* From its pages have been drawn a large part of the examples given in the Grammar, and I have now and then taken the liberty to refer to it (by page and line), in illustration of some exceptional or anomalous point which was under treat- ment. Of course, I have consulted, and more or less used, a good many grammars while engaged in the preparation of this one, deriviug more or less of valuable information or suggestion from each and all of them. But I do not feel that I need to make special acknowledgments save to one- — the work of Heyse (in its two editions, the Schul- Grammatik and the Ausfiihrliches Lehrhuch). To it my obligations have been more constant and vavioiis than I can well point out in detail: hence this general confession of indebtedness. Those familiar with Heyse will have no difficulty in tracing its influence in many parts (for * The text of the Reader is already published, and it is expected thui the Notes and Vocabulaiy will be ready by the end of 1809. PREFACE. VII example, in the classification of verbs of the Old conjugation, which I have taken almost without modification from that authority) ; while they will also find that I have nowhere fol- lowed it slavishly. It has everywhere been my intention so to set forth the fixcts of the language as to favor the recognition of language as a growth, as something which has been gradually converted into what it is, from a very different condition, by those who have used it— a recognition which is the first need, if one would really understand language, and which must lead the way to those deeper studies into the history of languages and of language, constituting so important a branch of modem science. The study of German is so rapidly increasing in prevalence that there is pressing need of raising it to a somewhat higher plane. I trust it will be found that this volume contributes its part, though a small one, to so desirable an end. W. D. W. Yale Colleqe, New Haven, Aug. 1869. PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDTnON. Since the first publication of this work, the series of which it forms a part has been extended, as promised, by adding to the Reader a Vocabulary and Notes, and to the Grammar a set of Exercises for translating from English into German (both in September, 1870). The Grammar is now completed by a de- tailed Index, which, but for untoward circumstances, would have formed a part of it when originally issued. I have also made such slight alterations in the work itself, here and there, as seemed most called for, having been either found desirable by myself or suggested by others. And I have only further to direct attention here to one or two features in the plan of the work, which, although pointed out above, have been by some overlooked or misunderstood. In the first place, the Exercises scattered through the Gram- mar are simply and solely parsing exercises, helps along the way through a course that is meant to lead at the earliest pos- sible moment to the reading of German authors. If they had VIIl PKBITAOE. been anytliing else, I should have expended much more labor upon them, and submitted them to thorough revision by a native German. For their intended purpose, they were as good as if every sentence had been an extract from Goethe or Schiller. In the second place, the Grammar was never meant to be learned in bulk, or studied through in tlie order in which it is written — unless perhaps by advanced scholais, who desire to systematize knowledge previously gained. With beginners, especially, it sho\dd be gone over briefly, iri the manner in- dicated above (p. v.), with inclusion only of the parts in largest type, and of the paradigms; and the author's design was to produce a work which, being so used, would carry a pujiil pre- pared for it (such as compose the classes in our high schools and collegiate institutions of various kinds) through the essen- tials of German gi'ammai', and enable him to begin to read easy German intelligently, in a shorter time than loas 2'>ossible hi/ any other text-booh in use, jjutting distinctly before him what he ought first and most to know, and, at the same time, in such form as would fit well, without alteration, into the more com- plete knowledge which he should acquire later. As a fuller explanation of this design, I add below a sketch of a course of twenty lessons, preparing for reading : — 1. lesEon in pronunciation ; no recitation. 2. chief mlcs of pron. (6, 7, 55) ; parts of speech (SG) ; declension (57-60) ; articles (63). 3. declension of nouns (68-71) ; first decl., iii-Bt class (75-9). 4. Ex. I. ; S( coiid class {8r-5). 5. Ex, II. ; third class (87-90), and Ex. III. 6. second declension (91-4) ; E.x. V. 7. adjcLtive declension (114-22) ; E.x. VL. YII. (a sentence or two of each). 8. Ex. VIIL ; ailj. as noun and as adverb (129-30) ; Ex. IX. (part). 9. comparison of adj. ( 134-6, 140) ; Ex. X. (part) ; pronouns, personal pron. (150-1). 10. pronouns (153-5, 157, 159, 163-5, 172-4, 177); Ex. XL, XIL (parts of each). 11. numerals (197, 203); Ex. XIII. l"^. conjugation (231) ; simple forms of verb (235) ; lieben, gc6eu (236). l.'i. auxiliaries (238-9) : liiibcil, fdil, wctbcil (239). 1.1. Ex. XIV. (part) : complete conj. of Oaten and icill (244); Bx. XV. 15. ciinjugations (245-6); New eonjueation (247-8) ; Ex. XVI. in. Old conjiiKal;ion (261-2, 268-71, 273). IT. l:x. XVill. ; passive voice (274-7). IS. redexive and imperson.al verbs (283-5, 291-2) ; Ex. XIX. 19. compound verbs, separable (297-300). 20. compound verba, inseparable, etc. (302-4, 308-11) ; Ex. XX. This sclieme is, of course, intended only as a suggestion, for each teacher' to modify in accordance with his own jvulgment and the needs and cajjacities of his chiss. Some may prefer to so more slowly over the ground, including the more im])ortant items of the si.'cond size of print ; and, on the other hand, there are classes (as I have myself made experience) who can do the whole task well in from twelve to fifteen lessons. W. D. W. July, 1871. TABLE OF CONTENTS. The references are to paragraphs and papfes. Alphabet, 1-5, 1-3. Bztent and origin, 1, 1 ; table of letters, 2, 1 ; points requiring special notice, 3, 2 ; written alphabet, 4, 2 ; u«6 of capitals, 5, 2-3. Pronunciation, 6-55, 3-14. General introductory rules, 6, 3. Vowels: quantity, 7, 3-4; pronunciation of a, e, i, 0, U, I), 8-13, 4-5; modified vowels, 14, 5; pronunciation of a, ij, ii, 15-7, 5-6; of tlie diphthongs and vowel digraphs, ie, at, et, an, eil, an, iti, 18-22, 6-7. Consonants : pronunciation of B, c, b, f, g, I), j, f, t, tn, n, J), q, v, f, t, b, >li, y, t), 3, 23-42, 7-11; of the consonantal digraphs and tri- graphs, d), cf, ng, pf, p% qu, fd), % tl), fe, 43-51, 11-13. General supplementary rules : other combinations, 52, 13 ; letters brought together in compounding words, 53, 13; foreign words, 54, 13. Accent, 56, 13-14. Farts of speech, enumeration and classification, 56, 14-15. Declension, 57-62, 15-18. What declension is, 57, 15; numbers, 58, 15; cases and their gen- eral uses, 59, 15-6; genders, 60, 16; rules for gender of nouns, 61, 16-8; of adjectives and adjective words, 62, 18. Articles,' 63-7, 18-21. Declension of definite and indefinite articles, 63, 18-19; remarks, 64, 19; combination of definite article with prepositions, 65, 19 1 rules respecting the use of the articles, 66, 19-21 ; then- position, 67, 21. Nouns, 68-113, 21-36. Classification of declensions, 68, 21 ; first declension and lis throe 1* X TABLE OF CONTENTS. classes, 69, 21-2; socond declension, 70, 22; general rules of declen- sion, 71-2, 22-S; declension of noun compared with that of artiela — nomenclature of -declensions, and its reasons, 73, 23. First declension of Nouns: general, 74, a.S.— First Class: its olia- racteristios, 75, 24; what nouna it includes, 76, 24; how dechned, 77-8, 24; examples, 79, 24r-5; exceptional cases, 80, 25.— Second Class: general, 81, 26; what nouns it includes, 82, 26; how de- clined, 83-4, 26-'?; examples, 85, 27; remarks, 86, 21 — Third Class: general, 87, 28 ; what nouns it includes, 88, 28; howdecUced, 89, 2S; examples, 90, 28. Second declension of Nouns: general, 91, 29; what nouns it in- cludes, 92, 29-30; how declined, 93, 30; examples, 94, 30; excep- tional cases, 95, 31. Irreg-ular declension of Nouns; general, 96, 31 ; mixed declension, 97, 31-2; declension with defective theme, 93, 32; redundant de- clension, 99, 32-3 ; defective declension, 100, 33. Nouns of foreign origin, 101, 33-4. Proper names, 102-8, 34-5. Modifying adjuncts of the Noun: general, 109, 35; adjective, 110, 35; noun, 111, 35-6; prepositional phrase, 112, 86. Equivalents of the Noun, 113, 36. Adjectives, U4-48, 3V-51. Adjective, when declined, 114, 37; attributive, 115, 37; predica- tive, appositive, or adverbial, 116, 37 ; adjectives used only predica- tively, or only attributively, 117, 37-8. Declensions of the adjective: two, 118, 88; their endings, 119, 38; how appended, 120, 39; adjective when of first and when of second declension, 121, 39^0; examples, 122, 40-1; words making the adjective of second declension, 123, 41; "mixed" declension, 124,41-2; adjective after indeclinables and personal pronouns, 125, 42-3; omission of ending eS, 126, 43; exceptional eases of first de- clension, 127, 43 ; two or more adjectives before one noun, 128, 43. The Adjective used as Substantive, 129, 44-5. The Adjective used as Adverb, 130, 45. Participles as Adjectives, 131, 46. IDxplanation of double adjective declension, 132, 46. * Comparison of Adjectives: properly belongs to derivation, 133, 46 ; degrees of comparison, 134, 46 ; endings of comparison, 135, 46-7 ; modification of vowel, 136, 47 ; adjectives not compared, 137, 47 ; examples, 138, 47 ; irregular and defective oompaqsQn, 139, 48; declension of comparatives and superlatives, 140, 48-9; ^ comparison with adverbs, 141, 49; superlative relative, absolute, and intensified, 142, 50. TABLE OF CONTEXTS. XI Modifying Adjuncts of the Adjective: general, 143, 50; adverb and adverbial clause, 144, 50; noun, 145, 51; prepositional pbrase, 146, 51 ; order of the adjuncts to an adjective, 147, 51 ; participles, 148, 51. Pronouns, 149-95, 51-69. Substantive and adjective pronouns not generally distinct, 149, 51 ; classes of pronouns, 150, 51-2. Personal pronouns: their declension, 151, 52; their genitives, 152, 53; use of the personal pronouns in address, 153, 53-4; pe- culiarities in the use of pronouns of the third person, 154, 54-5 ; reflexive (and reciprocal reflezive) use of the personal pronouns, 165, 55-6; expletive dative, 156, 56. Possessive pronominal adjectives: hst, 157, 56-7; relation to geni- tives, 158, 57; their various declension, and derivatives in ig, 159, 57-8; used as substantives, 160, 58-9; substitutes for them, 161, 59; ceremonious and titular forms, 162, 59. Demonstratives: list and character, 163, 59-60; declension of bet, 164, 60; of bteS and ien, 165, 60; use of the demonstratives, 166, 61. — Determinatives, 167,61; berjenige, 168, 62; berfclbe, felb, etc., 169, 62; fold), 170, 62-3; demonstratives and determinatives as substitutes for personal pronouns, 171, 63. Interrogatives : list and character, 172, 63; Wer and tnaS, 173, 63-4; inelc^, 174, 64; tnaS fiir, 175, 64; their use as relatives, inde- finites, etc., 176, 64. Relatives: hst and character, 177, 64-5; use of ber and toefdjer, 178,65; of wee, tDtt?, Wag fiir, and Weldjer, 179, 65-6; compounds of ba and Wo with prepositions in relative sense, 180, 66; agreement of verb with relative, 181, 66; \o and ba as relative, 182, 66; relative not to be omitted, 183, 66. Indefinite Pronouns and Indefinite Numerals: general, 184, 67; Jlinn, 185, 67; Scnianb and TOemanb, 186, 67; Sebetmotttt, 187, 67; etwas and tttc^ts, 188, 67; eiiiig, etti(f|, etlretdi, 189,67-8; jeb, jegttc^, jcbrocb, 190, 68; mand), 191, 68; Btel, menig, mcljr, toeniger, 192, 68; aH, 193, 68-9; anber, 194, 69; ein, tein, 195, 69. Numerals, 196-208, 69-73. A class by themselves, 196, 69; the cardinal numerals, 197, 69-70; inflection of ein, 198, 70-1; jroei, brei, beibe, 199, 71; inflection of other cardinals, 200, 71; use of cardinals, 201, 71-2; their deriva- tives, 202, 72; ordinals, formation and use, 203, 72; multiplica- tives, 204, 73; variatives, 205, 73; iteratives, 206, 73; derivatives from ordiuals : dimidiatives, fractionals, adverbs, 207,73; concluding remark, 208, 73. ZU TABLE OF CONTENTS. Uses of the Forms of Declension, 209-30, 73-86. Tlie rules apply only to substantive words, 209, IS-i. Numbers: general, 210, li; exceptions, nouns of measurement, etc., 211, 74. Cases:— Nominative: subject and appositive, 212, 74; predicate, 213, 74-5; vocative, 214, 75.— Genitive: general, 215, 75 ; with nouns, 216, 75-7 ; with adjectives, 217, 77 ; with prepositions, 218, 77 ; as object of verbs, 219, 77-8; in other uses, 220, 78-9.— Dative: general, 221, 79; with verbs, 222, 79-82; with adjectives, 223, 82-S; with pre- positions, 224, 83; in other constructions, 225, 83. — Accusative: general, 226, 84; with verbs, 227, 84-5; with prepositions, 228, 85 ; with adjectives, 229, 85 ; in absolute construction, 230, 85-6. Conjugation, 231, 87. Verbs, 232-319, 87-144. Essential characteristic of a verb, 232, 87 ; classification of verbs, 233, 87-8 ; application of the general rules of conjugation, 234, 88; simple forms of the verb, 235, f'i; examples, tieben and gcben, 236, 89-90; general rules respecting simpla verbal forms, 237, 91-3; compound forms of the verb: general, 238, 93 ; auxiliaries of tense, ^aben, fein, and ttjerben, their simple forms, 239, 93-6; formation of the compound tenses, 240, 96-8 ; use of IjaBeit or |ein as auxihary of tense, 241, 98; other verbal auxiliaries, 242, 99; other points in • general conjugation, affecting the imperative, infinitive, and past par- ticiple, 243, 99-100 ; synopsis of the complete conjugation of ^aben and fein, 244,, 100-1. Conjugations of verbs: general, 245, 101; characteristics of Old and New conjugations, and their origin, 246, 102. New conjugation: characteristics, 247, 102; examples, 248, 103- 6; irregular verbs : brcnnen etc., 249, 107; bringen and benten, 250, 107; modal auxiliaries, 251, 107-9; uses of the modal auxiliaries: general, 252, 110; biirfen, 253, 110; fonnen, 254, 110; mogen, 255, 110; iniiffen, 256, 111; foHetl, 257, 111; Inollen, 258, 111-2; modal auxiliaries without accompanying verb, 259, 112 ; ttiiffen, 260, 112. Old conjugation : characteristics, 261, 113; change of radical vowel, 262, 113 ; classification of verbs, according to varieties of this change, 263, 113-4: first class, divisions of, 264, 114; second class, divisions of, 265, 114; third class, divisions of, 266, 114-5; irregu- lar verbs, 257, 115; formation and inflection of the simple verbal forms : present tense, and its second and third persons singular indica- tive, 268, 115-6; preterit, indicative and subjunctive, 269, 116-7; imperative, 270, 118; past parKciple, 271, 118; mixed conjugation! 272, 118-9; examples of conjugation, 273, 119-21. TABLE OF COXTENTS. Xm Passive Voice; ofBce, 274, 122; its auxiliary, 275, 122; conjuga- tion, 276, 122; synopsis of the forms of rcerben and of a passive verb, 277, 123-4; future passive^ participle, 278, 124; passives from transitive and intransitive verbs, 279, 124; cases governed by pas- sives, 280, 125; other expressions used for passive, 281, 125; dis- tinction of passive forms, and those made by a past participle with feili, 282, 125-6. Reflexive verbs : office and value, 283, 126 ; the reflexive object, 284, 126; example of conjugation, 285, 126-S; verbs used reflexive- ly and proper reflexives, 236, 128; intransitive value, 237, 128; re- flexives from intransitive verbs, and impersonal reflexives, 288, 128; cases governed by reflexives, 289, 128; improper reflexives, with re- flexive object in dative, 290, 129. Impersonal verbs; value and form, 291, 129; classes of imper- sonal verbs, 292, 129-30; use or omission of impersonal subject e8, 293, 130; equivalence with passives, 294, 130-1; verbs having c3 as subject not always impersonal, 295, 131. Compound verbs : general, 296, 131 ; prefixes, separable and in- separable, 297, 131-2. — Terbs separably compounded: separable prefixes, simple and compound, 298, 132-3 ; Conjugation of separable compound verbs, 299, 133; examples, 300, 133-5; remarks, 301, 135. — Verbs inseparably compounded: inseparable prefixes, 302, 135; conjugation, 303, 136; examples, 304, 135-6; farther compo- sition, with separable prefix, 305, 136; no separable verb farther compounded wiih inseparable prefix, 306, 135-1 ; derivation and uses of the inseparable prefixes, 307, 137-8. — Verbs compounded with prefixes separable or inseparable: general, 308, 139; prefixes some- times inseparable, 309, 139; uses of verbs thus compounded, 310, 139; their conjugation, 311, 139. — Other compound verba: their claasifloatioii and conjugation, 312, 140; mtg and Boll, as prefixes, 313, 140. Adjuncts of the verb : value of the personal verb, 314, 141 ; ob- ject of a verb, 315, 141-2; predicate noun or adjective, 316, 142; adverb, 317, 143; prepositional phrase, 318, 143; order of the ver- bal adjuncts, 319, 143-4. IJaes of tlie Forms of Conjugation, 320-59, 145-64. Person and Number: general, 320, 145; special rules respecting perFon, 321, 145 ; special rules respecting number, 322, 145-6. Mood and Tense: — Indicative: general, 323, 146; present tense, 324, 146-7; preterit, 325, 147; perfect, 326, 147; pluperfect, 327, 147-8; future and future perfect, 328, 148.— Subjunctive: general, 329, 148; its general ofSce and use, 330, 148-9; the sub- junctive as optative, 331, 149-50; as conditional and potential, 332. Xrv TABLK OF CONTENTS. 150-2; in indirect statement, 333, 152-4.— Conditional: its form and value, 334, 154; uses, 335, 155; use as subjunctive, 336, 155.— Imperative: use, 337, 155; imperative phrases, 338, 155. — Influ' tive: verbal noun, 339, 15G; used as noun, 340, 15G; used wit JU, 341, 156; as subject of a verb, 342, 156; as object of a veri witliout or with ^u, 343, 167-9; as adjunct to an adjective, 344 159; to a noun, 345, 159-60; governed by a preposition, 346, 160 in absolute constructions, 347, Ifll; infinitive clauses, 343, 161.- Participles: verbal adjectives, 349, 161; present participle, 35C 161-2; past participle, 351, 162; future passive participle, 352 162; use of present participle, 353, 162-3; of past, 354, 163 their comparison, 355, 163; adverbial use, 356, 16S; appositiv construction, participial clauses, 357, 163-4; arrangement of partioi pial clause, 358, 164; special uses of participles, 359, 164. Indeclinaliles, classes and origin of, 360, 164-5. Adverbs, 361-70, 165-9. Definition and office, 361, 165; classification, 362, 165; adverb from adjectives, 363, 165-7 ; from nouns, 364, 167 ; by combination 365, 167; of obscure derivation, 366, 168; original adverbs, 367 168; comparison, 368, 168; special uses, 369, 168-9; place, 370, 169 Prepositions, 371-81, 169-74. Definition and office, 371, 169-70; classification, 372, IVO ; preposi tions governing genitive, 373, 170-1; dative only, 374, 171; accusa tive only, 375, 171; dative and accusative, 376, 171-2; governing! substantive clause or infinitive, 377, 172-3; governing an adverb 378, 178 ; adverb added after governed noun, 379, 173 ; prepositionii phrase as adjunct, 380, 173-4; place of a preposition, etc., 381, 174 Conjunctions, 382-6, 174-1. Definition, use, and origin, 382, 174; classification, 383, 174^5| general connectives, 384, 175 ; adverbial conjunctions, 385, 175-6| subordinating conjunctions, 386, 176-7. Inteij actions, 387-92, ITT-O. Character, 387, 177-8; partly conventional, 388,178; interjectiou of common use, 389, 178 ; iuterjectional use of other parts of speed 390, 178; interjeotional mode of expression, 391, 178-9; conneotio: of interjections with structure of sentence, 392, 179. Word-formation, derivation, 393-417, 179-98. Introductory explanations: means of grammatical inflection, 393 179; of derivation, 394, 179; unity of character of these two instrt TABLE OF CONTEJTTS. XV mentalities, 395, ng-SO; advantage of German as illustrating pro- cesses of derivation, 396, 180 ; these processes only partially trace- able, 397, 180. — Principles: ultimate roots, 393, 180; means of de- rivation, chiefly suffixes, 399, 180-1; auxiliary methods of internal change, modification and variation of vowel, 400, 181 ; accompanying consonantal change, 401, 181 ; limits to analysis, 402, 182. Derivation of verbs : primitive verbs, 403,182; verbs derived from verbs, 404, 182-3; from nouns and adjectives, 405, 184-5; from particles, 406, 185. — Berivatiou of nouns: primitive nouns, 407, 186 ; nouns derived from verbs, 408, 186-8 ; from adjectives, 409, 189; from nouns, 410, 189-91; nouns formed by means of prefixes, 411, 191-3; from other parts of speech, 412, 193. — Derivation of adjectives: primitive adjectives, 413, 193; adjectives derived without suffix or prefix, 414, 193; by suffix, 415, 193-7; by prefix, 416, 197-8. — Derivation of the other parts of speech, 417, 198. Word-combination, composition, 418-25, 198-203. Definition and character of compound words, 418, 198-9 ; fre- quency and extent of compounds in German, 419, 199-200. Composition of verbs, 420, 200. — Composition of nouns: general, gender, 421, 200-1; varieties of compound nouns, 422, 201-2. — ■ Composition of adjectives: general, 423, 202; varieties of compound adjectives, 424, 202-3. — Composition of particles, their accentuation, 425, 203. Constraction of sentences, '426-46, 204-21. Introductory explanations : the sentence, its constitution and com- pleteness, 426, 204-5 ; kinds of sentence and their relation, 427, 205 ; subject and predicate, 428, 205-6 ; strictness of rules of arrange- ment in German, 429, 206. Regular or normal order of the sentence, 430, 206-7. — Inverted order: in assertive sentences, 431, 207-9; in interrogative and opta- tive sentences, 432, 209-10; in conditional clauses, 433, 210-211. — Transposed order: what, and when required, 434, 211; dependent clauses, definition and kinds, 435, 211; substantive dependent clause, 435, 211-2; adjective dependent clause, 437, 213; adverbial de- pendent clause, 438, 213-6; additional rules respecting dependent clauses, 439, 216-7. Summary of the rules of arrangement: why given, 440, 217; the three modes of arrangement, 441, 217-8; normal order, 442, 218 j inverted order, 443, 218-9; transposed order, 444, 219-20. Concluding remarks: violations of the rules of arrangement, 445, 220; grammatical and rhetorical construction of sentences, 446, 221. XVI TABLE OF CONTENTS. Relation of German to English, 447-61, 221-27. Part of German akin with English, 447, 221 ; the two lang-jageg are dialects of one original, 448, 221-2 ; joint members of what group and family, 449, 222 : Indo-European family, its constitution, 450, 222-3; its Germanic branch, 451, 223; immediate and remoter con- nections of English, and importance of their evidences, 452, 223-4. Law of progression of mutes in English and German: genera), 453, 224; original Indo-European mutes, 454, 224; their progression in the Germanic languages, 455, 224-5 ; correspondences in the different languages, 456, 225 ; examples, 457, 225 ; in hngual serieSj 458, 225-6 ; labial series, 459, 226 ; palatal series, 460, 226-7 ; remarks^ 461, 227. Brief History of the German Language, 462-9, 227-30. Position of German among other Germanic dialects, 462, 227-8 ; three periods of history of High-German, 463, 228 ; Old High-Ger- man period, literature, and dialects, 464, 228 ; Middle High-German period, dialect, and literature, 465, 228-9; causes leading to the New period, 466, 229; New High-German period and dialect, 467, 230; what the present German is, 468, 230 ; remarks, 469, 230. German Written Character, 231-33. List of Irregular Verbs, 234-40. Vocabulary to the Exercises, 241 — 45. Index, 246—52. LIST OF EXEEOISES. I. Nouns of the first declension, first class, 25-6; H. Nouns of the first declension, second class, 27-8; III. Nouns of the first declension, third class, 29; IV. Nouns of the second declension, 31- V Nouns of all declensions, 31; VI. Adjectives of the first declension, 43 ; VII Adieo- twes of the second declension, 44; VIII. Adjectives of various declension, 44; li. Adjectives used as substantives and as adverbs, 45; X Compara- tivo and superlative of adjectives, 50; XI. Personal, reflexive, and posses- sn-e Pronouns^69; XII. Demonstrative, interrogative, and relative pro- nouns, 66-7; XIII. Cardinal and ordinal numerals, 72; XIV. Simple forms of the verb, 96; XV Simple and compound forms of the verb, 102; f,I \vTTT I % r '=°'^J"^^*i°"' 'Of^-^; -^VII. Modal auxiliaries 11^;_XVIII. Verbs of the Old conjugation, 121-2; XIX. Passive, reflexiva and impersonal verbs, 131; XX. Compound verbs, separable and inse- parable, 140. GERMAN GRAMMAR. ALPHABET. 1. The Germaa language is usually printed in an al- phabet having the same origin as our own, and the same extent ; but in the form of its characters nearly resembling what we call " Old English," or "Black-letter." This is one of the derivative forms of the old Latin alphabet, a product of the perverse ingenuity of monkish scribes in the Middle Ages. It was in general use throughout Eu- rope at the time of the invention of printing, but was abandoned by one natiun after an- other for the simpler, neater, and more legible character whicli we call '■ Roman," and which the Germans loiow as " Latin " (lateinisch). For scientific Literature, the latter i^ in more common use among the Germans themselves, and many of the best German scholars are in favor of the entire relinquishment of the other. 2. The letters of the ordinary German alphabet, with their "Roman" equivalents, and the names by which the Germans call them, are as follows : German Roman Grerman German Roman Grerman lettei-s. equiv'ta. name. letters. eqxiiv'ts. name. SI, a a a (ah) 9i, n n 6n «,b b ba (bay) 0,0 ,(S,c c tsa %P P pa ,®,b d da Q, q q ku (koo) te, e e a %v r Sr *g,f f Sf @,f, § s es *®,g g ga 2;,t t ta :§,^ h ha U,u u •u (oo) ^^,i i e (ee) %r) V fou (found) Q,l J yot SB, to w va ill k ka l',i- X ix \',l 1 61 d>^ y ipsilon 5Jt, m m 6 m Sr a z tset ALPHABET. L3- 3. Certain points concerning tliis alphabet require spe- cial notice on the part of the learner : 1. Of the two forms of small s, the second, or short S, is used only at the end of a word ; the other, or long f, in other situations ; thus, laS ; but tcfen, fo. If a word ending in 8 is followed by another in composition, it is still written with short S : thus, (oSge^en (lo^ and ge^cn), beSl)aIb (bcS and ^alb). 2. Some of the letters are modified in form by combination with one another : thus, d), ch ; i, ck ; ^, sz ; ^, tz. 3. Some letters resemble one another so much as to be easily confounded by the beginner : Thus, 18, h, and 95, v ; (5, c, and (g, e ; ®, g,, and ©, s ; ^, h, yi, n, and 3?, r ; ®, d, £), o, and Q, q ; also, 6, h, b, d, and ^, h ; f, /, and f, s ; f, k, and t, t ; r, r, and j, x. 4. There is a special written alphabet, as well as a printed, for the Ger man. The forms of its letters, and specimens of written texts, will be given at the end of this work. The beginner had better not concern himself witl it, as he can malie practical use of it to advantage only when he has alreadj gained considerable familiarity with the language. When German is written or printed in the " Latin " character, each Ger- man letter is represented by its Latin equivalent, with the single exception that for the compound 6, sz, is usually and preferably substituted ss. 5. The German uses capital initial letters 1. As the English, at the beginning of sentences, of lines in poetry, and of direct quotations. 2. For all nouns, common as well as proper, and for words used as nouns. Words used as nouns are especially adjectives (129) and iaflnitives(340). As no fixed line divides their ordinary from their substantive use, there are doubtful cases in each class, with regard to which usage is conflicting. 3. For pronouns of the third person, when used in address, with the value of those of the second person (153). That is, especially, @te, with its oblique cases, and its corresponding possessive 3f)r ; but not its reflexive, fid). Pronouns of the second person properly take capitals only when intended 10 come under the eye of the person addressed (as in letters, etc.) ; in such a case, fid) also is written @t^. Respecting the indefinite pronouns Scberntnnu, 'every one,' ^cmniib, 'any one,' Sfieniajtb, 'no one,' etc, and the pronominal adjectives used sub- stantively, such as alleS, ' everything,' mand)ev, 'many a one,' eiltige, 'some, usage is very various. Some write ein with a capital when it is emphatic, or means ' one,' '] PEONUNCIATIOX. 3 4. For adjectives derived from names of persons or places, usually ; but not for adjectives of nationality, as englifd), ' English,' franjofifcf), 'French.' Adjectives of title, or those used in respectful and complimentarv ad- dress, also usually take capital initials: thus, (Sure Abnigltcf)c §o^eit, '"your royal highness,' @ie, 25So^Igeborencr §crr, 'you, ezceUenl sir.' PRONUNCIATION. 6. The precise mode of production of German articulated sounds, taken singly or in combination, as well as the general tone and style of utterance, can only be acquired through means of oral instruction, and by long practice. The following rules, however, will help the learner, with or without a teacher, to ap- proximate to the true pronunciation of German words. The subject is a comparatively easy one to deal with, because 1. There are no silent letters, either vowels or con- sonants. Excepting sometimes ^ (28). 2. As a rule, the same letter receives the same sound under all circumstances. Exceptions, 6, c, b, g, f, — see those letters, below.' 3. The German, however, like many other languages, writes certain simple sounds, vowel or consonant, with di- graphs and even trigraphs — i.e., with combinations of two and of three letters. VOWELS. 7. Each simple vowel sound is either long or short, varying in quantity, or time of utterance, without at the same time varying, like our English vowels, to any notable extent in quality, or nature of sound. The distinction of lojig and short vowels must to a great extent be learned by practice ; but the following rules will be found of service : 1. A vowel doubled, or followed by I), is long. 2. A vowel is sliort before a double consonant, and PKONUNCIATION. [' more usually before a group of two consonants— unless the latter of the pair or group belongs to an appended ending or suffix. 8. SJl, a. 31 has always the sound of our open or Italian a, in far, father. It is long in Slat, §aar, Safin, tiafi, Seamen. , It is short in iBatt, 2)Jann, ^atte, ^anh, fci)arf, ^t, halb. Particularly avoid the flattening of this Towel, or its reduction to a sound at all resembling that of our " short a" in hat, can. 9. g^ f, — g is pronounced nearly as our e in thei/, or our "long a" in fate, only without the distinct vanishing-sound of ee into which our a passes at its close. Short e is nearly our " short e " in met, men. It is long in §eer, tnct)r, 9?c^. It is short in benn, fd}ncll, nett, §err, 2BeIt. In long syllables — and by some authorities also in short onea — is distinguished a closer and an opener utterance of the e, the latter inclining very slightly toward our " short a " (in hat, can). The diiference is analogous with that between the French ^ and L Thus, e is said to be close in nteljr, 3{e^, jeber (first syllable), and open in (the first syllables of) Seben, geben, beten. No rules are to be given respecting the occurrence of this distinction ; nor is it much to be insisted on. Unlike the other vowels, e is notably slighted and obscured in sound when unaccented. Especially before a consonant, in a syllable following the accent, it acquires nearly the tone of our "short m" (in but), and becomes very inconspicuous. Guard against giving to final e the sound of English e ; it should have a very open utterance, and in parts of Germany even becomes like our " short u " (in hut, puff). 10. 3, i. — 3 has the sound of our i m pique, machine, or of our " long e," or double ee. When short, it is more like our " short i" (in^m), yet somewhat less removed than that is from our " long e." It is long in t^n, t^r, Sgel, btr, SJJine. It is short in bxHtg, bitten, Winter, ijt, JErift. 3 is never written double, and it is followed by ^ only in the personal pronouns ttjii, itjm, i^t, ifjrer, il]nen, and the possessives i^c and \\)na. To indicate its long sound, an p is generally added, making the digraph or compound vowel, ie (18). 15] VOWELS. 5 11. D, 0, — O lias always the tone of our "long o," except the distinct vanishing-sound of u (po) with which the latter euds. It is long in 9JJoor, So^ne, Son, ®e6ot, 3)Jober. It is short in [oH, @ott, off en, SJfolte, Sopf. Never give to o the quality of our "short o " in hot, on, etc. ; this is no proper o-sound, but pretty nearly the German short o. 12. U, U. — 11 long is our u in rule, or oo in hoot ; u short is nearly our u in pull, or oo in book, Lut less removed from long u. It is long in UI)r, nun, gut, rufien. It is short in SSvuft, ©tunbc, SZutt. U is never doubled. Be especially careful not to give to u, under any circumstances, the pro- nunciation of English u in union, mute, cure; to do so is to put a y before it. 13. ^, t). — ?) is found only in foreign words (except, accord- ing to the usage of some, in the digraphs ot), e>) : see below, 19.3), and is ordinarily pronounced as an i would be in the same sitnation. Examples : (3i)rufi, 2lft)t, t^rif^, SDt^vte. Some require that in words from the Greek, of more learned and less popular use, it should have the sound of it (17). Modified Vowels. 14. 1. The modified vowels are, historically, products of the mixture with a, o, u, of an c or i-sound, or of the phonetic assimila- tion of the former to the latter in a succeeding syllable. They were written 2Ie, Oe, Ue, ae, oe, ue, and are still usually so written when the vowel modified is a capital ; but when small letters were used, the e came to be first written above the other vowel — thus, Q p ^ — and then, for convenience, was reduced in common use to a couple of dots — as, S, o, it. 2. They are never doubled ; and hence, a noun containing in the singular a double vowel, if requiring modification in the plural, loses one vowel : thus, ©aat forms @ate, %ai forms Stefer. 15. 9(c, 0.— ?Ie has the sound of an open e — that is to say, of an e very slightly approaching our " short a ; " it is every ■ where hardly distinguishable from an e in the same situation. It is long in stager, pragen, Slefer, ©pa^cr, SKa^re. It if sho'rt in ^§anbe, Slepfel, tjatte, SSacfer, fatten. 6 PEON UNCI ATION. [16- 16. Dc, 0. — De is really produced by a combination of that position of the tongue in which e (e in they) is uttered, and of that position of the lips in which o is uttered ; but it is not easily gii&a by a conscious effort so to dispose the organs. It is near- es.t in tone to our u in hurt, but is notably different from this, verging considerably toward the e of they. It is closely akin with the French fi«-sounds. It is long in Ocfen, mijgen, fdjott, !^oren, Oet. It is short in Knnte, iiffnen, ^btte, ©potter, Oerter. To form 0, therefore, endeavor to hit an intermediate sound between the vowels of hurt and haie. The German poets frequently make rhyme with the simple e, and in parts of Germany the two are hardly distinguished. But their real differ- ence, as properly pronounced, is quite marked, and should never be neg- lected. 17. Uc, ii. — Ue is produced by a combination of that posi- tion of the tongue in which i {i in pique, pin) is uttered, and of that position of the lips in which u (m in rule, pull) is uttered. It is the same sound with the French u. To utter it, first round the lips to the u-position, and then, without moving them, fix the tongue to say i (ee) — or vice versd. It is long in Uebef, ©critter, nilibe, M)n, M}I, itber. It is short in @lu(f, SRiitter, Uepl^iglett, fiitten, §Utte, bitttit. The sounds of b and it are, among tlie German vowels, much the hardest to acquire, and cannot be mastered without assiduous practice under a teacher. Diphthongs and Vowel Digraphs. 18. For 51c, Oe, Uc, see Modified Vowels, above (14-17). 3c, as already noticed (10), is an i made long by the addi- tion of an e, instead of by doubling, or the addition of ^. Historically, ic often represents an original combination of separate vowels. Examples : bie, ticf, tiegcn, jjricben, 9tienien. At the end of a few words (mostly coming from the Latin, and accented on the preceding syllable), the e of ie has its own proper sound, and the i ia pronounced hke y before it, or else forms an independent syllable : thus, Sinicn, @(orie, gamilie, SragiJbie ; also Snie (plural of Snie, and sometimes spelt if tiiee). 19. 1. 9lt.— ?Ii is a combination of letters representing a true diphthongal sound, which is composed of the two elements 23] DIPHTHONGS. 7 (a in far) and i (i in pique). It is pronounced nearly as the English aye (meaning ' yes ') ; or like the " long i " of aisle, isle, but with the first constituent of that sound made very slightly opener and more conspicuous, a little dwelt on. It occurs in very few words. Examples : §ain, SBatfe, Wal 2. (St. — Si represents the same sound, and is of very much more frequent occurrence, being the ordinary German equivalent of our " long i." Examples : IBetn, 58ei(, (Sinter, fet, (gi, giteltcit. 3. 2It) and e\j were formerly written in certain words instead of at and et : they are now gone nearly out of use, only a few authors retaining them. Examples : 2Bal), feljn, fel), ^olijei). 20. 9llt. — 9Iu combines the two sounds a {in far) and u (in rule), and is pronounced almost precisely like the English ou, ow, in house, down, but with the first element, the a-sound, a shade more distinct. Examples : §au8, !aufen, ^luge, ©au, 6raun, SDJouL 21. 1. ®it. — (Su is most nearly like the English oi, oy, in hoil, hoy, differing chiefly in having the first element briefer and less conspicuous. Theoretically, its final element is the it-sound, Examples : [)eute, neit, Suter, g^reunbc, euer. 2. 3(cu, Su. — 3leit is the modified diphthong corresponding to au, as a to a. It is pronounced in the same manner as eu. Examples : ?lcugter, §aute, brouiten, Srciutne. 22. Ut. — Ut is found only in Ijut, )3fui, and is pronounced like we. CONSONANTS. " 23. S8, 6. — 93 has the same sound as in English, when fol- lowed in the same syllable by a vowel or semivowel (r, I), or when doubled. Examples : SBifcer, 58u6e, ^a6cn, okr, Stei, kedicn, (S66e. In other situations — i.e., when final, or followed by a consonant in general— it loses its sonant character, and is converted into the corresponding surd, Jj. Examples : ©tab, ge^bt, ob, [c^ub, §ab§bitrg. PEONtTNCIATION. [24- 24. (?,, c— S, in words properly German, is found only in the combinations d), cf, fd), for which see below, 43, 44, 48. In words borrowed from other languages and not Germanized in spelling, it is, as in English, hard before a, o, u, t, n, x, but soft before e, t, 1} : in the former case, it is pronounced as f, in the lat- ter, as ts (German 5 : 42). Examples : Sato, Sarccr, Concert, Sicero, SlaubiuS, Dcean. 25. 2", b. — S), lite 6, has its own proper sonant sound, that of English d, before a vowel, or any consonant that may inter- vene between it and a vowel, in the same syllable ; also when doubled. Examples : 3)amm, bicf, jDorf, bu, obct, bret, 3)iuoff, Srobbet. At the end of a word, or of a syllable before another conso- nant, it is changed to the corresponding surd, t. Examples : SSrob, ©tabt, mitb, ^Ibenb, tiibten. 26. 1^, f. — 5 ^^^ always the same sound as in English. 27. @, g. — ®, lite the other sonant mutes, 6 and b, has its proper hard sound (as English c/ in go, give, get) when doubled, or when followed in the same syllable by a vowel or liquid (t, n, r), It is never softened before e or t — as it also is not in any English word of Germanic origin. Examples : ®anS, gegen, Oier, gut, gro§, ©laS, ®nabe, ®ogge. In the same situations in which 6 and b become p and t, g is also changed to a surd ; it does not, however, assume the value of f, but rather that of d) (43). Examples : Sag, jog, ^nc^, S3ogt, 9JJngb, rut)tg, tiigtic^. There is much difference of usage among Germans, and of opinion among German orthoepists, as to the pronunciation of g. All, indeed, agree to give it the hard sound when initial. But in other situations, some always soften it to tl) — e. g., in ®ecieu, S'ffl^- Others do not allow it anywhere the precise dj-sound, especially not after the hard vowels (a, 0, 11), but pro- nounce it nearly as t, or as something between a g and t, or between a t and d) — and so on. 28. .^, ^. — § has the sound of English h when it begins a word (or either of the sntBxes I)cit, Ijaft). Elsewhere it is silent, serving either to lengthen the preceding vowel, or to make a hiatus between two vowels. 36] CONSONANTS. 9 Xf) (37) is pronounced as simple t. For d] and fd), see below (43, 48). Examples: [jin, ^cr, ^t, $of, §ut, p^er, ruf)en, Sinb^cit, ^ab= ^nft, l()u, ©tjre, eljer, t()m, DI)r, t^un, ratf)en, rot^. 29. ^^ j. — 3 is always pronounced like our p consonant. Examples : Qd}t, jung, jeber, So^ann, Beja^en. 30. ^, f. — ^ tas always the sound of Englisli k. Instead of double f is written d (which, however, if separated in syllabi- cation, becomes M). Examples : tarn, !ennen, ©teib, Srcibc, ^nie, Snabc, ©(ode, bruf= fen (but bruden). 3L 8, I ; 3W, m. — These letters have the same sounds as their English correspondents. 32. 9}, n. — 9? has usually the same sound as English n. Like the latter, it has before t the value of nff : thus, [in!cn, ®anf. For the digraph ng, see below (45). 33. !|J, p, — '^ is pronounced as in English. For the digraph pi), see below (46.2). 34. O, t{. — O, as in English, is always followed by u, and qu is pronounced as kv, but with the pure labial utterance of the t»-sound, as explained below (under it), 39). Examples: Ouot, qucr, Ouivl, quoH. 35. 91, t. — 9t has a decidedly more distinct and forcible ut- terance than in English, being more or less rolled or trilled, and so, of course, formed a little farther forward in the mouth than our r. In every situation, it must be clearly heard. Examples: ^fjanb, reben, SJittcr, rotf}, runb, f|cr, ^err, ?Irt)eiter, O^iitjrer, berraerfcn, niamtorncr, ertembarer. 36. (S, f, g. — ®, after a manner analogous with 6, b, and a, has its proper surd or hissing sound only when doubled, final, or standing before a consonant ; before a vowel (not before a semi- vowel ; nor when preceded by a surd consonant, as t, d), or a hquid, I, in, n, r) it approaches a sonant or buzzing sound, that of our z, and in the usage of some localities, or of some classes, it is a full s • according, hovi'ever, to the better supported pronunciation, il 10 PEONUNCIATIOW. [36- is a compromise between s and e, a kind of sz. Before t and |! at the beginning of a word, the weight of authority is in favor of its utterance as sh (but less broadly and conspicuously than our common sh) ; but the pronunciation as written has also good usage (especially in Northern Germany) in its favor. Double 8 (fg, ff) is always surd or hissing ; for ^, see 49. Examples : ©tcig, §aft, Sogrjett, Irifjen, Sootfe, etn[tg, alfo, ©oI)n, ©ecte, 33efen, ©efang, ftetf, ©trang, ©pur, fjjringen, 37. 2, t. — X, in "words properly German, has always the or- dinary sound of English t. In certain terminations (especially tion) of words from the Latin or French, it is pronounced lite is (Gorman j). S;() is pronounced like simple t ; its [) has usually no historical, but only a phonetic ground, as sig-n of the long quantity of the neighboring vowel. For (3, see 51. Examples : ^at, fjaft, Xa\d, tragcn, t^ut, SKut^, S^rcine, ©totton. 38. SB, tJ. — 25 is rarely found except at the beginning of a ■word, and there has the sound of English /. In the few cases where it occurs in the interior of words, before a vowel, it is pro- nounced as our V ; as also, in words taken from foreign languages which give it the latter sound. Examples : SSater, Bid, 25erfaH, freBetn, ©Habe, SSacanj, SBcnebig. 39. 398, to. — SB, when not preceded by a consonant in the same syllable, is commonly and correctly pronounced precisely as the English v, or between the edges of the upper teeth and lower lip. Another mode of its utterance, which is also supported by good authority, excludes the action of the teeth, and produces the sound between the edges of the lips alone. As thus made, it is still distinctly a v (not a w), though one of a different quali- ty from our v : the difference, however, is not conspicuous to an unpractised ear. All authorities agree in requiring this purely labial pronunciation after a consonant (which consonant is nearly c.lways a sibilant, fcf) or 5) : and the same belongs, as above noticed (34), to the u of the combination qu. Examples: SBettc, SSatjn, SBut^, hJoHen, f^mer, jinet, Swiet, 5EiualI. 43] CONSONAI^TS. 11 40. J, ]c. — y. is found in only an exceedingly small number of words originally German. It has the sound of English x (/cs); whether as initial or elsewhere. Examples : 2(jt, §eye, Seyt, Xcno^o^on, Xenien, Xljtograjjl^ie. 41. ^, ^. — g) in German is a vowel only (13). 42. ^, 5. — _3 is always pronounced as ts, except in the com Lination ^ (see below, 49) : its two constituents should bo sharply and distinctly uttered. Instead of double j, is written ^ (51). Examples: ^inn, ^oH, 5U, jeqie^en, jogen, ^ci5en,,^rtn3, ^olj, §61-3, ^lalj, jlrei. Consonantal Digraphs and Trigraphs. 43. 1. K^, (J).' — (JI^, in all situations, is a rough breathing, an h, rasped out with conspicuous force through as nearly as pos- sible the same position of the organs in which the preceding vowel was uttered. According, then, as the vowel is one pro- duced in the throat — namely, a, 0, U — or one which comes forth between the flat of the tongnie and the palate — namely, e, i, t), a, i), it — or as it is a diphthong whose final constituent is of each class respectively — namely, au on the one hand ; at, ei, ciu, eu on the other — it has a different pronunciation, guttural or palatal. The guttural d) (after a, 0, U, ou) is the throat-clearing or hawking sound ; the palatal approaches our sh, but is notably diflferent from it, being formed further back upon the roof of the mouth, and lacking the full sibilant quality (before a vowel, nearly as English hy). &j after a consonant has the softer or palatal sound. As above noticed (27), g not followed by a vowel etc. has the sound wliicb d) would have in the same situation. Examples — guttmal d) : 33ad), bod), 33uc^, aud), SRadjer, 3td)tung, Zoi)iii, Sag, jog, ^itg ; palatal d) : ^cd), redjt, id), ntd)t§, fic^er, S3itd)er, (id)ten, j^odjer, Sod)er, reic^, cud), feud)t, baud)te, burd), ©old), man^ d)cv, ifficg, rtd)tig, 2)fagbc, kugtc, Sleitglcin, 3™cvg. The fault particularly to be avoided in practising the cJ|-sound is the clo- sure of the organs, forming a mute consonant, a kind of k or g. If such a mispronunciation is once acquired, it cannot be unlearned without great ti'ouble. Much better utter a mere breathing, an h, at first, depending upon 12 PRONUNCIATION. [43- farther practice to enable one by degrees to roughen it to the desired point of distinctness. 2. (51) before §, when the 8 belongs to the theme of the word, and not to an added suffix or inflectional ending, loses its peculiai sound, and is uttered as f (i.e., d]8 as y). Examples : aBadjS, Dc£)fe, gud)g, 58lid)fe. 3. (S^ in foreign words is usually pronounced as in the lan- guages from which the words are taken — in Greek words, as k; in French, as sh. As initial, before i or e, it is palatal. 44. (Sf, tf. — (5f, as already explained (30), is the written equivalent of a double f. 45. 9lg, ttg. — 9?g is the guttural nasal, the equivalent of English nff, standing related to { and g as n to t and b, and rn to p and 6. Its g is not separately uttered, as g, before either a vowel or a consonant : thus, {5^inger like singer, not like finger ; f)Ungrig hke hangrope, not like hungry. Examples : jitng, fingen, @ang, @dnge, Icinger, bvingtid]. 46. 1. ^f, ^f. — ^f is often etymologically the equivalent of our p Cipfunb, pound, ^faljt, pale), but is uttered as a combina- tion of p and \. 2. Sp^^ ^Ij. — ^f| is found only in words of foreign origin, and has the sound of f, as in English. Examples : ^feffer, ^ferb, toj)f, rinsfen, ^^fe, 'ip[)og|)^or, ®ral3t)it. 47. Ou, (|U. — This combination has been already explained (34, 39). 48. S^, |tf). — ®c^ is the equivalent of our sh. Examples: ©djiff, fdjon, fdjeu, Slfdje, gif^, ©c^nut, ©d)tt)an, ©d)to^, ©djmerj, fdjretben, ttttbtfd). 49. S3, ^. — ©J is pronounced as a double g (jj, 36), the j losing its distinctive character in the combination. Double ff is not written at the end of a word, nor before a consonant (t), nor after a long vowel or diphthong, ^ being in such situations sub- stituted for it. Examples: (af?, In^t (from laffen), ©djof; (but ©rfjoffe), gcjiicj^en, ©traug and ©tvaufee, ^aJ3, tja^tic^, I)a§te (but ()affen). As was remarked above (4), when German is written or printed ill the Roman character, g should be represented by ss. 55 J ACCENT. 13 50. %^, t^. — 'X'ij, as noticed above {37), is equivalent to t simply. 5L 23, ^. — 3^3 is the written equivalent of a double 5, and is pronounced in the same manner as a single 3. Examples : ^lalj, 'ipiai|e, [i^en, 2Ru§e, jcgt, ^^lo^tic^. General Supplementary Rules. 52. 1. Other combinations of letters than those treated of above, whether of vowels or of consonants, are pronounced as the single letters of which they are made up. 2. Doubled consonants, however, are not pronounced double, but in the same manner as single ones. Double consonants, in general, have no etymological ground, but are an orthographical device for indicating the short quantity of the preceding vowel. 53. But doubled consonants, or double vowels, or any of the foregoing combinations of vowels or consonants, if produced by the coming togetlier of the final and initial letters of the parts makiug up a word — either by composition or by the addition of prefixes or of sufBxes of derivation be- ginning witli a consonant — are pronounced as in those parts taken separ- ately. Thus, Beertet (ljc=ctfcct) not as fflcere ; geirrl (jcstrvt) not as (Setcv ; beuttljeiU (6tsutH)eiIt) " SBeule ; ^aubbruc! (i^anb:brucf) *' (Stba ; a»attag (OJJitaaa) " SlbMlc (3Ui=MIC) " ajiitte ; Bcggtnj (raeg^ging) ■ e-gge ; Sb6e; aufiaUt (oufsfoUt) ' Stfie ; BicUeit^t (oicl=Ieid)t) " SBctle ; bcnnD(^ (beiunod)) ' ' ^c'lme ; Bcttcift (»ct=vei|l) " fpevren ; ba«fclbe (ba8=fclbc) ' tcffen ; ttjadjfam {iDfliI)=iam) '* WiicMcn ; uiigav (iin=giit) ' ' Ungur ; ^au^(^cn (§au^=(ijen) " Ija^c^cn ; Jpau^jin^ (jgiau§:sm§) ' ' aufcer ; J^utjUifer (§ut:guiici;) " *ifec; wcgcffcn (n)eg=cjten) ' ' gcgcfifn aibatt (M6»att) " atenl) ; §anbeijcn (^anb^eiien) " ' ^anbcUi. 54. 1. Respecting the pronunciation of foreign words occurring in German texts, no special rules can or need be given. The degree of their conformity with the rules of utterance of the language to which they prop- erly belong on the one hand, or of the German on the other, depeuds upon the less or greater completeness of their adoption into German. 2. In pronouncing the classical languages, Latin and Greek, the Germans follow, in general, the rules of utterance of their own letters, both vowels and consonants. But, in reading Latin, g is always hard, and v has the sound of English v (German 10), not of German B (English /). ACCENT. 55. The accentuation of German words is so generally accordant in its prinniples with that of English words, that li PKOmiNCIATION. [55- it occasions little difficulty, even to the beginner, and can be left to be learned by practice, witbout detailed exposi- tion and illustration. The following are its leading rules; 1. The accent ordinarily rests, in words nncoraponnded, on the radical or chiefly significant syllable — never on terminations of de- clension or conjugation, almost never on suffixes of derivation, and never on the inseparable prefixes of verbs (302), either in the forms of conjugation or in derivative words. Exceptions are : the suffix et (408) ; the t or ic of verbs ending in tlie infinitive in iretl or teren (404) ; and a few wholly anomalous words, as leben'big (from te'tien, {e'Bcnb). 2. In compound words, except compound particles, the accent rests, as in English, upon the first member. The separable pre- fixes of verbs are treated as forming compounds, and receive the accent, in the verbal forms and in most verbal derivatives. Exceptions are: many compounds with all, as allmnc^'ttg, 'almighty,' aUein', 'alone,' atlererft', 'first of all;' compound words of direction, like' ©iiboft', ' south-east ; ' and a number of others, as Sa^r^un'bert, ' century, leibei'gen, ' vassal,' mtKtotn'men, ' welcome.' 3. Compound particles usually accent the final member : thus, ba^in', 'thither,' oBgletc^', ' although,' jufofge, ' according to,' juuor', ' previously.' Exceptions are : many adverbs which are properly cases of compound nouns or adjectives ; and some others : compare 425. 4. The negative prefix un has the accent commonly, but not always (compare 4X6.4i). 5. Words from foreign languages regularly retain the accent belonging to them in those languages — yet with not a few, and irregular, exceptions. As the greater part of them are French, or Latin with the unaccented syl- lables at the end dropped off, they more usually accent the final syUablo. PARTS OF SPEECH. 56. The parts of speech are the same in German as in English. They are classified according to the fact and the mode of their grammatical variation, or inflection. 1. NoDNS, ADJECTIVES, and PEONomsrs are declined. Among these are here included abtiolus, NtTMEp.^ljS, and PABifOlBM^, Wl^ich are sometimes reckoned as separate parts of speech. 69 J DKCLENSION. 15 2. Yekbs are conjngated. 3. Adverbs, pkepositions, and conjunctions are unin- flected. i. Intee.iections are a class by themselves, not entering as members into tlie construction of the sentence. DECLENSION. 57. Declension is the variation of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns for number, case, and gender. 58. There are two numbees, singular and plioral, of which the value and use are in general the same as in English. For special rules concerning the use of the numbers in German, see 211. 59. There are four cases in German, as in the oldest known form of English (Anglo-Saxon). 1. The nominative, answering to the English nomina- tive. The nominative case belongs to the subject of a sentence, to a word in apposition with it, or a predicate noun qualifying it ; it is also used in address (as the Latin vocative). See 212-14. 2. The genitive, answering nearly to the English posses- sive, or objective \vith of. It is therefore most often dependent upon a noun, but is also used as the object of certain adjectives, verbs, and prepositions ; and it stands not infrequently without a governing word, in au adverbial sense. See 215-20. 3. The dative, corresponding to the Latin and Greek dative, or to the English objective with to oy for. The dative stands as indirect object of many verbs, transitive oi intransitive, and also follows certain adjectives, and prepositions. Sometimes it sustains an " ablative " relation, such as we expi'ess hy from. See 221-5. 4. The accusative, nearly the same with our objective This is especially the case of the direct object of a transitive 16 DECLENSIOJJ. [59- verb ; certain prepositions are followed by it ; it is used to express measure (inclu'ling duration of time and extent of space), also the time when anything is or is done; and it occasionally stands ab- solutely, as if governed by having understood. See 226-30. A noun ill apposition with a noun standing in any of these rela- tions is put in the same case with it. 60. There are three gendees, masculine, feminine, and neuter. Each noun is of one or the other of these genders, yet not ■wholly according to the natural sex of the object indicated by it. The names of most objects having conspicuous sex are, indeed, masculine or feminine, according as those objects are male ov female ; but there are not infrequent exceptions ; and the names of objects destitute of sex have a grammatical gender, as mascu- line, feminine, or neuter, according to rules of which the original ground is in great part impossible to discover, and which do not admit of succinct statement. This system of artificial or grammatical gender was an original characteristic of all the languages with which the German is related ; it belonged equally to the English in the Anglo-Saxon period, and was only lost in connection with the simplification of English grammar by the loss of the distinctive endings of words. See the author's ''Language and the Study of Language," p. 77. 61. In the main, therefore, the gender of German words must be learned outright, by experience ; but the following practical rules will be found of value : 1. Exceptions to the natural gender of creatures having sex. a. All diminutives formed by the suiExes d)cn and (cin (410) are neuter : thus, baS 5Duibd)en, ' the girl,' bo8 graulein, ' the young b. Besides the special names which designate the male and female of certain species, there is a neuter name for the young, or for the species, or for both : thus, ber @6er, ' the boar,' bic , ' double the price ; ' fold) etn SRann (or ein \oU &\a 2)fonn), ' such a man;' meld) ein §etb ! ' what a hero ' : but einf ^a(6e ©tunbc, ' half an hour,' ein fo armer 50Jonn, ' so poor a man, eine gattj fc^one Stugfic^t, ' quite a fine view.' NOUNS. 68. In order to decline a German noun, we need to know liow it forms its genitive singular and its nominative plural ; and upon these two cases depends the classification of German declensions. 69. 1. The great majority of masculine nouns, and all neuters, form their genitive singular by adding 6 or e§ to the nominative. These constitute the fiest declension ; which is then divided into classes according to the mode of formation of the nominative plural. a. The fii^st class takes no additional ending for the plural, but sometimes modifies the. vowel of the theme : thus, Spoteit, ' spade,' S|)oteii, ' spades ; ' but 23ater, ' father,' SJciter, ' fathers.' 22 NOUNS. [69- h. The second class adds the ending e, sometimes also modifying the vowel': thus, 3at)r, 'year,' 3?al]re, 'years;' 5-u|, ' foot,' gitBc, ' feet.' c. The zSAm'c? class adds the ending cr, and always modi- fies the vowel : thus, fflJaira, 'man,' iOJcimier, 'men;' ®rab, ' grave,' ©rabcr, ' graves.' By modification of the vowel is meant the substitution of the modifled vowels d, 0, ii (14), and du (21.2), for the simpler a, 0, u, and au, in themes containing the latter. The change of vowel in English man and men, foot and fed, mouse and mice, and their like, is originally the same process. See the author's "Language and Iho Study of Lang-uage," p. 78. 2. Some feminines form their plural after the first and second of these methods, and are therefore reckoned as be- longing to the first and second classes of the first declen- sion, although they do not now take 8 in the genitive singular. The German genitive ending of the first declension is historically identi- cal with the s which forms our English possessives. 70. The rest of the masculine nouns add n or en to the theme to foj'm the genitive singular, and take the same ending also in the nominative plural. Most feminines form tlieir plural in the same way, and are therefore classi- fied with them, making up the second declension. The feminines are classified by the form of their plurals only, because as is pointed out below, all feminine nouns are now invariable m the singular. 71. The two cases ahove mentioned being known, the rest of the declension is found by the following general rules : 1. Singular, a. Feminines are invariable in tlie singular. For exceptions, see below, 95. 5. In the masculines and neuters of the first declension, the accusative singular is like the nominative. Nouna M'hich add only S in the genitive have the dative also like the nominative; those which add e8 in the genitive regur larly take e in the dative, but may also omit it — it being ■'^J GENERAL EULES OF DECLENSION. 23 proper to form the dative of any noun of the first declen- sion lilce the Bominative. c. Masculines of the second declension have all theii oblique cases like the genitive. 2. Plural, a. The nominative, genitive, and accusative are always alike in the plural. h. The dative plm-al ends invariably in n : it is formed by adding n to the nominative plural, provided that case end in any other letter than it (namely, in e, t, or r, the only other finals that occur there) ; if it end in n, all the cases of the plural are alike. 72. The following general rules, applying to all declension — that of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns — are worthy of notice : 1. The ace. singular of the fem. and neuter is like the nominative. 2. The dat. phiral (except of personal pronouns) ends in it. 73. It will be seen, on comparing the declension of nouns with that of the definite article (63), that the former is less full, dis- tinguishing fewer cases by appropriate terminations. Besides their plural ending — which, moreover, is wanting in a considerable class of words — nouns have distinct forms only for the genitive singular and the dative plural, with traces of a dative singular — and even these in by no means all words. What are here caller! the FIRST and SECOND declensions are often styled (after Grimm's oxamplc) the strong and weak declensions. A historically suitable designation would bo *' vowel-decJension" and " 7t-declension," since the first mode of declension properly be- longs to themes oriKinally ending in a vowel (though the pluxal-ending cr comes from Ihemea in S) ; the second, to those ending in n : other consonant-endings with their peculi- arities of declension have disappeared. The whole German declensional system has un- • dergoDe such extensive cormption, mutilation, and transfer, that the old historical classi- fications are pretty thoroughly effaced, and to attempt to restore them, or make any account of them, woiild only confuse the learner. First Declension of Nouns. 74. As already explained, the first declension contains all the neuter nouns in the language, all masculines which form their genitive singular by adding 8 or eS to the nomi- native, and such feminines as form their nominative plural either without an added ending, or else by appending e to the theme. 24 NOUNS. [75- PiBST Class. 75. The characteristic of the fiest class is that it adds no ending to form the plural: its nominatives are alike ia both numbers — except that in a few words the vowel of the singular is modified for the plural. 76. To this class belong 1. Masculine and neuter nouns having the endings e(, ex, en (including infinitives used as nouns, 340), and one or two in em ; 2. A few neuter nouns having the prefix ge and ending in e ; also one masculine in e (Safe, 'cheese') ; 3. All neuter diminutives formed with the sufiixes (f)en and Icin ; 4. Two feminines ending in er (SJJutter, ' mother,' and 2;od)ter, ' daughter '). Ko nouns of this class are monosyllabic (except the Infinitives ttjutl and fein). The endings el, er do not include iel, eel, ier, eer, but imply the simple vowel £ as that of the termination. 77. Nouns of the first class add only 8 (not eS) to form the genitive singular, and never take e in the dative. Their only variation for case, therefore, is by the assumption of 8 in the gen. sing, (of masc. and neut. nouns), and of n in the dat. plural 78. About twenty masculines (3I|)feI, ' apple,' Sruber, 'brother,' ©arten, 'garden,' SBater, 'father,' Sogef, 'bird,' etc.), one neuter (Sloftcr, 'convent'), and both feminines, modify in the plural the vowel of the principal syllable. 79. Examples : — I. "With vowel unchanged in the plural : ©paten, ' spade,' m. ©ebtrge, ' mountain range,' n. Safe, ' cheese,' m. N. ber ©paten bag ®e6trge ber Safe G. beg ©patent beg (Sebirgeg beg Safeg D. bent ®)jatcn bcm ©ebtrge bent Safe k. ben ©pntcn bog ©cbirge ben Jjafe 80 1 FI EST DliCLEiN^SION, FIEST CLASS. 2i) Plural N. bte ©paten bie ©ebirge bie ^afe G. ber ©pateit ber ©ebirge ber Safe D. ben ©paten ben ©ebirgen ben m\in A. bte ©paten bie ©cbirge bie safe II, With vowel modified in the plural : S3raber, 'brother,' m. Stofter, ' convent,' n. abutter, ' mother,' £ Singular. N. ber SSruber bag ®(ofter bie mvAitx G.- beg 93ruber8 beg Stofterg ber SKuttcr D. bem ©ruber bem Stofter ber SJtutter A.. ben 23ruber bag ^(ofter Plural. bie mntitx N. bie ©ritber bie Slofter bie 2JJutter G. ber SSriiber ber ttofter ber SKutter D. ben Sriibem ben ^toftern ben ajtuttern A. bie 23rliber bie ffitofter bie SKutter 80. 1. A few nouns are of this class in the singular and of the second declension in the plural ; a few others have lost an original ending n or en in the nom. (or nom. and ace.) singular, being otherwise regular. For all these, see Irregular Declension (9')- 2. Among the infinitives used as nouns, and belonging to this class, are a few of irregular ending: namely, tl)un, 'to do,' and fein, ' to be,' with their compounds, some of which are in common use as nouns — e. g., jDafein, ' existence,' SBo^Ifein, ' welfare ' — ; and others which end in ein and ern ; thus, SBanbetn, ' walking,' 2Ban« bcrn, ' wandering.' • EXBRCISE I. Nouns of the first declension, first class. For the words and forma in this and the following exercises, see the Glossary to the Exercises, at the end of the Grammar. 1. ®er 93ruber meineg SBaterg ift niein Dnfel 2. (5r ^ot ©orten auf bem ©ebirge. 3. 3n ben ©arten finb Stepfet ouf ben i8aumcf)cn. 4. Set) gebe bem ©d)iiter bag aJJcffcr unb bem Setjrer ben jammer. 5 ®eg aiJiiUcrg Safe [inb auf ben ScIIern in meinem ^vmrntx. 6 2 26 NOUNS. [81- S55o fiiib bie ^rautein, bte 2;o^ter meiner SJfutter? 1. ©ie fteljen bor ben ®^)tegc(n, obcr fcfjauen au8 ben genftern. 8. ®ie ?lbler fiub 35diji-l, unb tjaben jluei gliiflel unb cincn ®cf)nat)d. SecJoito Class. 81. The cliaracteristic of the second class is that it forms the plural by adding e to the singular ; at the same time, the vowel of the principal syllable is usually modi- fied in the plural: but to this there are many exceptions. 82. To this class belong 1. The greater number of masculine nouns ; 2. Many neuters ; 3. About thirty-five monosyllabic feminines (with their compounds, and including the compounds of fiinft, not in use as an independent word), with the feminines formed by the suflixes ni^ (about a dozen in number) and [al (two or three). 83. Masculines and neuters form their genitive singular by adding either 6 or e§ ; the dative is like the nominative, or adds e. The ending e§ is more usually taken by monosyllables, g by polysyllables ; but most words may assume either, according to the choice of the writer or speaker, depending partly on euphony, and partly on the style he is employing — eg belonging to a more serious or elaborate style, and g being more colloquial. Excepted arc words which end in a sibilant, and which therefore require an interposed e to make the genitive ending perceptible to the ear. Thus, Sages is more usual than KagS, SonigS than ^onigcg, while ©cfjmetterlingeS would hardly be tolerated; but always gIoJ3c3, Sud)feS, ©o^cS. The use or omission of e in the dative is nearly parallel witB the use of e§ or g in the genitive ; but it may be left off from every noun without exception. 84. Of the masculines, the great majority take tlie modified vowel in the pliu'al, there being only about fifty exceptions (including some very common words, as Jag, ' day,' arm, ' arm,' ipmib, ' dog,' ©djiil), ' shoe,' ^oH, 'inch'); of the neuters, only two, g(oJ3, 'raft,' and S^or, ' choir,' re- 86] FIRST DECLENSION, SECOND CLASS. 27 quire the modification, and two others, 53oot, ' boat,' and dlol}V, ' reed,' may take it or not ; of the feminines, all ex cept those ending in nt^ and fal modify the vowel. 85. Examples : — I. With vowel modified in the plural : ®ot)n, ' son,' m. gtog, 'raft,'n. Singular. ^anb, ' hand,' £ N. ber ®of|n has g(o§ bie ^anb G. beg ©of)ne8 beg glo^eg ber ^anb D. bent ©o^ne bem fjlo^e ber ,f)onb A. ben (Sot)ti bog g[o§ Plural. bie §anb N. bic ®or)nc bte jJIoB^ bie §dnbe G. ber ©oljnc ber ^hifjs ber ^anbe D. ben ©otjnen ben gtijgen ben §anben A. bie ©ofjne bie gto^e bie ^onbe 11. With vowel unchanged in the plural : aSonat, 'month,' m. Sa^r, 'year,'n. Singular. erftiarniB, ' saving,' f. N. bcv SKonat bag Qoljr bie Srfporntg G. beg SMonatg beg -Sa^reg ber grfpami§ D. bem SUonat bent Qaifxt ber (Srfparni^ A. ben SlJfonat bag Sa^r Plural. bie Srfparni^ N. bie Tlomk bie 3a^rc bie Srfparniffe G. ber SDtonate ber 3a^re ber (grf^jarniffc D. ben SERonaten ben 3at)ren ben Srfparniffen A. bie aKonate bie Sitt^re bie (Srfparniffe 86. Most nouns of foreign origin belong to this class. For some irregularities in their declension, as well as in that of other members of the class, see below, 97 etc. ExKECISE 11. Nouns of the first declension, second class. 1, 9n einem 3a^re finb jwBlf SKonote, unb in einent ajfonatc finb brei§ig Sage. 2. Ttdn ©o^n ^at ^wei ?lrmc, unb on jebent Slrme 28 N0TJK8. [87 cine ipanb. 3. (gr (jat ©(f)ul)e an ben g^it^en, unb auf bem So)j' cincn §ut. 4. S)te ©tiitjk imb SSanfe ftctjcn urn bic Sifdie. ; gjtcinc 5]fvcunbe mac£)cn gibjsc ton SSaumen, unb fcf)tden fte mtr ai bcm '(Vluffe. 6. 3)ie etovd)e finben %w\djt in ben 33ad^en Bor be Sfjorcn ber ©tabt. Thibd Class. 87. The cliaracteristic of this class is the assumptioi of the ending er to form the nominative plural, along witl modification of the vowel of the theme. 88. The class is composed chiefly of neuter nouns, wit] 'a few masculines, but no feminines. Besides the nouns formed by the sufBx t^um (which are, -witl two or three exceptions, neuter, and which modify the vowel o: the suffix, not that of the radical syllable), there are not far froti fifty neuters, and about a dozen masculines, belonging to tb class ; also, three or four words of foreign origin. Among the neuters of most frequent occurrence are Silb, S3Iatt, Sitcf gelb, @rab, §au8, iftnb, filetb, 8td)t, Sieb, 2t)at, Solt, SBeib, aSovt, ©cftdii The masculines are ®cift, Oott, Seib, SJiann, Ort, 3ionb, SBalb, Surir SBorinuub, SBofefoidjt, and sometimes ®orn. 89. Kespecting the form of the genitive singular end ing, whether 8 or c§, and respecting the dative, whethe like the nominative or adding e, the same rules apply as ii the second class (83). 90. Examples : — §au9, SSeib, 3rrtf)utn, Warn, 'house,' n. ^' woman,' n. ' error,' m. 'maUj'm. Singular. N. bag §a«g aiBeib ber Srrtfium gjcann G. be§ ^aufeS 2Bet6e8 beg •Srrt^umg 9JJannc8 D. bent §aufe SBeibe bem 3iTtt)um SDtanne A. bag §au8 SBeib ben -Srvt^um Plwal SDJnnn N. bie §aufer SBeiber bte Sn'tljiimer SIRiinner G. ber §nnfcr 2Bet6er ber 3i"i'ff)nmer aUanncr D. ben §aufern SBcifeern ben 3vrtt)iiincrn SDfanncw A. bie Ajciufcr Sciber bie 3rvtt)iinicv 2)cannev 92] SECOND DECLENSION. 29 Exercise III. Nouns of the first declenxion, third class. 1. 3)n6 erfte SESeib nio^te ein ®tctb au« S3(attevn. 2. 58viiif(e mir cin iBud) unb cin Sic^t auS bem |)oufe. 3. -3ii ben ^urfievn ber i?in^ ber finb bicte SSilber unb tide SBorter. 4. 3)er Set6 beS DJJnnneS gef)t in bog ©rnb, fein Oeift ge^t ju ®ott. 5. ®a8 SJoIf fingt Sieber im |)aufe, im getb, im SCBolb, unb in ben Zljixltm. Second Declension of Nouns. 91. To the second declension belong onlj masculine and feminine nouns. They form all the cases of the plural by adding n or en to the theme, and masculines take the same ending in the oblique cases of the singular. 92. 1. Nearly all the feminine nouns in the language are of this declension : namely a. All feminines of more than one syllable, whether primitive words, as ©cite, ' side,' Sngct, ' ball,' g^ebev, ' feather ; ' or primary derivatives, as ©ahi, ' gift,' ©pradje, ' speech ; ' words formed with prefixes, as ©efaljr, ' danger,' or witii suffixes, as ijugeitb, ' virtue,' 2Bo^vI)eit, ' truth,' giirftin, ' princess,' Sabung, ' loading.' ■Exceptions : those having the suffixes nig or [at (see 82.3). 6. About thirty monosyllables, as 2trt, ' manner,' ^rou, ' woman,' ^Pfltc^t, ' duty,' K^Qt, 'deed,' 2BeIt, 'world,' ^eit, 'thne.' c. All feminines derived from other languages, as SJfiitute, ' minute,' SKelobie, ' melody,' Station, ' nation,' Unioerfitat, ' uni- versity.' 2. Masculines of the second declension are a. Words of more than one syllable in e, as 93ote, 'messenger,' (Satte, ' spouse,' Snabe, ' boy ' — including those that have the pre- fix gc, as ®efat}rte, 'companion,' ®efelle, 'fellow,' and some nouns of nationality, as ^reuge, ' Prussian,' g^ranjofe, ' Frenchman ; ' also a few in er and ar, as Sater, 'Bavarian,' Ungar, ' Hungarian.' 6. About twenty monosyllabic root-words, as Sar, ' bear,' @raf, ' count,' §e(b, 'hero,' ^err, 'master,' 9JJcnfd), 'man (human being),' Dd)ci, ' ox,' Sfjot; ' fool.' c. Many foreign words, as ©tubent, 'student,' SDJonavd), 'mo- narch,' Savbar, ' barbarian.' 30 NOUNS. [93- 93. IS^oims ending in e, ct, cr, and ar unaccented, add n only to the theme; others add en. Before this ending, the it of the suffix in is doubled : thus, giivftin, giivftinnen. ©err in modern usage, ordinarUy adds n in the singular, and en in the plural, being the only masculine whose forms differ in the two numbers. No noun of this declension modifies its vowel in the p] ural. 94. Exanaples : — I. Feminines : ©ette, 2;i)at, SBa^r^eit, 5Rattott, ' side.' 'deed.' Singular. ' truth.' ' nation.' N. bie ©ette SEIjat 2Bo^r^ett S'Jation G. bei" ©cite Zijat SBaI)rt)eit ^Ration D. bcr ©cite %iiai 2Bat)r^cit Station A. bie ©cite Plural SBa^r^eit 9fation N. bie ©eiten £{)oten SBa^r^citen DTationen G. ber ©eiten Sliaten SS5af)r{|eiten Slattonen D. ben ©eiten Kfiaten SBo^r^eiten 9Jotionen A. bie ©eiten Sl£)atcn TOa^r^eiten Sfationen II Masculines : tnabe, Sater, aJtenfc^, ©tiibent, ' boy.' 'Bavarian.' Singular ' man.' 'student.' N. ber Snabe 93aier gjJenfc^ ©tubent G.D.A. ^nahixi SSoiern ajfenf^cn ©tubcnten Plural N.G.D.A. .