\ i«i« #»t»i i i>lpi i in i | i ■ ^ Ml SlSSSSSMiS \\ ,\ X ^N rs LIBRARY NEW YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE ITHACA, N. Y. Cornell University Library TS 1975.085h 1907 Handbook of meat inspection. 3 1924 000 294 987 The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000294987 HANDBOOK OF MEAT INSPECTION BY Dk. ROBERT OSTERTAG PROFESSOR IN TH3 VETERINARY HIGH SCHOOL AT BERLIN WITH 260 ILLUSTEATIONS AND ONE COLOEED PLATE AUTHORIZED TRANSLATION BY EAELEY VEENON WILCOX, A.M., PLD. VETEEINARY EDITOR EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD "WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY JOHN R. MOHLER, A.M., V.M.D. CmBP OP PATHOLOaiCAL DIVISION UNITED STATES BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY THIRD EDITION New York WILLIAM E. JENKINS CO. ' PUBLISHERS 851-853 Sixth Avhnub 1907 v\\ w ms od. d^M. cX5/..'. His ^;i)d Copjrright, 1904, by William R. Jenkins Copyright, 1907, by William R. Jenkins Co. All rights reserved TS' iSlS 085 K ^^■-^<)^A.y7}.Ea^ printed by the Press of William R. Jenkins Co. •-iv-- AUTHOR'S PREFACE. By the passage on June 3, 1900, of the Imperial Law concern- ing the inspection of meat and food animals, meat inspection is put upon a different legal basis than has existed heretofore. The new law, which crowns with fruition the endeavors which for several decades have been made toward the introduction of general meat inspection in the German Empire, contains stringent provisions concerning the organization of meat inspection and general direc- tions concerning methods of procedure with various kinds of defective meat. Temporarily, however, the meat inspection law, except in two parts, has not yet gone into effect. And in working over the new edition of the book I was, therefore, able to restrict myself in the section on the legal foundation of meat inspection to the introduction of the new law, together with the commentaries from official sources, and in rendering judgment on meat anomalies I confined myself to the addition of the qualifications of the new law to the regulations which had previously been in force and which had been based upon the pure food law. Attention should be called to the fact that the conception of damaged meat which had become general before the decree of the pure food law, but which was rendered void by that law, has again acquired a qualified recognition by the meat inspection law of the German Empire. The material of meat inspection, the investigation of meat and rendering of judgment on meat will be discussed in the regulations for enforcing the. law which at present rest with the Federal OounciL In case an official publication of these regulations does not appear, I shall compile them as a supplement to my Handbook OF Meat Inspection and publish it separately. Moreover, the contents of the book have been enlarged and elaborated according to the results of the liteij^ture of the subject Hi IV AUTHORS PREFACE up to October 1, 1901. Especial attention has been given to a review of the subject of infectious diseases of fish, and crustaceans. The number of figures has been increased by illustrations on the recoguition of age in sheep by the teeth, on the recognition of sex in crustaceans, on the development of trichina, on myxosporidial diseases of fish and by an illustration of the refractometer. The latter is used in testing fat of different origin, and will, therefore, be adopted in laboratories of meat inspection. Despite the increase in the contents of the book, it has been possible by shortening less important parts to publish it in its previous size. In conclusion, I would state that I am now in a position to fulfil my previous promise to publish a bibliography of the litera- ture of meat inspection. This bibliography will appear in the near future. OSTERTAG. Berlin, February, 1903. TRANSLATOE'S PREFACE. Osteetag's " Handbiich der Fleischbeschau " is generally recognized as the most complete and authoritative treatise on meat inspection. No apology*, therefore, is necessary for the present attempt to make this work more accessible to English-speaking meat inspectors and veterinarians. The translation was under- taken immediately after the appearance of the fourth German edi- tion, but has been somewhat delayed on account of the pressure of other work. A few footnotes have been added where it was deemed desir- able, especially in connection with the controversial discussion of the trichina question. Certain sections on the less important Ger- man laws have been omitted and a few discussions have been con- densed. Dr. John E. Mohler, Chief of the Pathological Division of the Burean of Animal Industry, in addition to the labor involved in reading the whole manuscript and making numerous suggestions, prepared the Introduction, dealing chiefly with the history and present status of meat inspection .in America. It was felt that American meat inspection was inadequately treated in the text, and Dr. Mohler speaks with recognized authority on this subject. Perhaps the most pleasant duty of the translator in connec- tion with this work is the acknowledgment of the unusually excel- lent condition in which the publishers have furnished the proofs, and of their uniformly prompt and courteous attention to all mat- ters which the translator has laid before them. E. V. WILCOX. Washington, D. C, April 7, 1904. PKEFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION In preparing the " Handbook of Meat Inspection " for a new edition, the text has been compared throughout with the latest German edition and numerous corrections and emendations have been made. The translator desires to express his gratitude to the public for the favorable manner in which the Handbook has been received, to Dr. Ostertag for his approval of the volume in its English form, and to the publishers for the skill and efforts which they have devoted to the make-up of the book. It is hoped that the Handbook in its. revised form may be acceptable to its friends. E. V. WILCOX. ■Washington, D. C. January, 1905. TABLE OF CONTENTS. FAOB INTKODUCTION XV I. — General Discussion of Meat Inspection 1 1. Nature and Problems of Meat Inspection 1 2. History 9 3. The Present Status of Meat Inspection in Civilized Countries. ... 29 4. Practical Execution of Obligatory Meat Inspection 36 5. Technical Supervision of the Meat Traffic 50 6. Official Ordinances Concerning the Regulations of Meat Inspection 60 XL — Imperial Legal Foundation for the Regulation of the Meat Traffic 63 1. The Imperial Law Concerning the Inspection of Food Animals and Meat 63 2. The Imperial Law Concerning Traffic in Food, Condiments and Manufactured Articles 95 3. The Imperial Law Concerning the Prevention and Suppression of Animal Plagues 117 4. The Imperial Law Concerning Measures Against Rinderpest .... 131 III. — ^The Art of Butchering, Including the Inspection of Animals Before Slaughter 122 1. Food Animals 122 3. Inspection of .Animals Before Slaughter 126 3. Methods of Slaughter 130 4. Order of Procedure in Commercial Slaughtering 145 IV. — Inspection of Slaughtered Animals 153 General Discussion 153 Chief Points in Inspection 155 Stamping Inspected Animals 155 Condemnation 155 Inspection of Diseased Organs ; 156 Course of Inspection 156 Appendix. — Inspection of Imported Meat 160 I vli Vlll CONTENTS PAQB V. — Normal Appearance and Differentiation of Meat and Organs of Different Animals (Flbischkunde) 166 1. Normal Appearance of the Different Parts of Food Animals. . . . 166 (a) The Skin 166 (&) The blood ., 167 (c) The Most Important Internal Organs 168 (d) The Bones 176 (e) The Lymphatic Glands 177 (/) The Adipose Tissue 1^ (g) The Skeletal Musculature 193 2. Differentiation of the Meat of Various Food Animals 198 (a) Color, Consistency and Odor of the Meat of Different Food Animals 199 (6) Color and Consistency of the Adipose Tissue 202 (c) Character of the Skeleton 204 (d) Differentiation of Horse Meat ■ and Beef, According to Niebel 310 Modification of Niebel's Method, According to Brautigan a:id Edelmann 214 Modification According to Courtoy and Coremans 216 (e) Demonstration of Horse Meat According to Hasterlik 219 ^ppemdia;.— Differentiation of German and American Bacon.. 320 3. Recognition of the Age and Sex of Slaughtered Animals and the Classification of Food Animals 221 («) Age 221 (&) Sex 238 (c) Classification of Food Animals 334 VI.— Abnormal Physiological Conditions Which Possess Sanitary Interest 237 1. Immaturity 237 2. Meat of Fetuses 241 3. Poorness ., 040 , 4. Emaciation 04!} 5. Abnormal Coloration of the Adipose Tissue 245 6. Abnormal Odor of Meat 245 VII.— General Pathology of Food Animals From the Standpoint of Sanitary T 1. Malformations Sanitary Police 250 25Q 2. Dissolutions of Continuity 051 3. Atrophy and Hypertrophy " 2gj (a) Atrophy .."..'......'.. 251 (6) Hypertrophy 352 4. Deposition of Pigment and Lime 252 (a) Pigment Deposits ""' gL (&) Calcareous Deposits 254 5. Metaplasias _ „.. 6. Degenerations ' ' g,. CONTENTS IX PAGE 7. Disturbances of the Circulation 258 8. Transudation 258 9. Hemorrhages 258 10. Necrosis 260 11. Inflammations 261 (a) Productive Inflammations 261 (b) Serous Inflammation 263 (c) Purulent Inflammation 263 (d) Croupous and Diphtheritic Inflammation 263 (e) Hemorrhagic Inflammation 264 (/) Inflammations with Putrid Exudations •. . . . ... 264 (gf) Parenchymatous and Interstitial Inflammations 264 12. Tumors 265 (a) Benign Tumors 265 (6) Malignant Tumors 265 13. Infectious Granulations 267 14. Animal Parasites 267 VIII. — Especially Noteworthy Organic Diseases 268 1. General Integument 268 («) Cutis 268 (6) Subcutis 272 3. Digestive Apparatus 273 (a) Mucous Membrane of the Mouth and Tongue 278 (6) Pharynx 278 (c) Esophagus 279 (d) Stomach and Intestine 279 (e) Peritoneum 285 (/) Liver 291 (3) Pancreas 300 3. Urino-genital Apparatus 301 (a) Kidneys. ..'. ' 301 (6) Bladder and Urethra 309 (c) Male Sexual Organs 310 (d) Female Sexual Organs 3tl Uterus 311 Vagina 312 Udder 313 4. Respiratory Apparatus 318 (a) Na=al Cavity 318 (6) Larynx and Trachea , 319 (c) Lungs 320 (d) Pleura '. 333 5. Circulatory Apparatus 336 (o) Heart '. 336 Pericardium and Epicardium 336 Endocardium 337 Myocardium 340 (6) Blood Vessels .' 341 6. Lymphatic Glands 343 7. Spleen 346 X CONTENTS PAGa 8. Nervous System ^^^ (a) Central Nervous System °^° (b) Peripheral Nerves r ^^ 9. Skeleton 349 (a) General Diseases • ^^^ (6) Local Diseases 3^^ 10. Skeletal Musculature > - 355 IX. — Anomalies of the Blood : 3C7 1. Oligemia, Anemia 367 2. Hydremia 369 3. Leukemia 371 4. Hemoglobinemia • ■ ' 374 "Black Ischuria " (Azoturia) of the Horse 374 5. Cholemia (Icterus) 375 6. Uremia 377 X. — Poisoning (Intoxications) , Effbot of Odokific Drugs and So- called Auto-Intoxications 379 1. Poisoning (Intoxications) 379 2. The Effect of Odorific Drugs on Meat 384 3. So-called Auto-Intoxications 385 Parturient Paresis 386 XI.— Animal Parasites (Invasion Diseases) 389 1. Parasites Which are not Transmissible to Man 390 2. Parasites Which may be Transmitted to Man by Eating Meat . . . 417 (a) Beef Bladder Worm {Cysticercus bovis) 419 (&) Hog Bladder Worm (C. cellulosa) 442 (c) Trichina {Trichina spiralis) 454 Trichina Inspection 483 3. Parasites Which are not Immediately Harmful to Man, but Which may Become so after a Preliminary Change of Host. . 499 (a) Echinococci 501 (6) Pentastomes 513 Appendix ' 530 1. Protozoa 530 (a) Coccidia 531 (6) Myxosporidia 525 (c) Sarcosporidia 527 (d) Hematosporidia 533 2. So-caUed Calcareous Concretions in the Musculature of the Hog. 539 (a) Calcified Miesoher's Sacs 540 (6) Calcified Trichinae 541 (e) Calcified Cystioerci .' 543 (d) Calcified Echinococci 544 XII.— Plant Parasites (Infectious Diseases) 547 General Account . .■ 547 1. Putrid Intoxication and Traumatic Infectious Diseases 553 (a) Putrid Intoxication (Sapremia) 552 CONTENTS XI PAGE (&) Pyemia (Greneralization of Purulent Processes) •. . . 556 Special Forms of Pyemia and their Anatomical Characters 563 (c) Septicemia 566 Special Forms of Septicemia in Food Animals 570 (d) Malignant Edema 574 (e) Tetanus 576 Infectious Diseases which Occur in Man as well as in Domesti- cated Animals 577 (a) Anthrax 577 (h) Aphthous Fever 586 (c) Pox 591 Cow Pox 591 Sheep Pox 592 (d) Rabies 593 (e) Glanders 594 (/) Tuberculosis 601 , 1. Nature and Occurrence ■, 601 3, Bacteriology and Pathogenesis 607 3. Clinical Symptoms 611 4. Pathological Anatomy 613 5. Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis 618 6. Local and Generalized Tuberculosis « 620 7. Examination of Slaughtered Tuberculous Animals. . . 623 8. Sanitary Judgment on Tuberculosis 629 (a) Tuberculous Organs 639 (6) Judgment of the Meat of Tuberculous Animals 634 9. Experiments 'Concerning the Virulence of the Meat of Tuberculous Animals 635 10. Criteria Furnished by Experiments Concerning the Harmful or Harmless Character of the Meat of Tuberculous Animals , 643 11. Boiling and Sterilization of Tuberculous Meat 644 12. Obligatory Declaration for the Meat of Tuberculous Animals Admitted for Food 645 13. Scientific Method of Procedure with the Meat of Tuberculous Animals 645 14. Legislative Regulations on the Method of Procedure with the Meat of Tuberculous Animals 647 Tuberculosis of Birds 651 (p) Pseudo Tuberculosis 652 (h) Actinomycosis 654 (i) Botryomyoosis 662 Infectious Diseases Which Occur Only in Animals and are not Communicable to Man in any Form •. 665 (a) Rinderpest 665 (6) Malignant Catarrhal Fever of Cattle 667 (c) Pleuro-Pneumonia of Cattle 668 (d) Hemorrhagic Septicemia of Wild Game and Cattle 671 (e) BlackLeg 674 (/) Braxy 677 (gr) Diphtheria of Calves 679 Xll CONTENTS PAGE (h) Dysentery of Calves 681 (i) Swine Erysipelas 683 (k) Urticaria 691 (I) Swine Plague ' 694 (TO) Hog Cholera 696 Appendix. — The most Important Infectious Diseases of Fowls 703 (a) Fowl Cholera 703 (6) Diphtheria of Fowls 705 Concluding Remarks on Diseases of Food Animals not Above Mentioned 709 XIII.— Emergency Slaughter on Account op Serious Infectious Dis- eases AND Meat Poisoning — Accidents— Defective Bleed- ing—Natural, Death 710 1. General Discussion of Emergency Slaughter on Account of Seri- ous Infectious Diseases ^ 710 3. Meat Poisoning 713 3. Accidents 741 4. Defective Bleeding 743 5. Natural Death 743 XIV.— Post-Mortem Alterations in Meat 745 1. Phosphorescent Meat 749 3. Decomposing Meat 751 Appendix 758 1. Sausage Poisoning (Botulism, Allantiasis) 758 3. Poisoning from Mince Meat ; 764 (a) Poisoning from Decomposing Fish and Crustacea 766 (6) Poisoning from Clams 767 (c) Poisoning from Oysters 768 XV.— The Addition of Flour to Sausages— Coloring and Inflation of Meat 770 1. Addition of Flour to Sausages 770 Note. Other Adulterations with Inferior Material 783 3. Coloring 786 3. Inflation 793 XVI. — Preservation op Meat 798 1. Chemical Preservatives 800 (a) Salting and Pickling 800 (6) Smoking 8O7 (c) Preservation with Boric, Sulphurous and Salicylic Acids. . . 809 1. Boric Acid 809 •■ 3. Sulphurous Acid 813 3. Salicylic Acid 819 8. Preservation by Heat ' 821 3. Preservation by Cold 834 (a) Refrigeration by Means of Toe 838 (&) Cold Storage Establishments with Mechanical Refrigerat- ing Apparatus _ 833 Cold Air Machines " . .. 834 CONTENTS XUl PAOB Cold Vapor Machines 834 Appendix 836 1. Location and Structure of Cold Storage Plants 836 2. Necessity of Cold Storage Plants 839 XVII.— Boiling, Steam Sterilization and Harmless Disposal of Meat 841 1. Boiling 841 2. Steam Sterilization of Meat 847 3. Harmless Disposal of Meat Absolutely Excluded from Sale 854 (a) Simple Burning 856 (6) Chemical Treatment 856 (c) Steam Sterilization tJnder High Pressure 857 Concluding Remark , 865 Appendix. — Enforcement of Section 21 of the Imperial Meat Inspec- tion Law 865 iNDEfc 867 INTRODUCTION HISTOKY AND PRESENT STATUS OF MEAT INSPECTION IN THE UNITED STATES BY JOHN R MOHLER, V.M.D. The problem connected with the procurement and maintenance of a wholesome and hygienic food supply for the people is unques- tionably one of the most important subjects with which the sanita- rian has to deal. Public health demands the purity of animal food products. The vast quantity of meat consumed in the United States, where this food-stuff is plentiful and comparatively low iu price, renders it of essential importance that nothing but innocuous and nutritious meat products be placed upon the market. The amount of meat, per capita, used annually by various countries was computed by the British Government iu 1890, when it was found that in the United States an average of 119.7 pounds was consumed by every inhabitant, a ratio surpassed only by Australia, where meats are more abundant and cheaper in value. To satisfy this domestic demand and to supply the foreign orders for meat, there has rapidly developed in our midst a business the value of whose products in 1900 was estimated at over $811,000,000, and which, among our immense industries, ranks third as to the aggregate worth of yearly exports. These facts, together with our knowledge— authentically established — of the communicability to man of many animal dis- eases, conipel us to recognize the urgent demand for a hygienic meat supply — a supply that is clean, wholesome and absolutely free from disease. The foreign sales of the meat packing industry at first included numerous varieties of meats and meat products, and by 1879 the export trade in American bacon alone, without mentioning other food-stuffs, had become well established, when the continental coun- tries became alarmed, seemingly on account of the presence of XYl INTEODUCTION trichina in American hog products, and accordingly prohibitive measures against these meats were instituted. Italy was the first to promulgate these restrictions, and by 1881 Austria, Germany and France had likewise prohibited the importation of American pork or its products. American cattle met a similar tebuff at the instance of Great Britain in 1882, when regulations commonly called the " Slaughter Order " were instituted by the Order-in-Oouncil of the Board of Agriculture, which compelled American cattle to be slaughtered at the port of entry. This prohibition of store cattle was caused, presumably, by the presence of contagious pleuro- pneumonia among the cattle in a few of the Eastern States and Illi- nois, but notwithstanding this disease was effectually eradicated from this country in 1892, and since that time not a single case has been found either in cattle imported into Great Britain from the United States or among our herds, the restrictive measures continue to be enforced and the stigma constituting the assumed reason for this embargo remains. "While it is plainly evident to anyone who has given this subject the least consideration that these two alleged sanitary procedures of foreign governments were directly pointed at the meat and live stock industry of this country, and although the vast falling-off in the value of our exports in these lines was to those variously engaged therein a hardship which continued for a decade, nevertheless, these interdictions must be considered as the potent and exciting factors in securing legislation for the scientific inspec- tion of meats for foreign and domestic use and incidentally in advancing the cause of veterinary science in the United States. The exclusion of American pork products finally became intolerable, and in order to relieve the situation and regain an export- market for these food-stuffs. Congress passed the act ,of August 30, 1890, providing for the inspection of salted pork and bacon. It was but natural to presume that with the passage of such a law providing for the certification of the pure and healthful char- acter of American meats all restrictive measures against our export trade would be revoked. However, this initial act was not suffi- ciently comprehensive, referring chiefly to the manner in which the products were packed and their appearance immediately before shipment, without taking into consideration the condition at the time of slaughter of the animals producing these meats. For this reason the European countries failed to abolish their restrictions against American pork. The relief expected in consequence of this act was not, therefore, realized, and on March 3, 1891, Congress, recognizing the importance of protecting and fostering this export INTRODUCTION XVll industry, the value of which had reached the sum of $104,660,000 iu 1881, and of acquiring and maintaining a pure and wholesome meat supply for Our own people, passed a more effective act. This legislation authorized the issuance of regulations providing for the ante and post mortem examination of all cattle, sheep and hogs intended for export and interstate commerce, especially providing for post-mortem inspection of cattle the meat of which is designed for export ; for a microscopic examination of all hogs for export in order that certificates could be issued setting forth their freedom from trichinosis ; the condemnation of all diseased animals ; the marking or stamping of all inspected carcasses and the labeling of food products made from suoh carcasses intende"d for export or inter- state traffic. The work connected with the enforcement of this act was placed Tinder the care of the Bureau of Animal Industry, which had been established in 1884 for the purpose of collecting information con- cerning the nature, cause, treatment and prevention of diseases of animals and the publication of the best measures for the prevention and eradication of such diseases. These increased duties rendered it desirable that the various lines of work be divided, and accord- ingly, on April 1, 1891, the Bureau was organized into several divisions, one of which was designated the Meat Inspection Divi- sion, and, as its name implies, had, among other duties, special supervision of the inspection of meats for export and interstate commerce. Kegulations were immediately adopted for the purpose of carrying into effect this act of Congress. A system of inspection was devised, a force of veterinarians and their assistants organized and the inspection of meats inaugurated within ten weeks from the passage of the act, or on May 12, 1891, at the abattoir of Eastman & Co., of New York City. Other abattoirs made application for inspection, and by the end of the first complete fiscal year, 1892, inspection had been granted to twenty-eight abattoirs in twelve different cities. It will thus be observed that federal meat inspection has only a very recent history, but one of which our people and our profes- sion can justly be proud. The microscopic examination of pork for trichina was first established in Chicago, June 22, 1891; and likewise started in other cities before the end of that year. At first there was some hesitancy , and scepticism among the packers as to the practical application of this microscopic examination without seriously retarding the busi- ness of the firms and causing vexatious and nnneeessary delays, but XVm INTEODUCTION all doubts were shortly dispelled by the satisfactory performance of the work, and the problem was efficiently solved by the persistence and skill of the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry and the growing perception and ripening knowledge of his assistants. As a direct result of these microscopic examinations of pork products which were subjected to the keenest scrutiny of the attaches of European countries and favorably reported upon by them, the decree of September 3, 1891, was made by the German government after the Saratoga Convention which readmitted American pork that was officially certified as having been microscopically examined before shipment from the United States. Subsequently similar interdic- tions were removed by Italy, France, Denmark and Austria, and in consequence of this reestablished confidence relative to the health- fulness and purity of the pork products of this country the export trade began at once to show decided and gratifying increase and gradually to expand and regain its former importance and value. The beneficial and desirable results that would necessarily accrue in consequence of having the supervision and inspection of the Government meat inspectors to certify to the purity and sound- ness of the products of their abattoirs, soon appealed to and was quickly acted upon not only by the packers who sought to compete in foreign markets, but those doing strictly a local and interstate business. The proprietors of those abattoirs desiring inspection for their meat products are required to make written application to the Secretary of Agriculture, stating the kind and number of animals slaughtered and the destination of the products thereof, and to agree to such supervision of their business as may be demanded by the regulations of the Bureau. On conforming to such requiroT ments the packing house is given a serial number by which it and the products thereof are thereafter known, and an inspector is placed in charge of the plant and furnished with a sufficient num- ber of assistant inspectors, stock examiners or taggers to carry out the required inspection. The extension of the work caused by the enforcement of the act of Congress can not be fully apreciated or comprehended without a knowledge relative to the importance and magnitude of the sub- ject. The successful and speedy elaboration of many details which necessarily required much labor and consideration and the care and efficiency with which they were immediately enforced exceeded all expectations when the difficulties and obstacles— the inherent per- plexities of the question— were considered. Moreover, this inspection was an innovation in sanitation in this country and was INTRODUCTION XIX of necessity carried out principally by inexperienced men who were chosen chiefly on the strength of their political influence rather than by the breadth of their veterinary knowledge. The next epoch in the history of meat inspection is marked by the placing of all employees of the Bureau into the classified service by Presidential order. This took effect July 1, 1894, since which time all appointments to the force have been made only after the applicant has passed a rigid and highly satisfactory examination. By this means only the intelligent, competent and superior candi- dates are chosen from the eligible list by certification from the TJ. S. Civil Service Commission. Now that the merit system is in vogue, not only the personnel of the Bureau has been improved, as would be expected, but the harmony and discipline resulting there- from is vastly better than is possible where political intrigue forms a basis of appointment, promotion and retention. The first requisite to be met by those aspiring to the position of meat inspec- tor is to be a graduate of a recognized and reputable veterinary col- lege and then to pass a rigid examination that destroys the ambi- tion of a large percentage of applicants. After successfully meeting these requirements and receiving an appointment, his future service depends entirely upon the personal equation and would include the ability, integrity and discretion with which his onerous and multiple duties are performed. Previous to 1894 the inspection consisted principally in the examination of beef for export and the microscopic examination of pork destined for continental Europe, but at this time, owing to an increased demand for official inspection of meats, a similar ante and post mortem examination was extended to hogs as had already been in operation from the. beginning with cattle. In the following year , calves and sheep were likewise subjected to inspection both before and after slaughter. As the inspection gradually increased and covered a larger number of animals, it became more and more important to obtain sufficient authority from Congress to dispose of the condemned carcasses, as the original act failed to grant power for the proper disposal of such products. The danger of allowing condemned meats to remain undestroyed is palpable when taken into consideration with the limited authority of the Federal Govern- ment regarding the use of such carcasses within the State. That it is highly unsatisfactory to the Bureau, as well as to the health of our people, to permit the packer to have absolute control over the final disposition of unwholesome meats, was readily appreciated, especially in view of the dearth of state and municipal sanitary Xr INTBODUCTION authorities vested with the power for properly disposing of these products. Consequently, Congress, by the enactment of March 2, 1895, granted full power to the Secretary of Agriculture to adopt such rules and regulations as would be necessary to prevent the use of condemned carcasses for export or interstate traffic, making it a misdemeanor punishable by a fine notexceeding $1,000 or imprison- ment not exceeding one year, or by both fine and imprisonment, in the discretion of the court. The work was rapidly advancing as the inspectors became more thoroughly trained and experienced. New problems and duties were taken up as fast as the previous ones had been elucidated and controlled, and the progress made was highly gratifying. lu keeping with this policy of steady conservative progress, the service was extended in 1895 by new legislation to include the interstate cattle inspection, and by 1897 not only all the beef and the greater part of pork ,and other meat products exported to Europe, but a large amount of meat intended for inter- state commerce was inspected in accordance with the law. In the appropriation act of 1898 provision is made for the same ante and post mortem inspection of horses and their products as had been previously enacted in regard to cattle, hogs and sheep. It is specially stated that only horses may be slaughtered in such packing houses and their various products must be distinctly labeled as being from these animals. Inspection has .been granted thus far to but one abattoir, the products of which are mainly, if not entirely, shipped to Norway and Sweden. The demand for microscopically examined pork increased rap- idly, and in 1898, 120,272,590 pounds of this product were exported. A large number of skilled and competent microscopists were added to the inspection force, but the demand for microscopic examination was so great among the packers that the Bureau found difficulty in supplying the desired amount of microscopic inspection for hog products intended for export. The great increase in the demand for this inspection during 1898 and 1899 was ably and successfully ' met by the microscopic force, and they were renderiug conscientious and efficient service when the country receiving the vast majority of our pork products instituted semi-prohibitive regulations which have diminished the exportation of this product in the last few years to a very large degree, until in 1903 it figured only 19,108,34:1 pounds. By perfecting the system of inspection and increasing the num- ber of inspectors, the work has been greatly extended and rendered more efficient each year, until to-day the scientific, systematic and rational system of meat inspection inaugurated throughout this INTRODUCTION XXI country by the Bureau of Animal Industry, after an existence o* only twelve years, compares favorably with the much older servico of Germany, France, Denmark and Belgium, and is pointed to with commendation by many disinterested parties in foreign countries and accepted as a model by our states and municipalities in pro- viding methods of local inspection. How this result was accom- plished has been ably expressed by a foreign scientist in speaking of the United States meat inspection service : "The history of this organization embodied in the labor of Dr. D, E. Salmon is one of the highest examples of the rare combina- tion of scientific methods with executive administration that has ever been witnessed." It may be added that among the many signal personal achievements of Dr. Salmon's administration as Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry since its inauguration, his work in connection with meat inspection stands among the foremost, as he, and he alone, crystallized and consolidated it into a definite sani- tary force. The initiative, the determination and the momentum in all matters pertaining to the advancement and increased proficiency of this service were his, and it has now reached such a stage of •development and approach to uniformity of procedure as to meet the demand of the most critical. Thus, commencing with a small force of inspectors in a few abattoirs, the service has gradually developed until at present there ai-e 1,405 individuals engaged in the ante and post mortem inspection of animals. Of this number 411 arft meat inspectors and assistant meat inspectors, all of whom are qualified and competent veterinarians ; 234 are stock examiners and 251 taggers, practical men connected with some branch of the live stock industry before receiving their appointments ; 233 are "microscopists and assistant microscopists ; and the remainder are clerks directly associated with the work of inspecting meats. These men are located in 156 abattoirs and stockyards in fifty different cities in the United States. It may be of interest to know how this large organization of men is systematically working in the accomplishment of so much good for the country both from an economic and sanitary stand- point. A brief survey will be taken of the methods at the various abattoirs and stockyards of making the ante and post mortem examination of the food producing animals the products of which are intended for export or interstate traffic. Ante-mortem examinations are made of all animals intended for slaughter in packing houses having federal inspection as well as of XXll INTRODUCTION those which pass through the stockyards that are under Govern- ment supervision. These inspections are highly important and a valuable safeguard to the health of the meat consumer, as there are certain diseases and conditions not attended by any macroscopic lesions in the carcass, albeit they are nocuous and repugnant. Direct proof of this is found in the literature of meat poisoning, the great majority of which cases could be directly traced to eating the meat of cattle slaughtered in emergency without any noticeable changes being observed in the tissues on post-mortem examination. The interests of the live stock industry also are protected by this examination, since none but healthy animals which have not been exposed to any disease are permitted to be shipped from stock yards to the farm as breeders and feeders or to abattoirs of other cities not having federal inspection. The rigorous character of this inspection before slaughter is indicated by the fact that ante-mortem cori- demnations average about twice as many as the post-mortem. In the larger packing centers this inspection is done in the yards, on the docks, though principally at the scales, where all diseased and suspected animals are tagged, A brief description of their condition is recorded and they are then held for final disposition on post- • mortem examination, with the exception of those animals that have been condemned for advanced pregnancy or recent parturition. These animals may be held until they have fully recovered from the parturient state (ten days) and then slaughtered, or in case they are not affected with or have not been exposed to any infectious disease they may be sold for stock purposes. Animals not inspected in the yards are subjected to an exami- nation in the pens of the packing houses, and those condemned are similarly disposed of as above with the permission and under the supervision of the inspector. Those that have been condemned on ante-mortem examination which fail on post-mortem to show sufficient lesions to warrant con- demnation are passed for food, while all carcasses not fit for con- sumption are tanked. However, there are a number of diseases in which the determination of the healthfulness of the meat must depend entirely on the post-mortem examination, and many animals are condemned at this stage that have passed ante-mortem inspec- tion. Thus the importance of these two associated methods of inspection is exemplified. The Bureau regulations which were devised to control the ante and post mortem inspection of animals and which have been subsequently supplemented as the needs of the service demanded, are clearly defined, thorough and most rigid INTRODUCTION XXlll and form a support upon which the inspector may unflinchingly stand in the performance of the duties of his office. To discrimi- nate with certainty between good and bad in the matter of meat supply is to the experienced inspector not a difficult task, when the carcass represented is an extreme, but for those cases on the border line, the rendering of a satisfactory and accurate conclusion is not so easy as at first sight appears, for it is extremely difficult at times to say what should be accepted and what rejected. To the German inspector it is not merely a question of yes or no, but with his "frei- bank " and the permission to sell certain infected meat after cooking, or raw meat of a low nutritious value, the responsibilities become divided into several possible actions and are thereby materially lessened. Owing to the impossibility of constructing rules cover- ing every case, and the difficulty of asserting at what stage in its development a process assumes loathsome or a disease noxious properties, the decision as to the disposition of a certain number of carcasses must be left to the discernment and individual judgment of the inspector. Moreover, the realization that all decisions based upon the literal or tolerant interpretation of the inspection rules and in sympathy with them will be approved arouses a pleasant and appreciative feeling and makes the thorough and particular knowl- edge of the regulations an integral factor in the proper and inde- pendent performance of the inspection. As there has been more or less discussion and adverse criticism regarding the large number of carcasses which the Federal inspec- tor examines each day in some of the larger packing houses, it might not be out of place to explain the American system of per- petual motion adopted in such abattoirs and the methods which make it possible for the inspector and his assistants to carefully and efficiently inspect the entire killing. The method of slaughter most frequently adopted is stunning with a pole-axe, followed by bleed- ing after a short interval has elapsed to permit of relaxation of the blood vessels and, consequently, a better outflow of blood. In the case of bulls, shooting is sometimes adopted, owing to their thick skulls. The Jewish method of shechtering is carried on in certain abattoirs on specified days. In the first instance the cattle are driven up to the killing pens at 6.30 A.M., and knocking begins immediately. The animal is then shackled, hauled through the sliding door onto the bed, hoisted on the rails of a suspended trp,m- way and, while hanging, is bled by the " sticker " making at the bottom of the jugular furrow a longitudinal incision that severs the principal cervical blood vessels. After the animal has bled suffi- Xxiv INTRODUCTION ciently it is pushed along by power or by hand to the bed on which it is to be further handled. While hanging here the "headers" skin the head and disarticulate it at the occipto-atloid articulation. The heads are numbered either by a paper tag or by marking on the occipital condyle with a bine pencil, in order to identify the various parts of the carcass, should cause for condemnation be found. The animal is now lowered and pritched in position on its back. A con- stant string of attendants follows, one after another, in completing the work and turning out the dressed carcass. First the "leggers" take charge and remove the hind legs at the hock and the fore legs at the kuee. I:u mediately after this the floorsman or "sider" skins the animal down as far as he can work towards the floor. The " caul-puller " now comes along and makes an inci- sion from throat to anus and removes the caul fat from the abdomen, placing it in a box corresponding to the number of the bed upon which the animal is lying. Another butcher follows and " loosens up " 'the esophagus and trachea and saws through the sternum. The hooks of the spreader on the hoist are then placed in the ligaments back of the hocks and the animal dragged into a semi-vertical position for skinning the buttocks and cutting off the tail. The latter is also retained and marked for recog- nition. After hoisting to a perpendicular position, the "backer" finishes skinning the animal. The " gutter," working simultaneously, eviscerates the carcass by starting with the rectum and following the sublumbar' attachments down to the liver, pulling the patinch down and cutting all attachments with one circular sweep of the knife. The liver is next loosened by the hand and attachments cut by one stroke of the knife. Two circular incisions are made, start- ing from the superior and middle attachments of the diaphragm^ but in opposite directions, following the tendinous portion of the diaphragm to its lowest or suprasternal portion. This opens up the thoracic cavity. The lungs are now seized by their subdorsal border and one long stroke following the aorta removes the lungs and heart,, which, together with the other viscera, are now inspected. The rump sawyer next follows and divides the carcass from the coccyx to the lumbar vertebrae. The splitter with a large cleaver then continues splitting the animal in halves, ending at the base of the neck. The carcass is now hoisted on two rails with sliding pulley hooks and shoved over about twelve feet, where the neck man or hide dropper finishes cutting the hide from the neck, after which another helper splits the cervical yertebrse, thus completely sepa- rating the two halves. The latter are then pushed about ten feet INTRODUCTION XXV further, where the trimmers cut off all ragged pieces of flesh or bruised parts, trim out the spinal cord and pump the blood out of the four quarters by moving the fore legs up and down rapidly and scraping the blood clots from the vessels with the hollow of the hand. The carcass is now turned over to the washers, who scrub and wash it with very hot water, and finish by wiping it dry with towels. In cnse the inspection has not revealed any disease, the carcass is marked by placing a gelatinized label bearing the words "U. S. Inspected " and a serial number in indelible ink, which can not again make an imprint, in the region of the rump, flank, plate and shoulder of each half of the carcass. This mark signifies that the meat has been carefully inspected according to law and passed. Exceptions to this method of labeling healthy meat are made with those carcasses that are intended for the cutting room or are used for canning purposes in the same abattoir. Those car- casses to be shipped in sealed cars to another official abattoir for canning or other purposes are likewise not labeled nor stamped. After hanging for fifteen minutes the meat is run into the coolers to be ripened for local use, interstate trade or for export. The head, tail and caul are then removed to other parts of the building, the livers are placed in special boxes and the remaining viscera are thrown into a carrier to be removed. To perform this work requires about 50 butchers and from 40 to 45 men who wash and trim carcasses and 60 helpers to clean floors, move wagons, carry away offal and perform other miscellaneous work. In the above described manner, this force of men in an abattoir in this country may kill and dress between six and seven rounds of cattle in an hour, which means an average of 130 carcasses per hour on 18 or 20 beds. By the latter term is understood a portion of the killing floor opposite to each knocking pen on which the animal is bled, eviscerated and dressed. The 20 beds are arranged in a continuous series, the workmen starting on the first bed and going down to No. 20, by which time the No. 1 carcass has been hung up and out of way for the next " run." In abattoirs where 28 beds are in use, two gangs of butchers and two sets of inspectors are used to perform the work. The inspector takes his stand with the gutter and passes down the line at his elbow, watching, feeling and examining all suspicious indica- tions. Surely such an inspection made by a man skilled in his line will enable him to find any lesion or condition which is sufficiently extensive or repulsive to warrant condemnation, and his ability to perform this task is no more remarkable nor startling than the accu- racy, deftness, familiarity and speed which we expect of any other xxvi INTEODUCTION skilful and experienced person in another vocation. When disease is observed in a carcass, a red tag bearing the words "Condemned meat" is immediately attached to it with a lead and wire seal. The head, tail and caul fat pertaining to it are secured and similarly marked with condemnation tags. After the, carcass has been "halved," all portions of the body are placed in a special room of the building reserved for condemned meats to await a more leisurely and extensive examination by the inspector. The latter always has an assistant at hand, and while the one is away looking after the saving of the various parts of the diseased carcass, the other continues along with the gutter. Calves and sheep are inspected both ante and post mortem under the same conditions and in practically the same manner as the animals already mentioned. The principal conditions requiring condemnation are mentioned in the Bureau Regulations and inclurle : Hog cholera, swine plague, anthrax, rabies, malignant epizootic catarrh, septicemia and pyemia, advanced form of scabies and actinomycosis, inflammation of the lungs, pleura, intestines or peritoneum, Texas fever, general- ized or extensive tuberculosis, advanced pregnancy or recent parturition, any disease or injury causing pyrexia or otherwise rendering the flesh unwholesome ; those organs or portions of carcasses which are badly bruised or affected with tuberculosis, actinomycosis, cancer, or other malignant tumors and abscesses, suppurating sores and tapeworm cysts ; immature or unborn animals; those animals too emaciated and anemic to produce healthy meat ; distemper, glanders and farcy, and other malignant disorders, acute inflammatory lameness and extensive fistula. Other causes for condemnation occasionally met with are para- sitic ictero-hematuria and caseous lymphadenitis of sheep, Hodg- kin's disease or pseudo-leukemia, inflammation of the genito-urinary tract and hernias. Hogs affected with urticaria, tinea tonsurans, demodex folliculorum and erythema are usually passed after de- taching and tanking the rind. If an animal is found to be affected with any of the above con- ditions the carcass and organs belonging to it are tagged and removed as above mentioned to a room provided for this purpose, the key to which is only in possession of the inspector or his assistant. When these meats -are to be destroyed they are placed, together with a certain amount of floor scrapings, intestinal con- tents and other filthy substances, in the offal or fertilizer tank, the top and bottom of which are sealed with copper wire and lead seals INTRODUCTION ZZZm by a federal inspector. Steam is immediately turned on and the meat is destroyed for food purposes under the supervision of this officer. If only isolated muscles or portions of the carcass are to be destroyed as a result of unhealthful properties or repulsive appear- ances, the carcass is usually removed to the cooling room with the condemnation tag upon it, and when properly chilled the affected parts are detached and tanked while the condemnation tag on the remainder of the carcass is removed and the regular inspection label placed upon the various parts. This condemnation of meat for human food does not necessarily imply that the animal producing the meat was diseased. Such action may have been due to various causes, as fatigue, asphyxia- tion, immaturity, parasitism not transmissible to man and other repugnant conditions, which, although they may not prevent the consumption of the meat with impunity, still are loathsome to the American people, who desire to eat only palatable meat of known q aality. This is attested by the various laboratories in the country occasionally receiving specimens of tainted or discolored meats with letters from parties requesting advice concerning their wholesome- ness. Such meat is always a source of serious apprehension to the American public, who do not care to eat meat, even if whole- some, should it present an offensive appearance, and this senti- mental feeling is respected by the inspectors. In making a post-mortem examination of hogs two systems of inspection are enforced. One method is for the smaller abattoirs where the number of hogs killed per hour is comparatively small. One inspector can readily examine all these carcasses from the position he assumes on the bench beside the workman who eviscerates them. The second method in vogue is where the killing numbers 300 to 500 per hour and consists of the inspector stationed as above together with a colleague who is placed beside the scrap- ing bench for the purpose of examining the cervical lymph glands of every carcass after the header has cut behind the jaws. This inspection is principally to determine the presence of tubercular infection that might inadvertently pass by the second inspector on account of the lesions not being very prominent. Frequently it brings to light incipient cases which show the lesions only in the glands of this region. In case any alteration is observed or felt by the inspector, a previously devised mark, usually a cut on the right leg, is made, or a condemnation card attached by means of a hog ring and ringer, for the purpose of attracting the special attention of XXviii INTKODUCTION his colleagues on the bench to this particular carcass. By this system of examination a thoroughly satisfactory and efficient in- spection is obtained and readily accounts for the large number of hog carcasses per hour which it is possible successfully to examine in this country. Some inexperienced persons have thought this must be a superficial inspection, their misgivings being due merely to the fact that one or tvfo inspectors could examine such a large number of carcasses per hour ; but such doubts have been quickly dispelled in those who have been sufficiently 'nterested to make personal observations. Unlike the old method of individual slaughter in vogue in many foreign abattoirs, where the inspector must go to each animal which is slaughtered, bled, eviscerated and dressed by one or two butchers, the method of handling the carcasses in this country is according to the combination or division of labor system, and unfamiliarity with these methods may probably account for the incorrect views held by some regarding this inspection. Their style of slaughter is not conducive to the performance of such a vast amount of work as in this country, nor is their inspection force so well organized as in the United States. Thus at Mannheim, where one of the finest abattoirs in Germany exists, the method of killing a steer by the percussion mask requires more time than would be con- sumed in killing eight similar animals in one of our large abattoirs, and the number of cattle slaughtered there during the entire year of 1901 was 16,338, an amount which one of the larger abattoirs in this country will have to its credit within two weeks. In the German abattoir the inspector usually has his own laboratory and much of his time is occupied in preparing tissues and in the microscopical diagnosis of lesions upon which he may desire infor- mation. In the United States the time of the inspector is wholly occupied by making gross examinations and thereby he is enabled to inspect a much larger number of carcasses than if it were neces- sary for him to spend a portion of his time over microscopical or bacteriological study of suspected tissues. In case such an exami- nation is necessary, the carcass is at once tagged and placed in the retaining room, specimens of the organs and affected tissues are expressed to the Chief of the Bureau for investigation, and if an exceptional case, the disposition of the carcass may be determined on obtaining the diagnosis. Lesions concerning which a confirma- tion of diagnosis is desired, or other information regarding their nature is requested, are likewise sent to Washington for exami- nation. INTRODUCTION XXIX In order to give an idea of bow tlie slaughtering of swine is accomplished, it maybe mentioned that the pigs having been driven to the killing pens, a chain is placed around the hind leg of one of the animals and attached to one of a series of constantly moving arms on a so-called Ferris wheel, which elevates the pig from the pen and places it on an inclined rail. The struggles of the animal carry it before the "sticker," who makes a small incision in the median line of the neck directed toward the thorax and severing the larger cervical blood vessels. When the animal dies, the body is placed in scalding water aud then pulled through an automatic scraping machine where it is relieved of most of its hair. This scraping is completed by men along the scraping bench, after which the head is cut almost away from the body and the inspector examines the cervical lymph glands. The hog is then hung on the track of a suspended tramway by means of a pulley which is provided with a double hook and fastened to the gambrel stick. The carcass is here eviscerated and during this process carefully examined by the inspector, who is placed at such a point on the killing floor that all the eviscerating goes on directly in front of him and so near the body that he can examine with his hand any lesion his eye might detect. His position also commands a view of the run before reaching him and of the line after the carcasses have passed onward. Beside him is a table, upon which various organs are placed, and in those cases where lesions are apparent, these viscera are tagged and held, as are also the carcasses, for a more elaborate examination after the killing has ceased, when the proper disposition of those condemned is finally made. The healthy carcasses are then passed along the rail through the shower-bath and thence to the cooling room. All packages, cans, boxes, kegs, tierces and other vessels con- taining meat products from the inspected carcasses are required to be labeled with the number of the official abattoir whence they originated and with the declaration that they were inspected accord- ing to law. When the chief inspector is perfectly satisfied in this regard and also that they are pure and healthful, he has all pack- ages intended for shipment properly marked with the white meat inspection stamps bearing serial numbers. They are thereupon immediately cancelled and the product is ready for commerce. In addition to the regular ante and post mortem inspection of hogs a microscopic examination for trichina is made of all swine the products of which are exported to those countries that demand this inspection as a prerequisite for the admission of such meats. XXX INTBODUCTION After the hog has passed an ante and post mortem examination the carcass is moved to the cooling room, where three samples of muscle are taken by one of the government employees from the prescapular region, the pillar of the diaphragm and from the psoas muscle. Where the liver or tongue is to be exported a sample of this organ is likewise taken for special examination. The specimens are placed in a small tin box, which contains a duplicate tag to the one fastened upon the carcass from which the samples were taken. The boxes are then carried to the microscopic room, where they are care- fully examined by the microscopist and his assistants. Small por- tions of each of the three muscles are snipped off and prepared by mincing into three thin, evenly-distributed translucent mounts held together in a compressor. Each preparation is then examined separately under low magnification by placing it in a frame on a mechanical stage of a microscope. By means of a specially con- structed stage this frame which holds the compressor is made to run up and down on two parallel grooves and by means of a saw- tooth arrangement at the bottom and top of the stage, the compres- sor is forced onward, with mechanical precision, so that each field overlaps another. Therefore, every portion of the preparation must necessarily be in the field at some time during the examination. No microscopist is permitted to examine more than eighty slides per day and the work performed is always subject to the re-examination of the one in charge of this work. In case living trichinte or non- disintegrated dead trichiuse are found in the mounts, the sample is marked "C" and the carcass is taken from the cooling room and rendered into lard at a temperature not lower than 150° F. or turned into prepared meats by boiling until the interior is completely cooked. Those preparations in which degenerated or calcified trichina or trichinae cysts or any substance which causes the least suspicion, owing to its similarity to the above, are marked "B," and the meat of the carcass is withheld from shipment to those countries that require microscopic inspection, although free to be used in other trade. When the microscopist has found an absence of tnchina, tnchma-like cysts or any suspicious bodies, the prepara- tions are marked "A," and the carcasses represented are used for filling the orders of those governments demanding trichina-free pork. Before this microscopically examined meat is taken out of the cooler to be cut up, all the rejected carcasses must be withdrawn and placed by themselves to be treated as above mentioned All o her meats in the cutting room are put away and the tables, chutes, blocks and earners cleared of all pork previously handled. The INTRODUOTION XXXI cutting up of the meat is then begun under the supervision of a government official, after which it is placed in a cellar to be cured and stored prior to shipment as trichina-free products. No other meats are allowed in this cellai", which is securely locked and the key retained by one of the government employees, who keeps an exact list of all meats coming into and going from the cellar. When the microscopically inspected pork has been cured, smoked or otherwise prepared, it is packed in barrels, boxes or other packages upon which purple meat inspection stamps are placed in grooved spaces and covered with tin, to prevent them from being scraped off. A purple certificate of inspection is then issued by the inspector in charge, stating the name of the consignor, consignee, destination and description of the packages and the numbers of the purple stamps thereon. It will thus be observed that from the time when the samples of muscles are taken from the hogs for microscopic examination, until the meat is packed and stamped for export, the entire proceeding is under the active and vigilant supervision of a government employee. The following tables taken from the report of the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry for 1903 show in a vivid and convenient form the development of federal meat inspection from its establish- ment to the present time and include the number of abattoirs and cities having inspection, the number of animals inspected, the amount of microscopically examined pork exported and the total cost of each ante-mortem examinatipn. Number of Establishments and Cities Where Inspection was Conducted Fiscal Years 1891 to 1903 Fiscal Year Number OF Es- tablish- ments Number OF Cities Fiscal Year Number OF Es- tablish- ments Number OF Cities 1891 9 28 87 46 59 102 128 6 12 16 17 'l9 26 33 1898 135 189 149 157 155 156 3o 1892 . 1899 43 1893 1900 46 1894 1901 53 1895 1903 50 1896. 1903 50 1897 Th-1 following shows the exports of pork to countries requiring certificates of microscopic inspection from 1892 to 1903 : xxxn INTBODUCTION Pounds 1892 23,035,698 1893 8,059,758 1894 18,845,119 1895 39,355,330 1896 21,497,331 1897 43,570,537 Pounds 1898 120,110,356 1899 108.858,149 1900 55.809,636 1901 85,943,402 1903 33,681,329 1903 19,108,341 The following shows the cost of each ante-mortem inspection from 1893 to 1902, inclusive : 1893 , 1894. 1895 . 1896 , 1897 . Cents 4.75 1898 1.75 1899 1.10 1900 .95 1901 .91 1902 Cents 0.80 .88 .95 1.01 1.08 Number op Animals Inspected at Slaughter for Abattoirs Having Inspection Fiscal Tears 1891 to 1903 Fiscal Year Cattle Calves Sheep Hogs Horses Total 1891 1893 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1903 1903 83,889 3,167,000 3.933,079 3,861,594 3,704,043 3,985,484 4,343,316 4,418,738 4,382,020 4,841,166 5,219,149 5,559,969 6,134,410 _ 59,089 588,361 93,947 870,513 96,883 1,020,764 116,093 1,428,601 256.905 4,6|9,796 273,134 5,209,161 244,330 5,496,904 246,184 5,602,096 315,693 6,119,886 413,830 6,639,213 555,836 7,434,878 668,855 8,585,960 7,618,146 13,616,539 14,250,191 16,808,771 30,893,199 23,836,948 23,339,884 34,643,753 35,377,107 21,793,738 3,883 4,559 1,992 1,649 344 83,889 3,809,459 4,885,538 13,636,835 18,868,275 28,132,876 26,588,272 31,053,171 34.071,575 34,619,188 36,916,986 38,839,489 37,183,307 The subject of meat inspection thus far considered has dealt only with the Federal system, as this is freely conceded to be the highest type of rational inspection existing in the United States and the regulations controlling it are frequently drawn upon in inagur- ating local inspections. The other forms found in this country are the local or municipal inspection and the state inspection. Before the act creating a system of meat inspection under Federal super- vision was adopted,* several states— as Indiana, Minnesota, Col- orado, etc.— had so-called meat inspection laws, although they principally provided for an inspection of the living animals in the INTRODUCTION XXXUl stockyards. Certain cities, such as Boston, Detroit, WasEington, etc., likewise inaugurated more or less valuable laws pertaining to a pure meat supply, but it was not until after the enforcement of the Federal act on this subject that more comprehensive and efficient municipal and state inspection laws began to appear, and, what is better, were enforced, encouraged as they were by the intelligent and successful work performed by the Bureau of Animal Industry. Among the most estimable of these laws for municipalities will be found those governing the meat supply of New Orleans, La.,, and Montgomery, Ala., which provide for public slaughter under the supervision of meat inspectors connected with the Board of Health, and every piece of meat inspected and put on the market must bear the official inspection stamp. The recent law passed by the Mon- tana legislature must be considered as an excellent type of what each state should adopt and then honestly and efficiently enforce. By this broad and lucid law every city in the state having a popu- lation of 5,000 or over is required to have a system of meat inspection tinder the direction of a competent sanitary officer who must be a graduate of a recognized veterinary college. The necessity for state and municipal inspection may be appre- ciated when it is understood that the government has no power to inspect meats that do not leave the confines of the state. The facts are, however, that in localities where abattoirs have federal inspec- tion, much of the meat used for city trade or for shipment within the state as well as the large majority of the products which enter the interstate commerce is inspected by the government. But meat inspected may become contaminated, be subjected to unsanitary conditions, or become putrid or repulsive from various causes after it has passed beyond the jurisdiction of the federal inspector. It is therefore important that municipal and state inspection laws be on the statutes to take cognizance of such unhygienic conditions or changes in the flesh and to require market inspection in addition to ante and post mortem examination. However, the great danger that menaces the public health arises not so much from meat con- taminated after inspection as from uninspected meat produced in the numerous unclean and ill-smelling private slaughterhouses so frequently found on the outskirts of a number of our cities. To control the latter and to control them efficiently it is essential that laws be enacted for the proper supervision of these establishments, which kill at all hours of the day and night as inclination dictates or necessity demands. The regulations thereof should insist that the viscera and their lymphatic glands must be retained after their IXXIV INTRODUCTION removal from the carcass until examined by the inspector and their connection with tne carcass appropriately noted. Inspection that includes merely the dressed carcass is unworthy of the name and extremely delusive, as it gives a false impression of security to the consumer. These houses should also be compelled to kill only on certain days or hours in order to permit the inspector to be present. All the butchers should be licensed and likewise their abattoirs, which should come up to a certain prescribed standard. A far bettpr law, and one which would receive the endorsement of all sanitarians, would ordain the abolition of these small buildings and the establishment of a public slaughterhpuse, as in Montgomery, Ala., remote from the center of the city and its business section and where a thorough inspection by a veterinarian could be made of all animals. Such an abattoir under rigid, though rational restric- tions, would be beneficial not only in facilitating the business but in promoting the sanitary interests of the city, as all the oflfal could be disposed of at once and all portions of the carcass not edible could be reduced to inoffensive articles of commerce. In some cities where the inspection is enforced by laymen, such as butchers, cattlemen, or men even more disconnected with the practical part of the work, the result is seriously handicapped on account of their inability to recognize lesions that at once would appeal to one trained in the anatomy, physiology and pathology of the domesticated animals and in the relationship existing between their diseases and human health. If an adequate reason for muni- cipal inspection exists, and no one of intelligence will deny it, this should possess equal strength for having the law intelligently and efficiently enforced by capable officers of the law, trained in the knowledge of sanitation and comparative medicine. The plea that such men are not available is becoming more untenable every day, as meat inspection has made such rapid progress and has now reached such an important position that all the leading veterinary colleges in this country have provided this chair and have filled it with experienced veterinarians who in many cases give practical abattoir demonstrations. It is only a question of time when every town and city of any size will arise from their sanitary lethargy, as a direct result of the education of public opinion along this line, and will have an organized and compulsory system of muni- cipal inspection supervised by one skilled in veterinary science. And the adoption as well as the success of such inspection will depend to a great extent upon the interest shown and the support given it by the people of the country, for whose health and INTSODUCTION XXXV •well-being the conscientious inspector will give his constant sur- veillance. Perhaps of all parts of the field of veterinary publication in Eng- lish there is none so poorly supplied as that which pertains to prac- tical meat inspection. The English literature on this subject has been very sparse and not of a highly valuable character, making it all the more difficult for an inspector without the knowledge of a foreign language to fully comprehend the nature of many of the uncommon pathological specimens with which he comes in contact during his inspection. Fortunate, indeed, was the German-reading inspector who had access to the monthly meat-inspection journal published by Ostertag, as well as the latter's Handbook. In that journal many of the lesions which are little understood are discussed and it is not infrequent that by such articles the resemblance of such processes to our own observed lesions may become apparent. The issuance of the present publication on meat inspection, so ably translated from the masterpiece on this subject, will be of untold benefit, not only to the practical meat inspector and prac- tising veterinarian, but to the professor, student and layman as well. The need of such a book has long been felt by the English- reading inspectors and will readily be appreciated by them. The translation will perhaps be particularly welcome on account of the unusual interest at present manifested in meat inspection in this country and the consequent demand for well-trained meat inspec- tors who can take charge of this work in various municipalities where meat inspection is being established. I. GENERAL DISCUSSION OF MEAT INSPECTION. 1.— Nature and Problems of Meat Inspection. Nature. — By the term meat inspection is understood the professional investigation and judgment on the entrails and meat of slaughtered animals with reference to their fitness as human food. In a broader sense, meat inspection also includes the examination of living animals before slaughter, which examination is required for a more accurate judgment on the fitness of the meat for consumption. Furthermore, meat inspection embraces the supervision of public and private meat markets, as well as of all industries in which meat is manufactured into sausages and other products. This control of the market and industrial occupations, which in the older south German ordinances on meat inspection was characterized as extraordinary meat inspection, is a necessary supplement to true, or ordinary, meat inspection. For the meat of healthy animals which, in and of itself, is suitable for con- sumption, may, in consequence of improper preservation or other treatment, become subsequently unfit for consumption by man. Problems of Meat Inspection. — 1. The chief purpose of meat inspection is to protect man against the dangers which threaten him from eating meat. These dangers are of several sorts. The most serious consist in, the possibility of the trans- mission of animal parasites (trichina and tape worms), as well as of infectious and toxic diseases (tuberculosis, glanders, anthrax, rabies, septicemia, pyemia, meat poisoning and botulism. The sanitary supervision of the traffic in meat is one of the most important parts of public hygiene, since meat forms the almost daily food of the greater portion of human beings, and 1 2 GENERAL DISCUSSION ON MEAT INSPECTION consumers in the majority of cases are not in a position to recog- nize the wholesome or dangerous character of the meat of which they partake as food. Meat may possess the freshest appearance, the red color, the firm consistency or fat content, and the peculiar odor — in short, all the characteristics of perfectly normal meat — and yet be un- wholesome. The dictum of the English statesman Disraeli, "sanitary education is better than sanitary legislation," does not a,pply to the consumption of meat by man. Reliable criteria for the differentiation of wholesome and unwholesome meat are fur- nished only by the inspection of food animals before slaughter and the investigation of all parts of animals after slaughter, by meat inspectors. Thus it happens that there is no definite method of preparation by which all the unwholsomeness attaching to meat under certain circumstances may be removed. The consumer, therefore, can not protect himself sufficiently by private measures. Furthermore, experience has shown that the public, even in those cases in which it is possible, by observing certain precautions, to avoid the harmful effects of eating meat, is inclined to neglect these precautions. This is best illustrated by trichinosis. This is preventable by private measures,^thorough boiling or roasting of the meat. Nevertheless, the numerous epidemics of trichinosis to which hundreds of persons have fallen victims, have not sufficed to change the custom of eating raw and half-cooked pork. Gerlach justly observes that there is no more convincing proof of the everlasting unreasonableness of man in certain things than that furnished in trichinosis. For these reasons it is to be considered the plain duty of every community, through the organization of meat inspection, to with- hold from consumption all meat which is likely to injure the health of the consumer. Meat as Food Material for Man. — Man is omnivorous. No human race is found which lives exclusively upon a vegetable diet. While in certain countries the meat of domesticated animals is not eaten, yet animal food is, nevertheless, consumed in the form of fish, amphibia, molluske, etc.* The amount of meat which * In Japan, according to Janson, the consumption of the meat of domesticated animals was forbidden after the introduction of Buddhism in the seventh century a.d. The slaughter of animals was resumed after the admission of foreigners to the country. At first the latter alone ate meat. Gradually, however, the Japanese accustomed themselves to animal food, and in the beginning of the 80's it was introduced into the Japanese army. NATURE AND PE0BLEM8 O is eaten depends essentiajly upon the climate in whicli man lives. "While the iuhubitants pf 4he tropics live principally on a vegetable diet and those of the polar regions almost exclusively upon an animal diet, the inhabitants of the temperate zone live upon a mixture of both food materials, as the most suitable nourishment. The vegetarian manner of life in our latitude must be characterized as founded on error. The case is not altered by the fact that certain individuals, in spite of abstaining from meat, are capable of exerting considerable energy. Meat is indispensable for the majority of human beings if they are to remain capable of a normal amount of work. According to Manfredi, the physical degeneration, Lick of energy, and effeminate habits of the southern Italians are due to the fact that they eat so little meat. Furthermore, according to Alanus, the so-called atheromatous degeneration of the walls of the blood vessels is frequently observed in vegetarians. Consumption of Meat — According to the reports of the German abattoirs, the consumption of meat in cities amounts to from 50 to 90 kg. per capita per annum, exclusive of game, fowls and fish. In country districts the use of meat is less extensive, so that the total consumption in cities and in rural districts averages consider- ably lower. In the Grand Duchy of Baden, which thus far has furnished the only reliable statistics on this point, the consumption of meat in 1890 amounted to 35.4 kg., and in 1894 to 42.1 kg. The consumption of meat varies with the market price. The Bureau of Statistics in England published a statement in 1890 on the consumption of meat in various civilized countries. According to this statement, the following amounts were consumed per capita per annum : Australia 111.6 kg. United States 54.4 " Great Britain 47.6 " Sweden and Norway 39.5 " France 83.6 " Germany 31.6 " Belgium and the Netherlands 31.3 " Austria-Hungary 29.0 " Eussia 31.8 " Spain 23.3 " Italy * 10.4 " Lichtenfelt compiled statistics for the year 1894 on the con- sumption of meat in Germany and the relative importance of the different kinds of meat in different parts of Germany : GENERAL DISCUSSION OP MEAT INSPECTION p;ee capita consumption of meat in gebmany. Region Cattle Calves Sheep Hogs Total Prussia Kg. 17.6 11.4 18.4 14.4 13.0 11.1 20 5 10 9 115 19.5 18.6 20.2 11.6 14.5 23 7 13.6 Kg. 1.2 2.2 2.0 1.7 23 3.3 3.6 1.7 3.3 1.4 1.7 3.9 3.6 11 3.0 2.6 Kg. 3.8 3.3 43 3.4 09 1.4 1 8 1.8 0.4 1.3 0.5 1.0 0.9 0.6 05 1.3 Kg. , 15.7 21.9 20.7 21.2 16.6 25.0 23.4 21.6 19.2 19.7 16.8 24.5 17.3 23.3 30 8 15.9 Kg. 37.3 37.8 40.4 39.7 32 8 Saxony. 39.8 48.3 Hanover „ 35 5 83.4 41.8 JRhGinland 37.6 49.6 Kingdom of Saxony Wurtemburg 82.4 39.5 57.0 Alsace-Lorraine 83 4 Average 15.3 3.3 1.5 20.9 89 9 More than the average amount of meat, therefore, is eaten in Pomerania, Schleswig-Holstein, Hessen-Nassau, Bavaria and Baden. Baden and Bavaria are especially conspicuous in this respect. The smallest quantity of meat is eaten in Silesia and the Kingdom of Saxony. Beef is consumed to the greatest extent in Baden, and least in Hanover ; veal, to the greatest extent in Bavaria and least in Wurtemburg. The inhabitants of Pomerania eat the most mutton, while those of Westphalia, Ehineland and Baden consume the least. The contrast with reference to the consumption of pork is quite striking, for, while the greatest quantity is eaten in Baden, the neighboring inhabitants of Alsace-Lorraine consume almost the smallest quantity -of pork. Meat Rations in the German Army.— The small peace ration of the German soldier includes, in addition to bread, rice, legumes or potatoes, and hulled barley, 150 gm. of meat; the large peace ration during the maneuvers, 250 gm.; small war ration, 375 gm.; and the large war ration, 500 gm. 2. Another problem of meat inspection consists in protecting consumers from financial loss by fraud. The inspection of meat must secure the proper conduct of the, meat traffic. It protects NATURE- AND PROBLEMS 5 meat buyers againfet the likelihood of paying full price for inferior food stuffs. As Schmidt-Miilheim rightly observes, no food material lends itself so readily to adulteration and fraudulent treatment as meat. Where meat inspection is not regulated, it is a well known daily occurrence that meat of the lowest market value is offered for sale at full prices. It not only happens that unscrupulous dealers substitute horse meat for beef, but an extensive fraudulent traffic is carried on with the meat of diseased animals. Butchers obtain the meat of such animals at minimum prices and sell it to unsuspecting buyers at full market price. In so far as ihe meat of diseased animals is not dangerous to human health, its sale may be per- mitted, but it is no more than right that the consumer should be made acquainted with the facts, and that he should be able to take advantage of the lower market value due to the diseased condition of the animal.* The Value of Meat Inspection for Agriculture. — The profit which butchers make through the unrestricted sale of the meat of diseased animals is very considerable, since diseased animals are sold by farmers at ridiculous prices. Forty to fifty marks is a high price for a diseased beef animal, as appears from numerous legal pro- ceedings in cases of violation of the pure food law. For example, one butcher bought a diseased beef animal for 11 marks and testified that he had bought cattle at cheaper prices. Such methods of taking advantage, of the rural population are checked by active meat inspection. A certain proportion of diseased animals is indeed prohibited from sale, but the owners are protected against punishment, the degree of severity of which ■is quite out of proportion to the small profit which may be made from the unrestricted sale of questionable material. The other, and, as experience shows, by far the greater proportion of diseased animals, the farmer is permitted to retain and utilize to advantage in a legitimate manner. Thus, for example, in the Grand Duchy of Baden in 1891-1892, only 1,588 out of 12,200 cases of emergency slaughter were prohibited from sale, while the remainder were utilized at reasonable prices. For this reason meat inspection is of advantage to agriculture, and it is an evidence of failure to recognize the facts in the case. * The substitution of inferior in the plaee of prime meat is an old practice of meat dealers, as appears from the old records concerning meat inspection. In this connection the procedure of the magistrate in Passau in the fourteenth century is noteworthy. The butchers were compelled to take oath annually that they would sell only healthy marketable meat. 6 GENERAL DISCUSSION OP MEAT INSPECTION that, formerly, farmers in various countries fepposed the intro- duction of meat inspection. Thus it also comes about that in countries without meat inspection the farmer is in other respects at the mercy of the butchers. It is sufficiently apparent from legal proceedings that butchers have sought to secure a great reduction in price on account of slight defects which were discovered after slaughter, while at the same time they offered the whole animala for sale to the original owners who lived some distance away. Thus, certain cattle dealers were convicted of fraud in twelve cases in which they had pretended to the farmers that the cattle which they had bought of them had been found to be diseased when slaughtered. Such business methods are rendered impossible by the regulation of meat inspection. To the credit of the butcher's profession, however, it should be mentioned that the corporation representatives of butchers in Germany repeatedly appeared before the Keichregierung in the interests of the introduction of meat inspection. 3. It is the function of meat inspection to furnish valuable assistance to the veterinary police and to veterinary hygiene. Through the regular investigation of numerous animals, especially through the opportunity to determine the condition of the internal organs of such animals, meat inspection is in a position to detect cases of animal plagues which escape the notice of veterinary police. The detection of glanders offers, perhaps, the best proof of this statement. Moreover, the reduction in the number of cases of pleuro-pneumonia and the systematic warfare waged by veter- inary police against tuberculosis is made. possible only on the basis of a regulated meat inspection. The value of meat inspection for veterinary police appears in recent times to be underestimated.. The words of Gerlach should, therefore, be borne in mind, that the successful labor of veterinary police is absolutely impossible in the present business operations without the control of the slaughter of animals. The Detection of Epizootic Outbreaks by Meat Inspection.— In the years 1892 to 1895, aside from foot-and-mouth disease and swine plagne, there were detected by meat inspection in Germany 168- cases of anthrax, 54 cases of glanders, 28 'cases of pleurb- pneumonia, 10 cases of horse mange, and 55 cases of sheep scab. From 1896 to 1899, 212 cases of anthrax (including black-leg and hemorrhagic septicemia), 96 of glanders, 26 of pleuro-pneumouia, 11 of hoise mange, nm\ 54 of sheep scab wore detected. In this NATURE AND PROBLEMS 7 connectioa it should be remembered that the official statistics do uot enumerate all cases of the detection of infectious diseases by meat inspection. In the abattoir at Magdeburg, during the first year for which reports were made (1892-1893), 11 cases of pleuro-pueumonia were found in apparently healthy cattle, and thus many affected localities were discovered and brought to the attention of the veterinary police. In the Province of Posen, during the last outbreak of pleuro-pneumonia, the rapid reduction in the number of cases of this disease was due to the fact that the first case, which was brought to slaughter, was detected in an abattoir, thanks to meat inspection, which had been introduced in that locality. The purpose of veterinary hygiene is furthered by meat inspection, since all virulent material capable of multiplication found in slaughtered animals, especially animal parasites and their larval stages, is rendered harmless. Meat inspection is one of the most efficient means of combating the ever-increasing infection of domesticated animals by worms and bacterial diseases, and it thereby increases the profits from agricultvire.* In localities without meat inspection, animal parasites, which annually cause an incalculable loss to agriculture, are. furnished favorable conditions for propagation. The organs which contain parasites are not destroyed, as happens where meat inspection is regularly performed, but are usually fed to such animals as are capable of spreading the disease. In this regard meat inspection has already achieved visible results. In consequence of the systematic inspection of hogs for cysticerci, the tape-worm of man (Taenia solium), which develops from the hog bladder- worm, has become one of the greatest rarities in Germany. The number of measly hogs among native animals has been correspondingly reduced. In contrast to this state of affairs, it has been shown in the case of hogs which came from countries without meat inspection (Galicia, Houmania, Servia and Russia), that the per- centage of infected animals is incomparably higher. As in the case of measles in hogs, so also in measles of cattle, echinococcus diseases and other parasitic affections; in fact, even in the pro- portion of the infectious diseases of domesticated animals, the same result will be brought about. With regard to infectious diseases, the favorable effect of meat inspection is to be expected, especially in the case of tuberculosis of domesticated animals — our greatest * By this means also meat inspection is of considerable benefit to agriculture. 8 GENERAL DISCUSSION OF MEAT INSPECTION plague. By the careful destruction of tuberculous organs, the dissemination of the pathogenic organism and the possibility of its transmission to other animals are prevented. The disastrous consequences of carelessness in handling tuberculous organs and parts are shown by an occurrence in the abattoir at Copenhagen. For a long time the butchers were allowed to feed hogs with the refuse from the abattoir. On slaughtering these animals it was found that 80 per cent, were tuberculous. Statistics on Entozoa and Meat Inspection. — Statistics on the occurrence of various entozoa which are communicable from man to a.nimals furnish abundant proof of the beneficial effects of meat inspection. Wherever meat inspection has been introduced, Taenia solium of man, which develops from the hog cysticercus, has become of rare occurrence. Thus, in Southern Germany, Taenia solium of man and Cysticercus cellulosae of the hog have become rare in consequence of the existence there for a long time of regular meat inspection. In Munich, Taenia solium is almost never observed. Bollinger, therefore, made use of the frequency of the occurrence of T. solium of man as a test of the quality of meat inspection. In striking contrast to T. solium, T. saginata has constantly increased in the last twenty years, because the early stage of this tape-worm in cattle, partly on account of the non- existence of meat inspection and partly on account of an insufficient examination of cattle for this cysticercus, was, up to within a few years, only occasionally discovered. The cysticercus disease of man has decreased to a degree which corresponds with the rare occurrence of T. solium. Next to Saxony and Thiiringen, Berlin has furnished the largest number of cases of the cysticercus disease of the eye for a number of years. The oculist Hirschberg, for example, observed 70 cases of cysti- cercus of the eye among 60,000 cases of eye disease in the sixteen ■years between 1869 and 1885. From 1886 to 1892, on the other hand, in 46,000 cases of eye disease, Hirschberg fouud only two cases of cysticercus, one of which came from Saxony. This can not be accidental, but must be considered as a consequence of the introduction of meat inspection, which took place in Berlin in 1883. From 1892 to 1893, Hirschberg observed no case of cysticercus of the eye in Berlin, but observed one from Westphalia and one from Saxonj'. Virchow also observed a less striking, but still noticeable, decrease in cysticerci in comparing post mortem findings from 1875 to 1891. Of the 126 larvae of T. solium which were found in HISTORY y cadavers dnring this time, 101 were located in the braiu. When we compare the number of cysticerci found in the brain with the total number of brain examinations, it appears that since the iutroduc- -tion of meat inspection the ratio has diminished from 1:31 to 1:280. Of 14,000 cadavers in Munich which were examined in the Pathological Institute of that city up to the beginning of the 80's, only two cysticerci were found in the brain, while in Berlin this parasite was found in 87 of the 5,300 post mortem examinations up to the year 1877. The decrease in the. ecliinococcus disease of man is also striking. Up to the year 1888 Virchow was able to demonstrate from 5 to 9 eases of echinococcus disease per year in the cadavers which were examined in the Pathological Institute at Berlin. After 1888, however, the number of cases decreased to from 3 to 1. Dcffke has called attention to the inter-relation between meat inspection and helminthiasis of dogs. According to his investiga- tions, the number of dogs infested with entozoa in Berlin has diminished considerably bince compulsory meat inspection was introduced into that city. While entozoa were found in -nearly all dogs in Island, in Berlin at the end of the 80's only 62 per cent, were infested. Deffke attributes this difference chiefly to the rare occurrence of the three large taeniae of dogs, especially T. marginata (from the Cysticercus tenulcollis which occurs so frequently in food animals). Xrabbe found T. marginata in Island in 75 per cent, of the dogs ; Sehbne, in Saxony, in 27 per cent.; Deffke, in Berlin, in only 7 per cent. Before the introduction of meat inspection, the large taeniae of the dog in Berlin, as was shown by special reports and statistics of disease, were a very frequent subject of treatment. According to Deffke, it may be asserted with tolerable certainty that in Berlin the tape-worms of the dog have become less frequent, entirely on account of the well regulated meat inspection of that city. 3.— History.* Antiquity. — Traditions of the oldest civilized nations show they possessed certain regulations concerning the consumption * Compare the works of G-raber, " Historical Account of the Development of Public Sanitation in the Field of Animal Foods"; Goltz, " The History of Animal Foods and, Meat Inspection," also "Historical Studies in the Field of Meat Foods and Meat Inspection"; Adler, "Public Valuation of Meat in German Cities at the Close of the Middle Ages"; and the related articles of Morot, Ptitz, Stumpf and Gehrke. 10 GENERAL DISCUSSION OF MEAT INSPECTION of meat. Thus we learn through Herodotus and Plutarch that the Egyptians were forbidden to eat pork for the reason that it produced an excess of humors and eruptions. The animals which served as offerings to the gods and as food for the priests had to be carefully inspected. Only the meat of "clean" animals could be used in offerings and eaten. The use of "unclean" meat, on the other hand," was forbidden. Moreover, sacrificial animals were required to be perfectly healthy and free from defect. Such animals were certified by a mark on the horns (a strip of paper sealed with clay). Death punishment was prescribed for priests who slaughte'red an animal which was not certified in this manner. The meat of cows was not eaten by the Egyptians, since the cow was the sacred animal of Isis. Likewise, the meat of other animals which were considered sacred was forbidden food. Among the Egyptians the hog was the most unclean of all animals. Even accidental contact with it made one unclean, and led to exclusion from the temple' until purification. Moses commanded the Israelites to eat no fat and no blood and to avoid the meat of hogs. Concerning sacrificial animals, it is stated in Leviticus, Oh. xxii, v. 22 : " Blind, or broken, or maimed, or having a wen, or scurvy, or scabbed, ye shall not offer these unto the Lord." Furthermore, "unwholsome meat, carrion, and anything which has defects shall not be slaughtered, and that which remains of sacrificed animals after the third day shall be burned with fire." Animals which were torn by other animals were regarded the same as carrion. The meat of animals which were affected with wasting diseases could not be eaten. The eating of blood was forbidden because Moses considered the blood as the seat of life which belonged to the Creator from whom all life originated. By offering the blood of animals, believers reconciled their souls with God. The High Priest purified himself in order to enter the holy of holies once a year. The eating of fat was forbidden because, like blood, it was intended for sacrifice. According to Tacitus, the consumption of pork was forbidden to the Israelites, not only from religious grounds, but also because the origin of "lepra Arabum " was ascribed to it. The animals which were permitted to be used as food included all of the ruminant ungulates, all fish which bear fins and scales, and birds which do not feed on carrion. Eating the meat of young animals was forbidden. A legal regulation was directed against the slaughter of such animals : " "When an ox, or a lamb, or a goat is born, it shall be with its dam for seven days and thereafter it HISTORY 11 may be offered to the Lord." The Mosaic, like the Egyptian, laws distinguished between "clean" and "unclean" food animals. The Jewish method of slaughtering food animals was not prescribed first by the Mosaic laws, but by the Talmud, which was edited by learned Jews during the first five years of the Christian era. The Phoenicians, like the Egyptians, abstained from eating the meat of cows and hogs, but held the meat of dogs in high esteem. Berosus relates from the books of Oaunes that the Babylonians established detailed regulations concerning diet. In Athens in the earliest times there was established a system of market police, whose officers (agoranomoi) were intrusted with the proper conduct of the meat traffic. The Athenians were for- bidden to eat the meat of a lamb which had not been shorn once. According to Hippocrates, the Greeks were fond of the meat of dogs which had been castrated while young. Alexander the Great forbade the Lipanese the eating of fish for the reason that the fiesh decomposed so rapidly. In ancient Home, from the year 388 of the founding of the city, two curule sediles (cereales) exercised control of the meat market, public shops, and the cooking of meat. Meat condemned by the sediles was frequently thrown into the Tiber. In one number of Ada Populi Bomani diurna, in the year 164 A.D., the following notice is found: "The aedile Tetini punished the small butchers because they sold to the people meat which had not been pre- viously inspected by the authorities. The fines were devoted to the establishment of a temple to the goddesses." The meat of goats was- considered by the Romans as unwhole- some. On the other hand, the Romans possessed an almost morbid predilection for pork. Fifty different articles of food were made from pork. The sexual organs of female swine were especially sought for by the Romans during the existence of the Empire. Plutarch (De usu carnis) says: "Vulva porci nihil dulcius ampla." The dugs (sumen) of a sow which had just farrowed were not less esteemed and also the liver of an animal which had been fattened on figs. The longing of the Romans for the genital organs of female swine and the extensive consumption of young pigs brought about such a great decrease in the number of hogs that the Emperor Severus forbade the slaughter of brood sows and sucking pigs, — an edict which was reissued by the Emperor Julianus. Hares were considered unclean and harmful to the digestion, and were, therefore, eaten only by poor people. The meat of rabbits. 12 GENERAL DISCUSSION OF MEAT INSPECTION on the contrary, was much liked. The young, when cut out of the body or taken away from the teats, constituted a delicacy for the decadent Eomans. The meat of oxen was not eaten by the ancient Eomans, out of consideration for their mates at work or in the field. They likewise atfe no raw meat, for the reason that it had a repulsive, unclean appearance. The opinion prevailed that meat did not become food until it was completely altered by cooking and roasting. Salting meat was practiced by the Komans, and this custom was already common at the time of Homer. Moreover, they already understood the art of preparing sausages ; for example, bratwurst (botuli), schnittwurst (incisia), ringelwurst (circelli), and hackwurst (tomacina). Moreover, attention should be called to the fact that, among the ancient Romans, slaughter houses (lanienae) and meat booths (macelli) existed, which in extent and elaborate organization were not second to other public buildings. With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, these sanitary establishments of Rome were also lost. Mohammedans. — Mohammed decreed a series of regulations concerning food materials for the communicants of the religious society which was named after him. He forbade in the Koran the use of animals which died a natural death, carrion, blood, pork, the meat of animals at the slaughter of which the name of any other god was called upon, animals which died of asphyxia or of a blow or a fall or by injury from the horns of another animal or which were torn by wild animals (" it is necessary that the animal shall have been killed only by slaughter"), and animals which were killed in honor of other gods. GERMANY. (a) From the Middle Ages to the Thirty Years' War. In Germany the first regulations with regard to meat con- sumption are met with at the time of the appearance of the apostle Wienfried Bonifacius, at the beginning of the eighth century. Under the direction of Pope Gregory III, he forbade the eating of horse meat on the ground that it caused impure blood and eruptions. Pope Gregory III wrote to the apostle Bonifacius as follows : " I have learned from you that there are certain people among you who eat the meat of wild and tame horses. I therefore warn you that this ought to be permitted to no one, but that it should be prevented by all possible means in the name of Christ, and that atonement shall be made for it, for it is unclean and an abomination." HISTORY 13 That not merely sanitary or aesthetic considerations determined the issuance of this bull is apparent from the conclusions reached at the Council of Oeleyth in 787, in which the consumption of horse meat was forbidden by the Ghurch for the reason that horse meat was sacrificed and eaten by Germanic peoples in honor of OJin. An attempt was thus made by forbidding the consumption of horse meat to combat a heathen Germanic custom and to promote the progress of Christianity. Moreover, the fear of leprosy was so great that the order in question was most puncti- liously observed (Piitz). Later, Bonifacius made known the desire of Pope Zacharius " that bacon and pork should not be eaten in any other form than cooked or smoked." Pope Zacharius forbade the consumption of the meat of diseased animals since it was generally considered as dangerous to health. In the moral courts of justice which the German bishops held in their diocese at the time of Charles the Great, the following among other questions was asked : " Whether any one ate the blood or meat of dead animals or of one which had been torn by another." From this it is to be seen, as stated by Schmidt (" History of the Germans"), that in those days many customs were still r«etained which had been ordained in the Old Testament with reference to food materials, although the New Testament had set aside the food laws of the Old Testament. With the increase in industrial development, the traffic in food materials, on account of its great importance to the health of individuals, claimed the greatest attention for itself. It is apparent that in early times the police power of the fronvogt arid burggraf was exercised strenuously with regard to the business of the batcher. The earliest German records in which the traffic in meat is mentioned are the articles of incorporation of the city of Freiburg in Breisgau, in 1120 ; the records of Archbishop .Arnold I, con- cerning the city of Medebach, in 1144 ; and the Justitia civilatis Augsburgiensis ordained for the city of Augsburg by Emperor Frederick I, in 1156 ; the municipal law of Hagenau, 1164 ; and the records of Duke Henry I, as well as of Boleslaus, in 1224 and 1242, with regard to the cloister of Trebnitz. In the Justitia civitatis Augsburgiensis the butchers are mentioned as "carnifices." lu an old record which Bishop Liitold made concerning the butcher^ guild in Basel, in 1248, the following r.egulations are contained : " Thus they shall sell the cleanest and best, meat in the highest and best located parts of the market, and in the 14 GENBBAL DISCUSSION OP MEAT INSPECTION common meat booths they shall sell the kind of meat which has previously been sold in such places ; while unclean meat— that is, entrails, tripe, etc.— shall be sold outside of the market." The municipal law of the city of Freiburg in Uechtlande, in 1249, provides heavy punishment for dishonesty in butchers. The following mention is made of a certain slaughter house in the record of the city of Trachenberg, which was established by Duke Henry III in 1253: "Dotavimus ecclesiae . . . officinas carnium pro sua utilitate et . . . curiam in qua pecora mactantur." In the year 1261, in a charter which he granted to Mayor von Cerlier, Count Eaoul IV of Neuchatel stipulated that " meat showing eruptions should not be sold for good meat," and also that under the roof of a meat market "pork containing eruptions or meat killed by wolves or dogs, or the meat of any animal otherwise injured, should not be sold." The regulations concerning butchers in the Augsburg charter in 1276 are very interesting. They prescribe slaughter in a public slaughter house for cattle, sheep and calves, and also compulsory inspection and declaration for diseased animals, thus giving evi- dence of a hygienic view-point which is not observed at the present time in a number of civilized countries. The charter contains the following statement : " No butcher shall slaughter a beef animal, or sheep or calf, except in a slaughter house. If, however, animals die in country districts, two citizens and two honest butchers shall be appointed to issue a warning so that the people may sufEer no liarm from buying bad meat. If a butcher kills a measly hog, he shall sell it to no one without a statement of this fact. All the parts of any such animal shall be sold in the same booth, and if it is sold whole it shall be only under declaration." Furthermore, it was forbidden to put straw into the abdomen of slaughtered animals or to inflate the meat. In addition to a fine, there was also a severe punishment for a transgression of these laws. Moreover, the guilty person was banished from the city for a month, and " when he comes back into the city, he shall not be allowed to slaughter any meat for the period of a month." The municipal laws of Niirnberg, 1290, forbade keeping fresh meat for sale longer than two d.iys. Furthermore, it was prescribed that no calf should be slaughtered before it was four weeks old. Duke Henry III imposed upon the public advocates in Wohlau, in 1293, inspection duties over " duodecim macella carnis et unum factorium." The city laws of Bamberg in ] 306 forbade the sale of measly HISTORY 15 meat. In another regulation of the sane period, prescribed for Bamberg, " it is iilso ordered and prescribed for butchers that six men appointed by the city and under oath shall first inspect animals intended for slaughter, and that any meat which these experts consider of doubtful or inferior character shall be so characterized. Any person who shall thereafter sell the same, either in a house or in a market booth, shall be convicted by the testimony of two or more persons under oath, shall be fined five pounds of pennies, or must remain away from the city until he h;is paid this fine." lu the early records of Duke Boleslaus, in 1307, the following mention is made of a certain slaughter house : " Curia mactatovia quae in vulgari Machehof dicitur." From the tux-roll of the year 1310 it appears that in Nord- hausen there already existed a general slaughter house in which animals were slaughtered and sausages made. The meat statute of Stettin in 1312 prescribes that " the bone cutters " shall leave the tails on the rumps of slaughtered animals, so that they cannot sell cow meat for steer meat, goat meat for mutton, or the meat of bucks for that of wethers. The municipal law of Burgdorf, 1316, contains almost exactly the same regulations as those of the charter of Freiburg. The cities df Biieg and Gi'ottkau received the laws of the city of Breslau from Duke Boleslaus III in 1324. According to these laws, the councilmen were required to choose two men from each line of industrial occupation who were ordered to exercise a super- vision over the others, with the right "to use force in preventing the sale of any material which could be harmful to the city." The statute concerning the slaughter of animals in Kolu and the city ordinances of Berlin in 1343 forbade the sale of " milch cows, animals torn by dogs," as well as " diseased, malodorous and unclean animals." la Wurzburg in 1343 punishment is provided for " all persons who offer for sale measly or mangy meat." During the progress of litigation between the cloister Frowen- rode and the village of Wolfmannshusen in 1346, the following decision, among others, was handed down : " The inhabitants of the village shall, at an appointed time, bring all their hogs to the monastery, where they shall be appraised and inspected by viewing their tongues. Those which from the appearance of the tongues shall be considered clean and worth the estimated price shall be retained by the monastery." 16 GENERAL DISCUSSION OP MEAT INSPECTION In Dissenhofen, during the fourteenth century, the butchers were allowed to slaughter only so many animals between Easter and Saint Verana's Day as they were able to dispose of ou the same day. The charter of Zwickau in the year 1348 prescribes " that no butcher shall offer for sale in the meat booths measly meat, the meat of sows, immature meat, or any meat which has been cut by Jews. All such meat shall be sold outside of the booths." B'shop Gerhard of "Wiirzburg ordained the following regula- tions for the control of butchers in 1372 : " They shall not mix bad meat with good and no one shall cut up warm meat or offer it for sale." According to an abattoir statute of Hamburg in 1375, measly meat was required to be sold in a special booth on a white cloth ["up deme lakene"), and the same requirement was enforced in Liibeck and Stade. In 1376 the butchers in Regensburg were punished because they "pfinnige Far die, eine 8au mit Tutten und einen trefanten 'Ochsen zu scJiIagen willens gewesen." lu Aachen, the "planks" (the old meat market which was mentioned in the municipal record of 1385-1386) were under the supervision of the master of the meat and fish market and his assistants. These individuals took account of tha organization of the market and were furthermore required to cut off the ears of calves " which had not reached a suitable age," a method of marking Ihem according to an old custom. " Special pig inspectors " were appointed for investigating hogs, and it was their duty to brand unclean hogs with a cut. They were required to take the " oath of pig inspectors," which was as follows : " You shall be pig inspectors, for foreigners as well as for the native inhabitants, and neither for love nor money nor goods nor threats, nor from friend- ship nor enmity, shall you declare otherwise than as you find the pigs to be." Ill the year 1391, in order to carry out more strictly the sanitfiry police regulations of Augsburg, " a meat market was established, and where the old market stood it was torn dowu and a market was erected there and was surrounded by a wall." In Passau, in 1394, a system of inspection of animals and meat was introduced under two responsible councilmen with the assist- ance of meat inspectors. Moreover, the three butchers of that town were reqiiired to take oath annually that they would sell only healthy marketable meat. Measly pork was removed and thi HISTORY 17 Tender was obliged to return the price of the hog. Likewise, immature meat was condemned and thrown into the Danube. In Landshut, in 1401, an ordinance was passed prescribing that butchers should sell "Jew meat and measly meat" nowhere except between the meat tables, and that neither measly nor Jew meat should be offered as good meat. The charter of Wimpfen in l^Oi prescribed that measly meat should be sold in a " measly booth," three steps removed from the ordinary meat booths. In 1414 the butchers in Ulm drew up a resolution which they offered to the council for adoption. In this document the traffic with measly pork, bull meat and Jew meat was regulated. Who- ever offered such meat for sale was not allowed to sell any other meat at the same time. If a butcher pickled measly pork imme- diately after slaughter, and the twelve sworn masters of the market were satisfied of this fact, the butcher was allowed to sell other meat. In the year 1423 it was ordered that hogs which were sold by bakers to the butchers must be put upon the steps of the court of inspection before they were allowed to be killed. On May 30, 1428, Haintz der Otaker and his comrades took the oath to keep the peace. They had been imprisoned in the tower by the mayor and council at Kempten because they bought a calf in Wytenow which was only eleven days old and killed it in the slaughter house at Kempten and sold it. Steffen Smawczet von Begerndorf was made to take the oath to keep the peace on May 12, 1434, after having been imprisoned in the city of Eegensburg because he attempted to sell hogs in which the bladder worms had been secretly punctured so that the inspectors could not recognize them. The ordinance of the Council of Strasburg, 1435, forbade the watering of mutton before sale and ordered that sausages must be manufactured in the public mea't booths and not in houses. In the Marbach region in Alsace there were sworn meat inspectors on duty in the year 1437. Their chief duty was to see that the quality of the meat offered for sale corresponded with the price fixed upon it. Only fat meat was admitted to common sale. "In the busy season," butchers were allowed, "for the better accommodation of the people," to exhibit meat of inferior value. This had to be sold, however, in another booth. Furthermore, the meat inspectors were required to determine whether there was anything objectionable in the meat, and whether measly meat had been worked over into sausage. 