^nabcn SSoiern 2)Jen[c^en ©tubcntcn 95. Formerly, many feminine nouns of this declension, like the masculines, took the declensional ending in the genitive and dative singular; and this ending is still commonly retained in certain phrases : e. g., auf (Srben, ' on earth ; ' gu @f)ren, ' in honor [of] ; ' mil greuben, ' with pleasure ; ' ton ©eiten, ' on the part [of" .' Occasionally, also, it appears in a gen. feminine preceding S'] SECOND DECLENSION. 31 tlie governing noun, as um femer ©cefen pdl, ' for the welfare of his sou] ; ' and yet more rarely, by poetic license, in other situa- tions (e. g., E. 100.23). Exercise IV. ITouns of the second declension. 1. ®er §erv btcfeg ^naben ift ein ^reuge, ober etn Ungar. 2. ©rafen finb nur 9JJenfdien, unb nttf)t imnier ^elbett. 3. 2)te Sto bmten ber Stjemie inaren tneine ©efatjvten auf ber Uniberfitat. 4, 3)ie gvau faf) ben £)d)fcn unb bie ^'cge t^reS Oattcn in ©efa^r. 5. S)te Srbe ift eiue ^uget, unb ouf i^rer glacf)e leben bie ^Rationen ber aiJenfdien mit i^ren SOfonart^en. 6. aBo()v^ett ift bie Sugenb cineS S3oten. 7. Siefer $ote ift aboofat ; fein 9^effe ift ©olbat. Exercise V. Nouns of all declensions. 1. ®iefe fVamilie Bcfte^t ou« fed)§ '^erfonen : bie gran ijl bie SKut= ter ; ber Waim ift iljr ®atte, unb 55oter ber tier ^'inbcr ; bie pvix S'uatien finb iljve ©bljnc ; bie jiuci 93cabii)en finb it)re Scicfjter. 2. jDcv S'tubent [tel)t an bem 'ipuftc in fcinem ^immer ; er ftil^t ben ^opf auf fcincn ?(rm ; er tjat eine Q^cber in ber anbcvcn §ianb, unb fd)rcibt in einent ®ud]e. 3. 9)Jein f^vcunb gab mir einenSlvfclr ben er fnnb unter etncm sBoumc in feiuein ©orten. 4. 3}e8 SlJiiUerS 23vuber I)nt bo8 a}feffer meineS 9Jeffcn. 5. 3c^ fetje Sidjter in ben genftern atler §aufer ber ©tabt. Irregulae Declension of Nouns. 96. Irregularities in the declension of nouns of foreign origin, and of proper names, will be considered below, under those titles respectively (see 101-8). 97. Mixed Declension. 1. A very small number (six or eight) of masculine and neuter nouns are declined in the singular according to the first declen- sion, and in the plural according to the second: as, ©taat, 'state,' gen. sing. ©taateS, pi. ©taaten. 2. A somewhat larger number (about twenty), form their plural according either to the first or the second declension : as, Setter, ' cousin,' pi. 25etter or SScttem ; 93elt, ' bed,' pi. iBette or 23ctten. 32 NOUNS. [97- Authorities are considerably at variance respecting the limits of thesa two classes, some rejecting as incorrect the one or the other of the two plurals. 3. Certain nouns of foreign origin aie of the first declension ip tlie singular, and tiie second in the plural, as 3nfcct, 'insect,' gen. sing. -3ufectc3 ; pi. Qnfectcu : — especially those ending in unac- cented or (which, however, throw the accent forward, upon the or, in the plural), as S)oc'tor, gen. sing. 33oc'tor§, pi. ®octo'rcn. 4. Examples : — SBctter, Sioctor, Stuge, 'cousin,' m. 'doctor,' m. 'eye.'u. Singular, SSetter ©octor bag Slitge SSetterS ©octorg bc« 3(ufic« Setter ©octor bcm ?(uge iBetter SDoctor bag Sluge Flural. 93cttcm ©octoven Slugcit or 33ctter, etc. N. G. D. A. ©taat, ' state,' m. bev ©taat beg ©taateg bem ©toote ben ©taat N., etc. ©taatcn 93. Declension with defective theme, 1. A few masculines (six or eight), properly belonging to the first declension, first class, and having themes ending in en, more usu- ally drop the n in the nom. sing., being otherwise" regular. 2. One masculine, ©djmei'j, ' pain,' and one neuter, ^crj, ' heart, have lost the en of their original themes in the nom. and ace. sing, (©dimerj follows also the mixed declension). 3. Examples : — • gtieben, ' peace,' m. Singula/r. g^rtebe (or ^bcn) g^rtebeng g^rieben O^rteben Flural. grieben SRomen, 'name,' m. N. ber 9?ame (or =mcn) G. beg 5Kamcng D. bent Seamen A. ben DJanicn ' heart,' a bag §er;j beg ^erjenS bent ^evjen bag §evj K, etc. Seamen ^erjen 89. Redundant Declension. 1. A considerable number of nouns of infrequent occurrence, 101] IIUIEGULAE DECLENSION. 33 with sorae even that are in familiar use, are declined after more tlian one model, especially in the plural, less often in the singular also. 2. A less numher (twenty to twenty -five) have two well-estah- lished forms of the plural, belonging to two different significations of their theme : thus, Sonb, n., ' bond ' and ' ribbon ; ' 58anbc, ' bonds,' but Sanbcr, ' ribbons : ' 2Bort, ' word ; ' SBorte, ' words ' (implying their significance), but SBiJrter, enumerated vocables. See also 97.2. 3. ©porn, ' spur,' besides its regular plurals ©))onten and ©ponie, has the wholly irregular ©porcn. 100. Defective Declension. 1. In German, as in English, there are classes of nouns — especially abstracts, as ®entutf), ' humility,' and names of sub- stances, as @otb, ' gold ' (unless, as is sometimes the case, they have taken on also a concrete or individualized sense, as JI)ov« I)eitcn, ' follies,' ^apiere, ' papers ') — which, in virtue of their sig-ni- fication, have no plural. Some ab,?tract nouns, when they take such a modified sense as to adaiit of plural use, substitute other, derivative or compound, forms: as, Job, 'death.' Jobcofiille, 'deaths' (literally, 'cases of death'); 53eftrebeu, 'exer tiou,' SBeftccbuiigcn, 'exertions, efforts.' 2. A much smaller number have no singular : as, SItcm, 'parents,' SJfafern, 'measles,' Sriuiimcr, 'ruins,' Scute, 'people.' Compounds of SRann, ' man,' substitute Icute for ntanit in the plural, when taken collectively: thus, .Sfaiifmann, 'merchant,' JJ'aufteute, 'mer- chants; ' but jltiei ^aufmanncr, 'two (individual) merchants.' Nouns of Foreign Origin. 101. 1. Nouns derived from foreign languages are variously treated, according to the completeness of their naturalization. 2. The great mass of them are assimilated in inflection to Ger- man models, and belong to the regular declensions and classes, as already stated. 3. A class of nouns in unt from the Latin form a plural in en ; thus, SnbiBibuum, SnbiBtbiien ; ©tubium, ©tubtcii ; and a few in at and tl add ten : thus, tapitat, f opitolien, goffit, gojfiltcn. 4. A few, as in English, form their plurals after the manner of the lan- guages from which they come ; but are hardly capable of any other varia- tion, except an c^ as sign of the genitive singular: thus, 2)(uficu8, SDJufici; Seiupu?, Scmporn ; g-acfiim, gucta. 5. Some from the French and Englieh, or other modem languages, form 2* S4 NOUNS. [101- the plural, as well as the genitive singular, in S :?thus, feibeiie ©ortaS ' silken sofas ; ' bie ?orb8, ' the lords ; ' bie 8amo«, ' the lamas.' Sometimes, rather than add a genitive sign 8 to a word which in the original took none such, an author prefers to leave it, like a proper name, uninflected: thus, beS Sajuar, 'of the jaguar' (R. 218.5); bed Aliraa, 'of the climate' (E. 222.30). Before this foreign and irregular 8, some authorities set an apostrophe, both in the genitive and the plural, especiaUy after a vowel. The same ia true in proper names. Pbopbb Names. 102. Proper names are inflected like common nouns, unlesa they are names of persons, of places (towns and the like), or neuter names of countries. 103. Names of. countries and places admit only the genitive ending g (not ci*) ; if, as terminating in a sibilant, they cannot take that ending, they are not declined at all : thus, bie SBiiften Slfi'ifa'S, 'the deserts of Africa;' bie (Sinh)of|ner SSerlinS, 'the inhabitant3 of Berlin ; ' but bie @intt)oI)iter Don ^avi§, ' the inhabitants of Paris.' 104. Names of persons were formerly more generally and more fully declined than at present ; now, the article is customari- ly used to indicate the case, and the name itself remains unvaried after it in the singular. But the genitive takes an ending if followed by the governing word: as beS groJ3eit griebric^S jll)oten, ' Frederick the Great's deeds.'. 105. When used without the article, such nouns add g in the genitive : thus, ©cfjiflerS, §^i"tebvtd)§. But masculine names end- ing in a sibilant, and feminines in e, have enS in the genitive : thus, 5D?ayeng, '2'0^l]itn9. The dative and accusative, of both genders, were formerly made to end in n or Ell, which ending is now more often, and preferably, omitted, and the name left unvaried in those cases. 106. The plurals of masculine names, with or without the ai- tlcle, have e (rarely cii), with n added in" the dative ; of feminines, It or en. Those in o (from Latin themes in on) add nc : thus, Sato, ■ diitone. 107. Sc(uS and SljriftiiS are still usually declined as Latin uouna : gen. 3ciit, ei)ri!tt (R. 189.23); dat. Sefii, (iljrifto (R. 183.24); aco. 3E(um, (Sljviftiun. Other classical names were formerly treated in the same man- ner, and oases thus formed are occasionally met with, even in receat works mj ADJUNCTS OF THE NOUN. 35 108. 1. A proper name following a title that has the article before it is left unvaried ; if without the article, it takes the genitive sign, and the title (except §crr) is unvaried: thus; bcr ©ofjn it'aijer griebtidjS, 'the sou of Emperor Frederick,' §errn @d}inibt3 JpaiiS, 'Mr. Smith's house;' but .Sfreujjug beg A'aifera griebtid), 'the crusade of Emperor Frederick.' 2. An appended title is declined, whether the preceding name be declined or not; thus, 2(lej:anbcr3 bc8 Orojjcit (Sie(d)td)te, 'Alexander the Great's history; ' bie Sijatcn beS jfiJtltgS griebvid) beS 3weiten, ' the deeds of King Frederick the Second.' 3. Of two or more proper names belonging to the same person, only the last is liable to variation under the preceding rules: thus, §eri'n Jsofjantl ©(^mibtg §au8, ' Mr. John Smith's house ; ' but, if the last be a family name preceded by don, it takes the genitive ending only before the govern- ing noun : thus, griebtid) Bon @d)ilicrg SBerte, but bie &er!e griebcidiS Don ©d)ilter, ' the works of Frederick von Schiller.' MODIFYING ADJUNCTS OF THE NOUN. 109. A noun may enter as an element into the structure of the sentence not only by itself, but as modified and limited by adjuncts of various kinds. 110. 1. The most usual adjunct of a noun is an adjective (in- cluding under this term the pronominal and numeral adjectives and the articles) ; namely a. An attributive adjective, preceding the noun, and agreeing with it in gender, number, and case : as, cin gutcr SJtnnn, ' a good man ; ' ber fdjoncn f^raii, ' of the beautiful woman ; ' bicjcn ortigcn j?inbeni, ' to these well-be- haved children' (see 115). J. An appositive adjective, following the noun, and in German not varied to agree with it (treated, rather, as if the predicate of an adjective clause): thus, ein Sel)nftul)I reic^ gefdjni^t unb Wunbertid), ' au arm-chair richly carved and quaint' (see 116.2). But an adjective may follow a noun, as if appositive, and yet be dechned, being treated as if having a noun understood after it : thus, bie geinbe, bie niadjtigen, ftcgen, ' the enemies, the mighty, prevail; ' mcun irf| Uergong'ner Kage, gtii(flic|er, ju benfett wage, 'when I venture to think of past days, happy ones.' G. An adjective clause, containing a verb and its subject, and introduced by a relative pronoun or cqfjunction : as, bcr 5)iing, ben fte mir gab, 'the ring which she gave to me; ' bie §iitte, tno ber altc Siergmann roo^nt, 'the cottage where the old miner lives' (see 437). 2. Sometimes an adverb, by an elliptical constructiou (as representing the predicate of an adjective clause), stands as adjunct to a noun : as, bet ajiann ^ier, ' the man here ; ' ber §tmmel bort oben, ' heaven above : '—that is, 'the man who is here,' etc. 111. A noun is very often limited by another noun, 36 NOUNS. [Ill- 1. By a noun dependent on it, and placed either before or after it a. Usually in the genitive case, and expressing a great variety of rela- tions (216). b. Very rarely, in the dative case (225). 2. By an appositive noun, following it, and agreeing with it in case (but not necessarily in gender or number) : as, er l)at ben itaticr gfiebrid), jeiimi §errn, Berratljcn, 'he has betrayed the Emperor Frederick, his master;' ben fte, mctne ©ritcbte, mir gab, ' which she, my beloved, gave mo.' The appositive noun is sometimes connected with its subject by the con- junction al8, 'as: ' thus, jiet)t, a(8 ber kljte Siii)tev, bev (el^te fflicnjd) l)inau8, ' the last man marches out as last poet.' 3. The other parts of speech used as substantives (113), of course, may take the place of the limiting noun. 112. A noun is limited by a prepositional phrase : that is, by a noun whose relation to it is defined by a preposition : as, bet ©^tiiffel ju §atntet8 ^Setrogen, ' the key to Hamlet's behavior.' This construction is especially frequent, and most organic, with verbal derivatives retaining something of the verbal force : thus, ©rjieijling ]m greit)eit, ' educafion to freedom ; ' bie ^offnung nuf eine (Siiugimg nut bcm Jtatjcr, 'the hoping for an understanding with the emperor' In other cases, the prepositional phrase is virtually the adverbial predi- cate of an adjective clause : as, bcr SJtann im Often, ' the man [who was, or lived] in the East.' EQUIVALENTS OF THE NOUN. 113. 1. Other parts of speech are habitually or occasionally used as substantives, and. may be substituted for the noun in a part or all of its constructions. These are a. The substantive pronouns and numerals: as, id), 'I; ' bid), 'thee; fie, ' she, her, they, them ; ' TOer, ' who ; ' (ec^8 ber SKanner, ' six of the men.' b. Infinitives of verbs (which are properly verbal nouns ) : see 339 etc. e. Adjectives (including pronominal and numeral adjectives and parti- ciples) are often converted into nouns (see 129). 2. Any word or phrase, viewed in itself, as concrete representative of what it signifies, may be used as a neuter substantive : thus, fein eigen 3tt), 'his own "I";' ol)rte Senn ober Sttcr, 'without "if "or "but"; ' jebeSgiit itnb SBiber, ' every pro and con.' • 3. A substantive clause, containing a verb and its subject, and intro- duced generally by bag, 'that,' ob, 'whether,' or a compound relative word, takes the place of a noun in some constructions (see 436). For a fuller defluition of the relations and constructions in which the various equivalents of the noim may be used, see the several parts of speech concerned. ^^'] ADJECTIVES. 37 ADJECTIVES. / U4. The Adjective, in German, is declined only when used attributively or substantively. 115. 1. The attributive adjective alvi^ays precedes the noun which it qualifies ; it is varied for number and easu, and (in the singular only) for gender, and agrees in all these particulars with its noun. But the noun to which the adjective relates is often omitted : the latter, in such case, has the same form as if followed by the noun: as, cr {|at >t)cif5C ^aufer, iinb toir ^aBcn 6raune, 'he has white houses, and we have hrown ; ' gcdcii (£ie iiiir jlucicvlEt Zwi), votfieg unb [^inavjcS, 'give me two kinds of cloth, ret^ and hlack.' 2. For the adjective used as a substantive, see below, 129. 116. The adjective remains uninflected when used pre- dicatively, appositively, or adverbially. ; 1. The predicate adjective is used,— a. as simple predicate, after verbs that signify being, becoming, continuing, seeming, and tiae like : as, [ctll 1 §ait« wnvfdjon unb iucifj, inh-b aber jelit alt, unb ficljt I) n 6 H d) nuo, 'his house was white and handsome, but is now growing- old, and looks ugly ; ' h. as adverbial predicate, defining more nearly the condition or action desi"-- nated by the verb : as, tobt unb ftarr Ucgt bie SBiifte I)iiigcftvccEt, 'the steppe lies stretched out dead and stiff; ' — c. as factitive predicate, to express a condition effected in or ascribed to an object by the action of a transitive verb; as, ftc^ Ijatb tobt tad^cn, 'to laugh one's self half dead;' cr ninit bnS §au8 luetfi, 'he paints the house widte;' id) tuiU meine Sliigen often bcl)nUcn, 'I will keep my eyes open;' bie latig' id) Oeriicffen gcglniibt, 'which I had long believed forgoUtu' — whence, of course, also as simple predicate in the corresponding passive expression : as, ba8 ^mH tuirb lu c i jj genialt,-' the house is painted white.' 2. The appositive adjective usually follows the noun: as, tninuaren ^mci Ifinbet, !lein nub frol), 'we were two children, small and merry;' SHoite fiifj trie SJionblic^t, ' words swce^ as moonlight.' 3. For the adjective used as adverb, see below, 130. 4. The uses of the adjective in apposition, as predicate, and as adverb, pHss into one an- otlier by insensible gradations, and the same word ol^en admits of more than one understand- ing. The appositive adjective, .il.so, is sometimes distinguished from the attributive ratlier formally than logically; as, In'i Cinein SDivl^c louni'cvm lib, *w*itii a host wondrous Ichid ; ' emen 23Iicf jum §tmmel Ij O (& , 'a look to Heaven hirjh.^ The attributive adjertive Was formerly permitted after the noun as T^'ell as before, and was declined in that position ; as was also the adjective used predicatively. 117. A few adjectives are always used predicatively, and are 38 ADJECTIVES. [117- therefore never declined ; others are used only attributively; and are therefore always declined. a. Of the first elasa, some of the most common are beVEtt, ' rcadj',' fciiib, 'hostile,' funb, 'known,' gcTOci^r, 'aware,' eingebenf, 'mindful,' tl)eill)aft, ' participating.' b. To the second class belong many adjectives expressing formal rela- tions — viz., certain pronominal adjectives, as jeitcr, 'yon,' jeber, 'every,' metntg, 'mine,' feffaig, 'self-same;' some adjectives of number, time, and place, as jinett, 'secend,' Ijeutig, 'of to-day,' bortig, 'there situated; ' and the adjectives of material in en, crn, for which, in predicate constructiou, prepositional phrases are usually substituted. DECLENSIONS OF THE ADJECTIVE. 118. Each adjective, in its attributive use, is subject to two different modes of declension, according as it is or is not preceded by certain limiting words. These we shall call the FEBST and second declensions (see 132). 119. 1. The endings of the fiest declension are the same with those of the definite article, already given (63). Excepting that the nom. and ace. sing, neuter have eg instead of a8, and the nom. and aoc. plural and fem. singular have e instead of ie : that is, the final and characteristic letter is the same, but differently preceded. 2. The second declension has only two endings, e and en : e belongs to the nominative singular of all genders, and hence also (see 72.i), to the accusative of the feminine and neuter; en is found in all the other cases. Thus Adjective Endings of Declension. Fiest Declension. Second Declension. Singular. Plural Singular. Plural. m. t. u. m. f . n. m. t 11. in. f. n. N. -er -e -eS -e -e -e -e -en G. -e« -er -cS -er -en -en -en -en D. -cm -er -em -en -en -en -en -en A. -en -e -eg -e -en -e -e -en 3. It will be noticed that the first declension has more than twice as many distinct endings as the second, and that it therefore makes a corre- spondingly superior, though a far from complete, distinction of "endors and cases. " 12lJ DECLENSION OF ADJECHTES. 39 120. 1. The endings as given are appended tlirougli- out to the theme of the adjective, or to the adjective in its simple predicative form. Thus, from gut, ' good,' are formed, in the first declension, gutcr, gute, gute*, gutem, giitcit ; in the second, gute, guten. 2. But adjectives ending in e reject this e in every case before taking the ending (or, what is the same thing, reject the e of every ending). Thus, from trage, ' lazy,' come troger, trage, tvageS, ttagem, tragen. 3. Adjectives ending in the unaccented ternainational syllables et, en, er, also usually reject the e either of those syllables or of the declensional ending. Thus, from cbel, ' noble,' come ebler, ebte, ebte?, and generally ebtetn and eblen, less often ebelm, ebetu ; from l)eiler, 'cheerful,' come usually Ijeitrcr, Ijeitve, IjcifreS, and ^etterm and l)eiterii, or ^eitrem and t)citren ; from ebeu, ' even,' come ebner, ebne, ebneS, ebuem, ebnen. The full forms of these words, however — as cbener, t)eitercr, and, less often, ebefeS — are also in good use, especially in a more stately or solemn style. 4. §od), ' high,' loses its c when declined : thus, ^o^er, I)of|e, ^of)ei3, etc. 121. 1. The adjective, now, takes the more distinctive endings of the first declension, nnless preceded by a limit- ing word of a higher order (an article, prononn, or pi-o- nominal adjective : see 123) which itself has those endings. Thus, as we say ber SKann, 'the man,' so also guter 5!Rann, ' good man,' but ber gute SBtanu, ' the good man; ' as bie grauen, 'the women,' so gute grauen, and gute fd)bne grouen, but bie guten fd)onen grauen, 'the good handsome women;' as bem AHube, 'to the child,' so gutem ilinbe, and gutem, fd)bnem, artigem ^inbe, but bem guten, fc^bnen, arttgen jltnbe, • to the good, handsome, well-behaved child.' 2. Or, in other words, a pronominal limiting word be- fore tlie adjective, if it have itself the more distinctive ad- jective ending characteristic of the case and gender of the qualified noun, takes that ending away from the adjective, reducing the latter from the first to the second declension : the distinctive ending does not need to be, and is not, re- peated upon both words. Note that certain cases— the aco. sing, masculine, the nom. and ace. sing feminhie, aud the dat plural— have the same ending in the one declensiuu 40 AD.TEOTIVKS. [121- as in the other, and are therel'oro not altered, whatever the situation in which the adjective is placed. 3. By an irregular extension of this tendency to avoid the un- necessary repetition of a distinctive ending, a gen. sing, masculine or neuter ending in S (not a masculine ending in n) takes before it usually the second form of the adjective (in en), instead of the first (in C!?). Thus, tntton SBaffcrS, 'of cold water,' froljcn SQJut^eS, 'with joyous spirit,' grof;cn Etjcifj", 'in great part,' and so on, are much more common than tatteS aBafferS, froljcS 2Kutl)c8, eto., althoughthe latter are not incorrect 122. Examples : — 1. Complete declension of an adjective, gut, ' good,' in both forms. FmsT Declension. Singular. Plural. m. f. n. m. f. n. N. gutcr gutc gutcS gute Q. gutcg guter guteS gutcr D. gutem guter gutem guten A. gutcn gute guteg Second Declension. gute Singular. Plwral. m. i. n. m. t u. N. bcr gute bte gute ba§ gute bic guten G-. bes guten ber gutcn beS guten bcr gutcn D. bcm guten ber gutcn bcm guten ben guten A. ben gutcn bte gute bnS gute bic guten 2. Declension of noun and accompanying adjective: rotI)er SBciu, 'red wine,' gro^e g^rcube, 'great joy,' fdjledjteg ®elb, 'bad money.' First Declension. Singular. Second Declension. N. rotter 2Betn G. rotI)eg or rott)cn S55ciitcS T>. rot()em Sffictne A. rot(]cn SSJein ber rotfje SBcin bee rottjen SBcineS bent rotfjcn 2Beine ben rott)cn SBcin 24] DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 41 Singular. N. gro^e grcube t bte gro^e g^reube G. grower g'rcube ber gro^cn greube D. grower greubc ber grogen g^veube A. groJ3e gceube bte gro^e greube N. n. bag f^ted)te ®e(b G. fd)ted)tc8 or 4en ®elbc« heg fd)(cd)tcit ©elbcS D. f^(ed)tem ©clbe bcm fd)Icd)teit ®etbc A. fd)ted)tcS Oclb bnS fd)(cd)te @e(b m. f. n. m. £. n. N. rotrje SBeine jc. bie rotljcit SBciue 2c. G. groj^cr g^reuben jc. ber gvogeit greuben jc. D. fd)(ed}ten ©elbern xc. ben fd)tedjtcn ©etbetn jc. A. gro^e greuben ac. bte gro^en ^reubett k. 123. The words which, when placed before an adjec- tive, take away its distinctive ending, or reduce it from the first to the second declension, are 1. The two articles, ber and ein, with fcin (195.2), the negative of the latter. 2. The possessive adjectives, metn, bein, fetn, un[er, euer, ir)r (157 etc.). 3. The demonstrative, interrogative, and relative pronominal adjectives ber, bieS and }en (163), and tueld) (174). 4. The indefinite pronominal adjectives and numeral adjectives jeb, jegtid), fold), ittanc^, anber, einig, etK^, oK, niet, tocnig, ntctjr, melji-er (170, 1 84-194). But folc^ after ein is treated as a simple adjective, and does not affect a following adjective : thus, ein foI(^er guter SDf aim. 5. A few proper adjectives: namely, berfi^iebEne, pi, 'sundry ' (nearly equivalent with etnige and mcl)i"cre), and folgenb, EttiiSijut, obig, and theii like, used idiomatically without the article (65.6) to indicate things which have been specified or are to be specified. 124. 1. Since, however, a part of these words — namely, ein, fetn, and the possessive adjectives — lack the distinctive ending in three of their cases, the nom. sing, masculine and the nom. and '12 ADJEOTIVBS. [124:- acc. sing, neuter, tlie adjective following ttose cases retains the ending. Thus, as we say guter Tlam, guteS Sinb, so also ein guter gKann, ein gute« tinb (as opposed to ber gitte SDtora, bag gute Stub), because there ig nothing about the ein which should render the full ending upon the adjec- tive unnecessary. /y 2. In this way arises what is sonaetimes reckoned as a " third " or "mixed" declension, composed of three forms taken from the first declension, and the rest from the second. For example, ein guter, ' a good,' !etne gute, ' no good,' [ctn gute§, ' his good,' tijre guten, ' their good,' are declined Singular. Plural. m. f. n. m. f. n. N. ein guter leine gute fetn guteg it)rc guten G. etnes guten tetner guten feincS guten tljrer guten D. etnem guten leiner guten feiuem guten tfiren guten A. einen guten teine gute fein gutes itire guten There is neither propriety nor advantage in treating this as a separate declension. For each gender and case, there are two forms of the adjective, and only two, and the learner should be taught to distinguish between them, and to note, in every case, the reason of their respective use— wliich reason is the same in the " mixed " declension as elsewhere. 3. In like manner, when niund), hield], and foW] are used with- out an ending of declension (see 170, 174, 191), the succeeding adjective takes the full ending of the first declension. Thus, tntli} ret(f)cr §tmmel, 'what a rich skyl ' but incti^er reidje fiim. mel ; tuauc^ buute Slumen, but manege bunten S3Iumeu, ' many variegated flowers.' 4. The same is true after all, Diet, TOentg, and tncl)r, when they are un- declined: thus, toiel guteS Dbft, 'much good fruit;' meljr offeue SBcigcn, 'more open carriages.' 125. 1. The adjective follows the first declension not only when it has no other limiting word, or only another adjective, before it, but also when preceded by an indeclinable word, such as etlunS, gcnug, oHerlei, and the numerals. 2. After the personal pronouns (which do not take the endings of adjective declension), the adjective ought, by analocry, to be of the first declension ; and this is not absolutely forbidden • but in common usage the adjective takes the distinctive endina:s only in the nominative singular (with the accusative neuter), and follows in the other cases the second declension. — That is to say the ad- 128j DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 43 jective after a personal pronoun is declined as after ein, or by the "mixed" declension (124.2). Thua, td^ atmer Stjot, ' I poor fool,' bu (te6c8 ffinb, ' thou dear child ; out inir armen S^orett, ' we poor fools,' i^r fiijjen Sicber, 'ye sweet sougs. 126. The ending eS of the nom. and ace. neuter in the first declension is sometimes dropped : this omission is especially fre- quent in poetry. Thus, fc^bn aSetter, 'fine weather,' fa tjd^ ®elb, 'false money,' em onber geft, 'a different festival,' ber SJottet qcilig 9ie(^t, 'the sacred law of nations.' 127. After a part of the pronominal adjectives mentioned above, 123.4, it is allowable, and even usual, to use the eudiug of the first declension instead of the second in the nom. and ace. plural. Thus, etnige groge Saften, 'sundry big boxes,' manifie gliidtiii^e SBbt> ier, 'many fortunate races,' trtefjrete lange ©tragen, ' several long streets.' Hardly any two authorities agree in their statement of the words after which this inconsistency is permitted, and it is better avoided altogether. 128. 1. When two or more adjectives precede and qualify the same noun, unless the first be one of those mentioned in 123, all I'egularly and usually take the same ending. 2. Rarely, however, when the following adjective stands in a closer re- lation to the substantive, as forming with it a kind of compound idea, to which the preceding adjective is then added as a more adventitious deter- minative, the seooud is allowed to be of the second declension, though the first is of the first : but only in the genitive and dative cases. Thus, Ijolje frfjottige SBaume, 'high shady trees;' mit froljem leic^tem ©inn, ' with light joyous mind ; ' giiter alter toftbarer SBetn, ' good old costly wine ; ' — but Hon fdjoncm rotI)en Kuc^e, ' of handsome red cloth; ' frifd)er IjoUanbifdjen ijnrtnge, ' of fresh Dutch herrings ; ' mit eignem innercn Ov-- ganiSmuj, ' with peculiar internal organi'^ation.' 3. Occasionally, what is more properly an adjective qualifying the noun is treated in German as an adverb limiting a following adjective before the noun, and so (130) is left undeclined: thus, bie aSolfen, bie formloS graucn Sodjter ber Suft, ' the clouds, the gray shapeless (shapelessly gray) daughters of the air ; ' bie uiigliictjctig traurtge S3egcgiuing, ' the unhappy, sad meeting; ' bie A'bnigltd) 58al)vtfd)e Jttabemic, 'the Royal Bavarian Academy.' Exercise VI. Adjectives of the first declension. 1. aJJon t^ut neuen SBein in neue ^^affcr. 2. ©c^Iedjte Wanmx beriaufen falteS frif^eS aSa[fcr atS ecf)te 2«itc^. 3. aSei^eS S3rob ift gut, a6er f^toarjeS ift audj gut. 4=. Sr^ ^be ^arten ©ta^I wnb it)et= djeg Slei. 5. Mtxati SBruberS Mauer iHad ift Don fcinem Sudje. 6, 4:4 ADJECTIVES. [129- ®te6 mil- Maueg ober ttci^eg '^apin ; id] f)a6e nur rotfjcS. 7. §of)e fct)atttge Soume ftnb jcgt aagcneljra. 8. 3)er £)c[)fe l)at cmen biclen ^op\, jwet lange ^oriicr, groBe runbe Slugcn, unb bier ftavfe SSeme. Exercise VII. Adjectives of the second declension. 1. ©icfer neiie ffiScm Ijatt fid) gut in bcm neucn gaffe. 2. 3cf) fiak baS i-ottje ^at)ier, unb ber otte Warn giebt mir bag blaue. 3. ®er blaue 9te^ nteineg (ieben Sruberg ift Pon bent feineit Sui^e. 4. ®er junge ©d^iiter fdjvciOt feincm atten Scoter eincn tangen Srief. 5. aSir licben bag lueif^e 33rob, aber wit faitfen bag fd^toarje. 6. Qm njarmen ©onimer filjt man unter ben fdjattigen 3Sauinen. 7. 5Die langen Corner beg ftarten £)d)fen fteljcn iiber ben runben Slugen in feinem bidcu Sopfe. Exercise VIII. Adjectives of various declension, 1. ®iefer atte SDJann war ein guterSoIbat ; er bicnte mit gro^em 9iu^m im le^ten fciege. 2. 3lIIe Sriege, bie gro§en unb bie tieinen, fcringen gro^eg Ungtiill. 3. ^d) f^reibe auf bent biden wetgen ^a^sicr juit biinner rotter Sinte. 4. 2Bir tragen leic^te Sleiber, benu ber ©omtner ift tnorm. 5. SlJJein lieber 93ruber ift ber gute g^reunb beg armen ©i^uterg. 5. SJtan ^jfliidt rcife 9te^)fet, unb ta^t bie unreifen Quf ben Saumen ^angen. 7. ®ie guten reifen ?[efifel finb ni^t ju ^ben, benn fie ^angen ^odj auf ben (jo^en S3aumen. 8. Sm neuen %a^ meineg otten 9?ac^barg ift foftbarer alter rotter SBein. 129. The A djective used as Substantive. 1. In German, as in other languages, adjectives are very often used as substantives, either with or without an article or other determining word. 2. When so used, the adjective is written with a capital letter, like any other substantive ; but it retains its proper declension as an adjective, taking the endings of the first or of the second declension according to the rules already given. 3. An adjective used as a substantive in the masculine or fem- inine gender usually denotes a person; in the neuter (singular 130j ADJECTIVES AS SUBSTANTITE3 AND ADYEEBS. 45 only), a concrete abstract — a thing whicli, or that in general which, possesses the quality designated by the adjective. Thus, i)ct Outc raitmt ben ^Slats bcm S3bfen, ' the good (man) g-ivea place to the wicked; ' bajj IjtE unb ba cin 6Hii(flii|er getnefcn, ' that here and there has been one happy person ; ' eine ©djbne, ' a beauty ; ' mctne ®cUebtc, ' my beloved ; ' 3(jre Sfec^te, 'your right hand; ' — too ba« ©trenge mil bem ^ai^ leit, ivj ©titvteS ft(f) unb SJiilbe^ paarten, 'where the hard has united with the tender, where what is strong and what is gentle have combined ; ' b.irdj jilcincrc§ jum OrSjiern tnii^ gelubljneu, ' accustom me by the less to the greater.' 4. Some adjectives are so constantly used in this way as to have quite acquired the character of substantives. Prom these are to be distinguished certain neuters derived from adjectives without a sufSx, and declined aa nouns of the first declension: as, @ut, 'property,' SJec^t, ' right,' Siotl), 'red,' ®eutjd), 'German (language).' 5. After etlt)a§, ' something,' ttiaS, ' what, something,' nidjtS, 'nothing,' an adjective is treated neither as attributive nor as ap- positive, but as an adjective used as substantive, in apposition : it is therefore of the first declension, and (regularly and usually) writ- ten with a capital initial. Thus, eg mu6 nocEi etwog ©rbgereg, no(^ etwag §errti(^ei'e8 font:^ tnen, 'there must be coming something more that is greater and more splendid ; ' tr ag id) ® r a u f a m e 8 evUtt, ' what that was dreadful I endured ; ' e« ift uidjtg yitntS, 'it is nothing new.' 6. There is no strict and definite limit between the adjective belonging to a noun understood, and the adjective used as a noun, and many cases admit of interpretation as either the one or the other. 130. The Adjective used as Adverb. Any adjective, in German, may be used in its predica- tive or nninflected form as an advei'b. Thus, cin ganjeg §nug, 'a whole house; '.but cin ganj fd)bncg §au8, 'a wholly beautiful house,' and ein ganj \i)on gebauteg §aug, 'a quite beautifully built house; ' er fd)rettit gut, 'he writes well; ' et lacf|te nod) tiel bummer, 'he laughed yet much more foohshly.' See further 363 ; and, for the adjective with adverbial form, 128.3. Exercise IX. Adjectives used as Substantives and as Adverbs. 1. gin Outer IteM baS ®ute, akr bie ©djtedjten wollcit nur ©c^tcdjtcei. 2. ®te[e ©d)bne tjat eine frf)on rotf)c 9vofc in i^rer fd)ij=' nen iintm. 3. ®er cl)iiii^e flct|ige 3lnne ift gtedlidjcr afe ber faiite &{etd)c. 4. Siefer ®cutid)e fpnd)t fcl)r ge(c()rt ; benn er £)at tedjt flci^ig [tubirt. 5. 3^id^t jebev ®elc£)rte i[t ein Sfficifcr. 6. ®te£) bero 40 ADJECTIVES. [131- ^[emen ettua§ ©ugeg in feme 3^ed)te. 7. Der ®utc iua()It inimcr bag iBeffeve, uixb arBeitet fitr baS 33cfte beg 33atertaube3. 8. Scrgcltd ni^t a^'ofeg mit iBbfeut 9, SDer iBlinbe trcigt ben Sa^men, unb ber Sa^me fiifjrt ben ^tinben. 131. Participles as Adjectives. — Participles, being verbal ad- jectives, are treated in nearly all respects as adjectives — as regards their various use, their mode of declension, and their comparison. See further 349 etc. 132. The double declension of tlie adjective is in some respects analogous with the two-fold mode of declension of nouns, and is often, like the latter, called "strong" and "weak" declension. The second or "weak" declension of adjectives, like that of nouns, is made upon the model of a theme ending in n. But the other shares in the peculiarities oE the old pronominal inflection; being originally formed, it is assumed, by the composi- tion of a declined pronoun'(long since lost in separate use) with the adjective theme. The principle on which the distinction in the use of the two is now based — namely, the econo- mical avoidance of unnecessary expUcitness — ^is of comparatively recent introduction. The first declension was formerly used when the logical emphasis rested on the attribute ; the second, when it rested on the person or thing to which the attribute related ; the " strong " adjective qualified an indefinite or abstract object ; the " weak," one definite or individualized. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 133. Although the subject of comparison, or formation of derivative adjectives of the comparative and superlative degrees, comes more properly under the head of derivation or word-for- mation, it will be, for the sake of practical convenience, treated here. 134. The German adjective, like the English, is sub- ject to variation by termination in order to express degree of quality indicated ; a compaeative and a supeelative degree are thus formed from the simple adjective, wliich, with reference to them, is called posi'hve. 135. 1. The . endings forming the comparative and superlative are the same as in English, namely, er and eft. But 2. Adjectives ending in e add only r for the comparative ; and those in et, en, er usually (before the endings of declensioE, al- ways) reject the e of those terminations before er. 3. Except after a sibilant letter (3, g, J3, ftf|), and a b or t usu^ ally (especially when preceded by another consonant : and exceptr mg the nb of the present participle), the e of the superlative ending 138J COMrAEISON OF ADJECTIVES. 47 eft is regularly omitted, and the ending reduced to simple ft. After a vowel, except e, the e may be either omitted or re- tained. 136. Monosyllabic adjectives whose vowel is o, o, or U (not ait) more usually modify those vowels in the compara- tive and superlative : but there are many (abot^t fifty, in- cluding several which may follow either method) that leave the vowel unchanged. Examples of these are bunt, 'variegated,' falfl^, 'false,' fvof), 'joyous,' Iol)m, 'lame,' nacJt, 'naked,' xa\i), 'quick,' rmib, 'round,' fanft, 'gentle,' ftotj, ' proud,' Oott, ' full,' ma^r, ' true.' 137. The formation of comparatives and superlatives by the endings er and eft is not, as in English, limited to monosyllabic adjectives. But the superlative in eft is avoided in cases of harsh combination; nor are adjectives compared which (see 117a) are used only predicatively, and are incapable of declension. Of course, as in English, some adjectives are by their signifloation excluded from comparison: e. g., ganj, 'entire,' tobt, 'dead,' irben, earthen.' 138. Examples • — Positive. Comparative. Superlative. fci^on, 'beautiful' fdjoiter fc^OEft retd^, ' rich ' retdjer rei^ft ^eii3, 'hot' f)ei^er l^cigeft trage, ' lazy ' trtiger trageft fret, 'free' freter freift, freteji alt, 'Old' alter alteft frontnt, ' pious friimmer frontmfl furj, ' short ' fiir^er fiirjeft fvoi 'joyous' fto^er fro^eji jonft, 'gentle' fanfter fanftejl bitnfel, ' dark ' bunHer buitfelft mager, ' thin ' tnagrer, tnagcver magcrft offen, ' open ' offnev, offener offenjt bermorfen, ' abandoned ' ' tierworfener berworfenfi 6efaeutenb, ' significant ' bebeutenber bebeutenbfl 48 ADJECTIVES. [139- 139. Irregular and Defective Comparison. 1. A few adjectives are irregular in tlie comparative, or in the superlative, or in both : namely gut, ' good ' &effer 6eft biel, ' much ' Bte|r, tner)rer mcift l)ocI], 'high' I)ot)er I)ocf|ft nal), ' nigh ' nat)er nadjft gvoi 'great' grower gro|t (rarely gx%it) 2. A few are defective, lacking a positive, 'little' minber mttibejl 'mid' mittlet mittelft especially, a class derived from prepositions, [in, 'in'] inner innerfl [au«, ' out '] aujjer fiugerft or from adverbs or prepositions in er (itself really a comparative ending), having a quasi-comparative adjective of the same form, [o6cr, 'above'] ober obcrfl [unter, 'below'] unter unterft [tiorber, ' in front '] bovber Borberft [Ijinter, 'behind'] ^inter f|tnterjl This class is further irregular in fonning its superlatives by adding the superlative ending to the comparative (which has not a proper comparative meaning). 3. Two lack (as adjectives) both comparative and superlative : [e^e, 'ere'] [eljer, ' sooner '] erft, 'first' 'late' le^t, 'last' From these two superlatives are then irregularly formed new compara- tives, erfter, 'former,' and letter, 'latter.' 140. Dedension of Comparatives and Superlatives. 1. In general, comparatives and superlatives are subject to the same rules of declension as tlieir positives, the simple adjectives. That is to say, they are uninflected when used in apposition, as predi cate, or as adverb (with the exceptions noted just below), and declined when used attributively or substantively; and they have the same double declension as simple adjectives, determined by the same circumslauces, Tlio comparative presents no irregularities, but 141] COMPAEISOjST OF ADJECTIVES. 49 2. a. The superlative does not often occur without an article oi other limiting word before it, and is therefore more usimlly of the second declension. It occurs of the first declension especially in the vooatiTe, after a limit- ing genitive, and in phrases which omit the article : thus, (iebfter S3riiber, ' dearest brother I ' auf beS SKeereS ttefunterftent Otunbe, ' on the sea's very lowest bottom; ' in liiJc^fter Etie, 'in extreme (highest) haste.' 6. What is of much more importance, the superlative is not, like the positive and comparative, used predicatively in its unin- flected form ; but for this is substituted an adverbial expression, formed with the preposition an and the definite article betn (dat. sing, neuter), contracted into otn. Thus, eriftmirant It eb ft en, 'he is dearest to me;' tm ©otnmer fmb bie 2age ju turj ; im |)erbfte, noc^ tiirjer ; oAtx om tiirjeften tm SBin^ ter, ' in summer the days are too short ; ia autumn yet shorter ; hut shortest in winter.' This expression means literally ' at the dearest,' ' at the shortest,' and so on, but is- employed as general predicate in many cases where we could not substitute such a phrase for it. Its sphere of use borders close upon that of the superlative with preceding article, agreeing with a noun tinderstood ; and it is often inaccurately used in place of the latter: e. g., er ift ant flci» f igften unter alien ©djiitern, ' he is most dUigent of aU the scholars,' for cr tft ber fleij3igfte :c., ' he is the most industrious,' etc. Thus, we ouglit to say, biefer laturm mar geftent am ^efttgften, 'this storm was mo.=!t violent yesterday,' but ber geftrtge ©turm War ber t;eftigfte, ' the storm of yesterday was the most violent ' (e. g., of the year). Only allerttebft is used directly as predicate : baS War attertieBft, ' that was charming.' c. For the superlative as adverb are also generally substituted adverbial phrases formed with am, aufS, and jum (see 363.2). 141. Comparison with Adverbs. 1. Adjectives not admitting of comparison in the usual manner, by er and eft (137), may be compared, as in English, with help of the adverbs me^r,. ' more,' and am metften, ' most.' Thus, er ift am metften Inei^tifdj, 'he is most slavish; ' cr ift mtr mcl)r feiub, aii id^ tt|m, ' he is more unfriendly to me than I to him.' 2. "When, of two qualities belonging to the same object, one is declared to be in excess of the other, the comparison is usually and more properly made with me^r. Thus, er war meljr to^)fer atS tlug, 'he was more bold than prudent: '— but, wa()rer, atS Kng unb fromm, 'more true, than prudent and dutiful (Goethe). 3 50 ADJECTIVES. [142- 142. Additional Eemarhs. 1. The Superlative has, as in other languages, a twofold meaa- mg and use : one implying direct comparison and eminence above others (superlative relative) ; the other, general eminence, or pos- session of the designated quality in a high degree (superlative ab- solute) . Thus, fc^bnfte Stumen, 'moat beautiful (exceedingly beautiful) flowers ; ' bte jdjbnftcn Slumen, ' the most beautiful flowers ' (of all those had in view). This distinction appears especially in adverbial superlatives : see 363.2c. 2. To a superlative is often prefixed aCer, in order further to intensify its meaning : thus, ber aQerfdjonfte, ' the most beautiful of all.' 2HIet is the gen. pi. of all, ' all,' and so is used in its literal sense, only combined with the adjective, and in connections where its introduction aa an independent adjunct of the adjective would be impossible. Exercise X. Comparative and Superlative of Adjectives. 1. SBomI |n6cn tutr bte langften 2;age? 2. ®te STage fmb langet tm ©ommer ; tm SBtnter [tnb fie am tiirgeftcn unb am tatteften. 3. Sicbftct grcmib ! fd)ret6e mtr befferc Sviefe, unb mit fdjinarjerer Stnte, auf beinea SSaterg meigeftem papier. 4. ®te ^od)ften 58oume trageti iiici[)t beffere 3Iepfe( a(g bie rttebrigern. 5. ®ic Strmen finb oft froljer alg bte jRetdjeren. 6. SJfan ift am reid)ftcn, tnenit man am jufriebenften tft. 7. 3)a« ®oIb ift baS foftbarfte SRetatt, ober baS gifen ift ba« nit^(td)fte, unb ber ©to^I ift bag attert)artefte. MODIFYING ADJUNCTS OF THE ADJECTIVE. 143. The adjective, in all its uses as adjective and as substan- tive (for its adverbial use, see under Adverbs, 363), is liable to be limited by modifying adjuncts of various kinds. 144. 1. The customary adjunct of an adjective is an adverb : as, fefjr gut, 'very good;' |er^Hd) frol), 'heartily glad.' 2. An adjective may be limited by an adverbial clause, contain- ing a verb and its subieot, and introduced by a coniunction (see 438.36). J J \ Thus, Er ijl fo gut, bag ic^ iljii nur tieSen tann, ' he is so good, that I can- not but love him ; ' tranter at« man glaudte, ' sicker than was supposed.' An adverbial clause can hardly qualify an adjective, except as a specifi- cation of degree, whore a comparison is made. ' 150] ADJUNCTS OF THE ADJEC11TE. 51 145. An adjective is often limited by a noun (or pronoun) dependent on it. 1. By a noun in the genitive case: thus, lebtg otter ?SfIi(^t, 'free from all obligation; ' i^rer 33eute geloijj, ' sure of its prey: ' see 217. 2. By a noun in the dative case: thus, i^m etgeil, 'peculiar to him; gteic^ einer 8eid)e, 'hko a corpse: ' see 223. 3. By a noun in the accusative case, but only very rarely, and in predica- tive construction: thus, ic^ bin eg miibe, 'I am tired of it: ' see 229. 4. By an infinitive, with its sign ju, 'to:' thus, letc^t JU tierfc^affeil, ' easy to procure : ' see 344. 146. An adjective is limited by a prepositional phrase ; that is, by ^ noun whose relation to it is defined by a preposition : thus, bora ©djnume vein, ' free from scum ; ' angene^m bon ©eftalt, ' agreeable in figure.' 147. 1. An adverbial adjunct to an adjective always precedes it — except the adverb genug, ' enough.' 2. An adjective used attributively must be preceded by all its modifying adjuncts : thus, atler Son bem beutfdjen 9{ei(^e abf|angt= gen, ober b^ju ge^ortgen SSoHerftainme, ' of all the races dependent on the German empire, or belonging to it.' 3. Adjectives used in the predicate or in apposition may talte the limiting noun, with or without a preposition, either before or after them : but the adjective more usually follows ; and neces- sarily, if the limiting word be a pronoun without a preposition. 148. Participles, as verbal adjectives, share in most of the constructions of the adjective : see 349 etc. PRONOUNS. 149. In German, as in English, substantive pronouns and pronominal adjectives are for the most part not distinguished from one another (as they are distinguished in French) by different forms, but the same word is used, according to circumstances, with either value. It will be convenient, therefore, to treat both classes together, explaining under each word its own proper use or uses. 150. The principal classes of pronouns are 1. The personal ; 2. The possessive ; 52 PEONomsrs. [150- 3. The demonstrative (including the determinative) ; 4. Tlie interrogative ; 5. The relative (all of which are also either demonstra- tive or interrogative) ; 6. The indefinite, with the indefinite numerals. The determinative, indefinite, and numeral pronouns are in part of am- biguous character, being intermediate classes through which the pronouns shade off into ordinary adjectives and numerals. 151. N. G. D. A. N. Q. D. A. PEESONAL PKONOIJJSrS. The personal pronouns are FiEST Person. Singular. Plural. ici) metner> mein mir mi^ bu beittcr, betn btr bic^ N. G. D. A. er feiner, fctn iljm 'he' ' of him ' ' to him ' 'bun' ' I ' mir ' of me ' unfer ' to me ' unS ' me ' un§ Second Person. ' thou ' if|r ' of thee ' euer ' to thee ' eu(^ ' thee ' tnij Thied Person, Singular. fern. fte ' she ' e8 i^rer ' of her ' i[)r ' to her ' fie ' her ' Plural. ' we ' of us ' ' to us ' 'us' •ye' ' of you ' ' to you ' 'you' feiner, fein 'it' 'of it 'to it' 'it' N, G. D. A. fte i^rer i^nen fie ' they ' ' of them ' ' to them ' ' them ' ©id), the special reflexive of the third person (see 155.3), is also a member of this class, a personal pronoun. 153J PRONOUNS LN ADDKESS. 53 152. 1. SReht, belli, fetit are older forma of the gen. singular, now an- tiquated, but occasionally met with; iijr, for tfjrer, does not occur: utijeret, for uii|er, and eiiret, for cucr, are not unknown, but rare. Examples are iljr Snftrumente f)30ttet metn, 'ye instruments mock me* (B. 142;33j ; boS fcitt felbft gcno§, ' which was enjoying itself (R. 141.15). 2. These genitives, in composition with Ijalbcn, mcgen, and tDtUcii, add a wholly anomalous et; and uufev and euer, in like manner, add a t: thus, metuetljalben, beinetraegen, urn fetnetiBiUen, uufertmegen, euert^albeu, etc. 3. Genitives of the personal pronouns are everywhere of rare occur- rence, and only as objects of verbs (219) and adjectives (217). For the genitive limiting a noun is substituted a possessive adjective (158.2). 153. Use of the Personal Pronouns in address. 1. In German, as in Englisli, the pronoun of the second pers. singular, bit, ' thou,' is no longer used in address, in the ordinary interooarse of life. It is retained (as in English) in the language of worship and of poetry: and further, m that of familiarity — the familiarity of intimacy, between equals, as between husband and wife, near relations, or particular friends, also among children; — the familiarity toward inferior age or station, as on the part of any one toward young children, or on the part of teachers or employers toward youthful pupils or servants; — and even, sometimes, the familiarity of insult or contempt. 2. The pronoun of the second pers. plural — tr)r, ' ye,' etc. — was at one time generally current in Germany for the singular (like our yow), and is yet met with in poetry or narrative : but modern use authorizes it only in addressing more than one of such per- sons as may, singly, be addressed with bu. 3. The singular pronouns of the third person — er, ' he,' fie, ' she,' etc. — were also once used in customary address, but soon sank to the condition of address by an acknowledged superior to an inferior — as by a monarch to a subject, a master to a servant, and the like — with which value they are still retained, but are going out of vogue. Employed in this way, er and fie and their cases are usually and properly written with a capital. 4. At present, the pronoun of the third pers. plural— fie, ' they ' — and its possessive, it)r, ' their,' are alone allowed, in the sense of ' you, your,' in common life, in addressing either one person, or more than one. When thus used, they are, for distinction, written with capital letters, '2ie, 3()ucn, Qi)V, etc. (but the reflexive fidj is not so written). 5i rEONOUNS. [153- Thns, id) tjoiitc 3^nen fiiv Sfjre Ocffiffigteit, bag ®te ftcfi bie ajJii^e gegeben l)abeii, ' I thank you for your kindness, in that you have given ymr- self the trouble.' The verb with ®te is always in the plural, whether one person or more be intended, But a followiug adjective is either singular or plural, accord- ing to the sense : thus, ©te ungliicf [iiJ)er, ' you unhappy man I ' but @ie un- gliiiflidjcii, 'you unhappy ones I ' The \ise of ©ie in address is quite modern, not having become generally established till about the middle of the last century. 5. Some authorities write aU the pronouns of address with a capital, even ®it, ®idl, Eud), etc. : but this is not to be approved, except in such documents as letters, where the words are to reach the person addressed through the eye. 154. Peculiarities in the use of Pronouns of the third person. 1. As a general rule, the pronoun of the third person, in the singular, takes the gender of the noun to which it relates. Thus, when speaking of a hat (ber §ut), we use er and i^n ; of a pen (bie gebct), fie ; of bread (bas 93vob), eS. Excepted fromHffis rule are such words as SBeit, '' womaTi,' ■which are neuter, though designating female persons ; also diminu- tives (neuter) of personal appellations, such as 5D'Jabd)en, 'girl,' g^rautctn, ' young lady,' ^nShlein, ' little boy : ' a pronoun refer- ring to one of these usually follows the natural gender, instead of the grammatical, ^inb, ' child,' is represented by eg, ' it,' aa with us. 2. But these pronouns are seldom used in the genitive or da- tive for things without life. For the genitive is substituted the genitive of a demonstrative, bev or faerfctbe ; for the dative, the dative of the same ; or, if governed by a preposition, a combina- tion of that preposition with the adverb bij (or bar), ' there.' Thus, bamit, 'therewith,' bauoti, 'thereof,' barin, 'therein,' baritac^, 'thereafter,' and so on, are used instead of mil iljni or iljr, 'with it,' eta ®nr is put instead of ba before a vowel or n. Similar substitutions of the demonstratives are often made also in other cases where we employ the personal pronouns; see below, 171. 3. The neuter accusative e8 is, in like manner, almost never allowed after a preposition, but is replaced by ba before the preposition : thus, bofUv, barum, for fur eS, ' for it,' um c§, ' about it.' 1B5J PERSONAL PE0N0UW8. 55 4. The neuter eS has certain special uses. a. It is, as in English, the indefinite and impersonal subject of a verb ; thus, eS reguet, ' it rains ; ' e? ift fein iBniber, ' it is his brother ; ' eg freut mi(^, @ie ju fe^en, ' it rejoices me to see you.' 6. In this use, it often answers to our tliere before a verb : as, e8 War etn Sent bnrtn, 'there was a kernel in it; ' e* roirb Stiemonb totnmen, 'there will no one come.' u. Tet more often, it serves the purpose of a mere grammatical device for shifting the true subject to a position after the verb, and is itself un- translatable : as, cS (pcrren bie SRiefen ben einfamen SBeg, ' the giants bar the lonely way; ' c8 tiirdjte bie ©otter bo8 2)ienjd)engef(^tec|t, 'let the human race fear the gods.' d. In all these uses, the verb agrees in number with the following noun, the logical subject or the predicate : thus, eS toaren bie aUerjdjiinfteit, ' it was (or, they were) the very finest ones.' e. @8 also stands as indefinite object; also, as predicate, representing another word or phrase already used, and of which the repetition is avoided (to be rendered, then, by ' so,' ' be so,' ' do so,' or the like) : thus, iS) fclber bin e 8 nic^t mcljr, ' I myself am so [what I was] no longer ; ' aU id) e 8 noc^ !onnte, ' when I was stiU able to do so.' f. Instead of it is I, and the like, the German reverses the expression, and says id) bin c8, 'I am it,' @ie Waren eg, 'you were it' (i. e., 'it was you '), etc. g. @S, in aU situations, is liable to be abbreviated to '8 : the apostrophe should in such case always be written, but is sometimes omitted. 155. Meflexive use of the Personal Pronouns. 1. A reflexive pronoun is one which represents the same per- son or thing as the subject of a sentence, but in the relation of object — namely, as object, direct or indirect, of the verb in the sentence ; or (less properly) in a prepositional adjunct to that verb. It is usually to be rendered by a personal pronoun with the word self added : thus, id) Inaf^e mid), ' I wash myself; ' id) fdjmeic^te mir, ' I flatter myself; ' ic^ fd)onc nteiner, ' I spare myself; ' i^ ftoge fte Don miv, 'I thrust them from myself (or, from me).' 2. In the first and second persons, singular and plural, the reflexive pronoun is the same with the personal in every case, the latter being used in a reflexive sense, with- out any adjunct corresponding to our self (but compare 6, below). The same is the case with the genitive of the third person — as, er fc^OHt [ c i n e r , 'he spares himself ' — but 56 PRONOUNS. [15S- 3. Ill the tlilrd persop, there is a special reflexive pro- noun, fid), wliich must always be used instead af the dative or accusative of a personal pronoun, after either verb or preposition, -when the subject of the sentence is referred to. It has the value of both accusative and dative, of either number, and of any gender. Thus, er, fte, e8 toojci)! ftif|, jdimeicfjctt ftcfl, ' he, she, or it washes or flat- ters himself, herself, or itself; ' fte maf(f)en ftd), (djmcic^eln firf), ' they wash themselves, or flatter themselves; ' baS ift an unb fiir fid) gut, 'that is good in and by itself.' The reflexive fit^, when representing @ie, 'you' (153.4), is not written with a capital, except in letters and the like. 4. In German, as in French (there is no corresponding usage in English), the reflexive pronoun in the plural is not seldom em- ployed in what is called a " reciprocal " sense, answering to our one another. Thus, IDir Mtteti utt 8 nte fe^eit foUnt,'' we ought never to have seen one another; ' il)v l)affet eni), 'ye hate each other; ' fie (®ie) gebcn jid) bnS ^tX' d)cn, ' they (you) give one another the signal.' Instead of the reciprocal reflexive (or, rarely and redundantly, along with it), the word etrtanber, ' one another,' is often employed. Only the connection and the requirement of the sense can show in any case whether the pronoun has its directly or its reciprocally reflexive value. 5. ©etbft (or fefter), ' self,' may be added to any reflexive pro- noun, for greater emphasis ; or, in the plural, to exclude the reci- procal sense. It may also he added for emphasis to any pronoun, or noun, answering to our myself, thyself, itself, etc. 156. The dative of a personal pronoun is sometimes introduced into a clause expletively, for liveliness of expression: as, ta^ ntti; fierein ben Sllten, ' let the old man in here (for me) : ' compare 222, III. c. POSSESSIVE PEONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. X57. The personal pronouns are always substantive; their corresponding adjectives are the possessives : namely meitt, ' my ' unfcr, ' our ' faein, 'thy ' cucr, 'your' feiii, ' his, its ' tfjr, ' their ' tf)r, 'her' [5^r, 'your'] 159] POSSESSIVES. 57 The possessives of the maso. and neut. singular are the same, join. The possessive of the fern, singular and that of the plural of all genders also agree in form ; and, as the latter (see 15 3.4) is used in the sense of a second person, if|t has three meanings, 'her,' 'their,' and 'your' (the last of which is distinguished to the eye by the capital initial). 158. 1. It will be noticed that the possessives correspond closely in form with the genitives of the personal pronouns, being, in fact, the same words in a different condition. 2. The office, also, of the possessive, agrees with that of the genitive of a noun. The genitive of the pronoun is very seldom used to limit a noun, but for it is substituted a possessive in the form of an adjective, qualifying the noun (216.3). Thus, bte 3trme be8 2Kamte«, 'the man's arms;' but fetne 2ltme, 'his arms,' not bie 2Irme [ctner, 'the arms of him.' Opinions differ as to whether the possessive is derived from the genitive, or the geni- tive from the possessive. Probably the latter opinion is correct ; the history of lan^ago ehows that a genitive ifl often, or usually, a stereotyped ajid invariable caae of an adjective of relation. 159. As regards their declension, possessives are treated in the same manner as other adjectives. 1. They are used predicatively in their simple or thematic form. Thus, ber Seeder iji bein, 'the goblet is thine;' bic SQtant fct mcin, 'he the bride mine I ' 2. When used attributively (their regular and ordinary office), they are declined, not like ber, ' the,' but like ein, ' a ' (63). Thus, raetn, ' my,' is declined Plural. m. f. n. meine metner metncH meine unferc unfcrcr unfercH xtnfere (120.3) respect unfere or uiifre, Singular. m. t n. N. tnein meine metn O. tneincS meiner meineg T>. tnetnem meiner metnem A. mcitten meine meitt and unfei :, ' our,' N. unfcr unfere unfer G. unfereS unferer unfcre§ D. utiferem unferer unferem A. unferen unfere unfer Unfer and euer follow the same rules as other adjectives ing the contraction of their endings : thus, we may have unfercS, Ullfci-a, or unfrcS, and so on. 3* 58 PEONOUNS. [159- 3. The possessive is also often used substantively, or with the value of a pronoun (not qualifying a noun expressed, but repre- senting one understood) ; in that case, it is declined in full like an adjective of the first declension : thus, nominatives meiner, meine, meineS, meine. For example, bnS tft nidjt bein 33ccf|er ; e3 ifl m e t n e t , ' that is not thy goblet; it is mine (i. e., my goblet);' fein §irn, ttiic llteineS, 'his brain, like my own.' 4. In the same substantive use, the possessive may be preceded by the definite article ; and it is then declined like any other ad- jective in like circumstances, or by the second adjective declen- sion (119.2) : thus, nom. ber, bie, baS meine, gen. be^, ber, beS meiuen, etc. For example, fein Sit^terftu^t ifl nt^t ber meine, 'his judgment-seat is not mine; ' (oft mir baS §ers, bafs id) ba§ eure ritfjre, ' set my heart free, that I may touch yours.' 5. Again, for the simple possessive, in its absolute or pronomi- nal use after the definite article, is substituted a derivative in tg : thus, meinig, un[vig, etc. These are never used except with the article, and therefore always follow the second adjective declen- sion. The nominatives of the whole series are Singular. Plural. m. f- ^' m. f. XI. bermeinige, tie meintge, ba« nieinige bie meinigen, ' mine ' ber beimge, bie beinige, baS beinige bie bcintgen, 'thine' ber feiuige, bie feinige, bn6 fcinige bie feinigen, 'his, its' ber i|rige, bie il)rige, ba8 i^rige bie i^rtgcn, 'hers' ber unfrige, bie unfrige, ba§ mifrige bie uufvigen, ' ours ' ber eurige, bie eurige, bo8 curige bie eurigen, 'yours' ber tt)rige, bie tljrige, baS tljtige bie i^rigen, ' theirs ' [ber 3f)rige, bie Sfjrige, baS S^rige bie S^rigen, ' yours '] ' Neither the derivatives in ig, nor the simple possessives preceded by the article, are ever used attributively, qualifying a noun expressed. SIfiein etc. used predicatively, assert ownership pure and simple ; thus, ber §ui ifl mcttl, 'l,he hfifc belongs to me, and to no one else.' 9J^cincr, bet incilic, and ber meillivjc are nearly equivalent expressions, combining with the idea of property an implication of the cha- racter of the thing owned: thus, er tft meiner etc., 'it is my hat, and no one else's.' ®er inciiiiiie etc. are most common in colloquial use ; ber meine etc. are preferred in higher Rtyles. 160. The absolute possessives preceded by the article (ber meine, ber meintge, etc.) are sometimes used substantively (like other adjectives : see 129) ; the neuter singular denoting ' what 163] POSSESSIVES. 59 belongs to one ' (Bis property, his duty, or tTio like) ; the plural, ' those who belong to one ' (as his family, his friends). Thus, unfere ^Sflicfjt ift, auf ba« Uiifvige pi feijcn, iinb fiir bic Uiifrigen ju forgen, ' our duty is to attend to our business and take care of our depend- ents; ' er etntuntcrte bie ©etncit, 'lie encouraged his men.' 161. The German, like the French, avoids the use of the pos- sessives in many situations where we employ them ; either putting in their stead the definite article only, where the possessor is suffi- ciently pointed out by the connection ; or, along with the article (or even without it), using the dative of the corresponding per- sonal pronoun, where it can be construed as indirect object of the verb in the sentence (see 222. III. 6). Thus, er fdjiittritc ben Sojjf, ' he shook his head ; ' ber groft brtngt mtr bitrd) atte itnodjen, ' the frost penetrates through all my bones ; ' er fiel i()r um ben §ate, 'he fell upon !ier neck; ' eS Jam mir in ©inn, 'it came into my mind.' 162., ®ero and 3^ro are old-style expressions, used in ceremonious ad- dress, before titles, etc. : thus, 3^ro 3Jiajeftat, ' your majesty ; ' Sero Sefe^Ie, ' your commands.' Before titles, feine and fetner are often abbreviated to @e. and ©r. ; and for eucr, cure, is written Em. Exercise XI. Personal, Reflexive, and Possessive Pronouns. 1. SlJlcine grau unb id) fontnten ^eute mit un[ern ^inbern ju -3()nen ; finben mir Otein Stjtem ncucn ^rntfe? 2. SCBir fef)en il^ren §ut, unb er gefaitt un§ md}t. 3. grfennft bu mirf| a(g bcinen greunb? 4. <3ie I)at fdjone gebern, benn id) gab fie i()i-. 5. (£r bctvogt fid) gut, unb id) freue mid) e^ ju ijoxm. 6. Sure 'Spferbe finb bcffer ais bie unfrigcn unb bie feintgen. 1. §ter tft iljr i8u^ ; fie fdjidte eg mtr, unb -di leilje eS ^Ijmn. 8. 31;r 3lpfel ift gut ; metner ift ft^ted)t. DEMONSTRATIVES. 163. The proper demonstratives are ber, 'this, that,' bie3, ' this, that,' and jen, ' yon, that.' Their original value is that of adjectives ; but they are now with equal free- dom used adjectively, qualifying a noun expressed, and absolutely, or as pronouns, standing for a noun under- stood. Ser is historically the same word with our the, that, and (hey ; bie§ is our this, these, those ; jen is our yon, and may by this correspondence be con- 60 PKONOUNS. [163- veniently distinguished from jeb (jcbcr), 'every' (see 190), witli wMcli it is apt to be confounded by learners. 164. 1. S)cr wlien used adjectively is declined like tlie article ber (63) ; being, in fact, tlae same word, and dis- tinguished from it only b}' greater distinctness, of meaning and of utterance. Thus, bet Ort iff itbel regteret, ' that place is ill governed ; ' ber eine ^at bie, bie onbereii anbere, @aben, 'one has these gifts, others have other.' 2. ®er when used absolutely, or as pronoun, has pecu- liar forms in a part of its cases— namely, the genitives singular and plural and the dative plural — where it adds en to the adjective forms, at the same time doubling their final % : thus, Singular. Plural. m. t. n. m. f. n. N. ber ' bte bag bte G. beffen, (beg) beren, (ber) beffen, (bc|) bereit, (berer) D. bem ber bem beneit A. ben bie bag bie The genitives singular beg, ber, beg are also aUowed, but very rarely used, except the neuter ia certain compounds, as begWegen, befj^alb (also written beSVDegen, beS^alb). In the genitive plural, berer is used instead of bereii when a limiting ad- dition, usually a relative clause, follows: thus, berer, bie mid) tiebeit, 'of those who love me ; ' berer Bon *Pari8, ' of them of Paris (people from Paris).' 165. !J)teS and jen are declined as adjectives of the first declension, or like the definite article (only with c§ instead of aS in the nom. and ace. neuter) ; and without any dif- ference, whether they are used as adjectives or as pronouns. Thus, Plwrcil. n. m. t n. biefeg biefe biefeg biefer biefem biefen biefeg btefe ^ The tiom. and ace. neuter biefeg is often abbreviated to bleg (or biejj), especially wben the word is used as a pronoun. Singular. m. i. N. biefer btefe G. biefeg biefer D. biefem biefer A. biefen biefe 167j DEMON STKATIVES. 61 166. Use of the Demonstratives. 1. jDiefcr is a general demonstrative, answering to both this and that. If, however, the idea of remoteness in place or time is at all emphasized, either by the antithesis of this and that, or in any other way, that must be represented by jerter. Often, biefct and jener are to be rendered 'the latter' (btefer, the one last men- tioned, the nearer) and ' the former ' (jener, the one mentioned earlier, the remoter). 5)ieg and bog are also sometimes colitrasted as ' this ' and ' that.' 2. S)er has a great range of meaning, from the faint indefinite- ness of the article to the determinateness of biefcr — depending mainly on the emphasis with which it is uttered. Special uses worthy of note are as follows : a. ®er is the demonstrative employed in sueh phrases as un{ere ^ferbe unb b i e bcr grembett, ' our horses and those of the strangers, ' b e r mit ben ^eKen Slugen, ' lie (the one) with the sliarp eyes.' Barely, bevjetiige (163) is used in the same sense. 5. It takes the place of the pronoun of the third person used emphati- cally: thus, bie mu6 recfjt bumm (et:i, 'she must be right stupid;' bcc fiittrc jtrillj'u, 'may he be food for crows.' 3. The neuters singular, "bai, bteS (or bicf5, btcfeS), and (rarely) jeneS, are used, like e§ (154.4), as indefinite subjects of verbs; and, if a plural predicate noun follows the verb, the latter agrees with the noun: thus, bag ift mein SJoter, 'that is my father;' b a § ftnb bie Steijungen, ' those are the charms ; ' b i e S ift ber ^OttHjf ber ^ferbe unb g^ifdje, ' this is the combat of horses and fishes.' 4. Compounds of the adverbs ba and ^ier with prepositions are very frequently used instead of cases of the demonstratives with governing prepositions : thus, bamit, ' therewith,' barin, ' therein,' for mit bem, in bem ; ^iermit, ' herewith,' f)terin, ' herein,' for mit biefem, in biefem. 6. For the demonstratives as substitutes for the personal pronoun, see ■below, 171. Determinatives. 167. Certain pronominal words, connected with the demon- stratives in derivation or meaning, or in both, are ordinarily called determinatives^ G2 PRONOUNS. [168- 163. ©cricnige. — 1. This is made up of tlie definite article bev, and ienicj, a derivative from jcn, '3'on, that' (like itieiui.q from metn, etc., 159.5). The latter part never occurs without the former, and they are written together as a single word, although each is separately declined, the one as the article, the other as an adjective of the second declension. Thus, Slngula/r. Plural. m. f. n. m. f. u. N. bevjcnige biejenige ba^jcnige bieienigen G. bcgjentgen berjeittgen bcgjenigcn berjenigen D. bemicnigett bericnigen bcmjenigcn bciijcnigen A. benj,emgen biejenige bagjenige biejenigen 2. "©eijcnige is used with equal frequency as adjective and as pronoun. Its specific office is that of antecedent to a following relative; in this office it is interchangeable with the demonstra- tive ber, as the latter's more prosaic and colloquial substitute : thus, bcricrttge, or bcrjentge aWanu, ttielc^er toeife iff, i[t jufrieben, 'ho (that man) who is wise is contented.' 169. 3)erfeI6e. — 1. This word is composed of the definite ar- ticle and the adjective fel6. Both its parts are declined, after the manner of bevjeutge (168. i). 2. ©erfetbe is both adjective and pronoun, and means literally ' the same.' But it also interchanges with the demonstratives aa substitute for the pronoun of the third person (see 171). ' 3. For bcrfelbe are sometimes used bcrfcdiigc and felbigev, which, how- ever, are antiquated expressions. ®ev nfimlidje is its equivalent in the full sense of ' the same.' ©elber and fclBft (155.5) are indeclinable forms of the same adjective fclb, always following, appositively, thenounor pronoun which they qualify, often at a distance from it. Sctbft is also used adverbially, meaning ' even,' and as substantive in the phrase Uon felbft, 'of its own accord.' ®elb is also, rarely, declined after bicier as after bcr. The genitive of bcrfclbc is written either bci>iclbcit or bcffi'lben : the former is theoretically preferable (3.1), the latter more usual (likewise bas^fclbe, neuter). 170. ©old). — 1. ©old) is the English 'such,' and is used, both as adjective and as pronoun, in nearly the same manner. It is declined like bicfer (165) ; or, when preceded by eiu, as any other adjective would be in the same situation (124). 2. Siioh a is either fold) rill, or cin folrf)cr, the adjective being undecliued when placed before the article. For as^ when used after swc/i \\ith the value I'S] INTEEEOGA'nVES. 63 of a relative pronoun, the German uses the relative • thus, fold)? n, b i e i()U tannten, ' to such as knew him.' 111. The Demonstratives and Determinatives as Substitutes. The pronouns of these classes are often used where we put the third personal pronoun or its possessive : 1. For the emphatic pronoun (166.26.), and the antecedent of a relative clause (158.2), as already explained. 2. Where the demonstrative meaning helps avoid an ambiguity : as, et ging mit meiitfm tietter unb beifen ©oljn, or bem ©ol)iie bef-fElben; 'he went with my cousin and his (the latter's)son: ' — or an awkward repetition: as, er l|nt cine (gd)itieftEr : feniien @ie bief el6e (for fenncn ©ie fit)? 'he has a sister; do you know herl ' 3. In the oblique cases, where things and not persons are intended : as, id) bin beffen benbt^tgt, ' I am in need of it ' (fetner would mean 'of him,' rather). In like manner, with prepositions, instead of the adverbial com- pounds with bo (154.'2,3): as, id) l)abe einen Oavten, unb ge^e oft in bem» felben (or barin) fpnjieren, 'I have a garden, and often go to walk in it.' 4. The substitution, especially of berfctbe, is often made, in popular use, in cases where no reason can be assigned, and where the personal pronoun would be preferable. INTEEROGATIVES. 172. The interrogatives are iDcr, ' who,' lt)a§, ' wliat,' and mldjcx, 'what, which.' 3Ber and li'aS are prononns only ; tnetdjer is primarily adjective, but also frequently used as pronoun. 173. 1. SBer and WaS are peculiar in having no plural ; also, in conveying no idea of gender, but being distin- guished precisely as our who and what, the one denoting persons, the other things. They are declined as follows : N. jtier 'who' tvaS 'what' G. hjeffen, (meg) 'whose' lueffen, (weg) 'of what' D. mm ' to whom ' A. tueit 'whom' tvaS 'what' 2. SBcfi as genitive of Iner is antiquated and out of use, and as genitive of ro'aS is hardly met with except in compounds like mefjroegen, liiefibalb (or njeSlDCgcn, IneSljciIb). SBaS has no dative : for both its dative and accu- sative as governed by prepositions are substituted compounds of those pre- positions with the adverb tuo or ttjor, 'where: ' thus, VDomit, ' where-s\ith, with what,' loorin, 'wherein, in what,' rtiofiiv, 'wherefore, for what' (hke bijmit, l)tn-niit, etc.: see 154.2, 166.4). 64 PEONOtTNS. [173- 8. Popular colloquial usage sometimes puts Wa§, both as accusative and ag dative, after prepositions: thus, uiit mnS, ' with what,' fiir Xaai, 'for what' 4. aBef3 is, quite rarely, used adjectively: as, (n eg @ui"e« ber ^crv jet, 'of what disposition the master is' (B. 92;Y). 174. 1. SBcId) is declined like bieS (l65), or as an adjec- tive of the first declension. As an adjective, qualifying a noun expressed, it means either ' what ' or ' which ; ' used absolutely, it is our 'which.' 