18 GENEKAL DISCUSSION OP MEAT INSPECTION The Mayor of Munich in 1460 was granted a compensation as meat inspector of two pfennige and three heller. In Speyer, after the year 1487, "four masters of the meat market" had charge of the organization of the market, inspected the meat and collected fines. The ordinance of the Council of Niirnberg, 1497, forbade the inflation or swelling of calves' lungs or the lungs of other animals with water or by other means, " for the purpose of making the lungs and their covering appear more marketable, appetizing and larger." The City Council of Chemnitz, in the year 1506, granted a remarkable concession to the butchers' guild. They were allowed, in the summer time, to slaughter at home, in return for the annual payment of ten gulden, as a result of their "repeated requests and numerous protestations that if animals were killed in the slaughter houses the meat would decompose, become malodorous, and suffer other harm." The butchers, however, were required to promise "not to become a nuisance to anyone" with their slaughtering, not to thiow any offal upon the street, but to deposit all offal, "especially of pregnant animals, immediately after slaughter outside of the city in places where no one would be annoyed by it," and to offer no " resistance " when they were again ordered into the slaughterhouses " on account of public exigen- cies." All of the regulations thus far mentioned are purely local in character, corresponding to the organization of the feudal condi- tions of the Middle Ages. When the feudal states became independent, we begin to meet with regulations emanating from central authorities. Thus, the Mecklenburg state law of 1572 prescribes that t^e butchers in cities shall be under the control of the stadtvogt with the assistance of two qualified persons. The vogt and his assist- ants were required to see that no defective or objectionable meat was offered for sale. In the year 1582 the Palatinate state law prescribed regula- tions for butchers requiring them to state upon cards the kind of animal which is offered for sale, and to hang the cards in a conspicuous place, " so that the ordinary individual would be able to see and understand it." It was required that the meat of measly hogs, if not badly infested, should be offered for sale outside of the shambles or butcher shop at a place to be determined upoD by the authorities. HISTORY 19 "In case, however, the measly meat in question is found to be quite unclean, it shall be absolutely rejected and shall not be sold or used. For regulating this matter, two or three honorable men shall be chosen annually ia each city, one of whom shall be from the council or court, the second from among the citizens, and the third shall be a butcher or person acquainted with that business. These men shall be meat inspectors and appraisers, and it shall be their special duty carefully and honestly to inspect all meat while alive and also after it has been slaughtered and- cut up. They shaU also determine according to general market values in each year the high or low value of the meat and set a corresponding price, and they shall have control of the organization of the meat traffic According to the various legal. regulations." Moreover, the butchers were not allowed to kill any calf "which was under four weeks of age or under twenty-four pounds in weight, under penalty of a gulden. No butcher shall be allowed to sell knowingly any unclean animals or other animals which are emaciated or otherwise unmarketable, whether they be cows, wethers, sheep, or other animals, and shall not be allowed to slaughter the same under'a penalty of 50 gulden. Moreover, they shall not sell any animal in localities where an infectious plague ■exists." With reference to the objective fulfilment of duty on the part of meat inspectors, the public ordinance above cited contains the following: "Regularly appointed meat inspectors shall inspect living animals and shall pay strict attention to determining whether the animal is clean, healthy, and entirely wholesome ; and it shall be their duty not to allow friendship or enmity, gifts or presents, or any other condition to interfere with their business." With regard to the inflation of food animals, in a letter of incorporation of the circuit of Lichtenberg, von Kusel and Novelden, which elector Johannes addressed, to the butcher, baker and miller guilds in 1587, we find the following regulations : " Cer- tain butchers and their assistants occasionally use their unhealthy breath to inflate the meat of calves, wethers and bucks, especially in the breast, in order to make it larger and weigh more (?). To stop this repulsive and abominable deception and prevent all harm, all masters of the guilds and accredited meat inspectors shall give diligent attention to these points." The meat and butcher regulations of the piincipality of Wiirtemberg in 1588 prescribed that " the higher and lower order of officials and sheriffs " shall exercise careful control of the slaugh- 20 GENERAL DISCUSSION OP MEAT INSPECTION tering industry. A general Wiirtemberg rescript, in the year 1605, forbids the slaughter of " tainted" animals. The butcher ordinance of the same year directs, furthermore, that it shall be the duty of the police " to observe that no other than healthy, nutritious, and clean meat shall come into the market. To this end, slaughter houses, abattoirs and wagons shall constantly be kept clean and no other than healthy meat shall be slaughtered." Every individual who had bought meat from other localities was required to file with the ofl&cial inspectors an official certificate concerning the health of animals in that region. The inspectors passed upon the cer- tificate, inspected the animals while living, and, after slaughter, determined the marketability of the meat, and " in general attended to all matters pertaining to a faithful service of the public in this regard." In the "Statut des ehrsamen Fieischhauerhandwerks " of Schwiebus of the year 1590, the following paragraphs are found : " (8) We shall have care that each master of meat inspection shall slaughter clean, good, vigorous and marketable animals. If, however, one or the other of these officers shall violate this rule, then the other masters shall take counsel and he shall be punished according to the verdict of his associates." " (24) The Jewish method of slaughter shall be entirely for- bidden, and any master of inspection who shall permit a Jew to slaughter according to their custom, whether a large or a small animal, shall forfeit his office." The communities in "Eappenmiinzbesirk der vorderoster- ' reichischen Lander," to which Marbach, Eafach, Basel, Colmar, Miinster, Tiirkbeim, Kaysersberg, Amerschweier and Miilhauseu belonged, concluded in 1519 at Ensisheim to grant to the farmers an inspection- of their animals " at the public market," if the butchers "did not give a reasonable price for their animals and would otherwise retain them at this price." In Bavaria in 1615 detailed regulations were enacted con- cerning the practijce of meat inspection. In addition to other points, it was declared that no calf under three weeks of age should be slaughtered ; that food animals " should be inspected alive as well as after slaughter in the manner required by law, and should be found healthy" by ordained sworn meat inspectors, "who were to be chosen from the most suitable persons by our State and market authorities and ordained, or similarly appointed, one for each village, by the rural courts upon the authority of the Four." ^ HISTOKY 21 (6) From the Thirty Years' War to the Present. * As a result of the Thirty Tears' War, the regulations which had been adopted for the control of traffic in food stuffs as well as so many other of the conquests of civilization were lost. In this connection it is instructive to read a letter of Johann Georg, published at Annaburg, February 13, 1654 : " To the Rentkammerverwalter at Naumburgk. Faithful Friend, — Since I have been dutifully informed that in the majority of the cities of our principality there is a lack of slaughter houses and abattoirs, that part of them have been ruined and destroyed by war, but that in the majority of places they have not been rebuilt, therefore, it is said that there is much improper and corrupt practice with regard to food animals, much injustice and self-seeking. It is suspected also that that there is extensive fraud in the estimation of the price of meat. We can not overlook this any longer, since abattoirs and slaughter houses should pay a certain annual tax to the cities, and this has not occurred in the cities of Naumburgk and Zeits up to the present time. "Therefore, we command you by the authority of this letter to lay this matter before the councils of the cities and to ascertain from them whether they intend to institute and erect slaughter houses and how soon.'' In a second rescript of July 15, 1654, it is ordered " to buy or rent at least one slaughter house, since many less prosperous and small cities and localities have made a beginning in the erection of •such structures." There were but few other ordinances which had reference to traffic in meat. An edict of the council at Aachen of April 8, 1664, fixed the price for different kinds of meat, forbade the sale of cow meat as steer meat, and prescribed that "since horned and other food animals (as, unfortunately, is well known) sometimes die, no such diseased or infected animals shall be slaughtered, sold, or held for sale, and all unclean and foul-smelling meat" shall be excluded from the market. Moreover, the slaughter ordinances in Rostock, 1699, should be mentioned, in which the slaughter and sale of animals which had been bitten by dogs was forbidden. Furthermore, it was forbidden that mangy, dropsical sheep, or those affected with pox, or which had defects in the internal organs, should be brought to slaughter or offered for sale. Likewise the sale of measly hogs was for~ bidden. A second general ordinance was passed in Mecklenburg con~ cerning meat inspection in 1710. According to this ordinance, regularly appointed inspectors in cities were required to see that no butchers slaughtered or sold any unsound animals. In case 22 GENERAL DISCUSSION OP MEAT INSPECTION of doubt concerning tlie health of an animal, the magistrate or city authorities were required to institute an inspection by the- kreisphysicus or some other physician, whose decision was to be awaited. In 1783 the inflation of the fresh meat of calves and wethers by means of the mouth was forbidden, and later also inflation with bellows, in spite of the vigorous protests of certain butchers. Likewise, a decree of the principality of Hanover in the year 1712 provided severe penalties against the practice of inflating meat in order to give it a shining, voluminous appearance, and finally directs that "all officers or persons who have charge of the veterinary police shall be ordered to have meat ma,rkets and slaughter houses visited frequently by their assistants without previous announcement." Moreover, a Hanover rescript of the year 1716 prescribes that food animals shall be inspected before slaughter, and that when, found to be healthy they shall be branded upon the horns and after branding shall be, held for three days, after which they may be slaughtered after another inspection. In the same year, the intro- duction of smoked and salted meat was forbidden "because it is rumored that certain unscrupulous cattle dealers slaughter animals in infected localities and sell the meat after it is smoked or salted." Likewise, the market ordinance of Leipsic in 1726 forbids the sale of salted or smoked meat, a provision which later was enforced throughout Saxony. Meat inspection was very carefully regulated by the patent of the principality of Brunswig-Liineburg, March 31, 1732. This instrument contained the following statement : " No animal shall be slaughtered either for the market or for private consumption before it has been inspected. Two deputies, assisted by two sworn slaughterhouse foremen chosen for this purpose, shall inspect under oath the animals which are designated to them as food animals. If they .find them to be healthy and without defects, the animals shall be branded with a G on the right horn and with the same character upon the right loin. After this has taken place, they shall sign a printed certificate containing the result of their inspection. After slaughter the skin must be left attached to the back of the animal until the above mentioned officers have in- spected the brands anew and have declared that it is the same animal and that the internal organs have a healthy appearance. For these duties a compensation of six groschen per head in that HISTOKY 23 city and three groschen in rural districts shall be paid. If, after the slaughter of an animal, it is observed that it is diseased, it must be removed immediately with the skin and the entrails and the whole carcass must be buried four ells deep in the earth." An imperial Austrian decree of 1753 prescribes that "since so-called cow-herds and skinners have the effrontery to salt and sell to unsuspecting people the meat and tongues of cattle which have died, and since these must be highly dangerous to the human body, all courts are ordered to exercise strict care that such enemies of mankind and self-seekers shall be exemplarily punished." A mandate of the principality of Saxony of November 6, 1753, directs that " in case of the prevalence of animal plagues, in order to prevent the transmission of these diseases to man, the meat of these diseased animals shall not be sold." A general decree in Baden on January 81, 1756, forbade the slaughter of calves and goat kids under three and one-half weeks of age. According to a ducal ordinance in Zweibriick on October 15, 1767, meat inspectors were required to give heed that no calf should be slaughtered which did not weigh at least thirty-two pounds. By a general ordinance, dated April 3, 1756, in Vienna, it was prescribed that all animals of whatever species should be brought for inspection either to the appointed local judges or to the ordained meat inspectors. According to a Koyal Prussian general decree of February 1, 1769, animals which were bloated from excessive feeding with clover or turnips were excluded from inspection during life as well as from compulsory slaughter by a butcher. On the other hand, the patent and instructions of April 13 of the same year prescribed that as soon as a plague appeared in any locality all arbitrary slaughter of cattle without the knowledge of the authorities and the pickling of meat should cease. On the occasion of an outbreak of rinderpest, an electoral Bavarian ordinance of the year 1796 forbade the consumption of animals which had been killed or which had died of the disease, and added the remark that any person who secretly sold the meat or internal organs of such an animal should be punished as a poisoner. A general decree in Baden, in the year 1756, was directed against the slaughter of immature calves and kids. In the year 1772, in the same city, an ordinance was passed with reference 24 GENEEAL DISCUSSION OP MEAT INSPECTION to the determination of the adaptability of the meat of diseased animals for food as follows : " That in the case of a diseased animal which died of an epidemic plague, the opinion of a physician with regard to whether the meat can be eaten or not must be obtained. If, however, it died, not of an epidemic, but of some other disease, and the official is disposed to allow the slaughter of the animal, an examination must be made in every case by the meat inspectors or, in their absence, by local officials, and a judgment must be rendered whether the meat is fit to be eaten or not." This ordinance was passed, as Johann Peter Frant asserts in his " System einer Vollstandigen Medizinichen Polizei " (1784- 1788), "in order not to increase, except from absolute necessity, the great loss of important food material in such unhappy times." Highly interesting are the detailed directions for meat inspec- tors in Bruchsal which were published at the same time and which contained a sample of veterinary science from the eighteenth century. The directions read : " It shall be the duty of meat inspectors to prevent the public sale or consumption of diseased animals ; for example, animals suffering from lung disease Qiartlungenfalige), jaundice, anthrax, pearl disease, cysticercus disease, cancer, glanders, mange or any other existing disease whereby disgust, disease or plagues may be communicated to and disseminated in man and animals." Moreover, detailed directions were given for the inspection of animals before slaughter (whether the animal intended for slaughter looked lively and fresh in the eyes and whether it would walk readily), as well as after slaughter (inspection of the meat and ' entrails to determine whether the gall bladder was too large, as was known to be true in the prevailing animal plagues ; whether, the spleen was too black or too large and whether the intestines were red or blue and tympanitic, etc.). Furthermore, it was declared "that it should be the chief function of meat inspectors to be on duty from time to time with police assistants, not only in the slaughterhouses, but also in the public market, and that at least one of them should appear daily and give special heed that the meat was always cut up in a proper manner by the butchers, was not sold for more than the quoted price, and that the whole procedure was according to the Articles of the Butchers' Guild and the quotations of the prices of meat." HISTORY 25 The first mention which we find of a veterinary surgeon is in the general rescript of Wiirtemberg in the year 1761, which prescribed in case of an outbreak of an animal plague that "if a trained scientific veterinarian is established in the bezirk, the high bailiff shall have the necessary careful inspection made immediately on the spot by him, or otherwise under the immediate direction of the chief physician by some legitimate practicing veterinarian who has passed an examination." The electoral government of Bavaria, in a general mandate of August 16, 1761, revived the regulations concerning meat inspection from the year 1615 as follows : " Persons who wish to have animals slaughtered shall give notice of such purpose to duly installed meat inspectors and brand butchers in order that both large and small animals may be slaughtered in the presence of meat inspectors and that thus any punishment may be avoided, and this shall be enforced whether the animal is healthy or infected with a disease, in order that the meat may be buried, or utilized in case it is healthy." The appointment of "two reliable and trained men for the slaughtering, inspection and description of anima's" was prescribed also for those places where there were no butchers. Of the newer regulations, mention should be made of the Wiirtemburg ministerial decree of the year 1802 concerning the prevention of the then so frequent cases of sausage poisoning, and another decree from the year 1822, which, in consequence of an outbreak of rinderpest, prohibited all traffic in horned animals and meat, as well as the utilization of the skius, meat, dung and tallow of diseased or affected animals in infected localities. In 1822 the use of the meat of animals affected with anthrax was also for- bidden. A scientific influence manifested itself first in those ordinances which were passed after the Thirty Years' War. This influence, however, aside from the Bruchsal ordinance, was merely of local application, and consequently the action of official decrees was defective. The previously mentioned J. P. Frank specifically called atten- tion to this unfortunate condition toward the end of the 18th century and simultaneously indicated the importance of the official regulation of the traffic in food materials for the public welfare, in connection with numerous examples. The lack of scientifically trained veterinary surgeons was felt most keenly. This deficiency was obviated by the establishment of veterinary schools at the end 26 GENERAL DISCUSSION ON MEAT INSPECTION of the 18th century and beginning of the 19th century. As veter- inary science flourished and becanje disseminated, a remarkable change took place with reference to judging the meat of diseased animals. While in earlier times up to the 18th century in all civilized countries the meat of diseased animals, with the qualified exception of measly meat, in which tuberculous meat was also- included, was considered as dangerous to human health, veterinary scieuce began to demonstrate that 'much meat which had so long been held to be dangerous was in reality harmless. Graber right- fully says : '' It is, however, an old experience in the realm of science that new and surprising truths drag everything with them in unreasoning, blind devotion until geniuses sober down again to a cool, reasonable way of thinking." Thus the veterinary teaching of the harmlessness of meat in cases of certain animal diseases very rapidly matured into a general belief that all meat of diseased animals is harmless. This erroneous view led to a sudden change of opinion on the question of the regulation of meat inspection. While some governmental authorities sought to overcome the increasing pro- tests against official prohibitions by means of constantly renewed ordinances, an unfortunate indifference manifested itself in the other direction. Thus, a ministerial rescript in Prussia in 1826 declared that it was not permissible to compel non-union butchers to slaughter in an abattoir. It was allowed them to slaughter in their own establishments without restriction, as actually happened in the royal palace. As a result, slaughterhouses gradually fell into disuse in certain cities, and in 1842 none of the three pre- viously established slaughterhouses in Berlin were in existence. It was not until the year 1852 that Kiichenmeister established the fact that hog cysticerci were the embryonic stages of Taenia solium of man, and that the trichina epidemics which, during the 60's of the previous century, appeared in northern Germany to an alarming extent, again attracted public attention to the necessity of regulating meat inspection. When in the year 1864= a commis- sion of the Berlin Medical Society met for consultation concerning preventive measures against the danger from trichina, they con- sidered it their first duty to recommend the establishment of public slaughterhouses for thes preservation of the public health. In southern Germany meat inspection suffered less from the above described retrogression, as is to be seen from the decrees, concerning meat inspection for lower Bavaria, October 21, 1836, and for Swabia and Neuburg, January 10, 1857. In the first named HISTOEY 27 ordinance, a system of instruction for meat inspectors, three grades of meat were distinguished : (1) marketable ; (2) non-marketable ; (3) non-edible. Other ordinances concerning meat inspection were passed in Wiirtemberg in 1860, in Bavaria in 1862, and in Baden iu 1865, despite the fact that in southern Germany the danger from trichinosis did not exist. In the south German regulations con- cerning meat inspection, the possibility of the occurrence of trichina in pork was not considered. It is therefore probable that the connection which had been demonstrated by Kiichenmeister between the cysticercus of food animals and the tape worms of man furnished the chief impetus to a reorganization of meat inspection in addition to the general feeling of its necessity. The Kingdom of Prussia in the year 1868 passed a law with regard to the establishment of public slaughterhouses to be used exclusively for this purpose, and laid down the foundation for the practice of a scientific meat control. The biological investigations concerning muscle cysticerci and trichinae were the first building stones for the structure of scientific meat inspection. During the 70's, Gerlach carried out investiga- tions concerning the transmissibility of tuberculosis by the con- sumption of the meat. It was Gerlach also who published the first scientific work on meat inspection ("Die Fleishkost des Menschen"). Simultaneously, Lydtin, the head of the veterinary service in Baden, organized in a model manner a system of practical meat inspection in the Grand Duchy of Baden. The most irhportant advances of our science in the last twenty years are due, however, to Bollinger, who indefatigably and with convincing arguments insisted upon the great public importance of meat inspection, and who, by means of his treatises on meat poisoning, as well as by means of his numerous experimental investigations concerning the virulence of the meat of tuberculous animals, laid a solid foundation for practical meat inspection. These investiga- tions possess a quite peculiar value because they were carried out in an accurate manner with the utilization of the results of bac- teriological science which had developed rapidly in the meantime. Schmidt-Miilheiim also attacked the problems of our science with effective results in its development. Being a trained physiologist, he treated the science of meat inspection and the methods of slaughtering in a scientific manner in his " Lehrbuch der Fleisch- kunde." Later he was able to arouse interest in meat inspection by founding a journal which was devoted entirely to meat inspec- tion and the knowledge of animal food materials. Schmidt- 28 GENERAL DISCUSSION ON MEAT INSPECTION Miilheim, by the trenchant, if not always considerate, articles in his periodical, produced striking results with regard to a more uniform treatment of the meat of tuberculous animals, the practical application of meat inspection to the pure food law which appeared in 1879, and the introduction of " freibanks " in northern Germany. From this period a large number of veterinarians in the service of public saaitation took the most active interest in the develop- ment of scientific meat inspection and in clearing up the numerous problems in this field which still awaited definite solution. The publications of individual abattoir veterinarians and the pro- ceedings of the incorporated societies of these workers furnish evidence that the abattoirs served also the purpose of scientific institutions. Mascher, in his brochure entitled "Wesen und Wirkungen des Schlachthauszwanges," rightfully says: "The requirement of slaughter in abattoirs changes every slaughterhouse into a temple of natural science, in so far as meat inspection is entrusted, not to apprentices in the public sanitary service, but to the masters of veterinary science." Of the strides in advance which have been made in slaughterhouses, I mention merely the construction of an apparatus for the disinfection of condemned animals by de la Croix in Antwerp, the discovery of the most frequent location of beef cysticerci, and the method for sterilizing the meat of tuberculous animals, due to the discovery of Hertwig, formerly the head of municipal meat inspection in Berlin. The rapid development of meat inspection, however, was made possible only by the fact that the teaching of meat inspection was introduced into the veterinary schools and was incorporated into veterinary curricula, in consequence of governmental regulations concerning the examination of veterinarians; for in this manner trained men are produced who are competent to make a practical application of the theories of meat inspection. Concerning the history of meat inspection in countries other than Germany, the following notes may suffice: According to Morot, ordinances concerning meat inspection were passed in Scotland in the years 1153 and 1284 ; in Italy, in 1221 (Naples and Sicily) ; and in Belgium in 1333 (Tournay). The regulations of the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily were characterized by the draconic punishments which were provided. Butchers were not allowed to slaughter either boar or sow meat as pork, or to deal with animals which died a natural death, or with meat which had been kept over from one day to another, without acquainting the purchasers with these facts. The punishments provided for such cases were the PRESENT STATUS IN CIVILIZED COUNTRIES 29 following : For the first offence, a fine of a lire of gold or corporal punishment; for the second offence, cutting off the hand; and for the third offence, hanging. In France an edict was issued on January 30, 1350, to the effect that only good, healthy meat should be sold, and also that meat should not be kept after slaughter for more than two days in winter, or more than one and one-half days in summer. According to Morot, meat inspection was practiced iu certain communities at an earlier date (1162). The execution of meat inspection regula- tions was entrusted to magistrates and experts (prudhommes). The first public abattoirs in France may be traced back to the thirteenth century ; for example, the ecorcherie in Amiens. Morot collected numerous ordinances in France which contained interest- ing prohibitions of the sale of fetuses, still-born animals, and of inflated meat, etc. The sale of measly meat was usually forbidden. Only in case of slight infestation by cysticerci was meat permitted to be sold under declaration of its condition. According to an edict of Robert von Anjon, in which the intolerance of that period is reflected, Jewish slaughterhouses were separated from the Christian. Moreover, it was forbidden to Jews, lepers, and prostitutes to touch with the fingers the meat which was exposed for sale. Another law concerning the inspection of animals and meat was passed on July 22, 1791. Napoleon I established in Paris in 1807 public slaughterhouses at the expense of the city and at the same time closed all private slaughterhouses within the city limits. By a decree dated February 10, 1810, this order was extended to include all the larger and middle-sized cities of France. The establish- ment of public slaughterhouses in France, however, received a material impetus by the decree of Napoleon III, August 1, 1864, according to which the taxes on the construction capital and the amortizement were to be returned to the city government, while the slaughter fees were not to exceed the expenses of maintaining and managing the institutions. 3.— Present Status of Meat Inspection in Civilized Countries. In view of the great public value of meat inspection, it is exceedingly strange that not all civilized countries have granted their citizens the benefit of a regulated meat control. A general regulation of meat inspection is found at the present time, outside of Germany, only in Belgium, France, Holland, Spain, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Koumania, and Switzerland. Meat inspection, 30 GENERAL DISCUSSION ON MEAT INSPECTION however, is practiced in these countries at the present time in very different ways. COUNTEIES OTHEE THAN' GERMANY. With the general organization of meat inspection in Belgium, for the basis of which the meat inspection ordinance of the Grand Dachy of Baden was taken, the. more or less imperfect system of other countries stands in marked contrast. Thus, for example, in Prance there is no law concerning the general practice of meat inspection. It is only in Section 90 of the Eegulations for the Practice of Meat Inspection in the law of July 21, 1891, aud in Article 63 of "Code Rural" that it is prescribed that abattoirs and private slaughtering establishments shall be subject to the per- manent control of specially appointed veterinarians. According to Moule, however, this regulation is not carried out everywhere in a satisfactory manner. According to my information, governmental meat control in France is, generally speaking, restricted to a certain number of cities. In Holland, the conditions are similar, and the only point which is regulated in a uniform manner is that of the introduction of meat from foreign countries, according to an ordinance of January 1, 1899. The introduction and transportation of the meat of solipeds is forbidden, except whole animal bodies which are provided with skin and respiratory apparatus in their natural connection and which have been declared suitable for food by an official veterinarian. In Spain the meat inspection ordinance of February 24, 1859, is enforced ia all provinces ; but only twenty- six Spanish cities are provided with public abattoirs. In Italy, a ■well arranged meat inspection law was passed August 4, 1890 ; the regulation of meat inspection is, however, left with provincial authorities, whereby a thorough reform is made impossible. In Austria-Hungary, section 12 of the law concerning animal plagues prescribes that the inspection of food animals and meats is to be practiced generally. This inspection, however, is not uniform in Austria-Hungary, since its organization was left with both States and individual crown lands, and was put into practice by these upon very different bases. Perhaps the new Austrian law of January 16, 1897, concerning the traffic with food stuffs, will bring about a uniformity in the practice of meat inspection. There are in Austria at the present time 253 public abattoirs and in Hungary 2,127. Hungary has more public abattoirs than any other civilized country. In Eoumania, Article 23 of the General Ordinance concerning veterinary sanitary police, of April 6, 1891, prescribes PRESENT STATUS IN CIVILIZED CODNTlvIEH 31 that animals intended for general use shall be slaughtered in special slaughterhouses and shall be inspected by official veter- inarians. This ordinance has been supplemented by the sanitary law of July 14, 1893, and the regulation of September 11, 1895, concerning the sanitary supervision of the preparation of, and traffic in, food materials and drinks. Finally, in Switzerland, the sanitary investigation of meat intended for public consumption is entrusted to the individual governments of the different cantons. Merely the traffic in imported meat is uniformly regulated by a decree of the Swiss Federal Council of December 1, 1901. Other countries — as, for instance, England, which is otherwise so well organized with regard to public sanitation and which is •called the cradle of hygiene — are entirely without a regulated meat inspection. The only event in this line which has occurred in England is an inspection of the meat offered for sale in private slaughterhouses and on the markets by " inspectors of nuisances," practical men who render their services under the direction of the medical sanitary authorities. A law passed in Scotland in 1892 gives the municipal authorities the right to erect a public slaughterhouse and compel slaughtering to take place in it and accordingly to forbid the further use of private slaughterhouses. Lately the local Scottish authorities and the Scottish Agricultural Department have declared in favor of introducing a general obligatory meat inspection and of appointing veterinarians as inspectors. A beginning has been made in Russia in the establish- ment of public slaughterhouses in the large cities. In the year 1894 the number of such institutions was 20. Moreover, a regula- tion on meat inspection was issued in the form of a circular letter of the Minister of the Interior, July 29, 1895, concerning the execution of Article 683 of the Medical Laws. According to this letter, "with reference to the introduction of a uniform inspection of food animals and meats in the whole Empire," the control of emergency slaughter and of traffic in the meat of diseased animals was required to be enforced. In Denmark there are seven public slaughterhouses with meat inspection. Furthermore, in that country the exportation of slaughtered animals is subject to veterinary control by a decree of the Ministry of Agriculture. Plans are being made in Denmark for a general law, according to which universal meat inspection shall be introduced in all cities of more than 2,000 inhabitants, and also a meat inspection in rural districts in cases of emergency slaughter. In Norway and Sweden at the present time meat inspection is practiced in but one 32 GENEEAL DISCUSSION ON MEAT INSPECTION slaughterhouse, in spite of the law concerning communal slaughter houses of June 27, 1892. On the other hand, meat inspection in the cities of these countries has been organized according to the requirements of the law of July 27, 1895 ; and in Norway this hus taken place in all cities of more than 4,000 inhabitants (Norwegian regulation of November 5, 1895, and August 3 and 6, 1897). Every Norwegian city of more than 4,000 inhabitants is compelled to establish a station for the investigation of meat. Strange to say, fees can not be charged for the inspection of meat, even for that which is introduced from foreign countries. For this reason it is very diflB.cult for Norwegian cities to establish slaughterhouses with any prospect of an income. A new Swedish law concerning meat inspection and slaughterhouses of December 22, 1897, is designed to encourage the establishment of public slaughterhouses in Sweden with compulsory slaughter and examination, in order that the required sanitary guaranty may be given for meat intended for export to foreign countries. In the United States only such meat as is intended for export was first subject to inspection and this was on the basis of the meat inspection bill of August 30, 1890. In the year 1895 another law was passed according to which meat intended for internal traffic from cattle, sheep and hogs slaughtered in abattoirs, meat conserve factories, pickling houses and factories for working over meat products must be inspected by official inspectors. The reliability of American inspection, however, is rightfully questioned, since in American hams and bacon sides alleged to have been inspected, numerous trichinse were demon- strated in the subsequent inspection carried out in Germany. In the year 1896, 28,275,739 animals were inspected before and after slaughter by a total of 579 inspectors in 123 slaughterhouses which are located in 26 cities!* The American meat inspection law is distinguished from all other similar laws by the fact that it (Section 7, c) permits the return of condemned animals to the owner in case of a controversy concerning condemnation. The owner is then merely required to make a monthly report under oath as to what has been done with the condemned animals, and iu case they have been sold he is required to state to whom, whether for use as food material, and whether under declaration, and also * Compare Bureau of Animal Industry, Bui 30, "Trichinosis in Germany." The author weakens his argument for the value of meat inspection by attaclcing the American system. The German method is poorly systematized as compared with ours, and it is hard for a German to understand how we can inspect animals so rapidly. — Translator. PEESENl' STATUS IN CIVILIZED COUNTRIES 33 •whether all this has transpired after a previous sterilization or not. Finally, Japan has begun to introduce meat inspection in the large cities, since the consumption of the meat of domestic animals has become a more or less prevalent custom among the Japanese. Meat inspection in Belgium is regulated according to the royal edict of March 23, 1901, in connection with the pure food law of 1890. According to the requirements of this law, all meat in Belgium which is intended for human consumption is subject to official inspection. The only exception is the meat of hogs slaughtered for home consumption. Moreover, according to law, meat inspection is restricted to an investigation of slaughtered animals. It is left to the discretion of local authorities to have an organized and official inspection of animals before slaughter. " The office of inspector can be conferred upon veterinary surgeons only." In communities in which the service may thereby be benefited, another person who has shown -the required knowledge may be assigned as an assistant to the veterinary expert (assistant meat inspector). For the veterinary surgeon is reserved the inspection of horses ; all animals slaughtered on account of disease, or iioja necessity ; furthermore, all animals which have reacted to tuberculin or are otherwise suspected of being tuberculous, or in the inspection of which by practical meat inspectors, tuberculosis, actinomycosis, foot and mouth disease, measles, anthrax, black leg, pyemia, septicemia, swine erysipelas, sheep pox, sheep scab, paralysis, and other diseases were demonstrated or suspected. Fresh meat, with the exception of mutton, may be introduced from foreign countries only as whole animals, half animals, or quarters, together with the lungs. The introduction of the prepared meat of solipeds from foreign countries is foibidden. Likewise, meat which comes from foreign countries is to be officially inspected and stamped as foreign meat, " Etranger, vreemd." The Belgian law, in spite of sanitary objections which might be raised to the contrary, allows the introduction of canned meat and sausages from foreign countries. The inspection fees for foreign meat amount to 20 centimes per 100 kg. An appeal from the decision of the meat inspector is permitted within twenty-four hours. If the opinion obtained by the owner of the meat from a veterinarian of his choice is at variance with the previous opinion, the official veterinary inspector must decide the matter. The Italian regalation of 1890 prescribes : (1) obligatory in- spection of all food animals intended for human consumption; (2) establishment of public slaughterhouses in communities of more 34 GENEEAL DISCUSSION OP MEAT INSPECTION than 6,000 inhabitants ; (3) entrusting of the direction and manage- ment of public slaughterhouses to veterinarians ; (4) destruction of dangerous meat; (5) the utilization of non-dangerous meat from diseased animals upon freibanks. (This meat shall be stamped C. B. M. [cami bassa macdlaria, freibank meat]) ; (6) the strict regulation of the inspection of meat introduced from foreign countries. GEEMANT. In Germany the following conditions prevailed up to the present time :* the Kingdoms of Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, and Saxony, the Grand Duchies of Baden and Hessen, the Duchies Saxe- Coburg-Gotha, and Saxe-Meiningen, the principalities Schwarzburg-I Eudolstadt, and Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, as well as crownland Alsace-Lorraine, and the free cities Bremen, Liibeck and Hamburg, have possessed for a longer or shorter time a regular system of meat inspection. In the Kingdom of Bavaria, police regulations were passed for each kreis'on the following dates : for Mittelfranken, February 18, 1885; for Eheinpfalz, April 4, 1884; for Swabia and Neuburg, April 11, 1872 ; for upper Bavaria, June 2, 1862 ; for Oberfranken, June 24, 1881 ; for lower Bavaria, July 21, 1876 ; for Unterfranken and Aschaffenburg, September 10, 1874; and for Oberpfalz and Eegensburg, October 8, 1872. In the Kingdom of Wiirtemberg uniform inspection of slaughter and traffic in meat was introduced by the ministerial decree of August 21, 1879. The Kingdom of Saxony has had a meat inspection law since July 1, 1898. In the Grand Duchy of Baden a new regulation came into force through the meat inspection law of November 26, 1878 ; and in the Grand Duchy of Hessen by the meat inspection order of April 10, 1880. In the Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen the decree of March 11, 1865, concerning meat inspection is still in force, while in the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, the general inspection of food animals and meat is regulated by an ordinance of December 22, 1891. In the principality of Schwarzburg-Eudolstadt obligatory meat inspection wa,s introduced by an ordinance of September 3, 1892, and in the principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, by the decree of April 16, 1895. In Alsace-Lorraine meat inspection is regulated Toy police ordinances of December 18, 1897, and January 1, 1895. Finally, * The wording of the older ordinances concerning meat inspection may be found m Schlampp Die Fleischbeschau-gesetzgebung in den Samtlichen Bundesstaaten des Deutohen Reichs; that of the newer in Zeit. f. Pleisch u. Milohhyg. PRESENT STATUS IN CIVILIZED C0UNTEIE8 35 the free cities Bremen, Liibeck and Hamburg introduced obligatory meat control by decrees of the Senate, February 21, 1889 ; Septem- ber 10, 1884 ; and March 19, 1894. In the Kingdom of Prussia, the Grand Duchies Mecklenbiirg- Strelitz, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach ; in the duchies Anhalt, Brunswick, Oldenburg, as well as in the princi- palities Lippe and Beuss, general ordinances concerning obligatory inspection of all food animals were still wanting. Trichina inspec- tion existed as an obligatory or facultative measure. Furthermore, there were restrictions on the traffic in meat of diseased animals and a veterinary inspection of horses intended for slaughter was required. A control of cases of emergency slaughter was also practiced to some extent, and, on the basis of special slaughterhouse laws, a model meat inspection existed in a large number of cities. In the course of the last ten years, public slaughterhouses in Northern Germany have rapidly sprung up. For example, the number in the Kingdom of Prussia has increased during the last decade by 200. Meat inspection in the rural districts of Northern Germany was, however, still undeveloped. Furthermore, the in- spection of imported meat was defective and lacked uniformity throughout the whole German Empire, in so far as it was mainly restricted to the inspection of pork for trichina. The provisions of the imperial law of May 14, 1879, concerning the traffic in food materials, condiments and manufactured articles gave authority everywhere for supervision of the traffic in meat. These provisions, however, had no lasting effect, since it was not stated how the law should be enforced regarding the compulsory inspection. The Imperial law was designed merely to prevent, under threat of punishment, the traffic in defective meat. This kind of protection, however, is insufficient, since violations of the law are demonstrated only in isolated cases or accidentally and often after the bad results from the sale and consumption of injurious meat have been produced. For these reasons the passage of an imperial law concerning the obligatory inspection of all food animals before and after slaughter was demanded as a necessity. The significance which was ascribed to the passage of such a law appears in the words of Thronrede, in which the law was announced : "*In order to avoid the dangers which are connected with traffic in uninspected meat intended for human consumption, whether of domestic or foreign origin, the genera,l introduction of the inspection of food animals and meat has been considered by the allied Begierungen. I hope 36 GENERAL DISCUSSION OP MEAT INSPECTION that during this session you will prepare a bill regulating this matter." Now the German Empire possesses, in the law of June 3, 1900, concerning the inspection of food animals and meat, the foundation of a general uniform execution of meat inspection in all of the allied Siates. The passage of this law constitutes a mile post for public sanitation and veterinary science in Germany. After this law became effective, Germany became the lirst civilized country in which animal food was subjected to a regular official control, and veterinary science may point with pride to the fact that this significant hygienic result is partly due to the indefatigable efforts which the representatives of veterinary science have put forth for several decades toward introducing a general compulsory inspection of food animals and meat. 4.— Practical Execution of Obligatory Meat Inspection. The practical execution of obligatory meat inspection will assume a different form in large cities and in rural districts. Meat Inspection in Cities. — In cities, as well as in other communities with a considerable number of inhabitants, the erec- tion of public slaughterhouses and the necessity that all animals intended for human food should be officially inspected and slaughtered in such institutions, constitute the foundation of a proper system for regulating meat inspection. Stiles rightly says: ""A well regulated system of slaughterhouses is as necessary to public health as is a well regulated system of schools to public education."* Without public slaughterhouses, obligatory meat inspection in large cities remains a half-way measure, for the reason that it is impossible, without an extensive system of officials, to supervise the traffic and slaughterhouses of individual butchers scattered here and there. The minimum number of inhabitants which requires the establishment of public slaughter- houses is in part determined by local conditions. It is desirable, however, that as many communities as possible be provided with general slaughterhouses. In the Prussian Kegierungsbezirk of Oppeln, the construction of public slaughterhouses, stimulated by the Imperial Government, has progressed to such an extent that all cities of more than 5,000 inhabitants are provided with one. la * " The Country Slaughterhouse as a Factor in the Spread of Disease." ■(Yea^ book of the U. S. Department of Agriculture for 1896, pp. 155-166.) PRACTICAL EXECUTION OF OBLIGATORY MEAT INSPECTION 37 Wiirtemburg and Baden even the majority of small cities ffith 3,000 or less inhabitants are provided with them. Similar con- ditions are observed in Alsace-Loi'raine. In this region 18 of the 69 public slaughterhouses are located in communities with less than 2,000 inhabitants. Public Slaughterhouses in the German Empire. — The number of public slaughterhouses in the German Empire is at the present time (1901) about 740, distributed as follows : Prussia, 381; Bavaria, 77; Wiirtemberg, 62; Saxonj', 33; Baden, 48; Hessen, 14; Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 10; Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 2; S.ixe-Weimar, 3; Brunswick, 1; Saxe-Meiuingen, 4 ; Saxe-Coburg- Gotha, 3; Anhalt, 4; Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, 1 ; Schwarzburg- EaJolstadt, 1 ; Lippe-Detmold, 1 ; Alsace-Lorraine, 69 ; the Free Cities, 3. There are no slaughterhouses in Oldenburg or Saxe-Altenburg. According to Schwarz, there are about 675 communities in the German Empire with more than 3,000 inhabitants and about 400 with more than 5,000 inhabitants which are still without a public slaughterhouse. Public Slaughterhouses in Prussia. — In the Kingdom of Prussia there are at present 381 public slaughterhouses which are distributed in the different provinces as follows :* East Prussia, 42 ; West Prussia, 33 ; Pomerania, 21 ; Branden- burg, 28 ; Posen, 44 ; Silicia.t 55 ; Saxony, 21 ; Schleswig-Holstein, 2 ; Hanover, 21 ; Westphalia, 44 ; Hessen-Nassau, 17 ; Ehine- province; 51 ; HohenzoUern, 2. Meat Inspection in the Bural Districts. — In rural dis- tricts and in very small communities, the erection of public slaughterhouses is out of proportion to their utilization. Moreover, in smaller communities the conditions are so simple that slaughter- ing might be supervised without such institutions. We may, therefore, do without public slaughterhouses in rural districts. On the other hand, according to the example of the Begierenbezirk of Oppeln, the erection of communal or partnership slaughter- houses for neighboring small communities is to be recommended. * In the year 1890 the number of public slaughterhouses in the Kingdom of Prussia was 180. f Up to the year 1886 there were but six public slaughterhouses in Oppeln, 38 GENERAL DISCUSSION OF MEAT INSPECTION Furthermore, as Lohoff has stated, it is at least desirable in rural districts that quarters be established for a meat inspector, an inspection station for imported meat, and a local freibank. The following may serve as a guide for the construction, equipment and management of public slaughterhouses in large communities, and slaughtering establishments in rural districts, the enforcement of compulsory inspection, and the accessory institu- tions which are inseparable from meat inspection (freibauks and the insurance of food animals). (a) Public Slaughterhouses in the Larger Commumties. Structure and Equipment. — It should be distinctly remem- bered that the interests of the movement will be best served if the construction of public slaughterhouses is not entrusted to butcher unions, as frequently happens, but is kept within the control of the community itself. The fear of an insufficient income, which is entertained by certain communities, is quite unfounded, as is shown by the yearly reports on the management of corporation slaughter- houses. Communities have full power, by fixing the fees at the proper rate, to make tlie income and expenses balance each other. At any rate, when in exceptional cases a slaughterhouse is managed by a corporation under directions given by the local government,, all cooperation in the choice of technical officials for meat control must be prohibited to the corporation. It requires no argument to show that institutions designnd for the public welfare serve their purpose only wh^n directed by officials who labor in an objective manner and not when directed by interested industrial guilds. It is often asserted by the opponents of public slaughter- houses and of compulsoiy slaughtering in these places that the price of meat is increased by these institutions. . This assertion is disproved by experience, as was first clearly demonstrated by H. Falk and recently by Kjerrulf, by means of the most painstaking statistical compilations. The fees for slaughter and inspection, which are devoted to the payment of the expenses of the manage- ment of the slaughterhouses, do not cause an increase in the price of meat, since, by the utilization of public slaughterhouses, butchers save expenses in other directions. The butchers are no longer compelled to manage their own slaughterhouses ; they save the fuel required for heating the scalding water; they realize the possibility of an economical utilization of cold storage and many other advantages. It appears, therefore, in certain diseased condition is often very difficult to procure. On th& FOOD INSPECTION LAW 113 one hand, the diseases do not appear immediately after eating the meat. At times, in fact, they may appear only after the lapse of a considerable time after the persons concerned have eaten the meat of various other animals. Moreover, meat dealers, especially the so-called " cold butchers," understand, as a rule, how to arrange the slaughtering of diseased animals and the sale of the meat so that the causal connection between possible diseases in man and the slaughter of diseased animals performed by the butchers is obscured as much as possible. This purpose is well served by the method of secretly transporting the affected animals to a distant locality and slaughtering them there as quickly as possible, or by bringing the meat of diseased animals which were slaughtered in one place to another distant locality, commonly to a larger city. Not infrequently the diseased meat is first disposed of to middle- men, or it is sold with the meat of other animals slaughtered in a demonstrably healthy condition and under the pretence of coming from the latter. Frequently, diseased meat is utilized in the manufacture of sausages in order to prevent the discovery that it is pathologically altered. The frequency of this experience is ap- parent from the fact that meat dealers who slaughter diseased meat in a wholesale manner are in many regions called sausage batchers. With regard to the method of determining the injurious character of food materials, we are subject to a serious limitation. Only in a few instances are we in a position by exact, unexception- able experiments on man to answer the question whether the meat possesses harmful properties or not. Previously, experiments of this sort with measly meat and with the milk of aphthous animals have been made by self-sacrificing investigators (Perroncito and Hertwig), on themselves and partly on criminals condemned to death (Kiicheumeister's experiments with measly pork). Quite heroic experiments were made by the General Veterinarian of the French army, Decroix, upon himself with the meat of animals which had been affected with various diseases and part of which had died in consequence. Decroix ventured to eat the meat even from cases of "acute glanders, rabies, trichinosis, pyemia, and perforated peri- tonitis, and, fortunately, did not suffer any injury to his health.* In the majority of cases we are limited to experiments upon animals and to ordinary experience. Experiments upon animals serve only to give a basis to the suspicion that the conditions are similar in man to those in the experimental animals, and this has * Decroix, ' ' Rechei'ohes Bxperimentales sur la Viande de Cheval et sur les Viandes insalubres." Paris, 1885. 114 REGULATION OF TKAFFIC IN MEAT reference only to sucli diseases of domesticated animals as are generally known to occur in man (for example, tuberculosis, glanders and anthrax). The transmissibility of a disease of a domesticated animal to an experimental animal proves nothing in itself regarding the possibility of transmission to man, for there are many diseases of domesticated animals which are transmissible to experimental animals but which, according ,to experience, are not transmissible to man ; as, for example, hemorrhagic septicemia, black leg, swine erysipelas, etc. In applying to man the results which are obtained with animals, the manner of transferring the virus must also be considered. Intraperitoneal or subcutaneous inoculation is no proof of injurious action in the case of introduction into the alimentary tract. In the latter case the harmful effect of the digestive juices upon the bacteria and also the unfavorable conditions for anaerobic bacteria in the stomach and alimentary tract enter into the problem. Anthrax bacilli, for example, in the majority of warm-blooded animals, produce anthrax after a sub- cutaneous injection, while after feeding, ou the contrary, infection does not take place in a number of animals including man. With regard to tuberculous sputum, Bollinger demonstrated that it would produce an infection in case of subcutaneous or intraperitoneal injection when diluted to the extent of 1:100,000, while it lost its virulence in case of administration through the alimentary tract even ia a dilution of 1:8. Nocard injected the muscle serum of 21 cows into guinea pigs. In these experiments it was shown that the muscle serum of a cow was virulent. The meat of the same cow, however, was eaten in considerable quantities (about 500 grams) by four eats without any injurious effects. Finally, Sormani demon- strated that a 10,000 times greater quantity of tetanus virus was endured in the alimentary canal than in the subcutaneous connec- tive tissue. With regard to the majority of the diseases of domesticated animals, we know by experience that they are not communicable to man. This fact of experience is both of a negative and of a positive character; negative in so far as it has been shown by clinical observation and numerous post mortem examinations of man that diseases which are common in domesticated animals do not occur in man ; of a positive nature, on the other hand, in so far as the meat of diseased animals has been eaten in innumerable cases without harm. For example, this has been proved by hundreds and thousands of experiences with the meat of animals which were affected with rinderpest, pleuro- pneumonia, or swine erysipelas. FOOD INSPECTION LAW 115 Peeding experiments with the meat of such animals have been on a very large scale in man, and it requires no further proof that, as •against this tremendous mass of experience, one isolated contra- ■dictory observation has no weight, especially if the latter can not be considered entirely unexceptionable. I emphasize this point with jegard to the isolated observations contained in the literature of the subject concerning the alleged injurious character of meat contain- ing psorosperms, the meat of hogs affected with swine plague, of <5attle suffering from rinderpest, and of chickens affected with fowl ■cholera, observations which thus far have not been substantiated by other authors and which are much more easily explained by the assumption of the development of a cadaveric injurious property. ■(d) Diffekentiation of Meat and op Meat Products, According TO the Regulations op the Food Law. According to the law of May 14, 1879, we must distinguish in the practice of meat inspection, and jsro/oro, the following classes : 1. Good products, or those which are fit to eat and which may be freely admitted to the market. .2. Meat which is to be considered "spoiled in the sense of the fo6d law." * This meat corresponds to the inferior meat of the meat inspection law (" meat which is really fit for consumption by man but which is considerably depreciated in its nutritive and condimental value"). Such meat can be offered for sale and sold only under declaration and upon the freibank. The Imperial Prussian Administrative Court declared (Decision I, of February 20, 1900) that a police ordinance according to which " spoiled " or inferior meat was ordered upon the freibank was binding. It was held that the police had the right to take action against the criminal sale or offering for sale of " spoiled " or inferior meat and that the transfer of this meat to the freibank protected the producer against violation of the criminal law. Other methods of bringing into traffic (use in one's own house- Jiold and the giving gratis to others) are not subject to legal restrictions. In the older ordinances, spoiled meat was charac- terized as non-marketable. 3. Unconditionally dangerous or injurious meat, in the case of which any method of traffii;king in as human food material, its use in one's own household, giving gratis to others, permission for its * In the following discussion, for the sake of brevity, this will be referred to simply as spoiled. 116 REGULATION OF TBAFFIO IN MEAT removal, etc., is forbidden (see pages 108, 109). With this meat, which constitutes a part of the meat unfit for food in the sense of the meat inspection law, procedure should take place according to Sec. 9 of the meat inspection law. 4. Conditionally injurious meat which can be made fit for food by proper measures, such as cooking, roasting, steaming, pickling, or preservation in cold storage. The conditionally injurious meat forms a part of the meat which is conditionally fit for food in the sense of the meat inspec- tion law. The other part of the meat which is conditionally fit for food is that which for veterinary police reasons must be rendered utilizable before it is admitted to the market (compare page 83). Such meat after the required conditions have been fulfilled is to be treated as spoiled meat in the sense of the food law and to be admitted to market only after declaration (Sec. 11 of the meat inspection law). 5. Finally, we have to distinguish meat which is spoiled in a high degree and which, without being injurious to health, has lost the quality of human food material on account of extensive, substan- tial deterioration ; for example, watery and ill-smelling meat, meat and organs which are extensively infested with harmless or dead parasites, etc.). This meat is unfit for food in the sense of the meat inspection law and is subject to the regulatioas of Sec. 9 of the meat inspection law in the same manner as that mentioned above under paragraph 3. Among meat products we distinguish, moreover, imitations and adulterations. It should be remembered that the expert meat inspector should use the word " spoiled " only in the sense of the law and not as indicating meat in process of decomposition ; for decomposing meat is an injurious food material. The meaning of "unclean" meat. Attention has already been called (page 40) to the fact that in one part of the Kingdom of Prussia privileged knackers, according to the decree of April 29, 1772, received the rejected animals which were found unclean at the time of slaughter, in their immediate neighborhood (sheep excepted). The concept "rejected " was explained by a miuisteri.il decree of May 11, 1887, to the Kurmark Chamber of War and Public Domains with the statement that by this term was to be understood "all aniihals which are unfit for further use by man". An official interpretation of the meaning of "unclean" does not exist. The term in question is a relic of the oldest German LAW CONCEBNING ANIMAL PLAGUES 117 ordinances concerning meat inspection, in which it was incorporated through the medium of the Christian Church from the food laws of the Jews and Egyptians. Dieckerhoff suggests, as an explanation of this historical term, that it is to be understood as including injurious meat, an explanation which agrees closely with legal decisions. Thus, the Official Court at Eberwalde, in an opinion handed down August 11, 1890, declared that for the determination of the concept "unclean" the same characterization must be considered decisive as is mentioned in the ministerial decree of May 11, 1787, with regard to the term rejected. It was held that animals are to be considered as unclean if the meat can not be eaten, on account of its diseased condition, or if it should not ])e eaten, on account of being dangerous to health. In this sense the term unclean may be applied also to tuber- culosis of cattle, in spite of the fact that by the decree of July 26, 1785, it was declared with reference to the " French disease," that batchers would no longer, under any circumstances, be permitted to declare slaughtered animals as unclean and infected with this disease, for this decree is not a general regulation, but an instruc- tion based upon the opinion of the chief sanitary officer, and one which, therefore, may lose its foundation by the alteration of the views of the sanitary veterinarians on this point (decision of the Government Court at Stolp, February 22, 1892). 3. — Imperial Law Concerning the Pr.evention and Suppression of Animal Plagues of June 2S, 1880, and May 1, 1894. According to Sec. 17 of this law, public abattoirs are subject to the inspection of official veterinarians, and the same measures may be adopted with reference to private slaughterhouses. Section 17 reads, " all stock and horse markets, as well as all public abattoirs, shall be inspected by official veterinarians. These regulations may also be extended so as to apply to herds of stock brought together' in public or private quarters for the purpose of public sale, male animals used for breeding purposes in a public manner, public stock shows and collections of horses and herds of stock brought together by regulation of the authorities, as well as feeding stalls, private slaughterhouses, and the stalls of stock dealers. The veterinarian is required to make known immediately to the police authority all cases of infectious plagues or all symptoms which arouse suspicion of disease which are observed in the market or among the above mentioned herds of horses and cattle. He shall 118 REGULATION OP TRAFFIC IN MEAT make an immediate investigation of the case and enforce the required police protective regulations. If there is danger of the spreading of the disease, the veterinarian is authorized, before police interference, to order the isolation and observation of the diseased and suspected animals." For the execution of Sec. 17 of the Imperial law concerning animal plagues, the following orders of the Imperial Government President at Merseburg are worthy of notice as model regulations : i. — Police Regulation Concerning the Supervision op Private Slaughter Houses, etc., February 29, 1896. On the basis of Sec. 17 of the Imperial law concerning animal plagues, according to an interpretation of May 1, 1894, and also on the basis of Sec. 7 of the Prussian enacting clause of March 12, 1881, I prescribe the following regulations for the territory of the government district of Merseburg: Sec. 1. -.Herds of animals brought together by dealers in public or private places for the purpose of public sale, public animal shows, private slaughterhouses, together with the apartments which belong to them, as well as the stalls of cattle dealers, whether used for private purposes or rented, are to be inspected by the local official veterinarians. Sec. 2. The term "herds of animals," in the sense of this regulation, is to be understood as including horses, cattle, sheep and hogs, irrespective of number or age. Sec. 3. Access to, the places characterized in Sec. 1 is to be at all times per- mitted to official veter'narians for the purpose of making inspections. ' Sec. 4. The costs of tliis supervision, according to Sec. 7 of the Prussian decree of enforcement of June 18, 1894, and Sec! 34 of the above mentioned enacting clause, must be borne by the dealers, and in case an agreement can not be reached concerning them, they will be fixed by me. If the costs are not paid punctually, legal prosecu- tion will be begun. Sec. 5. This regulation becomes operative on the day of its promulgation. From this day the governmental police regulation of August 15, 1895, concerning the inspection of slaughterhouses, etc., is repealed. • I J. — State Police Regulation Concerning the Supervision of Public jj Slaughterhouses, February 29, 1896. . .'. In connection with the state police regulation decreed by me to-day and pro- mulgated in the Official Circular concerning the inspection of herds of animals Ijrpught together for the purpose of public sale, public animal shows, etc., by official veterinarians, as well as for the purpose of amendment and extension of my circular letter of August 15, of the previous year, I hereby decree as follows: 1. The veterinary police supervision of public slaughterhouses prescribed in Sec. 17 of the Imperial law concerning animal plagues in the interpretation of May 1, 1894, shall be carried out in Halle by the department veterinarian at least once per month, and in other localities of this district by the local district veterinarians with the frequency Which has already been ordered in the above mentioned circular letter. Inspection ^shall be unannounced and thorough. 2. The district veterinarians shall perform this veterinary police inspection in such a manner that they direct their attention entirely to the field of action which concerns the veterinary police. ' Thus they shall have regard to all regulations decreed LAW CONCEBNING ANIMAL PLAGUES 119 eoncernins the prevention and suppression of animal diseases and shall also give attention to the detection of animal plagues and the prevention of the dissemination of such plagues. The department veterinarian, on the other hand, shall direct his supervisory activity to the organization and the management of the slaughterhouses as a whole, to the technical work of the slaughterhouse experts, especially to the manner of the inspecticm of animals before slaughter, the procedure in slaughter, the management of meat inspection, including trichina inspection, keeping the books containing records of inspection, the cleansing of slaughtering rooms and other communicating rooms, cold storage, lard rendering stalls, platforms for animals, utensils, etc., as •well as to the disposition of meat unfit for human food, the treatment and sale of inferior meat, and the treatment and removal o£ manure, etc. 3. In the same manner the department veterinarian shall make a thorough inspection, at least once during each calendar year, of the other public slaughter- houses within his district. This may be done incidentally upon his official trips. 4. In case improper conduct or violations of existing regulations are discovered during these inspection tours, the director of the slaughterhouse shall have his atten- tion immediately called to the same and an announcement shall be made to the police officials or to the proper magistrate. If such abuses are not quickly corrected, or if the discoveries and observations are of special importance, a report shall be rendered to me without delay. 5. The directors of slaughterhouses are instructed to further the execution of this supervision so far as they are able and upon request to furnish all possible information concerning the organization, management, etc., of the slaughterhouses . subject to their inspection. 6. The costs of the veterinary police supervision, according to Sec. 7 of the Pnissian decree of enforcement of June 18, 1894, and Sec. 24 of the Prussian decree of enforcement of March 12, 1881, with reference to the above mentioned Imperial law concerning animal plagues, shall be borne by the dealers, and, in case no agree- ment is reached, shall be determined by me. On the other hand, the expenses of other inspections are to be borne by the State Treasurer. In calculating the fees for the pi-escrihed services, the provisions of the law of March 9, 1873, concerning the fees of medical officials, shall be authoritative. Imperial Government President, Merseburg, February 29, 1896. - Graf zu Stolberg. In addition to compulsory notification for all plagues men- tioned in the Imperial law concerning animal plagues of May 1, 1894 (especially anthrax, rabies, glanders, foot-and-mouth disease, pleuro-pnenmonia, sheep pox, .mange of horses and sheep), the following provisions concerning the procedure with meat of animals suffering from an infectious disease should be considered :* * On the basis of Sec. 10, sentence 3, of the Imperial law concerning animal plagues, swine erysipelas, swine plague, and hog cholera, as well as fowl cholera, are subject to compulsory notification. Moreover, in the Prussian Province of Saxony and in the Kingdom of Saxony, this requirement extends to the so-called Borna horse disease, and in the Province of East Prussia to horse distemper and pneumonia of horses. 120 BEGULATION OF TBAFFIC IN MEAT Sec. 31. "No animals which are affected or suspected of being affected with anthrax shall be slaughtered." Sec. 33. " The car- casses of dead or slaughtered animals affected or suspected of being affected with anthrax must be immediately destroyed. The removal of the hide of such animals is forbidden." Sec. 36. " The slaughter of rabid animals or those suspected of rabies, and all sale or use of individual parts, milk, or other products of the same are forbidden." Sec. 39. " The carcasses of slaughtered rabid animals or animals suspected of rabies must be immediately destroyed. The removal of the hide is forbidden." Sec. 43. "The carcasses of dead or slaughtered glanderous animals must be immediately destroyed. The removal of the hide of the same is forbidden." Sees. 53 to 56 contain special provisions concerning the pro- cedure in the reduction of plagues in stock yards and public slaughterhouses : Sec. 53. " The aforementioned regulations of this law, with such alterations as appear in the following special provisions, are applicable to stock yards and public abattoirs which are subject to a regular veterinary police control, and to the food animals which are brought to such places." Sec. 54. " If, among the food animals brought to such places, the outbreak of an infectious disease is discovered, or if symptoms appear which, according to the opinion of the official veterinarian, justify the fear of an outbreak of such a plague, the diseased and all suspected animals are to be immediately taken under police supervision and prevented from coming into contact with other animals." Sec. 55. " So far as the nature of the disease permits (compare Sees. 31, 36 and 48), the owner, or the representative of the owner, of the diseased or suspected food animal may be required to slaughter the animal immediately under the supervision of the official veterinarian and in the rooms intended for that purpose." " This regulation may in urgent cases be extended to include all other animals which are susceptible to the disease and which are in the place in question." Sec. 56. " After the discovery of an outbreak of a plague, and as long as there is danger from the plague, the stock, yards or public slaughterhouses may be closed to prevent the removal of animals which are susceptible to the plague. More stringent quarantine measures may be applied only in urgent cases." LAW CONCERNING ANIMAL PLAGUES 121 From the instruction of the Federal Council of June 27, 1895, with reference to the execution of Sees. 19 to 29 of the Imperial law concerning animal plagues, the following paragraphs are of import- ance for meat inspection : General: — Sec. 2. " To stock yards, public slaughterhouses, and food animals brought to such places, subject to a regulated veterinary police control, the provisions of these instructions are applicable only in so far as they are in harmony with the regula- tions of Sees. 53 to 56 of the law (see above). In particular, the provisions of these instructions concerning public notification of an outbreak of a plague and concerning restrictions in traffic with reference to the animals and persons which come in contact with them are not applicable to the institutions mentioned above." Foot-and-mouth disease. — Sec. 62. " Hides of dead or slaughtered diseased animals may be removed from quarantine only in a completely dried condition, except in case they are delivered directly to the tannery." Pleura-pneumonia. — Sec. 89. " Lungs of animals slaughtered on account of pleuro- pneumonia or dead of this disease must be buried at least one meter deep in order to render them harmless. The meat of such animals shall not be removed from the premises in question until it has been thoroughly frozen. The skins of animals dead of pleuro-pneumonia shall not be removed from the premises in question or from the slaughterhouse unless in a com- pletely dried condition, except in case they are delivered imme- diately to the tanner." Sheep pox. — Sec. 97*". "Skins of dead or slaughtered sheep affected with sheep pox shall be removed from quarantine only in a completely dried condition, except in case they are delivered directly to the tanner." Mange. — In case of mange in horses and sheep the skins are subject to the same restrictions in traffic as in the case of foot- and-mouth disease and sheep pox." 4.— Imperial Law Concerning Measures Against Rinderpest, April 7, 1869. This law, which originally was operative only for the region of the North German Federation, but which in 1870 and 1871 was also introduced into Baden, Hessen, Bavaria, Wiirtemburg and Alsace- Lorraine, prescribes incineration of animals slaughtered on account of infection from rinderpest or dead of this disease. III. THE AKT OF BUTCHERING, INCLUDING THE INSPEC- TION OF ANIMALS BEFORE SLAUGHTERING. 1.— Food Animals. To the food animals belong, in the first place, cattle, sheep, and hogs, then goats and horses ; moreover, in southern and southeastern European countries, the buflfalo is slaughtered, and, in a portion of the Scandinavian countries, the reindeer.* Lately dogs have also been slaughtered for use as human food (Italy and Saxony). Of the domestic food animals just mentioned, the hog, at least so far as Germany is concerned, furnishes the greatest amount of meat for human food. With us pork is the most important food material of the people, and this is the case for the reason that it may be prepared without the addition of any other fat, and can be preserved, by pickling and smoking, to a greater extent than any other kind of meat, without losing its food value. The annual consumption of meat in the year 1896-7 in Magdeburg amounted to- 60.52 kg. per capita. This amount was distributed as follows : 29 kg, of pork, 25 kg. of beef, 3.8 kg. of veal, 2.5 kg. of mutton, and 1.4 kg. of horse meat. lu Konigsberg, in Prussia, the excess of pork in the year 1895-6 was still greater. Of the 40.66 kg. of meat consumed per capita, during that year, 23 32 kg. was pork, 11.65 beef, 2.85 veal, 2.20 mutton, and 0.64 horse meat. Similar conditions prevail throughout the German Empire (compare page 4). In southern Germany, beef in former years occupied the first place as an animal food material. Daring the last ten years, however, the consumption of pork has increased considerably, while the amount of beef eaten has simultaneously decreased. As a mere curiosity, it may be mentioned that ia * In Irlemarken, ia eastern Norway, a company is engaged in breeding reindeer for slaughter. The company expects to be able to slaughter 1,000 reindeer a year,, the meat of which is to be exported. 122 FOOD ANIMALS 123 southarn France, Italy, and Spain regulations exist, according to whicli the slaughtering of hogs is forbidden during the summer months. The reason for this prohibition is found in the wide-spread assumption among the common people that pork is unwholesome during the hot season. Apparently we have here a case of a blindly- accepted tradition, the beginning of which is to be referred to the prohibition of the use of pork in Oriental food laws. Hippophagy. — The broken bones of horses in all the historical caves of Europe leave no doubt, according to William Boyd Dawkins, that horse meat was in use as a food material in ancient times. The Christian Church issued a prohibitive decree against it for the reason that horse meat was sacrificed and eaten by the Germans in honor of Odin and Freya. The present prejudice against the con- sumption of horse meat is a remarkable example of the change of taste brought about by a church order against a belief which has been forgotten. Among the nomadic people, for example, the Tartars, Kirghis, and Kalmucks, hippophagy has continued to the present day without interruption. Likewise in China the consump- tion of horse meat is an old custom. For many centuries in that country a special " fat horse " has been bred for this particular purpose, a breed which is characterized by delicate bone structure, savory meat, and great fattening powers. The first of the civilized peoples to return to the consumption of horse meat were the Danes. The Danish government, during the siege of Copenhagen, in 1807, permitted the sale of horse meat, and from Denmark hippophagy gradually spread to its present extent. In Germany during the years of high prices, 1816-17, much horse meat was eaten. Horses, however, were for the most part slaughtered surreptitiously. It was the hard times of 1847 that induced Prof. Spinola, then connected with the Berlin Veterinary School, and Blume, the Court opera singer, to establish a slaughter- house for horses in Berlin. As a result, after a year's time, eleven such establishments had been erected in Berlin, in which a total number of 3,000 horses were slaughtered. Morot presents figures to show that the consumption of horse meat during the last thirty years has considerably increased in nearly all countries. In France there exists a "Comite de la viande de Cheval," which deserves great credit for the extension of the consumption of horse meat. The first slaughterhouse for horses was opened in Paris under the management of the army veterinarian, Decroix, July 9, 1866. During the following half-year 902 horses were slaughtered. The number 124 THE AET OP BUTCHERING of horses slaughtered increased, however, in 1869 to 2,758 ; in 1872 to 5,732 ; and reached, in 1887, the large number of 16,446. During the siege and regime of the Commune in Paris, not less than 65,000 horses were eaten. Morot emphatically recommends a further extension of hippophagy and lays stress upon the fact that thereby an immense sum which at present is partly expended for American beef would remain in the country. lu 1894, 23,186 horses, 383 asses, and 33 mules were slaughtered, which together yielded 5,129,530 kg. of meat. More than 100,000 of the 600,000 to 700,000 families in Paris eat horse meat, " la bidoche " (from bidet, a mare),, as it is technically called. Moreover, horse meat in Paris, as with us, has more secret buyers than open admirers. At any rate, Yillain says that two-thirds of all the solipeds slaughtered are utilized in the manufacture of sausage. The number of horses which were slaughtered in public abattoirs and in the several horse abattoirs of Prussia in the year 1899 amounted to 63,801. The number of horse abattoirs was 365 and the great number of horses, 10,037, were slaughtered in Berlin. More than 5,000 were slaughtered in the governmental districts, Breslau and Diisseldorf ; more than 3,000 in the governmental districts, Liegnitz, Magdeburg, Merseburg, Schleswig, and Arnsberg, or in the more thickly populated districts ; while in the less thickly populated eastern provinces only a few horses were utilized as food by the people. A strikingly small number of horses were slaughtered in the governmental districts of Posen and Bromberg.* In 1890-91, the number of horses slaughtered in Prussia was 53,281 ; in 1893-4, 58,306. In the Kingdom of Saxony in 1885, 3,313 horses were slaughtered ; in 1890, 4,249 ; in 1896, 5,091 ; and in 1899, 5,187. In Leipsic the number of horses slaughtered in 1895 was 961 and in 1900, 1,839. In Dresden during the year 3899, 1,478 horses were slaughtered ; in Munich the consumption of horses was doubled during the 80' s. Nevertheless, the number of horses slaughtered in 1890 was only 1,728. In Yienna, during 1892, 18,209 horses were slaughtered. During the exclusive consumption of horse meat, as shown by the recent experience of beleaguered cities in China and the Trans- vaal, cases of diarrhea may appear. This was observed also in consequence of eating dogs. According to Pfliiger, a substance soluble in alcohol is contained in horse meat and passes over into the meat broth. This substance may produce diarrhea. It consists *This is due to the unconquerable antipathy of the Polish population against the consumption of horse meat. FOOD ANIMALS 125 of three-fourths lecithin and one-fourth neutral fat and cholesterin. The injurious effect of horse meat is not produced if it is prepared with beef or mutton tallow or if the meat broth is poured off. The slaughter of dogs appears, according to an official document of a magistrate in Munich, to have become so extensive that the authorities wish to establish measures which will regulate the traffic in dog meat and protect the owners of dogs from the thieving tendencies of commercial dog butchers. A portion of the dogs which were slaughtered were shown to have been stolen. It is believed that dog meat is not only used for the adulteration of sausage, but is also eaten as a delicacy by the thousands of Italian workmen in Munich. Dogs are regularly slaughtered in certain abattoirs in Saxony. Thus, in 1889, 233 dogs were slaughtered in Chemnitz, 102 in Leipsic and Zittau ; while in 1890, 312 were slaughtered in Chemnitz and 103 in Leipsic. In the latter city the number of dogs has considerably decreased and in 1900 amounted to only 15. In the whole Kingdom of Saxony in 1899 there were 468 dogs slaughtered. According to Villain, the dog is a highly esteemed food animal among the Chinese as well as among the Tartars and the inhabitants of Kamchatka. In Senegal also and in the Society Islands, dog meat is readily consumed and is even preferred to pork. For a long time experiments have been made in Germany to introduce the consump- tion of rabbit meat, which in England, France and Italy furnishes a favorite article of food. These efforts, however, have been without result. According to Boutel, the daily consumption of rabbits in Paris amounts to 10,000 and in London to 75,000. In France as a whole, 100,000,000 rabbits are raised annually and have a value of 300,000,000 francs. The rabbit is the most productive of the domestic animals. For example, one female weighing 4.^ kg. may, in the course of a year, produce 50 young, which at the age of four months furnish 150 k^. of meat. In addition to the mammals already mentioned, fowls also belong to domestic food animals. There is no system of meat inspection for fowls or for rabbits slaughtered for home consump- tion. In the case of fowls and rabbits there is simply a supervision of the offering for sale and sale, a control of the market, like that exercised in the case of game, fish, crustaceans and moUusks intended for human food. (Compare Drechsler, "Selection, Pur- chase and Judgment of our Animal Food, Together with Food Materials of Animal Origin." Munich, 1897.) 126 THE ART OF BUTCHEKIN'G The last named animals, rabbits, fowls, game, fish, Crustacea and moUusks, will be considered only so far as they show an anomalous condition. Moreover, in judging of the meat of domestic fowl aud game, the same principles should apply as for the more important domestic food animals, cattle, sheep, hogs and horses. With regard to goats, the same statement, in general, may be made as for sheep. 2.— Inspection of Animals Before Slaughter. Purpose.— The inspection of animals before slaughter may be omitted only in cases in which there is danger of natural death by postponing the slaughter (in urgent cases of emergency slaughter).* In all other cases inspection must be made, and for the following reasons : 1. For the purpose of the immediate detection and isolation of animals suffering from an infectious disease.t 2. In order to prevent the infection of the employees of slaughterhouses with diseases which are communicable to man; for example, glanders, anthrax and rabies. 3. For the purpose of the certain detection of intoxications and septic diseases, in which the internal organs and meat may show only slight alterations. Finally, in localities where a system of insurance of food animals exists, the inspection of animals before slauf?hter is made in the interest of this insurance, since thereby animals which are evidently or presumably diseased are excluded from insurance. Practice. — In this place we may omit a description of the pathological symptoms to which attention should be given in the inspection of living food animals, for the reason that these must he perfectly familiar to every veterinary expert. Only the following points need be emphasized : The transportation of animals may produce symptoms which could be interpreted as the expression of a disease. In this con- nection we should mention .especially the exhaustion of animals which in consequence of continual confinement in stalls are unused * In suoli cases, however, the meat can not be admitted for utilization as a human food material unless the conditions found upon slaughter leave no doubt as to its harmlessness. (See under "Emergency Slaughter.") f For this purpose a so-called police or sanitary slaughterhouse must be estab- lished in connection with every aliattoir. INSPLCriON OF ANIMALS BEFOBE SLAUGHTEll 127 to all exercise (bulls, milcli cows, fat bogs). Eefusal of food and dulness of the sensorium may occur ; these symptoms, however, usually disappear after several hours' rest. Furthermore, we may observe, in consequence of long transportation, lameness as a result of injuries to the hoof (confusion with foot-and-mouth disease), "bruises and injuries of the skin, especially in cattle and sheep, and consequent hemorrhages and accumulations of air under the skin (confusion with anthrax and black leg). Transportation and period of rest hefore slaughter. — It is the general practice not to permit the immediate slaughter of animals which are exhausted by a long journey, but only after a period of rest. The meat inspection regulation in Dessau provides, for example, that food animals shall be allowed a resting period before slaughter, eight hours in winter after being driven on the hoof, and four hours after transportation by rail ; in summer, on the other hand, twelve aud six hours respectively. This provision is iu accordance with the fact that exhausted animals bleed imperfectly, and the meat consequently shows a poorer keeping quality than that of rested animals. The meat naturally begins to decompose more rapidly, but, if properly treated immediately after slaughter, undergoes a chemical decomposition which among butchers goes by the name " smothering." Provisions concerning the transportation of food animals by rail. — In consequence of the improper loading of food animals in cars, quite frequently serious injuries and even death may be occasioned. Eat hogs during the summer are most subject to these accidents. As is the case in forced driving on the hoof, they may die of suffocation in railroad cars if they are loaded too closely in poorly ventilated cars. Even cattle may die in crowded cars if the latter are so overloaded that animals which fall down during transporta- tion are unable to get up. Cattle frequently die during tiansporta- tion from suffocation or in consequence of trampling by animals which stand next to them. The Agricultural Union at Braunsberg, for the purpose of preventing such accidents during transportation by rail, made a request for the introduction of ventilating devices in the roofs of cars and in the doors so that a space for one beef animal or one medium sized horse of 1.5 square meters, or for three calves or two hogs of 100 kg. weight, or for nine young pigs, or three sheep, one square meter of floor surface be provided. In Eussia, special animal transportation cars are used, which are 128 THE AET OF BUTCHERING provided with arrangements for ventilation, suitable heating, feed racks, pipes for introducing water, trap doors for the removal of the feces, and suitable quarters for the attendants. " Railroad disease " of cattle. — Eoder frequently observed cattle which were affected with a peculiar condition characterized by cattle dealers as "railroad disease". After being unloaded the animals exhibited a wavering gait and passed into a condition which resembled parturient paresis. The pulse was accelerated to 100 without an elevation of temperature. Respiration was spasmodic ; appetite and rumination were suspended and the attack terminated unfavorably. Horses must in every individual case be examined for glanders (nasal cavity, larynx, general integument, etc.). In other domesti- cated animals the inspection in general may be a cursory one and may be confined to an observation of the general appearance and the more important vegetative and sensory functions. The best time for inspecting animals is during feeding. Animals which are lying down should be made to get up. Lame animals are to be diiven back and forth, and animals which are evidently exhausted should be again examined after a period of rest. Animals which are suspected of being diseased must be subject to inspection lege arlis. The most important diseases. — The chief interest in the inspection before slaughter attaches to the typical infectious diseases, the Fig. 1. Nasal septum of horse with glanderous ulcers and a cicatrix. intoxications and septic diseases of food animals. The infectious diseases most frequently observed in stock-yards are glanders ia the horse, foot-and-mouth disease in cattle and hogs, anthrax in cattle and sheep, swine erysipelas and urticaria in hogs. The latter disease is the only one in which treatment is indicated (laxatives), and slaughter should be postponed until recovery takes place, since the INSPECTION OF ANIMALS BEFORE SL.4UGHTEK 129 disease, -as a rule, runs a favorable course, -but the meat after recovery shows only unimportant alterations, as compared with those which are present at the crisis of the disease. By far the most frequent disease in stock-yards and abattoirs is aphtha. With reference to this disease, since it frequently happens, especially in the case of hogs, that veterinarians first become well acquainted with it in abattoirs, it should be remembered that iu hogs, as a rule, the hoofs are affected and rarely the mouth, and that the first form of the disease is made apparent, when the Pig. 2. a- 6 Aphtha. Tip of beef tongue; a, aphtha; b, epithelial erosion after bursting of the aphtha. animals are driven out of the stalls, by lameness and by the aphthous patches or slightly bleeding surfaces on the hoofs. Among septic diseases, especial attention should be given to the so-called lameness and dysenterial looseness of the bowels in calves, to sepsis in connection with retention of the after-birth and septic mastitis in cows, to septic enteritis in cattle in general, and, finally, to septic diseases as a result of wounds in all animals. Furthermore, it is desirable in inspecting animals which are intended for slaughter to give close attention to alterations of the 130 THE ART OP BUTOHEEING skin (parasitic eruptions, especially scabies in horses and sheep, actinomycotic tumors in the case of cattle), to discharges from the nose, rustling sounds in inspiration, disturbances of the brain functions, dulness of the sensorium, involuntary movements, and to motor disturbances (lameness and paralysis). la this way the expert simplifies, to a considerable extent, inspection after slaughter. It is then not necessary to make an inspection of the skin of the sliiughtered animals, which, with the exception of hogs, is more difficult in all food animals after death thau during life. It is also unnecessary to make a special inspection of the nasal cavities, braiu and motor apparatus in cases of complete integrity of the upper res- piratory passages and the absence of cerebral or motor disturbances. The expert inspector saves himself the anatomical investigation of the hoofs, bones, and joints, by an inspection of animals before slaughter. These parts are to be subjected to a more detailed examination after slaughter in cases in which pathological processes during life caused a suspicion of alterations in them. Before we proceed to discuss the inspection of the internal organs and the meat of slaughtered animals, it appears desirable to give a brief account of the most important methods of slaughter and the order of procedure in practical slaughtering. 3.— Methods of Slaughter. In slaughtering, death must be brought about quickly and with the avoidance of unnecessary pain.* The methods of slaughter in common use with us serve also the purpose of securing the greatest possible keeping quality for the meat. This purpose is fulfilled by opening the large cervical vessels or anterior thoracic vessels of the animals and removing as much blood as possible. Blood passes very quickly into decomposition. Only one method, the so-called English patent method, is operated without bleeding. By this method the animals are suffocated (compression of the lungs by forcing in air by means of a bellows and a sharp canula inserted into the pleural cavity). Meat obtained by this method possesses a higher food value in consequence of its containing all of the blood, but for the same reason has a diminished keeping property and does not exhibit the * Sec. 360" of the Criminal Law Statute of the German Empire provides a tine of 150 marks or imprisonment for any person who publicly or in anger causes severe pain to animals, or grossly maltreats them. METHODS OF SLAUGHTER 131 beautiful bright-red appetizing appearance of the meat of completely bled animals. Quantity of blood and bleeding. — The total quantity of blood of animals amounts on an average to one-thirteenth of the body weight. This quantity, however, is not completely removed even by those methods of slaughter in which bleeding is most thorough. For all of the blood is removed only when the animals are not merely allowed to bleed, but when the individual parts of the body are deprived of the residual quantity of blood present in them, by the use of alkalies. The residual blood remains in the organs and in the flesh after ordinary commercial slaughter. This quantity, however, is so small that it is difficult on section through the organs or the musculature to obtain blood, even in drops, by pressure on the cut surfaces. Only occasionally it is possible to press out blood from the smaller veins. In cases of incomplete bleeding, such as- occurs after previously mutilating the medulla oblongata, this is more easily accomplished. With reference to the quantity of blood obtained in slaughtering, Heissler found quite considerable variations. Age was without any special influence. Male animals, on the other hand, yielded some- what more blood than- females. Furthermore, a fat condition, especially in hogs, was associated with a striking diminution in the quantity of blood. In horses the blood amounted to from 3.93 to 9 per cent, of the body weight; in cows, from 4.2 to 5.75 per cent.; in calves, from 4.4 to 6.67 per cent.; in sheep, . from 437 to 7.56 per cent.; and in hogs, from 1.45 per cent., in the case of Hungarian hogs; to 5.75 per cent, in a yearling boar. In the abattoir at Bremen, the average weights of blood were found as follows: In the horse, 25 kg.; in cattle, 17.5; in colts, 7 ; in hogs, 3.5 ; in calves, 4.5 ; in sheep, 3 ; and in goats, 3 kg. The average dressed weight of slaughtered animals was 238.6 kg. in horses, 254 in cattle, 100 in colts, 60 in calves, 77 in hogs, 21 in sheep, and 12.5 in goats. All animals, with the exception of those which are slaughtered according to Jewish rites, are rendered unconscious before the blood is drawn. The number of animals slaughtered according to Jewish custom is, however, very small. In contrast to the meat of animals which have been bled, that of animals which have died is characterized by the high blood content which appears in the darker coloration of all parts, espe- 132 THE ART OF BUTCHERIKG cially, however, by the distended veins of the internal organs (particularly the liver) and of the subeutis. By the term "cold butchering " is understood the subsequent sticking of dead animals. This manipulation, in which, in favorable cases, the non-coagulated contents of the severed vascular truuks are removed, is merely a deceptive operation, calculated to make a dead animal appear as if slaughtered in the ordinary manner. Incomplete bleeding occurs during agony in case of disejised animals, if, in consequence of the weakened cardiac power, the blood pressure is already greatly lowered. The organs and meat of such animals are more or less rich in blood, according to the degree of bleeding. The greatest content of blood is usually found in the liver and subeutis. lu animals exhausted by transportation bleeding is also incomplete. The most important methods of slaughter. — The methods of slaughter in common use with us may be classified into three groups: 1. Simple bleeding by sticking in the thorax or cuttiug the throat. To this group belongs the Jewish method of slaughter. 2. Bleeding after previous mutilation of the medulla oblongata by pithing or by a blow. 3. Bleeding after previous stunning by means of a blow with a club, the so-called killing ax, killing mask, and shooting mask. The procedures mentioned under 2 and 3 are frequently com- bined in stunning with a killing ax. Practice of the Different Methods of Slaughter. 1. — Simple Bleeding by Sticking in the Chest or Cutting the Throat. Thoracic bleeding is performed in such a manner that, without any preliminary operation, the larger vascular trunks (carotids aud jugulars) at the entrance of the thorax are opened or severed by means of a sharp-pointed knife. Thonicic bleeding finds application with calves, sheep, and the larger domesticated animals in which, in consequence of certain diseases, an incipient paralysis of the brain is present (for example, parturient paresis). Cervical bleeding, or schdchteii, is the common method of kilhng food animals among the Jews and Mohammedans. For practicing this method, the animals must be secured, and thrown. This may be accomplished by the ordinary methods of throwing or by means METHODS OF SLAUGHTER ' 133 of windlasses fastened to the walls and ceiling of the room. The head is placed so that it lies upon the horns and nose. Hereupon, in ritual schachten, the neck is cut through to the spinal column by three rapidly-executed strokes with a long, exceedingly-sharp, nick- less knife. Israelites consider themselves bound by their religious laws to slaughter in this manner, or to abstain from the use of meat. A governmental prohibition of slaughter by the Jewish method would be an attack on the rights of the free practice of religion granted by tolerant governments.* A blow on the head is declared by the Israelites as not permissible, for the reason that " perforation of the membranes of the brain" belongs to the eight mutilations which, according to the Mischna of the Talmud, render the meat terspha (unfit for food). Meat which is fit to eat is called Jcosclier (in order, proper). " Let it be blest through me, O God, King of the world, who strengtheneth us in holiness by Thy commands and who hast made schachten a duty," murmurs the schdrJiter (schochet), while he straps his knife before the operation or runs the hands over it to test it. If during the operation of cutting the throat the knife receives any nick, however small, the "schechita" is not correctly performed. The animal is condemned (nebelah) and its use as food is not permitted. Likewise, it is forbidden to eat the meat of animals which exhibit no movement during the process of slaughter or afterwards. Animals which lie quiet and can not be made to get up by striking with a stick must not be slaughtered, according to the Jews. *A rabbinical expert, in consequence of the prosecution of schachten in the gOTemmental district of Danzig, in which this method of slaughter was temporarily- prohibited, testified in court that this method of slaughter was a religious observance based upon tradition and Biblical commandment (Moses, Book III and Bo6k V, chapter 13, verse 21). In the Mosaic food laws, however, there are no provisions concerning schachten. The first provision concerning the schechita and the subsequent inspection (B'dikoh) are found in the Fifth Book of Mischna, Chapters 1 to 6. The six books of Mischna wjre edited on the basis of oral and written tradition by Jehuda Ha Nassi. The commentaries to the Mischna, published later and collected in the fifth century A. D., together with the Mischna, constitute the Talmud. The Mischna declares that "if the organs (lungs, trachea, stomach, heart, etc.) are permeated with holes, or have any defect, the use of the animal as food is not permitted." The Gamara of the Talmud prescribes, "if tumors or vesicles are found in the lungs, filled with air or with pure water, or with a material diy or even as hard as a stone, the use of the animal as food is permitted. If, however, there is a stinking substance, or a stinking, cloudy fluid therein, the use of the meat of these animals is forbidden. Defects and pei-forative openings render the consumption of the meat unpermissible under all circumstances." 134 the art op butchering 2.— Bleeding after Previous Mutilation op the Medulla Oblongata by Pithing or by a Blow. Pithing.— In practicing this method, a dagger-like knife is violently driven into the space between the occipital bone and the atlas, and thereby the medulla oblongata, the seat of the more important vital functions, especially the respiratory center and the center of the inhibitory nerves of the heart, is destroyed. The same result is obtained by breaking the neck, either by means of the hand in small animals (rabbits) or with a killing ax in the case of larger animals. On account of its more certain effect, the latter method is almost exclusively used in London in the case of wild range steers imported from America. 3. — Bleeding after Previous Stunning with a Hammer, Slaughter Ax, Slaughter Mask, and Shooting Mask. The blow with the hammer is administered with great violence upon the middle of the roof of the cranium for the purpose of producing not only a concussion of the brain, but also a fracture of the cranium. In this, as in the following method, as a result of pressure or direct injury, a rapid paralysis of the sensory and motor centres of the brain is brought about. Pick, in Wiirzburg, calls attention to the fact that it has been shown by extensive experience in the case of man that an immediate paralyzing concussion of the brain is accompanied with absolute unconsciousness. In place of a. small hammer, the following special apparatus may be used for stunning : (a) The killing ax, which consists of a wooden handle and a wrought iron striking apparatus fastened at right angles to the handle. One half of the latter consists of an iron cylinder about 10 cm. long and 1 cm. in diameter, the end of which forms a gouge. The other half of the striking portion is curved in order to embrace the horns of the animal to be stunned. The gouge-like end of the striking portion is driven into the middle of the roof of the cranium by a strong blow, whereupoi; the animal falls. In order to prevent the animal from getting up again, it is customary to introduce a rod into the opening in the cranium and to destroy the brain and medulla oblongata. (b) The slaughter mask consists of a shield-like iron portion with an opening in the middle and with a leather attachment on either side. Purthermore, there are three thongs attached to the METHODS OF SLAUGHTEll 135 slaughter mask for fastening it to the bead. The opening in the shield-shaped iron portion comes to lie upon the middle of the roof Fig. 3. Slaughtermask as used in the Stuttgart Abattoir, a, mask ; h, striking bolt. Pig, of the cranium, while the lateral leather portion covers the eyes of the animal. As in the case of the iron cylinder of the killing ax, furnished with a gouge, a striking bolt, which is inserted into the opening of the iron portion, is driven through the roof of the cranium by a wooden hammer. In the practice of this method also, a subsequent destruction of the brain, such as occurs in the use of the killing ax, is customary, (c) The shooting mash (Sieg- mund). — In this apparatus, in place of the striking bolt, a short pistol barrel is used, which is screwed into the opening of the shield-like iron portion of the slaughter mask. In the posterior Staehl's shooting apparatus. l^Q THE AET OF BUTCHEBINQ part of the pistol barrel, a ball cartridge is placed, and is dis- charged by a light blow with a wooden or iron hammer. Subse- quent destruction of the brain is not required in using the shooting mask. , . i j • .i An alteration of Siegmund's shooting mask is found m the shooting apparatus according to_ Staehl (system of "noiseless shooting "), which is shown in Fig. 4. Kleinschmidt's spring bolt apparatus for killing hogs (half natural size), (d) In using Kleinschmidt's springbolt apparatus for killing hogs (Fig- 5), death is produced in a manner similar to that with the use of the slaughter mask. A cylindrical iron bolt is driven into the roof of the cranium with the blow of a hammer. After the blow has been delivered, the bolt is thrown back into its previous position by a spring, which does not occur in the case of the slaughter mask. Kogler, in Chemnitz, modified Kleinschmidt's springbolt apparatus in that he left out the spring and made use of a consider- ably shorter cylinder. The cylinder possesses a groove into which a small set screw projects. According to Kogler, the spring of Kleinschmidt's apparatus has the disadvantage that its use requires METHODS OF SLAUGHTER 137 a much more powerful blow, while the length of the cylinder (19.5 cm.) renders difficult the firm attachment of the apparatus to the head. Kogler's apparatus is without protection for the bolt and without its automatic rebound. Both these features, however, according to Kogler, are non-essential. The modified apparatus has Fio. Section of Kogler's slaughter mask, a, groove for the bolt ; b, screw for preventing the bolt from springing out. given good satisfaction in various abattoirs. Kogler makes use of this method of connecting the bolt with the cylinder, such as is used in the stunning apparatus for hogs and in slaughter masks for cattle, Pig. 7. Kfirten's hog killer. and avoids thereby the possibility of the bolt springing out in ine case of a misdirected blow (Fig. 6). Kiirten in turn modified Kogler's apparatus in that he divided the cylinder carrying the strikiug bolt into an upper and lower portion, which were held apart by a long, strong spring (Fig. 7). 138 THE ART OF BUTCHEBING Pig. 8. Hereby, as in the case of Kleinschmidt's springbolt apparatus, the bolt is thrown back into its previous position after the blow is delivered. (e) For Hungarian hogs, as well as for calves and sheep, the bolt hammer accord- ing to Kleinschmidt (Fig. 8) is recomm- ended on account of the arched roof of the cranium. According to a report from Karlsruhe, however, the bolt hammer was not satisfactory for killing sheep. Better results were obtained with an oval ham- mer 10 cm. long. 1^ cm. broad, flattened on both ends, and furnished with a handle 70 cm. long. Finally, it should be noted that the firm of Eenger in Arnstadt has constructed a casting slaughter apparatus for killing hogs. This apparatus serves the purpose of holding the head more securely for the administration of the blow. Kleinschmidt's bolt-hammer for stunning calyes and sheep. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Different Methods of Slaughtering. 1. Thoracic bleeding and cutting the throat bring about a complete bleeding and thereby produce a beautiful appearance of the meat, which is associated with good keeping qualities. The blood flows out so completely since the central nervous organs are intact, and consequently the blood pressure is not lowered at the beginning. The discharge of the blood, however, toward the end of the bleeding is greatly favored by the reflex muscular contractions (bleeding or anemic spasms). Dembo killed one rabbit by the Jewish method of slaughter and two others by bleeding after a previous stunning, and obtained the following results : (1) The rabbit killed according to the Jewish method weighed 2,000 gm. and lost 80 gm. of blood ( = 72 percent.). The residual blood in the body was 28 per cent. (2) A stunned rabbit, weighing 1,950 gm., lost 50 gm. of blood (=46 per cent.). The residual blood in the body was 54 per cent.). (3) A stunned rabbit, weighing 1,850 gm., lost 30 gm. of blood ( = 29 per cent.), the residual blood in the body being 71 per cent. The author killed three rabbits of the same litter weighing 2,000 gm., by cutting the METHODS OF SLAUGHTER 139 tliroat and by bleeding after previous stunning or breaking the neck. The quantities of blood obtained were as follows : (1) In the rabbit killed by cutting the neck, 81 gm.; (2) after a previous blow on the head, 62 gm.; (3) after previously breaking the neck, 36 gm. The results of these slaughtering experiments with rabbits can not, however, be applied directly to the large food animals, as shown by Goltz (Ztschr. f. Milch u. Fleisch Hyg., YIII), and corroborated by P. Falk. Goltz demonstrated by careful weighings that, iu the large food animals, bleeding after stunning was not less complete than after cutting the throat without stunning. In cattle the following average quantities of blood were obtained : (a) In slaughtering according to the Jewish method, 3.24 per cent, of the live weight ; (b) in using the shooting mask, 3.20 per cent, of the live weight; (e) in using the striking mask, 2.89 per cent, of the live weight. In calves : (a) la slaughtering according to the Jewish method, 4.90 per cent, of the live weight ; (b) by the butcher's method of cutting the throat, 4.90 per cent; (c) by a blow with a hammer, 5.07 per cent. In sheep : (a) In slaughtering according to the Jewish method, 4.15 per cent.; (b) by cutting the throat or severing the carotids, 4.31 per cent.; (c) by a blow with a hammer, 4.35 per cent. Or, expressed iu other words, a beef animal of 700 kg. live weight lost : (a) In slaughtering according to the Jewish ritual, 22.68 kg. of blood ; (b) by use of the shooting mask, 22.40 kg.; (c) by use of the striking mask, 20.23 kg. A calf of 60 kg. live weight lost : (a) In slaughtering according to the Jewish ritual, 2.95 kg.; (b) by the butcher's method of sticking, without stunning, 2.94 kg.; (c) by a hammer blow, 3.04 kg. A sheep of 50 kg. live weight lost : (a) By the Jewish method of slaughtering, 2.07 kg. of blood ; (b) by the butcher's method of killing without stunning, 2.15 kg.; (c) by a hammer blow, 2.17 kg. P. Falk called attention to the fact that he found no difference with regard to the keeping qualities in meat preserved in cold storage whether the animals had been killed according to the Jewish method or by killing after a previous stunning. To the thoracic bleeding and slaughter according to the Jewish method, objection is made that these methods of slaughter make a highly repulsive and grewsome impression, since they are performed 140 THE AET OP BUTCHEBING on animals while fully conscious. The act of slaughtering, however, is always a repulsive sight. Furthermore, it has been shown that animals slaughtered according to the Jewish method pass very quickly into unconsciousness (according to Zangger, in one-half rninute ; according to Probstmayr, in 25. to 30 seconds ; according to Esser, 40 seconds).* The respiratory and general muscular spasms which appear later are, therefore, merely reflex contractions. The death agony ceases after about four minutes. In the case of thoracic bleeding, as well as in slaughter according to Jewish methods, the preparations for the act are repulsive, especially the rough manner of throwing cattle to be killed by the Jewish method and the unnecessarily long time the animals are kept down before the act of slaughter. These crudities, however, may be prevented by suitable regulations. Legislative provisions for the practice of the Jewish meihod of slaughter.— A. Meiningen circular of May 29, 1881, in harmony with the Prussian Ministerial decree of January 14, 1889, with reference to the prevention of the unnecessary abuse of animals, declares as follows : Sec. 5. With regard to slaughter according to Israelitio custom, the following special provisions, in addition to the preceding sections 3 to 4, are in force : 1. Large animals shall be thrown only by means of pulleys or similar devices. The pulleys shall be firmly attached and the ropes used shall be strong and flexible. 3. .While the animal is down, the head must be supported by proper devices, so that the battering of the head and breaking of the horns are prevented. 3. When the animal is thrown, the schachter must be present and must immediately perform the act of slaughter. This must be carried out as quickly and effectively as possible. 4. Not only during the act of slaughterin?, but also for the whole period from the muscular spasms which appear after the throat is cut until death takes place, the head of the animal must be securely held. 5. Slaughter according to the Jewish method shall be practiced only by a schachter who has been approved by a ducal rabbi. Methods of throioing.— For throwing cattle to be slaughtered according to the Jewish methods, numerous more or less complicated devices have been recommended. All these apparatus are unneces- sary, since the simplest, surest, and safest method of throwing cattle consists in the so-called casting, for the practice of which nothing but a rope is required (a casting rope of about 20 metres length) •According to more recent investigations which were undertaken by the Saxon Commission for Veterinary Service, the cornea reflex of steers and bulls slaughtered, according to Jewish methods did not cease until after 3J, 4 and 5 minutes. METHODS OF SLAUGHTEB 141 (Fig. 9). Although this method of throwing was devised by German veterinarians, it was first prescribed for slaughter according to the Jewish method in Kussia at the instigation of the societies for the prevention of cruelty to animals. Animals which are thrown by the method of casting lie down quietly upon the side and extend the legs in such a manner that they may be easily tied. In Stuttgart, the former municipal veterinarian Sauer introduced an equally good method of throwing. The animals are secured by a short rope attached to the head and brought through a ring which is fastened to the floor. A short piece of rope, which is furnished with a ring in the end, is attached to each metacarpus and one end of the casting rope is fastened to the hind leg above the hoof. The Fia. 9. Method of throwing cattle. casting rope is run through the rings of the ropes attached to the front legs in such a manner that the free end appears on the side of the free hind foot. The rope is tightened through a pulley and the animal falls or, rather, lies down slowly upon the side. The free hind foot, which acts as a support, prevents violent falling and floundering. A frequent repulsive sight in slaughtering powerful steers and bulls according to the Jewish method is caused by a defective fastening of the head. It may thus occur tnat the animals break loose as soon as the cutting of the throat is begun and throw the head with the half-severed throat violently from side to side. To prevent this occurrence, Jal^ob has devised a suitable apparatus. This consists, as shown by Fig. 10, of a simple iron rod 1^ meters long and forked at one end. The ends of the bifurcation are bent back in the form of a hook. The other end is provided with a handle. A moveable iron ring, fastened by a screw, is attached to 142 THE ART OP BUTOHEBING the iron rod. The use of the apparatus consists in grasping the horns of the animal by the curved ends of the bifurcations, a. The point, I, of the apparatus, therefore, comes to lie upon the forehead. Thereupon the movable ring, c, on the rod is pushed over the mouth and nose, and fastened to the iron rod by means of a screw,/. The head of the animal is thereby held fast in the apparatus. Apparatus for holding the head of cattle. The apparatus of Jakob, just described, has been modified by Thielemann. Moreover, Winkler has constructed a new and very practical head fastener (Ztschr. f. Milch u. Fleisch Hyg., IV). The blood of animals slaughtered according to the Jewish method is to be excluded from utilization as human food for the reason that it is contaminated by the stomach contents which flow out through the severed esophagus. Prohibitions against slaughter by the Jemsh method. — Slaughtering according to the Jewish method is prohibited in Switzerland and in the Kingdom of Saxony. A decree of the Saxon Ministry of the Interior, by which a petition for the removal of the prohibition against this method of slaughter was denied, is of some interest. In the conclusion of the decree it is stated, " There is no good reason to make an exception, as has been requested by the Jews, in case of the provision concerning the moral status of the matter, which is not at all concerned with religion, but simply with the consideration of the prevention of cruelty to animals ; for, it is apparent that any ritual custom, of however long standing, and having its origin in variable human decrees, does not deserve any consideration if it is calculated to give moral offence, or if it is at variance with the general laws of the government. The Ministry of the Interior can not decide to allow the requested exceptional treatment of Jewish METHODS OF SLAUGHTER 143 slaughtering, especially since it would certainly be considered by the great majority of the people as an unjustifiable favor to an isolated minority." The prohibitions against slaughtering by the Jewish method which were decreed in the Prussian governmental districts of Danzig and Marienburg, were lately removed after a decision of the Ministry of the Interior and Education upon complaint of a rabbi, and it was declared to be unpermissible to decide for particular local police districts whether cruelty to animals was involved in the Jewish method of slaughter and to forbid this method of slaughter by police regulations. On the other hand, the local police authorities in Prussia, according to a Ministerial decree issued by the Imperial Government at Diisseldorf, are authorized to prohibit any slaughter- ing according to the Jewish method in excess of that required for the Jewish population. The Administrative Court decided that a conditional prohibition is not permissible, and that this practice was to be forbidden or permitted to all schachters. It was further held that the various communities were authorized to pass regula- tions concerning the manner in which the abattoirs were to be used and concerning the procedure to be followed in slaughtering. 2. Pithing and breaking the neck furnish the least disagreeable sight for the spectator. The animals fall and remain motionless. On the other hand, pithing has been rightly characterized by Gerlach as most gruesome, since by this act consciousness remains intact until it is destroyed by the cerebral anemia in consequence of the loss of blood. Moreover, the methods of pithing and breaking the neck have the great disadvantage that bleeding is incomplete. In the medulla oblongata are found the vital center, respiratory center, regulative center for heart action, the dominating vasomotor centes, and the center of muscular contractions. By mutilating the medulla oblongata these centers are destroyed, and thus all the important factors in thorough bleeding, respiration, heart action, and reflex muscular contractions are eliminated. The animals bleed to some extent, as Schmidt-Miilheim states, into their own blood vessels. In the government districts of Gumbinnen and Diisseldorf, the killing of cattle by pithing is forbidden, and the same is true for the whole Eussian Empire, in which it was previously the exclusive method of slaughter. The abandonment of pithing as a method of slaughtering in Russia was chiefly brought about by the experiments of Dembo, who showed that pithed steers still ate salt and bread which was offered to them. 144 THE AKT OF BUTCHERING 3. As the best and most humane method of slaughter, we must consider those methods in which the animals are bled after being stunned. The manner in which the stunning shall be accomplished is of no consequence. Skilled butchers kill an animal by a hammer blow as quickly and as certainly as by means of a killing ax, slaughter mask, or by any other stunning instrument. The use of the hammer, especially in the case of hogs, is simpler than that of slaughter apparatus. In Berlin, for example, cattle and hogs are killed exclusively with a hammer or with the head of an ax. With less experienced persons, the slaughter mask or the apparatus of Klein- schmidt and Kogler render the blow more certain than that with a hammer. The use of this apparatus requires, however, moie time and an assistant in the slaughter of hogs, which is not necessary in using the hammer. These facts are to be considered in slaughter- ing on a large scale. The killing ax requires for its exclusive use considerable skill. The slaughtering mask is frequently unsatisfactory for killing bulls. The animals either do not fall at all or plunge, and spring up again and struggle. The use of the shooting mask, moreover, is not without danger. Thus, a few years ago a butcher's apprentice was injured in an accident with a shooting mask of the old kind, and another accident happened in the abbatoir of Erfurt in the use of Staehl's shooting apparatus. The ball passed outward under the left ear of the animal and shattered the femur of the assistant who was standing by the head of the animal. Moreover, the bleeding of the animals may be incomplete in case the bullet injures the medulla oblongata, and, finally, the meat is injured if the bullet penetrates the cervical musculature. All these accidents, however, may be avoided by the skilful use of the apparatus, as is contended by Mittermaier, one of the most enthusiastic advocates of the intro- duction of the shooting apparatus for killing animals, from observa- tions made in Heidelburg and Swiss abba^oirs, in which all of th& larger food animals and, in recent times, also hogs, are shot. In some abbatoirs, as in that at Potsdam, the shooting is done by an employee of the abbatoir (hall master), whereby accidents have thus far been avoided. The methods which require a previous stunning, when properly practiced, satisfy completely humanitarian sentiments in so far as the first violent assault is followed by a paralysis of the sensory centres of the nervous system. Moreover, they serve the interests of meat hygiene, since, in consequence of the integrity of the medulla, oblongata, a thorough bleeding is not prevented. Only when, after ORDER OF PHOCEDUEE IN COMMERCIAL SLAUGHTElil.NG 145 the use of the killing ax or slaughter mask, not only the cerebrum but also the medulla oblongata are destroyed by the introduction of a rod, is bleeding checked in a manner like that which occurs in pithing and breaking the neck. This may also occur, as already mentioned, in shooting animals* The slaughtering methods iu which bleeding follows stunning, in spite of their advantages, are not much in vogue. In a large proportion of the abbatoirs in various parts of Germany, it is allowable to kill sheep and calves by thoracic bleeding or cutting the throat without previous stunning. It is difi&cult to understand why these animals should not be allowed the benefit of a previous stunning in slaughter. The procedure of communities which make obligatory the stunning of all food animals, including those from which man has nothing to fear, deserves all recognition. Two notable regulations (Dnchy of Meiningen, of May 23, 1891, and the Kingdom of Saxony, on March 21, 1892) prescribe that, in the slaughtering of all animals, stunning must precede the removal of the blood. The only exception is in the 'case of fowls. The Saxon regulation, which, as shown on page 142, does not accept the Jewish method of slaughter, prescribes as follows concerning the act of stunning : In the case of cattle, stunning shall be accom- plished by the use of the slaughtering mask, except in young ani- mals where the incomplete development of the skull renders it unnecessary. With reference to the stunning of hogs, calves and sheep by a blow upon the head or neck, the choice of a stunning apparatus is left to the discretion of the butchers, although the wooden hammer is recommended for calves, the bolt apparatus for hogs, and the striking bolt hammer or a blunt ax for sheep. 4. — Order of Procedure in Commercial Slaughtering. After the death of the animal, skinning takes place in the case of horses, cattle and Sheep, and scaldiug and singeingf in the case of hogs, while calves are immediately hung up for exenteration. J * According to Siegmund, it is desirable to bleed animals which have been shot, not immediately, but after a lapse of from one to three minutes, since then bleeding will be thorough and rather more so than in slaughtering by the Jewish method, in which the trunks of the carotid arteries oflen become closed very quickly. f The meat of singed ho^s is said to keep better than that of scalded hogs. Singeing, however, renders the inspection of the skin more difficult. i Calves, especially young and poor specimens, are preferably sold in the skin, in order to prevent the drying of the meat, whereby it becomes of a lighter color and of a less desirable appearance. 146 THE AET OF BUTCHERING Thereupon, after making a cut along the middle of the inferior abdominal wall, the exenteration of the body cavity takes place ia such a manner that first the intestines and then the stomach are separated from their natural connections. The intestines are all removed, together with the mesentery. The spleen, in the case of cattle, is left in connection with the stomach ; in hogs, with the mes- entery ; while in calves and sheep the spleen remains in the body. The liver in horses and cattle is removed separately. In all other kinds of food animals it is taken out in its natural connection with the lungs and heart (the so-called sling), or is removed from the body cavity without splitting the sternum, or after a previous open- ing of the thorax. Tl;e latter process is required in the interest of an accurate inspection. In hogs, after the above described operations, the separation o^ the retro-peritoneal fat tissue occurs, and with it that of the kidneys. This separation is necessary in order that a thorough inspection of the abdominal musculature for cysticerci, calcareous concretions, hemorrhages, etc., may take place. While horses, cattle, calves and sheep are being skinned, the lower portions of the extremities are also separated from their connections below the carpal and tarsal joint. As a rule, the exenteration of the bladder, uterus and rectum takes place immediately after the removal of the intestines. With the exenteration of the abdominal, pelvic and thoracic cavities are connected the removal of the' brain from the cranial cavity, and the separation of the tongue from its musciilar connec- tions with the lower jaw, so that the cranial cavity and the mouth and pharyngeal cavities are laid open. Finally, in the case of horses, cattle and hogs, the trunk is divided into two halves by splitting the spinal column. Further procedure in dissection, according to ordinary methods of butchering, is different in different food animals. In cattle, after a previous quartering,* the more valuable cuts of meat are sold separately. As the more valuable parts, we have the purely muscular portions of the body, which contain only small quantities of bone and sinew. As less valuable parts, on the other hand, we have the portions which are poor in muscle, but strongly infiltrated with fat tissue (tallow), and which contain a large propor- tion of bone and sinew. This distinction finds expression in the * Quartering is not practiced in a uniform manner. In Northern Germany the fore quarter is usually separated from the hind quarter between the ninth and tenth ribs, thus leaving three ribs on the hind quarter; while in Southern Germany the separation takes place before the next to the last rib. ORDER OP PROCEDURE IN COMMERCIAL SLAUGHTERING 147 different prices. The so-called fillet universally brings a higher price than the other muscular parts; in London and Paris, for example, three to four times as much as the thin abdominal meat. Fio. 11. Classification of beef in Berlin. I. Quality: 1, Kinderbraten ; 3, Blume; 3, Eokschwanzstiiok; 4, Mittelschwanz- stlick; 5, Kugel; 6, Oberschale. 11. Quality: 7, Unterschwanzstiick; 8, Bug"; 9, Mittelbrust. III. Quality: 10, Fehlrippe; 11, Kamm; 12, Querrippe; 13, Brustkern. IV. Quality: 14, Quernierenstiick; 15, Hessen; 16, JJiinnung. Fig. 13. Classification of beef in Vienna. I. Quality: Lungenbraten (nicht eingezeichnet); 1, Beiried; 3, Ried (Rostbraten) ; 3, Hiifeischwanzl ; 4, Gschnattes Schwanzl; 5, Ortschwaiizl; 3, Rieddeckel; 7, Zwerchried; 8, Schlemmried (Riedhilfel). II. Quality: 9, Schulter; 10, Dicker Spitz; 11, Kruspelspitz ; 13, Mageres Meisl; 13 und 14, Fettes Meisl; 15, Kamm; 16, Brustkern; 17, Diokes Kilgel; 18, Mittleres Kiigel ; 19; Diinnes Kiipel ; 30, Tristl; 21, Bauchfleisoh. III. Quality: 32, Zapfen; 33, Wadschinken; 24, Sricli; 25, Backen. 148 THE AllT OF BUTCHERING Otherwise, tlie purely muscular parts exhibit no noteworthy diflfer- ences in the protein content. While, therefore, in ordinary traffic various prices customarily prevail for these parts, this must be explained, not by the higher nutritive value of particular parts of the meat — as a rule, the consumer does not inquire at all concern- ing the nutritive value — but by the better flavor which is due to the tender character of the fibers and the content of extractives (see page 196). According to Ignatiev, the valuation of the meat corresponds to the unequal distribution of two albuminoid substances in the mus- culature, myosin and myostromin (the essential components of the Fio. 13. Classification of beef in London. I. Quality: 1, loin; 3. aitchbone; 3 and 4, silverside; 5, fore rib. II. Quality: (i, topside; 7, leg; 8, street; 9, midrib; 10, shoulder. III. Quality: 11, thin flank; 13, chuck; 13, fore quarter flank. IV. Quahty: 14, brisket; 15, clod and sticking; 16 and 17, shank; 18, cheek. muscle mass, according to Dauilewski). The more work which the muscle has performed, the poorer it is in the former and the richer in the latter.^ The relative quantity of both substances, according to Ignatiev's investigations, is so distributed according to the region of the body that the myosin increases from the head toward the tail, while the myostromin decreases. The latter exists in large pro- portions in the parts below the Vertebral column. Classification of heef.— The most expensive cuts of meat are : The lumbar muscles, iliopsoas, quadratus lumborum and diaphragmatic columns (" lungenbraten," "lummel," fillet), the dorsal muscles with their bony foundation, sacro-lumbalis and longissimus dorsi {roast, ORDEB OF PBOCEDURE IX COMMEBCIAL SLAUGHTERING 149 sirloin, porterhouse), the muscles of the croup and thigh (rump, hip, leg), the musculature of the scapula, together with the humerus and forearm (shoulder), the musculature above and below the shoulder on either side of the withers (spiire ribs), the thicker parts of the abdominal muscles (cross ribs), and the sternum with the connected soft parts ("beef breast"). The cheapest cuts of meat are the thinner portions of the abdominal muscles (flank), the cer- vical and cephalic muscles, and also the muscles of the elbow and hock. The remaining groups of muscles receive different valuations in different regions. Everywhere, however, the hind quarters are more highly prized and bring a higher price than the fore quarters. rio. 14. Classification of beef in Paris. I. Quality; 1 and 3, semelle; 5, culotte; 4, tende de tranche sous la semelle; 5, "aloyau ; 6, filet (not shown). II. Quality: 7, plats de cotes decouverts sous I'epaule; 8, entre-cotes et cotes; 9, talon de collier; 10, bavette d'aloyau; 11, plats de c6tes oouverts. III. Quality: 13, collier; 13, pis; 14, gites. IV Quality: 16, surlonges; 17, plats de joues. The latter serve especially in the preparation of meat broths and sausages, and are, therefore, characterized as "soup meat" and " sausage meat." The Israelites are required by their food laws to eat only the fore quarters of food animals, and are allowed to eat the hind quarters only after they are "geporcht," that is, when the large vascuhir trunks are removed. (A-Ccording to Goltz, this cus- tom is based' on the 32nd chapter of the first Book of Moses, in which the struggle of Jacob with the angel is described. The angel dislocated Jacob's hip, " Therefore, the children of Israel eat no sinews in the hip joint to the present day, since the. sinews in the hip joint of Jacob were touched.") 150 THE AET OP BOTCHEEING Classification in Berlin.— Aitev the removal of the fillet aud the tongue, the remainder of the muscular trunk, together with the extremities, is cut up according to four principal qualities and sixteen sorts (Fig. 11); I.— (1) Eoast, (2) prime, (3) corner rump, (4) middle rump, (5) round, (6) upper round. IL— (7) Lower rump, (8) shoulder, (9) middle breast. III._(10) Spare rib, (11) neck, (12) short ribs, (13) fore breast IV.— (14) Cross kidney, (15) Hessian (knee joint), (16) flank Fig. 15. Classification of veal. I. Quality: 1, leg; 2, loin roast. II. Quality: 3, back; 4, withers; 5. shoulder. III. Quality: 6, neck; 7, breast; 8, flank. IV. Quality: 7, head; 10, feet. Classification in Vienna. — According to a private communication of Toscano, three chief qualities and twenty-four sorts are distin- guished in Vienna : I. — (1) Lungenbraten, (2) side roast, (3) roast, (4) hiiferschwanzl, (5) gschnattes schwanzl, (6) ortschwanzl, (7) rieddeckel, (8) zwer- chried, (9) schlemmried (riedhiifel). II.— (10) Shoulder, (11) thick point, (12) crust point, (13) poor cut, (14) fat cut, (15) neck, (16) fore breast, (17) thick round, (19) thin round, (20) tristl, (21) flank. III.— (22) Plug, (23) hock joint, (24) stick piece, (25> cheeks.* * In Vienna, an especially high value is placed by certain admirers of the mus- cular part of the diaphragm upon the s»-called crow or crown meat. The crown meat is much prized also in Southern Germany, especially m Bavaria. In Munich there is a special crown meat establishment in which this meat is prepared, as a kind of deli- cacy, by boiling. ORDER OP PROCEDURE IN COMMERCIAL SLAUaHTERING 151 The classifications of meat in London and Paris are apparent from the accompanying illustrations. Calves are out up. as required. Classification of veal. — In the calf, the greatest value is placed upon the muscle mass of the hind quarter (leg), of the back (loin roast, back, cutlet), the withers (corresponding to the "spare rib" of cattle), while the shoulder, neck, breast and flank produce a smaller value. On the market the thymus of calves (sweetbread) is reckoned as meat, and is sold at a comparatively high price. The thymus of calves is a food which is readily digested, on account of the lactic acid which it contains. It possesses also considerable nutriment in Fig. 16. Cla'sification of mutton. I. Qnalitv: 1. back; 2, leg. II. Quality: 3, shoulder. III. Quality: 4, breast and flank ; 5, neck; 6, head. che form of albumen and fibrin. Milk calves furnish an especially large and valuable thymus, while that in calves which are reared artificially are less valuable. The weight of a thymus varies between 200 and 2,000 gm. The thymus of adult cattle is worthless. It possesses a leathery consistency, and is often sandy in consequence of a deposit of carbonate and phosphate of lime in the glandular substance. In preparing a sheep carcass for sale, a transverse cut is made in such a manner that the fore quarters with the neck, thorax and abdominal muscles form one part, while the juicy back with the legs form another part. No further classification occurs in cutting up the sheep. (Fig. 16.) Hogs are first separated into two lateral halves by a dividing plane extending from the head to the tail. Thereupon the legs or 152 THE ART OP BUTCHERING hams (the most valuable part of the hog) are separated, and then the separation of the halves of the head (cheeks) and the lower portions takes place. The remaining part of the halved trunk, together with the anterior extremities, is divided into an upper and lower portion by a cut extending backward and upward from the shoulder joint. Thereby the abdominal musculature is left on the lower portion. The upper part furnishes the hog back (carr^), or the "carbonade meat," the meat of the roast ribs (cutlets), the so-called spare rib and the withers, while the under portion fur- nishes the shoulder, the breast piece and the flank (" sides, smoked meat"). Fig. 17. Classification of pork, I. Quality: 1, ham; 2, loin; 3, cutlet. II. Quality : 4, withers ; 5, shoulder and breast. III. Quality: 6, flank. IV. Quality: 7, head with cheeks; 8, feet. Zschokke, in a very noteworthy work, condemns, as an evil practice, the habit of butchers in cutting into various kinds of pathological tissue, especially tuberculous areas ; also the habit of holding the knife between the lips or teeth. In this connection it should not be forgotten that butchers represent a considerable con- tingent to the number of human beings who die of tuberculosis. The practice of artificial respiration, during which the assistant stands upon the slaughtered animal and stamps upon the abdomen and thorax, is to be characterized as a bad habit and should be for- bidden, since the stomach contents may thus be forced through the pharyngeal cavity into the trachea and bronchi. Likewise, washing the lungs in impure water, washing the meat, and, finally, " drawing out the blood" in cases of incomplete bleeding, which is really only an extraction of blood coloring matter by allowing the meat to lie in water, should be forbidden as highly improper. IT. INSPECTION OF SLAUGHTERED ANIMALS.* General Discussion. — It is desirable that the expert be present in person at the shiughter, in order to make it impossible from the beginning for the tradesmen to attempt any removal of pathological products, or the presentation of healthy organs in the place of diseased ones. A supervision of slaughter is also desirable, for the reason that exudations and transudations into the body cavity flow out during the process of slaughter, aud thus escape the notice of the expert inspector if he does not begin inspection until after the slaughter is complete. Moreover, it should not be forgotten that butchers understand very well how to conceal certain alterations. Thus, one may observe in abattoirs how, by careful washing, butchers remove the ichorous contents of the peritoneal cavity in cases of perforative peritonitis of calves, and how they remove the fibrinous deposit by pulling or scraping it off, and in this manner render the real condition, which was quite striking, very difficult to recognize. The same may be said in cases of pleuritis, pericarditis aud metritis. The practice, which has become especially prevalent, of remov- ing abscesses and certain parasites (echinococci) in and upon organs, tuberculous masses on the serous membi-auea, exterior surface of organs and in the lymph glands, should be checked by severe pun- ishment. Fortunately, we are in a position to demonstrate, easily such attempts to obscure the actual condition in diseased animals. The removal of masses of material from different organs is evidenced by loss of substance. Thus, the frequently practiced removal of the pleura on account of tuberculosis or inflammatory alterations, espe- cially in meat which is introduced from foreign countries, is to be recognized by the fact that the ribs and intercostal muscles come to be exposed and are not covered by a glistening membrane. In the place of the smooth, glistening, transparent pleura, there appears a * In this chapter only macroscopic meat inspection will be considered. Micro- scopic inspection for trichina is discussed in connection with the account of trichina. 153 154 INSPECTION OF SLAUGHTERED ANIMALS more or less conspicuous sub-pleural connective tissue, which has become cloudy and opaque on account of the introduction of air (artificial emphysema). The nature of the pathological process iu the removed pleura is, under these conditions, still recognizable from the fact that the lymph glands, which lie in the entrance to the thorax and are surrounded by fat tissue, exhibit alterations. Quite frequently also the uteri of cows filled with well devel- oped fetuses are laid aside in order to make use of the meat of so-called unborn animals as a human food material. To prevent this underhand dealing, all inspected uteri are to be cut up and condemned. In this way the removal of pregnant uteri becomes impossible, since for each slaughtered cow an intact uterus must be presented. If tbe inspector can not be present at the slaughter of all ani- mals (as, for instance, in small slaughterhouses where no expert inspector is present, or in very large slaughterhouses with extensive operations), it should be required that all organs should remain in. the slaughtered animal as nearly as possible in their natural condi- tion. At any rate, the spleen, kidneys, liver, lungs, heart and udder,, as well as the skin (the latter on account of description for legal purposes) should not be separated. lu so far as exenteration can- not be avoided, the organs must be left in their natural connection with one another. In case several animals are slaughtered at the same time, the exenterated organs should be hung up near the animal body to which they belong, in such a manner that no inter- change is possible. Furthermore, no organs should be removed before the inspection is completed. It should also be forbidden, that any sort of alteration, such as scalding the stomach, mesen- tery, hides, feet, etc., be undertaken in any of the separated parts- of the animal before they have been subjected to expert in- spection. Finally, meat inspection should be performed, so far as possible,, by daylight, .since by artificial illumination finer alterations may escape the notice of the inspector. Moreover, in illumination by gas even the acute stages of icterus are usually overlooked. The government president at Posen, in view of the fact that an accurate judgment of slaughtered animals is, as a rule, possible only in day- light, decreed on June 15, 1896, that in future the inspection of animals slaughtered in public slaughterhouses of the governmental district of Posen should be performed only by daylight. Excep- tions from this decree are allowed only in case the abattoir is lighted by electricity or by some other artificial source of light CHIEF POINTS IN INSPECTION 155 which, in the judgment of the official veterinarian, is of equal intensity. The official veterinarians are instructed in making their regular inspection of public abattoirs to give special attention to this decree. Chief Points in Inspection. — The most important characters of the normal or pathological condition of organs are size, color, sheen, conspicuousness or inconspicuousness, ns well as uniformity or lack of uniformity in the macroscopic structure, blood content of the cut surface and consistency. Attention should be given to these characteristics in each organ. All organs are to be carefully in- spected and palpated. Certain parts, as, for exumple, the lymphatic glands at the points of introduction of tuberculous infection, are always to be examined by means of an incision, but other parts, on the contrary, only in case of the suspicion of an alteration. Stamping Inspected Animals. — All organs as well as the meat are to be marked after inspection is completed with an indelible stamp, in order to exclude the possibility of presenting organs which have already been inspected in the place of fresh diseased organs. Moreover, the stamping of inspected organs and cuts of meat render it possible for consumers to buy only inspected meat, and offers the sanitary police a means of demonstrating evasions of meat inspection. For stamping fresh meat, non- poisonous, quickly-drying and adhesive colors are to be used. Pickled and smoked meat should be marked with a branding stamp. Condemnation. — Diseased animals and parts, or those which are suspected of being diseased, should be condemned preliminarily by a formal act. In Berlin this is done by pasting on a label with the inscription, " Preliminarily rejected and condemned. Dr. , Municipal Veterinarian." In case of final condemnation and exclusion from consumption, the animals or parts in question must be removed to an official inclosure (sanitary slaughterhouse) and there be disinfected under official control. If, however, the animals or parts which were preliminarily condemned may be sold under declaration as spoiled food material, in the sense of the food law, this quality is to be characterized by a special stamp, "spoiled, non-marketable, or inferior value, freibank meat." The sale of the last named meat must take place under official supervision. (Com- pare page 48.) 156 INSPECTION 0F> SLAUGHTERED ANIMALS Illegal Removal.— According to Sec. 137 of the Criminal Law Statutes, imprisonment not to exceed one year is prescribed fOr intentional concealment, destruction, or complete 6v partial removal of meat which has been condemned by the competent authorities or officials. The Imperial Court (Decision II, Criminal Senates, May 30, 1884) decided that the city veterinarians in Berlin, according to the text of Sees. 16 and 34 of the local regulations for the enforce- of condemnation, were competent in the sense of Sec. 137 of the Criminal Statutes. According to the meat inspection law, condem- nations are reserved for the police authorities. (See page 84.) Inspection of Diseased Organs.— With regard to the prac- tice of the inspection of diseased organs, the statement of Zschokke deserves all commendation. "By no means should the detailed inspections of pathologically altered organs take place in the public portion of the slaughterhouse, and with the ordinary instruments used for other purposes. For, by means of such instruments and by contaminated hands the contagion may be most easily spread. Since, moreover, meat may always serve in turn as a nutrient medium, it is not improbable that bacteria on it, even if they do not develop, still remain alive and may be disseminated. The danger of infection of man by the meat of tuberculous animals consists, perhaps, less in the eating of it — since for the most part it is heated to such a degree that bacteria are thereby killed — than in manipulating it during its preparation for consumption. We have to consider especially the possibility that bacteria may float in the air, and in other ways may gain entrance into the human organism. It requires no special argument in this connection to show that the subsequent washing of instruments and hands, as ib is commonly done, furnishes no guaranty against infection." Course of Inspection. — The inspector must make it a rule to follow a certain course in the inspection of the various parts of slaughtered animals in order that no organ may unintentionally be overlooked, and tbat in every case all organs may be subjected to inspection. The following may serve as a guide for the process of inspection, which obviously may be altered at will with regard to the sequence of the organs.* * Thus, many experts begin with the inspection of the four quarters, and then undertake the inspection of the head, internal organs and skm. COURSE OF INSPECTION 157 (a) Cattle. — (For horses, the same procedure may be adopted with a few variations.) 1. Skin. Wounds, abscesses, actinomycomata, anthrax — car- buncles, abnormal blood content of the inner surface ; in the horse, especially, glanderous processes and botryomycomata. 2. Head. (a) Outer aspect. (Actinomycomata.) (b) Alse nasi; lips, hard gums, pharyngeal cavity. (Foot- and-mouth disease, rinderpest.) (o) Tongue. (Foot-and-mouth disease, actinomycosis — palpate.) (d) External and internal masticatory muscles. (Cysticerci — make an incision.) (e) Upper cervical and laryngeal glands. (Tuberculosis, actinomycosis.)* For the complete inspection of the head, the inspection of the tongue with its connections with the rami of the jaw is re- quired. If rustling respiratory sounds were perceptible during life, the nasal cavities should be inspected after a previous splitting of the head in the median line. In horses the nasal cavities are always to be inspected (glanders). 3. Liver. Examination by inspection, palpation, and making an incision into the portal glands. (Degenerations, inflammation, parasites, tumors, tuberculosis, etc.) Furthermore, an incision above in the right lobe and on the posterior surface in the middle of the left lobe, and, finally, along the lobus spigelii, as far as the large bile ducts. (Liver flukes.) 4. Heart. Inspection after opening the pericardium, opening of the left and right ventricle in the manner customary in post niortems. (Degenerations, hemorrhages, endocarditis, cysticerci, echinococci.) 5. Lungs. Palpation, incision in a transverse direction ; incision of the mediastinal and bronchial glands. (Tuberculosis, echino- cocci, Strongylidse, inflammations, aspiration of blood and stomach contents.) 6. Spleen. Palpation ; incision of the splenic lymph glands. (Swelling, echinococci, tuberculosis.) * All lymphatic glaniis lying on the digestive and respiratory apparatus are to be examined for the presence of tuberculous alterations by making an incision. 158 INSPECTION OP SLAUGHTERED ANIMALS 7. Kidneys.* Inspection or incision extending from the middle, of the convex border to the renal pelvis, incision of the renal lymph glands. (Degenerations, inflammation of the renal pelvis and kidney itself, parasites, tuberculosis.) 8. Stomach. Internal and external ^rface. (Inflammations, tumors, parasites, aotinomycomata, serous tuberculosis.) 9. Intestines. (Inflammations, parasites, hemorrhages, gelatin- ous infiltrations, intestinal anthrax, tuberculosis.) 10. Mesentery. Incision of the mesenteric gland (hemorrhages, pentastomes, tuberculosis.) 11. Omentum. (Hemorrhages, tuberculosis.) 12. Testicle or uterus. Cutting open the latter. (Inflammations, tuberculosis.) 13. Urinary bladder. Inspection, and press out the contents. In order not to destroy the value of the bladders unnecessarily, they should be cat only in cases where disease is suspected. (Erythrism, cloudy contents, thickening.) Hereupon follows : 14. Inspection of (he/our quarters. (a) External aspect. (Blood content, hemorrhages, edema, tumors, parasites [oysticerci]). All hemorrhages observed upon the surface should be examined to determine whether they extend deeply into the meat. Bone fractures are often characterized by only slight suggillations on the surface of the skinned carcass. In female animals the udder is to be examined while inspecting the hind quarters, the supra- mammary lymph glands should be incised. (Tuberculosis, actinomycosis, abscesses.) (b) Inner aspect, peritoneum, pleura. (Blood content, inflam- mation, tumors, tuberculosis.) The diaphragm should be lifted, since otherwise in the hanging animals the altera- tions which are found underneath the diapliragm might be easily overlooked. (c) Spinal column, pelvis and sternum. (Discolorations, fractures, osteo-myelitis, tuberculosis.) Finally, in case cerebral or motor disturbances were observed in inspecting the animals before slaughter, the brain or the ex- tremities (hoofs, bones, tendons, joints) are to be subjected to a careful inspection. * The kidneys are best separated from the fatty capsule immediately after slaughter, before it has set, and, until inspected, should be left in their natural cou- neotion with the hind quarters by means of the urethra. COUKSE OP INSPECTION 159 (b) Caltes. — lu calves, inspection takes place in the same manner as with cattle, with the exception that the inspection of the liver for flukes is omitted. Especial attention in calves should be given to the condition : 1. Of the stomach (ulcus pepticum.) 2. Of the small intestine (hemorrhagic enteritis, dysentery). 3. Of the mesenteric and portal glands (congenital and incipient tuberculosis). 4. Of the navel (omphalo-phlebitis). 5. Of the joints (septic and suppurative polyarthritis). (c) Sheep. — In sheep the spleen must be carefully inspected in every case (anthrax) ; also the brain ( Co&rmrus cerebralis). Moreover, in sheep, attention should be given to th6 frequently occurring lung and stomach worms, as well as to sarcosporidia in the esophagus and skeletal musculature. (d) Hogs. — The internal organs, spinal column, pelvis and sternum are in general inspected in the same manner as in cattle. The liver, lungs, heart, trachea and tongue of hogs are to remain in their natural connection. The following variations from the above described course of inspection requires consideration in the case of hogs : 1. Careful inspection of the tongue and heart as well as the abdominal muscles, free from retroperitoneal fatty tissue ; diaphragni ; intercostal, cervical, masticatory and laryngeal muscles for the pres- ence of cysticerci.* 2. An incision into the base of the lungs on account of the fre- quent occurrence of Strongylus paradoxus. 3. Inspection of the skin. (Erythrism, granular eruptions, sclerosis in boars.) 4. Inspection of the udder (actinomycosis). 5. Inspection of the hoofs (foot-and-mouth disease). 6. Inspection of all visible skeletal muscles (hemorrhages, cys- ticerci, calcareous concretions). Inspection may proceed in this way in ordinary cases. If pathological alterations are found, the findings of inspection are to * In order that the cervical muscles may be inspected for cysticerci, it is desir- able that all hogs should be split before inspection ; that is, separated into two lateral halves by a longitudinal splitting of the spinal column and the associated soft parts. 160 INSPECTION OF SLAUGHTERED ANIMALS be supplemented according to requirements by determining the condition of other organs and, if necessary, by microscopic, bacteri- oloeical and chemical tests. The extent to .which this is indicated will be especially discussed in connection with the various diseases. Appendix.— Inspection of Imported Meat. The inspection of meat which is introduced in a slaughtered, condition from any locality inland or from a foreign country is always uncertain, for it must be done by the inspector without a knowledge of the condition of the animal before slaughter, and, therefore, can not include all of the internal organs. Certain organs, as, for instance, the stomach and intestines, can not be introduced in connection with the carcasses, since they rapidly pass into decom- position and cause an extension of this process to other parts of the body. Often, however, there are pathological processes in the stomach and intestines which may render the meat injurious to health (septic inflammation of the stomach and intestines, dysen- tery). It is easy to understand, therefore, why Hartenstein proposed that imported meat should be offered for sale only in separate booths, as required by the Prussian slaughterhouse law, and that labels should Tie attached to these sales booths with the inscription, "Introduced from outside countries. No responsibility can be assumed for the harmlessness of the meat." The same purpose is served by a special stamping of introduced meat, so as to make it apparent that the meat is introduced. Naturally, the inspection of meat introduced from foreign coun- tries is not entirely without value, as is shown by the findings of trichinae in pork introduced from America, and which had been already inspected in the export country. Beside trichinae, macro- scopically-visible injurious parasites (beef and pork measle-worms) may be demonstrated if those parts which serve as a favorite loca- tion for these parasites are introduced in their natural connection with the animal bodies. For the detection of the beef measle worm, the head is of prime importance, and for the demonstration of the pork measle worm, the heart and tongue. It is absolutely neces- sary to have the head with the lower jaw, together with the masti- catory muscles, along iwith the imported meat, since more than 90 per cent, of all findings of beef measle worms are possible only INSPECTION OF IMPORTED MEAT 161 through an inspection of the masticatory muscles. For inspection for glanders, the head aud skin are indispensable. For the diagnosis of tuberculosis, pleuro-pneumonia, cattle plague and swine plague, the lungs should be impoited along with the meat, and for the deter- mination of anthrax aud Texas fever the spleen should be presented. For the detection of septic and pyemic diseases and generalized tuberculosis, the introduction of the heart, liver and kidneys should be required. lu female animals, in view of the importance of septic diseases of the udder aud uterus informing a judgment of the meat, the introduction of these organs is desirable. If the introduction of the uterus must be abandoned on account of the diflSculty of trans- porting it when filled by a fetus, the instructions for inspection of introduced meat are to be so worded that all carcasses of female animals in which an inflammation of the lymph glands, which corre- spond to the uterus, is demonstrated shall be excluded from the market. It is, moreover, self-evident that individual parts of bodies and organs to be imported shall not be removed before inspection is completed, and that individual pieces, sausage, canned meat, and, other mixtures of minced meat which can not be subjected to an inspection, shall be absolutely excluded from introduction. (Com- pare Sec. 12 of the Meat Inspection Law.) Since expert inspection and the proper utilization of the findings in the case of meat introduced fiom outside countries belong to the most difficult functions of meat inspection, this part of the inspec- tion should be reserved for veterinarians. Furthermore, in cases where a diseased condition is suspected, all means are to be ex- hausted in making a more accurate inspection (histological, bacteri- ological and chemical methods of testing), in order that, so far as possible, only unexceptionable and actually marketable meat shall leave the inspection stations for introduced meat. The quite generally practiced market control of introduced meat in the inland, and the thorough secondary inspection of fresh meat intro(3[uced from other localities which have been reserved for cities with public slaughterhouses, do not possess as much signifi- cance since the meat inspection law has come in force as before, but they are, however, a very important means of controlling govern- mental meat inspection, as is shown by the experience of the Grand Duchy of Baden. (Compare page 89.) 16'2 INSPECTION OP SLAUGHTEKED ANIMALS General Review of the Traffic of Germany in Living Animals, Fresh and Prepared Meat, Sausages, Lard and Similar Fats in the Tear 1897. Kind of Peoduct Imports Exports Excess of Imports Excess of Exports Living Animals — Cows Bulls Steers Young; animals up to 2i yrs. Calves under 6 weeks . • Swine, young pigs excepted Young pigs Sheep Lambs (a) Fresh Meat — 1. Beef 2. Pork 3. Mutton 4. Other kinds of meat . . (b) Prepared Meat — 1. Beef ....... 2. Pork 3. Ham 4. Bacon 5. Other meat 6. Sausage 7. Meat in cans and other- wise hermetically seal'd Meat extract Bladders Intestines Stomachs Lard and Similar Pats — 1. Oleomargarine . . . 2. Lard 3. Tallow 4. Animal and refuse fats Number 73,788 5,977 51,282 71,923 14,597 89,826 2,054 1,988 431 Kg. 4,449,000 11,213,300 66,500 8,200 2,170,500 4,249,900 3,316.600 17,010,400 146,300 185,900 3,454,400 1,095,500 17,179,200 20,106,100 97,280,900 16,669,300 5,447,400 Number 2,838 375 3,951 4,966 455 4,593 2,298 199,395 17,651 J^g. 1,119,400 75,400 159,000 11,000 93,000 1,314,000 139,300 13,400 737,300 88,100 71,900 1,719,800 700 43,600 1,204,700 7,445,600 Number 70,950 5,602 47,381 66,957 14,143 85,234 Kg. 3,329,600 11,137,900 2,170,500 4,157,900 2,003,600 16,871,100 133,900 1,113,600 3,336,300 1,033,600 15,459,400 30,105,400 97,237,300 15,464,600 Number 344 197,307 17,230 Kg. 92,500 ?,800 1,998,300 INSPECTION OF IMPOETED MEAT lo3 Frontier abattoirs. — The most; satisfactory manner in which we may make use of the meat of our neighboring countries, and all trans- Atlantic countries which are abundantly supplied with animals, consists in the erection of frontier abattoirs. In these the food, animals coming from foreign countries are slaughtered, and are thereupon sent in refrigerator cars to the thickly-popiilated inland, districts where food animals are scarce. We possess such abattoits on the Russian boundary in Myslowitz, Kattowitz, Tarlowitz, Beu- then ; on the sea coast, in the abattoirs at Hamburg, Liibeck, Bremen, Kiel, B,ostock, Stralsund and Stettin. The introduction of living food animals through frontier abat- toirs makes it possible to subject imported slaughterhouse wares to a careful sanitary police control. Moreover, the introduction of living animals in such slaughterhouses may take place under such regulations that there need be no fear of introducing animal plagues into the country. Prohibitive Decrees Issued by the German Empire and the Federal States Regarding: Imports, According to the Status of the Question on November 1, 1900.* 1. Against Russia the following is prohibited : The importation of cattle, sheep, goats, other ruminants, hogs, al) parts of ruminants in a fresh condition, with the exception of butter, milk and cheese ; fresh pork and all preparations of pork, pickled meat, salted meat, hams, other smoked products, sausage, meat in brine (with the exception of cooked pork and rendered lardf). Restricted : The importation of horses, animal parts and pro- ducts in a thoroughly dried or salted condition. 2. Against Austria-Hungary, a prohibition exists against the importation of sheep and hogs, and the importation of horses, asses, mules, hinnies, cattlej and goats is restricted.' * Annual Report on the Distribution of Animal Plagues in the German Empire for the year 1900. Berlin, 1901. f The inhabitants of frontier districts are permitted to import pork in quantities of not more than 3 kg. in a raw condition, or in any condition other than cooked, free of duty. In the governmental district of Konigsberg, the importation of thoroughly- pickled pork is permitted. X The importation of cattle is restricted to such animals as come from regions free from pleuro-pneumonia, and which are brought to slaughterhouses under veteri- nary police supervision for immediate slaughter. Moreover, breeding and work ani- mals may be imported in the frontier regions. 164 INSPECTION OF SLAUGHTEUED ANIMALS 3. Against the countries beyond Austria-Hungary (Eoumania, Bulgaria, Servia), the importation of cattle, sheep, goats and hogs, fresh meat and other fresh parts of ruminants, fresh meat of hogs, as well as all preparations of pork, with the exception of cooked pork and rendered lard, is prohibited. 4. Against Italy, the importation of cattle, sheep, goats and hogs is prohibited, and the importation of horses, mules and asses is restricted. 6. Against Switzerland, the importation of sheep and hogs is prohibited, and the importation of horses, mules, asses, cattle and goats is restricted. 6. Against France, the importation of cattle,* sheep, goats and hogs is prohibited, and the importation of horses, mules and asses is restricted. 7. Against Luxemburg, the importation of horses, asses, mules, hinuies, ruminants and hogs is restricted. 8. Against Belgium, the importation of cattle, sheep, goats, hogs and all fresh beef is prohibited, and the importation of horses, asses, mules and hinnies is restricted. 9. Against the Netherlands, the importation of cattle, sheep, goats, hogs, and raw animal material, in a fresh condition, as well as fresh and recently salted skins and horns and hoofs, is prohibited ; and the importation of horses, asses, mules and hinnies is re- stricted. 10. Against Denmark, the importation of ruminants and hogs from the boundary line between Schleswig and Jatlandf, hogs and fresh pork by land or sea, raw animal materials in a fresh condition by land or sea (with the exception of the transporta- tion through the Empire of fresh and salted pelts and skins), is prohibited, and the importation of horses and ruminants by sea is restricted. 11. Against Sweden and Norway, the importation of ruminants, hogs and fresh pork is prohibited, and the importation of horses is restricted. 12. Against Great Britain and Ireland, the importation of * Exceptionally, cattle may be admitted for immediate slaughter in the abat- toirs of the frontier localities of Hayingen, Gross-Moyoeuvre Altmilnsterol, Saales and Markirch to supply the demand of these communities, and in the fortified towns of Metz and Diedenhofen ia the interest of provisioning these localities. f During the periods from October 1 to December 31, and from April 1 to May 31, of each year, poor animals may be imported into the quarantine station at Hvidding. INSPECTION OF IMPORTED MEAT 165 ruminants and hogs is prohibited, ^nd the importation of horses is restricted. 13. Against America, the importation of cattle and fresh beef is prohibited, and the importation of horses, goats, sheep and hogs, as well as pork and sausage,* is restricted. 14. Against foreign countries in general, the importation of horses, ruminants and hogs by sea, and of frozen meat from foreign countries, is restricted. (Proclamation of the Governmental District of Konigsberg, January 29, 1895.) * Animal products must be provided with an official certificate stating that the meat was inspected in the export country according to regulations existing in that country, and was found to be free from dangerous properties. (Imperial Decree of September 3, 1891.) V. NORMAL APPEARANCE AND DIFFERENTIATION OF MEAT AND ORGANS OF DIFFERENT ANIMALS. This subject, in the strict and ordinary sense,* includes a study of the normal condition of individual parts, the ^differential diag- nosis of the meat of different animals, and the recognition of the age and sex of slaughtered animals. In addition, the subject includes the utilization of meat and other parts of slaughtered animals. The latter phase of the question will be treated, in so far as seems desirable, as an appendix to the description of the normal condition of the different parts. 1.— Normal Appearance of DiiFereiit Parts of Food Animals. (a) The Skin. In the majority of animals which are slaughtered for meat (beef, calves, sheep, goats and horses), the skin is not used for human food. A knowledge of the normal condition of the skin iu these animals possesses, therefore, chiefly a clinical significance (see "Inspection of Animals Before Slaughter"). Only certain parts of the skin of the calf and beef (the head and under parts of the face and lower extremities) are used for human food. In the case of hogs, on the other hand, the whole skin is considered as " meat." The skin of slaughtered hogs is characterized by its pure white color and elastic consistency. The white color appears more dis- tinctly after scalding. In quite exceptional cases, red spots are observed on the skin of hogs which are not properly bled, and which, consequently, manifest signs of life after being placed in the scalding kettle. In old brood sows the skin possesses a uni- form hardness, and in old boars the skin is modified on both sides * In the broader sense, the pathology of meat belongs also to this subject." 168 NORMAL APPEARANCE 16 i of the breast to a cartilaginous consistency. The cartilaginous parts of the skin of boars is commonly known as the " shield." The use of the skin of beef animals for sausage. — In former years the heads of young cattle from one to one and one-half years of age "were sometimes scalded in the same manner as calves' heads, and used, together with the fleshy parts of the head, in the preparation of schwartenmagen. Recently, however, as stated by Henninger in Xiahr, following the example set in the Ehine district, it has become customary in the region of Lahr to scald the whole skin of young cattle and use it for schwartenmagen. This use of the skin is very profitable, since otherwise it brings a much smaller price than the usual fleshy constituents of the above-named sausage. According to the law regulating food materials, it is possible to proceed against dealers in such sausage if this unusual method of preparation is not made known to the purchasers, for skin sausages are an adulterated food material. For other reasons, it would be desirable that skins intended for sausages should be investigated with reference to their nutritive value in the same manner as meat. " Head meat," " leather meat." — In Austria, and recently also in ■Germany (Magdeburg), it has been shown that dealers in skins separate the meat which is found on green skins, especially on the head, and place it upon the market. This traffic should be forbid- den, except where the meat is separated immediately after slaughter and before the skin has been soiled ; and the skin of condemned animals must be absolutely excluded from use for this purpose. (b) The Blood. The normal blood is scarlet red in the arteries, dark red in the veins. In contact with atmospheric air, the venous blood also takes on a light color. The blood possesses the character of a body color ; in thin layers it is opaque ; the reaction is alkaline. The blood of different animals possesses a specific odor (volatile fatty acids) which becomes more evident on the addition of sulphuric acid. Shed blood is characterized by its property of coagulation. In the heart and larger vessels of dead animals the blood co'agulates rapidly, but this does not take place in the capillaries (Virchow). The blood of hogs and calves constitutes the raw material for the preparation of blood sausage. Beef blood was formerly not used for making sausage, because sausage prepared in tliat manner 168 APPEARANCE AND DIPTEEENTIATION OP MEAT AND ORGANS was rough, dull, and crumbled on the cut surface. This defect is now remedied by the addition of milk. The chief use of beef and sheep blood is for the extraction of albumen and the preparation of blood and molasses cake and pepton feed. Where no such profitable use is possible, the blood of cattle and sheep (after coagulation, drying and grinding) is used as a fertilizer. Scheurer, Kestuer and others proposed the use of beef blood in the form of blood-bread as a food material for animals, or occasionally for man. In St. Peters- burg and Odessa blood-bread bakeries have been established. Blood-bread is prepared from seven parts rye flour and three parts beef blood, and is supposed to serve the purpose of a highly nutri- tious and cheap food material for poor people. Whether this is really the case appears doubtful, according to the experiments of Colasanti and Sacoangeli. These authors, in harmony with Magen- die and Pagen, found that dogs fed on an exclusive blood diet for twenty to thirty days died. This is to be attributed to the fact that defibriuated blood consists exclusively of red blood corpuscles, which are composed of nine-tenths hemoglobin and one-tenth globulin. It is well known that hemoglobin is changed in the stomach into indigestible hematin which is excreted with the feces. The blood of slaughtered animals can not, according to law, be offered for sale as a food material. It is usually rendered impure by contact with the stomach contents which pour out from the sev- ered esophagus during bleeding. (c) The Most Important Internal Organs. In the description of the important vital organs, I choose the order in which they are removed from the body of the animal after slaughter. The figures, which are given on the size and weight of the' internal organs, are taken from Franck's Anatomy, revised by Martin, and from the special work of Schmaltz on this subject. The Alimentary Canal.— The covering, smooth and glisten- ing ; the walla appearing blue-gray ; moveable contents. Absolute absence of contents in the posterior regions of the alimentary tract indicates a clbsure of the lumen, as in incarceration, invagination, involution and constriction. The alimentary canal of slaughtered animals is used almost exclusively as casing material for sausage. The alimentary canal of hogs which have been fed acorns is not suitable for this purpose, on account of its liability to rupture. NOKMAL APPEARANCE 169 The serous coat of the large intestine is much sought after as gold beaters' skin and as a basis for animal plasters. Stomach. — The stomach is of the same external appearance as the intestines. It is empty only in animals which have fasted. The paunch of ruminants is, however, always full. The stomach is used partly as a food material, partly as sausage casing, and partly for technical purpose?. Thus, beef paunch is used in making tripe ; the fourth stomach, as an additional element in making liver sausage ; and, in southern Germany, the stomach of the hog is used as a casing for the so-called schwartenmagen. In addition to these uses, pepsin is obtained from the stomach of hogs, and, from the stomach of calves, rennet is obtained for the manu- facture of cheese. Weight of the contents of stomach and intestines. — The weight of the stomach contents is not infrequently the subject of controversy, when animals are sold according to live weight. The .buyers pre- suppose an honest delivery ; i.e., there is a tacit understanding that animals which are offered for sale shall receive fodder only up to a certain hour, which varies from 3 to 6 P. M. of the day preceding slanghter. The following figures may serve for deciding differences of opinion which may arise. According to Wolf, the relation between the weight of the con- tents of the stomach and intestines, as well as that of the empty stomach and intestines, and the live weight in fasting animals, is as follows : (a) Oxen. (a) Moderately fai — Per cent. Contents of stomach and intestines 18.0 Stomach without contents 4.5 Intestines without contents 2.0 Total 24.5 (b) Half fat— Contents of stomach and intestines 15.0 Stomach without contents 3.0 Intestines without contents 1 5 Total 19.5 (c) Fat— Contents of stomach and intestines 12.0 Stomach without contents 2.7 Intestines without contents 1.4 Total 16-1 170 APPEAKANCE AND DIFFEKENTIATION OF MEAT AND ORGANS (b) Calves. Fat- Contents of stomach and intestines 7.0 Stomach without contents 1.3 Intestines without contents 2.4 Total 10.6 (c) Hogs ' (a) Moderately well fattened — Contents of stomach and intestines 7,0 Stomach without contents 1.2 Intestines without contents 3.9 Total ^ (b) Fat— Contents of stomach and intestines 5.0 Stomach without contents 0.7 Intestines without contents 2.2 Total J ~Q Bintzen (Zeit. f. Fleisch-u. Milchhyg. III.) found in fasting cows the average proportion of the weight of the stomach and intestines with contents to be 18.2 per cent. (15.5 to 22.7 per cent., the abso- Inte weight varying between 146 and 244 lbs.) ; in calves, 9.4 per cent. (4.7 to 13.2 per cent., the absolute weight varying from 7 to 26 lbs.) ; and in hogs, 7.6 per cent. (5.2 to 12.2 per cent., the absolute weight varying from 11.5 to 23 lbs.). A beef animal may increase in weight from sixty to ninety pounds by one meal. P. Falk determined the weight of the stomach and intestines in thirty-seven beef animals to be 16.35 per cent, of the live weight (varying from 9.4 to 25.2 per cent.). According to Dammann, the weight of the stomach contents in heavy hogs, which were fed for the last time between sixteen and twenty hours before slaughter with one to two pounds of barley- grits and bran, amounted to from 350 to 1,600 gm., while in ani- mals coming from some distance, and fed eighteen hours before slaughter, the stomach contents amounted to from three to five pounds or more. In one case (a hog), which was fed eleven hours before slaughter, the stomach contents weighed somewhat more than ten pounds. Spleen. -This is of different appearance in different animals. The size of the spleen is, however, subject to physiological varia- tions in the same animal. According to Masoin, the spleen attains its greatest volume about five hours after feeding. NORMAL APPEARANCE 171 In tlie horse the spleen is flat, sickle-shaped, and, when just removed, of a bluish- violet color, which later becomes reddish- brown ; cut surfaces, intensive brownish-red, with scattered white spots ; about 45 cm. long and of a flabby consistency ; the borders are somewhat rounded ; weight, 500 to 750 gm. The weight may increase considerably a short time after the digestion of a meal. Ox. — Form, an extended oval, flatly compressed ; length, 50 cm.; breadth, about 13 em.; weight, about 1 kg. Schmaltz found the average weight of the spleen in twenty- eight animals of more than 250 kg., dressed weight, to be 1 kg. (varying from 750 to 1,750 gm.). In thirty-three animals, oi from 200 to 250 kg., or less, dressed weight, the spleen weighed, on the other hand, only 6 kg., varying between 0.5 and 1 kg. The color and thickness of the spleen are not the same in male and female beef animals. lu bulls and fattened steers, the spleen is of a reddish-brown color, rather firm and thick ; both surfaces are convex. lu the cow, on the other hand, the spleen has a grayish- blue color, a flabby consistency and flat surfaces. Furthermore, in the spleen of bulls and oxen, the follicles are more apparent and of the size of hemp seed. In bulls and steers the borders of the spleen are moderately rounded ; in cows, on the contrary, sharp. The spleen of calves varies from reddish-brown to bluish-red, and has the same color in both sexes. It possesses moderately con- vex surfaces and rounded borders, and is of a soft, elastic consistency. The follicles do not appear especially plain. Sheep and goats. — The spleen has the same form as that of beef animals, is reddish-brown, later becoming dark red in color. The surfaces and borders are rather strongly convex ; consistency, soft or slightly elastic ; weight, about 60 gm. Hog.— The spleen is tongue-shaped ; in color, a bright red, later becoming dark red, and of a flabby consistency. The follicles appear rather prominent. LiYER. — The liver is also of different form in different domestic animals. ^orse.— Three lobed ; the right is the largest ; the left, inter- mediate ; and the middle lobe, the smallest. The right lobe suffers, with increasing age, a physiological atrophy (pressure atrophy). The weight of the liver in old horses is from 3 to 4 kg.; in young animals, which have died during the process of stomach digestion, 6 to 8 kg. 172 APPEARANCE AND DIFFERENTIATION OF MEAT AND ORGANS OcK.— Form, indistinctly two-lobed. Near the lobus spigelii there is the lobus quadratus (tnberculum papillare). No esophageal notch; no middle sickle-shaped band; gall bladder of a pear shape. The -weight of the ox liver without gall bladder is, on the aver- age, 4.5 kg. (about l-85th of the body weight). According to Schmaltz, the weight of the liver in cattle of more than 250 kg., dressed weight, averages 5.75 kg. (varying between 4.5 and 8 kg.). In cattle of 250 kg. or less, dressed weight, the liver weight is 4.8 kg., varying between 2.75 and 6 kg. The average weight of the liver in sixty-eight animals was'l-52ad of the dressed weight. Sheep and ^oate.— Weight, 375 to 875 gm. (l-53rd of the body weight). On account of these variations in weight, dealers distin- guish between large and small sheep livers. ^o^g._The hog liver has four lobes, besides the spigelian and quadrate lobes and the gall bladder ; weight, 1 to 2.45 kg. (l-40th of the body weight). The liver of the hog is distinguished by its large lobuli and the strongly developed interlobular connective tissue. Hog livers are, therefore, easily distinguished from calves' livers in cases of attempted deception. The following characteristics are common to the livers of all food animals : The bluish-ground color, which later becomes decid- edly reddish-brown ; the glistening appearance of the parenchyma; the moderately firm consistency — while still retaining the animal heat the liver is considerably softer —and the absence of blood from the numerous larger veins ou cross section. The borders of the liver are somewhat sharp. In calves and well- fattened young cattle, from one to four years of age, the liver is thick, the surfaces convex, and the borders slightly rounded. In young cattle, of from one-half to one year of age, and in old cows, the liver is thinner, the surfaces more even, and the borders sharp. In the latter cases, also, the consistency of the liver is flabby and the color a dark reddish- brown. Variations from the reddish-brown ground color (always appar- ent in bulls, old' steers, poorly fattened sheep, and, in the majority of cases, also in hogs), occur in sucking calves, well-fattened young cattle and steers, as well as in very fat wethers and hogs. In the last-named animals, th« liver is yellowish-brown and turbid, and of increased volume (greater thickness and rounded borders). The yellowish-brown color may appear upon the whole liver, as in calves and young steers, or may occur as a band around the periphery of the acini — fatty infiltration of fattened animals. In sucking calves NORMAL APPEARANCE 173 a so-called transitory fatty infiltration is observed shortly after each sucking. It is worthy of mention that the weight of the liver is subject to considerable variation, according as the animals are slaughtered during the process of digestion, or after a considerable period of fasting. For the elucidation of ---.' ^ % / ^ t * ) / J Incisor teeth of a beef animal four years old. Incisor teeth of a beef animal four and one-half years old. gradual appearance of the neck. The neck of the central incisor teeth becomes noticeable at the age of six years ; that of the inner middle incisors at seven years ; that of the outer middle incisors tit 224 APPEAR ANCE AND DIFFERENTIATION OF MEAT AND ORGANS eiglat years, and that of the corners -at nine years. In animak which are over ten years of age, all inner middle incisors are Fig. 30. Fig. 31. V ^^. V J ^ ^/ Incisor teeth of a beef animal six years . old. Incisor teeth of a beef animal eight years old. strongly .worn, small, loose, project far out of the alveoli, and are separated from one another. After fifteen years, the incisors either fall out or are present in the form of stumps. Fig. 82. Fig. 33. Fig. 34. Incisor teeth of a yearling sheep. * Incisor teeth of a four- year-old sheep. Incisor teeth of a six- year-old sheep. 3. Sheep. — The sheep is born with the central incisors. The inner middle incisors appear at from eight to fourteen days, the EEOOGNITION OF AGE AND SEX 225 external middle after two to three weeks, and the corners at from three to four weeks. The shedding of the teeth begins with the central incisors at the age of from twelve to eighteen months ; next follow the internal middle incisors at from oue and one-half to two years ; the external middle incisors at two and one-quarter to two and three-quarters, and the corners at three to three and three-quarter years. The chief point in the case of sheep is the differentiation between the still uninjured milk dentition and the completely developed permanent dentition (Figs. 32 and 33). The dental conditions in older sheep possess little practical interest. . It may simply be remarked that after six years the incisors show a notch (Fig. 84), and fall out at from ten to twelve years of age. 4. Hog. — At birth the hog has the third incisors and the canine teeth. The first incisor appears at from two to four weeks, and the second at from two and one-half to three months. The third incisor is shed first at nine months (according to Nehring, at seven and one-half months). Then follows the first incisor at from twelve to fifteen months, and, finally, the second at from sixteen to eighteen months. 5. Red Deer, Fallow Deer and Roebuck. — According to Nehring, the shedding of the teeth in these animals occurs in the following manner : Name of Teeth. lucisor 1 Incisor 3 Incisor 3 Incisor 4 Premolars 'Bed Deer. After 15 mos. After 17 mos. After 20 mos. After 23 mos. After 30 mos. Fallow Beer. After 9-10 mos. After 13-13 mos. After 15 mos. After 18 mos. After 34 mos. Roebuek. After 6-8 mos. After 10-11 mos. After 13 mos. After 18 mos. After 14^15 mos. Different opinions have prevailed on the question of what is to be understood by the term calf, or fawn, in the case of red deer, fallow deer and roebuck. According to Sec. 6 of the Hunting Law, of February 26, 1870, young game is considered as calves until the last day of December following their birth. For a long time police regulations followed the practice of admitting young game for sale if it weighed not less than twenty-two pounds. On the other hand, Nehring handed down the opinion that a twenty-two pound deer was suitable for sale, but that a deer which did not possess a complete set of molar teeth, and had less than six teeth, must be regarded as a calf. 226 APPEARANCE AND DIFPEBENTIATION OP MEAT AND ANIMALS Other Criteria for Judging' Age. Besides judging according to the teeth, it is a well-known custom to judge the age of cows according to the rings on the horn, adding two to their number. But this characteristic is at best only- supplementary to the dental conditions, siuce it can not be consid- ered as possessing absolute reliability, for the rings on the horns are formed regularly only when the animals have been regularly pregnant. This, however, is by. no means always the case. At the same time, irregular intervals between.the rings on the horns permit the conclusion that pregnancy has been irregular. Finally, particular parts of the skeleton furnish us certain criteria for the determination of age : (a) The cartilaginous pads, between the diaphyses and epiphy- ses, which disappear after the growth of the bones is complete. (b) The articular cartilages, which connect individual bones with each other, ossify with increasing age. The degree of ossifi- cation of the ischio-pubio symphysis furnishes an especially valuable criterion for determining whether one is dealing with the meat of an old or a young animal. Tliis symphysis is always cut through in slaughtering. lu young animals this can be readily done with a knife, while in older animals it is necessary to make use of a saw or an ax. The sternal cartilages ossify in the median line during the second year. (c) The supplementary and organic cartilages of the ribs, spinous processes, scapula, trachea, ear, etc., which in old age become calcareous and ossify. According to Bunge, the supple- mentary cartilages of the spinous processes in cattle are cartilagin- ous only during the first years of life. Later they ossify and become completely ankylosed with the spinous processes. Up to the end of the first year, the supplementary cartilages are very sharply marked off from the bones, which are rich in blood. During the second and third years, the cartilage shows larger and larger islands of bone substance, and the white color of the cartilage is consequently changed into a grayish-red. Toward the end of the sixth year, the larger part of the supplementary cartilage becomes modified into a compact bony tissue. A very sharp line of demarcation is still visible between both parts, and a cartilaginous border is observed on the former supplementary cartilage. At the end of the eighth year, no cartilage is demonstrable, as a rule, in a longitudinal section of the spinous process. RECOGNITION OP AGE AKD SEX 227 (d) The tubular bones, in which, after birth, the marrow cavity becomes gradually larger, and fat marrow is formed. In old animals a serous, infiltrated, gelatinous tissue replaces the fat marrow. The difference in color of the musculature and fat tissue of young and old animals has already been mentioned, (pp. 199-204). Age of Fowls. In handling fowls a distinction is made, as a rule, only between old and young birds. For this differentiation, the following rules are to be observed : Young hens possess only the beginning of the so-called spurs. Furthermore, the scales on the feet are smooth and of a glistening, fresh color. The claws are delicate and sharp. The tarsus is soft, and the comb is thin and smooth. In old hens, the spurs are hard and the scales on the feet rough. Furthermore, the lower half of the bill is so hard that it can not be bent with the fingers. Lastly, the comb is thick and rough. According to Cornevin, the young rooster, up to the age of four and one-half months, possesses only the indication of a spur in the form of a broad scale. From four and one-half to five months on, a small protuberance develops in the form of a spur, which at seven months is 3 mm., and at one year, 15 mm., long and straight. At two years the spur, which has become curved, is from 25 to 27 mm. long; at three years, from 36 to 38; at four years, from 50 to 54; at five years, fiom 62 to 65. The breeds with feathered legs have shorter spurs than those with naked legs. The hen commonly has no spurs. Castration of the rooster checks the growth of the spurs. Old hen turkeys also have rough scales on the feet, calluses on the soles of the feet, and long, strong claws. Young turkey chicks show exactly the opposite condition in all these points, and an old, turkey cock with the feathers on possesses a long beard, which is entirely wanting in the young cock. When turkey cocks have been picked, the roughness of the scales on the feet is a deciding factor in determining his age, and also the difference in the size of the wattles and the nose piece. Cornevin asserts that the red, fleshy wattles appear in the turkey cock at from two and one half to three months, -and the brush of bristles on the breast at from seven to eight months of age. Furthermore, the feet are black up to the age of one year ; rose-red at from two to three years, and gray rose-red at from three to four years, becoming paler from that time on. An old goose is to be recognized by its rough feet, strength of wing and beak, and fineness of featheis. In picked geese, the 228 APPEAKANCE AND DIFFERENTIATION OF MEAT AND OKGANS following may indicate the age: The condition of the feet, the delicacy of the skin under the wing and wing points, the beak, and the thickness of the skin in general. In ducks the age is determined in the same manner. It should also be remembered that the beak, in its relation to the width of the head, is considerably longer in young dacks than in old ones. In pheasants (gold and silver), the plumage is dark up to the second year. This is not changed iu the female even later, while in the male the gorgeous plumage and the long tail feathers are devel- oped at two years of age. Young pigeons are to be recognized by the paleness of their color, by the smooth, closed feet and long yellow down feathers, which are found scattered among the plumage. OLler pigeons, after leaving the nest, have red-colored feet, but no down feathers. If the latter recognition marks are present, the pigeon is considered by fastidious persons as already too old for the table. Up to six or eight months of age, the beak is soft, but becomes hard later, according to Cornevin. In young partridges, the beak is easily indented with the finger, but not in old biids. The feet of young partridges are yellowish, while in old birds they are gray. According to Niebel,the condition of the wing feathers (extreme tip of the wing) offers in many species of birds a convenient means of judging age. The feather vane of the wing tip iu the guinea hen, turkey, wood grouse, black grouse, hazel hen, white grouse, partridge and heath hen is pointed in young birds and more or less rounded in old birds. In the domestic fowl, tui'key, wood grouse and pheasant, the development of the spurs, according to Niebel, is to be consid- ered a good criterion for judging age. Furthermore, iu all species of birds, the condition of certain bones (sternum, pubis, ischium) serves to indicate the age. The bones are flexible in young birds ; later, are easily broken, but are broken with greater difficulty as the age increases. Finally, in young pigeons, according to Niebel, the breast muscles show through the skin as white, while in older birds they appear bluish-red. (b) Recognition of the Sex of Slaughtered Animals. The recognition of the sex of slaughtered animals has a practical value in the case of cattle, sheep and hogs. 1. Cattle.— Bulls, steers and cows are slaughtered— spayed cows but rarely. Besides this, one speaks of young cattle, one-half BECOGNITION OF AGE AND SEX 229 to one year old ; heifers (young cows which never have never borne calves), and steers (young, unfattened oxen). The heifers and steers, in some parts of Germany, are sometimes included under the term " cattle," raore correctly, young cattle. The bull is characterized by the massive development of his muscles, especially the neck and shoulder musculature (Fig. 35); also by the dark color of the musculature and the scarcity of fat tissue. Finally, the inguinal canal is open, for the reason that the Fig. 35. Pig. 36. Fore quarter of a bull. Fore quarter of a steer. testicles, with the spermatic cord, are removed in slaughtering (Fig. 37, c). The ox is distinguished from the bull by the weaker develop- ■ ment of the shoulder and neck musculature (Fig. 36); by its thick panniculus adiposus, and by the possession of a scrotal fat tissue which completely conceals the inguinal ring (Fig. 38, c). In cows the udder is often carefully removed, except for the conical-shaped remnant in the posterior part. This operation is performed in order to give female animals the appearance of steers. The attempted deception, however, is easily recognized by the mammary tissue which remains, and by the supramammary lymph 230 APPJi;AllA^'CE AND DIFFERENTIATION OF MEAT AND ORGANS glands covered by this tissue. Heifers possess an udder of only slight proportions, and, when in good condition, the udder is completely infiltrated with fat tissue (Fig. 39, c), as contrasted with the large, flabby, dependent udder of cows in lactation (Fig. 40, c). The udder of fattened cows, four to six years old, also shows a high fat content, but always exhibits a strongly projecting glpudular substance and large teats. Fie. 37. Pia. 38. ^-7!^ Hind quarter of a bull, a, section of isohio- pubic _ symphysis ; h, out surface of the gracilis muscle ; c, external inguinal ring ; d, portion pf corpus cavernosum. Hind quarters of a steer, a and i, as in "Fig. 37; c, scrotal fat tissu*. Franck also called attention to the fact that a cross-section of the adductors of the thigh, which is, in fact, dependent upon the musculus gracilis for its form, is triangular in male, cattle and bean-shaped or rounded, on the other hand, iu females (Figs. 37 to 40, I). Furthermore, a section of the pelvis in the symphysis pubis shows characteristic differences in male and female cattle (Figs. 37 to 40, a). RECOGNITION OF AGE AND SEX 231 In the diagnosis of the skin, which is no longer in its natural «onnection with the animal, it should be remembered that the bull has straight, short and conical horns ; the ox, curved, long and strong horns ; and the cow, on the other hand, curved, short and slender horns. Fig. 39. Pig. 40. Hind quarters of a heifer, a and h, as in Fig. 37; c, fatty infiltrated udder. Hind quarters of a cow. a and h, as in Fig. 37 ; c, udder in lactation. 2. Sheep. — Distinction is made between bucks, male castrated animals or wethers, and female animals or sheep iu the narrower sense. The slaughtered buck is distinguished from other sheep by the strongly developed musculature of the neck, withers and shoulder. The meat of bucks may also possess a disagreeable odor, but, as a rule, this is rare. The penis is left on slaughtered wethers, and the udder on the ewe's ; consequently, the differentia- tion of wether from ewe offers no difficulties. In England and America, breeders strive to briug sheep as young as possible, yearlings, to a condition for slaughter. This practice is based on two facts : First, it has been determined by numerous weighings that, with intensive feeding from birth until the end of the first year, the sheep puts on twice as much flesh as in the second year. Secondly, the business risk is smaller the earlier the animal is ready for slaughter. 232 APPEARANCE AND DIFFERENTIATION OP MEAT AND ORGANS 3. Hogs.— Fattened, castrated hogs (barrows), young boars not castrated, and breeding hogs (boars and sows) are brought to slaughter. Breeding hogs are distinguished from fattened hogs by the slight amount of fat and the stronger development of the musculature, which,, likewise, possesses a darker color. Sows, furthermore, are to be recognized by the strongly developed mammary glands, and the boars by the so-called shield (p. 167) and specific odor. Boars, which for some time have been in service and thereafter, at an age of one to one and one-half years, are castrated, are known as " castrated boars " or " old cutters." They show the boar type in the form of the skeleton, and are esteemed of less value than animals castrated earlier in life. The specific odor ds wanting in castrated boars. The term "originals" is used to mean cryptorchids. They may possess all the characters of true boars when the testicles are functional. HoweverJ this is not always the case. In slaughtering male hogs, the penis, together with the navel pocket, is removed. The slaughtered male hog is characterized by the cut. A further means of recognizing the male hog is found in the remains of the ischio-penal ligaments, which are found in the ischiac notch. In the female hog, the cutting line in the middle of the belly is straight, and the section underneath the root of the tail is, as Lohoff indi- cated, longer than in male animals, in consequence of the removal of the vulva. Ellinger suggested the following characters for distinguishing between boars castrated late and early in life : BOARS CASTRATED BOARS CASTRATED CRYPTORCHIDS IN OLD AGE WHEN YOUNa Sexual excitement appears quickly Partly present Wanting Smelling at the vulva Wanting Wanting Urinous odor Wanting Wanting Strongly developed canine teeth Partly present Slightly developed Strong bristle crest Partly present Slightly developed Shield Partly present Wanting Penis 1.3 cm. in diameter 1.2 to 2.3 cm. 0.8-1 cm. Cowper's glands 10-15 cm. long Cowper's glands 10-15 cm. long Glands atrophied Post-mortem shows one retained Not present Not present testicle BECOGNITION OP AGE AND SEX 233 National Economic Yalue of tlie Castration of Female Food Animals. Modern breeding of races of hogs which mature early has almost entirely abandoned the previously quite general practice of castration of female hogs for fattening. Breeders assert that hogs which arrive at maturity early may, by rational feeding, be made ready for slaughter before estrum appears. This assumption, however, is contradicted by the finding in the slaughterhouses of a large proportion of fat female hogs which are pregnant. The extent to which this occurs appears from the reports of the Berlin Food Animal Insurance Company, the expenditures of which, in the year 1895, were not less than $11,540 60, as indemnity for the weight of the uteri of pregnant hogs. By castration, not only would this sum have remained in the general treasury, but also the profits of the feeders would have been greater, since castrated female hogs fatten more readily than pregnant ones. The same may be said in the fattening of cows, upon the slaughter of which one may demonstrate, not without a feeling of great regret, a large number of almost mature fetuses. The fetuses represent offal without any value. In eastern Prussia, several large land owners commenced the castration of all cows intended iov fattening. The results thus far obtained are favorable, aud suggest an extension of the method, particularly since the operation is not only easily performed, but perfectly safe. 4. Distinction op the Sex op Eviscebated Roebucks. — For the distinction of the sex of deer, in which the skull is sawed out and the sexual organs removed, Eberhardt and Nehring offer the follow- ing important diagnostic characters : The pelvis of the buck is slender and narrower than in the doe. In the latter the external iliac angle is much further removed than in the buck, and the rela- tion is about fifty to forty. • Of still greater importance for the determination is the form of the pubis, and especially the symphysis pubis, also called the " lock " by hunters. In the full-grown buck it is much thicker and of a rounder form than in the doe, in which it is flattened and hollowed out on its upper surface on both sides. The difference appea,rs still more conspicuous in the symphysis pubis (Figs. 41 and 42). Similar sexual differences are found in the pelvis of the red deer and the fallow deer. Nehring insists that the differentiation of the sex, according to the condition of the symphysis pubis, can only be made with cer- 234 APPEARANCE AND DIPPERENTIATION OF MEATS AND ORGANS tainty in old roebucks, and Malkmus corroborates this on the basis of numerous investigations. Younger individuals have, uniformly, a somewhat tumor-like, swollen symphysis pubis. Furthermore, in the determination of the sexual differences in the roebuck, Malkmus recommends that the halves of the pelvis be separated and prepared by boiling. Fig. 41. Pio. 43. Pelvis of a male roe deer. Pelvis of a female roe deer. (c) Classiflcatiou of Food Animals. The Conference of Delegates of German Slaughterhouse Officials, representatives of the German Agricultural Commission, etc., which was held in Berlin in 1895, decided upon the following classes for food animals, in the place of the previous distinctions, according to Sees. 1, 2 and 3. Steers. 1. Steers in full flesh, completely fattened, of the highest slaughter value, up to seven years. 2. Young, fleshy, but not completely fattened, and older fattened steers. 3. Fairly well-nourished young steers ; older steers, 4. Poorly nourished steers of all ages. Heifers akd Cotvs. 1. Heifers in full flesh, well fattened, of the highest slaughter value. 3. Cows in full flesh, well fattened, of the highest slaughter value, up to seven years. BEOOGNITION OF AGE AND SEX 235 3. Older cows, well fattened, but more poorly developed; younger cows and heifers. 4. Fairly well nourished cows and heifers. 5. Poorly nourished cows and heifers. Bulls. 1. BuUs in full flesh, well fattened, up to fiye years. 3. Younger bulls in full flesh. 3. Moderately well-nourished younger and older bulls. 4. Poorly nourished younger and older bulls. Calves. 1. The finest fat calves (fattened on milk) and the best sucking calves. 3. Medium fat calves and good sucking calves. 3. Poor sucking calves and older poorly nourished calves (feeders). Sheep. 1. Pat lambs and young fat wethers. 2. Old fat wethers. 3. Fairly well-nourished wethers and ewes. Hoes. 1. Hogs of the finer breeds and their crosses in full flesh, up to one and one- quarter years. 3; Pleshy hogs. 3. Poorly developed hcJgs, together with sows and boars. 4. Foreign hogs, with a statement of their origin. The Conditions for Issuing Meat Intended for Troops. Meat intended to be issued to troops must be from healthy, not too poor food animals. The best quality is not required, but it must be good. Poor quality is excluded. The animals must be in a good state of nutrition. Good products are always to be furnished to garrison commissaries. The meat of bulls, bucks, boars, including animals castrated late in life, breeding sows and Bakonyi hogs, can not be issued to troops. The meat of breeding ewes may be furnished to troops, but not to garrison commissaries. Steers must be from two to seven, and cows from two to six years old, and must possess a live weight of at least 400 kg. Wethers and ewes must not be over five years old, and their live weight must be at least 40 kg. Hogs must be from six to fifteen months old, and must have a live weight of not less than 75 kg., and not more than 125 kg. Calves must be at least four weeks old. The following materials are not to be furnished to troops as meat : Head, bloody neck portion, udder, front legs below the knee. 236 APPEARANCE AND DIPPEBENTIATION OF MEAT AND ORGANS hind legs below the hock, in the case of cattle ; the head and legs of wethers, and the udder of ewes ; the head, with the cheeks, the legs and the dorsal fat of hogs ; the head, the bloody neck portion, and the legs of calves ; the internal organs (heart, lungs, liver, stomach, spleen, intestines and kidney, including the kidney fat), as well as special portions of bones, in so far as they come into consideration in weighing the meat which is to be furnished. TI. ABNORMAL PHYSIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS WHICH POSSESS SANITARY INTEREST. The abnormal physiological conditions in food animals can be classified into (1) physiological abnormalties and (2) pathological processes. The following subjects belong to the first group : 1. — Immaturity. Definition. — Animals are characterized as immature until they have reached the age of from eight to fourteen days. Until this age, according to the view of most meat consumers, animals are not ripe or mature for the table. Most frequently immature calves and, much less often, immature pigs, lambs and goat kids are offered for sale. During the fiist eight to fourteen days after birth, animals exhibit a poorly developed, gray-red, flabby, strongly water-soaked musculature. These characteristics are especially prominent in the muscles of the thigh. If one grasps the musculature of the thigh from behind, it is noticed that in immature animals a flat, flabby readily movable muscle-mass is present in place of the full, convex muscle mass in older calves. Furthermore, the musculature of the posterior part of the thigh possesses such a soft consistency that it is easily penetrated with the finger. The fat tissue which is found in the kidney capsule in immature calves is of a' yellowish or gray- red color and peculiarly tough consistency. It never possesses the white color and soft consistency, which becomes firm in setting, as observed in older calves. The subjective ideas concerning imma- turity exhibit great local variations. For example, while in South Germany a minimum age of three to four weeks is demanded for the slaughter maturity of calves, in other regions, as in Mecklenburg and Holstein, calves from two to three days old are much sought after. In Berlin, calves from six to eight days old furnish a highly- prized food material. This is due to two circumstances : In the first place, intensive dairying, in which all calves not intended for rearing 237 '2,38 ABNORMAL PHYSIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS are quickly rejected, has introduced a custom to which meat consumers in the course of time adjusted themselves. Furthermore, the price of immature, or fasting, calf meat is naturally less than that of older calves, so that it becomes possible for persons of moderate means to eat veal — a luxury which otherwise would be denied them. Finally, by the art of preparation, especially by the plentiful addition of fat, it is possible to improve the original condition, and in this manner to prepare a palatable food from immature veal. In the greater part of Germany, in common parlance, calf meat is understood to mean that which comes from calves at least eight to fourteen days old. Official Determinations of the Meaning of Immaturity in Calves. In the regulations of meat inspection and local ordinances, the following rules are laid down : Section 11 of the Baden Meat Inspection Eegulations of November 26, 1878, provides that the meat of calves under fourteen days of age shall not be regarded as market- able. An ordinance concerning compulsory slaughter in Dessau prescribes that only calves over ten days old and with a minimum weight of 45 kg. can be slaughtered. In Insterburg, Eastenburg and Swinemiinde, the meat of animals under eight days old is excluded from the market. Special ordinances forbid the sale of calves in which the navel has not healed. In Stolp and Haynau the matter is decided according to each individual case ; likewise in Berlin. Here there is no minimum age limit for the admission of calves for food, but in each individual case the development and consistency of the musculature are the deciding factors. Calves in which the stump of the umbilical cord is still firmly united with the navel are regularly excluded from the market. Toung pigs (sucking pigs) and the young of sheep and goats (Easter lambs and kids) must be at least three weeks old before they can be considered as mature for slaughter. Recognition. — Immature veal is to be recognized by the peculiar properties of the musculature and fat tissue, which are mentioned above as characteristic of immaturity. Lydtin also calls attention to the presence of red bone marrow in the long tubular bones in place of the fat marrow which appears later. The bone marrow, however, according to my investigations, becomes pale very rapidly after birth, so that the color of the bone marrow can not be regarded as a reliable means of recognizing imraaturify. Of greater ij.iiAiui::Jii' 239 importance is the high content of glycogen in immature veal. This persists from the fetal period and gradually disappears a few weeks after birth (see pages 213 and 242). For the determination of the age of calves, which in many localities is considered as deciding the question whether they shall be admitted for food, we have the following criteria in the condition of the hoofs, teeth, navel and horns : New born animals have soft hoofs furnished with conical processes on the soles. The stump of the umbilical cord is still of a gray, moist character, and hangs fast to the umbilical ring. The vessels of the stump of the umbilical cord, as well as the hepatic portion of the umbilical veins, and those portions of the umbilical arteries which lie in the lateral ligaments of the bladder, are open. Moreover, in new born animals the reddened gums stand flash witli the incisor teeth and cover them in great part. The number of incisors varies in new born animals. As a rule, however, calves are ' born with six incisors. Characteristic changes take place in the teeth and navel during the course of the first week. In the first place, the eruption of the corner teeth occurs during the first week after birth. In exceptional cases, however, this may occur later. After ten days (occasionally after seven days), the gums begin gradually to decrease in redness, recede from the incisors, and assume the normal cushion form. After fifteen days, the middle incisors are free ; and, after twenty days, the two corners are the only incisors not completely free from the gums, the redness of which no longer forms a striking contrast. By the end of one month, all the incisors have appeared through the gums and the latter are thenceforth of a permanent, normal character (Gerlach). 'After four or five days the navel becomes dry and black (necrosis). It falls off within two weeks (according to Gerlach, between eight and twelve days). Healing and cicatrization of the navel wound follow within two or three weeks, while the navel retraction takes place after the fourth week. The healing is much hindered by purulent processes in the navel. Morot collected statistics concerning the falling of the navel cord in the case of fifty calves. In seven cases the navel fell between the fifth and tenth day; in twelve cases, between the tenth and fifteenth day; in twenty-four cases, between the fifteenth and twentieth day ; and in seven cases, between the twentieth and twenty-second day after birth. The indication of the formation of horns on the frontal bones appears later. According to Gerlach, the thickening of the epider- 240 ABNORMAL PHYSIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS mis begins at the end of the second week. At the end of the third week, a hard, epidermal swelling is seen ; after six weeks, an evident horn nucleus is formed ; after eight weeks, complete epilation and development of the horn-cap ; after three months, a movable horn- point appears, 3 cm. long in bull calves and 2 cm. in heifer calves, and with a length of 4 cm. and 3 cm., respectively, after four months. In bull calves, Gerlach found that the horn-tip was fixed after four months ; while in heifer calves, on the other hand, it bedame attached after five or six months. ' Finally, attention should be called to the change in color in the kidneys after birth (see page 175). Thomassia demonstrated, in children, the following changes in umbilical vessels, which require substantiation by studies in calves. Even when life persists for only a few hours, the lumen of the vessels, arteries as well as veins, assumes a shrunken, almost star- shape cross-section in consequence of a strong contraction of the muscular layer, while, at the same time, the endothelium of the arteries acquires an opaque appearance, which becomes more and more apparent as obliteration progresses. The blood clots, which fill both vessels more or less completely, begin to turn pale from the fourth day, and on the fifth day show a decided tinge of yellow. From this time on, it is apparent that a slight adhesion occurs between the coagulated blood, which previously lay free in the lumen, and the walls of the vessel. After the twelfth day, the characteristic processes of the organization of a thrombus begin, and, accordingly, the lumen of the vessel becomes continually, narrower. The process in the vein varies according as the lumen is free from blood clots, in which case the closure takes place through proliferation of the endothelium, or as the lumen is filled with a blood clot, as it frequently is. In the latter case, the histo- logical processes resemble those in the arteries, both with regard to the organization and the change in color, which in time assumes more and more of a reddish-yellow tinge. By the forty-fifth day the lumen of the artery is usually closed by the complete formation of a thrombus, and its transformation into a ligament becomes perfect. The individual layers of the arterial walls are thin, and difficult to distinguish from one another. Similar conditions are observed in the vein, which, whether from the process of thrombus formation or from the adhesion of the proliferated endothelia, also loses its vas- cular character, and is changed into a solid cord. While, however, it is often possible to recognize the previous lumen as a point in a cross-section of the vessel at the time in question (six weeks after MEAT OP FETUSES 241 birth), commonly, at the age of sixty days, the lumen has, without exception, entirely disappeared. Jvdgm&nt. — The meat of immature calves is not harmful. Occa- sionally, the opinion is held that immature veal exercises a peculiar characteristic, physiological action on the human organism, causing the occurrence of diarrhea and illness. This opinion is, scientifically, without foundation (Schmidt-Miilheim). Ou the other hand, imma- ture meat is a spoiled food material, and is only to be admitted for sale under declaration. Its unfit character appears from the incom- plete develojjment of the meat, and from the subjective repugnance of the majority of meat consumers toward it. With regard to the latter point, it is necessary to consider the difference in custom in different regions. The decision, that calves under eight days of age are not to be offered for sale under any circumstances, is a measure well calculated to check the practice of culling out immature calves and marketing them for slaughter. 3.— Meat of Fetuses. The meat of fetuses is never a marketable food material. Only among Euglish gourmands is the meat of fetuses considered a deli- cacy, as was the case among the Romans. In localities, however, without regular meat inspection, all strongly developed bovine fetuses are falsely offered for sale as veal in the form of bratwurst. Recognition. — In those cases in which it is required to determine whether there has been a false substitution of fetus meat in the place of veal, those parts which usually betray the fetus to the layman, namely, the skin (with the umbilical ring), the hoofs, head, stomach and iutestines, are, as a rule, not present. Nevertheless, the expert is in a position to determine with certainty, and without difficulty, the fetal character of the meat from the atelectatic condition of the lungs (they sink in water), from the open urachus, and the wide-open condition of the umbilical veins and arteries. Especially, the point where the latter branch off from the internal pudic arteries may make possible a final decision in those cases in which the entrails and umbilical ring have been removed. The liver, on account of its high value, is regularly included in the sale. A further means of recognizing fetal meat is to be found in the watery, flabby condition of the musculature, gelatiuous condition of the connective tissue in 242 ABNORMAL PHYSIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS the region of the kidneys, which first shows a sparse accumulation of yellow fat just before birth and the presence of a red marrow in the tubular bones. Finally, fetal meat is distinguished by its high glycogen content. By the demonstration of glycogen, the origin of individual pieces of meat and worked-over fetal meat can be deter- mined (see page 213). Niebel obtained from 400 grams of the meat of an almost mature calf-fetus, 7 grams of glycogen by boiling three times, and from 6 kg. of a fetus, at full term, 88 grams of glycogen by one boiling. Judgment. — According to a decision of the Second Criminal Senate of the Imperial Court, of January 3, 1882, the meat of calf fetuses (so-called unborn calves) is to be considered as an unfit food material, because the normal condition is not present ; but not only this fact, but also the character of the object itself stamps fetal meat as unfit food material. The meat of fetuses is, moreover, in all civilized countries, considered as highly unfit for human food, for esthetic reasons, and is excluded even from qualified sale under declaration. 3.— Poorness. With insufficient nutriment, or during excessive organic func- tions, and, in general, during disturbed relations between ingestion and assimilation, domestic animals frequently exhibit that condition of nutrition which is characterized by the term " poorness." This condition appears ia old age, in consequence of a failure in the power of assimilation on the part of the organism. It is character- ized by the scarcity of fat tissue, and by an increase in the consist- ency of the musculature and its darker color. Judgment. — The meat of such poor animals, in some regulations for meat inspection, is characterized as unmarketable ; that is, as unfit for human consumption. This, however, is not right, for the meat of poor animals contains, as was shown on page 192, more proteia than the meat of fat animals. Its flavor, as compared with that of fattened animals is, of course, considerably less agreeable. It shrinks in cooking, becomes tough, and acquires an insipid, dry taste. The meat of poor animals is, therefore, less palatable than the meat of fat animals. Nevertheless, it is not necessary to require a declaration, for the reason that the meat of poor animals declares itself through the scarcity of fat tissue, without any legal require- ments. In this regard, the public needs no protection. EMACUTION 243 Moreover, in the case of food animals, we do not have to deal "with the highest degree of poorness. A regard for the utilization of the meat prevents the slaughter of the poorest animals. Furthermore, the meat of poor animals is indispensable for the manufacture of sausage. However, in working over sausage the quality of the meat in question is much improved as a food material, in consequence of its mechanical mincing and the addition of lard. It is, therefore, to the interest of meat consumers that the meat of poor animals should come into market in this more desirable form. 4.— Emaciation. Frequently, the terms "poorness" and " emaciation " are con- fused, in spite of the fact that they refer to entirely di£ferent con- ditions. In the practice of meat inspection, especially in judging the meat of tuberculous animals, it is important to distinguish between emaciation and poorness. Distinction between poorness and emnxdation. — Under ordinary circumstances, there is a whole series of food animals which are poor ; viz., all animals in the process of development, the majority of male breeding animals, and, finally, all cows of heavy milking races, which are slaughtered during lactation, or immediately after, without previovis fattening. Poor animals are much sought after, because they furnish materials which are indispensable in sausage. For example, bulls bring a higher price when poor than when fattened. Fattening is, therefore, scrupulously avoided in these cases. The objection might be raised that all veterinarians entrusted with meat inspection would not be in a position to determine by the carcass, without having observed the animal during life, whether he was dealing with poorness or emaciation in individual cases, for the reason that the emaciation of fattened animals may reach the degree of poorness of animals which have not been fattened, or may stop at that point. This objection, however, is, as a rule, not justified. Poorness is a physiological condition present in perfectly healthy individuals. All the organs are normally developed, but the fat content of individuals is relatively small. Emaciation, on the other hand, is a pathological condition, or a condition which appears in old agf, during which the ordinary nutritive condition sinks below 244 AB.SORMAL PHYSIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS the normal.* Not only is there a loss of the fat laid on during the process of fattening, but usually an atrophy of the organs also appears, including the skeletal musculature. An approximate idea of the atrophy of individual organs in pathological or senile emacia- tion is furnished us by data on the loss of weight of fasting animals. A fasting cat, for instance, lost, according to von Voit— fat, 97 per cent; spleen, 66.7 ; liver, 53.7 ; muscles, 30.5 ; kidneys, 25.9 ; lungs, 17.7; and heart, 2.6 per cent. In two other experiments with dogs, the musculature lost 43 per cent, of its original weight. In addition to the more or less complete disappearance of fat, and the decrease ia size of the spleen and liver, a decrease in the volume of the musculature appears in emaciated food animals. When this is connected with the disappearance of the fat deposited between the muscle layers and the muscle fibrillse, a soft, flabby condition of the musculature is unmistakable, even iu early stages. This is especially well shown in a comparison of healthy and emaciated bulls. Healthy bulls, in spite of the complete absence of fat, possess strongly convex muscle contours. The muscles feel full and firm. In emaciated bulls, on the other hand, the muscula- ture is sunken, flat, flabby and soft. A high degree of emaciation, as is well known, is commonly associated with the serous infil- tration of the subcutaneous retro-peritoneal and intra- muscular connective tissue. Gelatinous tissue replaces the fat tissue. Sim- ultaneously, with a high degree of emaciation, a grayish-red discol- oration of the musculature appears. Judging emaciation. — The decision on the meat of emaciated animals is essentially determined by the cause of the emaciation. The meat, however, under all circumstances, even in emaciation in old age, is unfit for food on account of the important anomalies in the musculature. If a slimy degeneration of the fat, or a serous infiltration of the musculature has already taken place, the meat is * Emaciation, therefore, appears suddenly (in serious fever), or gradually in chronic disturbances of metabolism. In the case of the sudden appearance of emaciation, in consequence of acute, wasting diseases, such pronounced changes are present in the parenchyma of the organs (cloudy swelling), as well as in the fat tissue (reddish coloration, and obliteration of the structure), that all doubt is removed concerning their meaning. In this place, therefore, only the more important chronic emaciation, which takes place in cattle, will be considered. Naturally, this must attain a certain degree before it acquires symptomatic significance. In consideration of this fact, reference is not made in regulations concerning procedure with the meat of tuberculous animals which are beginning to become emaciated, but to those which are already emaciated. AUXORMAL COLORATION OF THE ADIPOSE TISSUE 245 to be condemned as highly unfib for food. But, in those cases in •which the emaciation is the consequence of disease, the decision is made dependent upon the nature of the disease (see under Oligemia, Hydremic Cachexia and Tuberculosis). 5.— Abnormal Coloration of the Adipose Tissue. In discussing the normal properties of fat tissue, attention has already been directed to the fact that the fat tissue of cattle, on an exclusive grass diet, assumes a yellow instead of a white color. The meat of such animals is offered for sale without conditions, because it is, otherwise, of an unobjectionable character. In meat inspection, the only point of interest is to recognize the yellow coloration caused by feeding, and the difference between it and pathological icterus. The yellow coloration caused by food is exclusively confined to the fat tissue. In jaundice, on the other hand, in addition to the fat tissue, the entrails, fibrous membranes (fasciae, sclera and walls of blood vessels), cartilage, and, to a still greater extent, the muscles and bones, are colored yellow or discolored. Furthermore, upon a microscopical examination, an extensive accumulation of bilirubin crystals is found in the tissues, especially in the liver of icteric animals. 6. — Abnormal Odor of Meat. This may be due to two different physiological conditions : (1) Excessive feeding with odorific substances, and (2) sexual activity of male animals.* As a rule, meat of an unusual odor also has an abnormal flavor. The latter, however, is less pronounced than the former. For this reason it is desirable, in rendering judgment on the meat under investigation, to consider merely the abnormal o»lor. 1. — Abnormal Odor on Account op Improper Feeding. The feed stuffs which, when given in undue quantities, transmit a disagreeable odor to the meat are fish (herring and smelt) and swill. In the first case, the meat assumes an odor like whale oil ; * With regard to other causes of abnormal odor in meat, compare the chapters on Intoxications and Post-mortem Changes, as well as the sections on Stomach Worms and Blackleg, in the chapters on Invasion Diseases and Infectious Biseases. 246 ABNOEMAL PHYSIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS while, in the second, it possesses a disagreeable, heavy, or rancid odor. In both cases, the fat tissue acquires a consistency softer than normal, and is colored yellow or gray. Moreover, an abnormal odor of the meat is observed after feeding green fenugreek or decomposing turnips. It was reported from Konigsberg, in Prussia, that a part of the pork marketed there tasted so fishy that it either could not be eaten at all, or only with the use of strong condiments. The hogs came from the region of Labiau, where fattening was done entirely with smelt. In order to be certain, the slaughterhouse authorities of Konigsberg invariably subject suspected meat to a boiling test before they admit it to the market. Fenugreek {Trigonella fcenum-grcecum), which, in Germany, is used simply for medicinal purposes, is cultivated as a forage plant in southern France, Italy, and other southern countries. It furnishes a luxuriant green forage, which rapidly fattens animals. However, one objection to feeding with fenugreek is the fact that the meat assumes a very disagreeable taste, and an odor resembling hog dung. Mallet reported experiments which are chiefly concerned with the question whether the specific odor of fenugreek becomes definitely fixed in the tissues of slaughtered animals, or subsequently disappears from them. Mallet's investigations resulted in the following conclusions : A single feed of fenugreek, in a gieen condition, is sufficient to transmit the odor of the plant to the meat. This odor completely disappears within four days thereafter. The odorous principle is more rapidly excreted when the plants have just blossomed than when they have already formed pods and seeds. Bat, even in- the latter case, it is sufficient to stop feeding the fenugreek fourteen days before the sale of the fattened animals in order that the meat may regain its normal odor and flavor. The excretion of the odorous material takes place chiefly through the skin when the plants are fed ir bloom ; through the milk, urine and feces, on the other hand, if fed when the pods have formed. Consequently, the meat of calves is more seriously injured by the milk of cows which have eaten ripe fenugreek than by the milk of cows which have fed on the plants in bloom. OUmann, in Greifswald, observed a case of abnormal odor and flavor of meat after- feeding decomposing beets. A farmer fed 100 lambs with this material. The meat of these animals possessed a rancid odor and a soapy taste, in spite of the fact that they had received other feed for two days before slaughter. ABNORMAL ODOR OF MEAT 247 In fowls, an oily odor, and flavor of the fat and meat, are frequently observed after fattening on rape seed, rape cake, and the refuse of oil manufacture. As is the case with swine, a flavor of whale oil is noted after extensive feeding with fish. This change is especially striking in turkeys and ducks which are fattened on rape cake or hemp seed, and in pigeons after a liberal feed of flax seed and colza. An oily odor and the flavor of whale oil are frequently present in Italian pigeons. Moreover, young geese from the region of Hamburg, and ducks from the Spreewald, often taste fishy. In these animals, however, the meat loses its disagreeable character if grain is fed for at least fourteen days before slaughter. A bitter flavor may appear in the meat of fowls which are fed to excess on turnips (Niebel). According to Labler, the flavor of the meat of ducks fed on clams is extremely disagreeable. According to this author, the meat of partridges, in January and February, in conse- quence of an exclusive diet of grass and germinating seeds, has an odor of whale oil. Niebel found that, in the fat of fowls with an oily taste, the iodin number is considerably increased. Thus, in normal turkey fat it was 75.48, while in oily fat it was 113.30. 2. — Abnormal Odor in Male Food Animals. A specific odor is observed in sexually mature buck goats and boars. The odor is highly disagreeable, and is called buck-and-boar odor, since it can not be more definitely described. It is customary to speak of this abnormal odor, which is especially strong in the meat of the posterior part of boars, as urinous, because it possesses a certain similarity to the odor of decomposed urine. The flavor of the meat is also repulsive. Furthermore, in these animals during old age, the muscle flbers become tough and diflEicult to masticate ; and, in the boar, the skin becomes in part chondrified with the formation of the so-called shield, which makes this part literally inedible, because it can not be comminuted with the teeth. The disagreeable odor and flavor of buck and boar meat is removed by castration. Obviously, castration should take place some time before slaughter, if the operation is to have the desired effect. Further investigation is required to determine whether the common practice of butchers in castrating goat bucks and boars immediately before slaughter has any influence on the odor of the meat. The meat of cryptorchid boars, in which the retained testicles are atrophied, does not possess an odor more disagreeable than that of barrows (page 232). Furthermore, in actual boars and crypt- 248 ABNORMAL PHYSIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS orcliici boars with f anctional testicles, the urinous odor is not always present. In fact, Goltz, during a period of four years, by careful boiling tests in the slaughterhouse at Halle, proved th.it boars and cryptorchid boars furnish neither malodorous nor ill-flavored meat. A repulsive odor and bad flavor were present in only 20 per cent, of the boars which were inspected, while in 80 per cent, the meat was of a marketable character. This finding agrees with the observation of Brebeck, who cooked portions of the meat of five cryptorchid boars — boiled, roasted, and ate them, without being able to detect any disagreeable odor. Formerly, the opinion was quite general that, under certain conditions, the meat of buck sheep might possess a repulsive odoiv This, however, id uniformly contradicted by the veterinarians of slaughterhouses. Thus, Goltz, to whom we are indebted for a good account of the animal odor of meat (Zcschr. f. Fleisch-u, Milchhyg., vol. 7), called attention to the fact thnt, during his long practice at the slaughterhouse, he never had an opportunity to observe a repulsive animal odor on the meat of buck sheep. It was also asserted that the abnormal odor is, frequently, only slightly devel- oped in buck goats, and that this is the case even when the animals emitted a strong odor before slaughter. Goltz also called attention to the occasional and exceptional presence of a repulsive odor and flavor in the meat of bulls. The odOrifio material, which during distillation of the meat passes over into the distillation product with the steam, resembles the odor of the perspiration of living bulls, and is present only in vigorous, moderately fat and well-developed bulls ; but not in either run-down or fat animals. Possibly, the declaration of bull meat, required in the old German meat inspection regulations, is to be explained by reference to the presence of this abnormal odor. Demonstration of abnormal odor. — During the process of slaugh- tering, and while the animal heat is still present, the abnormal odor is quite pronounced. On the other hand, during the cooling process, it may disappear to such an extent as to be scarcely perceptible. In cold meat, however, it is possible to make the unusual odor again perceptible by heating a piece of the meat over a flame or boiling it in water. In rendering a decision on boar meat, Goltz recommends that the boiling test should not be arpplied until one day after slaughter, for the reason that the meat of castrated hogs, when cooked ABNOEMAL ODOR OP MEAT 249 immediately after slaughter, possesses a peculiar, well-pronounced hog flavor, which is distasteful to many persons, Judgment. — Odorous meat, under all circumstances, is an unfit food material, and, therefore, only to be sold at a freibank. If the odor is strongly developed, and, simultaneously, other abnormal conditions are present (discoloration, softening of fat, chondrifica- tion of the skin, etc.), seizure and condemnation are indicated. lu boars and cryptorchids iu which, as already indicated, the abnormal odor and flavor may be present, a decision is to be rendered according to the result of the boiling test in each case. With reference to the so-called fishy hogs, it is to be remembered that they are regularly eaten in the coast regions, while in the interior only a few purchasers for such would be found. Goltz demonstrated that, in ill-smelling bull meat, the unusual odor is commonly dissi- pated into the air after hanging two or three days. This fails to take place only when the odor is very pronounced. In such exceptional cases the meat may be made edible by steaming iu a Bohrbeck disinfector (with live steam), since the odorous principle passes off with the steam. Goltz was also able to demonstrate in the odorous meat of buck goats, that the striking odor gradually disappeared when the meat was allowed to hang in the air. To be sure, this only occurs after fourteen days. Advanced pregnancy. — Meat inspectors, with an insufficient training, have occasionally excluded from use, or have declared to be unmarketable, the meat of animals in an advanced stage of pregnancy. It is scarcely necessary to state, however, that this was without justification (compare Ostertag, Zeit. f. Fleisch-u. Milchhyg., vols. 7 and 8). Incidentally, it should be noted that, in buying food animals according to weight, pregnant animals are to be characterized as defective ; for the sale of a food animal by weight (live or dressed weight) is regarded by the court, not as a sale of cattle, in which guaranty is excluded on account of pregnancy, but as a sale of products. The vendor is obliged to make good the decreased value according to the weight of the pregnant uteri and fetuses, since these parts are not used as food materials. The Berlin Animal Insurance Society indemnify to the extent of the weight of the pregnant uterus in the case of insured hogs. VII. GENERAL PATHOLOGY OF FOOD ANIMALS FROM THE STANDPOINT OF SANITARY POLICE. The pathological conditions, which can be determined in individual organs of slaughtered animals, may be divided into the following general groups : (1) Malformations, (2) dissolutions of continuity, (3) atrophy and hypertrophy, (4) deposition of pigment and lime, (5) metaplasise, (6) degenerations, (7) circulatory disturbances, (8) transudation, (9) hemorrhages, (10) necrosis, (11) inflammations, (12) simple tumors, (13) infectious granulations, (14) animal parasites. The sanitary significance of these different forms or abnormali- ties varies exceedingly. Therefore, for purposes of orientation, it is desirable to explain the principal view-points for judging the conditions which are included under the above-mentioned patho- logical categories. 1. — Malformations. OccMrrence. — Congenital malformations of the organs of food animals are observed in various forms. The formation of fissures and obstructions are most frequent in the extremities and repro- ductive organs. Furthermore, fissure formations occur in the internal organs — liver, lungs, spleen — and occasion supernumerary livers, lungs and spleens. Moreover, abnormal accumulations of fluid of a congenital nature are not rare, especially in the liver (fetal hepatic cysts) and in the kidneys (hydrops renum cysticus). Judgment. — Malformations do not affect the availability of the meat of individual parts of an animal as human food so long as the structure of the tissues remains unchanged ; as, for example, in fissure formations. If, however, the histological structure of the tissues is changed, as in congenital renal cysts, the malformed 250 DISSOLUTIONS OF CONTINUITY 251 organ is to be considered as unfit, or highly unfit, for food, according to the degree of the change it has undergone. 2. — Dissolutions of Continuity. Judgment. — Dissolutions of continuity, in and of themselves, do not lower the quality of any part of the body as a food material. On the other hand, the hemorrhage, which is commonly associated with these conditions, lends the character of spoiled food material to the part which is separated from its natural connections. Furthermore, dissolutions of continuity must be divided into two essentially different kinds ; namely, those which communicate with the outside world (skin, alimentary tract, lungs, urino-genital appa- ratus), and those which do not communicate with the outside world (rents in the musculature, fractures of bones, with uninjured general integument, ruptures of the heart, liver, spleen, etc.). Wounds which are in connection with the outside world may, by subsequent infec- tion, render the meat unhealthful (see Pyemia and Septicemia), while such a possibility is excluded in the case of lesions which are not in communication with the outside world, and which, therefore, run an aseptic course. In rendering a decision on dissolutions of continuity, it is very important, in all cases in which the lesions occur immediately before death, to determine whether they are of the one kind or of the other. * 3. — Atrophy and Hypertrophy. (a) Atrophy. Occurrence. — Atrophy, or wasting away, may affect the whole organism, as in old age, or individual organs. Only the atrophy of glandular organs and of the musculature possesses any sanitary importance. The atrophy of adipose tissue also possesses a diag- nostic significance (see "Emaciation"). Judgment. — Atrophied organs are unfit food material, because, as a rule, the specific tissue cells (as, for instance, the liver and muscle cells in atrophy of the liver and muscles) disappear to a greater degree than the interstitial connective tissue. Organs depend for their value upon the specific tissue cells, and must be considered as of less value, or worthless, when the specific cells disappear to a large degree, or entirely. 252 GENERAL PATHOLiSGY OF FOOD ANIMALS (b) Hypertrophy. Judgment. — Hypertrophied organs, iu which the histological structure of the tissue is uot changed, are considered as equal to normal organs. This condition is most frequently observed as the so-called vicarious hypertrophy in one kidney, while the other is diseased. 4.— Deposition of Pigment and Lime. (a) Pigmented Deposits. Occurrence. — An idiopathic pigment deposit, in contrast with symptomatic pigmentation, as in icterus, is frequently observed in cattle in the form of melanosis, or black coloring. It is especially frequent in the lungs, liver, membranes of the brain, and spinal cord. In generalized melanosis, the peritoneum, pleura, fasciae, vascular structures, nerve sheaths, cartilage and bones are also colored black. Melanosis, as a rule, is congenital, and seems to disappear with increasing age. Diagnosis. — Melanosis appears in the form of black blotches, or stripes and points. Melanotic organs, therefore, appear to be spotted with black, or "as if sprinkled with India ink." By examining the black colored spots under the microscope, it may be demonstrated that a black pigment (melanin), in granular form, is deposited in the otherwise normal tissue. • Melanosis should not be confused with melano-sarcomatosis (see "Tumors"). The latter, however, may lead secondarily to a melanemia or melanosis of all parts of the body (degeneration of the tumors). Judgment. — Melanotic organs and parts are unfit for food. Ochronosis. — Virchow used this term t9 signify a black coloration of the bones, cartilage and sinews in man. It is not due to melanin, but to another granular pigment. Ochronosis, apparently, occurs also in cattle and hogs, and also, apparently, causes the dark- coloration of the heads of the ribs in sucking calves. Brown coloration of the sTcehton.— ThQ Belgian veterinarians, Mosselmann, Hebrant and Wagernous, described a peculiar brown coloration of the bones, which is also occasionally observed in. DEPOSITION OP PIGMENT AND LIME 253 Fio. 43. Germany (the author's observations at the Berlin abattoir, and material sent to the Hygienic Institute of the Berlin Veterinary High School). As a rule, the affection is observed in young cattle, in which all the bones of the skeleton exhibit a reddish-brown, chocolate-brown, or blackish-brown coloration. The chemical analyses made by Mosselmann indicated a normal -composition of the bones. The coloring material contained in the bones was not extracted by water, alcohol, ether, or chloroform, but was readily dissolved in alkalies and dilute acids, especially in KOH and HNO3. In the first case, a brownish-violet solution, and in the second case, a rose-red solution was obtained, both of which were clarified by oxidizing reagents. On heating, ammonia was developed, and, after calcining, an abundant iron deposit remained. Mosselmann, therefore, con- sidered the coloring material as a deri- vative of hemoglobin, and classified it with the melanins, which, according to Gautier, are insoluble in water, alcohol, and soluble in alkalies and alkaline carbonates. Judgment. — In a high degree of ochronosis, in which the larger part of the skeleton is affected, and in brown coloration of the skeleton, the decision is the same as in melanosis. A less serious case, in which only certain parts of the bones show a dark coloration, is to be considered as insignificant. Xanthosis of beef musculature (after Goltz). u,, granular in- terfibrillar pigment. Xanthosis. — A liver-brown discoloration of musculature is occa- sionally observed in cattle. Goltz was the first to call attention to this changed condition. In the cases which Goltz investigated, the heart, muscles of mastication and tongue were most conspicuous for their dark-brown color. The remaining portions of the muscu- lature were simply somewhat darker in color than normal. By a microscopic study, Goltz demonstrated that the peculiar discolora- tion was caused by the presence of yellow granular pigment between the muscle fibers (Fig. 43). Moreover, the term xanthosis, which Goltz selected, is quite appropriate for designating the nature of the changed color. 264 GENERAL PATHOLOGY OP FOOD ANrMALS When the pigment is deposited between the fibers, it can be recognized only by a magnification of 300 diameters. Goltz found that it gave neither the reaction of iron nor of bile pigment. The pigment can be extracted with chloroform. Judgment. — If the discoloration is confined simply to the heart, muscles of mastication and tongue, the removal of these parts is sufficient, while the rest of the musculature can be sold without hesitation. For we are dealing with animals which exhibited no functional disturbances before slaughter, and which, even after slaughter, showed no alteration except the peculiar discoloration of the striated musculature. When the whole skeletal musculature is discolored, the meat is to be considered as unfit for food, and is to be sold only under declaration. With regard to the black coloration of belly bacon in hogs, compare page 269. (b) Calcareous Deposits. Judgment. — A simple calcareous deposit impairs the quality of the organs and parts to a degree proportional to its occurrence ; for lime diminishes the percentage content of proteids in animal tissue. The simple calcareous deposit, which is observed most frequently in -cartilage, less often in interstitial pulmonary tissue, and in the medullary layer of the kidneys, is of miuor importance in meat in- spection, as compared with the calcification of parasitic forms (see Calcareous Concretions). 5.— Metaplasiae. Virchow distinguishes the direct transformation of one tissue into another by the term metaplasia. Metaplasia occurs only in the tissues of connective structures (connective tissue, fat tissue, carti- lage and bone). The transformation of cartilage into bone is most frequent. However, the transformation of the connective tissue castration cicatrix into bone tissue is frequently observed in spayed sows. 6.