2. Before eiit or an adjective, especially when used in an ex- clamatory way, inelcf) generally loses its declensional endings, and appears in its simple thematic form. Thus, rDcfdjeS Slid), ' what (or which) book ; ' ttcld)C? Don bicfeit S3ijd)rai, ' which of these books : '— Weld) tiefeS ©ummcn, racfdi cht (jeUer Son, 'what deep murmur, what a clear tone I ' tretc^ fd)fed)te ©ttten, 'what bad man- ners I ' 175. SBog with the preposition fiir, ' for,' after it (sometimes ■separated from it by intervening words), is used in the sense of ' what sort of, what kind of.' It is then invariable, and the words to which it is prefixed have the same construction as if they stood by themselves. Thus, tons bift bu fiir ettt latigcr ©trid, ' what sort of a long string are you? ' Bon wai fiir 3fii9™/ "nb mit roaS fiir eincm SBevJ^euge, mad)en ©ic bnS, ' of what kind of stuffs, and with what sort of an instrument, do you make that?' 176. 1. All the interrogatives are used also as relatives (see 177). 2. SBaS stands often for ctlnaS, ' something : ' iner, in the sense of ' some one,' is quite rare ; luelcf), as pronoun only, is familiarly, but not elegantly, used to signify ' some.' Thus, nod) mas tuertl), 'still worth somethmg; ' id) Jttijt^te TOaS (jroftti^ ren, 'I would fain profit somewhat; ' nictnte tuer au8 ber ®efellfd)aft, 're- marked some one in the company;' tjabcn @ie 'ipfloumcn? geben @ie niit roeldje, ' have you plums ? give me some.' 3. Sag is used not rarely for uni IDtlS, or Ircirum, 'why?' thus, toai btrgft bu bein ®cfid)t, ' why hidest thou thy face 1 ' RELATIVES. 177. The demonstrative pronoun (not adjective) bcr, and the inton-ogatives Kcv, WaS, loaS fih, and Uicld)er (both adjective and pronoun), are used also as relatives ; they 179] RELATIVES. GH are declined, as siicli, in the same manner as when having their more original and proper value. 178. ®er and luetc^er are the ordinary simple relatives folio-w- ing an antecedent. In the nominative and accusative, they are used interchangeably, acQording to the arhitrary choice of speaker or writer. In the dative (except after prepositions) the cases of ber are rather preferred to those of vncWjer ; and, in the geni- tive (as pronouns), only beffen and beren are ever met with. 179. 1. SBer and roaS, mnS fiir, and ttielcf)er used adjectivcly (also absolutely, when meaning ' which '), like who and what in English, are properly compound relatives, or antecedent and rela- tive combined. Thus, itier bei ^indjt borbctfulir, fal) bic gtaitrmc:!, 'he who (whoever) went by at night, saw the flames; ' tonS im iljfenfdjcn indjt ift, toiiimt and) :n(^t au§ if)ni, ' what (whatever) is not in a man doea not come out of him ; ' id) inttt Bcrgeffen, Wer id) bin, itnb was id) tttt, 'I will forget who I am and what I have suflfered; ' mit if)r ttian&ett, to em fie bie SBciqe liel), 'with her walks he on whom she has bestowed consecration ; ' man fud)te jii uergeffeu, ItJelt^e 3iotlj iiberntt I)errjd)te, ' one sought to forget what distress was every- where prevailing; ' iDcr Weijj, tt) a« f iir einc Sift batjintcr ftedt, 'who Icnows what sort of a trick is hidden in that 7 ' 2. But the demonstrative is repeated, for distinctness, after the com- pound relative, much more often in German than in English : Thus, Wer nid)t BortDcirtS ger)t, ber !ommt juritcfe, 'zoho (whoever) does not advance, Ae falls back ; ' tti a§ bii nie Ucrtierft, bag miifit bu bemetnen, 'what you never lose, thai you have to bewail; ' inaS id) tiiv §errlid)feit gefd)out, baS ftef)tnic(|t in ber Sovte Tlad)t, 'what kind of magnificence I saw, that is not in the power of words to tell.' 3. As occasional irregular variations of the mode of relative expression may be noticed the use of the personal pronoun instead of bcv as antecedent after mv (e. g., R 67.20), of ber instead of Itier as preceding relative (e.g., R. 77.3), of tner instead of mtdjtx after ber (e. g., R. 52.22), etc. 4. The examples show that hjer and ttiaS are sometimes to he translated by 'whoever' and 'whatever.' To give them more distinctly this indefinite sense, they may be followed (either im- mediately, or, more often, after one or more interposed words) by and), 'even,' nur, 'only,' or tntmer, 'ever,' especially the first: thus, in a 8 ev audi t^ue, 'whatever he may do.' 5. After aneuter pronoun, personal, demonstrative, or indefinite (as e8, bag, alleS, etwaS, nid)tg, mand)e«, biel, toenig), also after an adjective (especially a superlative) taken in a general sense, and 66 PEONOUNB. [179- not referriBg to some definite object, the compound relative toai is used, instead of the simple relative bag or H)e(cf)e§, Thus, liber baS, tt) a 8 er jelbft erjnl)(tc, ' about that which he was himself relatiug; ' alleS ItiaS Bon bir tiiir turn, 'all that oame to me from thee;' ntdjtS toaS tncine 5Ketitiuig flBrte, 'nothing that should shake my opinion; ' baS erfte roaS fie I)brten, 'the first thing which they heard.' That i3 to say, for an adjective clause qualifying the antecedent is substituted a sub- Gtantive clause in apposition with it. 180. For tine dative or accusative case of a relative (eitlier simple or compound) governed hy a preposition, is usually sub- stituted, when things and not persons are referred to, the com- pound of the preposition with an adverb (as in the case of the demonstratives and interrogatives : see 166.4, 173.2). But the compounds of ba (babon, barauS, etc.) are only rarely used rela- tively, those of it)o (Wotion, tootauS, etc.) being preferred. 181. A verb agreeing with a relative is put in the third per- son even when the antecedent of the relative was a pronoun of the first or second person (or a vocative), unless that pronoun be repeated after the relative. ■ Thus, um mic^, b'er \x^ rettet JU bir, ' about me, who am taldng refuge with thee ; ' bift bu e8, bcr fo ;i i 1 1 e r t , ' is it thou who art trembhng thus ? '— but um mid), bcr id; mid) rcttc; bift bu e«, ber bu fo jittctft ;— gliidjeligev Sdejanber, ber bu Stahen uid)t faf)eft, 'fortunate Alexander, that diclsl never see Italy I ■' 182. 1. In antitjuated or archaic style, fo is used as indeclinable relative, representing the nominative and accusative cases of ber and TOcIdjcr : thus, ber 5Dfonn, fo eS fagte, 'the man who said it' 2. In a like style, ba is appended to a relative, bcr or loeldjcr, in a man- ner whoUy expletive, and unrepresentable by anything in English: thus, roer ba atljmet im rofigeti Std)t, 'whoever breathes in the rosy Mght.' 183. The relative, often omitted in English, must always be expressed in German : thus, bie g^reunbe, b t e id) ticbe, ' the friends I love.' Exercise XII. Demonstrative, Interrogative, and Relative Pronouns. l.^SOSer fttib ©ie, unb moS iuiffen ©ie? 2. ®ic8 ift bcr 9J?ami ben tote fenncn, unb Don bem mtr fpradjen. 3. SBeWicu SlJamt mv- ncn ®te '? 4. SBer fiub bie Seute beveit Sitdjcr luir fjatteit, nub bciioii lutr fie tuiebergabcn ? 5. 3d) tucij^ tucber lung fiir 93itcf)cr e6 ii'nvcn, nod^ bon \Mm luir fie Ijntteii. 6. SBcv ba3 nid)t lueijj ift ehi 'Zim. 189] INDEFmiTES. C7 1. SBeffen ^ut unb ioaS fiir eiitcn 9torf Mgt jener Sunk? 8. 8tc6ct bie, h)eld)e eud) berfolgen ; fegnet bieimtgen, bie eudj ^ctffcn. 9. Ser ift gtMti^, be[fen §erj jufrieben ift ; mcf)t berjentge, iDcfdjet nur I'etdi ift. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AND INDEFINITE NUMEfiALS. 184. A class of words needs some attention under tlie above head, in connection with the pronouns, as being more or less re- lated with the latter, and differing from ordinary nouns and ad- jectives, in derivation or in office, or both. 185. Tlan, 'one.' — Wlaxi (originally the same word with 9}Jann, ' man ') is employed as wholly indefinite subject to a verb, like the French on, our one, they, people, we, taken indefinitely. Thus, man fagt, ' one says, they say, it is said.' If any other case than a nominative is required, eiiter (195) is used instead. 186. Setnanb, ' some one,' 5Jf tcmanb, ' no one.' — These are compounds of SRann, ' man,' with the adverbs je, ' ever,' and nte, 'never.' They ought, therefore, to be declinable only as substan- tives of the first declension : and it is proper always so to treat them, adding g in the genitive, and leaving the other cases like the nominative. But in the dative and accusative (especially where the phrase would otherwise be ambiguous or indistinct), they are allowed to take the endings eitt or en (R. 168.28; 171.19) in the dative, and en in the accusative. SJiemanb, ' no one,' mustbeused instead of nic^t 3emanb, ' not any one,' except in an interrogative sentence. 187. Sebermann, ' every one.' — This word is made up of jeber) 'every ' (190), and SWann, ' man,' but is used without distinction of gender. Its first part is undeclined, and it is varied only by adding g to form the genitive. 188. (SttnaS, '^something,' nid)tg, ' nothing.' — These words are invariable in form, and always have a substantive value. A fol- lowing limiting adjective is treated as a substantive in apposition with them (129.5) : and the same construction is usual with a noun after etmaS ; thus, etmaS Oetb, ' some money.' For tnaa in the Bense of etluo8, see 176.2. 9'Jic^tS is usually and regularly used instead of nic^t EtWaS, ' not any- tliing,' except when the sentence is interrogative as well as negative. 189. Sintg, ettid^, ' some.' — These are used chiefly in the 68 PRONOUNS. [189- plural, and declined like bicg (165). They are employed both adjeotively and substantively. (Stlt)e(if) is a word, now antiquated, having the same meaning: for this, lDcld)er is often used colloquially (176.2), as iuo§ for etWaS. 190. 3eb, jcglid), jebmeb, ' each, every.'— Only the first of these is in familiar use. All are declined like bie§ ; or, the first two as adjectives of the "mixed" declensiou (124.2) when preceded by ein, the only limiting word which can stand before them. They are used either adjeotively or substantively. The original themes are jcbcr and jcblucbev, and their er has not uutU modern times been treated as ending of declension only. !For 3eb£rmonn, see above, 187. 191. SWand), 'many.' — In the singular, marK^ means 'many a ; ' in the plural, ' many.' It is usually declined like bieg (165), but, before an adjective, may be left uninfleoted : thus, mnncli liuntc 23tunten, ' many variegated flowers ; ' manc^ giilben ©eluanb, ' many a golden garment.' It is also used substantively. 192. 35iet, 'much,' tt)cnig, 'little.' — 1. After another limiting ■word, bid and tuenig are declined as any other adjectives would be in the same situation — except in ein tnenig, ' a little.' K they precede the noun which they qualify (or another adjective qualify- ing it), they are sometimes declined and sometimes left unvaried — and the former more when the meaning is distributive, the lat- ter more when collective: thus, btet SBein, 'a great quantity of wine,' but oietev SBein, ' wine of many kinds ; ' btel tetc^t befcl)rotugte @dfte, ' a number of light-winged guests,' but Utele anbere 3;fiicrgc= [talten, ' many other animal shapes (individual) ' — but this distinc- iion is by no means closely observed. Both words are used sub- stantively as well as adjectively, and may govern a partitive geni- tive : as, biete ber g^u^ganger, 'many of the pedestrians.' 2. 2Jf el)r, ' more,' and mentger, ' less,' comparatives of btel and tnenig, are generally invariable. But tnefjr has a plural, mtljXi, or (irregularly, but much more commonly) me^rere, meaning ' several, many.' 193. 2ffl, 'all.' — 1. When it directly precedes the noun it qualifies, all is fully declined (like bte§, 165) : but before a pro- nominal word (adjectively or substantively used) it may remain unvaried (with a tendency toward the same distinction of colleo- tive and distributive meaning that appears in biet : see 192.1). Thus, alter Sctteifcr, 'all zeal:'— atle beiiie ^oI)en SScrle, 'all thy lofty works ; ' alie bic £agc beg gefteS, ' all the days of the festival : * oon oH bem 197j INDEFINITES. 69 (Sfauje, 'by all the splendor; ' bei ad bicfen SBerpItmffen, 'in yiew of all these circumstimces.' 2. In certain phrases, nde is used instead of alt undeclined : thus, bet atte bcm, ' in spite of all that.' 3. The neuter singular adei (like the corresponding ease of other pro- nomiiif.l words; as jebcg, R. 17ii.ll), is employed in an indefinite way of persons, meaning 'every one:' thus, alleS nci^crt fid) cinanber, 'aU draw near to one another.' 4. Tlie plural of nH is sometimes used distributively : as alle SGBoc^eu, 'every week.' 194. Slnber, ' other,' is a pronominal word, but not distin- guished in its uses from an ordinary adjective. For nod) etn in place of anber, see 198.Sc ; for anber as ordinal, 203.1a. 195. (Sin, 'one, an, a,' fctn, 'not one, none, no.' — 1. The numeral ehl, 'one,' is also used as indefinite pronoun (see 198.2), and as article (63). 2. ^etn is the negative of ctn, and is everywhere declined aa the latter would be in the same situation. Like 9hemaiib (186) and nid)tS (188), it often requires to be taken apart in translating into ctn and nic^t, 'not.' NUMERALS. 196. Although the numerals do not form in the proper sense a separate part of speech, their peculiarities of form and use are such that they require to be treated as a class by themselves. 197. 1. The fundamental words denoting number, the cAEDDfAi. numerals, are as follows : 1. etn 11. elf 21. ein unb jtoanjig 2. jroei 12. jhjolf 22. jttjei unb jhianjtg 3. bret 13. breije^n 30. bretgig 4. bier 14. bierje^n 40. bterjtg 5. fltnf 15. fitnfjcijn 50. fiinfjig 6. \ed)9 16. fcdjjerin 60. fe^jig 1. fieben 17. ftc63el)n 70. fiebjtg 8. adit 18. ac[}t,^cf)rt 80. a^tjtg 9. neim 19. neunje^n 90. neunjtg 10. je^n 20. jmanjig 100. ^unbert 1000. taufenb 1,000,000 . saaion 70 NUMEEALS. [197- 2. An older form of c(f, 11, now nearly out of use, is eilf. For fimfjet)!!, 15, and fiinfjig, 50, the less regularly derived forma fuufjetjn and fimfjig are also in good and approved use. ©icben= ;5e()n, 17, and ftcbcuitg, 70, instead of the contracted ftebje^n and ftoogig, are not infrequent. ©ed]5cI)U, 16, and fedijig, 60, are abbreviated, for ease of pronunciation, from fcdj'Jjctin and fcd)g3ig, ■whicb may likewise be employed. 3. The odd numbers, between twenty and a hundred, are formed always by prefixing the name of the unit to that of the ten, with imb, 'and,' interposed: thus, brei unb jtnanjtg, 'three and twenty' (not jluanjigsbrei, ' twenty-three '). With the higher numbers, the odd numbers follow, as in English : thus, []unbcrt unb fiebett-, 107 ; taufcub unb brci unb bierjig, 1043 ; and the mib, ' and,' may be dropped, especially when more than two numbers are put to- gether : as, ein taufenb ad)t fjunbert neun unb fec^jig, or ac^tje()n Ijunbert neun unb fe^^ig, 1869. 4. The higher numbers, [junbert, taufcub, million, are multiphed by prefixed numbers, as in English : thus, jcd)§ tjunbert, 600 ; brci nub ad)t^ig taufcub, 83,000. The German says eiue SJciHtou, 'a million,' as we do ; but simply £)unbcrt, ' a hundred,' taufenb, ' a thousand:' ein f|unbe«t, ciu taufcub, mean 'one hundred,' 'one thousand.' 198. (Sin is the only cardinal number that is fully inflected. 1. If used adjectively, or qualifying a noun expressed, it is (unless preceded by another qualifying word : see 3) declined when numeral in the same manner as when indefinite article (63). Thus, ein SJiann, 'one man' or 'a man;' ein fitnb, 'one child' or 'a child.' 2. When used absolutely, or pronominally, standing for a noun understood, it is declined like bteS (165), or an adjective of the first declension (but eineS is usually contracted to cinS in the nom. and ace. neuter). TIius, um ein Otieb, unb batra urn noc^ einS longer, 'longer by one joint, and then by one more;' einer Boit end), 'one of you;' eincr bcr ailf ein .StbcutcuEr au§gc^t, ' one who goes out upon an adventure ; ' Uoit fid) jlt jagen, WnS einem liefi tft, ' to drive away from one's self what is dear to Gael ' 3. WTjen preceded by another limiting word (usually the de- finite article), it is declined as any adjective would be after the same word. 201 ] CAEDINALS. 71 Thua, bn- eine frrad), 'the one spoke; ■ mit bicfcr cincn 3niiug, '-n-itli this one error; ' auf !etnem etnen SBetne, 'on his one leg.' a. Ser etne is often employed where we should say 'one' simply: ooca- sioually it forms a plural, Sie etitcn, ' the ones, some.' 6. In numeration, the pronominal neuter, etn?, is used: thus, cin8, jftiei, bret, 'one, two, tliree; ' einmal ein§ ift einS, 'onoe one is one.' c. SJorf) cin, 'one more,' is employed instead of einanber, 'another,' where simple addition, not difference, is signified: thus, nimm itodj cin (Solbftiicf, 'take another gold piece ' (i. e. in addition to the one you have); butntmnt eiii ciubcreS, 'take another' (i. e. in place of the one you have). d In the compound numbers, eta unb 5tDan',ig, 21, etc., etil is invariable: also, usually, in etit unb berfclbe, eiii '|)nar, em incnig, etc. e. In order to distinguish to the eye etn used as pronoun or numeral from the same word as article, some write it with a capital, (S.m ; others, with the letters spaced, e t n (the ordinary German equivalent of our italics) ; others, with an accent upon the e, etn ; others leave the difference of value to be pointed out by the connection. 199. 2i^d, 2, and brei, 3, are generally unvaried, but have gen. and dat. plural forms— jmeier, jlncien ; bretcr, brcien — wliioh may be used where the case would otherwise be doubtful. a. For gWet, the old masculine jtreen (twain) and feminine jlno are an- tiquated, but still occasionally met with: thus, tnaren mit mir jmeeu ©ciioffcn, 'were with me two comrades; ' glno ©d)lualbcu (angen urn bie Sffiette, 'two swallows were singing iu emulation.' S. SBeibc, ' both,' is often used where we say two : tins, ineine Bciben SBl'iiber, ' my two brothers.' 200. 1. From the other units and tens, only a dative in en is occasion- ally formed, when the words are used substantively; or, yet more rarely, from all the units, a nom. and aoa in c (a relic of a former fuller declension) — namely, in certain special uses, as atle 33tcre, ' all fours ; ' or in poetry, to make an additional syllable ; or in colloquial and low style. 2. ^urtbert, 100, and taufenb, 1000, are frequently construed and declined as (neuter) collective substantives. 3)f iUion (fem.) ia regularly and usually so treated. 3. As names of the figures designating them, the numerals are treated as feminine nouns {^a^\, f. ' number,' being understood), and take the plural ending en, and sometimes e in the singular: etn forms bie (Sing, bie Elnjen. 201. 1. The cardinal numerals are used in general with equal freedom as substantives and as adjectives : thus, ein ®inb, 'a child,' einS bev ^itiber, 'one of the children ;' uier obcr fiinf ]old)tx 9JJcib= d)en, ' four or five of such girls ' (R. 161.18) ; tuiv bret greunbe. ' we three friends;' uiifcv brei, ' three of us,' etc. 72 NUMERALS. [201- 2. For the use of a singular instead of a plural noun of measure after numerals, see 211. '2. 202. From the cardinals come, by derivation or composition, all the other classes of numerals, the most important of which arc explained below. 203. Ordinals. 1. The ordinals are a series of ad- jective derivatives, formed from the cardinals by the suf fixes t and ft ; from the numbers 2-19, by adding t ; from the higher nambers by adding ft. Thus, Jttieit, 'second,' neunt, 'ninth,' fc(^3et)ttt, 'sixteenth,' jroattjtgfl, 'twentieth,' f)Unbertft, 'hundredtli,' tau(enbft, 'thousandth.' a. But the ordinal of etn is crft, 'first;' brei forms irregularly bvitt ; and arfit, ad)t (instead of ad)tt) : anber, ' other,' is some- times used instead of jiueit, ' second.' b. Compound numbers add, as in English, the ordinal ending only to their last member : thus, bet jloet unb jluanjigfte, 22d, ber Ijimbcrt imb erfte, 101st, im acfjt^eljn ^unbert neun unb fcc^jigften Satjve, 'in the 1869th year.' 2. The ordinals are never used predicatively or adverbi- ally, and consequently never appear (except in composition) in their simple thematic form. They are declined in all respects like other adjectives. Exercise XIII. Cardinal and Ordinal Numerals. The numerals to be read out of figures into words. 1. 2Bir fmb 3 Sviiber, (Sof)ne cineg 5I5ater« ; ber Iftc ifl 20 ^aljve att ; ber 2te ift fitter um 4 3oI)i-e unb 7 SJJonate : ber 3te ifl geboren itn -3af)re 1835, unb ift alfo im 34ften -3a^r fetneS 3ItterS. 2. On meiner iBibliot^ef finb 35 Siirf)erketter in 5 SRei^en ; bag 4te Srett in icber 9teil)e Ijalt fpanif^e SSitc^er, unb bag '7te ^(t beutfc^e ; auf alien jufammen finb 678 2Berfe, in 1317 58anben. 3. 2Bag a,t\i)ai) im 3:a()v 1492? unb mag, 284 -3a^re f|iater, im Oaljre 1776? 4. 3}'cr Sonuar ^t 31 Sage ; ber gebniar, 28 ober 29. 5. ®te ©onct ^etii tii-cf)e ju 9iom i)a[ 602 ^\x% Singe, unb 445 JJufi SSreite; unb bag ©renj auf bem 3)ome fte^t 430 gug liber bem ^flafter ; fie ttuvbe gcn)ei(}t im 1626ftcn 3at)ve nad) (St^rifti ©cburt. 209j NUMEEAL DERIVATIVES. 73 204. MuUipUcatives. These are formed by compounding the cardinals with the words fad) or faftig : thus, einfadi or cinfat= tig, 'simple;' jhicifad^ or jtoeifalttg, 'double;' je^nfncE) or je^nfdt tig, ' ten-fold.' They are adjectives, and are treated in all respecta like other adjectives. / 205. Variatives. These add eriei to the cardinals: thus, ctnevlei, 'of one sort,' bretcrlet, 'of three sorts;' Dicferlci, 'of many sorts.' They are adjectives, but incapable of declension. 206. Iteratives. These are adverbs, formed by compounding the numeral with mol (literally ' mark ; ' hence ' repetition, time ') : thus, einmal, 'once,' je^nmot, 'ten times,' mauc^mol, ' many times, often.' a. The word mat is often written apart from the numeral, sometimes with a capital, as an independent word. b. Aa the examples have shown, derivative words of these three classes are formed also from the indefinite numerals. 207. Derivatives from the Ordinals. 1. Dimidiatives are formed by adding Ijntb, ' half,' to the ordinal as ending in te (or t), and denote a quantity half a unit less than the corresponding cardinal. Thus, bierte^Ifc, ' four less a half,' or ' three and a half They are construed as invariable adjectives. The implied meaning is, ['the first, second, and third, complete ; but] the fourth, [only] half.' Instead of 3tt)eite^alb, U, anbertfjalB, irregularly form- ed from anber, 'other,' in the sense of 'second' (203. la), is in use. 2. Fractionals are originally compounds of the ordinals with E^eil, ' part ; ' but are abbreviated by the contraction of the latter into tct, before which the final t of the ordinal is dropped : thus, bvittef (bvitt=tc(, brttt' S^eit), ' third ; ' biertel, ' quarter ; ' ^manjig^ ftct, 'twentieth part.' Instead of Jtticitct, ' second part,' is used only I)alb, §atfte, 'half.' 3. Ordinal Adverbs add the ending enS to the ordinal thenie : thus, crfteng, ' firstly ; ' jtnanjigftcnS, ' in the twentieth place.' 208. Other derivative numeral words it belongs rather to tho dictionary than to the grammar to explain. USES OF THE FORMS OF DECLENSION. 209. The following rules apply only to nouns and to words (pronouns, numerals, adjectives, infinitives: see 113) used as nouns ; since the declension of all adjectives and words used ad- 4 7i USES OF THE FOEMS OF DECLENSION. [209- jectively (articles, pronominal adjectives, and participles) is de- terniined by that of the nouns to which they belong, and with which they are made to agree in number, case, and gender. Numbers. 210. The value and use of the numbers are, in general, (he same in German as in English. 211. 1. This does not exclude minor differences in regard to particular words, which the one language may, iu general or in certain connectiona, use as singular and the other as plural: for example, ^fUgE (sing.), ' tongs ' (pi.); 93(nttent (pi.), 'small-pox' (sing.); auf bem Strm (sing.), 'in the arms; ' ©te (lit. 'they,' pi.), 'you' (meaning one or more: see 153.4), etc 2. Masculine and neuter nouns used to express measurement, of extent, quantity, weight, or number, generally stand in the singular instead of the plural after numerals (whether cardinal or indefinite). Thus, fie l)aBen ftcben Bi8 odjt gil § Sange, ' they have seven or eight fed of length'; 5el)u gaf; Sier, 'ten casks of beer;' VcieBiel i|5funb 3u*r, 'how w.anj pounds of sugar?' etu §iitf6[)eer tionjetjit toufcnb SDlann, 'an auxiliary army of 10,000 men;' Jloanjig Sopf Diinber, 'twenty head of cattle; ' bvct ^o(I brcit, 'three inches broad.' But brei e H e n ( f.) Xndj, ' three yards of cloth ' ; fiinf 9K e i I e tl ( f.) Irctt, 'five miles distant';— and also taufcnb @djri.tte(m.} lang, ' 1000 paces long' (E. 1S5.26). Respecting the form of the noun expressing the thing mea- sured, see below, 216.5a. 3. In the familiar expressions for the time of day, U^r, 'hour,' is also unvaried after a numeral: thus, ncun Ulji', ' nine o'clock.' Cases. Nominative. 212. The proper ofKce of the nominative is to stand as the subject of the sentence : as, ber SReiifd) benl't, ®ott lent't, ' man proposes, God disposes.' Of course, also, a noun in apposition with a subject nominative is put ;n the nominative; since (111.2) an appositive noun always agrees in case with the noun it explains. 213. With the verb fein, ' to be,' and a fevv others, of kindred meaning — such as incvbcit, ' become,' ikibcit, ' continue,' l)ci§eii, 'be called,' fcljcincrt, 'appear' — also, with the passive of verbs that govern a second accusative as factitive predicate (227.36), a noun may be used as predicate in the nominative. Thus, mciti S3ritbcr tft ber Sel)rer biefeS .Sfimbcn, 'my brother is this boy's teacher; ' ber bleiOt ein SJarr fein Sebcu tnng, ' he remains a fool his 216] GENITIVE. 75 whole life long;' er iDtrb ein @etj^al8 gejd^oltcn, 'he is called reproach fully a miser.' a. With merbcn, ho-wever, the noun is often put in the dative, after the preposition, jii : as, ba Wcrbeti Jffieibev j u § 5 o n e n , ' then women become hyenas (turn to hyenas).' 214. The nominative is used in address (as a "vocative"). Thus, l)otbet gttebe, fiige (gtntrod)t, weitet iiber biefer ©tobt, 'lovely Peace! sweet Concord I linger over this city.' OeniUve. 215. The genitive in German, as in the other related languages, is primarily and especially the adjective or adnominal case, denoting by a form of the noun a variety of relations such as might be expressed by a deriva- tive adjective. As was remarked above (under 158.2), it is in part trace- ably of adjective origin. But its later uses arise also in part from its being merged with other primitive cases — particularly the ablative, the case re- presenting the from relation, of origin or removal — and assuming their office. To trace all these uses to their origin would require vastly too much of detailed historical discussion, and will not be attempted here. 216. The Genitive with Nouns. 1. The German genitive, like the English possessive, is especi- ally the case of a noun that is added to another noun in order to limit or define its meaning. 2. It is used, accordingly, in all the senses in which we use the possessive case of a uoun, or a pronominal possessive {my, your, his, etc.) ; also, in most of the senses belonging to a noun con- nected with another noun by the preposition of: thus, a. As genitive of proper possession or appurtenance : bo8 §aiJ8 ItieineS SBotevS, 'the house of my father; ' beS SKanneS jfopf, 'the man's head.' b. As genitive of origin or cause : in bc8 ©(^retfenS Sffialin, ' in the mad- ness of terror; ' ber Srieb bcr Otogmutt), 'the impulse of magnanimity.' c. As complement of relatiou (designating that toward which the rela- tion expressed by the governing noun is sustained): ber Soter be8 ©o^ineS, 'the father of the son;' be8 SSaterS ©o^n, 'the father's son;' Sonig biefeS 8ieic^8, 'king of this realm.' d. As partitive genitive (expressing a whole of which the governing noun is a part), in all its varieties: ber ©c^redtic^fte ber ©c^reden, 'the most terrible of terrors ; ' etn8 ber tlctnften fiinber, ' one of the smallest children ; ' jebe8 biefer Scbiirfniffe, 'each of these needs; ' otliUBiel be8 @pagc8, ' quite too much of the joke.' e. As genitive of material, constitution, or equivalence : ein ®a^ f^ata tcnbct S3itc^en, ' a roof of shady beeches ; ' ber R'^d^t laubigcS Oitter, ' the leafy trollis-work of the branches; ' etne Stnjoljl f(|teienber finaben, 'a num- ber of shouting boys ; ' be8 ®oIbe8 ©trbme, ' streams of gold.' 76 USES OF THE FOEMS OF DECLENSION. [216- / As genitiTe of charaeteristio : etn SOiann l)0^en 9Iang8 unb grogcr 'Ziu genb, ' a man of high rank and great virtue ; ' Etn §irteitftamm tUlfifdiEV tb-- rimft, ' a shepherii-race of Turkish desceut' g. As subjective genitive (implying an action of which the thing desig- nated by the genitive is the subject) : be8 ©turmeS ©oufen, ' the roaring of the storm ; ' ber ajfagitete §affen unb fitcbeu, ' the hating and loving (at- traction and repulsion) of magnets.' h. As objective genitive (implying an action of which the thing desig- nated by the genitive is the object): bein SSunjif) beg ®uten, 'thy desire of good; ' S3erbefferer ber SlBett unb beS ®ejc^e8, 'Improver of the World and of the Law.' The relation of the genltlye to its govenung noim is so iniiiiitely Tarions, that neither the above classification nor any other is exhaustive or peremptory. 3. In these relations, the genitive of a personal prononn is rarely admitted ; but for it is usually substituted a possessive pro- nominal adjective, qualifying the noun to be lilnited (158.2). Exceptions : certain cases of partitives, of genitives foflowed by a qualify- ing word, and a few others : as, unfer einer, ' one of us ; ' i^rcr beiben f&m" bvijde, 'the impressions of them both;' i^rer 2KeiftEr ioevben, 'to get the better of them.' 4. For the genitive, in all these uses, may be substituted a da- tive with the preposition bon, ' of,' as in English. The substitution is made, especially, when the expression would other- wise be ambiguous or unclear, from the want of a distinct ending to the genitive, or of a limiting word showing its character : thus, bie @tnroo^net uon ^PariS, ' the inhabitants of Paris ; ' SSatef Bon fe(f)8 Stnbern, ' father of six children ; ' but bie ©tnttio^ner SSertinS, ' the inhabitants of Berlin; ' S?aa ter bicjer jec^S iftnber, ' father of these six children ' :— or, to avoid a suc- cession of several genitives : as, ber ©of)n Bon bent D^ettne itotfev @ma- nitcIS, ' the son of the uncle of Emperor Emanuel.' But it is made also without special assignable reason — most often for the partitive genitive, and the genitive of material and of characteristic, more seldom for the pos- sessive and complement of relation, least often for the objective genitive. 6. a. After nouns signifying measure, of extent, quantity, weight, or number, the noun designating the substance measured, if not preceded by an adjective, is usually put neither in the geni- tive (partitive genitive), nor in the dative with ijott, ' of,' but is treated as indeclinable. Thus, etn ®Ia8 iSBcin, ' a glass of wine ' (i. e , wine, to the extent of one glass); jlnet ?Pfnnb SE^ee, 'two pounds of tea;' bvei Ellen Sud), 'three yards of cloth ; ' etnige Sudf) ^PajJter, ' a few quires of paper ; ' gro^e SBlat« tct 5Rauf(^go(b, ' great sheets of gold-tinsel ; '—but, etn @Ia8 biejeS SctnS, or Bon bicfent S!Beinp, ' a glass of this wine ; ' fivn ipfuub guten S^eeS, ' two pounds of good tea.' Exceptions are occasionally met with : thus, ben beften Secret ifiSeinS, ' the best goblet of wiue ' (R. 62.2) ; 300 >^cntner ®oIbc8, ' 300 cwt. of gold' (R. 189.18). 219] GENITIVE. 77 6. By abbreviation, the name of the month is left unvaried after a numeral designating the day : thus, ben ncunten SDIat, 'the ninth of May.' 6. The genitive, in any of its senses, may be placed either be- fore or after the noun ■which it limits (as is shown by the exam- ples given). But its position before the noun, especially if limited by any other word than an article, belongs rather to a higher or poetic style ; in plain colloquial prose, the genitive ordinarily fol- lows the noun that governs it. An objective genitive most rarely precedes ; and never, if another genitive be dependent on the same noun: thus, beS ^onigS SSaljl eineS SDlinifter^, 'the king's choice of a minister.' i ;' I : 217. The Genitive with Adjectives. ^ , ■ About thirty adjectives (with their corresponding negatives) arc followed by a genitive, denoting that in respect of which the ac- tion or quality they express is exerted. Thus, bES ©itigenS ttiiibe, ' weary of singing ; ' hJiirbtger be8 3ttng8, ' more worthy of the ring ; ' etneS ©ultanS unTOiivbig, ' unworthy of a Sul- tan; ' fiiget Sciiinerutig Uoll, 'full of sweet memories.' These adjectives are mostly such as are followed by of in English, al- though some admit a different construction. Among the commonest of them (besides those already instanced) are bediu^t, 'conscious,' ffitjig, ' capable,' getnig, ' sure,' jdjutbig, 'guilty,' fott, 'sated,' iiberbriifjig, 'tired.' Some of them also are construed with prepositions, and a few (229) even govern an accusative, when used with the verbs fetn and ttjerbeii. 218. The Genitive with Prepositions. About twenty prepositions govern the genitive. Thus, lucgen fctner ©iinbe, ' on account of his sin ; ' wciljreiib meiuev tol' len Sogb, ' during my mad chase ; ' ungead)tet btejer (Sr!(oriing, ' notwith- standing this explanation ; ' ftatt buftiger ©firten, ' instead of fragrant gardens.' The prepositions governing the genitive are mostly of recent derivation from nouns and adjectives. For a list of them, see below, under Preposl- tions (373). 219. The Genitive as Object of Verbs. 1. A genitive immediately dependent upon a verb has generally the office of a remoter impersonal object, further qualifying the action of the verb upon its nearer personal object. 2. About twenty-five transitive verbs.govern a genitive in addi ticn to their direct object, the accusative. 78 USES OF THE FOEMS OF DECLENSION. [219- These are verbs of removing, depriving, accusing, convicting, admonishing, assuring, and tbe like, and one or two others (tours btgcn, 'esteem worthy,' bcvtroften, 'console'). Thus, er ttagt ben ®tener beS ®iebftal)t8 an, 'he accuses the servant of theft ; ' ev l)at un« einer grofecn gurdit enttcbigt, ' he has rid us of a great fear; ' ec teraubt ben Unglittf lichen ber §offnung, ' he robs the wretched of hope.' 3. About forty reflexive verbs admit a genitive in addition to their reflexive object. These verhs are of too various meaning to admit of classification. Some of them may be rendered in English either by a construction resembling the German, or as simple transitive verbs taking a genitive as direct object: thus, fteue bti^ beiner Sugcnb, 'rejoicethyself of (enjoy) thy youth;' er entftnnt ftii iebe8 SffiorteS, ' he_ bethinks himself of (recollects) every word; ' fiif gefd^rttc^er Saffen bebtenen, 'to serve one's self with (employ) dangerous weapons; ' — others, only in the latter method: thus, niit (Sifet |ab' i^ mid) ber ©tubien befliffen, ' zealously have I pursued my studies ; ' beiner ^ctligen ^difm, o SBa^r^ett, ^at bet Setrug ft^ ongemafit, ' thy holy signs, oh Truth 1 has deceit usurped.' 4. A few impersonal verbs take a genitive of the object, with an accusative of the subject, of the feeling they represent. They are erbarmen, 'pity,' getitffen, 'long,' jammern, 'grieve,' reuen or gercuen, ' rue: ' thus, mill erbarmt feineS ©tenbS, 'I pity his misery.' 6. About thirty verbs may take a genitive only, after the man- ner of a direct object. Thus, er ac^tete ntd)t ber toarmen ©onne, ' he heeded not the warm sun;' C8 bebarf ber 8(niial)me ntc^t, ' it needs not the assumption; ' anbrer gresel ntdjt ju gebcntctt, ' not to mention other atrocities ; ' tag mid) ber neiten %tt'u \)tit gentegen, ' let me enjoy the new freedom ; ' jcbeg ?etben Bergeffenb, 'for- getting every trial; ' t^r fpottet mein, 'ye mock me;' too ic^ beiner toarte, ' where I wait for thee.' 6. Many of the verbs in these various classes may take instead of the genitive an accusative, or else a noun governed by a preposition : for ex- ample, all the impersonals, and all but two (ermangetn and gcfditoctgen) of the last class. The construction with the genitive is an older one, which has for some time been going gradually out of use : thus, bie(e ^^rei^ctt, bie id) ie^st genie J3e, 'this liberty which I now enjoy; ' benen, auf bie bie etoige Jreibeit toartet, 'to those for whom eternal freedom is waiting; ' er fieut fid) iiber fein ©tiicf, ' he rejoices at his good fortune.' 220. Other uses of the Genitive. 1. The genitive of a noun is often used in an adverbial sense : especially (with or without a limiting adjective) to denote time; also (with adjective) not infrequently manner, more rarely place. Thus, eineS Sagea tm Senje, ' one day in spring ; ' beS SBinterS fiiib rait 222] GENim-E. 79 iDte BergtoBen in bcm ©c^nee, ' in the winter we are, as it were, buried up in the snow; ' bie Sffiolten, bie 9Korgeng unb abrnbS iiber ifjn t)in fcgclteit, 'the clouds which sailed along over him of a morning and evening; ' cr fdjliirft langen §ol)e8, 'he sips with outstretched neck; ' Ijbrft bu'6 flingeu mS^ti- gen 9{ufc§, 'dost thou hear it ring with mighty sound?' id) ermabnte ii)C alleS Srnfteg, 'I admonished him in all seriousness; 'fadjte jcf)leti:^'iq mcinet SBegc, ' I softly steal off on my way.' A large number of adverbs are, by origin, genitives of nouns or adjectives, or of a noun and a limiting word which have gT0T\Ti together by familiar use : see 363-5. 2. A genitive is sometimes used with a verb (especially fetn and luerben) in the sense of a predicative adjective : thus, fie inaren munter unb gutct Singe, 'they were merry and of good cheer; ' bie inaven oft ntd)t fo grojj, obergtcti^cn ailtcrS niit if)ni, 'they were often not so big, or of equal age with him; ' n(te Itievben anf eimnal eineS ®inne8, 'all become suddenly of one mind ; ' id) bin aBillenS, ' I am of a mind.' The genitive in this construction is alhed with the genitive of charac- teristic (216.2/). 3. By a construction formerly not rare, but now nearly obsolete, a parti- tive genitive is used with verbs : thus, er tcnnf be8 S3ac^e§, ' he drank of the brook ; ' fie 6rac§te beS llovcn ^eiTlid)en SetneS, ' she brought of the clear excellent wine. ' 4. Tet more unusual are cases of the occurrence of a possessive geni- tive and of a genitive of origin with verbs ; thus, tl)ue iDflS beineS SlnitcS ift, ' do what belongs to (is of) thy ofBce ; ' §unger8 ftetben, ' to die of hunger.' 5. A genitive is sometimes used with an interjection, to signify the thing which is the occasion of the exclamation : thus, od) beS Ungliida, ' alas for the mishap ' (see 392). Datime. 221. 1. The dative is originally and properly the case of the indirect personal object, designating the person or persons with reference to whom, or as affecting whom, anything is or is done — a relation ordinarily ex)?re3sed in English by the preposition to or for. In this sense, the dative in Gei man is usually the adjunct of a verb, much less often of an adjective, very rarely of a noun. 2. The dative has also inherited the offices of primitive cases, now lost ; especially of the instrumental, expressing the with or hy relation, and the locative, expressing the in relation. In these senses, it is ordinarily gov erued by prepositions. 222. The Dative with Verbs. The dative, in German, is most often the indirect personal ob- ject of a verb. u. It is thus doubly contrasted in o£6ce with the genitive ; the latter usually limits a noun ; and, as indirect object, it is prevailingly impersonal : thus, i* Betftif)ere i^n einet @ad)e, ' I assure him of a matter,' but id) ucv (ic^ere igut eine ©adje, ' I assure (vouch for) a matter to him ; ' id) beraubf 80 USES O'F THE FORMS OF DECLENSION. [222 il)n fctneS ®e(be8, ' I rob him of his money,' but id) raube i^m jein ®clb, ' I steal from him his money.' h. The counection of the dative with the action of the verb is of every degree of closeness, from constituting its essential or necessary complement to indicating a mere incidental interest in its action : thus, ev 6ot mir bic §anb, ' he offered me his hand ; ' id) Icgte ti U)m aitf ben Ji)d), ' I laid it on the table for him.' 1. 1. A large number of transitive verbs take, along with the accusative, a dative as more or less necessary complement of their action. Such are a. Many simple verbs, especially such as denote a, bringing near or re- moving, a giving or taking, imparting, commanding, permitting or refusing, and the like. Thus, er brac^te ben 9ttng bcr 9Iften, 'he brought the ring to the old woman ; ' id) fdjreibe mctnem S5oter einen 93ricf, ' I write my father a letter ; ' mon erianbt attes eincm grennbe, ' one permits a friend anything.' h. Many verbs compounded with inseparable or separable prefixes, espe- cially ent, er, ber, and an, ouf, ab, bet, nad), »or, ju. Thus, er Bermad)t ben 8ting bem Itcbftcn feiner ©ol)ne, 'he makes over the ring to the dearest of his sons ; ' er luoUte if)m bie ftrone aufjegcn, ' he wished to set the crown on his head ; ' fie niujjte i^ra bie Qungfrnu jufagen, ' she had to promise him the girh' c. A few verbs that require a reflexive object in the dative, forming a class of improper reflexives (290): thus, id) I)abe mir SBeifaH Berbient, ' I have earned myself applause.' d. A few verbs compounded with adjectives, or verbal phrases akin with Buch: e. g., hja^rfagen, 'prophesy; ' tunb madjen, 'make known.' 2. In the passive of these verbs, where the object-accusative becomes a subject-nominative, the dative remains as sole object ; thus, ber 9iing Wl.l'be ber alien gebrndjt, ' the ring was brought to the old woman; ' e6 Wirb mir tunb gemac^t, 'it is made known to me.' 3. As the examples have shown, the English also often uses its objective without a preposition (when placed next the verb) in a dative sense. In other cases, it expresses the dative relation by prepositions, especially to. But, where the verb implies removal, the dative frequently answers to our objective with/rom. Thus, nimm metner Stebe jeben ©tad)el, ' take /rom my words all sting; c? Jtn^l mir bag Seben, 'it stole my life /rom me; ' eg bemem 3Jiitleib ju ent" jicl^cn, 'to withdraw it from thy compassion.' The same is true of the dative after intransitive verbs : see below. 4. Either the direct or the indirect object may often be omitted, and the verb used with the other alone : thus, eincm eiit Sud) Uovlefen, ' to read a book aloud to some ono ; ' ein i8ud) uorlcl'eu, ' to read a book aloud; ' eineni tiovlefcn, ' to read aloud to some one ; ' also, simply Dorlefen, ' to read aloud, lecture.' 222J DATIVE WITH VEEBS. 81 II. 1. Many verbs tak& a dative as their sole object. These, as not admitting an accusative, are reckoned as intransitive ; but many of them correspond to verbs which in English are looked upon as transitive. a. About thirty-five simple verbs, together with a few that have the in- separable prefixes be, ge, er ; also, the contraries of several of them, formed with the prefix ttilg. Thus, feib tf)r tljneil itic^t begegnet, ' did you not meet them ? ' folgt bur(^ bett Slet^cr bcm ©tratjt, 'foUows the beam of light through the ether; ' rate's t^neit gefattt, ' as it pleases them ; ' (nenn e8 nttt ntd)t migficte, ' if it did not displease me ; ' taint eS bir ntdjt Jc^oben, ' can it not harm thee ? ' Ijelft mir, 'help mel ' ben Staumcu mib ^eitcii 511 trotsen, 'to defy space and time.' 6. A large number of verbs compounded with the inseparable prefix eiit, and with the prepositions ab, nn, aitf, au«, bet, eiu, entgegeii, nad), iinteiv bor, triber, jjU ; deriving their power to take the dative object from the mo- dification of meaning given by the prefix. Thus, bie ©c^tnertet cntfltegen ber ©djetbe, ' the swords leap from the scabbard;' Btele ftimmten btcfer 2£nfirf)t bet, 'many acceded to this view;' fonimt eittcr ttjra eutgegeu, ' if one comes to meet him ; ' urn (i^ntidjeu ®t« eiguiffen ooi'jiibeitgcit, 'in order to avoid such occurrences;' welc^er ben @efed)ten jujal), 'who was looking on at the contests.' The meaning added by the prefix is, as the examples show, to be very variously rendered in English. t. A number of verbs compounded with nouns, adverbs, and adjectives ; also, of verbal phrases akin with such. Thus, baO fein ©efang feinein Sleibe gleic^tontmen miiffe, ' that his song must correspond with his attire ; ' er eilte feiltem Sotet gu §iilfe, ' he hast- ened to the help of his father; ' eg tijut tnir leib, 'it pains me; ' er mad)t btefer Same ben §of, 'he is paying court to this lady; ' eS raarb il)ni ju Sljetl, ' it was granted him (fell to his share).' d,. SBerben, ' become,' is sometimes used alone with a (possessive) dative m the sense of ju S^eil merben : thus, baju watb bem 2Jfenfd)en bet S8er-- ftanb, ' for that end was understanding given to mati (became his).' Quite rarely, such a possessive dative foUows |ein : as, eg ift i§m, ' it is his (be- longs to him).' e. A few impersonal verbs, or verbs used impersonally, take a dative de- signating the subject of the feeling or condition they express : thug, eg graut mir, '1 am horrified; ' i^m ft^luiitbelt, 'he turns giddy.' Some of these take also the accusative. / Also feitt, tnerben, and ge^en or erge^en, with adverbial adjuncts, are frequently thus used impersonally with the dative (292.4): thus, it)m War baitge, ' he was in anxiety ; ' mtr Wirb fo raoI)l, ' so pleasant a feeling ia coming over me ; ' wie ift mtr bettrt, ' how is it then with me ? ' bem ift fo, ' the case is thus (it is thus with regard to that).' 2. Of the intransitive verbs governing the dative, a part— especially those that'denote an action proceeding from a person— may form an impersonal passive governing the same case (see 379.2). 4* 82 USES OF THE FOEMS OF DECLENSION. [222- Thus, 68 hiarb tnir l)art begegnet, ' I have been harshly dealt with (met); eg n)urbeil)m gcl)olfen, 'he was' helped.' III. In a looser and less strictly dependent construction — aa denoting the person (or thing) in behalf of whoui, or as afi'ecting whom, anything is or is done, the dative (" dative of interest ") is used so freely, and with so many verbs, that to attempt giving rules for its occurrence would be useless. Only one or two points call for special notice. a. A dative grammatically dependent on the verb takes the place of a possessive genitive qualifying a noun in the sentence : thus, b£r Slmilie iitn ben §ate faltcnb, 'falling upon her nurse's neck;' leget ben iUiibUner bet SDtaib in ben ©djoojj, ' lay MioUner in the maid's lap:' i. This is especially common with the personal pronouns : thus, e8 Mi^t ail8 ben 2tugen iljnt fiil)n, ' a daring look beams from his eyes ' (see 161). c. The personal pronoun is sometimes thus used in a manner tliat is ex- pletive: thus, fiel) niir ob fie t'onimen, ' see (^ibr me) whether they are com- ing ' (compare 156). IV. For the dative dependent upon a verb, in all its varieties (but not with all verba : especially not with those which take the dative after the manner of a direct object, Il.la), is sometimes substituted a case governed by a preposition (as ju, ' to,' fiiv, ' for,' tton, 'from '). This subatiuitiou is notably more frequent with a noun than with a personal pronoun ; a dative of the latter is often used where one of the former would make a harsh or forced construction. 223. The Dative with Adjectives. 1. The construction of the dative with adjectives is analogous with its construction with verbs. Some adjectives call for the case as their essential or natural defining complement ; others ad- mit it in a looser relation, after the manner of a " dative of in- terest" (above, 222.III.). 2. Adjectives taking the dative as their more essential comple- ment are especially those that signify nearness or remoteness, likeness or unlikeness, suitableness, property, inclination, advantage or disadvantage, and the like. Usually, they require in English the preposition to before a noun limiting them. Thus, rt)ie nat) fiiljl' id) mid) bir, ' how near I feel myself to thee I ' bein 9(derbau fremb, ' strangers to agriculture ; ' aSoltcu glcid) gtttigcn, ' clouds like wings ; ' cinen it)m eigenen SiScrtt), ' a value peculiar to it ; ' einc ©cele, bic ber j£l)at nid)t gemadjfen ift, ' a soul that is not equal to the deed ; ' ein IJlir unt)er()offte8 @IM, ' a happiness uuhoped for by me.' 3. Participles of verbs governing the dative admit a comple- ment in the same case, in analogy with the uses of the verbs from 225] DATIVE. 83 which they come, and according to their own character as active, passive, or neuter participles. 4. Verbal derivatives in bar and lid^, signifying possibility, take a dative of the person whom the possibility concerns : thus, mil begreiflid), ' comprehensible to me ; ' betn SKenjd)en unbettjoljnbar, ' uninhabitable by man.' 5. Almost any adjective qualified by ju, ' too,' or genug, ' suffi- ciently, enough,' admits an adjunct in the dative : thus, bag Sleib ift mir ju laug, i^m aber ni^t long Cjenug, ' the garment is too long for me, but not long enough for him.' 6. Many adjectives admit a dative adjunct more readily, or only, when used with a verb, either predicalively, or forming a more or less closely compounded verbal phrase: thus, baS t[t mir red^t, 'that suits me (seems to me right); ' baS Wtrb bcm S)itoben (c^roer, 'that grows hard for the boy.' For such phrases, with transitive, intransitive, and impersonal verbs, see above, 222.1. Id, 11.1c,/. 7. Tor the dative with an adjective, also, is often used a case governed by a preposition (especially Bon, 'from,' fijr, 'for'). 224. The Dative with Prepositions. 1. About twenty prepositions govern the dative. For the list of them, see under Prepositions (374). 2. Nine prepositions govern the dative when the relation ex- pressed is that of situation or locality ; but the accusative, when motion or tendency toward anything is implied. These are on, auf, Winter, tn, neben, iiber, unter, Dor, jtoifd^en (see 376). 225. The Dative in other constructions. 1. The use of the dative as a virtual possessive genitive, grammatically dependent on a verb, but logically qualifying a noun, has been explained above (222.III.a,6). Barely, the dative is found having the same value with a noun alone : as, bent 9iiefcn jur 2uft, ' for the giant's pleasure (for a pleasure to the giant) ; ' er gab, ibnt ju @f|ten, manege gefte, ' he gave many festivals in his honor.' Tet more rarely, it occurs with a noun in other relations usually expressed by a genitive, or with the aid of a prepo- sition: as, ein aJJufter SSiirgern unb Sauern, 'a model for citizens and pea- sants ; ' OeniiB^eit etnem neucn Sunbe, ' assurance of a new covenant.' 2. The dative sometimes follows a noun in exclamatory phrases (as if the imperative of fetn, ' to be,' were understood) : thus, bem SBuben unb bem finec^t bie 3lcJ)t, ' outlawry to the villain and flunkey I' grcube bem ©tcrb^' lidicn, ' joy to the mortal I ' Some words habitually employed as exclamations are also followed by a dative signifying the person toward whom the feel- ing expressed by the exclamation is directed : such are mo^t, §eil, SSJc§, and the like (see 392). 84 USES OF THE FOEMB OF DECLENSION. [226- Acousative. 226. The relations of the accusative are more simple than thoje of the other oblique cases. Its proper office is to stand as direct object of a verbal action; and also, in that relation, most nearly akin with the former, which we ordinarily express by to ; but tliis it has in German only in part. The German uses it also as the case absolute. 227. The Accusative with Verbs. 1. Tlie accusative is especially the case belonging to the direct object of a transitive verb : as, id) fet)c ben 2JJamt ; er tvagt etncii §ut, ' I see the man ; he wears a hat.' a. And a transitive verb, on the other hand, is one that takes a direct object in the accusative. The classification of verbs as transitive and in- transitive is in part formal rather than logical, and i. Some verbs which in English are regarded as transitive take in Ger- man the genitive (219.5) or the dative (222. II-l), and therefore belong to the class of intransitives. Again, some verbs which to us are intransitive are in German, uniformly or occasionaUy, transitive: as, ifjc Ijabt mid) [pita djeit tnollcn, 'you have desired to speak to me.' 2. The accusative is also sometimes used as the object of a verb properly intransitive. a. Some verbs may be followed by an accusative of meaning akin with their own, or signifying a substantive idea which they themselves virtually involve ("cognate accusative"). Thus, mir ftevben l)ier ben Sob ber grcien, 'we die here the death of the free ; ' betet ctncn frommen igprud), ' pray a pious phrase ; ' fie fdjliift ben lc(5tcn @rf)taf, ' she sleeps the last sleep.' b. By a pregnant construction, an intransitive may be followed by an accusative of that which is effected or made to appear by the action it designates : thus, tont tie @(o(fe ©rabgcfaitg, ' the bell tolls a funeral hymn ; ' ina^ gnnfeft bi: miv (jer, ' what grinn est thou at me (what does thy grinning signify) ? ' — or by an accusa- tive and an adjective or other equivalent expression as factitive predicate, signifying the condition into which that which is desig- nated by the accusative is brought by the action described by the verb : thus, [id) l)aft tobt ladjen, ' to laugh one's self half dead ; id) tvcium' afe Siitb inid) juvlido, ' I dream myself back into child- hood (as child) ; ' bu tuiift bie 2BSd)ter awi bcm ®d)Iofe f^retcn, ' thou wilt scream the gniards out of sleep.' c. Some impersonal verbs, denoting a personal condition or state of feeling, take an accusative signifying the person affected; thus, eg tiiftet fcinen, euer SDiann ju inerben, 'no one desires to be- come your husband ; ' mid) tjungert, ' I am hungry.' See 294. 230] ACCUSATR-E. 85 Witli these are included also biintcn, baiic^ten, 'seem' (the only verba ill which a like construction stiU appears in English): thus, mid) biintt, 'me thinks;' mid) baitdjtc, 'me thought.' Tliese (and some of the others also) admit a dative instead of an accusative object (222.II.le). d. For the accusative after fcin or tuerbci: vrith certain adjectives, see below (229). 3. A few transitive verbs govern two aocusati\es : these are a. (^rageti, 'ask,' Iel)ren, 'teach,' and (rarely) Inttcu, 'beg-,' which add to their personal object another denoting the thing to which their action relates : thus, er fragte mic^ mand)c6, ' he asked me many a thing ; ' id) lel)vc il)n bie fflJufiE, 'I teach him music;' \i) bittc bici) :mv bie§, 'I beg of thee only this' (B.150.2). h. §eigen and ncnnen, 'call, name,' fdjimlJfen and fdjelten, 'call by way of reproach,' and tailfcn, ' christen,' which add to their personal object a second accusative as factitive predicate, denoting the name or title given : thus, id) mill alles eine ©d)tc!ung ncnncn, 'I will call the whole a work of destiny; ' crfdjimpftc feinctt Oegner etnen SJarreit, 'he reviled his adversary as a fool.' c. A noun in the accusative as factitive predicate now and then appears with other verbs — as, jo gtiutbe jeber feincn Sting ben cd)tcn, 'then let each believe his own ring the genuine one:' but this construction is generally avoided by the use of a different ezpression : as, man mad)t or mai)!t tijii gum .Sonig, ' they make, or choose, him king (for king) ' ; td) btiltc it)U fiic mctnen gveunb, ' I deem him my friend ; ' id) tciine itjix aii eiiien (*l)renmantt, 'I Imow him a man of honor.' 228. The Accusative with Prepositions. 1. Eight prepositions always govern the accusative. They are big, burd), fiir, gegenor gen, ol)ne, (onbcc, um, mibcr (see 375). 2. Nine prepositions are followed by the accusative when they indicate motion or tendency toward; otherwise, by the dative. They are an, auf, Winter, in, neben, ubet, unter, bor, stoijdjeu (see 376). 229. The Accusative with Adjectives. A few adjectives, when used predicatively with fetn or hjcrbeu (especially the latter), may take an object in the accusative. They- are oufid)tig, bewngt, gcWnt)r, gemcljnt, loS, miibe, fatt, iiberbriiffig, gufticbEn : thus, bie (Seifter inerb' id) lum nitf)t lo8, ' I cannot now get rid of the spirits; ' \i) War' eg jufrtebcn, ' 1 should be content with it; ' mcnn roir nid)t fetn gingrfifen gewaf)r Wiirben, ' if we did not feel its taking bold.' ^ This anomalous construction is of quite modern origin. The governing force belongs to the combination of adjective and verb (compare 223.6). 230. The Accusative in absolute construction. 1. The accusative is used absolutely (that is, as adverbial adjunct of a verb or adjective, but not properly governed by them) to express measure — whether of duration of time, of extent of space, of weight, of value, or of number. 86 USES OF THE FOEMS OF DECLENSIOJSr. [230- Thns, er l)or^te einen SMugcnbttcf, 'he listened for a moment'; an bte ie^ Bictc Satire ntdjt gcbarf)t, ' of which I have not thought for many years ; ' tnnn l)atte fie nur wenige Sage Borljet gejeljen, ' they had been seen only a few days before;' jTOanjig Sa^rc I)ct, 'twenty years since;' alS fie cuiE oute ©trede f ovtgegangen marcn, ' when they had gone on a good piece ; ' eme qalbe ©timije'Bor bent iSd)toJ3, 'half a league outside the castle; ' act)t 9Jioc= gen ttef, 'eight furlongs deep;' eS Wiegt ein ^^fiinb, 'it weighs a pound;' ia9 toftet jtnei Sljaler, ' that costs two dollars ; ' ein §eer 300,000 Mann ftnvt, 'an army 300,000 men strong.' a. To an accusative expressing duration of time is often added the adverb lang, 'long: ' as, cr lag fiebcn 3ol)ve lang, 'he lay for seven years; ' ben ganjcn Sag lang, 'the whole day long: ' — less often other adverbs: as, ba8 ganje 3al)r burc^, 'the whole year through;' bicfe 3eit iiber, 'all this time.' b. By a similar construction, an adverb of direction or motion is very frequently added to an accusative of space, in such way as almost to have the value of a preposition governing it : thus, bie Ireppcn Ijetmitcr, ' down the stairs; ' ben SBerg f|inan, ' up the mountain; ' ben SBeg am Sad) l)inaiif, 'up the path by the brook; ' ben ganjen Sor(o I)iti unb toieber, ' through the whole Corso and back.' 2. The accusative is also used to express the time of occurrence ("time when"). Thus, bag ge(d)a^ jcbeS 3al)r,, 'that happened every year ; ' ben 2Ibeiib beim Sanjc, 'that evening, at the dance ; ' er ftel)t bte SSSelt tdujn einen gcicr= tag, 'he sees the world only on a holiday.' Tills use of the accusative borders on that of the adverbial genitive (220.1), and the two are to some extent interchangeable : but the accusative has the more definite meaning, and cannot be used without a defining ad- junct: thus, Stbenb?, beS StbcnbS, 'of an evening, in the evening' (now and then, or habitually) ; but biejcn SUbenb, ' this evening,' lel3ten Slbenb, ' las) evening,' and so on. 3. a. A noun in the accusative is sometimes used absolutely, ■with an adjunct (prepositional or adjective), to express an accom- panying or characterizing circumstance — as if governed by with or having understood. Thus, bte SJiiittcr evldjicncn, ben ©augttng im %xmt, 'the mothera appeared, (with) their infants in their arms; ' anbere f(iel)en, Initbe Siigft im f untelnbeu 3tuge, ' others fly, wild terror in their flashing eyes.' &. This is especially usual with a participle as adjunct of the noun: thus, miutt nni, bie gacfel umgelnanbt, 'beckons to us, with torch inverted;' man gciubbnt eg, ben Sopf gcgcn ben Sorfo gerid)tet, ftiU ju ftel)cn, 'it is trained to stand still, having th» head directed toward the Corso ; ' felbft Srante ntdjt auggrnommen, 'even the sick not excepted.' c. AlUed with this is the so-called imperative use of the participle (see 369.3). 233] CONJTJGA'nON. 81 CONJUGATION. 231. Conjugation is variation for mood, tense, number, and person. Only verbs are conjugated : hence, the subject of con- jugation is coincident with that of verbal inflection. VERBS. 232. The essential characteristic of a verb is that it predi- cates or asserts something of a subject : that is to say, it ascribes some action, or state, or quality, to some being or thing expressed by a noun or pronoun. This predication or ascription is not always direct and positive ; it may bo contingent, inquiring, or optative: compare 427. 233. Verbs are variously classified. 1. They are divided into transitive and intransitive, accord- ing to the nature of the relation they sustain to a noun represent- ing the object of their action : a verb that admits an object in the accusative is called transitive ; otherwise, intransitive. Thus, transitive verbs, it^ lobe t^n, ' I praise liim ; ' er fdjlfigt mic^, 'he strikes me : ' — intransitive, id) ftel)e, er fSItt, ' I stand, he falls ; ' ev fi^ouet feineS getnbeS, 'he spares his enemy j ' ic^ banle S^nen, 'I thank you.' a. That the distinction of transitive and intransitive is in part formal rather than essential, has been pointed out above (227.1a,5): practically, however, it is one of importance. 2. Under these classes are distinguished a. Ebflexive verbs, which take an object designating the same person or thing with their subject. h. Impersonal verbs, used only in the third person singular, and either with an indefinite subject or without an expressed subject. 3. Transitive verbs, again, form by the help of an auxiliary veib a PASSIVE voice, denoting the sufiering of an action, and tailing as its subject what was the object of the simple verb : which latter, by contrast with the other, is said to be of the ac- tive VOICE. 4. Nearly all verbs, moreover, admit of being compounded 88 VEEBS. [233- ■witli certain prefixes, of a prepositional character: ■with reference to such composition, therefore, they are distinguished as simple and COMPOUND. 234. The general rules of conjugation apply alike to all verbs, of whatever class they may he. They will be first stated and illustrated in their application to simple personal verbs in the ac- tive voice. Simple Forms of the Verb. 235. The German verb has the same simple forms as the English, namely : 1. Two tenses, the present, and the peeteeit, or inde- finite past. The value and use of these tenses nearly correspond in the two languages. But the present is sometimes employed in place of our perfect, or our fature ; and the limits of the preterit and the perfect are also not precisely the same in both : see 324 etc. 2. These tenses are formed each in two moods, the INDICATIVE and the subjunctive. The subjunctive is nearly extinct in English : the German sub- junctive is employed sometimes for our potential and conditional ; others of its uses have no correspondent in English : see 329 etc. The rendering of the subjunctive tenses in the paradigms, therefore, hy ' may ' and ' might ' is only coDventional, and for the sake of uniformity ; such rendering gives but one of their various meanings. 3. Each tense is declined in two mmibers, with three persons in each number, as in English. 4. Of an iMPEEATivB mood there are two persons, the second singular and the second plural. 5. An INFINITIVE, or verbal noun. 6. Two PAETiciPLES, or verbal adjectives, one present and active; the other past, and prevailingly passive. The infinitive and participles are not proper verbal forms, since they contain no idea of predication. They present the verbal idea in the condi- tion of noun and of adjective respectively ; but, as regards their adjuncts, they share in the construction of their corresponding verbal forma : see 348 and 357. 236] SIMPLE FORMS OF THE VEKB. 236. Examples : 1. Ite6en/ 'love' (root, ticb). 89 Indicatiyb. Pers, 1 id) lieGe 2 bu (iebft 3 cr Itebt 'Hove' • thou lovest ' ' lie loves ' Plural. 1 tntr lieben 'we love' 2 xijt Ke6t ' ye love ' 3 fie licfen ' they love ' Present. id) tick bu lieDeft er lie be luiv Ocfien if|v licbet [ie licben SuBJDJfCTIVB. Singular. ' I may love ' 'thou mayest love ' he may love ' Plural. ' we may love ' ' ye may love ' ' they may love * Singular. I i^ liette ' I loved Preterit. Singular. id) tiefite, =IJcte ' I might love ' 2 buliebteft 'thoulovedst' bu ticbteft, =6eteft 'thou mightest love 3 cv licbte ' he loved ' er licbtc, =bcte ' he might love ' Plural. Plural. 1 loir tiebten ' we loved ' ttjir licbten, =bctcn ' we might love ' 2 i[)r liebtet ' ye loved ' i[)r (iebtet, =betet ' ye might love ' 3 fie liebten ' they loved ' fie tiebten, =beten ' they might love ' Imperative Singular. a liebe, tiebe bu ' love thou ' lieben Present. Itebenb ' loving ' Plural. liebt, liebt il)r Infinitive. ' to love ' Participles. Past getiebt ' love ye 'loved' Remarks. 1. This vert illustrates the mode of inflection of verbs of tlie Few conjugation, corresponding with what we call "regular verbs " in Eng- lish. The special rules concerning the inflection of such verbs are given below: see 246 etc. 2. The forms Itebeft and ttebet may be used also in the present indicative and the imperative, as well as Itebete etc. in the preterit indicative, and gc* Uebet in the past participle: see below, 237.3. 90 VEEB8 [236- 2. geben, « give ' (root, geb). Indicative. Subjunctive. Present. Singular. Singular. 1 xi) gctie ' I give ' tcf) gefce ' I may give ' 2 bu gietft, gitft 'thougivest' bu gekft ' thou mayest give ' 3 cr gicbt, gibt 'he gives' er gebe 'he may give' Plural. Plural. 1 luir gcben 'we give' lt)tr geben 'we may give' 2 il)i- gebt ' ye give ' i^r gebet ' ye may give ' 3 fie geben 'they give' fie geben ' they may give ' I'reterit. Singular. Singular. 1 tc^ gab ' I gave ' ic^ gcibe ' I might give ' 2 bu gnbft ' thou gavest ' bu gcibeft ' thou mightest give 3 er gab 'he gave' er gabe ' he iq^ght give ' Plural. Plural. 1 tDtr goben 'we gave' tcir goben 'we might give' 2 tfjr gabt 'ye gave' if)r gabet ' ye might give ' 3 fie gaben ' they gave ' fie gSben ' they might give ' Imperative. Singular. Plural. 2 gteb, gib bu ' give thou ' gebt, gebt t^r ' give ye Infinitive. geben ' to give ' Participles. Present. Past. gebenb 'giving' gegebcn 'given' Remarlcs. 1. This verb illustrates the mode of inflection of verhs of the Old conjugation, corresponding with what we 'call " irregular verbs " in Eng- lish, The special rules concerning the inflection of such verbs are given below: see 261 etc. 2. The forms flcbct, fln^eft, gahet (for gebt, gabft, gabt) are occasionally met with; also gfibft, giibt (for gabcft, gfibet). For the double foims gicbft, gibft, etc., see 268,1ft. 237] SIMPLE F0BM8 OF THE VERB. 91 237. General Rules respecting the Simple Forms of the Verb. 1. Of the forms thus given, three are called the principal PAETS, because, when they are known, all the others can be in ferred from them: these are the infinitive, the 1st pers. smg, preterit, and the Tpa&t participle : thus, Iie6en, liebte, geliefct ; gebeit, gab, gegefien. a. The infinitive always ends in n, and almost always in en. The rejection of this n or en gives us the boot of the verb. Not ending in en are only fetn, ' be,' t^un, ' do,' and infinitives from roota of more than one syllable ending in t or r, as manbeln, ' walk,' WanbErn, ' wander.' b. There are, as the examples show, two ways of forming the preterit and past participle : the preterit adding ete or te to the root, or else adding nothing, but changing the radical vowel; the participle taking the ending et or t, or else en or n. Accord- ing to these differences, verbs are divided into two conjugations (see below, 245). 2. The endftgs of tense inflection are first pers. singular, e, — first pers. plural, en, n seeond pers. " eft, ft, e, — second pers. " ct, t third pers. " et, t, e, — third pers. " en, n The rules for their use are as follows : a. The first persons pres. indicative and subjunctive are the same, and formed by adding e to the simple root. Exceptions are only bin, ' am,' fei, ' may be,' and the pres. indicative of the modal auxiliaries (see 251.3). J. The first (and third) pers. singular of the preterit subjunctive, and of the preterit indicative except in verbs of the Old conjugation (269.1.1), also end in c. 3. a. The third pers. sing. pres. indicative has the ending t or et (our th, s in loveth, loves) : in all the other tenses, the third person is like the first. Exceptions, without the ending t are only the modal auxiliaries (see 251.3), and a few other verbs (268.5). h. The ending of all second persons singular (except in the imperative) is ft or eft (our st in lovest) ; of all first and third persons plural (excepting only finb, ' are '), en or n ; of 92 CONJUGATION. [237- all second persons plural (with the single exception jeib, 'are') et or t. c. The retention or rejection of the vowel e of the endings eft, et (also of e before the te forming the preterit of one conjugation) depends partly on euphony, partly on arbitrary choice. The e must always be used when the final letter of the root is such that the consonant of the ending would not otherwise be distinctly heard — thus, we may say tiebeft or liebft, but only liefeft, ' readest,' tanjcft, 'dancest;' liebt or lickt, but only fctttet, 'begs,' rebct, ' talks ' — also, when a harsh or unpronounceable combination of consonants would otherwise occur — thus, only atl)me[t, at()Uiet, ' breathest, breathes ; ' fegneft, fcguet, ' blessest, blesses.' In other cases, the writer or speaker is allowed to choose between the fuller and the briefer form ; the latter being more familiar or col- loquial, the former more used in stately and solemn styles. But the e is generally retained in the subjunctive, especially when the distinction of subjunctive and indicative depends upon it. The e of the ending en of the first and third persons plural is rarely dropped except after unaccented er or ct, in the indicative. Special rules affecting some of tlie forms of tlie Old conjugation will be given helow (268-9). d. The final unaccented e of all verbal forms (as of all other words in the language) is not unfrequently cut oS, especially in poetry, and in colloquial style. An apostrophe should always be used, to show the omission; but this is sometimes neglected. 4. The inflection of the tenses is always regular, except in the second and third persons singular of the pres. indicative, which often show a difference of vowel or of consonant, or both, from the other persons of the tense. The same irregularities appear also in the imperative singular (see 268, 270). 6. The imperative singular ends in e in nearly all verbs (for exceptions, see 270.2) ; the plural is the same with the second pers. pi. indie, present. Both numbers admit of use, as in Eng- lish, either with or without a subject pronoun. For the filling up of the imperative with subjunctive forms, see 243.1. 6. The form of the present participle may always be found by adding b to the infinitive. Only t()un, ' do,' and fein, 'bo,' form t^ucnb, feiettb. 1. The past participle has usually the prefix ge. For excep' tions, see 243.3. 239] ATJXrLIAEIES OF TENSE. 93 8. Notice ttat the third pers. plural of all varhal forms is used also iu the sense of a second person, singular or plural (see 153.4), its subject fie being then written with a capital : thus, ©ie tieben, 'you love;' ©ie gabcn, 'you gave.' Compound Forms or the Verb. 238. As in the case of the English verb, again, the Bcheme of German conjugation is filled up with a large number of compound forms, made by the aid of auxiliary verbs. 239. Conjugation of the Auxiliaries of Tense. The auxiliaries used in the formation of the tenses of ordinary conjugation are three, namely, l^oben, 'have,' [ciii, ' be,' werben, ' become.' The simple forms of these verbs are as follows : 1. ^akn : — principal parts fiakn, ^atte, ge^att. Indicative. Singular. id) I)a6e ' I have ' bit ^oft ' thou hast ' er [)at ' he has ' Plural. lutf ^afeen ' we have ' t^v %cAi ' ye have ' fie ^akn ' they have ' Singula/r. 1 ti)^atte 'I had' 2 bufiatteft 'thouhadst' 3 er I)atte ' he had ' Plural. 1 tutr Ijatten ' we had ' 2 i^r !)attet ' ye had ' 3 fie Ijatten 'they had' Subjunctive. Present. Singular. id) ^afie ' 1 may have ' bit ^abeft 'thou mayest have' er ^aht ' he may have ' Plwal. tovc ^aben ' we may have ' i^r ^bet ' ye may have ' fie I}aben ' they may have ' Preterit. Singular. \i) f)otte 'I might have' bu ^citteft 'thou mightest, have er l)atte ' he might have ' Plural. ttiir tjotten ' we might have ' i[)r ^attet ' ye might have ' fie I)ottcit ' they might have ' 94 2 ^6e conjugation. Impeeativb. [239 Plural. ' have thou ' {)abt ' have ye ' Infinitive. f)a6en ' to have ' Participles. Present. Past. ^abenb ' having ' ge^a6t ' had ' 2. ©etn, ' be : ' — principal parts fein, ttiar, gelnefen. Indicative. Singular. 1 id) 6in '' I am ' 2 bit bift ' thou art ' 3 er ift ' he is ' Plural. 1 isir finb 'we are ' 2 i^r fetb ' ye are ' 3 fie finb ' they are ' Singular. 1 id) 'max ' I was ' 2 bu luarft ' thou wast ' 3 er tear 'he was ' Plural. 1 luir warcn ' we were ' 2 i[)r luar^l ' ye were ' 3 fie isarett ' they were ' Imperative. Singular. 2 [et ' be thou ' feib Infinitive. fcin 'to be' Participles. Present. feicnb 'being' . gctoefen Subjunctive. Present. Singular id) fei ' I may be ' t)u feieft ' thou mayest be ' er fet ' he may be ' Plwral iDir feien 'we may be' i^r feiet ' ye may be ' fie feien ' they may be ' Preterit. Singular id} Ware ' I might be ' bu iDoreft 'thoumightestbe' er ware ' he might be ' Plural. wir Wcivcn ' we might be ' if)r Waret ' ye might be ' fie Waren ' they might be Plural. ' be ye ' Past. ' been '■ 239] AtrxILIAEIES OF TENSK. 95 ScTBJUNCTIVK. 3. SBerben, ' become : '—principal parts njcrbcn, luarb or luurbe, geluovben. Indicative. Present. Singular. 1 id} hJerbe ' I become ' 2 bu tuirft 'tbou becomest 3 er roirb ' lie becomes ' Plwral. 1 >r)ir fterben ' we become ' 2 i^r iDevbet 'ye become' 3 fie Wetben ' they become ' Singular. ic^ tetrrb, ' I became ' ' thou becamest ' ' he became ' hjurbe 2 bu ^»ftrb^, tDurbeft 3 er toaoi, tDurbe Plv/ral. 1 loir murben ' we became ' 2 itjr iDUvbet ' ye became ' 3 fie ftjurben ' they became ' ar. i(f) tuerbe ' I may become ' bu irerbcft ' thou mayest ' etc. er mevbe ' he may become ' Plural. Irir luerbcn ' we may become ' i^r iuerbet ' ye may become ' fie loerben ' they may become Preterit. Singular. id) iriirbe ' I might become ' bu iDurbeft 'thou mightest' etc. er Wiirbe ' he might become ' Plural. h)ir tuurben ' we might become ' i^r Ujiirbet ' ye might become ' fie luiirbcn 'they might become' Imperative. 