— Degenerations. Of the degenerative processes, cloudy swelling and fatty degeneration are of paramount sanitary interest, for the reason DEGENERATIONS 255 that they are phenomena concomitant with serious general diseases (intoxications and infections). Their recognition is, therefore, of the greatest importance in meat inspection. (a) Cloudy S-welliug. Cloudy swelling (parenchymatous degeneration, Virchow) is observed only in epithelial structures. The swelling becomes apparent externally by the slight enlargement of the organ, the loss of the original color, sheen, outline and consistency. lu the place of the glistening red-brown of the liver, for example, a cloudy grey- brown appears. The outline of the liver cells is simultaneously ob- literated, the consistency becomes friable, and the moisture content Fio. 44 Cloudy swelling and fatty degeneration of the skeletal musculature, a, normal muscle fiber ; 5, cloudy swelling ; c, slight, and d, extensive fatty degeneration. is diminished. The consistency of the myocardium, when affected with parenchymatous degeneration, may well be compared with that of boiled meat. Under the microscope, it is observed that the epithelial struct- ures are pervaded with fine, highly refractive granules, or spherules. Consequently, the epithelia appear cloudy and " as if covered with dust." The cell nuclei and the cell walls become indistinguishable. Granules which appear in the epithelia in cloudy swelling consist of albumen. (b) Fatty Degeneration. Fatty degeneration (fatty metamorphosis, Virchow) is likewise characterized by a loss of the original color, sheen, outline and consistency of the organs. The color of the liver becomes a cloudy 256 GENERAL PATHOLOGY OP FOOD ANIMALS yellow-browii or grey-yellow. The histological details, which are easily recognized with the naked eye in the normal organ, disap- pear, and the consistency becomes flabby and soft. Under the microscope an appearance similar to that in cloudy swelling is observed, except that the spherules are fatty instead of al- buminous. Differential diagnosis. — For the differentiation of cloudy swelling from fatty metamorphosis, we add acetic acid to a microscopic preparation. The acetic acid dissolves the proteid globules, wHile the fat globules remain unchanged. Caustic potash may also be used in making the differentiation. The fat globules in warming become saponified. Lastly, the fat globules in fatty degeneration are colored brown or black by osmic acid, while the proteid globules in cloudy swelling do not give this reaction. It is, moreover, of great importance to distinguish between- fatty degeneration and fatty infiltration. The latter occurs prin- TiG. 45. Fig. 46. Fatty infiltration of the liver. Fatty metamorphosis of the Kver. cipally in supporting connective tissue, but is also observed in the liver cells and, in excessively fat conditions, even in the renal epithelia and in the primitive fibrillse of the musculature. The differentiation of fatty infiltration from fatty degeneration is of especial interest in the liver. Fatty iufiltration in this organ may appear in the form of sharply outlined spots which extend into the hepatic parenchyma to various depths (McFadyean). As a rule, however, fatty infiltration affects the whole liver. Mild cases are recognizable by a slight yellowish-gray coloration of the peripheral zone of the hepatic lobes ; the more extensive the deposit of fat, the smaller is the normally constituted central part, and the greater the swelling of the peripheral part of the lobe as compared with the central part, since fatty infiltration causes an increase in volume of the cells (Kitt). A liver completely infiltrated with fat possesses a DEGENEEATI0N8 257 cloudy, yellow-brown color, as in the case of fatty degeneration. The outline of the acini, however, is not obliterated and the consistency is not flabby and soft, but more nearly like that of cocoa butter. Furthermore, in fatty infiltration the liver is enlarged, the borders are rounded, for fatty infiltration signifies the original liver substance plus fat. In fatty degeneration, on the other hand, the liver protein is changed into fat. The organ, therefore, is not enlarged in fatty degeneration, but becomes smaller and compara- tively thin, soft and flabby. The borders are not rounded, but sharp. Under the microscope, the liver cells in fatty infiltration appear distended with large fat globules. The cell membranes and cell nuclei, however, are well preserved, while in fatty degeneration only small fat globules or " fatty abscesses " (Virchow) appear in place of the cells. In fatty infiltration, according to Perls, the water content of the organ sinks below 50 per cent., while in fatty metamorphosis it remains normal and amounts to from 75 to 78 per cent. The specific gravity of fatty infiltrated organs is also correspondingly less. Normal human livers possess a specific gravity of 1,050 to 1,065 (with a fat content of 3 to 6 per cent.) ; fatty infiltrated livers, 1,001 to 1,035 (with a fat content of from 15 to 39 per cent.) ; fatty degenerated livers, as high as 1,056 (with a fat content of from 3 to 8 per cent.) ; and livers which are both infiltrated and degenerated, 1,009 to 1,012 (with an average fat content of 28 per cent.). As degenerations of less importance, mention should also be made of the mucoid degeneration of the fatty tissue, in which the latter becomes a yellow transparent mass resembling gelatin, and hyaline degeneration of the muscles, as an indication of serious general disease, or of certain primary affections of the muscle. Hyaline degeneration of the musculature, in which the diseased muscles assume a cloudy, dull, iridescent appearance, like fish meat, is also considered as a necrosis (coagulation necrosis). Amyloid degeneration is rare in domestic animals. Isolated cases of amyloid degeneration of the liver and kidneys were demon- strated by Rabe in horses and cattle, and by Eivolta, Eabe and Kitt in dogs. In birds, amyloid degeneration appears more frequently. Eoll and Friedberger observed amyloid degeneration in pheasants ; Kitt in chickens. In an epidemic disease among pheasants, Fried- berger found extensive amyloid formations in the liver, spleen, and intestines. 258 GENERAL PATHOLOGY OF FOOD ANIMALS 7.— Disturbances of the Circulation. Local variations in the blood content usually disappear after death by bleeding. They are conspicuous, on the other hand, in case of natural death, and in animals which are killed during the crisis of diseases. A different blood content in paired organs (hypostasis) is, therefore, an important criterion in the recognition of animals 'which have died a natural death or have been killed duriijg the crisis of disease. Hemorrhagic infarcts arise through embolic obstruction of the terminal branches of the arteries. They possess a round or wedge form and ^re first red, then yellow, and finally white in color. Embolic infarcts are of importance in meat inspection only when they are infected and consequently exhibit softening (see Pyemia)^ 8. — Transudation. Transudation appears either in the form of edema, inside the tissue, or of hydrops iu the body cavities. Both edema and hydrops occur in consequence of certain disturbances of the circu- lation, or of hydremia. Judgment. — Edematous infiltrated organs are to be treated as unfit for food. Dropsy of the body cavities, on the other hand, has no sanitary significance. 9— Hemorrhages. By the term hemorrhage is understood an escape of the blood in Mo from the tissues. Distinction is made between slight, limited hemorrhages (petechise or ecchymoses) or more extended and diffuse hemorrhages (suggilation). Petechise may occur in all organs. They are usually located in the serous and mucous membranes ; also in the cutis and subcutis. Like the parenchymatous and fatty degenera- tions, they are au important concomitant symptom of intoxications and infectious diseases, and are to be given special consideration in the determinatipn of septic diseases. Suggilations, as a rule, are sequelae of mechanical rupture of the connections between tissues. Hemorrhagic infiltration of the musculature is very frequent in consequence of bone fractures. In the determination of the latter condition in slaughtered animals, it should be noted that slight hemorrhages cm the external HEMORRHAGES 259 surface of animals which have been skinned should lead one to make incisions, since the connective- tissue strands are usually infil-- trated as far as the subcutis in case of extensive, deep hemorrhages (Fischoder). Judging bloody parts. — Bloody meat is an inferior food material. Butchers attempt to remove the blood-coloring matter by sprink- ling with salt, subsequent washing with water, and the application of pressure to the pieces of meat. This is successful in the outer layers, but not in the deeper portions. Determination of the length of time since- the occurrence of hemorrhages. — Experts in meat inspection are frequently called Pig. 47. Hemosiderin, partly in nucleated cells, partly free iu the tissue. X 1,000 diameters (Thoma). Fig. 48. ^ % Hematoidin crystals, from a large, centrally softened blood extravasa- tion of the peritoneal cavity. X 250 diameters (Thoma). upon lo render an opinion as to the age of hemorrhages, when they are so extensive that the meat is considerably depreciated in value. According to Diirck, in determining the age of hemorrhages, we may make use of the changes which occur in the red-blood corpuscles, and the red-blood coloring material in extravasations. Diirck made his determinations in hemorrhages artificially produced in the brain, and observed, in the first place, leaching and swelling of the red-blood corpuscles. The first change is manifested from the second day by etiolation, to the extent of complete transparency. The swelling becomes manifest when the flat, biconcave corpuscles gradually become spherical. From the fifth day ashrinkiug begins, which is ushered in by the appearance of minute impressions in the periphery of the blood corpuscles. One portion of the colorless 260 GENEKAL PATHOLOGY OP FOOD ANIMALS stroma may remain in this, condition for sixty days or more. In another part, however, shrinking is more extensive ; and then in from six to eight days, either irregular polygonal and stellate or scutellate and cup-shaped forms are observed. Concomitantly, a certain comparatively small number of red-blood corpuscles are surrounded by contractile cells from the third day on. ^ Up to the sixth day, hemoglobin penetrates uniformly the surrounding tissue, and gives it a light-brown color. Towards the end of the sixth and beginning of the seventh day, a modification of the red-blood coloring matter occurs, which has been described by Neumann as " hemosiderin." The hemosiderin at first penetrates the whole tissue in a diffuse manner (extensive Berlin-blue colora- tion after application of iron reaction). After the tenth day, it is restricted more and more to the contractile cells, and after the twelfth day is found exclusively in them. After twelve days the pigment, previously dissolved in the plasma of the white-blood corpuscles, becomes granular. The granulations are at first hard, but disintegrate into finer and finer granules from the eighteenth to the t^!P■enty-fifth day. Simultaneously, the cells which inclose the granules disintegrate so that the first free pigment granules are seen in the tissue after the eighteenth day. Toward the sixtieth day, one finds in the tissues only a rather finely granular pigment, free from iron. Furthermore, pigment crystals may be formed under certain conditions not clearly understood. 10.— Necrosis. Necrosis may appear in all the tissues. It has significance in meat inspection, however, only in those parts of the animal body which are in direct contact with the outside world ; for the bacteria of decomposition, which are always present in atmospheric air, may settle upon necrotic tissues and cause pathological changes (see Sapremia). Furthermore, necrotic tissues do not offer protection against pathogenic bacteria, as does living tissue, for the reason that the former may be penetrated by pathogenic micro-organisms. Among the pathogenic bacteria, those which cause inflammation and suppuration have a ubiquitous distribution, similar to the bacteria of decomposition. Consequently, with necrosis of the skin, stomach wall, intestinal wall, uterus, etc., there is regularly associated an inflammatory condition of the neighboring tissue, and, under certain circumstances, also pyemia and septicemia. INFLAMMATIONS 261 1 1 . —Inflammations. Inflammatory processes in the animal body must, from the standpoint of meat inspection, be judged according to their kind and degree as well as according to the afifected organ. We distinguish productive, serous, purulent, croupous, diphtheritic, hemorrhagic and putrid inflammations. These forms of inflammation may occur either on the surface of the s-kin, mucous or serous membranes, or in the interior of the tissues. Superficial inflammations of the mucous membranes are characterized as isatarrh, and a distinction is made again between desquamative, serous, mucous and sup- purative catai-rh, and mixed forms. In inflammations of tissue, in so far as glandular organs are concerned, distinction is made between parenchymatous and interstitial inflammation, according as the specific glandular substance or the supporting tissue is diseased. The deciding factor for the sanitary judgment of inflammations is their etiology. Most inflammations are produced by bacteria. We recognize, however, inflammations which are caused by mechanical irritation, such as productive iuflammatioris on the serous membranes, and verminous pneumonia ; also inflammations caused by thermic irritation (scalds, influence of the sun's rays, or excessive cold) ; and by chemical irritation (caustic and drastic reagents). All inflammations which arise iu consequence of physical or chemical irritation posses^t, in and of themselves, only a slight significance in meat inspection, for they are local, and heal after the disappearance of the irritation. Inflammations which are caused by bacteria, on the other hand, may give rise to general diseases, and may give a worthless or unhealthfnl character, not only to the aff'ected organs, but also to all other parts of the body. It is to be remembered, moreover, that secondary infectious pro- cesses may develop in lesions which.arise from physical or chemical irritations. The following details are given with reference to the' different forms of inflammation : (a) Productive Inflammations. Nature. — By the term productive inflammation, we understand inflammations which are accompanied with the formation of new tissue. Of special interest for meat inspectors are the new forma- tions of connective tissue in the interstitial tissues of glandular 262 GEREBAL PATHOLOGY OF POOD ANIMALS organs, and in the connective-tissue substratum of serous membranes under the influence of moderate but continuous irritation (cirrhosis of the liver, interstitial nephritis, pleuritis, perihepatitis, peritonitis fibrosa, etc.). Judgment.— ViodnctiYe inflammations possess merely a local significance. In a mild form they are insignificant. Excessive interstitial inflammation, however, may render organs unfit, or highly unfit, for food, for it is accompanied by the destruction of those elements which give the organs in question their character and value as food material. (b) Serous Inflannuation. Occurrence. — This occurs either as inflammatory edema in the tissues, or as inflammation of the serous membranes, with a thin, slightly clouded exudate. Inflammatory edema may be caused by the bacteria of suppuration, and also by other micro-organisms (see "Pyemia" and "Malignant Edema"). Serous inflammation of the lining membranes of the body cavity is either a phenomenon con- comitant with the inflammatory process in organs in the cavities in question (for example, pleuritis as a sequela to pneumonia), and, therefore, without primary significance, or a primary infection, to be judged by itself. Judgment. — The decision with regard to primary serous inflam- mation varies. In case of a serous inflammation in closed cavities which do not communicate with the outside world (as, for example, in non-traumatic meningitis, tendo-vaginitis and arthritis of domes- tic animals), the process, according to previous experience, remains localized in the afi'ected organ. In case of a previous wound, however, it is necessary to determine whether the inflammation possesses a septic character (see "Septicemia"). Serous, as well as sero-mucous, catarrhs are local affections which, at most, may destroy the character of the mucous membranes, in so far as these are concerned as food material. The exudation in traumatic serous inflammation of the lining membranes of the body cavity frequently shows, in the same manner as in secondary pleuritis, an admixture of fibrin in the form of yellow flakes ov plates, which become attached to the surface of the serous membranes, and may easily be removed from them (sero- fibrinous inflammation). INFLAMMATIONS 263 (c) Purulent Inflammation. Course. — Purulent inflammation, as a rule, runs a local course. Exceptionally, it may become generalized. Judgment. — An organ containing pus pockets is to be regarded as an unwholesome food material ; likewise, the meat of animals which have suffered from generalized suppurative processes. For further details, see under " Pyemia." (d) Croupous and DipMheritic Inflammation. Diagnosis. — It should first be stated that, anatomically, both these forms of inflammation occur only on mucous membranes. They are essentially distinct from one another. In croupous inflammation, a coagulable exudation is deposited on the surface, and the epithelium disappears. In diphtheritic inflammation, on the other hand, a fibrinous exudation is formed in the mucous membrane itself with the necrosis of the latter. The croupous exudation, from the manner of its origin, may be removed from its substratum without destroying the tissue deeper than the epithelium, while the diphtheritic exudation is firmly united with its substratum, and, after being thrown off, naturally leaves a deeper scar, or ulcer. Occurrence and judgment. — Croupous and diphtheritic inflamma- tions are most frequently observed in man in the form of the disease known as diphtheria. We know of no disease of domestic animals which is identical with this affection of man. Croupous and diphtheritic inflammations, however, are frequently observed in •cattle. In this animal, diphtheritic and croupous inflammation accompany, chiefly, two infectious diseases : Rinderpest and mal- ignant catarrhal fever. Furthermore, a diphtheritic inflammation may occur in the uterus, and it forms here a process which is to be judged very cautiously, whether before or after death (see " Septi- cemia "). In the case of rinderpest and malignant catarrhal fever, on the other hand, nothing is known concerning the injurious effects ■of eating the meat of animals which have suffered from these diseases. Finally, mention should be made of diphtheritic inflammation of the mucous membrane of the urinary passages, which is caused by decomposition of the urine within the efferent urinaiy ducts. This diphtheritic inflammation is'also to be judged favorably with regard 264 GENERAL PATHOLOGY OF FOOD ANIMALS to the availability of the meat for food, since, according to all our experience, it does not produce injurious effects upon the health of those consuming it (compare " Pyelo-nephritis "). (e) Hemorrhagic Inflammation., Nature. — In hemorrhagic inflammation, there is an admixture of numerous red blood corpuscles to the exudation (red coloration). Hemorrhagic inflammation is to be considered a symptom of a very severe irritation (great alteration of the capillary walls). It readily leads to necrosis. Judgment. — The etiology of hemorrhagic inflammation is not simple. Consequently, general propositions for the sanitary jadg meut of hemorrhagic inflammation can not be laid down. We merely know from experience that the meat is harmless in a large class of diseases which are commonly accompanied with hemorrhagic inflammation, as in pneumonia of horses (hemorrhagic pneumonia), in hemorrhagic septicemia (hemorrhagic enteritis), in swine erysipe- las (hemorrhagic enteritis, nephritis, lymphadenitis), and in urticaria of hogs (hemorrhagic dermatitis). In other diseases, however, such as petechial fever in horses, and certain not well understood forms of hemorrhagic inflammation of the intestines in cattle, the meat has produced harmful effects (see " Septicemia " and " Meat Intoxi- cation"). (f) Inflammations -with. Putrid. Exudations. These inflammations arise in consequence of the presence of putrefactive bacteria in the products of serous, suppurative, or necrotic inflammations. For further details on this subject, see " Sapremia " and " Septicemia." (g) Parenchymatous and Interstitial Inflammations. These inflammations take their names from their different positions in glandular organs. Parenchymatous inflammations affect the epithelial elements ; interstitial inflammations, on the other hand, affect the supporting tissue. Interstitial inflammation is, as a rule, productive. Judgment. — Parenchymatous inflammations are to be judged according to their causes. As a rule, however, parenchymatous inflammations are symptoms of certain intcxications and infectious, and possess, therefore, only a diagnostic sigoificance. The judgment TUMORS 265 of interstitial inflammations corresponds to that of productive inflammations. 12.— Tumors. Tumors are classified, clinically and pathologico-anatomically, as benign and malignant. (a) Benign Tumors. Benign tumors, in their sanitary relationship, possess only a minor importance as strictly local affections. Organs which are affected with benign tumors may be put in a marketable condition by removal of the neoplasm, since benign tumors do not alter the internal character of the organs except in their immediate neighborhood. (b) Malignant Tumors. Malignant tumors, sarcoma and carcinoma, have a decided tendency to enlarge at the expense of the affected organs. They displace the normal tissue by their rapid local growth, or penetrate it diffusely (infiltration), and, in addition, form metastases in other organs. Occurrence. — Malignant neoplasms occur primarily iu all the ■vital organs and upon the general integument. Sarcomata, more- over, may occur in the skeleton. According to Pouchet and Metz, the scapular cartilage is characterized as the usual location for the melauo-safcomata, which-occur so frequently in white horsey. During the process of metastasis, sarcomata and carcinomata may become spread throughout all parts of the animal body. Iu the latter case, we speak of generalized sarcomatosis or carcinomatosis. Diagnosis. — The recognition and differentiation of malignant tumors belong to the rudiments of general pathology, and may, therefore, be omitted here. It should be simply noted that sarco- mata in the lymphatic glands are distinguished from tubercular alterations by the fact that sarcomata permeate the lymph glands in the form of a tubercle, or in a diffuse manner, and show caseation, but no calcification ; while the presence of small tubercles, which regularly become casefied in the center, and later become calcified, is characteristic of tuberculosis. 266 GENERAL PATHOLOGY OF FOOD ANIMALS Judgment. — According to the present status of our knowledge, we must consider meat, or individual organs, which inclose malig- nant tumors, as a spoiled food material. Despite the fact that sarcomata and carcinomata occur in man, such meat is not dangerous to health, for the reason that, according to all experiments, the transmission of these tumors by means of the digestive apparatus is impossible. Among hundreds of experiments which have already been made, it has only been possible, in a few isolated eases, to transmit cancer from animal to animal by intraperitoneal injection (Welir, Hanau, e< a?.), and to inoculate with fibro-sarcomata (Eisels- berg). The conditions surrounding these cases must have been peculiar, for the investigators succeeded only once in transmitting the disease. Furthermore, the possibility of intraperitoneal trans- mission proves nothing with regard to the transmissibility of the disease through the alimentary tract. If malignant neomorphs are confined merely to individual parts of an organ, or of the meat — for example, to certain bones (osteo-sarcoma), or to lymph glands (lympho-sarcomatosis) — the meat may be offered for sale after careful removal of the diseased parts. If the meat is otherwise unchanged, there is no reason for prohibiting its sale. In cases in which the whole musculature, all the bones and intermuscular lymph glands are permeated with metastases, the sale of the meat must be absolutely prohibited as highly unfit for food. A similar course should be adopted in the case of organs which show a few large, or numerous small, malignant tumors. Formerly, as stated by Grams, a common and fundamental mistake was made in judging metastatic formations of malignant tumors. -They were placed upon the same basis with the generali- zation of infectious processes : for example, tuberculosis ; and the generalization of the tumors was considered as already present, if the appearance of wide distribution was seen merely in the entrails. This point of view is not justified, since the tubercle bacilli, which are carried in the circulation, can not be readily demonstrated as such in the musculature. In the vital organs, however, they produce such striking changes as to furnish valuable diagnostic aid in the determination of generalization. In malignant tumors, on the other hand, in the case of generalization, we have to do with the transpor- tation of tissue elements which develop rapidly, and upon dissection of animals may be easily found in the musculature, and especially in the intermuscular lymph glands. INFECTIOUS GRANULATIONS 267 13.— Infectious Granulations. Infectious granulations are caused by specific plant organisms. To the infectious tumors of domestic animals belong also the neomorphs of glanders, tuberculosis, actinomycosis and botryo- mycosis. For further details, see "Infectious Diseases." 14.— Animal Parasites. The number of animal parasites in domestic animals is exceed- ingly large. Only a few organs are entirely free from them. The others are so regularly infested with worms that their presence may be considered as almost a normal condition ; as, foi' example, the presence of fluke worms in the liver of sheep and cattle, and of StrongylidsB iu the lungs of the hog. Some of these parasites are harmless guests, while others produce extensive changes in the affected parts, and, under certain conditions, rnay cause a more or less serious disturbance of the general health. By far the greater number of the parasites of domestic animals are harmless for man. Domestic animals, however, harbor dangerous enemies of man, particularly trichinae and cysticerci (conipare the chapter on invasion diseases). H Till. i ESPECIALLY NOTEWORTHY ORGANIC DISEASES. It is pot in the province of a text-book on meat inspection to discuss in detail all organic diseases. We have all the more reason for omitting such a detailed consideration here, since the principles of sanitary judgment of the different pathological processes in gen- eral are mentioned in the discussion of general pathology (Chapter VII). In the following discussion, therefore, only those organic diseases will be mentioned which are of special interest in any particular way (variation from the typical structure, or of value in differential diagnosis). Parasites and infectious granulations, will be mentioned pnly incidentally, for the reason that a comparative and exhaustive presentation of those subjects is given under general diseases. 1. — General Integument. (a) Cutis. Solutions op Continuity. — As a rule, skin wounds heal rapidly. They offer favorable conditions for infection only until granulation begins. For granulations are centrifugal processes ; they furnish a mechanical protection against the penetration and resorption of foreign material. Granulating wounds are, therefore, to be looked upon as unimportant alterations, provided that the granulations extend uniformly over the surface of the wound, and communication between the deeper-lying parts and the outside world is not inter- rupted by the granulations. In the latter case, it is necessary to determine whether a retention of the secretion and its possible sequelas are present. Erytheisms.— Erythrisms of the cutis may be due to hemor- rhages, inflammation, or hypostases (death marks). Active hyper- emia of the skin disappears completely after death. The differen- tiation of the first-named three kinds of erythrism offers no difficulty. GENEKAIi INTEGUMENT 269 In hemorrhages, blood or blood corpuscles are found in the inter- stices of the tissue. They occasion no conspicuous swelling, and can not be removed by pressure "with the finger. In inflammation there are accumulations of blood in the capillaries, and a swelling arises with exudation. Death marks are found only in the deeper lying parts of the body. They are bluish-red, and readily disappear on pressure with the finger, since the blood is in the capillaries, and capillary blood does not coagulate. It is only where imbibition has already begun that the erythrisru can not be made to disappear on pressure. As the name signifies, death marks are a sign of death, and, in fact, of natural death. In connection with them, there is simultaneously a large blood content of the subcutis (Klein). In differential diagnosis the erythrisms of the skin of the hog are especially important (see " Swine Erysipelas "). Other Alterations. — ^In inspecting calves, attention should be given to the condition of the skin in the region of the navel (inflammatory alterations in connection with umbilical infection). In the hog, the following alterations of the skin deserve special mention : Thickening of the connective tissue frame-work of the cutis into a cartilage-like condition in boars (compare page 167) ; black pigmentation of the cutis and of the panniculus adiposus on ' the ventral side ; sooty mange of young pigs ; and the so-called granular eruption. Black pigmentation of belly bacon. — Female, male and castrated hogs, especially if they are black haired, occasionally possess in the panniculus adiposus, in the under part of the abdomen, numerous black, irregular, dendritically or venously branched spots, which were described by Saake in 1878, and recently by de Jong. According to de Jong, the spots are due to pigment deposits which are distributed in masses, and have their seat in the connective- tissue trabeculae of the supporting substance of fat tissue, and not in the fat cells. The pigment is granular, and under slight magnification shows black, blackish-brown, brown, reddish or red coloration. It is insoluble in hot water, alcohol, ether, chloroform and bisulphid of carbon, and is not changed by sulphuric acid. De Jong could not obtain an iron reaction. This, however, does not militate against the opinion .entertained by the author, that the black pigmentation of belly bacon is a consequence of hemorrhage, since the remainder of the hemorrhage loses its iron after a certain time (see page 259). In favor of the hematogenous origin of the 270 NOTEWORTHY OnGANIO DISEASES pigmeufc in question, we have the seat of the pigment (frequent liability of bruising), and the fact, which was demonstrated by Blauc, that the pigment accumulates, especially in the region of the blood vessels. It should be noted that Tiircks observed black pigmentation of belly bacon in six black hogs which came from the same sty. Judgment. — The. abnormal color makes belly bacon affected with this pigment unfit for food, and it should be sold only under declaration. Sooiy mange of young pigs. — By this term is understood a scab-like eczema of acute or chronic form in young hogs. In sooty mange an eruption of vesicles is observed, which are filled with pus, and burst. In this way a dark, pitchy scab is formed (pitchy mange). Sooty mange is merely a symptom of internal disease. The nature of the latter determines the course of action with regard to the meat of hogs which are affected with sooty mange. Granular eruption (Zschokke). — Granular eruption is character- ized by the presence in the cutis of roundish tubercles of various colors, and varying in size from that of hemp seed to that of peas (Fig. 49). The tubercles are firm but yielding. Curled hairs are to be seen through the apices of. the tubercles. The hairs lie in a dark, oleaoeous, tallow-like mass. The grain-like or shot-like tubercles, from which Zschokke named the disease, are especially numerous in the cutis of the croup, sides of 'the breast, and 'ears. Opinions are divided on the nature of the disease. Kitt considers the tubercles as atheromata of a minute size. Johne and the author consider them as multiple dermoid cysts, and Lungershausen, as arrested development (hypotrichosis). Finally, Zschokke ex- pressed the opinion that granular eruption represents an infectious process (conical proliferation of the epidermis inwardly, in conse- quence of an infection by micrococci). "" According to the careful investigations of Olt, none of these explanations is satisfactory. Olt demonstrated, in the first place, that granular eruption is a skin disease of progressive character ;, that the diseased parts of the skin are sharply delimited, and exhibit large cysts in the middle and smaller ones at the periphery. Recently formed tubercles, recognizable by the naked eye, are of minute size, pale-yellow, or often almost white. By further growth in a superficial position, the tubercles acquire the sheen of dull GENERAL INTEGUMENT 271 pearls. Later, they become russet-red, yello wish -brown to brown, and finally blue-black, with a metallic luster. The largest vesicles Fig. 49. Granular eruption of the hog after removal of the normal bristles. In some of the tubercles coiled and protruding bristles are seen. are of the size of mustard seeds, or, rarely, as large as peas. The vesicles are filled with a cloiidy, watery fluid, and usually contain Pig. 50. Granular eruption of the hog. Cross-section of a convoluted gland (after Olt). a, cocoidia surrounded with shells and lying between the disintegrated epitlielia. one, or, according to circumstances, two or three, rarely more, bristles. Furthermore, Olt discovered from serial sections that the pathological process arises in the sweat glands, and is caused by 272 NOTEWORTHY ORGANIC DISEASES coccidia, which are parasitic in the epithelia of the sweat glands, and cause a proliferation of the epithelial layer (spiradenitis coccid- iosa). The epithelial proliferation leads to inhibition of the secretion and to the formation of a cyst. The bristles' come to lie in the cysts, either through fusion of the hair follicles with the cysts, or by penetration of developing bristles into the primary cysts of the convoluted glands. The fully developed coccidia have a membrane, are ovate, .034 mm. long, .0275 mm. wide, and, therefore, somewhat thicker than Cocddium oviforme (Fig. 50). They are distinguished by their brown color, wherefore Olt gave them the name, Ooccidium fuscum. The youngest forms are naked, and are found in the epithelia as brown, granulated masses of protoplasm. Later, by the destruction of the epithelial cells, the young forms become free, and wander into the interior of the glands, and transform themselves in the contents of the glands with different transition stages into forms surrounded by membranes. Juflgment. — Granular eruption is a harmless local affection of the skin, which requires' merely the removal of the diseased parts of the skin before sale. Finally, in the study of the skin the following diseases are to be considered : (a) In the horse, hemorrhages in petechial fever (morbus maculosus), sarcomata, melano-saroomata in white horses ; botryo- mycomata ; glanderous tubercles, glanderous ulcers, as well as sarcoptic and dermacoptic mange (the latter merely in relation to veterinary police). (b) In cattle, actinomycosis, aphtha, and their sequelae. (c) In sheep, scab. (d) In the hog, aphtha and bleeding erosions, especially in the hoof. In birds, especially chickens, turkeys and pigeons) there is ob- served an infectious alteration of the skin (contagious epithelioma.) (b) Subcutis. Subcutaneous Fat Tissue. — The subcutis connective tissue is one of the most important depositories of fat. Consequently, in fat- tened animals, it is transformed into a strongly developed, tissue. In emaciated animals, on the contrary, a yellow serous infiltrated connective tissue is found in the place of the fat tissue. Edema. — In the subcutis of the lower-lying regions of the body are observed the first consequences of serious hydremia, as well as DIGESTIVE APPARATUS 273 of heart disease (endocarditis and pericarditis), in the form of exten- sive transudations (anasarca). Moreover, in the snbcutis of cattle, restricted edema may be developed around the larvse of oestrus. TJbinous Infiltration and Phlegmon. — Urinous infiltration and phlegmon are essentially different from edema. Urinous infiltra- tion arises from lesions of the urinary ducts. It is to be recognized by the urinous odor of the infiltrate and the tendency of the infiltrated parts to necrosis. Phlegmon is a serous, purulent or hemorrhagic inflammation of the subcutis, which, in limited exten- sion, has no sanitary significance. It is quite otherwise with malignant edema and black leg (see these subjects). Other Alterations. — In addition to the above-mentioned alter- ations, we may have in the subcutis tuberculosis actinomycomata, botryomycotic alterations, also blood effusions (simple and specific [anthrax, morbus maculosus]) and emphysema of mechanical origin. In the subcutis and intermuscular tissue of fowls, mites (Gyto- dites nvdus and Laminosioptes cysticola) are frequently found. They either live in a free condition, or are located in simple connective- tissue capsules of only 5 to 1 mm. in diameter, which possess a flattened form and are frequently incrusted with lime salts. Judgment. — The number of mites in the connective tissue may be so great that the meat must be considered as highly unfit for food. A few specimens of the mites are to be considered as unimportant, in view of the frequency of their occurrence. In infestation of medium extent, the sale of the meat may be permitted under declaration as an inferior food material. 2.— Digestive Apparatus. (a) Mucous Membrane of the Mouth and Tongue. Inflammation and infectious granulations occur most frequently on the mucous membrane of the mouth and tongue of food animals. Inflammations. — The icflammations of the mucous membrane of the mouth cavity and tongue, as well as inflammations of the anterior parts of the alimentary tract, are of interest on account of their varying etiology. As a rule, they are caused : 1. By traumata or caustic materials, which are administered to the animals as medicinfes, or are ingested by them with their food. 274 NOTEWOETHY OBGANIO DISEASES 2. By specific toxines (aphtha, Fig. 51 ; rinderpest, scurvy, and diphtheria of calves and of fowls). Moreover, an ulcerous stomatitis appears as a general phenomenon in metal poisoning, especially in mercurial poisoning. In so-called diphtheria of calves and fowls, croupous and diphtheritic inflammations on the mucous membrane of the mouth and pharynx form the most important symptom of the disease (see these diseases). In septicemia, large edematous swellings of the tongue are observed. The tongue may Fig 51. Aphtha. Tip of beef tongue. a, Aphtha; b, epithelial erosion after bursting of the aphtha. be enlarged to three or four times its natural size. Furthermore, a considerable enlargement and prolapsus of the tongue may occur in consequence of phlegmonous stomatitis. Judgment.— In caustic irritation of the anterior part of the alimentary tract, if death does not follow at once, it is necessary to determine if secondary processes have arisen from the corroded or necrotic parts of the mucous membrane; for it is only such secondary processes, and not the poisoning itself, which renders the meat dangerous. The other inflammations of the oral cavity are without independent significance (for judgment, see under the different diseases in question). DIGESTIVE APPARATUS 275 AcTlsroMYOOsis — 111 cattle, the mucous membrane of the mouth cavity and organs lying in it are frequently the seat of actinomycotic alterations. They appear either as superficial lesions,, resembling erosions of the mucous membrane, or in the form of granules and tubercles in and upon the mucous membrane. Superficial foci may be confused with the sequelae of aphtha. The former are distin- guished from the latter by the fact that the floor of the ulcers, Pig. 53. B A, Beef tongue with typical actinomycotic afieotion (a); B, section through the primary locus (after Henschel and Falk). which feels leathery, is sprinkled with minute yellow spots; the fungiform papillae are destroyed (Leutsch) ; and also by the fact that the destruction of the epithelium is not so sharply delimited from the erosions as in the case of broken aphthous pustules (compare Figs. 53, a, and 51, h). According to Henschel and Falk, the dorsal surface of the tongue at the transition point, between the hody of the tongue and the tip, is the most frequent location of primary actinomycotic affdctions (Fig. 52, A, a). 276 NOTEWOIITHY OEGANIC DISEASES Henschel and Fiilk called attention to the point that in many cattle (90 out of 985 inspected, or 9.1 per cent.), epithelial losions occur at the point above described. In the majority of cases these lesions represent an incipient actinomycotic infection (in the 985 animals above mentioned, this was the case in 71, or 7.2 per cent.). According to Breuer, the frequency of primary lingual actinomyco- sis at the transition point between the body and tip of the tongue varied in cases observed in Budapest between 16 per cent, in sum- mer and 33 per cent, in winter. Schwaimair observed this altera- tion in 26 per cent, of the Bavarian cattle which he examined. "When an incision is made in the spot where the epithelium is want- ing, one generally finds small tubercles or small abscesses which contain aetinomyces. ' Comparatively few of these foci are simple Fig. 53. Beef tongue with (a) actinomycotic erosions ; 6, mushroom-shaped actinom/comata. The tip of the tougue also exhibits the condition of wooden tongue. abscesses produced by pyogenic bacteria. In the foci in question on the tongue, one frequently findrf small foreign bodies, grains, which are strongly penetrated with aetinomyces. Henschel and Falk ascribe the above-mentioned typical lingual affection of cattle to their peculiar mode of ingestion (retention of fungus- covered pcitioDS of food at the boundary between the moveable and fixed portions of the tongue. Breuer, on the other hand,~ considers it probable that the disease is associated with a peculiarity of the structure of the tongue. In old cattle a crescent-shaped atrophy of the mucous mem- brane occurs in front of the dorsal ridge of the tongue, with destmo- tion of the filiform papillse. The smooth portion of the mucous membrane thereby becomes more easily injured than the other portions of the lingual mucous membrane. la accordance with this DIGESTIVE APPAEATDS 277 explanation is the fact, established by Breuer, that the frequency of the disease in question increases with the age of the cattle. Tubercular actinomycomata may occur upon the mucous mem- brane of the whole anterior portion of the digestive apparatus of cattle, from the lips to the fourth stomach. The tongue and mucous membrane of the mouth and pharynx are most frequently affected ; more rarely that of the first three stomachs. Actinomy- comata ordinarily sit upon the mucous membrane like mushrooms or conical or flat proliferations. The colonies of actinomyces upon their surfaces are readily distinguished from the red ground color as yellow spots (Fig. 53, b). Joline has called attention to the ray fungus in the tonsils of hogs. Occasionally actinomycosis is also observed in the. retro- pharyngeal lymphatic glands of cattle. Actinomycosis of the tongue is characterized by distinct ana- tomical forms. As already described, it may occur as a superficial process in the form of erosions. Furthermore, the disease may appear in two other forms : In the form of multiple tubercles of various sizes which lie scattered in the tissue of the tongue, and as diffuse induration of the tongue (wooden tongue). The tubercles may be readily detected by touch, especially while the animal heat is still present. Moreover, upon microscopic inspection, they exhibit the typical structure of actinomycotic gran- ulations. Wooden tongue, which is very frequent in cattle and has been observed once in sheep (Berg] and hogs (Schilling), is distinguished by its firm, unyielding consistency. On cross section, one observes a vigorous proliferation of connective tissue and an atrophy of the musculature of the tongue. The connective tissue proliferations- include small and large colonies of the ray fungus. As a rule, wooden tongue is a partial alteration. A complete induration of the tongue rarely occurs, since animals affected with wooden tongue are soon slaughtered on account of the difficulty they experience in the prehension of food. Non-actinomycotic wooden /oregrwe.— Pflug described several cases of non-actinomycotic wooden tongue. The tongues were hard, enlarged, white on cross section, and without a trace of muscular tissue (diffuse interstitial myositis). Later, Imminger reported sim- ilar cases. Furthermore, Kitt observed a fibroma of the tongue, which had likewise led to the formation of the so-called wooden tongue. 278 NOTEWORTHY ORGANIC DISEASES TuBERopLOSis. — Tuberculosis is frequently met with as a pri- mary affection in the lymph glands of the head (retro-pharyngeal glands in cattle ; tracheal lymph glands in hogs)i Simultaneously a tuberculous alteration of the tonsils may exist. Morot claims to have frequently observed tuberculosis of the tongue. This assertion does not agree with observations in Ger- man slaughter-houses. In Germany, tuberculosis of the tongue is an exceptionally rare occurrence. In Berlin, for example, only one case of tubercular disease of the tongue was established during ten years. (b) Pharynx. Besides typical pharyngitis, the sanitary significance of which varies according to the degree of inflammation and the accompany- Fm. 54. Fig. 55. I Bovine esophagus with oe- trus larvae. On the right a larva in nait ral sizel Sheep esophae:us with sareosporidia. ing phenomena, specific changes occur in the mucous membrane of the pharynx in the form of hemorrhages, bloody serous and pure serous infiltrates, in petechial fever, anthrax, hemorrhagic septi- cemia, and swine erysipelas. Furthermore, the larvae of Gastropki- lus are frequently found in the pharynx of the horse. DIGESTIVE APPARATUS 279 In the pharynx of the stag the larvse of Pharyngomyia pida and Cephenomyia rufiharhis ; in the roebuck, the larvae of C stimu- lator ; and in the reindeer, the larvae of C. trompe, are found. (c) Esophagus. In the mucous membrane of the esophagus of cattle one observes papillomata; in cattle and sheep, the esophageal threadworm, Fiki- aria scutata esophagea horns ; and, finally, in the musculature of the esophagus of cattle, the larvae of Oestrus hovis (Fig. 54) ; and in the same location in sheep, goats and horses, one finds sarcosporidia {Fig. 55). (d) Stomacta. and Intestine. The most important abnormal conditions of the stomach and intestines are inflammations and parasites. Intlammations. — Inflammatory alterations may be of different sorts. All transition stages are observed from simple catarrh accom- panied simply with erythrism and swelling of the mucous mem- brane, to diphtheritic inflammation ushered in with necrosis of the mucous membrane. The judgment on this process should vary accordingly, as already stated in the chapter on general pathology. One point, however, ought to be again emphasized in this place : Simple gastric catarrhs, as well as simple non-febrile enteric catarrhs, are without sanitary significance. It is necessary, how- ever, to differentiate between these harmless diseases and septic diseases of the intestines of calves and cows, ushered in with high fever and great depression (see under " Diarrhea," " Emergency Slaughter " and " Meat Poisoning"). Schwaimair, by a regular inspec- tion of the second stomach of slaughtered cattle, demonstrated that traumatic inflammation of this organ is much more frequent than commonly supposed. Of 639 cattle inspected, 54, or 8.62 per cent., were affected with inflammation in consequence of injury by foreign bodies. The majority of the animals had exhibited no disturbance of health during life. Harms described a phlegmonous gastro-enteritis in cattle, which, as a rule, ran a fatal course. The mucous, muscular and serous coats were inflamed. A bloody content was occasionally found in the small intestines. Harms emphasized the fact that the meat of animals which were affected even with an advanced stage of phlegmonous gastro-enteritis did not show the slightest variation from the normal condition. In the case of cattle which were well ■ 280 NOTEWOETHY ORGANIC DISEASES 'nourished and seasonably slaughtered, Harms accepted the meat as fit for human food when it was necessary to assume a cold (?) as the cause of the disease. Torsioii, invagination, and incarceration of the intestines may lead to inflammations which may become fatal in consequence of necrosis of the wall by perforative peritonitis. Croupous enteritis is observed in cattle either as an independent disease or as a symptomatic affection of malignant catarrhal fever and rinderpest. A hemorrhagic inflammation of the intestines is never absent in swine erysipelas. Croupous and diphtheritic inflammation of the mucous membrane of the posterior portion of the small intestine, as well as of the large intestine, is characteristic of hog cholera. According to Kilt, a diphtheritic intestinal inflam- mation may occur independently of hog cholera merely as a result of the necrosis bacillus. Finally, the intestines exhibit serious alterations in enteric anthrax. Swelling, erythrism and hemorrhages of the mucous membrane are observed, and, in severe cases, also hemorrhagic and sero-hemorrhagic infiltration of the mucosa and submucosa, so that the mucous membrane is forced into the lumen of the intestine in the form of flabby ridges, and sloughs off. The duodenum is com- monly affected most severely. Fig. 66. UlCUS PePTICUM:. — Peptic ulcer of the stom- ach is an affection which is observed in calves rather frequently at slaughter- houses. The author' has called attention to the fact that round and elongated ulcers with sharp borders andwithout apparent cause may occur in the rennet of calves. Frequently death is brought about by per- forative peritonitis in con- sequence of the necrosis of the floor of the ulcer. Pep- tic ulcers may also occur in the duodenum. The frequency of the occur- rence of perforative peptic ulcer of the stomach in calves makes it Calf abomasum with peptic ulcers of different sizes and deptli. Largest ulcer is perforated. DIGESTIVE APIJARATUS 281 the duty of iaspectors to observe carefully the peritoneal changes in these animals in every individual case. The inflammation is sero-fibrinous. The inflammatory erythrism of the peritoneum under the fibrinous deposit furnishes a certain means of dingnosis, even when the deposit is carelessly removed during the inspection. Judgment. — In perforative peritonitis, the meat must be con- sidered as an unwholesome food material (see " Sapremia "). If, on the other hand, peritonitis is absent and the floor of the ulcer shows a granular formation, the meat may be offered for sale as a market- able food material, provided the animal is in a good state of nutri- tion. Occasionally the perforation heals by a connective tissue union at the point of rupture between the omentum and the abdom- inal wall. Parasites. — The following parasites occur in the stomach and intestines : OastrophiLus equi (stomach of the horse) ; G. nascdis (pyloric portion of the stomach of the horse) ; G. pecorum and G. /icemorrJioidalis (stomach and rectum of horses and cattle) ; Amphis- tomum conicum (rumen and omasum of ruminants) ; Filaria micros- toma and F. megasfoma (stomach of the horse) ; F. strongylina (stom- ach of the hog) ; Strongylus contortus and 8. ostertagi (fourth stomach of cattle, sheep and goats) ; 8. curticei (fourth stomach and small intestine of cattle and sheep) ; 8. oncopfiorus (fourth stomach and small intestine of cattle) ; 8. harkeri (fouith stomach of cattle) ; 8. retortceformis (fourth stomach and small intestine of cattle, sheep, goats, roebuck, hares and rabbits) ; 8. filicollis (small intestine of sheep, especially in America) ; Gnathostomum Mspidum (stomach of the hog) ; Strongylus armaius (cecum and colon of the horse) ; Ascaris megalocephala (small intestine of the horse) ; A. lumbricoides (small intestine of the hog) ; Anoplocephala perfoliata, plicata, and mamiUana (horse) ; Moniezia expansa (cattle and sheep). Lastly, pentastomum larvae are found in the wall of the small intestine in cattle and sheep. 8trongylus ostertagi, but more frequently 8. contortus and Mon- iezia expansa, when present in large numbers, may cause serious nutritive disturbances (stomach-worm disease, caused by Strongylus contortus and 8. ostertagi), and tape-worm disease of lambs (caused by Moniezia expansa). Ascaris lumbricoides occasionally wanders into the bile ducts and causes icterus by the sudden obstruction of the flow of bile. Case/ying nematode tubercles in the wall of the intestine. — In the submucosa of the small intestine of cattle, Drechsler discovered a 282 NOTEWORTHY OEGANIO DISEASES nematode 1 to 1.5 mm. long, which was located in small, round tubercles with green-colored contents (Fig. 57). Saake confirmed this discovery soon afterward. The author has very frequently seen these tubercles in cattle killed at Berlin slaughterhouses. According to Strose, the round worm which is found in the tubercles is a larva of Anchylostomum (A. hovis). According to the thorough investigation of Strose, the parasitic enteric tubercles of cattle are found exclusively in the small intes- PiG. 58. Pig. 57. Bovine small intestine with submucous nematode tubercles. Larva of Anchylostomum hovis from a submucous tubercle of the bovine intestine (alter Strose) X 35 diam. tine in varying numbers. The spherical, often somewhat flattened, tubercles lie under the mucosa. They consist of a connective tissue wall and a green or yellowish-brown, caseous, crumbly content. The size of the tubercles varies from that of a pin head to that of a pea.. The larger tubercles, even before the intestines are cleaned, may be seen from the outside through the muscular and serous coats. The nematodes (Fig. 58) which were isolated from the tubercles by Strose were 2.83 to 3.85 mm. long and 0.16 mm. wide. In the small intestine of American sheep and cattle, Curtice also demonstrated nematode tubercles. In tubercles 1 cm. in diam- DIGESTIVE APPARATUS 283 eter, Curtice found larvae and sexually-mature round worms to • which he gave the name (Esophagostomum cdumbianum. Further investigations are required ^;o determine whether the European and American intestinal parasites are identical. Von Eatz came to the conclusion that the tubercles observed in European cattle contained 0. injlatum. It should be remarked in this connection that nema- tode tubercles are frequently found in bovine intestines imported from America in such numbers that they look as if sprinkled with them. In the intestinal wall of chickens, von Batz demonstrated grayish-yellow tubercles from the size of millet seed to that of hemp seed, which were due to penetration of the small tape worm {Davainea tetragona) i,nto the intestinal wall. The parasites were located inside the tubercles. The chronic intestinal inflammation caused by tetragona may appear in an epizootic form and may cause the death of a large number of fowls, especially young ones. Judgment. — According to the present state of knowledge, it can not be assumed that the parasites contained in the intestinal tubercles can be transmitted to man. On the other hand, intestines which are infested to a high degree with verminous tubercles are highly unfit for food in so far as the manufacture of sausage is concerned. In case of slight infestation, the tubercles may be removed. Meat dealers must be made personally responsible for this removal, since the tubercles are not seen until the intestines have been prepared for market in the usual manner. Olt demonstrated another entozoic disease in the mucous mem- brane of the large intestine of hogs. In spring and summer a swelling and ulceration of a few or many follicles of the large intestine are observed in hogs. This infection occurs most fre- quently in the rectum and colon ; less frequently in the cecum and the parts anterior to it. In the caseous contents of the follicular tubercles, Olt discovered the larva of a round worm {Strongylus follicularis), 1.7 mm. long and 1 mm. in diameter. According to Liebe, this is not a new parasite, but a hitherto undescribed imma- ture form of Strongylus dentatus. Finally, Liebe discovered in the mucosa, occasionally also under the serous coat of the cecum and colon of sheep, tubercles varying in size from that of a pin head to that of a pea, with yellowish or a yellow-green detritus. These tubercles likewise contained nematode larvae. According to Liebe, this is not identical with Drechster's nematode or Anchylostomum hovis. Judgment. — The statement already made with reference to judg- ment of the tubercles in bovine intestines holds good for the 284 NOTEWORTHY ORGANIC DISEASES tubercles described by Liebe. On the other hand, the entozoic follicular tubercles discovered bj Olt in the hog intestines require no further consideration in practical meat inspection, since they are removed in cleaning the intestines (by stripping the mucous mem- brane). Diagnosis and differential diagnosis of nematode tubercles of the intestines. — The nematode tubercles in the wall of the intestines may be mistaken in superficial inspection for the products of tuberculosis. They are distinguished, however, from the latter by the gray or Fig. 59. d U ^'i- .' J? Intestinal tuberculosis of cattle, a and 6, lenticular ulcers; c, tuberculous infiltration; d, part of a tuberculous mesenteric gland. grayish-green color of the caseous material and by the integrity of the corresponding lymph glands. By crushing the caseous material with the addition of glycerin (Linstow) or dilute caustic potash, the round worms may be easily isolated. Other Alterations.— Among the other alterations in the stomach and alimentary tract may be mentioned hemorrhages under the visceral peritoneum (in intoxications and infections) ; hemor- rhagic infarcts (in the horse by emboli from aneurism of the anterior mesenteric artery); necrosis of the mucous lining of the- DIGESTIVE APPARATUS 285 anterior stomachs of cattle (caused by the necrosis bacillus); tumors, such as lipomata and sarcomata ; and, finally, actinomycotic and tubercular changes in all layers of the alimentary canal and on the intestinal peritoneum. Sarcomata may infiltrate the whole wall of the intestine for a considerable length, or may be deposited in it as tubercles. Primary tuberculosis of the intestine begins- with the appearance of lenticular ulcers on the mucous membrane (Fig. 59, a and b) with which tuberculous infiltrations of the mucosa and submucosa become connected later by the degeneration of the superficial tubercles (Fig. 59, c). Tuberculous ulcers and infiltra- tions are surrounded with a wall-like border. Furthermore, the mesenteric glands regularly show a marked specific alteration (Figs. 23 and 59, d). Kitt describes " papilloma polyposum omasi (myxomatodes) " as a fiequent -condition in the stomach of cattle. Papilloma of the omasum is usually multiple in all transition stages from simple papillary hyperplasia to papillomatous rosettes of the size of the double fist. According to Kitt, they are best compared in a fresh condition " with the fruit of Muscatelle grapes." The berry-like structures possess a firm, elastic consistency, the color being partly milk white, partly of a reddish flesh tint. Edema from obstruction lends a myxoma-like character to the papilloma. (e) Peritoneum. The parietal fold of the peritoneum may exhibit the same alterations which have just been described as occurring in the vis- ceral layer and in the serous covering of the abdominal organs. This statement also holds good for the duplicatures of the peritoneum, omentum and mesenteries. Furthermore, there are certain processes which are peculiar to the parietal layer of the peritoneum, or have a predilection for it. Multiple Calcification. — The peritoneum of cattle frequently exhibits an interesting calcification which may be confused with incipient tuberculosis. The calcification is distinguished by the appearance of a few or countless flat elevations varying in size from that of a pin head to that of a lentil (Fig. 60). The latter are of a white color and upon microscopic examination it becomes apparent that the normal tissue of the peritoneum is interrupted by cloudy spots. The cloudiness is due to acicular depositions in close contact with one another in the larger tubercles. According to their chem- ical behavior, these deposits must be considered as lime salts. 286 NOTEWOBTHY OBGANIO DISEASES Multiple calcification of the peritoneum is distinguished from tuberculosis (Fig. 61) by the complete absence of caseation, as well as by the flat form and the absence of tubercles ; also by the absence of an alteration in the corresponding lymph glands. Inflammations. — Peritoneal inflammations are closely connected with alterations of the alimentary canal. From an etiological standpoint, inflammations of the urino-genital apparatus, especially of the uterus in female animals, and injuries of the abdominal walls are to be considered in this connection. All cases of peritonitis which I have seen in slaughtered animals were caused by injuries of the alimentary tract, of the urino-genital apparatus, or of the abdominal wall, or by primary inflammations of these parts. Fig. 60. ■ ^7 Fig. 61. Multiple calcification of the bovine pleura. Serous tuberculosis of cattle (pearl disease). Peritonitis of domestic animals is either purely flbrinous or sero-fibrinous, more rarely purulent. In extensive injuries of organs covered by the peritoneum, the exudation may decompose— ichorous inflammation of the peritoneum. Perforative peritonitis following injuries of the stomach and intestines is always of an ichorous character. This is the case also in so-called traumatic peritonitis of cattle, in which foreign bodies pass from the second or third stomachs into the body cavity. Inflammations of the peritoneum following rupture of the blad- der or in connection with necrotic cystitis are characterized by the intense urinous odor of the exudation. The odor clings to the DIGESTIVE APPARATUS 287 peritoneum even after washing out the abnormal contents with water; otherwise inflammatory phenomena in urinous peritonitis, as a rule, are only slightly pronounced. Finally, we. should mention the proliferating inflammation of the serous covering of the alimentary tract which may lead to an adhesion of the individual folds of the intestines. Judgment. — With the exception of the last-named proliferating process and urinous peritonitis, peritoneal inflammations are of great sanitary importance. The proliferating processes are of no significance. They simply prevent the use of the affected portions of the alimentary tract for customary market purposes. Urinous peritonitis renders the meat highly unfit for food, but not dangerous. In exudative peritoneal inflammations, on the other hand, the con- ditions are favorable for the resorption of toxines and the origin of general diseases (intoxication or infection). Fibrinous and purulent peritonitis in cattle may heal on account of the unusual resistence of these animals to fibrinous and purulent inflammations. The former heals by resorption of the exudation or a connective tissue adhesion of the affected parts ; the latter heals imperfectly by encapsulation of the pus. With regard to judgment on acute peritoneal inflammations and healed purulent peritonitis, see "Septicemia " and "Pyemia." Infectious pleuro-peritonitis of hogs. — According to the statistics of slaughterhouses, hogs are frequently attacked by a chronic inflammation of the pleura and peritoneum, in the course of which multiple, usually strongly encapsulated abscesses are formed. According to Grips, who investigated the disease, this is a specific infectious disease of hogs (see under " Infectious Diseases"). Biliary peritonitis. — Finally, mention may here be made of a so-called biliary peritonitis which sometimes occurs in sheep. This disease may arise when the liver or gall bladder is injured. In the cases which I have observed, an artificial communication had been formed between the bile duct and the body cavity by liver flukes which had left their customary habitat and had bored through the liver substance and liver capsule. In biliary peritonitis, one finds a thickening, especially of the lower parts of the parietal peritoneum. The thickened parts of the peritoneum possess a bluish-white sheen and are covered with a greenish, glistening, semi-fluid deposit. In one hog I demonstrated a similar alteration of the parietal and visceral peritoneum. In this case the cause was a rupture of the pregnant uterus from torsion. 288 NOTEWORTHY OEGANIC DISEASES Othek Alterations.— Of the other pathological conditions in the peritoueuiij, the following deserve mention : Melanin deposits in cattle, transudations and hemorrhages in rupture of the spleen and liver or in fresh perforation of the rectum and uterus, hemorrhagic infiltrations in anthrax, and sarcomata and carcinomata, as well as tuberculous granulations in the form of tubercles, pearl-like prolif- erations, and superficial deposits (Fig. 61). Multiple fatty wecrosis.— Multiple necrosis may appear in the adipose tissue under the parietal fold of the peritoneum, between the folds of the .mesentery aud in the omentum. Fischoder de- scribed such a case in a hog which was more carefully investigated by the author and was named fatty necrosis. Numerous yellowish- white opaque areas of lardaceoua consistency were observed in the fat tissue. The size of the areas reached that of a five-pfennig piece. Olt aud Steuding subsequently reported several cases of fatty necrosis in domesticated animals. According to the investigations of BenJa and Stadelinann, , multiple fatty necrosis is a sequela of diseases of the pancreas, tumors, lesions of the pancreatic duct, etc. The pancreas was also diseased in the case reported by Fischoder and in one of the cases described by Steudiug. Jung produced local inflammation and fatty necrosis by the artificial introduction of trypsin and fresh pancreas into the body cavity of rabbits. He is of the opinion that the secretion of the pancreas, in consequence of a solution of the continuity of the latter, flows into the body cavity and causes fatty necrosis. In rendering judgment on the meat of animals affected with multiple fatty necrosis, the condition of the animals before slaughter and the general fitidiugs after slaughter should be determining factors. If the animal affected with fatty necrosis is healthy before slaughter and if, after slaughter, the necrotic areas are found only in the fat tissues, the disease is to be considered an insignificant local affection, so far as the meat is concerned. On account of the abnormal condition of the fat tissue, however; the meat is to be offered for sale under declaration, as unsuitable food material. Lipoma in adipose tissue of the abdomen. — According to Tiircks, in food animals which have undergone a long course of fattening, adipose tissue tumors appear in the omentum and in the fat tissue of the intestines and liidneys in the form of hard, knotty thicken- ings which are called " fat stones " by butchers. Mesenterial emphysema of hogs. — Mesenterial emphysema of hogs is a very remarkable disease which formerly was given the name DIGESTIVE APPABATU8 289 nmltilocular air cysts (Motz) and " air bladder mesentery " (pneu- matpsis cystoides iulestinorum, Maier). The first description of this interesting affection was by Maier in 1825. Keoently it has been described by Roth and Schmutzer. However, mesenterial emphysema is well known to meat inspectors as a frequent and striking phenomenon. It is observed that the small intestine, especially that portion of it known as the Jejunum, is fringed along the line of attachment of the mesentery with grape-like evaginations Fig. 63. Mesenteric emphysema in hogs. and appendages of varyiug size which are formed of cysts containing gas (Fig. 62). The appendages are tightly distended and do not communicate with one another. The wall of the cysts is trans- parent and only exceptionally of a red color from hemorrhage. In addition to the conglomerate groups, individual cysts appear, either in the intestinal wall and between the folds of the mesentery, or pedunculate on those parts. Accumulations of gas occur also, in the mesenteric glands, sometimes to such a degree that the lattet resemble spouge structures. The accumulation of gas, however, appears not to extend beyond the limits of the mesenteric glands. lu counectiou with the gaseous cysts, solid tubercular filiform 290 NOTEWORTHY OEGANIO DISEASES formations are found on the peritoneum. Gas analyses, which th«> author undertook, with the contents of cysts obtained under quick- silver, indicate the presence of oxygen, together with a preponder- ating content of an inert gas, nitrogen. This had been previously established by Maier, Eoeckl, Zschokke, and Both. Dryer found in the cysts a mixture of 2.1 per cent. 00„ 20.8 per cent. O, and 77.1 per cent. N. Krummacher, however, found, in addition to N, 10 to 16 per cent. O, while CO, and H were wanting or present only as a trace. With regard to the etiology of mesenterial emphysema. We are still entirely in the dark. The author made an extended investi- ' gation of the disease and in spite of abundant Fig. 63. and excellent material, for the most part V still possessing the animal heat, only nega- ^k tive results were obtained. The investiga- M tions of Both were also without result on _..'^. this point). He combats the idea of Eisenlohr . ■; ;^s and Dupraz that the disease is due to a. i;h \ pathological organism demonstrable by pre- , \ sent methods of research. It is undoubtedly •■■■rff^. .i;,::;vi: I a process of mycotic origin, and the author ■■■■^ '■■.u- iir ...■'■■■/ believes from the conditions in numerous ' '%-i!'iv'^' yj/ microscopic preparations that it is necessary ^w ' '^ '"■iil|^^^ . jiy to consider yeast cells as the cause of this Vls^gg;*""'' process, which is observed only in the patho- Cysticercus tenuicollis logy of domestic animals. No success, how- talded fookx!"^ ^''°' ever, was had in cultivating the oi-ganisms in question. Schmutzer, with Krummacher, considers as excluded the possibility that the formation of the gas^ is due to micro-organisms, and is of the opinion that we have to do in this case with intestinal gases which have become changed in their composition by diffusion. Motz ascertained that mnltilocular air cysts occurred most frequently in hogs which are fed upon the waste products of the dairy, and this observation was confirmed by others. Judgment. — Mesenterial ephysema is found quite incidentally in hogs in perfect health and in good condition. Accordingly, and in view of the further unobjectionable character of the other vital organs and of the meat, this affection is to be considered as insig- nificant and of a purely local character No special measures are required with reference to affected parts of the intestine, since in con- sequence of the emphysema they can not be used as sausage casings. DIGESTIVE APPARATUS 291 Parasites. — The retro-peritoneal tissue, omentum, and mesen- tery furnish favorable situations for Gysticercus tenuicollis, which occurs there in sizes varying from that of a pea to that of a potato. Furthermore, echinococci and wandering liver flukes may occur under the peritoneum. Finally, in horses, Filaria papilhsa has been observed free in the body cavity, as well as Strongylus airmatus, which latter is also found under the parietal fold of the peritoneum ; and occasionally Spiroptera reticulata attached to the peritoneum. (f) Liver. Malformations. — Occasionally lobulation is entirely absent in hog livers, so that the liver appears like an amorphous mass (non- Fis. 64. Beef liver with spotted capillary angiomatosis. lobulated or clump liver). Furthermore, double livers (livers with accessory livers) and livers with a congenital cyst formation are observed. In cattle one observes rather frequently a peculiar formation of the liver, which is described by Sluys, Koorevaar, Saake and Kitt, and was called by the latter spotted capillary angiomatosis. Such livers of the normal size and form exhibit numerous blue-black spots which become violet-red after lying for a long time and which occupy a deeper position than the normal liver surface (Fig. 64). The spots are of the size of a 25-cent piece, soft, and show a net- like structure on cross section. Blood is found between the meshes 292 NOTEWOBTHY ORGANIC DISEASES of the net, which occasionally is vefy rich in leucocytes. The meshes are furnished with an endothelium ; the lacunae are there- fore to be considered as enlarged capillaries and the whole anomaly a formation due to arrested development in consequence of the occasional failure of the liver cell cylinders to grow into the sup- porting substance. As a result, the capillary meshes are not suffi- ciently constricted (Kitt). Saake the younger, in connection with the publication of his father, investigated ten cases of hepatic angiomata and came to the conclusion that the disease in question is characterized by " mul- tiple 'bloody, infiltrated, blue-red areas varying in size from that of a millet seed to that of a cherry or even a walnut, and permeating the whole liver substance without changing the unaffected parts of the liver tissue.'' Microscopically, these areas are to be considered partly as hemorrhages, partly as angiomatous sinuses. In many cases alterations were observed in the blood vessels in the form of thrombi (eight out of eleven cases), liver cell emboli (six cases), rupture of the blood vessel (one case), infiltrations of the vascular walls with eosinophilous cells (five cases) ; also disintegration of the nuclei in the connective tissue cells of the walls into granular masses (two cases), transparent spherules in the blood masses and almost always proliferation phenomena in the connective tissue elements in the surrounding tissue. In these conditions, Saake sees a similarity with the changes described by Schmorl in the liver of eclamptic women, and his supposition that the hepatic alterations in question in cattle are connected with the act of parturition, is con- firmed by the fact that the livers which he investigated came from cows. In four of the cases it was demonstrated that they had calved and the other was killed in consequence of parturient paresis. Saake, accordingly, does not agree with the interpretation of Kitt that we are dealing with congenital angioma, and he is strengthened in his dissenting opinion by the fact that, according to the experi- ence of veterinarians engaged in meat inspection, the disease is not observed in virgin heifers. Finally, Stockmann is disposed to consider the hepatic altera- tions in question as the sequela of distomatous cirrhosis of the liver and as a simple enlargement of the hepatic capillaries. This view, however, is opposed to the facir that angioma of the liver is also observed without coexistent cirrhosis. Judgment.— Livers affected with the above described alterations must be considered unfit for food, whether the affection is of the nature of angioma or hemorrhage. Speciiil restrictions on the sale DIGESTIVE APPAEATCS 293 of these livers is not necessary, since tlaeir nature is declared by their striking variation from the normal condition. Ruptures of the liver arise from the effect of violent mechanical shocks in the anterior abdominal region. A necessary condition, however, is an unusual discerptibility which usually is brought about by a strong fatty infiltration, as, for example, in fattened lambs. The animals die suddenly of hemorrhage. Upon post Pig. 65. PiQ. 66. Patty infiltration of the liver. Patty metamorphosis of the liver. morbem examination a bloody infiltrated rupture in the liver is observed, in addition to blood in the body cavity. Judgment. — The meat of animals dead of rupture of the liver is to be considered the equal of that of animals slaughtered in the ordinary way, if evisceration occurs immediately after death. Atrophy. — Atrophy of the liver in old animals (horses and cows) has been discussed in the description of the normal structure of these organs. Furthermore, the so-called nutmeg liver occurs in food animals. This alteration is due to obstruction of the blood, in consequence of cardiac or pulmonary disturbances. The central veins of the acini of the liver become distended by the persistent obstruction, and bring about atrophy of the neighboring liver cells. The interior of the acini appears dark in color and the cortical zone is red-brown or yellow-brown. Simultaneously, a slight shrinking or enlargement of the liver occurs (atrophic aud hypertrophic nut- meg liver). Judgment. — Nutmeg liver is decidedly abnormal and must be considered as unfit for food. Pigmentation. — A yellow discoloration of the liver is a regular symptom of hepatogenous icterus. By the aid of the microscope, a deposit of bilirubin crystals is found as a cause of the discoloration. Melanosis of the liver is also observed in calves. 294 NOTEWORTHY OEG-VNIO DISEASES A peculiar form of pigmentation of the liver is observed in Texas fever. The enlarged, superficially pale, on cross-section brownish-yellow, liver exhibits a delicate yellow network which encloses the trabecul^e of the liver cells. This pigmentation is due to a pronounced distention of the smaller bile ducts with thickened bile. In fresh preparations bile plugs of a Y form are conspicuous. Degeneeations. — The degenerative conditions of cloudy swell- ing and fatty metamorphosis of the liver are of importance in meat inspection, since they are the first or, in premature slaughter, the only symptoms of serious infectious diseases and intoxications. With rejifard to the distinction between fatty metamorphosis and fatty infiltration, compare page 256. Barely, amyloid degeneration of the liver is met with in food animals. The domestic hen has already been mentioned as the only exception. Livers affected with amyloid degeneration become enlarged, harder than normal, and of a dull gray color (bacon liver). In the horse, the firmness of the amyloid liver, according to Eabe, is about the same as that of wax while cooling, and later of the crumbling, soft consistency of half dried mortar. The livers of fowls affected with amyloid degeneration are friable, light yellowish red and to the touch are granular sandy (Kitt). Hemoehhages. — Hemorrhages occur in the liver in two different forms : As a symptom of the serious effects of an excess of carbon dioxid, infection, or intoxication ; and as a local affection in conse- quence of the destruction of the liver tissue by flukes which may have succeeded in boring through the bile duct and penetrating into the parenchyma of the liver. Hemorrhages of the first named sort are located under the capsule of the liver, and are of only slight extent, while traumatic hemorrhages may occur throughout the liver and are sometimes quite extensive. Traumatic hemorrhages terminate, as a rule, after resorption of the blood, in atrophic cir- rhosis of the liver or in abscess of the liver, when pyogenic bacteria are carried into the liver tissue by the fluke worm. The flukes which cause traumatic hemorrhages are usually found only after considerable search, for the reason that they are constantly moving through the liver tissue by means of the peculiar arrangement of spines on their integument. Judgment on traumatic hemorrhages of the liver is the same as that for capilliary angioma. DIGESTIVE APPABATUS 295. Neceosis. — Multiple necrosis of the liver is met with in hog <;holera. The necrotic areas appear cloudy and friable ; their struc- ture is obliterated; otherwise the liver neSrosis which occurs during the course of hog cholera is only of symptomatic value and Fio. 67. Necrosis of beef liver. Superficial foci. without sanitary interest. Necrotic processes, however, may occur in the liver as idiopathic local affections. Bang made known the fact that the necrosis bacillus (see under " Hog Cholera ") has the power of penetrating into the liver of cattle and of producing more Fig. 68. Necrosis of beef liver. Section through an affected liver. or less numerous necrotic areas, according to the extent of the emboli caused by its presence (bacterial necrosis of the liver). Occasionally the disease is associated with inflammation of the navel (the author). The necrotic areas which appear in bacterial 296 NOTEWORTHY OBGANIO DISEASES necrosis of the liver are, as a rule, spherical, cloudy, firm, sharply delimited, and surrounded by a red zone. The necrosis bacilli dis- covered by Bang are fouad in the necrotic areas in clumps, especially on the borders between the healthy and necrotic tissues. The liver may become enlarged to five times its normal volume. The liver tissue lying between the necrotic foci is usually discolorjd as in icterus. Later the necrotic areas become delimited from the neigh- boring tissue by tough capsules of connective tissue, while at the same time the necrosed portions soften and become modified into green, friable pus with an acid reaction. Judgment. — The necrosis bacillus has a decided tendency to localization It belongs to the anaerobic bacteria and loses its vitality in blood. Bacterial necrosis of the liver is, therefore, to be considered from a sanitary standpoint as a local affection, and the meat of animals affected with this disease as harmless. Neverthe- less, the sale of this meat must take place under declaration if the animal was slaughtered during the febrile stage of the disease, or if the icterus has developed in consequence of the necrosis. Inflammations. — The most frequent form of inflammation of the liver is interstitial hepatitis. This represents a chronic productive inflammation of the interacinous tissue which may lead to a consid- erable increase in volume (hypertrophic cirrhosis of the liver), or to a striking decrease in volume (atrophic cirrhosis of the liver). In both cases there is an active proliferation of the connective tissue of the liver. In atrophic, cirrhosis of the liver, however, a partial destruction of the hepatic parenchyma and consequently a shrink- ing of the whole organ may occur as a result of the cicatricial retrac- tion of the newly-formed connective tissue. Hypertrophic cirrhosis of the liver is frequently observed in hogs to such a degree that the liver is enlarged to twice or three times its normal size and can no longer be penetrated with the finger. In the horse, cirrhosis of the liver is symtomatically an important phenomenon which accom- panies the so-called Schweinsberger disease, a form of perniciou'^ anemia; in cattle, it is a result of distomatosis. In the origin of cir- rhosis of the liver in hogs, feeding alcoholic by-products appears to play an important role (Tschauner). Judgment on productive inflammatory processes has already been discussed on page 262. Livers with a moderate formation of connective tissue should be admitted for sale without restriction. Those with a pronounced formation of such tissue, on the other hand, are unfit for food and should be sold underdeclaration; while DIGESTIVE APPARATUS 297 livers which have lost their normal consistency should be completely ■withheld from sale. Hepatitis with abscess is a second form of inflammation of the liver. It may arise from pathogenic bacteria transported through the umbilical veins in new-born animals or more rarely through the portal vein in inflammatory processes in the intestine, or through the hepatic artery in pyemia. In cattle, abscess of the liver may be a sequela of hepatic necrosis (page 295). Hepatic abscesses are commonly sterile, which fact is ascribed by Teissier to the bacteri- cide action of the hepatic glycogen. For judgment on hepatitis with abscesses, see under " Pyemia." Inflammation of the bile ducts. — The bile ducts (as well as the liver tissue) may be altered by inflammatory processes. The most frequent form of inflammation of the bile duct is distomatosis, char- acterized by a thickening of the walls and occasional calcification, A chronic inflammatory process may secondarily involve the liver tissue through the larger bile ducts, and may cause a partial or total cirrhosis. A chronic inflammation of the walls of the bile duct is observed to a slight degree in consequence of obstruction of bile by the pres- ence of biliary calculi in the efferent ducts. A clear, greenish-yellow bile flows out of the thickened and distended bile ducts in such cases in contrast with the dirty, oleaceous substance which is dis- charged from bile ducts infested with liver flukes. Judgment on inflammations of the bile ducts will be determined according to the degree of sympathetic affection of the liver tissue. As a rule, it is sufficient to remove the affected bile ducts for the purpose of putting the liver into marketable condition. Tumors. — The liver of food animals may be the seat of primary and secondary sarcoma and carcinoma. Furthermore, in hogs and calves, leukemic infiltration is observed as a symptom of leukemia and pseudo-leukemia. The liver in such cases is much enlarged, is iight-gray or grayish-brown in color, and tough. A close examina- tion shows that the interacinous connective tissue is greatly distended in consequence of leukemic infiltration. For judgment, see under "Tumors" and "Leukemia." Multiple primary adenoma in the liver of the horse was described by Kitt. The liver was infested with hundreds of tubercles of different sizes, from a grain of sand to a potato. The tubercles 298 NOTEWORTHY ORGANIC DISEASES were irregular in form, yellowisb-wliite in color, and of a hard, elastic consistency. Tubercles were also found in the portal lymph glands. Under the microscope they exhibited numerous tubes of cylindrical epithelium which were forced together. Furthermore, adenoma of the liver is also observed in cattle and sheep. Martin made a report concerning cavernous tumors (cavities varying in size from that of mustard seed to that of a hazel nijt and filled with blood). These tumors were present in the liver and other organs. Infectious Granulations.— Of the infectious granulations in the liver, mention should be made of tubercles, glanderous neo- morphs, actinomycomata and botryomycomata, the bacterial organ- isms of which are introduced into the liver either through the portal vein or through the hepatic artery. Hepatic actinomycomata arise regularly from one of the first stomachs. Direct invasion of the liver by actinomycomata from the anterior stomachs has been observed, as well as eruption of actinomycotic tumors in connection with wounds of the liver caused by infected foreign bodies which pene- trated the liver from the reticulum. That hepatic actinomycosis is not rare is shown by a statement of Basmussen, who identified twenty-two cases of the disease in the abattoir at Copenhagen in the course of a year. Attention should be called to the fact that tuberculosis of the liver frequently occurs in hogs in a form which may easily be con- fused with simple interstitial hepatitis. Upon close examination, however, casefied and calcified foci are observed in the strongly- proliferated interacinous connective tissue of tuberculous hog livers, quite aside from the fact that the portal lymph glands exhibit the most pronounced tuberculous changes. Parasites are very frequent in the liver, especially echinococci, flukes, Cysticercus tenuicollis, and, more rarely, pentastomum. All of these parasites will be considered in greater detail under " Invasion Diseases." Attention may here be called merely to the fact that the dangerous bladder worms, Gysticercvs bovis and C. cellulosae, occur only in cases of most serious invasion and that in by far the greater number of cases of bladder worms in the liver, G. tenuicollis is the spe- cies concerned. The fact that the latter in its larval stage resembles externally the dangerous bladder worms (compare Fig. 69), has led to unwarranted condemnation of whole animals. DIGESTIVE APPARATUS 299 In hogs, one finds coccidia in the liver in addition to the above- named parasites. They produce tubercles varying in size from a pea to a walnut, with cloudy, brown, oleaceous contents, in the neighborhood of which a pronounced cirrhosis of the liver tissue is developed. Coccidiosis is of frequent occurrence in rabbits (Fig 70). The wandering of round worms into the bile ducts has already been mentioned. By sudden obstruction of the bile ducts, they bring about icterus and, under certain conditions, multiple necrosis of the liver (effect of retained bile). " Galcareous-Jibrous " tubercles of the liver. — Yellow and yellowish- brown formations, varying in size f lom a pin head to millet seed, and characterized by Kitt as calcareous-fibrqus tubercles, are Fig. 70' PiQ. 69. Toimg Cysticercus tenuioollis in situ (after Leuckart). Eabbit liver with coccidia. rather frequently observed in the liver of the horse. Kitt considers them " primary healed necrotic areas, such as may arise in omphalo- phlebitis of foals (embolic infarcts of minute caliber)." Dieckerhoff, on the other hand, regards them as a product of vegetable parasites. According to Willach, the tubercles appear, as a rule, to be of zooparasitic origin. On two occasions he found egg-shaped struc- tures in such tubercles which he considered to be eggs of an oxyuris. In the third case, Willach succeeded in demonstrating operculate eggs of a parasite in the tubercles ; and, in the fourth case, devel- ' opmental stages of a distome such as occur in the lungs. Von Katz also observed dead specimens of a distome filled with eggs in calcareous-fibrous tubercles of the liver. Finally, Olt demonstrated prematurely disintegrated echinococci in the tubercles. bOO NOTEWOKTHY ORGANIC DISEASES The reproductive power of the liver in partial destruction of the liver tissue as a result of parasitic invasion is remarkable. The uninfected parts of the liver show, according to the degree of destruc- 'tion, a greater or less increase in Tolume as a result of proliferation of the liver cells, of the biliary capillaries and of the connective tissue (PonfickV Cadaverous alterations. — The great susceptibility of the liver to decomposition by putrefactive bacteria is well known. In beef livers, however, one can observe the origin of putrefactive gas bubbles under the liver capsule within from one to two hours after slaughter. This unusually rapid deco-mposition is due to befouling the liver with the stomach contents ; for portions of the latter may pass into the open vena cava, thence into the hepatic veins, if the contaminating matter is not entirely removed, but merely washed off superficially. It would be advisable to open up the larger branches of the hepatic veins and wash them out. In consequence of its high content of glycogen, the liver may also undergo an acid fermentation (compare the chapter on " Post Mortem Changes "). (g) Pancreas. Diseases of the pancreas are rare occurrences in domesticated food aninaals. Concretions (pancreas stones) are found in the effer- ent ducts of the pancreas with comparative frequency. The efferent ducts of the usually simultaneously-indurated organ are enlarged and filled with milk-white concretions varying in size from a millet seed to a hazel nut. According to Bar, they are composed of car- bonate of lime, traces of carbonate of magnesia, and an undetermined organic substance. Furthermore, tumors are observed in the pancreas and, in tropical countries, also a parasite {Distomum pari' creaticum) iri sheep, cattle and buffalo. Marek called attention to a fi'equent necrosis of the adipose tissue of the pancreas in old, fat, Mangalicza hogs. In such cases, irregular, sharply-defined tubercles, varying in size from a poppy seed to a pea, are found in the interacinous tissue of the pancreas, which, as a rule, is strongly developed. The tubercles at first possess a slight sheen ; later they become dull and cloudy ; their color varies from a yellowish-white to a grayish-yellow. The pan- creas increases in volume and its consistency becomes firmer as the number and size of the tubercles increase. In the most severe cases of the disease, the pancreas may enlarge five times and may form a firm, hard, bilobed body. The glandular tissue remains completely URINO-GENITAIi APPARATUS 301 intact. This explains why the general condition of the animal is not disturbed in consequence of the disease, and especially why diabetes does not occur. Marek demonstrated by inoculation and microscopic examination that the disease studied by him was neither of an infectious nor parasitic origin. Judgment. — Marek rightly maintains that, according to the nature of this disease, an injurious effect upon the character of the meat can not be assumed to occur. In fact, the meat should be sold without restriction, if no changes have occured in other organs. 3. — Urino-Genital Apparatus. (a) Kidneys. Malpoemations. — The most frequent malformations of the kid- neys are unilateral congenital aplasia (with vicarious hypertrophy of the other kidney) ; unilateral or bilateral fissure of the kidneys, symphysis of both kidneys (horse-shoe kidneys), and congenital cystic kidneys. Lime and Pigment Deposits. — Deposition of lime is occasionally found in sheep in the form of strise in the medullary layer of the kid- neys, and frequently in cattle in the form of concretions in the renal pelvis (nephro-lithiasis). As a rule, in the latter case there is at the same time a moderate chronic interstitial nephritis which leads to partial shrinkage. Furthermore, hemoglobin and bilirubin may be deposited in the kidneys. Degenerations. — With regard to degenerations of the kidneys the same statements may be made as with reference to the liver. Attention should be called, however, to the fact that cloudy swelling and fatty metamorphosis of the kidneys indicate a more serious diseased condition of the whole organism. Furthermore, in order to avoid errors in diagnosis, it should be noted that fatty infiltration occurs in the kidneys of fattened animals and causes a cloudiness similar to that of fatty metamorphosis (compare page 175). Hemorrhages in the kidneys are of diagnostic interest, for they may be symptoms of acute and chronic unhealed purulent pro- cesses ; for example, osteomyelitis. Furthermore, hemorrhages occur in the kidneys under the same conditions as in the liver. Inpabcts. — The formation of infarcts may appear in the kidneys, since they contain terminal arteries. Hemorrhagic infarcts are 302 NOTEWORTHY OBGANIO DISEASES conical, with the base outward. Their color is first red, then cloudy gray-yellow or yellowish-white. The issue in benign emboli ia cicatrization ; in infectious cases, the formation of pus under certain conditions. Lustig described multiple formation of infarcts in the kidneys of a horse which was due to bilateral verminous aneurism of the renal arteries. Inflammations. — Inflammations of the kidneys are due to various conditions and are therefore of varying importance for meat inspection. Acute parenchymatous nephritis may accompany intoxica- tions, as excretion nephritis (from cantharides), or acute infectious diseases (swine erysipelas), and pyemic and septicemic processes. In such cases the kidney is swollen. Purulent nephritis is a second important form of renal inflam- mation. This is characterized -by the appearance of numerous, mostly small, abscesses surrounded by red zones in the cortical and medullary layers of the kidneys. It may arise from a partial acute nephritis (purulent areolar nephritis) ; also from emboli (embolic purulent nephritis) ; and, finally, from a purulent process spreading from the urethra and bladder (pyelo-nephritis). In both of the first cases, the abscesses lie almost exclusively in the cortical layer ; while in pyelo nephritis, they are primarily in the medullary layer. The author frequently observed ascending purulent nephritis associated with purulent cystitis in wethers, and once also in a calf in which a diphtheritic inflammation had extended from the urachus to the bladder and thence to the ureters and kidneys. ■ Judgment.— In the last-mentioned cases, the meat had to be prohibited from sale, since the animals showed symptoms of acute pyemia. In purulent aerolar or embolic purulent nephritis, on the other hand, the animals may exhibit completely normal conditions in other respects. The meat of such animals is to be admitted to sale without restriction, if the primary foci are considered as healed. The third principal form of nephritis is chronic induration,. so-called contracted kidneys, in which the surface becomes granu- lated and a symphysis arises between the renal capsule and the surface of the kidneys. Judgment.— Contracted kidney in food animals, according to present knowledge, does not possess as much significance with reference to the general condition as in man. It is of interest to us- UEINO- GENITAL APPARATUS 303 merely as a local aflfeotion which should be judged analogously to cirrhosis of the liver. We are indebted to Kitt* for a' comparative account of the forms of nephritis which occur in domesticated animals. This author distinguishes the following forms : Parenchymatous nephritis. — Parenchymatous inflammation of the kidneys is characterized by a mpderate or not demonstrable swelling or by a ready separability of the tunica propria, greater prominence of the glomeruli, cloudy coloration, especially on cross section, greater fluid content of the latter, and hyperemia of the medullary substance. Hemorrhagic parenchymatous nephritis is a special parenchymatous nephritis which is characterized by the presence of numerous minute red hemorrhagic spots and is observed in typical development in swine erysipelas. Kitt proposes the term acute, diffuse nephritis and hemorrhagic nephritis for those condi- tions in which true inflammatory alterations and other conspicuous symptoms are present in high degree. Pundent renal inflammations. — These are either embolic (meta- static) or ascending (urogenous). Furthermore, purulent processes appear, the causes of which can not be demonstrated anatomically. In purulent embolic nephritis (punctate, disseminate, diffuse, mixed), the whole organ, especially the whole cortical region, is iuvaded by abscesses which are surrounded with a bright-red zone and dark-red hemorrhages. The renal pelvis is unchanged^ but may contain a bloody urine rich in leucocytes. Bacteria, especially groups of micrococci, are demonstrable in the purulent infiltrated regions. The process involves both kidneys. This form of nephritis appeai-s to be more frequent in hogs, but is also observed in a perfectly typical development in the calf. Kitt applied the term mixed purulent nephritis to that form of inflammation which very frequently occurs in the calf and in which the hyperemic zone is smaller, while the whole cortex is discolored, dirty whitish gray, and oozes on section (combination of purulent degenerative inflam- mations and of those which lead to hyperplasia of the connective tissue). Ulcerative and vegetative endocarditis, pyemia, and pulmonary cavities are to be considered the causative factors of purulent nephritis. In this connection Kitt calls attention to the experiments * Monatsh. fur Praktische Tierheilk., IV, Nos. 11 and 13. 304 NOTEWOKTHY OEGANIO DISEASES of C, Frankel, who produced artificially a disseminate purulent nephritis by intravenous injection of Slaphylococctis pyogenes aureus in rabbits (whitish areas of the size of a bean or extensive pyramidal infarcts). The larger encysted purulent areas in the kidneys are charac- terized by Kitt as apostematous nephritis (abscess or apostema of the kidney). Kitt distinguishes apostematous perinephritis and para- nephritis, perirenal abscess and pyonephrosis. Apostematous nephritis may be of embolic, urinous, and, perhaps, also, of traumatic origin. Kitt considers the comparatively frequent " white spot kidneys of calves " (nephritis fibro-plastica or nephritis maculosa alba, according to Kitt) as a transitional stage between acute and chronic inflammation. The macroscopic alterations in white spot kidney are sufficiently well known to all meat inspectors. We are indebted to Bieck for a detailed description of this condition. According to Kitt, fibro-plastic nephritis is " either from the very beginning a progressive process of induration, perhaps caused by micro- organisms which are not pyogenic and which pass through the kidney ; or it is the second stage of a purulent nephritis * * * in which the slight exudative deposit in small quantities is resorbed or removed through the urinary canal, and productive inflammation becomes predominant." The regular affection of both kidneys, the wedge shape, disseminate, or multiple arrangement of the white areas, and the frequent presence of red borders and hemorrhages are unmistakable signs of the embolic hematogenous character of the white spot kidney of calves. Kitt agrees entirely with Eieck, who, as is well known, described the disease in question as multiple embolic nephritis of calves. Fibro-plastic nephritis seems to disappear during the first years of life, but may, however, lead to multiple, diffuse sclerosis of the kidneys. Glomerulo-nephritis is another inflammatory disease of the kidneys which is a forerunner of diffuse nephritis. A diagnosis is to be reached only on the basis of a microscopic investigation. Kitt characterized as mixed nephritis those conditions in which interstitial inflammation and degenerative changes of the epithelium exist simultaneously. The kidneys are firmer than normal, cloudy, and red-yellow or gray spotted. The disease occurs from unknown causes in hogs. Indurative mepAnfts.— Inflammations of the kidney, in which the most important phenomena are connective tissue proliferation, URINO-GENITAL APPARATUS 305 sclerosis, or induration, are described by Kitt under the general name indurative nephritis (chronic fibrous nephritis). He distin- guishes multiple depositions and absorption of connective tissue, which are frequent in cattle, as sclerosis maculata sive virgata, and diffuse hyperplasia of the connective tissues or sclerosis totalis sive diffusa renum. In extreme cases, which are occasionally observed in cattle, the kidneys are abnormally large, unusually hard, some- times cut with difficulty, and grate on section (lime deposition). If the newly-formed connective tissue shrinks, a contracted kidney is formed, nephritis granulata (ren retractus). Nephritis fibro-vesiculosa represents a rare form of inflamma- tion. It is characterized by a eystoid degeneration of the urinary canal and by the formation of watery cysts which are thereby produced. The process is observed in a granular diathesis and also in simple induration of the kidneys. Finally, bacterial nephritis of cattle is to be distinguished as a special form of inflammation (see below). Among the renal inflammations mentioned above, fibro-plastid nephritis of the calf and bacterial pyelo-nephritis of old cattle possess considerable importance in meat inspection. Fibro-plastic nephritis. — According to Kieck, this is the most frequent disease of calves. Among 26,000 calves which were slaugh- tered in the abattoir of Leipsic during the first half of 1890, Reick found pathological processes which led to condemnation in only seventy-two cases, and of these twenty-four, or 33| per cent., were kidney diseases. Multiple embolic nephritis, for which, from reasons given above, Kitt chose the term nephritis fibro-plastica, constituted the largest contingent of pathologically-altered kidneys. Etiology. — According to the very plausible assumption of Kitt, the ca,aseof fibro-plastic nephritis is to be found in micro-organisms of a particular species or pyogenic bacteria which have lost their peptonizing power and, therefore, exercise merely a stimulating action upon the formation of connective tissue. Bieck found in one case in which the foci had the appearance of putrefactive degenera- tion, micro-organisms of various forms, and in another equally recent case, structures which resembled the mycelia of mold fungi. Kabitz demonstrated the presence of bacilli, streptococci, and staphylococci in the diseased foci. The point of origin of fibro- plastic nephritis — that is, the organ from which ^the micro-organisms of fibro-plastic nephritis pass into the blood circulation — can not, as a rule, be determined at slaughter. As Reick indicated, the navel 306 NOTEWOKTHT OBGANIO DISEASES can not be assumed to be the point of origin. It is more probable that the disease in question arises from the excretions of infectious material through the kidneys, in connection with frequent intestinal inflammation in calves. Eieck states that he was unable to deter- mine any retarding influence of the disease upon the development of the animals. Vaerst considers spot disease of kidneys, not as products of pathological processes, but as the remains of incom- pletely-developed kidneys— blastem tubercles. Judgment.— Fibro- plastic nephritis in calves in the majority of oases represents the last phenomenon of a general disease which has run its course. In favor of this hypothesis we have the absence of a primary alteration and the good nutritive condition of the FiQ. 71. White spot kidney (nephritis flbroplastioa) of the calf. animals. In all these cases fibro-plastic renal inflammation has significance only as a local affection. The affected kidneys are to be prohibited from sale as highly unfit for food on account of their great deviation from the normal ; while no restriction should be placed upon the sale of the meat. Vaerst also favored the admission of altered kidneys after convincing himself of their harmlessness and good flavor after roasting. In extremely rare cases, in which, in addition to the kidney disease in question, acute alterations exist in other organs, it is necessary to proceed according to their special characters (see under " Pyemia "). Bacterial Pyelo-nephritis of Cattle. — This disease of the kidneys is important on account of the frequency of its occurrence, and also UMNO-GENITAL APPARATUS 307 for the reason that when the bilateral affdction occurs it may cause a serious disturbance of the general condition. In unilateral pyelo- nephritis, on the other hand, as a rule, such disturbances are not observed. Pathological Anatomy. — In an examination of the body cavity the inspector notices first an enlargement and thickening of one or both ureters. After removing the kidneys from their protective covering, one observes that the kidney fat tissue has undergone a serous infiltration and that the kidneys are enlarged and the surface is either completely gray or spotted with gray. The most important changes, however, appear only on sectioning the kidneys. The renal pelvis is greatly enlarged and fully distended with a gray, slimy, purulent secretion of an ammoniacal odor. Triple phosphate crystals are found in the secretion. The mucous membrane of the renal pelvis and the adjacent medullary layer show swelling and diphtheritic ulcers. Cloudy streaks may be observed passing from the renal pelvis through the medullary layer to the cortical layer. Furthermore, small abscesses are found in the medullary and cortical layers. Etiology. — As the investigations of En- derlen and Hoflich have shown, pyelo- Fiq. 73. nephritis of cattle is caused by the so-called j^-. kidney bacillus [Bacillus hovis rencdis, Bol- ^^^i - J' .JSF/ .*' linger). It is 2 to 3 /< long and 0.6 to .7 /< wide, sometimes slightly curved and rounded i.,> ^^ at the ends (Fig. 72). The kidney bacillus is ^ f{'f/ "" non-motile and is easily distinguished from ^r related bacteria by the fact that it is * ^f-' '- c strained by the Gram method . In a case of ,,^^ pyelo-nephritis of cattle, Cadeac and Morot ''^ found a pure culture of Bacillus pyocyaneus. Bacillus bovis renalis. Judgment. — In an appendix to the work of Enderlen, Bollinger called attention to the fact that the kidney bacillus of cattle is characterized by its strict localization in the renal pelvis and tissue of the kidney. It shows no tendency to generalization. Unilateral pyelo-nephritis, as already mentioned, is frequently observed quite unexpectedly in well-nourished animals. In such cases the inspector should simply remove the affected kidney and ureter. If, however, both kidneys are involved and the disease has already led to extreme emaciation or to retention of the urine, the meat of affected animals is to be wholly excluded from human con- I I ! 308 NOTEWOETHY OEGAKIC DISEASES bumption as higWy unfit for food. In the latter case a urinous or ammoniacal odor develops during tlie cooking of the meat (see under " Uremia "). TuMOES. — In the kidneys of food animals fibro-sarcoma and car- cinoma (adeno-carcinoma) are observed. Furthermore, in leukemia the kidneys are altered specifically (enlarged and grayish-white in consequence of leukemic infiltration). Sarcoma and carcinoma appear either as a primary affection in the kidneys or develop here metastatically during general sarcomatosis and carcinomatosis. Primary carcinoma and sarcoma may attain considerable size. The author observed a case of renal carcinoma in a hog in which the affected kidney weighed 18 kg. Eieck described a case of adeno- sarcoma in the kidney of the hog in which the organ was changed into a spherical mass of Sj kg. weight. Tumors of metastatic origin were present in large numbers and sprinkled everywhere in the healthy tissue. Infectious Granulations. — Through hematogenous infection vlhe development of the tubercles of glanders or tuberculosis may Pig. 73. Bovine kidney with tuberculosis in different stages in the individual renculi. a, solitary young tubercle with incipient caseation; b, numerous tubercles of the same sort; c, older totally oasefled tubercles; d, totally tuberculous renoulus. occur in the kidneys, and rarely, in cattle, actinomycomata may appear. URINO-GEOTTAL APPAEATC8 309 Tuberculosis of the kidueys first appears in the form of minute gray tubercles (Fig. 73, a and b) which remain scattered or lorw larger groups by a local dissemination (Figs. 73 c and 74). In the latter case, individual renculi may be completely destroyed (Fig. 73 d), while the rest of the kidney remains intact. Eenal tubercu- losis is distinguished from other changes in the kidneys by the presence of spherical tubercles with casefied centers (Fig. 73, a and b). Section of a beef renculus with tubbi'oles in the medullaiy and cortical layers. Parasites are rare in the kidneys. They are the usual seat of Eustrongylus yigas. Moreover, Sclerostomum equinum, cysticerci, and echinococci sometimes occur in the kidneys. Natterer found a nematode (Stephanurus dentatus, Diesing) ir the fat capsule of the kidney in a Chinese bieed of hogs. Accord- ing to Leuckart, the parasite which he named Sclerostomum pingui- cda, is occasionally found in our hogs in the fat capsule of the kidney. The male is from 20 to 26 mm. and the female from 30 to 36 mm. long. Baillet and Lucet demonstrated in emaciated geese white tubercles of the size of a pin head, consisting of masses of oval structures resembling Gocddium oviforme {cocddiosis renalis), (b) Bladder and Urethra. The changes to be considered in this connection may be briefly dismissed since serious diseases of the bladder and urethra, involv- ing the general condition, are rare in domestic animals. Only in 310 NOTEWORTHY ORGANIC DISEASES oxen and wethers are diseases of the efferent urinary passages frequent, since in these animals cystic calculi are frequently formed. When large, the calculi may stop in the S-shaped curvature of the urethra, and lead to a rupture of the bladder with urinary peritonitis as a result, or to necrosis of the adjacent portion of the urethra with a urinous infiltration of the tissue surrounding the urethra. These sequelae have all been discussed (see pages 273 and 286). Compared with these occurrences, the other alterations of the bladder and urethra possess but slight practical importance. With necrosis of the urethra from retained calculi a serious diphtheritic urocystitis may be associated (ascending infection of the contents of the bladder), and with this in turn a peritonitis may be associated (in partial necrosis of the wall of the bladder). In and of them- selves, cystic calculi cause only slight superficial changes of the mucous membrane, even when they are present in large num- bers. A cystic catarrh of greater or less severity is observed in cows after parturition; but, as a rule, it runs a purely local course. A specific uro-cystitis appears to be the cause of "bloody urine," or hematuria, enzootic in cattle in the Black ■Forest. Arnold considere^d coccidia to be the cause of the disease which, from a pathologico-anatomical standpoint, was characterized as a chronic productive cystitis with papillomatous and polypous neomorphs of the mucous membrane which showed a tendency to hemorrhage (Gmelin). Finally, an emphysema may occur in the mucous membrane of the bladder, caused by gas-producing bacteria. Bunge described a case of this sort in which the disease affected simultaneously the mucous membrane of the renal pelvis. Among the specific granulations, actinomycomata are observed in the urinary bladder (Ernst). (c) Male Sexual Organs. Of the diseases of the male reproductive organs, mention is required only of tuberculosis of the testicles. This is quite often observed in bulls and boars (Johne, Lydtin, Hess, Kitt, Schmidt, Laurie, et al). Usually b.oth testicles are completely casefied. The weight of a tuberculous testicle may reach 10 kg. Frequently tuberculous alterations are also met with on the surface of the testicles and sheath (Kitt and the author). URINO-GENITAL APPARATUS 311 (d) Female Sexual Organs. The most important changes in the region of the female repro- ductive organs are ia the uterus, and the least important in the ovary. The diseases of the latter may be disregarded. Uterus. In the uterus the following phenomena are of importance : Abnormal Contents. — The occurrence of mummified fetuses {lithotheria) or of dead fetuses undergoing maceration in the uterus should be mentioned only incidentally. The so-called foul fetuses alone possess significance (see under " Sapremia "). Lacerations frequently occur in difficult parturition. They are almost always dangerous lesions, for they may cause death immedi- ately through hemorrhage or gradually through infectious peritonitis. The case described above (page 287), of laceration of the iiterus during torsion, forms an exception ; likewise laceration during closure of the os uteri. In these cases bacteria are excluded ; when, however, torsion is accompanied with necrosis of the affected parts of the body of the uterus or of the vagina, a fatal infectious peritonitis occurs. Inflammations. — The inflammations of the uterus deserve the most serious attention of sanitary officers. For, as the history of cases of meat poisoning teaches, they may, under certain conditions, render meat highly injurious to health. In this connection the acute inflammations which are associated with gross lesions of the uterine wall in retention of placenta or with decomposition of the fetuses seem to be especially dangerous (inflammations with mal- odorous exudation). In no other organs are equally favorable conditions found for the resorption of harmful materials as in the uterus immediately after parturition. For further details of acute metritis, see under "Septicemia." Catarrh. — In contrast with the acute inflammations of the mucous membrane of the uterus, the superficial processes, chronic, slimy and slimy-purulent catarrh of the uterus play an unimportant role in meat inspection. They frequently develop pronounced local affections in connection with infectious vaginal catarrh or infectious abortion and are frequently met with unexpectedly in well-nourished animals. When of a more serious character, chronic 312 NOTEWOfeTHY ORGANIC DISEASES nteiine catarrh maybe accompanied with emaciation. In such cases tlie meat is to be considered unfit for food. Injuries to health from eating the meat of animals which are affected with uterine catarrh have never been observed, although the meat of such animals is almost always used for food. TuMOES of the uterus are quite often observed in cows. As a rule, they are fibromyomata (liomyomata). In several cases the author also observed diffuse sarcomatous infiltration of the whole wall of the uterus whereby it underwent an enormous enlargement. On sectioning a uterus altered in this way, the wall is found to be much thickened, white and firm ; the mucous membrane, on the contrary, is atrophied. Occasionally, moreover, carcinoma of the uterus is observed in food animals. Tuberculosis. — Tuberculous affection of the uterus may appear in three forms : (1) As primary uterine tuberculosis produced by coitus. This form is characterized by the formation of ulcers and an abnormal secretion of the mucous membrane. (2) A second form is embolic uterine tuberculosis with eruption of tubercles under the mucosa. (3) The third and most frequent form is that which develops in chronic peritoneal tuberculosis by the spreading of the infection to the wall of the uterus. In the latter case a great increase in thickness may occur through tuberculous infiltration of all the layers of the uterine wall. Through subsequent calcification the uterus may become a cavity inclosed with inflexible walls, ia which a cloudy, slimy, purulent secretion is constantly present. A tuberculous affection of the oviduct is usually associated with uterine tuberculosis. The oviducts alone may be affected iu the same way as the uterus, in connection with peritoneal tuberculosis. Animal Parasites are not found in the uterus. Vagina. In the vagina we observe inflammatory conditions either of an independent nature (pustular eruption, purulent catarrh), or as symptoms of general diseases (rinderpest and malignant catarrhal fever). Pustular eruption and catarrh are without interest to meat inspectors, since they represent local alterations and the parts in question are not used as food. Furthermore, attention should be called to the fact that the vaginal lesions do not possess the same significance as lesions of the uterus, for, as a rule, the former occur UBINO-GENITAL APPAEATUS 313 in parts of the vagina which are without peritoneum and may, therefore, heal like simple wounds, without complications. Fatal hemorrhages have been observed in consequence of injuries received during copulation (Beisswaager). More frequently, however, urinous infiltrations occur iu the connective tissue within the pelvic cavity in consequence of injuries to the urethra received during copuUition. Finally, tuberculous alterations may appear in the mucous membrane of the vagina in the form of granules, tubercles, and ulcers. Moreover, in vaginal tuberculosis, Gartner's ducts are modified into firm strands which may be as thick as the finger. Dieckerhoff described a contagious vaginal inflammation, sui generis, under the name " pernicious colpitis." This, apparently rare disease forms an exception to the other diseases of the vagina, since it does not run a local course, but causes a fatal general disease. The meat is to be judged as in septicemia from wounds. Udder. Physiological Conditions. — Physiological hypertrophy is observed in the udder during lactation and atrophy after this period of activity in the gland. The udder during active milk secre- tion is enlarged and hangs flabbily on the abdominal wall. An atrophic udder, on the other hand, is small and may be enclosed and penetrated with fat to such an extent that apparently little remains of the mammary tissue. In heifers and young ewes in the condition of medium fatness, it is sometimes diflS.oult to distinguish the glandular tissue from the fat tissue. Black Pigmentation, as already mentioned (page 269), frequently occurs iu the mammary region. The author obseived a deposition of lime in the udder of a cow which was not of parasitic origin, but which occurred in an udder of normal size with perfect integrity of the supramammary lymph glands. Mammary Edema. — In pregnant cows shortly before parturition, transudation occurs in the region of the udder in the form of so-called mammary edema. After the removal of the skin a clear amber- yellow serum, with slight admixture of corpuscular elements from blood, oozes out of the edematous udder. Inflammatory phenomena are absent and mammary edema is thereby distinguished from mammary phlegmon. 