2 loerbe ' become thou ' luerbet Infinitive. loerben ' to become ' Participles. toerbenb 'becoming' gelDorbcn ' become ye ' ' become ' 4. Irregularities in the Conjugation of these Verbs. a. >'palien is analogous in its conjugation with (ieben, aboTe, but the frequency of its use lias led to an abbreviation of a few of its forms. Thus tjaft and ()at are for older ()abft and f)abt, and ^attc for t)abte. The modifi- cation of the vowel in [)atte, pret. subj., is against the prevailing analogy of verbs of its class (see 250.2). 96 VEEBS. [239- 6. @eiu is of the same conjugation with geben, above. Its irregularity, wliioh is far greater than that of any other verb in the language, comes mainly from its being made up of forms derived from three independent roots: bin and btft are from the. same root as our 6c, being, been (original form i/(« ; Lat. fui, Greek phiio) ; the rest of the present from the same root as our pres. indicative am etc. (original form as ; Lat. sum, etc., Greelt eimi) ; while the preterit and past participle, geWefeit, are from the root of our loas, were (original form was, 'dwell, abide'). See the author's "Lan- guage and the Study of Language," p. 116. Some authors still retain el) for et (see 19.3) in fein, in order to distin- guish it from the possessive (eiit (157). 0. 2Bcrbcn is a nearly regular verb of the same conjugation with gebcn. For its persons TOttft and tnivb, see below, 268.5. In the double form of its pret. ind. singular, it preserves a solitary relic of a condition once be- longing to many verbs in the language, whose preterits had a different vowel in the singular and plural. SBarb is the original form, and murbe is a quite modem and anomalous fabrication, made after the analogy of the plural liuu'ben. Exercise XIV. Simple Forms of the Verb. 1. ®er SSatcr fiebt feine Sinber, unb fie lieben it)n. 2. SBcnn t^ 3;()nen gabe WaS id) t)abe, [)atte icl) felber ntd)t§. 3. 2Bag t)a[t bu i« ber Safd^e? 4. (gr ift fron!, abcr er luirb jegt beffer. 5. jDericuige, ben id) liebte, toarb mir iebcn Sag lieber. 6. 2Bo finb ©ie? unb too wax fie ate njtr t)ier maren? 7. ®ebt mir \va9 i^x Itebt, unb i(| bin jufrteben. 8. @8 ift gut, reid) ^u fcin ; aber eg toare beffer, ju^ frieben ju fein. 9. IHe $Dlenfd)en finb ^riiber, aber fte lieben einan* bcr nid)t tote Sritber. 10. (Sr gebe toag er toiC. 240. Formation of the Compound Tenses. 1. From tjobcn or fein, with the past participle of any verb, are formed a perfect and a pluperfect tense, indicative and sub- junctive, and a perfect infinitive. a. The Perfect tense, indicative and subjunctive, is formed by adding the past participle to the present tense of I)oben or of fein : thus, id) I)dbe geliebt, 'I have loved,' or 'I may have loved;' id) bin gcfontmen, ' I have (am) come,' id) fet gefomnten, ' I may have come.' b. The Pluperfect adds the participle to the preterit of the auxiliary : thus, id) t)atte geliebt, ' I had loved,' icf) I)atte getiebt, ' I might have loved ; ' id) War gefontmen, ' I had (was) come,' ic^ todre gefomnten, ' I might have come.' c. But the modal auxiliaries (251) and a few other verbs (namely 240] COMrOUND TEXSES. 97 laffcn, f)eigen, ^elfcn, f|orcn, fc^en, Ief)ren acd (emen — the last two not uniformly), when construed with another verb in the infinitive, form their perfect and pluperfect tenses by adding the infinitive instead of the participle to the auxiliary (see 251.4). d. The Perfect Infinitive prefixes the participle to the sim- ple or present infinitive : thus, gelie6t ^a6en, ' to have loved ; ' gefommeit fein, ' to have come.' e. What verbs take [)aben and what take fein as their auxiliary, will be explained below (see 241). For omission of the auxiUary, see 439.3a. 2. From hjerben, with the infinitives, present and past, of the verb, are formed a future and a future perfect tense, indi- cative and subjunctive, and a conditional and conditional per- fect. a. The Future tense, indicative and subjunctive, is formed by prefixing to the present infinitive the present tense, indicative and subjunctive, of iDcrben : thus, id) toetbe Ueben or fommen, ' I shall love or come.' h. The Future Perfect prefixes the same tenses to the per- fect infinitive : thus, id) merbe gcticbt ^aben, ' I shall have loved; * id) Werbe getommen fein, ' I shall have come.' c. The Conditional and Conditional Perfect are formed by prefixing to the present and perfect infinitive the preterit sub- junctive of incrben : thus, id) toiirbe Iteben or fommen, ' I should love' or 'come;' ic^ miirbe gclicbt ()aben, 'I should have loved;' id) iDiirbe gefommen fein, ' I should have come.' 3. The uses of these tenses so nearly agree with those of the corresponding English phrases with which they are translated that they need no explanation here : for details, see 323 etc. A, The German ia the only one of the Germanio lanj^agea which, in its modem exten- sion of the conjugational system by composition, has chosen iDCl'ben as its auxiliary for forming the future tenses. 3^ roerbc gebeit/ literally 'I am becoming to give,' receives a future meaning through the idea of 'I am coming into a condition of giving,' or 'I am going to give.' In the tenses formed with ^aben, the participle is originally one qualifying the object of the verb in the manner of a factitive predicate, or expressing the condition in which I 'have' ('possess, hold ') the object. This, as being the constructive result of a previous notion, is accepted as a description of that action, and t^ ^nbe bic 'Jtrinc auL^.^cftrccft, for example, fi-om meaning ' I have my arms sti-etched out,' comes to signify ' I have stretched out my arms.' (See the author's " Language and the Study of Language," p. 118). On the other hand, in the tenses formed with \ftX% the participle is originally one quali- fying the subject in the manner of a direct predicate, and defining a state or condition in which the .'subject exists. This, in EngUsh, has become (by a process quite analogous with that just above described) a passive, or an expression for the enduring of the action which produced that condition. But the German uses (see below, 275) another auxiliary to form its passives, and, in its combination of jeiu with the participle, it only adds to the asser tion of condition the less violent implication that the action leading \a the condition is a past one; tdj bin gofomiticn, 'I am here, being come;' i. e., 'my action of coming is a thing of the past ; ' or, 'I have come.' 98 VERBS. [240- In strictness, then, ^a6cn should form the past tenses only of transitive verbs, and when they tiLkc an object ; and \eu\, only of intransitives which express a condition of their subject. But^ as have in English has extended its use until it-has become the auxiliary of all verbs without exception, so, in German, Ijaben has come to be used with transi- tive verbs even when they do not take an object, and with such intransitives as are in meaning most akin with these ; until the iTdes for the emplojTuent of the two have bo- come as stated in the ne-xt paragraph. 241. Use of Ijaben or fein as Auxiliary of Tense. 1. Verbs whicli take ^abcn as auxiliary are a. All transitive verbs (including the reflexives and the modal auxiliaries). h. Almost all intransitives which take an object in the genitive (219.5) or the dative (222.II.la). c. A large number of other intransitives, especially such as de- note a simple activity, a lasting condition, or a mode of motion (including all the proper impersonal verbs). 2. Verbs which take fetn for auxiliary, as exceptions under the above classes, are a. Especially, many intransitives which signify a change of con- dition, or a movement of transition, from a point of departure or toward a point of arrival. These intransitives are partly such as do not take an object — as, tretbctl, 'become,' fomnien, 'come,' fallen, 'fall,' ftnteii, 'sink,' ttiad)jen, 'grow,' fter= ben, 'die,' bcrftcu, 'burst,' crftarrcii, 'stiQ'en,' evlofdjen, 'become extin- guished,' ciu(d)lafen, 'fall asleep,' juviidtvetcn, 'retreat:' — partly such as may take a dative object in virtue of the meaning given them by a prefix : as, etitlaufcn, 'run away from,' rDibcrfaljvcn, 'happen to,' entgcgcngcljcil, 'go to meet,' auffallcii, ' strike the attention of b. A few others, without reference to their meaning : namely, of verbs that take an objective dative, begegncn, ' meet,' fotgen, ' follow,' »iicid]crt, ' give way,' gctingen and glltcfen, ' turn out suc- cessfully' (with their opposites, mij^ttngen and mi^gliiden) : also fein, ' be,' bteibcn, ' remain,' ge[)cn, ' go.' 3. A small number of verbs may take either auxiliary. a. Some that are used with different meanings : as, bcr ®eclel ^at aufge» finnbcn, ' the cover has stood open ; ' meiti ^vuber tft aufgcftanben, ' my brother has got up.' 6. About twenty verbs of motion, which take Ijnbcn, when the act of motion or its kind arc had in view (as in answer to the questions how, how long, v)hen, where f), but fetn when reference is had to a starting-point or an end of motion (as in answer to the questions whence, u-hither, liowfar?): thus, ber .Stnabc l)at gcfprnngen, ' the boy has jumped,' but er if't uom iBaiimc gcfpvungcn, ' he has jumped from the tree ; ' fie Ijnbcn Bid gcrcift, ' they have travelled much,' but cv ift und) Ifnglnnb grreift, 'he has gone to England.' c. @tcl)cn, 'stand,' licgcn, 'lie,' fil^icn, 'sit' (especially the first), aresome- times conjugated with fetli, but properly take IjiiUon under all circumstances, 243] AUXILIAEIES. 99 242. Other verbal Auxiliaries. Besides the three heretofore spofeen of, there are a number of verbs, generally or often used with other verbs, to impress upon them modifications of meaning more or less analogous with those expressed by the forms of conjugation of some languages. Such are 1. The liODAL AUXILIARIES, of which there are six, fciiincu, ' can,' mogen, ' may,' bitrfen, ' be permitted,' miiffen, ' must,' foHcu, ' shall,' iDoKen, ' will.' They have, however, a much more inde- pendent value and use in German than in English, and are not to be treated as bearing any part in the ordinary verbal conjuga- tion. Their peculiarities of inflection and construction will be explained below (251 etc.). 2. The CAUSATIVE AUXILIARY, Ittfjen, which (as one among many uses) is often employed in a causal sense with the infini- tive of another verb: as, cinen 9tocf Tiiad)ert, 'to make a coat;' cincn 9ioc£ nuidjen taffett, ' to have a coat made (cause to make it) : ' see 343.1.5. 3. S;[)mi, 'do' (267.5), which we employ so freely as auxiliary in Eng- lish, is not used as such in German. Some of the German dialects, indeed, make an auxiliary of it; and it is now and then found having that value even in the literary language: thus, unb t^u' ntd)t mcl)r in SBorten teamen, 'and do no longer peddJe out words' (E. 134.23). 243. Other points in general conjugation, affecting the Impera^ live, Infinitive, and Past Participle. 1. The third pers. singular, and the first and third pers. plural, of the present subjunctive are very commonly used in an imperative sense (see 331), and may be regarded as filling up the defective declension of that mood. Thus, for the two verbs first given, Imperative. Singular. Plural. 1 Itcbett h)ir ' let us love ' 2 tick, liebe bu ' love ' Iie6et, Ite6t i^r ' love ' 3 Itebe er ' let bim love' Itebcn fie 'let them love t geben tovc ' let us give ' 2 gieb, gib bu 'give' gebt, gebet t^r 'give' 3 gebe cr 'let him give' gcben fie 'let them give Of these forms, the third plural is in espec-ially frequent usa e ■A 100 VEEBS. [243- as substitute for the second person of either number (153.4) : thus, gc6en Oie mir bag Sucf), ' give me the book' Other imperative phrases— as, tx (oU net)ett, ' he shall give,' lag unS gcbcn, (afjt unS geticn, iaffen @ie un8 flcocn, 'let us give '—are more or less employed, but need no special remark. 2. The infinitive, as in English (though not so uniformly), takes often the preposition ra, ' to,' as its sign : this is always placed next before the simple infinitive form : thus, ju geben, gegeben ju ijahm. For details respecting the use of ju, see 341 etc. 3. The past participle of nearly all verbs has the prefix ge. Exceptions are a. Verbs that begin with an unaccented syllable, especially 1. Those ending in the infinitive in irert or icren (being verbs de- rived from the French or Latin, or others formed after their model) : as innrfd)tren, ' march,' part. morfd)irt ; [tubiien, ' study,' part, ftubirt. 2. Those compounded with an inseparable, and therefore unaccented, prefix : as, bergcfien, ' forgive,' part, cergcien. J. SBerben, when used as passive auxiliary, forms Worben instead of geitJOi'ben (see 276. la). c. The syllable ge was not originally an element of verbal inflection, but one of the clasa of inseparable prefixes (see 307.5). It was formerly used or omitted as special prefix to the participle without any traceable rule, and has only in modem times become fixed as its nearly invariable accompaniment. Hence, in archaic style and in poetry, it is still now and then irregularly dropped. The same prefix was employed, in very much the same manner, in the oldest form of English, the Anglo-Saxon ; and traces of its use survived even down to a time comparatively modem, in such participles as iz-clad, y-clept, y-drad (dreaded). 244. Synopsis of the complete conjugation of ^6ett and fcin. The synopsis of incrijen will be given later, in connection with that of the passive voice of the verb (277). Indicative. Present, ' I have,' etc. ' I am,' eta S.I i^abi 6tn Preterit, 'I had,' eta 'I was,' eta S.I ^atte hjar Perfect, 'I have had,' eta 'I have been,' eta S.I ^a6e gefiabt bin geioefen Pluperfect, 'I had had,' eta 'I had been,' eta S.I ^a\ti ge^abt toox getrefen Future, 'I shall have,' eta 'I shall be,' etc. 6.1 tocrbe f|o6en luerbc fcin 244] AUXILIARIES. 101 Future Perfect, 'I shall have had,' etc. 'I shall have heen,' etc S.I loeibe getjafct^aben trcrbe geiuefen fein Subjunctive. Freseni, 'I may have,' etc. 'I may be,' eta 8.1 f|a6e fei Preterit, ' I might have,' etc. ' I might be,' eta S.I ^atte hjfire Perfect, '1 may have had,' eta ' I may have been,' eta s.i ijahi gc^att fei geiuefen Pluperfect, 'I might have had,' eta . 'I might have been,' eta s.i fiatte ge^tt irare geincfen Future, 'I shall have,' etc. 'I shall be,' etc. S.I metbe Ijabcn hierbe fein Future Perfect, 'I shall have had,' eta 'I shall have been,' etc. B.I werbe getpbt Ijaben tccrbe gewefen fein Conditional. Conditional, ' I should have,' eta ' I should be,' etc. S.I itjurbe i)ahm iDiirbe fein Cond'l Perfect, 'I should have had,' eta 'I should have been,' etc. 5.1 mfirbe geljafit ^aben hJitrbe getnefen fein Imperative. have,' etc. ' be,' eta 5.2 ijdbi fei Inmnitives. Present, ' to have ' ' to be ' ^«6en fein Perfect, ' to have had ' ' to have been' ge^abt ^obcn geiuefen fein Paeticiples. Present, 'having' 'being' ^obenb feienb Past, 'had' 'been' gc^abt gewefen 102 VERBS. [244- Exercise XV. Simple and Compound Foi-ms of the Verb. 1. SBo ift cr gctoefcn, imb toaS ()nt cr gct)abt? 2. aWciue Sinbci Itiih-bcn jitfvicben feiit, lucmt fie ©ptc(5cug fatten. 3. Sr luirb itiir atteg gebcn, benn cr Itebt mid), unb ift immer mctn fjreimb gciuefeit. 4. Sd) iuiivbe mit itjm gelucfcn fein, aba id) luar anbci'ijiuo, ititb man ift nid)t tcid)t an jmei £)rtcu ,^ug(eid). 5. Sffioven ©ie je mo er neit= lid) gemefen ift? 6. SBir fiub fd)mad) ; ober moim mcvben miv ftito fer merben ? 7. -Sebevmann tiebt feine greunbe ; tiebt t()r eure geiube. CONJUGATIONS OP VERBS. 245. Yerbs are inflected in two modes, called respec- tively the Old and the JSTbw conjugations. 246. 1. "Verbs of the Old conjugation form their pre- terit by a change of the vowel of the root, without any added ending, and their past participle by the ending en : thns, gebcn, gab, grgebcn ; fingcn, fang, gefnngen. 2. Verbs of the New conjugation form their preterit by adding te or ete to the root, and their participle by the end- ing et or t : thus, licben, licbtc, geliebt ; reben, rebcte, gerebet. 3. The Old and New Conjugations correspond to what are generally called in English the *' Irregular " and " Regular " verbs. The fonner, as the name implies, is the more primi- tive method of inflection : its preterit was originally a reduplicated tense, like the Greek and Latin perfects (as detloka, t^iiyl) ; and, in the oldest Germanic languages, many verba have retained the reduplication (as Aa///.((/--/. 'held,' from /ia/fto/?,, 'hold;' saislep, 'slept,' from slepan^ ' sleep '). By phonetic eomiption and abbreviation, however, this reduplica- tion led to an alteration of the radical vowel, and then was itself dropped, in the great majority of verbs ; producing phenomena of conjugation so various that there was left no prevailing and guiding analogy by which to inflect the new derivative verbs, that were brought In as needed, to supplement the old resources of expression. Hence the need of a new method of conjugation ; which was obtained by adding the preterit of the verb do (did) to the theme of conjugation. The preterit-ending te of the New conjugation is the relic of this auxiliary (as, in English, / loved stands for an original / love-dkt). See the author's "Language and the Study of Language," pp. 60, 80. The Old conjugation therefore includes the primitive verbs of the language ; the New, all those of later origin. Only, as the latter have become the larger claes, and their mode of conjugation the prevailing one, some of the old verbs (although to by no means such an extent as in English) have been changed, in part or altogether, to conform to it. See be- low, 272. They are often styled, like the declensionB (73, 132), "strong" and "weak." We shall take up first the New conjugation, as being simpler in its forms, and easiest to learn. \\ Ne'sv Conjugation. 247. The characteristics of the New conjugation are that ita preterit ends in te, and its participle in t. 248j NEW CONJUGATION. IC 248. Examples : reben, ' talk ; ' iDanbern, ' wander.' Principal Pabts. reben, rebete, gerebct ftanbern, toaubcrte, getoanbert Indicative. Present, 'I talk,' eta ' I wander,' eta s.i rebe iDOttbere, toanbre 2 rebeft toanberft 3 rebet manbert P.I. vebeit hjanbent 2 rebet rtjanbert 3 reben manbern Praerit, 'I talked,' etc. 'I wandered,' etc. 8.1 rebete tnanberte 2 rcbeteft tnanberteft 3 rebete manberte P.I rebcten tDonberten 2 rebetet wanbertet 3 rebeten hjanberten Perfect, ' I have talked,' etc. ' I have wandered,' etc S.I ^ok gerebet Bin gciuanbcrt 2 (jaft gerebct btft geit)onbert 3 l;ot gerebct ift geiuanbert P.I ^ben gerebct finb gelnanbcrt 2 ()a()t gerebet fetb getoanbert 3 ^aben gerebet finb gertonbert Plu-perfed, 'I had talked,' etc. ' I had wandered,' eta 8.1 ^atte gerebet tear gewanbert 2 Ijattcft gerebet tnarft getoanbert 3 ()atte gerebet hjar gciranbcrt P.I ()attcn gerebet luarcn geiuanbert 2 fjattct gerebct njart gelDanbert 3 fjotten gerebct JBoren gemanbert Future, ' I shaU talk,' etc. ' I shaU wander,' eta S.I ii:]crbe reben iDerbe luanbern 2 >ntrft reben njirft lunnbern 3 ujirb reben hjirb roanbern 104 VEEB8. [248 P.I tocrben reben h3erben (tianbern 2 toerbet rcbcn hjcrbct luanbern 3 luerben rebeit luerben inonbern Future Perfect, 'I Bhall have talked,' etc ' I shall have wandered,' ete. S.I h)erbe gevebet t)a()en toevbe geluanbcrt fein 2 toirft gerebet tjaien Intrft gcluanbert fein 3 tuirb gccebet ^6en njtrb gcmanbert fein P.I trcrben gevebet ^a6en merben getpmibert fein 2 hjerbet gevebet I^aben Irerbct geiuanbert fein 3 mevben gevebet Ijabeu Inerben gciocinbcrt fein Subjunctive. Present, ' I may talk,' etc. 'I may wander,' etc. B.I rebe hjanbere, toanbre 2 rebeft toanbercft, inanbreft 3 vebe lt)anbere, manbre P.I reben tranberen, ttanbren 2 rebet manberct, toanbret 3 reben luanbcren, manbren Preterit, ' I might talk,' eto. ' I might wander,' olc. S.I rebete ftianberte 2 rebetefl tronberteft 3 rebete Jtanberte P.I rebeten toonbertcn 2 rebetet hianbcrtet 3 rebeten njanberten Perfect, ' I may have talked,' etc. 'I may have wandered,' ete 6.1 tjnbe gevebet fei geinanbert 2 Ijabeft gercbet fcieft geinanbert 3 ^ak gercbet fci gcluanbert P.I ^aben gcrebet feien geinanbert 2 ^bct gercbet fciet geinanbert 3 fiaben gercbet fcicn geinanbert 248] NEW CONJUGATION. 105 Pluperfect, 'I might have talked,' etc. 'I might have wandered,' etc S.I ^iitte gerebet to'ixz gemanbert 2 ^attcft gerebet Wareft getoanbert 3 ^dttc gerebet roare geinanbert P.I Ijatten gerebet ta'ixm getoanbert 2 ^iittet gerebet iDcirct gemanbert 3 flatten gerebet tBciren gertjanbert Futwe, ' I shall talk, etc. ' I shall wander,' eta 8.1 tnerbe reben tnerbe njatibcnt 2 tDerbeft reben toerbeft wanberit 3 luerbe reben toerbe hjaubern P.I trcrben reben tnerben inanbern 2 tucrbet reben tnerbct tuaiibern 3 iDerben reben hjerben iranbem Future Perfect, 'I shall have talked,' etc. 'I shall have wandered,' etc. S.I njcrbe gerebet fjaben tuerbe gcioanbert fein 2 roerbeft gerebet (jaben trerbeft getonnbert fein 3 toerbe gerebet (}aben tncrbe geiuanbert [etn P.I toerben gerebet Tjaben tuerben geioanbert fein 2 incrbet gerebet ^ben toerbet gewanbert fein 3 luerben gerebet ^abcn trerben gewanbert fein Conditional. Conditional, ' I should talk,' etc. ' I should wander,' etc S.I rtjurbe reben tuiirbe tuanbcrn 2 tDiirbeft reben tuiirbeft hjcinbern 3 miirbc reben ttjurbc inanbern p.i tuitrbcn reben tnitrben hjanbcm- 2 tuiirbet reben tnitrbet wanbem 3 toUrben reben irilrben hjanbern Gond. Perf, ' I should have talked,' etc. ' I should have wandered,' etc 8.1 hjurbe gerebet fjabcn tnitrbe geiuanbert fein 2 ttjiirbcft gerebet ^obcn tuiirbeft geiuanbert fein 3 n^iirbe gerebet ^abeu tuurbe geiuanbert fein 106 TEEBS. [248- P.I tuiirben gerebet l]aim tuiirben getoanbert fcin 2 tcitrbet gerebet ^aben tBiirbct gciuanbert fein 3 luiitbcn gerebet ^abcn tourben gelnanbert fcin Imperative. 'talk,' etc. ' wander,' etc. S.2 rebe, rebe bu tnanbere, tnanbre bu 3 rebe cr, er rebe toonbere er, er ironbre P.I reben ttitr iwinbern toir 2 rcbet, rebct i()r njonbert, ironbert if|r 3 rcben [ie luanbern fie Infinitive. Present, ' to talk ' ' to wander ' reben, ju reben hianbera, ju wanbern Perfect, ' to have talked ' ' to have wandered ' gerebet fiaben, gerebet ju l^afeen geloanbert fein, geinanbcrt ju fein Participles. Present, 'talking' 'wandering' rebenb Icanbernb Fast, 'talked' 'wandered' gerebet getoanbert Eemarlcs. The conjugation of reben exemplifies the necessity of reten- tion of e of the endings et, cte after a consonant with which t would be con- founded in pronunciation. SBanbern is one of the verbs which (241.3ft) take sometimes l)aticn and sometimes fciii as auxiliary. It exemplifles the loss of E of the ending en, and other peculiarities of tlie combination of end- ings with verbal roots in el and er. Exercise XVI. Verhs of the New Conjugation. J. Sieben >«ir immcr rebfidi, unb nnfcre fjrennbe werbcn un§ lietien. 2. (Sr incire jci^U nicijt [)icr, iniire cr inciter gelnanbcrt. 3. 2Bo tnarft bn, nte inir bon bir rcbeten? 4. 2BaS tuirb er benfenigen fd)i(fen, bie cr fo liebt? .5. (gr (jntte ung nicl)tS gcfdjtcft, bcnn eg (jcittc unS ge» ftfjabct. 6. SBaS f)at er gerebet, unb h)ot)in ift er gcnmnbcrt ? "7. ISr miirbe uic^tS gefauft ()aben, Ijiittcn tnir eg nic(}t geiuitnfdjt. 8. §6rten ©ie, mog bie Dta P.I biirfen tbnnen " mbgen miiffcn fotlen ttjollen 2 biirft fonnt miigt miigt foUt iBOUt 3 biirfen fbnnen mbgen miiffen foKen moUen Indicative Preterit. S.I burfte fonnte moi^te mugte fottte ttjottte etc. etc etc. etc. etc. etc. Subjunctive Present. S.I biirfe fbnne mbge miiffe foHe ttjotte etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. Subjunctive Preterit. S.I biirfte Ibnnte mbc^te miigte fottte loollte etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. Imperative. S.2 tootle P.2 toottt Participles. Fres. biirfeiib lonnenb mogenb miiffenb fottenb Wottenb Past, geburft gelonnt gemoc^t gemugt gefottt geraottt Infinitive. biirfen tonnen mbgen miiffen fotten molten 4. The compound tenses are formed in the same manner as those of other verbs — with one important exception, namely a. When used in connection with another verb (infinitive), the infinitive is substituted for the participle in the perfect and plu- perfect tenses. Thus, er i)at eS nic^t getonnt, but er ^at cgnidt)! t^ira tonnen, 'he has not been able to do it; ' roa? tjabt it)r geiuottt, 'what have you wished? 26lJ MODAL AUXILIAEIES. lOU but i^r Ijafjt mifi) fj)rcd)en irollen, 'you have wanted to speak to me;' Wit tjabeii Itinrtcn miijien, 'we have been compelled to wait' This is a simple grammatical anomaly, an ori^cin;iI blunder of consitmction. thongli now sanctioned by universal uh.- ; it was apparently caused by the influence of the other neitjhboring infinitive, which " attracted '' the auxiliary into a cuncspondence of foi-m with itselt A similar construction is usual with a number of indepc'ndent verbs, whioli are fre- quently used along with the inanitive of another verb : see 240. le. 5. The compound tenses are, tlien, as follows : Perfeci (first person the same in both moods). S.I I)nbe gcbutft, getonnt, jc. or Ijabe biirfen, toniien, jc. Indicative Pluperfect. 8.1 Ijatte grbuvft, gctontxt, ?c. or [jiitte biirfen, tijnnen, jc. Suhjunclive Pluperfect. S.I l)iitte gcbiR-ft, getonut, jc. or \Mt biirfcii, toiinen, jc. Future {first person the same in both moods). S.I loerbe biitfctt, tonncn, jc. Future Perfect (first person the same in both mood.s). S.I merbe gcbuvft Ijabcn, gefount ^aben, iz. Conditional. S.I toiiibe biirfen, tonnen, jc. Conditional Perfect. S.I roiirbe gcburft Ijabcn, getonnt ()oben, jc. Infinitive Perfect. gebnrft Ijaben, getonnt Ijaben, 2c. 6. a. The absence of a complete conjugation of the corresponding auiili- nries in English makes it necessary for us often to render the Gtrnian verb by a paraphrase: substituting, for exampfe, he able for can (tijuncn) ; be compelled, have to, for must (mu\\i:u); he willing, wish, desire, for wiU (moUcn), and so on: compare below, 253-9. h. The same absence has led to the use of certain idiomatic and not strictly logical constructions in Englisli, in which the auxiliarj- of past time, have, is combined with the principal verb in the participle, instead of witli the modal auxihary; while the German, more correctly, combines it with the latter. Thus, he would not have done it is not, in German, cr luoUtc eel iud)t getljan Ijaben, unless it signifies ' he was not willing to have done it; ' if, as usual, it means ' he would not have been willing to do it,' it is er l)dtte eg ind)t tl)un IBoflen. Thus also, he might have ooine (that is, 'he would have been able to come ') is er ^citte tommcn tiimten, not cr fonnte getommcn join. The logical sense of the sentence may be tested, and the proper Ger- man expression found, by putting the corresponding verbal phrase in place of the simple auxiliary in the English. 110 VERBS. [252- Uses of the Modal Auxiliaries. 252. Although the exposition of the meaning of these auxili- aries belongs rather to the dictionary than to the grammar, sucli is the frequency of their use, and the intimacy of their relation to the verbs with which they are combined, that it is desirable to give here some account of their chief uses. 253. Siirfen. — 1. This represents two separate verba of the older language, the one meaning 'need, require,' the other 'da/re, venture, trust one's self.' The former sense is nearly lost, appearing only occasionally with nur and fniim, and in a few other phrases : thus, er barf nuv 6cfel)[c;i, 'he needs only to command.' The other has been in modern use modified into 'be authorized, permitted,' and, even where it approaches nearest to ' dare,' means properly rather 'feel authorized,' 'allow one's self Thus, Sitemanb barf ptiinbern, 'no one is permitted to plunder;' barf Of) bitten, ' may 1 ask ? ' einem if aifer batf bie iDtilbe nie fe^len, ' an emperor may never lack clemency ; ' er burfte itjn tn§ SIngeftcfit ))reifen, ' he was allowed to praise him to his face.' 2. The preterit subjunctive biirfte signifies, by a quite special use, a probable contingency: as, baS biirfte n)al)r feilt, 'that is likely to be true. 254. jjijimeit. — The original meaning of fonnen, as of our can, is ' to know how; ' but both have alike acquired the sense of 'be able,' and sig- nify ability or possibility in the most general way, whether natural, con- ceded, or logical. Thus, id) tann lefen, 'I can read; ' meinettocgen tann ct geljen, 'he can (may) go, for all me;' jene Sage tBnuen miebcr lommcn, 'those days may return (their return is possible) ; ' cc tann (d)on gefommen fein, ' he may possibly have already arrived.' 255. SJJiigen. — This verb meant originally to have power, but its use in that sense is now antiquated and quite rare: thus, lucnn tciner fie crgritnben mag, ' though none is able to fathom Ihem.' At present, it has two leading significations : 1. That of power or capabihty as the result of concession on the part of the speaker ; and that, either a real permission — as er htng itju beljottcn, ' he may keep it ' — or as a logical concession or allowance, as'baS mag ino[)I gu ^citen tommcii, ' that may happen at times.' 2. That of choice, liking, desire: thus, luaS fie bir tlidjt offenbareu mag, 'what she does not choose to reveal to thee; ' ba§ mod)te er gar uidjt I}bren, ' he did not like to hear that at all.' This meaning is most frequent with the preterit subjunctive: thus, e8 mod)te tein §unb \o Idnger leBeii, 'no dog would care to live longer thus ; ' auc^ id) miJC^t' mit bir ftcrbcix, ' I too would like to die with thee.' iDJbgcn has other uses (akin with the above, but of less definite character), in which it approaches very near to equivalence with the subjunctive tenses : tlius, in expressing a wish, moge nie ber Eag erjc()einen, ' may the day never appear;' mijdite Die ganje SBett nn« Ijijrcn, 'would that the whole world might hear us;' also, in clauses expressing design or purpose — baniit fie Ttidit auSglctteit mijgcn, 'that they may not slip' — or after an indefinite pronoun, as, lyaS er and) t^uii mag (or tq:ie), ' whatever he may do.' 258] MODAL AUXILIAKIES. Ill 256. JJiiiffen. — This, like mojen, has wandereiJ far from its primltire meaning, which was 'flnd room or opportunity,' and now designates a general and indefinite necessity (as foitllCll a correspondingly indefinite possibUity), either physical, moral, or logical. It is rendered by our 'be compelled to,' ' bo obliged to,' 'have to,' 'cannot but,' and the Uke. Thus, aUc ".lla'iijd)cii miiffcn ftevbcn, ' all men must die ; ' inic miiffen treu feiii, ' we must be faith- ful ; ' ea muJ3 ill biefei- :iScii'c ge|d)ef)en feiii, ' it must have taken place in this way I ' wit imijjten iimroenbeit, ' we had to turn back; ' [jeuti: miiJ3 bie (iilodie Wei'ben, ' to-day the beU has to come into existence ; ' man mii)3te glaubeit, 'one could not but suppose; ' id) raufete iibet bie Seute ladjen, 'I could not* help laughing at the people.' As must in English is present only, such phrases as those above given should aUvays be used in translating the other tenses of miiffen. 257. ©olten. — Its proper sense is originally that ol duly or oiligaUon, and in the past tenses, especially the preterit, it is often stiU used in that sense : thus, eS foUte fo, unb nid)t nnbev« fcin, ' it ought to be thus, and not otherwise ; ' ev l)citte lommen fotten, ' he ought to have come.' But to this meaning has now become added, in prevailing use, the distinct implication of a personal authority, other than that of the subject, as creat- ing or enforcing the obligation : either 1. Prcjeeding from the speaker ; in which case the auxiliary intimates a command, a promise, a threat, or the like : as, bu foUft ®ott liebcn, 'thou shalt love God ; ' meine Sijdjter fotten bid) warten, ' my daughters shall wait on thee ; ' man bi-ot)t, bicfcv ober icner ii'bnig fotte gegen il)n jiefien, ' it is threatened that this or that king shall take the field against him.' 2. Eecognized by the speaker, but not proceeding from him ; in which case fotten is to be rendered by ' to be to,' ' to be intended or destined to,' or other lilce expressions: as, iuenn man jule^t fatten fott, mitt man licber i)iBr Blciben, 'if one is finally to stop, one wiU rather stay here; ' Wai fott ge= fd)cl)en, ' what is to happen ? ' man jmeifeite aield)en SBeg man einfd)lagcn foKe, ' they doubted which road they were to take ; ' maS mag i(ft l)in iuol)I l)orcn fotten, 'what can I be meant to hear here?' baviiber joU^te cr bitter enttflnfdjt Werben, ' he was destined to be bitterly undeceived upon that point.' 3. A special form of this use of fotten is its employment to report some- thing that rests on the authority of others, is asserted by them : thus, a>crbved)en, bie er begangcn I)aben fott, ' crimes which he is claimed to have committed-; ' incle fo"tten an bicfem Sage umgefommen fein, ' many are said to have lost their lives on that day.' In conditional and hypothetical clauses, fottte is sometimes used like our should, nearly coinciding in meaning with the proper conditional tenses : thus, foUt' er and) fttantfetn iiberott, ' even should he everywhere stumble: ' so, ellipticaUy, in interrogation: fottte baS Wof)r fein, '[is it possible that] that should be true ? ' 258. SBoUen.— This signifies will, intent, choice, on the pant of the sub- ject of the verb : thus, i* mitt bid) gletd)faa8 bcgteiten, ' I will accompany thee likev/ise ; ' Icinev mill ben Sedier geromnen, ' no one wants to wm the goblet;' was cr 3terltd)e« anffiiijven mitt, 'whatever he mtends to bnng forward that is pretty; ' id) mottte il)n mtr@d)a(3cn belaben, ' ivrould load him with treasures.' 112 VEEIiS. [2B8- a. Occasionally it indicates a claim or assertion (compare the correlatiTf nse of foUen above, 257.3): thus, ev ItiiB bid) gc(cl)eii Ijabcn, 'he claims to have seen you (will have it that he has done so).' b. Not infrequently it imphes the exhibition of intent, or impending ac- tion, and is to be rendered by 'be on the point of and tlie like; thus, a tuiU-getjen, 'he is on the point of going; ' etit S3aitev, wctdjer ftcrfacn itioilfc, ' a peasant who was about to die ; ' iiratcit Witt Ucrbl'cnncu, ' the roast is on the brink of burning.' 259. The Modal Auxiliaries without accompanying Verb. All these auxiliaries are sometimes met with uiiaocompanied by an infinitive dependent upon them. Thus, 1. "When an infinitive is directly suggested by the contezt, and to be supplied in idea: thus, bag jeber jo toU (ein bitrfe a[8 er luottc, 'that every one may be as wild as he will (be); ' id) t^ue, inaS id) toim, 'I do what I can (do).' 2. Very often, an adverb of direction with the auxiliary takes the place of an omitted verb of motion: thus, init miiffett aud) bovan, ' we must also [set] about it; ' ftc Eounen nidjt Uon ber ©trite, 'they cannot [stir] from the place;' VDoI)tn joflen bie, 'whither are they to [go]?' ber immer bnuoii Vuollte, 'who all *he time wanted [to get] away; ' er barf nid)t Weit geiliifl l)inau8, 'he may not venture [to go] far enough out.' 3. Other eUipses, of verbs familiarly used with these, or naturally sug- gested by the context, are not infrequent: thus, tna? foil id), ' what am I to [do] ? ' aag fott btcfe Stcbe, 'what is this talk intended to [signify] ? ' bie ftU= fd)eu 5Ringe Incrbeii ba§ niii^t lonnen, 'the false rings will not be able [to accomplish] that;' nid)t SiJevijolbuiig Wttt man me^r, 'one will no longer [have] gilding.' 4. The auxiliary is thus often left with an apparent direct object, really dependent on the omitted verb. In other cases the object may represent the omitted verb — as, ^Stte id) mid) gefreut, a\i iij t% nod) t'onnte, 'had I en- joyed myself when I was still able to do so ' — or be otherwise more really dependent on the auxiliary. SSJottcn is most often used thus as a proper transitive: thus, nid)t er initt enven Uutergang, 'not he wishes your ruin; ' ftaS @ott gelnollt, ' what God has willed '—also, mogen in the sense of 'like: ' as, id) mag i^n uidjt, ' I do not like him ' — and fiinncn ip the sense of ' know (a language) : ' as, toiraen ©ic Seutfd), ' do you know G-ermau ? ' £60. 5ffitffeii, ' know, know how,' has a conjugation nearly akin with that of the modal auxiliaries : namely Pres. Indie. iBcig, ireifjt, tneijj, ttiiffen, rotgt, njtffen. Fres. Subj. ttiiffe, etc. Prei. Indie. lV)UJ3te, etc. Fret. Subj. luiijjte, etc. Fasi Panic. geWllgt. Its present indicative singular, like tliat of the modal auxiliaries, is an old preterit, meaning ' I have seen ; ' it is historically the same word with the Greek oida and Banskri' veda — which have Likewise a similar oflxce. 263] OLD CONJUGATION. 113 EXEECISE 2VII. Modal Auxiliaries. 1. Sonneit fte l)eute mit una gel)cn ? 2. 3d) fanit I)euteget;en, atcrmcvnen toerbe tcf) Weber Ebimcit nod) moUcti. 3. §at iljr 93nibcr Eommcu biirtfir? i. & l)at geburft, aber er ()ot iud)t gemoUt. 5. 2Ber eiiteii S3ricf fd)«ibcn totU, miijj *(Sfl))iei- t|aben. 6. 3d) l)al)e iurf)t fdjveiben tonncii, beim id) Ij.ibc Qrbfiteii tniiffcit. 7. Sarf id; fragen, weldje @prad)e @ie jetjt [emeu rooltcii ? 8. 3d) foUte unb raoUte Sciitfd) rehien, beuit id) fnim eS nod) uid)t. 9. (Sr joil I)iei- feiu; man mill il)n nefe^en t)obcn ; ober er tinif; jog Icirf) fort. 10. tSi tt)ore geltiig ^ier, l)atte er toniinen joUcn. 11. 2Btr moqen nid)t immer tl)u;i W08 ttiir fottten. 12. 3d) mag bo8 nic^t f)nben ; er m'og c8 bc!)alten. 13. SBotte nur it>o8 bu famtft, unb bu roirft otte« toiinen maS in luiUft. Old Conjugation. 261. The characteristics of the Old conjugation are : the change of radical vowel in the preterit, and often in the past participle also ; and the ending of the past participle in en. With these are combined other peculiarities of inflection, of less consequence, which will be found stated in detail below. For the reason of the name " Old " conjugation, see above, 246.3. Change of Radical Vowel. 262. The changes of the radical vowel iu verbs of tlie Old conjugation are, in general, as follows : 1. The vowel of the infinitive and that of the present tense (indicative and subjunctive) are always the sauie. But the vowel of the present is sometimes altered in the second and third persons singular indicative: see below, 258. 2. The vowel of the preterit is always diif'erent from that of the infinitive and present. 3. The vowel of the past participle is sometimes the same with that of the infinitive and present, sometimes the same with that of the preterit, and sometimes different from either. ~ , 263. According to the varieties of this change, the verbs are divided into three principal classes, each with several subdivisions, Class I. Verbs whose infinitive, preterit, and participle have each a different vowel. 114 vj;ebs. [263- Class II. Verbs in which the vowel of the participle is the same with that of the present. Class III. Verbs in which the vowel of the participle is the same with that of the preterit. This is merely a dassiiication of convenience, founded upon the facts of the modern lans^age. The latter have undergone too great and too various alteration to allow of our adopting, with practical advantage, a more thorough classification, founded on the charac- ter of the original radical vuwe], and the nature of the changes it has suffered. 264. FiEST Class. Verbs whose infinitive, preterit, and par- ticiple have each a different vowel. L 1. Verbs having the vowels t — — It in the three forms specified. Example : fiugetx — fttug — gefungcn (sing, sang, sung). To this subdivision belong 16 verbs, all of them having roots ending in lig, n!, or lib. 2. Vowels i — a — o. 6 verbs : root ending in nn or mm. Example : fjjinnen — fpann — gcfponnen (spin, span, spun). 3. Vowels e — — o. 22 verbs. Example : brEdjeix— Brad) — geBroi^ert (break, brake, broken). One verb, geBciren, has irregularly a for e in the infinitive. 4. Vowels t or ie — o — e. 3 verbs. Examples: fitsen — fag — gefeffcn (sit, sat, sat). liegen — lag— 'gelegen (lie, lay, lain). These are properly verba belonging to the first division of the next class, II. 1, but have their vowel irregularly varied in the infinitive. 265. Second Class. Verbs having the same vowel in the infinitive and participle. II. 1. Vowels e — a — e. 10 verbs. Example: (ctifn — fa^ — gefefjcit (see, saw, seen). Three verbs properly belonging to this division have changed their vowel to I or ie in the infinitive, and thus become a fourth division of the first class (see above). 2. Vowels a — 11 — a. 10 verbs. Example: f(f|(agen — fdjhtg — gcfd)tagen (slay, slew, slain). 3. Vowels a — ie or t — a. 16 verbs. Examples: fallen — fiel — gefaUen (fan, fell, fallen). i)angen — I)ing — geljoiigen (hang, hung, hung), i, Vowels ou, u, or — ie — an, u, or o. 4 verbs. Examples : (anfen — lief — getaufen, (leap) ' run.' rnfcn — rief — g'eriifen, ' cry.' ftofeen — fticJ3 — gcftojjen, ' thrust.' 266. Third Class. Verbs having the same vowel in the preterit and participle. 268j OLD CONJraATION. 113 III. 1. Towels et — t — i. 22 verbs. Example: bctgen — big — gebiffcn (bite, bit, bitten). 2. Vowels et — te — ie. 16 verbs. Example: treiben — trieb — getrieben (drive, drove, driven). These two divisions differ only in the length of the vowel of the preterit and participle. One verb, f|eigcit, has the participle gel)ei6ett (below, 267) 3. Vowels ie or it — o — O, 24 verbs (only 3 with ii). Examples : fltegen — flog — geffogen (fly, flew, flown). liigett — log — gelogeit, ' lie ' (speak falsely). 4. Vowels avt — — 0. 4 verbs. Example : faugen — fog — gefogen, ' suck.' 5. Vowels t, e, (i, ij, or a — o — o. 20 verbs. Examples: Ktmrtten — flontm — geflotnmeit, ' climb.' tteben — toob — geiroben (weave, wove, woven). Wagen — tnog — gettiogen, 'weigh.' fcbtDoren — jdirDor — gefihjoren (swear, swore, sworn). fc^allen — fa)ott — gefd^oUen, ' sound.' All the verbs in this division are stragglers, irregularly altered from other modes of conjugation. Of those having e in the infinitive (like toeben) there are eleven ; of the other forms, only one, two, or three each. 6. Vowels t — u — It. 2 verbs. Example : fc^inben — fdjunb — geft^unben, ' flay.' These, also, are stragglers, from I.l. 267. Veris loith irregular chamge of vowel. 1. hmmeu — tarn — ge!omtlteit (come, came, come): an exception under 1.3, the original vowel of the infinitive being e. 2. IjeiSen — tjteg — geljeigen, ' be called: ' an exception under III. 2, as noted above. 3. ge^eit — gitig — gegaiigen, 'go : ' an exception under II.3, the original infinitive being gaitgon. 4. fte^eit — ftanb — geftaitbcii, ' stand : ' in Old High-G-erman, belonging to 11.2 (ftantan — ftuont — jlantoit). 5. t^un — t^at — gct^ait (do, did, done). In tljat (Old High-Grerman tetfl) is preserved a solitary relic of the original reduplication uf the preterit tense (as also in our corresponding word did) : its final t is that of the root ; its initiaJ t^ (t) that of the reduplicating syllable. See the author's "Language and the Study of Language," p. 268. Formation and Inflection of the Simple Verbal Forms. 268. Present Tense. The first person singular and all the plural persons of the present indicative, together with the whole of the pre 116 VERBS. [268- Bent subjunctive, are, without exception, regularly formed (see 237), and need no remark. But the second and third persons singular of the indicative are subject to various irregularities. 1. Verbs having e as radical vowel in the first person change it to te or t in the second and third — short e becoming t, and long e beconiing te (that is, long i : see 18) : thus, tjelfc, ^ilfft, ^ttft ; ftet)te, ftietjlft, ftiet]It ; effen, iffeft, ii3t ; fct)en, fte[)ft, fief|t. But a. A few verbs leave the e unohaaged : namely, gc^eit, fte^en, l^eSni, treljcit, (Jftcgcn, bewegen, metlcn, gencfcii — besides a few whicli here, as in others of their forms, follow the New conjugation. t. Two or three verbs that have long e in the first person shorten it to i in the second and third : namely, nctjmen, ntmtnft, tliltltnt ; tueten, ttittft, tritt. ®cben makes either giebft, gtebt, or gtbft, gibt. 2. Verbs haying a as radical vowel in the first person modify it (to a) in the second and third : thus, trage, tragft, tragt ; toffeit, lafeeft, lagt. But a. The a remains unchanged in fl^nffra and fcftaHcn, and in other verbs which substitute in part the forms of the ITew conjugation. 3. Soufen, {aufen, and (logen also modify the vowel in the same persons; !ommen does so sometimes, but not according to the best usage : toldjeu forms Ufd)eft, lifd^t. 4. gliegcn and about a dozen other verbs of its class (III.3) have a second and third person in eu — as ftiege, fleugft, fleugt ; liigc, leugft, teiigt— which are now antiquated and only met with in archaic and poetic style. One or two that have roots ending in I), change this letter to dj after eu. 6. The tendency to reject the e of the endings eft and et is stronger in these persons with altered vowel than anywhere else in conjugation. The e of eft is rarely retained except after a sibilant — as in erttftl)cft, Icigeft, given above. The e of et is always omitted, even when preceded by t, t^, b ; hence, after these letters, the t, being no longer audible, is also dropped in writing. The verbs which thus lose the ending of the third pers. sing. pres. indi- cative are fci^ten, ftif|t ; berften, btrft ; fte^tcn, flic^t ; getten, gttt; Idjelten, fdjtlt ; toerben, wtrb ; gotten, ^ott ; ratten, vot^ ; braten, brat ; bieten, beut. Only (aben forms Ifibt. 269. Preterit Tense. I. 1. The preterit indicative is formed by the change of radical vowel alone, without an added termination, and therefore ends in the final letter of the root, whatever that may be. But 269j OLD CONJUGATION. 117 a. A few roots, ending in tbe infinitive with a double consonant, and lengthening tbeir vowel in the preterit, reduce the double consonant to a single one: namely, fdjreden, fdjvaf; treffen, traf ; bitten, Dat ; bacfcn, buf ; fdjaffen, fctpf ; fatten, pet ; fommen, fam. h. A few others (fifteen), on the contrary, shortening their vowel in the preterit, double the following consonant; and three of tliem, ending in b, change it to tt : namely, letben, litt; fdjncta bc'.i, fc[]nitt ; fieben, fott. All of these save three (triefcn and ftcben, III.3 ; and faufen, III.4) are of division III.] : e. g., reiteii, ritt, geritten (ride, rode, ridden). c. More isolated cases are jicljcn, gog ; l)nuen, tjieb ; ftljen, fajj. For gel)cn, giiig ; ftcljcn, ftau!) ; tfjim, tljat, see 267. 2. The second person singular strongly inclines to the abbrevi- ated form of the ending, [t instead of eft, and in ordinary use re- jects the e except after a sibilant or in order to avoid a very harsh combination of consonants. 3. Traces of an ending e in the first and third persons are, very rarely, met with; especially fntje, for fci^, 'saw:' also [jielte (R. 89.10). For romb'c, from tBerben, see 239.4c. 4. A few verbs have a double form in the preterit, of which one is in more common use, tbe other archaic or provincial. But fdimor and frf)lnur are of nearly equal authority: of the others, those most often met with are l)uD, for l)o6 (Ijcbeit, III.5), and ftuiib, for ftaiib (ftcficn). This double form (as in like cases in English : e. g., began or hegnn) is due to the ffict that in the ancient language many verbs had different vowels in the singular and plur.il of the preterit indicative, both of which, in the later usage, appear in either number of a few verbs. The vowel of the subjunctive preterit agreed with that of the indicative plu- ral, not the singular ; whence the double forms of the subjunctive, noted below. II. 1. The pi'eterit subjunctive is regularly formed from the indicative by adding c (in the first person), and modi- fying the vowel, if the latter be capable of modification : thus, fang, fange ; fat), fat)e ; fd)tug, fd)(itge ; \k\, fide ; f(og, pge ; fcJ)lt)or or fd)mur, fditnore or fd)tr)ltre ; tt)at, tljcite. But a. Some verbs have a double form of the subjunctive, of which one dif- fers in vowel from the indicative : thus, all in division 1.2 have a second in — e. g., (pann, fpfinne or fponne — which is as common as that in a, or more so ; and others (especially in 1.3) have second forms in ij or ii : e. g., gait, galtc or gbtte, Warb, hJcirbe or miirbe. All that have two indicative forms' have the two corresponding subjunctives : thus, ftanbe and ftiiube, [)obc aud l)iibe. » / The reason of this has been explained above : the subjunctive has sometimes retainea/^ the old vowel of the indicative plural, instead of becoming assimilated, with the latter, to the Indicative singular. 118 VEEBS. [270- 270. Imperative. 1. The imperative singular regularly euds in e, tte plural in et or t, adding those endings respectively to the root of the verb as shown in the infinitive : thus, ftngett, finge ; fd)(ogen, fc^tage ; m= fen, rufe ; fomnien, fomme ; ge^en, ge^e. But 2. Verbs which in the second pers. sing, of the pres. indicative change e to i or ie (268.1) take the latter also in the imperative singular (not in the plural) — at the same time rejecting the e of the ending. Thus, ^clfm, I)itf ; ftc^ten, jlie^t ; cffen, ijj ; fe^en, ftef). So, also, verbs that have an archaic second person in eu (268.4), have a corresponding archaic imperative : thus, flicgctt, ftiege or fteug. @rtB(c^eit (268.3) forma et(ifd). But verbs that modify a, -QU, to d, au, (268.2,3) retain in the imperative the unchanged vowel and the ending : thus, tragcn, trage ; Iniifen, laufe ; ftoficn, ftoge. a. Exceptions are: rtetben (Intrft) has rccrbe ; fe^en (fie^fl) has either ftel)e or fiel). 3. The e of the singular ending is dropped much more freely in the other verbs of this than in those of the New conjugation, and in some — as fomnt, l(i^ — is almost never used. 271. Past Participle. 1. The ending of the participle is ett. The e of the ending is ordinarily retained in all cases, but may be occasionally dropped, especially after a vowel or 1) : thus, ges fe[)en or gcfefin. When, however, the participle is used as an ad- jective and declined, it is subject to the same abbreviation as other adjectives ending in en (120.3) : thus, Bcrgangner Sage, 'of past days ; ' Uerfd^luuitbner $rad)t, ' of vanished splendor;' 2. A number of participles share in the irregular changes of a final radical consonant exhibited by the preterit : namely a. All those that shorten in the preterit the vowel of the infinitive (269.1, 16) : thus, reiten, ritt, getitten ; letben, Ittt, getitteit ; (aufcu, joff, ge. joffen. h. Of those that lengthen the vowel (269.I.lo), only one, namely bitten, bat, gcbrtcn ;— but treffeit, trcif, getroffen; tallen, fid, gefaUen, etc. c. Also, 5iel)en (jog), gcjogcn ; ft^eii (fag), gefeffen ; gel)cn (ging), gcgan^ gen ; ftcljen (ftanb), geftaubcn ; t{)un (tl)at), gctgan. 3. (gffcn, ' eat,' inserts g in the participle : thus gegeffeit (for ge«effen), 272. Mixed Conjugation. The same tendency which has converted a large number of the "irregular" verbs in English into "regular" has been active. 273] OLD CONJUGATION. 119 though to a much less degree, in German also. Besides those verbs which have entirely changed their mode of inflection, and therefore no longer require to be made any account of under the Old conjugation, there are others which form a part of their in- flection by the one method and a part by the other, or which have equivalent forms of either conjugation. Thus, 1. Some have a double series of forms through the whole or nearly the whole conjugation: the forms of the Old conjugation being then either poe- tic and unusual (as in tuebeu), or else belonging to the verb in certain spe- cial meanings (as in UJiegen) or in its intransitive use (as in blcidjen). 2. Some have certain forms of either conjugation — especially the second and third pers. ind. present and second sing, imperative, with differences of use as above stated ; most often with intransitive meaning for the old forms: such are fdjrecfcn, uerbcrben, ftcben, lb(cf)en, fc^meljeu, fc^inetten, and others. 3. Some have retained only a participle of the Old conjugation ; and even that in special uses or connections. The participle is in general the form that has maintained itself most persistently. These irregularities, as well as those which are explained in more detail above, will be best exhibited in a table of ibregd- LAR VERBS, givcu at the end of this volume. — 273. Examples of Verbs of the Old Conjugation. SBinben (1.1). ^ommen (267.1). Principal Parts. ttnben, Battb, ge6uttben. fotnntm, fattt, gelommen. Indicative. Present, 'Ibmd,'6to. ' I come,' etc. S.I 6inbc • fonttne 2 Hnbeji lomtnfi 3 binbct !ointttt P.I binbcn fommen 2 Btnbet !ommt 3 fitnben lommen Preterit, 'I ' bound,' etc. ' I came,' etc. s,i banb !am 2 banbjlt !ainjt 3 banb fant p. I banbett fatnen 2 banbet famt 3 bnnbcit tamen 120 VEEBS. [273 Perfect, ' I have bound,' etc. ' I have come,' eta 3.1 ^a6e gcbunben etc. bin gcfomraen etc. Pluperfect, ' I had bound,' etc. ' I had come,' eta S.I ^attc gcbunben etc. hjar gefomnten etc. Future, ' I shall bind,' etc ' I shall come,' eta S.I nierbe binben hjevbe fontmen eta eta lui. Per/., ' I shall have bound,' etc. ' I shall have come,' etc. B.I merbe gebunben ^obett eta hjerbe gcJomnten jein eta Subjunctive. Present, ' I may bind,' etc ' I may come,' etc. S.I binbe !omme 2 bmbcfl 3 binbe fontnteft tomme P.I binben fontmen 2 binbet fomntet 3 binben fontmen Preterit, ' I might bind,' eta 'I might come,' eta S.I bcinbe fame 2 bonbefi 3 bttnbe fameji fomc P.I bttnben lamcn 2 banbet famet 3 bonben fiimen Perfect, 'I may have bound,' eto. ' I may have come,' eta S.I I}abe gebunbcn eta fei gefommen etc. Pluperf., 'I might have bound,' etc. ' I might have come,' etc, 8.1 ^otte gebunben eta Mxt gefommcn etc. 273j OLD CONJUGATION. 121 Future, ' T shall bind,' etc. 8.1 iDcrbe Muben etc. Put. Perf., ' I shall have bound,' etc. S.I loerbe ge6unben ^aben etc. ' I shall come,' etc. toevbe !otnmen etc. ' I shall have come,' etc. tnerbe gefommcn fettt etc. Conditional. Conditional, 'I should bind,' etc. S.I tniirbe 6tnben etc. Cond. Perf. 'I should have bound,' etc. B.I hJiirbe gebunbcn f|o6en etc. ' I should come,' etc. tuiirbe !otnmen etc. 'I should have come,' etc. hjitvbe gcfommen fcin etc. ' bind,' etc. S.2 binbe 3 binbe et P.I binben ttjir 2 binbet 3 binben fie Present, ' to bind ' binben Perfect, 'to have bound' gcbunben ^aben Present, ' binding ' binbenb Past, 'bound' gebunben Impekative. ' come,' etc. tommc, fomiu fomBie er fommen tcir !ontmt fommen jie Infinitive. ' to come ' fommen ' to have come ' gefommen fein Participles. ' coming ' fommenb 'come' gefommen Exercise XVIII. Verhs of the Old Conjugation. 1. 2Bo8 ^aben fte in meinem ©arten gct^an? 2. ginige fo^en ouf ben SSiiufcu, anbere tagen unter ben Saumen ; h)ir fpracfjen jufammcn, imb fangen imfeve ^'icber. 3. 2Baren wir nic£)t gefommen, l)attcn fie 122 VEEBS. [274- un« nie gefunben. 4. gr ioar bom ®ac^e gefaHen, unb ^atte ficf| em aSein gch-ocI}en ; bte ^leine fal) e«, t)ob i^it ouf, unb trug t^n inS ^av.S ; je^t ticgt er im SSette, unb mug »ie( leiben. 5. |)ilf nra, unb icf) ttei-be bit »ieber fietfen. 6. ®er SSogel fitegt in ber guft, bii gifdje fcfiraimmen im SBaffer, unb bie gSiirmer imd)tn ouf ber grbe. 7. aSir morf)ten fjier bleikn unb jTeigig f^reiben. . Passive Voice. Y' 274. The passive voice is a derivative conjugation of a transitive verb, in wliich that person or thing vphich in the simple conjugation is the object of the transitive action, becomes a subject of the suffering of that action : thus, active, ber |)unb W^ ben Snabeu, ' the dog bit the boy ; ' passive, ber Snabe wurbe bom §unbe gebiffen, ' the boy was bitten by the dog.' a. That a "kind of passive is also fonned from some intransitive verba ia pointed out below (279.2,3). b. The passive is mainly a grammatical device for directing the principal attention to the recipient of the action, and the action as affecting him, and putting the actor in a subordinate position. 275- The German passive, like the English, is formed by the aid of an auxiliary verb— but by a different one, namely the verb inerben, ' become.' 276. 1. To form the passive of any verb, its past participle is combined with merben, throughout the whole conjugation of the latter. In this combination, a. The past participle of the auxiliary, wherever it occurs, is abbreviated from gemorbctt to hjorbcn. b. The participle of the main verb is put after the proper verbal forms (simple tenses) of the auxiliary, but before its infini- tives or participles. This is in accordance with the general rule for the position of any word limiting an infinitive or participle: see below, 348.'-i,358. 2. Hence, to produce any given person, tense, and mood of the passive of a verb, combine its past participle with the corresponding person, tense, and mood of ttierbcit. 277] PASSIVE. 123. 277. Synopsis of the Forms of ircrbeit and of a Passive Verb. Indioativk. ' 1 am loved ' etc. Present, ' I become,' etc. S.I iDcrbe Preterit, ' I tecame,' etc. s.i luarb, ititrbe Perfect, ' I have become,' etc. I bin gemorben Pluperfect, ' I had become,' etc I h)ar geltiovbcn Future, 'I shall become,' etc. 6.1 iDcvbe tDcrben Put. Perf,, ' I shall have become,' etc. S.I itjcrbe gciDorbeit fein Subjunctive, s, 8, Werbe geliebt ' I was loved,' etc. tcavb, ttiurbe gcIicbt ' I have been loved,' etc. bin gettebt morben ' I had been loved,' etc. lt)ar geliebt motben ' I shall be loved,' etc. iotxhe geliebt irerben ' I shall have been loved,' eta ttiei'be getiebt njorben fein Present, ' I may become,' etc. S.I merbe Preterit, ' I might become,' etc. S.I rtiirbe Perfect, ' I may have become,' etc. S.I fci gemorben Pluperfect, 'I might have become,' etc. S.I luave geiBOvbcn Future, ' I shall become,' etc. 8.1 niei'be wcvben Fat. Perf., 'I shall have become,' etc. 8.1 luerbe gclBorben fein Conditional, ' I may be loved,' etc. iDerbe geliebt ' 1 might be loved,' etc. tritrbe geliebt ' I may have been loved,' etc. fci geliebt raorben ' I might have been loved,' etc luave geliebt ttiorben ' I shall be loved,' etc. luevbe geliebt toerben ' I shall have been loved,' eta njevbe getiebt njorben fein Conditional, ' I should become,' eta S.I mitrbe h)erben Oond. Perf., ' I should have become,' etc. S.I ttjitrbe gemorben fein Imperative. ' I should be loved,' etc. tniivbe gettebt njerben ' I should have been loved,' etc. nsiirbe gettebt hjovbcn fein ' become,' etc. tuerbe ' be loved,' etc. ttjerbe getiebt 124 VEEBS. [277- Infinitives. Present, ' to become ' ' to be loved ' nierben gctiebt luerben Perfect, ' to have become ' ' to have been loved ' getrorben fein geltebt njorbcn fein Participles. Present, ' becoming ' ' being loved ' raevbenb getiefit tuerbeub Past, ' become ' ' been loved ' geirovben gelieM iiiovben Remark: getiebt Worbeit is used only in forming the compound tenses; since the past participle of a transitive verb has by itself a passive value. 278. The passive voice of a transitive verb has one peculiar form, a kind oi future passive participle, formed from the pre- sent active participle, by putting ^n before it : thus, ju Itebcnb. It implies a possibility or a necessity : thus, etn ,5U ttebenbcS ^tnb, ' a child to be loved ; ' i. e., ' which may or should be loved.' It can only be used as an attributive adjective, and therefore hardly de- serves to be called a participle ; it is, rather, a participial adjective. It is in reality a quite raoclem and anomalous derivative from the infinitive, answ'ering attributively to the infinitive with Jii taken precUctttively (343.111.1^); as, fca^ ft'inb ift ju ItL'fet'n, ' the child is to be loved ; ' i. e., ' may or should be loved.' 279. 1. Transitive verbs, with hardly an exception, may form a passive voice, with a complete scheme of conjugation, as given above. §oben, 'have,' is not used in the passive. 2. Many intransitives (especially such as denote a mode of ac- tion by a person) may form an impersonal passive — that is, a pas- sive third person singular, with indefinite subject e§, or with omit- ted subject. Thus, e8 tnurbe geladjt unb ge(ungen, 'there was laughing and singing;' lim 31iitluott tntrb g'cbeten, 'an 'answer is requested.' a. These passives do not represent any subject as suffering an action, but simply represent the action, without reference to an actor. ■ 3. Those intransitives which, by a pregnant construction (227. 26), govern an accusative along with a factitive predicate, are also convertible into passives in corresponding phrases : thus, [ic incr: ben aui bcm £rf)(nfc gefcljricen, 'they are screamed out of sle^p; cv Wurbc frci gcfprod)cn, ' he was acquitted (declared free).' 282] PASSIVE. 125 280. 1. Verbs which govern two accusatives (227.3), except Icl)ren, take in the passive the second accusative, either as object (jragen, etc ), or aa predicate nominative (ucitlicn, etc.). 2. Transitive verbs whicli, in addition to their direct object, govern a genitive (219.2) or a dative (222.1.1), retain the latter along with the passive: thus, ber 3)iencr luitrbe beS ®:ebftal)te oiigctlagt, 'the servant waa accused of robbery; ' aliei iBtvb eineni greuube evlaubt, 'everything is per- mitted to a friend.' 3. Of the intransitives that form an impersoual passive, snob as govern a genitive or dative take the same case in the passive : thus, ci luirb nteiucv gcjdiont, 'I am spared; ' ifjm murbe geljolfen, 'he waa helped.' 281. The passive is very much less frequently used in German than in English, being replaced by other modes of speech. Sometimes a full active expression, with subject and object, is employed instead. Most often, the intent of the passive form of speech is attained by using an active verb with the indefinite subject mna, 'one,' etc. (185): thus, man fagt, 'it is said;' etn Oeicts, ttic(tl)c«( man erliefi, ' a law which was passed.' Not infrequently, a reflezive phrase ia substituted, the return of the action upon the subject being accepted as signifying the latter's endurance of the action : thus, e3 fvagt fid), 'it is questioned (asks itself); ' bet @d)liiffel ^ot ftc^ gcfunbcii, ' the key has been found.' 282. 1. By its use of incrben, ' become,' instead of fein, ' be,' as auxi- liary forming the passive, the German is able clearly to distinguish between the actual endurance of an action, and existence in a state which is the result of such action. Thus, alle gcuftcr vuerben nac^ unb nad) mit Seppidjen bcl)dugt, 'all windows are by degrees hung with tapestry;' and inie al(e gcuffcv mit Kcppidjeit bchcingt finb, 'as all the windows are hung with tapestry' (R. 158); etUflclabcn ttmrbcn fte, 'they were invited,' and einge=i loben finb fie all', ' they are all invited ' (R. 50) — the latter phrases, in cither pair, signifying the condition to which the act described by the former led. As we use the same verb, to be, iu both senses, of copula and of passive auxiliary (accepting the simple statement of the resulting condition as suf- ficiently implying the suffering of the action), our expression is liable to ambiguity — an ambiguity which we are sometimes forced into removing by the use of the clumsy and objectionable phrase 'to be being:' thus distin- guishing it is being cleaned (e8 liurb gci'ciuigt) from it is cleaned (e§ ift gerei= nigt). And our sense of the distinction is so obscured that the English pupil finds it one of his greatest difSculties to know when to translate to be before a participle by fein, and when by merbcn. Only assiduous practice "in noting the distinction as made in German will remove this difficulty. A practical rule which will answer in a great number of cases is this : if, on turning the expression into an active form, the same tense (pres. or pret.) is required, it was passive and requires tuevben ; if the tense has to be changed to a perfect (perf. or plup.), fein is the proper word. Thus they were invited is fie nnirben eiiigetaben when it means ' I invited them,' but fie luaveu cin^ gclabcii when it means 'I fiad invited them; ' and finb is used in eiugElabeil fmb fie oU', because it means, 'I have invited them.' 2. The German itself sometimes loosely accepts the statement of condition, with the pres. or pret. of fein, in lieu of the full passive expression in pcrf or pluperfect. Thus, bev gifc^ mac gcfattgen, ' the fish had been caught 126 VEKBS. [232- (for umr gcfaitgcu ttjovben) ; ftc ift crmovbet ouf bcr Sonbtter ©trage, 'she has been murdered, in London street.' y EEFLEXIVE VEEBS. 283. A reflexive verb is one that represents the action as exerted by the subject upon itself. 1. Such verbs are grammatically transitive, since they take an object in the accusative: they all, then, take (jafcen as their auxi- liary. 2. Logically, they are rather to be regarded as intransitive, since they do not signify an action exerted by the subject upon any object oulside of itself: thus icf) fiirdjte mid) (literally, 'I frighten myself), 'I am afraid.' is in idea as much intrauaitive as id) jittere, ' I tremble.' And, as noticed above (281), a reflexive verb is often used even in a passive sense, the idea of the endurance of the action ou the part of the subject being more con- spicuous to the mind than that of its exertion of the action. 284. Such a verb, therefore, takes as its object a re- flexive pronoun, of the same person and number with its subject. 1. The reflexive pronouns of the first and second persons are the same as the personal; that of the third person is fic^, in both numbers (155). 2. The reflexive pronoun is placed where any other pronoun would be placed as object of the verb: namely, after the verb in the simple tenses, but before the infinitives and participles. 285. Conjugation of a Reflexive Verb. ©icf) frcuen, 'to rejoice' ('rejoice one's self). Principal Parts. ®tc^ freuen, fveute fid), gefreut. Indicative. Subjunctive. Present. S.I iS] frcue mi^ id) freue mid) 2 bu fvcucft bic^ bu freucft bid^ 3 cr frcitt fid) cr freue fid) P.I rttr frcuen un§ tntr freuen nnS 2 it)r frcut cud) il)r freuet end) 3 ftc freuen fi^ fie freuen fi^ Preterit S.I i^ freute mi^ id) freuete mid) etc. etc. 285] REFLEXIVES. 127 S.I id) ijaht miij gefreut 2 bu ^oft bid) gefreut 3 er Ijat fid) gefi'eut P.I tt)ir Ijciben unS gefreut 2 i^r ^abt cud) gefreut 3 fie tioben fic^ gefreut S.I ic^ ^tte mic^ gefreut etc. S.I 2 3 P.I 2 Pluperfect. id^ f)a6e mid) gefreut bu [)abeft bid) gefreut er [)abe fid) gefreut h)ir I)atien ung gefreut i()r I)abet eud) gefreut fie ()a[)en fic^ gefreut id) t)atte mic^ gefreut etc. id) inerbe mid) freuen bu luirft bid) freuen er iuirb fid) freuen >tiir nierben unS freuen ir}r luerbet eud) freuen 3 fie iuerben fid) freuen Fuiv/re. id) h)erbe midj freuen bu tnerbeft bic^ freuen er inerbe fid) freuen Juir inerben ung freuen i£)r iDcrbet eud) freuen fie toerbcn fid) freuen Future Perfect. 8.1 id) luerbe mid) gefreut t)aben ic!^ tuerbe mic^ gefreut l^aben etc. etc. Conditional. Conditional. Gandiiional Perfect. 8.1 i^ ftjiirbe ntid) fi'euen ic^ nsiirbe mi^ gefreut ^ben etc. etc. Imperative. lingular. Plural. 1 freuen tuir unS 2 freue bid), freue bu bic^ freut eud), freut i^r euc^ 3 freue cr fid) freuen fie fic^ Infinitive. Present. Perfect. fid) freuen fid) gefreut ^ben Participles. Present. Past. fid) freucnb firf) gefreut Remarks. 1. The reflexive pronoun is not given with the participle in (lie principal parts, since, that participle being intransitive verbs of a passive character, it can take no object except as used with an auxiliary in forming the compound tenses. 128 VEEB8. [2C5- 2. The ftc^ given with the infinitives and participles is, of course, only representative of the -whole body of reflexive pronouns, with all of which those forms, not being restricted to any one person or number, may be con- strued. 286. Any transitive verb in tlie language may be used re- flexively, or take a reflexive pronoun as object ; but none are properly regarded as reflexive verbs except 1. Those wbich are only used with a reflexive object: as, fid) fdjiimeu, ' be ashamed ; ' fid) feljncn, ' long ; ' fid) luiberfcljcii, ' resist.' 2. Those which are usually or often used reflexively, and have a special meaning in that use, the object not maintaining its inde- pendence, but combining with the verb to form a single concep- tion, the equivalent of an intransitive verb : as, fid) I)iitcu, ' be- ware ' (()ltten, 'guard') ; fief) ftcden, 'make believe, pretend' (ftet Icn, ' place ') ; fid) Ucilaffcn, ' rely ' (uevlaffcn, ' quit '). 287. 1. A reflexive verb is thus often related to the simple verb as a corresponding intransitive to a transitive — thus, frcucn, 'give pleasure to,' fid) fvcucii, 'feel pleasure;' fiirdjten, 'fear,' fid) fiird)teu, 'be afraid.' But 2. A few are intransitive, and of nearly the same meaning, both as simple verbs and as reflexives : thus, irren and fid) irrcn, 'be mistaken; ' nnljen and fid) ualjen, 'draw nigh; ' jcinfett and fid) 3anfcn, 'quarrel.' 288. 1. An intransitive verb is much more often used transitively (227.26) with a reflexive object than with one of another character ; thus, er arbettct uub Uiuft fid) tobt, 'he works and runs himself to death ; ' bit (oUft bid) Einttml fatt effen, 'thou shalt eat thyself to repletion for once.' 2. An intransitive reflexive is sometimes used impersonally instead of an intransitive passive (279.2), especially with adverbs of manner, to express the action itself, without reference to a subject: thus, eS tanjt fid) l)ter gut, ' it is good dancing here ; ' Icbl)aft triiumt fid)'6 unter bic(em iBaiini, ' it is lively dreaming under this tree ; ' e« fieljt ftd) gar artig in bie A^lttfd)ejt Ijincin. ' it is very pretty looking into the carriages.' 289. 1. A considerable number of reflexive verbs take an ad- ditional remoter object (impersonal) in the genitive (219.3). a. The construction of a reflexive verb with the genitive is notably easier than of the same verb used otherwise than reflexively — thus, id) eriniierc mid) ntciueS 3.*evgel)cn«, 'I remember (remind myself of) my fault,' but id) crinncrc il)n nn (ein 58erge[)eit, 'I remind him of his fault' — yet many of these also frequently make their constructioa by the aid of a preposition, and many others admit only a prepositional construction : thus, ic^ Certaffe mid) auf il)n, 'I rely on him.' 2. Only two or three reflexives take a remoter object in the dative: such are ftct) ualjcn, 'approach,' fid) )uibcr(ct3cn, 'oppose,' fid) bequcmeti, 'submit' 292] IMPEESONAI-S. 120 290. A small number of verbs are used with a reflexive ob- iect in the dative, in a manner quite analogous with the true re flexive verbs, and therefore form a class of improj)er reflexives. a. Most of these require in addition a direct object in the accusative : thus, id) majje mtr teiii Unred^t an, 'I make no unjust claim; ' id) bi\bt iniv baS nid)t etn, 'I do not imagine that;' bu gettoueft bir Uicl, 'thou darestmuch.' But fid) jc^meic^eln, ' flatter one's self,' is intransitive. IMPERSONAL VERBS. 291. 1. An impersonal verb, or a verb used imperson- ally, is one hy means of which the action implied in the verb is represented as exerted, without reference to a sub- ject or actor. 2. Such a verb stands always in the third person singu- lar, and either without a subject, or, more usually, with the indefinite subject c§, 'it.' Thus, c? vcgtiet, 'it rains,' i.e. 'there is rain falling;' e8 !(o))ft, 'it knocks,' i.e. ' there is a knocking; ' am OangeS buftet'S unb (cuc^tct'g, ' on the Ganges are sweet odors and shining sights ; ' mid) biinft, ' me seems,' le. 'it seems to mo; ' i()it ^ungcrtc, ' him hungered,' i.e. 'he was hungry.' 292. Ko verbs in German are absolutely and exclusive- ly impersonal : verbs impersonally used may be classified as follows : 1. Verbs describing the phenomena of nature, which are almost invariably impersonal in virtue of their meaning : thus, eS ^agclt, ' it hails ; ' eS ^t gcfdineit, ' it has snowed ; ' eS lt)irb bonnern unb bliljen, ' it will thunder and lighten.' 2. Certain verbs which by the idiom of the language are ordi- narily used in an impersonal form : as biiitten and baud)tcn, ' seem ; ' getiiften, ' desire ; ' gelingen, ' prove successful ; ' and a number of verbs signifying personal conditions and feelings, as (jungcvu, ' hunger,' bitrftcn, ' thirst,' frieren, ' freeze,' fc^minbehi, ' be giddy,' grnuen, ' be horror-struck,' etc. u. AH this class of impersonala take an object designating- the person affected by their action, or the subject of the feeling or condition they describe : some take an accusative, others a dative, others either an accusa- tive or dative (222.ILle ; 227.'2c) : thus, mid) gcliiftete iud)t nod) bem t^eureii fcil)n, ' I should not long for the costly prize ; ' biitftet bcincu gcinb, fo trdulc tl)n, ''if thine enemy is thirsty, give him to drink ; ' mir grauet Oor ber ©ottet 9ici'be, 'I dread the envy of the gods; ' eg biiiitt mir or mid), 'it seems to me.' 6* 130 VEEBS. [292- 3. Almost any rerb, transitive or intransitive, is liable to occur in impersonal use — if transitive, along v?ith its ordinary object. Thus, luic fteljt'S mif belt ®Bttern, 'how fares it with the gods ? ' evi)et)t'c euc^ iDot)!, 'if -it goes well with you; ' eS fctjlte an Sjol^, 'there was lack of wood; ' ploislid) vegt eg fid) tnt 3tot)rc, 'suddenly there is a rustling in the reeds;' c3 treibt il)n ben ^^U'ciS ju erroevbcn, 'he is impelled to gain the prize;' cs evforbert eine ©reljung, 'it requires a turning;' eg beburf bcr 3(unal)me nidjt, 'it needs not the assumption.' a. The very common use of eg giebt, ' it gives ' (i. e. ' there are given or furnished'), in the senseof 'there is or are,' with following accusative, requires special notice: thus, ba gab eg >3d)aufe(ftiil)le, 'there were rocking-chairs there; ' eg giebt Bieic, bie alter finb, 'there are many who are older;' bafi eg Weuiger El)riftcu gfibc a(g Saroceneu, ' that there were fewer Christians than Saracens.' 4. Impersonal phrases formed with the verbs fein and iDcrbcu along with adverbial or adjective adjuncts, describing personal conditions or states of feeling, and always accompanied by a da- tive designating the person to whom such conditions belong, are very frequent. Thus, niir ift ganj anberg ju 2JJutl), ' I feel quite otherwise (it is to me quite otherwise in mind);' i()m War fo bange, 'he was so apprehensive; ' mie mir luof)l ift, 'how well I feel 1 ' mie ift mir benn, 'how is it with me then ? ' — nun ioirb mir immer banger, ' now I grow more and more anxious ; ' tt)ie We^ iuivb mir, "how I am beginning to suffer I ' je tdlter eg ift, bcfto l^etger mirb mir, ' the colder it is, the hotter 1 become ; ' il)m ift'g, alg ob'g it)n t)iniiberrtef', ' he feels as if he were invited across.' 5. Impersonal expressions are often made from intransitive verbs in a passive or reflexive form (see 279.2, 288.2). Thus, t)eute abenb h)irb getonjt toerben, 'there will be dancing this evening; ' eg fifet fid) fd)led)t [)ier, 'it is disagreeable sitting here.' 293. The impersonal subject e§ is (as is abundantly shown by the examples already given) very often omitted — not, however, with the impersonais describing the phenomena of nature; nor, generally, with verbs which are not of common use in impersonal form: but, as a rule, with verbs which are of common impersonal use, whenever the cti would, by the rules for the arrangement of the sentence, come elsewhere than in its natural place next before the verb. That is, especially in the cases mentioned in sections 2, 4, and 5 of the last paragraph, whenever the object of the impersonal verb, or an adjunct qualifying the verb, is placed before it— and the putting of the object first, w'th consequent omission of eg, is the more usual construction. 294. Since the impersonal verb represents the simple action without reference to an acting subject, such impersonais as talce 297] IMPEESONALS. 131 an object, direct or indirect, representing the person or tiling affected by the action or condition, are virtually equivalent to pas- sives or intransitives, having that person or thing as their subject — and they often may or must be so rendered in English. Many of the examples given above have been so rendered, and those with jcin or Werbeu hardly admit of being treated otherwise : thus, further, eo erforbett eine ®rel)itng, ' a turning is required ; ' eg bcbarf bcr ilunaljme lticf)t, 'the assumption is not needed.' 295. A verb having the indefinite subject c8, 'it,' is not always to be regarded as hnpersoual: the ea sometimes represents indefinitely a subject which is contemplated by the mind, and admits of being definitely stated: yet more often, e3 is a grammatical subject ouly, standing for a logical subject which is to be stated later, whether a substantive clause, an infinitive clause, or a simple substantive: thus, eg fieut unS, bafe fiie l)ier ftnb, ' it rejoices us that you are here ; ' eg ftcut una, t^ie ju fel)cu, ' it re- joices us to see you ; ' eg fteut ung bte(e 9Jad)ri(^t, ' this news rejoices us.' Exercise XIX. Passive, Reflexive, and Impersonal Verbs. V 1. ©or ftci^ige ©ijitter Inirb gelobt, ahtx man tobelt ben tragen. 2. 3)cr Svicf inivb balb gefdjricben tDcvbcn ; unb fobalb er gcfc[)viekn ift, inirb cv Don imi jur ■(Joft getrogen tocrben. 3. '^ai y3ud) tutvb icljt gcbvurft, unb mtvb 6a(b BoUcnbet fein. 4. ®iefcr §ut ift ticrfauft, unb lanu nid)t gefauft inerben. 5. Sffitr freuten un^, alg er fo getobt muvbc ; man lofate t()n ttjcil feiuc Slufgoben gut gcfc()rteben luaren. C. Odj fd)iime mtdi, fo oft bauon ^gefpvod^en luirb. 7. ©u foUteft bid) fd}amcn alS bie Zi)ai get^an idCirbc ; unb je^t intcber, lueil fie gctljan ift ; nid)t nur, inenn fie son anbern befprodien mivb. 8. SBcr ift bie« fer SJiann ; id) evinncre mic^ feiner nid)t. J COMPOUND VERBS. "~~ 296. Verbs, in German, admit of composition with various other parts of speech — with nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. The importance and frequent use of certain classes of these com- pounds render it necessary that they be treated here, rather than later, under the general subject of the composition of words. 297. Yerbs are compounded especially with a class of elements called prefixes. These are all of kindred deri- vation, being originally adverbs, words signifying place or direction ; but they have become divided in modern use into two well-marked classes : 132 VEEBS. [29'- 1. Prefixes which are also employed as independent parts of speech, adverbs or prepositions. These form a less intimate union with the verb, being separable from it in many of its forms ; they are therefore called separable PEEEixEs, and a verb in combination with them is said to be SEPAEABLT COMPOUNDED. 2. Prefixes whidi, in their present form, occur only in combination with verbs, and never admit of separation from verbal forms (or verbal derivatives) : tliey are called iNSEPAEABLB PREFIXES, and ' the vei'b with them is said to be mSEPAEABLT COMPOUNDED. But 3. A few independent prefixes sometimes form with verbs combinations after the manner of the inseparable prefixes, and therefore require to be treated as a class by themselves. Verbs separably Compounded. 298. The class of separable prefixes is divided into two sub- classes, simple and compound. 1. The simple separable prefixes (including those sometimes also usgd as inseparable — see 308 etc.) are : a6, ' off, down ' fort, ' forth, away ' ob, ' over, on ' on, 'on, at' gcgen, 'against' -iibev, 'over' auf, ' up, upon ' in, ' in ' ^ um, ' around ' au8, ' out, from ' £)eim, ' home ' - unter, ' under ' fiet, ' by, beside, with ' ^er, ' toward one ' bov, ' before ' Ba or ) , there at ' ^'"' ' ^''°™ °°® ' "" *"'^^'- °^ \ ' sg'^^st ' or bcir, f ' — Winter, ' behind ' - toieber, ) ' again ' • burd^, 'through' mtt, 'with' toeg, 'away' etn, ' in, into ' nac^, 'after' 3", 'to' emtJor, 'up, aloft' nieber, ' down ' guriitf, 'back' entjroet, ' in two, apart ' jujammen, ' together ' 2. The compound separable prefixes are a. Combinations of many of the above with one another, especially with the words of more general direction or place l)er, I)in, bo or bar, Bor : as l^eron, l)inan, bsron. Boron. 6. One or two combinations of the above with preceding inseparable prefixes: namely, betior, 'before,' eutgcgen, 'against' (this, however, is really derived from in=gegen). 300J SEPAEABLE COMPOUNDS. 133 c. ®a3ltii([^en, ' between ' (jwifdjen by itself ia not used as a prefix), and Ijintait, 'behind' (contracted from ^iittcn an). Note that, of those given in the list above, several are really compound adverbs (empor, entjroei, juriicJ, jujaiiimen), although not made up of two difl'erent prefLies. 299. Conjugation of Verbs compounded with Separable Pre- fixes. The conjugation of a compound verb is in general tlie same with that of the simple verb: only one or two mat- ters regarding the treatment of the prefix reqaire notice; 1. The prefix stands before the verb in the infinitive and both participles, but after it in all the other simple forms. a. In the former case, the prefix is written with the verb as a sinpflo word; in the latter case it is, of course, separated from it; and, if the verb be followed by other adjuncts — as objects, ad- verbs, etc. — the prefix usually and regularly stands last, at the end of the whole clause : thus, from anfaiigen, ' begin,' id) faiigc an, 'I begin;' id) ftng bicfeu 9)Jorgen friil) ^u ftubiren on, 'I began early this morning to study.' b. But if, by the rules for the arrangement of the sentence (434), the verb is transposed, or removed to the end, it comes, even in the simple forms, to stand after its prefix, and is then written as one word with it : thus, ate ic^ biefen SlJoigen fcii^ ju ftubiren anfiug, 'as I began to study early this morning.' 2. The ordinary sign of the past participle, gc, is inserted between the separable prefix and the root ; also the sign of the infinitive, 3U, whenever used. Thus, angcfongen, ' begun ; ' an^ufangen, ' to begin : ' in the lat- ter case, as the example shows, the verb is written Song with its infinitive sign and prefix, as one word. \ 3. The prefix has the principal accent. ''-A 300. Examples: onfongen, 'begin' (II.3); l^eronna^eit, * draw nigh.' Principal Parts. ottfangen, fing an, ongefmigcn §eranna[)cn, na^tc ^eran, ^crangeno^t. 134 VEEBS. [300- Indicative. Present, ' I begin,' etc. ' I draw nigh,' etc S.I fange an nafje Ijcran 2 fangft an nat}ft Ijeran 3 fcingt an nat)t (jeran P.I fangen an not^en ^eran 2 fangt an na^t ^evan 3 fangen an nat)cn ^eran Preterit, ' I began,' etc. 'I drew nigh,' etc. 8.1 fing an na^te ^eran Perfect, ' I have begun,' etc. ' I have drawn uigh,' etc. S.I tjabe angefangen bin [)erangcna{)t Pluperfect, ' I had begun,' etc. 'I had drawn nigh,' etc. S.I ^tte angefangen iuar ()crangenat)t Future, ' I shall begin,' etc. ' 1 shall draw nigh,' etc. 8.1 merbe anfangen toerbe f)erannor)en lut. Perf., ' I shall have begun,' etc. ' I shall have drawn nigh,' etc. S.I loerbe ongefangen i)ahn iBcrbe (jerangenaljt fein Subjunctive. Present, ' I may begin,' etc. ' I may draw nigh,' etc. S.I fange an naf)e ^eran etc., etc. etc , etc. Conditional. Conditimal, ' I should begin,' etc. ' I should draw nigh,' etc s.i toiirbe anfangen iDurbe tjerannafjen etc., etc etc., etc. Imperative. 'begin,' etc. ' draw nigh,' etc. S.2 fange an, fange bu on nat)e fjeran, notje bu t)cran 3 fange cr an natje er Ijevan etc. etc Infinitites. Present, ' to begin ' ' to draw nigh ' anfangen, anjufangen t)eranna[)cn, ^cran;,nnar)en Perfect, ' to have boguu ' ' to have drawn pigh ' angefangen t}abeu {)«vangcual)t fein 304] insepaea.ble compounds. 135 Participles. Present, ' beginning ' ' drawing nigh ' anfangenb ^erannaf)enb Past, ' begun ' ' drawn nigh ' ongefangen ^erangend)t 301. 1. The meaning of the simple verb is often greatly altered by its composition with a prefix, as in anfangen, 'begin,' literally 'take hold on: ' in other cases, each member of the compound retains its independent meaning nearly unchanged. 2. When the combination is of the latter character, no absolute line is to be established dividing the employment of the prefix as prefix from its use as independent adverb: and there are many instances in which the prefix (ospeoiaUy a rompound one) is treated in both ways indifferently, and either written with the verb or separated from it ; thus, IDO mnn magcr I)tUEtn geljt unb fett l)evauS fommt (or, f|inctnge£)t, ^erauatommt), 'where one goes in lean and comes out fat.' Verbs inseparably Compounded. 302. The inseparable prefixes are be, ent (or imp), er, ge, »er, and jer. These prefixes are, most of them, traceably descended from those of the other class : their original form and present ofSce will be explained below (307). 303. They remain in close combination with the verb to which they are attached, through its whole conjugation, forming with it, as their name denotes, an inseparable combination, of which the radical syllable, and not the prefix, receives the accent. Hence, 1. The sign of the infinitive, 311, is put before the combi- nation (and separated in writing from it), as if it were a simple verb. 3. The sign of the participle, ge, is omitted altogether. Since, as was pointed ouf above (243.3ffi), this is never prefixed to an unaccented syllable, itforeover, the ge is itself an inseparable prefix, and no verbal form is ever allowed to have two inseparable prefixes. 304. Examples : kgitmen, ' begin ' (1.2), cen-eifen, 'jour- ney away.' 136 TEEBS. [304- Principal Parts. beginnen, begonn, 6 egonnen seiTeifen, Uevreiftc, be Indicative. bcginne berreife bcgamt berreifte babe bcgonnen bin bevveift I)atte begonncrt wax berretft fticvbe beginnen iuerbe berreifcn hjevbc begonnen ^ab en inerbe berreift fetn Subjunctive. beginne betretfe begannc or begonne berreifete etc., etc. etc., etc. Conditional. iDiiibc beginnen wiirbe berreifen etc., etc. etc., eta Imperative. bcginnc beneife Infinitives. beginnen, 5U beginnen Berreifen, ^u berreifen begonnen ^aben berreift fetn Participles. beginnenb berreifenb begonnen beneift 305. A few inseparably compounded verbs are further com- pounded with a separable prefix. Such combine the peculiarities of both modes of conjugation, taking no ge in the participle, and interposing ^n of the infinitive between the two prefixes : thus, onerleuncn, ' recognize,' anjucrtennen, ertannte an, onerfannt. a. Some of these, however — as onbetreffen, auferfteljcn, an?cr(efcn, einBcv= Icibcn, Borentljalten — are never used except in such verbal forms, or in such arrangements of the sentence, as require the separable prefix to stand before the verb: thus, q[8 (JtjriftitS ailferftanb, 'when Christ arose;' but not StjriftuS erftanb auf, ' Christ arose.' 306. No vcT'b separably compounded is ever further com- pounded with an inseparable prefix. The words sometimes given as examples of such composition are really derivatives from nouns: thus, l>eral)(d)eucn, 'regard with horror,' is not 307j mSEPAEABLE PKEFIXES. lo7 from a verb abfc^cueii, but from the noun Stbfcljeu, 'horror;' bcniiftrafjcii, 'commission,' in like manner, is from 3liiftraf|, 'an errand, charge; ' beund)- tidjttgen, 'mform,' from 9iad)tt(l)t, 'news, information,' and bo on. 307. Derivation and Uses of the Inseparable Prefixes. 1. Tlie inseparable prefixes are elements which have become greatly changed, both in form and in meaning, from their originals, and have acquir- ed such importance in the system of word-formation as to call for special notice in the grammar. a. While they have in part a distinct and clearly definable force in tlie compounds they form, they in part also modify in a very geueral and indefi- nite way the meaning of the verbs to which Ihey are attached; and their spheres of use variously approach, and even sometimes overlap, one another. Only their leading applications wiU be stated below. b. These prefixes are also freely used in forming derivative verbs from other parts of speech (see 405} : such derivatives are coivjugated in tlie same manner as the inseparably compounded verbs. 2, S8t is the same with our own prefix be, and of kindred force with the latter; it comes ultimately from the separable prefix and independent pre- position bei, ' by.' a. Prefixed to an intransitive, it adds the meaning of 'upon, about,' or the like, converting the intransitive into a transitive : thus, t'lngen, 'moan,' betlagcn, 'bemoan; ' ftngen, 'sing,' befingeii, 'sing about, besing.' 6. Prefixed to a transitive, it changes the direction of the verbal action, converting hito a direct object what was only indirectly or remotely the ob- ject of the simple verb: thus, maien, 'paint (a picture),' bcmalcii, 'paint over (as, a wall) ; ' raubcn, ' steal (something from some one),' bcvaiibcu, ' rob (some one of something).' t. Barely, it only slightly modifies the meaning of a verb, usually in tlio way of a strengthening or extension of its action : thus, bectcn and bebedfrn, 'cover;' brongeit and bebrcingeii, 'crowd, oppress;' I)arvcn and beljarrcn, 'wait, persist; ' fte^en and befte^eit, 'stand, subsist.' d. Some of its compounds are restricted to a reflexive use : thus, fti^ be= ftnben, ' find one's self, be ; ' fid) betrageu, ' bear one's self, behave.' 3. @nt was earher ant, in which form it appears in Stnttnort, 'answer,' and 2lnttt^, 'countenance; ' it is by origin an adverb meaning 'against,' related to our and and the prefix o( answer (and-swarian), etc. In combina- tion with three verbs beginning with f, it has taken, by assimilation, the form emp : thus, Empfatigen, eml)fct)len, ein))ftnben. a. Its primitive meaning appears in a few compounds, as cntfjiredjetl, 'cor- respond, answer; ' eitHJfangcit, 'receive.' 6. Its leading idea is now that of 'out; ' it denotes removal, separation, deprivation, sometimes even negation : thus, CHtget)en, entlommeu, ciitfltc^ ^eii, ' escape ; ' cntjictjcn, ' take away ; ' entiafferi, ' let off, release ; ' rntfn-- getr, ' renounce ; ' entmeil)en, ' desecrate.' c. It sometimes indicates transition into a condition: as, etttbteiinen, 'take fire; ' cntfte^en, ' come into being.' 138 VEEBS. [307- 4. @r is the same word with the prefix ur forming nouns (411), and means by origin 'forth, out,' being related to auS, 'out,' and probably ulti- mately identical with it. a. It has most nearly its primitive force in such verbs as erjieljen, 'edu cate, bring up,' etvit^ten, ' erect,' erjdjrecfen, ' startle.' &. It often signifies a passing into a condition, a becoming, the beginning of an action; as, evfdjcinen, '(shine forth) appear,' crtoiien, 'sound forth,' El-jittem, 'fall a trembling.' c. It strengthens the verbal idea, often adding an implication of accom- plishment or attainment: as, evid)opfen, 'exhaust,' crtragen, 'endure,' eile= ben, 'experieDce,' erjudjen, 'request,' erfinben, 'invent.' d. Hence (its prevailing office in the production of new compounds), it signifies an acquisition by means of the action expressed by the simple verb: thus, evjageil, 'obtain by hunting;' ertvc^sen, 'get by defiance;' cr- tnnjen, 'bring on by danoiug.' 5. @e is Relieved to have had at first the sense of 'with, together,' which sense appears, somewhat dimly, in a few of the compounds it forms: as, geftieieii, 'become sohdified by cold,' gerhraen, 'coagulate,' gcfattcn, ' (fall in with) please,' gefteljen, '(stand by) confess.' But this sense has become so generalized and effaced, and its applications are so various and indistinct, that it would be in vain to attempt to classify them. The adoption of this prefix as regular characteristic of past participles has been already referred to (243.3c) as comparatively modern, and hardly admitting of explanation. 6. a. 35er is historically the same word as tior, 'forward, forth,' and its leading idea is that of 'fortli, away:' as in Berbrfingen, 'crowd out,' tiev= jagen, 'chase away,' liett'aufen, 'bargain away, sell,' Devreifen, 'journey off,' tietf|)te[en, ' lose at play.' 6. Hence, as intimating removal through the action of the verb to which it is attached, it comes further to imply loss, detriment, destruction : as in Berbrauc^cn, ' wear out,' Berber6en, ' ruiu ; ' — or a removal from what should be, the production of an untoward effect: as in BcrfiU)Vcn, 'lead astray,' Berriicten, 'put out of place ; ' — or the commission of error : as in Uctrcd)iicil, 'misreckon,' Uertcnnen, 'mistake; ' — or a reversal of action: as in Bet'bietcn, 'forbid,' Berod)ten, 'despise.' c. On the other hand, it signifies a complete working-out of the action of the verb: as in Berbluten, 'bleed to death,' DcrbVEitncn, 'burn up;' — which may imply a cessation of the action, as in Bcrbiiiljen, 'blossom out, fade, wither;' or, more usually, a strengLhening of the action, as in Bel's finfcn, 'sink away,' Berttlgcn, 'blot out,' Bevfdjliefjen, 'shut up,' Berbinbcn, ' unite ; ' — and this intensive force in a few cases makes transitive, as Bet- tadjcil, ' deride,' Bcrfeljlen, ' miss, fail of 1. 3ft represents an older bt8, which is related to the Latin dis, and means, like the latter, ' apart, asunder.' Accordingly, it cither intensifies the meaning of verbs which contain the idea of dissolution, of going to pieces or reducing to pieces, or it adds thai id'-a: thus, ^eibrec[)cu, 'break asunder; ' jjcvfpreugen, ' blow to pieces ; ' jer^ fatten, 'faU apart; ' jeitiiniElt, ' become dissolved.' 311] compound verbs. 13s Prefixes Separable or Inseparable. 308. A few prefixes, belonging properly to the separa- ble class (being all of tliem in nse also as independent parts of speech), nevertheless sometimes form componnds after the manner of inseparables. 309. These prefixes are buri^, ' through ' itber, ' over ' unter, ' under ' Winter, ' behind ' um, 'about' tntbet ('against' inieber j ' again ' 2Biber and hjieber are the same word, but differently spelt, to in- dicate a difference of meaning. All verbs compounded with iris faer are inseparable ; all but one or two compounded with luiebet are separable. 310. In verbs separably compounded with these prefixes, both members of the compound have their own full meaning, hardly modified by the combination ; the inseparablfe compounds often take an altered or figurative sense. Thus, as separable compounds, burc^bringen, 'crowd through,' ^inter= gcljen, 'go behind,' liberfe^en, 'set across,' umgeljen, 'go around, revolve,' unterwerfen, 'throw under,' mtebec^olen, 'fetch back;' — but, as insepa- rable compounds, burd^bringen, 'penetrate, permeate,' ^tnterge^en, 'deceive,' iiberfe^en, 'translate.' mngel)en, 'evade,' unterlticrfen, 'subjugate,' wtebera Ijotetl, 'repeat.' Yet the difference is not often so marked as in these examples, and in a host of cases the two classes of compounds are distin- guished by ouly a slight shade of meaning, if at all. 311. The compounds, of either class, are accented and conjugated according to the rules already given. That is to say, 1. The separable compounds are accented on the prefix; they put the prefix before the verbal form in the infinitive and partici- ples, but after it in other cases ; they take the signs of participle and infinitive between the prefix and the root. Thus, from bitrdj'brtiigen, ' crowd through,' come burc^'jiibringen, bringe buvc^, btong burc^, bin burdj'gcbvungen, werbe bunfi'bringtn, but^'gebrungcn. 2. The inseparable compounds are accented on the radical syl- lable, reject the ge of the participle, and put ju of the infinitive before the whole combination. Thus, from buri^brin'gen, 'penetrate,' come jit bitrc&brtn'gen, burd&= brin'ge, burd^brang', ^obe buri^brun'gen, merbe burd^brtn'gen, burcq= bruu'gen. . 140 VERBS. [312- Other Compound Verbs. 312. Verbs compounded witli other adverbs than those al-. ready mentioned, or with nouns or adjectives, fall into two classes: 1. True or close compounds, in which the first member has be- come an integral part of the combination, and the whole is treated as a simple verb. Thus, f)anbl)abcn, ' handle, manage,' ju rjnnbtjafien, ^anbf)ntte, geljanbtiabt ; tt)af)riiigen, 'propliesy,' ju watjiiagcn, iualji'lagte, geH)aI)rfagt ; liebtoien, 'caress,' JU liebtofen, liebfofte, gcticbt'oft. 2. Loose or false compounds, phrases, written togetber as one word, in which the first member is treated as any such word limit- ing the verb would be, and the combination is conjugated like a verb separably compounded. Thus, ftattfiitben, 'take place,' ftottjiiftnbcn, fanb ftatt, ftattgefunben ; h)ol)ltI)im, 'benefit,' iDoljljutljun, tl)at TOol)!, Wol){gett)an ; fe^lfi^tagen, 'mis- carry,' fcMjufdjIageu, fdjlug fel)!, fel)lgefc^tagen ; (oafpredjen, 'absolve,' logjU" fpred)cn, (pradj lo's, (oagcj|jrod)cii. a. If a verb of the former class has not the accent on its first syllable, it loses (243.3a) the gc of the past participle: thus, frol)(ocfcu, frotjlocft . b. From the same class are to be carefully distinguished certain verbs which have the aspect of compounds, but are in fact derivatives from compound nouns: such are fvitljftiicfcn, 'to breakfast' (from Jriitjftiict, • breakfast'), iat^(d)lagen, 'consult' (from 5Untl){d)lag, 'consultation'). 313. SKijj and boQ are treated as proper prefixes, forming both separable and inseparable compounds, which are accented and conjugated like those made with burd), etc. (308-11). But miJ3 is very rarely treated as a separable. SSoH forms five or six in- separable compounds, as Bottbringer., ' accomplish,' BoUjic^en, ' execute,' and a number of loose separables, as Bottgte^en, 'pour full.' Exercise XX* Compound Verbs, Separable and Inseparable. 1. SQSann fangen ©ie an, 3't)re iBrlefe afijufc^retben ? 2. Qif 6e- gann geftern, imb fdjrteb etnige ai, fobatb id) fie eml3fange« ^atte. 3. & »crftc()t alleg toa§ man t()m bortieft, unb f^irtd^t bie beutfi^cn aBor= ter beutlid) aug ; aber er itbcrfe^t nid)t gut. 4. 2)cr Sag naf|t ^eran, imb btc (Sonne iDtrb batb aufgel)en ; fte[)en tviiv and) auf, unb t'teiben lutr nnS an. 5. ©te ^ben bevgeffen waS ®te mir berfprod^en flatten. 6, ©ie fiat tf)re Ueberfdjulje angesogen, unb iff auSgegangcn ; fie ibtrb balbabgcreiftfein. 7. 2Biebcrf)ote beine iBitte, unb id) fi'ofe Mr tuieber tuaS bu berlangft. 8. S55ir faufen ifjm gfetd) ab, tuaS crunS berfaufcn HnQ. 9. (Sr loar fd)on juriidgeforamcn, et)e t^ fortging. 10. ®er ^nabe ^at ben 23att in bie ©tube ^tneingett)orfen,»unb ben ©f iegcl jevbtod^en. >J \l 315] VERBAL ADJUNCTS. 141 ADJUNCTS OF THE VERB. 314. A verb, in a proper verbal form (that is to say, exclud- ing the infinitives and participles: see 339, 349), always stands as the simple predicate of a sentence ; and all that constitutes the complete predicate is brought in in the way of modifying adjuncts to the verb, variously limiting and qualifying its action. a. The proper verbal forms, those possessing the characteristic of person, are often called its "finite" forms: they might also be called its personal forms. b Even in the compound tenses of the verb itself, the rank of veii belongs in strictness only to the personal auxiliary, the other parts being adjuncts of the latter : thus, in id) l)ahe il)n getrauit, ' I have pained him,' ^abe is the simple predicate, and getrcintt is an attribute of the object, as much as fiitbe and Irant, respectively, in id) ftrtbe il)n tranf, ' I find him sick;' ic^ h)erbe gelcfintt, 'I am pained,' id) bin gegaiigen, 'I am (have) gone,' are analogous, in like manner, with id) incrbe tmuf,' ' I become sick,' ic^ bin loeg, 'I am away;' and id) incrbc gehiiiitt ttorben fetn, 'I shall have been pained,' is made up by the addition of successive modifying ad- juncts to IDcrbe, each adjunct after the first being (see 348.2) regularly pre- fixed to the one whicli it further limits ; the phrase means literally ' I am entering (tDcrbc) into a state of having (fetii) become (inorbcu) pained (getrantt).' That the auxiUaries have more or less completely the inferior value of copulas, connecting the subject with the chiefly significant part of the predicate, does not alter their formal or grammatical char- acter. d. No personal form of a verb has the value of adjunct to another personal form; there are as many separate sentences as there are separate verbs. All the other parts of speech (excepting the conjunctions : see 382.ffl) may enter, by counection with thfe verb as its adjuncts, into the relation of parts of the predicate of a sentence. 315. Object of a Verb. Most verbs may take an object — that is to say, may be followed by a noun (or its equivalent) in an oblique case, designating the person or thing upon which, or as affecting which, the action which it describes is exerted by the subject. 1. A "transitive " verb takes its object in the accusative case; and such is called a direct object: thus, er t)ote inert §ut, luib ttJlgt i t) n, ' he has a hat, and wears it : ' see 227. a. A few transitive verbs are followed by two accusatives: see 227.8. 2. Many " intransitive " verbs take an indirect object in the genitive or, dative case: thus, id) f^one metneS ^Jeinbeg, 'I spare my enemy;' er folgt mir, 'he follows me:' see 219, 222.11.' 142 Trr;,-.s. [315- 3. Many verbs, beside their direct object, take a remoter object in the dative or genitive, indicating the person or thing aiFected less immediately by the action of the subject upon the object, oi further defining that action : thus, icf) ranbe bief em SOtanne bas 0clb, 'I steal the money from this man; ' icf) fceraube it)n f einc^ ©elbcS, ' I rob him of his money : ' see 219, 222.1. 316. Predicate Noun or Adjective. A noun or adjective is called predicate, if it is brought by the verb into connection with a noun (either the subject or the direct object of the verb), as limiting or qualifying that noun. 1. a. A predicate noun stands in the nominative, relating to the subject of the verb^ after jein, 'be,' luerben, 'become,' bitU ben, ' continue,' fdjeiifra, bitntett, and bciudjten, ' seem,' and I)ei= §en, ' be called ; ' also, with the passive of the verbs that take a noun in the accusative as factitive predicate: see 213. These are verbs of incomplete predication, requiring a complement. Especially fciu, 'be,' is the ordinary simple connective of a subject with its predicated quality, and i.s therefore called the copula. b. After a few verbs — of calling, regarding, and the like — a predicate noun stands in the accusative, brought by the verb into relation with its object : this is called a, factitive predicate : thus, er naunte raid) feinen g^reunb, ' he called me his friend : ' see 227. 36, c. 2. a. A predicate adjective is used after the same verbs as a predicate noun : thus, er ift unb bteibt mir treu, unb mivb nie untveu luevben, 'he is and continues faithful to me, and will never become unfiiitbful.' b. With verbs of more complete predication, or of full predica- tive force, an adjective is often used in a manner which it is con- venient to distinguish as adverbial predicate : thus, bie Siuber ftan- ben ftumm, 'the children stood silent;' bie ©timme ftriimte ^imm« lt|d) IjeKe bor, 'the voice poured forth heavenly clear;' mivb'g aucf) fd)dn ju Jctge tommcn, 'will it also come forth beautiful?' c. Some verbs are followed by an adjective as factitive predi- cate, relating to their object: thus, fie rtngen bie §attbe irmib, 'they wring their hands sore;' bie id] gerne bretfod) biete, 'which I gladly offer threefold ; ' fie ftetit fid) ilberrafd)t, 'she feigns her- self surprised;' icJ) fu()te meine IS'rafte £)ijf)er, 'I feel my powers higher;' er tjnlt i()n tviavm, 'he holds him warm.' This predicative construction is much more common with adjectives than with nouns, which generally require afe, ' as,' fiir, ' for,' ju, ' to,' or the like, before them: compare 227.3c. 319] VERBAL ADJUNCTS. 143 317. Adverb. The verbal idea is limited by an adverb, or by more than one, in the most various manner, in respect to time, place, occasion, manner, end, and so on. See Adverbs, 361 etc. Thus, ii^ ge^e i e ^ t, ' I atn going now ; ' er lDol)nt t) i f v, ' he lives here ; ' fie f|)i'ed)en gut, ' they speak well ; ' bu bift ^eute irtorgcu fel)r fpcit enuadjt, 'you woke very late this moraing.' 318. Prepositional Phrase. A phrase composed of a prepo- sition along with the word (generally a noun, with or without adjuncts) which it governs, and the nature of whose relation to the verbal action it defines, is a very frequent adjunct to the verb, taking the place of object, predicate, or adverb. 01. As direct object in place of an accusative, such a phrase can hardly stand : but it may be used for a genitive object — as, id) roarte nuf lt)n, for ic^ Voarte (einec, ' I wait for him ; ' for a dative object— aa, er folgt mir, or cr folgt auf tntc^, ' he follows me ;' — yet more freely for a remoter object along with a direct object— as, .ic^ freue mic^ iiber bie|e6, for td) freue mit^ beffeu, ' I re- joice at this: ' ic^ fdiveibe eiuen iBrief an iljit, for it|m cincn 33rief, 'I write a letter to him.' S. Examples of prepositional phrases with predicate value are e§ "max tion entft^eibcubet aSte^tigfeit, ' it was of decisive importance ; ' bte A'vanten btte» ben in bev 2)Jitte, ' the sick remataed in the midst ; ' fie erh)(it)Iten VcfH gum jl'oifer, 'they chose him emperor; ' bie8 loirb jum StuSbrucf bcr @ee(e, 'this becomes an expression of the soul.' c. Adverbial prepositional phrases are ber SGogel fpielt tm ?aube, 'the bird plays in the fohage ; ' itiiv bergen ben ©amen in ber Erbe @d)oo6, ' we hide the seed in the earth's bosom"; ' cr rtef mit lonter ©timme, ' he cried with , V 1 loud voice.' / 319. Order of the verbal adjuncts. ^ 1. In the normal or regular arrangement of the sentence, all the adjuncts of a personal verb are placed after it. a. For the inverted order of arrangement, in which one of the adjuncts is frequently placed before the verb it modifies, and for the ti-ansposed order, in which the personal verb is placed after all its adjuncts, see the rules gi ven for the order of the sentence, below, 431, 434. 2. "When the verb is modified by two or more adjuncts, the general rule is, that one which is more closely combined in idea with the verb, and more essentially modifies its predicative meaning, is placed further from it than one of a more external and accessory character. Hence, a. The infinitive or participle,- in a compound verbal form, stands at the end of the sentence: thus, fie I) at te tl)re 3ai)iie fdjavf in feine ginger g e= fetst, 'slie had sunk her teeth sharply into his fingers;' ii)rH)evbet eiirfl (o 6lntig envcrSJindit ]rid)t iiberl)eben, 'you will not presume so cruelly upon your power.' b. An iufinitive dependent upon any verb, modal or causative auxiliary 144 VEEBS. [319- or other, stands in like manner at the end of the sentence: thus, \Sj mill Uor il)r niit^ ui e b e v « c v f e u , 'I will humble myself before her.' c. A separable prefix belonging to the verb takes the same place : thus, ftejaf) iJabciredjt ftnftei-unb unWiUtg auS, 'she looked at the same time right gloomy and out of humor.' d. Any part u( speech compounded with a verb after the manner of a separable prolix, or forming with it a verbal phrase analogous with such a compound, takes the same place: thus, id) naijm nidjtS mc^v Bon ber l)ittter inir liegeiibett EBciie lnal)r, 'I no longer saw anything of the plajn that lay behind me.' e. Of two cases governed by the same verb, the second accusative (227.3) is placed after that which is the more immediate object of the verb ; the genitive (219.2,3) foUows the accusative; the dative (222.1.1) rather more usually precedes the accusative. / Of more than one adverb qualifying the same verb, an adverb of time ordinarily precedes one of- place, and both are placed before one of manner or degree : thus, er arbeitet immer fteifitg, ' he always works industriously ; ' bii niotjnft Ijicr icl)r bequem, 'you live here very comfortably.' Hence, also, the adverb of negation, :ui^t, if it modifies the general assertion of the sen- tence, stands last; but il its negative force applies to some particular ad- junct of the verb, it is plftced next before that adjunct. 3. The rules as above stated are subject to various modification under the influence of accent or emphasis, or of euphony. 0,. Any adjunct of the verb may be transferred to a position other than its proper one (usually later), for the purpose of being made more promi- uent. b. Since a pronoun is, in general, a less significant and emphatic word than a noun, usage has established the rule that A pronoun immediately dependent on the verb (not governed by a pre- position), whether as direct or indirect object, comes first among the verbal adjuncts. Among the pronouns, a personal pronoun comes before a demonstrative, the briefer personal pronouns, especially eS, ' it,' before the longer, -and the reflexives first of all. 4. Prepositional phrases take, in general, the position belonging to the part of speech whose equivalent they are ; but they are more Ha'ole than single words to change place for euphonic reasons. 5. The natural connections of the different verbal adjuncts are regarded in the arrangement of the sentence ; those which affect one another, and f.xert a combined influence upon the verbal action, being put together. 6. The above are only the leading principles of the arrangement of words in a sentence. To follow out their application in detail, and illustrate their joint and mutual action, and the more or less irregular and arbitrary modi- fications which they admit, cannot here be attempted. 322"] TEESON AND NTIMBEE. 145 USES OF THE FORMS OF CONJUGATION. Person and Number. 320. In general, the verb is of the same person and number as its subject. Being, of course, of the first or aeoond person only when its subject is a personal pronoun of those persons respectively, since all other words are of the third person. 321. Special Rules respecting Person. 1. When the same verb has subjects of more than one person,- it is of the first person (plural) if either of its subjects is of the first person; otherwise, of the second: thus, id) unb bu finb I)ter, 'I and thou are here;' bu unb er g(au6t eS beibe nidjt, 'you and he both disbelieve it.' 2. After a relative (ber) referring to an antecedent of the first or second person, the verb is in the third, unless the personal pronoun is repeated after the relative (compare 181) : thus, bu, ber bent 93afiUgt ben 9)f orbblid o,ah , ' thou who gavest to the basilisk his deadly glance' (but bu, ber bu . . . . . gabft). 322. Special Rules respecting Number. 1. A verb having for its subject more than one singular noun is put in the plural. a. To this rule there are frequent exceptions, either as the several sub- jects are regarded as combined into a single idea ; or as, when preceding or following an enumeration of single subjects, the verb, by a familiar license of speech, is suffered to agree with the one nearest it alone ; or as the verb is in fact understood with other than the one subject with which it agrees: thus, l)mtcv uitr Hegt niir Summer unb ©leub, 'behind me lies only sorrow and misery; ' gelS unb 3}Jcev ioivb fi.irfL]Cviffcn, 'rock and sea are hurried onward; ' eg begUite burc^ Sebenunb toterben un8 Jicb unb V'icbeunb SBein, ' may song and love and wine accompany us through Hfe and death; ' SiiflCll, ajiorben, ©tetjtcu uiib gljcbrec^cn ^at itberr)anb gcnoinmcn, 'lying, murder, theft, and adultery liave become prevalent.' 2. A collective noun in the singular takes a verb in tlie singular much more strictly than in Enghsh. a. Exceptions are only such expressions as ein $aar, ' two or three,' etne SKeiige, ' a number,' ciu ®u^ieub, ' a dozen,' which are frequently used with plural nouns (ordinarily construed appositionally with them: see 2l6.oa), and have gained a plural value by association: thus, in roeld)eni ein ''|iaat 5!5ijgcl l)tn unb inicbcr Ijiitjfcn, 'in which a couple of birds hop back and forth; ' im Jpofc iptelten ciit *15nar ber mnnteven iltnbcr, 'in the yard were playing two or three of the merry children ; ' ein ^Ocir (inb gembl)lllt(f) uor^ ailS, 'a couple are generally in front.' 7 11:6 USES OF THE EOEMS OF CONJUGATION. [322-, 3. After the impersonal and indefinite subjects c6, bic?, taS, toa?, tticTd) ■§, etc., the veib is put in the plural if a following predicate noun is plural: thus, cS finb itufcv jroei, 'there are two of us; ' baS |inb meiiie gieunbe, 'those are my friends.' — So also occasionally in a case lilie btc gru3)t bie(eS SBaumcS finb tletue Sceren, 'the fruit of this tree is small berries.' 4. Out of exaggerated respectfulness, the plural verb is sometimes (the iisago is happily going out of vogue) construed with a singular title, or name and title: as, Jelie ben ber §crt biefeu ectfel jU evproben, 'may the gentle- man be pleasSd to try tills purse; ' @eine ^liajeftdt bet Sbnig ^oben gei^iiljt, ' his majesty .the king had been graciously pleased to . . . .' Mood and Tense. Indicative. 323. The use of the indicative mood, in its various tenses, corresponds upon the whole pretty closely in German and in Eng- lish. The principal points ot' difference will be stated below. 324. Indicative Present. 1. The German present — e. g. id) ticbe — answers to the three English forms of the present ' I love,' *I do love,' and 'I am loving:' the shades of difference among these different values are either left to be inferred from the con- text, or are expressed or intimated by adjuncts to the verb or by verbal phrases. 2. In German, as in English and French, the present is often substituted for the preterit in lively narration : thus, tc^ ^telt ftiHe, vtnb \a{) mid) nad) bcm ©tattbc ber ©onne um. 5nbem ic^ nun fo em^orbltcfe, fc^e id) sc, 'I stopped, therefore, aud looked about me for the position of the sun. While, now, I am thus looking upward, I see' etc. 3. In expressing a past action or state which is continued so as to be present also (or in signifying what has been and still is), the German, like the French, indicates the present part and leaves the past to be inferred, while the English does the contrary: thus, jinb fie fd)on lange ()ier, ^have you been (are you) here al- ready a long time?' er f d)(aft fcit fitnf 3!a[)ren untei' bent ®d)nee, ' be has been (is) sleeping for five years beneath the snow.' 4. The German present, much more often than the English, is used in the sense of a future : thus, lute fa u g' tdj'g an ? id) b r e I)' mid) uni, fo ift'S cjettjan, 'how shall I set about it? I will turn myself around ; that will fetch it;' bie ©liter, bie ci bereinft ei'bt, ' the property which he will one day inherit.' This future use of the present is a direct inheritance from a former condition of Ger- manic language (as represented to us by the oldest Germanic dialects), in wliich tiip 327] INDICATIVE TENSES. 1-17 present and future meanings were both habitually expreaied by the present tens", Via later auxiliary futures, as I shall or will love, id) merht licbeii, not having been yet brought into use. See the author's "Language and the Study of LanRuage," pp. 119, 2S9. 325. Indicative Preterit. 1. The preterit answers to our own simple past tense, in its three forms of 'I loved,' 'I did love,' 'I was loving'- — all expressed, without distinction, by id) Kebte. 2. As the present for the perfect (324.. s), so the preterit is sometimes used for our pluperfect, to express what, at a given time, had been and was still: thus, hjarcii ©te fd)on tange ba, 'had you been (were you) there long already?' 3. The distribution of the expression of past time between the preterit and perfect is not precisely the same in German as in English. As (326.2) the German perfect often stands where we should use the preterit, so the contrary is also sometimes the case : thus, tfjr ^ortet, hietcf) f^recffic^eS (Script beg ^evnt u6cr 3cntfa= tern e r g i n g , 'ye have heard what a terrible judgment of tho Lord has come upon Jerusalem.' 326. Indicative Perfect. 1. The perfect answers in the main to our perfect, expressing completed action, or action in the past with implied reference to the present, as no longer continuing : thus, id) (]a6e getiebt, 'I have loved,' or 'have been loving.' 2. But the perfect is not infrequently used where we employ the preterit: the perfect is rather the tense by which something is simply asserted as true, while the preterit implies a connection with other past events in continuous narration, or a personal par- ticipation of the speaker, as spectator or joint actor. Thus, Oott fjat bte Sffielt ei;(c|affcn, ' God created the world (it was God who etc.) ; ' id) bin geftern in bcr il'ird)e geWifcn, 'I was at church yesterday ; ' uiijer 5««iit' if liEUliti) gcjlorbcii, 'our friend died lately: ' — but ®ott erid^uf btc S3ctt in fEti)8 Eagcn, itub vii()te aiti jtcfaenten, ' God created the world in six days, and rested' du the seventh;' id) roar in bcr Sirdje, too §err iR. etne Oortreffttd)e *I5tebtg' Ijictt, 'I was at church, where Mr. K preached an ad- mirable sermon ; ' unfcr 35oter [tarb geftiirn, ' our father died yesterday (in our presence).' Something of the same distinction appears also in English usage, and it is impossible to explain fully the difference in idiom between the two lan- guages without a great deal of detailed illustration. Moreover, there are many cases in either tongue where both tenses might be employed with equal propriety. 3. For the present in place of our perfect, see 324.3 ; for the perfect ip place of the future, see 328.S6. 327. Indicative Pluperfect. The pluperfect in German, as 148 trSES OF THE FOEMB OF CONJUGATION. [327- iii Englisli, expresses action already finished at a time in the past either defined or contemplated by the speaker : thus, id) ^atk ge^ licbt, ' I had loved ' or ' been loving.' 328. Indicative Future and Future Perfect. 1. These tenses ordinarily agree in use with their English correspondents : thus, id) tuerbe liebcn, ' I shall love ' or 'be loving ; ' id) toerbe gcUebt Ijafcen, ' I shall have loved ' or ' been loving.' They express simple futurity, that which is going to be; and are care- fully to lie distinguished from the modal auxiliary forms composed of the infinitive with ivollcn and fotlen (257-8), which more or less distinctly im- ply an assent or intent, a propriety or obligation. 2. The futures are sometimes used to indicate a claimed prolbabihty, or express a conjecture: thus, baS Wtrb inoljl 3l)r Siuber fci.i, 'tliat is your brother, is it not?' cv luiit) ni(fit lauge botf gcblicbeu fein, 'I presume ho did not stay there long.' 3. u. In German, as in English, the perfect is often employed where the future perfect would be logically more correct, the implication of futurity being sufficiently made by the context: thus, id) >»Erbc tomincn, fobillb id) iiietucu SBvicf gcfdjvirbcn bnbe, ' I shall come as soon as I have written my letter' (for mcrbe gcjifiricbeu (jabeit, 'shall have written'). 6. A present or perfect is occasionally substituted for a future, by a figure of speech, to indicate the certainty of what is to take place: thus, jciic l)ttt gelcbt, lucmi id) bicsS S3lntt axii nicincn §anbcn gcb.e, 'she has ceased to live, if I let this paper go out of my hands ; ' \ld)', obcr bu bift bcS SobrS, 'stand, or thou art a dead man 1 ' c. For the frequent use of a present instead of a future tense, see 324.4. Suljjunctive. 329. The subjunctive mood, which has almost passed out of use in English, still continues in full currency in German, having, if the two " conditional " tenses be included with it (as they are in fact subjunctive, both in form and character), more than a cor- responding tense for every tense of the indicative. In some of its oiBces (the optative, potential, conditional) it answers to what is left of our own subjunctive, and to the compounded tenses (with the auxiliaries may, might, would, and should) by which we have in part supplied the place of the latter; in other ofBccs (especially in indirect statement, 333) there is in English hardly anything analogous, though the classical tongues present similar constructions in abundance. 330. The subjunctive is the mood of possibility, contingency, subjectivity, in contradistinction from the indicative as the mode of actuality, direct assertion, objectivencss. 371] ADVERBS. 169 body; ' bng cr beftanbe Bis auf'8 S3titt, 6i8 in ben Sob btc geljbe, 'that he might maintain his quarrel even to blood, even unto death.' 2. Adverbs are not seldom governed by prepositions: see below, 378. 3. Adverbs are used elliptioally mth the value of adjectives : thus, bie= fcrSJiann i)ier, ' this man here ; ' OriibEr iinb bte Sljprcffen bran, 'graves and the cypresses thereon ; ' — or, in predicative relations, nun luav ber Jtbenb Borbei, 'now the evening was past ; ' bie 3oI)re fmb nod) nid)l um, 'the years are not yet over;' ntleg foil onber« fein nnb gefdjinnd^ tolf, 'everything is to be otherwise, and tasty;' ift Icin JJibtber meljr un = t e r H) e g c «, 'is there no longer a murderer on the way ? ' aUer SBetteifer hiirb B e r g e b e n 8, 'all emulation becomes futile ; ' id) fat) JJcbel weit u nu I) ex, 'I saw mist far about.' 4. An adverb is often added after a preposition and its object, to com- plete or to malte more distinct the relation expressed by the preposition : see below, 379. 370. Place of Adverbs. 1. An adverb precedes the adjective or adverb -wliich it quali- fies. a. Except genug, 'enough,' which, as in English, follows the word it h'mits. 2. An adverb qualifying a personal verb is put after it in the regular arrangement of the sentence : one qualifying an infinitive or participle is placed before it. As to the place of the adverb in relation to other adjuncts of the verb, see 319 ; as to certam adverbial words which have exceptional freedom of position, see 385.4. PREPOSITIONS. 371. A preposition is a word used to define tbe relation be- tween some person or thing and an action, a quality, or another person or thing vrith which it stands connected. a. The distinctive cliaracteristic of a preposition is that it governs an obUque case of a noun (or of the equivalent of a noun) ; and by this it is separated from an adverb: it is a kind of transitive adverh, requiring an object in order to the completion of the idea which it signifies. Many words are either adverbs or prepositions, according as they are used witli- out or with such object. S. The oldest prepositions were originally adverbs, and the various mode of relation of a noun to the action or quality which they aided to define was expressed by means of a more complete scheme of cases : the reduc- tion of this scheme (in German, from six oblique cases to throe: see the author's "Language and the Study of Language," pp. 271-2, 276), and the conversion of adverbs to prepositions, are parallel processes of change in the history of our language. In the German, as a fuUer system of de- clension is still preserved, a host of relations are signified by the use of ;ases alone where we require prepositions in English. 8 1 70 INDECLINABLES. [371- c. Many of the German prepositions are of late formation from nouna or adjectives, or frora adverbial phrases containing such. Some examples of these will be noted below. 372. Prepositions are most conveniently classified according to the case tliey govern, as the genitive, the dative, the accusa- tive, and the dative or accusative. a. A few govern either the dative or genitive, but their difference of use in this respect is not of consequence enough to found a class upon. 6, Since what determines the relation is originally the case of the noun, prepositions ought to be followed by cases according to the kind of relation they signify — thus, those that denote motion toward or to should take the accusative ; those that mean for (ori- ginal dative), with or 6jy (original iristrumental), and in or at (original locative), should take the dai:ive; those that mean o/, from, and the like (original genitive and ablative) should take the genitive — and those prepositions that denote different relations should be followed by different cases to correspond. This latter is to a certain e.xtent still the case (see 37G.C) : but, on the one hand, the relations of each ancient case now lost have not been assigiied in bulk to one of those yet remaining ; and, on the other hand, many prepo- sitions which have undergone a great change of meaning continue to take the case by which they were originally followed: for example, iiad), which is historically the same word with na^, 'nigh to,' governs the dative, the case regularly following nalj, though itself used in the sense of 'after' and of 'toward, to.' 373. Prepositions governing the genitive are anftatt or [tatt, 'instead of,' folder or Ijatten, 'for the sake of — with the com- pounds of ijntb, namely au^crf)at6, 'without, outside,' inncv^ot6, 'within,' okrljaHi, 'above,' untert)ol6, 'below' — froft, 'in virtue of ,' lang?, ' along,' (aut, ' according to,' tvo^, ' in spite of,' unt . . . njiEen, ' on account of,' ungeadjtet (or oI)ncjcncf)tet), ' notwithstand- ing,' uiifem and uninett, ' not far from,' niittelg or mittetft or Ber^ ntittclft, 'by means of,' bcrmoge, 'by dint of,' incil^renb, 'during,' megen, 'on account of,' gufolge, 'in consequence of,' and the com- pounds of fcit, bicffcit or bieffeit^, 'on this side of,' and jenfeit or jenfeitg, ' on the further side of, beyond.' Thus, ftatt bcr golbiien Steber, ' instead of the golden songs ; ' urn biefer fremben B^ugeu Willeit, ' on account of these stranger witnesses ; ' ©enug> tl)uitng megen bev getiibteten Sljriften, 'satisfaction on account of the slam Christians ; ' ienfeit beS gorfteS, ' beyond the forest.' a. Of these prepositions, liingg, tro^, and jufolgc also not infrequently govern the dative ; some others do so occasionally. i. §atben or l)alber always follows the noun it governs; urn . . . toillen takes the noun between its two parts; irageat^tet, toegni, and jii= folgc may either precede or follow (Jitfotge precedes a genitive, but follows a dative). c. These prepositions are of recent use as such, and all evidently derived from other parts of speech. §alb is i:^ noun meaning originally 'side: ' luegen was formerly Don mcgcn, which is stUl in occasional use. d. The adverbial genitives StngefidjtS, 'in presence,' and SSeljllfS, 'in be- half,' the adverbs intnitteix, 'in the midst,' ab(eit3, 'aside,' and some of those formed with marts, as feitwartS, 'sideways,' novbttJcirtS, 'northwards, 376] PEEPOSrnONS. 171 also Eittlang, ' along,' and a few others, antiquated or of rare oco^irrenco, are sometimes used prepositionally with a genitive. T 374. The prepositions governing the dative are, of more an- cient and original words, aug, ' out,' 6ei, ' by,' nut, ' with,' o6, ' above, for,' Uon, ' of,' ju, ' to ; ' of recent and derivative or compound words, nad), ' after, to,' feit, ' since,' gteii), ' like,' faramt and neOft, ' along with,' itad)ft, ' next,' binnen, * within,' auger, ' outside,' entgegen, ' against,' gcgeniikr, ' opposite,' gema§, ' in accordance with,' julutbei", ' contrary to.' u,. For prepositions which more regularly and usually govern the gen- itive, but are sometimes construed with a dative, see above, 373.ffl. Of those htre mentioned, ob ( which is now antiquated), when meaning ' on uccount of,' is occasionally used with a genitive: aitfict governs a geni- tive in the single phrase ouger SanbcS, ' out of the country.' b. yiad), glcid), and gcmSj? either precede or follow the governed noun: thus, ttarfi ber @tobt, 'to the city; ' ber 3Jatut nadj, 'according to nature ; ' acninfi ben Urge(ri)tif)ten, ' according to the old stories ; ' ber 3^'* ""'' ben Umftfinben genio§, ' in accordance with the time and the circumstances ; ' (ic 5iel)t fid) g(eid) cinem aifeeteSarmc ^in, 'it stretches along, after the manner of ari arm of the sea ; ' fie flog-, etner @l)[pf)tbe gteic^, ' she flew like a sylph.' — (Sntgegcn, gegeniibcr, and julniber follow the noun; but ge» geniibec is sometimes (by a usage no longer approved) divided, and takes the noun between its two parts: thus, jttjet Satnen filjen gegen etuanber iibcr, ' two ladies sit opposite one another.' c. Occasionally, by a bold construction, a word which is properly adverb only is construed as if preposition : thus, Dotoit ben tiiljnen Siet^cn, ' iu front of the brave ranks: ' compare 373.d 375. The prepositions governing the accusative only are buvd), 'through,' fiir,- 'for,' gegen or gen, 'against,' o^ne, 'with- out,' uut, ' about,' (niber, ' against ; ' also fonber, ' without,' U3, 'unto, till.' a. @en is now nearly out of use, except in certain phrases, like gen §tmme(, ' toward heaven,' gen SBeften, ' toward the west.' ©onber is hardly employed except in a phrase or two, as fonber g(etrf)en, ' without equal.' 5Bi8 usually stands adverbially before a preposition (see 369.1), but also governs directly specifications of place and time: thus, biS 2lnttoc^ten, ' as far as Antioch ; ' mnrte Hur bi« ntorgen, ' only wait till tomorrow.' b. Um is very often followed by ^er after the noun: see 379.a. c. From the case of an accusative governed by a preposition requires to be distinguished that of an absolute accusauve of place followed by an adverb of direction, as ben SSerg tjtnauf, 'up the mountain' (see 230.16). This construction is interesting as illustrating an intermediate step iu the process of conversion of adverbs into prepositions. 376. Nine prepositions govern sometimes the dative and some- times the accusative — the dative, when they indicate locality or situation merely, or answer the question " where ? " the accusa- 172 INDECLINABLE3. [376 tive, wlieii tliey imply motion or tendency towanl, or answer the question " whither?" They are an, ' on, at,' auf, 'upon,' ^inter, ' behind,' in, ' in, into,' nc6en, ' beside,' iibcr, ' above, across,' xmtcr, ' under,' bov, ' before,' jwifdjen, ' between.' Thus, id) f)atte an bcu ®cJ|van!en, unb teiclje 6cn §e(m an etncn Jfnaj). pm suriicl, ' I stop at the barrier, and hand back my helmet to a squire ; ' cr (ag auf ber t?rbc, nnb Ijntte ba8 Dt)v auf ben 9ia[cn gelcgt, ' he lay on the ground, and had his ear laid on the turf; ' fie briiten Ijinter bcm Ofen, •they brood behind the stove ; ' er legte ftd) tjinter etne Sabad^bofe, 'he laid himself behind a snuff-box; ' er ging iuS §aH8, unb blicb lauge in bemfel= ben, ' he went into the house, and staid a long time in it ; ' bort Itegt cr nebcn ctucm ©tcin, ' there it Ues, beside a stone ; ' fie fcljten fid) ncbeu ben Saum, 'they seated themselves beside the tree; ' ber 3tacf)en fc^licgt fic^ iiber bcm Sc^inimmcr, ' the abyss closes over the swimmer ; ' fiber biefen ©trout bin id) ciuuial gcfal)ren, ' I once crossed over this stream; ' ber ,S'al)n trieb untcr etue 43i'iiclc'; nntcv biefer >Brutfc moljnte cine 9iattc; ' the boat drove underneath a bridge ; under tiiis bridge lived a rat ; ' im Slngeublid inarcn fte Uor bem lyclfcu, ' in a moment they were before the rock ; ' er trat Borbtc Stonu gin, 'he came before the queen; ' baS Oeftrictte rul)te ;iiuifd)cn il)rert ©cin^ bm, ' the knitting-work lay between her hands ; ' fie fdjliipften Jlnijdjen fcine ^njcige, ' they slipped in among its branches.' a. The difference of moaning determining the use of the dative or accu- sative after these prepositions is not always an obvious one ; sometimes a peculiar liveliness is given to an expression by the employment of the accu- sative: thus, er madjtc eine Oeffnung in bie @cbc, 'he made a hole in (into) the ground; ' unb liifjte fie an ben iDiiinb, 'and kissed her on the mouth (impressed a kiss); ' nbcr ben 9}onb ber Sirfe gebogcn, 'arched over (thrown as arch across) the edge of the abyss; ' — or, the accusative implies a verb of motion which is not expressed: thus, er ftieg in cin 2Birt[)Bl)auS ab, 'he got down (and entered) into an inn; ' er rcttelc fii^ in bie SBurg, 'he saved himself (betook himself for safety) into the castle ; ' fie ftc[)en in btc §bl)e, 'they stand up (rise to a standing posture); ' — or, the action is a figurative one: thus, an tl)n benten, 'think of him (turn one's thoughts on him); ' et fa^ auf all bie ^|5rad)t, 'he looked uiran all the beauty; ' fie freueteu fit^ iibet bie fd)ijnen Stcfjfel, 'they were delighted with the beautiful apples;' — or there are jjhrases, the implication of which seems arbitrarily determined: thus, auf bie befte SScife, 'in the best manner; ' iiber tanfenb 3ai)re, 'after a thousand years.' b. It is only by its use of in and into (as also, in colloquial phrase, of on and onto), that the English makes a corresponding distinction; and even this does not agree in all particulars with the German distiuction of in with the dative and with the accusative. Hence the ground of the difference of case is the less easily appreciated by us, and needs to be carefully noted at ever}' instance that occurs. c. The accusative and dative with these prepositions have each its own proper value, the one as the case of directest action, the other as repre- senting the ancient locative (or case denoting the in relation). 377. 1. Some prepositions govern a substantive clause, introduced usually by baJ3, rarely by a compound relative (179): such are auf, aufjer, bin, o()ne, ftatt or anflatt, urn, ungead)t-t, iniitjreub : thus, auf bafj cf b:r i'jct)! 380j PBEPOSITIONS. 173 gel)c, 'in order that it may go well with thee; ' au^er Irer fctne 3)Iit[c^u(bt: jen feten, ' except who were his accomplices.' a. This is closely akin with the office of a conjunction; and BiS, iinijeiidjtet, and tt)ol)reni) may be used without bafi, as proper conjunctions: thus, tt)af)« reilb wit ba blieben, 'while we continued there' (compare 439.5c). 2. The prepositions Ullt, oljiie, and ftott or auftatt may govern an infini- tive and its adjuncts, as equivalent of a complete clause (compare 346.1) 378. An adverb not infrequently takes the place of a noun as object of a preposition. Thus, a. Many adverbs of time and place: as, rtnc^ obeit, 'upward (toward above) ; ' aitf tmmer, ' for ever ; ' f iir jegt, ' for now ; ' Son fern, ' from afar : ' in Wie fern, 'how far.' b. The adverbs ba or bar, ino or roor, and ^icr or Ijie, as substitutes for the oblique cases of pronouns. These are compounded vrith the governing preposition, forming a kind of compound adverb (see 365.36). 379. 1. After the noun governed by a preposition is often added an adverb, to emphasize, or to define more nearly, the re- lation expressed by the preposition. Thus, a. The general adverbs of direction, Ijin and l)er : as, um Un8 t)er, urn i^n fier, ' round about us or him; ' [)intct tt)m ^ec, 'along after him; ' noct) etucr JRidjtnng ^in, ' in a single direction ; ' iibet baS, Wttx l)in, ' across the sea ; ' Bon aUen ©eiten l)cr, ' from all sides.' Ill these combinations, the distinctive meaning of the adverb, as de- noting motion from and iovmrd, is apt to be eflfaced. Um . . . Ijeu is the commonest case, and a stereotyped expression for 'round about' b. The same adverbs, in combination with the preposition itself repeat- ed : thus, nm midl ^crum, ' round about me ; ' in ben gorft l)inein, 'into the forest;' nu« bcm SBalbe ^tnauS, 'out of the wood;' an8 bet Stnft ^erans, 'forth from the breast; ' burd) Oefa^ten ^inbut(^, 'through dangers.' c. Other adverbs of direction, simple or compound, often adding an es- sential complement to the meaning of the preposition : thus, Uon nnn an, ' from now on ; ' Hon bort au8, ' forth from there ; ' Bon Sngenb anf, ' from youth up ; ' iiac^ bet SKitte ju, ' toward the middle ; ' fte gtngen anf iljn Jii, ' they fell upon him ; ' er ij'ixt bit geinbe I)tnter fid) brein, ' he hears the enemy [coming on] after him;' Ijtnter SBaunien IjetBor, 'forth from be- hind trees;' jnr Wantmer l)inetn, 'into the room;',3um Sijore l)inan8, 'out at the gate.' 2. It may sometimes be made a question whether the adverb of direc- tion belongs to the prepositional phrase, or, rather, to the verb of the clause, as its prefix : the two cases pass into one another. 380. To what members of the sentence a prepositional phrase forms an adjunct has been pointed out already : namely, 1. To a verb, with very various value: see 318. 2. To a noun: see 112. 174 INDECLINABLES. [380- 3. To an adjective: see 145. 4. Hence, also, to an adverb, when an adjective is nsed as such. 381. 1. The rules for the position of a preposition, whether before or after the noun that it governs, have been given above, in connection with the rules for government. 2. Between the preposition and its following governed noun may in- tervene tli& various limiting words which are wont to stand before a no>m — as articles, adjective pronouns, adjectives and participles, with their adjuncts — often to an extent discordant with English usage : thus, au8 ftdncn, DicrEd'ifi jugeljauenen, jiemttd) gleidjctt Safaltftucfen, 'of small, squarely hewn, tolerably equal pieces of basalt; ' fiir bem Sranfen geteiftete §iilfe, ' for help rendered to the sick man.' Respecting the combination of the preposition with a following definite article into a single word, see 65. CONJUNCTIONS. 382. Conjunctions are words which connect the clauses or sentences composing a period or paragraph, and show their rela tion to one another. a. We have hitherto had to do only with the elements which enter into the structure of individual clauses, and among which conjunctions play no part. When, however, clauses themselves are to be put ia connection with one another, conjunctions are required. b. If certain conjunctions — especially those meaning ' and ' and ' or ' — appear to connect words as well as clauses, it is as such words represent clauses, and may be expanded into them: thus, er Ullb id) loavcit ia — er roar ba, unb id) Inar ia, ' he was there and I was there; ' er tft mad)tiger ate id) [bin], 'he is mightier than I [am].' c. Conjunctions, as a, class, are the words of latest development in the history of language, coming from other parts of speech, mainly through the medium of adverbial use. A word ceases to be an adverb and becomes a conjunction, when its qualifying influence extends over a whole clause in- stead of being limited to a particular word in it. Almost all conjunctions in German are also adverbs (or prepositions), and their uses as the one or the other part of speech shade off into one another. 383. Conjunctions are most conveniently classified accord- ing to the character of the relations they indicate, and their effect upon the arrangement of the clauses they introduce, as 1 . General connectives, which do not alter the arrangement of the clause. 2. Adverbial conjunctions, causing the inversion of a clause (that is to say, causing its subject to follow, instead of precedhig, the verb). 385] coNjrsrcTroNS. 175 3. SiiborJinatinn cov junctions, which make the clause depend- ent, and give it the transposed order (removing the verb to the end). The first hvo classes, in contradistinction from the third, may be called co-ordinating conjunctions. 384. The general connectives are those signifying ' and,' ' but,' ' for,' and ' or' and ' either.' Namely, imb, ' and ; ' — ober, aHetn, foiibern (and sometimes bodj), ' but; ' — benn, 'for; ' — eiitwcbev, 'either,' and ober, 'or.' a. Of the words meaning ' but,' fotibent is more strongly adversative than ttljev, being used only after a negative, and introducing some word which has a like construction with the one on which the force of the negation falls, and which is placed in direct antithesis with it: thus, Uiett mrijt cigene iOcni^t, (onberit Oott, bie ffbntge errettet, ' because not their own might, but God, saves kings ; ' er gcnog ntc^t fange fetncS 9Iut)m8, foubern iuarb bejIDUttgen, 'he did not long enjoy his fame, but was subdued; ' metn atctter mar tetii SUaiitt, jonbetn cin SBail, ' my preserver was no man, but a brook ; ' — the combination nidjt nur (or blog) . . . fonbern auci), 'not only . . . but also,' is Kkewise common: thus, nid)t blofi jeiie fuitbigtett, fonbern and) luir, ' not they alone have sinned, but also we.' Stltetn means literally ' only,' and is often best so rendered, being more restricted than nber to the introduction of a definite objection. For borf) as ' but,' see below, 385.5c. r~~ 6. These connectives stand always at the head of the clause whose / connection they indicate; except aber, which has great freedom of \ position, and may be introduced at any later point — without any notable j difference of meaning, although often to be conveniently rendered by 'how- ' ever.' 385. 1. The adverbial conjunctions are originally and strictly adverbs, qualifying the verb of the clause which they introduce ; and, like any other of the adjuncts of the verb (431), when placed at the head of the clause, they give it the inserted order, putting the subject after the verb. '2. No distinct boundary separates the conjunctional use of these words from their adverbial use : they are conjunctions when their effect is to de- termine the relations of clauses to one another, rather than to limit the ac- tion of a verb— and these two ofBces pass insensibly into each other. 3. They may be simply classified as a. Onputalive (related to the general connective ' and '), uniting different phrases with no other implication than that of continuation, order, or divi- sion: as, aiiti), 'also,' nitfterbcm, 'besides,' bann, 'then,' fcnier, 'further,' erftcng, ^rocitenS, brittenS, 'firstly, secondly, thirdly,' aud so on, fii)liefiltc^, 'finally,' meber . . . nod), 'neither . . nor,' t§eil« . . . tljcitS, 'partly . . . partly,' bnlb . . . Baib, 'now . . . now.' S. Adversaiire {relnted to 'but'), implying more or less distinctly an op- position of idea, a denial or restriction: as, borf), jcborf), bfunod^, 'yet though,' gIeicf)niot)tr beffenungead)tet, 'nevertheless;' bagegen, ()ingegen. 17G INDECI.INABLES. [385- ' on the contrary,' tnbcffen, 'however,' Btelmetjr, 'rather,' jhjar, 'tohesure, tuo^l, 'indeed.' c. Causatine (related to 'for'), implying a ground, reason, or occasion: as, bntjcv, bcawegen, beStjatb, ' therefore,' aijo, ' accordingly,' folglii^, mit{)in, ' consequently.' d. Adverbs of place and time, particularly the latter, sometimes assume a conjunctional value: as, unterbcffeil, 'meanwhile,' Corljer, 'previously,' barauf, ' thereupon.' 4. Although these words in their conjunctional office tend toward the head of the clause, they do not always take that place ; nor are they al- ways conjunctions rather than adverbs when they introduce the clause. Especially nSilittt^, ' namely,' and some of the adversative and causative con- junctions — as borf), jebod), tnbcffen, Jlunr, tnot)!, alfo — have a freedom of po- sition like that of ober (384.5). 5. The clause sometimes maintains its normal order, instead of being inverted, after conjunctions of this class ; especially a. When the emphasis of the clause, or of the antithesis in two correla- tive clauses, rests on the subject, so that the conjunelion becomes a kind of adjunct of the subject: thus, aud) bein SSruber ^cit e? goniinfdjt, 'thy brother also has wished it; ' lucber er, Itoc^ id) ttavcn ba, 'neither he nor I were there.' b. When the conjunction represents a clause which is not fully expressed, or is thrown in, as it were parenthetically. Conjunctions most often so treated are jlnar, iiberbteg, fofgtid), jubem, f)ingegcn, and ordinals, as evfteiiS, jtucitcng. c. Sod) sometimes has its adversative force weakened to a mere 'but,' and leaves the order of the clause unchanged, hke the other words that have that meaning (384). 386. 1. The subordinating conjunctions are such as give to the clause which they introduce a dependent (subordinate, acces- sory) value, making it enter, in the relation of substantive, adjective, or adverb, into the structure of some other clause. Such a de- pendent clause assumes the transposed order — that is to say, its personal verb is removed to the end of the clause (see 434 etc.). 2. The conjunctions that introduce a substantive dependent dame are bn|3, 'that,' ob, 'whether,' and those that have a compound relative value, namely Inic, 'how,' inann, 'when,' rDO, 'where,' and the compounds of Ino,., whether with adverbs of direction, as Inoljin, 'whither,' tnotier, 'whence,' or with prepositions, as representing oases of the compound relative pro- noun mer (180), as tnoUon, 'whereof,' luorait, 'wherewith.' Thus, id) weig, bag er l)ter WM ; ob cr norfi Ijter bleibt, ift tnir uiibefannt ; frngcu ©ic niir imd), moljin cr fidj bcgebcn l)nbc, 'I know that he was here; whether he still remains here is .unknown to me ; only inquire whither he has betaken himself.' 3. The conjuuc ions that introduce an adjective dependent clause are 387J CONJUifCTIOXS. 177 chiefly those made up of prepositions, with the adverbs ba and ttio, repre- senting cases of the simple relative pronouns bcr and roetc^ci' (180), or of words of direction with the same adverbs. The simple conjunctions tuo, ttienn, ttinnn, ba, alS, roie, following specifications of place, time, or manner, also sometimes perform the same office. Thus, ba« 58ett, morciuf cr lag, 'the bed on which he lay; ' t^r Ouetlen, bal)tn bie melfe SBnift fid^ brongt, 'ye fountains toward which the drooping breast presses;' bag Snub, mo bie Eitronen blitl)n, 'the land where the lemons blossom; ' bte %xt, wie man ben iftieg fii^rt, 'the way in which the war is carried on.' 4. The conjunctions that introduce an adveriial dependent clause are of very various derivation, character, and meaning: namely, a. Conjunctions indicating ^tece ; as, too, ba, 'where.' 6. Time: as, ba, ols, meim, TOie, mo, 'when,' inbem, inbeffen or inbcg, Weil, malji-Ettb, 'while,' nac^bem, 'after,' fcitbent/ 'since,' bi3, 'until,' elje, ht= Dor, 'before.' c. Manner: as, mie, 'as.' d. Gause: as, lueii, bieiueil, 'because,' ba, 'since,' nun, 'now that,' baf;, ' that' e. Purpose: as, bamit, bag, aiif baJ3, um bafi, 'in order that.' / Condition: as, raenn, 'if,' fo, mo, iBofent, bafcrn, falls, 'incase,'in« bem, 'while; ' — and, with iraplijafon of objection, ungeadjtct, obgletdi, oba iDolil, objdjon, ob jruav, ot) aui), menngleiri), n)cnn(d)0"( rotnn oud), mie= IBOl)(, 'although ' The compounds of ob and mcnit with gleic^, Wotjl, and fd)on, meaning 'although,' are often separated by intervening words. g. Degree: as, lt)ie, 'as,' je, 'according as,' al§, benn, 'than.' h. Besides these, there are numerous conjunctional phrases, of kindred value, composed of conjunctions and other particles : as, al8 ob, ' as if,' in IDte fern, ' so far as,' je nac^bem, ' according as,' fo ball), ' as soon as,' fo lang, ' so long as,' etc. i. @o, especially, with following adverb, forms (as in the last two exam pies) a great number of conjunctional phrases or compounds, after which the conjunction al§, ' as,' is sometimes expressed, but more often impUed ; thus, fo long al8 c8 nnr moglid) tft, or io lang e8 nur miiglid) ift, ' so long as it is in any way possible ' (compare 4:38.3d). 5. Few of these words are exclusively conjunctions : many arc adverbs also, or prepositions, or both; some, as tooljrenb, ungeadjtet, are partici- pial forms ; some, as falls, Weil, are cases of nouns ; many are combined phrases composed of a preposition and a governed case ; as inbem, narl)= bem, fcttbem. INTERJECTIONS. 387. The inteijectioiig have a character of their own, sepa- rate from the other parts of speech, in that they do not enter as 8* 178 INDEOLINABLES. [387- elements into the structure of sentences or periods, but are inde- pendent outbursts of feeling, or intimations of will, the uttered equivalents of a tone, a grimace, or a gesture. 388. Nevertheless, they are not purely natural exclamations, but utterances akin witli such, which are now assigned by usage to the expression of certain states of mind or will. 389. The interjections most commonly used are 1. Of those expressing feeling — o or ot), used in a great variety of meanings ; act), tvcl), expressing painful Or disagreeable surprise or grief; pfui, fi, bal), expressing disgust or contempt ; et, joyful surprise ; ija, iif), ■wonder, pleasure, and the like; Ijeifa, jud)l)e, exultation; ^em, l)m, doubt, hesitation ; l)u, horror, shuddering. 2. Of those intimating will or desire — I)e, ()ebn, IjoKo, to call attention ; (jft, the same, or to con^mand silence ; Ijllfd), to command silence ; to)))], to sig- nify the closing of a bargain. 3. Here may be best classed, also, the various imitations of the cries of animals and other natural sounds, directions and callwords for animals, and the more or less artificially composed and uninteHigent words which are used as burdens of songs and the like : as, Ijopjafo, OiOallera, tiitn= tebitm. 390. As, on the one hand, the interjections are employed with a degree of conventionality, like the other constituents of language, so, on the other hand, many words that are proper parts of speech are very commonly used in an exclamatory way, quite as if they were interjections. Such are Ijeit, 'hail!' gott- lob, ' praise God ! ' beluatjr, ' God forbid ! ' fort, ineq, ' away ! ' ftc^, 'behold,' brat), 'well done!' etc.; and the whole series of oaths and adjurations. a. The ordinary equivalent of our alas, Ictber, is an abbreviation of the phrase inaS mir nod) I e t b e r ift, ' what is yet more painful to me ' (or something equivalent to this), and is capable of being introduced, parenthe- tically, at almost any point in the phrase — even, when put first, some- times causing inversion, like an adverb. 