314 NOTEWOBTHT ORGANIC DISEASES Inflammations. — Inflammations of the udder are of the highest importance. No animal is so frequently affected with mammary affections as the cow, and this fact is sufficiently explained by its intensive milk production. Favorable conditions for bacterial infec- tions are thus brought about. Distinction may be made between parenchymatous mastitis, in which the secreting glandular tissue is primarily affected, and phlegmonous mastitis, which runs its course in the connective tissue stroma of the udder. Parenchymatous mastitis may exhibit all degrees of inflamma- tion, including necrosis. As a rule, however, mammary inflammation is a benign affection which may terminate with the destruction of the glandular substance, but affects the general condition only slightly or temporarily. In phlegmonous mastitis one observes, in contrast to mammary edema, a diffuse redness and hemorrhages in the serous infiltrated tissue, and numerous white and red blood corpuscles in the exuda- tion. Judgment. — The common parenphymatous and phelgmonous inflammations of the cow's udder, which are so frequently called to the attention of veterinarians, possess only slight sanitary impor- tance, since they are local affections. Those mammary inflammations in the cow which are characterized by the formation of numerous abscesses and frequently occur as sequelae of aphtha and also septic mastitis in sheep, form the only exceptions to this statement. Judgment on the meat in the latter case should be governed as in septicemia. In mastitis with abscess formation, on the other hand, judgment should be rendered according to the principles observed in cases of suppuration and pyemia (see " Pyemia "). Individual cases of mammary inflammation in cows have occa- sionally attained significance from the fact that they produced meat poisoning (meat poisoning in the towns of Cotta, Wurzen and Eiesa). Johne and Gartner, who investigated the first mentioned case of meat poisoning, assumed thai the case in question was caused by mastitis due to Bacillus enteritidis of Gartner. This case of mastitis, as well as those which have become known on account of cases of ■ meat poisoning in Wurzen and Eiesa, were distinguished from ordinary cases of inflammation of the udder by their serious effect upon the general health of the animal. The health was so affected that slaughter was necessary. Etiology of mastitis. — On the etiology of mammary inflammations we have the following investigations : Kitt, following the teachings UBINO-GENITAL APPAEATUS 315 of Ludwig Franck, that parenchymatous mastitis arises by infection, tested the effect of several bacteria by injection into the udder. In these experiments it was found that the organism of malignant edema, Oidium lactis. Micrococcus' tetragenus, and caltures of soor could be injected into the milk cisterns without harm. Even Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus produced only a temporary swelling of the udder. In the subcutaneous connective tissue, however, the bacilus of malignant edema produced an acute inflammatory edema. An injection of the bacilli of blue milk and of fowl cholera caused a catarrhal mastitis. The " bacteria of mastitis " isolated by Kitt from udders spontaneously affected with mastitis, invariably pro- duced an acute indurative purulent mastitis. Kitt's mastitis bacteria must, therefore, be considered as the cause of the ordinary mammary inflammations. The disease can neither be transmitted to rabbits and mice subcutaneously, nor to hogs and guinea pigs by feeding. Bang succeeded in isolating specific streptococci as the cause of a chronic mammary inflammation and from other inflammed udders he made cultures of streptococci, diplocooci, staphylococci and bacilli, which, when injected into the milk cisterns, produced an inflamma- tion of the udder. Bang demonstrated the same effect for the • streptococci of contagious coryza. Guillebeau found Staphylococcus mastitidis, also Galactococcus versicolor, G.flavus, and G. albus to be the pathological organisms of mammary inflammations. Jonge suc- ceeded in causing an acute mastitis by injecting Bacillus enteritidis (Gartner) into the milk cisterns. In so-called "yellow going dry," which almost invariably leads to atrophy of th'e udder, Nocard, Mol- lereau, Hess, Borgeaud, and recently Zschokke, demonstrated long streptococci {Streptococcus mastitidis contagiosae) as the cause of the disease. The streptococcus is not pathogenic for mice, guinea pigs, rabbits, dogs, or hogs. All the mastitis bacteria mentioned above are characterized by strict localization in the udder. This is not the case, however, with Micrococcus mastitidis gangrcenosce ovis, which Nocard isolated in gangrenous mastitis of sheep. This organism has the power to produce, in the udder a septicemia which spreads and causes the death of the animal within a few days. Tumors in the udder are common in only one domestic animal — the dog. They occur as chondrofibroma, lipoma, osteoma, myxoma, sarcoma, and carcinoma. The latter may arise primarily in the udder and may cause the form \tion of metastases. Accord- 316 NOTEWORTHY ORGANIC DISEASES ing to Kifct, in the larger domestic animals, mixed tumors, usually adenofibromata, occur in the udder. Rabe also described a case of hard cancer of the udder in a cow, with the formation of metastases in the lungs. It is well known that in white horses the udder is the most frequent seat of melano-sarcoma. Finally, in cows we fre- quently observe papilloma upon the integumentary covering of the udder. Infectious Granulations. — The udder is frequently the seat of infectious granulations. In the horse botryomycoma is most com- mon, while in cattle tuberculous alterations and actinomycomata Fm. 75. ^ -^^^^'W'. Mammary tuberculosis. Aflfeotion of both left quarters. are most frequently developed. In the hog the mammary gland must be considered as the most common seat of actinomycotic affections. Botryomycosis of the udder is characterized by the presence of hard, firm, knotty swellings in the mammary parenchyma, bv adhesion of the skin with the affected parts, and by the formation o'f fistulas with a slight discharge of pus mixed with minute structures resembling grains of sand. Tuberculosis of the udder occurs in from two to four per cent, of all tuberculous cows and may appear in two chief forms : Tuber- URINO-GENITAL APPAUATUS 317 cular and diffuse mammary tuberculosis. lu the first named form, tubercles up to the size of a man's fist msij be found in the other- wise healthy mammary tissue. The tubercles are hard, firm, papillated on the surface, and exhibit caseation and calcification. Moreover, the tuberculous areas are readily distinguished from the pure white or yellowish-white mammary tissue by their pronounced gray color. The diffuse affection, which was well described by Bang iu his classical treatise on tuberculosis of the udder, leads to enormous enlargement and induration of single quarters of the udder. The whole udder rarely appears to be involved in the tuberculous processes. One or more quarters of the udder are usually healthy and in advanced stages of the disease hang like appendices upon the affected quarters. In the tubercular as well as diffuse form of mammary tubercu- losis, a pronounced specific change regularly occurs in the supra- mammary lymph glands, and this is especially well marked in diffuse mammary tuberculosis. Tuberculosis of the udder is distinguished from all other pathological conditions of this oi'gan by the constant sympathetic affection of the supramammary lymph glands. Actinomycosis is of rare occurrence in the udder of cattle. Rasmussen observed four cases of actinomycosis iu the udder of cows, eitlipr as firm, isolated tubercles or as diffuse, acute inflamma- tion. In two of these cases the disease terminated with calcification of the fungus before the process had become greatly extended. Other cases of mammary actinomycosis have been described Vjy Phail and Maxwell. Iu the mammary region of the hog, on the other hand, actino- mycosis is a comparatively frequent process. This is probably due to the greater vulnerability of the integument over the mammary region of the liogi The organisms of actinomycosis, carried on straw, thus effect an entrance more easily. For example, in the slaughterhouses of Copenhagen Rasmussen found fifty-two cases of mammary actinomycosis iu hogs inside of three months. Mammary actinomycosis iu the hog is characterized either by the appearance of tumors or occurs more rarely in the form of a tumor than as cold abscesses (mixed infection with pyogenic bacteria). Among PaBasites, echinococci have been demonstrated in the udder. 318 NOTEWORTHY ORGANIC DISEASES 4.— Respiratory Apparatus. (a) Nasal Cavity. It is only in the horse that alterations in the nasal cavity occur, of such importance that an examination must be made in the case of each slaughtered animal after splitting open the head. In other domestic animals, inspection of the nasal cavity may be restricted to such cases as present phenomena during life which indicate disease of the nasal cavity. The mucous membrane of the nasal cavity of the horse may exhibit the following alterations : Petechise, serous, slimy, slimy- purulent and simple purulent catarrh ; croupous inflammations, the so-called follicular inflammation ; fibrous and sarcomatous neo- morphs, and, especially, glanderous processes. Nasal septum of horse with glanderous ulcers and cicatrix. Petechise of the nasal mucous membrane constitute an impor- tant symptom of petechial fever (morbus maculosus). Purulent inflammation is the chief symptom of contagious coryza. Both diseases are infectious and will be discussed under that head along with glanders. In this connection merely the macroscopical differ- ence between the mechanical lesions of the nasal mucous membrane and glanderous alterations may be noted. Mechanical lesions of the mucous membrane are always found in the entrance to the nasal cavity and heal either without cicatrization (in superficial injuries) or with a smooth cicatrix (in deeper injuries). In .^landers, on the other hand, one observes tubercles, ulcers with a lardaceous floor, eruption of tubercles in the peripheral parts, and also stellate cicatrices (Pig. 76). Croupous rhinitis may arise through chemical irritation or through a specific infection. Croupous rhinitis due to EESPIRATORY APPAEATUS 319 chemical irritation has no significance for the inspection of horse meat on account of its benign course as a local affection. The same may be said of so-called follicular inflammation in which tubercles, vescicles and rapidly healing ulcers appear, and may spread from the nasal mucous membrane upon the general integument. More- over, catarrh of the nasal and communicating cavities has no special significance in meat inspection. In cattle the nasal cavities are to be closely inspected in case of symptoms of malignant catarrhal fever ; in sheep, in so-called ovine glanders (malignant catarrhal fever of sheep), and in affections caused by the lurvse of oestrus ; and in hogs, in so-called snuffles. The last-named disease is characterized during life by a wheez- ing respiration. This is caused by a contraction of the nasal passages and may be due to various processes. The most frequent cause, however, is a rachitic swelling of the upper jaw, from which snuffles derived its name. In a large number of cases the author observed only rachitis of the upper jaw as the cause of snuffles. Judgment should be the same as for rachitis. Schneider reported a form of snuffles caused by the rudimentary development and curvature of the turbinated and ethmoid bones. This may lead to a bloody purulent nasal discharge with emaciation and even death by cachexia or asphyxia. If such animals are emaciated, the meat is to be considered as unfit for food. Nothing is known concerning its possible harmfulness. Moreover, in cattle, tuberculosis and actinomycosis appear on the nasal mucous mem- branes ; and in dogs, Pentastomum taenioides in the nasal cavities and frontal sinuses. (b) Larynx and Trachea. The larynx and trachea are rarely the seat of independent dis- eases aside from catarrh. Attention should merely be called to the fact that croupous inflammation of these parts may be caused by chemical irritation (for example, pungent gases), or maybe observed as a symptom of malignant catarrhal fever and rinderpest. Glailderous, actinomycotic and tuberculous alterations show a predilection for the larynx. The laryngeal actinomycomata which frequently appear as primary affections in cattle are located on the mucous membrane and are either pedunculate or with a broad base (Fig. 77). In the trachea of cattle tuberculous alterations occur on the mucous membrane and also in the submucosa of the posterior wall. 320 NOTEWOBTHY ORGANIC DISEASES The statement concerning the trachea applies also to the larger bronchial tubes. As pathological curiosities, mention should be made of bronchiectases and peribronchitic processes which arise in connection with inflammation of the mucous membrane. In the trachea of fowls, Syngamus frachealis is found as a para- site. Raillet described another species of Syngamus, S. laryngeus, as occurring frequently in the larynx and in the ripper portions of the trachea of cattle in Anam (farther India.). Fio. 77. Bovine larynx with an aotinomycoma on the epiglottis. (c) Lungs. Atelectasis.— Atelectasis is frequently observed in the lungs of food animals. As a rule, it is a congenital peculiarity and confined to small pulmonary areas. The parts of the lung thus aflfected are brownish-red, firm, and do not contain air. The bronchial tubes leading to the aff'ected parts are, as a rule, in a catarrhal condition in older animals. Dissolution op Continuity.— In addition to gross dissolutions of continuity in the lungs (from stabs, shot wounds, broken ribs, etc.), a less extensive form should be mentioned ; namely, interlobular emphysema. This arises by rupture of the alveoli. As a conse- quence of this rupture, air appears between the alveoli in vesicles varying in size from a millet seed to a pea. The air vesicles under the pleura are most sharply distinguished from the pulmonary EESPIEATORY APPARATUS 321 tissue. In animals which exhibited acute dyspnea during life and were, therefore, slaughtered, there may be accumulations of air in large cavities which are partly filled with blood. Furthermore, in violent respiration the air may be forced into the mediastinal spaces and thence under the parietal pleura as well as into the connective tissue surrounding the trachea and, finally, from these locations even Tinder the general integument. DEPOSITS OF Pigment and Lime. — Partial or complete melanosis of the lungs f i-equeutly occurs in calves. Calcareous deposits, on the other hand, are exceedingly rare. In one such case observed by the author, the lung had only partly collapsed. Numerous hard struc- tures of irregular, angular form could be felt. They could not be removed from the lungs except with the attached pulmonary tissue. After dissolving the lime salts by means of acetic acid, the pul- monary tissue appeared merely as an organic basis for the calcareous deposits. This true calcification of the lungs is essentially distinct from zooparasitic and phytoparasitic calcifications, which are observed in the lungs in a variety of forms. Disturbances op the Circulation. — Among the circulatory derangements which occur in the lungs, especial interest centers in hypostasis as a means of recognizing natural death and slaughter performed during the crisis of the disease. The pulmonary hypostasis which develops on the lowest portion of that side of the body upon which the animal lay while dying is not to be confused with so-called blood aspiration (see p. 331). A brown induratiou may appear in the lungs in consequence of a persistent increase in blood pressure in the right ventricle. This is not infrequently observed in hogs (perhaps in connection with the frequency of endocarditis in swine erysipelas, as shown by Bang). The indurated lungs do not collapse ; they are brownish-red instead of rose-red and feel firm. Judgment should be the same as in pro- liferating inflammations. Since the lungs are provided with terminal arteries, hemorrhagic infarcts may occur in them as in the kidneys. In the lungs, however, there is the possibility of the occurrence of extensive infarcts. The fate of pulmonary infarcts is generally the same as that of renal infarct?. In the lungs, only infected infarcts with a tendency toward softening are oi importance. Pulmonary edema is cliaracterized by the appearance of a frothy fluid in the alveoli, bronchioles, and bronchi. This condition 322 KOTEWOBTHY ORGANIC DISEASES has no special pathognomonic significance, since it is a common phenomenon accompanying the decreasing cardiac powers immedi- ately preceding death. The animals do not die because they are- affected with pulmonary edema, but pulmonary edema arises because the animals are approaching death (Cohnheim). Hemorkhaqes. — Pulmonary hemorrhages may be associated with lacerations of the pulmonary tissue, or by diabrosis as a conse- quence of pulmonary cavities. In the horse, wandering larvae of Slrongylus armatus have occasioually given rise to pulmonary hem- orrhages. Subpleural hemorrhages are observed under the same patho- logical conditions as retro-peritoneal hemorrhages (see under " Intoxications and Infections "). Inflammations. — Thickening of the pulmonary tissue in conse- quence of the filling of the alveoli with an exudation, so-called hepatization, is the anatomical criterion of pulmonary inflammation , (pneumonia). The etiology of the different forms of pneumonia which occur in food animals is a varying one. Pulmonary inflammations arise- from a spreading of inflammatory processes of the mucous mem- brane of the bronchial ramifications to the pulmonary tissue (broncho-pneumonia), or in consequence of certain toxic substances circulating in the bloodi (hematogenous pneumonia). Traumatic pneumonia, which is caft^ed by foreign bodies, for example, pene- trating from the ireticulum in cattle, plays only an unimportant role. Hematogenous pulmonary inflammations are, without excep- tion, of b^icterial nature. Broncho-pneumonia may be caused by mechanical irritation (inhalation of dust, parasites) and thermic and chemical inflammation (inhalation of smoke and irritating gases). Pathological micro-organisms (bacteria and mold fungi) constitute the chief causes of broncho-pneumonia. Aside from the forms of broncho-pneumonia caused by bacteria and mold fungi, verminous pneumonia alone possesses great importance. Finally, with regard to etiology, mention should be made of the organisms of infectious granulations (tubercle bacilli, glanders bacilli, actinomyces and botryomyces), which may obtain entrance into the lungs by inhala- tion or from a primary focus already existing in the body and may give rise there to their specific granulations accompanied by inflam- matory phenomena. Judgment on pulmonary inflammations from a sanitary stand- EESPIBATOKY APPARATUS 323 point will vary (1) according to etiology ; (2) according to the degree of inflammation. Witt regard to pulmonary inflammations it may be said in general that, if we disregard the forms of inflammation caused by the organisms of infectious granulations (tuberculous, glanderous, actinomycotic, and botryoraycotic), they do not render the meat harmful according to our present state of knowledge. This may be considered as demonstrated for pleuro-pneumouia of cattle as well as for the other typical pulmonary inflammations of domestic animals by the fact that the meat of these animals has 'been eaten in innumer- able cases without any ill effects. This fact has led to the passage of laws (Imperial Animal Plague Law) permitting the general con- sumption of the meat of animals affected with pneumonia. With regard to a number of other frequently occurring pulmonary inflammations which, from a bacteriological study, are known to be infectious diseases, as, for example, swine plague, it is commonly believed that the meat of affected animals may have an injurious effect. This belief, however, finds no support in veterinary experi- ence. Swine plague was formerly regarded as a simple cold and this assumption brought it about that the meat of animals affected with this disease was sold in the market without any restriction. An extensive feeding experiment with the meat of animals affected with swine plague was thus instituted and no injurious effects were observed. In the literature of the subject, no unexceptionable case can be found of meat poisoning from eating the meat of animals which were affected with pulmonary inflammation. Infectious pul- monary inflammations behave in this regard exactly as other acute infectious diseases of domestic animals, such as rinderpest, black leg, and erysipelas of hogs, which are well known not to be trans- missible to man. The meat in cases of pneumonia may, however, become dangerous to health when, following upon pulmonary inflammations, processes develop which have tho power of "poisoning" the blood (pyemia and septicemia). Pyemia may be associated with primary purulent pulmonary inflammations, as, for example, traumatic pneumonia, or with suppuration of specific pneumonic areas (complication of pneu- monia of cattle and horses, and swine plague). Septicemia occurs, on the other hand, when septic organisms have opportunity to become located in the inflamed pulmonary tissue in association with the organism which caused the original inflammation. This appears (to be possible only in cases of necrosing inflammations. Septicemia following pulmonary inflammations is rare. In hogs, at any rate. 394 NOTEWORTHY ORGANIC DISEASES pyemia is more frequently associated with the specific pneumonia of this animal (swine plague, compare " Septicemia " and " Pyemia"). The greater number of pulmonary inflammations will be discussed under " Infectious Diseases," since, as already indicated, they are merely the chief symptom of specific infections (pneumonia of horses and cattle ; infectious pneumonia of calves, sheep and goats ; hemorrhagic septicemia of cattle ; and swine plague). More- over, under the head of "Infectious Diseases," glanderous and tuberculous pneumonia will also be considered. In this connection we shall discuss merely those pulmonary inflammations which do not owe their origin to specific bacteria. To this group belong broncho-pneumonia in consequence of the aspiration of foreign material, verminous pneumonia, mycoses, and traumatic inflamnaations of the lungs, which may arise in cattle from the, penetration by foreign bodies from one of the anterior stomachs. Aspiration Pneumonia. — In a broad sense, pneumonia of aspira- tion should include all forms of broncho-pneumonia which, arise from inhalation of foreign material as well as those which are caused by inhaled microorganisms. In a stricter sense, pneumonia of aspiration includes only those inflammations which are caused by larger corporeal particles. The prototype of these forms is repre- sented by so-called pneumonia due to foreign bodies or to the passage of fluids down the trachea. The latter terminates, as a rule, in gangrene of the lungs, and in the horse, in which animal it is most frequently observed, in death from putrid intoxication (see this subject). While aseptic foreign bodies or such as are not contam- inated with pathogenic organisms become included in the lung tissue in the healing processes, the pathogenic organisms which are carried into the lungs in fluids through the trachea cause primary necrosis and thereby offer an opportunity for the secondary localiza- tion and development of putrefactive bacteria. According to observations made on slaughtered animals, the form of pneumonia due to the entrance of fluid through the trachea runs a more favor- able course in cattle and hogs and more frequently heals by encapsulation than in the horse. For judgment, see under " Sapremia" and " Septicemia." Verminous Pneumonia. — Lung worms, as a rule, are found in the email bronchial tubes, in which they cause no serious alterations, except catarrh. In case of an extensive invasion, however, the EESPIEATOEY APPARATUS 325 parasites may cause an iuflammation of the lungs. This is most fre- quently the case in infestations of sheep by Strongylus filaria and of young cattle and deer by S. micrurvs. Moreover, in sheep, there is another special form of verminous pneumonia, the so-called pul- monary hair worm disease, due to 8. capiUaris (Fig. 78). The pulmonary inflammations due to StrongylidBB exhibit all the symptoms of acute broncho-pneumonia. At first there is a marked bronchitis. Associated with this, and in consequence of the lesions produced by the wandering embryos, is an inflammation of the pulmonary tissue in the form of lobular areas. The Fig. 78. pneumonic areas may degen- erate in case death does not occur from asphyxia or cach- exia. In pulmonary hair worm disease, there are also lobular inflammations which, however, as a rule, run a be- nign course and leave only an inconsiderable residue in the form of small tubercular neomorphs or larger areas of infiltration in the pulmonary tissue. Judgment on verminous pneumonia, in so far as the meat is concerned, will de- pend entirely on whether the inflammatory processess in the lungs have seriously dis- turbed the general condition and whether emaciation has begun at the time of slaugh- ter. In the latter case the meat is to be considered unfit for food ; while it is to be excluded from the market as highly unfit for food w'hen, in consequence of pneumonia, hydremic cachexia has de- veloped with serous exudation ini;he body cavity. Verminous pneumonia due to Strongylus capil- Jaris (after A. Milllei'). a, embryos; b, parts of sexually mature specimens. The whole tis- sue is filled with embjyos. As a result of des- quamative pneumonia, the alveoli contain no air. Mycosis ofilie Lungs Due to Mold Fungi. — It must be considered as demonstrated by numerous observations and by the experiments of Schiitz and List, that mold fungi may produce pulmonary diseases in animals. This is most frequently the case in birds ; occasionally 326 NOTEWORTHY ORGANIC DISEASES also, no doubl, cases of paenmo-naycosis are observed in mammals. Bockl, Martin, Lncet and Bournay described cases in horses and cattle ; and Mazzanti a case in sheep. These cases are commonly ,ut itiU) lULtamor- phosis of the cardiac muscle. Heart of a hog infected with Cysticercus cellulosse. Degeneeations.— The most important alterations of the myo- cardium are cloudy swelling and fatty metamorphosis (grayish-red or grayish-yellow discoloration, cloudy and soft, friable consistency). Both forms of degeneration arise under the same conditions as those of the liver and kidneys. CiECULATOEY DisTUEBANCES AND INFLAMMATIONS.— Embolic in- farcts are observed in the myocardium in malignant foot and mouth disease of cattle (Johne). Miiller observed a case of the formation of multiple abscess in the myocardium of a cow which, one year CIECUIiATORY APPARATUS 341 previonsly, suffered from an acute attack of foot-auJ-mouth disease. Metastatic abscesses may develop iti the myocardium in association ■with other processes which are ushered iu with suppuration. This is quite frequent in cases of metritis and is occasionally observed also in consequence of contagious coryza and suppurative ompha- lophlebitis (Kitt). The abscesses may also arise from necrotic foci in the myocardium which are due to embolic transportation of the necrosis bacilli (Bang and the author). Infectious Granulations. — In rare cases tuberculosis of the myocardium develops in food animals. In the few cases which have been seen by the author, the tuberculous areas exhibited the characteristic form of hemorrhagic infarcts. Parasites. — In the myocardium there is frequently observed injurious cysticerci, especially C. bovis in cattle and C. celluJosce in hogs and sheep. The parasites show a predilection for a position tinder the epicardium and endocardium. They may, however, pene- trate the whole musculature of the heart. Furthermore, echino- cocci are occasionally met with in the myocardium. They may occasion sudden death by rupture of the connective tissue capsule and the escape of the encysted worms into the ventricles. Large echinococci, however, may, in and of themselves, and without rup- ture of their capsules, produce threatening symptoms and suddeni death from cardiac paralysis, especially when they have their seat in the septum of the heart. (b) Blood Vessels. As a noteworthy local disease of the blood vessels, attention should be called to verminous aneurisms of the branches of the abdominal aorta, especially of the trunk of the anterior mesenteric artery in the horse. This verminous aneurism, which, as is well known, is caused by Strongylus armatus, may reach quite considerable proportions without causing any disturbances in the health of the horse. Occasionally a fatal hemorrhage is observed in consequence of the rupture of the wall of the aneurism. Calcification is sometimes observed in the aorta of cattle. The intima of the vessel, which is distinguished by its inflexibility, is permeated with cloudy-white, sharplyrdelimited, leaf-shaped deposits of lime, the middle portion of which is concave. Eough, sand-like deposits may exist at the same time (Kitt). For purulent inflamma- tions of the walls of the blood vessels, see under " Pyemia." 342 NOTEWOETHY ORGANIC DISEASES 6.— Lymphatic Glands. The lymphatic glands have an important physiological r&le. They act as a filtering apparatus and thereby purify the lymph stream from admixtures of foreign substances before it passes into the blood circulation. The larger corpuscular elements are cer- tainly filtered out of the lymph. The filter is likewise effective even for bacteria, in different degrees in different animals. Thus, in cattle and hogs the lymph glands may for a long time restrict a tubercular process to the point of origin and prevent an infection of the blood. Pyogenic bacteria are also prevented from entering the blood circulation by the lymph glands of food animals. In the smaller animals — for instance, in the experimental animals of the laboratory — this protective function is much less effectively per- formed. Inflammations. — The lymph glands react very readily to irrita- tion. They are therefore regularly inflamed when inflammatory processes occur in their tributary area. In ordinary inflammatory swelling, the lymphatic glands are enlarged and on cross section more fluid exudes. In more advanced stages of lymphadenitis, hemorrhages into the tissue of the lymphatic glands are associated with the original process (hemorrhagic lymphadenitis). A swelling of all the lymphatic glands is observed in acute infectious diseases and in chronic diseases which have become acute ; for example, in sepsis, pyemia, and chronic tuberculosis after the entrance of the tubercle bacilli into the blood. Inflammations of the lymphatic glands usually disappear as rapidly as they arise. Yellow-colored spots may remain as evidence of the hemorrhages which sometimes accompany inflammations. Specific Alterations. — In contrast with simple adenitis as a sequela of ordinary inflammatory processes, all inflammations of other sorts are due to the effect of specific pathogenic micro- organisms. Thus, indurating lymphadenitis is produced by the glanders bacillus, lymphadenitis with abscesses by the streptococci of contagious coryza ; casefying lymphadenitis by the bacilli of tuberculosis, pseudo-tuberculosis, and hog cholera. The ray fungus {Actinomyces hovis) produces ia domestic animals no true inflammation, but simply typical granulations in lymphatic glands. It is of special importance in making a differential diagnosis to LYMPHATIC GLANDS 343 know that purulent processes in domestic animals are not capable of producing suppurations in the lymphatic glands and that casea- tion of the lymph glands, the important criterion in tuberculous processes, occurs only iu tuberculosis, pseudo-tuberculosis and hog cholera. In glanderous lymphadenitis, tubercles are found in the swollen lymphatic glands which disintegrate in the center and become case- fied but not calcified (Csoker, Kitt and Schiitz). Glanderous lymph glands, according to Schiitz, become enlarged at first and shiny on cross section, with a reddish or pale-gray color ; later they become somewhat dryer ^nd of a more velvety or roughish feel upon cross section. The size of the swollen gland does not exceed that of a Tvalnut or plum, as a rule. A whole cluster of lymph glands is rarely affected. As a rule, the glanderous alterations are restricted to a portion of the lymph glands. The lymphatic glands are pene- trated by callous-like, white, connective tissue strands which project inward from the thickened capsule. On cross section there appear indistinctly marked, small, grayish-yellow and yellow spots which lie very close to one another, or scattered in the glandular tissue. These spots in cases of fresh infection are often difficult to recognize. They present in such cases minute particles with a puriform disin- tegration. If the alterations are of longer standing, the spots become cloudy, white, dryish, caseous and mortar-like. Simulta- neously the induration and cicatricial contraction of the newly formed connective tissue proceeds in the lymphatic glands, and the cloudy deposits, which often possess an angular form, appear like foreign particles which have been inserted into the cicatricial mass. Total caseation of the lymphatic glands does not occur in glanders, according to Schiitz. Exceptionally, in consequence of glanderous infection, they may be modified into white, callous, bacon-like masses of the size of a goose egg, which inclose cavities containing an oily, fluid, gray pus (Kitt). In actinomycosis of the lymphatic glands, a maoroscopically- visible, roughened, hard character of the lymphatic glands is observed. Under the microscope, on the other hand, a uniform accumulation of the epithelioid and giant cells is observed around the mycelium of the ray fungus. Finally, in tuberculosis, which is the most important disease of the lymphatic glands in meat inspection, there is at first a simple swelling, enlargement and increase in the fluid content ; then minute tubercles, which are distinguished from the surrounding tissue by their giay color, are demonstrable. Later, larger, round tubercles 3M NOTEWORTHY OEGANIO DISEASES are found, the centers of which appear to bj cloudy in consequence of caseation.i:. (Gompare Fig; 73, a and h). And, lastly, a calcifica- tion usually appears in the place of the caseation. The individual foci either remain separated or f ased together. la the first place, isolated tubercles are observed in the lymphatic glands, and in the latter case a uniform replacement of the normal tissue of the lymphatic glands by casefiedor calcified masses. Calcification may progress so far that the lymphatic glands can no longer be cut with a knife. At the same time the lymphatic glands are enlarged to twenty or more times their original volume. Fig. 88. 4- if M^:^^ .,.'V><^"=',' Miliary tubercle with numerous giant cells, X 75 diameters. ' Diagnosis of tvhercidous alterations in the lymphatic glands. — In the practice of meat inspection, one sometimes makes the highly astonishing observation that only those glands which are casefied and calcified are considered and treated as tuberculous. The danger to the public from such a method of treatment is evident from the preceding discussion, without further argument. The incipient swellings of the lymphatic glands with eruption of minute tubercles are more dangerous than the old alterations in which calcification has alieady occurred. The experienced inspector readily distin- guishes macroscopically aud with certainty simple lymphadenitis from tuberculous swelling. -In the former the color of the cut surface is usually white ; in the latter, more grayish. Further- more, the author has found that an examination of the cut surface LYMPHATIC GLANDS 345 witli a hand lens may offer mncli assistance in the establishment of a diagnosis (recognition of minute tubercles). A still better pro- cedure, however, consists in an examination of a teased preparation from the suspected lymph glands with a magnification of about forty diameters (the author). It is thereby possible in cases of simple hyperplasia to observe a uniformly transparent tissue. In tuberculosis, on the other hand, transparent tissue is interrupted by cloxady areas -which, as a rule, appear roundish and under a somewhat greater magnification exhibit in their interior necrotic giant cells in the form of dark, roundish or oval structures (Fig. 88). For details on this point aiid on the important differential diagnosis, from a sanitary standpoint, between the alterations in tuberculosis and in hog cholera in the lymphatic glands, see under "Tuber- culosis." TuMOBS. — Sarcomata, carcinomata, and so-called lymphomata occur in the lymphatic glands. The latter are the most important tumors of the lymphatic glands in so far as their frequency and sig- nificance in meat inspection are concerned. Sarcomata may develop primarily in the lymphatic glands. Carcinomata, on the other hand, always penetrate into the organs in question in consequence of metastases. Lymphomata are distin- guished as soft and hard. We are chiefly interested here with soft lymphomata on account of their frequent occurrence in food ani- mals. They represent soft, " almost fluctuating " tumors which may attain an enormous volume (the size of a man's head and larger). Under the microscope, one finds the same elements which are present in the normal lymphatic gland. It is noteworthy that soft lymphomata may occur simultaneously in a number of lymphatic glands, also in the lymphatic follicles of different organs, in the spleen, and, in young animals, in the thymus. On the other hand, organs which do not belong to the lymphatic apparatus, like the liver and kidneys, may be affected with lymphomata by meta- stasis. Soft lymphomata are a symptom of constitutional disease. According as the blood is affected or not, we speak of leukemic lymphomata in cases of pronounced leukemia (increase in the num- ber of white blood corpuscles), or of pseudo-leukemia (Oohnheim), in cases where the blood shows no alteration in the' numerical relation between the red and white blood corpuscles. For judg- ment, see under " Leukemia " and " Pseudo-leukemia." 346 NOTEWOETHY ORGANIC DISEASES Parasites. — Among the animal parasites, there frequently occur, in the lymphatic glands, pentastomum larvae (mesenteric glands), more rarely cysticerci (in cases of excessive invasion), and, occasionally, echinococci. All three parasites may become casefied and calcified. In this condition the alterations of parasitic origin may be confused with tuberculosis. Casefied parasites, however, may be easily distinguished from tuberculous areas by simple microscopic examination (a teased preparation with a slight magnifi- cation). During this examination one finds in the parasitic altera- tions either the whole body of the worm or characteristic portions of it, viz.: claws in the case of pentastomes, and calcareous bodies in the case of cysticerci ; (in the case of C. cellulosae, also, hooks) ; and striated portions of membranes in the case of echinococci. Leuckart reports the finding of a round worm larva in the mesenteric glands of a beef animal. The parasite was surrounded by a connective tissue capsule and lay rolled up in it. 7.— Spleen. The serous peritoneal covering of the spleen may exhibit the same alterations as the peritoneum. In tuberculosis, the peritoneal covering of the spleen is often more decidedly affected than the remainder of the peritoneum. The parenchyma of the spleen is the site of various important alterations. We find in the splenic parenchyma metastatic tumors (sarcomata and carcinomata), leukemic and pseudo-leukemic enlarge- ment of the follicles, metastatic abscesses (in pyemia), and embolic masses of roundish form and varying size in tuberculosis and glanders. Among the animal parasites, the spleen may be infested with echinococci, wandering liver flukes in cysts, as in the lungs, and pentastomum larvae. The most important alteration of the spleen is acute splenic tumor. This is pathognomonic for Texas fever, anthrax and swine erysipelas. To a lesser extent, splenic tumor may appear also in other infectious diseases. In these cases, however, it possesses less significance than in Texas fever, anthrax and erysipelas. A considerable increase in the volume of the spleen, which may be confused with infectious splenic tumor, arises in consequence of the multiple formation of infarcts in the branches of the splenic artery. The inciting cause to this condition is found in endocarditis. 'An infarct in the spleen consists, as in the case of a renal or pul- monary infarct, of round or wedge-shaped masses which are at first LYMPHATIC GLANDS 347 dark-red, but later appear yellowish or white in consequence of a modification and resorption of the coloring matter of the blood. The infarcts of the spleen are raised above the surrounding tissue in the form of a tumor. In cases of occlusion of several small branches or one large arterial branch, the spleen may enlarge to two, three, or more times its normal size. The sequela of such an extensive formation of infarcts is usually a considerable shrink- ing of the spleen after the necrotic iufarcted masses have been resorbed. The essential characteristics of splenic infarcts are the round or wedge-shaped contour, harder consistency, and discoloration of the delimited areas — an evidence of embolic, thrombic occlusion of individual branches of the splenic artery. Alterations similar to those caused by the formation of hemor- rhagic infarcts may occur in hogs in consequence of a rotation of the spleen around its longitudinal axis (Glage). The spleen in hogs is, as an appendix to the large omentum, not so securely fixed in its position as is the spleen of cattle and sheep. If the spleen is rotated in consequence of external agencies or variations in the degree of fulness of the internal organs, violent stoppage of the circulation in the spleen may occur in consequence of torsion of the splenic blood vessels. This is most likely to occur in old animals with ligaments devoid of fat. If the spleen remains in its abnormal position, thrombosis occurs in the vascular trunks of the ligaments at the point of torsion and consequently at first an anemic necrosis, and later, after resorption of the disintegrated mass, a shrinking of the spleen, as in the case of the formation of infarcts. As a means of distinguishing between splenic tumor due to tor- sion and infectious tumor in anthrax, Glage considers it an impor- tant fact that in torsion of the spleen the pulp of the organ, in spite of its high blood content, is not softened. In hogs, as a sequela of the above described alterations, we frequently find completely shrivelled spleens with organized thrombi in the splenic artery. In such cases, which are otherwise without significance for meat inspection, we may occasionally observe a new formation of small accessory spleens on the omentum. T. Adam observed swellings in the spleen up to four times its original volume in cattle which before slaughter appeared to be in perfect health. Adam suspected a horn thrust as the cause. Per- haps, however, they were cases of physiological swelling in animals which had been fed and watered immediately before slaughter (compare page 170) ; for, after traumatic injuries, extensive hemor- oiS NOTEWOllTHY ORGANIC DISEASES rhages may occur in the tissue of the spleen, but not a uniform swelling of the spleen. With reference to chronic splenic tumor in leukemia and pseudo-leukemia, compare page 371. 8.— Nervous System. (a) Central Nervous System. The diseases of the central nervous system, brain and spinal cord are of slight importance from a sanitary police standpoint, for they do not lend the meat of animals any dangerous property. The only diseases of interest in this connection are wounds, inflamma- tions, tumors and parasites of the organs of the central nervous system as causes of natural death or emergency slaughter. Brain. Of the pathological processes in the brain, the more important are acute meningitis and hydrocephalus chronicus, as well as so-called cholesteatomata on the basis of the cranium and in the ventricles ; abscesses in consequence of contagious coryza ; menin- geal tuberculosis, which appears in the form of tubercles from the size of a millet seed to that of lentils in the pia mater, especially at the base of the brain, and may be ushered in with inflammatory symptoms (tuberculous, basilar meningitis) ; also Ccenurus cerebralis and occasionally echinococci, Gysticercus bovis and C. cellulonce. The last two parasites are occasionally found in the brain, even when the musculature shows only a slight invasion. Acute meningitis, men- ingeal tuberculosis, and Ccenurtis cerebralis, as a rule, produce such serious motor disturbances that an inspection of the living animal indicates pathological processes in the brain. Spinal Cord. In the spinal canal of cattle, in regions where grazing herds are regularly infested with warble flies, the young larvae of oestrus very frequently occur, according to the investigations of Hinrichsen. This author found the larvae in from 40 to 50 per cent, of all cattle which grazed on pasture during the summer. The larvae are from 5 to 13 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm. wide, are located in the subdural adi- pose tissue, and have been found isolated or in numbers up to forty or more. In the months of December to March, these parasites NERVOUS SYSTEM 349 may be demonstrated much more frequently in the spinal canal than in other months. Koorevaar observed oestrus larvse especially abundant from October to January in the subdural fat tissue, while they appeared to be absent from April to September. In sheep, ccenurus bladders may occur in the spinal cord and may produce the clinical symptoms of so-called turn sick. (b) Peripheral Nerves. In certain peripheral nerves we observe, as was already stated on page 334:, tumor-like thickenings in consequence of fibrous or myxo-fibrous neomorphs (Fig. 89). The differential diagnostic value of these myxo-fibromata on the intercostal nerves has already Pia. 89. False neuroma of the intercostal nerves in cattle been discussed elsewhere. We should mention the plexiform neuro- mata which are occasionally found in cattle on Lhe facial nerve and brachial plexus. These neuromata, when extensively developed, penetrate the intercostal muscles and may then be recognized in the ordinary inspection of slaughtered animals without separating the anterior extremity. 9.— Skeleton. In the bony framework of food animals there may occur general diseases and alterations which are restricted to one bone. 350 NOTEWOETHY OEGANIO DISEASES (a) General Diseases. The most important general diseases of the bony skeleton are rachitis, osteomalacia and osteomyelitis. The last named disease is a special form of pyemia and will be discussed, therefore, under that head. Eachitis. — This is a disease of young animals and among food animals is most frequmitly observed in hogs. It consists in an extensive proliferation oPtne cartilaginous epiphyses and in a pro- longed condition of softness in the growth of new-forming bone, a process which is explained by defective deposition of lime. The consequences of this disturbance in the growth of the bones are the well-known swellings and curvatures in the skeleton. Judgment. — According to all experience and according to the present status of our knowledge concerning the nature of rachitis, the meat of rachitic animals can not be regarded as injurious. How- ever, the meat of animals which are affected with rachitis of the whole skeleton and not one or several bones, as in the snuffle dis- ease, is to be excluded from the market for the reason that in acute stages of the disease serious internal disturbances, even cachexia, may be ushered in. Osteomalacia, friability of the bones, in contrast with rachitis, is a disease of old age. It is to be considered as calcareous inanition. The essential symptom of osteomalacia consists in a decalcification and progressive attenuation of the compact cortical substance of the bones in consequence of resorption. An abnormal softness and friability is thereby produced, and, as a rule, it is bone fractures which lead to a recognition of the disease and to emergency slaugh- ter of osteomalacic animals. Multiple fractures of the pelvis are especially frequent. Maris counted fifteen fractures in the pelvis of a cow. The bone marrow in osteomalacia is dark, yellowish-red and of a more or less fluid consistency (fluidity of the marrow). Moreover, the spongy portion 'of the bone is rich in blood and is, therefore, dark-colored and softer than normal. Finally, the peri- osteum is readily separated from the bones. During life one may observe in animals with friable bones a difficulty in getting up and a straddling gait. Judgment of the meat is determined according to the character of the latter. So long as emaciation does not exist, the meat may be permitted to go upon the market without restriction, provided NERVOUS SYSTEM 351 that no wound infection has developed at the point of fracture of some broken bone. In case, on the contrary, emaciation has already set in, the meat is spoiled (of inferior value), and if cachexia is pres- ent, it is highly unfit for food. In the latter case the fat marrow of the tubular bones disappears and is replaced by gelatinous, so-called jelly, marrow. (b) Local Diseases. Fbaotubes. — These are of frequent occurrence in food animals and are observed especially in highly fattened hogs in the tubular bones of the posterior extremities. Moreover, fractures frequently occur in the pelvis of cows and in the ribs of all food animals. Judgment. — Fresh bone "fractures lend the adjacent meat a spoiled or inferior quality in consequeijce of the infiltration of blood. Old, healed bone fractures, on the other hand, are without signifi- cance. In complicated fractures in process of healing (in which the skin has also suffered lesions) an examination should be made to determine whether an infection of the wound exists. Infectious Geanulations. — With the exception of fractures, the specific granulations of tuberculosis and actinomycosis are the only diseases of the skeleton of significance in meat inspection. Gland- erous alterations in the bone are of no consequence from a sanitary police point of view, since they occur merely as complications of primary glanderous processes in other organs. In cases of glanders, however, the consumption of the meat is absolutely forbidden. The case is quite otherwise in tuberculosis and actinomycosis. In these diseases embolic processes in the bones of the skeleton should lead to an exclusion of the meat from market. Tuberculosis may occur in all of the bones. Tuberculous alter- ations, however, are most frequently observed in cattle and hogs in the dorsal vertebra, sternum and ribs. Tuberculosis of the bones of the extremities is less frequent. An affection of these organs is indicated to the expert by specific alterations of the superior lymphatic glands of the extremities (prescapular and axillary or popliteal and inguinal glands). The diseases of the dorsal vertebrae and sternum, in the ordinary method of cutting up animals in the slaughterhouse, may be demonstrated directly, since the dorsal ver- tebrae and the sternum are cut through the middle with a saw or an ax, and thereby the tuberculous masses are immediately brought to view, since, as a rule, they take their origin from the middle of those bones. 352 NOTEWOBTHY OEGANIO DISEASES The tuberculous areas appear in the form of grayish-red, soft granulations which are plainly distinguished from the surrounding bony tissue. At first, however, they are not easily separated from it (demonstration of the tuberculous nature of such small areas by means of an identification of giant cells) (see page 344). In older and larger masses which are located in sinuous cavities with smooth Fia. 90. Tuberculosis of the dorsal vertebra in a hog. a, caseous focus; 6, deposition of lime m the caseous focus; c, bony bands and islands on the border of the caseous focus ; d, section of a vertebra after removal of the tuberculous products. walls and which are not easily separated from these, the grayish- yellow color is more conspicuous. Furthermore, we observe in the larger masses a partial calcification which, however, is never especially far advanced. The larger masses in the bones, therefore, possess the character which has previously been designated as fungous. Tuberculous granulations may attain such a volume that finally only a seam-like residue of the normal bone tissue remains. NEBTOUS SYSTEM 353 It should be noted that in addition to the vertebral bodies the spinous processes are also frequently affected with tuberculosis (Fig. 90). In tuberculosis oi the ribs, which never arises by an outgrowth from tuberculous processes in the pleura, but exclusively in a hema- togenous manner, one observes a thickening as the first alteratioQ. By making a cross-section through the thickened portion with a saw we may immediately become convinced of the tuberculous nature of the thickening, especially from the presence of the above- Jescribed granulations. In more acute stages of costal tuberculosis, the external layer of the bone is so attenuated that it may be cut through with a knife. This is of importance in distinguishing between costal tuberculosis and callous thickenings following frac- tures of the ribs. Actinomycosis of the bones is in cattle an unusually frequent primary affection. The lower jaw is most frequently attacked. However, primary actinomycosis of the bone may occur on the upper jaw. The author observed an interesting case of primary actinomycosis of the sternum in a beef animal. lu this case infec- tion was brought about by a sharp wire which had penetrated outwardly from the stomach into the sternum. The ray fungus, by its continued multiplication, causes an enlargement and rarefaction of the bones. Simultaneously an extensive swelling and latef a perforation of the bones at one or more points occur.. At the points of perforation the actinomycomata project outwardly in the form of plugs. Embolic actinomycosis of the bones is of rare occurrence. Hertwig described a case of this sort in a hog. In the animal in question, in addition to primary actinomycosis of the mammary gland, softened masses of the size of a hazel nut appeared in several dorsal vertebrae. lu the softened masses was found the ray fungus, the presence of which was evident in a macroscopic examination, from the existence of yellowish granules. Pabasites. — Exceptionally, echinococci occur in the bones. Casefied echinococci may resemble tuberculosis of the bones. The demonstration of the characteristic striated membrane of the echinococci will protect one from such a mistake in diagnosis. Diseases of the Joints. — Local diseases of the joints do not require any special discussion. With reference to penetrating wounds of the joints and polyarthritis of sucking animals, compare the chapter on "Pyemia" and " Septicemia." 354 NOTEWORTHY ORGANIC DISEASES Articular tuberculosis, which is rarely met with, appears in two forms : (1) As tuberculous articular empyemia, characterized by slimy purulent exudation, and (2) as so-called fungous arthritis, in which the articular cavity is filled with tuberculous granulating tissue which grows out from the synovial membrane. Presternal Calcification. — Underneath the sternum and sympa- thetically affecting this bone iu part, a peculiar calcificatibn process, occurs in fattened cattle and sheep. This deserves to be mentioned on account of its scientific interest and the possibility of its being mistaken for tuberculosis. In the animals in question one observes. Pig. 91. Presternal caloiflcation. a, section of the sternum; b, normal sternal pad; c, lime in the pad formed of elastic and fat tissue, tumors with a roughened surface and hard consistency, frequently of the size of a hazel nut or that of the fist. After making a cross-section of the sternum with a saw, it is apparent that the tumors consist of a strong con- nective tissue framework, in the cavities of which a pure white gypsum-like mass is deposited. This mass consists of carbonate and phosphate of lime. The periphery of the tumors is delimited by strongly-developed connective tissue. In some cases, but not regularly, the tumor penetrates into the sterntim in consequence of a proliferation of the part of the sternum which is directly in con- tact with the tumor. SKELETAL MUSCULATURE 355 No parasitic cause has been discovered for the above described deposition of lime underneath the sternum. It has rather the appearance — and this is indicated by the exclusive occurrence of the alteration in fat animals — that it arises after a crushing of the ster- nal pad while the animals are lying and is due to a simple deposi- tion of lime in the Crushed parts. The enlargement and progressive character of the "tumor" might be explained by the pressure of the primary calcareous deposit upon the surrounding tissue. 10.— Skeletal Musculature. Dissolution of Continuity. — Dissolutions of the continuity of muscles are often observed in food animals. They occur most fre- quently as secondary ruptures in cases of bone fractures. Further- more, one- may observe in hogs an independent rupture of the psoas muscle (froiH violent pressure upon the animal), as well as in the ijoiut of union of the musculi graciles (from slipping). In calves which are roughly pulled about by the tail, extensive hemorrhages, according toEUinger, may occur in the pelvic connective tissue as far up as fhe adipose capsule of "the kidneys. The author has already called attention to the frequency of the fibrillar muscle ruptures in fat hogs. Since all ruptures of muscles are accompanied by bleeding, these ruptures cause so-called multiple hemorrhages in the musculature of fattened hogs. Fibrillar muscle ruptures and the associated multiple hemor- rhages are observed chiefly in the muscular portion of the diaphragm and in the muscles of the abdomen and loins, as well as in certain muscles of the anterior and posterior extremities, and more rarely in the whole musculature, in a more or less uniform manner. The number of hogs which show hemorrhages only in the diaphragm is a large one. Without including isolated cases of hemorrhages, it amounts to about 8 per cent, of all slaughtered animals. The animals in question show no pathological symptoms during life and the internal organs do not differ in their cqndition from those of healthy animals. My investigations indicate the deposition of fat in the contractile portion of the muscle fibers in the form of granules, such as occur in fatty metamorphosis, as the cause of fibrillar muscle ruptures. As a rule, the muscular portion of the diaphragm is most affected. In consequence of the deposition of fat, the muscles become softer and more easily torn. Associated with this condition is a defective use of the musculature in fattened 356 NOTEWORTHY OEGANIC DISEASES hogs which favors their easy rupture. In the hemorrhagic areas, the red blood corpuscles are in general well preserved. This indicates that the immediate cause, the occasion of fibrillar muscle ruptures in our cases, is to be sought in the excessive muscular work which was required of the animal shortly before slaughter. For fat hogs which in the last months of the fattening process get upon their feet only for the purpose of moving to a full trough, the transportation to the slaughterhouse is the first heavy muscular work and the longer or forced diiving of the hogs is sufficient to produce a rupture of the weakened muscular fibers. This assumed mode of ^origin of fibrillar muscle ruptures in fattened hogs stands in complete harmony with the series of events Fig. 93. Diaphragm of a hog with fibrillar muscle ruptures and consecutive multiple hemorrhages. which are observed in connection with the involvement of individual muscles and muscle groups. For, even in case of easy transporta- tion, a certain degree of dyspnea appears in fattened animals whereby an excessive strain is put upon the diaphragm and abdom- inal muscles which function in inspiration, while the muscles which are used in locomotion are only moderately exercised. The more frequent occurrence of affections of individual muscles of the extremities by the alterations in question is partly explained by the more extensive deposition of fat granules in the fibrillse and partly by their especial significance for locomotion. Elliiiger observed the following sequence in muscles affected with fibrillar ruptures : (1)* Diaphragm, (2) obturatsr internus, (3) SKELETAL MUSCULATURE 357 lumbar muscles, and (4) gracilis and neighboring muscles. The other muscles (of the trunk, anterior extremities and neck) were also rarely affected in the cases observed by EUinger, viz.: in only 3 to 5 per cent, of all hogs which were affected by fibrillar muscle ruptures. The influence of defective exercise of hogs upon the occurrence of fibrillar muscle ruptures is shown by the fact that in breeding animals, boars as well as breeding sows, which enjoy a natural mode of life and especially a freer movement than auimals which are intended for fattening, muscle hemorrhages' are not observed. At least the author has never observed them in boars and breeding sows. The fatty cloudiness of the striated muscle fibers may be demonstrated, on the other hand, in many cases of breeding sows which are fattened late in life. Judgment of fibrillar muscle ruptures. — Multiple hemorrhages caused by fibrillar muscle ruptures lend the affected muscular parts quite an abnormal appearance. The muscles appear to be spotted with black. This is especially conspicuous after boiling and roast- ing pieces of the meat. Such meat, therefore, in spite of its perfect harmlessness, da,n not be considered as a marketable food material. In slight cases in which we have to deal merely with alterations of the diaphragm or other favorite locations of hemorrhages caused by fibrillar muscle ruptures, the remainder of the meat may be allowed upon the market without restriction after the removal of the affected part. In addition to the above described hemorrhages, due to fibrillar muscle ruptures, there may also appear, in the musculature of food animals, hemorrhages which are due to toxic and bacterial diseases (phosphorus poisoning, anthrax, black leg, morbus, macu- losus and septicemia). In these cases there are, in addition to other characteristic alterations, hemorrhages in the internal organs. Degenerations. — Cloudy swfelling and fatty metamorphosis of the musculature are less frequent than similar alterations in the parenchyma of the internal organs, since they occur only in cases of serious toxic and infectious diseases of long standing.* Besides these two conditions of degeneration, however, one observes in the musculature hyaline or wax-like degeneration (Figs. 94 and 96). This alteration, according to the excellent investigations of Zschokke, occurs in domesticated animals more frequently than has previously * For this reason, even in serious infectious diseases, alterations of tlie muscu- lature may be wanting if the affected animals are seasonably slaughtered. 358 NOTEWOETHY ORGANIC DISEASES been assumed. As was first shown by Frohner, it is a symptom^ of hemoglobiniiria in the horse. Moreover, Zschokke observed hyaline degeneration of the musculature in parturient paresis and morbus maculosus. According to Zschokke, the muscles do not necessarify show any conspicuous, gross anatomical changes in hyaline degener- ation; merely the affected fibers are somewhat thickened. The sarco- lemma is preserved, but the protoplasm shows extensive alterations. The striation becomes less conspicuous, the striae are more widely separated from one another and strongly arched. Finally, the trans- verse and longitudinal striation disappears entirely. The protoplasm then appears to have ruptured in the form of meshes, or homogene- ous, glistening, quadrate and roundish masses are formed which Fig. 93. Cloudy swelling and fatty degeneration of the musculature, a, normal muscle fiber; J, cloudy swelling; c, slight, and d,, extensive fatty degeneration. occupy the breadth of the muscle fiber. The muscle fiber is thereby interrupted in its continuity and hiatuses appear between the masses. Furthermore, Zschokke demonstrated that the masses possess a greater affinity for stains, especially hematoxylin. Macro- scopically, musculature affected with hyaline degeneration does not show a striking discoloration until more than one-fifth of the fibers are diseased. Then the affected muscles appear pale, like the muscles of fi,sh. Their cut surface soon becomes brick-red on exposure to the air, probably in consequence of the increased power of oxidation of the methemoglobin (Zschokke). A considerable hyaline muscle degeneration, with a fish-like appearance of the musculature, may be observed in cattle as well as in the horse. Thus the Miinchener Jahresberichte report several SKELETAL MUSCULATUBE 359 •cases of pronounced hyaline degeneration in cattle and young waives. ^Furthermore, Hiittner described a case in a steer in which the whole musculature was altered, and, finally, Repiquet described iwo cases in calves. Ee piquet calls attention to the fact that in the musculature of "white" or "boiled" calves the fibrillse are much more conspicuous than normally, are swollen, opaque, and tinged with yellow or gray. Kepiquet compared the cut surface with rotten wood. The alteration, in both cases investigated by Eepiquet, was shown in all parts of the muscles of the trunk and affected from one-tenth to two-fifths of the total musculature. Fig. 94. Hyaline degeneration of the musoulature in the horse in case of hemoglobinuria (after Zschokke). a, hyaline fragments; 6, cleavage and beginning of hyaline disin- tegration, X 100 diameters. Judgment. — Among the degenerations of the musculature, it is only the hyaline which possesses an independent significance. Meat altered by hyaline degeneration, on account of its abnormal appear- ance and poor keeping quality (Eepiquet), is undoubtedly a spoiled (inferior) food material. According to Hiittner, beef affected by hyaline degeneration roasts and boils like veal and, according to the statements of consumers, is not of good flavor. Hiittner therefore iavors the admission of the meat to the market under declaration. ^ 360 NOTEWORTHY ORGANIC DISEASES This procedure, however, is justified only when during the inspec- tion of the slaughtered animals alterations other than hyaline muscle degeneration are not found and when the latter must be considered as an independent alteration incident to the death agony. Hyaline muscle degeneration in the hog. — A partial hyaline degen- eration of the musculature is frequently seen in hogs. Duncker first called attention to this fact. He considered the alteration as originally due to infection by the ray fungus. The assumption of Duncker, however, immediately met with vigorous opposition. Especially, Johne insists that the depositions in the musculature described by Duncker can not be identical with Actinomyces bovis, for the reason that they never exhibit the well-known, club-shaped end swellings of the radial hyphse. Furthermore, in the tissue surrounding the structures described by Duncker, the acute inflam- matory reaction which occurs in infection by Actinomyces bovis, immediately after penetration of its minute mycelia, is wanting. Ziirn went further and expressed a doubt whether the structures in question were of a fungous nature at all. Olt deserves credit for having studied the muscular disease in question and for having demonstrated that the supposed fungous mycelia were nothing more than broken pieces of the specifically altered contractile content of the muscle fibers. They show a stronger affinity for stains than intact sarcoplasm, and in the prepar- ations which Duncker stained with cochineal may have been considered as deposits of foreign substance. Macroscopically, the specifically degenerated musculature is conspicuous for its pale-red or grayish color, sprinkled with white, its softer consistency and high fluid content. The white sprinkling is in the form of minute points and follows the course of the muscle fibers. The consistency of the degenerated musculature is so reduced that a moderate pressure with the fiuger is sufficient to penetrate it. The abnormal fluid content in the favorites points for location of the degeneration (muscular part of the diaphragm and abdominal muscles) is so great that one could speak of a regular muscle edema. This edema is of diagnostic value. It is, moreover, noteworthy that the fluid which perineates the altered muscle tissue after cooUng of the meat is pressed out and appears in large quan- tities on the upper surface. This phenomenon is explained by the post mortem rigor of the affected muscle fibers. In a microscopic examination one observes, according to Olt, whose investigations were confirmed by the simultaneous investi- SKELETAL MUSCULATTJBE 361 gations of Davids and later by myself, in the incipient stages the loosening of the sarcoplasm or contractile content of the sarcolemma, a gradual disappearance and fusion of the same. • Thereby, gaps appear which enlarge to form fissures and spherical cavities and dissolutions of continuity arise in the muscle fibers to such an extent that the contractile content falls into irregular broken pieces of varying size (Fig. 95). All disintegrated fragments are uniformly opaque, but may, however, still exhibit an evident transverse stria- tion. Furthermore, in consequence of contraction of unaffected Fig. 95. Hyaline muscle degeneration in hogs, a, intact fiber; 5, moniliform arrangement of plasma debris ; e, point of rupture of a muscle fiber. In other parts of the preparation there are unaffected muscle fibers together with plasma debris of various forms, rupture of, the muscle fibers, loss of the s9,rcolemma and en- largement of the intermuscular tissue. X 35 diameters. fibers, ruptures of the degenerated fibers may be produced (Fig. 96, c) as well as a rounding-off of the protoplasmic debris, so that in affected muscle fibers round or oval protoplasmic balls are observed in a moniliform order (Fig. 95, h). The internal perimysium iu acute diseases of the muscle fibers is somewhat affected by serous infiltration and exhibits a cellular proliferation. Olt was unable to demonstrate a thickening of the sarcolemma. The sarcolemma is found in the form of a thin membrane over the disintegrated parts. Frequently it is torn and in many affected muscle fibers it is not to be recognized at all. 362 NOTEWOBTHY OBGANIO DISEASES With regard to the occurrence of the above described process, it is observed most frequently in hogs. It is also found, however, as shown by P. Falk, quite often in the musculature of calves and sheep. *Its favorite locations are the muscular parts of the dia- phragm, the abdominal muscles and the intercostal muscles. As a rule, the disease is restricted to the muscular part of the diaphragm. Alterations of the whole striated musculature are exceedingly rare. Fig. 96. a Hyaline muscle degeneration in hogs. A part of Pig. 95 magnified 375 times. a, intact muscle fiber; 6, plasma debris with coccus-like deposits; c, point of rupture of muscle fiber! The partial solution of the sarcolemma, the enlargement of the intermuscular tissue, and the chaotic arrangement of the plasma debris are shown more distinctly than in Pig. 95. j Opinions differ concerning the cause of the alteration. Olt believes that he saw streptococci in the altered portions of the muscles. Davids, on the other hand, called attention to the simi- larity of the structures in question to the sarcous elements into which the muscle fibers disintegrated. Davids considered the whole phenomenon as a simple hyaline degeneration, aud, with Erb, regards it as a post mortem process which in the case in question is due to injaries (crushing of the musculature during slaughter). SKELETAL MUSCULATDEE 363 Judgment. — Previously it was customary to exclude from the market only those hogs in which so extensive an alteration existed that the whole musculature was discolored grayish-red and was strongly infiltrated with water. Even rejected animals, however, were tried out and the rendered fat was utilized as a human food material. In cases where the alterations were restricted to indi- vidual muscle parts, as, for example,' to the diaphragm or abdominal muscles, only those parts were removed. The frequently-occurring slight alterations were ignored. When extensive alterations were present, it was customary to take the precaution of postponing the decision until after twenty-four hours for the reason that the dis- coloration and especially the watery character of the musculature was more conspicuous than immediately after slaughter. This procedure is fully justified, for the reason that, since the investigation of Davids, there is no foundation for the assumption of an injurious character of the meat in question. Iridescent character of meat. — In highly fattened hogs which neither before slaughter, nor. during ordinary inspection after slaughter, exhibited any other alteration, we find with comparative frequency a peculiar alteration of the color and appearance of the longissimus dorsi. This muscle is either entirely or partly discol- ored grayish, and of a shining appearance upon the cut surface. Under the microscope the muscle fibers appear to be completely intact. Undoubtedly we have in the anomaly in question a deficiency in the coloring matter of the muscle. The discoloration of the muscle favors this view, as well as the appearance of the iridescent property in boiled and pickled normal meat, in which an artificial destruction of the coloring matter of the muscle has taken place. Legge called attention to the iridescence of boiled and pickled meat. The gray discoloration and the iridescence of the longissimus dorsi, are apparently due to the unhygienic surroundings and nutri- tion of the hogs. Judgment. — Iridescent muscles are found in perfectly healthy highly fattened animals and are distinguished merely by the lack of the red color in normal muscles. Since the alteration is sufficiently evident from its conspicuous character and since the buying public, according to past experience, takes no exception to the abnormal appearance of iridescent musculature, we may abstain from placing any trade restrictions upon the meat in question. 364 NOTEWOBTHY ORGANIC DISEASES Pale condition of musculature. — Faucon found, in a well-nourished four-year-old cow, which before slaughter had been perfectly- healthy, that the musculature was pale and of a white color as iu milk- fed calves. The white beef diffdred from veal only in its dryer condition and stronger development of the muscle fibers. A similar case was observed by Baillet in a beef animal in 1878. Moreover, Villain described a similar case in sheep. Tallow-like alteration (" steatosis ") of the musculature. — Castellant found in a beef animal nearly one-third of the musculature trans- formed into a tissue resembling adipose tissue. Inflammations. — Parenchymatous myositis associated with hem- orrhage is found in cases of muscular rheumatism. In calves an interstitial myositis occurs which is probably associated with primai-y degenerative processes of the muscle fibers. This alteration has been called " chicken-meat formation " for the reason that the musculature shows a grayish-white color resembling that of chicken meat. • Stoss described a case of this sort in which the whole muscula- ture of a young beef animal possessed a pale yellowish-red ground color and exhibited yellowish or yellowish-green spots at intervals of about 1 cm. All of the lymphatic glands were enlarged. By a microscopic examination Stoss found an extensive proliferation of the intramuscular tissue and an atrophy of the muscle fibers, which was especially pronounced in the yellowish-green areas. Bayersdorfer observed a similar case in a bull. The whole musculature exhibited a white color and at the same time a tough consistency. Judgment. — Meat which exhibits the phenomenon of intersti- tial myositis must be considered as a spoiled (inferior) food material and as such must be excluded from free traffic. TuMOKS. -^Primary tumors in the musculature are rare. Second- arily, however, sarcomata and also carciuoaiata may occur in the musculature. Moreover, in the musculature of cattle we may observe a peculiar, thus far insufficiently investigated, tumor forma- tion. In all, the author has seen four such cases of muscle tumors in cattle. In these cases the whole musculature, but in the most pronounced manner the muscUs of the shoulder, sides of the chest inid tail, were filled with innumerable granules and tubercles (Fig. SKELETAL MUSCULATUEE 365 97). All transition stages were observed between structures of the size of a lentil and those as large as a walnut. On the periphery of the larger tubercles smaller tubercles were frequently observed. The color of the neomorphio tissue was grayish-white and its con- sistency was firm, as in fibromata. The cut surface was dry, uniformly gray, and showed punctate yell«w-colored cavities in the center. The larger the tubercles the more numerous were the punctate cloudy areas. All organs, except the musculature, were sound. According to their histological structure, the tumors were to be considered as fibro-sarcomata. Apparently, however, these were cases of neomorphic formation due to infection. Fig. 97. Beef tail with fibrosarcoma-like neomorphs. In all cases observed by the author, the meat, on account of the general distribution of neomorphio formations, had to be excluded from consumption as highly unfit for food. Infectious Granulations. — Among the infectious granulations in the musculature, we may mention only those which are caused by the tubercle bacillus, actinomyces and botryomyces. Muscular tuberculosis is of very rare occurrence in food animals, if we disregard the otherwise quite rare cases in which the tuberculous process extends secondarily to the surrounding iuter- fibrillar tissue from the bone or a lymph gland lying in the muscu- lature. Hertwig described a case of embolic primary tuberculosis of the musculature in a beef animal. During the examination of a four-year-old steer, a pronounced tuberculous alteration of the mesenteric glands was demonstrated. The intestine itself was not affected. In the parenchyma of the lungs, liver and kidneys, embolic masses of the size of walnuts were found. The inguinal and prescapular glands were enlarged to three or five times their normal size and contained caseous masses of varying size. Further- 366 NOTEWOETHY ORGANIC DISEASES more, in the subcutaneous connective tissue and skin muscles, and, sparingly, in the deeper lying musculature, especially on the inferior portions of the thorax, on the shoulders, as well as on the interior surfaces of the thighs, flat plaques and moniliform strands were to be observed, which consisted of larger and smaller tubercles and followed the direction of the connective tissue and muscle fibers. The tuberculous nature of these structures was demonstrated by a microscopic examination and by inoculation. Similar cases were subsequently reported by Godbille, Hiittuer, Strose, Kezevitsch, Mychkine and others. In cases of the extension of tuberculosis from bones and lymph glands to the neighboring musculature (secondary muscular tuber- culosis) grayish-yellow masses are formed, varying in size from a walnut to that of a child's head by tubercle formation in the intra- muscular tissue with atrophy of the muscular fibrillse. Actinomycosis and botryomycosis of the musculature are char- acterized by an interstitial myositis which develops in the form of masses in the neighborhood of the colonies of actinomyces and botryomyces, or appears in a diffuse condition and later affects larger portions of the musculature as in actinomycotic wooden tongue. The parasites which occur in the musculature, namely, Miescher's sacs, cysticerci and trichinae, are discussed in the chapter oa "Invasion Diseases." IX. ANOMALIES OF THE BLOOD. Of the anomalous conditions of the blood which occur in food animals, the following are of importance for meat inspection : Deficiency of blood (oligemia, anemia) ; increase in water content (hydremia) ; increase in the number of white blood corpuscles (leukemia) ; and, finally, the appearance of abnormal constituents (hemoglobinemia, cholemia and uremia). Fluctuations in the amount of blood and its composition possess little sanitary inter-est of themselves. They only become important through certain phenomena which they may produce in the solid tissues. The alterations of the blood mentioned above are, therefore, unimportant so long as they remain without recog- nizable influence upon the whole organism or upon the meat. 1. — Deficiency of Blood (Oligemia^ Anemia). Nature and Origin. — ^By the term deficiency of blood we understand a decrease in the normal quantity of blood. This may be due to various circumstances. Attention has already been called to the fact (p. 131) that an excessively fat condition, especially in hogs, is usually accompanied with a striking diminution in the quantity of blood. This sort of oligemia, which is in part relative, may be characterized as physiological. Pathological deficiency of blood, however, arises when the equilibrium between the income and outgo of the body is disturbed, thus : By defective nutrition or disturbances of assimilation ; or by unusual loss of substance (frequent hemorrhages and parasites). These forms of anemia are included in the term symptomatic anemia,.in contrast with essential or progressive pernicious anemia, which may develop from an unknown cause. The cases of pathological deficiency of blood which are observed among food animals are, with few exceptions, of a symptomatic nature. The primary affection consists, as a rule, in the invasion of 36r 36d ANOMALIES OF THE BLOOD parasites (stomach, intestinal, lirer and lung worms), -which cause a diminution in the quantity of the blood, either directlji through removal of nutritive materials, or indirectly, through injury to the important vegetative organs (production of hemorrhages or inflam- mation). Moreover, anemia may occur as a consequence of non- parasitic organic diseases, such as chronic gastric and intestinal catarrh and chronic infectious diseases, like tuberculosis. Autopsies in Symptomatic Anemia. — The alterations which are caused by symptomatic anemia vary according to the degree of the latter. Mild cases influence the general condition only slightly. In severe cases, on the other hand, emaciation is a constant phe- nomenon. Between these degrees, all intermediate stages exist. The blood is characterized in all cases by its diminished quantity and weak staining power. In contrast with pernicious anemia, it is worthy of mention that even in the severest cases of symptomatic deficiency of blood, the parenchyma and skeletal mus- culature is, as a rule, intact. ' Schaper found a considerable diminution in the number of red blood corpuscles and in the content of hemoglobin, in cases of ane- mia resulting from distomatosis. The blood of healthy sheep contains from 11,000,000 to 12,000,000 red blood corpuscles per cm.; in anemic animals Schaper found only 6,000,000 to 10,000,000. Judgment oe Symptomatic Anemia. — The meat of animals which are affected with symptomatic anemia is not injurious to health if the primary affection which causes the deficiency of blood has not occasioned a general disease. This may be the case in certain forms of tuberculosis. In ordinary cases of symptomatic anemia in consequence of infestation by worms, the above statement does not hold true. In such cases the meat may become highly unfit for food if the deficiency of blood is accompanied with emaciation. If the condition of nutrition of the animals is still comparatively good and if the animals are to be characterized as poor and not as emaciated (compare p. 243), there is no good reason for restricting the free sale of the meat. Essential (progressive pernicious) anemia differs fundamentally from symptomatic deficiency of blood. During life an intermittent fever is observed. Furthermore, the disease usually results in death. The red blood corpuscles exhibit a marked variation from the normal condition (poecilocytosis). The parenchyma, as well as HYDREMIA 369 the skeletal musculature, becomes cloudy and undergoes fatty meta- morpliosis. Finally, petecliise are found iu the serous membranes or even iu the organs. Although this disease possesses all the symptoms of an acute general affection, it is impossible to discover any cause whatever by post mortem examination. It has rightfully been suspected, on account of the great similarity of post mortem ^findings with those which appear in certain toxic and infectious dis- ■eases, that the cause of pernicious anemia is some virus with toxic action. Silva asserts that in two fatal cases of pernicious anemia in man ie isolated Staphylococcus pyogenes from the blood of the heart, and he entertains no doubt that this micro-organism may be the •cause of progressive pernicious anemia, for the products of the staphylococcus possessed a hemolytic power, aud this fact may serve to explain correctly the symptoms which appear in pernicious anemia : perhaps we have here to deal with a micro-organism of attenuated virulence. Judgment. — Further investigation is required to determine whether the meat of animals affected with pernicious anemia pos- sesses harmful properties. It should be remembered in this connection that pernicious anemia is also one of the diseases of man. If the condition described by Silva is found to be of regular occurrence, the meat must be considered injurious to health. At any rate, the meat in question must be characterized as highly unfit for food and must be absolutely excluded from the market on account of the substantial alterations which are seen, not only in the entrails, but also in the skeletal muscles. The harm which may be caused to the public from this disease is exceedingly slight, since thus far ihe disease has been observed with certainty only in horses, and •even here with comparative infrequency. 2. — Hydremia. Nature and Occuerence. — Hydremia, as a rule, is the last result of acute a,nemia. It consists in a diminution in the blood of the solid constituents and in an increase iu its water content. The visible symptoms of hydremia, aside from the marked emaciation, consist in accumulations of fluid in the subcutis, in the intermus- cular connective tissue, and in the body cavities (hydremic cachexia). The predisposition of different species of food animals to hydremia varies. The sheep is the most susceptible (especially in extensive 370 ANOMALIES OF THE BLOOD distomatosis and serious invasions of Strongylus contortus) ; young cattle are less so, and older cattle and hogs are rarely effected. Autopsy. — The shed blood. is thin (like meat serum) and reddens- the hands only slightly. During exenteration, clear, colorless and odorless fluids pour out from the abdominal and thoracic cavities. The carcass does not stiffen, the connective tissue in the skin and between the muscles shows no trace of fat, but rather a more or less extensive collection of the fluids already described. The meat is watery, the carcass literally drips with fluid, and at the same time the muscles are colored grayish-red in the place of the customary bright red coloration. Furthermore, the muscles are flabby and- soft. Judgment. — The meat of animals affected -with hydremic cachexia is to be excluded from the market as highly unfit for food on account of its great deterioration in quality. The so-called cellular dropsy of sugar factory oxen. — Among oxen used for draft animals about sugar factories a hydremia is observed to which Piitz has given the name "cellular dropsy." The disease is observed where excessive feeding with the watery diffusion products of beet sugar is practiced. Milch cows are seldom affected. In these animals the excretion of water seems to take place through the udder. In affected oxen large edematous swell- ings appear on the lower surface of the abdomen and on the extrem- ities to such an extent that the animals are finally unable to get up ("water men "). Autopsy.— After slaughter, edematous infiltration of the sub- cutaneous and intermuscular connective tissue is observed, together with dropsical accumulations in the body cavities. It is a striking fact that even in the more acute cases of cellular dropsy the muscu- lature retains its normal color and is permeated with white adipose tissue which sets readily. This disease is thus distinguished from hydremic cachexia. Judgment.— A very different decision is to be rendered on cel- lular dropsy than on hydremic cachexia, for in the first-named disease the characteristic alterations of the musculature aie wanting, while in hydremic cachexia they are always present Furthermore, the quality of the meat in cases of cellular dropsy improves after slaughter, in consequence of evaporation and loss of water. Never- theless, the meat is of inferior quality as a food material for the LEUKEMIA 371 reason that its content of albumen is diminished and its keeping qualities are not so" good as in healthy animals. In the most acute cases of the disease, in which loss of water after death fails to take place, the same procedure is to be adopted with regard to the meat as in the case of hydremic cachexia. With regard to a judgment on cellular dropsy, it should be further observed that a superficial examination is not sufficient to determine the amount of water in the connective tissue between the muscles. For determining this point, it is necessary to make deep incisions into the musculature or to cut up the animal according to commercial methods. At the central abattoir in Berlin, the animal body is allowed to hang in the abattoir for twenty-four hours, in order that the final decision may be based upon the character of the meat at the end of that period. In mild cases the meat drys out within this time and resembles normal meat in its appearafice, while in acute cases of the disease the meat remains unsightly and oleaginous upon its surface. The post-mortem alterations permit meat inspectors to form a more reliable opinion than could be reached immediately after death. 3. — Leukemia. Nature. — Naturally, by \lhe term leukemia is understood an anomalous condition of the blood, in which the most important symptom is a considerable increase in the number of the white blood corpuscles. In healthy animals the ratio of white to red blood corpuscles is approximately 1 to 350 ; in the blood of leukemic animals the ratio is much closer, viz., 1 to 50, 1 to 20, or even 1 to 1. Autopsy. — Corresponding to the great increase in the number of white blood corpuscles, we have in advanced cases of leukemia a striking pale-red color of the blood which is apparent to the naked eye. The blood may even become purulent (Virchow). "Wolff in Cleve described a case in a calf in which the blood serum resembled milk. In the heart and large vascular trunks a clay-colored coagu- lum with purulent accumulations is found in the place of the buff coat of fibrinous deposits. Peculiar alterations of the solid tissues accompany the anomalous condition of the blood. The spleen is considerably enlarged and its follicles are swollen. The color of the surface of the spleen is paler than normal, and upon cross sec- tion it is bluish-red or raspberry-red. The consistency of the organ is firm. Koch described a case of leukemia in a cow in which 372 ANOMALIES OP THE BLOOD the spleen was 105 cm. long, 39 cm. wide and 12 cm. thick. The weight of this spleen was 18.05 kg. On cross section the organ showed a bright, reddish-brown color, and follicles of the size of peas. In a case which was observed by Keggianti and Forreggiani in a hog, the spleen was 85 cm. long, 15 cm. wide, 9 cm. thick, weighed 3 kg., and was as hard as a board. The capsule showed a considerable thickening and the cross section had a granitic appearance. In the myelogenous form of leukemia the red bone marrow is hyperplastic and lighter colored than normal. Finally, in the lymphatic form some or all of the lymph glands of the body are considerably swollen and softer than normal (" almost fluctuating "). The iliac, lumbar, prescapular and axillary glands are most affected by the disease. They may reach the size of a man's head ; while the other groups of lymphatic glands exhibit swelling only to about the size of a potato, or a clenched fist. The alterations in the spleen, bone marrow and lymphatic glands may exist independently or may occur one after another. Furthermore, white tubercles (leukemic tumors) and white spots (leukemic infiltrates) may appear in the liver, lungs, kidneys, and upon the serous mucous membranes. Hemorrhages may also be present in the skin, mucous membranes, and in the serous mem- branes. The musculature is of a lighter color than normal and occasion- ally it is permeated with numerous ecchymoses. According to Caporini, leukemia occurs also in fowls and is especially characterized by alterations in the liver. The liver is yellowish-white, much enlarged (weighing 200 to 300 g.), and resembles in size and color the fab liver of geese. The structure of the liver tissue becomes partly obliterated, in consequence of the filling of the interacinous tissue with leucocytes. Judgment. — The sanitary judgment of leukemia is closely con- nected with the question of its origin. Its origin, however, is still quite unkuown. There is a tendency to consider leukemia as an infe^ctinus disease, but without a convincing proof of this belief.* Since leukemia also occurs in man, it may be desirable, until further results are obtained from the investigation of the etiology of this disease, to exercise caution in rendering judgment, and to * Pawlowsky maintains that he has succeeded in demonstrating bacilli 3 to 4 /< long, in the blood of three leukemic patients. He considers these bacilli to be charac- terized by the glistening oval spores in the cell body. This announcement has not been further corroborated. LEUKEMIA 373 exclude even those cases in which alterations of the intermuscular lymphatic glands and of the bone marrow are not observed. The last mentioned alterations render meat, under all conditions, highly unfit for food. Otherwise, leukemia does not assume any great importance in meat inspection on account of its rare occurrence among food animals. Pseudo-huhemia. — In a discussion of the diseases of the lymph- atic glands, mention has already been made of the difference between leukemia and the disease described by Cohnheim as pseudo- leukemia. Pseudo-leukemia occurs more frequently in food animals than true leukemia, and is quite often obseived in cattle ' and hogs. It may occur with the same alterations of the spleen, bone marrow and lymphatic glands as are associated with leukemia; the diffeience consists merely in the fact that in pseudo-leukemia a disturbance of the numeric ratio between the white and red blood corpuscles does not occur. Judgment. — According to the investigation of Askanacy and Watzold, which weie corroborated by Brentano and Tangl, certain ca-es of pseudo-leukemia appeared to be of a tuberculous nature. The demonstration of their tuberculous nature, however, can not be made histologically or bacteriologically, but only by inoculation with affected tissue. Eoux and Lannois, as well as Fischer, have shown that occasionally Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus may produce a general disease of the lym[)hatic glands resembling pseudo- leukemia. Klein has found the same to be true for Streptococcus pyogenes. In a case of lymphatic leukemia observed by the author, ill a horse, a bacteriological investigation showed the presence of Streptococcus in the enormously-enlarged lymphatic gland. An investigation of several cases in cattle, however, gave negative results. A certain proportion of the cases of pseudo-leukemia must, therefore, be judged like tuberculosis ; others like pyemia; and still others like simple tumors. The sanitary procedure, however, iu pseudo-leukemia is a simple matter, since, even in cases in which only simple tumor formation occurs, the meat becomes highly unfit for food on account of the extensive affection of the intermuscular lymph glands, and it must therefore be absolutely excluded from the market. Sffi ANOMALIES OP THE BLOOD 4.— Hemoglobinemia. Natube and Origin. — By hemoglobinemia we understand an accumulation of red blood coloring matter, hemoglobin, in the blood serum. This phenomenon occurs whenever a considerable number of red blood corpuscles are suddenly disintegrated ; the excretion of the hemoglobin with the urine (hemoglobinuria) takes place when more than one-sixtieth of the total quantity of hemoglobin becomes dissolved (Ponfick). Hemoglobinemia and hemoglobinuria are merely symptoms. The primary affection is the destruction of the red blood corpuscles, which may be due to very different causes. Ked blood corpuscles may become disintegrated and dissolved as a result of colds in cer- tain individuals (rheumatic hemoglobinemin) ; or by burns on the skin, or by certain poisons (for example, chloride of potash, pyro- gallic acid) ; or, finally, by parasites, as in Texas fever and related diseases of cattle and sheep. The judgment of hemoglobinemia must therefore vary accord- ing to the etiology. Among native domesticated animals there are two common dis- eases in which hemoglobinemia is a ragular symptom, viz.: Black ischuria of the horse and so-called hematuria of cattle. Black Ischuria of the Horse. Natube. — Opinions differ concerning the nature of this disease. It has been considered a nephritis (Hering) ; auto-intoxication (Bollinger) ; as an effect of increased metabolism in the muscula- ture (Siedamgrotzky and Hofmeister) ; and finally, as a rheumatic myositis with dissolution of the coloring material of the muscles (Frohner). The external conditions under which the disease appears (quite likely in unaccustomed rest in stalls), make it probable that so-called black ischuria is auto-intoxication due to the products of metabolism. Moreover, it has been shown that the disease disap- pears in consequence of exercise and colds. Concerning the nature of the toxic products of metabolism, we have nothing but supposi- tions. Autopsy. — Upon post mortem examination we find a shellac- colored noncoagulating or poorly coagulating blood; a white, pale color and an edematous infiltration of the musculature of the hind quarters. On microscopic investigation there appear, as first stated CHOLEMIA 375 by Frohner, and later corroborated by Zschokke, a granular cloudi- ness, fragmentation, loss of cross-striation, and, finally, a marked byaline degeneration of the fibers of affected muscles (p. 357). Judgment. — The Eegierung president at Arnsberg, on account of an outbreak of meat poisoning at Altena in which a number of persons were affected and some workmen died as a result of eating the meat of a horse slaughtered for sanitary reasons, called attention to the dangers which may be associated, under certain conditions, with the consumption of such meat. In the decree it was assumed that the horse in question was suffering from hemoglobinemia and it was therefore ordered that in future the meat of horses slaugh- tered on account of this disease should be absolutely excluded from consumption by man. It was further stated in the decree, however, that if the horse in question had recovered, but still exhibited a partial paralysis in a mild form, and if a question had arisen regarding the slaughter of the animal on account of its uselessness or loss of value, that the danger of the transmission of the original disease was no longer present. Under such conditions, therefore, the use of the meat may be permitted, in case it is not prohibited for other reasons. With regard to the wording of this decree, it is to be noted that according to our knowledge of the nature of hemoglobinemia in horses, it is improbable that this disease, in and of itself, can render the meat injurious to health. Harmful properties may, however, appear in the meat, if secondary septic processes have developed in conse- quence of decubitus. For hematuria of cattle, see under " Texas Fever," p. 538. 5. — Cholemia (Icterus). Nature. — In cholemia the constituents of the bile circulate in the blood. Cholemia appears clinically and in the carcass as a yellow coloration of the solid tissues (deposition of bilirubin); consequently the disease is commonly called jaundice (icterus) from its chief symptom. The cause of cholemia is a partial or total obstruction of the ductus choledochus (in consequence of duodenitis, bile concretions, and parasites — especially wandering nematodes). In this manner hepatogenous, or retention, icterus arises. The second form of icterus is known as hematogenous or anhepatogenous, and is caused by an excessive disintegration of red ' 376 ANOMALIES OF THE BLOOD blood corpuscles. Hematogenous icterus accompanies certain intox- ications; for example, poisoning from phosphorus, as well as certain infectious diseases, especially pneumonia of horses and swin& plague. Auhepatogenous icterus may also arise in connection with extensive hemorrhages (hematoidin being identical with bilirubin). Hematogenous icterus is, therefore, a concomitant phenomenon and does not possess the independent significance which attaches to hepatogenous icterus. Autopsy. — In severe cases of eholemia, all the tissues are col- ored yellow or yellowish-green. Upon microscopic examination deposits of bilirubin crystals are found in the yellow colored tissues ; these crystals are especially abundant in the tissues of the liver and kidneys. Normal conditions prevail with the exception of the yellow color. Moreover, the complete retention of the bile may lead to considerable disturbance of nutrition (emaciation) ; the- latter condition is associated with a marked yellow coloration.* Judgment. — Cholemia does not render the meat dangerous ta health, but merely le.ssens its value. The deterioration in quality results from the abnormal coloration of the tissues. The utilizatioa of jaundiced meat for human food depends, otherwise, upon the intensity of the yellow color, In moderate cases the meat is usually permitted to be sold without restriction. Strongly colored meat^ however, is sold as inferior food material, under declaration ; while meat of an intensive greenish-yellow coloration is absolutely excluded from the market. Hertwig called attention to the fact that a decision concerning icteric animals should never be made until the carcass has entirely cooled off, for it happens quite often that animals, especially hogs,, which exhibit a striking yellow coloration immediately after slaugh- ter, lose this color after becoming cold. This remarkable post mortem phenomenon is to be explained by the presence of a reducing power in the living tissues (see page 198). Incidentally it should be noted that jaundice can only be recognized with certainty in daylight or by electric light, and that it escapes the notice of the observer by gas light. In lupinosis, which must be considered as an intoxication, hepa- togenous icterus is one of the most prominent symptoms. Besides *With reference to the differentiation of pathological jaundice from phy- siological yellow coloration of the adipose tissue in certain methods of fattening, compare p. 345. UKEMIA 377 this, alterations of the parenchyma regularly occur (cloudy swelling and fatty metamorphosis of the liver, kidneys, myocardium, and, in severe cases, of the musculature). Judgment on lupinosis should be the same as for icterus. The admission of the meat of animals affected with this disease to free or restricted sale depends upon the seriousness or intensity of the disease. 6. — Uremia. Origin. — The accumulation of the constituents of the urine in blood may arise from defective excretion or by the resorption of excreted urine. The first cause is rare in food animals ; according to my experience it appears only in the most acute cases of bilateral pyelonephritis of cattle. The second method of origin of uremia is more frequent. A retention of the urine may arise in steers and wethers if the concretions become wedged in the urethra. A favorite location for these obstructions is, as is well known, the S-shaped flexure of the urethra. If the concretion is not removed by opera- tion, rupture of the bladder .occurs, with discharge of the urine into the body cavity, or a necrosis of the obstructed part of the urethra with subsequent urinary infiltration of the surrounding tissue. In cases of urinary infiltration, with gangrene, Guyon and Albarran found Staphylococcus pyogenes, a non-liquefying, fluorescent bacillus with pathogenic properties, non-pathogenic cocci, and BaxMus pyogenes urece, to the last of which the discoverers attributed very offensive properties. CuNlOAL Symptoms. — Uremic animals, even during life, appear to be very sick and apathetic. In acute cases uremic convulsions are always present. In cases where discharge of the urine into the body cavity or into the subcutis takes place, the expired air has the odor of urine. Autopsy. — The blood shed at the time of slaughter has a pro- nounced urinous odor. In the subcutaneous and intermuscular tissues there are everywhere considerable accumulations of a slightly alkaline fluid with urinous odor. More or less numerous and extensive hemorrhages occur in the connective tissues and muscles. If rupture of the bladder has occurred, a quantity of urine is observed in the body cavity and the peritoneum is simulta- neously reddened. la urinary infiltration, on the other hand, in the region of the urethra there is an accumulation of urine in the 378 ANOMALIES OF THE BLOOD subcutaneous tissues of the pendant parts of the abdomen and thorax.* In cases where the urine is retained and a resorption of the undecomposed urine takes place, the carcasses possess the well- knpwn urinous odor. Where, however, the resorption of decom- posed urine takes place, the odor is decidedly ammoniacal, in consequence of the decomposition of the urine into ammonia and carbonic acid. This decomposition, however, soon takes place, even in case of resorption of undecomposed urine, so that within a short time after slaughter no difference can be detected in the odor of the meat. As the animal body cools off, the urinous odor of the meat dis- appears ; the abnormal odor, however, may be made to reappear in its original intensity by warming a piece of meat over a flame or by cooking. Judgment. — It requires no detailed argument to show that meat which exhibits such a marked fundamental alteration as that of the uremic animals is to be absolutely excluded from the market as highly unfit for human food. Attention may, however, be called to the fact that urinary discharges which take place immediately before slaughter in conse- quence of injuries to the urinary passages, do not justify an exclu- sion of the meat. I have occasionally seen such trifling urinary discharges in the pelvic cavity of heifers which were accidentally injured during coitus immediately before slaughter. *In uremia of fowls an excretion of uric acid upon the serous membranes, in the air sacs and in the kidneys is observed. Moreover, considerable accumulations of uric acid may take place in the joints and the tissues surrounding them. X. POISONING (INTOXICATIONS), EFFECT OF ODORIFIC DRUGS AND SO-CALLED AUTOINTOXICATION. 1. — Poisoning (Intoxications). Occurrence. — Poisoning of food animals may occur from various causes. Most frequently it is the result of eating poisonous plants along with the fodder (for example, colchicum, cicuta, equise- tum, lupines, buckwheat) ; or of eating other injurious fodder (infested, mouldy fodder, sprouting potatoes, cotton seed, beech nuts, ricinus, mustard cakes, etc.) ; or by the accidental eating of poisonous substances (lead, arsenic, phosphorus, saltpeter, kainit, salt in large quantities) ; and, finally, by irrational medication (tartar emetic, mercury, alkalies, veratrin, strychnin, carbolic acid, etc.). With reference to the various poisons, the text-books on toxicology should be consulted, since in this account poisoning will receive only a general discussion. Detection. — The detection of poisons is possible with certainty only when a trained investigator has opportunity to inspect the poisoned animals, not only after slaughter, but also while alive. The sudden appearance of disease, the serious disturbances in the realm of the central nervous system — accompanied or not by diges- tive symptoms — and sudden death, furnish the most important criteria for the recognition of poison when considered in connection with anamnestic data. Autopsy. — The post mortem findings vary. They may be : 1. Completely negative (poisoning frpm siinple nerve poisons, such as morphine, eserin, strychnin). 2. Alterations in the alimentary tract (acid, corrosive poisons). 3. In addition to the two above-named variations, alterations of the blood (hemoglobinemia) and of the solid tissues (icterus) may be present (blood poisons, like chloride of potash, chloroform and phosphorus). 379 380 POISONING The alterations in cases of poisons in groups 2 anil 3 are more pronounced after death, while in group 1 the expert is not in a position to demonstrate by a simple macroscopical examination that poisoning has occurred. Fortunately, however, this impossibility does not carry with it any serious hygienic danger. Judgment. — Concerning the question of the sanitary judgment of poisoning, the experiments of Frohner and Knudsen . produced especially instructive results. Frohner and Knudsen, in their important work, call attention to the fact that for a long time, but incorrectly, the injurious char- acter of the meat of poisoned animals has been considered a veterinary axiom. In this connection it is necessary to distinguish between the possibility of a chemical demonstration of a poison in meat, and the possibility of this poison exercising a harmful effect. For example, a steer weighing 1,000 lbs. would be poisoned with 0.5 gm. strychnin. For a man weighing 100 lbs., on the other hand,, the fatal dose is 5 mg. In one kg. of the meat of a steer poisoned with strychnin a man could find, at most, 1 mg. of the poison — a. perfectly harmless dose. It should also be known that many wild races kill the game which they use for food by means of poisoned arrows, and, therefore, live exclusively upon the meat of poisoned animals.* Furthermore, Frohner and Knudsen call attention to the fact that all experiments which have been reported in the literature on the subject and all observations are against the assumption that the meat of poisoned animals possesses harmful properties. Harms proved this point for nux vomica and tartarus stibiatus ; Feser for strychnin and eserin ; Spallanzani, Zappa and Sonnenschein for arsenic, t * Thus, for example, the Akas, a mountain race in the north of Brahmaputra, kill their food game by arrows which, according to an investigation by Waddell, are poisoned with aoonitin. t The experiments and observations cited from the literature on the subject by Frohner and Knudsen concerning the harmlessness of the meat of poisoned animals may be supplemented by the following : Gaiitier reported concerning the poisoning of calves with cotton-seed meal cakes. The meat of calves, which was of good appear- ance, was eaten without harm. Peser made a report concerning experiments with the meat of horses which had been killed with apomorphine (10 gm. in 250 gm. of water injected directly into the veins) ; the raw meat was eaten by dogs without any ill effect. Likewise a subcutaneous injection of the meat serum, as well as perfectly fresh blood, caused no tympanites or other symptoms of disease in dogs. According to Peschel, a dairyman lost four cows by poisoning with colchicum. The meat of the animals was eaten without producing any ill effects. INTOXICATIONS 381 Fiohner and Knudsea have leceutly reported their own experi- ments with strychnin and eserin. On the basis of these experiments they declare that the meat of animals which have been poisoned ■with either strychnin or eserin is not harmful. The following abstract may be given of these experiments : 1. Strychnin. — A wether weighing 39 kg. and a ewe weighing 24 kg. were poisoned with 0.05 and 0.03 gm. strychnin, respectively. Death took place after 20 and 19 minutes. Pieces of the muscle (750 and 500 gm.), as well as the livers (400 and 300 gm.), were treated according to the method of Dragendorff. The reaction for strychnin took place in all cases and a physiological experiment with white mice also gave positive results. Three dogs, however, weighing 15, 17 and 18 lbs. respectively, ate 2 lbs. each of the raw meat without suffering any harm. The authors themselves ate \ lb. of the' cooked meat. The meat as well as the broth had an agreeable taste, was not bitter and caused no ill effects. 2. Eserin. — A wether weighing 32 kg. received 0.5 gm. eserin sulphate and died after 13 minutes. Eserin could not be demon- strated in the musculature (1,750 gm. were used for the investigation) nor in the liver (500 gtn.). On the other hand, an examination of a mixture of the heart, kidneys, lungs and blood (in all, 1,000 gm.) gave a decided eserin reaction. Frohuer and Knudsen ate \ lb. of the cooked meat without suffering any harm, and the two dogs which were used in the previous experiment each ate 2 lbs. of raw meat without any disturbance of their general condition. Frbhner and Knudsen call attention to the fact that especial significance is to be ascribed to the negative results which have been obtained with eserin, since eserin exercises a comparatively greater effect upon man and dogs than upon other mammals. More- over, Frohner and Knudsen have recently conducted experimental investigations upon poisoning by pilocarpin and veratrin. The plan of the experiments was the same as in previously-mentioned experiments. Sheep and rabbits were poisoned with fatal doses of pilocarpin and veratrin, and the meat of these animals was tested for food, partly by the experimenters and in larger quantities with dogs. The results obtained agree completely with previous results. " The meat of animals poisoned with pilocarpin and veratrin proved to be perfectly harmless as food for man and animals." In so far, therefore, as septic or pyemic processes do not accompany the intoxications, it may be confidently asserted, on the 382 POISONING basis of experiments made with the four most poisonous alkaloids (strychnin, eserin, pilooarpin and veratrin), that "the medicinal treatment of an animal with any drug whatever does not render the meat dangerous for food."* Even the meat of animals which have died in consequence of an accidental or intentional poisoning possesses no harmful properties, but is simply unfit for food in the sense of Section X of the Pure Food Law of May 14, 1879. The chemical and physiological investigations of meat have shown that it either contains no poison (in the case of pilooarpin and eserin), or only traces (in the case of strychnin and veratrin). This phenomenon is explained by the above-mentioned fact, that the musculature, as well as the living tissue, decomposes the alka- loids which have been taken up, principally by reduction (see p. 198). Frohner and Knudsen consider the liver as next in importance to the musculature in the decomposition of alkaloids, while a weaker reducing power attaches to the blood than to the muscles and liver. Excretion of the alkaloids by means of the excretory organs is to be considered as the second factor in the removal of the poison from the organism. Finally, Frohner and Knudsen observed that the more easily decomposed glucosids, as, for example, the glucosids of digitalis, behave in a manner similar to that of the alkaloids. The possibility of an injurious effect is much less in the case of mineral poisons than with vegetable poisons, for they exercise a slighter effect. Arsenic, for example, is ten times less poisonous than strychnin; phosphorus, soon after its resorption, is modified into nonpoisonous oxidation products ; the metallic salts (lead, copper, mercury, zinc, antimony, silver salts, etc.) are never resorbed except in small quantities, so that in the case of these substances, poisoning by means of the meat is out of the question. The same holds true for poisoning with caustic alkalies and acids.t According to " Mitteilungen aus der Tierarztlichen Praxis im Kbnigreich Preussen," fifty scabby sheep died from mercuric poisoning in 1880, in Koln. Only very small quantities of quick- * The correctness of this position has been corroborated, since the publication of the experiments of Frohner and Knudsen, by a manifold experience. Thus, on the basis of the experiments in question, Warncke admitted to the market the meat of a cow which, one hour before compulsory slaughter, had received 3 gm. morphine in the form of a subcutaneous injection. The tissue around the point of injection and the entrails were removed. The meat was eaten without any ill effects. f In cases of poisoning from acid, caustic substances, it should be noted that septic processes may develop if the action of the caustic substances is long continued. INTOXICATIONS 383 silver could be demonstrated in the mutton. Ludwig made a report to the Society of Physicians in "Vienna concerning the distribution of mercury in the different organs of man and animals which had died from corrosive sublimate poisoning. Taking 1,000 as the basal number, 225 parts were found in the kidneys, 87 in the liver, 53 in the large intestine, 38 in the spleen, 6 in the small intestine, 1 in the brain, and only minimal quantities in the muscles and bones. Albrecht reports that the meat of two cows which had druiik a decoction of lead ore and had died as a result, was fed to several dogs and cats without causiug any bad effects. A dog belonging to Albrecht received 120 lbs. without the slightest ill effects. Accord- ing to EUenberger, the blood and musculature contain very little lead in cases of chronic lead poisoning. The internal organs (spleen, kidneys and liver) contain more, but only 0.01 per cent. Laho and Mosselmann fed a young steer, weighing 185 kg., 50 gm. (daily) of a resinous paint, | of which consisted of white lead. The steer died on the sixth day and a chemical investigation disclosed the presence in the kidneys and liver of 40 mg. lead sulphate per kilogram. Traces of lead were demonstrated in the brain, while in the meat not even a trace of the dangerous metal could be detected. The meat was fed to dogs during a period of several weeks and the ani- mals showed not the slightest disturbance in their condition. Abnokmal Condition of Cebtain Organs. — Frohner and Knud- sen expressly assert that their experiments related only to meat (including the heart, liver and kidneys). The stomach and the intestines of poisoned animals, on the other hand, are always dan- gerous on account of their poisonous contents.* These facts are to be remembered in cases of emergency slaughter where powerful poisons are administered, not by the mouth, but subcutaneously, since these poisons are excreted through the. glands of the stomach and intestines. Naturally, in cases of subcutaneous injection of powerful drugs, the point of injection must also be considered dan- gerous and must be removed before the meat is admitted to the market. In addition to the stomach and intestines, the udder occupies a special position among the organs of poisoned animals, according to an observation of Schmidt in Crossen. A family of seven were attacked with acute pains and violent vomiting immediately after eating the udder of a cow which a few * According to Schultz, a whole family was made ill by eating fieldfares which had eaten meat poisoned with strychnin and intended for foxes. The stomach of these birds, as is well known, is always eaten with the other edible parts. 381 POISONING days before, in the course of the last five days before slaughter, had received 18 gin. of veratrura album, the dose on the last day before slaughter being 4.5 gm. No evidence was obtained of any harmful property in the meat. According to statements of Lewin, the meat of fowls which have received large doses of strychnin has been shown to be dan- gerous. As is generally known, fowls are almost immune to strychnin and may therefore take large quantities of the poison. Lewin administered 0.2 gm. of strychnin by way of the mouth to fowls during a period of 14 days. After the fowls had died a dog was fed upon the meat. After the first meal of 125 gm. the animal showed symptoms of disease which developed after further feeding into a regular tetanus, resulting in death. It is stated that an investigation of the internal organs of fowls poisoned with strychnin showed no evidence of the poison, while a considerable quantity was found in the muscle meat. According to Schneider, the meat of geese, fowls and pigeons which had died from fatal doses of strychnin proved to be harmless. Jantzon fed the internal organs and some of the meat of a cow which had been slaughtered soon after receiving a subcutaneous injection of strychnin, to a number of small dogs (dachshund and terriers), without ill effects, while a hunting dog which was fed the meat from around the point of injection was affected with violent strychnin convulsions. 2.— Effect of Odorific Drugs on the Meat. In cases of emergency slaughter the meat inspector often has opportunity to inspect animals the meat of which* possesses an abnormal odor. Aside from the foul odor which meat assumes when processes with a disagreeable odor have developed in the body (sapremia and septicemia), we may observe in the place of the nor- mal meat odor various other odors which strongly resemble those of certain drugs. The majority of our aromatic drugs which, contrary to the rules of the veterinary prescription regulations, are administered to dis- eased food animals, transmit a very specific or somewhat modified odor to the meat, if they have been administered in large quantities and if the" period between the administration of the drugs and the slaughtering of the animal has not been too long. To this group of drugs belong ether, camphor, turpentine oil, kerosene, asafetida. AUTOINTOXICATION 385 oleum carvi, anise oil, carbolic acid and chlorin preparations. Car- bolic acid and chlorin are, strange to say, actively absorbed by the body and retained for a long time, if the drugs are not administered by way of the mouth but inhaled along with the inspired air. Among such, cases have been observed which have been transported in recently disinfected freight cars, or have been placed in freshly- disinfected stalls. Demonstration of Abnormal Odoes. — What was said concern- ing the more conspicuous appearance of ammonia in the me.it of uremic animals when subjected to artificial heating (p. 378), holds true also for other abnormal odors of the meat of slaughtered ani- mals. These odors are more easily detected after warming or cooking the meat. Judgment. — In all cases in which the abnormal odor is due to the administration of aromatic drugs, the opinion concerning the utilization of meat will be determined as in cases described on p. 245 ff., according to the intensity of the odor. In slight cases the meat can be admitted to the market unhesitatingly, under declaration. In other cases, on the contrary, in which a foul stench is emitted from the meat, such meat is to be considered highly unfit for food and is to be absolutely prohibited from sale. 3.— The So-called Autointoxication. In the discussion of blood diseases, three affections have already been named, which from an etiological standpoint are to be considered as autointoxications, L e., as cases of poisoning due to metabolic products of the body. These diseases are cholemia, uremia and the so-called black ischuria. A suitable discussion has been given above to these diseases. In cholemia and uremia we have to do with the retention or resorption of the bile and urine. The conditions are not so simple in black ischuria. We do not know what substances act in a poisonous manner in this case. However, the origin and course of the disease, as already mentioned, make it exceedingly probable that the so-called black ischuria is a form of poisoning due to some metabolic products of the body. Similar conditions are found in parturient paralysis. A special ; discussion of this disease follows. 386 POISONING Parturient Paralysis. Ludwig Franck deserves credit for having called attentiou to the fact that the diseases which occur immediately after parturition and which previously had been designated by the name parturient paralysis, or milk fever, are really of two forms. Franck distin- guished a septic and a paralytic parturient fever. The two diseases- have nothing in common, except the fact that they occur after parturition. Si'ptic parturient fever is an exquisite septicemia. The paralytic form, on the other hand, is a marked case of poison- ing. This distinction is of the greatest significance for meat inspection and we must agree with Friedberger and Frohner when they propose to characterize the difference between the two diseases- by the use of the term " parturient paresis " in the place of the less- applicable term of "paralytic parturient fever." OocDERENCE, CouRSE AND AuTOPSY. — Parturient paresis occurs most frequently in cattle, less often in goats and hogs. It begins with a short stage of irritation, thereupon a paralysis of the posterior extremities follows, and rapidly extends to the other parts of the body. The p;iralysis is both motor and sensory. Moreover, the smooth musculature (of the intestines and bladder) is paralyzed- Even in acute cases, however, recovery may take place with aston- ishing rapidity. Otherwise, death follows in consequence of cerebral paralysis. Gross anutomic lesions are not present. The post mortem finding is negative, as in the case of poisoning. The uterus exhibits no injuries or inflammatory symptoms ; it contains only (v small quantity of odorless fluid. This condition is in complete harmony with the fact that parturient paralysis is usually associated with cases of easy parturition. It should be noted that parturient paresis appears from twenty- four hours to three days after birth, and that it is almost exclusively the well-nourished, highly-fed and well-cared-for animals which are attacked by the disease. Etiology. — Opinions concerning the cause of the above described phenomena vary, like those concerning black ischuria. Franck attempted to explain parturient paresis by cerebral congestion, with isubsequent cerebral edema ; Harms, by the • absorption of air in the blood vessels of the brain (aeremia). The hypothesis of Franck, as Schraidt-Miilheim has asserted, does not harmonize with the disease. AUTOINTOXICATION 387 The aeremia of the blood vessels of the brain, however, is an artificial condition which is almost always produced hy removal of the cra- nium. The view entertained by Schmidt-Miilheim, that in this disease we have to do with a substance resembling an alkaloid, which is formed in the body of animals, is best calculated to explain the acute spinal and cerebral symptoms. It is doubtful, however, whether the hypothesis of Schmidt-Miilheim is well-founded, viz., that the toxic substances resembling the poisonous principles in cases of sausage poison, owe their origin to a peculiar decomposi- tion of the lochial fluid in the uterus. According to the results of the method of treatment recommended by Siihmidt of Kolding (iodin infusions into the milk cisterns), it is more probable that the hypothetical poisonous principles are formed in the udder. Although we are not able to explain with certainty the origin of parturient paresis, it may be safely assumed that in this disease, as in black ischuria, we have to do with an intoxication. The poison may be produced by the action of bacteria ; it may be a toxin ; there is no evidence, however, to justify the assumption of such an origin. The cumplete integrity of the organs argues against such a method of development. It is more probable that parturient paresis is caused by leucomaines which arise in certain animals in conse- quence of physiological processes. Such a leucomaine, for example, according to the investigations of Eemy, is developed in a fish (diodon) which lives in the Ja[)anese Sea. The poison appears in the glands when these organs are in a condition of physiological rest. W. Eber considers parturient paresis, as well as black ischuria, io be a " toxigen disease." * He assumed that toxigen is formed in the reproductive orj;ans of healthy cows, but that in such situations it remains toxigen, or is excreted as such. In diseased animals, on the contrary, ha believes that we have to do with a trans- formation of the toxigen into an active poison in consequence of metabolism. *The general term "toxigen" or " toxigen ous substances," according to "W. Bber, should include all those chemical bodies which assume poisonous properties only in consequence of the action of the animal organism. Such a peculiar intercon- nection between a toxigen and the animal body is observed, for example, in iodic acid, ibdid of soda, and iodin with iodid of soda. The intoxications caused by these sub- stances are distinguished by the fact that the beginning of the poisonous symptoms ' occurs after an incubation period ; the poisoned animals do not manifest any symptoms of disease for several hours (six to eight) after intravenous injection of iodid of soda. It is not until after this period that marked symptoms of puisoning occur. 388 POISONING Judgment. — Physicians have repeatedly stated, and the state- ment has been again recently repeated in England, that the meat of animals affected with parturient paresis must be considered as a dangerous food material. This assumption is not well founded. In the first place, veterinary experience is against it. Up to the present time, no instance of harm in man has been observed from eating the meat of animals which were affected with parturient paresis. If parturient paresis could cause dungerous properties in the meat, this fact could not possibly have remained unknown, in view of the great frequency with which the disease occurs, for the meat of ani- mals affected with parturient paresis, even in countries with a regular meat inspection, is in the majority of cases admitted to the market, chiefly for the reason that gross anatomical alterations are abso- lutely wanting in cases of the disease in question. This practice is strengthened by the hypothesis of Franck and Harms concerning the origin of the disease. Friedberger and Frbhner call attention to the fact that compli- cations with septic parturient fever may occur in addition to simple cases of parturient paresis. " Indeed, cases are not rare in which we find the clinical symptoms of parturient paresis and the anatomical symptoms of a septic inflammation of -the uterine mucosa." The meat inspector should bear this fact in mind, since meat in process of sepsis is to be judged quite differently from that in cases of par- turient paresis. The demonstration of a complication of parturient paresis with septic parturient fever offers, however, no difficulties, since in the latter case the uterus exhibits conspicuous alterations (septic metritis). Moreover, the meat of animals which have been affected with parturient paresis is to be considered as of inferior value for food, and should therefore be sold only under declaration. The inferior quality of the meat is apparent from the fact that it comes from animals subjected to compulsory slaughter, which is, as a rule, good evidence of imperfect bleeding ; this condition is due to the fact that slaughter is postponed until the paralysis is complete. Finally, attention should be called to the fact that in earlier times the odor of drugs was not observed in the case of any disease so frequently as in parturient paresis. This fact is explained by the method of treating the disease, in which aromatic stimulants (ether, camphor, turpentine oil) played an important part. XI. ANIMAL PARASITES (INTASION DISEASES). The number of animal parasites which have been observed in food animals is unusually large. A sanitary significance, however, attaches only to those parasites which have their seat in organs which serve as foodior man. For this reason, the majority of the numerous skin parasites are without significance for meat inspection, since the skin of food animals, with the exception of hogs, is, as a rule, not utilized as human food. The sanitary siguificance of different species of animal parasites varies considerably. Only a few species of animal parasites possess great significance ; the majority are unimportant. According to their importance in meat inspection, the greater number of animal parasites which are found in the body of food animals may be divided into three groups : 1. Parasites which are not transmissible to man. 2. Parasites which may be transmitted to man by eating meat.. 3. Parasites which are not immediately harmful, but which may become so after a preliminary change of host. As will be readily understood, the greatest interest attaches to those parasites which belong to the second and third groups. These parasites, or rather the parts of food animals which are infested by them, must be excluded from the market. Meat inspection must also take account of the parasites of group 1, since they produce in the organs the characters of inferior food material; and it is, fur- thermore, the duty of meat inspection to destroy those parasites which, in a larval condition, are injurious only to domesticated animals. It would transcend the limits of a handbook of meat inspection if we were to go into a detailed description of all the parasites which are here concerned. A detailed description is justified only in the ca^e of those parasites which may offer difficulties in identification. In the case of others, a short statement concerning their form and 390 INVASION DISEASES size is sufficient for the purpose of meat inspection. With regard to further peculiarities of these parasites, reference should be made to the text-books of parasitology by Ziirn, Leuckart, Braun, Eailliet and Neumann. The anatomical alterations which are produced in the organs of domesticated animals infested with animal parasites will receive a more detailed consideration. 1.— Parasites Which Are Not Transmissible to Man. Of the parasites included under this head, the following will receive attention : 1. The hair follicle mite in the skin of hogs. 2. Various eudoparasitic dipterous larvae. 3. Numerous worms which occur in the organs of food animals. 1.— The Hair Follicle Mite of the Hog. The hair follicle mite (Demodex phyUoides suis), discovered by Csokor, is parasitic in the skin of the hog. It is from 0.2 to .25 mm. long and produces small swellings of the hair follicles which ordi- narily project only slightly beyond the surface of the skin. The swellings show a predilection for the snout, neck, under part of the breast, abdomen and flank, as well as the inner surface of the thigh. They are less conspicuous for their size (from that of a mustard seed to that of a lentil) than for their gray or yellowish color and sharp delimitation from the neighboring tissue. The enlarged hair follicles contain a soft semi-fluid material, consisting of disinte- grated epithelial cells and dermal oil, in which the follicle mites may be demonstrated in large numbers. In the case which was investigated by Csokor, and which led to the discovery of the para- site, the swellings of the hair follicles had reached the size of a hazelnut and were partly transformed into ruptured abscesses. Judgment. — The judgment of organs infested with parasites which are not transmissible to man is very simple ; it will therefore be sufficient to discuss the matter in a general way for group 1 (p. 417). 2. — Dipterous Larvse. In cattle, the larva of the ox warble fly (OEdrus bovis) is found in various parts of the body. The most striking, and for meat inspection the most important, alterations caused by these larvEe are ANIMAL PARASITES 391 in the subcutis, in which they undergo their last development stage. In this position they produce swellings which may attain the size of a walnut. In cutting into the swollen parts, it is observed that the larvae, which, after attaining complete development, are 28 mm. loiTg and 12-15 mm. wide, are surrounded with pus and lie in a granulat- ing membrane. In the vicinity of these swellings there are more or less extensive collateral swellings. The first larvss are observed in the subcutis in January. The migration from the subcutis begins in April. The oestrus larvae are observed only in cattle at pasture, and most frequently in young animals. lu regions in which cattle Temain at pasture day and night, as, for instance, in the marshes of Schles^ig-Holstein, the parasites are extraordinarily abundant. Thus Euser reports from the abattoir at Kiel that in that^ locality from one-fourth to one-third of ajl the cattle were infested with warble flies. The parasitism of oestrus larvae causes considerable loss to cattle raisers. In England the injury is estimated at 160,000,000 marks per year. The chief damage lies in the deterioration of the skins. Furthermore, the parasites cause a decrease in the value of the meat, since, when they are present in large numbers, a consid- erable portion of the subcutis and skin muscles must be removed. Butchers fear especially the edematous infiltration of the subcutis, which in England is characterized as " licked beef," or " butchers' jelly," for the reason that the surface of meat which is changed in this manner possesses a dirty greenish-yellow appearance after from twelve to twenty-four hours. Development Stagres of (Estrns Larvae. Formerly the view was held that the development of oestrus larvae took place exclusively in the subcutis. Careful investigations, which were begun by Hinrichsen and were carried on by several abattoir veterinarians, have shown that this view is incorrect. Hiurichsen, in his earlier work, in connection with the inspection of slaughtered and dead cattle in Husum, found numerous larvae scattered about in the adipose tissue between the doj-sal vertebrae and the dura mater of the spinal cord. The larvae were 10 to 15 mm. long and 2 to 3 mm. wide, clear and transparent and partly gray-green in the middle. The larvae lay in a uniformly edematous infiltrated swelling. This finding was corroborated by Home, Buser, Goltz and Koorevaar in the abattoirs at Ohiistiania, Kiel, Schwerin and Amsterdam. Goltz, Kuser and Koorevaar found also that the youngest stages of v 392 INVASION DISEASES the larvae occur as small hyalin structures under the mucous membrane of the esophagus. It was, therefore, assumed, in harmony with Ruser, that the larvae of the ox warble fly, after hatching from the eggs, penetrate into the mouth cavity and pass thence into the esophagus, where their first development is under- gone. During the first months of the year, Ruser found the thoracic portion of the esophagus most thickly permeated with the larvae and concluded from this fact that the larvae had left the esophagus, had made their way upward into the mediastinal fat tissues, and had travelled along the blood vessels and nerves partly into the spinal canal and partly directly into their final situation, the subcutis. This assumption did not remain uncontradicted. Thus, Neumann held it for certain that the larvae which he had oppor- tunity to study in the vertebral canal were not those of CEdrus bovis. Koorevaar, however, dis- pelled this doubt, since he was able to rear the ox warble fly from larvae which he obtained in the spinal canal. Moreover, we owe to Koorevaar a thorough investi- gation concerning the migration of oestrus larvae in the body of L * JWMi cattle. ^— '.!B!p Toward the end of June, Koorevaar found in the wall of the esophagus very small hyalin larvae, the smallest of which were scarcely 2 mm. long, and the largest 8 to 4 mm. Daring, the ■succeeding months the larvae were found throughout the whole extent of the esophagus, from the pharynx to the cardiac end. They were located between the mucous membrane and the muscular layer. In July some of the larvae penetrated the muscular layer in the cervical portion of the esophagus and took up a position in the connective tissue surrounding it. By the middle of August, when numerous larvae were present in and outside of the esophagus aud in the mediastinum, some specimens 5 mm. long were found in the Beef esophagus with cBstrus larvae, the right a larva in natural size, On ANIMAL PARASITES 393 subdural fat tissue of the spinal canal. During the autumn months larvae varying in length from 5 to 13 mm. were still found in the esophagus. The majority of them, however, had already wandered to the spinal canal. From October until January, it was not a rare thing to find as many as forty larvae in the spinal canal of a single animal. In young cattle as many as fifty-seven larvse were found, which were distributed throughout the whole length of the spinal canal from the neck to the cauda equina, but most numerously in the lumbar region of the spinal cord. Frequently larvse of the same size were found in the esophagus and in the subdural fat tissue. By the end of December, Koorevaar observed a dirty yellow, brown, or occasionally hemorrhagic edema in the subcutis, which indicated the arrival of the larvse at the point of their final development. In the winter months, the simultaneous occurrence of oestrus larvse in the esophagus, in the subdural fat tissue and in the subcutis, in the same animal, is not rare. According to Koorevaar, the larvse of the ox warble flies which are on the wing in July, are distributed as follows : From July to September, in the esophagus ; from September to January, in the spinal canal ; from January to May, in the subcutis and skin. The larvse of the later appearing flies, on the other hand, are distributed as follows : From October to December, in the esophagus ; from December to April, iu the spinal canal ; from April to August, in the subcutis. It appears strange that in cutting up cattle the oestrus larvse are so seldom met with in their migration through the musculature. Home asserts that in the months from February to April he observed dirty green larval passages in the musculature on frequent occasions. Furthermore, Ruser reports the finding of warble swellings in the musculature (longissimus dorsi). Although migrat- ing larvse have never yet been found in the musculature, this fact is to be explained by the rapidity with which oestrus larvse are able to wander to their resting place. Koorevaar placed eleven larvse and eight days later fifteen larvse under the skin of a dog. When the wound was opened one hour after the operation only one larva was still at the point of the operation ; the remaining fourteen had disappeared. When the dog was killed, fourteen days later, all of the twenty-six larvse which had been introduced were found ; five in the subcutis, six between the folds of the intestines free in the 394 INVASION DISEASES body cavity, five in the fat tissue of the spleen and kidneys, three in cne psoas muscles, three in the wall of the esophagus, two around the trachea and two in the subdural adipose tissue. The parasites had, in the space of eight to fourteen days, completed these extensive migrations, and yet no traces were to be found either of the larvae or the passages through which they had made their way. With reference to the recognition of young larvae, Ruser has correctly called attention to the diagnostic V-alue of the edema which accompanies the location of the larva (Fig. 98). The sheep bot fly {(Estrus ovis) lives parasitically in the nasal cavity and connected passages of the sheep, and may cause irrita- tion of greater or less severity (catarrh of a simple or acute form). The larvae, which are at first very small, develop finally to yellowish- brown oval structures from 22 to 28 mm. long. In the pharynx and stomach of the horse we find the larvae of GastropMlii,s equi (19 mm. long) ; in the duodenum of the horse, G. nasalis (15 mm. long) ; in the alimentary tract of horses and cattle, the larvae of G. pecorum (13 mm. long) ; and, finally, in the esophagus, stomach and small' intestines, or occasionally in the colon of the horse, G. hcemorrlmdalis (16 mm. long). 3. — "Worms. Among both groups of flat and round worms the following parasites are not transmissible to man : (a) All tapeworms of food animals, with the single exception of Tcenia echinococcus of the dog. (b) The larval stages of all tapeworms of food animals, with the exception of Cysticercm bovis, C. cellulosce and Echiiiococcus poly- morphus. (c) All fluke worms (trematodes). {d) All nematodes {Ascarits, Euslrongylus, Filaria, Oxyuris, Strongylus, Trichocephalus and Acanthocephali), with the single exception of Trichina spiralis. In the case of the majority of these parasites, the discussion may be limited to the most important facts. (a) Tapeworms (Cestodes). The greatest importance attaches to Moniezia expansa, which causes the tapeworm disease of lambs, as well as to Drepanidotcenia lanceolata and Z>. setigera, which may cause extensive losses in geese, ANIMAL, PARASITES 395 and filially to Davainea tetragona, which causes epizootic outbreaks among young fowls. Moreover, in the horse we may observe Anoplocepkala per/oliaia (in the small and large intestine, up to the length of 80 mm.) ; A. plicata (in the small intestine, 1 m. in length), and A. mamillana (in the jejunum and ileum, 50 mm. in length) ; in cattle, sheep and goats, Moniezia expansa (4 to 5 m.* in length) ; in cattle and sheep, M. planissima (1 -to 2 m. in length), M. alha (60 to 250 cm. in length), M. henedeni (up to the length of 4 m.) ; in sheep only, M. neumanni, as well as Thysanosoma ovUla aud T. adinoides ; finally, in the dog, Taenia ccenurus (in the small intestine up to the length of 40 cm.), T. marginata (1.5 to 3 m. in length), T.serrata (in the small intestine, 60 to 60 cm. in length), and Dipylidium caninum (in the small intes- tine, 10 to 40 cm. in length). (b) Larval Stag'es of Tapeworms. In sheep and exceptionally in cattle we find the preliminary stage of Tceniaccenurus, known as Ccenurus cerebralis. It is located in the brain and spinal cord. The bladder worm is of a roundish or elongated form and of varying size, from a millet seed to that of a hen's egg. On the inner surface of the wall there are numerous, often hundreds, of scoleces. Ccenurus cerebraUs causes the disease known as gid. In rabbits and hare there is also a ccenurus (C. serialis), but only exceptionally in the central nervous system (spinal cord) ; more frequently, however, in the musculature and in the body cavity. Cysticercus tenuicollis is a parasite which is frequently found in sheep, pigs aud cattle. It represents the larval condition of Tcenia marginata of the dog. This species is most often met with in sheep and pigs. For example, 01 1, in Stettin, found it in 132 out of 500 sheep (26.4 per cent.), and Schwaimair, in Aschaffenbnrg, in 33 out of 2,009 pigs (1.64 per cent.). C. tenuicollis in its earliest stages is elongated, but later becomes rounded and varies in size according to its age. Vesicles are observed of the size of peas and as large as a man's fist, with all intermediate sizes. This larval tapeworm is most frequently found under the peritoneum and pleura and in the lateral layers as well as under the serous covering of the internal organs. The preferred location of this larva is the omentum, mes- «ntery and liver. The younger parasites are located on the surface *B7 some oversight in the German edition the length is stated as .5 to 60 m. —Translator. 396 INVASION DISEASES Eio. 99 of these organs and cause a protuberance of the serous covering (Fig. 99), while the older and larger parasites are located in diverticula of the peritoneum and pleura. O. tenuicollis is thus in every instance covered by the peritoneum or pleura. When a section is made into the serous membrane which covers the parasite, the bladder worm emerges. Its chief charac- ters are a long, corrugated neck (Fig. 100), easily protruded, the slight pressure in the fluid of the caudal bladder, and the armed head. The armature consists in a double crown of hooks which are grouped in alternat- ing rows (Fig. 101), the large hooks are from .19 to .20 mm. in length and the small ones from .11 to .12 mm. Both kinds of hooks are slender and furnished with a strongly bent point (Fig. 102). According to Schwarz, the protuberance (basal process) of the small hooks of this species is frequently so decidedly bifurcated as to appear like a thumb nut when seen from in front. The number of the hooks in G. tenuicollis is from 32 to 40. Young Cysticerous ten- uicollis in situ (after Leuckart). Pig. 100. Cysticercus tenuicollis -with artiflcially protruded scolex. Circle of hooks from Cysticercus tenuioolis. Prom a photograph, x 45 diameters. In rare cases, G. tenuicollis is found also in the parenchyma of the internal organs, especially in the liver. In this situation, however, the parasite, presumably in consequence of the pressure of the surrounding substance of the liver, never reaches a large size. At the most we find intact specimens of the size of a pea. Other- wise it is a normal condition that the Luvaa are disintegrated in the ANIMAL PARASITES 397 interior of the liver during their early developmental stages in consequence of caseation and calcification, so that onlj small casefied or calcified tubercles remain. Finally, mention should be made of the alterations which C. tenuicollis may produce in young animals. The parasite develops very rapidly. After twenty-six to twenty-eight days the head is observed, and after thirty-five to thirty-eight days the beginning of the hooks and suctorial apparatus. It is not strange, therefore, that bladder worms may be found in very young animals. Calves, lambs and young pigs, which by any chance have had opportunity to take tip the larva of T. marginata, show quite considerable alterations. Fig. 103. Fig. 102. Large and small hooks from C. tenui- collis. From a photograph, x 275 times. The small hook shows cleavage of the basal process. Calf liver with wandering C. tenuicollis. especially in the liver. The liver exhibits long, coiled passages which are filled with larv^ and detritus of the liver cells, and which are at first dark-red, but later of a brownish or greenish color (Fig. 103). In the expanded end of the passages we may regularly discover the intact or degenerated parasites. More rarely such passages are found in the lungs. It is undoubtedly the soft con- sistency of the liver tissue of young animals which is favorable to the migration of the larval parasites. G. tenuicoUis, as a rule, is a harmless parasite. It is only when it occurs in large numbers that it may cause death in young animals, 398 INVASION DISEASES with symptoms of peritonitis or pleuritis. Such cases occur now iiud then in young pigs. Differential Diagnosis. — The immature developmental forma of C. tenuicoUis may be confused with those species which are injuri- ous to 'health (C. bovis and C. cellidosce). It is distinguished,, however, from both of these species by its location (in the subserous tissue and internal organs), and by the strong development of its ue^-k. When examined under a microscope, the hooks furnish important diagnostic characters. The beef cysticercus is without hooks, while that of the hog is armed, but possesses fewer and more compressed hooks (see p. 443). In casefied and calcified C. tenuicoUis a confusion with tubercu- losis is possible. For distinguishing between the two, the condition of the corresponding lymph glands is important. In cases of casefied parasites these glands are intact, while, when tuberculosis is present, they are specifically altered (see p. 344). Moreover, in the caseated material which results from the degeneration of G. tenuicoUis, hooks and lime corpuscles may be seen by the aid of the microscope (Figs. 101 and 125). In the hare, the- larval stage of Tcenia serrata, C. pisiformis, causes alterations similar to those produced by C. tenuicoUis in domesticated aniuiais. C pisiformis, however, quite frequently undergoes a caseous degeneration, not only in the interior, but also upon the surface of the internal organs. The cysticercus disease of rabbits may appear in an epizootic form and may give rise to confusion with tuberculosis, in consequence of the caseation of the parasites. Incidentally it should be noted that huntei-s wrongly called the alteration in question a syphilitic process, or a " venereal disease of the hare." In bony fishes, according to Guinard, Tetrarliynchus larvse are frequently observed, which may develop further in the alimentary tract of dog fish, rays and sharks. Guinard made a study of cod fish meat which was thoroughly infested with small cysts and resembled measly pork. Tetrarliynchus larvae 8.5 mm. long and 1.5 mm. wide were found in the cysts. (c) Flukes (Trematodes). For the purposes of meat inspection the most important flukes are the liver flukes (Distomum liepaiicum and D. lanceolatum). Amphistomum conicum may also be mentioned as a less important member of the group of flukes. The latter parasite (Fig. 104) is- ANIIIAL PARASITES 399 from 4 to 12 mm. long, 1 to 3 mm. wide, and. usually of a red color. It is found in the paunch of ruminants and is usually a harmless parasite. In Germany the parasite is ordinarily rare, while in hot climates, on the other hand, it is very abundant. According to Janson, it is seen in Japanese cattle in such large numbers that the mucous lining of the paunch appears to be plastered over with the parasites. Distomum Hepaticum. MoBPHOLOGY AND OocuBEENCE. — The large fluke, D. hepaticum, is a leaf-shaped worm with a conical anterior end and a flattened Fia. 105. Fig. 104. Amphistomnm conicmn in natural size. Distomum hepaticum. X 3 times. posterior portion (Fig. 105). It is from 16 to 40 mm. long and 6 to 12 mm. wide. The presence of scale-like spines upon the integu- ment is of special importance in explaining the alterations which D. hepatimm may cause. The location of this fluke is in the gall ducts-of cattle, sheep, goats and hogs. Occasionally it is also found in the horse (Sauer). Cattle and sheep are most frequently parasitized by this worm. The majority of cattle contain liver flukes or show evidence of their presence, and Schaper asserts that in the slaughterhouse at Munich he found no sheep liver which was free from flukes. Leuckart found similar conditions in ,certain regions of Holstein. 400 INTA8I0N DISEASES Wandering Flukes. — The liver fluke is found quite often in the lungs as well as in the liver. They are carried thither in the circu- lation, and are surrounded by a membrane which is at first of connective tissue, later becomes cartilaginous, and finally incrusted. They lie in a cloudy, often bloody, dark-b,rown fluid. The fluke tubercles in the lungs may attain the size of a chestnut. The parasites in the lungs, however, commonly remain in a poor condi- tion. Morot found encysted liver flukes in the lungs of 4 per cent, of the cattle which were inspected by him during one half year. Wandering liver flukes may also become located in the retropleural and retroperitoneal tissue, in the spleen, subcutis, skeletal muscula- ture and cardiac chambers, as well as in the lungs. Pathogenic Impoetance and Diagnosis. — The symptoms which are produced by this parasite vary exceedingly. When but few are present, they usually produce no noticeable disturbance. In cases of excessive invasion, however, a catarrh of the bile ducts appears, and also au inflammation of the walls of the bile ducts, which may result in a thickening and finally a calcification of the latter. We may observe upon the gastric surface of the liver that the superfi- ficial, larger bile ducts are changed in form and become prominent, firm strands or stifif tubes leading to the gall bladder. By making a suitable section under the lobus spigelii, or near the quadrate lobe, and in the middle of the left lobe, tb,e deeper-lying bile ducts may be exposed and will be.found to be modified in the same way. The tissue of the liver may remain unchanged in spite of excessive infestation of the larger bile ducts. This must indeed be considered as the usual occurrence. Only exceptionally is the liver tissue itself involved in the disease, and then in the form of a proliferation of the connective tissue extending from the adventitia of the bile ducts. This process usually involves the destruction of the liver tissue and leads to an increase in the volume of the organ. At the same time the liver loses its reddish-brown color .and becomes gray. Moreover, its consistency becomes firmer, so that it cannot be readily penetrated with the finger (hypertrophic cirrhpsis of the liver). Schaper called attention to the fact that freshly introduced flukes may be found in the peripheral parts of the liver, since they penetrate into the smallest bile ducts by means of their strong, pointed head and their coating of spines, which prevents them from going backwards. 'Attention should be given to this point in making an inspection. ANIMAL PARASITES 401 The tendency of liver flukes to penetrate into the smallest bile ducts, so far as this is possible, is of interest in another regard. It may occur that liver flukes penetrate the thin- walled bile ducts and ^ive rise to hemorrhages of the liver (see p. 294). The flukes which produce such hemorrhages are, as a rule, undeveloped and at most 1 cm. long. Occasionally it happens, but these cases are rare, that a fluke perforates even the liver capsule. In this way so-called biliary peritonitis may be produced (p. 287). The remains of the liver hemorrhages caused by the wandering of the flukes outside of the bile ducts may exhibit several forms. At first the resorption of the blood takes place and this leads to a diminution in the size of the liver. Later, however, an active regeneration of the liver cells appears to take place, so that Only slight defects and comparatively iew scars are to be observed. Now and then it is .noticed that dis- iomatous liver hemorrhages may be connected with a multiple hepatitis with abscess, which is due to the fact that the parasites, in penetrating into the tissue, carried with them putrefactive bacteria. Peculiarities of Distomatosis in Different Domesticated ■ Animals. — In the first place, it should be observed that the majority of cattle are infested with the liver fluke. It appears that only such ■cattle as never are allowed upon pasture are protected from infesta- tion ; for, as a rule, only quite young cattle and bulls which are, for the most part, kept in stalls, show livers which are free from the flukes. It is remarkable that even the presence of a large number of liver flukes does not ordinarily cause any disturbance in the nutrition of cattle. Marked thickenings of the bile ducts are observed, so that the form of a medusa's head may appear upoh the gastric surface of the liver, even in well-nourished animals. Even in connection with cirrhosis of the liver, an injurious effect of liver flukes upon the health of cattle can not usually be demonstrated. So long as a portion of the liver of the size of a double fist is still unaffected, the nutritive condition of infested animals may still be comparatively good. The uninjured portions of the liver are usually enlarged later, like a tumor. The author has never observed hydremic cachexia in slaughtered animals in consequence of disto- matosis, even in the youngest animals. The most marked effects of distomatous cirrhosis of the liver are shown in an emaciation of the affected animals. The conditions are quite different iu sheep. In these animals it is a well known fact, which has been substantiated by investiga- 402 INYASION DISEASES tions in abattoirs, that extensive invasions of the liver fluke cause serious disturbances in the nutrition, acute anemia and finally hydremic cachexia. This occurs, not only in occasional individuals, but even in whole herds (liver fluke epidemic). The injurious effect •which extensive invasions of liver fluke may cause in sheep is apparent from the fact that in Alsace-Lorraine in the year 1873 not ^ less than 30 per cent, of the sheep died of liver fluke disease ; while in England, as reported by Leuckart, 1,000,000 sheep annually fall a ppey to this parasite. In hogs the liver fluke is a rare occurrence, at least in so far as our native animals are concerned. Pigs which are imported from Hungary, Servia and Russia, however, are frequently infested with the parasites. Disturbances of the fattening process in hogs do not occur as a consequence of distomatosis. Distomum Lanceolatum. Pathogenic Impoktanoe, Morphology and Occueeence. — D. laficeolatum, in comparison with JO. hepaticum, is a harmless parasite, even in sheep ; for, as a rule, it produces only insignificant local symptoms, rarely any of general extent. This fact is explained by the smaller size of the parasite. It measures only 4 to 8 mm. in length and 1 to 2.5 mm. in width. Its harmless nature is further explained by the absence of a coat of spines. Z>. lanceolatum is parasitic in sheep and cattle, less often in goats and hogs. It is not, however, so generally distributed as Z>. hepaticum. Its appearance is rather restricted to certain regions, as, for example, southern Germany and Thiiringen. According to Tempel, the sheep slaughtered in Chemnitz are on an average infested to the extent of 90 per cent, with fluke worms. Of these cases of infes- tation, 75 per cent, are due to D. hepaticum, and 25 per cent, to D. lanceolatum. Diagnosis.— The presence even of numerous D. lanceolatum may not be observed by the inspector for the reason that the liver tissue remains wholly unchanged and the bile ducts are only slightly affected. Only by the regular practice of cutting open the larger bile ducts and by producing lateral pressure upon them may these fluke worms be brought to notice, for, in spite of its small size, D. lanceolatum is quite conspicuous on the cut surface of the bile duct on account of its partial black or brown coloring (the color of the r.pe eggs in the unusually well-developed uterus, P g. 106). ANIMAL PARASITES 403 Fig. 106. From the important work of Schaper on " The Fluke Worm Diseases of Domesticated Animals," from which citations have already been made, the following interesting details are drawn : Distomes are pure entozoa. They cannot live in the adult con- dition outside the body of their definite host. Their embryonic stages are passed, on the other hand, partly in a free condition and partly in smaller host animals of the group of mollusks, mostly water snails of the genus Limncea (Leuckart). From these situations they make their way into the definite host and are there developed into sexually mature parasites. J), hepaticum and D. lanceolatum occur in rare instances even in man. Man is infected, however, not by eating distomatous livers, but, as is apparent from the biology of the parasites, in the same way as are sheep and cattle. In contrast with D. hepaticum, which regularly causes a glandu- lar hyperplasia of the mucous membrane of the bile ducts, D. lanceolatum, even in large num- bers, does not produce any serious alterations in the liver. The pathological changes which are produced by D. lanceolatum are restricted almost entirely to catarrh of the bile duels. Icterus is a rare occurrence in distomatosis, for the reason that the parasitism of distomes rarely leads to a complete obstruction of the bile ducts. On the other hand, the bile ducts become a " cloacal system," in which the waste products of the liver, together with the meta- bolic products of the parasites, are found. A diminution in the number of blood corpuscle s and in the amount of hemoglobin is usually observed in the blood (see p. 368). The chief cause of the anemic condition is persistent or repeated hemorrhage. " The fluke worm epizootic is to be considered as an especially malignant form of the fluke worm disease, which, by the accidental concurrence of several pathogenic faqtors, may be characterized by serious secondary phenomena and by a rapid course." Distomura lanceolatum a, X 10 times; b, natural size. Development of Distomes. — For rendering a legal judgment con- cerning, distomes, the statement of Leuckart is of importance, namely, that the development of the young distomes to maturity requires about three weeks. According to Lutz, specimens of D. 404 INVASION DISEASES hepaticum eight to nine days of age were 1 to 2 mm. long ; twenty- seven to thirty-one days of age, 3 to 8 mm. long; thirty-two days of age, 10 to 15 mm. long ; and forty-four days of age, 20 mm. long. Lutz obtained these figures from distomes which he had reared in guinea-pigs. Judgment on Liveks Infested with Flukes.— It has been shown by feeding experiments that feeding distomatous livers to susceptible animals does not bring about a development of the liver fluke as a result. These negative results from feeding experi- ments are sufficiently explained by the biology of the parasites. The embryos (miracidia) which hatch from the eggs must develop in small snails and in the water into sporocysts, redisB and cercarisB before they can develop further in the body of their definite host. There can, therefore, be no doubt as to the harmlessness of fluke- infesled livers. Therefore, the greatest leniency may be observed in dealing with these . livers. It should be remembered that the occurrence of liver flukes in the liver of sheep and cattle is to be considered an almost normal condition. The presence of these parasites in the liver of sheep and cattle cannot be characterized in itself as an important defect, so much the less so since in cases of slight invasion it is possible to remove the parasitized portions by careful dissection of the large, medium sized and small bile ducts. Distomatosis is to be considered as an important defect, giving a right of partial or complete exclusion of the affected organ from the market, when all of the bile ducts, including the small ones, are filled with distomes so that a separation of the bile ducts is impos- sible. The same condition holds true in extensive cirrhosis — in a partial cirrhosis restricted to one portion of the liver, only the affected part of the liver needs to be excluded from the market— and finally in suppurative inflammation of the liver tissue in consequence of the penetration of flukes into it. Livers which show hemorrhages from distomes are to be considered as of inferior value in the sense of the food law, but may, however, be admitted to the market without compulsory declaration, since the abnormal condition is apparent of itself. Muscle Dlstomes.~ln the musculature of the hog, Leunis dis- covered a small undeveloped Agamodistomum. This discovery was later corroborated by other investigators. Thus in inspection for trichinae in Berlin these peculiar parasites were found in several cases. They have no importance, however, since, as a rule, they ANIMAL PABASITES 405 Fig. 107. occur only in isolated examples and only in the rarest instances. According to Duncker, the muscle distome is an extremely delicate, thin structure of gray color and of about the size and form of a trichina capsule (Fig. 107). The favorite location of this worm appears to be in the muscles of the diaphragm and larynx. The muscle distomes lie between the muscle fibers. They become active when slightly warmed. This is important in diagnosis for the reason that the ])ara- sites at rest show a certain resemblance to Sai cosporidia. Moreover, Duncker pro- poses the following method of inspection : " In order to inspect meat for distomes, the smallest possible ti;ansverse sections should be taken from the bundles of muscle fibers, after which thev should be placed upon a slide with plenty of water and covered loosely with the cover glass. Then the water is studied for the purpose of observing whether it contains any of the worms. If the worms are not found in it, attention should be directed to de- termining whether the amorphous gray structures resembling psorosperms and lying between the muscle fibers, exhibit worm-like movements. If these are ob- served the crescent-shaped white shining gastric membranes will be seen in their interior. They appear more conspicu- ously if slight pressure is exerted on the cover glass, with move- ments back and forth. Muscle distome of the hog (Leuckart). i X 80 times. Distomes in Foreign Animals — In Sicily, Bilharzia crassa is found in the abdominal veins of cattle ; in America, Distomum magnum in the liver of cattle ; in America and Japan, Mesoganimus Westermanni in the lungs of hogs ; and in Japan, Distomum pancreaticum in the pancreas of cattle. (d) Bonnd Worms (Nemathelminthes). The round worms are divided into two large groups, the thread worms or nematodes, and Acanthocephali, of which the only repre- sentative is the giant Echinorynchus of the hog. 406 INVASION DISEASES Pig. 108. Echinorynchus gigas (male, 6.5 to 9;1 cm. in length ; female, 31.2 to 41.6 cm., Fig. 108) is distinguished by the fact that it possesses a conical beak furnished with horny barbed hooks in several rows upon the anterior end of the body. It lives in the small intestine of the hog aud causes there a limited area of inflammation whichj on account of its yellow color, may be confounded with tuberculous patches. In exceptional cases it has been observed that the parasite bored through the mucous membrane of the intestine and gave rise to peritonitis. The nematodes, according to Schnei- der, are to be divided into three groups : (1) Polymyaria (Ancaris, Uustrongylm, F'daria) ; (2) Meromyaria ( Oxyuris, Stron- gylus) ; (3) Holomyaria {AnguiUida, Tri- china spiralis, Trichoceplialus). Of the large number of nematodes in domestic animals there is only one sub- divisiou, viz., that of the palisade worms (Strongylidse), which deserves any detailed consideration in this connection. With regard to the others, a short statement of their name, position and size must suffice, on account of their slight sanitary import- ance. The AsoaridsB {Ascaris megalocepkala, in the horse ; A. lumbricoides in cattle and hogs) live in the intestine and produce only exceptionally, in cases of excessive infestation, a disease of the affected ani- mals. Isolated specimens may be occa- sionally found in the common bile duct and may cause icterus hj retention of the bile. Such cases are not rare in hogs. Judgment of the meat should be the same as in icterus. Morot, Laubion, Leibenger, have, moreover, observed that the meat of calves which contain nuinerous ascarids in the intestines may have an acid odor and taste. The odor does not disappear even when the meat is preserved for several days. In such cases the meat is to be considered as of inferior value and is to be sold upon the freibank if the abnormal odor becomes conspicuous in a boiling test. Echinorhynchus gigas on the small intestine of a hog. Natural size. ANIMAL PABASITES 407 In fowls, diseased areas of considerable size are observed in consequence of the presence of an abundance of ascarids {Heterahis vesictdarin, H. ivfiexa, H. maculosa). In the musculature of codfish, Ascaris capsularis is found as an encapsuled parasite, varying in length from 2 to 5 cm. In the stomach of Hungarian and Russian Jiogs a nematode occurs which Fedtschenko named Gnuthostomum liispidum. This author found the parasites in the stomach of a Turkestan wild hog and a Hungarian domestic hog, while Csokor found it in hogs slaughtered in Vienna ; Strose in Bakonyi hogs and Collin in the fat tissue of cattle. According to Csokor, the parasite may cause a stomach worm disease of hogs. By means of its bristle- "bearing head it may bore into the serous coat of the stomach wall iind cause a considerable swelling of the mucous membrane of the stomach. The Vienna butchers have long known the parasite under the name " three-colored worm." According to Sti iise, the male is 15 mm. and the female 22 to 25 mm. long. The parasite is from 1.18 to 1.38 mm. thick in the male and 1.78 to 1.85 mm. in the female. Moreover, attention should be called to the giant palisade worm {Eustrongylus gigas) in the renal pelvis of the dog, horse and domestic ox. Of the filarise (thread worms in the narrower sense), the follow- ing are worthy of mention : F. microstoma and F. megastoma in the stomach of the horse ; F. hemorrhagica in the subcutis and in the intermuscular tissue of the horse ; F. strongylina in the stomach of the hog ; F. scutata in the esophagus of cattle and sheep, and perhaps also under the epithelium of the tongue and in the mucous membrane and esophagus of hogs (Korzil) ; and F. immitis in the venous system of the dog. In geese and ducks, Dispharagus uncinatus may be parasitic in tubercles in the esophagus and may cause a so-called filaria disease of fowls. In the tubercles, we find younger and older parasites from 3 to 18 mm. in length. Kabieaux observed an epidemic among fowls which was caused by Filaria pectinifera (male, 5 to 6 mm.; female, 9 to 10 mm. in length). This parasite was located in the gizzard of fowls. Moreover, Syngamus trachealis may produce epizootic losses among fowls. The parasites are located, the male and female united, in the trachea and in the esophagus. The males are 2 to 6 mm. in length and the females 5 to 22 mm. and from .2. to 1.1 wide. The undeveloped worms which have not yet been differentiated in'to sexes may be found in the air sacs and the bronchi. 408 INVASION DISEASES Strongylidae. The Sfcrongylidge or palisade worms are round, rarely thread- like or hair-like worms of varying size. Their course of develop- ment, which, aside from the fact that the Strongylidae of domesti- cated animals have not been found in man, with one exception,, presents considerable of interest, is of such a nature that the possibility of transmission' of the worm^, by eating organs which are infested with them, is absolutely excluded. The embryos pass a free worm stage (rhabditis form) outside of the animal body, and are taken up by susceptible animals with water or moist plants. Among the palisade worms of less sanitary importance, mention may be made of 8. armatus in the large intestine and cecum and in aneurisms of the abdominal blood vessels, especially of the anterior Fig. 109. Fourth stomach of beef infested with Strongylus convolutus. mesenteric artery of the horse ; 8. hypostomus, in the intestine of sheep and goats ; 8. cernuus, in the alimentary tract of sheep ; ^S". radiatus and ventricosus, in the small intestines of cattle ; 8,dentatus,. in the large intestine of hogs ; 8. inftatus, in the large intestine of cattle ; 8. venulosus, in the intestines of goats ; and, finally, 8. fili- collis, in the duodenum of sheep and goats. Greater importance attaches to those Stiongylidse which may disturb the general condition and the nutrition of food animals or may produce serious alterations in the organs which are utilized as human food. To this group belong the palisade worms of the stomach and lungs. Palisade Worms of the Stomach.' In the fourth stomach of sheep and goats, Strongylus contortus: lives parasitically (male, 13 to 15 mm.; female, 20 to 25 mm. ANIMAL PARASITES 409 long). The parasite obtains its nourishment from the blood of the host, and in young animals may produce emaciation and hydremic cachexia (stomach worm disease) in cases of excessive invasion. In the fourth stomach of cattle, the author found 8. convolutus (male, 3 to 9 mm.; female, 4 to 12 mm. long) (Fig. 110). The female is characterized by the possession of a bell-shaped duplicature of the skiu over the vulva and may thus be distinguished from similar Strongylidse. S. convolutus is a very frequent parasite in cattle. In the abattoir at Berlin, it was found in 90 per cent, of all cattle which were slaughtered, including all cases in which isolated examples occurred. The coiled worm lies under the epithelium of the mucous membrane of the stomach and produces in that location small pro- jections about the size of lentils provided with a central opening (Fig. 109). According to the observations of the author, S. convolutus, in cases of excessive invasion of young cattle, may produce a con- siderable diminution of the digestive surface of the stomach and Fig. 110. Strongylus convolutus, female on the left, male on the right, x 10 times. thereby cause emaciation or. dropsical symptoms in unfavorable cases. According to the accounts of Smith and Stiles, the latter of whom proposes the name S. osiertagi for the parasite, since 8. convolutus was already preoccupied for another parasite, the nema- tode in question is very common in North America. Furthermore, McFadyean found 8. convolutus in young cattle which had become emaciated and anemic with symptoms of diarrhea. After death, or after the slaughter of the animals, an inflammation of the mucous membrane of the fourth stomach was found, and in such locations ;S'. convolutus was found not infrequently associated with 8. retortoeformis. According to Stcidter, in addition to 8. contortus and 8. convolutus five otl^er species of Strongylidse which have the power of producing serious disease, are found in the fourth stomach of domesticated ruminants. These species are 8. curticei (male, 6 to 8 mm.; female, 10 to 13 mm, long), in cattle and sheep ; ^S*. oncophorus (male, 7 to 9 410 INTASION DISEASES mm.; female, 9 to 12 mm. long), in cattle ; S. harkeri (male, 8 to 9 mm.; female, 15 to 16 mm. long), in cattle ; S. retortce/ormis (male, 3 to 7 mm.; female, 3 to 9 mm. long), in cattle, sheep, goats and also in the fallow deer, hare and rabbits ; and S.fiUcollis (male, 8 to 15 mm.; female, 16 to 24 mm. long), in sheep. Strose found Anchylostomum longemucronaium in the small intestine of a hog which was slaughtered on account of disturbances in nutrition, and on account of the protuberance (thickening) which he found in the wall of the intestine was inclined to consider the parasite as responsible for the nutritive disturbances in the host. In hare and wild rabbits, S. strigosus and S. retortce/ormis may, according to Eailliet, occur in the stom&,ch and intestines and may produce serious symptoms of disease. The Palisade Worms of the Lungs. To the palisade worms of the lungs belong S. micrurus in cattle, roebu6k and fallow deer * ; S.filaria, 8. capiUaris and 8. commutatus in sheep and goats, as well as 8. paradoxus in hogs. These palisadB worms, after being introduced into the host, become located in the smaller and minute bronchi and alveoli, and by means of the irrita- tion which is exercised by them, they may cause a bronchitis or bronchiolitis. The embryos of the palisade worms, which become mature in the bronchi and reproduce oviparously or viviparously, penetrate into the lung tissue and thus cause a lobular or even a diffuse broncho-pneumonia (compare p. 325). Broncho-pneumonia may lead to the death of the infected animals. When recovery begins, the embryos, wander back into the bronchi and from here pass either directly or by way of the alimentary canal, to the outside world. According to Miiller, the embryos of the palisade worms usually lie nearer the trachea and larynx as they become larger in size. The parent animals are disintegrated in the lungs. They may become encysted and casefied or calcified inside of the connective tissue capsule. Steongtlus micrurus is viviparous. The male is about 30 to 40 mm., the female, 40 to 80 mm. 'long. The females are especially conspicuous on account of their milk-white, oily appearance. Their location is in the bronchi, preferably those at the base of the lungs. 8. micrunis is in general a rare parasite in cattle. Only in certain * Miiller is of the opinion that the fallow deer is the common host of S. micrurus, while cattle are only exceptionally infested. ANIMAL PAKASITES 411 regions — for example, in the marshy districts of Oldenburg and in the lowlands of the Ehine — does it occur abundantly in wet seasons. In the case of slight invasion we observe in the superficial parts of the lungs which are infested with these parasites, white lobuli with a sheen like that of mother-of-pearl, which do not collapse and which feel firmer than the normal tissue (Fig. 113). In making a section into these places, the parasites are found in the smaller bronchi, which, as a rule, are pathologically enlarged. The parasites are surrounded by a catarrhal secretion. The author has frequently observed, in the lungs of cattle, dead Strongylidse which which were enclosed in greenish-colored tubercles. In cases of excessive invasion in cattle, roebuck and fallow deer, acute broncho-pneumonia may develop with fatal results. In animals which die in consequence of acute pneumonia we frequently find, as was stated by Kitt, only a few developed parasites in the trachea, while large numbers of them are to be demonstrated in microscopical preparations from the infiamed lung tissue. According to Tapken, the migration of the larval worms into young cattle takes place in July and August. The development of the worm is completed within six to seven weeks. During this time the invasion of the worms in acute cases of lung worm disease may cause the death of the affected animals. Winter observed the appearance of the lung worm disease in the meadows of the low- lands along the Ehine. Healthy calves became seriously affected within two weeks. In animals which died within a short time of broncho-pneumonia, no fully developed worms were found. They were observed, however, in animals which were slaughtered after being sick for one to one and one-half months. Stkongylus filaeia, the lung thread worm (male, 25 mm. long, the female as long as 84 mm.). With regard to the pathological anatomical relations of this worm, the same statements may be made as for S. micrurus. It is also apparent in verminous pneu- monia of sheep and goats caused by S.filaria, that only a few mature specimens of the worm are found in the bronchi and lung tissue of the diseased animals, while immense numbers of embryos and eggs are found. Moreover, 8. filaria is a comparatively rare parasite in sheep and goats. Steongylus capillaeis, the lung hair worm (male, 12 mm.; female, 20 mm. long ; very slender, almost like a cobweb, .04 to .06 mm. thick). By microscopical examination the male is recognized 412 INVASION DISEASES by tlie corkscrewrlike posterior end of the body and the yellowish- brown spicules, while the female is distinguished by the two uteri filled with brownish eggs covered with shells. The mature animals live at first in the smaller bronchi of the alveoli and produce an acute catarrhal or hemorrhagic bronchitis. The embryos, after hatching from the eggs, migrate in large numbers into the lung tissue and cause either a limited lobular or more extended broncho- pneumonia which may cause death within a short time. Commonly, however, the inflammatory alterations in the lungs gradually recover as the larvsB are expelled by coughing, and the parent worms migrate into the lung tissue, so that' only a partial capillaiy bronchitis, remains, which may heal by caseation and calcification of the worms. Fig. 111. Sheep lung with lobular infiltrations and residual tubercles as a result of invasioiv tf Strongylus capillaris. The tubercles enclosing S. capillaris are to be recognized by their yellow, grayish-red or grayish-yellow color. The worms which are expelled by coughing are swallowed again and may produce in their passage through the alimentary tract an acute catarrh of the fourth stomach by mechanical irritation (Schlegel). S. capillaris, according to Schlegel, is most abundant in goats and is rare in sheep, in the latter of which it is often associated with S. commutalus. Schlegel has also found S. capillaris, 8. com- mutatus and 8. filaria in one and the same animal. The goat, however, is the true host of 8. -capillaris. Among 200 goats slaughtered at the abattoir in Freiburg, Schlegel found about 30 per cent, to .be infested with ;S'. capillaris. Kuser, in 1891, found the parasite in 19.5 per cent, of the sheep which were slaughtered at the abattoir at Kiel. In the course of the invasion of 8. capillaris. ANIMAL PAEASITES 413 we find in the lungs, as already stated, a tubercular, lobular infil- tration of a gray or grayish-yellow color. Later, however, there are more or less numerous tubercles, in size varying from a millet seed to that of a lentil or pea, and of a yellow, grayish-red, or grayish- yellow color (Fig. 111). The larger of these tubercles show a certain resemblance to the tubercles of tuberculosis, since they ordinarily possess a cloudy-white or yellow center. lu the tubercles the extremely friable, dead, old worms, or aspirated eggs and embryos, are found (Schlegel), while the wedge-shaped, pneumonic infiltrations, corresponding to the bronchial branches, contain numerous coiled bodies of worms, as well as eggs and embryos, the latter frequently lying close together as if in a nest (Fig. 78). Koch called attention to the fact that in November he frequently found eggs and embryos in the lung tissue and in later months only the encapsuled parent animals. In this fact we have a characteristic difference between the lung hair-worm disease andthe lung thread- FiG. 113. Strongylus capill^aris from the sheep lung; fully developed specimen. . Natural size at the right. worm disease (A. Miiller). 8. capHlaris always penetrates in large numbers into the lung tissue and remains there, finally becoming encapsuled and dying in the capsules. ,8'. Jilaria, on the other hand, turns back, in -case it ever leaves the bronchi, and migrates to the outside world through the trachea. In the lungs of hare and rabbits, S. commutatus is found as a parasite. This thread worm, which possesses a length of from 30 to 70 mm. and is distinguished by its brown color (due to the dark pigmented intestine), is always found in greater or less numbers in the lung tissue and causes a limited area of inflammation. The inflammatory patches are of the size of a hemp seed or hazel nut and contain yellow, caseous material in addition to the parasites. S. commutatus may cause an epizootic among hare. As Schlegel demonstrated, /S.commMtaiMs is comparatively frequent also in sheep. Indeed, Schlegel characterizes S. commutatus as the most 'frequent and most injurious lung worm of sheep. According to Schlegel, the 414 INVASION DISEASES dark-brown, black, reddish-violet or reddish-brown tubercles in the lungs of sheep always contain 8. commutatus in an encysted condition. Stbongtlus paradoxus, 16 to 20 mm. long in the male and 30 to 40 mm. long in the female, is a very common parasite, but in spite of its large numbers, causes only slight disturbances in its host Pre. 114. Hog lungs with Strongyhis paradoxus. a, pearly parasitic I'ooi; h, parasites in a section of a bronchus. Strongylus paradoxus in an opened bronchial branch. Accordiug to my investigations, S. paradoxus was present in about 60 per cent. of. the hogs which I inspected at the Berlin abattoir. According to investigations in Leipsic, Mejer estimates its occur- rence in native hogs at 19 per cent, and in Hungarian hogs at 52 per cent. The invasions are rendered conspicuous from a distance by the spots, resembling mother of pearl, at the base of the lungs (Fig. 113). The bronchi which lead to these spots are enlarged and as a rule filled with knotted worms (Fig. 114). In about 90 per cent, of the cases, according to the author's observations, the ANIMAL PARASITES 415 invasion is restricted to the base of the lungs ; in the remaining 10 per cent., larger portions, sometimes even the greater part of tho lung up to the apex, are infested with the parasites. S^ paradoxus, as a rule, causes only a catarrhal bronchitis and bronchiectasis, but no pneumonia. Olt described the finer anatomical changes which 8. paradoxus produces in the lungs of hogs. According to this author, the parasite causes a desquamative bronchitis with hyperplasia and ectasis of the tubular glands in the mucous membrane of the bronchi and hypertrophy of the bronchial mucous membrane. Moreover, bronchiectasis and parasitic tubercle formation occur in the bronchi (bronchitis and nodular chionic peri-bronchitis), as well as in the lung tissues, and these tubercles resemble in every particular the entozoic tubercles in horses' lungs (p. 328). Finally, according to Olt, in consequence of the parasitism of S. paradoxus, lobular desquamative pneumonia may arise with ultimate recovery or a connective tissue iuduration, as well as small pneumonic areas which become casefied with a secondary localization of vegetable organisms. Little-Enown Bound Worms of Food Animals. Leuckart described a small encapsuled round worm resem- bling trichina, which was found in melanotic lymph glands in a beef animal. The worm was asexual and 0.14 mm. long. The nematodes which were discovered by Drechsler in the small intestine of cattle have already been described in connection with the parasitic CEsophagostomum ou page 283 ; similarly the round worm discovered by Natterer in the kidney fat capsule of a hog (Sclerosiomum pinguicola), and the non-glanderous lung tubercles of the horse, which were shown by Olt and Grips to contain nematodes (pp. 309 and 328). In the mucous membrane of the intestines of hogs there are, according to Johne, small encapsuled larval worms resembling trichina. Johne considered them as belonging to the palisade worms. "With reference to the Strongylidse discovered by Olt in the follicles of the large intestines in hogs, compare p. 283. In one instance, Kitt found a nematode under the epithelium and between the papillae of the mucous membrane of the tongue in a hog. Leuckart considered that this was probably a true filaria (compare also the observation of Korzil, p. 407). Finally, Ebertz reported concerning the finding of a parasite in the musculatuie and lungs of a sheep. This find requires further 416 INVASION DISEASES explanation. A butcher had jokingly requested a trichina inspector, recently appointed to office, to inspect the meat of a young sheep which during life had exhibited a poor nutritive condition, muscular trembling and coughing. The trichina inspector removed the diaphragm, loin muscles and muscles of the shoulder, as well as the diseased portions of the lungs, and by an investigation demonstrated the presence of numerous parasites which closely resembled migrating muscle trichinse, but were distinguished from them by their smaller size and greater transparency. Leuckart declared Pig. 116. Small intestine of beef with submucous nematode tubercles. Larva of Anchylostomum dovis from submucous tubercles of bovine in- testine (after Strose),. X 25 times. that these parasites were the larval form of a filaria or of some strongylid, a nematode which probably was viviparous when parasitic in sheep. Concerning the significance of the find, Leuckart stated : " I do not believe that the worm can be transmitted to man, although, on the other hand, I would not desire to assert the impossibility of such transmission." According to the view of the author, it is impossible to avoid suspecting th^tthe parasites which were alleged to have been found in the musculature of the sheep ANIMAL PAr.ASITES 417 came from the lungs a«Qcl were allowed to get into the muscles by improper preparation of the material for inspection. Sanitaet Significance of Organs Infested with Parasites "Which Abe Non-Teansmissible to Man. — In the unusually frequent occurrence of such parasites in the internal organs of food animals, it is required, from the standpoint of national economy — and this is never opposed to hygienic interests — that as many as possible of the parasitized organs should be put in a condition fit for consumption by the careful removal of the parasites. In cases of slight invasion, when the integrity of the parenchyma of the organ is still preserved, "there is no reason for restricting free traffic in the organ. Only in case of excessive invasion are the remains of the organ to be con- sidered as inferior food material, after the removal of the parasite. On the other hand, all internal organs which show extensive inflam- matory changes in consequence of invasion by worms, or which show these changes in a degree which render removal of the worms impossible, are to be absolutely excluded from the market as unfit for food. 3.— Parasites Which May Be Transmitted to Man by Eating Meat. There are three parasites of ordinary food animals which may be transmitted to man by eating meat : (1) Beef bladder worm (Cysticercus bovis) ; (2) pork bladder worm (C. celltdosce) ; (3) trichina (Trichina spiralis). The new measle worm of the sheep (0. ovis), which is supposed to be dangerous to health and concerning which Cobbold has assumed that it develops into a new tapeworm {Taenia teneUa) in man, has been declared by the Paris Academy of Sciences to be C. ienuicoUis. The frequent occurrence of tapeworm among the Arabians, who use mtitton as their chief meat food, has no connection with this food. The Algerian tapeworm is, in fact, T. saginata, and comes from cattle. Leuckart considers the bladder worm found by Cobbold in mutton as C. celMosce (with twenty-six hooks). This assumption is, according to the newer discoveries concerning 0. ceUvlosce in sheep, to be considered as well founded (Olt, Bongert), despite the fact that Leuckart did not succeed in artificially rearing C. ceUuloscB in sheep. il8 INVASION DISEASES ' Dangerous Fish Parasites. — In addition to cattle and hogs, fisli also contain dangerous bladder worms, the larval stages, (plerocerci) of Bothrioceplialus latus. Occurrence. — Brann discovered the larval stages of B. laiun in the musculature and in various internal organs of the pike {E-tox Jucius) and the eel pout (Lota vulgaris). . These fish are often eateu incompletely roasted or ouly slightly smoked. According to Braun, the larval stage of B. latus may also be transmitted to man by eating caviar from pike. The larval stages of B. latus are in some regions remarkably abundant. Thus in DorpatBraun found all pike infested. The same was true for the ^jike brought to the St. Petersburg market, from the Finnish Meerbusen and Ladoga Lake. Kecently Braun has demonstrated that the pike and eel pont of Konig.sberg, which come from Frisches Haff and Kurisches Haff, frequently contain the larval stages of D. latus: Zschokke, in Geneva, found a larva of this worm in perch {P^rca fluviatilis) , in a trout {Trutta vulgaris), in, various species of salmon, and in the grayling (Thymallus vulgaris and T. lacustris). Schroder in Dorpat also found the larvae of B, latus in perch in twenty-eight out of eighty specimens which he examined (35 per cent.). Concerning the geographical distribution of B. latus, Braun states that in Europe there are two centers of distribution : French Switzerland and German Baltic Provinces of Russia. From French Switzerland the species spread into the neighboring districts of France and Italy (Lombardy and Piedmont), while from the Baltic provinces the distribution extended eastwarl over Ingermannland towards St. Petersburg, and northerly over Finland towards Sweden, and also southerly toward Moscow and Poland, while another race of the worm extended westerly to the Prussian coasts and passed from here to Denmark and the coast of the North Sea. In the last named region B. latus is very rare, but is occasionally met with (Holland, Belgium, North of France, Ireland). In Japan, B. Musis, the most frequent parasite of man. In Germany, B. latus is found most abundantly, according to Braun, close to the Baltic Sea, especially among the inhabitants of the Kiirisches Nehrung. It is not rare, however, in Konigsberg and East Prussia. A special colony of them, according to Bollinger, has existed for fifteen years on Lake Starnberg, where the larvffi of B. latus was undoubtedly carried by travellers. In the neighborhood of Bienne, Neufchatel, Murten and Geneva Lakes, the inhabitants were infested with B. latus to the, extent of 10 to 20 per cent., according to Zaeslin. According to Odier, one- ANIMAL PARASITES 419 fourth of all the inhabitants in Geneva were formerly infested with this tapeworm. According to Zschokke, the species is at present becoming much rarer in Geneva (1 per cent.). Demonstration of the Larvce of Bothriocefhali. — The larvae may be most easily demonstrated in the intestines of the eel pout, especially in the pyloric appendages. They are, however, to be recognized in the musculature by their white color and transparent surrounding tissue. The larvae are .25 to .30 mm. long. The larger ones lie curved or rolled up in small cavities of the muscles and internal organs and are not surrounded by a capsule. As a rule, the larvae carry the head drawn in while at rest, but protrude it when warmed up (Fig. 117). Prevention. — -Fish infested with the larvae of B. latus are to be considered as dangerous food material. The tapeworms which develop in iuen from the larval forms found in fish may cause gastric disturbances or nervous troubles as the result of reflex influences (especially disturbances of sight). Finally, the species, on account of its hemolytic action, may cause acute anemia, which disappears as soon as the worm is expelled. It is, however, impossible to exclude all these fish from sale, since their inspection for the presence of larval tapeworm is impracticable. The sanitary police must therefore restrict its activity to warning by means of public announcements against the consumption of raw pike, eel pout and pike caviar in infected districts. With reference to the transmission of B. latus to man, the observation of Schauinsland is of interest, to the effect that in the Kurisches Nehrung the internal organs of the eel pout, preferably the pyloric appendages, are used in a slightly dried condition as a proprietary remedy against stomach troubles. (a) Beef Bladder Worm (Cysticercus bovis). Natube. — The beef measle worm is the larva of Taenia saginata of man. This tapeworm is 7 to 8 m. long and possesses mature proglottides which resemble pumpkin seeds and of which the uterus shows twenty to thirty-five lateral branches on each side. The beef measle worm, like the tapeworm which develops from it, is unarmed and has therefore also been called C. inermis to distinguish it from the armed pork measle worm. Histokical.— After Linnaeus, in 1767, and Pallas, in 1781, had seen parts of T. saginata, Gbze described the parasite in 1782. In 420 INVASION DISEASES 1802 Biera, described it under the name T. inermis, and Kiichen- meister, in 1855, called it T. mediocaneUata. The tapeworms in man have been known for a long time^ The larval forms were also known, but were considered to be tumors or hydatids until comparatively recently, when, in 1684, Kedi in Italy, Hartmann and Wepfer in Germany, demonstrated the animal nature of the larval stages from their movements and organization, Kiichenraeister, however, was the first person who, about the middle of the nineteenth century, determined by successful experiments that the bladder worms always represented the developmental stages of tapeworms. Fia. 118. Pig. 117. LarTse of Bothriocephalus latus from the musculature of the burbot. Fig. 119. '^^^^^^ a Isolated beef bladder worms. a, with scolex in natural position ; 5, with scolex artificially protruded. Beef bladder worm in natural position and size. The connection between the beef measle worm and T. saginata was demonstrated by Leuckart ; in 1861 Leuckart fed calves with proglottides of T. saginata and thereby rendered the experimental animals measly. This experiment was made with the same result by Hosier, Cobbold, Simmonds, Roll, Gerlach, Ziirn, Piitz, Perroncito, Hertwig and others. The attempt to infest other animals than cattle was unsuccessful. Only Zenker and Heller were able in exceptional cases to cultivate the worms in young goats and sheep. ANIMAL PARASITES 421 On the other hand, Oliver (1869), and Perroncito, with his students, brought T. saginata to maturity by eating the meat of measly cattle. Before these decisive experiments, physicians had observed that patients, especially children who were given sliced beef in a raw condition, for the purpose of furnishing more nutriment, became infested with T. saginata. Moreover, it was known that the Jews, who do not eat pork, suffered especially from T. saginata, and finally, it was discovered that certain peoples which eat beef exclusively, as, for instance, the Abysinnians, to whom raw beef is the greatest delicacy, were very frequently infested with the tapeworm in ques- tion. These observations and experiments led Leuckart to his classical experiment (Braun). MoEPHOLOGY. — The'beef measle worm consists of a roundish or somewhat elongated bladder, which is located in the interfibrillar connective tissue of th^ striated musculature, and exceptionally also Fig. 131. Fig. 120. Beef bladder worm without cyst, * Beef bladder worm without cyst, 4 weeks old, X 10 times 6 weeks old, X 10 times (after Hertwig). (after Hertwig). in certain internal organs, such as the lungs, liver and brain, as well as in the lymph glands. ' The bladder is gray, transparent, and consists of an outer con- nective tissue membrane produced by reaction against the surrounding tissue, the so-called bladder worm capsule, and of the parasite itself. The latter consists of a scolex (head and neck), and the so-called caudal bladder filled with a fluid (Figs. 119, h, and 120). The scolex, which is regularly invaginated into the caudal bladder, shines through the capsule as a white structure, varying in size, from that of a millet seed to that of a hemp seed (Fig. 118). By making a microscopic examination it is found that the scolex 422 INVASION DISEASES possesses four sucking disks,* and the so-called neck exhibits numerous lime corpuscles. Hooks are absent. The size of the cysticerci which occur in food animals varies. They are found from the size of a pinhead to that of peas, according to the developmental stage in which the larval worms are found at the time of the slaughter of their host. Yery interesting results concerning the size and developmental relations of beef measles in different ages were obtained from feeding experiments which were instituted by Leuckart, Gerlach, Ziirn, Piitz and Hertwig iu Fig. 123. 3colex of a beef bladder worm, 14 weeks old, X 10 times (after Hertwig). Soolex of a beef bladder worm, 28 weeks old, X 10 times (after Hertwig). calves, with T. saginata in a larval condition. Hertwig, in con- nection with a thorough review of the literature, presented a complete account of the conditions in question {Ztsclir. Fleisch u. Milchyg., Vol. 1). According to Hertwig, the development of the beef measle worm required eighteen weeks. Moreover, the larval worm in the experiments of Hertwig when regularly removed in different stages, showed the following conditions of size': * Exceptionally, there may be six sucking disks. ANIMAL PAHASITES 423 Bate Age of Larvae in weeks LABViE Length. Breadth Ctsticekci ■without cyst SOOLEX Length Breadth Natural size Length when artificially stretched 1890 August 13 " 26 Sept. 9 23 ■Oct. 7 " 21 -Nov. 4 18 Dec. 16 1891 Jan. 27 10 13 14 16 18 23 28 mm. mm. mm. 4.0 3.5 2.25 4.2 3.5 3.0 4.5 3.5 3.35 5 8.75-4 3.5 5-6 3.5-4 4 6 4.5 5 6 4.5 5, 6.25-7 4.5 6 6.5-8 4.5 6 7.5-9 5.5 7 mm. 3.25 2.5 3.75 3.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 0.5 mm. diameter 1 mm. diameter 1.5 mm. long; 1 mm, broad 1.75 mm. long; 1 mm. broad 1.8 mm. long; 1 mm.' broad 3 mm. long; 1 mm. broad 2 mm. long; 1 mm. broad 2 mm. long; 1.35 mm. broad 3.25 mm. long; 1.75 mm. broad 2.5 mm. long; 2 mm. broad mm. 0.7 1.3 2.9 3.3 3.5 4.35 5.5—6.25 Unusual Findings of Cysticekci. — In addition to the trans- parent vesicles with plainly recognizable beginning of a scolex, we occasionally meet with structures which in spite of their undoubted cysticercal nature show considerable variation from the usual morphological condition of the beef measle worm. We frequently find structures of the size of an oat grain up to that of a pea, with thick, opaque, tough wall and with only a small cysticercus (Fig. 124). In such cases we have to do with an unusually strong reaction of the surrounding tissue after the penetration of the tapeworm embryos. The cysticercus may be intact or may be attached to the cyst by means of a fibrinous exudate (fibrinous v 424 INVASION DISEASES inflammation of the inner membrane of the cyst). The same inflammatory process may, however, appear in otherwise normally developed embryos during the various developmental stages and may cause the death of the parasite. Furthermore, the suppuration of the cysticerci has already been observed, apparently due to the introduction of purulent bacteria with the wandering embryos ; or to the excretion of these bacteria from the blood into the cysts, as has been experimentally demonstrated by Frankel. Furthermore, we frequently find among beef measle worms simple regressive metamorphoses not due to inflammatory processes. They begin with a coagulation Fig. 124. Young beef bladder worms with si rong ( necrosis, which appears in the f-Tudal vesicle and becomes 1 nspicuous as a caseation. The ' iseation passes gradually into ilcification. During this pre- ss the cyst, as a rule, remains intact. The regressive meta- Drphoses may appear iu beef III jasle worms in every develop- 3ntal stage. It is erroneous to -i.ppose that only old, fully de- ■ loped cysticerci are subject I • caseation and calcification. Moreover, attention should be I illed to the fact that all of the < ^ sticerci in a particular animal II ly undergo the above men- 1 1 )ned regressive metamorpho- --S, but that this is not neces- sarily the ca-^e. It is particularly Tevelopinent of the capsule. At a the true of the cvsticerci which .are soolex shows through the capsule, ^latural , . , . size. located m the internal organs ; for example, the cardiac cysti- cerci. I have called attention in another place to the fact that degenerated tapeworm larvae may be found in a completely intact condition in the voluntary muscles. Kallmann called attention to the peculiar fact that the casefied larval tapeworms are frequently distinguished by their greenish color. Occurrence. — The beef measle worm was formerly considered a rare parasite in Europe. In certain tropical countries, as, for ANIMAL PARASITES 425 example, Abyssinia, it was well known, on the other hand, that this worm was of very common occurrence in cattle. The rarity of beef measle worms among the native cattle of Europe was quite striking, for it stood in unexplainable contrast to the frequency of the appearance of Tcenia saginata in man. Physicians uniformly reported concerning the decrease in numbers of T. solium, the tape- worm which develops from pork measles, while T. saginata not only did not decrease, but was on the increase. According to Zaslin, T. saginata at the present time occurs in Switzerland from nine to ten times more frequently than the previ- ously equally common, if not more common, T. solium. Both in Basel, in 1,526 autopsies, found T. solium in no case and T. saginata in eleven cases. In Tiibingen, Vierordt, in an examination of eleven tapeworm patients, found T. saginata in nine cases and T. solium in two cases. According to Mangold, 128 tapeworm patients -yyere treated in Tiibingen between the beginning of 1885 and the end of 1894 ; of this number, 120 were infested with T. saginata, six with T. solium and two with Bothriocephalus latus. In this connection it is worthy of note that all six cases of T. solium occurred in the first year of the report. This condition agrees with that which has been found by statistical investigation in Vienna, Holstein and Italy. Since the 60's, Krabbe identified 400 tapeworms which were sent to him from various parts of Denmark. His studies yielded the following instructive results : Yeas. T. Saginata. T. Solium. .T. CUCUME- BINA. BOTHRIO- CBPHALDS LATUS. Before 1869 37 53 1 9 18fi9-1880 67 19 4 11 1880-1887 86 5 4 5 1887-1895 .,..,. 89 — 6 5 Total 279 77 15 30 According to Berenger and Ferand, the number of tsenias found in France in the marine hospitals increased from 0.2 per cent, in 1865 to 14.5 in 1890 ; in the city hospitals, from 2.6 per cent, in 1866 to 6.14 per cent, in 1890. Simultaneously T. saginata became very frequent, while T. solium, on the other hand, became unusually lure. Of the 191 tapeworm cures concerning which Berenger and 426 INVASION DISEASES Ferand reported, 112 whole tsenise with the head were passed. In all 112 cases the species was T. saginata. In the United States, Stiles made a study of 297 tapeworms, which, without exception, proved to be specimens of T. saginata. Herff, on the basis of forty years' practice, reports that T. saginata is very common in Texas. This striking disproportion between the appearance of T. saginata and the measle worms in cattle was explained by the discovery which was made by municipal meat inspection in Berlin- At the suggestion of Hertwig, late director of Berlin meat inspection, after a number of occasional discoveries of measle worms in the masticating muscles, it was ordered that in all cattle which were submitted for inspection the masticatory muscles should be examined by means of an incision. From this order the surprising result was obtained that, in sharp contrast to the first five years (1883 to 1888),, in which only four cases of beef measle worm were demonstrated, several hundred cases were found in a single year. This frequent finding of cysticerci could not be explained by assum- ing that the bladder worms were suddenly becoming more common among cattle. They had been formerly overlooked, for the reason, as appeared later, that cattle are only rarely so strongly infested that the worms appear on the surface of the muscles during the ordinary inspection at the time of slaughter. It frequently occurred that beef measle worms were found only in the muscles of mastica- tion, while no other examples could be found, as a rule, in all of the musculature,- even by a most careful inspection. The result of investigations in later years corresponds completely to that of the first year and justifies the assumption that the muscles of mastica- tion are to be considered as the most usual location of beef measle worms. It is a remarkable fact that more male than female cattle are found to be measly. In Neisse, for example, the ratio of male measly cattle to female was 8 : 5, although in that locality more cows and heifers were slaughtered than bulls and oxen. This peculiar condition may be explained in the first place by the fact that the majority of male cattle are slaughtered at a young age, in which the infestation from larval tapeworms usually occurs, and also by the fact that the beef measle worms, after having infested an animal may later become entirely disintegrated (The Axtthor). Eeissmann compiled the following interesting table concerning the relationship of sex and infestation by cysticerci in Berlin. The following numbers of animals were found measly : ANIMAL PARASITES 427 Bulls. Steers. Cows. Year. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. 1892-93, .... 101 .118 86 .147 38 .134 1895-96 110 .337 113 .309 47 .156 1899 354 .554 103 .548 86 .309 Usual Location and Frequency. — In by far the greater num- ber of cases, cattle show only a slight invasion, with the seat of the parasite in the masticatory muscles and heart. Thus, in Berlin beef muscle worms were found distributed in the following locations daring the different years of the report, 1888-1890 : 1. In the masticatory muscles ■ 316 3. In the masticatory muscles and heart 39 3. In the masticatory muscles and cervical muscles 1 4. In the masticatory muscles and the tongue 4 5. In the cervical muscles 1 6. In the cervical muscles and tongue 1 7. In the tongue 3 8. In the tongue and heart 3 9. In the thoracic muscles and tongue 1 10. In the whole musculature 33 According to these figures the cysticerci, except in twenty-two cases in which they were distributed throughout the body, were located : 1. In the masticatory muscles 360 3. In the heart , 41 8. In the tongue 10 4. In the cervical muscles 3 5. In the thoracic muscles 1 In later years the same condition prevailed. In the year 1899, for example, of 785 measly cattle, 754 showed only 1 cyaticercus, and in 767 cases the larval tapeworms were found only in the masticatory muscles (in 266 animals, only in the internal ; in 488, only in the external, and in 13, in both the internal and external masticatory muscles) ; 14 times in the heart ; 9 times in the masticatory muscles and the. heart ; once in the heart and in the tongue ; 3 times in the masticatory muscles and tongue ; once in the masticatory muscles, heart and thoracic muscles ; once in the masticatory muscles, heart, and diaphragm ; once in the heart, shoulder and thoracic muscles ; 428 INVASION DISEASES and in the remaining cases generally distributed throughout the muscles. Furthermore, in other German abattoirs, as in foreign countries, with the regular inspection of the masticatory muscles, only occasionally are cysticerci fouml in cattle. The proportion of measly cattle in the kingdoms of Prussia and Saxony, in which cattle are regularly inspected for cysticerci in the abattoirs, averages about ^ per cent., ranging from .16 per cent, to 4 per cent.* From the account already presented concerning the distribution of beef measle worms in individual cases, it is apparent that next to the masticatory muscles, but much more rarely than these, the heart was infested by the larval tapeworms. This fact was estab- lished in Switzerland before it was discovered in Berlin. Zschokke asserts that in the Canton of Zurich 19 cases of measle worm in cattle and 38 in calves were observed in 1886 as a result of careful inspection of the heart. Melchers reported also from Neisse that he found as many cases of infestation by measle worms in the heart as in the head or masticatory muscles. At first, chief attention was directed to the finding of beef measle worms in the internal masticatory muscles. Glage, however. * The number of cases of infestation from cysticerci in cattle has increased from year to year in consequence of the more generally applied inspection for these larval tapeworms. The number of cases in the public abattoirs of the Kingdom of Prussia amounted to 567 in 1893, 1,143 in 1895, 5,471 (.5 per cent.) in 1899 ; and in the Kingdom of Saxony, 47 in 1893, 237 in 1895 and 496 (.46 per cent.) in 1899. Cysticerci are most frequently found in the abattoirs at Neisse, Danzig, Magde- burg, Eisenach, Aachen, Marienwerder and Kiel. The following numbers were found in : Weisse 1891-1896 3.3 -4. percent. Danzig 1894-1900 36-3.76 " Magdeburg 1893-1899 36 -1.319 " Eisenach 1893-1894 1.91 " Aachen 1895-1898 17 -1.34 " Marienwerder 1893-1895 34 -1.03 " Kiel. 1891-1899 31 - .8 " Dresden 1898 477 " Berlin 1893-1899 16 - .47 " Konigsberg in Prussia 1899 477 " Leipsic 1890-1900 08 - .32 " Oppeln 1894 23 " Concerning beef cysticerci in foreign countries, reports have been made by Krabbe in Copenhagen, Morot in Troyes, Messner,in Carlsbad, Mautner 'in Ischl, Muny in Puime, and several Italian authors. According to Krabbe, 133, or 0.44 per cent, of the 30,000 cattle which were slaughtered in the abattoir at Copenhagen in 1894, were found to be measly. ANIMAL PARASITES 429 showed that the external masticatory muscles are infested with equal frequency and even when the measle worms were not found in the internal masticatory muscles. In addition to the masticatory muscles and the heart, the tongue, cervical muscles, muscular portion of the diaphragm and intercostal and thoracic muscles must be considered as favorite locations for the beef measle worm. According to Noack, these parasites are frequently encountered in cutting up measly beef animals, in the muscle group known as the round and rump. With the exception of the heart, the vital organs of cattle are not usually infested with cysticerci. Only in cases of extensive invasions are the lymph glands, lungs, liver and brain infested. Exceptionally, however, in cases of quite slight invasions, cysticerci are found in the lymph glands, lungs, liver, brain and esophagus. In an African beef animal, Morot found the internal mastica- tory muscles less strongly infested with cysticerci than the tongue and heart. The animal in question was extensively infested. lu addition to the tongue and heart, cysticerci were found in largi numbers in the muscles of the shoulder, foreleg and also in those of the back, rump and hind quarter. Diagnosis. — The recognition of fully-developed, uninjured cysticerci is not difficult. It is only on the surface of the body that they easily escape notice in consequence .of desiccation (Laboulbene). In other cases, the thin wall and the cyst with the invaginated scolex, which, however, may be easily protruded by pressure between the two fingers, constitutes unmistakable evidence of cysticerci. We have also the characteristic corrugation of the caudal cyst, the neck permeated with calcareous coipuscles, and, finally, the head armed with four sucking disks, but without hooks. These characters make certain the identification of the cysticercus of Tcenia saginata, when examined under the microscope. Under certain conditions, the positive demonstration of unde- veloped or degenerated cysticerci may be more difficult ; in the first case, when the differentiation into scolex and caudal cyst has not yet taken place, and in the latter case, when total calcification has obliterated all normal structure of the parasites. In the first case, however, the peculiar pear shape or round form of the immature cysticerci, surrounded by newly-formed connective tissue, and the bloody exudate (Figs. 126, 127) render a provisional diagnosis possible. Iq the latter case, as shown by the author, the demon- 430 INVASION DISEASES stration of calcareous corpuscles is decisive.* For the demonstra- lion of these diagnostically important characters, it is sufficient to exatiiine an ordinary teased preparation under slight magnification. For the detection of isolated cysticerci, it is absolutely neces- sary to examine carefully in every beef animal the masticatory muscles and the heart.t Fig.' 125 -S:1fc.^:-t^' 05 O ^ o Oq ^ d^\ Fig. 136. Pig. 137. fe.© Calcareous coi'pu cles frjm a teased pre- paration of a oasefled bladder worm, X 150 times. Caseous detritus above to the left. Beef bladder worms in development. In the demonstration of cysticerci in sausages, Schmidt-Miil- heim proposed the following method, which is based on the resistance of the scolex to the digesting power of the gastric juice : A small sample of sausage or minced meat is digested for several hours continuously at a temperature of 40° C. and with repeated stirring in six to eight times its volume of artificial gastric juice, which is easily obtained by extraction of the minced mucous membrane of a hog's stomach with 0.5 per cent, hydrochloric acid. * Under the term calcareous corpuscles are understood the delicate, glassy, transparent disks which occur by thousands in the neck of the cysticerci. They are round, oval, reniform or sausage-shaped. The majority of them, however, possess a round or oval form (Pig. 135). The calcareous corpuscles vary in size between 0.0015 and 019 mm. and consist of albuminate of lime. After the addition of dilute acids there is a residue which shows the original form of the calcareous corpuscles. t Formerly in southern Germany, the requirement of an inspection for beef measles was omitted and partly for the curious alleged reason that it was superfluous, since the meat was eaten in a cooked condition. The fallacy of this reasoning is shown by statistics collected by Mangold from clinics in the University of Tubingen, in which, during a comparatively short period, 120 persons were treated for TcBuior saginaia infestation. ANIMAL PAKASITES 431 Fig. 138. "While the meat q.nd fat are digested and the latter collects in the form of a more ,or less considerable layer of fat on the surface of the flaid, only the Wall of the cyst of the cysticerci which may be present is attacked and the scoleces (and especially the circle of hooks in the hog measle worm) exhibit an extraordinary resistance to the action of the gastric juice. Since these possess also a rather high specific gravity, they collect at the bottom of the vessel and may be at once recognized iu this situation as white bodies of the size of rice grains. Upon closer examination, especially in water^ it is found that the white bodies, in which, even after exposure to the gristric juice for a day, only traces of an incipient solution are ap- parent, exhibit strongly marked transverse folds aud that the completely intact head of the cysticercus is withdrawn into the hollow cephalic prolongation or is protruded. In both cases the head is easily isolated by means of dissecting needles. The sucking disks and, in the case of hog measle worm, the circle of hooks, then become apparent under a magnification of 20 diameters after clarifying the preparation in dilute glycerine. Bladder woriri calcified at a young stage, with strongly developed con- nective tissue capsule. X 35 diam. Kissling proposed a simpler method of demonstrating cysticerci in sausage. This is based on the different specific gravity of the scoleces of the cysticerci and the muscle fibers and is practically as follows : A lye is prepared from caustic soda, potash, or some other readily-soluble alkali, in such concentration that pieces of meat which are poor in fat readily .float on the surface. After it is clarified as much as possible, the lye is poured into a sufficiently broad glass vessel containing from one to four liters and the vessel drawn out to a point ^t the lower end. The finely minced meat or sausage to be examined is mixed with a small quantity of lye, and, without being crushed, is stirred so as to form a uniformly thin broth and is then added to the lye. Water is added, while the lye is being con- 432 INVASION DISEASES stantly stirred, until some of the pieces of meat begin to sink. If cysticerci are present, they immediately sink to the bottom and are then easily isolated by pouring off the rest of the material. In order tO test the viability of the cysticerci, we may use the method of warming (Leuckart and Perroncito). Living cysticerci when heated to a temperature of 30 to 40^ C. exhibit under the microscope active movements of the rostellum, sucking disks and other parts of the head and neck; while killed or dead cysticerci remain motionless. This thermo-microscopio investigation may be undertaken conveniently in the Nuttal microscope thermostat as well as in the simpler and cheaper warming apparatus for microscopic investigation devised by Kabitz and Kissling {Zeit. f. Fkiscli. u. Milchyg., VI). DiPPEBENTiAL DIAGNOSIS. — The beef measle worm may be con- fused with the larval form of Taenia marginata {Cysticercus tenuicollis) and with echinococci. Cysticercus tenuicollis is not found in the striated musculature, but only under the serous membranes and, in young animals, also in the liver. Furthermore, it possesses a double circle of character- istically-formed hooks (page 397). Echinococci, which occasionally occur also in the musculature, are distinguished from cysticerci by their round form and by the absence of any structure corresponding in size and form to the scolex of cysticerci. The echinococcus is either sterile — that is, without any head-like structure — or fertile — that is, furnished with numerous brood capsules. Furthermore, the lamellate structure of the cuticula of echinococci furnishes a good differential diagnostic character (page 512). As a rule, the lamellate structure is also apparent in degenerated echinococci and furnishes, therefore, in such cases, a certain criterion for diagnosis. Kieckhafer described a case of lymph cysts resembling cysti- cerci which had given occasion to confusion with beef measle worms. The cysts, the nature of which was immediately apparent upon incision, were located on the hyoglossus muscle and varied in size from that of peas to hazel nuts. Judgment.— A tapeworm (Tcenia saginata) develops in the alimentary canal of man from the beef measle worm. This tape- worm may affect the health of the host by causing distress, by withdrawing nutriment and frequently by recurrent digestive ANIMAL PARASITES .433 disturbances. Measly beef may, therefore, be considered a danger- ous food material. In this connection it should be remembered ihat Tcenia saginata, which develops f lom the beef measle worm, is difficult to expel. On the other hand, the beef measle worm is not so dangerous to human health as the hog measle worm, since, according to all reliable observations, autoinvasion — that is, the formation of cysticerci in the vital organs of the host of Tcenia saginata— does not occur in cases of infestation by this parasite. In general, the cysticercus disease, as rightly asserted by Bollinger, cannot be considered in the same class with other zoonoses (anthrax, glanders, intestinal sepsis, trichinosis), since the tapeworm disease which arises from eating measly beef is not actually dangerous to life and often causes only very slight disturbances, and, as compared with the echinococcus disease, is to be characterized as almost harmless. Measly beef is dangerous only in a raw or half-cooked condition. This is shown by the fact that cooks and servant girls who commonly sample the meat during its cooking, furnish a large con- tingent to the hosts of Tcenia saginata.* By means of a suitable treatment of measly meat, we are in a position to kill the cysticercus and render harmless the infesting parasites. Judgment op Immatuee and Degenerated Cysticerci. — It must be considered as certain that cysticerci are incapable of de- veloping into tape worms in the intestines of man before they have reached a certain developmental stage. This power is wanting, at least in cases where the head is absent or just beginning to develop, as well as in cases of incomplete development of the suckers. Simi- larly, completely degenerated cysticerci, in which the parasite itself appears to be cloudy or already calcified, must be regarded as harmless. Meat infested with such cysticerci may, therefore, be admitted to the market as harmless food material, without any special treatment, if it appears certain from an examination that only undeveloped or degenerated cysticerci are present. In the previous discussion, however, attention has already been called to the fact that along with degeneratedT cysticerci intact indi- viduals may also occur, and this is frequently the case in cattle. * The connection between the frequent occurrence of tapeworms and the custom of eating raw meat appears very plainly also from the statistics of army physicians. According to these statistics there is in no one of the German army corps so high a percentage of tapeworm infestations as in the Tenth, which is recruited chiefly from lower Saxony, where the consumption of raw minced meat is widely prevalent 434 INTASION DISEASES The occurrence of intact cysticerci in the muscles of mastication at the same time that degenerated individuals are found in the heart is especially frequent. For, in the latter organ, the cysticerci may degenerate even during development. The simultaneous occur- rence of intact and degenerated cysticerci in the other muscles is- rarer. In cases where the degenerated cysticerci are found, a care- ful examination of the favorite locations of the parasites should be undertaken in order to determine whether living specimens are found with the degenerated individuals. In an examination which I made at the Berlin abattoir, I found that when the muscles of mastication contained only degenerated cysticerci, the other muscu- lature contained no living parasites. Method of Destboying Cysticerci. — Beef measle worms may be killed by heating and by laying in brine. Moreover, it has been demonstrated that these parasites naturally disintegrate at the latest within three weeks after the death of the host. Finally, a destruction of the cysticerci may be brought about by freezing. 1. Killing by Heat. — Perroncito observed that a temperature of 45° C. was sufficient to kill beef measle worms, as evidenced by the fact of their cloudy appearance, their non-motility when exam- ined under the microscope, and the negative results from transmis- sion experiments. Hertwig fouiid iu cysticerci which had been exposed to a temperature of 65° C. that the scolex, which in a liviug condition was unusually resistant to pressure, was so soft that it could be compressed between slides, like beef tallow. This altera- tion must be considered as an excellent criterion of the accom- plished destruction of cysticerci by boiling. By means of the above demonstration, Heitwig simultaneously disproved the wide- spread erroneous view that cysticerci which had been killed by boiling or roasting could be detected in eating the meat by a crack- ling sound between the teeth. In masticating boiled or roasted meat, one can not detect any cysticerci which may be present. Measly beef may thus be rendered harmless by boiling. It should be observed that meat is a poor conductor of heat and that a high degree of heat is attained in the interior of the pieces only slowly. This question will be considered more iu detail in the spe- cial chapter on the "Boiliug of Meat, etc." In this connection it may simply be mentioned that, according to experiments thus far made, the certain destruction of all cysticerci present in meat may be assumed if the meat, iu pieces of any convenient length, but not ANIMAL PAKASITES 435 too thick (up to 12 cm. in thickness), has been boiled for two hours. The meat is then well done and ou cross section appears to be of a uniform gray color. Since this alteration of color does not occur until a temperature of 60° to 70° C. is reached (page 202), or a tem- perature which is more than sufficient to destroy the beef measle worm, we possess in this change a very efficient method for deter- mining whether a sufficiently high temperature has"been produced uniformly throughout the meat for the destruction of the cysti- cerci. Measly beef which after boiling exhibits a gray color on cross section may thus with certainty be characterized as a harmless food material. Against compulsory boiling of measly beef before sale there is the one objection that a considerable depreciation of value is neces- sarily connected with the process. By the process of boiling, the meat loses as much as 50 per cent, in weight, and purchasers of boiled beef, even at low prices, are difficult to find. 2. Killing Cysticeegi by Pickling. — Likewise, concerning the destruction of cysticerci by pickling, we owe the first experiments to the noted Italian investigator, Perroncito. This author demon- strated that isolated cysticerci are killed within twenty-four hours in a solution of common salt. But little use, however, is made of pickling for rendering measly meat harmless, since detailed infor- mation concerniug the penetration of salt solutions into the interior of the pieces of meat is wanting. The author, therefore, tested this question by treating measly meat with salt solutions and examining the cysticerci contained in the meat, after the lapse of fourteen days, by heating in Nuttal's microscope-thermostat. The brine used in these experiments was of the same composition as that used by butchers in the ordinary commercial preservation of meat. It consisted of 2J parts saltpetre, 20 parts cane sugar, 250 parts common salt, and 1000 parts water. The brine solution, therefore, contained 25 per cent of common salt. The experiments showed that cysticerci contained in measly beef and pork invariably died within fourteen days, provided the meat was laid in the brine in pieces not too thick (up to 6 cm. in thickness), or provided that the brine was injected into the pieces of meat by means of a brine syringe, in accordance with the sug- gestion of Glage. The destruction of the cysticerci keeps pace with the degree of pickling. For demonstrating the completion of the process of pick- 436 INVASION DISEASES ling, we possess a simple means in a 1 per cent, solution of nitrate of silver (the author). The solution of nitrate of silver produces no striking change on the cut surface of fresh muscle meat, but, on the cut surfaces of completely pickled meat, a temporary milky cloudi- ness is produced (chloride of silver). For making this test, one carefully washes in water the pieces of meat to be examined, dries the surface with a cloth, and makes a rapid cut through the middle of the piece of meat. The cut surface is then held upward and a few drops of a solution of nitrate of silver are allowed to fall on the middle of the section. In order to proceed with certainty, the solution of nitrate of silver may be poured into a funnel-shaped cavity which may easily be produced in the middle of the cut sur- face of the meat by cutting out (with a knife) a conical piece of meat. Glage has proposed a more accurate process for the demon- stration of the completion of the pickling process. He employs a 2 per cent, aqueous solution of nitrate of silver which is ren- dered non-sensitive toward small quantities of salt by the addition of ammonia. The preparation of Glage's reagent for the demon- stration of pickling takes place according to the following recipe : Argent, nitric 2 Aqu. dest 100 Mf. Sol. Adde exaotissime Liquor. Ammon. canst, q. s. ad praeoip. et perfect, resolut. Ar«nti; deinde Liquor. Ammon. oaust. volumetr. 40 cc. Aqu. dest. q. s. ad 200 co. In vitro flavo. On account of the excess of 40 cc, of normal ammonia, the mix- ture is so desensitized as a reagent for chlorine that in 10 cc. of the mixture— and not less should be used for each test— a precipi- tate of chloride of silver does not occur until after the addition of 2.7 cc. of a 1:100 normal salt solution, while smaller quantities do not alter the clear reagent or merely produce a precipitation of chloride of silver which is immediately redissolved. In the use of Glage's reagent, there is no precipitation of the chlorides which normally occur in the body and which in the use of the simple solution of silver nitrate may interfere to a considerable extent, especially in the differentiation of iresh and salted livers. For carryiug out the test, one should pour 10 cc. of the reagent into a glass vessel furnished with a polished glass stopper and without any neck-like constriction and should then drop into the reagent one gram of the meat to be examined, taken fiom the inside of a piece. If, after vigorous shaking, a white precipitate is formed ANIMAL PARASITES 437 ■which becomes violet or blackish in sunlight, the meat is to be con- sidered as salted throughout. The pickling of nieasly beef, as compared with compulsory boiling, possesses the advantage that the meat by the former process loses only about 6.5 per cent, in weight, and is much more easily sold than boiled meat (Rieck). 3. Natural Death of Beef Measle "Worms During Long Preservation of the Meat. — It was likewise Perroncito who ob- served that cystieeici die within a certain time after the death of the host. He found in a calf which had been artificially infested with cysticerci that all the parasites were dead 14 days after the slaughter of the animal. The tests instituted by the author , showed that natural death does not uniformly occur in the above- nam'ed period, but that by preserving measly beef for three weeks the cysticerci contained in it are rendered harmless. The demonstration of the fact that the cysticerci in meat pre- served for three weeks were dead was confirmed not only by the application of heat, bat, in order to remove all doubt, by digestion experiments and especially by infection experiments in which, be- side the author, a large number of students and assistants at the Veterinary High School at Berlin took part. The results thus ob- tained have been confirmed by the autoinfection experiments of the chief city veterinarian, B.eissmann, in Berlin, and several other city veterinarians in that place, as well as by the Dresden abattoir veteri- narian, Zschokke. i Rendering measly beef harmless by preservation of the meat for three weeks, which, in order to avoid decomposition, should take place in cold storage, is the most rational method, since the meat thereby undergoes the least depreciation in value. It suffers only a minimum loss of weight and finds ready sale as ravr meat. 4. Killing Cysticerci by Freezing. — It has been demon- strated by Rissling, Glage and Reissmann, that beef and hog measle worms are killed by freezing. Glage determined that in measly pork which was preserved for fourteen days at a temperature of — 10° to — 15° C, all the cysticerci die. According to Reissmann, this re- sult takes place in fairly large pieces of beef and in larger than medium-sized hams after the lapse of four days, provided that the pieces of meat are kept at a temperature of — 8° to — 10° C. Cysti- cerci killed by freezing exhibit, in addition to their lack of motility 438 INYASION DISEASES in the thermostat, a peculiar sticky character (Glage) ; also a disso- ciation of the calcareous corpuscles and a total staiuabilitj. Freezing, therefore, is a practical method for rendering measly beef harmless. It has the one disadvantage that the keeping qual- ity of the meat is considerably affected by the process of freezing. Frozen meat rapidly decomposes and must, therefore, be quickly utilized. Other Methods op Killing Cysticeroi. — For the sake of com- pleteness, it may be mentioned that cysticerci may be killed also by acids and by the action of electric currents (Glage). The prac- tical application of these methods, however, meets with difficulty. In the acid method, the superficial layers of the muscles are changed into grny flaky masses and the deeper-lying portions are not easily penetrated by the acid. Difficulties were met with in the application of the electric current from the lack of uniformity in the development of heat at the different poles. It sometimes hap- pened that the meat was burned and the fat melted. Moreover, in the use of the method characterized by Glage as "electrical sterili- zation in a raw condition," the meat was rendered somewhat soft by the separation of a portion of its albumen, a fact which inter- fered with its continued preservation. Cysticerci are not injured by decomposition. The author, in harmony with Reissmann, found that cysticerci may remain alive even in badly decomposed meat. Method op Procedure with the Meat op Measly Cattle.^ Measly beef may be allowed on the market, provided the cysticerci have been killed by one of the above mentioned methods, or pro- vided the sale of the meat takes place under such precautionary measures as to permit the assumption that it will be eaten only in a harmless condition. In localities in which the sale of meat is under police supervision, measly beef may, therefore, be sold in a raw condition if accom- panied by a statement of its peculiar character and with explicit directions that it must be cooked before it is eaten. (See decisions of the Imperial Court, page 117, especially Decision IV. of July 11, 1884, and September 29, 1885). Measly beef is sold under these conditions in southern Germany. If, however, the above men- tioned proviso is not realized, measly beef should be admitted to the market only after having been rendered harmless. ANIMAL PARASITES 439 Measly meat, even after the destruction of the cysticeroi by boiling, pickling, or preservation of the meat for three weeks, is to be considered a spoiled (inferior) food material, and is, there- fore, to be sold only when a statement is made of its peculiar character. Measly meat must be absolutely excluded from the market even in a cooked condition if the cysticerci are distributed in large quantities throughout the whole musculature, or if the meat has assumed a watery character in consequence of the inva- sion of cysticerci. As already indicated, there is no reason for excluding from the market viscera which are free from cysticerci, for they show no variation whatever from the normal. Fat tissue which is free from cysticerci is to be judged similarly. Ke^ulations Concerning the Hethod of Frocednre with the Meat of Measly Cattle.