391. The exclamatory or interjectional mode of expression pre- vails to no small extent in the practical use of language, when emo- tion or eagerness causes the usual set framework of the sentence, ■ the verb and its subject, to be thrown aside, and only the em- phatic elements to be presented at all. Thus, cud) jur (grbtii ErtlSvcti ! ber ticrratf)er!fcf)e gattftricf, ' declare yon my heiress I the treacherous snare I' f(tet)'l aiif! I)innu8 tnti tneiie i'niib ! 'flee! up I out into the wide country I' id) octftel)' bid); lueitcr! 'I under- stand you : further 1 ' 395] INTEEJECTIONS. 179 The grammatical forms most frequently thus used are the nominatiye of address (or " vocative : " 214), and the imperative. 392. Some of the interjections are also brouglit into a kind of connection with the structure of the sentence, being foUov^ed by cases, or phrases, such as would suit a more complete expres- .sion of the feeling they intimate. Thus, 0, adl, Vfui maj' stand before a genitive ezpressing the occasion of the exclamation: as in o bc8 Sljoren ! (jfiii bet ©rfjnnbe! 'oh the fooll tie on the shame I ' — some may take a prepositional phrase or a substan- tive clause after them: as, acf) bag bu bo tiegft, 'alas that thou liest there I ' pfut iiber belt gcigen, ' fie on the coward I ' — and nouns used in- terjeotionally often admit a dative object, signifying that toward which the feeling is directed: thus, §eil, o griiljling, betnem ©djein, 'hail to thy brilliancy, oh Spring I ' tne^ mir, bag id) bit »ertraut, ' woe to me, that I have trusted thee I ' I: I Word-formation, derivation. Introductory Explanations. 393. The etymological part of grammar, as thus far treated, deals with the character and uses of the farts of speech, and of their grammatical or inflectional form^, which are made from simple themes (stems, ba.ses), chiefly by inflectional endings, but in part also by internal change. Such grammatical forms (along with the indeclinable particles, which are ultimately derived from thom) constitute the most essential part of the grammatical apparatus of a language, its instrumentality for the expression of relations of ideas, the means by which its names of beings, qualities, acts, etc., are placed in connection with one another, in order to express the thoughts of the speaker. 394. Another, and only less important part of the same grammatical apparatus is the array of means by which themes of declension and conju- gation are formed from roots and from each other. These means are of the same character with those already described, consisting chiefly of suffixes, along with a few prefixes, and supplemented by methods of internal change. 395. There is no fundamental diversity between the two instrumentali- ties. The suflfixes and prefixes of inflection and of derivation are equally, by origin, independent words, which were first uttered in connection with other words, then combined with the latter, and finally made to lose their independence and converted into subordinate elements, designating the relations of other more substantial and significant elements. a. The working-out of grammatical apparatus, by the reduction of words once independent to the condition of endings of iufleetion or derivation, ISO DERIVATION. [395- / has been a part of the history of inflective languages, from their ^eginninf; clown to modern times. Of many of the affixes formed in this wa'y, as well as of some that are much more ancient, the origin can still he distinctly traced: but their history is to a great extent obscured by the effects of lin- guistic change and corruption. Compare what is said above of tlie deriva- tion of the ending tc, forming the preterits of the New conjugation (246,3), and of the suffixes fid), luavtS, etc. (363-4); and see the author's "Lan- guage and the Study of Language," pp. 55 etc., 250 etc. b. The difference between the two classes of endings lies iu their mode of application, and in the frequency and regularity of their use. Certain suffixes of derivation are so regularly applied to whole classes of themes and produce derivatives so analogous witli forms of inflection, that they are conveniently and properly treated along with the subject of inflection Such are the endings er and eft of comparatives and superlatives (133 etc.), and those which form the inflnitives and participles of verbs. 396. Among modern languages commonly studied, the German is the one which most fully and clearly illustrates the processes of word-forma- tion ; and the subject ought therefore to receive the attention of every ad vanced German scholar. 397. But no known language (not even such exceptional ones as the Sanskrit) has preserved so much of its primitive structure that we can carry back the analysis of its vocabulary to the actual beginning. By the help, especially, of a careful and searching comparison of related languages, the processes of word-combination can be traced up until we discover ol what sort are the ultimate elements of speech, although we are by no means certain of being able to point them out in their very form and substance. Principles. 398. The words of German, as of other related languages, are believed to come ultimately from certain monosyllabic eoots, which y/ere not themselves distinct parts of speech, but mate- rial out of which were developed verbs, nouns (nouns adjective and nouns substantive), and pronouns ; and, through these, the other parts of speech. a. Because the roots of language are usually seen in their simplest form iu verbs, we are accustomed to call them verbal roots ; and we also ordinarily call the theme of verbal inflection a " root " (237.1a), yet without at all intending to imply that it is an original or ultimate root. 399. The means of derivation, through the whole history of development, have been chiefly suiHxes or derivational endings— with some aid from prefixes. a. The almost exclusive use of suffixes rather than prefixes, as means both of inflection and of derivation, ia a characteristic feature of the family of languages to which the German (with our own) belongs. The iew pre- fixes employed have retained much more distinctly the character of iude- 401] PEINOIPLES. 181 pendent words, forming proper compounds with those to which they are attached : that character has been lost only by, the inseparable prefixes (307) and one or two others (see below, 411.11). The negative nit is the only Grerman prefix of really ancient character and obscure derivation. 400. Besides this, there have come in in German two other specific auxiliary methods of internal change, affecting the vowel of the root or primitive word. These are 1. The modification of vowel (14), or change of a, o, it, oit into a, o, ii, Stt, respectively : thus, 3Jtann, iDJSitnev, ' man, men ; ' gujj, giijje, ' foot, feet: ' 2RaiiS, iOJttufe, 'mouse, mice ; ' olt, otter, alteft, ' old, elder, eldest;' ^orn, jfbrnlcin, 'com, kernel;' Ijange, l)i1ngt, 'I hang, he hangs;' jTrg, ftoge, ' I flew, I might fly ; ' rot^, rottjcit,. ' red, redden.' This modification is by the Germans called Umlaut, 'change of sound.' u.. This is a euphonic change, coming from the assimilation of a hard or guttural vowel to a soft or palatal one (c, t) closely following it — al- though finally applied by analogy, in many single cases, where no such cause had been present. It is of comparatively recent introduction, al- though, as the examples show, shared in part by the English. It is quite unknown in one branch of Germanic speech, the Mceso-Gothic ; and, on the other hand, most highly developed ia the Scandinavian tongues. 6. In the present condition of the language, the cause of the modifica- tion is generally no longer to be seen, the assimilating vowel having been lost. c. Some derivative words having vowels which are really the effect of modification are now, usually or always, written with the simple vowels c (for a or 0) or t (for it). Again, some words show a modified vowel as the mere result of an irregular variation of utterance, without etymological reason. 2. The variation of radical vowel: as in ftngen, fang, gefittigen, 'sing, sang, sung; ' toerbe, toirb, roorb, murben, gemorbeti, from toerben, 'become ; ' brei|e, bctdjt, brad^, gebroc^en, SSrucb, from breti^en, 'break.' This variation is by the Germans called 31btaut, 'divergence of sound.' a. This second mode of vowel change is also, like the other, originally of euphonic character, one of the accidents attending the phonetic devel- opment of language, under the combined influences of quantity, accent, combination, addition of suflSxes, and the like. But it is much more an- cient, being one of the characteristic peculiarities of all the Germanic languages ; and its specific causes and mode of evolution are in great part obscure. b. The sphere of action of the variation of radical vowel is in the in- flection of the older verbs of the language, and the formation of theu- ear- liest derivatives. 401. The modes of consonantal change which accompany the pro- eesses of word-formation are too various and irregular to be systemati- oally set forth here. Some of them will be noticed below, in connection with the derivatives whose formation especially calls them out. 1S2 DEEIVA'nON. [402- 402. To carry back the historical' analysis of German words to the farthest point altained by the aid of the languages kindred with the German, would take the pupil into regions where he is a stranger, and would be uu- profitable. Such study requires a knowledge of the older dialects, and be- longs to a higher stage of progress. Only the processes of derivation whose results are traceable in the existing language will be set forth; and those words wUl be treated as "primitive" which have no German etymons, or more original words whence they are derived, even though evi- dence from other languages may not only show them to be derivatives, but also exhibit the earlier forms from which they came. Derivation of Verbs. 403. Primitive Verbs. Verbs to be regarded as primitive are 1. The verbs of tbe Old conjugation, nearly two hundred in number (264^7), whicli constitute the most important body of primitive roots in the language. a. Several verbs of this conjugation, however, are demonstrably deriva- tive: thus, fc^reiben (111.2), ' write,' from Latin «m6o; preijen (JII.2), 'praise,' from *Preig, ' value ' (which comes from Lat. pretmin), etc. Others are doubtless of the same character; since, down to that period in the history of the language at which the mode of inflection of the New conjiigation was introduced, all verbs, whether recent or older, were inflected according to the Old conjugation. 2. Many verbs of the New conjugation: as, ^atien, 'have,' fagen, 'say,' rebcn, 'talk,' lieben, 'love,' leben, 'live.' a. A number of the verbs of the New conjugation formerly belonged to the Old, having changed their mode of inflection under the influence of the tendency to extend a prevailing analogy and reduce more irregular to more regular forms. Others, if originally derivative, have lost the evidence of it. To the root of some there is a corresponding noun, and it may admit pf question which is the more original, verb or noun. 6. All verbs whose root, or theme of conjugation, is of more than one syllable are to bp classed as derivative: even though, as in the case of fd)mei(l)el:t, 'flatter,' Itetteni, 'climb,' the original from which they come is no longer to be traced. 404. Verbs derived from Verbs. 1. By internal change of the root itself: 1. By change (generally, modification) of the root vowel, a class of cau- sative verbs are formed, taking as their direct object what was the subjept of'the simple verb: thus, faUeit, 'fall,' fiittcn, 'cause to t&\\fdl;' triiiEctl, 'drink,' trniitcu, 'cause to drink,' drench;^ ft(5eu, 'sit,' feljcit, 'set; ' lieiieu, 'lie,' tcgcil, 'lay;' (tiugcn, 'suck,' ((iligcil, 'suckle;' faljlTll, 'go,' fiil)rn;, 'lead.' 404j DEllIVATIVE VliEBS. 183 a. As some of the examples show, this class of deriTatives has its repre- sentatives in English also, but they are much more numerous in German. 2. By change of the final consouant, with or without accompanying change of vowel, a few verbs are made, with various modification of tiie meaning of the simple verb: thus, ftcIjEii, 'stand,' ftellcti, 'place; ' Ijiingcn, 'hang,' Ijeiifen, 'execute by hanging;-' ticgcn, 'bend,' bitdcn, 'bow;'uct= gen, 'incline,' nicfcn, 'nod;' roadjnt, 'wake, watch,' Wed'cn, 'awalien. arouse ; ' effcn, ' eat,' a^en, ' corrode, etch.' II. By additions to the root : 1. The suffix el forms a few diminutives, as \ai)tn, 'laugh,' loc^eln, 'smile;' (ieben, 'love,' Itebeln, 'dally, flirt;' frantett, 'besick,' tronteln, 'be sickly or ailing.' 0. But most of the diminutive verbs in ein are derived from nouns and adjectives: see below, 405.II.1. 2. The suffix er forms a few iterative, desiderative, or causative verbs: as Moppcn, 'flap,' flappern, 'rattle; ' ladjcii, 'laugh,' Ific^ern, 'make inclined to laugh; ' folgeii, 'follow,' folgeni, 'infer, conclude.' a. But most verbs in crn, as in cln, come from nouns and adjectives ; and those which appear to come from verbs are rather to be regarded aa formed in imitation of such, or after their analogy. 3. The addition of i) gives in a few cases intensive force : as in t)bren, 'hear,' l)orcJ)cn, 'hearken;' fdjnarren, 'rattle,' |c()uarif)eii, 'snore, snort.' 4 3r or iev. This is properly a French ending, representing the er or ir of the infinitive of French verbs ; and it forms German verbs from French or Latin roots: thus, ftubiren, 'study,' mai'jd)ivcu, 'march,' fpnjiercil, 'expa- tiate, go abroad for pleasure or exercise,' regiercn, 'rule.' a. But a few verbs in tren are formed, in imitation of these, from German words: aa budjftabirnt, 'spell '(from 43ud)ftabe, 'letter'), |d)attiren, 'shade' (from ©djcitten, 'shadow'). 6. At a certain period, about the middle of the last century, the German language was well-nigh swamped by the introduction of a multitude of such foreign verbs in tven. The greater part of them have been cast out from dignified and literary use, but they are stiU rife in low colloquial and humorous styles. c. The syllable ir or icr of these verbs receives the accent ; and they therefore admit no prefix ge in the participle : see 243.3(1. III. By prefixes to the root : 1. By the inseparable prefixes be, ent or errt)?, er, ge, ber, and jer. For the derivative (or compound) verbs formed by means of these pre fixes, see above, 302 etc. 2. By separable prefixes. Verbs formed by means of such prefixes have no real right to be regarded as derivative: they are compounds, rather: see 295 etc. Ileiiitirk. — Derivative verba in German coming from other verbs directly aie quite rare; and, of those usually regarded as so derived, some admit of explanation as denominatives, or as coming from nouns and adjectives. X 184 DERIVATION. [405- 405. Verbs derived from Nouns and Adjectives. Verbs from noima and adjectives are commonly called denominatives They constitnte in German, as in the other related languages, the gTeat mass of derivative verbs. The relatiou of the verbal idea to the meaning of the primitive word is of the most varied character. Verbs from adjectivea usually signify either, as intransitives, to be in or to pass into the condition denoted by the adjective, or else, as trausitives, to reduce something to that condition. Verbs from nouns signify either to supply with that which the noun denotes, or to deprive of it, or to use or apply it, or to treat with il, or to be like it, and so ou : for examples, see below. I. By the simple addition of the endings of conjugation : 1. From nouns, more usually without modification of the vowel of the primitive word : as, f ujjcit, ' set foot, find footing ' (gug, ' foot ') ; f)auje:i, 'house, dwell' (§au8, 'house'); grafen, 'graze' (OraS, 'grass'); aiterii, 'grow old, age' CJtltet, 'age'); buttern, 'make or turn to butter' (93i:ttcr, 'butter'); Jjninteii, 'make a show' ('Jji'iuif- 'show 'J; arijciten, 'work' (SlrbElt, 'laloor'); — sometimes with modification of the vowel: as, tjfliiijeit, 'plough' Cl^flun, 'plough'); prnment, 'hammer' (ijammer, 'hammer'); ftiivjeii, 'fall or hurl headlong' (®tuv3, 'fall'). a. Rarely, a verb is formed from a noun in the plural: as, blattern, 'turn over the leaves of,' etc. (flatter, 'leaves,' from S3[att). h. Nouns (and adjectives) ending in the unaccented syllable en reject the e of that syllalDle in the derivative verb: thus, reguen, ' rain ' (Stcgcn, ' rain ') ; ijffncn, 'open' (offen, 'open'). 2. From adjectives, usually with modificationof the vowel: thus, rotf)flt, 'redden' (rotl), 'red'); ftavt'en, 'strengthen' (ftarf, 'strong'); tbbteii, 'kill' (tobt, '4ead'); geiiiigen, 'suffice' (geimg, 'enough'); aubevii, 'alter' (auber, 'other'); oujjeni, 'utter' (aiijjcr, 'oiit'); — rarely without modification : as, nal)en, ' draw nigh ' (nal), ' nigh ') ; alten, ' grow old ' (alt, ' old '). a. A number of derivative verbs are formed from adjectives in the corn- parative degree: thus, naljern, 'come nearer' (iialjcr, 'nearer,' from nal)) ; intnbern, ' diminish ' (minber, 'less '). II. By derivative endings, forming themes of conjugation : 1. The ending el forms from both nouns and adjectives (with modifica- tion of their vowel) verbs which have a diminutive, disparaging, or reproach- ful meaning : thus, fiinftctn, ' treat in an artificial or affected manner ' (ft'iuift, ' art ') ; altcrtljUmelll, ' be foolishly or affectedly fond of antiquity ' (atter= tl)um, 'antiquity'); fliigeln, 'subtihze, be over-critical' (t(ug, 'knowing';; frommelli, ' affect piety, cant ' (fronnii, ' pious '). a. Compare derivatives formed from verbs by the same ending, 404.11. 1 2. The endings fcl), J, and enj form a few verbs : fd) forms only l)en-fif|eii 'rule' (§err, 'master'), and fei(fd)en, 'chaffer' (fcit, 'cheap'); j forms bu3en, ' to thee and thou ' (tut, 'thou'), and one or two others; cna forms fauleitjen, 'play the sluggard' (faul, 'lazy'), etc. 3. The ending ig is properly one forming adjectives (below, 415.1)) ; but it is sometimes attached both to adjectives and nouns in order to the forma- tion of a special theme of conjugation, by analogy with the numerous verbs derived from adjectives ending in tg : thus, retlligen, 'purify' (rein, 'pure'l; Cllbigeii, 'end, terminate' (@tibe, 'end'). 406] DEEIVATIVE VERBS. ISj 4. The ending ir forms a few verbs from Germau nouns; see 404.II.4a III. By prefixes (either with or without derivative endings) : 1. The inseparable prefixes (except gc) form a very large number of de- nominative verbs, generally without any accompanying derivative ending, but occasionally along with such. In these denominatives, the preiixea have a force analogous with that which belongs to them in composition (sec 307): thus, a. SBe forms transitives, denoting especially a furnishing, making, or treating: thus, befaelcn, 'endow with a soul' (accle, 'soul'); bc;ict|tcrii, 'inspirit' ((Seiflev, 'spirits,' from ®eift); befreteii, 'free, liberate' (fni, 'free'); bevcid)ccn, 'enrich' (rcid)er, 'richer,' from veid)); bcfd)onigc;i, 'beau- tify' (fc^bn, 'beautiful'); bciiad}rid)tigeii, 'inform' {3(ad)rtd)t, 'news'). b. (Snt forms especially verbs sigiifying removal, deprivation, and the like; thus, eiit[evneii, 'withdraw' (icni, 'far'); entbliJJ3Cii, 'strip' (blf;, 'bare'); ent^(lii))tcn, 'behead' (.pati^it, 'head'); eiith'tiften, 'enervate' (Svnft, 'piiwer'); entl)CtHgcn, 'desecrate' (Ijcilig, 'holy'); eiltmaffiicu, ' disarm ' (SBaffeii, ' weapon '). c. (St forms transitives, intransitives, and reflexives, chiefly from adjec- tives, and signifying a passing into, or a reduction to, the state signified by the adjective: thus, evf)arten, 'grow hard,' erl)iivtcil, 'make hard' (Ijiivt, 'hard'); ermatten, 'tire'(mntt, 'weary'); ergnnjen, ' complete ' {gnn,^ 'en- tire'); eniiebrigen, ' humble '(luebrig, 'low'); cilo)t'n, 'release' (lo«, 'loose'>; ermciterit, 'extend' (roetter, 'wider,' from ineit); cvtlSvcu, 'explain' (f(av, ' clear ') : — but sometimes with more irregular meaning, from adjectives or nouiis : thus, erobetu, ' conquer ' (ober, ' superior ') ; evtiineni, ' remind ' (imier, 'interior'); ecgriiuben, 'fathom, explore ' (Oi'iinb, 'bottom'). d. S5cr has nearly the same value and office as er, but is more prevail- ingly transitive in eifeet: tbua, Bcrdnbcni, ' alter ' (nubcr, ' other '); ueveu telli, 'frustrate '(eitel, 'vain'); Bergniigcii, ' gratify ' (gciiiig, 'enough'); uec= ISiigeni, ' lengthen ' (langcr, 'longer,' from long); iT-vglafrn, ' vitrify, glaze ' (OlaS, ' glass ') ; ucffitbevn, ' plate with silver ' (Silbcr, ' silver ') ; ueraltcii, ' become antiquated ' (o(t, ' old '). cj. ^n forms a very few derivatives : as, jcrf(ci(d)cn, 'lacerate' (gleifc^, 'flesh'); jergliebern, 'dismember' ((Sltcber, 'limbs,' from Olieb). 2. A small number of denominatives are formed with the separable pre- fixes: such are abbnc^en, 'unroof (2)01:^, 'roof'); auSfcrnen, 'remove the stone or kernel of (Sent, 'kernel'); etntei'tern, 'imprison' (S'ertev, 'pri- son'); umarnien, 'embrace' (ilrm, 'arm'); aiifmuntern, 'cheer up' (nmn> ter, 'cheerful'); auSlnciten, ' widen ' (roeit, 'wide'). 406. Verbs derived from Particles. A few verbs are derived from other parts of speech by the same means as from nouns and adjectives. Such are empbrcn, 'excite, arouse' (enHJor, 'aloft'); bcgegnen, 'meet (gcgen, 'against'); erlDieberit, 'answer' (iinebev, 'again'); bemic^teil, ^cr< nititeii, 'annihilate' (iiid)t, 'not'); Berneinen, 'deny' (iiein, 'no'); beia^e.i, 'afarm' (ja, 'yea'); dc^jcn, 'groan' (ad), 'ah!'); joiic^jen, 'exult' (jwl), jud)^e, ' hurrah I '). 1S6 DEEIYATION. [407- Deeivation of Nouns. 407.' Primitive Nouns. 1. Primitive nouns are in part monosyllabic words -which contain no evi- dr-nt sign of their really derivative nature, and of which the original roots are no longer traceable in German. Such are ilfann, 'man,' §oii«, 'house,' 58aum, 'tree,' jjiiib, 'child, y?o.f, 'people,' %vSi, 'foot.' 2. In part they are words of more than one syllable, the evident products of composition or derivation, containing elements more or less closely ana- logous with those by which other recognizable derivatives are formed, but coinfng from roots of which they are the only remaining representatives. Such are 5Unme, 'name,' Snabe, 'boy,' 3luge, 'eye,' (Srbe, 'earth,' Snter, 'father,' Eodjter, 'daughter,' aBaffci:, 'water,' ^"oget, 'bird,' JJabel, 'needle,' ©egel, 'sail.' a. Some of the words in both these classes are traceable by comparison of the kindred languages to earlier roots from which they are descended: thus, 9J!aiin is us\ially (though doubtfully) referred to a root riMn, ' thinls ' (the same with meinen, ' think, mean ' ) ; ^tub comes from the root gan, ' generate ; ' gil(3 is identical with Latin pes, Greek pous, coming from pad, ' walk ; ' 9}nme goes back to gnd, ' know ; ' iodjter to duh, ' draw the breast, milk,' and so on. 408. Nouns derived from Verbs. I. By variation of vowel (?Ibtaut: see 400.2) alone, without added ending. Thus, S?nub, ' volume,' SBunb, ' bond,' from binben, ' bind ; ' ©ill, ' seat' @al^, ' sediment,' @af?, ' settler,' from ftijcil, ' sit ; ' ^XiO,, ' draft,' from Jtcljcil, ' draw ; ' Sritt, ' step,' from tri'ten, ' tread ; ' ©prud), ' speech,' from (pved)cn, 'speak; ' i^pcung, 'spring,' from fpringcn, 'spring.' OS. All these words originally had endings of derivation, which have become lost by phonetic corruption. They are prevailingly masculine. 6 In words thus derived appear sometimes irregular alterations of the root, especially of its final consonant, as the examples in part show. c. The relation of meaning of such derivatives to the idea of action, state, or quality expressed by the verbal root is very various : but they signify in general either the act or quality itself, or the result of the action, or the person or thing that acts, or to which the state or quality belongs. II. By brief and obscure endings, relics of earlier fuller forms, and no longer producing distinct classes of derivatives, with de- finable modifications of the radical meaning. Such endings are 1. Jc, be, t 'ft, ft) b: thus, 93iirbe, 'burden,' from bfirnt, 'bear; ©cljnrtc, 'notch,' from fcfjereii, ' shear; ' Jvnljrt, ' passage,' from fn()veu, 'go; ©rfjrift, 'document,' from jdjreilicu, 'write;' Xvciri)t, 'dress,' from tragcit, 'wear;' Snuift, 'heat,' from brciinctt, 'burn;' Smift, 'art,' ftom tciliu'll ' know ; ' .iif imft, ' coming,' from tomilicn, ' come ; ' 33vanb, ' combustion, from bl'eniicu, ' burn.' 408] DERIVATIVE NOUNS. 1S7 2. (S, which forma a very large number of derivatives : thus, 93iube, ' tie, from binben, 'bind;' ®pva!tjt, 'language,' from fpverfjcn, 'speak; ' ®abe, 'gift,' from geben, 'give; ' gUege, 'fly,' from fliegen, 'fly.' a. The derivatives of this class also share in the variation of radical vowel, and in the irregular alterations of the final consonant of the root, which characterize the older words of the language. They are of as various meaning as those of the preceding class. Their gender Ss prevailingly fem- inine—exceptions being appellations of males (persons ind animals), and a few that are of anomalous character. < III. By endings of more distinct form, and more uniform and definable meaning. The most important of these we will take up in alphabetical order, for the sake of more convenient reference. 1. (Si. This sufBx is of foreign origin, being derived from the Latin and French ia, ie. It was used originally only to form derivatives from nouns (see below, 410.2), but has come also to form from verbs ending in etn and etn abstract nouns of action, often with a disparaging or contemptuous im- plication: thus, ®d)mei(be(ei, 'flattery,' from (d)mci^ctn, 'flatter; ' 2;anbe=' let, 'trifling,' from tiinbcm, 'trifle;' *^(auberet, 'chit-chat,' from jjtaubern, 'chatter; ' ^auberet, 'witchcraft,' from jaubern, 'practise magic' a. Words formed with ei are feminine, and take the accent upon this syllable, as is required by the derivation of the sufBx. 2. (SI. This sufSx forms a considerable class of masculine derivatives, denoting generaUy an instrument, quite rarely an actor: thus, §ebel, 'lever,' from tftbtn, 'raise; ' ®ed'el, 'cover,' from beden, 'cover; ' ©djtiigcl, ' mallet,' from icf|la(icn, 'beat; ' «d)lUffe(, 'key,' from fdjliegen, 'lock; ' gliiijct, 'wing,' from ftiegeii, ' fly.' u,. But a great many nouns in the language ending in el are from lost or unknown roots, and therefore have the value of primitive words (407.2) ; some of these are feminine or neuter : as are also some others, whose gen- der ia determined by their signification. 3. (Sn. Besides forming the infinitives of all verbs (237.1a), which, when used as ordinary nouns, are neuter (340), cu is the suflix of deriva- tion of a considerable class of masculine nouns, as 33iffeii, 'bit,' from beijjcn, 'bite;' ©raben, 'ditch,' from graben, 'dig;' ^djcibeh, 'harm,' from (cf|oben, ' injure.' a. Of the numerous words of obscure etymology in en, a few are neuter, but none are feminine. 4. @r. This sufBz forms numerous masculine nouns denoting an actor : thus, Steitet, 'rider,' from reiten, 'ride;' Mala, 'painter,' from mnlen, 'paint;' Sanger, 'dancer,' from tonsen, 'dance;' mda, 'baker,' from bacfen, 'bake.' With these are closely akin a few names of instruments, as 93oVer, 'auger,' from bof)rcn, 'bore;' 5^1%^, 'pointer,' from jetgen, ' point.' u.. Of the older words ending in ei', and requirmg to be reckoned as primitives (407.2), many are feminine or neuter. 6. @r also forms classes of derivative nouns from nouns: see 410.3. 5. Sina forms from verbs chiefly masculine nouns denoting the recipient ISS DEKIVATION. [408- of the verbal action: thus, giiibltng, 'foundling,' from finfccn, 'find;' Sc^v^ ling, 'pupil,' from lel)ien, 'teach;' ©dugltng, 'suckling,' from faugen, ' suckle.' a. For the derivatiTSS in Httg from nouns and adjectives, see 409.II.4, 410.6. ^ 6. giJig. This sufBr is chiefly used in German to form abstract nouns from verbs: much less often, like the corresponding English »ie6-s, to pro- duce similar derivatives from adjectives (see 409.11.6). Such abstracts come especially from derivative verbs and those compounded with insepa- rable prefixes, as be, cr, ucr ; sometimes seeming to be formed from the par- ticiple rather than the simple verbal root. Like all abstract nouns, they may admit of use also as concretes, or pass wholly over into such. Ex- amples are ^fugniii/ 'testimony,' I'roni jCiigeu, 'testify;' ^inbernifi, 'hin- drance,' from Ijiiibirn, 'hinder;' iio;iriibntfj, 'burial,' from bcgraben, 'bury; ' grciqinij, 'occurrence,' from crcigncii, 'occur; ' SJerljaUnil 'rela- tion,' from OcVl)tiiten, 'staud related;' Oeftanbnifj, 'confession,' from gefte= i^en (geftanbeii), 'confess; ' ©efiingnifi, 'prison,' from gefangcn, 'imprisoned.' a. The greater number of nonns in niJ3 are neuter, but a score or more of them are feminine, especially such as Lave retained more fully their ab- stract meaning. A few, as ISripaniifj, Ecfonittittg, are feminine when used abstractly, but neuter as concretes. 1. ©a(, jet. These are two different forms of the same original suffix, ■' which at first and more properly formed nouns from nouns, but whose exist- ing derivatives are to be relt-rred almost exclusively to verbal roots, and are akin in meaning with those in \\\% iSi'l is used only in concretes. Thus, @ct)ttjfa(, ' fate,' from jd)icfEn, ' send ; ' St'tjat, ' error,' from irvcn, ' wander; ' UeberblEtbfcl, 'remnant,' from iiberbleibcu, 'remain over; ' Sfcitljjel, 'riddle,' from vat()en, ' guess.' a. Derivatives in fat and (ct are neuter, excepting two or three in fnl (®rang(al, aCtii^fnt, Sriibjnl), whigh may also be used as femiuiue. 8. ling. This suffix is nearly equivalent in meaning and application with onr ing forming verbal nouns ("participial infinitives," not present participles), but is peuuUar in that it is hardly used except with derivative and transitive verbs. Tlie nouns it forms admit an object (objective geni- tive: 216. 27i) nearly as regularly as the verbs from which they come. Many of the nouns in ung, like other abstracts, pass over into concrete use; and such as come from reflexive verbs have an intransitive force. Examples are giil^rung, 'leading, conduct;' S8elet)vung, 'instruction;' Erfinbung, 'invention;' SSevgebung, 'forgiveness; ' Seniertung, 'remark; ' SSebeutung, 'meaning;' SScTOegung, 'motion; ' Sieigung, 'affection' — from ful)ven 'lead,' beleljren, ' instruct,' and so ou. a. The derivatives in ung are feminine without exception. 9. Besides the suffixes above detailed, there are a few of infrequent use euch are anb (properly the old participial ending), in §cilanb, ' Savior,' from l)cilcn, 'heal; ' — td)t, in itel)ric^t, 'sweepings,' from te^rcn, 'sweep,' etc. ; — tg in Effig, 'vinegar,' from cffen, 'eat; ' — at^ in 3ternti), 'ornament,' from 3iercn, 'decorate; ' — enb in Eugenb, 'virtue,' from taugen, 'be of value; ' — and one or two others, of too little consequence to be worth noting, ©djoft (410.7) and tljnni (410.8) also form from verbal roots two or three deriva- tives, as aBanber(d)aft, aBad)8tl)um. 410] DEEIVATrVE NOTHSTS. 189 409. Nouns derived from Adjectives. I. 1 . That the adjeetivo, of either number and of any gender, ia capable of use directly as a noun, still retaining its adjective declension, was pointed out above (at 129), and needs no further notice. .^ 2, A few nouns are derived from adjectives without a suCSx, being iden- tical with the adjective theme, but being declined as independent (neuter) BubPtantives : such are 8Jotf), 'red; ' Oriin, 'green; ' gtec^t, 'right; ' Out, 'property, goods.' y II. Nouns derived by the aid of suffixes. 1. (S. The suffix e forms feminine abstracts (convertible injo concretes) from primitive adjectives, the vowel of which is alwaya modified if capable of it. Thus, ©rbjje, 'greatness,' ©iite, 'goodness,' Kreue, 'truth,' Siffe, 'depth; ' from groJ3, 'great,' etc. 2. Jpeit. This suffix is the same with our head and Tiood (in Godhead, manhood, etc.), and forms feminine abstracts both from nouns (see below, 410.5) and from adjectives. Thus, gteiljeit, 'freedom,' 83Itubl)eit, 'blind- ness,' 'MtberuIjEit, ' stupidity ; ' from fret, ' free,' etc. 3. Scit is originally the same suffix with l)eit, talcing the place of the latter after most primitive adjectives ending in et and er, and after all those formed by the suffixes bar, ig, Ucl), and fam. Thus, (Stteltcit, ' vanity,' SSitterteit, 'bitterness,' S)an{biirtcit, 'gratitude,' SBiUiglett, 'cheapness,' §Bflti)fctt, 'courtesy,' ©parfamteit, 'economy;' from ettet, 'vain,' etc. To many adjectives, the additional adjective suffix tg (415.9) is added, with feit after it, instead of, or along with, {ett alone: thus, from flcin, 'small,' we liave both Sleiu()eit and .fflciuigtcit ; from fiiJ3, 'sweet,' ©iigigfcit ; from ftanbi)aft, 'steadfast,' @tanbl)afrtgfcit; from trculoS, 'faithless,' Sreitloftgteit. " 4. Sing forma a few masculine personal nouns from adjectives : thus, JftEmbling, 'stranger,' Siingltng, 'youth;' from fremb, 'strange,' jung, 'young.' For derivatives with ting from verbs and nouns, see 408.1II..i, 410.6. 5. SHS (see 408.III.6) forms only four nouns from adjectives : namely, ginftermg, ' darlcuess,' @e^etmntJ3, 'secrecy,' SBilbnig, 'wilderness,' ®leid)» ntJ3, 'likeness.' 6. ®cl)aft is chiefly employed in forming nouns from nouns (see 410.7) ; only a few adjectives admit it. as @einetiifd)nft, ' community,' (Sefnngen^ fc^aft, 'imprisonment,' (Stgenfi^aft, 'peculiarity;' from genteiu, 'common, etc. For the derivation etc. of fc^aft see below, 410.7. 1. Set, from K^eil, 'part,' forms fractional numerals from ordinals: see 207.2. 8. 5£f)um, hke fcfinft, is a suffix applied chiefly to nouns ; see below, 410.8. A few adjectives take it, as 8?etd^tl)um, 'wealth,' (gtgentljunt, 'property; ' from reic^, 'rich,' eigen, 'own.' 9. Yet rarer suffixes are ung (compare 408.III.8, 410.9) in ?^eftiing, ' fortress,' from f eft, ' strong ; '— tdit in ®icf id)t, ' thicket,' from bid, ' thick ; '— Ittlj in armutl), ' poverty,' from arm, ' poor ; '— enb in 3ugenb, ' youth, from Jung, 'young.' / \i 410. Nouns derived from Nouns. \J n~' 1. St]Cll, Icin. These are equivalent suffixes, forming from nouns (al- 190 DEEIVATION. [410- ways with modification of the vowel of the latter, if it be one admitting modification) neuter diminutives : thus, §ouSd)en, ' little house ; ' 3Kntm- d)m, 'little man, mannikin;' Mnahidn, ' Uttle boy;' iBudjIetn, 'little book.' a. These suffixes correspond to the Bnghsh diminutive endings kin and ling (in gosling, duckling, etc.). E^en belongs more to the northern dialects of German, lein (often shortened in popular use to e( or le) to the south- ern; but in the literary language their respective use is mainly deter- mined by considerations of euphony, and many words admit the addition of either. h. The words formed by these suffixes often add to their meaning aa diminutives, or substitute for it, an implication of intimacy or tenderness. Some of them have a weU-established value as independent words : such are grautein, 'young lady. Miss;' 3DMbcf)en, 'girl; ' SD(aund)eu and SHSeibdjeii, 'male and female of an animal species.' 2. St. The foreign origin of the snfBx ei was explained above (408. III.l). As added to nouns, it indicates especially the state, condition, or occupation of a person ; also sometimes the place where an occupation is carried on: thus, 3tt3ei'et, 'sportsmanship,' from Siiger, 'hunter;' Snirtcvci, ' printing-establishment,' from 3)i"uc!er, ' printer.' In a few words it has a collective force: thus, Sieitcrei, 'cavalry,' from Steiter, ' rider.' a. As it is itself accented, this suffix was added most easily to unac- cented terminatioual syllables, as et and cr ; and there are but few words — as 3Ibtpi, ' abbacy,' i'ogtet, ' bailiwiclc ' — in which it is appended to rad- ical syllables. Being ofteuost used after er, it has oome to assume er in many cases as a prefix to itself, forming a kind of compound suffix erei, which is freely used with words accented on the final : thus, ©EtiBcrei, 'slavery,' fi'tnberei, 'childishness,' @d)elmerei, 'roguery;' from ®t(aB, 'slave,' etc. b. Especially in its recent derivatives, ci is apt to convey a disparaging implication: for example, Suvifterei, 'lawyer's doings,' as compared with Siui9))vubenj, 'jurisprudence.' 3. (Sr. a. Besides the numerous derivatives which it forms from verbs (408.111.4), er makes many names of a personal agent from nouns express- ing the thing dealt with or acted upon: as, ©finger, 'singer,' from @nng, ' song ; ' @d]afer, ' shepherd,' from ©d)af, ' sheep ; ' ©firtnev, ' gardener,' from ©avteit, 'garden.' h. It is also added to names of countries and towns, to indicate a native or-inhabitant of the same : thus, ©djiueijer, 'Switzer; ' Serltncr, 'inhabitant of Berlin; ' Si'ip',tgrr, 'mau from Leipzig.' These nouns are then frequently employed as uninflected adjectives : see 415.5. c. For the same purpose, it is sometimes combined with Latin endings, forming com jiouiid suffixes, as alter and cnjer : thus, Jdncritauer, ' American,' Sitljeuicnfer, ' Athenian.' d. After nouns, as after verbs, it is in a few cases irregularly converted iiitoucr: thus, Olotfncr, 'beU-ringer,' from ©lode, 'bell; ' iparfncr, 'harper,' from ijarfe, 'harp.' c. It forms a small number of masculines answering to feminines in f 411] DERITATrVE NOTJNS. 191 thus, SBittwer, 'widower,' from SBittttie, 'widow; ' Saiiber, 'cock -pigeon, from Xiiube, 'dove.' 4 3n (sometimes spelt inn). This sufSx forms feminiue from masculine appellations: thus, §irttn, 'shepherdess,' from §ivt, 'shepherd;' ftouigin, 'queen,' from A'ontg, 'king;' greunbiii, 'female friend ; ' itbd)tn, 'female cook; ' Mtuin, 'lioness;' granjbftn, 'Frenchwoman;' Sberliucriti, 'woman of Berlin.' It is also added to titles to signify tlie wife of the person to whom the title belongs : as, ^farvcrtil, ' pastor's wife ; ' ^.irofefforiu, 'Mrs. Professor' / 3n usually requires modification of the radical Yov^-el, but there are (aa tlie examples sliow) numerous exceptions. 5. §eit, like our head and hood, forms abstracts, and a few collectives, from nouns as well as from adjectives (409.II.2J; thus, QSottljcit, 'God- head;' fi^tnbljeit, 'childhood;' 2;t)0ct)Ctt, 'foUy; ' SOtenfc^tjeit, 'humanity; ' @cii"tli(f)teit, 'clergy.' 6. Sing forms a few masculine personal names from nouns, as from verbs (408.III.5) and adjectives (409.II.4): such are 3(iI)vUng, 'yearling,' g(iidjt= ling, 'fugitive,' ©iinffling, 'favorite.' 1. a. ©c^aft is the same with our ship (in lordship, worship, etc ), and is derived from fdjaffcn, ' shape, create ; ' it signifies primarily the shape or make of anything, then its character, office, rank, and tlie like: thus, greiinb' fd)iift, 'friendship,' Sefiinntfdjcift, 'acquaintance,' iHormunt){d)nft, 'guardian- ship.' All its derivatives are of the feminine gender. 6. It forms also a number of collectives: as, ''|5riefterfc^aft, 'priesthood,' ®ieHcr[d)nft, 'body of servants,' ©E(cUjd)nft, 'company,' tanbjdjnft, 'land- scape.' 8. SIjuiTi, our dom (in Mngdom, wisdom, etc.) is also a noun, of obscure derivation, but of meaning and application as a suffix nearly akin with those offdjnft (above, 7). Its derivatives are neuter, with only two or three exceptions (namely 3ti'tf)um, 3teid)tl)unt, and, according to the usage of some, S8rlnctStl)um and 2Bad)St[)um), which are mascuhne. It forms nouns signifying character, rank, or authority, which then, in a few cases, come to mean that over which authority is exerted ; thus, 9ttttei't[)inn, ' chivalry,' *13m)ftt()um, 'papacy,' St)vi[tcnt()um, 'Christendom,' Abnigtljum, 'kingdom,' giilftcnt^nm, ' principality.' 9. Sufiixes forming a few isolated words are rid) in Ofinfcric^, 'gander,' from ®nn«, 'goose,' gcirinrid), 'ensign,' from gal)ne, 'banner,' etc. ; — uiig in one or two collective words like SBalbung, ' woodland,' from Sffialb, ' forest ; ' — atl) in §Etmnt^, ' home,' from §etm, ' liome.' ffiiji (408.III.6) appears to form a derivative or two from nouns, as in 58iinbnt6, 'covenant,' from SBunb, 'tie; '—also \a\ (408.111.7), as in m\xil\a.\, 'distress,' from WliX'Cje., 'toil.' 411. Nouns formed hy means of prefixes. I. A very large number of nouns contain as their initial elements the verbal prefixes, both separable and inseparable (297 1. For the most part, however, they are not formed as nouns by means of those prefixes, but aro derivatives, according to the methods explained above (408), from verba compounded separably or inseparably. The only exceptions are, a con- siderable class formed by gc (below, 11.1), and an occasional anomalous case like *JtiUjbl)C, 'rising ground,' from §bt)C, 'height.' 192 DERIVATION. [411- II. The proper profi.xcs forming nouns are very few m number, namely as follows: 1. ®e. This common prefix forms a large number of derivative nouns, both from nouns and from verbs, having in general a collective or frequenta- tive character. Thus, u,. Collectives from nouns, generally with modification of vowel, some- times with other more irregular vowel changes : such are (Seftraitdj, 'shrub- bery,' from iStraud), 'shrub; ' OcmiilE, 'cloud-mass,' from 2Bo(fe, 'cloud;' ©cliirg or (Sebivge, ' mouutaiu-range,' from S3erg, 'mountain;' Oefieber, 'plumage,' from ^titx, 'feather.' 6. A few collective or associative personal appellatives, from nouns or verbs, in which (je has nearly its original meaning (307.6) of ' with : ' thus, Oefpicle, 'playfellow,' from fpielcn, 'play;' ©efaljrte, ' companion,' from fnl)vcn, 'go;' (Sctintter, 'godfather,' from 3?ater, 'father;' ©cfc^TOiftcr, 'brothers and sisters,' from ©djWcfter, 'sister.' c. From verbs, nouns signifying either the means or the effect of the verbal action: thus, @et)i3r, 'sense of hearing,' from Ijijtert, 'hear;' ®t= luel)r, ' weapon,' from Uiel)rcn, ' defend ; ' ©ebet, ' prayer,' from bitten, ' ask ; ' ©einfilbe, 'painting,' from itiaten, 'paint' d Prom verbs, frequentative or intensive abstracts, or nouns signifloant of the verbal action : thus, fiielprfidj, ' conversation,' from fprerljcn, ' speak ; ' ®cfp5tt, 'mockery,' from (gotten, 'mock;' ©eprflngc, 'pageantry,' from Ijraugcn, 'make a show; ' ®etbfe, 'din,' from tofen, 'roar.' Remarks, e. These are the leading uses of the prefix ge ; but in not a few of the derivatives it forms, its effect is too indistinct or various to be brought under any classification. /. As the examples show, the words formed with ge exhibit the variation as well as the modification of vowel, and are either without sufSx, or take one of the simpler suffixes (408.11.), especially e. In many words, this e may be either added or omitted. g. Excepting the class under 5, above, which are masculine, the nouns formed with gc are nearly aU neuter. Masculine are only about a dozen (Scbvaud), ®ebante, ©cfnllen, ®el)alt, ®Enug, ®eru(f), ©cfang, ®efct)iiiaif, ©eftant, (Setuinn, ®e»iiinft) ; feminine, the same number ((Seberbe, ©ebiiljr, ®cbiivt, ®cbu(b, ®cfal)r, ®emeinbe, ®cniige, @z\ijid)ti, ©efcEiWutft, ®eftalt, ®croatt, @cmfit)r). ?i. A few nouns, as ®lijcf, 'luck, happiness,' ®laube, 'belief,' contain the prefix ge, abbreviated to a simple g. 2. 9)iif3. This prefix is the same with the English mis, and has a simi- lar office. Its vahie is rather that of a compounded element than of a prefix. It takes always the principal accent, and does not affect the gender of the nouns to which it is prefixed. 'Tlius, SJJijjgriff, 'mistake;' 5Dtif|'etl)at, ' misdeed ; ' iDJtjjgunft, ' disfavor ; ' SlHpctjageit, ' discomfort.' 3. Itu is, as in English, the negative prefix. It is used with nouns more often than in our language, always taking the accent, without affecting the gender; it either signifies actual negation, or implies something unnatural, repugnant, or injurious. Thus, Unrcdjt, ' wrong,' Uubatlt, ' ingratitude,' Un» gliiif, ' misfortune,' Unfinn, 'nonsense ; '—Unmeufi), ' unnatural monster,' Uiigeftalt, ' misshapen form,' Uutl)at, ' misdeed.' 415j DEKIVATIVE NOUNS. 103 4. Iti'. This is, as has been aheady pointed out (307.4), the same word originally with the inseparable prefix er, and ultimately identical with nil?, ' out.' In a few words it still has a meaning akin with that of ex : thus, Urtl)eit, 'judgment' (ert^eiten, 'assign'), Uriaub, ' leave ' (crtnubcn, ' per- mit '), Ui'tunbe, '•document,' Urffirung, ' origin,' and so on. But in most of the derivatives which it forms it has an intensive force, with the distinct irapMcation of originality or primitiveness : thus, Urfac^e, ' cause (original or fundamental thing),' Uvtuett, ' primitive world,' Urbilb, 'archetype,' Ut" gro^Bater, ' greatgrandfather.' a. Ut always takes the accent, and it leaves unchanged the gender of the word to which it is prefixed. 5. Srj is identical in derivation and meaning with our prefix arch, and denotes what is eminent or superior in its kind. In respect to accent and gender, it is like the three prefixes last treated of. Thus, Svjenget, arch- angel;' (grjljerjog, 'arch-duke;' (Srjbicb, 'arch-thief.' 6. ?(nt, originally the same with the inseparable prefix eiit (307.3), appears in the present language only in Slntloort, ' answer ' (from SBort, ' word '), and Shltti^, ' countenance.' 412. From other parts of speech than those treated above, nouns are only with the greatest rarity formed directly, or otherwise than through the medium of derivative adjectives or verbs. Such words as 9'JiebevutlO/ ' low- land,' from iiiebcr (adverb), ' down,' and 3nmitig, ' guild,' from in, 'an,' are anomalies in the German system of word-derivation. j Derivation or Adjectives. \j 413. Primitive Adjectives. Primitive adjectives, like primitive nouns (407), may be divided into two classes ; 1. Simple monosyllabio adjectives, the evidences of whose originally derivative character are effaced : thus, gut, ' good,' long, ' long,' arm, ' poor. f|art, 'hard,' griin, 'green.' 2. Adjectives containing an evident element of derivation, and analogous with those derived from known primitives, but coming from roots which are now lost: thus, troge, 'lazy,' fetter, 'cheerful,' eben, 'even,' buntcl, ' dark.' a. Some of these, as of the "primitive" nouns (407.a), admit of being traced to more primitive roots by the researches of comparative philology. 414. Adjectives derived without Suffix or Prefix. Adjectives coming from verbal roots by simple variation of the radical vowel, without a suffix (like nouns : see 408.T.), are very few in German : examples are brai^, ' fallow,' from brei^cn, ' break up ; ' glatt, ' smooth,' from bid, 'thick,' from the root of gebei^en, 'thrive;' ftiicf, gleiten, ' slip ; ' bid, ' thick 'fledged,' from fliegen, ' fly.' 415. Adjectives derived hy Suffix. Aa the various endings forming adjectives are, almost without escep- 9 ]9i DERIVATION. [415 tion, used in derivation from diiferert parts of speech, it will bo more con- venient to treat all the uses of each one together, taking the snfQxes up in their alpliabctical order. 1. 58av. This suffix is regarded as a derivative from the verb barcil, 'bear, carry.' It was of infrequent use in ancient German, and only ag attached to nouns. a. Examples of its use witli nouns are Btcnftbar, ' serviceable (service- bringing) ; ' intd)ttior, ' fiTiitful (fruit-bearing) ; ' furdjtbar, ' terrible ; ' gang^ bar, 'current;' fiiljtbnr, 'visible.' 1. In modern usage, it forms a large class of derivatives from verbs (al- most always transitive), having the meaning of our adjectives in able, or indicatius capability to endure the action of the verb ; tlius, cgbar, ' eatable,' geilicgbnr, 'enjoyable,' tljeilbnr, 'divisible,' unbelno^ubar, 'uninhabitable; ' — uufel)lbar, ' incapable of faihug.' c. Very rarely, it is added to an adjective : thus, offcnbar, ' evident,' from cffcn, ' open.' 2. Ert, ern. The sufSx eti forms (from nouns) adjectives denoting material or kind: thus, golbcil, 'golden,' InoUm, 'woolen,' irbcn^ ' earthen,' etcf)C!t, 'oaken.' To words ending in ev, only n is added: thus, fiipferit, 'of copper,' filbern, 'of sUver,' lebern, 'leathern.' Out of the frequency of this combination has grown in recent use the form ern, which was perhaps at first applied only to nouns forming a plural in cr — thus, t]oIjei'n, ' wooden,' from Jjoi', (pi. JpoI;jcr), 'wood' — but is now used indiscriminately, requiring modification of the vowel of its primitive: thus, blcieru, 'leaden,' tbbnftii, 'of clay (SIjoii),' ftaljlcrn, 'of steel (©tnljl).' 3. @n, eitb. These endings, forming respectively the past participle of vcrlis of the Old conjugation, and the present participle of all verbs, are proper adjeolive suffixes, but need only be mentioned here, as their uses form a part of the subject of verbal conjugation, and have been al- ready explained (see 349 etc.). 4. @i\ eft. These are the endiugs by which are formed, from simple adjectives, adjective themes of the comparative and superlative degree (see 133 etc.): also, ft forms ordinal numerals from cardinals (see 203). 5. Er. The patronymic nouns formed by the sufiix cv from names of countries or towns (410..3ii) are very commonly used also with the value of adjectives. When so used, they are not subject to declension, but are treated as if they were compounded with the noun which they qualify. Thus, SBertiner 831au, ' Berlin blue ; ' ba8 ©traPurger SDliinfter, ' the Stras- burg cathedral; ' bcr Seipjiger SJieffe, ' of the Leipsic fair.' B. @t forms the past participle of verbs of the New conjugation : see 246, 349 etc. 7. .^aft. This sufSx is regarded as derived from Ijahen, ' have,' or ()af> ten, 'cling,' indicating primarily the possession or adhesion of the quality designated by the words to which it is attached. a. It forms derivative adjectives especially from nouns signifying quality: thus, tugcnbljaft, ' virtuous,' fiinbljnft, 'sinful,' fd)ved[)ilft, 'fright- ful,' ftanbtjaft, ' steadfast ; ' — but also, not infrequently, from names of per- sons and things : thus, niannljaft, ' manful,' nietftevljaft, ' masterly,' letbl)aft, ' bodily.' 41 5 J DERIVATIVE ADJECTIVES. 195 h. It is added to only a few verbal roots: as In ttJO^nljnff, 'resident,' [cl^ltia^^aft, ' loquacious.' c. Only three adjectives admit it, namely boSljaft, 'malicious,' !ronl§aft, ' sickly,' lualjrfjaft, ' true.' d. To ^aft is sometimes added the further ending tg, as in (eibljnftig, hinl)i'()afttq ; and this addition is always made before the suffix tett, forming abstract nouns (409.11,3) : thus, Sugenbljafttgtdt, ' virtuousness.' 8. Sdjt forms adjectives only from concrete nouns, especially such as denote material : thus, ftetnicf)t, ' stony,' bornidjt, ' thorny,' faljidjt, ' salty.' Its office is hardly distinguishable from that of ig (below, 9) ; and. In pres- ent use, its derivatives are almost superseded by those in ig, and are but seldom met with. Only tl]ijrtd)t, 'foolish,' is in familiar use, and is also peculiar in exhibiting the modification of vowel, and in being formed from a personal appellation (Sljor, ' fool '). 9. 3g. This suSix is the same with our y (in stony, holy, easy, etc.), and forms, from every part of speech, a very large number of German adjectives, which are constantly increasing by new derivatives. Thus, a. Prom nouns, of every class : thus, mac^tig, ' mighty,' giiiifftg, ' favor- able,' fd)ulbig, ' guilty,' burfttg, 'thirsty,' bUitig, 'bloody,'"tt)aifEng, 'watery,' birttopfig, 'thickheaded,' (artgarmtg, 'longarmed.' b. Prom verbs: thus, fttumig, 'dilatory,' nac^giebig, 'yielding,' gefaUig, 'obhging.' o. From adjectives, in a few cases only: -thus, giittg, 'kind,' boHig, 'complete;' — and from the possessive and other pronominal adjectives, as meintg, 'miae,' etc. (159.5), felbig, 'self-same' (169.3), jenig, 'yon' (168), eiiitg, 'only, some' (189). d. From indeclinable words, namely prepositions, adverbs, and adverbial conjunctions of various kinds: thus, BOtig, 'former,' from Oof, 'before;' iibtig, 'remaining,' from iiber, 'over; ' jci^ig, 'present,' from jc^t, 'now;' l)Ciitig, 'of to-day,' from Ijeitte, 'to-day; ' bortig, 'of that place,' from bort, 'there;' abertttnlig, 'repeated.' from abermals, 'again; ' bcjifallfig, 'relating to the case in hand,' from befifalfS, 'in that case.' e. The addition of ig to other adjective endings before the suffix teit has been noticed above (409.II.3) ; also to f)nft in forming adjectives (above, Id) ; to adjectives and nouns in forming derivative verbs (405.11.3) ; and to cer- tain nouns in forming derivative adjectives (below, 15e,/). ;/. 3g added to the suffix fal of certain nouns (408.III.'7), along with mo- difloatioD of the vowel (written e instead of o), forms a combination having 'the aspect of a separate suffix, fetig : thus, miil)fdig, ' painful, ' from STOiJljfal, 'distress;' triibfelig, 'afflictive,' from Sriibfal, 'affliction.' And the combi- nation is in fact treated as an independent-suffix, by being added to words which do not form derivatives in fal : thus, gludEfriig, 'blissful,' from Oliicf, 'happiness; ' fcinbfetig, 'inimical,' from fetnb, 'hostile; ' rebfelig, 'talkative,' from reben, 't.nlk.' g. A number of adjectives in tg are from lost roots, and so have in the present langiiage the value of primitive words: thus, croig, 'eternal,' [etig, 'happy,' iippig, 'luxuriant.' 10. 3fd^. This is the same with our English suffix ish, and is used in much the same way. 19G DEKIVATION. [415- a. It forms adjectives from nouns of different classes: thus, especially from proper names of persons, places, and peoples : as, lutljei'ifdl, ' Lutheran,' (jrciift'irf), ' Pnisdan,' batei'ifi4 'Bavarian,' (panijd), 'ir^panish;' — from ap- pellations of places, persons, and animals: as, Ijimmlijcl), 'heavenly,' ftat)> lifi), 'townish,' ftiitiifd), 'childish,' biebifd), 'thievish,' bid)tcvtid), 'poetical,' buiibifi), 'doggish;' — and from a few abstracts or verbal nouns : as, abeta gliiubifd), 'superstitious,' orgrootjuifd), 'suspicious,' iteibifd), 'envious.' i. It often takes, in adjectives derived from the classical languages, the place of our endings ic, ical, al, ian, etc. : as, I)iftorif d), ' historic ' or ' histori- cal,' tritifdj, 'critical,' (ogijd), 'logical,' inbijd), 'Indian.' c. In a few words, ijt^ has a somewhat disparaging sense as compared with lid), much as in the corresponding English adjectives: thus, (tllbifc^, 'childish,' and tiubtic^, 'childlike;' incibijc^, 'womanish,' and toeiblid), ' feminine.' d. The use of ifd) with proper names of places and with foreign words is attended with some irregularities of detail, in respect to the form of the theme to which the suffix is appended: these cannot be dwelt upon here. 11. ?et forms indeclinable adjectives from numerals and words related with numerals, which, before it, take the ending er : thus, ctlieriei, 'of one sort,' mnndjcrlei, 'of many sorts,' aUcrtei, 'of all sorts.' The let is by origin the genitive of a feminine noun, meaning 'sort,.' and the preceding cr is the proper ending of the adjective qualifying it: hence the treatment of its derivatives as indeclinable words. ] 2. f id). This sufSx corresponds with our like, ly (in godlike, godly, etc.), and, like these, forms a very large number of derivatives. It is historically the same word with the adjective like (German g(eti^): compare 363.3o. Std)t is also added to adjectives, perhaps as a mere variation of ltd). a. It is added to nouns of various classes (usually with modification of their vowel): thus, miinttltc^, 'manly,' bfiterltc^, 'fatherly,' lunfttidj, 'artful,' ^ccjlidl, 'hearty,' gliicfltc^, 'happy,' jtiljrKd), 'yearly,' geiftlid), 'spiritual.' h. It forms from other adjectives (always with modified vowel) adjectives that have in general a diminutive meaning: thus, riit^lii^, 'reddish,' (aticr= ltd), 'somewhat sour,' liiiiglid), 'longish.' But some of its derivatives are free from the diminutive implication ; and a considerable number (see 363. Su) are used only in an adverbial sense, the ending having the same value aa the English hj in similar derivatives from adjectives. In a few words — as fold), Inelc^, our sitch, which — it is greatly corrupted. V. It is appended to many verbal roots ; and either in an active sense (especially with intransitive verbs) — thus, jd)obttd), 'harmful,' bcljarriid), 'persistent,' fterblid), 'mortal,' erfrculid), 'agreeable' — or, yet more often, in a passive sense: as glnnbltc^, 'to be believed, credible,' bcrfidjttid), 'con- temptible,' begreifltd), ' comprehensible,' unjdgUd), 'unspeakable.' Of this class of passive derivatives, many are in use only with the prefix lt:t : e. g. there is no ftigtic^, ' speakable.' Sid), as thus used, is closely equivalent with bar (above, li), and it is in part a matter of arlaitrary custom, or de- termined only by euphony, which suffix shall be employed ; in other cases, derivatives are formed with both, with a more or less distinct difference of meaning. 13. ©am is our some (in loholesome, noisome, etc.), and is supposed to bo ultimately the adjective same (now lost in German). It forms derivative?. 416] DERIVATIVE ADJEOriVES. 197 a. From noims. mostly of an abstract character: thus, flird)t(am, 'fear- ful,' gcroaUfiini, 'violent,' niiiljfam, 'laborious.' h. From verbal roots: thus, aufmei'tfom, 'attentive,' folgfam, 'docile,' lenffam, ' manageable.' c. From a few adjectives: thus, einfam, 'lonely,' geilteinfam, 'common,' Icitigjam, 'slow.' 14. %, besides one or two isolated adjectives, like bidlt, 'thick, close,' from the root of gcbeiljeu, ' thrive,' forms the class of ordinal adjectives I'rom numerals below twenty (203). 15. There are certain words forming classes of derivative adjectives which have not yet (like bnv, lid), film, above) lost their independence of form and meaning sufficiently to be reckoned as adjective-suffixes, al- though approaching very near in value to such. The most noticeable of them are a. So?, 'loose,' our kss, forming numerous adjectives of deprivation: thus, enblo?, 'endless,' tjcqio?, 'heartless,' trcuIoS, 'faithless.' These adjectives, like those ending in l)aft, always add ig before leit : thus, Sreiilcfigteit, 'faithlessness.' 6. i'ott, 'full,' our fu\ in thankful, fearful, etc.: examples are leibSott, 'sorrowful,' gcbanteiiBott, 'thoughtful.' c. Sieidi, 'rich:' examples are liebreti^, 'gracious' (Jiebe, 'love'), gcift= vetd), 'witty, full of esprit' d. %ai), ' compartment, division,' forms multiphcatives with numeral words, cardinal or indefinite (204) : examples are je^nfae^, 'tenfold,' \>'\tU fild), 'manifold.' e. gait, ' fold,' is used in the same manner with fad^. But multiplica- tives with fntt simply are antiquated and unusual : they now regularly take the additional adjective endiug tg (above, 9), before which the vowel of fait (except in two or three words, as niannigfalttg) is modified : thus, jcljnfal" tig, 'ten-fold,' Oielfciltig, 'manifold.' /. SIrtig is, like ffiltig, an extension of a noun, Sfi't, 'manner, kind,' by the adjective suffix ig, and forms a considerable class of derivatives deno- ting sort or manner: thus, nebetattig, 'cloudlike,' frembartig, 'of strango fashion.' Other similar formations are fbvmig, from the foreign noun govm, 'form' (l&t. forma): thus, infelfiitrntg, 'island-shaped;' — miitljig, from 2JJutt), 'mood, disposition:' as, frtebiniitl)tg, 'disposed to peace;' — mafetg, from 2Jioft, 'measure: ' as, rcc^tmafjtg, 'lawful; ' etc. 416. Adjectives derived hy Prefix. The prefixes forming adjectives are, in general, the same with those forming nouns (411), namely ge, mig, un, ur, erj, together witli be. ' 1. S8e forms a very few adjectives, as berett, 'ready,' bequeiTt, 'con- venient.' 2. a. ®e aids to form past participles, or verbal adjectives (243.3) ;— and sometimes from nouns which do not furnish any other of the parts of a derivative verb : thus, geftiefelt, ' booted (provided with boots),' ijeljbriit, ' homed,' gerittet, ' mannered,' gejitrnt, ' starred.' b It also forms, either without suffix or with ig, a class of adjectives f-oiL verbs: thus, getteljllt, 'acceptable' (neljmen, 'take'), gelDtl, 'certain' 198 DEEITATION. [416- (TOtffen, 'kuow'), gelfiuftg, 'current' (laufen, 'run'), gewnvttg, 'expectant' Ouavten, 'wait'). c. ®t is prefixed to a few simple adjectives without noteworthy change of their meaning: tlius, gcredjt, 'righteous,' getrcit, 'faithful,' geftvcng, 'severe.' Olcid) is thus formed, with abbreviated prefix, from an earlier leid), ' Uke.' The other prefixes have the same value in adjectives as in nouns : thus, 3. gjJifi forms such adjectives as rttiggitnfttg, 'grudging,' mijjtrauifd), ' distrustful ' i. Un forms negative adjectives, as untlai", ' unclear,' iingliidltd), ' un- happy.' a. That some of the adjectives formed with un have no corresponding positives has been noticed above (415.12c). b. According to some authorities, the words formed with un always have the principal accent on that prefix : others except compounds of par- ticiples, as unbelo^nt, 'unrewarded,' and of verbal derivatives with the sufiixes bar, ltd), fnm, as uubcnt'bor, 'inconceivable,' unenb'Hi^, 'unending,' uubulb'l'ani, ' intolerant.' 5. Uv forms directly only a very small number of adjectives, from other adjectives, adding to the latter an intensive meaning, or an implication of primitiveness : thus, uvplol^Uif), ' very sudden ; ' uralt, ' of primitive an- tiquity.' 6. Evj is prefixed, in a half-humorous way, to a few adjectives, with intensive force: thus, etsbumm, 'excessively stupid,' erjfaul, 'very lazy.' Derivation of the other Parts of Speech. 417. Of the remaining parts of speech, the adverbs are the only ones which are to any extent formed in classes, by means analogous with those above explained ; and they have been already sufficiently treated (363 etc.) under Adverbs. The derivation of the rest, so far as it is capable of being shown, is a matter for the lexicon to deal with, under each separate word. WORD-COMBINATION, COMPOSITION. 418. A compound word is one that is made up of two (or more) independent words, each of which maintains in the com-- position its separate form and meaning. It is made one word by constancy of combination in practical use, by the absence of inflection except in the last member, and by being placed under the dominion of a single principal accent. a. Thus, 3ungfrnu is distinguished from junge '^xan, 'young woman,' by the adjective jung being made indeclinable aud receiving a marked accent. By this means a unity of form is given to the word, to which a unity of 419] COMPOUND WOEDS. 199 klea is then further added by attribution of the meaning 'virgin,' which na- tundly grows out of the other, but yet is not (he same with it. b. As will appear hereafter (422.26 etc.), other members of a con»pound thau the final one sometimes take an ending of declension, but irregularly and superfluously, and without liability to further variation in the inflection of the compound. There are also a few words which are arbitrarily written together as if compounds, wliile both tljeir parts are declined in full, and they are not in fact of a different character from many collocations of words which the language writes separately: such are bevjelbe andbcvjentge (168, 169), §o^cl)rieftci-, 'high-priest,' etc. (422.1a). c. All derivation and inflection begin with composition. The compound becomes in practical use an integral representative of the idea signified by it, its origin is more and move lost sight of, and it becomes liable to such alter.itioiLs of form as more or less dis- i^uise its derivation : thus, 3uilf(frau has been in popular use abbreviated to Sungfer ; and ^,mtilf)Crv (lunger ^err, 'young sir'), in like manner, to punter. And if the final member of tlie compound happens to be one that in practice is added to a large number of words, forming a considerable class of composite words, it may be turned into an ending, of deri-_ vation or inflection. Thus, bvittcr 'Zbcii became the compound 'Dvittt^cil, 'third part,' and this was contracted into CDvittel ; and, the same being done with the other ordinal numer- al!*, tcl became a " suffix," forming fractionals from ordinals (207.2). The conjugational end- ing ten, in lytv i)atten, 'we had,' represents in like manner an originally independent conju- gational form, idtumen (yet older d/'id&mwn), 'we did,' which has gone tlirough a like pro- cr'ss of abbreviation. (See the author's "Language and the Study of Language," p. 55 etc.) Composition therefore forms, in the grammatical treatment of a language, an appropriate transitional subject between inflection and derivation on the one side, and collocation or airangement on the other. 419. Compounds are very much more numerous in German than in English, and the liberty of forming new ones, after the model of those al- ready in use, is much more freely conceded than with us. In making prac- tical acquaintance with the language, therefore, we are constantly meeting with them, of every class — from those in which the final member has al- most acquired the value of a sufBx (see above, 415.15), or in which the fact of composition is otherwise disguised (as in 3ungfer and 3unf er ; or in fold) and luelc^, see above, 415.12), to the chance combinations which each speaker or -writer forms as occasion arises, and which are not to be found explained in any difitionary, however complete. a. Compounds are often also formed In German of a length and complez ity unknown in English: thus, )^eucrUcrfirI)critng8gefeUicf)aft, 'fire insurance company; ' Korb(ccfd)ifffnl)vt, 'North Sea navigation ; ' i'uftrb^renfdjminbfud)t, 'bronchial consumption;' StcidiSobcrpoftanitijjcituiiggfcflMibev, 'editor of the imperial general postoffice journal.' Such, however, are for the most part met with only in technical and ofBcial language. 6. The parts of a compound — especially if it be a long and cumbrous one, or liable to an incorrect division — are sometimes separated by hyphens: thus, gcuevtiEvfiri)crung« = gcicajiinift, or geiicr = Bcrfid)cvung« = ge|eUf(f|nft. Xo rules are to be definitely laid down respecting this division, it being mainly left to the taste and choice of individual writers. Usage is also much at variance as regards the employment of capital letters for the separ- ated parts of a compound noun — some writing, for example, geuei'=S5erfic^e> ruiuiS=6VfcU'icf)aft. The preferable method is to avoid as much as possible the multiplication of capitals. t. Where two or more compound words having the same final member 200 COMPOSITION. [419- woxild follow one another, it is the usage in German often to omit that, member except in the last word, noting the omission in the other oases by a hyphen appended to the former member : thus, alle issonn= unb gefttnge eines 3at}re8, 'on all the Sundays and holidays of a year; ' in biefer 6aiiin= Hub qucUcnleereit (Sinobc, 'in this treeless and waterless desert; 'Bon bet fonn- unb [efttngigcn ©pnjicrfaljvt, ""of the promenade usual on Sundays and holidb.;Ts.' A similar liberty is even taken with words of foreign origin: thus, ai3 f)U unb ®efcnfit)maffc, ' as offensive and defensive weapon ' (R. 161.13) ; b\. 't is not to be approved or imitated. Composition of Verbs. 420. The importance of compound verbs in the general grammatical system of German has rendered necessary their treatment under the head of verbal conjugation (296-313). Only a brief recapitulation of the dif- ferent classes, therefore, is called for here. 1. Verbs are compounded -witli the inseparable prefixes te, cnt or emp, er, gc, tier, jcr ; being conjugated, in general, in tlie same manner as wlien simple, but losing the prefix ge of the past par- ticiple ; retaining, also, their proper accent. See 302-7. 2. Verbs are compounded with a considerable number of sep- arable prefixes, simple and compound — which prefixes, however, stand before the verbal form, and are written with it as one word, only in the infinitive and participles ; or in the personal forms of the verb also, when the sentence has the transposed arrange- ment. The prefix alwaj's has the principal accent. See 298-301. a. A few of the separable prefixes, however — namely, burd), f|intcr, itbcc, um, unter, and miber or roieber — form with some verbs inseparable com- pounds. See 308-11. 3. Verbs are compounded with nouns, adjectives, and adverbs; either closely, forming compound themes which are conjugated like simple roots, or loosely, forming themes which are conjugated after the manner of verbs with separable prefixes. See 312-13. a. There is no fised lino separating compounds of the latter character from verbal phrases, and some combinations are treated indifferently as the one or the other: thus, ®aul fagcn or bantjageit, 'express gratitude;' ©tatt fiuben or ftattfiiibeit, ' take place.' Composition of Nouns. 421. With few exceptions (422. 6& etc.), compound nouns are made up of a noun with a preceding limiting word. The final noun determines the gender and mode of declension of the compound ; the preceding member of the compound has the ac- cent. 422] COMPOTTND NOTINS. 201 1. Exceptions as regards gender are a. Names of towns, which are neuter (61.2c), even when they are com pounds whose final member is masculine or feminine: thus, baS SBittEnbcvj (bee 93crg) ; baa DJJagbcburg (bie SBitrg). 6. Many compounds of ber SDfutt), ' mood, spirit,' which are feminine : for example, bie Stnmut^, 'grace,' bie Semut^, 'humility,' bie SBeljmut^, These are, by origin, feminine abstracts from compound adjectives, which have lost their sufBx of derivation. c. A few special words : thus, bie Stntltjort, ' answer ' (ba8 2Bort, ' word ') • bcr2)Jittn)0C^, 'Wednesday' (literally, 'mid-week,' from bie SBodie, 'week'), which has taken the gender of the other names of week-days {61.2a) ; bie ?feunaugc, 'laniper-eel' (literally, ' nine-eyes,' from baS Shtge, 'eye'): and 2Ibfd)eu, ' horror,' is masculine, and Oegenttjeil, ' opposite,' is neuter, while @cf)CU, 'fear,' and Xljetl, 'part,' are now respectively used in general as feminine and masculine. 422. The varieties of compound nouns are 1. Nouns made up of a noun and a preceding qualifying adjective: thus, SSoUmonb, 'i'uU moon,' Ebelftein, 'precious stone,' §oi^jeit, 'wedding' (lit. 'high time'), SltrjlDctle, 'pastime' (lit. 'short while'). a. A very few nouns are written as compounds of this class, although the adjective is declined as an independent word : thus, §ol)evpricffer, ' high- priest,' i'aiigeltieite, 'tedium,' ©cljeimerratl), 'privy-counselJor' (also £ang= wcifc, Oe^etiuratl), as proper compounds). 2. Nouns made up of a noun and a preceding limiting noun: thus, Slides btutfet, ' bookprintor,' ®cfd)id)tfc^reiber, 'historian' (lit. 'history-writer'), ©djuttc^ver, 'school-teacher,' §anbfdju!), 'glove' (lit. 'hand-shoe'), 2Bein= glnS, 'wine-glass,' ^BaumlBoUe, 'cotton' (lit. 'tree-wool'), 3agb(eBen, 'hfe by hunting,' @td)bautn, 'oak-tree.' a. The relation of the first noun to the second is ofteuest that of a geni- tive dependent on it ; but it may stand in various other relations, often such as could not be expressed by any simple case, without the use of words of relation : or, the two words may be in apposition with one another. b. Often the first noun is put formally in the genitive ease : thus, Jf 13= nig>3(o()ii, 'king's son,' SanbSmami, 'countryman,' SBitt^«^au6, 'inn '(lit ' host's house '). e. And even, by irregular imitation of such forms, the first noun takes an 8 or c8 which does not properly belong to it as an independent word : thus, OcbiirtStag, 'birthday,' StebeSbrief, ' loveletter.' d. The first noun sometimes takes a plural ending: thus, 93i(ber6udj, 'picture-book' (lit. 'pictures-book'), aSiirtcrbnc^, 'dictionary' (lit. 'words- book'), .U'lciberfc^vanf, 'clothes-press,' 2Baiienl)au8, 'orphan asylum' (lit. 'orphans' house'), S^agebucf), 'journal' (lit. 'days-book'). e. These endings of declension are introduced in part for their meaning, in part for euphonic reasons ; and insertions of a similar kind are occasion- ally made quite arbitrarily; as, 'Jljdjcvmittraoi^, 'Ash-Wednesday,' §eibet b.'crf, ' lieatli-berry.' 9* 202 COMPOSITION. [422- 3. Nouns mude up of a noun and a preceding verbal root, having the value of a qualifying noun or adjective: thus, ©ingBogcl, 'singing-bird, 58rcnngl(i8, 'burning-glass,' ©djrcibfeber, 'writing-pen,' ©tubirjinimer, ' study-room,' §abjud)t, ' covetousness ' (lit. ' desire of having '). 4. Nouns made up of a noun and a preceding particle, with qualifying force: thus, 9Iitf;cn(Eite, 'outside,' 3nlnnb, 'inland,' 2tit8!aut, ' final sound (of a word),' 5Dhtmenfc^, 'fellow-creature,' SSortljeif, 'advantage' (Ut. 'ex- ceUing part '). 5. Nouus made up of an infinitive and words dependent upon it : thus, bn« giivftdjfcin, ' the being by one's self,' bag 3uf>'Sttommen, ' the coming too late.' These are unusual cases, and not employed in dignified style. 6. Compounds of a different and peculiar character, which designate an object by describing some peculiarity belonging to it, and which may be called possessive or efta/)V/;terizing compounds. Such are a. A noun with preceding limiting word : as, Sal){Iol5f, ' bald-head ' (a person or thing having a bald head), SSlauftriimijf, ' bluestocking ' (person wearing such),'Sd)rei§al8, 'bawler' (lit. ' scream -neck '), SBieredf, 'square' (lit. ' four-corners '). h. An adjective with preceding qualifying word : as, bet 9f tmiTterfcitt, ' the greedy-gut ' (Ut. ' never satiated '), bo8 Smmcrgriin, ' the evergreen.' c. A verb with a following object, or other limiting word or phrase : as, SoiigenidjtS, 'good-for-nothing,' ©tiirenfrteb, ' kill-joy ' (ht. ' disturb-peaoe '), ©tclibid)citt, 'rendezvous' (lit. 'make thine appearance'), @))Vtngin6fctb, 'romp ' (Mt. 'jump into the field'), ffief)l'an8, 'closing dance ' (lit. 'turn-out'). d. One or two more anomalous cases : as, ®acau6, ' end ' (lit. ' all over '). Composition of Adjectives. 423. Compound adjectives are always made up of an adjec- tive witli a preceding limiting or qualifying word. Their treat- ment, as regards declension, use as adverbs, and the like, is the same with that of simple adjectives. The first member of the compound takes the accent. 