* In the Kingdom of Prussia the method of procedure with the meat of measly cattle is regulated at present by a ministerial decree of November 18, 1897, coucerning the sanitary police procedure with measly cattle and calves. The decree reads as follows : By a circular decree of February 16, 1876, the regulations which seem to be required in the interest of sanitary science for the treatment of measly hogs, according to the opinion of the Royal Scientific Deputation for the Medical Service of February 3, 1876, are made known, and are also applicable in the case of measly cattle. Since the conditions for the destruction of the beef measle worm have been more accurately determined by detailed investigations, we have compiled ''the principles for the sanitary police procedure with measly cattle and calves." While we hereby repeal all previous regulations and order that until further notice procedure in this case shall be governed according to the principles hereby formulated, we call atten- tion at the same time to the following statements: For the purpose of bringing about a uniform practice of inspection for beef measle worms, the examination should be made in such a manner that the muscu- lature which is exposed during slaughter, especially the external and internal muscles of mastication,' tongue and heart, should be carefully inspected, and that extensive incisions parallel with the rami of the maxillary bones should be made in the muscles of mastication, f Meat is to be considered well boiled when a uniform gray color is observed on a fresh cross section. * From the time when the Imperial Meat Inspection Law comes into force, regulations of general application will exist concerning the method of procedure with the meat of measly cattle. f In calves up to the age of six weeks, the inspection of the muscles of masti- cation for cysticerci may be omittted. (Circular decree of the Ministries of Agri- culture, etc., July 1, 440 INVASION DISEASES The content of salt solution is to be accurately determined or controlled in the preparation of brine, or by means of the alkaliraeter. The pieces to be utilized in pickling shall not be heavier than 2i kg. Pickled meat is to be kept under police control during the prescribed period. For the determination of the temperature in cold storage rooms, tested maxi- mum and minimum thermometers are to be used, and reliable self-registering hygrometers for the determination of the moisture. The temperature and moisture content of the room are to be taken during the forenoon and evening of each day and to be registered in tabular form. When properly equipped, cold storage rooms in operation in public abattoirs can be considered as "suitable." The district veterinarian, in cooperation vfith the local police authorities, shall decide in each individual case whether the conditions for the proper treatment of the meat by cooking or hanging are present. The meat of cattle which are only slightly infested with cysticeroi may be hung in quarters in special apartments under police control ; that of calves in a similar condition, with- out quartering. In a given apartment, only the meat of one or several measly ani- mals slaughtered on the same day should be hung; the dressed meat of animals- slaughtered on different days should be placed in the same apartment only when the pieces of meat are so stamped that all possible confusion is avoided. Although it has been demonstrated by previous investigations that the decompo- sition of the meat does not take place in cold storage rooms with the required tem- perature and moisture content, it should, nevertheless, be determined by a veterina- rian after the lapse of 31 days and before the meat is discharged, whether the meat has kept well and is not spoiled. By means of the provision that the meat of animals slightly infested with cysti- ceroi and which has been rendered suitable for human consumption shall be sold only to the consumer or for domestic use, it is intended to prevent commercial middlemen, butchers, sausage makers, and hotel keepers from obtaining possession of such meat. If considered necessary, the resale of this meat is to be forbidden under penalty of law. A report is to be made on measly cattle and calves according to the enclosed scheme covering the preceding calendar year up to February 15 of each year, and, beginning with February 15, 1899, is to be concluded by a short report on the opera- tion of these regulations. Finally, for the purpose of communicating with the districts concerned, we give notice that the opinions of the Scientific Deputation for the Medical Service and of the Technical Deputation for the Veterinary Service, which furnished the founda- tions for the decree of these regulations, are published in the Vierteljahrschnft ftir^Geriohtliche Medizin und Oeffentlioheg Sanitatswesen, XIV., Supplement, Octo- ber, 1897, pp. 117, 143. Principles Governing the Sanitary Police Procedure With Measly Cattle and Calves. According to the numbei-of cysticerci, distinction is made between (a) Animals with at most ten living cysticerci : slightly infested animals.* (b) Animals with more than ten living cysticerci : badly infested animals. * By means of a circular decree of the above mentioned Ministries of June 16, 1898, it IS ordered that in estitnating the number of cysticerci, all living cysticerci shall be included which are found before boiling, pickling, or hanging the meat in cold storage, without regard to the place or time, or whether they are found during slaughter or during the subsequent cutting up of the meat ANISIAL PABA8ITE8 441 For free utilization as human food are admitted : 1. Rendered lard, unconditionally. 2. The liver, spleen, kidneys, stomach and intestines of animals slightly infested ■with cysticerci (o) in so far as these organs are found upon veterinary inspection to be free from cysticerci. 3. Animals slightly infested with cysticerci (a) in which the cysticerci which are found are, according to veterinary opinion, in a condition of complete calcification. II. For domestic use or for sale in special booths, freibanks, etc., in pieces not larger than 2^- kg. and for sale only to the consumers and under statement of its measly nature, it is permitted to sell meat of animals slightly infested with cysticerci (a) after its dangerous properties have been removed under veterinary supervision : 1. By thorough boiling. 2. By pickling for twenty-one days in a 25 per cent, brine, or, 3. By preservation for twenty-one days in suitable* cold storage rooms in which a temperature of 3 deg. to at most 7 deg. C. prevails and a moisture content of 70 to at most 75 per cent. III. The carcasses of animals badly infested with cysticerci (b) are to be utilized for technical purposes or otherwise rendered innocuous under police supervision. In the Kingdom of Saxony, the meat of measly cattle, according to Section 5 of the new regulations. Appendix 6 to Section 16 of the regulations for carrying out the Saxon Meat Inspection Law (principles underlying the judgment of meat), is to be thoroughly boiled, pickled or refrigerated. In the Grand Duchy of Baden, the following principles prevail : 1. Meat is to be considered as unfit for food when the cysticerci are present in such numbers that they are seen on the majority of the cut surfaces in the body musculature. 2. The meat of animals slightly infested with cysticerci — that is, animals in which only isolated cysticerci occur, except in the muscles of mastication — is to be considered as fit for food, but not marketable after a previous boiling, pickling or refrigeration for three weeks under police supervision. The temperature in cold storage must not exceed 5 deg. C. If the cysticerci are shown to be dead, this procedure is not necessary. 3. The meat of animals in which only isolated cysticerci occur in the muscles of mastication is marketable, but in such cases the head is to be treated according to No. 2. In other States the present procedure with measly beef will remain the same as that with measly pork until the regulations for carrying out the Imperial Meat Inspection Law bring out uniformity in this matter. JUGDMENT OF THE ViSCEBA OP THE MeAT OP MeASLY CaTTLE. — As a rule, the viscera of measly cattle, with the exception of the heart, * The District Veterinarian, in connection with the local authorities, shall decide concerning the " suitability." U2 INVASION DISEASES contain no cysticerci. The yiscera can not, therefore, be regarded as dangerous to life, like musculature infested with the parasites ; and, if they are shown to be free ftom cysticerci by inspection, they require no treatment for rendering them harmless, but in such cases may be freely admitted to the market. (b) Hog Bladder Worm (Cysticercus Cellulosse). Nature. — The hog measle worm is the larval stage of a thin tsenia of man, erroneously considered a solitary tapeworm {Tcenia solium, Kndolphi). T. solium is 2 to 3 m. long ; the mature pro- ..^dl^ Fio. 130. Circle of liuons oi ihe pork bladder worm. From a photograph. X 35 diameters. Scolex of Cysticercus cellulosae. X 13 diameters. glottides are provided with a uterus which sends out from seven to ten lateral branches on either side. On account of its location in the connective tissue which lies between the muscle fibers, the hog measle worm is given the name " connective tissue bladder worm " {Cysticercus cellulosce). G. cellidosce is provided with a double row of hooks (Fig. 130). HiSTOEiOAL. — According to Falck, the hog bladder worms wein described by Aristotle. Moreover, they were mentioned iu tli4. ANIMAL PABA8ITES 443 earliest regulations concerning meat inspection, and the frequency of their occurrence led to the establishment of special sale booths, " measle banks " or freibanks. According to Braun, it was demon- strated by the experiments of Kiichenmeister (1855), Humbert (1854), Leuckart (1856), HoUenbach (1859) and Heller (1876) that Oysticercus cellulosce develops into Tcenia solium in the human intes- tines. Similarly, by feeding ripe proglottides to hogs, Cysticercus cellulosce was repeatedly reproduced (Van Beneden, 1853 ; Haubner and Kiichenmeister, 1855 ; Leuckart, 1856 ; Hosier, 1865 ; Gerlach, 1870, et al). MoBPHOLOGY. — With regard to its location between the muscle fibers and also in great degree with respect to its macroscopic peculiarities, Cysticercus cellulosce agrees with the beef measle worm. For the rest, the hog bladder worm shows the following peculiari- ties : The cyst is more delicate and therefore more transparent than in the case of beef measle vorm. The scolex, when iuvagi- uated into the caudal bladder, therefore, shows through the cyst more couspicuously in the case of the hog measle worm than in the beef measle worm. Moreover, the scolex of the hog measle worm possesses a double circle of hooks which is wanting in the beef measle worm. The number of hooks amounts to 22 to 28 (Fig. 130). The hooks ai-e of compressed form with strong bases !ind rather slightly curved points (Fig. 134). The length of the large hooks is 0.16 to 0.18 mm. ; that of the small hooks, 0.11 to 0.14 mm. The size of the hog measle worm varies, as in the case of the beef mciisle worm, according to the stage of development in which the parasites are found at the time of the slaughter of their host. By means of feeding experiments, Gerlach demonstrated the follow- ing facts concerning the development of the hog measle worm : 1. Cysticerci 20 days old : A delicate transparent vesicle of the size of a pin head without enveloping membrane ; rudimentary head indicated by a cloudy point. 2. Cysticerci 40 days old : Enveloping membrane still very delicate; of the size of a mustard seed or sometimes larger; head very plain ; sucking disks and a circle of hooks recognizable, but not completely developed. 3. Cysticerci 60 days old : While in the enveloping membrane, of the size of a pea or larger ; when taken out of the connective tis- sue enveloping membrane, more reniform ; head projecting some- what from the vesicle as a faint white button-like structure ; true 444 INVASION DISEASES neck still wanting; row of hooks and sucking disks completely developed; difference in size. 4. Cysticerci 110 days old : All of about the same size ; neck developed; transverse furrows iadicated; the head, free from the firm enveloping membraue, lies invaginated into the caudal cyst. After the head is forced out, the cysticerci have the form of a flask. Occurrence. — In contrast with the distribution of Oysticercus hovis, C. cellulosce is comparatively rare in our native hogs. In some V^ Heart of a hog infected with Oysticercus eellulosae. parts of Germany, as Bavaria, Wiirtemburg, Baden, and Hohenzol- lern, the hog measle worm is almost never observed at present. This rar.e occurrence of the hog measle worm corresponds with that of Tcenia solium in man.* Formerly the hog measle worm was of quite frequent occurrence, even among the native hogs. At pres- ent only hogs imported from Eussian Poland, Galicia, Bohemia, Servia and Koumania are found to be frequently infested with cysticer ci. Among Servian hogs, the introduction of which into ♦According to Mangold, the last cases of T. Clinic were observed in 1887. solium at the Tubingen Medical ANIMAL PARASITES 445 Germany was quite exteDsive up to the beginning of the 90's, one- half of the shipments were frequently found to be measly. The gradual disappearance of the hog measle worm from Ger- many is a classical demonstration of the certain and beneficial effect of a regulated meat inspection. In this respect there is no essential difference between northern and southern Germany. While in northern Germany meat inspection has only recently been subject to general regulations, the extermination of hog measle worms was begun long ago, for trichina inspectors were instructed to take notice of the presence of cysticerci when taking samples for trichina inspection. At present itis only in the eastern provinces of Prussia that cysticerci in hogs are demonstrated with comparative fre- quency. It is worthy of mention that, according to the results of Ger- lach's feeding experiments, the eggs of Taenia solium are unable to develop into cysticerci except in young swine (pigs up to one-half year old). Frequency of Cysticerci in Hogs. — Concerning the frequency of cysticerci iu native hogs, the following figures are available : In the Kingdom of Prussia, according to the seven-year average (1876 -1882), one in every 305 hogs slaughtered was measly (Johne). Later the pvoportion became constantly wider. From 1886 to 1889, it was 1 in 551; in 1890-1892, 1 in 817 ; and, finally, iu 1896, 1 in 1,470. Iu the Kingdom of Saxony, in 1894, one in every 686 hogs was found to be measly. In 1895, the jjroportion widened to 1 in 2,049, and in 1896, 1 in 5,886. In Berlin, in 1883-1884, 1,621 measly hogs were found among 244,343; in 1884-1885, 1,468 in 264,727; iu 1885-1886, 2,740 iu 285,882 ; in 1886-1887, 1,786 in 310,840 ; in 1887-1888, 2,333 in 419,848 ; in 1888-1889, 2,328 in 479,124 ; and in 1889-1890, 1,887 in 442,115. Thus, as an average for the seven years, one measly hog was found in each 173 slaughtered. In 1895-1896, the rela- tion of measly hogs to the total number of slaughtered hogs was 1 to 1,000 ; and in 1896-1897, 1 to 1,363. In southern Germany, measly hogs are rare. In the Kingdom of Prussia, hog measle worms are much more frequent in the eastern provinces than in the western. Thus, in 1892 the ratio of measly hogs to the total number of slaughtered ■hogs in the governmental district of Marienwerder was 1 : 28 ; in Oppeln, 1 : 80 ; in Konigsberg, 1 : 108 ; in Stralsund and Posen, 446 INVASION DISEASES 1 : 187, and in Danzig, Frankfurt, and Bromburg, 1 : 250, as con- trasted with Arnsberg with a proportion of 1 : 865 ; Coblenz, 1 : 975 ; Diisseldorf, 1 : 1,070 ; Miinster and Wiesbaden, 1 : 1,900. The aver- age proportion of measly hogs for the whole Kingdom of Prussia was 1 : 1,290, and for the eastern provinces 1 : 604. The diminution in the number of measly hogs is best shown by the following percentage computation : (a) Kingdom of Prussia. ' Percentage Year q^ measly hogs 1876-1883 0.324 1886-1889 181 1890-1893 123 1899 09 (b) Kingdom of Saxony. 1894 0.157 1896 017 1899 010 (c) Berlin. 1883-1890 0..'5:7 1893-1893 819 1895-1896 099 1899 043 Concerning the frequency of Gysticercus celluhsce in hogs slaugh- tered in foreign countries, there are only meagre data. According to Kiabbe, only one measly hog was found among 1,334,000 slaugh- tered at the abattoir in Copenhagen. On the other hand, Prett- ner found 3.44 per cent, of the hogs slaughtered in Prag to be in- fested with cysticerci. Moreover, of the hogs imported from Rus- sian Poland into Myslowitz, Beuthen, Kattowitz and Tarnowitz, more than 1 per cent, were measly. Occurrence of Cysticercus ceUulosce in Other Animals. — In addition to hogs, C. cellulosce may be found occasionally also in sheep, dogs, bear and deer. Furthermore, according to Braun, this parasite may occur in cats, rats and apes. During the sanitary police inspection of slaughtered dogs in recent years, cysticerci have frequently been found ; for example, in 1890, a dog was found in Chemnitz extensively infested with cysti- cerci. Casefied and Calcijied Hog Measle Worms. — The hog measle worm, as well as the ^eef measle worm, may undergo regressive metamor- ANIMAL PARASITES 447 /; ptosis. This alteration, however, is more rarely observed in the former than in the latter. As a rule, hog measle worms appear to degenerate at a very early developmental stage. The dead cysti- cerci appear as elongated or spherical casefied or calcified struc- tures which usually stand at the limit of macroscopic visibility, but occasionally reach the size of hempseed. Casefied hog measle worms have a gray color, while calcified specimens are pure white. Caseation and calcification are observed in both slight and exten- sive invasions, but are more frequent in the latter case. Moreover, in hogs, as contrasted with cattle, as a rule all of the cy^ticerci are aff-;cted with regressive metamor- phosis, excepting only the rare cases of extensive invasioji in which, in addition to the muscula- ture, also the liver, lungs and other vital organs are infested with cys- ticerci ; for the cysticerci in the viscera, especially those in the liver and lungs, usually disinte- grate at an early stage, while the muscle cysticerci undergo further development in a normal manner. When numerous cysticerci have disintegrated, the heart and skeletal musculature is found to be sprinkled with white granules (" calcareous concretions "). Un- der the microscope, a tough con- nective tissue membrane and a mt)re or less strongly calcified center may be demonstrated in the calcified structure (Fig. 132). Ciireous corpuscles and hooks center. Pio. 133. I I Bladder worm calcified at a young stage, with strongly developed cqn- neotive tissue capsule. X 35 diam. Under certain conditions, cal- are to be demonstrated in the Extensive Infestations. — In hogs, much more frequently than in cattle, one observes extensive invasions of cysticerci. This fact is suffi;-ieutiy explained by the method of managing hogs, as well as by their nature as omnivorous animals iu the broadest sense. As many cases of extensive as of slight infestation are observed in hogs. The invasion of cysticerci may be so extensive that the parasites lie side by side in such a manner as to leave only frag- 4A8 INVASION DISEASES merits of active muscle substance intact. In such degrees of infesta- tion the musculature is discolored grayish-red and quite watery. In slighter cases of infestation this is never the case. Moreover, in cases of extensive invasion one frequently finds cystioerci in the lymphatic glands, panniculus adiposus and brain. On the other hand, even in extensive invasions, cases in which the lungs, liver, and other viscera, in addition to the musculature, are infested with cysticerci, are very rare. Eatio of Extensive to Slight Gases of Invasion in Hogs. — In the years 1884 to 1887, according to statistics in Berlin, the ratio of extensively infested hogs to those slightly infested with cysticerci was as follows : Tear Extensively Moderately Slightly infested infested infested 1884-5 54a 489 436 1885-6 1,002 743 995 1886-7 623 409 371 Hogs in which, despite a careful examination of all muscle sur- faces which are exposed by the ordinary commercial cutting up of the animals, only one specimen of Cysficercus cellvlosce could be demon- strated, were found in the following nambera, according to the statements of Hertwig : lu 1885-6, 156 ; in 1886-7, 279 ; in 1887-8, 408; in 1888-9, 446; and in 1889-90, 3 17. Later in Berlin it was found convenient," from practical con- siderations, to make a distinction only between extensively and slightly infested hogs. Inspection of hogs gave the following results : Year Total number of Extensively Slightly measly hogs infested infested 1895-6 627 804 323 1896-7 509 251 258 1899 325 118 207 Most Pbeqdent Locations.— The usual seat of the hog measle worm is in the abdominal muscles, muscular portion of the dia- phragm, lumbar muscles, tongue, heart, muscles of mastication, intercostal muscles and cervical musculature, the gracilis, and sternal musculature.* These preferred locations of Cysticercus celluhsce m ust be most carefully examined in all slaughtered hogs, * For the purpose of inspecting the abdominal muscles, a previous removal of the retroperitoneal fat tissue is indispensable, and for inspecting the cervical muscula- ture, It IS -necessary that the hog be split into two lateral halves ANIMAL PARASITES 149 and, like the heart and muscles of mastication, must in all cases be tested by incision. Among the vital organs, the heart and brain should be named as frequent locations for the hog measle worm, and among the other organs the lymphatic glands and panniculus adiposus. Fig. 133. Fig. 134. Hooks from Cysticercus eellulosaa, seen from the side and in front. From photographs. a, large hooks ; h, small hooks. X 275 diameters. Preferred locations of the pork bladder worm. a, gracilis; J, lumbar muscles; c, abdominal muscles; d, pillars of the diaphragm; e, costal portion of diaphragm ; f, intercostal muscles; g, sternal muscles ;_A, neck muscu- lature; i, internal masticatory muscles. . Cysticercus cellulosce is found in the other viscera only excep- tionally and, as a rale, only in case of extensive invasion. In such cases the cysticerci are observed in the lungs, liver and spleen. Prettner found the eye to be an exceptional site of cysti- cerci. He examined the eyes of 400 measly hogs and discovered 450 INVASION DISEASES cysticerci in the interior of the eyes in a subretinal position iu two of the hogs. The frequent occurrenoe of hog bladder worms in the muscu- lature of the tongue is utilized by meat dealers in diagno.■^iug infestation by cysticerci in living animals. For this purpose hog& are thrown upon their side and the mouth opened with a stick. The tongue is then drawn out with a cloth and subjected to inspec- tion and palpation for the presence of cysticerci. Hogs thus, recognized as measly during life, form a favorite material for trade in localities without regulai' meat inspection. This dangerous prac- tice is to be checked in all possible ways. A legal means of accomplishing this purpose is furnished by the food law, which, according to several decisions of the Imperial Court (page 111), is applicable also to living food animals, and, therefore, provides a. penalty according to Section 12 for the sale of living hogs known to be measly. Diagnosis. — The diagnosis of fully developed hog measle worms presents as little difficulty as the recognition of developed beef measle worms. In hog measle worms which have undergone an alteration of their appearance, color and size in consequence of regressive meta- morphoses, the calcareous corpuscles (Fig. 125) and also the hooks (Fig. 134) demonstrate the presence of the remaius of cysticerci. These diagnostically important parts are wanting only in cases where the hog measle Worms have degenerated and become com- pletely calcified before the formation of the scolex. In this case, however, their position in the interfibrillar muscle tissue and the presence of a stronj;, connective tissue capsule furnishes the means of making a probable diagnosis. In case cysticerci are present in the viscera, the demonstration of Oysticercus ceUvlosce must be made by means of a microscopic examination. Differential Diagnosis.— With regard to a differential diag- nosis, attention should be called to the fact that the harmless- Cysticercus tenuicolUs has been confused with the dangerous C. cellulosoi (Fig. 99). The harmless cysticercus, however, is distin- guished from the dangerous one, as should be again emphasized, by Its exclusive occurrence under the serous covering of the viscera, in the latter, and under the peritoneal covering of the abdominat muscles and diaphragm. C. tenuicolUs is not found in the muscula- ture. Furthermore, after removing C. tenuicoUis from its cysts, its ANIMAL PARASITES 451 long neck is conspicuous (Fig. 100). And, finally, tLis parasite possesses from 32 to 40 hooks, as contrasted with the 22 to 28 of G. cellulosce. With regard to the hooks themselves, those of C. tenuicoUis are longer, slenderer and more curved at the points than the hooks of C. cellulontB. M)reover, Schwar;^ called attention to the form (resembling a thumbnut) of the basal processes of the small hooks in C tenuicoUis. This condition was not observed by Schwarz in C. cellulosce. It should not be forgotten, however, that even on the small hooks of G. cellulosce a bifurcation or a median groove is indicated (Figs. 102, 134). Schwarz examined 1,000 specimens each of G. cellulosce and G. tenuicoUis from di£ferent localities aud found that in the former species there are usually 22 to 28 hooks ; in the latter, 28 to 36. Moreover, during his observations, Schwarz noted that in G. tenuicoUis, as a rule (in 75 per cent, of the circles of hooks which were investigated), one or more small hooks were demonstrable, the basal process of which was bifurcated. In the 1,000 specimens of G. cellulosce examined by Schwarz, this was not the case in a single instance. Keissmann has confirmed these observations. Judgment. — Measly pork is not merely harmful to human health like measly beef, but is dangerous. For, not only does a tapeworm, Tcenia solium, develop from the cysticercus, but there may occur the production of cysticerci in the human body by autoinfection of the host with the larvae of this tapeworm. Most probably this autoinfection is brought about by the fact that ripe proglottides of T. solium make their way into the stomach in conse- quence of an antiperistaltic movement of the intestinal contents, and in this situation embryos have an opportunity, under the influence of the gastric juice, to emerge from the eggs. On the other hand, it is possible that persons of uncleanly habits infested with tapeworms soil their fingers, during defecation, with excrement containing eggs and thus introduce the egQ;s into the stomach along with food. However this may be, the fact remains that G. cellulosce occurs rather frequently in man as compared with G. bovis, which has never been demonstrated with certainty in man. The danger of self-infection with -the larva of T. solium lies in the fact that in man the cysticerci become located not only in the muscles but also in the vital organs, especially in the brain and eyes. Concerning the frequency and location of G. cellulosce in man, Haugg has collected the following statistics : 452 INVASION DISEASES Among 87 persons infested with cysticerci, Dressel found cysticerci in the brain in 72 cases ; in the muscles, on the other hand, in only 13 cases. Among 36 cases investigated by Karl Miiller, cysticerci were found in the brain in 21, in the skeletal musculature iu 12, and in the heart in 3 cases. Gribbohm described six cases, in which the brain was infested in 5 and the brain and muscles simultaneously in one. Five cases described by Sievers showed cystijerci in the brain in all. In one case, however, cysti- cerci weie also present in the muscles. Finally, Haugg himself, from autopsies at the Pathological Institute in Erlangen (1874 to 1885), collected 25 cases, ia 13 of which the brain was infested, the muscles in 6 and the subeutis in 2 cases. The muscle most fre- quently infested was the pectoralis major. Von Grafe (in 80,000 patients with eye disease) observed cysticerci in the eye in 90 cases, and Everbusch has observed two such cases since 1874. According to Gast, 9 cases of intraocular cysticerci were observed at the Breslau Eye Clinic between 1885 and 1889. In southern Germany, thanks to the long existence of regulated meat inspection, cysticercus disease of man is rarer than in northern Germany. In Wiirtemburg, for example, according to Schleich, only six cases of ocular cysticerci have ever been observed ; and in Munich, according to Bollinger, in 14,000 cadavers, only two cases of cerebral cysticerci were observed. Recently a diminution in the extent of the cysticercus disease has been noted also in Berlin. According to Virchow, the proportion of cysticercus infestation in the brain has diminished since the introduction of meat inspection from 1:31 to 1:280 of the autopsies. In Berlin, Hirschberg, in the years from 1869 to 1885, found 70 cases of cysticerci in the eye among 60,000 eye patients ; in the following six years, however, only two cases among 46,000 eye patients, and of these one came from Saxony. ♦ However, like measly beef, measly pork is also dangerous only in a raw condition. The latter, like the former, may be rendered harmless by pickling and boiling. In this regard, essentially the same statement may be made for the hog measle worm as was made concerning the beef measle worm, and likewise with regard to the utilization of measly meat in slight and extensive invasions in cases of the presence o'f undeveloped or degenerated cysticerci and with regard to the utilization of the viscera free from cysticerci. The hog measle worm, however, is distinguished from the beef measle worm by the fact that it is somewhat more resistant to heat. The ANIMAL PARASITES 453 iog measle worm is not killed uutil a jiemperature of 49° C. is reached. A farther di£fevencie consists in the fact that the hog measle ■worms remain alive much longer than the beef measle worms after the death of their host. While beef measle worms are always found dead after a period of twenty-one days, I have found living hog measle worms in meat which has been slaughtered forty- two days. Measly pork, therefore, 'can not, like measly beef, be rendered harmless by preservation in cold storage. This, however, is without practical significance, since hog measle worms are of much rarer occurrence than beef measle worms and since boiled or pickled measly pork can always be sold readily at a reasonable price. Measly pork is to be considered as harmless if it has been boiled so that the cut surface possesses a uniformly white color. Official Be^ulatious Concerning the Method ol Procedure with the Meat of Measly Hogs.* With regard to the utilization of measly hogs, the following ordinance was passed in the Kingdom of Prussia, February 16, 1876 : In response to the report of October 23 of last year concerning the complaint of the Master Butcher N , on account of the destruction of measly pork ordered by police authority, we send the inclosed certified copy of the opinion given on this question by the Royal Scientific Deputation for the Medical Service, with the request that in eases of .police regulations concerning hogs infested with cysticerei the suggestions made at the conclusion of the opinion should serve as a guide for legal action ; that the local police president as well as the other police authorities of the district should be furnished with these instructions and that N should be informed accordingly. Your Excellency has requested of the undersigned Scientific Deputation for the Medical Service an opinion concerning the regulations which have been made in the interests of the sanitary police with regard to hogs found infested with cysticerei. The Deputation accordingly incloses herewith the required opinion : 1. That fat obtained from measly hogs by rendering or cooking may be utilized unconditionally, but that lean meat can only be admitted for sale or for use in one's own household in cases where it is only slightly infested with cysticerei and is thoroughly boiled under police supervision aftei- having been previously cut up.f 3. That no objection whatever, from a sanitary police standpoint, can be raised against the use of suitable parts of measly hogs in the preparation of soap or glue, * These regulations will become applicable throughout the whole German Empire as soon as the Imperial Meat Inspection Law comes into force. t According to a decision of the Second Criminal Senate of the Imperial Court, March 35, 1884 (p. 106), the rendered fat of measly hogs is to be sold under declaration. 454 INVASION DISEASES or against the free utilization of the skin and bristles, and the chemical utilization of the whole body; and that these uses»are to be permitted without hesitation. 3. That in all cases in which hogs are found to be badly infested with cysticerci, care must be exercised by the police to secure the certairi destruction of the carcass after this has been utilized so far as admissible.* With reference to the utilization of viscera free from cysticerci, a decree of the Ministries of Interior and Education, June 26, 1883, permits the fat, Jiver and intestines of hogs found to be measly to be freely admitted to the market as food for man, provided they have been found, upon examination, to be free from cysticerci. In Bavaria the following regulations are in force, in accordance with the opinion of the Boyal Superior Medical Committee, May 20, 1882 : 1. The meat of hogs extensively infested with cysticerci is to be withheld from consumption and from the public market and is to be rendered harmless in a suitable mariner. In the ease of fat hogs, the ."ieparation and removal of the bacon is to be allowed at the request of the owner. No objection can be raised to the technical utilization of such animals. 2. In cases where the cysticerci occur only sparingly in the meat, it may, according to the opinion of a scientific meat inspector and after it has been properly cooked under police supervision, be turned over to the owner for use in his own household. The owner is to be properly instructed concerning the danger to human health from measly meat and is to be made cognizant of the police regulations con- cerning the control of such matters. 3. The public sale of meat slightly infested is to be permitted in freibanks under declaration of the danger from the meat, only after it has been properly cooked under police supervision. In the Kingdom of Saxony, the meat of hogs slightly infested with cysticerci is to be admitted to the market in a cooked or pickled condition as non-marketable. The fat may be treated by rendering instead of boiling or pickling. The liver, spleen, kidneys, stomach and intestines of measly hogs may be utilized in a raw condition as non-marketable, provided they are found to be free from cysticerci by veterinary inspection. (c) Trichina Spiralis. Zoological Position.— According to the classification of Schneider, trichina belongs to the third group of nematodes, the Holpmyaria. It is the only representative of its genus. Other * In the Prussian Governmental district of Arnsberg, it is provided that all measly hogs, whether found to be slightly or badly infested with cysticerci, are to be utilized for technical purposes only. There is no scientific basis for such a rigorous procedure, ANIMAL PARASITES 455 nematodes have been erroneously considered to be trichinsB.* Distinction is made between sexually immature individuals located in tlife intestines and the larvae mhich are found in the musculature. It is only the latter, the so-called muscle trichinae, which possess sanitary police interest, for they occur spontaneously in one food animal, the hog, and may be transmitted through the meat to man a,nd cause in man a serious disease — trichinosis. With regard to the history of trichina, it should be stated that "the English physician, Hilton, in 1832, first investigated calcified trichinae in the human cadaver, without, however, having discovered the worm in the» capsule. According to Ziirn, these structures were observed in 1822 by Tiedemann, in 1828 by Peacock. The worm contained in the capsule was first noticed by Paget in 1835 in an Italian dead of tuberculosis, and was described by Owen, who received material from Paget, as the spiral hair worm {Trichina ■spiralis). After this determination and description, the matter rested. Other observations, to be sure, were published concerning the occurrence of encapsulated trichinae in man, for example, in England, in Berlin, Heidelberg, and in North America. Further- more, the parasite was found by Leidy in a hog m Philadelphia in 1847 and in a cat by Herbst in Gottingen, and by Guilt in Berlin. Moreover, in 1850, Herbst succeeded in infecting a badger with encapsuled trichinae from a dog ; and by means of the meat of the latter, two dogs were rendered trichinous. The sanitary police significance of trichina was, however, first recognized in 1860, as a result of an observation of Zenker and the experimental investiga- tions of Leuckart and Virchow. Zenker was the discoverer of trichinosis. As professor of pathological anatomy and general pathology at the Surgical-Medical Academy in Dresden, he held an autopsy in 1860 on a nineteen- year-old girl who had been received in the Dresden City Hospital as a typhoid patient and had received treatment at that place. In *So-oalled false trichiniE ooour in various animals; for example, in the muscula- ture and other parts of hare, rats, mice, moles, birds and fish, nematodes are sometimes found which, in their external form, possess a certain resemblance to trichina, and have consequently been considered as such by uninformed persons. To this group belong the ascarids found in the muscle meat of moles, the filaiia larvs "which occur under the serous coiit of the intestines in rats, the round worms in the mesentery and liver of white fish, the muscle nematodes in mice, frogs and eels (Leuckart); also the larvas of Strongylus retortmformis m the liver of hare; the larval forms of ascarids in pike and carp; the filaria larvas under the serous coat of the intestines of ducks, and several species of filai'ia in moles, hedgehogs, lizards, meal worms, etc. For further details, see Johne, " Der Trichinenschauer. " ^^^ 456 INVASION DISEASES Fig. 135. Intestinal trichinie. A, female giving birth to young; S, male, X 100 diam. (after Heller). making the post mortem on the girl, the intestinal alterations characteristic of typhoid were not found. On the other hand, Zenker found sexually mature tri- chiiisB in the intestines and numerous non-encapsuled trichina larvae in the mus- cles. Further investiga- tion showed that the girl took sick at Christmas time after eating pork and that the butcher who had furnished the meat, as well as several 'of his customers, also became ill. Several salted pieces of the sus- pected meat were found which, were badly infested with • trichinae. This de- monstration of Zenker, which was corroborated by Virchow and Leuckart by simultaneous experi- ments with some of Zf!n- ker's material, furnished proof of the surprising fact that trichina, which had until then been considered as a harmless commensal organism, was a dangerous enemy of man. Leuckart fed the musculature of the trichinous gi:! to a dog aud also led an intestine of the dog, filled with preg- nant trichinaj, to a hog, while Virchow undertook a transmission experiment by feeding Zenker's ma- terial to a rabbit. On ANIMAL PARASITES 457 precisely the same day Leuckart and Virchow demonstrated the presence of non-encapsuled muscle trichinae in their experimental animals and thereby determined the fact that muscle trichinae could be produced by feeding meat which contained trichinae to suitable experimental animals. The connecting link which plays the most important role in this transmission, the sexually mature developmental stage of the parasite in the alimentary canal, was already known as a result of the previous researches of these inves- tigators (1859). Several days before the above mentioned discovery of Leuckart and Virchow, Zenker investigated the intestine of the dead servant-girl, which had been preserved in cold storage, and detuoDstrated intestinal trichinae in the first drops of intestinal mucus which he examined. Soon afterward, the outbreaks of trichinosis in Hettstadt (1863) and Hedersleben (1865), in which 50p human beings were affected and 129 died, furnished the awful confirmation of the suspicions which had been entertained regarding the dangerousness of trichinae. It has been asserted that trichinae were introduced into Europe from Asia by migrating rats. According to Gerlacb, however, triuhinae were quite probably introduced into Germany in Chinese hogs which, during the 20's and 30's of the previous century, were used in England and northern Germany for crossing with native races in order to increase their fattening power. Trichinosis is said to be frequent in China and the small Chinese hogs were utilized in Germany, especially in those regions which later formed the center of distribution of trichinae in the province and kingdom of Saxony. As Gerlach rightfully insists, no trichinae were found in Europe previous to the 20's and 30's. This speaks for the correct- ness of the, assumption of Gerlach against the migrating rat theory, since the migrating rats came to Germany about the year 1770. Between the 30's and 50's trichinae were found accidentally in human cadavers in isolated cases, and once in a hog, a dog and a cat. It was not until the 60"s that the distribution of trichinae increased and became permanently established in infested localities. Biology. — After the ingestion of trichinous meat, sexually mature, so-called intestinal trichinae develop in the intestines of certain mammals and birds, after the muscle parasite has been set free from its capsule by the gastric juice. Even within thirty to forty-six hours, developed trichinae are found in the small intestines where the males and females copulate before the second day. The female trichina, which reaches a length of 3.5 mm. or more, as con- 458 INVASION DISEASES trasted with a length of 1.2 to 1.5 mna. of the male, is viviparous. The first embryos are observed within six to seven days after feed- ing trichinous meat. The embryos when first born are slender, rod-like structures about 0.1 mm. long and 0.0056 to .006 mm. iu width. The expulsion of the embryos takes place by pressure from behind. According to Leuckart, a female trichina gives birth to not less than 1,500, and, according to Braun, to from 8,000 to 10,000. The number of sexually mature males and females iu the alimentary tract is at first equal ; later the number of males diminishes more and more, and at from ten to fourteen days after infection one finds almost exclusively female trichinsB (J. Vogel). From this fact we may conclude that the male trichinae die soon after copulation and are digested or carried out with the feces. The females have an average life of from five to six weeks, but may live for twelve weeks. Leuckart, Pagenstecker, et al., have assumed that female trichinsB give birth to embryos in the lumen of the intestine, and that the latter, after a short sojourn in the intestinal mucus, penetrate the intestinal wall, enter the peritoneal cavity, thence into the thoracic cavity, and finally, following the course of the strands of connective tissue, migrate actively into the voluntary musculature. Probstmayr, however, emphasized the fact that it is not possible to demonstrate trichina embryos in the intestinal contents. Moreover, Heitzmann rightfully argued against the migration theory, that the embryos at first possess no boring iipparatus, and that, since they are found in the skeletal muscles within a few days, they must have travelled a tremendous distance, as compared with their size. Heitzmann, accordingly, considers it as certain that the trichina embryos are carried into the blood circulation by means of the lymph stream and are caught as emboli in the capillaries of the striated muscles. The assumption of the translocation of the embryonic trichina by means of the circulating blood was substantiated«by the almost simultaneous researches of Cerfontaine, Geisse and Askanazy, but especially by the thorough-going experiments which were instituted by Graham in Munich under the direction of Hertwig. In harmony with the statement of Geisse, Graham found that the intestinal trichiuEe, both males and females, bore into the interior of Lieberkiihu's glands with the anterior end of the body, and that while in this position the females expel the embryos which are earned into the circulating blood through the chyle vessels. Graham demonstrated with certainty that the trichin;i, embryos ANIMAL PABASITES 459 make their way into the blood through the thoracic duct and are carried into the muscles by the circulating blood. In agreement with this finding, we have the occurrence of trichina embryos in the lymph glands observed by Virchow and later by Askanazy and Graham, and the finding of trichinae in the blood by Zenker, Col- berg, Probstmayr and Fiedler. Fi8. 137. Pig. 136. Isolated muscle fiber from a rat, which was killed 16 days after the first and 9 days after the' last feeding with tri- chinous meat, X 510 diameters. A migrating trichina. The posterior end was pulled out of the muscle fiber in preparation (after Hertwig). Longitudinal section through the muscula- ture of a rat, which was killed 19 days after the first and 10 days after the last feeding. X 310 diameters. Disappear- ance of striation in muscle fibers pene- trated by triohinaj and great multiplica- tion and enlargement of the muscle nuclei near the triohinaa (after Hertwig). Trichina embryos were never seen by Graham iu the free spaces of the body cavity in which they must first appear if they travel by active migration. Whenever they are found in that situa- tion, the fact is to be explained by an injury to the thoracic duct or blood vessels during exenteration of the peritoneal cavity. Graham ivas able to demonstrate trichina larvae in sections in a small artery and in muscle capillaries. By way of confirmation 460 INVASION DISEASES of a view held by Van Beneden, Graham also observed, not infre- quently, larvffi which passed out of the capillary as a result of stasis or hemorrhage. From the capillaries the trichina embryos make their way immediately into the sarcolemmal sheath (Fig. 136). From the existence of canals which Graham observed behind trichinEB, it is to be concluded that trichina embryos are able to migrate into the sarcolemmal sheaths. The migration finds its natural limit in the tendons and aponeuroses, whereby the accumu- lation of trichinae at these points is explained. Pig. 138. Pig. 139. Muscle trichina .4 mm. long, 15 days after feeding (Leuokart). Muscle trichinae, 7 weeks old, in the enlarge- ments of the sarcolemmal sheaths ' (Leuckart). One observes the first trichina larvae in the musculature within seven or eight days after infection of the experimental animals. The youngest stages of the muscle trichinsB are 0.1 mm. long and are therefore of the same size as the trichina embryos at birth. This fact ai-gues likewise for the distribution of the trichinae by the circulating blood. According to a statement of Gerlach, the greatest number of migrating muscle trichinae are to be found between the twelfth and twentieth days. After the end of the period of migration into the muscle fibers the trichina embryos pass into a stage of rest, in order to grow. A loss of the transverse striation takes place in the sarcolemmal ANIMAL PARASITES 461 sheaths which are affected by the invasion of the trichina embryos. The muscle fibers assume at first a homogeneous, and later a granu- lar character. Furthermore, the mu.scle nuclei increase in number and finally become so large that their transverse diameter about equals one-half the diameter of the muscle fibers (Fig. 137). A. granular mass lies around the nucleus. The growth of the trichinae is complete about three weeks after feeding trichinous meat. Their size then reaches 0.8 to 1 mm. After their growth is completed, the muscle trichinae assume a variously curved and coiled form with simultaneous fusiform dis- tension of the sarcolemma (Fig. 139). During the course of the second month the trichinous muscle fibers collapse in consequence Fig. 140. Fig. 141. Encapsuled trichina. Trichina capsule with persistent sarco- lemma and polar fat cells. (Leuokart.) Primary calcified trichinae with intact capsule, X 35 diameters. of the resorption of the disintegrated contractile substance. Simul- taneously the first appearance of the trichina capsule at the poles of the fusiform enlargement is noted. At the end of the third month, the trichinae are enveloped by fully developed capsules which lie in the long axis of the muscle fibers (Fig. 140). After' thef encapsulation of the trichina larvae in well fed animals, a development of fat cells frequently takes place in the collapsed sarcolemma immediately around the poles of the trichina cap- sules. This polar fat tissue may be so extensive as to render the trichinae recognizable by the naked eye (Figs. 143, 144). The ultimate fate of muscle trichinae varies. According to 462 INVASION DISEASES Lenckavt, we may observe incipient calcification of the capsules within six months after the animals have been affected (Fig. 142, b). According to the same author, a period of 15 or 16 months is necessary for the complete impregnation of the capsules with lime salts (Fig. 142, d). These statements, however, do not agree with the expei ience of practical meat inspectors. Thus, in two hogs 9 and 12 months old, Blome found completely calcified trichina capsules, the original form of which became again apparent after treatment with hydrochloric acid. The trichinae may become visible even to the naked eye as a result of complete calcification. The process of calcification is usually coufined to the cap- sules, so that perfectly intact trichinae may be found in capsules which are totally calcified. According to Leuckart, the parasites Pig. 142. ■'^W^ Normal calcification of trichinae in different stages. a, intact trichina ; b, calcification of the poles ; c, incomplete calcification, the parasite being visible ; d, complete calcification. themselves become calcified under normal conditions after a long period (ten years or more). It has also been denionstrated that muscle trichinae more than ten years of age may possess perfect vital powers. Thus Dammann demonstrated that trichina 11^ years old were still capable of producing infestation, and Langer- hans demonstrated this power for isolated trichinae in one case in which the age of the parasite was probably 31 years. In the case reported by Dammann, it was a striking fact that the trichina cap- sules were not completely calcified, but were so transparent that the trichinae contained in them could be seen. Leuckart expressed the opinion that trichinae do not calcify until after the capsule is completely incrusted with lime salts. The writer, however, has observed primarily calcified trichinae in perfectly transparent cap- sules in hogs (Fig. 141). ANIMAL PARASITES 463 The question has been raised concerning the reason why trichina laivse occur only in the musculature and not in other organs; also why it is that trichinse are found in certain striated muscles more frequently than in others, and in one, the heart, not at all. These facts appear not to harmonize completely with the distribution of trichina embryos by means of the circulating blood. To the first question Graham gave the satisfactory answer that the doctrine of the exclusive infestation of the muscles was based on the occurrence of encapsuled trichinse. Thudichum has demon- strated that in artificially infested animals trichina embryos may be Fig. 144. Pig. 143. -!;V^'»ir-!": Trichinous hog musculature with unusu- ally strong development of the polar fat tissue, a, trichina capsule; b, fat tissue. Natural size. '.\ ', Q\^- Triohinoxis hog musculature with unusu- ally strong development of the polar fat tissue. X 35 diameters. found within seven days after infestation in the muscles, lungs, thy- mus and lymphatic glands. Virchow also, and others, as already mentioned, have observed the occurrence of trichinae in the lymphatic glands and Askanazy observed them in the lungs. If later no encapsuled trichinae are found in these locations, this con- dition is due, according to the researches of Graham, to the fact that trichina embryos are unable to grow except inside of striated muscle fibers which are provided with sarcolemma and that in all other parts of the body they disintegrate after a short time. Tii- chinsB die even in the perimysium internum if they do not succeed in making their way into the muscle fibers immediately after leav- 464 INTASION DISEASES ing the circulating blood. The fact should be emphasized that Graham, contrary to the. statement of Chatin, never saw trichinae either free or encapsuled in the adipose tissue. For the rest, the localization of trichina embryos in the musculature is favored by the fact that the newly born trichinae are of about the thickness of the muscle capillaries, which, together with those of the retina, are the smallest in the body. If, now, the lumen of the capillaries is lessened by contractions of the muscles, the trichina embryos, which can pass through all other capillaries, excepting only those of th6 lungs, are prevented from moving farther. Trichina embryos have been found by Askanazy in the luiig capillaries, which may be constricted during expiration. Encapsuled trichinae have never been found in the muscula- ture of the heart. On the other hand, Thudichum observed a free trichina between the myocardium and the endocardium, a second immediately under the endocardium, and a third between the muscle fibers of the myocardium. Graham frequently saw embryos in large numbers in badly infested rats between the fibers of the myocardium which were partly penetrated and otherwise injured. The trichinae, however, always remain outside of the muscle fibers, since the sarcolemma is wanting and the disintegrated contractile substance floats away. Furthermore, trichinae do not find the required conditions for their growth in the myocardium and there- fore disintegrate in this organ. One finds embryos inside of small inflammatory foci, in which position they die. Moreover, the embryos which have made their way into the myocardium migrate out into the pericardium, in which they may be present in large numbers (Graham). TrichiuaB are not found uniformly distributed in the rest of the striated musculature. Certain muscles and groups of muscles are, with great regularity, more extensively infested with parasites than others. These muscles are characterized as preferred locations of the parasites. Among these preferred sites for trichinae, mention may be made of the muscular portion of the diaphragm, muscles of the larynx and tougue, and to a less degree, the abdominal and intercostal muscles. The striking preference of trichina for the respiratory muscles is explained by Graham as due to their greater richness in blood and by Heitzmann as due to the regular contrac- tions and consequent diminution of the lumen of the capillaries. Undoubtedly the fact emphasized by Heitzmann plays the chief role in entrapping the trichina embryos. The same fact may also explain the frequency of trichinae in the tongue of the hog, since ANIMAL PARASITES 465 Fig. 145. this muscular organ in hogs fed in confinement is used most fre- quently of all the muscles which come into function periodically. Pathological Encapsulation of Trichince. — Leuckart was the first id report the frequent finding of muscle trichinae in hogs, in which the connective tissue membranes which arise as a result of reaction toward the surrounding tissue become so greatly distended as to reach the length of 1 mm. These abnormal proliferations of con- nective tissue prevent the formation of true transparent chitinous trichina capsules and occasion the premature death of the enclosed parasite with a final deposition of lime salts. Cal- cification in such cases may be so ■complete that no trace of the trichina itself remains after the lime salts have been dissolved by acids. Only the peculiar fusiform shape, the size not exceeding 0.5 to 1 mm., and the position of the structures in the muscle fibers demonstrate that we are dealing with the remains of tri- china (Figs. 14:5, 184). Degeneration of Trichince. — In the case mentioned above, Langerhans observed alterations in the trichinae and their capsules which must be considered as phenomena of degen- eration. Some of the capsules were quite empty ; in others with a per- fectly intact wall, recently formed connective tissue and adipose tissue were found which had originated from included cells. The trichinse were disintegrated and entirely or partly resorbed. Langerhans believed that he was justified in concluding from his researches that a decalcification and even a resorption of the capsules may take place after the disappearance of the trichinse. Accordingly, contrary to the belief entertained up to this time, an invasion of trichinae does not terminate with their calcification, but with their complete resorption. Pathologically altered trichina cap- sules with proliferating connective tissue membranes and dead worms. From a hog. (Leuckart.) 466 INVASION DISEASES Morphology. — Non-calcified, but completely developed, muscle trichiusB consist of a lemon-shaped, or more nearly spherical, trans- parent, double-contoured trichina capsule, and the spirally coiled worm. According to Dammtmn, the length of the trichina capsule is about 0.495 mm. ; the width, 0.415 ; and the thickness of the cap- sule wall, 0.05 mm. The length of the worm is 0.8 to 1 mm. and its greatest breadth, 0.03 to 0.055 mm. In muscles which still possess animal heat, one observes tactile movements executed by the anterior end of the worm in its capsule. In cold muscles it is possible to induce these movements by treatment with warm water or concen- trated potash lye, and thereby demonstrate that the muscle trichinsa are still living. With regard to the finer structure of the muscle trichinae the following points of diagnostic importance may be mentioned. Muscle tricbinae are provided with a thin transparent and struc- tureless cuticula. The anterior end is pointed, narrower than the posterior end, and furnished with a small, circular mouth opening. The mouth leads into the pharynx, a light-colored tubular structure^ which, at its posterior end, passes over into the esophagus, which in turn is surrounded by a band of large nucleated cells, the so-called cellular body. The posterior end is thickened and pro- vided with a cloacal slit. The simple genital sac, which begins blindly at the posterior end of the parasite, is rudimentary (Fig. 148). The origin of the trichina capsule has been an unsettled question. Virchow attributed the capsules to the sarcolemmaj others to the granular tissue which forms around the parasite. Hertwig, in co-operation with Graham, undertook researches on this disputed question, fioni which it appears that primarily the sarcolemma, with the presence of which, as already mentioned, the development of the trichina embryos is essentially connected, but secondarily also the granulation tissue is concerned in the forma- tion of the trichina capsule. According to Hertwig and Graham,, one observes, about four weeks after 'artificial infection, that the granular nucleated contents of the primitive bundles are degene- rated. Nuclei and protoplasm together present a glossy, swollen appearance. Their mass, especially outside of the spindle-like swelling, is considerably diminished. The latter become elongated at both ends into fine threads. The swelling and the threads are surrounded by a gelutinous sheath which was observed by Leuckait and was considered by him to be a thickened sarcolemma (Fig. 139). Upon the outiide of the gelatinous sheuth there is a zone of ANIMAL PARASITES 467 inflamed connective tissue which is extensively permeated with con- nective tissue cells and leucocytes. In more advanced stages of capsule formation, one observes the disappearance of the degenerated mu§cle mass in the region of the thread-like elongations. The connection with the material which surrounds the trichina is broken and in the interior of the gelatin- ous strand which originated from the sarcolemma one still observes Fig. 146. Longitudinal section through the muscu- lature of a rat which was killed 37 days after the first and 30 days after the last feeding, X 310 diameters. «, thick- ened sarcolemma ; b, remains of disin- tegrated muscle substance; c, prolifer- ating connective tissue cells; d, tri- china. (After Hertwig.) Piece of a trichina capsule isolated by teasinir, from a rat killed 37 days after the first and 30 days after the last feed- ing, a^d, as in Fig. 146; e, connective tissue cells which have wandered into tlie thickened sarcolemma and are organizing the trichina capsule. (After Hertwig.) here and there the remains of nuclei and granular masses which are gradually being absorbed. At about this time begins the organiza- tion of the definite trichina capsule. Cells migrate out from both ends of the inflamed connective tissue and pass into the gelatinous layer which surrounds the trichina and its food material. Small connective tissue cells with branched processes are to be observed iu the gelatinous substance and new cells appear also in the detii- 468 INVASION DISEASES tus with whicli the trichina is surrounded. They form small groups of cells at both poles (Figs. 146, 147). According to Hertwig and Graham, it is probable that the new, firmer cyst is secreted by the wandering connective tissue cells in the region of the old gela- tinous sheath, for the cysts exhibit stratification marks parallel with the surface, and evident cells are still observed between tlie layers in young capsules, while later the cells are replaced willi granular masses which are entirely wanting in the old capsules. In the account as given by Hertwig and Graham, we find an explanation of the remarkable lemon-like form of the trichina cyst. The wall of the cyst is much thickened at both poles, since the con- nective tissue cells penetrate at these points and are hence found there in larger numbers than at other points of the periphery. OccuBBENCE. — Amoug the animals used for food, only the hog and the dog are infested with trichina. Trichinse occur also in the wild hog, cat, bear, fox, badger, marten and pole cat. Trichinae may be artificially transmitted to a majority of the mammals. Hogs and the small experimental animals of the labor- atory, guinea pigs, rabbits, rats and mice, are most susceptible. The transmission to cattle, sheep and the horse is more difficult. After feeding trichinous material to calves and sheep, there is, as a rule, a development of intestinal trichinae only and no muscle trichinae. The same is true of birds. Cold blooded animals are not susceptible. The importance of trichinae lies in their transmissibility to man. Man commonly becomes infested by eating pork. Occasionally, also, the meat of dogs, cats, foxes, badgers, as well as of bears from the zoological gardens,* may lead to the development of trichina in man. The chief source of trichinae in man, however, is the domestic hog.t * Von Bockum found triohinaj also in two hind quarters of bears which were introduced from the Caucasus. f As contrasted with the numerous outbrealts of trichinosis as a result of eating ■ pork (see page 478), there are but few reports concerning trichinosis as a result of eating wild hogs, although these animals are infested with trichina? with comparative frequency. Eulenberg reports a case of trichinosis in man which was referable to the consumption of the meat of wild hogs (Lippspringe, 1S76). Furthermore, Wflrtz mentions two cases of trichinosis in man after eating wild hogs. Finally, in recent times an epidemic of trichinosis occurred in ^'amur as a result of the consumption of the meat of wild hogs. The sanitary police has accordingly taken account of the occurrence of trichina in wild hogs by instituting obligatory inspection for trichina ANIMAL PARASITES 469 The hog most probably becomes infested by eating trichinous rats. Both the house rat and the migrating rat are the normal hosts of trichina (Leuckart). This statement is substantiated by the fact that rats are infested with trichina very frequently, much more frequently than the hog. Heller states that among 704 rats from twenty-nine localities in Saxony, Bavaria, Wiirtemburg ahd Austria, 8.3 per cent, were trichinous. Of the rats caught about kuackers' establishments, 22.1 per cent, were infested, 2.3 per cent, of those around abattoirs, and 0.3 per cent, of those killed in other localities. As a rule, they were badly infested. Leisering examined rats from eighteen knackers' establishments in the Kingdom of Saxony and found that the rats from fourteen of these establishments contained tiichiuse. Gerlach determined that the majority of the rats from stalls of the Hanover butchers iu which trichinous hogs had been kept were trichinous. Adam found two out of eighteen rats from the knackers' establish- ments of Augsburg to be trichinous ; Franck found two out of thirty-three rats from the Munich slaughterhouse and seven out of seventy-seven from the knackers' establishments of Erlangen, Niirn- buig and Kronach ; and Fessler found not less than twelve out of twenty-four rats from the city abattoir and meat market in Bamberg to be infested with trichinae. Iu Blankenburg, where, until 1868, trichinosis occurred in man for many years in succession, it was shown by Miiller that all rats which were captured about knackers' establishments were infested with trichinae. Boll demonstrated trichinae in one out of 146 rats iu the city of Vienna, seven out of forty-seven rats from knackers' establishments and also in twenty out of thirty-one rats from the Moravian cities Briinn, Ostrau and Privos. Csokor found 5 per cent, of the rats about the slaughter- houses in St. Marx to be trichinous. Trichinae have also been found in rats in Denmark and Sweden. Genersich found muscle trichinae in ten and intestinal trichinae in two out of 183 rats captured in Hungary. The trichinous rats were captured ex- clusively in two places (Mills). Billings found trichinae to be in all these animals brought to the market. The inspection should preferably take place at the locality where the meat is cut up and sold. In localities where dogs are slaughtered, these animals must also be inspected for triohinas (Leistikow), and, in general, an inspection for trichinae is to be practiced on all animals which are known to be occasional hosts of trichina, if they are utilized in exceptional cases as hnman food (bears, badgers, foxes and cats). The inspection of slaughtered dogs for triohinse was introduced into the Kingdom of Saxony by regulation of July 6, 1901. 470 INVASION DISEASES extraordinarily frequent in rats in Boston. In one of the export abattoirs of that city, all of the rats were trichinous ; in a knacker's establishment 76 per cent., and in the city of Boston as a whole, 10 per cent. The frequent occurrence of trichina in rats is explained by the gregarious habits of the rats in filthy places, such as knackers' establishments and abattoirs, where the offal of tiichinous hogs becomes accessible to them ; and also by the fact that rats eat the bodies of their own species. Hogs are clever rat catchers ami this fact explains the spontaneous occurrence of trichinosis in hogs. In addition to this method of invasion, the infestation of hogs as a result of eating other trichinous material, such as trichinous pork, plays a subordinate role. On the other hand, the distribu- tion of trichina among American hogs is in part to be attributed to feeding upon slaughterhouse offal. The frequent occurrence of trichinae in rats about knackers' establishments furnishes an explanation of the fact that hogs fattened by knackers are often all trichinous. It is worthy of mention that Blome demonstrated that among ten hogs found to be trichinous in the district of Arnsberg during a period of twelve years, one-half were brood sows, although such animals were not killed except in small numbers. This is undoubt- edly due to the fact that brood sows reach the greatest age of all hogs and thus have the greatest opportunity for ingesting trichinae. For the rest, trichinae occur in the hogs of all countries. Since the introduction of inspection for trichinae, these parasites have been demonstrated most frequently in northern Germany. They are found, however, in the practice of organized trichina inspection in isolated cities of Bavaria, and, moreover, have been demonstrated in hogs from Austria-Hangary, Eussia, Italy, France, England, Denmark, Sweden and Norway, and with special frequency in hogs from North America. Statistics concerning the frequency of trichinous hogs are accessible only for Germany and America. In Germany the average per cent, in different years varies between 0.004 (Kingdom of Sax- ony, 1899) and .014 (Kingdom of Prussia, 1899). In the Prussian governmental district of Posen, there are certain localities in which as high as 1.5 per cent, of the slaughtered hogs are trichinous.* As a rule, abo ut 2 per cent, of American hogs are tiichinous. * In suoh localities it would be desirable to have a regulation that in all places in which trichinous hogs were found the vats should be destroyed as far as possible and their bodies burned. ANIMAL PARASITES 471 In Germany the frequency of the occurrence of trichinosis in hogs has diminished in the course of the last twenty years. This encouragiug fact may be regarded as a result of trichina inspection, through which the trichinous hogs are recognized and their meat rendered innocuous. The following figures may serve to indicate the diminution in the numbers of trichinae in native hogs, the number of trichinous hogs being indicated by a per cent.: (a) Kingdom of Prussia.— 1878 to 1885, 0.061 to .048 ; 1888 to 1892, .033 to .043 ; 1896, .021 ; 1899, .014. (b) Kingdom of Saxony— 1891, 0.014 ; 1895, .012 ; 1899, .004. (c) ^erZrn.— 1883 to 1893, 0.035 to.064 ; 1893 to 1899, .022 to .015. Freqaency of the Occurrence of TricIiinsB in Foreigrn Hogs. (a) United States of America. — According to Ziirn and others, in American pork imported before 1891, the following percentages were found to be trichinous: In Ludwigshafen, 1 per cent; Hamburg, 1.26 ; Rostock, 2 ; Barel, 2 ; Kiel, 2.36 ; Gbttingen, 3 ; Bamberg, 3 ; Gothenburg, 4 ; Mailand, 4.8 ; Elbing, 5 ; Heilbronn, 8.* At the instigation of the Chicago Board of Health, Drs. Belfield and Atwood examined 100 hogs for the presence of trichinae in 1868 and of this number 8 were trichinous. According to Salmon, 18,889 hogs were examined for the presence of trichinae, and of this number 517, or 2.7 per cent., were found to be infested. Of the 999,554 hogs inspected in 1900, 19,448, or 1.95 per cent., were found to be trichinous. The number of trichinous hogs, however, varied in different localities between 0.28 and 16.3 per cent. According to a note in the Berliner Tierarztl. Wochenschrift, in 1890, 10 per cent, of the female hogs and 14.87 per cent, of the male hogs in the city of Boston were found to be trichinous, while on an average from 2 to 3 per cent, of the hogs raised further inland were infested with trichinae. Finally, among 88 hogs imported from America into Dresden in 1881, 14, or 15.9 per cent., were trichinous. (6) Demark. — Krabbe, during the years 1866 to 1892, demon- strated the presence of trichinae in 36 Danish herds of hogs. In Hamburg, 26 trichinous hogs of Danish origin were found in 1886, 23 in 1887 and 15 in 1895. Moreover, in 1895 trichinae were repeatedly found in pieces of Danish pork, especially in loin roasts and hog necks in Hamburg and other German cities. * For an account of the controversy concerning trichin® in American poi'k, see Stiles, Trichinosis in Germany, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bui. 30. — Tbansi;.atok. 472 INVASION DISEASES (c) Austria-Hungary.— The reports on meat inspection for th& Kingdom of Saxony contain interesting data concerning the occur- rences of tiichiijse in Austrian and Hungarian hogs. Among Austrian and Hungarian fat hogs the following numbers were found trichinous : in 1892, 11 ; in 1893, 9 ; in 1894, 9. In 1895, 024 per cent, of the hogs introduced from Hungary into Saxony were found trichinous. Moreover, trichinae have frequently been demonstrated in Saxony in hams and salamiwursi of Austrian origin. (d) ^Mssirt.— According to Nebykow, 0.25 per cent, of the hogs- inspticted in St. Petersburg in 1882 were trichinous and .12 of those inspected in 1883. In Moscow the frequency of trichinosis in hogs- varied during the years 1889 and 1892 between .07 and .17 per cent. In Kharkov in 1875, .12 per cent, of the inspected hogs were found to- be tiichinous, and in Kalisch, according to Fedecki, during the- years 1882 to 1885, .16 per cent, were trichinous. (e) Sweden.— Amon^ 85,987 hogs examined in Stockholm, 42: were infected with trichinae. Moreover, trichinae have been repeat- edly found in Hamburg in pork imported from Sweden. The occurrence of trichinae in foreign countries is also demon- strated by trichinosis, which is observed in the majority of the European countries, especially Belgium,* Denmark.f England, France,:]^ Holland, Italy, Spain, Austria, § Russia, || Sweden, the former Danube principalities, also in North and South America,: Egypt, Algiers, East Africa, Syria,^ India and Australia. *In Herstal, near Ltittich, 47 pei-sons were seriously afEeoted with, trichinosis in> 1893 and 12 died. f Priis collected 27 cases of trichinosis in man in Denmark with a fatal attack in, two cases. If. In 1878 a small epidemic of trichinosis was observed in France (Braun). §InTeplitz, in 1894, 63 persons were affected with trichinosis and 50 persons- during the same year in Freudenthal. Moreover, during 1894 the report showed the affection of 31 persons with trichinosis in Bohemia witli a fatal attack in 12 cases. In 1897 a small, but, nevertheless, serious, epidemic of trichinosis occurred in Briix and. a more extensive one with a fatal attack in 5 cases in Iglau. II During the years 1889 to 1891, in the governmental district of Bromberg, 11 persons were affected with trichinosis, after eating unsmoked sausage from Russiani Poland. In 1895 an outbreak of trichinosis occurred in Opatow from eating Russian meat. IT On account of the occurrence of trichinous hogs in Syria, the Italian Govern- ment has prohibited the introduction of hogs and pork from the Ottoman Empire. ANIMAL PARASITES 473 Can Bucking Pigs he Infested with Trichince? — In countries •which have introduced obligatory inspection for trichinae, sucking pigs, as a rule, are also subjected to compulsory inspection for this parasite. Protests against such inspection have repeatedly been made by interested parties, accompanied by the statement that trichiiise do not occur in sucking pigs. The experiments qf Gerlach throw light on this question. Gerlach demonstrated that trichiuse are not congenital. Two female rabbits which Gerlach had fed on trichinous meat gave birth to young twenty-two and twenty-eight dnys after infection. The young animals were free from trichinae in spite of the fact that large numbers of freshly migrated trichinae were found in the mothers. On the other hand, Gerlach found that pigs may become infested with trichinae at a very early age. He placed two eight- weeks-old pigs with an old hog which had previously been infested with trichinae and which within a period of several days had been fed twice, each time outside of the stall, with trichinous meat. Both pigs were killed five weeks after the second feeding of the old hog. It was found that one was slightly infested with muscle trichinae. Probably the pig had ingested trichinae which had been expelled in the feces of the old hog along with undigested pieces of muscle. But, even if we disregard these experiments of Gerlach, com- pulsory inspection of sucking pigs is justified, because the ingestion of trichinous material may take place by some accident or other soon after birth and the development of trichinae capable of infest- ing other hogs may take place in pigs which are only a few weeks old; for muscle trichinae are capable of transmission when they reach the size of 0.5 to 0.75 mm., or within 16 to 20 days after the ingestion of trichinous material (page 479). Frequency of Trichince in Dogs. — Among 1,167 dogs slaughtered in Chemnitz during the four years 1897-1900, 13, or 1.11 per cent., were infested with trichinae (Tempel). Extensive and Slight and Eepeated Invasions. — Trichinae may occur so sparingly in the body of the hog that even several dozen microscopic preparations from the most frequent seat of trichinae will disclose only a single parasite. On the other hand, hogs have been found in the practice of meat inspection which were completely permeated with trichinae. As a rule, the trichinae in hogs spontaneously infested are all in the same stage of development, which points toward the single 474 INTA8I0N DISEASES ingestion of trichinous material. There are exceptions to this usual finding, in which, on account of the various developmental stages of the trichinae, it is necessary-to assume repeated invasions. The following statistics from the city meat inspection in Berlin may serve to illustrate the above-mentioned conditions : Year Trichinous Extensively Moderately Slightly hogs infested infested infested 1889-90 293 101 81 110 1891-3 354 67 85 103 1893-4 133 89 34 49 1894-5 136 68 37 46 1895-6 158 49 41 68 1896-7 193 108 33 63 Among the hogs which were only slightly infested, there were always several in which, despite extensive investigation, only a single trichina could be found. Of the 192 trichinous hogs reported in the year 1896-7, 171 showed living trichinae only, 13 a few calcified trichinae, and 8 both living and calcified trichinae. The Number of TricJiince in Badly Infested Hogs. — According to Leuckart, trichinae are frequently found to the extent of 1,500 per gram of muscle. Schreyer counted the trichinae in one gram of musculature from various parts of the body of the hog and esti- mated the total number of trichinae in a hog which weighed 174 pounds (after subtracting 50 per cent, of the weight for fat tissue, bones, tendons, etc.) as 63,162,000. Schumann and Ludwig calcu- lated the number of trichinae in a similar manner in the case of a badly infested hog (3,961 trichinae per gram) as 158,400,000. Diagnosis. — There is no other method for the certain identifi- cation of trichinas than microscopic investigation. A slight mag- nification, however, is sufficient for this purpose. The proper magnification is 40 diameters. "With this magnification one plainly observes the encapsuled muscle trichinae as lemon-shaped, oval or spherical structures, recognizes the transparent double-contoured wall, the characteristic trichipa capsule, and the spirally- coiled or pretzel-shaped worm. With the above-named magnification, the recognition of the migrating and resting, but not coiled, trichinae is more difficult. However, the granular cloudiness of the muscle fibers in cases of fresh invasion by still uncoiled muscle trichinro arouses suspicion of the presence of the parasites, which may bo ANIMAL PARASITES 475 demonstrated with certainty by the use of a stronger magnifica- tion. Franck and Tiemann recommended the examination of prepara- tions by means of hand lenses with a magnification of ten dia- meters. Experienced inspectors are able to recognize trichiiisB in pork, even with this magnification (Fig. 149). A magnification of 40 to 50 diameters, however, at least for less experienced inspectors, is much more reliable. Greater magnifications than 40 to 50 dia- meters are unnecessary and also unsatisfactory, since the greater the magnification the more time required for examining the slides. Fig. 148. Pig. 149. Trichinous musculature, X 10 diameters. Developed muscle trichina after removal from the capsule, with intestine, genital organ and lateral line (Leuokart). Kafitz recommends projection in the place of direct micro- scopic examination of trichina preparations. Inspection by means of projection is simpler and more reliable in the case of fresh meat than direct examination. Until further experience is had, it may be recommended at any rate for use in the further examina- tion of samples already inspected. Calcified trichinae, as well as the still incompletely developed muscle trichinae, offer some difficulties in making a reliable diagno- sis. Finally, the recognition of trichinse becomes difficult if it is necessary to demonstrate them not in fresh meat, but in preserved pork, especially smoked hams. For the better recognition of trichinae in such material, Duncker recommends treating the sam- 476 INVASION DISEASES pies of muscles for several minutes with dilute acetic acid. In American hams preserved according to the newer methods, in which the trichinae are only slightly differentiated from the musculature, which becomes transparent during the process of preservation, I have found the addition of water to be advantageous. Differential Diagnosis.— Without a careful examination, other objects can be easily confused with encapsuled and still unoalcified Pig. 151. Encapsuled muscle trichina with incipient polar calcification (Perls). X 130 diameters. Vinegar eel. trichinae. Even Miescher's sacs, which are so frequently observed in muscles, have such distinct characters that it is impossible to mistake intact and uncalcified specimens. The same is true of muscle distomes (page 404). With reference to the much more important differentiation of calcified trichinae from other calcified depositions in the musculature, I must refer to the section on "So-called Calcareous Concretions in the Musculature of Hogs'^ (page 539 ff.). ANIMAL PARASITES 477 Among the accidental kinds of contamination of pork which have aiieady led to confusion with unencapsuled trichinae, special men- tion should be made of the vinegar eel, Anguillula aceti. This nema- tode may appear in the preparations if the samples of muscle have been preserved in vinegar or unclean vessels. The vinegar eel is about twice as long and considerably slenderer than the fully developed muscle trichina, and, moreover, is pointed at both ends (Fig. 151). Vinegar eels, moreover, lie between the muscle fibers and, as a rule, exhibit active movements. Wallmann, in a prepara- tion for trichina inspection, found an actively-moving nematode between the muscle fibers, which was pointed at the anterior and posterior ends like the vinegar eel, but was shorter and broader than the latter. George demonstrated a nematode between the muscle fibers in the preparation which could be dis- tinguished from a migrating trichina by the blunt character of the oral end and which possessed great resemblance to an embryo of Strongylus paradoxus. Samples for trichina inspection may be easily contaminated by the embryos and eggs of this parasite, after making an incision into the lungs when these organs are infested with 8. paradoxus (Fig. 152, Tiemaun). Ehabditides (larvae of Strongylidse), j,gg, ^„^ j^^^^ „f Strongylus according to reports of Leuckart and paradoxus in a preparation for Ziirn, have frequently been mistaken "^^^i^^^t^lU^ZZl for trichinae. These undeveloped nema- todes live in decomposing substances. The rhabditides are distin- guished from trichinae, aside from their internal anatomy, by the pointed posterior end. Moreover, like the vinegar eel, they likewise lie between muscle fibers. Merkel found in three instances, in the eye muscles of hogs, nematodes of the length and thickness of female intestinal trichinae with pointed oral end and sucking disks on the posterior end of the body. These worms, which were not identified more accurately, lay extended between the bundles of muscles. Among the accidental kinds of contamination, we should doubt- less mention also the " Haplococcus reticidatus" found by Zopf in 1884, between the muscle fibers in a large number of pork sam- ples and supposedly belonging to the Myxomycetes. According to 478 INVASION DISEASES Moller, the Laplococci of Zopf are nothing more than 8f)ores of Lycopodium. Finally, in conserved pork, masses of tyrosin crystals may appear which have likewise been mistaken for trichinae, especially with the calcified individuals (p. 545). . Judgment. — By eating trichinous pork human beings may con- tract trichinosis, which, under certain circumstances, is a very seri- ous, if not fatal, disease. The mortality in trichinosis in man varies. It may, however, reach from 10 to 40 per .cent. Trichinous pork must, therefore, be considered as a highly dangerous food material.* Symptoms of Trichinosis in Man. — Trichinosis exhibits two stages. The first is caused by the penetration of the female intes- tinal trichinse into the mucous membrane of the intestines and is characterized by symptoms of irritation which vary, according to the number of trichinse which have been ingested, from a catarrh to an inflammation of the intestines. Patients show a partial or complete loss of appetite, indisposition, pains in the body, diarrhea, and occasionally vomiting. According to Gerlach, a loss of appetite and nausea appear within twelve hours in cases of extensive invasion. The second stage begins, as a rule, after three weeks, but may occur during the second week or not until the fourth week after the ingestion of trichinous meat. This stage is characterized by fever, lassitude, violent muscular pains, pains in the eye, difficulty in swallowing, hoarseness, pains felt in masticating, edema of the eyelids, face (in acute cases), and of the extremities. Recovery begins with the encapsulation of the trichinae. Strange to say, children are less violently affected than adults (Penkert, Holz- hausen). * For example, extensive epidemics of trichinosis appeared in Hettstadt in 1863 (168 eases, 38 deaths); Hanover, 1864^5 (more than 300 cases); Hedersleben, 1865 (337 cases, 101 deaths); Potsdam, 1866 (164 cases); Greifswald, 1866 (140 cases, 1 death) ; Magdeburg, 1866 (240 cases, 16 deaths) ; Halberstadt, 1867 (100 ease-s 20 deaths); Stassfurt 1869 (more than 100 cases); Wernigerode, 1873 (100 cases, 1 death); Chemnitz (194 oases, 3 deaths); Linden, 1874 '(400 cases, 40 deaths); Kiederzwehren,' near Kassel, 1877 (one-half of the inhabitants); Diedenhofon, 1877 (99 cases, 10 deaths); Leipzig 1877 (134 cases, 2 deaths); Ermsleben, 1883 (403 cases, 66 deaths); Strenz-Neuendorf, 1884 (86 cases, 12 deaths); Kelbra-Alteiidorf, 1895 (343 cases, 1 death), etc. Smaller epidemics of trichinosis occurred in Stollberg, 1860; Plauen, 1861-2; Calbe and Magdeburg, 1863; Dessau, 1864; Gorlitz, 1805; Erlangen, 1870; Northumberland, 1871; Gottingen, 1871; Stettin, 1877; and Hof, 1878. Johne states that in Saxony during the years 1860 to 1889, not less than 109 epidemics of trichi- nosis occurred with 3,403 cases and 79 deaths, a mortality of 3.3 per cent. ANIMAL PAEASITES 479 Symptoms of disease are not observed in trichinous hogs, even when the animals are badly infested (Kiihn). Penkert reports con- cerning the hog which caused the epidemic of trichinosis in Hedersleben that it was in such fine condition that it was exhibited for show purposes. Not all meat, however, which contains trichinae is invariably or to the same degree dangerous or injurious to the health of the con- sumer. Keinhard asserts, on the basis of an interesting calculation, that in the Kingdom of Saxony during the years 1860-1875, more than ' 900 trichinous hogs were consumed without any striking symptoms of the disease having been produced. During this period there were 39 epidemics of trichinosis in the Kingdom of Saxony with 1,267 cases and 19 deaths. In aH, however, during the same period, 6,959,964 hogs were slaughtered, among which, according to the average ratio of 1:7000, nearly 1,000 trichinous hogs must have been found. Not more than 4 out of every 100 trichinous hogs caused trichinosis in man. The dangerous character of trichinous meat depends (1) on the number of trichinae present in the meat ; (2) on their developmental stage ; and (3) on -the form in which the meat is eaten. 1. As a rule, according to all experience, isolated trichinae in pork are incapable of producing genuine trichinosis. Bollinger says that where only a small number of parasites are present, the disease is never serious. On the other hand, Piitz is of the opinion that pork only slightly infested with trichinae, while not producing epidemics, may, nevertheless, cause serious disease in isolated cases if the meat of a whole hog is gradually consumed by a few persons. That the invasion of human beings by trichinae frequently passes by unobserved is shown by the incidental finding of trichinae in persons who have died of other diseases. Fiedler demonstrated tiichiuae in from 2 to 2.5 per cent, of the cadavers in Dresden ; Wagner, in from 2 to 3 per cent, of those in Leipzig ; Eudnew, in 1.5 to 2 per cent, of those in St. Petersburg ; and Turner, in 1 to 2 per cent, of those in Scotland. 2. Transmission to man occurs with certainty only in the case of well-developed muscle trichinae provided with capsules. Migrat- ing trichinae are harmless and resting trichinae are not able to undergo further development in the new host except when the sexual organs are differentiated. This differentiation occurs in resting trichinae when a body length of from 0.5 to .75 mm. has been reached (Fiedler). It has been shown, however, by ffeeding experi- ments with such musc.e trichiua, that non-encapsulated trichinae 480 INVASION DISEASES embryos, even when they have reached this size, are in great part digested iu the stomach of their new host. Furthermore, trichinae which become pathologically encapsuled and calcified (page 465), as a rule disintegrate completely, as con- trasted with parasites which are included in normally calcified capsules. 3. The form in which the meat is eaten is of greatest importance in the transmission of trichinae, for trichinsB which are contained in meat may be killed by external influences and certain methods of preparation. Desiccation kills trichinae in a short time ; likewise, salting. According to Eiirstenberg, pickling for ten days is suffi- cient to kill trichinae in small pieces of meat. In larger pieces of meat this result, according io Leuckart, takes place after treatment with salt for four weeks without the addition of water. Gerlach, however, found living parasites along with shrunken specimens in meat which had lain in pickling brine for two months. According to Blasius, trichinae in thin layers of meat are killed within six weeks by pickling, while iu thicker pieces they are not destroyed until after five months. Colin determined that a slight salting does not kill the trichinae, but that they gradually die under the influence of extensive and complete penetration of the salt. In pieces of meat thoroughly penetrated with salt, the trichinae near the surface die within fourteen days, while in the deeper-lying parts they are not killed until after from four to six weeks. In sausages the death of trichinae, even in a weak salt solution, is said to take place within fourteen days on account of the more rapid and complete diffusion of salt. Ordinary smoking, particularly in the case of large pieces of meat, is quite insufficient for killing trichinae (Fiedler). This explains why so-called smoked sausage and raw hams are rather frequently the cause of trichinosis. Kefrigeratiou, even when applied for a long period and at a low temperature, is absolutely ineffective. Thus, Kiihn found that trichinous meat kept in a refrigerator for seven weeks was still infested with living worms. On the other hand, according to Bouley and Gibier, trichinae in hams died when the hams were subjected to a temperature of —15° to —20° C. An absolutely certain means of killing trichina is found in the application of high temperatures. According to Leuckart, trichinae die at a temperature of 62° to 70° C, since at this temper- ature their albumen is coagulated. High temperatures, however, penetrate but slowly, and not until after several hours, into the interior of large pieces of meat (see " Boiling and Steam Steriliza- -i.ou "). Trichinous meat can not be regarded as harmless until the ANIMAL PARASITES 481 cut surface has assuraed a uniformly white or light-gray color, for this coloration is evidence that the meat, even in the central layers, has been heated to a temperature of at least 60° to 70° C. We must attribute to the influence of desiccation as a result of thorough pickling (injection of brine by means of syringes) the fact that trichinae contained in American pork are frequently dead, as shown by efforts to revive them and by feeding experiments. Trichiuss are not killed by decomposition. They have been found alive in decomposing meat after a period of 100 days (Ziirn). The history of trichina epidemics shows that they are caused exclusively by the consumption of raw or partly cooked meat. The majority of these epidemics have occurred in the Province and Xingdom of Saxony, where the consumption of raw or partly broiled meat is a very common custom. In southern Germany, on the other hand, outbreaks of trichinosis are exceedingly rare, although trichinous hogs are brought to market and sold in that region.* The latter is to be assumed as true, since many hogs are sold in the north of Germany for points in southern Germany, and it is, more- over, proved beyond any doubt by the positive finding of trichinae in several Bavarian cities (for example, Hof and Niirnberg), as a result of the trichina inspection which has been established even for native hogs.f While, therefore, outbreaks of trichinosis as a result of eating pork are rare in Wiirtemburg, Baden, Alsace-Lorraine and the greater part of Bavaria and Hessen, it is to be ascribed solely to the fact that in these States the consumption of raw meat is nnknown.J In fact, the custom prevails there of eating all meat * Similar conditions prevail in foreign countries. With the exception of northern Germany, there is nowhere in force in the world a general trichina inspection, despite the fact that trichinous hogs occur everywhere (pages 471-473). f In Niirnberg, during the period 1880 to 1890, 457 hogs were ifound infested with trichinsB. i Bollinger reports from Bavaria that in that country eight epidemics with ninety-seven cases and four deaths occurred between the years 1853 and 1879. According to Wasserfuhr, during the 80's, thirty isolated cases of trichinosis ■with two deaths occurred in Bavaria. These cases, however, were restricted exclusively to the three Frankish provinces which border on Saxony, Thuringen and Hessen, and which, in contrast with the rest of Bavaria, have the habit of eating raw or half-cooked meat. An isolated case of trichinosis which recently occurred in Bavaria is very interesting. In Lauf, a butcher was violently affected with trichinosis two days after eating raw pork while making brat- wurst. Subsequent investigation showed extensive infestation with trichinae in the pieces of meat still to be found. Two-thirds of the meat, however, hail already been eaten in a cooked condition without causing any barm. A82 ■ INVASION DISEASES ■foods in a thorouglily cooked condition. The favorable efft ct of only a slight degree of heat is shown by the fact that, according to- Leuekart, in the epidemics in Hettstadt and Hedersleben, 37 and 43 per cent., respectively, of the persons affected after eating raw me.it died, while only 10 per cent, died of those who ate prepared meat. Similar conditions were found by Holzhausen in the epidemic of trichinosis in Strenz-Neuendorf, in which 86 persons were affected and 12 died. The majority of those affected had eaten raw meat, and of the 12 who died, 10 had eaten raw and two partially broiled, meat. Method of Peoceddee with the Meat of Teichinous Hogs. — In Section 367' of the Criminal Law Statutes, which forbids the sale of trichinous meat; is found the fundamental principle of legal regu- lations that all meat affected with trichinae, whether the parasites^ occur sparingly or abundantly, whether they are still undeveloped, fully developed, or already calcified, is to be excluded from the mar- - ket. The great danger which lies in eating trichinous meat suffi- ciently explains these legal regulations, especially since the total number of hogs annually found to be trichinous is so small that the hog raisers mny easily bear the loss. It has been proposed that pork should be admitted to the market if dnriug an investigation of several dozen preparations the presence of only a few trichinae was ■found. It may be objected to this proposition, however, that on account of the great fecundity of female trichinae the matter can not be considered as ending with the invasion of a single trichina. Furthermore, the cases of hogs which are infested with a single trichina are so rare that an exception in favor of these hogs would be without practical value. In rendering judgment on calcified trichinae, it is to be consid- ered that trichinae which appear to be completely calcified may still be quite capable of producing infestation (page 462). Fiom a scientific standpoint there would certainly be no objec- tion against admitting to the market well cooked or steamed meat. Encapsuled trichinae have never yet been observed in the vis- cera. The viscera, however, are treated as " meat " in order to pre- vent the transmission of trichinae by means of parts of muscles ■which may accidentally remain conuected with the viscera (for example, portions of Ihe diaphragm attached to the liver). The intestines of trichinous hogs in case of fresh invasion may contain intestinal trichinae, and for this reason are to be excluded from the market. ANIMAL PARASITES 483 Official Re^alations Concerning the Method of Procedure with the Meat of Trichinous Hogs. (a) Kingdom of Prussia. — By a ministerial decree of January 18, 1876, concerning trichinous hogs and meat products, tlie follow- ing utilization of these materials is permitted on the basis of an opinion of the Scientific Deputation for the Medical Service : 1. The skinning and removal of the bristles, as well as the free utilization of the skin and bristles. 2. Simple rendering of the fat and the free use thereof.* 3. The utilization of parts suitable for the preparation of soap or glue. 4. The chemical utilization of the whole body. (6) Kingdom of Saxony. — In the Kingdom of Saxony, in addition to the above-named uses, it is also permitted that the meat of slightly trichinous hogs may be admitted to market under declara- tion after it has been cooked or thoroughly pickled. The cooking is to be considered as sufficient when it is done either in a steam cooking apparatus in pieces of not more than 5 kg. weight, in such a manner that the interior of the pieces is kept at a temperature of at least 80° C. for a period of 30 minutes, or when pieces of not more than 3 kg. weight are cooked in open kettles for at least 3 hours. The pickling process must be continued for at least 4 weeks. TricMua Inspection. States With Trichina Inspection.— In all of the government ' districts of the Kingdom of Prussia, with the exception of Danzig, Koslin, Stralsund, Schleswig and Hohenzollern ; also in the whole Kingdom of Saxony, the Grand Duchies of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach ; Dachies Auhalt, Brunswick, Oldenburg, Gotha, Saxe-Meiningen, and in the Principalities of Lippe-Schaiim- bnrg, Eeuss, Schwarzburg-Eudolstadt and Schwarzburg-Souders- hausen, trichina inspection — that is, the microscopic examination of pork — has been introduced as an obligatory measure for the pro- tection of human health. In the Prussian government districts mentioned as exceptions, as well as in the Grand Duchies of Meck- * The free use of the fat of trichinous hogs, as shown by Schmidt-Millheim, as well as that of the fat of measly hogs, stands in opposition to the decisions of the Imperial Court of February 3, 1888, and March 35, 1884. The sale of such fat must take place under declaration. 484 INVASION DISEASES leuburg-Schweiin and in the Principality of Lippe-Detmold, there ia only a partial inspection for trichinae, since the introduction of this inspection is left to the discretion of the various local author- ities. Objections to Inspection fob Trichina.— From various sides objection has been raised against trichina inspection that this prac- tice is very expensive and that its object is not fully secured, since outbreaks of trichinosis occur in spite of it. In fact, it has been objected that it is highly disadvantageous on the ground that the public remains in a seuse of false security and is encouraged in continuing the bad practice of eating raw meat. It is alleged that the only effective precaution would be found in checking that prac- tice by means of ofi&cial instructions concerning the dangers of eat- ing raw meat. General Physician Wasserfuhr has from the begin- ning stubbornly fought against the introduction of obligatory trichina inspection and even a few years ago maintained that not a single case was known in which a human being had been affected with trichinosis after eating well-cooked or smoked trichinous pork. He asserted that inspection for trichinae, which cost Berlin $125,000 annually, was of advantage only to those people who did not observe simple precautions. Eeview of the Objections. — It must be admitted that thor- ough cooking is a satisfactory precaution against trichinosis. This is shown by the example of southern Germany and all other coun- tries in which pork is admitted to the market without previous microscopic examination. It is also to be recommended that the authorities from time to time should call attention to the dangers which may be connected with eating raw meat in spite of the exist- ing meat and trichina inspection.* * The Royal Police President at Berlin publishes annually the following notice: "As experience has frequently shown, the public does not yet sufficiently realize that even when a well organized and reliable meat inspection exists for all slaughterhouses in a given locality, nevertheless, partly from places in which meat inspection has been introduced, but is not required for all slaughterhouses, partly from places without meat inspection, and partly also by an evasion of existing regulations, pork not at all or imperfectly inspected may find its way to the market and great danger may thus arise to the life and health of the consumers. " An earnest warning is therefore issued against the consumption of all raw pork and attention is further called to the fact that a thorough cooking or roasting of pieces of meat and of preparations of pork (meat, blood, and liver sausages, meat croquettes, etc.), is sufficient to destroy the trichinas which may be present and ANIMAL PARASITES 485 On the other hand, however, the authorities have to reckon •with a custom which is deeply rooted amoDg the common people and have, therefore, to make sure that in localities where the con- sumption of raw or insuflS.ciently cooked meat is a common custom, as in most places in northern Germany, trichinous hogs are not allowed on the market, and this can not be accomplished by the cheap advice "help yourself," but only by obligatory examination of all slaughtered hogs.* One must to a certain extent be blind to the truth if he refuses to recognize the good which has been accomplished by the introduction of trichina inspection in the dis- covery of thousands of trichinous hogs. Since the life of a human being in civilized countries is considered invaluable, it can not be urged as an argument against the practice of this inspection that the identification of a trichinous hog costs on an average several thousand marks. With regard to the above-mentioned argument against the beneficial action of trichina inspection, Bollinger appropriately remarks: "Even if the objection may be raised agaiust obligatory trichina inspection that it does not protect man with absolute cer- tainty against trichinosis, nevertheless it shares the fate of all other prophylactic hygienic measures, including even the consumption of cooked and fried pork." It is, unfortunately, an undisputed fact that, despite the exist- ence of tiichina inspection, outbreaks of trichinosis occur among human beings. In all these cases, however, it has been shown that it is not the system which is at fault, but merely the practice of it. In all cases, either a gross neglect of duty on the part of the inspec- tor or a fatal error (interchange of samples, substitution of false samples, false stamping, etc.) have been proved. These cases always concerned hogs in which the trichinse, as shown by subsequent inspection of such parts of the meat as were still to be had, could have been easily demonstrated by giving proper attention to the matter. thereby to exclude all danger of injury to health. In order to make possible the thorough cooking of larger, thicker pieces (ham, neck roasts, etc.), it is necessary to make deep incisions at intervals of about 8 cm. into the meat to allow the heat to penetrate sufficiently into the deeper portions of the meat." * As a warning to those who are opposed to a trichina inspection, the follow- ing unfortunate occurrence may be related: In Linden, near Hanover, the micro- scopic investigation of pork which was introduced iu the year 1866, after the great epidemic of trichinosis in Hanover, was allowed to lapse. As a result of this there occurred the epidemic of trichinosis of 1874, in which more than 400 persons were affected and over 40 died. iSG INVASION DISEASES If the objection is raised to the reliability of trichina inspection that it might easily happen that isolated trichinse would escape the most careful inspection, the theoretical possibility of such an occur- rence must be admitted, but the fact should be emphasized that such isolated trichiuse, according to all our experience, are not capable of producing trichinosis in man. Gerlach has shown that in meat the consumption of which could produce only slight cases of trichinosis, the trichinae can be detected by .an ordinary microscopic examination. Furthermore, in my opinion, the example of Berlin shows most clearly the value of a well organized trichina inspection. A city system of trichina inspection has been in force there for the past twenty years. During this time not only no epidemic of trichinosis has occurred, but not even a single case of trichinosis as a result of eating meat which was inspected in that city; and this, too, although the number of hogs ami nally slaugh- tered in Berlin is from 250,000 to more than 750,000 (1883-4, 2M,343 ; 1893-4, 518,073 ; 1900, 837,057). All cases of trichinosis which have been observed in Berlin during this period aie to be ascribed to the consumption of uninspected hams which were sent to consumers from outside sources.* This experience argues against the assumption of Piitz that cases of trichinosis may occur even under the conscientious practice of trichina inspection, especially when hogs are but slightly infested with trichinse. Concerning the legal responsibility of the trichina inspector, Piit;5 says : " If, after repeatedly eating pork, within a short time the persons concerned are affected with trichinosis in varying degrees, but for the most part slightly, it is to be assumed that the hog in question was infested with trichinae only to such an extent that the failure to detect them in the legally prescribed inspection was possible without any carelessness on the part of the inspector." Provided the proper selection of meat samples is made, such a failure to detect trichinse appears to be impossible on the basis of the Berlin experience. To be sure, it should be remembered in this connection that the conditions are somewhat different in Berlin than in the country where in case of' slaughtering for home use a cumulative effect may arise much more easily on account of the con- * In the period just mentioned, the following cases of trichinosis occurred in Berlin after eatiog pork which was sent directly to the consumers from outside localities : In 1881, lo cases with 2 deatlis ; 1882, 3 cases, no death ; 1883-5, 10 cases, 3 deaths ; 1«87, 5 cases, 1 death ; 1889, 8 cases, no death ; 1893-4, 9 cases, no death. ANIMAL PAEASITES 487 tinned consumption of the meat of one animal. In doubtful cases, therefore, the judge, according to a principle of criminal process '"in dubiopro reo," should decide in favor of the defendant. When properly practiced, trichina inspection must be consid- •ered as a measure which perfectly fulfils its purpose. Pbactice of Trichina Inspection. — For the proper practice of trichina inspection, the fulfilment of the following conditions is Jiecessary : 1. Conscientious inspectors, persons who realize fully their heavy lesponsibilities, and proper compensation therefor. One mark (24 cents) may be considered as a suitable fee for inspecting a hog for trichinae. The inspection of separate pieces is to be compensated accordingly. In order to prevent underbidding, limits should be drawn for inspection districts. For example, in Sprottau, several trichina inspectors, on -account of competition, felt themselves compelled gradually to lower the fees for trichina inspection. Hereupon, the Counsellor of the district issued a decree in the interest of a careful practice of meat inspection, in which he fixed the fee for the inspection of a hog at one mark and at the same time made it a punishable offence to alter this fee. This decree of the Counsellor- was approved by the Ober-President with the provision that a variation from the fee as named could be permitted only in case«all of the trichina inspec- tors appointed foi- a given inspection district should agree upon a uniform increase or a lower fee. In certain provinces an attempt has been made to stimulate the zeal of trichina inspectors by means of premiums, 10 to 30 marks for a trichina finding. In reality, such an inducement is not necessary, notwithstanding the fact that there is perhaps no less inviting occupation than that of trichina inspector. The offering of premiums may also give occasion to underhand dealing. Thus, in ■Griinberg, a trichina inspector fed his own -and his neighbor's hogs with trichinous meat in order to obtain the premium of 10 marks for each case of infestation discovered by him. In the Kingdom of Prussia, domestic butchers can not be appointed as trichina inspectors (Ministerial decree of February 18, 1897). 2. Careful training of the inspectors by the proper experts, which, in accordance with their course of study, can be found only among Teterinarians. For, as Steinbach rightfully asserts, we have to do 488 INVASION DISEASES with a method of diagnosing an animal disease. In the Kingdom of Saxony, in recognition of 'this fact, the training and control of trichina inspectors is exclusively in the hands of district veterin- arians.* The best opportunities for the training of trichina inspectors are found in abattoirs, since in such places the most abundant demonstration of objective material is possible. It is impossible to understand why apothecaries should be given authority in ordinances concerning trichina inspection to. practice trichina inspection without a previous examination; for information concerning trichinae does not belong to the subjects of a pharmaceutical course. Miiller, in Brunswick, in his Anweuuvg zur Untersuchung auf Trichinen, states, on the basis of certain experiences, that apothecaries which he had previously considered as "born experts" should be subjected to an examination in the same manner as empirics. Only physicians and veterinarians should be exempt from an examination. Physicians and veterinarians who practice trichina inspection as a profession require a police permit. 3. The proper selection of muscles to he used in making the examination. — It has not proved satisfactory to require too many samples. For making an inspection for the presence of trichinae, the following muscles are the most suitable : The pillars of the diaphragm, the costal portion of the diaphrngm, muscles of the tongue and laryngeal muscles ; for these muscles regularly coutaiu trichinae even in the case of slightest infestation, which is not the case in other muscles.f ♦Formerly, in the Kingdom of Prussia, the training and supervision of trichina inspectors was exclusively in the hands of district physicians. Now, however, a change has taken place in so far as in several governmental districts, such as Madgeburg, Oppeln, Posen and Koln, these functions are performed by official physicians and veterinarians in cooperation. f As already mentioned , page 464, the distribution of trichinae is by no means uniform. On the contrary, as a result of numerous investigations, we must char- acterize certain muscles as the preferred locations for triohinss. For example, Kfihn, in three hogs moderately infested with trichinae, found 25.3 per cent, in the diaphragm, 14 per cent, in the scapular muscles, 1 1.3 per cent, in the lumbar muscles, 8.5 per cent, in the laryngeal muscles, 7 per cent, in the flexor muscles of the thigh, etc. Kuhn demonstrated 1.8 per cent, in one case in.the inter- costal muscles and in another 23 per cent. Hertwig made a report concerning the enumeration of trichinae, which was undertaken in samples 10 square centi- meters in size from 150 hogs. In all, 1,329 trichinae were found in the pillars of the diaphragm, 1,115 in the muscles of the tongue, 987 in the costal portion of the diaphragm, 710 in the laryngeal muscles, 491 in the abdominal muscles and 308 in the intercostal muscles. This count discloses at the same time the highly ANIMAL PARASITES 489 In taking samples it should always be remembered that the muscles contain the most trichinae at their points of origin and at the point of transition into tendons (page 460). Moreover, outside of abattoirs, the samples must be taken by the trichina inspectors themselves to prevent substitutions. The stamping of hogs found to be free from trichinae must also bo looked after by the inspec- tors. In slaughterhouses, the taking of samples and stamping may be suitably done by so-called samplers, and this practice is to be recommended. lu the Kingdom of Saxony, the pillars of the diaphragm, dia- phragmatic, intercostal, abdominal, lumbar, or laryngeal find lingual muscles are prescribed. In the Kingdom of Prussia the require- ments in this respect vary in different provinces. In most places too many and quite unsuitable samples (for example, even the heart) are named for examination. * In Berlin samples are taken from the pillars of the diaphragm, abdominal, laryngeal and inter- costal muscles, with results already mentioned. The intercostal muscles, however, are not suitable for furnishing samples for trichina inspection, since, as a rule, in slaughtered hogs they are strongly infiltrated with fat tissue. Objection may be made against taking the muscles of the eye as samples, as prescribed in many locaiities, th;it they are very difficult to dissect out, and objection may be made against samples from other muscles, except those of the diaphragm, tongue and larynx, that they do not belong to the principal locations of trichinae. Billings considers it as the most reliable method to examine 24 preparations exclusively from the pillars of the diaphragm. To this practice, which is in vogue in St. Petersburg, no objection can be made (Hertwig). interesting fact that even in case of very slight invasion, the four first-named muscles regularly contained trichinae, while they were almost as uniformly wanting in the abdominal and intercostal muscles. The results of the investi- gation undertaken by Hertwig have been subsequently confirmed by Goltz, Mis- selwitz, Trautwein and Giinther. In accordance with recommendations made by the writer, the above-named four muscles have been prescribed for microscopic inspection for the presence of trichinae, in the Prusssian governmental districts of Hildesheim, Posen, Magde- burg, Koln, Miinster, as well as in the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Sohwerin and in the Duchy of Gotha. * As a model regulation for the practice of trichina inspection, we may re- commend the police regulation for the governmental district of Koln concern- ing the inspection of pork for trichina and cysticerci of May 13, 1898 (Ztschr. f . Fleisch u. Milchhyg. VIII.). 490 INVASION DISEASES Examination of Isolated Pieces of Meat and Meat Preparations. — The examination of 6 suitable preparations each from the pillars of the diaphragm, the costal portion of the diaphragm and the muscles of the larynx and tongue, makes it possible to determine with cer- tainty -whether the bog is infested with trichinae or not. In the investigation of isolated pieces of meat and manufactured articles the certain demonstration of trichinae which may be present is much more difficult. Heretofore this difficulty has never been properly appreciated. It has been considered that hams and bacon sides are sufficiently well examined if one, or at most two, samples are taken from them and examined in the ordinary manner. This procedure overlooks the fact that these parts contain trichinae much more sparingly than the above-mentioned preferred locations of trichinae. la 1882 Bog- ner examined various muscles from 21 trichinous hogs for the presence of trichinae, investigating the preparations of from 22 to 25 square centimeters area from each muscle, and thereby demon- strated the regular occurrence of trichinae in the muscular portions of the diaphragm, while the parasites were not found in the cervi- cal muscles and muscles of mastication in 6 trichinous hogs, in the hams and abdominal muscles of 9 trichinous hogs and in the inter- costal muscles of 10 trichinous hogs. Goltz took samples from various parts of 26 hogs and made preparations of 30 square centimeters area. In these examinations he found no trichinae in the abdominal muscles in one hog, in the dorsal muscles of 5 hogs and in the cervical muscles of 3 hogs ; only 1 to 4 trichinae in the abdominal muscles of 11 hogs, in the dorsal muscles of 12 hogs and in the cervical muscles of 10 hogs. Finally, Giinther examined 36 preparations of 30 square centi- meters area from various muscles in 50 hogs and found no trichinas in the hams in 18 hogs, in the abdominal muscles in 18 hogs, in the lumbar muscles in 13 hogs and in the intercostal muscles in 15 hogs, while only 1 to 4 trichinae were found \^ the hams of 18 hogs, in the abdominal muscles of 9, in the lumbar muscles of 19 and in the intercostal muscles of 17. From these counts it appears that the previous customary method of examining hams, sides of bacon and other pieces of meat for trichinae is unsatisfactory. In making an examination of only 6, or at most 12, preparations from one of these pieces, trichinae are quite often overlooked, which could have been detected by making a larger number of i:reparations. ANIMAL PARASITES 491 To be sure, it should be admitted that hams and other pieces of meat in which no trichinae can be demonstrfited from 30 ordi- nary preparations are so slightly infested that their <5onsumption, as a rule, is without danger. With regard to other pieces of meat in which only one trichina is found in 30 preparations, the possibil- ity of danger to human health can not be excluded. It appears, therefore, that as many preparations must be examined from pieces of meat to be inspected as from whole hogs, if the inspection is to furnish a guaranty against trichinae. This holds good for hams, shoulders, sides of bacon, backs, loins, spare ribs and necks. Sides of bacon which are perfectly free from muscles do not need to be inspected for trichinae (Prus- sian Ministerial Decree, June 21, 1878). In halves of hogs offered for inspection without larynx and tongue, two samples each are to be inspected from the pillars of the diaphragm and costal portion of the diaphragm. With regard to manufactured pork products (sausage, etc.), their inspection is to be cairied out in such a manner that portions consisting as nearly as possible of muscle are taken from cut sur- faces for making preparations. It is, however, a matter of chance if the presence of trichinae is discovered in this kind of inspection, since, in the commercial preparation of products which are intended exclusively for export, sausage is made from the mingled meat of many hogs. For this reason the inspection of sausage and pressed hogshead furnishes no protection against trichinae. 4. Accurate Statement of the Size and Number of the Preparations to be Made from Samples of Muscle. — In Berlin the custom prevails of inspectiug six preparations the size of an oat grain from each of the four muscle samples, which in that city, as already mentioned, are takt-n from the pillars of the diaphragm and the abdominal, laryngeal and intercostal muscles. The preparations of the size of oat grains are crushed between the plates of a so-called compres- sorium (Fig. 153), so as to render them perfectly transparent. 5. Accurate Statement of the Minimum Tim£ to he Devoted to the Inspection. — There is a regulation in Berlin to the effect that, including the making of the preparations, but excluding the taking of the samples, eighteen minutes are to be devoted to the examina- tion of the muscle samples of one hog. lu abattoirs this time may be sufficient for the examination of twenty-four preparations made as just described in paragraph 4 preceding. For the examination of more preparations more time is required, and for trichina inspec- 492 INVASION DISEASES tion in country districts in general, a longer time is to be prescribed. The number of hogs to be inspected by one trichina inspector during a single day should in general not exceed twenty. The governmental president at Danzig has decreed that trichina inspectors in public abattoirs in which the samples are taken by special samplers may inspect asimauy as twenty whole or half hogs and shall spend at least fifteen minutes upon each inspection. 