424. The varieties of compound adjectives are 1. Adjectives made up of two adjectives, of which the former either is co-ordinate with the latter — as in taiibftumut, 'deaf and dumb,' !atferti(i^» fouiglid), 'imperial-royal' — or, much more often, limits it in the manner of an adverb: as, [)clH)lau, 'bright blue,' tobt!wit!, 'deadly sick.' 2. Adjectives made up of an adjective (usually a participle) and a pre- ceding adverb: as, RiD^tebet, 'right-noble, worshipful,' ino^Imcinenb, 'well- meaning,' fogciliinnt, 'so-oaUed,' >ueitaii8je()Enb, 'far-looking.' 3. Adjectives made up of an adjective and a preceding limiting noun : as, jd)iiccuiciJ3, 'snow white,' troftDcbiirftig, 'ueedmg consolation,' ei«tolt, 'ice- cold.' 425j COMPOUND ADJECTIVES. 203 a. A very frequent form of this compound is made up of a participle and its dependent noun: as, f)ci(bvijTgenb, 'salutary' (lit. 'health-bringing'), ^)flicl)tucrgeffcii, ' duty-forgettiup-,' gottcrgcbeit, 'god- devoted.' 6. The noun in such compounds, as in compounds with a noun (422.26- c), often takes the form of a genitive or a plural : thus, Irbpnffntt, ' tired of life,' lobeitSiniirMg, 'praiseworthy,' l)CiffinmgsooU, 'hopeful,' ricfengvog, 'gi- gautio' (lit. 'giant-great'), tinbevloS, 'childless' (lit. 'children-less'). 4. Adjectives made up of an adjective and a preceding verbal root, hav- ing the value of a dependent noun: thus, merllniirbig, 'remarkable' (Ht. ' worthy of noticing '). This form of compound is rare and exceptional, the infinitive being gen- erally used, instead of the simple verbal root. 5. Adjectives formed by appending a sufBx of derivation, especially tg (415.9), lo the combination of a noun with a preceding limiting word (which combination is not itself in use as a compound noun); thus, t)tet= fiijjig, 'four-footed,' grofe^erjtg, 'great-hearted,' Ijodjliafig, 'supercilious' (lit. 'high-nosed'). Composition of Particles. 425. 1. The modes of formation of compound particles have been already sufficiently explained and illustrated, under the head of the different kinds of particles (see especially 365). Such particles are, in part, cases of compound words, analogous with those just treated of; in part, phrases composed of inde- pendent and fully inflected words, which have simply run to- gether into one by frequent usage ; in part, they are combina- tions of particles. 2. II. Compound particles of the last class, and those of the second which are made up of a governing preposition and its governed case, are accented on the final member: thus, Bovt)Cv', 'previously,' IjcvBov', 'forth,' jubcm', 'besides,' iil)ert)au|)t', 'in general,' bcrgafa', 'down hill.' h. Such, on the other hand, as are originally cases of compound words, or phrases composed of a noun and a preceding limiting word, are accented on the first member: thus, l)ini'iuelmSrt8, 'heavenwards,' biet'innte, 'often,' fci'iic«megS, 'in no wise,' ber'gcftcilt, 'in such wise.' c. A few are accented on either the first or second member; and either indifferently, or according to a difference of meaning; thus, alfo' or at'fo, 'accordingly,' ct'mo or ctwa', 'perchance,' etn'mal, when ein means dis- tinctly 'one,' rather than 'a;' bar'iint, war'mn, ^ter'mit, when the em- phasis rests on the pronominal element — and so on. d. There are occasional irregular exceptions to these rules of accentu- ation, which may be left to the dictionary to point out 204 CONSTBUCTION OF SENTENCES. [426- CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. Introductory Explanations. 4:2.6. 1. A SENTENCE is a combination of words having com- pleteness in itself as the expression of a thought. 2. It is composed of a subject, desin-natiug that of which some- thing is asserted (inquired, desired), and a predicate, expressing that -which is asserted (inquired, desired) of the subject. u. That a tliougM cannot be signified or communicated without tlie com- hination of a subject and a predicate is not claimed (compare 391); but only that this combination is its full and rejrular mode of expression, the norm to which all expressed thoughts may be reduced, or of which they are to be regarded as variations. 6. The division of the predicate, as above defined, into predicate and c&pula (the latter being always a person of the present tense of (cin, ' bo: ' compare 316.1a., remark)— for example, of cv Uebt, 'he loves,' into cr i ft Ue= beub, ' he is loving ' — though of value in the logical analysis of expression, is unimportant in grammatical analysis, and has no bearing upon the construc- tion of the sentence. All verbs except (eill, 'be' (and even that, in some of its uses), contain the copula combined with a more or less complete pre- dication of some action, state, or quality : some require more than others a complement, to fill out their idea and make a significant predication: a few (316.1), so especially as to be called "verbs of incomplete predication; " a vtransitive verb is in itself less complete than an iutvausitive, and so on. c. The completeness of a sentence composed of subject and predicate is a relative one — namely, as compared with a word, or a phrase not contain- ing those two elements. A noun by Itself suggests an object of thought ; a noun with qualifying adjuncts implies certain things as standing in certain relations to one another, an object as invested with qualities : so also a verb by itself, or with adjuncts, calls up an intelligent conception in the mind ; and either, in certain circumstances, has all the value of a complete expres- sion, because the mind of the hearer or reader understands, or intelligently suppfies, whatever is wanting. But we do not feel that anything is really said until a verb and its subject are combined, until something is predicated of something. d. A sentence may signify only a small part of the thought which is in the mind of the speaker, and which he sets out to express ; it may require to be set in connection with other sentences in order to perform its fuU office, as much as a word with other words to form a sentence. And, in the de- velopment of language, a means is found by which individual sentences are so combined as to form a higher unity— by which, instead of being merely set side by side, they are twined together into a complex sentence or period. This means is the conversion of independent sentences into dependent claitses, having tlie formal as well as logical value of parts of a sentence (see below, 435 etc.). For the simple sentence still remains the norm and unit of com- plete expression : the dependent olaunea have ^•alue only as they enter ir.to 428] SENTENCES. 205 the structure of such a sentence, in the quality of adjuncts either to its subject or its predicate. They themselves, then, though containing a subject and a predicate, become incomplete, because they distinctly imply a relation to something else, which requires to be also expressed. 427. Sentences are of three fundamental kinds, assertive, in- terrogative, and optative (or imperative). Thus, assertive, bu tiebft mid), ' thou lovest me ; ' — interrogative, ticbft bil mitt), ' lovest thou me ? ' — optative, licbc bu mic!), ' love thou me ! ' a. Of only the first of thes* can it be truly said that it involves the pre- dication of something of a subject. The relations of the three to one an- other are best developed by reducing them to the common form of dependent clauses, expressing what is affirmed, inquired, or desired by some defined speaker. Thus, we say of another, cr l)cf)nuptet, bafi bu il)n licbft, 'he as- serts that thou lovest him ; ' er fragt (Will luiffen), ob bu il)n licbeft, 'he asks (wants to know) whether thou lovest him; ' cr Bevlatigt, bcijj bii i^u Uebeft, ' he requires that tiiou love him.' When, now, we come to speak in our own persons, we change id) bel)aupte, bnjj bu mid) ticbft, 'I maintain tliat thou lovest me,' into bu ticbft mid), 'thou lovest me,' the assertion of the assertion being usually a quite unnecessary formality ; id) milt tuiffeii, cb bu mid) ticbeft, ' I wisli to know whether thou lovest me,' becomes ticbft bu mid), 'lovest thou me ? ' the wish to know being intimated by arrangement and tone; and id) oevtnngc, baj) bu mid) ticbeft, 'I require that tliou love me,' is changed into ttcbc bU mid), 'love thou me! ' the deshe or demand being expressed by arrangement, tone, and appropriate verbal form. Thai is to say, the usage of language has established modes of expression by which the speaker can signify his desire to know, or his request or com- mand, directly, without putting it necessarily, as he may do optionally, into the form of an assertion. 6. All these kinds of sentence ahke consist of a subject and a predi- cate (save that the subject of the imperative sentence is often omitted as superfluous, when of the second person, or representing the individual to whom the request or command is dilectly addressed). And the assertive sentence i3 properly assumed as the norm or standard, of which the other two may be treated and explained as variations. c. The formal construction and logical office of the three kinds of sen- tence do not always correspond. A variety of modes of expression (338) may be used as intimations of a command ; a question may be expressed (432.16) in the form of an assertive sentence; and an assertion may be implied in the asking of a question. d. The direct assertive force of an assertive sentence may be variously and greatly modified, either by the mood and tense of the verb or by ad- juncts, so that the statement is made uncertain or hypothetical to any degree — yet without affecting the grammatical character of the sentence. A negative sentence is only one variety of the assertive, in which, of two opposite and mutually exclusive things, one is affirmed by the denial of the other. 428. 1. The siibiect of a sentence is always a substantive word =-that is to say, either a noun, or one of the equivalents of a 206 CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. [428- iioui) (113) — along with sucli adjuncts (109 etc.) as may be at tached to it for its limitation and qualification. 2. The predicate of a sentence is always a personal form of a verb, since this alone has predicative force (232, 314) : it may be accompanied by the various modifying adjuncts (314 etc.) which it is capable of taking. 429. The arrangement of the sentence, as thus constituted, is subject to stricter and more intricate rules in Gennan than in Enfflish : which rules will now be set forth. o a. The differences in construction between the two languages are in good part of comparatively modern growth; some of the peculiar rules which now domineer German sentences were only tendencies and preferen- ces a few centuries ago. &. Hence, in archaic style, as well as in poetry, the rules are much less strictly observed than in ordinary prose. Regular or Normal order of the sentence. 430. 1. In its ordinary and normal arrangement, the Ger- man sentence, like the English, requires the subject to be stated first, and to be followed by the predicate. a. This rule has reference to the simple assertive sentence; such a sentence, as explained above (427.6), being taken as the standard from vAich the other forms are deduced. For the arrangement of the interroga- tive and optative sentences, see below, 432. 6. Taken in connection with the rules already given as to the order in which the adjuncts of a noun and verb are respectively arranged (110-12, 319), this rule determines the whole order of the normal sentence; but it is desirable to call especial attention to the peculiarities which distinguish the German order. 2. No one of the adjuncts of the predicate is ever allowed to stand b^etween the subject and the verb. Thus, for English 'he truly loves justice, and never willingly commits a wrong,' the German must gay cr liefat treulid) baS 8ied)t, uni) bcgeljt nie n)it= lig ein Unredjt. u,. Rarely, a word or phrase is found inserted between the subject and the verb. Such a one, however, is never an adjunct of the predicate, but one of the conjunctions having exceptional freedom of position (335.4,5), or an asseverative particle, or a phrase of parenthetical force. The words oftenest met with in this position are abcr, namtid), al(o, inbeffeii, and 16= bod). 3. Since the infinitive (348.2) and the participle (358) are regularly preceded by whatever limits them, and since (319.2) the word most closely combined in idea with the verb as sharing in its predicative quality is put farthest from ij;, it results that 431] EEGDLAE OEDEE. 207 in sentences containing a compound tense, or a simple form of a separably compounded verb, the non-personal part of the verb (prefix, participle, or infinitive) stands at the end of the sentence: and the same place is taken by an infinitive dependent on the verb of the sentence, or by a word, other than a prefix, separably compounded with it, or forming with it a verbal phrase. Thus, cr blidte mtt SBo^lgcfatten aitf ben empor(d)(iuenbcn ©ol)n bcx Gvbe I) e r n i e b e V , 'he loolced down with complacency upon the upgazing son of earth; ' bii [)uft jTOar mcf)t fliig, aber bod) natiirlid) unb nad) finblid)cr iiCeijo i^ e I) u b e 1 1 , ' thou Jiast acted, not wisely, indeed, but yet naturally, and in childish fashion ; ' il)r luerb e t eud) fo blutig eurer iDJadjt nid)t liber l)e=' ben, you will not presume so cruelly upon your power;' tc^njtll mcin i'cbcn nls ein (Scfdjent nuS citrer §anb empfangen, 'I will receive my hfe as a gift from your hand ; ' ic^nofjm ntd)t8 metjr don ber t)inter mil' liegenbcn Cibcue XoaifX, 'I perceived nothing more of the plain that lay be- hind me.' a. "Where there ia more than one non-personal part of the verb in the sentence, the predx stands before the participle, or the infinitive, or the participle and infinitive ; and the participle stands before the infinitive : thus, id) gebe eS nuf, id) f)abe eg aufgegeben, id) werbe e3 aufgeben, id) mcrbe eg aufgegeben I)abeii, e§ luivb nufgegeben luorben fcin — since each element is prefixed to that to which it is added as a hmitatiou (314.6). b. [n the greater number of sentences, therefore, the two parts of the verb, the personal and non-personal, form as it were a frame within which are set all the verbal adjuncts, according to rules of arrangement (319) which are (except the one requiring the personal pronoun to come first) on the whole somewhat loosely observed, and liable to manifold variation. The three fixed points in the normal order of the sentence are the sub- ject, the personal verb, and the non-personal part of the verb (if there be one present). Inverted order of the sentence. 431. To arrange all sentences in the manner above described would result in an intolerable monotony. The German enjoys the same privilege as the English, and with even greater freedom, of putting at the head of the sentence any other member of it than the subject — for the general purpose of attaining a eupho- nious variety ; or, more often, in order to lay an emphatic stress upon the member thus removed from its proper place. But, when any part of the predicate is thus put in the place of the subject, the latter is no longer allowed to stand before the verb, but is put next after it instead. This is called the inversion of the sen- tence. Thus, in normal order, ein Sanbmann bra(f)te feinen fiinbern a«8 bet gtnbt (iinf ^fitfii^e, 'a countryman brought his children from the city 208 CONSTEUCTION OF SENTENCES. [431- five peaches ; ' — inverted, with no other change of meaning than as regards emphasis, fiinf *)uud)g bie tbutglidie S3tuine IjevBot, 'the royal ilower, having tenderly and nobly sprung forth, continued to grow {i. e. after springing forth).' e. It is not usual, nor in good style, to remove to the head of the sentence more than a single connected member of the predicate — which may, how- ever, consist of any mnnber of words: thus, not feineu Sinbern au8 bet ©tabt brndjte ein Sanbmauu fiiuf ^ftvfic^e ; —but bort, l)inter biefeii g^enfletn, Ufrtviiumt' id) ben crften Eraum, ' yonder, behind those windows, I dreamed ray iirst dream ; ' jei^U fdjnell, el)' bie SBronbung roteberfet)tt . befiel)tt ber 3iingliug fid) ©ott, 'now quickly, ere the surge returns, the ycuth commits himself to God.' /. The members of the predicate most often placed at the head of the sentence for emphasis, with consequent inversion, are the object (direct, in- direct, or remote), and the various adverbial adjuncts; less often a predica- tive adjunct (316); least often one of the non-personal parts of the verb. No part of the predicate, however, is exempt from such treatment, and even 432] raVEETED OEDEE. 209 g. The personal verb itself is sometimes placed Erst in the sentence by irvcrsion, with the effect of empiiasiziiig the predication — that is to say, of strengthening the general force of the assertion made. In such an in- version, the verb is usually followed by fcocf), 'though; ' much less often by ja, 'surely: ' but neither of these particles is absolutely necessary. Thus, finb bod) ein fDiitiberlid) SSolf bie 2Bei6er, 'surely women area strange race of beings I ' l)ab' id) bidi bod) nieiii' lagc ntd,t gcfcf)cii, ' surely I never saw you in my life! ' Sa, fo finb fie! fd)i'crft fie nl!f* gieid), lun^ eiiic Siefe l)nt ! ' Yes, that is the way with them ! everything that has any depth straightway ten ifies them.' h. lu general, the inversion of the sentence affects the arrangement only of the personal verb and its subject. If, however, tlie subject be a noun, and there be a personal pronoun in the sentence as object of the verb. t!ie pronoun generally remains next the verb, and is put between it and the subject. Thus, ba ftcvlieg mid) ber SRann @otte« in tiefrm ©tnnnen, 'then the man of God left me in deep astonishment ; ' banad) id)!!!!!;) f t d) ber Sautie nm fie beibe in einen .ffretS, 'after that, the tall fellow twined himself round about both of them.' The same thing is customary in the interrogative and the optative sen- tence (432): thus, Wte Ijaheii eud) bie fdjbueii "ilcpfel gcfd)mcrft, 'how did the beautiful apples taste to you ? ' l!ieinaf)re b t (^ ber §tninu I, ' may Heaven preserve thee I ' A similar transfer of the pronoun from its proper place is usual also in transposed clauses : see 439.1. i. When, of two co-ordinate clauses following one another, the first is inverted, the second usually retains its normal order, even though the word or phrase which caused the inversion of the oue logically forms a part of the other also : thus, barnitf blicb or ftljen, unb id) ging fort, ' there- upon he remained sitting and I went away.' 432. Interrogative arid Optative sentences. 1. In German, as in English, an interrogative sentence is or- dinarily arranged in the inverted order, or with the subject after the verb. In a direct question (one requiring " yes " or " no " as an answer), the verb comes first of all ; in an indirect ques- tion, the interrogative word (pronoun, pronominal adjective, or particle), or phrase involving such a word, comes first. Thus, Wtrb bie iungc ®d)o)]finig aiifl)brcn, 'will the young creation cease ? ' !)olt fie mi^ nid)t melji-, ' does it no longer confine mc ? '— tuo tft er, 'where is he?' ttiaS fu^t tl)r, 'what seek ye?' meld|e8 SBiid) I)at er gc[e= fen, ' what book has he read? ' mtt roeffeit (gelb l)at cr eg gelauft, ' with whose money has he bought it ? ' a. When the interrogative word or phrase is itself tlie subject of the verb the sentence necessarily retains its normal order : thus, Wfr l)nt mil' ba-J 9ctt)au, ' who has done that to me ? ' ineffen S3ud) licgt l)ier, ' whose book lies here ? ' J. Often, however (also as in English), a sentence is made interrogative 210 CONSTEtrCTION" OF SENTENCES. [432- by the tone with which it is uttered, while it has tlie construction of an assertive sentence: thus, il)V fdjltietgt? bie 9tinge Wirl^cit niir jiiriid? 'you are silent? the rings only work backward?' baS foU bie SiiitlDort fcin auj meine gragc V ' that is to be the answer to my question ? ' Oftea or usually, an interrogative sentence so constructed has a some- what different force, implying "is it possible that . . . I " or " do you mean that . . ? " or the like. c. An exclamatory sentence sometimes has the interrogative form : thus, lt)!c fdjBu iff bev -.OiDvgen! rote (djciut bie iSoime fo luanit uub mtib ! 'how. beautiful the morning is I how warmly and gently the sun shines 1 ' 2. The optative or imperative sentence takes, as in English, the inverted arrangement : that is to say, in the second persons, singular and plural, of the imperative, and in the various per- sons of the subjunctive used optatively or imperatively, the sub- ject follows the verb, instead of preceding it. Thus, fprid) bu, itttb voir l)ijren, ' do thou speak, and we hear; ' fud)' @i' ben reblid)cn (Serotnn, ' seek thou (lit. ' let him seek ') for honest gain 1 ' mbgc nie bef Sag effd)cinen, 'may that day never appear I' mitie e8 l)iei; nut uidjt jo burttcl, ' would that it only were not so dark hero I ' ntijdjt' mid) boc^ bie gaitje iffielt tins l)iji-en, ' would that even the whole world might hear us!' iuai'' id) itie geboven, '0 that I had never been born I' Compare 243.1, 331. a. But in the third person singular of the present subjunctive, the subject may also stand before the verb, and more frequently does so: thus, jeocr fomme inic er ift, 'let each one come as he is.' 433. Conditional clauses. A clause of a sentence is very often inverted in German to ex press the conditionality of a statement — that is, to add the meaning of if. Thus, l)ntte er geriifcn, (o fatten fte iljn gcfitnbcn, 'had he cried out (if ha had cried out), they would have found him; ' l)at »oit eud) ieb;r fciitcu "Jiiiig »ou feincm S>oter, ' if each of you has his riag from his father; ' erl)etiet eiii ^roift fid), 'if a quarrel arises; ' l)at bet Scgrabene fd)Oit fid) erl)obeii, 'if the buried one hath already arisen ; ' iicjj ec una l)ter jurticf, ' if he left us behind here. ' a. This mode of signifying the conditionality of a sentence is (as the iirst example shows) not unusual also in English, in the past subjunctive tenses hail and were., in the conditional clause of a complete hypothetical period (332.1); and it is not wholly unknown under other circumstances; but ill German the construction is a very common one, with all the dill'er- eiit teuses of verbs of every class. h. The same construction is frequent in the conditional clause of an m complete hypothetical period, al'ter an ala representing the omitted coii- cliisioii (see 332. 2i): thus, er beljnubclte fie, a[8 niiti'cn fte fetite Uiitertl)a- licu, ' he treated them as [he would treat them] if they were his own subjects;' a iiicfte mit beiii Jfopfe, nl8 rooUe er jngeii: @d)oit vedjt, 'he nodded his head, as if he meant to say " quite right I '' ' 436] TEAI^SPOSED OEDEE. 211 c. Rarely, of two succeeding conditional clauses, only the first is inverted ; thus, max c8 banu Sinter, :tnb ber ©djnce latj vingS um^er, ' if then it was winter, and the snow lay about: ' compare 431.i. Transposed order of the sentence. / 434. The two modes of arrangement heretofore explained belong to independent or principal sentences or clauses (except- ing only the inverted conditional clauses, treated in the last para- graph). The German construction, however, is most peculiar in that it has a special mode of arrangement for dependent (some- times also called subordinate or accessory) clauses. In these, namely, while the other members of the sentence remain in their normal order, the personal verb is removed from its proper place to the end of the clause. This removal is called transposition, and the resulting arrangement is styled the transposed. Thus, in normal order, ber Sag n e i g t fict) ju feinem Enbc ; hut, trans- posed, mtrlet)cn, bag ber Sag ftc^ ju feine'm (Siibe neigt, 'we see that the day is drawing to its close ; ' — bte Scimmenmg 6 e r 1) li t ( t mie eivi buf tii^er ©djleter bie §ijl)cu unb Sljcilet ; but, bie ®dmmerung, metd)e Wte ein buftiger @d)leier bie §bl)en unb 2;i)atcr Oer^iiltt, 'the twilight which envelopes lilce a misty vail the heights and valleys ; ' — bie Sonne 1) o 1 1 e tl)re 93ai)n Bottenbet; but, atS bie Sonne i[)re ffial)n DoUenbet ^atte, 'when the sun had finished its course.' 0. Tlie name " irarwposed order or arrangement " is abbreviated, for the sake of convenience, from "arrangement with transposed verb," which would be more fuUy and truly descriptive. - 435. Dependent clauses. 1. A dependent clause is one which enters, with the value of a substantive, an adjective, or an adverb, into the structure of some other clause. 2. Dependent clauses are of three kinds, according to the parts of speech which they represent — namely, substantive clauses, ad- jective clauses, and adverbial clauses. 436. 1. A substantive dependent clause is one which has the logical value and construction of a noun. 2. Such a clause is introduced by ba^, ' that,' o6, ' whether,' the compound relative pronouns and pronominal adjective iner, tuaS, and luefdjev (l'9)j or the compound relative conjunctions (386.2), roie, luann, luo and its compounds, etc. 3. A substantive clause stands in various constructions: thus, a. As subject of a verb : as, b a g er bie @e|anbten befreite, ijl jionr gut, that ho has released the ambassadors, is, to be sure, well; ' ro aun bicje 212 CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. [436- eiidjctitirag ftcE) jntntg, m e t cf) e Sraft bcu Einbritcf) beftiminte, tft tief in bas Smihl ber a5ov,iett geijiiUt, ' when thia event happened, what power deter- mined the inroad, is deeply hidden in the darkness of antiquity.' h. As object of a verb: thus, fie fvngten, oh fie vecf)t miifite, tner ifii; SUnnn incire, 'they asked whether she really knew who her husband was;' id) mill jeljcii, id o c8 licgt, 'I will see where it lies; ' mcl)t« tanuil)m mieber er)el3rn, ID o S er Dcrloreit ^at, ' nothing can make up to him what he has lost.' •c. In apposition with a noun or its equivalent: thus, irtit ber @Utfd)U(bt= gnng, b a 6 er jiim JEriege berebet morben fci, 'with the excuse, that he had been persuaded into the war; ' beS @efiil)teci, bog nic^tS im febeii reii)t ge= fd)S[)C, meixn e§ blofj gefdidlje, 'of the feeling, that nothing in hfe was done properly, if it was just simply done ; ' — after eg, as preceding iudefluite sub- ject (154.4): *thus, jmcifcH)n|t blieb eg jctU, In e (d) en SBeg man einfdjtagen folic, ' it remained doubtful now, which road one was to take ; ' — after other neuter indefinites, pronominal and adjective (see 179.5): thus, allcm, lu a§ ba bliiljt, ' to everything that bloMoms;' — explaining a preceding bfl, that represents the case of a relative pronoun governed by a preposition : thus, ties tntg ol)iie „3TOfifEl *> " S" ^ei, b a j; nut biUigcS Bevlangt rourbc, ' this doubtless contributed to the result that nothing unreasonable was de- manded; ' fie bad)te iiuv b a raiif, m ie fie bie fflienjdjen iiig SSerberbcn (oden tBimte, 'she thought only of how she could entice men to destruction: ' see below, d. d. As governed by a preposition : thus, I) n c bag er ein ®fa§ notI)tg l)attc, 'without needing a glass; ' Ijarvet iljr, big bnj3 ber red)te SRing ben SDhinb croffne, 'are you waiting till [the time that] the right ring shall open its mouth?' ouger Itier feiue 2)iit(d)ulbigen feieit, 'except whoever were his accomplices.' Only a few prepositions thus govern a substantive clause directly, and some of these (377.1), the ba'i being omitted, have assumed the character of conjunctions: thus, big bie glutf)en fid) Uevliefen, 'tLU the floods should runout:' — in general, if such a clause is to be placed under the govern- ment of a preposition, it is anticipated by a ba in combination with the pre- position, and itself follows, as if in apposition with the bo : see just above, c ; and compare 346.2a. e. As dependent on a noun: thus, bieS toaren bie §aitt)turf adjeti, bag fie nirgenbg grcitnbe fa^en obct geronnnen, ' these were the chief rea- sons [of the fact] that they nowhere found or made friends.' /. A substantive clause not infrequently stands in dependence upon a noun or a verb, by a pregnant construction, where a simple substantive could not stand without a preposition, or even sometimes more than that, to explain its relation to the noun or verb: thus, er eriag bent ©d)merje, bag fold) Ungliid in fciueit Eagen einttcite, 'he broke down under his grief [at the fact] that such a misfortune should occur in his time ; ' id) bailte ®ott, bag id) meinc iSbl)ite iDiebevgefutibcn l)abe, 'I thank God that I have found my sons again;' forgt, bag fte nid)t aiig nteinet A^antmer tomint, ' take care that she does not leave my room.' g. A conditional clause after alg (compare 433.6) is sometimes used with the value of a substantive clause: thus, bie anmiitfjige laujdjung, otg fet eg bic eigcue Efifteiij, bie in alien biefen ttubdngcn mitid)tt)cbt, 'the pleasing illusion that (lit. 'as if) it is our own personality which floats in all these appendages.' 438] ADJECTIVE CLAUSE. 213 437. 1. An adjective dependent clause is one which belongs to and qualifies a noun. 2. Such a clause is introduced by a relative pronoun, ber or toe(c£)cv (or a prepositional phrase containing such), or by a rela- tivfi conjunction — namely, the compounds of ba and tno with pre- positions or with adverbs of direction, and the simple conjunctions >iiD, wenn, tuanu, bci, ate, tnie (compare 386.3). Thus, ein SBimft^, ben and) id) in meinen 3ungltng?iaf)rcn fiatte, ' a wish wliich I also had in the ySars of my youth ; ' bo§ ein^tgc 2(ial)vt^en, m c ( d) e 8 er ficf)i5rt Ijcitte uub ju er;ial)len Inufitc, 'the only story which he had heard and knew how to tell;' ben SDtcnfc^fn, fiir beffen SBertljeibigung xXyct ©tamniUater tfimtjften, 'man, for whose defense their ancestors fought;' i[)r OucUen, baf)tn bie Wette Sruft ftrfi brnngt, 'ye fountains toward which the drooping breast presses; ' eincn 83ertrng, monad) bie ®ried)eii einen fricblid)en ©urc^jng eriaubten, ' a compact, by which the Greeks permitted a peaceable transit'; ' bag ?anb, TOO bev SBrnnnquetl beS OtanbenS entipvang, ' the land where the fountain of faith first sprang np ; ' in ber 9?egcn,5eit, IDenn bo« ®elta ubcrfdjmemmt iff, 'in the rainy season, when the delta is inundated.' a. Any simple qualifying adjective maybe converted by means of a rela- tive pronoun into an adjective clause : thus, ber gute i'Jtonn, ' the good man,' into ber iUfnnn, tDeld)er gut ift, ' the man who is good : ' — and, on the other hand, the German ofteu puts into the form of an attributive adjective (espe- cially a participle), with modifying adjuncts, what we more naturally ex- press in English by an adjective clause : thus, er beftegte bie jlt imBorfid)tig iinb in cinjelnen Jtbtl)eitungeu Borbringenben iKoniiaunen, 'he vanquished theNormans, who were pressing on lioo incautiously and in isolated divi- sions.' The order of the parts of such a compound adjective is the same with that ,of an adjective clause : thus, bie 5Rormaunen, roel(^e jU untiorftd)tig unb in eiu^etnen ^bft)eilungen uovbrangen. "■ b. The German not infrequently uses an independent clause, introduced by a demonstrative pronoun, where our idiom requires an adjective clause, with a relative: thus, ba ift einer, ber (amt mct)r ot« id), 'there is one — he can do more than I' (for b er incl)r atS \d) tann, ^who can do more than I'). The difference of arrangement shows plainly enough what such a clause literally means. c. An adjective clause is often employed, as in English, not so much to describe or quaUfy a noun, as to add to the sentence, in a more intimate way than by a simple connective, something relating to a noun : thus, bie Itntionate feibenfi^nft ioaffiiete fid) gegen il)n ; bev ernnterlng, nact)bcm . . . , ' the national passion armed itself against him ; to which he succumbed, after . . . '—instead of unb btcfer uutevlag cr, 'and to this he succumbed.' Or, what has logically a different value, as of a ground or reason, is cast into the shape of a descriptive clause: thus, be«l)atb befd)(of3 ber ilaifcr, bem barau kg, fri)nftt ju fetnent Soljue t^u tommcn, ' accordingly the em- peror, who was desirous of getting quickly to his son, resolved . . . ' — in- stead of ba e« il)m boron (ng, ' since he was desirous.' 433. 1. An adverbial dependent clause is ojie which fevloTma 214 CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. [438 the part of an adverb, by qualifying a verb, an adjective, or an- other adverb. 2. It is introduced by one of the subordinating conjunctions mentioned and classified above, under Conjunctions (386.4). 3. a. An adverbial clause, in most cases, qualifies a verb. Thus, as adverb oi 'place, tt) in ber SIBKbnifi nlleS ft^lnieg, Uerna^m ic^ bn8 Qklciiite niiebcr, 'where in the wilderness all was silent, I heard the pealing ag-ain; ' — of fe'me, al« nun bit Slforgenbamnierung bcgann, berittjrte (Sloolj ben i2ii)(iinimernben, ' when now the morning twilight began, Eloah touched the slutnberer ; ' e I) ' e§ iiiuijlf fc^lug, |nfjen fie TOie Borljer, ' before it struck twelve, they sat as before ; ' — of manner, bu trtcigft alleS fci)5ilcn, W i e id) btr nejagt Iiaiic, ' thou mayest behold everything as I have told it thee ; ' eS rafdjelt mit ben 5(eften, b a fi mcin (Saul tott wivb, ' it rustles with the branches in such wise that my horse becomes frantic ; ' — of cause, id) blieB um fie, h) e i I fie fieiiiiblif!) gegen mid) war, ' I hung about her, because she was friendly toward me;'— of purpose, ber mujj mitgcljett, bamit iBtr ben gelfeii lt)eg= fifiaffen, 'he must go along, in order that we may gel the rock out of the way; '—of condition, menu bu tnir biencn ttiillft, jo tomin mit, ' if you would like to strve me, then come along ; ' o b g t e i d) fie i(]nt ltal)e maren, tonnten fie i()n borf) ntd)t crblicEen, ' although they were near him, they yet could not espy him ; ' — of degree, j e Ijeifjcr e8 tft, bcfto mel)r frier' id), 'the hotter it is (in proportion as it is hotter), so much the colder am I.' b. An adverbial clause qualifying an adjective is usually one of degree or manner, introduced by inie or a(8, 'as' or 'than,' or by fo bajj: thus, folc^e 33cbini;iungcn, mie cr fie Uor',ujd)togen geltiagt l)at, ' such conditions as he has dared to propose ; ' etn ©tab, Ici(^t umfagt, fo bafj feiiic Sgeiuegungen ciuigcu iSptcltaiim baben, ' a staff lightly grasped, so that its movements have some play; ' id) I)abe fo l)elle Stugeit bog id) buri^ bie gaiije SBelt fel)en i'aini, 'I have so clear eyes that I can see through the whole world; ' ba8 ift beffer, atS id) Don iljm erwartet ^atte, 'that is better than I had expected of him ' Where a fo is present, it strictly quaUfies the adjective as an adverb, and is itself qualified by the adverbial clause. c. An adverbial clause qualifying an adverb is for the most part either introduced by baJ3 as correlative to fo, or it follows a demonstrative adverb of the same kind with that by which it is itself introduced, and correlative to the latter: thus, fie t)ob hai eine SBcin fo I)od) cmpor, baJ3 cr c8 burd)au8 ind)t fti'.ben toiinte, 'she hfted one leg so high up that he could not fln.l it at all; ' er fonntc jd]ou ba, mo bic Sriiffe aiifljlivte, ben beUen Tag erbliitcii, 'he could already see the bright day at the point where the bridge ended; ' miv banim, meil cine ©ciic norbaiibcu ift, 'only for the reason that asoul is present; ' cr i^jottete bcr Sbce lib era 11, mo fie nid)t feincS @timc6 mac, ' he mocked at ideas in all cases in which they were not of his way of think- ing;' irii tanii fie rift banu ftcUcn, menu bic ®ricd)i'u anbere aiijltcfovn, ' I can only furnish tliera at the time when the 0-reeks deliver up others.' lu the latter class of cases, the preceding adverb is often superfluous, and the adverbial clause logically qualifies the verb. d. Out of the frequent use of fo with a following adverb in the principal clause, and limited by a succeeding adverbial clause introduced by nl8— for 438] ADYEEBIAL CLAUSE. 215 example, ev ift f Bntb gctommen, als itf) if|;i rtcf, 'he came ns soon as I called him ' — has grown a very common construction in wliich the adverbial clause is itself introduced by fo and the adverb (often combined into one word), and the aU is usually omitted: thus, in 5ltvita, fomcit luir c«i fcmicn, ' in Africa, so far as we know it ; ' f o b a ( b bcr iUfctifd) fidi beni Xnitfe ber riufjcrften 9!o*l) ciitlvmnben Ijat, 'as soon as man han relieved himself of the pressure of extreme need;' fo tang' cin Jlitg' iiorf) Iteincn, ciit §er3 nocf) bvedjen tamt, fo (ange roallt ciiif gvbcii bic Obtt'in *;^ocfic, 'so long a.« an eye can yet weep, a heart yet break — so long walks upon earth the goddess Poetry.' e. A similar construction is sometimes made with an adjective, predi- cative or attributive : thus, abcr fo grofuit 3iul)ni tiefcv ®icg and) belt 13ilgent bradjtf, 'but, great as was the fame this victory brought to the pilgrims,' or ' however great fame this victory brought,' etc. — literally, ' so great fame as it even brought.' In both these classes of cases, the implication of the omitted atS is clearly shown by the transposed arrangement of the clause ; and they are thus readily dislinguishcd from the cases where fobalb, fo lange, etc., have simply their literal meaning. /. If an adverbial clause, or an inverted conditional clause (433), be put at the head of the sentence, the principal clause takes the inverted ar- rangement, just as after a simple adverb (431) : thus. In i e er bo8 prte, ftnnb er anf, ' when he heard that, he arose ; ' in en n bie ®r«?bccfe in ©fnub jcrfaU Icii ifl, tiafft bev eri) ivtete SBoben aiif, ' when the covering of grass has fal- len into dust, the hardened earth cleaves open; ' elje fie jiir 9?atur Jia'iicf'= teljvt, tonimtfte 3iir ;llfnniev, 'before it returns to nature, it becomes man- nerism ; ' uicil miv bteS fel)r niiilbc^agte, banfte id) iljm ganj hirj, 'as this was very disagreeable to me, I thanked him quite curtly.' g. After a prefixed adverbial clause, the principal clause is very often in- troduced by a particle — fo, bn, or the like ; especially fo — correlative to the con- junction of the former, and rendering easier the inversion : thus, in eun ba? ift, f faun id) bid) braiirt)en, ' if that is the ease, (then) I can make use of yon ; ' a (8 ev bie .'pnnb juriictjog, b a l)ob fid) bie @d)oUe, 'when he withdrew his hand, (then) the clod rose.' — A fo stands in like manner as correlative to the implied lucult, 'if,' of an inverted conditional clause: thus, fann end) bag iiiilscii, f milif id) eu(^ gent bienen, ' if that can help you, (then) 1 will gladly serve you.' And the inversion of the principal clause comes so to depend in ap- pearance upon the correlative particle, that, when the particle is omitted, the clause not very infrequently retains (improperly) its normal order : thus, l)atte er ben grieben geiuiiiifd)t, c« inflve fcincm 8Ietd)e »ortl)eill)nft gemefen (for innve e9, or fo infire e«), ' had he wished peace, it would have been ad- vantageous to his realm.' h. An independent clause is often employed in German where onr usage requires a dependent adverbial clause. Thus, for example, usually in a clause after one containing taum, 'hardly: ' as, taunt luar bev initer tobf, fo tomiiit cin fcbet niit fcincm 9iing, 'hardly was the father dead, when (lit, ' then ') each one comes mth his ring.' i. All adverbial clause, like an adjective clause (437.C), is sometimes made use of to add something to the sentence — thus, bod) pliinbcvten ciuigc au8 Ue= btvmut^; to c 4 1) a 1 b bic 3ufiil)v aufl)bvte uub ilJtangel entftanb, ' yet some, out 2LC CONSTEUCTIOX OF SENTENCES. [438- of w.intonness, coi-n milted pillage: on whidi account the supply ceased, and -ivant arose'— or to make an antithesis— or for other j)urposes not wholly accordant with the office of a simple adverb. 439. Additional rules respecting dependent clauses in general. 1. In the transposed, as in the inverted {431. h) order of the sentence, a personal pronoun as ohject of the verb not infrequently stands before the subject: thus, bafiiv, baf; iftncn bie d)tift(id)cn AHidjcn in 'IJalaitina ciiu]e= ra;iiiit mcrJcii iotlteii, 'on condition ihat the Christian churches in Palestine should be placed in their possession; ' ciu 8anb, mo f,t d) aUe« in gitUc Uorfiiibet, 'a land where everything is found in abundance;' al« Ineim fie 1 1) lU bet Eob govnilbt l)attc, 'than if death had snatclied her from him.' 2. VV^hen a clause ends with two or more indnitives, of which the last is u sed in place of a participle (2 40. 1 c), the transposed verb is put next before instead of after them : thus, (ticit id) ntrf)t l)abe ciet)en Fonnen, 'because I have not been able to go;' beuit t[)r inifjt, bajj Ifji" mid) I) a b t cmiorben laficn Uiollen, 'for you kuowthat you have wanted to have me murdered.' Compare 348.2(1. By imitation of this construction, the transposed verb is also sometimes placed before a participle and infinitive, or two participles. 3. a. In a dependent clause, the transposed auxihary (Ijnben or fein) of a perfect or pluperfect ttfuse is very frequently omitted: thus, friiljev al8 iljr 9cbttd)t Ll)attct], 'eaiMer than you had thought;' bnf3 l)ie mib ba ciu ®(iid:liri)ct flcuicfen [iftl, 'that here and there has been one happy man; ' iubciii cr jWei iiidit [f)nt] briid:L'ii miigen, 'as he has not wished to do injustice to two; ' inaS (VeuevS SButl) il)m ai;d) gcvaubt [l)abe], 'whatever the fire's fury may have taken from him." i. Much more rarely, tbe transposed copula (a form of fein, ' be ') is m like manner omitted: thus, bnfj illir ci immcv itucri'iart [ift], 'that it is ever unaccountable to me;' men i beS 5^''ifl^"* 'ft^' nicfjt miib' [feib], 'if ye are not weary of asking; ' bic SBcge, aiif lueldjen ba6 S3efte ju Ijaben [ift], 'the ways in which the best is to be had.' 4. a. An exclamation often has the arrangement of a dependent clause: thus, met niit end) manbertc, 'if one could bui go with you I' (lit. '[how happy he] who should' etc ) ; mte er fid) iniubct, 'how he twists himself I ' 6. A question may be asked in the same manner: thus, ob fie >l)o()( I)oi'ri)t, ' [I wonder] whether she is perhaps Hstening? ' 5. Whe ther a dependent clause shall be placed within the framework of the one upon which it depends, or outside that framework, is determined mainly by rhetorical or euphonic considerations : but it is much more usually placed outside: thus, ba8 alleverfte, ma8 fie in biefcv SBelt l)orten, als bee 3)ed:el Bon bet Srf)ad)tcl genomnicii murbe, in ber fie Ingen, mnv bag 2Bort : „,3iinifoIb[itcu !" ' the very first thing that they heard in this world, when the cover was taken from the box in which they lay, was the word "tin soldiers 1 " ' — not ma§ fie in birfcr SBelt, nlo ber ®ec£el lum ber ©c^adjtel, in ber fie Ingen, genomnicn mnrbe, I)ovten, which would be excessively awkward. But, as the example shows, clauses qualifying the subject of a sentence have to be brought in before the predicate — unless, indeed, as is often done, the principal clause is inverted. 6. In geueral, no sentence in German takes the transposed arrangement as a dependent clause, unless it be grammatically as well as logically de- pendent—that is to say, unless it be introduced by a word (conjunction or 441] DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 217 relative pronoun) which gives it distinctly and formally a dependent char- acter. Many a clause is logically dependent (especially as a substantive clause) without being so formally : thus, id) bSdjtc, e? roflre urn bcfto glitt(t= iJ)Er (or, bafj eS um befto gottUcf)cr Wan), 'I should think it was so much the more divine ' (or, ' that it was ' etc.). Exceptions are a. A clause following another dependent clause, and implying the same subordinating word by which the former was introduced : thus, Ijie^u tnin, bnfi bie ifbnige Bon Sicttteit mit §ofrnnEen tam^jfen miijjteii, ber SJorben ju fcrit Ian, "nf' ©iJanien fid) tnum ber tiatjeren geinbecrlneljrcntoinite, ■ to this was added, that the kings of Sicily had to contend with court intrigues, [that] the north lay too far away, and [that] Spain could hardly defefid her- self against nearer enemies.' 6. The cases explained above {4:3S.3d,e), where aiS is omitted after \o followed by an adverb or adjective. c. A number of words (adverbs, prepositions, and so on) which were formerly construed with substantive clauses introduced by ba6, ' that' — or, in part, are sometimes still so construed — have now won the character of con- junctions, and themselves introduce a dependent clause directly, the bcljj being omitted: thus, big, ' until ' (for Big bag, 'as far as the time that'); ungeadjtet, 'although' (for ungcadjtet baft, 'it being disregarded that'); niih, 'now' (for nun bafj, 'now that'), and others: compare 377.1. d. It may be remarked here that an inverted conditional clause (433) is really a dependent clause, both logically and formally — as much so as if it were introduced by menu, 'if,' and had the transposed order of arrange- ment; only its dependence is shown in another and peculiar manner. Summary of the Rules of Arrangement. 440. For the convenience of both teacher and learner, the leading rules respecting the arrangement of clauses, those which it is most import- ant to commit to memory and keep constantly ready for application, are presented below in summary. 441. 1. There are three modes of arranging the sentence in German : a. The normal, or regular ', h. The inverted; c. The transposed. 2. The first two belong to independent clauses, the third to de- pendent. 3. Their character is determined by the position of the simple predicate, or the personal verb : a. In the normal arrangement, the personal verb immediately follows the subject ; 6. In the inverted arrangement, it precedes the subject 10 218 CONSTEUCTION OF SENTENCES. [441- c. In the transposed arrangement, it is at the end of the clause. 442. The order of the normal sentence is 1. The subject ; 2. The simple predicate, or personal verb ; 3. The various modifying adjuncts of the predicate, as ohjects, adverbs, predicate noun or adjective; 4. Finally, the non-personal part of the verb (if there be one) — namely, prefix, participle, or infinitive : and, if more than one be present, they follow one another in th«ir order as here men- tioned. Among the modifying adjuncts of the predicate, standing after the personal verb, or between it and the non-personal part of the verb, a. A personal pronoun directly dependent on the verb regu- larly comes first; b. An accusative object precedes a genitive, and more usually follows a dative ; c. An adverb of time ordinarily comes before one of place, and both before one of manner ; d. A predicate noun or adjective, especially a factitive predi- cate, usually comes last. More special rules would be too liable to exceptions to be worth giving. Examples of a normally arranged senteuco : 1. 2. 3. 4. er tilWt; vc fctiidt bns Slid) ; er l)at mtr baS ffliid) gefi)iilt ; incin gvntnb >Dirb mir bas 58ud) Batb nod) §ciufe jnnicEgeic^idt I)aBen : that is, 'lie sends;' 'he sends the book;' 'he has sent me the book;' ' my friend will soon have sent the book back home to me.' 443. The order of the inverted sentence is the same with that of the normal sentence, except that the subject comes next after the personal verb, instead of next before. The inverted order is followed 1. When any part or adjunct of the predicate is put in the place of .the subject, at the head of the sentence ; 2. Rarely, for impressiveness ; with the personal verb first, and usually with bod) or ja, 'surely,' somewhere after it; 444j RULES OF AEEANGEJIENT. 219 3. In interrogative senteDces, or when a question is asked ; 4. In optative or imperative sentences — that is, when a com- mand or desire is expressed ; 5. Often in conditional sentences, or to give the meaning of if. Special rules, a. The general connectives, meaning ' and,' ' but,' ' for,' or ' or,' are the only words which, save in rare and ex- ceptional cases, are allowed to precede the subject without invert- ing the sentence. h. In an inverted sentence, a personal pronoun as object is often put before the subject. Examples of inverted sentences: 1. mtr Ijnt cr baS SSuc^ ge((i^tcEt ; fao8 Suc^ ^at er mtr gefc^tcft ; gefdjidt ^at er nut ba« SBui^ : that is, 'he has sent me the book ' — with varying emphasis, first on ' me,' then on ' the book,' last on 'sent.' 2. XjOii er ntir boi^ baS ^nS) gefd^tcEt : that is, ' surely he has sent me the book.' 3. ^at er mirbas S3ucf| ge|(^i(ft? mas )) f,)) % g, t Even these correspondences, however, do not hold strictly in all cases : thus, a. A mute is often protected from alteration by combination with an- other letter : thus, d hy nor I : as in Sanb, land, inonbcvn, loander; (So(b, gold ; — i by s, h {ch, gh), f : as in Stein, stone, §oft, haste; 9kdjt, night; if raft, craft. h. Even the oldest English and German' (the Anglo-Saxon and the old High-German) have their irregular exceptions to the rules of correspoa- dence ; and these exceptions have become much more numerous in later times, as each language, in the course of its history, has sufiered anoma- lous changes in some of its words and letters. 457. Below are given examples of the more important correspondences between German and English consonants — those which result from the law of progression, and a few others. 458. Lingual series. 1. ® in German answers regularly to English lli: thus, ba6, tMt, bcnfeit. 220 RELATION OF GEEMAJST TO ENGLISH. [458- thinJc, bidf, thick, boii|, thmgJi, ®urft, thirst, btet, three, SSab, iath, SSruber, brother, Erbc, earth. a. The most important exception is that of a b after n or t, as noticed aboTO (456.2a). 2. S (or tl): see 37) in German answers regularly to English d: thus, 3:ng, (Zay, tief, deep, iob, (ZeaiA, t^n, (to, fiebte, loved, ®ottl)eit, godhead, jcltcn, seldom, 2Bort, M'or(?,_Linter, under. a.. ExcSpte3*~especially is a t after f, dj, f, which (as noticed above, 456.2a) usually corresponds to an English t. .3. The lingual sibilants in German, 8, ff, g, j, often correspond to Eng- lish t: thus, ba?, bag, tta(, l)cig, toi, e?, it, auS, (mi, beffer, Seiie?-, '^\x%foot, jluei, too, jii, to, 3eit, fo'(te, 3a¥' '<'^*i ™8oH/ '''^^• (s. ^But the sibilants are also in numberless cases the representatives of original sibilants, and are therefore found alike, or with but slight variations, in German and English : thus, fing, sing, fo, so, bieS, this, ©tetll, siome, ©c^atn, shame, ©djnee, snow, fc^eltett, scold. 459. Labial series. 1. a. SB, in German, when initial, regularly answers to English k: thus, 33ab, iaih, SBruber, irother, 58lut, Nood, geBorcn, iom. h. In the middle of a word, or as final, it is usually represented in Eng- lish by / or ?; : thus, nb, off, of, l)alb, half, taub, deaf, SBeib, wife, Keb, lief; — Snube, dme, ftevbeu, starve, fiebeit, seven, .Jfitabe, Imave, fiber, over, giebev, fever. 2. 5)J in German answers, with very few exceptions, to English p : thus, paWva., pass, ^^eifi, pitch, *4i(ogc, plague, ©piefi, spit, j))rtngen, spring. 3. a. g, like b, agrees with English / when initial: thus, fallen, fall, %i\dy fish, dn%foot, fliegen, A, frei,/ree. h. Elsewhere in a word, it usually corresponds to English j): thus, tief, deep, ©djlaf, sleep, auf, up, retf, ripe, (djaffen, shape, I)elfen, help, inerfcn, warp, offen, open. 4. *Pf is a peculiar German combination, occurring with great frequency in words anciently derived from the Latin, as representing a Latin p : thus, ^flanje, plant (LA plania), ^fotte, 'door' (Lat. porta), ^?fet(, 'arrow' (Lat. pilum), *J3feffer, pepper (Lat. piper), ^fitnb, pound (Lat. pondus). But it is also § e ine. / 6^-j^-*-*-^^- ^_;^^ c^ ^ •^!tf£-C«--^*ei-*W- , !-*-?(*-. 'fr-CfC^-rfei-Jl*- SBt^e. 23 i LIST OF lEEEGULAE VEEB8. AXPHABETICAL LIST OF VERBS OF THE OLD CONJUGATION, AiVD OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE KEW COSJUGATIOX. Explanations. — Id the following table are given the principal parts of aU the "verbs of the Old conjugation, together with the preterit snbjunctive ; also the second and third singular indicative present and the second singu- lar imperative, whenever these are otherwise formed than they would be in the New conjugation, ii'orras given in full-faced type (thus, ijcbactcii) are those "H'hich are alone in use; for those in ordinary type (thus, tdctfl, tflctt) the more regular forms, or those made after the manner of the New conjugation, are also allowed; forms enclosed in parenthesis are especially unusual, poetical, or dialectic : a subjoined remark gives additional explana- tion, if any is needed. The number of the class and division to which each verb belongs (see 263-6) is added at the end. For convenience, the forms of the modal auxiliaries and other irregular verbs of the New conjugation are included in the List, vrith reference at the end to the paragraph in the grammar where their conjugation is explained. They are distinguished by being put in ordinary type throughout. No verb is given in the list as a compound. If found only in composition, hyphens are prefixed to all its forms, and an added note gives its com- pounds. Inflnitivo. pros't indie, sing. pi'et. indie, pret BUbj. imper. past Dart SSacfcti, 'bake' bncEjt, Ijacft 6uE buEe Hi^^iicE):" often of New conj., especially when transitive ; except the participle. clasb. II. 2 only in geijcircil, Sfi^cit, 'bite' 35ci'9Cll, 'hide' Serflcn, 'burst' :Iticv[t, sticrt bear, brillg forth ' ■■hav =biu*c (formerly gebcren). biffc =iier iborcn kirgfi, birgt iirjlcjl, tirjl Sicgcil, ' bend ' SPicfm, 'offer' Qmit^, tcut) S^inbcn, 'bind' Sittcit, 'beg' SSdifcn, 'blow' blafcfj, blafl ^»(t'ibcn. 'remain' S^IcidjMt, 'bleach' as intrmsitive, of either conj. ; ©rntcn, 'roast' trntjl, bvat ait-cAcii, '-break' hvidift, btldft SSvL'uncn, 'bum' 93ringcn, 'bring* sbcibcii obsolete except in gebei&cu, 'thi-ive, big barg tovft bog bot banb bnt blicS blicb tlid) biiirgc bitrge bai'i'te torfte boge bote banbe bate bticfc blicbe tlit^e birg Bivjl gcbiffeit gcborgcn getovpcn as transitive, of New only. gcbogeit Cteitt) gebotcn gcbull^cll gcbeten gebtafcn gcblicbcn gcMidjen bviet bvflcl) tvanntc bvadjte :bicl) Bricte brcictic Bvciinte bvadite :biel)e bvid) gcbratcn 9cbrod)cii gebrannt gsbvat^t sbicljen III.l 1.3 1.3 111,3 III.3 1.1 14 11,3 in 3 III.l II. 3 1,3 249 250 III 2 LIST OF IEEEGTJLAE VEEB3. ^'jl InQnltlTO. Dcnten pros't Indlc sing. pret. indio. proL subj battle boc^te . Imper. past part. gcboe^t 250 iliciOcn =bi:Bit, sbii-bt sbar& sbin-IJC sbtivbe iitive, 'des sbtrb sbovljcn I. a only in uerbetben, * perish;* whicli, as trans itroy,' is of New conj. EZ^ingcn, 'engage' bung (bang) brafcfe bvi)j4 biinge gebungen ni.8 S)rcfd)eii, 'thresh' brijc^ejl, btiji^t bvafdje btSfdjc brif^ gebrefdjen 1.3 4 ittkfjni (sbreujt) only in Bf tbricjen, ' vex.' =^l•oft sbroffc ( ftiibc biibe gcbobcit III.5 •^cigcn, 'call' fticg biege gcbcigcn III.2 ■^clfcii, 'help' mm, (jiift half balfc biilfe bilf gcbdfcn 1.3 ^eifcii, 'chide' — — . tiff tiffe — geHffen III.l Sl'cnnen, 'know' — _„ faniite fcniite gefannt 249 i^icfcn, 'choose' antiquated, and most often met in L evttc(en : tofe lurcn is tlie same ■ gefoicn word. . III.3 ^Icmmcn, 'press' Elomm flominc forms of Old conj. very rare except from fienemiiicn. gellommcn 111,5 fitliebcn, 'cleave' tiob tlBlje geltoteii III.3 ^limmcti, 'climb' flomni flominc — gcttonimeit III.5 Sllingcti, 'sound' Hang Ilange geJIuiigeti 1,1 rarely of New nHuav conj., especially when transitive. ^ttCifctl, 'pinch' fniff tniffc getniffen 111,1 Slicipcn, 'pinch' fiitpp tnippe — gefnippcit IILl il^ommm, 'come' (Eommft, fommt) tarn {ante gcEommcn 267 ^Eonncn, 'can' tann, tannft, fann Eonnle tonnie wanting getonnt 251 ^vicdjcn, 'creep* (tvcu^jl, tteudjt) tiod) frocbe (tteud)) gcti-odjcn ni.3 ^iireii, 'choose' foe tote gcloven III.3 £flbcn, 'load' labfl, lobt lub tiibc gcla^«t II.3 fiaffeti, *lefc' laffcft, Itigt Iic« Iic«e gclatfcit II. 3 Soufon, 'run' lauffl, (ouft ricf licfc gcloufcn II.4 fici^c^, 'suffer* litt litte ge(ttten III.l i'eiboti, 'lend' lid) Ifcbe gclicbcn III.3 Jfcfcii, 'read' licfcfl, ricfi lad lafe Uei gclefcn II.l t?icgcn, 'lie' lag lage gctcgcn L4 sticrcrt only in DcvUeren, 'lose.' stor :I6rc slorcn 111,3 only f oimd in gcUngen, 'eucceed,' ilong mijiltiiocn [f 'failV used in third person only. £6fdK'n, 'extinguisl: l' lifdjcft, um lofd) lotdjc lifd) geloj^en IILB tlie forma of New conj, preferably limited to transitive meaning, Ci'igcii, 'Ue' (leugft, Icugl) log loge SDtnblcn, 'grind' ninftlft, nui^lt nui^t tiiuT)re the forms of Old conj, now in use only in the participle, SBtcibm, 'shun' tnieb micbc SOlcIEcn, 'miUc' Cniltjl/ "liltq rarit inolte SOtcffcn, 'measure' ntiffcfJ, miljt moS mafic SDiBgen, 'may' mng, m(iigcn, 'strike' ®d)lcid)i;it, 'sneak' fd)i(tfl, fd)i(t fdiierft, j^icrt fd)icn fd)o(t fd)or fd)ob (Weujicfl, f^eu^l) fd)of| fd)imb fd)t.jm, fdilcift fdiltcf fd)liigf}, fd)lagt fd)(iig fd)lid) Jc^icbe fdjicitc fdvilte fd)61tc fdiorc fd)6be fd)ofTc fdjiiiiSc fd)licfe fd)lugc fd)lid)e Ji|iet 251 1.3 249 II.l in. 3 m.i in.5 iii.a ge(4)0llen :fd)cl;en gefi^iekcn gefd)ieticn gcfd)oItcii gefdjorcn gcfdiobcn ) gcfdjDfTcn gefdnm^cn gcfd)Iafcn gcfd)liigcn gefd)lid)cn m.5 n.3 III.3 IIH III.l 249 III.3 1.1 i.a UA III.4 III.4 suckle.' II.3 III. 5 II.l iii.a 1.3 III. 5 III. 3 III.3 III. 6 II. 3 II.8 IILl 238 LIST OP lEEEGULAE VEEBS. Infinitive. ®d)Teifcti, 'whet' in other senses pres't Indio. sing:. pret. Indlc. pret. Bubj. imper, jdtiff (djliffc than ' whet, sharpen,' properly of New conj. past part. daas. III.l ®d)lcificii, 'slit' fd,Iifi f*ti«fe gcfdjiiffcn III.1 ®cl)licfcit, 'slip.' fd)li>ff fdjloffe gcfd)lofFcn III.3 <£d)licf;eit, 'shut' (i(*tcu6eH,t(i)leuiit)fd)lofi f*l6ffe (f^IeuBgcfd)Ioffcn III.3 Sd)liii,i!Cit, 'sling' id)lanQ fd)(cingc gcfd)Iungcn 1.1 SdjnietffCll, 'smite' fd)mig fd)miffc gcfdiiniffm ni.i SdjTiiefjcn, 'melt' (tljrailjell, (^miljl usually and properly of New conj. when transitive. f^milj geji^moljen III.5 3d)naiibcn, 'snort' (djnoB (dinoSe gej^noBen III.4 Sd>ncitcii, 'out' fdmitt fd)nitte gcfdmiftcn III.l ©d)VinibcH, 'screw' Wroti fi^i-oSe gejc^roBett III.4 Sdirccfcil, ' be afraid of New conj. a£ ' t^ridfl, (d)ridt ($ra! ! transitive, ' frighten.' f^vate (i^tid jei^vodett 1.3 ®dn'cibcn, 'write' fdjricb fd)ricbc gcfd)ricbcrt iii.a ©djixim, 'cry' fdivic fdjrice gcfdjviccn III.2 ®d)rcitcii, ' stride ' fdiritt fdjritfe gcfd)vittcn III.1 ©dMuiircit,' suppurate' (^^n)iev[l/ fi^roiert) fdjWDr fd)!»6rc gcfd)H)orcn m.5 Sdirociiicn, 'be silent' fdjioicf) idtmiege sometimes of New conj. as transitive, ' silence.' gcfd)n)icgcn III.2 ®d)lDClIcll, 'swell' of New conj. as fd)roittfl, jdjroittt transitive. Wwotl f^iDotte fc^iuill ge!d)iDDlIeit III.6 ®d)raimtiicii, 'swim' fd)n)ainm fdironiitinc fd)ii>oiuin fd)K)6ii!ine gcfd)n>cimi!!cn 1.2 >»d)H)illt!cll> 'vanish' fdjtonnb fdjrouitb fd)n)^ln^e fd)n)unbc gcfdjmuHbcn I.l iSdjroiiigcit, 'swing' fd)mantt fd)n)angc fd)n)ung fdjroiingc gcfd)n)ungcn 1.1 ®d)ro6rcn, 'swear' fd)roor fd)n)a\iit rotifd) n)iiifd)c gctvafdicn II.3 aBcDcn, 'weave' lijob tttobe geipoben m.5 only in bcitegcn, ' induce ; ' teiuegcn in other senses is of New sicogen conj. III.5 2Bcid)cii, 'yield' ttiil) roi^c — — of New conj. when meaning ' soften' (as trans, or intrans.). gcroit^en III.l SKcifcn, ' show ' miei toicfe gcmicfcn iii.a SBcnben, 'turn' wanbtc Itcnbcte menbele geioanbt geiucnbet 249 SBci'bm, 'sue' toirbft, loirbt toarb roiirbc miirbti toirb gcroorbcn 1.3 SBci'tcn, ' become ' wii'fl, roivb roarb etc. loiirbc gcmorbcn 239.3 aSiTfcii, 'throw' loirffJ, roii-ft tom-f loirfc miirfc roirf geroorfcn 1.3 SSSicgcn, ' weigh ' the same word with rocigen and = njog n3Ln;ie rocgeii : miegcn, 'rock, gcitogEn ' is of New conj. III.3 SGintcn, 'wind' loiinb todnbe gentunbcn 1.1 'inirmcn sTOiiim ;tndiiiie swbnite sTOonncn 1.2 only used in geioinncn, ' win.' ?40 LIST OF lEEEGULAE VEBBS. Inflnitive. prcs't indlc. sing. pret inaic. pret BubJ. imper., past part class. SlOiHch, 'know* iTM-'iiJ, lueiijt, iriet^ iTufete IP u fete getuupt 260 aBoUi'tl, 'will' iria, TOittff, loiU xaoliti tucttte gciooHl 251 SeU)cn, 'accuse' jicl) 5icl)d ankbcn III.2 3icl)cn, 'draw' (jeuc^ft, icuc^l) sog jijge (seu^3 gc,)D0cii III.3 3l»:ugeu, 'force' jtvang Srodnge Scjroungcn U TOCAEULARY TO THE EXEECISE8. 241 VOCABUIiARY TO THE EXERCISES. Ahhreviations, irreg. irregular. m. masculine noun. ■n. neuter noun. N. New conjugation. » nuTn. numeral. O. Old conjugation. prep, preposition. pron. pronoun. rejl. reflexive. V. verb. ad), adjective. adv. adverb. art. article. cciij. conjunction. /. feminine noun. In the case of verbs of the Old conjugation, their class and division (263-6) is added in parenthesis after v. O. References are frequently made to the Grammar, by paragraph and division, in the same manner as in the Grammar itself. Unusual meanings of a word are referred to the exercise and sentence where they occur. To each noun is added the ending of the genitive singular (except in the case of femi- nines), and the nominative plural (68). English words which are historically identical or nearly akin %vith the German translated by them are in full-raced letter ; and, to help the recollection of the German word. Its English con-espondent is sometimes prefixed, in parenthesis, to its translation. fiber, conj. but. obfaufcn, v, N. buy from. obrcifcn, v. N. journey off, depart. Qbfd)vcibcn, v. 0(IIL2). copy. %t\tx,m. stS, St. eagle. 3(tDofat, m.sten, sten. ad- vocate, lawyer. an, pron. (193). all.— aUc, notn. pi. —aUer, gen. pi. altcrbdrtcft, from ^avt (142.:^). aid, C071J. as ; wh.en ; after a comparative., than. alio, adv. accordingly. alt, adj. (d in compari- son), old. 2IItfir, ft. srS^, ST. age. diix = an bem (65). an, prep, at ; on ; in. An^er, adj. other. — anbe; rcn, dat. mig. fern.. antiV&xoOfadv. elsewhere. anfangcn, v. 0(11.3). be- gin. flni^enebm, adj. pleasant. anClciten, v. N. reji. dress one's self. cn\iii)en, v. 0(111.3). draw on. 9i»>fcr,m. =18, Jtcpfel. ap- ple. arbcitcn, v. iY work. — atbcittt, works. 2Inn, m. sineS, sine. arm. arm, adj. (d in compari- son), poor. and), conj. also. aiif, prep, on, upon ; at (Ex. 4.3). ^lufcjabc, /. sljen. task, exercise. aufgcl)cn, V. 0, (267). (go np) rise. aufljcbcn, v. 0(131.5). (lieave up) lift, raise. aufftcbcn, V. 0. (267). (stand up) get up. ^iige, n. sgeS, =gen. eye. and, prep, out of ; of (Ex. 5.1). audgel)eti,v. 0. (267). go out. auSfprcdjcti, v. 0(1.3). (speak out) pro- nounce. 95ad),m. sc^eS, sdi^c. brook. batb, adv. soon. a3ari,m. =ae8, ^'^^^, toaU. 93anb, m. sbeS, sanbe. vol- ume. 93anE,/ sdnte. Ijench. Saum, m. sincS, =aume. (beam) tree. 93aumcl)cn, n. snS, sn. lit- tle tree. bcginncn, v. 0(L2). be- gin- \>i\^ook. 5Siitl)ci-brctt n. Mi, Mtx. book-shelf. 6()cniic', / clicmiatry. 6!)i-iftuS,m. 4i, — (107). Clirist. lEnd), n. =a)c8, sadjet. rool ^allll, adv. then. bnuon, adv. (16G.4). thereof, of it. bein, ^0.^8. adj. tliy. — bcincS, of thy. bciin, conj. for. bcr, bic, ba*, «»•<. the. — demortstr. adj. and pron. that, that one. — rel. pron. who, which, that. bcrjcnigceic, determ.adj. andpron. (168). that one. bciitlid), adj. plain, bciitfd), adj. German. Sieiitfd), n. indecl. Ger- man language. bicf, a^lj. tliick. bicneif, V. N. serve. — biente, served, bic8, demonstr. adj. and proH.{lG5). tills, that. — bicfti, biefcr, bicfc, 'ca.s«.s of bic*. bir, pron, from bu. ®piii, m. smeS, =rae. dome. bi'cigig, num. tliirty. bnicEi'ii, V. N. print, bu, p»-0)t. (151). thou. bi'iiitt, adj. thin. biirfcii, V. N. irreg. (251). be allowed. <;d)t, adj. genuine, real, eljc, I'oiij. before. cftflid), adj. honest. cin, art. a, an. — num. one. ciiiniibcr, pron. indecl. one another. cinifl, prun. adj. — pi. cinttic, some. @ifcn, «. =n8, =n. iron. cnipfniigen, v. 0(11.3). receive. tViprnn. (151). he, it. goes. stec. ®cif*, m. (ghost) spirit. gclcljrt, adj. learned. gcfdjelK", ». 0(11.1). hap- pen. — gefi^al), hap- pened, took place. gefeOcn, from fc^cn. seen. gcficrn, adv. yesterday. gctbaii, from tljun. Qtmtilyt, part, o/ rociScti. — ivurbe gcn>cil)t, was consecrated. gciviS, adj. sure, certain. gicb, /rom gcbeii. give I gicbt,/rom gebcti. gives. glcid), «(?«/. immediately. gli'icClid), adj. happy. @oIb, n. =beS; gold. ®ott, m. stteS, sBttet. god. @i-ab, II. =6e8, satct. grave. ®rflf,n». sfen, =fcn. count. grog, adj. (6 i« conipar- Uon). great. gut, adj. good. r)abc,/romI)abcii. have. l)abm,v.N. in-ei;. (239.1 ). have. I)altcii, V. 0(11.3). hold. —bait (Tc^, holds, keeps itself. glimmer, m. =t8, =ammet. hammer. ^anb, /. sSnbe. hand. bangen, V 0(II.3).hang. VOCABDLAEY TO THE EXEEOISES. 243 iiari, adj. (5 in compar- ition). liard. l)ofTcn, V. jV. Iiate. t)(it, frmii l)abcii. Has. tfattcnffi'Oifi l)obcii, had. ^aui, n. »(«S, ». (139.1) (6 in Ci'inparvion). high. ho\yt, froiii Ijod). I)01-CII, V. N. hear. ^ovii, n. siicS, Axmx. horn. $ut^ m. -ki, -ute. hat. ii),pron. (1.51). I. iljiicn, proTi. , from cr. iiltipnsx. adj. (1.57). her, its, their. — ihrc, iljrcin, iftreii, iljrcv, iljvc*, cases of iljr. Sbr, poss. « ron. adj. yon, that. ic^t, adv. row. inng, adj. (ii in compari- ti07i]. yoniig. taUf adj. {(t in compari- con). cold. Ennn, from fonncn. ficifc, '///,. ;fe§, =ic. cheese. taiifcn, ti. Jf. buy. tcnitcn, /;. iV". irray. (2.49). (keji) know. Sin6, n. :ie», =fcec. child. iiird)i;,y. st^eu. church. SIcit, ;j. =be8, =ber. gar- ment. fkiii, «(7;. small, little. Knabc, m. s6en, cScii. boy. fDinmcn,zi. 0(267). come. fonncn, u.JV. irreg. (251). cau. ffio()f,m. sfcS, aopfc. head. fofSbar, adj. precious. CranC, adj. (o in compar- itfon). sick. S'rcni, n, ^jeS, =5C. cross. fricd)Cii,B. 0(111.3). crawl. £ric(}, J;/. ogeS, sgc. war. ffiugcl,/. sgetii. ball. fun, adj. {n in cornpar- iaon}. short. Ingcn, from liegcn. lal^in, odj. lame. Iflng, «f/;. (a in compar- ison), long. Jfcingc,/. fflcn, length. rnffcn, «. 0(1L3). let. — Icifjt, lets. (cbcn, V. N. live. £cl)vcr,m. -ti, -x. teacher. iCcil), m. sbcS, sber. body. fcidit, adj. light, easy. Icitcn, w.'O(Ill.l). suffer. IcilKn, «». 0(111.2). lend. — Iciljc, (I) lend. lemcn, v. N. learn. Ic^t, adj. last. Ccufc, m. pi. (100.3). people. fiidjt, n. --iti, =tet. light. licb, adj. dear. Iicbm,J).iV;(236.1). love. — licbt, loves. — licbct, love ye ! £ict, n. =bc8, =ber. song. (icgcn, v. 0(1.4). lie. lint, adj. left. [obcn, V. N. praise. Cuft,/. silfte. air. modien, v. N. make. — ntad)tc, made. SKo^d)cn, n. =n8, =n. maiden, girl. man,pron. (185). one. SD^anii, m. snncS, =(iiiner. man. incin, po.ss. adj. (159.2). my.— ^nicincin, niciiicn, mcincr, niciiicd, caacs oj mcin. ntcinen, v. N. mean. ajtcnfd), m. =ici)cii, =fc^en. man. ajlcffcr, n. -xi, -X. knife. SKctoIl', n. sUe8, sUe. me- tal. miAi, from id), me. WtilA),f. milk. niir,//'om id), to me. mitf ]>rep. with. tniid)tcn,/rom mogcn. iniigcn,*!. N. irreg. (231). may. SRonDi'd), m. =^eti, =i^en. monarch. SBtonnt, m. st§, =tc. month. morgcn, adv. to-mor- row. ^ixlUVf m. sxS, sv, mil- ler. miiffen, v. JV. irreg. (251). must. SBJiittci-, /. sutler, mo- ther. nad), prep, after. ?ftadybat, m. svS, Hb,?/;. sfjeS, s^e. slioe. 'Sd>u(cv, m. 5r§, sr. sclio- lar* rd)tt>nd)/ flrZ;'. (ft in rom- paruion). weak. fd)iDnrj, ndj. (a in com- pm'lsoji,). (s"vvart) black. fdjwimntcit, v. 0(1.2). fcd)d, iinnK six. fctjncn, V. iV; bless. — Kjiict, bless ye [ fcljei'/ ^-^ 0(11.1). see.— fcljc* (I) see. fcfjr/ cd/j. very. fcin, po.ss. adj. his, its. — feinc, ftfiiicm, feinen, cases o/"fcm. fcin, zj. d. (239.3). be. icini^p poss. adj. (159.5). his, its. iMcv, pron. adj. (155.5). self. fid), refl. pron. (155.3). Mmself etc. fie, pro?i. (151). they, them, she. — ®ic, you. ficlyt, fro w,yd)en (268.1). iiubffrom fcin, v. are. fingeii, v. 0(1.1). sing. — fillet, sings. filjc"f ^>- 0(1.4). sit.— fifjt, sits. fo, adv. so. — fo oft, as often as. foba(^, cojij. as soon as. ffjjiciei), adv. immedi- ately. 2'0l)n, ni. sitcg, sBIjne. son. Solbrtt, in., sten, =tcii. sol- dier. follcn, V. H. irreg. (251). sliall. ®c*iiniicr, m. sv§, =1. sum- mer. tSonnc,/. siien. sun. fpnnifd), ar/y. Spanisli. fpat, f'.(/y'. late. Spiegel,)". =1^, ?I. mirror. >S}3icUcii(), ?i. 5gg, =ge. playthings. ®prfld)C,/ :ii)cn. (speech.) language. fpvrtd)cii, from fprcdK", spoke. fpi'cd)Cii,?J. 0(1.3). speak. — fpvid)t, speaks. — fpvndKH, (they) spoke. ®tfltt,/. sabte. city, ©tiiljl, »'■. =tcS, =ar)te. steel. ftarf, arfy. (a in cornparl- mn). strong. ficlK", V. O. (207). stand. — itciyt, standa. ®tord), m. tfC^eS, sSn^e stork. 3tiibc,.r. s6eu. room, (guibcn't', m. stcii, stcii, studeni. ffui?trcii, V. N'. study. — ffH^ivt, studied. 3tiil)f, m. =lc§, =ui)U. (stool) chair. ftiit^cnfV. N. rest. — ftiiijt, rests. fii^, ar/;'. s-w^eet. tabcin, V. JV. blame. 'Zaci, m, :gi?S, sge. day, ^iifdjc, /. =f(^en. pocket, teller, m. 5V§, sr. plate. 2:ijal, n. sle§, sdler. dale, valley. 'S:i)at,f. =tcn. deed. ^bov, 9i. srcS, ste. (door) gate. ■Sbov, m. stcn, srcn. fool. tbim,". 0. (267). do, put. — t\)Ui, puts. 3:iiitc,/. steu. ink. %ii(i), in. =frf)e§, :jd)C. table. ^odjtcr,/. sficljtcv. ciaugli- ter. tvngtfit, ?/. 0(11.3). carry; bear, ' wear. — trngt (268.3), carries, wears. ti'iiiie, adj. lazy. ^ud), ?t. cd}C^, si^e. cloth. Xuijciib,/. sbcn. virtue. iibcv, prrp. over, above. Ucbci'fdjub, W'. ?[)S, 4je. overshoe. iibcrfclj'cii, w. iVi trans- late. mnf2>rr'p. around, about; by (Ex. 13.1). imb, C07ij. and. Unt^nr, m. srn, =vn. Hun- garian. Uiigdicf, n. :tf§. misfor- tune. lliiivci'('itat,/. =ten. uni- versity. iinrtif, adj. unripe. imS, pron. (151). us. luifei', 2'>'^^s- '(flJ- (li*!*)* our. uiifrui, ^oss. adj. (159.5). our. iintcv, prep, under. SOatci*, m. =ro, -Akv. fa- ther. VOCAEULAEY TO THE EXERCISES. 2k5 BnfcrfdtiN w. -be§, sbe. one's country. x)c\'iolc\en,v. jY persecute. Dci'()clrcn, V. 0(1.8). re- ward — ttci'gcltct, re- ward ye ! wi'flcffcn, V. O(ILl). for- fftt. tjcrfaiifcti, V. N. sell. ocvlattflcn, v. N. require. mv^pxcdyitifV. 0(1.3). pro- miso. t)L'iftcl)en,w. 0. (2G7). un- derstantl. 'o\i\,pro7i. (192). much, many. »icr, iium. fonr. (fo-wl) bird. ^ciifU. cUi, 'MUx. (follt) people. t)oIIc^^en^ -c;. N. finish, uuit, jjrep. of, from. uum = Don bci)i (65). v>ox,prei>. before, oub- Bide(Ex. 2.6). OLH'Icfdt, V. 0(11.1). read to.— Dorlicft (268.1). vaa\)\in, v. K choose. — »)fll)(t, choosea. 3BaI)rl)cit,/. =tcn. truth. aSalb, m. sbcS, sdlbcv. for- est, wood. iDiimi, adv. ivUen 7 watibcrn, ?a iV! vrantJcr, \x>av,froiii fcin, V. wa,s. »unrcn,/ro/7t fcin, v. -were. roarm, adj. (d in com- 2^arUoii). warm. voai, jiTO n. %vlia.t. rond fiir, pron. -what sort of. 955nfftr,«.. sr§, sv. -water. TOc^cr, con;, neither. aScib,n. sfieg, s6ei'. (wife) woman. wtidy, adj. (-weafe) soft. mciljcn, v. N. consecrate. rocil, C071J. because. 255cm, m. sne§, sne. "wine. tueifc, «tZ;. wise. rocifi, etc?/ wliite. voii^ffrom ivifTcn, know, knows. rocit, a(?/ (-wide) far. n)c((I|,pro?j.who,^ivh,icU. TOcnn, conj. wlien, if. voix,pron. wlio. voext>tn,v, 0. (277). be- come. 2tt?crE, n. sfeS, sfc. -work,. tt)ic, t'07y. as, like. n>ic^elv a^w. again; in return. mic'^cl•gcl3crt, u. 0(11.1). give back. — n>ieberQa; ben, gave back. tvic'^cr^oleti, v. N. fetch back. n>tcbcrT)0'Icn, 7J, y repeat. n»it(,//*03>i rocidcii. Sffiinter, m. =rg, :r. n-in- ter. \o\v,pron. (151). -w^e. tDiffcti, V. N. irreg. (260). know. — tueifi, know, knows. too, adv. where ? where. n>ol)in, adv. whither. )moiUn,v. N. irreg. (251). will, wish. 2Bort, n. 5te§, ste or sovtcr. Avorcl. tvunfd)cii, V, N. wish. 2Qiirnt, m. smeS, =urmer. -vrorin. jcvbvcdjcttr V. 0(L3). break in pieces. Siege,/, sen. goat. 3immcr, n. =v§, =r. room. ju, prep, to; at (Ex. 13.5). — ill bnbcn, to be had (3/<3.ni.l). jufrjcben, adj. contented. y\xc^UiA)fadv. at the same time, at once. jur = jii ^cl* (65). }uru(f {omincti, v. 0. (267)» come back. jufaiiimcn, adv. together. jTOci, num. two. jrootf, n^mi. t-welvc. INDEX, Of prommciation of, 8. b, pronunciation of, 19. ablative, dative in sense of, 322.1.3. mmt, 400.3. accent, 55. accessary clause, see dependent. accusative case, general of&ce of, 59.4, 226; with transitive verbs, 227.1; with intransitive, 227.3; double aceos., with verbs, 227.3; accus. vrith prepositions, 228, 375-6; with adjectives, 229; accus. of measure and time, 230.1,3; accus. absolute, or of accompanying circumstance, 230.8. active voice of verb, 233.3. address, nse of pronouns in, 153. adjective, usual adjunct of noun, 110; when declined, ll/<-7; rules of adj. declension, 118-28 ; origin of double declension of adj., 132 ; adj. as noun, 129; asadverb, 130,363.1,3; adj. with etreoS, nai, ni(^t8, 129.5; comparison of adj., 133-42; modi- fying adjuncts of adj., 143-6 ; their place, 147: — agreement of adj., 62, 209 ; genitive dependent on adj. , 217; dative do., 223; accusative do., 229; — primitive adj., 413; de- rivative, 414-6: — compound adj., 423-4. adjective clause, 437, 444, 110.1«. adjective phrase, compound, 437.3a, 147.3, 358. adverb, office of, 361 ; usual adjunct of adjective, 144; of verb, 317; of noun, 110.3, 360.3; of preposition, 369.1 ; complement of preposition, 379 ; place of adv., 370 ; classifica- tion of adverbs, 362 ; derivation, 363-7; ordinal adv., 207.3; com- parison, 368 ; adjective as adv. , 130, 303.1,3 ; comparison of adjec- tives by adv., 141. adverbial clause, 438, 444, 144.3. adverbial predicate, adjective as, 116.16, 316.26. He, see a. Sleu, see ia. at, pronunciation of, 19.1. an, 193. aller, prefixed to superlatives, 142.2. alphabet, German, 1-3 ; its origin, I ; written character, 4, pp. 231-5 , nse of capitals, 5. aia, in sense of ' as if,' 332.35, «, 4336; do. in substantive clause, 436^7 ; omission of afS after fo and adverb or adjective, 4S8^d,e. imin, 194. appositive adjective, 110.16, 116.3,4 ; do. noun, 111.3. arrangement of the sentence, rules for, 429-39 ; summary of rules, 440-44; additional remarks, rhetorical ar- rangement, .44 5-6. articles, declension, 63-4 ; combina- tion with prepositions, 65 ; rules for use, 66 ; place, 67. Aryan languages, see Indo-Europeaa. assertive sentence, 427. attributive adjective, 110.1«, 115. an, pronunciation of, 20. an, pronunciation of, 21.3. auxiliaries, of tenso, 239-4 1 ; of mood, see modal auxiliaries j causative auxiliary, 242.3 ; omission of auxi- liary of tense, 439.3. at/, pronunciation and use of, 19.3. i, pronunciation of, 23 ; English cor- respondent of, 459. Be-, derivation and use of, 307.3. ielbe, 1996. c, pronunciation and use of, 24. capitals, use of, 5 ; in pronouns of ad- dress, 153.3-5. cardinal numerals, 197-201 ; their de- rivatives, 202-8. cases of declension, their uses, 59, 2 1 2-30 : and see accusative, dative, genitive, nominative. causative auxiliary, 242.3; causative derivative verbs, 404.1.1. Celtic languages, relationship of, 850. INDEX. 247 ff, pronnnciation of, A3; English cor- respondents of, 460. d, pronunciation and use of, 30, 44. classes, under first declension, how determined, 69; first class, 75-80; second, 81-6; third, 87-90. cognate accusative, 227.2a. collective noun, agreement of verb with, 322.2. comparative degree, 134 ff. ; declen- sion of, 140.1. comparison, of adjectives, 133-42 ; degrees and endings, 134-5 ; modi- fication of vowel, 136; irregular and defective comparison, 139; de- clension, 140 : — of participles, 355 ; of adverbs, 368. composition or combination of words, 418-25. compound adjective phraae, 437.2(i, 147.2, 358. compound forms of verb, 238-42. compound verbSj with prefixes, 233.4, 296-311; with other elements, 312-3. compound words, 418; their fre- quency in German, 419; ortho- gi'aphj, 4196,c; pronunciation of finals and initials in, 53 ; accent, 55. '-'-4 ; rules of formation of com- pound verbs, 420; nouns, 421-2; adjectives, 423-4; particles, 425, 365. conditional clauses, inversion in, 433, 443.5. conditional tenses, formation of, 2.'(0.26-; their use, 33H-6. conditional use of subjunctive, 332. conjugation, defined, 231 ; rules re- specting, 232-313; conjugations, distinction and origin of, 246 ; New conjugation, 247-60; Old conjuga- tion, 261-73 ; mixed conjugation, 272. conjunctions, 382; their classification, 3S3; general connectives, 384; ad- verbial conjunctions, 885; subordi- nating conjunctions, 386. consonants, pronunciation of, 23-54. copula, 316.1a, 426.2& ; omission of, in dependent clause, 439.3. correspondences between English and German words and letters, 452-61. cor.ntries and places, declension of names of, 103. fc. pronunciation of, 25; English cor- respondent of, 458.1. bo, added to relative pronoun, 182.2, ba or bar, in combination with preposi- tions, as substitute for pronoun of third person, 154.3,3; for demon- strative, 166.4; for relative, 180. dative case, general use of, 59.3, 221 ; dat. with verbs, 222 ; in ablative sense, 222. L3; of possession, with ttterben, etc., 222.II.1<:Z; with im- personal phrases of condition, 222.II.1&, 292.4 ; of interest or con- cern, 222. m.; possessive dat., 222.IIIa,6; dative with adjectives, 223; with prepositions, 224,374, 376; with nouns, 225.1 ; in exclama- tions, 225.2: — use or omission of c in dat. of nouns, 71.16, 83; old dat. sing. fern, in n, 95. day of the month, expression of, 216.5&. declension, defined, 57; rules of decl., 58-208 ; decl. of articles, 63 ; of nouns, 68-108 ; of adjectives, 118- 28, 140; of pronouns, 151-95; of numerals, 19S-208 ; uses of the forms of dec!., 209-30. defective declension of nouns, 100; defective theme in declension, 98. definite article, see articles ; use in generalizing sense, 66.1,3; in sense of possessive, 66.3, 161. demonstratives, 163-71; use of, in sense of personal' or possessive pro- nouns, 171. denominative verbs, 405. dependent clauses, 426.2 proper names, declension of, 102-8. H, pronunciation of, 84, 89. question, see interrogative sentence. t, pronunciation of, 35. reciprocal use of reflexiTe pronoun, 155.4. redundant declension, 99. reflexive use of personal, pronouns, 155 ; reflexive pronoun, 155.3 ; reci- procal reflexive, 155.4. reflexive verb, 233.2b, 283 ; conjuga- tion of, 284-3 ; from what verba formed, 286-7 ; from intransitives, 288 ; cases used with, 289 ; re- flexives with reflexive object in da^ tive, 290. regular or normal order of sentence, 319, 430, 441-2. relative pronouns, 177-83; compound rel., 179.1-3; indefinite, 179.4; compound relative used for our sim- ple, 179.5 ; agreement of verb with rel, 181, 821.2. root of verb, 237.1a ; roots of lan- guage, 398. f, pronunciation of, 36 ; English cor- respondents of, 438.3. Sanskrit language, relationship of, 430. Scandinavian languages, relationship of, 431.3. W, pronunciation of, 48. ®c., 162. second declension of nouns, 70, 91-5 ; of adjectives, 119-28. fein, conjugation of, 239.2,46; use aa auxiliary, 240-1 ; origin of use, 240.4. feI6cr, (cI6p, added to reflexives, 155.5, 169.3. sentence, definition and constituents, 426, 428 ; kinds, 427 J arrange- ment, 429-46. separable prefixes 207-8 ; conjuga- tion of verbs with such, 299-301 ; place of prefix, 209.1, 319.3c,rf:; denominative verbs formed with, 405.11X2. fi^, 155.3. simple predicate adjective, 116.1a, S16.2a. Slavic or Slavonic languages, relation- ship of, 450. fo, as relative pronoun, 182.1 ; witU M omitted after, 438.3d,e. 252 INDEX. foM), 170. (oaen, 251, 257. ev., Ifi2. fj, % pronunciation and use of, 419 ; English correspondents of, 458.3 ; J3 romanized as ss, 4. "strong " and "weak" declensions, 73, 132; do. conjugations, 246.3. subject of a sentence, 426.2, 428.1. subjunctive mood, 235.'3; nature and use, 329-30; optative subj., 331; conditional and potential, 332 ; of indirect statement, 333 ; other less frequent uses, 332.5. subordinate clause, see dependent. substantive, see noun, substantive dependent clause, 113.3, 436, 444. suffixes, see endings. superlative degree, of adjective, 134 if. ; declension of, 140.1,2 ; predi- cate form, 140.32>; adverbial form, 140.3c, 363.3 ; sup. absolute and re- lative, 142.1 ; do. in adverbs, 363. 2c ; sup. intensified by alter, 142.2. t, pronunciation of, 37 ; English cor- respondent of, 458.2. tenses, simple, 235.1 ; compound, 240 -1 ; use of, indicative, 324-8. Teutonic languages, see Germanic. t^i pronunciation of, 37, 50 ; English correspondent of, 458.3. t^tm, as auxiliary, 242.3. time, accusative of, 230.3 ; genitive, 220.1. transitive verb, 233.1, 227.1a,6. transposed order of dependent clauses, 434, 441, 444; limited to clauses grammatically dependent, 439.6 ; of interrogative and exclamatory claus- es, 439.4. 4, pronunciation of, 5J. u, pronunciation of, 12. ii, pronunciation of, 17. Ue, see u. Hi, pronunciation of, 22* umlaut, 400.1. », pronunciation o£ 38. variation of radical vowel in Old con- jugation, 400.2, 262-7. vaiiative numerals, 205. Dels, derivation and use of, 307.6. verb, essential characteristic and office of, 232, 314; classification, 233; simple forms of, 235-7; principal parts, 237.1 ; compound forms, 238 -41 ; auxiliaries, of tense, 239 ; oi mood, 242.1, 251-9; other, 242.2,3; Old and New conjugations, 245-73; passive voice, 274-82 ; reflexive verbs, 283-90; impersonal, 291-5; compound, 29G-313, 420:— ad- juncts of verb, 315-8; their order, 319; object, 315; predicate noun or adjective, 316; adverb, 317; pre- positional phrase, 318 ; genitive case with verbs, 219, 220; dative, 222, 225.1; accusative, 227, 230: .—primitive verbs, 403; derivative, 404-6. Diet, 192. vocative, nominative in sense of, 214. voices, active and passive, 233.3. ootf, as prefix, 313. vowels, pronunciation of, 7-22 ; quan- tity, 7 ; modified vowels, 14-7. m, pronunciation of, 39. teas, 172-3, 176, 179; maS ffir, 175, 177, 179. "weak" declension of nouns, 73; of adjectives, 132; "weak" conjuga- tion of verbs, 246.3. luel^, 172, 174, 176-9. luenta, 192. an, 172-3, 179. tuetben, conjugation of, 239.3,4c; aa auxiliary of future and conditional tenses, 240.2,4; of passive voice, 275-7. Bitfen, 260. no or njor, combined with prepositions, in interrogative sense, 173.2; in rel- ative sense, 180, BoKcn, 251, 258. word-combination or composition, 418 -25. word-formation or derivation, intro- ductory explanations, 393-7 ; prin- ciples, 398-402; means of deriva- tion, 399-400; rules of derivation, 403-17. written character, German, 4, pp. 231-3. S, pronunciation of, 40. 9, pronunciation and use of, 13, 19.3, 41. J, pronunciation of, 42 ; English cpr- respondents of, 4 58.3. in--, derivation and use of, 307.7. ju, as sign of infinitive, 341, jiueen, jwo, 199a. SUPPLEMENT TO WHITi^EY'S GERMAN GRAMMAR. EXERCISES FOE, TEANSLATING EEOM ENaLISH INTO GERMAN, INTRODUCTORY NOTE. The Exercises here given form an appendix to the author's German Grammar, although also capable of being used independently of that work. Owing to other absorbing occupations, I have been obliged to put out of my own hands the preparation of the text of them, which has accordingly been done, under my detailed direction, by a gentleman well qualified for the task (Mr. B. G. Hosmer, of New York). They are divided, as will be noticed, into four Series. The first may be written through, if the instructor chooses, in connection with the pupils' first lessons in the Grammar; I should not myself, however, make use of them, preferring to let a class learn the whole body of essential principles of grammar, and read more or less, before be- ginning to turn English into German at all. The second Series is designed to help enforce the rules of construction of the sentence ; it begins with the simplest elements of which the sentence is composed, and brings in, one after another, the other elements, ending with the most intricate and highly developed of them aU, the dependent clause. I trust that it will be found upon the whole well adapted, and sufficiently fuU, to teach and impress the main peculiarities of German sentence-making. The third Series calls attention to the more important specialties of the grammar, etymological and syntactical. This, in particular, would admit of almost indefinite exten- sion beyond the rather restricted limits to which I have confined it; but perhaps enough is given to prepare the pupil for deaUng with sentences and paragraphs of a miscellaneous character, the difficulties and nicer points of which shall be explained as they occur. In an abbreviated course, indeed, the whole Series wiU admit of being passed over; or only the Exercises deemed more important maybe written out, and in such order as the teacher shall prefer (that in which they are set down is simply the order of subjects in the Grammar). Material for general practice is offered in the fourth Series, the Exercises in which are founded on passages in the author's Reader. These passages are supposed to have been first thoroughly read, and their vocabulary and phraseology mastered by the pupil, who thus becomes re- sponsible for the proper construction and grammatical correctness of his task, while his choice of expressions is guided or prescribed by the model passage. Of exercises of this character I have in my own teaching made especial use, and those here given are intended partly as examples of what each instructor may profitably do for his class, in connection with any text which they may be reading, devising either general illustrations of construc- tion, or exemplifications of particular points— drilling exercises upon individ- ual difficulties of German idiom which may from time to time present them- selves. A complete vocabulary (which, however, turns out of greater length than was anticipated) forms a necessary part of such a set of Exorcises as this, * INTEODUCTOET NOTE. which does not suppose in the pupil enough familiarity with the language to enable him to choose the right espression for himself in the larger Eng- lish-German dictionaries. But that here given does not include those wordg and phrases in the fourth Series which occur in the foundation-passages ; it being an essential part of the plan that the pupil master the passage and turn it into its new shape, with lielp only upon the new words and phrases which may liave been introduced. No one, I trust, will suppose me to assume that these Exercises, and such as these, are going to enable the scholar to write German idiomat- ically and freely. They are strictly auxiliaries to the grammar, helps to a thorough and practical comprehension of the rules of German construction, and will require to be supplemented by an indefinite amount of reading and writing, if one is to attain anything like a command of German style. No given set of exercises can have a universal or a lasting usefulness. Each teacher really wants his own, adapted to his style of teaching and to the particular needs of his classes. I am not at all confident of having here met the precise wants of any very large number of instructors ; I only hope to have furnished what will be of some service to many — enough, perhaps, to repay the labor which their preparation has cost, and furnishing ground for experiment and criticism which may lead to the substitution by and by of something fuller and better. EXERCISES. EXPLANATIONS. EngUsU words in Italics are to be omitted altogether in rendering. Words superfluous La the English, but requiring to be introduced in the German, are in- eerted in brackets. Words connected below by the sign y_, are to be rendered by a single German word. Words numbered by "superior" figures are to be put in thep order indicated by the figures ; and, in a few cases, a single word so marked with 1 is to be put at the beginning of the clause. Occasional suggestions and references are introduced in parentheaia. SERIES I. EXERCISES TO ACCOMPANY (iP DESIREd) THE FIRST LESSONS IN THE GERMAN GRAMMAR. (iNVOLTma OiJLT WHAT IS IN THE LABSEST PKmT.) Exercise 1. Nouns, first declension, first class (75-9) ; also articles (63), and present indicative of fein (239.2). 1. The daughters are in the convents, and the mothers are in the gardens. 2. The cheeses are on the plate, the plate is on the cushion, and the cushion is on the floor. 3. The girl's father is an Englishman. 4. The brothers of the priest are here. 5. The owner of the little^honse is an American, but the tenants are Italians. 6. The birds are in the gardens on the mountain-range. 7. The young^lady is in the garden with the gardener's spade. 8. In the garden there are little^trees, and on the ground under the little^trees there are apples. Exercise 2. Nouns, first declension, second class (81-5) ; also present indica^ live of ^a6en (239.1). 1. September, October, and November are the autumn^months. 2. On the river there are rafts and boats, and the boats have sails and oars. 3. The gardener's daughter has shoes, but the beg- gar's son has neither shoes nor stockings. 4. The axes are under the benches. 5. The savings (sine/.) of the workmen are in the trunk yonder. 6. The horses have oats {sing.) and the dog has a bone. 7. The tree is not far from the little^house, and the 6 EXERCISES. little^ouse is not far from the brooklet. 8. He has meetings -with his friends. 9. The sons of the peasant are at the brook with a pail and a basket ; in the pail is water, and in the basket are fish. Exercise 3. Nouns, first declension, third class (87-90) ; also present indicative o/Iiebeu (236.1). 1. [The 66.1] men love riches, [thej women love splendor. -2. God loves the man^of honor, but not the villain. 3. The child's guardian has a house in the valley. 4. The trees in the field and in the forest have leaves. 5. [The 66.2] death and the grave are the termination of [the] life. 6. The artist loves pictures and books. v. The little^child has a song-book and loves the songs. 8. The girl has dresses and rings ; the girl's brother has a horse and a little_dog. 9. In the forests are trees, and leaves, and nuts. 10. The inhabitants of the village are robbers. EXEKCISE 4. Nouns, second declension (91-4) ; also present indicative of ge6en (236.2). 1. The messenger gives the Frenchman a letter. 2. The Ba- varians are in the house, the Hungarians in the yard. 3. God gives [the 66. i] man [the] speech, [the] virtue, and [the] reason. 4. The students of the university are Prussians, Saxons, and Poles. 5. [The 66.2] truth is a mark of the man^of__^honor. 6. Cares are the companions of the monarch. 7. The lawyers give the students books. 8. The princes are in danger. 9. The hunter gives the soldier a musket. ExEBCISE 5. Adjectives, of both declensions, in attributive and predicative use (114-24). 1. The old wine-bottles are upon the wooden table in the large room. 2. The good doctor gives the child the medicine ; for the child has a bad cough, and is very ill. 3. The spirited horse is in the stable with the quiet cows. 4. In the dark-blue bottle yonder is poison. 5. The snake is not poisonous. 6. The murderers of the prince have ugly faces. 7. The little son of the emperor has a leaden bullet, and is very tranquil. 8. The flowers are blue, and white, and red. 9. The blue flowers in the little^basket are very beautiful. first series. ' 7 Exercise 6. Adjectives used as nouns (129) and as adverbs {\ZO),and comimred (134-40). 1. Tbe good man is not always bappy, but tie wicked man is more unhappy than the good. 2. The pretty child has a httle red apple in the right hand. 3. The Englishwoman is handsome, hut the American^woman is yet handsomer. 4. The weather i.-; quite fine. 5. The landlord's oldest daughter is prettier than the merchant's younger sister. 6. The water in the great river yonder is not quite so clear as it is here in the little broot. 1. To-day is a remarkably fine day, and much warmer than yester- day. 8. The hero loves the noble and the dangerous. . 9. The entire house is entirely finished. 10. The little hill behind the little^forest is the highest in the vicinity ; for the whole coun- try is detestably flat. 11. A good sensible teacher loves an in- dustrious boy. 12. The good teacher gives the industrious boy beautiful books and a little book-case; and the boy is very glad and thankful. 13. The father has heavy cares, but the son is free_from^care. The workman has a white house, with small cleanly rooms. 15. The grandfather is a sickly old man, but the grandmother is a strong healthy woman. 16. The grand- son is a quiet well-behaved child. Exercise 7. Pronouns, personal and possessive (151-9). 1. I am well, but he is unwell, and she is very ill. 2. lie loves them, but they love him not. 3. You give yourself unnecessary trouble. 4. Our choice is an extraordinarily happy one. 5. My old friend and his youngest brother are dead. 6. He gives them a costly present. 7. The merchant gives me my bill, and I give him his money. 8. The girl has a small dog, and it is very saga- cious and faithful. 9. We give ourselves great trouble. 10. Have you my book ? I gave it to you. Exercise 8. Pronouns, demonstrative, interrogative, and relative (163-77). 1. My house is not so fine as this one, nor as that rich mer- chant's house. 2. This hill is much lower than that mountain. 3. The man whose picture you have is either an Englishman or an Irishman. 4. Who gives thee this permission ? '5. That 8 EXEEOISES. (166.8) is the brother of our new friend. 6. WMcli brother? tlie elder? 7. No, the younger; and his little^sister, whom he greatly loves, is with him. 8. This is an old friend of my father, and a man, moreover, whom he warmly loves. EzBECISE 9. Cardinal and ordinal numerals (197-203). 1. The parson has three sons; the eldest is just sixteen years old ; the second is in the twelfth year of his age, and the third is five years and three months old. 2. The professor has over- seven thousand books in his library. 3. The boy has four apples, and his father gives him besides two oranges. 4. There (= e§: 154:.4J) are six hundred and seventy-three families in this town. The date is the twenty-fifth of (216. 5J) January. 6. The first house on the left side of the street has only four windows, with sixty-four panes, and the door is very small. 8 ExEECISE 10. Simple forms of the verb (236.1,2). 1. She would give {pret. subj.) willingly, but she has nothing. 2. When I give, P give' publicly. 3. It is not true that they gave' us' nothing'. 4. The father loved his ungrateful sons, and gave them everything. 5. These men are now enemies, but for- merly they'' loved' one another. 6. Give, as^often^as (= fo Dft) thou hast' occasion". '7. To give when one loves is easy ; but to give without loving (= ju Itetcn) is diflSoult. 8. Those girls are loving and loved daughters. 9. Who gives more than our friends gave ? ExBRCISB 11. Compound forms of the verb (240, 244). [Note the rule for arrangement 319.2a j 430.3.] 1. He has been a (65.8) soldier, and has had wounds. 2. He will not give much, for he is not generous. 3. He might have had great honor, had he (subj.) been true. 4. They will give a great performance. 5. When will that be? 6. It would be to- morrow evening, if they were' already' here". 7. Our friends will not give the concert ; and that is a pity, for it would have been iplup. subj.) very tine. 8. Thou hast the book; give it to me. 9. No, I have had it, but now 1° have' it' no longer. FIEST SEKIE8. fa Exercise 12. Verbs of the New conjugation (245-8). 1. He has -wanJered far' to-daj''. 2. I Lave always praised and loved Lira, but now V shall' love him no longer. 3. She has bought the dress, and I have made it. 4. The youth hopes for the future, the man values the present, the old^man loves the past. 5. lie (= bcr: 166. 2J) would not have said it; he is too prudent. 6. I have a cousin who talks' too' much', and no^one heeds what he says. 7. She will have made her (= tie: 151) toilette earlier than we wished. Exercise 13. Verbs of the Old conjugation (261-73). 1. Our parson's daughters have sung pretty songs, but they did Dot sing so finely as your sisters. 2. We shall sit to-day where we sat" yesterday'. 3. I fear the mad dog will bite some one be- fore they (= jnnn: 185) catch" him'. 4. It has already bitten some^one. 5. I have read in the newspaper that the hostile amiy has" fled'. 6. The children were very glad, for their (= bcr: I6l) father had come home from the war. 1. We have fought well, but many have fallen on our side. 8. Who has thrown the stone and broken this window-pane ? 9. A boy who has' run' around the corner threw the stone. 10. The travellers slept on the floor, for there (= eS: 154.4J) were not enough beds in the house. Exercise 14. Passive, reflexive, and impersonal verbs (274-92). 1. It is a great (= ^od)) happiness to have been so loved. 2. He was loved by all who saw" him'. 3. He would be loved, if he were' not' so" haughty'. 4. Your arrival has rejoiced me much, and your friends will also rejoice. 5. The whole nation had won- dered at (= iifier) these transactions. 6. It rained yesterday evening very hard. 7. It seems to us to' be' very' doubtful". 8. It will be advantageous" to you'. 9. He is a self-tormentor ; he worries too much. Exercise 15. Compound verbs (297-311). 1. It ceases to snow, and begins to rain. 2. The performance has already begun. 3. The time of their liberation draws nigh. 10 EXEECISES. 4. The whole family has gone^off to Europe; and, as I hear, our neighbors will also soon depart. 5. They have the habit of taking^ajourney (injin.) every summer (accus. : 230.2). 6. The ship has gone down, but the passengers are saved. '7. You have begun too late ; it is almost ten o'clock. 8. The servant^ girl has overturned the inkstand. 9. The king was shamefully deceived by his state- counsellor, although he had" honored' him with his confidence. SERIES n. exercises in the constkuction of sentences. a. sntple assertive sentences in the regular order (430.1-3), and in- tebeogativb and optative sentences in the intbeted order (432.1,2). Exercise 16. Verb in simple tense, with simple subject [noun or pronoun, accom- panied only by article, or by demonstrative or interrogative). 1. Frederick comes. 2. The man went. 3. Which man went? 4. This man goes. 5. Is that boy sleeping? 6. The little^child is^awake. 7. He ran, but I remained. 8. Let us begin. 9. Is the house burning? 10. Remain ye. 11. John, be^sUent! 12. The soldiers marched. 13. Come! 14. I am coming; is she coming too? 15. They might go. 16. Ye may be. l7. The father loved. 1 8. Let him talk ; we hear. Exercise 17. Verb in compound tense, and compound verb (297 etc. ; 430.3). I. Frederick has come. 2. Anna goes away, and Louisa conies back. 3. The criminal has disappeared. 4. Would you go ? 5. I should have gone. 6. The messenger will have come back. 7. Which tree was felled. 8. Had the deed been done ? 9. He would have been praised. 10. Come back. 11. Will ye come back 3 12. Wilt thou have come again ? 13. He went back; I staid away. 14. Is a thunder-storm drawing nigh ? 15. Will the child be loved ? 1 6. It might have come. 1 7. They had departed. Exercise 18. Verb with single object, direct or indirect (315.1,2; 227.1; 222.11.; 219.5). 1. The hunter took the gun and shot it off. 2. Which book are you reading ? 3. I am reading thy book ; read thou my news- SEOONT) SEEIES. 11 papers. 4. Will ye have read the newspapers ? 5. Please, take ofT thy overcoat. 6. The snow had covered the fields and paths. 7. The girl will have shut the windows. 8. He mocks^at his chains. 9. The people need our help, and we shall help theiQ. 10. Heed ye not the road? 11. The future is waiting_for us, and we strive toward it. 12. The guide knows the road; follow thou after him. 13. The churches and palaces, the antiquities and ruins pleased the strangers. 14. I confess it, your friend was^disagrceable^to me. 15. Has he escaped his pursuers? 16. Which pupil has the teacher met? 17. Your inode^of^ life would injure my health. 18. I know, thy brother will stand by thee. 19. He drew on his (= the: 161) shoes, put on his (= the: 161) hat, and began the journey. 20. Will they copy our letters? 21. The boy defied his father, and obeyed him not. Exercise 19. Verb with double object, direct and indirect, or remoter (316.3; 219.2,3 ; 222.II.,1II. ; 319.2e,34). 1. He robbed us of our repose. 2. Tlie officer has accused a soldier of the murder. 3. Your father will relieve me of my respon- sibility. 4. 1 had acquitted mvself of your commission. 5. Has he applied himself to the sciences ? 6. Our friend enjoys his (161) life. 7. Dost thou recollect this event ? 8. Has my cousin sent you back your letter ? 9. He might be useful to me. 10. Your brothcrs^and^sisters resemble you. 11. Grant me my request. 12. lie must render you this service. 13. Is she rcading_aloud to her nephews and nieces ? 14. Let us assure him of our sym- pathy. 15. He charges his comrades with this crime. 16. Tbo chancellor interests himself for him, and will take pity on his helplessness. 17. Has the police taken possession of his proper- ty ? 18. He should be ashamed of this deed. 1 9. Pardon him his misdemeanor. 20. Can you lend me your dictionary ? 21. I have lent it to my guardian. Exercise 20. Nouns with limiting adjectives (llO.la.J). 1. The old letter-carrier has brought me five long letters. _ 2. Our little cousin enclosed her photograph in her chairning little ^letter. 3. Our neighbor is a good and provident man, and re- JoicLS in a long and happy life. 4. He is a clever general, and will avail himself of all possible means. 5. It was a beautiful 12 EXEKCISES. May^evening, clear and calm. 6. Be mindful of those times, the happy ones I 7. The heaviest fate has its bright^sides, ar.d the most enviable lot its shadows. 8. The little^brook flows noisy and rapid down. " 9. May he have mercy on his unfortunate fellow-men 1 10. The true hero goes^to^face every necessary danger. [Exercises 5, 6 may be added as further practice.] Exercise 21. Verbs and adjectives with adverlial adjuncts (317; 144.1 j 370 1 319.2/; 147.1). 1. These peaches look well and taste badly. 2. Confess it; thy opponent has behaved excellently. 3. Why do you come so late ? 4. Do you call this late ? it is not' yet' seven o'clock. 5. It will not have become very late ; was it not early enough ? 6. Does your watch go right ? 7. It has almost always gone quite right. 8. Shall you go thither to-day ? 9. I am probably not going there to-day ; and Henry is also not going to-day. 10. His work is getting on but slowly ; thou wouldst doubtless do it more quickly. 11. His family is pretty comfortably settled there; he still remains here for_the_prcsent. 12. I shall be there to- morrow very early. 13. His plan was finely devised and well executed. 14. Such a father is always fervently loved. 15. My uncle will not buy the corner-house ; it is not large enough [for him]. 16. Do you do it willingly? IV. Yes, indeed; I do it very willingly. 18. Only don't tell it to her, and all will go well enough. Exercise 22. Noun or adjective with noun as adjunct (lll.l; 216.1,2,6; 217 j 223; 145.1,2). 1. This evil habit of his son's grows daily. 2. The number of the troops is not mentioned. 3. The rattling of the heavily laden wagon was heard afar. 4. A man of excellent character will fill the place. 5. Have you not yet seen this ornament of our city ! 6. Inhabitants of all the cities of the realm meet together here. 1. She has felt the ^rcatest of all earthly sufi'erings — the loss of her husband and her children at once. 8. I am tired of the car- rying on. 9. He is considered guilty of the crime. 10. The manager of the property is finally weary of the incessant com- plaining of his workmen ; he is worthy of their confidence, ami they arc conscious of his honesty. 11. I have examined the SECOND SERIES. 13 house and the garden, and they just suit me. 12. Tlie whole affair was for our poor Albert incomprehensible and inconceivable. 13. You and yours are always welcome to me. 14. Tlie new boots are too tight for me, but they fit my brother excellently. 1 5. He stands firm, like a rock. Exercise 23. Noun, adjective, or verb, with prepositional phrase (l 12 ; 146; 318; 373-6; 216.4; 219.6; 222,IV.; 223.7). 1. Both parties have great hope of a good result. 2. The cities in the West increase in population very rapidly. 3. The inclination to truth is strengthened by a good education. 4. She waited in vain for the messenger. 5. I sincerely rejoice at your unexpected good^fortune. 6. Rely in this matter completely upon me; I shall conduct it happily to an end. 7. The day dawns in the east. 8. He looked at me with sparkling eyes, and called to me with trembling voice. 9. A compact of so grave importance is not made in this manner. 10. The goal of my wishes lies beyond those mountains. 11. The sentinel is standing outside the gate. 12. Act in^accordance^with your promise. 13. Two high trees stand opposite my window. 14. I shall get through even without his assistance. 15. That is without doubt repug- nant to you. \ 16. He seated himself upon the bench. 17. I stood beside him on the terrace. 18. He has ennui, and strolls about in the house ; why does he not go to the concert? 19. Will you also go to the theatre ? 20. Think upon the reward, not upon the danger. 21. The emperor drove through the streets of Paris. 22. The whole village rejoiced at his return. 23. He leaves his Bible behind for bis old mother. 24. .That is assuredly very unpleasant for you. EXEEOISB 24. Predicate noun and adjective (316; 213 ; 227.35,c; 116.1). 1. He is called Henry, and his father and grandfather were also called Henry. 2. Would she have called me her enemy ? 3. He has always been inclined to this belirf. 4. This man is poor and unfortunate, but not a rogue. 5. The elder brother has always remained professor, but the younger wants rather to be- come o (66.8) practising physician. 6. The colonel reviled him as a coward. 7. Do you consider this Rhine^wine genuine? 8. No, I should not exactly like to call it genuine. 9. Those ( = 14 EXERCISES. bii§: I66.3) were tappy days, innocent and hopeM. 10. Tie queen sat tliere sweet and mild. 11. Tliey alP went' noiseless past, 12. You liave evidently sung yourself hoarse. 13. The sanbeam has kissed the flowers awake. 14. Did you not see him sur- rounded by the en'cmv ? 15. I had believed the story long since forgotten. 16. Our presence seemed to make the horse shy. B. SIMPLE ASSEKTIVE SBNTEIfCES IN IHTEETED OEDBE {431ar-e, e-k). Exercise 25. 1. Beautiful she is not, but good and noble. 2. This estate the young duke has recently bought; the other they (= mon: 185) had sold long ago. 3. That will not be done so easily, said my friend. 4. Him I have never^ yet' trusted ; but now I shall be obliged to trust him. 5. Proud and hopeful he went forth ; sad and dejected he returns. 6. Those he has praised, these he loves. V. We, added the others, wiU also accompany you. 8. Then we shall be very unhappy. 9. Assist him I shall not, for he has never been my friend, and besides,'no one respects him. 10. Against ^that (166.4) I have something to object. 11. Thus his victims escaped him. l2. Surely I have told you so (= eS: 154.4«) already. 13. Soon the other soldiers joined themselves to these. [For further practice, the senteuces of the previous exercises may be recast, iu iuverted order.] o. coirpound sentences, containing dependent clauses. Exercise 26. Inverted conditional clauses (433; 332.2J; 438/; 439.6(f). 1. If you have got wbat is needful (129.3), then go directly away. 2. They boast, as if their opponents had no strength. 3. He acts as if he were discontented ; wore he truly contented, he would not conduct thus. 4. Had he not himself insisted npon^it (154.3) so obstinately, we should have consented. 5. If the children are well-behaved, I shall bring them a present. 6. Iladst thou been here, my brother had not died. 7. If you did not go too far, I should gladly go along with you. 8. She listens to him with rapt attention, almost as if he were a prophet, 9. If he does not soon yield, he must be forced to^it (154.3), 10. The afflicted alP come' to me, as if I could help them. SECOND SERIES. 15 Exercise 27. Substantive dependent clauses (436; 113.3). 1. I am rejoiced that lie finally, after his long suffering, has got well. 2. He assured rrje tliat he would not fail^to^coine. 3. I really do not know who is right, you or I. 4. He speaks too indistinctly ; it is impossible to understand what he says. 5. That vou cannot comprehend this, is incomprehensible to me. 6. Ask him minutely, how he came {perf. : 326.2). 7. "Where on earth the fugitive may be now, is unknown to me. 8. He who has taken the jewels must also have taken the casket. 9. He is, to_ be^sure, not yet here ; could you not, however, perhaps tell me when he is expected ? 10. Whence they come and whither they go are both {neut. sing.) secrets. Jf 11. Whether he comes or stays away is indifferent to me. 12. You must take care that the enemy does not surprise you. \Z. It is not through our own fault that we have got into prison. 14. Our host has provided every- thing excellently by means of his reliable servants, without once needing to go^there himself. 15. I do not in the least doubt of (= on) your loving me. 16. All the world shall learn what base means he has made^use of. 17. The spy stepped in under the pretext that he was looking-for something. 18. The prices in this watering-place are increased by (= bitrd)) so many rich people staying here. 19. What I have just told you is connected with theformer story. 20. What we at^that^time did voluntarily, [that] is now for us a forced labor. 21. I know nothing of how he has escaped. 22. When we recover what we have lost is less certain than that we shall recover it. 23. Are you quite sure that it was they (154.4/) ? 24. They insisted on his turning back with them, and would hear nothing of his staying there. 25. The worthy old woman has just told me what a great misfortune has befallen her, and how no comfort is left her, save that she knows herself to he innocent. 26. Will you have the kindness to tell me what sort of a building that is? 27. That a new guest came in at that moment, I knew well ; but who he was, I did not know. 28. She thinks only of (= aitf) how she may be able to sacrifice herself to the welfare of her fellow-beings. 29. I should perhaps take this road ; but I do not know whither it leads. 30. That is something which (179.5) the master will in no case allow. 31. What you see there is all that (179.5) the poor man has left in the worid; aod he has great apprehension that he will soon lose this also. 16 exeecise9. Exercise 28. Adjective dependent clauses (437 j 110.1c). 1. London is a city which has an enormous extent. 2. The boys, who had been looking everywhere, finally found the place where their sister lay hidden. 3. Death is a means whereby all diseases are healed. 4. This is the second misfortune that haa happened to me to-day. 5. She is speaking of a place where (— whither) I have all my life longed to be. 6. The vulgar man, does not understand the goal toward which (180) the noble man strives. 1. This is the man whom he produced to me before his departure, as one upon whom I could absolutely rely. 8. Alone I should not like to go so far; but he (166.26) is a companion with whom I could journey^over the whole world. 9. Tell me the way in^whioh (^ iric) it happened. 10. The eventide, when everything betakes itself to rest, had drawn near. Exercise 29. Adverbial dependent clauses (438.1, 2,3a-ej^^); 1. We rested ourselves where a large oak spread^abroad a grateful shade. 2. The railway-train goes^roaring off while the friends at the station look after it. 3. I do it because it pleases me. 4. The company got out of the carriage, while the horses were unharnessed and led into the stable. 5. My dear friend stands now before my mind's eye exactly as I have so often seen her in reality. 6. Although he ovei'vvhelmed me with entreaties, I could not accompany him. V. If thou 'art my friend, then furnish me now the proof. 8. If you do not know anything sen- sible (129.5) to say, then keep silent. 9. Henry stood still, in^ order^that the others might pass by him. 10. The lady's an- swer was very low, so that it (159.2; 171) scarcely reached his ears. 11. The more friendly I grow, the more repelling does he become. 12. The band played beautifnlly to-day, as I have never yet heard it play. 13. It is so fine an (67) evening that I can not^^possibly stay at home. 14. A heavy fate seems to fol- low him everywhere, wherever he may go. 15. No, we are not going to-day [thither] where we were day^before^esterday. 16. I believe he is attached to hina only [for this reason] because he hopes to gain something. 11. Your success may vary, accord- ing as yon are yourself active about it or not. 18. Before they could return, we were already gone. 19. Because he is personally disagreeable to mc, I do not invite him. 20. If it is you (154.4/), THIKD 8EEIES. 17 do (= bodj) come to me ! 21. When I aimed at tlie little^bii'dj it flew off. 22. If I caTi be of^assistance to you, call upon me. 23. As the bridge is not quite safe, we prefer not to go over it. 24. He is at heart a good lad, although he does not alwaj-s obey his parents. 25. Brave warriors .do not give way untilthere is no hope \eit. 26. The more the clnm&j fellow exerts himself, the less his undertaking appears to succeed. • SERIES III. exercises on special points in the grammab. Exercise 30. Use of the articles (66-7). 1. Patience is a rarer virtue than courage. 2. Last winter it was not very cold, and he made a journey in Turkey. 3. As a student, he lived in Charlotte St. ; but now he has become a par- son, and has moved to Potsdam St. 4. Then he dipped his hand into the water, passed it over his face, wiped it, and thrust it into his pocket. 5. My cousin takes a music-lesson twice a week. 6. He comes very often in the morning to see me. 7. Have you seen Lucca in Faust ? 8. Jesting aside, we must be there at evening. 9. The merits of Augusta are great. 10. Otto Moltke, tbe bearer of this, is a colleague of mine (= me). 11. As the agent of your father, I cannot permit it. Exercise 31. Declension of foreign and 'proper names (101-8). 1. Our professor has a great collection of minerals. 2. The in- habitants of New York are from all parts_of_the_world. 3. Frank's portfolio and Mary's books are still lying on the sofa in the drawing-room. 4. Conrad's prospects have unfortunately grown worse. 5. In how many volumes is the edition of Hein- rich Heine's works ? 6. In the saloon are two sofas, a large and a small on ; tjori^in 34.9. also, aud>. altliougli, obfllcid), pt)fci>oil. altogether, gciiijlid). always, immcr. ambassador, ©efniibt adj. as noun. America, SlmenFa n. =a'S. American //o*////., 3Imci'ifancr m. =r§, sr ; Am. woniasi, ^fmcrifancrin/. siiiien. among, jtoifdjcn (fZ«^. or ace). aniui^e, imtci'f)arten 0. an, eiiu aiul, imt. Anna, 3Inna, anniliilate, t)eniid)tctt. anollicr, ciii niibtr; one another, ciitflntcr; fid), iind, cud) (155.4). ansTver, 2Int»>ort_/; =teu. — v.^ ntitroor; ten; ans. for, ftcljen 0. iixx {ace). antiquity, 3ntcrtl)um n. sm3, sumer. any : — anyiliing, ctloaS ; not . . . an., nid)td ; no longer an., ntd)tg mclji*. appear, fd)ci!tert 0. apple, 3lpfc( i)i. 'M, ^lepfeL apply :— ap. one's self to, fid) he- ficifjcn 0. {(/en. ), appoint, bcftimmcn. appreliensiou, 3tng^/. ajiproacli ! — ap. roaring, I)cran= faVflUfCIl f. apin-opriatc aclj..^ «itfprcd)cub. are, finb ['io^^^l). aristocratic, oorneljin. around /;/'(;;;., tint {arc). army, ^cl)nlflid) adj. assure, pcvfi'djcl'n (ar'r. fjcn. ). asstii'cdly, gcunfj. »t (at the stattun, a ball), onf {dai.) ; (at the brook) an {did.) ; (wonder ur rejoice at) iibcr ("'-•'■.)■, (at such o'uloclc) nni; (at this moment etc. ) in {dat.)\ (at one's [housej) bei (riat); (at heart) ticn [dat.) \ (hurl or ainx at) anf («cv,-.) ; (Icnock at) an ace.) ; (at a time) ^ii. attaclied, onhcinijUd). attain, cn'eid)cn. attend, (= be present at) E>ein>Dl)ncn {d(d,.)\ att. to, bcfprgcn (ace); nad))icl)cn n. f. ((to.) 4(i.l6. attention, 3lufmerffamfeity. August, ^(ilgilft in. stS, Augusta, 2(ugnfta. autumn : — autujnn month, •^crbftmctnat in. :t§, sic. avail one's self of, fid) bcbiertcn20.4 [gen. ) ; bennljcn 43. 8 (ace. ). avoid, ucrnicibcn 0. awalic adj.^ toad); be avr., n)ad)cn. avi'ay, ttJCg, fort. axe, %)itf. Mejte. bach; adw., juriiif ; niicbcr: see the verbs. bad, fd)fcd)t; fd)Iimm 45.5. ball ! — private b., ^rioatballm. 48, band, (of music) fflapcllc /. =en ; b. of robbers, Slaiiberbonbc / =en. banner, ^ithne/. :en. bare ?'., entbloficn. baron, 35anjn in. :;n§, site. base, flf(y., bod. basket, fiorbm. =S8, sovJc ; little b, Si)i'bd)cn n. =n3, =n. Bavarian, SPniev m. stit, =rn. be, fcin (239.2); as anz'y with pres. j^ai-t., not to be. rendered (324 etc.) ; be to, follcii (257.3). bear i<., tniflcn 0. bearer, Ucbcrbringcr m. =t8, =t. beautiful, fd)6n. beauty, Zd)6nbeit f. sten. because, iDciU bee. of, mc^en (gen.). become, rocrtcit 0. \. bod, Sett n. --tc3, =tcn. befal, bcjiegncn (dat ) i. before prrp.. BDV (rfrt^. or ace. 3761. — euii}.^ el)c, bcoor. — In adj. aeytsc. roriiT 41.4. beg, bitten O. beggar, Settler m. -■ci, -x. bcgiu, anfiiiigcn 0., bcginiicn 36 EXERCISES. behave, fid) bcncOmcn 0.^ fid) fjciltcn o. 4S.8. btSaa-i-ior, 3?etmgcn //.. =ng, ^an^; Iun;iiMDCM"e/. 40.;-. bcJiiiul ^iih'.^ l)iiiicv, ^UTiieP, arc the vrrh.-i. — j>rcp.^ \yi\\tcx klat. or ace. ;57!-i). bi.-ii<.'Vf, ghuilcn. ln-Ioiig to, ijcIiDrcii (dat.). below tf('('., imtcn. bemclk, iniiif/! :oiifc. bt'jieficlal, lUfbUljucnb. beside, ncbcit {(!. bridge, ^riicfc/ =en. briglif :— br. side, $id)tUitcf. sCn. bring, bvMi.(cn ^\' irr. ; {- bring along) niifbi-itiiicii '.0.5. brook, ^^ad) itK :cl)0§, =ad;c ; little br-. 5*rtd)Iciti n. siiS, sn. brooklet, ^ad)loin ii,. :n§, =n. brotlier, 33i*iitcrj>i. :V§, ;ubcu ; broth- ers ai»d sisters, (^i'fd)lwiftei' JD^. bnild, niiffiiftrcit 33.6. building, ©cbaubc n. sc*, sC. bnllet, ^no,dj: =In. bnrn, bvctiiicn JV. irr. bnry, iicvtivnbcit 0. bnt rinij.^ tibcv. — adv. {= only), niir; but for, flinc {ace). bxitter, abutter/. buy, faufcn. by, «f II [dt ncbntcn 0. careful, fuvflfaltig. carriage, 355iigen m. =nS, sn. carry: — c. tlirougli, blird)'fiibren. carrying on ft., S^rcibcn n. =n§. case, iJfCiU m. AS, satle ; in no c, auf feiiien '^•aiU cask, ^-a^ ?i. sffcS, =affer. casket, fi'affd)cn n. ^nB, =n. castle, 3d)(p|?, 7i. =fKS, sofjev. 'catcU, fongen 0. cattle, '^tinb ?i. sbeg, sfccr. cause '/'. ['jover7iing afiotker verb in ir/Jin.), Inffcn 0. cease, aiifborcn. cellar, fiddler m. stS, sr. certain (= sure, secure) gewifi, (T^icr; (= indefinite, not further specified) gcittifj. certainly, gctvifj. cliain, ^cttc.f. ?cn. cbancelloi*, fi)nnjlcr m. stS, =r. tliaraeter, C^linraftev m. ;v3, ^re. cHargc with, bcfd)ulbigcn {aec. gen.) Cliarles, Hdvi. CUarlotte St., (5^I)(irlottcnfliaSe,/. cliarniing, recent. clieerful, fiul). elieese, .Vt'iifc tn. =c§, se. cliUd, Atint n. Aci, =bcr ; little eli., ^inMciii n. sn^, =n. ENGLISH-GERMAN YOCABULAKY. choice, 2SflI)I/ 4en. choose to, mo[Ieit N. irr, ciini-ch, ^ii*d)e/ sen. city, Statt/. sobte. cleanly arfj., rciiilid). clear, H<\x. clever, tlucj (u in comp.). climate, .4liina n. sa'§. close /'., fd)(icftcit 0. close : — close l>y (f(^?y., bambeii. clumsy, iiMijcfdjicEt. coachman, St'utfd)er m. ;r§, sr. cold, talt (d in a>iiqy.). colleague, ff pllcge m. sen, =en. colIcctioH, SammlMtia/. sgen. colonel, Cbci'ft m. ?teit, ten. come, fonimcn 0. f. ; c.haclc, turu(f= fomnicii, lvic^crfclmmcn ; c. in, I)cr= cinfomnicn ; c. on, l^erunfomiucn ; c. past, voi-bcifoiumcii ) fail to c, aiidbleiben O. \. comfort, ^loft m. stcS. comfortable, bcqueni. command, 33cfel)( m. =t§, sle, commission, 3iuftrag m. sgS, =oge. compact, ©crtrag m. sgS, sage. companion, (^cfal)rtc m. sen, sen. company, ©cfcllfdjaft/. sten. compel, ^tviitgcn 0. complain, Haijcrt. complaining, ^'(flgctl n. snd. cokuplcte, oollftdnbig. comprehend, begvcifctt 0. comrade, ^amcrab m. sbS, ;ben. concerned, bctboilitjt (in, bei). concert, (V^unccvt m. =15, ste, conduct, (= guide) fiilji'cn; {= behave) fid) bctragcti 0. confess, gcftcbcit 0. contidence, SScrti'diieit n. snS. connect : — he connected, jiifaiti: iucnl)iitii)cii <). con«iueror, ^cficgcr m. sr§, ;r, Conrad, fi^onl•a^. conscious, HA) (clat.) bcmu^t* consent, jtitfagcn. consider (= meditate), iibev(c'(jcn; (- regard as, deem) ci'nd)tcn, lyalten O fiir{4.7. consideration, (= reason) ©I'linbm. =te3, :unbe. constantly, immcf. contain, cntljtittcn 0. contented, j^iifncbcii. continue, blctbcit O. f. contrary : — on the c, lun^cgcn. convent, filoftci* v. =r§, s5[tcr. convince, iibcr^cu'ncit. cook, Modxii f. :iincn. copy, abfd)itiUcn 0. corner, cn n. sii3, sn. criminal, 35cvbrcd)er m. sr3, sr. cross (= go over), fiinubcrfnlji'cn 0. f, cry, 3luf m. sfeS, =fe. — cry out, aufa fd>rcicn '>. cup, 'Zaiief. sen. curious, ncuiitcvig. cushion, ^iffcn in. snS, sn. daily, tiiglid). daitce ii., tiin^Ctl. danger, ©cfnlj^/- =1^*^". dangerous^ i)CfaIU'tid>. darh, ^lm{rcl ; d. hluc, bimfctblnii. date, ^iituiii m. ;in3, sta. daughter, 'Xcdytcv f. s center ; d. of the king, ftuiiiig^tcidjtcr/. sodjter. dawn II., graucii. day, TiVi ;/?. sgcg, sge. dazzle, biciitcn. dead, to^t, geftorbcti 47.1. death, Xot in. sbe§. deceive, Ijintci'flC bc" 0.^ bctliigcn 0. decide, ciitfd)cti'cn 0. deed, XUatf. sten. deep, ticf. defend, ocrtlKiMgcn, defender, ©crthcibiijcrm. srS, sr. defy, tro^cu (t/at.). dejected, necbci*gad>lagcn, deliverauce, Stcttung/. depart, ucncifen \. j d. from life, nbfd)ci^cn O. f. departtire, ^bvcifc/. depiction, 2d)iltcning/ =en. design, '»Lnhabcn ?t. snS, sn ; 3lb|Td|)t f. =tcii 17 s. desire, :Vu|V/. 38 EXERCISES. determination, ©ntfdjiufi m. s^eS/ =uffe. clctestul>le, abfd)culid). sic vise, aiidtcnfcn ^V. ln\ devotion, ©riicbiiiig/. dii'tionary, SKovtcrbucl)^. =cl)g, siirfjcv. die, fterben 0. \. j die out, ocrftum= men \. dilfer, nbtt>cid)Clt 0. \. difficult, fd)U)er. dine, ju ^SJitnia cffcn 0., fpcifcn, dinner : — for d., jit Slittflg. dip, taud)en. direct, ridjtcn ; d. to, cmlct)cn bet {dat.) 47.6. directly, glcid). disagrecalile, imnngctiet^m ; be d. to, miftfallcii 0. {dat.). di•^appear, ocrfdjmmbcn 0. f. discontented, im:iiifl'icben. discourtesy, Unl)6flid)tcit/. discover, ciitbcctcn. disease, S'riinfr)cit,/! sten, disUoncst, uiic[)did). displease : — be displeasing to, mi^fnllcn 0. {dat.). distant, ciitfcrnt. do, tijun 0., iitiid)cu 21.10, fd)affcn 0. 5-"i ; do -vvitliout, cntbcljrcii {gen.) ; be done, gefdH'ljctt 0. f. 25.8 ; {atrcngtheidug a request) bfd) 39.20 : a.s- aux'y in qiirsiiiois^ negatlne phrancx, and inq^eratlve.^ 7iot to he rendered. doctor, ^Tr^t m. =tc§, ^Tcvjte. dog, •^iiiib in. =beg, sbe ; little d., »Vuiibd)cn u. stiS, =n. dominion, ^cvx^dyaitf. d(;ox', S'ImU'/. =ven. doubt, 3n)cift:I m. sIS, ;I. — v. hcivoti- fcln ; d. of, \mc\U\\x an {dat.). doubtful, jwcifcUjaft, doubtless, luol^l. do\vn,nicbcivuntcr, Ijimmtcr, ei(?. ; see the verbs. down-flowing, I)erunt£l'fltcOcn^, ()ci': nic^cl'flicfien^. doTvnriglit, Wal)l'. draugbt : — dr. of air, Snftjtig m. dra^v : — dr. near or nigli, Iicviin: nnl)cn \., fid) ncitjcvn 59; dr. on (clothes etc. ), nn^icOcn 0. clrawing-room, ©cfellfdjaffSjimnior n. =rg, :r. dreadful, fdjvoctlid). dress, iflcib n. ^bi'g, =bcv. drink w., ti'infcn 0. — noun., (Sctrciiif V. 'M, 'Alt, drive, (= drive away) foittvcibcn ^. ; (= go in a carnage) fflljreB 0. f,; be driven up, ttorfaljvcn 0. f, drown, crtiinfcn O. \. duke, •'^cnog 'in.. sgS, sge. d^vcli, tuoljncn ; dw. upon. \\a^ [)ani3cn 0. (dat.). dwelling, aSol^nung/ =gen. eacli : — e. one, {ib ; e. otlier, cinam bcr; fid), un^, end) (155.4). ear, ^51)1* n. =vt'^, =ven. earlier adv.., ei)cv. early, fviil). eartli, (Svbc ; on e,, auf ©i'bcit (95). earthly, ivbtfd). east, Ofieu, m. sn§. easy, (cid)t. eat, cffcn 0. edge, ?f(inb •}n. sbS, =anber. edition, ^Indgabc/. scu. education, ^rjicljung/. ^ egregiously, gciualtig. eitUer conj.^ cntivcter. cigbt, ad)t elder, riltci*. elderly, aitXidy* eldest, firtcfl. eminence, ^Xnlyohcf. sett. emperor, ^atfci* m. =vS, st* enclose in, bcitcgcn {dat,). end, (^'-nbc ii. ^eS, =cu, endure, cvrcibcn 0. enemy, ^-cinb vi. =b8, =be ; iJeinbin/. snnen 24.2. eng.igcd by, crgriffcn t>pn 4T.8. £:nglis]inian, ©ngtaabcr m. ^rS, st. E^nglisli^voman, @;ut)lanbcL'in /. slUICU. enjoy, fid) frcncn {gen.). ennui, £anc)ciwcilc/. enormous, inigcljcncr. cnougli, gcnng; liavc eii. of, fntt ftabcn {ace). entire, gani^. entreaty, f&itttf. sen. enviable, bcncibcnSwcvtl). equal «J., glcid)fi;)mmcn 0.-\. {dat.). errand, SJiiftrag m. sgS, =agc. escape 2/., cnti)cl)cn 0. \. {dat.)., cntflie- I)cn O. \. (dat.), cnthmfcn 0. ]. estate, (*>nt f>. =18, ^fitcv. Europe, 0*iii'upn }i,. sa'8. even, nndt, fclbft od.l, fogav 59. " event, Ct'i'ciiinifi u. :\\c^, :^)e ; lead- ing ev., •*>iin^tcrcignifi n. iffcS, =^ie eveiiii»g. 'iibcnb in. :b8, :be ; Mny ev., OTiiiabcnb m. sbS, sbc j tbis ev., hcntc ^2lbcnb. eventide-. iMbcnb.U'it f. ENGLISH-GEEIIAN VOCAKULARY. 39 ever, fe, icmnla. every, ie6 (lyO) ; every one, ictci's manit (1X7) ; cvcrytuing, allc9 ; cytiywlierc, iibcvnd. evident, ofFcnOai'. evil adj., iibcl. — Houn, XlcOcI n. =18, A. exactly, gcra^c, gaiij 29.5. cxaniiinc, bctrad)tcit. e.vsiniplc, ^jcifpid n. =IS, =tc, SBorbilli n. =iJ«, -.in ; for ex., jiiiti 3?cif))ie(, exceedingly, t)6d)ft. excellent, wortrcffJid), aiidoc)cici)nct. excursion, Sllldflug m. sg^, suge ; exc. into the country, fionbpartic /. sen ; nxountain-excursion, SScrg: partief. =en. execute, aitifiif)ven. exert, bcftrcbcn. exertion, ^(jiftrcnguitg/. sgen. exile (= banished person), SSfi'bannt adj. as noun. expect, ciroartcn. express adj. , auibriidlid). extent, 9lu6^c^)^u^g /! extraordinary, au^cvovbetttlicl)* extreme, ciu^erft* eye, 9tiigc n. sc8, =en. face, @cfid)t re. =t8, =tct. — !'. go to face, entgcgcngcljcn 0. f. (d!ai.). fade, tfei'tudfcii f. fail : — f. to come, auSbleiben 0. f. fain :— would f.,iii6d>tc {pret.subj.). faithful, gctrcu. fall, fallen O. \. false, fa(fd). family, ^-amiXii f. sen. famine, Jtpxillgcttootlj /. far, nii'it, fcvn. farther, njcitct*. fate, SdjicEfal n. st8, At. fateful, oci'OangitifjDotl. father, SBnter m. -xi, salcr. fault, f. sbcn. Faust, gfaiift Jn. st8. fear v., fuvd)tcit, bcfiiidjtcn 30.6.— noun, 3Ingft_/'. fearful, furd)tcrlid). feel (= be sensible of) em^)fllI^cll 0. ; (= find one's self) fid) fiil^lcn 39.8, ju SDlutbc fcin 41.6. fell, ffiflcll. fellow, a3m-fd)C m. =en, =en ; Scvl m. sis, sle 48.'.!. fcllow-bcing, fcUow-man, WliU mciifd) III. sfcljeii, sfctjen. fertile, frud)tbar. feivonl, iiiiiig. festival, ,3tit n. Ati, sle. fetch out, Ijcrau&fiulen. fe-vv, rocnig ; a fe-w, citiige^?. field, »?elt n. sbe8, sbcr. flftli, jiiiift. fifty, fiiiifjig. fight, fcdjtcii a, fircifcii 0. 45.12; f. one's ^vay, fid) fd)lagcn 0. fill, crfiillcii, (an office eto.) btthiitn 22.4. finally, en!}Iid). find, fiiibcn 0. fine, fd)6n. finished, fevtig. firm, fcft. first adj., etfi.—adv. crfl, jiicrfl 37.10; at f., am SInfaiig 07 ; in the f. place, erftenS. fish, Sifd) m. sfc^cS, sfi^e. fit v., paffen (,dat.). five, fiinf. fix, I)eftcii (on, auf). flat, flad). flee, flicljcn 0. f. floor, i^iifjbo^cn m. sn8. flour, SMcI)l H. =Ie8. flow down, ()muntecflic$cn 0. f. flower, 33Iumc/. sen. fly off, fortpicg'cn O.. f. foam V. , fd)aumeti. foe, t^ciiib m. sbe8, sbe. follo^v, fci(geii ^. (dat.), nad)folgen f. (rfa«,) 43.3, iind)Epmmcit 0. f. 42.4; f. after, nad)folgcii (. t^dat.). foolish, tl)6rid)t. foot, ^'ufi m. sjjeS, sujie. tor pre2J., fiir (ace.) 23.24; (wait, hope for) nuf {ace. ) ; (for fear) »oi' (dat. ) ; (for reasons) and {dat. ) ; (for first time) ^H {dat. ) ; (for a certain time until now) fcit {dat.) 3.5,7,42.1; ( = during) Iiing {after ace.) \ (ask for) uni: often to he omitted, the noun heing xiutin the dative. for covj., bcnit. forbid, »crbictcn 0. force, ^tvingen; (= impose by violence) aiifbringcn 0. 27.20. forest, miaib m. sbe8, saltev ; little f., S&al^d)ett n. sn8, sn. forget, Dcrgeffcn 0. {gen. or aec.). former, fciifter; the f. {opjjosed to latter) jcn (166.1). formerly, friiljcr, oprmalS. forth, fort. fortune :— good f., ®(iict n. st8. four, »icv. Frank, 55r(ins m. sjcnS. Prcdcrlck, tj-rictvid) m. s^8. free ailj. , frci ; f. from care, f9r9Cns 1 frci. — v., bcficicii ^froni, auej. 40 EXEECI8ES. Frencli, frnnjofifd). Frcmchmaii, Sratijofc m. =en, =en. friend, SJrcimb in. -iti, -M ; lyfcunt'i" /. =imen. friendly, frcuntilicl). from, 1)011 (dat.); a\xi (flat.) 31.2, oB. 2 ; (hide, protect from) »or {dat. ). fugitive, i^liicl)tliiig m. 558, =ge. fairions, TOlitljcnb. fnriiisli, (= deliver) licfcm ; (= pro- vide with furniture) moblircn. furtlier adv.., roeitcr. — v. bcforCcm. future noun, Sufunft/. gaiiiv., gctcmnen 0. garden, ©avtcn m. sn^, sdrten. gardener, ©avtttCV m. alS, =r. gate, !JI)or n. »re6, =«. general, ^'el&Ijcrv m, srn, sren. generous, fvcigebig. gentle, jart (a in comp.). genuine, cd)t. Germany, S5>cutfd)Ianb n. sbS. get, (= obtain) bitommen 0. ; (= fetch) Ijotm 44.6; (= become, grow) roerbcn 0. f. ; (get into prison) torn- men 0. (. ; (get in the way) trctcit 0. f. 46.8; get ready, fid) bcrcit ma: &)m ; get in, I)>icii n. snS, =11. give, gcbcit 0. ; (give a lecture) i^dU ten 0. ; give up, aufgcbcn ; give vray, nad)geben. glad, frol) ; be g. to, gern adv. gladly, gci'lie. gladsome, lebcnSfroI). glass, ®la8 ». =(c8, --' happen, gcfd)c(^cn 0. \, ; h. to, bcgega ncn f. happiness, ©liicC n. ?£8. llappy, glticClid). hard, jJnrt (d in comp.) 14.6. hardly (= scarcely), Caum. harm v., fcX)iiben (dat.). hasten, fid) bccilcn. hat, i^ut m. =tc8, site. hate, Ooffcn. haughty, ^od)miit{)ig. have, boben N. irr. ; as aux'tj, I)(ibcn or fein 0. (. ; have to {wU!i infln. 343.III.1(;) I)abcu jii, miiffcit ; (with ohj. and petit part.) Ia(fen 0. {with infin. ). he, ev (151), bcv (166.36) ; lie who, lucr 27.8. head, Sopf m. ofeS, sBpfc. heal, Ijcilen. health, Ocfunbljcit/. Iiealthy, gefimb. hear, boren. liearer, 3iib6l'ei' m. stS, =r. lieart, .*3er; n. sjCiiS, =3611 ; at heart, uow '^cricn. ENGLISH-GEEMAN YOCABULAET. 41 heavy, fdjtticr. heed, ncl)tcit [gen.) 18.10; aA)tm auf {ace.) laii, 46.16. hclpi;., I;clfcn 0. (dat.).—noun, ^iih fc/- helplessness, •Siilflofigtcit/. henceforth, fiinftig. Henry, J^cinrid). here, Ijicr. hero, ^cl^ m. sben, =ben. herself, fid) 0?- fclbft or fclbcr (1.55). hide, ocfbcrgcn O., ocrftcttcit (from, Dor) 49.1. high, Jod) (130.4, 139.1); higfa- gro-vvn, (iod)getnad)fi.'n. highly, I,Dd)fi 41.3. hill, •^iigcl m. sK, =1. himself {refl. obj. ) fid) ; (iffl (i!p_pos're) fclbcr, fclbfl. his, fcin (l.^Y), bcr (161). history, ®cfd)id)fc/ =en. hitherto, bii jcot. hoarse, Ijcifcr. hold :— h. still, fiirt \)alten 0. home (= to one's home), Ijcim ; at h., ^11 -^aufc. honesty, y m. of, buid) [ace. ) ; hy no m., tcinc«n)Cgc« ; hy that m., boburd). medicine, SRcbicin/. meet, bcgcgncn f. (dat.) \ m. again, fid) >»icbevfcl)en 0. 43.3; m. to- gether, jtifammentrcffcn 0. f . ; come to m., ctttgcgcnfommcit 0. '\. (dat.). meeting, 3iif'"i'ini^"£""f*y- =>•"(*«• mention, iicimcn N. irr. merchant, S)nufmaiiJl~»». --ni, -.anmx or =flcute (100.2). . mercy :— have m. on, fid) cibarmcn m!frit,'Bcvbicnft m. =te8, -Ae. messenger, »»*« ™- f ' ="• methinks, 1111* ^""f *• , ™lSht"., (possibility) (Bnncn N.irr. : „ften to be rendered by pret. {or pl,iI)ic/. sen. physician, Slrjt m. stc8, aetjte. picture, aSitb M. sbeS, sber, piece, StiicI re. sE8, sle ; p. of news, 3Jfld)rid)t/. sten. pile up, auffiaufeit. piou.s, fromm. pity, (= something to be regretted) ®d)a^(! ; take p. on, fid) crbarnicn plac"; ®tc«c/. sen, O" «■ ='««' ='= '"' Oettei ; in the first pi., cvficn^. plague, plagcn. plan, *Inn tn. =ne8, sane. plate, Seller m. st8, --t. play «., fpielcn- pleasant, angcncftm. „, „.„ ^ nl.-ase (= be pleasant to) gcfaficn 0. (TatV (in polite request) bim {for Tml I beg), gcfSn.-gftt afZ«. 4S.3. pocket, Sofdjc/. sen. poison, ®ift n. steS, st«. poisonous, giftig. Pole, ^ole m. sen, sen. police, ^Polijei/. poor, arm (a in com,p.). population, aJeooHcrung/. portfolio, ajjappe/. sen. positively, niaf;rltaftig. possession : — take p. of, fid) bemti^^ tigen {gen. ). possible, moglid) ; not possibly, uns moglid). Potsdam St., VotSbamcrfiroge /. pound, spfunb re. sbeS, sbe. practice, @cn)al)n(ieit /. sten. practising, ptattifd). praise, loben. precious, fofifiar. prefer to, licbcr adv. 29.23. prepare, Dorbcreiten. presence, ©cgcnroart/. present noun, (time) (Scgcnttiart /. , (gift) @cfd)en{ re. st6, =lc ; for the pr., ooriauftg — adj., gcgcnroortfg, 55, -antoefcnb 35.9.— d. (= give) fdjcns ten. pretext, S^orroanb m. sb8, sfinbe. pretty adj., nicblid), i)ubfd). — adv. {= tolerably), jiemlid). price, ^reiS m. sfc§, sfe. priest, ^Pricffcr m. stS, st, prince, 3iirS m. sten, =ten. principle, ®runbfa$ m. sJeS, sSfee. print, brucFen. prison, (Scfangnig n. sffeS, sffe. private ball, ^riuatbad m. stS, sStIC probable, n)al)rfd)ent(id). produce, om-fiiOrcn (to, i^a^.). professor, ^Jrofcffor m. srS, sten promise v.,' »erfprcd)cn 0. — noun, !Dcrfprcd)cn re. sn8, =n. proof, ^erociS ni. sfeS, s^e. proper, rcd)t. propei'ty, ^igcntljum re. smS. prophet, ^ropljct m. sten, sten. prospect, 9lugfid)t/. sten. protect, bcfd)u|;cn (from, »or). proud, ftol^. provide, (= siTpply) oei-fcOcn O. ; (= have on hand) beforgen laffen 0. provident, tforfid)tig. prudent, oorfid)ttg* Prussian, ^I'cufic m. sen, sen. public, ij^cntlid). punctual, piinitUd). pupil, ®d)iUcr m. sr8, sr. pursuer, 5Bcvfotgcr m. svg, sr. put, tljun O. 44.10; put on, auffcecn ia.l9, oC.8, an(cgcn5a. 46 EXEECISES. quarter : — qn. of an liour, ^icvtcX- ftutibe f. sen ; qw- of tlie io-vrn, lSt(l^ttI)ci' "J- =18, «te. queen, Soniflin/. snncn, qnencti, ftillcn. question noun^ ^vaQcf. sen. — v., be: fragcn. quick, fcl)ncfl* quiet, fi'icMid), iittjig 6.16. quite, gaiij. raft, Sf lofj n. =6e8, sB^e. rage, 3ButI) /. rail-way, iSiictihalyn f. snen ; rail-w. train, @ifenkal)niug m. =g8, sugc. rain «., vcgncn. rapid, gefcl)n)mb, rafd) S3. 3. rapt, gcfpannt. rare, (c(tctl. rather, [icber. rattling, 0tiiffcfn n. sn§. reach, (= hand) i'cfc[)eii ; (= attain) crrcidjen. read, Icfen (9. ; r. aloud, oorlefcn. ready : — get r,, fid) bcrcit ntad>cn. real, iDivlf(id). reality : — in r., leiM)a{tig, realm, SWcid) M. scf)e8, =^e. reason, 5l5cnmnft /. ; {= cause, mo- tive) ©nmb 7n. sbg, sftnbe ; for this r., bariim. receive, cinpfangcn 0., cr^altctt 0. 67. x-ccently, liculid). recollect, fid) cittftnnctt 0. (^gen.). recover, roiebevcvlant^en. red, rotl) (6 in comp.). refresh, crfluitfcit. regular, regelmci^ig. rejoice, {= give pleasure to) cvfrcucn ; (= be glad) fid) freiicn (at, tibcr ace. ) ; rej. in, fid) crfi'cucn (gen,); be re- joiced, fid) frcuctt, relate, cr4a[)Ieit. release, cittlaffcit 0. (from, au8). relialjlc, ^itDcr(af;ig. relieve, ciitlcbigcn {ace. gen. ). rely-, fid) vcrlaffcn 0. (upon, aufacc), remain, btcibctt 0. f. remainder, SWcflm. ste§. rcmarl^able, mcrftviirbic). rejuembcr, fid) bcfinncii 0. auf {ace.) 40.10, fid) ci'titmni igen.) 56. render, lL>ificil. repeat : — be repeated, fid) mfcbev: bo'lcll. repel, abfioSt't 0. repetition, 2BicbcrI)ohiiig_/*. sgen. reply, niitiutii'tcit, Dcrfe^cn. I'epose, ^ini)if. reproach one for, cinctn uorwerfen 0. (ace.). repugnant to, jutoibcr prep, (dat, 374). request, Sitic/. sen. rescue noun, ^cttuilg/. resemble, g(cEd)cii 0. (dat.). reserve, t)orbcbaltctt 0. (for, dat.). resign one's self to, fid) fiigen in (ace: ). respect v., nd)ten. responsibility, Bcvanttt)ortIid)tcit/. rest, Mulje /. — r. one's self, fid) aui^ rubcii. restore, i»icbcvt)£rflcncn. result, ©rfoig in. sg§, sge. retainer, 33afiiU m. slen, slen. return?;., siiviicttctirciiy. — noun, SBies bcviclyrf. ; love in r., tuieberUeben. revile as, fd)clten 0. (3 ace. ). re-ward, £oI)n m. =neS, =ne. Rhine wine, 3tl)einn>cin m. =nS, =ne. rich, reid). riches, ^cid)tl)itm m. smS. siimer. rid : — get r. of, Iu3 roerbclt 0. f, [ace.), ride, (on horse) rcitcn 0. ; (in vehicle) fnl)rcit 0. J. rider, SHcitcr m. =i'§, :r. right, adj., (= correct) ridjfif) ; (= not left) rcd)t ; be r., Stedyt I)abcu M irr. righicoiis, 9cvcd)t. ring, ^ixiQ ni. sgcS, =ge» risk, tttagcn. river, ®iug m. sffeS, =4tyc. road, SEBcg m. ;ge§, sge. roar : — approach roaring, Ifevan' bvaiifcn f. ; go roaring off, bauom brnufcn f. rob, bcroiiben (ace. gen.). robber, Ofiiubcr m. sr§, »r ; band of r's, Wciubcrbmibc/. sen. roclt, (Jctfcn m. suS, -n, rogue, (Sd)urfe 7n. sen, sen. roof, ijiad) n. sctjeS/ sndjer, room, Siinincr n. stS, si, (Stube / sen 6.14. « royal, lijntgtid). i-ude, vol). ruin, Siiiiiic/. sen. rule, I)crrfd)eit. run, rcnncti M irr. , Iniifcit 0. f. ; rnn a-way, bavonlaiifcn; run doivn^ I)iiiimtcr(aufcii. Russian, riiffifd). sacrifice, aiifofjfeni. sAd, traurig. saddle V. , fattcln. safe, fidjcr. ENGLISH-GEEMAN TOCABTJLAEY. 47 safely, gluctHd) 45.11. gagncions, tlug (a incomp.). gaU noun Scgcl m. =18, =1. — ». foSrcti 0. f. 54. galoon, ©aal m. sleS, ©ale. game : — tlic s., bcvfctbc (169). gave v., vctten — prep auger (dat.) 27.35. gavlngg, (SrfpamiS/. =fie. Saxon, Siidjfc m. sen, =en. say, fngen. scarcely, f aunt. school, ®d)ule /. =en ; in s., ouf bcv ®d)ulc. schoolmaster, @d)iilineifier m. sc§, sr. science, Sffiiffcrtfd)aft/. =ten. geat ;;., fe$cn. second, i^nicit ; secondly, jtvcitenS. secret, ®e()cimnifi ». =yfcS, sjfe. see, fcl)en (?., erfe^enGS.l ; gee again, toieberfcticn. geem, fci)cmcn 0. select, mai)Un. gelf-tormentor, @elbfi(tua(er m. nS, St. sell, Dcrtaufeit. send, fenbeit K irr., fd)i(fcn; send bacln, jiiriictfdjictcn. sensible, Derftcinbig, gcfcl)eibt> sentinel, -girl, SSicnftmiibdjcn ?i. ^nS, -n. serve np, fcrwircn. service, ilsicnfl m. =leS, =te. session, iSifuna /. =gen. set, (of sun) un tcrgefien 0. [. settle, ciiirid)ten. seven, ftcbeit. seventy, fi'ebenjig. several, mcljrcre^il. shade, iSd)atten m. «nS, =n. — v., be- fd)atten. shadoiv, (= dark side or aspect) ®d)artenfeifc f. =cn. shaU, foneit JV: irr. :— generally to be rendered by the future tense of the verb to which shall is auxiliary. shamefnl, fd)cinMid). she, fie (151), tie (166.26) 33.7, b.tfctbe (171) 33.8. ship, ®d)iff n. =fe«, --V- shoe, ®d)iih »'• =!)«*' 4e. shoot off, abfd)ie«en O. shoplcoeper, Sramcr m. =t«, =t. shore, Ufer »■ ■-"^^i '-''■ , short furs (u in comp.). should fo<(c" A^ "•»•■ 19-18: .9«'««'-«J- Zw ^0 be rendered by cond'l : com- pare shaU ; sh. like, m6d)fe (pret, subj. ). shut, jumad)cn. shy, fd)cu. • sickly, frdittl(d). side, (Seite/. =en ; bright side, fiidjfo feite /. sen. sight, @efi'd)t n. =tS ; from a., aui tern (Bcftdjt. silent : — ^be or keep s., fd)n)eigcn 0, since prep., feit idat.).—adv., long s., langft. sincere, aufrid)tig. sink, un'terge!)cn 0. f. 54. sing, fmgeit 0. single, ciitiiig. Sir, mein ^crr. sister, iSd)nicficr / »tn ; little s., (Sd>n)cfterd)eii n. sn8, =n ; brothers and sisters, iiigc. 4:8 EXEECISES. BpiriicrIL, mutl){g. eplendM, pracl)t(>on. splendor, @lan3 m. sjeS. spot, ©telle/; ptUiWedm. =feS, =fe46.5. spread : — sp. a1)roacl, oerbretten ; sp. out, aiisbreitcii. sxjy, *5pion 7?i. cnS, sne. staBjle, tStflll m. aieS, scitte, stand, ftcl)cn 0. ; st. toy, &ei(tct)cn 0. ((?al ) ; St. still, fteticn blciben 0. j. standing noun^ f m. =f8, sofe. stay, bleiben 0. f., fid) aufbaltcit 0. 27.18; St. away, tvegbfeibeit, foi't: bicibeit, aiisblciben 33.3. steal, ftcbfcn 0. step v., tictcit 0. f. ; st. in, eintretcn. — reoMTC, ®tufc/. sen. still «(?/ : — stand st., ftel)en 0. bleis ben 0. (. ; hold St., ftid (loltctt 0. still adv. {= yet), nod). stocking, f m. =fc8, siimpfe. stone, ©tciti m. =neS, sne. stony, ftciiiern. storm, (Seioittcv n. srS, =r. stormy, ftitrinig. story, ® cfd)i'd)tc /. sen. straight, (1era^e. stranger, tyrciiib adj. OS noun. street, ©tvofjc/, sen. strength, .Braft/ sfifte. strengthen, ftfirfcn. strike, (the attention of any one) auf: fallen 0. \. (dat.). strive, ftrcbcn ; st. toward, cntge: gcnfirebcn {dat.). stroll abont, fid) bei'umtreiben 0. strong, ftflr£ (d in ctyinp.). student, iStubcnt m. sten, stcn. stuff, ®toff m, sfce, sfc. sutoject, ©egcnftnnb m. sbS, sonbe. sulbmit, fid) bequenicn. suljurto, .SSorftabty; sdbte. succeed, gelingcn O. : used only in t/ii.rdpers., e.g., I succeed, cS jetlngt mir. success, 0l'fo(g m. sg8, sge, such, fold) (170) ; s. a, cin foId)cr ; s. a thing, fo ctiood. suffer,' bulbcn. suffering, ficibeu n. sn8, sn, suffice, liini'cid)en. sjiit, vcd)t fcin O. (. {dat.). sun-^mer, ^ontmci* m. srS, =v ; sum- mer-house : — little 8., ®rtrtcns l;.ui»d)cn n. =n6, =n. snntoenm, ®onnen|lrnI)t m. sIS, stcn Sunday, iSonntag m, sg8, sge. sure, fid)ci' ; to toe s., jTOai', freilid) 6(i surely, bod) 46.1. surprise, iibcvrafd)'ctt. surround, umring'en, umgc'ben 0. 59, swear-, fd)n!6i'en 0. 53. sweet, fii^. swim, fd)n)immen 0. ^. or f. sympathy, !Et)eiInatime/. table, Xifd) m. se8, se. take, netjmcn 0. ; (take a road) cm: fd)Iagcn 0. ; t. care, fid) in 2(d)i ncl)nicn ; t. a journey, ucri'cifen f. ; t. off, fluSjicllcn 0. ; t. out, I)ciaua: ncl)mcn ; t. part, Sl)cil ncljnien (in, an) ; t. part in, initmad)cn 44.9 ; t. pity on, (id) crbavmcn (,gen. ) ; t. possession of, fid) bcniad)ti3en (sen. ) ; t. up, (mfnel)mcn. talk, rebcn ; t. atoout, bcfpr(d)en 0. taste, fd)mcc{en. tea, !j:i)ec m. se8, teacher, ficl)rci' m. srS, sr, tell, fagen, crjciOtcn 27.19, 38.9. temple, !£empel m. sI3, st. ten, jcjn. tenant, 3?c(t)oI)ncv m. stS, sr. termination, <£d)IuS m. sffeS, su({e. terrace, Scrrnffe/. sen. terrible, fd)rccc(id). than, afg. tliank, banCen (dat. ). thankful, banfbor. tliatpron. or pronH adj., [in (when opposed to this, 165-6), bcv (166.3) 8.5, 11.5 ; bic« 10.8; (a? antecH of a relative) bericnige (168) 45.12. — conj. bug; (= in order that) bamit ; in cowp^n loith prep^ns, ha- (365.3&). the art., bcr etc. (63). — adv., the . . . the . • . (before comparatives), ic . . . bcfto . . . theatre, !£I)C(iter re. stS, -x. then, bann, (correl. to if) fo, alfo 55, ba 56 ; till th., big bal)in. there, boi't, ba ; there is, are etc. id ift etc. (154.4&,fZ), c8 gicbt (ace. 393. 3a) ; go th., I)ingcl;cn 0. thereupon, barciuf. they, fie (151) ; (= people, one) man (185). thing : — such a th., fo ctlvaS. think, bcnCcn JV. irr. (of, ouf ; upon,' an) ; (= entertain an opinion) I)al: ten 0. 38.3; (= suppose one's self) gloiiben (followed by inftn.). tltird, blltt. ENGLISH- GEEMAN VOCABTILAEY. 49 thirst, ®urfl ni, =tc8. thirsty :— be th., fciirfleit. this, 6ic8 (165-6) ; tct (166.2) ; th. evening, hcute 31(>cnb. thither, ^af)in ; go th., Ijingcljen 0. f. thou, bu (151). thought, ©cbanfc m. scn^/ sett thousand, taufcnb. threaten, bi'oljeu {dat. ctcc). thret', Brci, threshold, ^dymeUef. =en. through prap., burd) (ctcc). — «(??;., Ijinbui'd) 87.11; get th., burd^Coms men 0. f. throw, locifon 0. (at, auf, ace). thrust, ftecfen. thunderstorm, ©emitter ». sr8, =r. thus, nlfp 25.11, fo 26.3. thy, bcin (15i etc.). tight, eng. till : — t. then, bi$ bal)in. tinie, Scity! aten ; (= turn, Buccession) tStal n. 48, ::Ie ; a long t., langc ; this t., bicSmal ; at that t., bama($. I tired, miibe (of, gen. ). title, 3:itc( m. sIS, =[. to, ju {^dat. ); (to a place) nad) {dat. ) ; (to a concert, theatre) in {ace.) : very often to be omitted, the governed noun being put in the dative : (as sign of iniin. ) JU ; in order to, um . . . JU. to-day, ^cutc ; to-day's, tcr I^eiitige 45.7. together, jufomnten, Bcifammeti ; meet t., jufammcittrcffen 0. (. ; t. with, fammt (dat). toilet, Soifettc/. sen. to-morrow, morgcn. too, (qualifying adj. or adv.) ju; (= also) oud). totally, giinitid). toward, gegen (ace.) ; (toward a place) nod) (dat.) ; (= to meet) cntgcgcn ; strive t., cJttgcgcnflrclieit (dat.). town, ®tnbt /. sabte ; quarter of the t., Stabttljeil m: =18, =tc. track, aSaljtt /. --nta. tranqnll, rul)ig. transaction, SBorgang m. =38, sSnge. transport hach, (in thought) jurii* bcntcii Jf. in: traveller, Jfcifciib adj. as noun. tread, bctl'ctcii 0. treasure, ®d)a? m. 4e8, =5^5. tree, SSaitni, m. =me8, sourae ; litUe t., Saiimdjen n. =n8, =n. treeless, baumlo8. tremlJle, bcbeit. troop, Siiippc/ =«»• 3 tronhle, SSRfi^e/. true, rcaljr, (= faithful, trusty) freu j it is t., jwnr. truly, ina^rlid). trunk, SSoffcr m. =t8, =t. trust, traucn (dat.). truth, aBafjrbcit/. =fen. try, probil'cn 34.S, »ci'fud)cn 40.9. Turkey, liirfci /. turn, bicgcit 0. '37.10 ; t. hack, jiu riicMcljvcii." twelfth, jiBoIft. tiventleth, jmaiijigfl. tvrenty, jinanjig. t-%vlee, jweimaU two, jroei; the tiivo, bic bcibcn 49.4, 59. «siy> ftofiii*. nna^vares, unverfelfeitd. unchanged, unoeranbert. uncle, Ontel m. =18, =1. uncomfortable, unljeimlid). under, untcr (dat. or ace. 376). understand, uerf}cl)cn 0. ; come to an understanding, ^d> Dcrftanbi* gcit. undertaking,UntcriieI)iiicn7i. =n8, =n. unexpected, tmermarfet ; unexpect- edly, uncnoartctcr SBcifc. unfortunate, ungllicCltd) ; unfor- tunately, (cibcr, ungrateful, utibanfbar. unhappy, ungd'iif (id). unharness, aii8fpanncn. united, cillig. university, Uiiiocrfitat/. sten. uukno^ivn, unbcCatint. unnecessary, unnbtljig. unpleasant, unangcnclim. unseasonable, imgelegen. until, bid ; not until, erft . . . iveittt, cvfl42.6. unwell, univolil. up, Oinauf 47.9; \)ttan 47.10; (leraul 60 : see the verbs. upon, nuf (dat. or ace. 376) ; (think upon) an (ace.) ; upon which, roorciiif. upvrard, in bic J^oljc 49.7. urgent, inftanbig. use : — make u. of, fid) bcbienen (gen.). — V. use to, pficgcn j«. used, (= accustomed) gcmobnt (acc\ useful : — be u. to, nii^cn (dat.). useless, unniii^. vain : — in v., tfergcbcnd. valley, SIjol n. -\ei, =atet. 50 EXBECISES. -ralue v., fd)a$cn. — noun; at solid v., gcbicgcn. vary, oei'fd)ic&ett fcin 0. f. venture, tiirfcn N. ivT, very, fcl^r, rccj)t 25.8. vestibule, SBoifaal m. M, =f5le. vicinity, ^a.\)if. victim, Cipfcr n. =i3, --x. village, iSiovf m. sfcS, sDvfer. villain, 3?6fci»!ci)t m. =tg, stei'. violinist, SBiolinfpiclcr A. =tS, »r. virtue, !Jugcn&/. sben. voice, ®tiimncy! sen. volume, aSanb »i. sbeS, =anbe. voluntary, frcttviflig. vote, ftimmcn. vulgar, gemem* wagon, SSSagen m. =nS, =n. ■»vait, tvarten ; vf. for, ivarten {gen. ) 18.11, marten nuf (aoc.) 23.4, 42.3. waiting noun^ Garten n. sn§. Tralk, geticn 0. f. 40.8 ; go to w., fpas jicrcit gcljcit (343.1.6). vfander, n)an^crn ^. or \. ■wanderer, SEBnnbcrcr m. =t8, st, want to, looncn N. irr. •war, ^ricg m. sgeS, =ge. vrarin, iDarm (a in comp.) ; -warmly, iiiiiig 8.8. vrarrior, ^vicger m. srS, sV. ■watclx, Ul)r./! =ten. water, Sffiaffci' n. sxS, -v. watering-place, 33nb ?^. sbeS, sdbei:. way, (= road) : — vr. out, 3(iign)cg m. sgS? =9e J give w., nad)gcbcn (9. ; iiglit one's -VF,, fid) fd)(ageit 0. ; — (= manner) 2lrt uiib SSScifc /. ; in every VF., nuf icbc SBcife. VFe, loir, man (185) 33.8. wear, (as clothes) tragen 0. ; (= last) fid) I)alfcn 0. 40.5. TFeary adj. , miibe, iibcrbriif fig (gen. ). — V. crmiibcn. TFcatlier, 2Sctter n. srS. VFceli, 2Bod)c/. =cn. TFcigli, lotcgcn 0. wclconve adj., tointoinmcn. — noun, 3Bi(l(oiiiincii n. sn8. welfare, ©liid n. =16. ■well adv., 1doI)I, gut 13.7, 21.1 ; -well- bcliaved, nvtig ; be -w., (ciiicin) rooI)( fein 41.6. — adj., (= healthy) n)0|)I7.1, 9cfiuib37.1. West, SfBcflcn m. =n8. ^wl\a.t pron. interrog. or comp. rela- tive, mai (173 etc.). — adj., mai fCir 60 ; ivl». sort of, mai ftir ; -vvliat is (before adj.), iai 26.1. whatever, teai . . . nu<^ (179.4) 33.9, ■mai 46.4. ■when, interrog. or comp. relative., ivann; relative, menu 28.10, idd 33. 11, ali 29.21, roic 35.5 ; conditional, iDcnn 10.2,7. wbence, n>oI)er. ■where, IBO ; (= ■whither) n)o()in43.3; ■whereby, looburd). ■*vherover, )t>ol)in . . . aud) 39.14. ivhcther, pb. ■which, rocld) (174 etc.) ; withprepoH- tions, me- (173.2) ; (■way) in vrh., «)ic28.9. Tvhile or Tvhilst, tt>al)renb, inbem. whisper, fliiftcrn. ■vrhite, tpcif;. ■whither, n>Dl)in. ■who, interrog. or comp. relative, tt)cr j relative, bet, n>cld)er. ■whoever, toer 40.3. ivhole, gang ; on the ivh., fm ®a\\* sen. ■why, warunt. vFiched, bod. ■will, (= ■want, intend) tvollcn N. irr. ; expressing futurity simply, to he rendered by future of the principal verb. ■Wfilliam, 3Bi(i)e(m m. =m8. ■willingly, gem or gernc. VFindo^w,^cn^cr?i. srg, =x ; w.-panc, 5cnfierfd)cibe/ =en. wine, aSfin m. sneS, sne ,* vr .-bottle, SBcinfiafdjc /. =cn ; Rhine -w., 9tf)einrocin m. =nS, stie. ■winter, SBintcr m. =r§, =r. ■wipe, abn)ifd)cn, n>ifd)en. ■wish, 3Bunfd) m. ejjjes, =6nfd)e. — '/., iviinfd)en, wotten N. irr. 38.7. ^vlth, mit ; (= at the house of) b«t ; (= among) bci 70 ; (■with rage) »or. ■without, cl)nc ; Dijnc tafl 70. ■woman, 25S«ib re. sieS, =Bre ; Srau/. =aitcn 6.15, 37.25; American w., SInicritanerin/. =niten. vronder, fid) uiunbern (at, fiber ace. ) ; impersonally, I ivonder, cS rouns iert mid), etc. vronderfnl, rounbcrbar. ■wooden, l)61sern. irorlt, (= labor) Slrbeit/ =ten ; (liter- ary) fSSctt n. -.Ui, sic. — v., arbcitcn. ■vForkman, 9lrbciter m. svS, =r. ■world, aBcIt f. =ten ; part of the w., SIBelttI)cil m. 43, =Ie ; in the w.,aufbcr2Bcrf 27.31. VForry, fid) plagcn. worse !— gro^w ^v., fid) »crfd)(ed»tcrn, worthy, toiivtig (gen.), matt) 37.25. ENGLI8H-GEEMAN 70CABULAEY. 51 ivould, as aux'y, to be rendered by pret, subj. or cond'l of principal verb ; -w. rather, vxifiyxtpret. subj. , mod)tc (icbcr oS.lO. wound, SSJiui&e/. sen. — w,, Dertviintcii. »vrite, fdjicibcn 0. yard, .^of m. »fc8, =ofe. year, 3at)i* n. sveS, -ti ; for years, fcit 3iil;rcii. yes, ia ; tiod) 41.2. yet, nod), bod) 55. yesterday, gefieni ; da y before y., uorgcftcni. yielfi, iu-'.d>lflffcn 0. yonder, tort. you, il)V, 2ic (15;;). yotiitgf iitllg (u }Jt rinnjJ.); y. lady, i^-viiulcili It. =li3, =11. your, ciii'v, 3')r {la'SA). yours, ^cl• aiirisc etc. (1!59.5). yourself, cud), fid) (155) ; fdbcr of fclbft (155.5). youth, (= young man) SiinBling "i- =88i =8e.