6. Constant or Frequent Supervision of the Trichina Inspectors. — In order to prevent neglect of duty or carelessness, it is absolutely necessary that inspectors be subjected to some sort of control. The best form of this control consists in the so-called double trichina inspection, in which the same or different preparations from one and the same hog are examined by two inspectors working independ- ently of each other. This system, however, can be practiced only Fig. 153. Berlin com]:iressorium for trichina inspection. in abattoirs. Where it is nob pinclicable, the empirical trichina inspectors are to be subjected as frequently as possible to a control of their work and to visits at regular intervals, in which an exami- nation of the instruments is to be iucladed.* In this control and supervision it is to be remembered that in some cases the failure on the part of the trichina inspectors to perform their duty is not due to carelessness, but to a defect of vision. lu the Kingdom of Prussia, the trichina inspectors have to be examined every two years (Ministerial regulations of January 20, 1885). Persons who are admitted to the practice of trichina inspection without an * If such methods of control as are practiced by the official experts on their official trips were regularly enforced, such occurrences as the epidemic of trichinosis in Strenz-Neuendorf in 1884 would be impossible. The trichina inspector who was responsible for 86 cases of trichinosis and 12 deaths was a habitual drunkard who had made preparations from the hog in question, but had not inspected them, for trichinae couLl be easily demonstrated in large numbers in the preparations. ANIMAL PARASITES 493 examination are naturally exempt also from subsequent examina- tion. For the rest, the control and superrision should be practiced by the same experts who make the original examination, with the exception of trichina inspectors appointed in abattoirs, who are naturally under the suitable supervision of the veterinary abattoir directors and may be examined as occasion requires. The same holds true for the confirmation of a finding of trichinse (page 494). With regard to better methods of control, Herz makes the following suggestion : It is to be made the duty of trichina inspec- tors to preserve all preparations inspected by them together with the compressoriums, which may be cheaply made in large quantities from window glass, and to submit them at periods of from two to four weeks to the official veterinarians for' inspection together with a record of the inspection report. In order to make it possible to re-examine desiccated preparations, it is only necessary to moisten them with salt solution or with glycerine. Kabitz recommended inspection by the projection apparatus for re-examining compres- sorium specimens which have already been examined under the microscope. This method of making a re-examination is, according to the investigations of the writer, very satisfactory in the case of fresh meat. It requires farther investigation to determine whether the projection apparatus can also be used in the case of pickled and smoked meat. The following case shows the necessity of the control of the instruments. According to the report of the Saxon district vet- erinarian, Peschel, a trichina inspector in Dresden had to be removed for the reason that he did not observe a single one of twelve trichinsB in a certain preparation. The lenses of the microscope used by this model trichina inspector were smeared with grease and the microscope itself was so covered with dirt that it could be scraped off with a knife. A single failure to see trichinae justifies the removal of the inspector (Decision of the Prussian Administrative Court of November 21, 1895). For further details on the practice of trichina inspection, consult special books concerning this subject (Johne and Long). In this connection we may reiterate that for the practice of trichina inspec- tion a simple microscope with a magnification of 40 diameters and the crushing of preparations between the glass plates of a so-called compressorium, as is customary in Berlin, are especially to be 494 INYASION DISEASES recommended. Fresli pork is best examined without the addition of water or any other substance. For the examination of hams, on the other hand, the use of water, dilute acetic acid, or potash lye, is desirable. For preventing erroneous condemnation, it should be required that all findings of trichinae and all doubtful findings should be submitted for the decision of the supervising expert. Extent and Results of Trichina Inspection in the Kingdom cf Prussia. — An approximate idea of the extent and results of obliga- tory trichina inspection in the Kingdom of Prussia, as well as interesting data concerning the origin of outbreaks of trichinosis may be obtained from the following statistics : Year No. OF Hogs Inspected No. .of Trichin- ous Hogs No. op Measly Hogs No. of Trichina Inspectors 1886 1890 1896 1899 4,834,898* 5,590,510 8,759,490 9,230,353 3,114 . 1,756 1,877 1,031 10,136 5,430 5,958 4,390 33,939 34,454 27,603 28,224 Cases of trichinosis in man wf re frequently observed during the years 1895 to 1900. From Match 7-13, 1885, twelve cases of trichinosis were reported in Waiidsbeck on account of eating trichinous meat. These were followed by two in Hamburg and two very slight doubtful cases in Wandsbeck. One of these cases terminated fatally, while all the others were mild. About the middle of August, ten persons living in one neighborhood in Halle, took sick after eating trichinous pork. They were boarding at the same inn and all cases were mild. The responsibility for the matter was never determined. At the beginning of March, 1877, two cases occurred in Gerdauen, and in January and February, twelve cases with one death iu Heilsberg as a result of eating raw meat. Toward the end of March there werfe eight cases in Mohrungen ; in May, four cases with one death in Ortelsburg, and in February, ten cases in Wehlau as a result of eating insufficiently smoked sausage. In no case was the meat previously inspected for trichinae. Moreover, toward the end of 1887, five cases of trichinosis with one death in 1888 occurred in Berlin from eating non-inspected pork which had been marketed in the city, and in December, twelve cases occurred in Miihlhausen. ANIMAL PARASITES 495 In the year 1888, six cases with two deaths occurred in Fisch- hausea ; in January, three cases in Memel ; in February, fifteen cases in Mohrungen. All these cases were due to eating the meat of hogs which had not been inspected. Furthermore, in February, six cases occurred in Mausfeld (the meat was only slightly infested with trichiiisB and the inspector was not considered guilty of neglect). In the district of Einneberg, three cases occurred iu December (due to eating raw sausage or imperfectly cooked meat). One child merely had a severe case of diarrhea. In January, 1889, eight cases of trichinosis with two deaths occurred in the district of Heilsberg after eating raw pork or smoked sausage. The meat was not inspected for trichinae. Moreover, in January, six cases with one death occurred in the district of AUenstein, and in February, five cases at Burgwenden. In the latter case the meat was eaten continuously for three weeks. Persons who ate only once on the day when the animals were slaughtered remained healthy. Later in February, seven cases with one death occurred in Fischhausen from eating smoked sausage. The meat was not inspected. In September there were about twenty cases in Eisleben, twelve in Wimmelburg and about fifteen in Ahlsdorf, Hergesdorf and other localities, making in all about fifty cases. The cause was not understood. Finally, mention should be made of eight cases in December in the district of Gratz — gross neglect of duty on the part of the inspector — and fourteen eases in seven families during autumn in Halle. In the latter case the cause was not clear. The majority of cases in the years 1889-1891 occurred in the governmental district Merseburg, where,'during 4 successive epi- demics, 75 persons were affected. A larger epidemic occurred in the district of Posen with 44 cases and 4 deaths. As a result of these cases 2 meat inspectors in that district were tried and found guilty of gross neglect of duty. In the district of Bromberg, 24 cases were observed and 11 persons were affected as a result of eat- ing dried unsmoked sausage which had been introduced from Rus- sian Poland. These cases caused a proclamation of a police ordi- nance which prescribes obligatory inspection of pork introduced from Russia. A particularly unfortunate case occurred in Breslau. Although the meat in question had been declared trichinoas, it was, nevertheless, sold from a sordid desire for gain. Fourteen persons were affected, 6 of whom died. The vendor of the meat was con- demned to 15 years' imprisonment. Other epidemics of trichinosis occurred in 1890 on an estate 496 INVASION DISEASES in the district of Schriram and iu Opalenitza, during which 16 per- sons were affected, all of whom recovered. In 1891, 7 persons in one family were affected with trichinosis, in the district of AllensteiL All of these persons had eaten of the meat of a slaughtered hog betore it had been inspected for trichinsB, which were later found to be present in large numbers. All of the cases terminated in recovery. Likewise in the beginning of 1891, in the district of Ortelsburg, one forester and two dependent families, as well as two other grown persons, were affected with trichinosis. The cases were mild and appeared after eating pork which contained but few trichinae. The inspector who had not detected the trichinae was removed from his post. All cases recovered. In Stettin, during the same year, there were 8 cases from eating ham which came from Memel ; 6 cases iu the district of Gratz, 8 cases in the district of Schrimm, 3 of whom died, and 6 in the district of Schrode, one of whom died. The inspector who had carelessly caused the death of human beings received 6 months' ioaprisonment. In the year 1892, 4 cases of trichinosis occurred in the govern- mental district Konigsberg, with a favorable course of the disease ; and 22 cases in the governmental district Posen, where 3 deaths occurred in a butcher's family. In 1897, 242 cases with one death occurred in Kelbra-Altendorf. The hogs were slaughtered by " polka butchers," and the meat was probably not inspected, since the trichina inspector did not take samples himself. In August, 1900, 67 persons were affected with trichinosis in Sangerhausen. This trichina inspector also had not taken the sam- ples himself. Appendix. Is inspection for trichina necessary in the case of salted pork imported from America ? After attention had already been called to the fact, especially by Virchow, that with the exception of one not unquestionable observation in Bremen,* no case of trichinosis could be ascribed to the consumption of salted American pork, the question of the viability of American trichina has again recently become the subject of the most searching investigation as a result of the admission of-American pork (September 3, 1891). America * According to Roper, 40 persons in Bremen who had eaten only Americau hams were afCeoted with trichinosis. Another case of trichinosis occuiTed in Dusseldorf as a result of eating American pork. AKIMAL PAEASITES 497 Lad guaranteed the trichina inspection of all pork intended for ■export. However, the uusatisfactory nature of this guaranty is shown by the extraordinarily numerous findings of trichinae in American pork which have been made in this country, despite the iact that these products bear the official certificate that they Lave been inspected according to act of Congress of March 3, 1891. Several authorities, especially Wasserf uhr aud 0. Frankel, declared that a subsequent inspection of American pork was unnecessary, since trichinae which might be contained in the imported products -were rendered harmless by the method of preservation and since the best protection against trichinosis is thorough boiling or fry- ing. It was argued that numerous negative results from feeding experiments with American trichinae demonstrated the slight dan- :ger of trichinosis from eating imported products. Against this line of argument, Hertwig contended that living "trichinae had repeatedly been demonstrated in American pork dur- ing subsequent inspection in Germany. Johne had previously emphasized this fact. It was stated that viable parasites were most frequently observed in the interior of meat products. It was held also that boiling and roasting f aruish no certain protection, as long as meat was prepared according to the taste of the consumer rather than according to the thermometer. A subsequent inspec- tion of American pork was, therefore, considered necessaiy. Duncker argued similarly. This author emphasized especially the fact that not only he himself, but other authors as well, for example, in Dresden and Hamburg, Lad succeeded, by means of feeding Ameri- can pork to rabbits, in demonstrating the reproductive power of trichinae in American meat. Similar results were previously obtained by Chattin and Fourment, and recently again by Janssen, Kievel, Bbhm and the author. Furthermore, the fact should be emphasized tLat in a given case no guaranty whatever is furnished of an effective process of pickling which kills trichinae. It may readily occur that the pickling of certain pieces is incomplete and Hertwig has demonstrated that this does occur. Hertwig repeat- edly found American Lams wLicL were pickled so defectively that the deeper parts had decomposed. Moreover, it should also be considered tLat calcified trichinae are not killed by pickling and that they are sometimes found to be still viable in perfectly pickled products. Finally, the Deutsche Fleischer Zeitung called attention to the fact that Section 367 of the German Criminal Law Statutes for- bids the sale of meat containing trichinae and that, therefore, for the traffic it is quite immaterial whether American pork contains 498 INVASION DISEASES trichinse in a living or dead condition. Moreover, this journal recounted the fact that American bacon is also utilized in the prepa- ration of mettwurst and cervalatwurst, which, as is well known, are ' eaten in a raw condition. What has been said regarding the necessity of inspecting pork imported from America holds true also for pork imported from other foreign countries. For the older literature concerning trichinae in American pork^ reference should be made to Frankel (Deutsche Med. Wochenschr.,. 1891, No. 51). According to more recent experiments, Janssen suc- ceeded in cultivating a few intestinal trichinae, but no muscle ■ trichinae, from the specimen of American pork with which he worked. Kievel, Bohm and the author succeeded also in producing a development of muscle trichinae by feeding experiments with thoroughly dehydrated American ham. On the other hand, Klap- hake, Ernst, Frankel, the Imperial Health Office, Hintzen and Schenck obtained only negative results. Trichinae Findings in Imported American Pork Inspected According to tlie Act of Congress of Marcli 3, 1891. After tlie readmission of American pork it was found that pieces of American pork were very frequently trichinous. In these instances it was not a case of slight infestation, but the pieces of -pork were frequently so extensively infested with trichinae that the failure to detect the worms, even by a superficial examination at the point of export, had to be considered as absolutely impossible. During the subsequent inspection in Germany, trichina were found in pork of American origin, as shown by the following statistics : In Altona, 1891-7, in 63 hams, 2 sides of bacon, 6 pieces of cutlets, and in one large shipment of sausage ; in Bremen, 1891-7, in 130 hams, 5 sides of bacon ; iu Diisseldorf, 1891-7, in 182 hams, 227 sides of bacon, one piece of pickled meat and 6 sausages ; in Elberfeld and Barmen, 1891-7, in 114 hams and 9 sides'of bacon ; in Stettin, in 8 hams and 1,049 sides of bacon ; iu the Kingdom of Prussia, 1894-5, in 1,624 hams aud sides of bacon. Bockelmann, in Aachen, examined 60 boxes of American sausage and found.that 11 contained trichinous products. That in this regard no change has occurred even at the present time is shown by the fact that in 1899 trichinge were found in 1,263 hams and sides of bacon of American origin and these findings were ANIMAL PARASITES 499 made in pieces of meat in which the parasites could not have been demonstrated if the animals had not been extensively infested. 3. — Parasites Whicli Are Not Immediately Harmful to Man, But Which May Become So After A Preliminary Change of Host. Among the parasites of food animals which can not be directly transmitted to man, but only after a previous change of host, belong the echinococci and the larvae of Pentastomum tcenioides. The .developmental stages of these parasites which occur in food animals are not directly transmissible to man. In fact, human beings may eat organs infested by these parasites without danger to health ; nevertheless, it is the duty of the sanitary police to destroy these internal parasites, since they can be transmitted to man by dogs after maturing in this animal. The echinococcus disease of man, compared with which pen- tastomatosis plays an unimportant role, is a relatively frequent and also a very dangerous disease. According to accurate statistics, one case of echinococcus disease is found in every 130 autopsies in middle Europe. Furthermore, medical experience shows that 50 per cent, of the echinococcus patients die before the lapse of five years. The disease formerly had a very wide distribution in Ice- land, where, according to Eschricht, one-sixth and, according to Schleisner, one-seventh of all the inhabitants suffered from it. Finsen and Jonassen, as well as Krabbe (personal communication) consider these figures as too high. According to Finsen, one echinococcus patient is found in each 43 inhabitants of Iceland, and, according to Jonassen, one for every 61. These figures, how- ever, show a very wide distribution of the echinococcus disease on the Danish Island. According to further statistics collected by Finsen, one out of every 27 patients in the nine years from 1857 to 1865 was infested with echinococci. "We have, however, even in Germany, districts in which the echinococcus , disease is frequent, especially Mecklenburg and Hither-Pomerania. The Mecklenburg Medical Society has collected valuable statistics concerning the etiology of the echinococcus disease in that locality. It is shown by the report of Madelung, who summarized the results of this investigation, that since 1850, not less than 182 cases of echinococcus disease in man have been observed in Meek- 500 INVASION DISEASES lenburg, among which it should be remembered that scarcely one-third were rightly diagnosed. In Mecklenburg, one in 7,108 inhabitants is affected with the disease, and in Kostock, one in 1,414. According to Madelung, echinococci were found in the various cities of Germany and neighboring countries in autopsies with the following frequency : Rostock, 25 cases, or 2.43 per cent., in 1,026 autopsies; Breslau, 20 cases, or 1.47 per cent., in 1,360 autopsies; Berlin, 33 cases, or 0.76 per cent., in 4,770 autopsies ; Gottingen, 3 cases, or 0.46 per cent., in 639 autopsies ; Dresden, 7 cases, or 0.34 per cent., in 2,002 autopsies ; Vienna, 3 cases, or 0.24 per cent., in 1,229 autopsies ; Prag, 8 cases, or 0.23 per cent., in 1,287 autopsies ; Basel, Bern and Ziirich, 11 cases, or 0.14 per cent., in 7,982 autopsies ; Erlangen, 2 cases, or 0.11 per cent., in 1,812 autopsies. Echinococci in man are rarer in middle and southern than in northern Germany. In northern Germany, the greatest number of cases are observed in Pomerania and Mecklenburg. Madelung is of the opinion that the frequency of the echino- coccus disease in Mecklenburg is not explained by the number of dogs (the ratio of dogs to man is 1 : 18 or 1 : 19 ; while in Berlin the ratio is 1 : 36 ; and in Bavaria, 1 : 16 to 1 : 25). It is stated that the reason is to be found in the fact that there is no meat inspection in Mecklenburg.* The distribution of the echinococcus disease in Hither- Pomerania is similarly explained by statistics collected by Peiper, who, by means of inquiries directed to all physicians and to the heads of hospitals of Hither-Pomerania, succeeded in demonstrating the occurrence of 150 cases of the disease in question between 1860 and 1894. Of these cases, 54 occurred in the Greifswald Patholog- ical Institute. The percentage of echinococcus disease observed in this institute is very high (1.9 per cent.). In Hither-Pomerania, according to Peiper, there is one case of echinococcus disease for every 3,336 inhabitants. In the northern districts of Bergen, Stralsuntl, Franzburg, Greifswald and Anklam, the disease is more widely distributed (1.2, or 1 : 2,096) than in the southern districts of Demmin, Usedom, WoUin, Ueekermiiude and Eandow (0.44, or 1 : 7,265). The greatest number of cases occurred in the city of * Bollinger remarks, with regard to the work of Madelung, that the latter confirms his opinion, elsewhere stated, that the frequency of zooparasitic diseases in man, like that of tapeworms in man, is entirely dependent upon the kind of meat inspection, and that the means for combating these dangerous diseases is found in a better system of meat inspection. ANIMAL PARASITES 501 Greifswald (16) and the district of Greifswald (39 ; = 1 : 1,535) ; so thiit we may speak of the endemic appearance of the echinococcus disease in this region. In other parts of Pomerania, echinococcus disease is no more frequent than in the rest of Germany. According to the investigations of Peiper, the echinococcus disease in man bears a direct relation to the distribution of the disease among damesticated animals. The disease is comparatively frequent among domesticated animals in Hither-Pomerania, where large numbers of domesticated animals are raised. There are 44 'cattle, 180 sheep and 40 hogs for each 100 inhabitants, as against 34.5, 41.9 and 20.1, respectively, in the whole German Empire. A very large number of dogs is also kept. The average percentage of echinococcus disease, according to the results of meat inspection in abattoirs located in 52 different parts of Germany, is 10.39 in cattle, 9.83 in sheep and 6.47 in hogs ; while in the abattoirs of Hither-Pomerania, on the other hand (Greifswald, "Wolgast, Anklam, Demmin and Swinemiinde), it is 37.73, 27.1 and 12.8, respectively ; iu Greifswald, 64.58, 51.02 and 4.93, respectively. (a) Echinococci. Natuee. — The echinococcus is the asexual stage of a tapeworm with three to four segments ( Tcenia echinococcus of the dog). HiSTOET. — Tceida echinococcus, whi.ch lives as a parasite in the small intestine of the dog and wolf, was recognized as an inde- pendent species of tapeworm by von Siebold in 1853. This taenia is 2.5 to 6 mm. long, 0.3 mm. wide, and furnished with a protruding rostellum and with from 28 to 50 hooks. The last proglottid is about 2 mm. long and contains ripe eggs (Fig. 154). Von Siebold first reared the taenia by feeding the echinococcus to sheep. Leuckart also succeeded in producing the echinococci by feeding ripe echinococcus taenia to a young pig. Various Foems op the Echinococci. — The echinococci occur in two chief forms : (1) as Echinococcus polymorphus s. unilocularis and (2) as E. mvllilocularis s. alveolaris E. pdlymorplius forms simple cysts surrounded by connective tissue. They are of quite uniform appearance in their outer form, but may be distinguished in their internal anatomy by the fact that in some cases daughter cysts, or daughter vesicles, are developed from 502 INVASION DISEASES 154 the mother cysts ; in other cases not. Moreover, the mother cyst, together with the daughter cyst, is a simple structure which is delimited from the neighboring organic tissue by a connective tissue capsule. As contrasted with this form, the multilocular echinococcus forms daughter cysts by constriction, which in turn ai-e furnished with the same reproductive power. E muUilocularis develops from a central mother cyst and exhibits an uninterrupted peripheral growth. The second difference consists in the fact that in the case of E. muUilocularis the daughter cysts do not remain in the mother cyst, or inside of the organic membrane formed about the latter, but, after being constricted off, they become separated from the mother cyst by connective tissue. Consequently, the vesicles in the case of E. muUilocularis attain no great size and lie in the connective tissue framework like the epithelia of an acinous gland {E. alveolaris). As a result of the feeding experiments of Mangold, it must be considered as proved that E. polymorphus and E. muUilocularis are not, as was previously assumed, two different growth forms of one and the same species, but are the immature stages of two different, but ex- ternally very similar, taeniae. The chief difference, according to Mangold, lies in the length of the hooks. The total length of the hooks of the multilocular form bears a ratio to that of the hooks ol the unilocular species of 18 or 19 to 16; and the Adult Taenia eohinoeooeus cystic us, X 13 diam (Leuckart). Tig. 155. Intact and ruptured brood capsules in their connection with the parenchymatous layer (Leuckart). x 40 diameters. length ot the basal portion bears a ratio of 10 to 7. Moreover, Miiller demonstrated that in T. echinococcus muUilocularis the eggs were grouped together in a conical or spherical mass in the mature proglottid. ANIMAL PARASITES 503 Echiuococens Polrmorphns S. Unilocularis. Morphology. — Echinococcus polymorphus is found in the form of round structures in the interior of various organs. When occupy- ing a superficial position, the parasite appears like a section of a sphere. Two chief portions are to be distinguished in the para- site : the echinococcus membrane filled with fluid and the so-called organic membrane and connective tissue formed by reaction of the surrounding tissue after the invasion of the parasites. Fig. 156. Echinococcus polymorphus with brood capsules in natural size and position. (Leuckart.) After being removed from the connective tissue capsule, the echinococcus membrane is not of so regular a form as the encysted parasite, but easily becomes wrinkled and corrugated. The color of the echinococcus membrane in the case of young echinococci is light-gray to grayish-blue and pure white in older forms.. The membranes of young echinococci are thin and transparent} those of' older ones, thick and opaque. Two layers are to be distinguished in the echinococcus mem- brane : the striated or lamellate cutioula, and the parenchymatous 504 INVASION DISEASES layer The latter has a structure similar to that of the cyst of cysticerci and also possesses calcareous corpuscles (Fig. 163). The parenchymatous layer may be smooth on the internal sur- face and may contain only fluid. It is customary, then, to spejtk of a simple, non-fertile echiuococcus (Echinococcus cysticus sterilm). This is the form of Echinococcus polymorphus which is most fre- quently observed iii all food animals. The parenchymatous layer, however, may produce so-called brood capsulecs (Fif?. 155), which are connected with the parenchymatous layer by short stalks and which contain a variable number of scoleces (Echinococcus cysticus fertilis, Fig. 156). This echinococcus form is, as a rule, more rare. Vm. 157. Echinococcus hydati I ii_ _i iL. liver (Thoma). It is comparatively frequent only in sheep, and less common, on the other hand, in cattle and hogs. Moreover, daughter cysts may be formed from the small remnants of the parenchyma layer which remain lying between the different layers of the cuticula of the mother cyst (Braun). The daughter cysts project either outwardly or inwardly. A portion of them may be dissolved and may fall into the fluid of the mother cyst. Echinococci with outwardly project- ing daughter cysts are known as Echinococcus granulosus; those with inwardly projecting daughter cysts, as E. hydatidosus (Fig. 157). The daughter cysts in turn may form further daughter cysts and may be sterile or fertile. Echinococcus granulosus is the rarest form of echinococcus ia AtmiAL PARASITES 505 food animals. The author observed this form in a few cases in sheep. Somewhat more frequent, but still rather rare, is E. hyda- tidosus in cattle, sheep and hogs. The size of the polymorphous echinococcus varies from that of a sago grain or small pea to that of a man's head. E. hydatidosus is usually largest in cattle ; in horses, echinococci are rarely larger than a pea. The youngest forms of echinococci, a knowledge of which is due to the feeding experiments of Leuckart, are distinguished from the older forms by the fact that they do not possess any internal cavity filled with fluid, but appear as solid round structures. These struc- Pk- 158. tures have the size of sago grains, are grayish-white or yellowish- white in color and of a gelatinous consistency. Under the microscope we may dis- tinguish a hyaline surrounding mem- brane and a granulated internal layer in the young echinococci (Fig. 158). Development of Echinococci. — The development of echinococci takes place very slowly. According to Leuc- kart, echinococci reach a size of 0.25 to .3 mm. at 4 weeks ; 1 to 1.25 mm. at 8 weeks ; and 15 to 20 mm. at 20 weeks of age. The central cavity is not to be seen until after 8 weeks and the for- mation of the brood capsules not until after 5 months. Young echinococcus, just out of the capsule, four weeks old (Leuckart). X 50 diameters. OCCTJEEENCE, LOCATION AND PATHOGENIC ImPOETANCE. — EcUno- coccus polymorphus occurs as a frequent parasite in sheep, cattle and hogs ; less often, on the other hand, in goats and horses. The usual locations of polymorphous echinococci are the liver, lungs and spleen ; less often, the heart, kidneys, peritoneum, marrow cavi- ties of the bones, lymphatic. glands, udder and muscles. The mus- cles are infested with echinococci only in cases of the most exten- sive invasion. In exceptional cases even the brain and eyes may be the seat of echinococci (Langrich). It is worthy of mention that in cattle and sheep the luugs are more frequently infested with echinococci than the liver. 506 INVASION DISEASES As to the pathogenic importance of echiaococci, the fact should be emphasized that the general condition and nutrition of affected animals is usually not disturbed even in cases of the most exten- sive invasion. Cardiac echinococci may, however, produce sudden death; pulmonary echinococci may cause symptoms of dyspnea; hepatic echinococci are usually without effect on the health of the host, even when, as a result of echinococcus invasion, the liver is enlarged 10 to 20 times its normal volume and is so thoroughly infested with echinococci that the parasites lie side by side. This tolerance of the liver toward an invasion of echinococci is to he explained by the slow development of the parasites and the repro- ductive power of the liver (page 300). As a result of extensiv-e invasion by echinococci, the liver may reach an unusual volume and an enormous weight. Echinococcus livers have been observed in cattle with a weight of 75 kg. and in hogs with a weight of 36 kg. The following figures may serve to give some idea of the frequency of the occurrence of the common echinococci : In Berlin during the year 1883-4, infestation with echinococci caused the condemnation of the lungs of 4,085 cattle, 1,896 sheep and 906 hogs ; and the livers of 1,164 cattle, 967 sheep and 1,485 hogs in a total number of 93,387 cattle, 78,220 calves, 171,077 sheep and 244,343 hogs. In the year 1888-9, the lungs of 6,578 cattle, 5,041 sheep and 5,010 hogs, as well as the livers of 2,668 cattle, 3,363 sheep, 5,285 hogs were condemned for the same cause in a total number of 141,814 cattle, 115,793 calves, 338,798 sheep and 479,124 hogs. In 1896-7, the lungs of 3,284 cattle, 4,561 sheep, 7,788 hogs, and the livers of 1,156 cattle, 1 calf, 1,939 sheep, 5,398 hogs and 203 various other parts, especially spleens and kidneys, of all kinds of food animals, as well as 2 hog hearts, were condemned for the same cause from a total number of 146,612 cattle, 141,869 calves, 395,769 sheep and 694,170 hogs. These figures do not give the actual frequency of echinococci, but include only those cases in which, as a result of very extensive invasion, the organs could not be put in a marketable condition by the removal of the parasites. Mejer in Leipsic found that when isolated echinococci were included, parasites were present in 13 per cent, of sheep and also in 3.75 per cent, of native hogs and 21.47 per cent, of Hungarian hogs. In native hogs the echinococci were more frequent in the livers than in the lungs (3.81 per cent, of the livers as against .26 per cent, of the lungs). On the other hand, in sheep the ratio was ANIMAL PARASITES 507 inverted ; viz., 12.71 per cent, of the lungs, 3.73 per cent, of the livers. Finally, in Hungarian hog.«, 14.79 per cent, of the lungs and 12.3 per cent, of the livers were infested with echinooocci. According to Sahlmann, one-half of the animals in Mecklen- burg are infested with echinococci. Metelmann gives the following figures : 25 per cent, of cattle, 15 per cent, of sheep, 5 per cent, of hogs. Langrich reports the following statistics concerning the fre- quency of echinococci in animals slaughtered at the Rostock abattoir : In 1895, 37 per cent, of sheep, 26.2 per cent, of cattle, 5.4 per cent, of hogs and 1 per cent, of horses were infested with echinococci, while in 1895-6, 36.8 per cent, of sheep, 26.6 per cent. of cattle, 5 per cent, of hogs, 1 per cent, of goats and 1 per cent, of horses were infested, and in 1896-7, 35.2 per cent, of sheep, 26.2 per cent, of cattle, 5.3 per cent, of hogs, 2 per cent, of goats and 1 per cent, of horses were affected. With regard to the frequency of echinococci in the liver and lungs, Langrich in 1895-6 found the parasites in cattle in from two-thirds to three-fifths of all cases in the lungs and liver, one- sixth to one-fifth of the cases in the lungs and liver only ; in sheep the lungs and liver were always simultaneously affected. With hogs the liver was most affected, and in goats the liver, and in horses the lungs and liver were most seriously infested. In Stettin, Olt calculated the foUowiog data from Pomeranian food animals : 293, or 7.1 per cent., in 1,425 cattle ; 1,238, or 7.3 per cent., in 16,829 hogs ; 3,807, or 25.8 per cent., in 14,717 sheep. Olt also demonstrated the presence of Tcenia ecMnococcus in three out of twelve dogs which were inspected in Stettin. Steuding kept a record of the occurrence of echinococci in the abattoir at Gotha during the months June to August, 1893, -and found the following numbers infested with echinococci : 274, or 24.6 per cent., in 1,113 cattle ; 633, or 21.4 per cent., in 2,949 hogs ; 649, or 35.4 per cent., in 1,551 sheep. Prettner, in the abattoir at Prag, demonstrated the presence of echinococci in 23.2 per cent, of the cattle and 5.5 per cent, of sheep ; in cattle, 14 per cent, of the echinooocci were found in the liver, 7.6 per cent, in the lungs and 1.8 per cent, in the liver and lungs simultaneously. According to Gurin, the frequency of echinococci in the various Russian governments varies in cattle between 0.1 to 80 per cent.; in sheep, between 0.01 and 60 per cent.; in hogs, between 0.01 and 70 per cent.; in horses, between 0.005 and 40 per cent. Among the 508 INVASION DISEASES 3,542 goats slaughtered in an abattoir in central Asia, 14.3 per cent, were infested with echinococci. Natubal Death of Poltmokphous Echinococci. — Echinococci, like cysticerci, may die from natural causes in any developmental stage. According to my observations, there are two chief modes of death : coagulation necrosis of the echinococcal membrane and inflammation of the organic membrane. In the first mode of death one observes a shrinking and cloudiness of the echinococcal mem- brane ; later, caseation and calcification. In the second form, on the other hand, one observes fibrinous, or, rarely, 'even a bloody exudation between the organic and echinococcal membranes, union and adhesion of these two membranes with necrosis of the. echinococcal membrane. At the same time, the echinococcus fluid begins to disappear as a result of resorption. In case of coagula- tion necrosis of the echinococcal membrane, the organic membrane is intact and undergoes but slight alteration in its external appear- ance, even when the parasites die as a result of inflammation. It is only in sheep that one sometimes observes chondrification and calcification of the organic membranes after the parasites have died. The disintegrated echinococci present cysts filled with yellow, moist or dry, caseous, purulent or partially or totally calcified con- tents. Occasionally the caseous content of dead echinococci is of a greenish color. Echinococcus Multilocularis s. Alveolaris. OcoUBBENCE. — This species of echinococcus occurs in food animals, or, more properly, in one of them, the bovine, more fre- quently than has previously been supposed. The author called attention to this fact in Deutsche Ztsch. fiir Tiermedizin, XVII., and in that connection described 30 cases which he observed during the course of 13 months. Later, Mejer reported the occurrence of U. multilocularis in cattle in Leipsic in 7 per cent, of the total num- ber of cases of echinococcus. According to Gurin, this parasite occurs in 0.2 per cent, of all cattle slaughtered in Eussian abattoirs. Moreover, Mobius observed cases in sheep, in the lungs, liver and bronchial glands, and Schmidt, in the lungs. Gurin observed 3 cases of this parasite in sheep. Eaillet and Morot reported 100 cases of E. multilocularis which were observed in cattle and sheep in the abattoir at Troyes. Among the 200,000 hogs which the author has inspected in the course of several years, E. multilocularis was ANIMAL PARASITES 509 found only once, hogs. Strose and Gurin Have observed other cases in MoEPHOLOGY. — In veterinary works the alveolar echinococcus is not well described. According to my observations, the parasite is distinguished by the following characters : E. muUilocularis forms in the liver, less often in other organs (spleen, lungs, kidneys, lym- phatic glands and bones), tumors of various sizes, which usually exhibit a constant growth. These tumors, which resemble specific Fig. 159. ,1 J J Echinococcus multiloculans m a beef liver, natural size. ./ granulations, and are most nearly related to actinomycomata and botryomycomata, exhibit two distinct portions : a central casefied and partly calcified, and an intact peripheral portion. In the peri- pheral zone, the tumors exhibit an elastic consistency, while in the casefied portion the consistency is tough and soft. The tumor as a whole feels moderately firm. A hard consistency is a rare occur- rence and is not caused, as in man, by a great proliferation of con- nective tissue, but by extensive calcification. A characteristic featnre is the rather strong connective tissue framework which 610 INVASION DISEASES penetrates the whole tumor in a net-like manner and which sepa- rates the casefied parts and also the recent cysts from one another. The young cysts arise by evagination and subsequent constriction of the whole wall of the mother cyst. After the young cysts are constricted off, the formation of connective tissue around the cyst takes place. Distinction Betioeen Echinococcus multilocularis of Man and the Domestic Animals.— The echinococcus of cattle is distinguished from Fig. 160. Section through ] looularis of cattle. E. multilocularis of man (1) by the fact that it produces no clinical symptoms, but may be unexpectedly found in perfectly healthy animals ; (2) by the absence of any considerable local alterations in the surrounding hepatic tissue (no icterus or cirrhosis) ; (3) by the complete absence of ulcerative processes ; (4) by the greater development of separate cysts ; (5) by the less extensive develop- ment of the connective tissue framework. In contrast willi the alveolar echinococcus of cattle, the case ANIMAL PARASITES 511 observed by the author in a hog showed a great similarity with the alveolar echinococcus of man. Ou the costal and pulmonary pleura of the hog in question there were numerous round, lenticular tubercles, as well as round- ish and elongated pluques with a granulated surface (Fig. 162). The color of the tubercles was gray or yellow and the con- sistency hard. The whole condition resembled the pearl disease. Under the microscope, however, it appeared that the tubercles and plaques consisted of a connective tissue framework which inclosed casefied and intact echinococcal cysts. Special mention should be made of the fact that scoleces were present even in the macro- PlG. 161. Section through the cortical zone of Echinococcus multi- locularis of cattle, X Zdiam. a, Echinooooous inultiloculans under the costal pleura of a hog. scopically invisible cysts. A similar case was recently observed in cattle by Benedictis. By a careful microscopic examination one observes giant cells immediately surrounding the cysts of the multilocular echinococci, a condition to which attention was first called by Guillebeau in connection with E. multUocularis of cattle. Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis of Echinococcl — Intact polymorphous echinococci should offer no difficulty in diagnosis if we disregard the above described immature forms. Quite often, however, dead polymorphous and multilocular echinococci are con- fused with other pathological alterations, especially tuberculosis. 512 INVASION DISEASES Casefied or calcified polymorphous echinococci, howeTer, are distinguished from tubercles by the integrity of the correspond- ing lymph glands, the easy separability of the casefied contents from the connective tissue membrane, and the peculiar striated condition of the echinococcal membrane (Fig. 163), which is easily demonstrable, even in the case of extensively casefied echino- cocci. E. multilocularis likewise causes, as a rule, no alterations in the corresponding lymph glands and exhibits on the periphery fresh Fig. 163. Oblique section through the wall of a fertile echmoeoccus. lamellate stratification of the cuticula; b, sooleces, partly in the brood capsule, partly free as a result of maceration ; c, calcareous corpuscles. X 35 diam. cysts and echinococcal membranes with striated cuticula, at least when examined under the microscope. Tuberculous conglomerates, to which E. muUilocularis may show great similarity, possess a firm, dry, or purulent character in con- trast with the elastic and tough, but soft, consistency of E. multUo- cularis. Under certain conditions, unilocular echinococci may give rise to confusion with cysticerci. Lungwitz reported two such cases in which echinococci of the size of peas and located in the heart of a hog were mistaken for cysticerci. ANIMAL PARASITES 513 Judgment of Echinococci. — Organs infested with echinococci are not dangerous to health, but are to be considered merely as spoiled (inferior) food material, for the larvae of echinococcas taenia which occur in the organs of food animals can not develop in man, even if fertile, and do not cause any other harm. The majority of the organs infested with echinococci can be saved for food by care- fully removing the echinococci. This is permissible in cases where the echinococci are present only in moderate numbers and of such size that removal is possible. They are best removed by catting the organs into thin disks. Parasites which are excised during this process and whole organs which are condemned on account of extensive invasion are to be rendered innocuous. Special effort should be made to prevent the possibility of the parasites which have been removed from organs, or of parts which are infested with parasites, becoming accessible to doga Pig. 164. Intestinal mucous inembranj of a dog, with Taenia echinococcus in natural size. Tcenia echinococcus. — T. echinococcus develops from the fertile echinococcus of food animals and is parasitic in the intestinal canal of dogs. On account of its small size (Fig. 164), this tape- worm easily escapes observation. We can not, therefore, do otherwise than approve the opinion of the faculty of the Veteri- nary Institute at Brussels, as handed down, with regard to the admission of dog meat as human food ; viz., that the esophagus, stomach and intestines of all slaughtered dogs should be excluded from the market. (b) Larvae of Pentastomuin Tseuioides. Nature and Occurrence. — Pentastomum (Linguatula) tcenioides, Kudolphi, was formerly erroneously classified with the Helminthes, but belongs to the mite-like Arachnoidea, a class of Arthropoda. 514 INVASION DISEASES The sexually mature parasite is from 8 to 20 mm. long and is found in the nasal and frontal cavities of the dog, wolf, horse, fox, goat and occasionally man ; while the larvsB are found in the vis- cera of cattle, sheep, rgoats, hop;s, deer, hare and rabbits. Only the- larvae of Pentastomum tcenioides are of importance iii meat inspection. These were described by Budolphi as P. dentdcidatum under the assumption thai they were a distinct species. History. — The occurrence of pentastomes in domestic animals has long been known. Ziirn states that P. tcenioides was discovered. Fig. 165. Fig. 166. Larva of Pentastomum tfenioides from a mesenteric gland of a beef animal, X 15 diameters. (In natural size on the left.) Pentastomum tsenioides from the nasal cavity of a dog. (Natural size.) by Chabert in 1757 in the nasal cavities of horses and dogs and that P. denticvlatum was discovered a few years later by Abilgaard and Frohlich in the viscera of a goat and hare. It was not until 100 years later, however, that the ontogenetic connection of these two forms was established. It was reserved for the brilliant investi- gations of Leuckart to demonstrate that P. denticwtatum yf&s not a distinct species, but merely the larva of P. tcenioides. MoEPHOLOGV AND BiOLOGY.— According to the statements of ANIMAL PARASITES 515 Leuckart and Ziirn, the larvae of pentastomum are flat, white, trans- parent structures, 4 5 to 5 mm. long and 1.2 to 1.3 mm. broad at the widest point. They are divided into about 80 segments which are furnished with numerous backwardly-directed bristles or tooth- like s[iines. (Eudolphi, therefore, chose the name denticulatum). Underneath the mouth opening there are two slit-like apertures on either side, from each of which the points of two claws pro- trude. (The name Pentastomum, "five-mouth," was given from the erroneous interpretation of these slit-like openings). The sexual organs of the larvae are rudimentary (Fig. 165). The embryos of P. tcenioides are provided with a boring appara- tus in the form of a stylus-like spine underneath the mouth open- ing. Moreover, on the opposite end of the body of the tail-bearing embryo, one observes several spines which serve for locomotion. According to Ziirn, the embryos bore through the intestinal wall, and, chiefly by means of the circulating blood, migrate under the peritoneum into the liver, mesenteric glands, and, in exceptional cases, even into the lungs, where they beeome encapsuled and sur- rounded by a membrane. Statements concerning the further fate of P. denticulatum are at variance. Ziirn says that after seven months the parasites become somewhat more active, leave their cysts, and make their way into the body cavity of their host. Here they await an accident to free them " from this prison." If such an accident does not occur, they become encysted again, but only to die. On the other hand, Gerlach, on the basis of a feeding experiment, holds the view that pentastomes do not remain in their host until the death of the latter, but thatt, after the development of their spines and powerful claws, they change their location and migrate into the lungs and thence into the trachea. Von Bdtz agrees with this view condition- ally. In a goat which exhibited a cachetic condition, this writer observed numerous pentastomes under the peritoneum and also in the lungs. In the latter organs the worms had bored deeply into the tissue. In another case, a roebuck, the pulmonary pentasto- mata were partly encapsuled. Babes calls attention to the fact that, in spite of the abundant material which he had occasion to examine, he was unable to observe the migration of the pentas- tomes described by Gerlach through the lungs and respiratory passages. On the contrary, he found a regular migration of the parasites into the intestines, whence they were carried out by the excrement. Tempel, also, who observed encysted and migrating pentastomum larvae in the lungs of a goat, argues against the 516 INVASION DISEASES assumption of a migration of the parasites through the trachea, for the reason that he found the larvae under the pleura, but not in the trachea, and not in a single instance in the neighborhood of the bronchi. DiSTBiBDTiON. — Concerning the distribution of the larvae of pentastomum, Ziirn states that P. denticulaium is found in hares, goats and sheep, more rarely in cattle. Similar statements are made by Piitz and Friedberger and Frohner. Colin reports from France that during the course of 2J months he found pentas- tomes in 300 sheep and 1 dromedary. Two years later, Colin incidentally mentions cattle also as the host of P. denticdatum. Accordingly, in Germany and France, the occurrence of pentas- tomum larvae in cattle must be considered as comparatively rare, while Babes made the surprising report from Eoumania that he found pentastomum larvae in all of 20 steers which had died of contagious hemoglobinuria. Babes was inclined to connect this finding directly with the disease, but he soon convinced himself that in Eoumania, especially in the swampy low-lands of the Danube, all cattle are extensively infested with pentastomes. On account of their different economic conditions in Eoumania, this statement does not necessarily hold true for Germany. How- ever, at the Central Abattoir in Berlin, I became convinced that even in Germany pentastomes frequently occur in cattle. Finally, it should be mentioned that larvae of pentastomum may occur also in deer and rabbits and have been observed also in two cases in hogs. Seat oe the LARva:. — According to Ziirn, pentastomum larvae are found under the peritoneum, in the liver, in the mesenteric glands and, exceptionally, also in the lungs. Von Ed,tz observed them in one of his cases under the peritoneal covering of the liver and in the lungs ; in a second case, however, only in the lungs, Tempel was also able to demonstrate the parasites only in the lungs of a goat. Babes, in his numerous cases, discovered the ■ parasites chiefly in the wall of the folds of the small intestines and in the mesenteric glands, but also under the serons covering of the liver and under the pleura. Thirty years ago Colin called attention to the fact that in cases of natural invasion, these para- sites are found in the mesenteric glands, while in his feeding experi- ments with a large amount of material, the liver and lungs were also infested with the worms. The writer has observed pentasto- ANIMAL PARASITES 517 mum larvss, as a rule, in the mesenteric glands and in isolated cases also in the mediastinal, prescapular, iliac, kneefold andTum- bar glands, as well as in the liver and spleen. Pathological Anatomy. —Peutastomes produce various altera-' tions in the mesenteric glands. The most striking alterations are, foci of yellowish-green or gray color, varying in size from a mil- let seed to a pea. They may occur in all parts«of the lymphatic glands, but usually lie near the peripheral zone. The smaller foci appear round on cross section. The larger are of a more Bovine mesenteric gland with calcified pentastome foci. irregular form. The consistency of these structures, which are plainly distinguished from the surrounding tissue of the lymphatic glands, is sometimes that of gruel (in yellow-colored specimens) ; sometimes more caseous (in case of green color) ; or, finally, firmer, plaster-like, due to the deposition of lime (in gray-colored speci- mens). Under the microscope one observes intact pentastomes in the yellowish and greenish foci, but, in the gray foci, the parasites are cloudy as a result of fatty degeneration and deposition of lime. In the yellowish foci, the worms are surrounded by disintegrated tissue of the lymphatic glands ; in the greenish foci, by pus cor- puscles ; and, in the calcified foci, by detritus and lime deposits. I 518 INVASION DISEASES have never observed the formation of a capsule in the lymphatic glands, such as regularly occurs in the liver and spleen. Whole ■worms may be absent in a portion of the gray-colored foci, bat characteristic claws are found as the undoubted remains of dead parasites. These claws apparently resist the process of calcifica- tion like the hooks of the armed cysticerci. According to my investigations, bloody foci in the lymphatic glands, such as described by Babes as an almost uniform occur- rence around pentastomes, are rare. It is highly probable that these hemorrhages were due to the hemoglobinemia with which the cattle examined by Babes were affected. Even migrating pen- tastomes which had already bored quite large canals in the lympha- tic glands lay, in the case which I observed, in the milk-white or slightly yellow-colored semi-fluid tissue. In contrast with the pentastomes in the lymphatic glauds, those which are found in the liver and lungs are regularly sur- rounded with blood when the parasites are migrating. Encysted parasites in these organs are white structures, varying in size from a millet seed to a vetch seed. Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis. — Old pentastome foci in the lymphatic glands closely resemble tuberculous alterations. When carefully examined, however, there are marked differences between ^ /* these two conditions. Tubercles are ^ 7 sharply delimited from the surround- ing tissue. The most recent tubercles ^-^N ''^ , possess a cloudy, casefied center and a A- 1 transparent periphery; older tubercles, / on the other hand, are almost entirely - -s^^ 'f casefied and of a pronounced yellowish '^^ color. The consistency is like that of wC^ moist or dry cheese. As a rule, fresh tubercles may be observed around the Pentastome claws from a strongly larger tubercles. As contrasted with caJdfied focus in a lymphatic ^^^.^ condition only yellowish- colored, never deep yellow-colored, foci are found in pentastomatosis. Furthermore, these yellow-colored pen- tastomes are of a semi-fluid consistency. Tke pentastome foci, however, which exhibit a more cheesy consistency, are of a greenish color. Finally, partially calcified remains of pentastomes are gray, while tuberculous foci, even in an advanced stage of calcification, AMilAL PARASITES 519 retain their yellow color. Toang tubercles with casefied centers and transparent periphery are not observed in pentastomatosis. [Finally, by means of a simple teased preparation, the nature of pentastome foci may be demonstrated beyond question (demonstra- tion of whole larvse or claws, Fig, 168). In this connection I may remark that, according to my investigations, pentastomes, after migrating, leave smooth cicatrices, but no granules of a tuberculous ■character. In distinguishing between pentastomes and tubercles, the intermuscular lymph glands are of special significance, since a false interpretation of. tubercle-like pentastomes in these lymphatic glands may lead to an unjust condemnation of whole animals or quarters. Judgment. — Statistics concerning the frequency of entozoa in dogs furnish a convincing proof that after the introduction of meat inspection in a locality or country, the number of dogs infested with worms diminishes greatly. De£fke demonstrated in Berlin that after the introduction of obligatory meat inspection, tapeworms of dogs became less frequent. For example, according to Deffke, Tcenia marginata, which was formerly quite frequent in Berlin and which in Iceland infested 75 per cent, of the dogs (Krabbe), and in Saxony, 27 per cent. (Schbne), at the end of the 80's was found in only 7 per cent, of the dogs which were examined. On the other hand, the effect of obligatory meat inspection on pentastomes is not yet observable. Pentastomes are still frequent parasites in the dogs of Berlin. Deffke found them in 13, or 6.5 per cent., out of 200 ■dogs. No doubt can remain that dogs are the source of pentastome larvse; for Deffke calls attention to the fact that it is especially the butchers' dogs and dogs used for draft purposes which are infested with Pentastomum tcenioides. Through intimate association with dogs, man runs the risk of becoming infected by the ingestion of pentastome eggs. Zenker in Dresden demonstrated the presence of the larvse of Pentastomum tcenioides in ■i per cent, of all cadavers which were examined by him. In one case (Laudon) a developed pentastomum was observed in man. Occasionally, also, organs infested with pentastomes may have an injurious effect. As a rule, however, this is not the case, and for this reason organs infested with pentastome foci can not in general be considered as dangerous food material. In order to prevent farther distribution of pentastomes, Ziirn recommends " careful examination of food animals in which £20 INVASION DISEASES Pentasfomum denticulatum may be found. If this pumsite is found, especially in the livers and mesenteric glands of goats and sheep, or in the peritoneal cavity of rabbits and hare, it should be imme- diately destroyed, preferably by burning." According to the investigations of the writer, meat inspectors should give especial attention to the mesenteric glands of cattle and sheep. It is a difficult matter to burn all viscera infested with pentastomes. Fortunately, however, this is not absolutely necessary. By far the greater proportion of the mesenteries are rendered in the prepara- tion of tallow and in the manufacture of soap. The possibility of the transmission of pentastome larvge to dogs is thereby excluded, so that it is only necessary to condemn the more extensively infested mesenteric glands in all cases in which the above men- tioned utilization is permitted. This should be practiced in the case of the infected lymphatic glands of poor mesenteries which are not rendered out. APPENDIX. 1.— Protozoa. In the skeletal musculature, esophagus, mucous membranes of the stomach and intestines, as well as in the liver of our food animals, various parasites occur which belong to the lowest known animal forms. Protozoa, and which were formerly quite generally characterized as Gregarinidss, or psorosperms. These names, how- ever, are not in accordance with zoological nomenclature. According to zoological classification, the parasites in question belong to the second subdivision of Protozoa, or Sporozoa. Under this name Leuckart, in 1879, included a number of unrelated unicellular parasites which form spores with shells. According to Braun, Sporozoa are divided into several orders, of which the following are of importance for meat inspection : Coccidia, Myxosporidia, Sarcosporidia and Hematosporidia. Sarcosporidia and Hematosporidia are the most important orders for meat inspection. The Coccidia play a much less important role in food animals, and the Myxosporidia occur only in fish and lower animals. PROTOZOA 521 (a) Coccidia. The Coccidia are parasites of epithelia. They are small, spherical or oval structures, which destroy the epithelial cells by their rapid growth and then divide into a number of part.«. These penetrate into the intact" epithelia of the infested organ (merozoites) or become changed into microgametes and macrogametes (male and female sexual cells). By the copulation of these forms, sporoblasts are produced and, finally, permanent forms with shells (sporomitea) arise. The latter cause infestation of new hosts. The following forms belong to the Coccidia : 1. CoccmiUM OviFOEME (Leuckart). — The sporoblasts are elongated, oval and surrounded by a double membrane ; length, 0.03 Pig. 170 Fig. 169. Sporoblasts of Coocidiiim oviiorme from a rabbit liver. Rabbit liver with coccidlal foci. to .04 mm.; width, .015 to .028 mm. At first, the protoplasm fills the whole inside of the parasites with a coarsely granular mass, but soon becomes contracted into a sphere from which four sporozoites arise. C oviforme is found in rabbits in the epithelium of the bile duct and produces coccidiosis of the rabbit liver. Occasionally coccidiosis of the liver is observed in man. Coccidiosis of the rabbit liver is characterized macroscopically by the appearance of abscess-like foci which are white in color and roundish in form. Eoot-like projections are observed on the larger tubercles which correspond to the pathologically-altered bile ducts (Fig. 170). By examination of cross sections it is seen that the abscess-like structures are formed of greatly distended bile ducts, 522 INVASION DISEASES partly fused together, wliicli are sharply delimited from the almost unaltered hepatic tissue by means of fibrous connective tissue and contain immense numbers of coccidia, besides epithelial detritus. The process begins with the invasion of the coccidia into the epithelia of the bile dncts. The epithelial cells which are attacked by the coccidia are destroyed. Later a marked hyperplasia of the epithelia and a papillary proliferation of the bile ducts arise, so that these structures do not represent simple canals, but much-branched cavities (Fig. 171). Fig. 171. Fig. 173. Red dysentery of cattle. Coccidia in the mucosa of the large intestine. X 1,300 diameters, i-d, various developmental stages. At a and b the cell nucleus is visible. (After Zsohokke). Coocidiosis of the rabbit liver. Section through the cortical part of a coccidial focus. Papillary hyper- plasia and enlargement of the bile ducts due to localization of the parasites. Coccidia in the Liver of Hogs.— Johne described cyst-like cavities with cloudy, chocolate-colored fluid contents in the liver of a hog and was able to demonstrate coccidia in them. I have also found these foci quite frequently in the liver of hogs and can corroborate the statements of Johne on this point. As a rule, we find isolated tubercles varying in size from a pea to a walnut, with tough con- nective tissue walls and pronounced radiate cirrhosis in the surrounding tissue. Occasionally, however, the whole liver is permeated with such tubercles and the tissue becomes cirrhotic in toto. The inner surface of the wall of the cyst shows evaginations and the above-described discolored and rather scanty contents PROTOZOA 523 always exhibit unicellular sporozoa, but iu small uumbGrs. Johne leaves the question unsettled whether these structures are identical with Ooccidium ovifornie or not. 2. CoccrDiUM Pebfokans {Leuckart). — The sporoblasts of G. •perforans are smaller and more spherical than those of 0. ovifortne (0.017 to .024 mm. long and .012 to .014 mm. wide). According to Eieck, they are distinguished from those of the latter chiefly by the fact that iu the division of the protoplasm to form the four sporozoites a portion of it remains as the " residual division cor- puscle." Coccidium perforans is found in the intestinal epithelia of rabbits and produces a desquamative catarrh of the whole intestinal tract characterized by a profuse diarrhea. Moreover, C. perforans or a related species occurs in the intestinal epithelium of sheep and calves. Bed Dysentery of Cattle. — In the Swiss Cantons, Lucerne and Bern, a peculiar disease of an epizootic nature occurs in cattle, especially in young stall-fed animals, which has been described by Zschokke as " red dysentery " (" dysenteria hemorrhagica coccidiosa," Hess). This name was chosen on account of the con- stant bloody discharges observed in this disease. In the epithelium of the granulated or longitudinally folded mucous membrane of the colon in the animals, Zschokke demonstrated' spherical or oval coccidia, or 0.01 to .22 mm. in diameter. They were homogenous and strongly refractive and with a double contour. After staining with auilin sta,ius, nuclei may be demonstrated which may be three times as large as those of the epithelial cells. The finding of Zschokke has been confirmed by Hess and Guillebeau. Guillebeau is of the opinion that the coccidium of red dysentery is G. oviforme. Judgment. — Zschokke and Hess call attention to the fact that the meat of animals subjected to emergency slaughter on account of red dysentery is always admittpd to the market aud is eaten without any bad results. The meat, however, possesses the character of a spoiled (inferior) food material and is, therefore, to be sold under declaration, G. tenellum occurs in fowls and may produce an epizootic, croupous, diphtheritic enteritis, during which, according to Rieck, small disintegration foci caused by invasion of coccidia appear in the mesenteric glands. 524 INVASION DISEASES Chicken Pox. — " Chicken pox " is a disease of the mucous membrane of the head and neck and of the general integument of fowls, and js characterized by the formation of tubercles. The disease begins with a catarrh of the mucous membrane of the head in the further course of which wart- like proliferations appear on the mucous membrane. The pathological processes spread from the mucous membrane of the head to the skin, on which, especially on the unfeathered areas, miliary to beau-sized neomorpjis are formed (epithelioma contagiosum, Bollinger). The dermal epithe- liomata are at first gray, often shining like mother-of-pearl, firm, and furnished with a smooth surface. Later they become covered with a scab. Kivolta and Silvestri consider coccidia to be the cause of this readily transmisbible epizootic disease. In the proliferating epithelial cells strongly refractive homogeneous corpuscles are observed which stain yellow with picrocarmine and are thereby readily distinguished from the epithelial cells, which stain brownish red. Croupous, diphtheritic deposits may arise on the proliferating portions of the mucous membrane (gregarinous form of avian diphtheria, according to Friedberger and Fiohner). The disease may become so extensive on the mucous membrane of the head that the animals are no longer able to close the beak, take nourishment or breathe. According to more recent investigations, "chicken pox" is said to be due to bacteria. "Chicken pox" is a local disease of certain parts of the head and neck and has no effect upon the food qualities of the other parts of the animal. The customary removal of the head and neck, together with the trachea and esophagus, is sufficient to permit the admission of the animals to market without any re- striction. The carcasses of fowls affected with epitheliomata are to be excluded from the market as highly spoiled (unfit) food material only in cases where symptoms of general disease have appeared as a result of mechanical hindrances to the ingestion of food or respiration. Pigeons affected with epitheliomata dis- tributed over the whole body are to be judged in the same manner. Coccidia in the Fourth Stomach and Intestines of Sheep. — Maske demonstrated coccidia very frequently (iu 70 per cent, of the inspected stomachs) in the epithelium of the mucous membrane of the fourth stomach of sheep, especially in the depths of the folds of the mucous membrane. The Sjioroblasts of these coccidia are comparatively large and are surrounded with a double contoured, PEOTOZOA 525 strongly refractive capsule. The coccidia caused tubercles of the size of a pinhead. For Spikidenitis coccidiosa (granular eruption of hogs), com- pare page 270. (b) Myxosporidia. Myxosporidia are parasitic chiefly in fish. A large number of species are known. Myxosporidia are usually surrounded with a tough cuticula, and contain numerous nuclei. The size varies from microscopic smallness to the volume of a hazel nut. The location is sometimes free in the body cavities, sometimes in the viscera, gills, muscles and dermal epithelium. Fig. 173. Barbel with myxosporidial tumors due to Myxobolus pfeifferi (Doflein). Among the numerous species of myxosporidia, the most inter- esting one for us is Myxobolus pfeifferi, which may produce the epizootic death of barbel. An epizootic myxosporidiosis of the barbel was first observed in the Mosel in 1870, whence it spread to the Maas, Meurte, Rhine, Marne and Seine. In 1890, Ludwig Pfeiff'er investigated the disease which had broken out in this region and found myxosporidia in the muscles of. diseased barbel. The affected fish were sluggish, scarcely able to swim against the current, and exhibited discolored swellings of the skin (Fig. 173) and crater-like ulcers on the head, body and tail. Immense num- bers of the myxosporidia were found in the ulcers, their primary location being in the muscle cells. Pfeiffer found the other organs of barbel to be free from myxosporidia, while, in the tench, the gall bladder, swimming bladder, spleen and arteries were affected. The pathologico-anatomical processes in an invasion of myxosporidia in 526 INVASION DISEASES barbels were carefully studied by Thelohan. According to his investigations, the invasion of myxosporidia causes a hyaline degeneration of the muscle fibers, which become disintegrated and are replaced by connective tissue. Thus it comes about that finally one finds the spores of the myxosporidia surrounded by fibrous cysts. The frequently observed eruption of tumors on the body of barbels and the evacuation of a pus-like spore-containing mass is due to the secondary localization of a large bacterial organism described by L. Pfeiffer, which finds favorable conditions for its development in the degenerated muscle tissue of barbels affected with myxosporidia. The bacterial organism in question appears to possess pyogenic properties. FiQ. 174. Tench -with "skin pox." Myxobolus cypr'mi occurs in the kidneys of carp and tench. In affected fish, white cartilaginous thickenings of epidermis (" pox marks ") occur, in which, however, strange to say, no organisms are found (Hofer and Doflein). Judgment of Coccidia and Myxosporidia.— Nothing is yet known concerning the injurious effect of eating organs which are infested with coccidia and myxosporidia. Practically no careful investigations have been made on this subject, and until this ques- tion is settled, we must exclude from the maiket all organs affected with coccidia and myxosporidia. This method of procedure is justified by the alterations which extensive invasions produce in affected parts. In the myxosporidial disease of the barbel, we should also remember that even uninfested parts of the diseased fish are discolored yellow, are of a gelatinous consistency and assume a more or less conspicuous bitter taste on cooking. PROTOZOA 527 (c) Sarcosporidia. General Characters. — In 1884 Balbiani characterized as sar- cosporidia the parasites which had previously been known under the name of Miescher'ssacs in the musculature of warm-blooded animals. Sarcosporidia are elongated or oval structures which have their seat either in the muscle fibers (Miesoheridse), or in the connective tissue (Balbianidse). Some of the former are sur- rounded by a thin structureless membrane (Miescheria) ; others possess a thick membrane provided with transverse striae or bristles (Sarcocystis, Blanchard). Fig. r?i. Fig. 176. End of a Miescher's sac with contents. At the side, sporozoites greatly mag- nified. (Leuckart.) Meisoher's sac from the musculature of a hog, X 30 diameters. According to Bertram, whose brilliant investigations con- tributed greatly to a better knowledge of the sarcosporidia, one finds the youngest forms as small sacs consisting of a surrounding membrane, and round or oval cells. From these the sporoblast mother cells are formed and from the latter in turn the sporoblasts. In the meantime the surrounding membrane becomes two-layered. From its inner layer a supporting substance develops around the sporoblasts and also the cells which are later formed from the layer out of which arise the sporozoites, formerly known as sickle- shaped corpuscles. The whole sac is thereby divided into a sys- tem of chambers which contain sporozoites in the form of balls. 528 INVASION DISEASES According to Braun, the sporozoites of sarcosporidia are very small, apparently membraneless corpuscles, with a nucleus, and often with one or two transparent spots. The form is elongated, C-shaped, or fusiform and clavate (Fig. 176). The function of the sarcosporidia is completed with the forma- tion of the sporozoites. They may then disintegrate, while, as assumed by Bertram, the sporozoites become disintegrated in the central chambers. So long as the surrounding membrane is unin- jured, the cyst persists, and in its chambers a granular detritus is found, together with a few sporozoites which are still preserved^ If the necrotic process attacks also the surrounding membrane, leucocytes may apparently penetrate into the sac. Finally, the sacs may calcify. Fig. 177. Sarcosporidia from the abdominal musculature of a sheep. Natural size. To the Miescheridse belong Miescher's sacs, so widely dis- tributed in the musculature of herbivorous and omnivorous ani- mals. These are observed most frequently in the skeletal muscu- lature of hogs and sheep ; also in horses, cattle, goats, deer, dogs, hare and chickens. Miescher's sacs become located inside the striated muscle fibers in their long axis. The elongated smaller specimens exhibit throughout the surrounding tissue a layer of striated substance of varying thickness (Fig. 175). In the case of larger specimens, on the other hand, the striated substance dis- appears as far as the distended sarcolemma. The size varies. Bertram observed Miescher's sacs which were only 0.04 mm. long PBOTOZOA 529 and .006 mm. wide. When fally developed, they are 0.5 to 3 mm. long and of various widths up to 0.4 mm. Special Features in Vaeious Food Animals. — Miesoher's sacs ■{Sarcocystis Miescheriana, Kiihn) are quite regularly found incident- ally duriug the microscopic inspection of pork. Kiihn found these parasites in 98 per cent, of the hogs which he inspected. When Miescher's sacs are completely or even partially calcified, they may be detected with the naked eye. Calcification begins in the middle of the sac in the form of irregular masses of lime deposits, -which, from their reaction to acids, must be considered as consist- ing principally of calcium carbonate. Occasionally delicately twisted and coiled lime deposits are observed in Miescher's sacs Tesembling the appearance of primarily calcified trichinae. In cases of total calcification, Miescher's sacs, when examined macroscopi- <5ally, appear to be white, but under the microscope they appear as dark, almost black, structures. Calcified Miescher's sacs form one kind of so-called calcareous concretions in the musculature of hogs. With regard to the seat of Miescher's sacs in hogs, it should be stated that they may occur in all striated muscles, in the myo- cardium as well as in the skeletal muscles. As a rule, however, in hogs, the abdominal muscles and muscular portion of the dia- phragm appear to be more extensively infested than the other muscles. In sheep, Miescher's -sacs reach a larger size than in hogs (Fig. 177). Quite frequently one observes sacs which show a length of IJ cm. and a maximum width of 0.3 mm.* In the sheep also sarcosporidia appear to be almost uniformly present. At any rate Bertram observed them in Rostock in 182 out of 185 sheep inspected at that place. One observes macroseopically-visible parasites in the dermal and abdominal muscles, as should be stated in opposition to the assertion of Bertram, according to which the larger savcosporidial forms are found in sheep only in the mus- cles of the tongue, esophagus, pharynx and larynx. According to Bertram, microscopically-visible forms may be demonstrated in the muscles of the head and neck and in the intercostal, diaphrag- matic, abdominal and lumbar muscles, as well as in the heart. In horses, macroseopically-visible Miescher's sacs appear most commonly in the musculature of the esophagus and neck. With * The largest sarcosporidia are found in the fallow deer. Thus, Manz reports sarcosporidia in this animal more than 6 cm. long. 530 INVASION DISEASES regard to the distribution of Miescher's sacs in the horse, the state- ment of Siedamgrotzky is interesting, to the effect that he was able to demonstrate these parasites in the majority of horses ■which he inspected for this purpose in Dresden. Csokor in Vienna inspected 241 horses and found 10 per cent, infested with them. In cattle, one occasionally observes that the musculature is infested with roundish or elongated foci of a yellowish or dirty ground color, varying in size from a millet seed to a kernel of rye. When examined iinder the microscope they are found to be Miescher's sacs. These foci may be present in very large num- bers in the whole musculature. Sanfelice asserts that he regularly observed sarcosporidia in the tongue of Sicilian cattle. Pathogenic Impoktance of Miescher's Sacs. — In isolated cases, which, however, require further explanation, Miescher's sacs are said to have caused inflammatory phenomena in the muscula- ture. On account of their rare occurrence, however, these cases have only a slight importance for us. As a rule, Miescher's sacs heal in the muscle fibers without reaction (Fig. 175). Eieck described a case in which he assumed the pathogenic action of Mie.scher's sacs. This case was a beef animal which had exhibited no pathological symptoms during life, but which, after slaughter, presented hard tumors varying in size from that of a fist to that of a child's head in nearly all muscles, especially in the muscles of the abdomen, back, shoulder and thigh. Under the microscope, extensive infiltration of the perimysium internum and externum with small cells was observed in those parts which were affected with the first stages of the disease. In addition to the leucocytes, isolated, membranous, round structures, with a perfectly homogeneous body, were observed in the muscle fibers. In the sec- ond stage a chronic interstitial iuflammation was present, together with sarcosporidia in the muscle fibers; and in a third stage, a granular disintegration was observed in the muscle fibers infested by sarcosporidia. A similar case was observed by Piitz in the horse. He, how- ever, left the question undecided whether or not the pathological alterations (interstitial myositis) were due to the presence of the not very numerous Miescher's sacs. As is well known, Miescher's sacs have also been considered as the cause of the muscle tumors in horses known by the name of " ice balls." PllOTOZOA 531 In slaughtering a steer which had shown a stiff gait daring life, Tokarenko found the musculature pale-red and exhibiting yellow stripes and spots at- certain points. The intermuscular tissue showed a serous infiltration and small hemorrhages were obs6rved in the musculature of the posterior extremities. Microscopic examination demonstrated the presence of an immense number of Miescher's sacs, especially in the masclss of the thigh. The musclo fibrillsB appeared pale ; the transverse striation in some parts was totally obliterated, and a granular disintegration had appeared in its place. DiFFEEENTiAL DIAGNOSIS. — Intact Miescher's sacs should' scarcely give occasion to confusion with other phenomena in the musculature. Nevertheless, calcified sacs in hogs have frequently been mistaken for calcified trichinae. For the differentiation of calcified trichinae from calcified Miescher's saca, see page 540. Judgment op Saecospoeidia. — Prom a sanitary police stand- point, sarcosporidia are to be judged somewhat differently than coccidia and myxosporidia. For, in the first place, they produce no striking alterations in the affected organs. Furthermore, it has been proved that sarcosporidia are an exceedingly rare occurrence in the muscles of man. From the fact of their unusual'occurrence in food animals, it can not be assumed that sarcosporidia can be transmitted to man by eating meat. Quite recently, Rosenberg described a case of " undoubted Miescher's sacs " in the heart of a man, and, in this connection, called attention to three cases which were described in 1863 by the Russian scientist, Lindermaim. As contrasted, however, with the almost constant occurrence of Miescher's sacs in domestic animals, such cases must be considered as rare. L. Pfeiffer asserts that feeding experiments with Miescher's sacs in hogs, sheep, dogs and rabbits have given negative results. Moreover, he is of the opinion that muscle infections, analogous to those in hogs, have not been observed with certainty in man. In the cases of alleged sarcosporidial, acute, progressive polymyositis, described by Unverricht, it is stated that neither Miescher's saca nor the crescent forms were found. In the practice of meat inspection, it is quite customary to disregard the ordinary slight invasions of Miescher's sacs in hogs and to admit the meat of such animals to market without restric- tion. This practice is justified so long as the musculature shows no 532 INVASION DISEASES macroscopically-recognizable alterations, and this is the usual case. Exceptionally, however, the meat must be considered as spoiled (inferior) food material, in case calcification has appeared in many of the Miescher's sacs ; and the meat must be considered as highly unfit for food in case the musculature is greatly altered; for example, with yellow or green spots or gray discolorations and watery as a result of extensive invasion of Miescher's sacs. In the last-named cases, the meat loses the quality of human food, for it is exceedingly repulsive and unappetizing. The case is different with hogs in which numerous Miescher's sacs appear as Fig. 178. calcareous concretions (Fig. 183). In such cases r . ^^ T the meat has, to be sure, lost somewhat in proteid ; '^' ' 1 content on account of the lime deposits, but aside f /ti^ from the calcified parasitic foci, the musculature y^i possesses a normal consistency and color, and, as a I ^ '^ ' ^^^^> ^Iso an unaltered fat content. For these '"• I reasons no objection can be made to the sale of snch meat under declaration. If the occurrence of calcified Miescher's sacs is restricted to certain *»V* muscle groups, only these muscles are to be treated I '-^i as spoiled (inferior) food material. f^ Sheep in which more or less numerous saico- ^ ' , sporidia of macroscopic size are found in all of the ^^ muscle groups, are to be excluded from free sale on I ..*'' ' ', account of their inferior quality, and, under certain / ' ' conditions, are to be absolutely excluded from the ,1 market. If, however, the parasites are restricted to ! certain muscle groups (for example, dermal and abdominal muscles) the meat may be admitted to BalbianidK from the market after removal of these parts, the esophagus of t- a sheep. Balbianidce. — The sarcosporidia which occur so frequently in the interfibrillar tissue of thq esophagus in sheep and goats and which in some years are present in almost every individual, belong to the family Balbianidse. Railliet gave this ■ parasite the name Balhiania gigantea* They present white sacs filled with pus-like contents, varying in size from a millet seed to I * Bertram held the opinion chat the small sarcosporidia which occur in sheep (Sarcoeystis tenella, Railliet) and Balbiania gigantea, were merely different stages of one and the same species. He believed that at first the parasites were found in the muscle fibers, while later they grew through the sarcolemma and in this manner became transformed into psorosperm sacs. ' pj-iorozoA 533 a hazel nufc (psorosperm sacs), which are ofteu found to the num- ber of several dozen in a single esophagus. Morofc found them present to the number of 227 in one esophagus. In addition to this location, the Balbianidse have their seat also in the connective tissue of the lingual and laryngeal musculature, as well as in the thoracic aud abdominal muscles. Judgment. — Formerly the esophagus was not utilized for food. Since, however, it has come to be so used — less scrupulous butchers utiliza the " gullet meat " of sheep in the preparation of sausage — it becomes the duty of meat inspectors to condemn all esophagi iufested with Balbianidse aud to render them imiocaous. By this means also the further distribution of the disease would be corre- spondingly prevented. (d) Hematosporidia. The Hematosporidia, the relationship of which to the Sporozoa is not yet established with certainty, are unicellular parasites of the red blood corpuscles of vertebrates. The first Hematosporidia were observed by Gaule in 1880 in frogs, tritons aud turtles. la the same year Laveran made his epoch-making discovery that unicellu- lar motile parasites occur also in the blood of malarial patients. The Hematosporidia acquired importance for veterinary science through the classical investigations of the American author, Theo- bald Smith, on the subject of Texas fever, in which Hematosporidia were likewise found and demonstrated beyond question to be the cause of the disease. Texas Feveb. — On the subject of Texas fever, we owe to Smith and his co-worker, Kilborne, the following data : Home of the Disease. — In the southern United States the station- ary focus for Texas fev6r is found in a wide zone extending from the Gulf of Mexico to 37° or 38° north latitude. The native cattle of this region are apparently healthy. If, however, cattle from northern regions mingle with these apparently healthy animals, the former fall ill of the plague. If cattle from the iufested territory piiss over the northern or southern boundary line, they may carry the disease with them. The incubation stage is about fifty days. Clinical Symptoms.— The first symptom of the disease is a high fever (40.5° to 42° C). An acute anemia rapidly follows this stage. Clinical he moglobinu I ia is rare. The 1 itfnr, for the most part, is 534 INVASION DISEASES Fig. 179. demonstrated on post mortem.* The fever persists until death or recovery. At the crisis of the fever, one-eighth to one-sixth of the red blood corpuscles are destroyed within twenty-four hours. After the temperature falls, however, their regeneration takes place rapidly. Pnihologico-anatomical Findings. — Upon making a post-mortem examination one finds red-colored urine in the bladder (hemoglobinuria). The kidneys are dark, brownish-red, or, if the period of hemoglobinuria is passed, they are pale- r ^^^^^^^^ brown and soft. A bloody edema is observed x^sMm^mmmm j^ ^j^g perirenal fat tissue. The spleen is enlarged from two to fivp times its normal size and is of a dark-red color. The liver is swollen and either filled with blood (in- the first stage) or poor in blood and dis- colored yellowish. Petechise under the epi- cardium and endocardium ; bloody erosions on the mucosa of the fourth stomach ; in the small intestiups, on the other hand, oleaceous deposits which consist of sloughed-off epithelial cells. Etiology. — As the cause of the disease. Smith discovered pro- tozoan micro-organisms of a pale color and exhibiting amoeboid movements at a temperature of 24° C. These organisms live inside Texas fever. Cover glass preparation from the spleen pulp of a beef animal, witri quite num- erous intraglobular par- asites, X 900 diameters. (After Smith.) Fig. 180. Te?as fever. DiSEerent forms of Piroplasma bigeminum due to amoeboid movements, c and d still possess nuclei ; d shows the pear-shape characteristic of the acute Much enlarged. (After Smith.) the red blood corpuscles and pass through several developmental phases there. According to Smith, the parasite, called by him Pyrosoma bigeminum, is, in mild forms of the disease, small, round- ish, coccus-like ; in the acute, summer forms, however, it is larger *This account is based on the investigations of Smith and Kilborne (Bulletin 1, Bureau of Animal Industry, Department of Agriculture). Later investiga- tions, however, have shown that hemoglobinuria is a characteristic clinical symptom, especially in severe cases, terminating fatally. — Translator's Note. PROTOZOA 535 (2.5 to 4 /* long and 1.5 to 2 /< broad) ; amceboid, and in the fully developed condition pyroform in shape.* Demonstration of Parasites. — In the circulating blood these structures are found usually in only one or two, or, at most, 10 per cent, of the red blood corpuscles. The capillary blood of dead animals is more extensively infected, the blood of the renal capil- laries being most infected, in which location as many as 80 per Pig. 181 Texas fever. Boophilus bovis. a, recently hatched young tick, X 40 diameters; J, sexually mature male, X 10 diameters; c, sexually mature female, X 10 dia- meters. (After Smith.) cent, of the erythrocytes contain the parasitic organism. For demonstrating Texas fever parasites, air-dried cover-glass prepara- tions are kept in a hot-air incubator for from one to one and one- half hours at a temperature of 110° to 120° C, then stained for one-half to two minutes with alkaline-methylene blue, washed with water, dipped momentarily into 1 per cent, acetic acid, and again washed with water. In doubtful cases, the staining method of Eomanowsky gives good satisfaction (with polychromic methylene- * Wandolek changed the name of the organism of Texas fever to Apiosoma bigeminum, since Pyrosoma is preempted for a genus of Tunioates; As noted by Stiles, however, even the name chosen by Wandolek is not free. It is sug- gested, therefore, that the name proposed by Fatten, Piroplasma bigeminnm, is the proper species name for the parasilic organism of Ttxas fever. 536 INVASION DISEASES blue, to which eosine is added until precipitation begins to take place, and differentiation with water slightly acidified with acetie acid). The Texas fever parasites then appear blue and the red blood corpuscles red. Method of Infection. — The disease is transmissible by inoculat- ing the blood of infected cattle into other cattle. Inoculation with the blood of apparently healthy cattle from the infected region also produces the disease, for these animals regularly contain intraglobular parasites in small numbers. Rabbits, guinea pigs,, pigeons and sheep are immune. Under natural conditions, the infection is produced by means of ticks (Ixodes bovis, Kiley; s. Boopliihis hovis, Curtice). The eggs of these ticks are laid in pas- tures. The young ticks hatch in from two to six weeks, attach themselves to cattle, attain sexual maturity, and, after about 25 days, fall off for the purpose of depositing their eggs. The period of incubation, therefore, includes the time necessary for the develop- ment of young tii;ks out of females which have dropped (about 30 days), and the true incubation period of the disease (10 to 15^ days). Judgment. — Thus far, nothing is known concerning any disease in man due to eating the meat of cattle affected with Texas fever. Nevertheless, the meat of such animals is to be withheld from the market and rendered innocuous, for the possibility is by no means excluded that Texas fever may be distributed by means of meat traffic. Texas fever, therefore, possesses chiefly a veterinary police interest. In cases of the introduction of American cattle, the officialg of the veterinary police should give special attention to this disease, which in 1894 was introduced into Hamburg by means of a transport loaded with American beef cattle, and caused all the States of the European continent to prohibt the introduction of American cattle. Eeceut Investig'ations Concerning the Nature and Occurrence of Texas Fever. Weisser and Maassen confirmed the belief that Texas fever was introduced into Hamburg by the importation of American cattle. They demonstrated the parasites discovered by Smith in smear preparations from the kidneys, spleen, liver, lymphatic glands and heart, but found them in greatest numbers in the capil- laries of the kidneys and myocardium. The spherical structures fouAid in the mujority of the red blood corpuscles sometimes PROTOZOA 537 resemble large cocci or diplococci. As a rule, there was only one spherical parasite in each red bloQd corpuscle, but in many cases there were two, and then they possessed a somewhat elongated, occasionally pyriform, shape. The parasites stained fairly well with the ordinary basic auilin dyes. The elongated forms, how- ever, take the stain actively only in the wider ends. Good results were obtained on sections by the use of Tiematoxylin, methyleue- blue and gentian violet, the latter in dilute solutions for a period of 24 hours. R. Koch demonstrated that Texas fever occurs also in coast regions of German East Africa and that in this country also it is transmitted by ticks as in America. Koch confirmed' the essential statements of Smith and Kilborne, but found the pyroform phase of the parasite even in mild cases of the disease. According to Smith, the epizootic hemoglobinuria of Rou- manian cattle, investigated by Babes, and the red water which occurs in South Africa, are related or identical with Texas fever. According to Starcovici, the epizootic of sheep investigated by Babes and called " carceag," belongs to Texas fever. Bonome in Padua found an endoglobular " amcebosporidium " in a disease characterized by him as "parasitic ictero-hematuria of sheep." However, according to Babes, the disease investigated by Bonome is nothing more than carceag. Furthermore, the same findings as in Texas fever have been made by Sanfelice and Loi in hematuria of Sardinian cattle ; by Celli and Santori in bovine malaria of the Oampagna of Rome ; by Krogius, von Hellens and Kossel in an epizootic hemoglobinuria of Finnish cattle ; and by Laveran and Nicolle in an epizootic of sheep which is prevalent in the vicinity of Constantinople. Texas fever is widely distributed also in Australia. Finally, according to the investigation of Jackschath and von Ziemann, it must be assumed that the so-called bloody urine of cattle, which is enzootic in Germany, is a disease etiologically related to Texas fever. Diseases Caused by Infusoria. (a) Nagana and Surra Disease.— The nagana and surra dis- ease has been kuown for a long time in South Africa and India and has recently been identified by E. Koch in German East Africa. The disease, as shown by Bruce, is caused by a parasite which lives in t^e blood of the affected animals and which is transmitted 538 INVASION DISEASES from one animq,! to another by biting insects ; in South Africa and in Togo, by the tsetse fly (tsetse disease). The parasite does not, like the parasite of Texas fever, belong to the sporozoa, but rather to the infusoria, particularly to the trypanosomata (flagellate infu- soria). It is two to three times as long as the diameter of a red blood corpuscle, has a fish-like form, and progresses with active sinuous motions between the red blood cells (Fig. 182). It is color- less, but takes anilin stains. The incubation period is from nine to eleven days. The onset of the disease may be recognized by the increase of bodily temperature and the appearance of parasites in the blood. Other characteristic symptoms do not appear. The Fig. 182. Trypanosoma of surra between red blood corpuscles. (After R. Koch.) animals either die quickly with great depression, anemia and ema- ciation, or they become affected with the chronic form and die after several months. Surra has been observed in cattle, horses and also in camels and elephants. Judgment. — According to E. Koch, restrictions on the traffic in the meat of animals affected with surra are not necessary. In Ger- man East Africa it frequently occurs that an animal affected with surra has been slaughtered and eaten without the slightest injurious effect. (6) DouEiNE.— Schneider and Buffard found the cause of dourine to be trypanosomata, which resemble the organisms of surra and CALCAREOUS CONCKETIONS 539 tsetse fly diseases. The trjpanosomata are 20 to 30 /< loug, 1.5 to 2 fi wide, and may be easily transmitted to horses, dogs, rabbits, rats, mice and asses by subcutaneous or subdural injection, through the. conjunctival sac, or by copulation. 2.— So-Called Calcareous Concretions in the Musculature of the Hog. Meaning op the Teem. — The term " calcareous concretions " is not appropriate, since we do not have to deal with pure lime de- posit or calcareous concretions, but with calcified (petrified) animal parasites. It would, therefore, be more appropriate to speak of "calcified parasites" instead of "calcareous concretions" in the musculature. However, the term has become established in meat inspection and may as well be retained. General Eemabks on the Size, Occurrence and Principal Locations. — Calcareous concretions in the musculature of Logs may be of microscopic size, but as a rule they attain such size that they may be detected with the naked eye ; their number varies exceed- ingly in individual cases. One observes all intermediate conditions between a few and innumerable calcifications. Hogs aie sometimes observed in which the musculature appears to be literally sprinkled and permeated with white dots or tubercles. The chief location in cases where only a few calcifications are present varies, according to the nature of the parasites which furnish the basis of the calcifica- tion. In general, however, the abdominal muscles, muscular portion of the diaphragm, as well as the semi-membranosus (adductor magnus), which is exposed to view in the ordinary method of cutting up, are to be considered as the chief locations. Etiology. — The following organisms lead to the formation of calcareous concretions : Miescher's sacs, trichinse, cysticerci and echinococci.* *The opinion of Duncker, that oaleiflcations may occur also in hyaline muscle degeneration, which Duncker formerly considered as an actinomycotic disease, has not been confirmed. Among the large number of cases of calcareous concretions in bogs which I had occasion to inspect during a long period of years, no case was found which could have been attributed to the presence of degen- erated muscle foci. 540 INVASION DISEASES Differential Diagnosis. — The differentiation of calcareous concretions in the musculature of hogs is of great practical value, since the sanitary police judgment of it is not a simple matter. For example, calcified trichinae are to be judged quite differently from calcified Miescher's sacs. The latter at mo^t merely render of inferior quality the meat infested by them, while calcified trichinae always make the meat dangerous. For it is an established fact that even apparently wholly calcified trichinae may still be capable of producing an invasion (page 462). , Trichinae are not to be considered as disintegrated and dead until the whole worm body is affected with calcification and dissolves completely when treated with acetic acid. But, even in case of the presence of totally calcified trichinae, it should be remembered that intact ti'ichinae may be present in one and the same animal with specimens which have disintegrated. So long as the calcification of the structures in question is not complete, it is not ordinarily difficult to make a correct diagnosis from the organic remains which are preserved. Occasionally it is possible, even in cases of complete calcification, to restore the - original conditions by treatment with weak acids (acetic acid or dilute hydrochloric acid), and thus to recognize with certainty the organic substratum of the calcification, as, for example, in normally calcified trichinae. In other cases, such a possibility is excluded, since calcification may entirely destroy the structure of the organisms. In such cases, after treatment with weak or diluted strong acids, at most there remain mere fragments of tissue, which do not permit a definite conclusion as j;o the nature of the cal- cification. For these doubtful cases the following characters may serve as criteria for recognizing calcareous deposits of different origins : (a) Calcified Miescher's Sacs. The varying size is the most conspicuous feature in calcified Miescher's sacs, which furnish the chief contingent of calcareous concretions in the musculature of hogs. In Miescher's sacs, calcifi- cation is by no means associated with a certain developmental stage, but may appear in sacs of small size. Calcification begins in Miescher's sacs in the form of an irregular granular deposit which appears at first centrally and thence spreads gradually toward the periphery. One also observes, however, S-shaped and spirally- coiled lime deposits in Miescher's sacs. CALCAREOUS CONCBETIONS 541 lu cases of incomplete calcificfition of Miescher's sacs, one may still demonstrate the characteristic reniform and crescent-shaped corpuscles in the peripheral chambers (page 527). In cases of total calcification in Miescher's sacs, it is to be noted that they lie in the muscle fibers, possess an elongated form and are surrounded with a connective tissue membrane. This membrane, in contrast with the "trichina capsule, dissolves upon the addition of potash lye (Duncker). Furthermore, the striation of the muscle fibers at the boundary of the sacs is unaffected, as contrasted with the condition in trichinae (Fig. 175). Calcified Miescher's sacs are, as a rule, visible to the naked eye, but some of them are demonstrable only by microscopic examination. They may occur in the heart as well as in the skeletal musculature. Fig. 183. Fig. 184. Human muscle fibers with strongly calcified trieh- in£e. Natural size. Calcified Miescher's sacs from the musculature of a hog. The white points are the calcifica- tions. Natural size. (b) Calcifi.ed Trichinae. The intact trichina capsule possesses a length of 0.4 to .5 mm. As a rule, therefore, even when calcified, trichinae are not readily visible to the naked eye, if calcification is restricted merely to the mass of the capsule. There are cases, however, in which calcifica- tion extends beyond the poles of the trichina capsule, so that the whole calcified structure attains a length of 1 mm. and becomes visible to the naked eye. These cases, however, are extremely rare in hogs, as contrasted with man, in whom muscle trichinae frequently become macroscopically visible as a result of calcification (Fig. 184). 542 INVASION DISEASES The rare occurrence of extensive calcification of the muscle trichinae of hogs is readily understood if we consider that the deposition of lime in the capsule of muscle trichinae usually does not begin until several months after the invasion. Most hogs, however, are slaugh- tered at from seven to ten months of age. The calcification of muscle trichinae in hogs may, as shown on pages 461 to 465, proceed in a normal and pathological manner.- In normal calcification, the glandular cloudiness extends from the poles of the trichina capsule over the whole capsule, in such a manner that the coiled worm finally becomes invisible. The latter, Fig. 185. ' ■ w '■'■-] Totally calcified trichinae from one and the same hog. Neither the capsules nor the parasites could be made visible by the use of acetic acid. But at a the capsule is diii'erentiated in spite of calcification and the outlines of the trichina can be seen. At b also the trichina can be seen. Pat tissue has developed at the poles of the calcifications. The calcareous concretion c is smaller than a and b although from the same hog, and shows no difEerentiation or fat tissue. It broke under pressure of the cover glass. Calcification probably began before development was complete. however, may still be completely intact and viable. In such cases the trichina capsule, as well as the parasite, may be rendered visi- ble by the addition of acetic or weak hydrochloric acid. On the other hand,' the capsule and the worm inclosed in it may finally become totally calcified, so that no positive finding can be made after treatment with acids (Fig. 185). In cases of pathological calcification, no characteristic capsule CALCAREOUS 00NCKETI0N8 643 is formed on account of the extensive connective tissue prolifera- tion in the region in the invading parasites. There is at most merely a hint at a capsule, and the trichinae die prematurely. In these cases, calcification begins with the parasites and is usually so complete that there is nothing left by which to recognize them after the addition of , acids (Fig. 186). In both cases of total calcification of trichinse, in which after treatment with lime-dissolving acids the presence of trichinse can not be demonstrated, sufficient criteria for recognition are found in the elongated spindle-form (Figs. 185, 186), in the size, which does not exceed ^ to 1 mm., in the seat of lime deposits in muscle Fig. 186. Bncapsuled calcareous concretions from dead trichinae. Pathological calcification of trichinEe. (Leuckart.) fibers, and in the alteration of the latter (disappearance of the con- tractile substance and the development of fat tissue at the poles of the lime deposits). Calcified trichinae are found in the skeletal musculature and not in the heart. (c) Calcified Cysticerci. The cysticerci which occur in the musculature of the hog may die in any developmental stage and may calcify after undergoing caseation. The size of calcified cysticerci varies, according to the stage of development in which the parasites die, between that of a millet seed and that of an oat kernel. The smallest calcified cysti- 544 INTASION DISEASES cerci, however, are larger than the previously-described structures. Moreover, calcified cysticerci do not lie in the muscle fibers, but between them, and are characterized by a macroscopically-visible connective tissue membrane (Fig. 187). Moreover, the calcified content is usually separable from the membrane. Furthermore, in the calcified cysticerci of larger size, the characteristic hooks may be demonstratpd under certain conditions and more frequently the calcareous corpuscles of the cysticercal neck are to be seen Pig. 187. Cysticerci calcified while young, with strongly developed connective tissue capsules. X 35 diameters. (Fig. 125). Calcified cysticerci are found not only in the skeletal musculature, but also in the heart, since this forms a favorite loca- tion for cysticerci. (d) Calcified. Echmococci. Calcified echinococci, as well as echinococci in general, are rarely found in the voluntary musculature. As a rule, they are observed in the musculature only in case of very extensive inva- sion in which the viscera are sprinkled with the parasites. This fact points the way to the recognition of calcified echinococci in the skeletal musculature. With regard, however, to the objective characters of calcified echinococci, it may be stated that the latter, like the cysticerci, lie between the muscle fibers and are likewise CALCAEEOUS CONOBETIONS 545 vays larger than calcified trichinae. Moreover, in older cal- cified schinococci, remains of the characteristically-lamellated «chinococcal cuticula, calcai-eous corpuscles and hooks are present quency, even in cases of extensive suppurations in the abdominal cavity. Thus, in cattle one frequently meets with hypophrenic abscesses which occupy a position between the diaphragm and the kidneys. In spite of their enormous volume these abscesses in the encapsulated condition do not badly affect the general health and nutritive condition of the animals. In removing these abscesses, the greatest precaution should be taken in order to pre- vent the pus from flowing over the meat in consequence of cutting the wall of the abscess; If such an accident happens, it is not sufficient that the meat be washed. The parts which are con- taminated with pus must be carefully cut away with a knife and, in so far as the peritoneum and pleura are contaminated, these struc- tures must be removed. (c) Septicemia. Nature. — Septicemia is defined as a malignant general disease usually associated with external lesions and without localization in. SEPTICEMIA " 567 the internal organs. This definition agrees with the clinical and anatomical findings. More detailed etiological investigations, how- ever, are required, especially in the domesticated animals, before we will know exactly what factors are of importance in the origin of septicemia. Etiology. — It has been demonstrated empirically that after accidental wounds or operative interference on such parts of the body as offer especially favorable conditions for resorption (the large body cavities, joints, sheaths of the tendons) serious disturb- ances of the general condition may develop, often with a rapidly fatal attack. Under certain conditions, the dreaded symptoms appear after insignificant injuries of the skin or mucous mem- branes. The freshly- torn navel cord of new-born animals and the uterus post partum are predisposed in a high degree to the develop- ment of sepsis. In ante-bacteriological times, it was considered sufficient to ttse the term " blood poisoning " as an explanation of the nature of Sepsis. In fact, the rapid course and the pathologico-anatomical findings in septicemia present a striking similarity with simple intoxications, as, for example, with arsenic and phosphorous poisoning. The first positive knowledge concerning septicemia, applicable, however, at first only to experimental animals, was obtained by means of the classical investigations of Robert Koch concerning the infectious diseases of wounds. In his experiments, Koch attacked the problem of the extent to which decomposition processes stand in relation to septicemia. He injected decomposing substandeB' under the skin of experimental animals and thus determined that the latter are quickly killed by the use of large doses without the • multiplication of bacteria in the blood or internal organs (sapremia), while when smaller doses were administered, typical bacterial diseases appeared (septicemia). The latter may be divided into two groups : 1. Diseases with a purely local multiplication of specific bacr teria at the point of inoculation. 2. Diseases in which there is a simultaneous entrance of the bacteria into the blood circulation. In the case of the first group, we may expUin the origin of' intoxication only by assuming the resorption of poisonous metabolic' products of the locally-multiplying bacteria. In the second group,' on the other hand, as stated by Baumgarten, we' are compelled ''' to- 568 INFECTIOUS DISEASES postulate tlie cooperatioQ of soluble toxic substances iu proilueiufr the symptoms of disease." The enormous mass of micro-organisma multiplying in the blood is held to be sufficient to produce the symptoms of disease and death. Typical representatives of the second septicemia group are found in rabbit and mouse septicemia. Moreover, according to the similarity of the appearance of the pathogenic bacteria in the blood, anthrax, cattle plague, swiue erysipelas and fowl cholera may be assigned to this group. The latter forms of septicemia, however, have nothing in com- mon with septic wound infection. From the standpoint of meat inspection, moreover, it is desirable to distinguish carefully betwpen the above-named infectious diseases and wound septicemia. For> with the exception of anthrax, they represent for the most part diseases to which only one species of animal is susceptible. Fur- thermore, the narrow limits of the infective power of the. organisms of septicemia, which were studied by Koch, are apparent from the fact that the organisms of the septicemia of house mice are perfectly harmless for field mice. The investigations of the forms of septicemia of experimental animals can not, therefore, remove the uncertainty which exists concerning the origin of traumatic sepsis in man and domesticated animals. In the case of man it is assumed that iu addition to pathogenic bacteria, the resorption of the toxic products of putre- factive bacteria which have become located upon the necrotic foci of the primary infection determine the clinical and anatomical symp- toms of wound sepsis (Baumgarten). It has been demonstrated by numerous experiments on man and domesticated animals that pathogenic bacteria, especially the pyogenic streptococci, are present in septic wounds. The presence of these bacteria in the blood is also considered as demonstrated. They are found in the blood, however, always in small numbers. Hauser describes a case of formal symbiosis between strepto- cocci and the chief species of putrefactive bacteria, Proteus vulgaris in an ichorous abscess formation. It was believed that the process was to be explained by assuming that the streptococcus infection followed a necrosis of the tissue, which made it possible for Proteus vulgaris to multiply. Iii this connection, Hauser cites the well" known experiments of Monti, from which it is apparent that strepto- cocci which have already lost their virulence toward normal animals may again attain it if the animals are inoculated at any point whatever with the metabolic products of cultures of protens. If these observations may be generally applied, we would have to do SEPTICEMIA 569 ■with a formal symbiosis between streptococci and proteus. " The streptococci multiply in the living tissue and make possible the vegetation of proteus by their necrosing action, Proteus, towever. in consequence of the poison produced by it,, weakens the resisting power of the tissue and thereby renders more easy the entrance of streptococci, which simultaneously undergo an intensification of their virulence." It is doubtful whether the resorption of putrefactive toxius plays a uniform part in the origin of sepsis in domesticated animals. For, in the case of a very frequent wound sepsis, viz., the septic form of calf and colt lameness, stinking gangrene is not present, as a rule, at the point of entrance. This process may also be entirely absent in septic metritis of cows and in septic infection of the cas- tration wounds in horses. I emphasize this for the reason that it would be a fatal error of the expert meat inspector to assume that sepsis was present only when necrosis' and putrefaction of the necrotic parts in the primary focus were objserved. We do not yet know with certainty what bacteria may cause common wound sepsis in our food animals. From the similarity of the course of certain wound infections in domesticated animals and in man and from the results of bacteriological investigations on this subject, we may conclude that in the forms of septicemia in the domesticated animals, pyogenic streptococci play the most important part. Further investigations are required to determine in how far other specific organisms of traumatic septicemia occur in the 'different domesticated ani'mals. By means of bacteriological investigations in connection with certain cases of meat poisoning, it has been determined that bacteria which belong to the coli group possess the power of producing septicemia in food animals (see under " Bacteriology of Meat Poisoning "). Diagnosis. — Until the mooted questions are finally settled, we are compelled to make the diagnosis of sepsis on the basis of the course of the disease and the pathologico-anatomical alterations. Under certain circumstances, it is very diflScult to make adiagnosis. In general, however, the following phenomena should render diagnosis certain : 1. Intra vitam : High fever,* pronounced disturbance of the general condition, great weakness and depression. *In cattle, in which septic diseases possess the greatest sanitary interest, high fever is observed only in typical infectious diseases and in diseases of a septij character. 570 INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2. Post mortem : No gross lesions of the internal organs ; uniformlj cloudy swelling of the liver, heart and kidneys ; swelling of all the lymphatic glands, as well as petechiae under the serous membranes, in the mucous membranes and in the lymphatic glands. The absence of gross lesions in the internal organs, or the small amount of alterations, which apparently are out of proportion to the serious phenomena during life, must create a suspicion of sepsis in every case. For rendering the diagnosis certain in doubt- ful cases, Basenau has proposed a serviceable bacteriological method (see under " Meat Poisoning "). Judgment of Meat of Animals Affected with Sepsis.— No other disease possesses such importance for meat inspection as sepsis, tuberculosis of cattle not excepted. The latter is easily recognizable. The diagnosis of sepsis, on the other hand, requires extensive medical training. Furthermore, as regards the meat, septicemia is to be considered the most dangerous of all diseases of domesticated animals. For details on this subject, see the sec- .tion on " Meat Poisoning." In this connection it may be simply noted that the meat of animals affected with sepsis is to be excluded from the market as dangerous material, unfit for food. Special Forms of Septicemia in Food Animals. 1. Septic Form of Calf Lameness {Polyarthritis septica). — This disease appears even in the first days of life and is characterized by great weakness and depression as well as by the development of diffuse hot swellings around and in the joints (chiefly in the carpal and tarsal joints, also in the hip and knee joints). The navel is discolored and exhibits a flabby condition. A dirty, red secre- tion oozes out on pressure. There are no granulations. The parenchyma of the liver and kidneys as well as of the myocardium is colored grayish-red and of soft consistency. The tissue around the joints is affected with serous infiltration. The articular cap- sules are distended with a yellowish fluid in which a fibrinous coagulum is found. Diagnosis. — While the septic diseases of all other food animals render emergency slaughter necessary outside of the abattoir, septic calf lameness may be observed in abattoirs, especially in regions in which the sale of so-called fasting calves (see page 238) is not pro- hibited. This is possible on account of the fact that most calves SEPTICEMIA 571 are transported to abattoirs in wagons, and thus diseased animals may be introduced without attracting attention. In another place I have called attention to the fact that carpal and tarsal joints which are opened in the butcher's ordinary method of slaughtering should be carefully examined in each calf. Judgment. — Among the diseases which have caused cases of meat poisoning, the so-called calf lameness plays an important part, and the usual form is septic polyarthritis. For, almost with- out exception, "yellow water in the joints" is reported as being found after slaughtering the calves in question. The meat of such animals must, therefore, be considered as, in a high degree, calcu- lated to injure human health. 2. Hemorrhagic Enteritis of Calves, a septic disease of uncertain origin, which may rapidly run a fatal course. I had an opportunity to study the symptoms of the disease in calves which were used for obtaining lymph. The animals suddenly refuse their food, exhibit an elevation of body temperature up to 42° C, show depression and often die within 12 hours. Post mortem, a reddening of the whole small intestine is observed together with bloody- colored intestinal contents, considerable swelling and hemorrhages on the mucous membrane. As a rule, a cloudiness of the parenchyma is - not observed in the peracute course of the disease. On the other hand, a hemorrhagic swelling of the mesenteric glands is always present, as well as petechise under the serous membranes. Fre- quently there is splenic tumor. It is highly probable that the dis- ease of sucking calves, as described by Notz, which, on account of the associated splenic tumor, he was inclined to ascribe to the effect of blows from horns, is identical with this hemorrhagic enteritis. Differential Diagnosis. — In a superficial examination the altera- tions in the intestine which occur in cases of ordinary diarrhea of calves may be confused with those of hemorrhagic enteritis. In the former, however, neither hemorrhages in the mucous membi'ane nor in the mesenteric glands and serous membranes are observed. Judgment. — Injuries to human health from eating the meat of animals which are affected with hemorrhagic enteritis are unknown. Until positive proof of the harmlessness of the meat of such ani- mals is afforded, we must suspect it, in dubio, as being injurious to health. 3. Septic Metritis. — Septic metritis of cows, together with so-called calf lameness, furnishes the chief contingent to those dis- 572 INFECTIOUS DISEASES eases of domesticated animals in which the consumption of the meat may cause epidemics in man. Frequently, metritis develops in connection with the retention of the phicenta. In other cases, on the contrary, we have to do simply with inflammatory processes following difficult parturition, during which injuries to the sexual passages have occurred. Such uterine injuries, according to all our information, furnish unusually favorable conditions for the localiza- tion of the bacteria of sepsis. The clinical symptoms are those which are typical of sepsis. At the same time we observe more or less important local phenomena of an inflammatory nature in the sexual passages. After slaughtering aninials seriously affected, the well-known alterations of the parenchyma are found. The mucous membrane of the uterus exhibits diphtheritic desquamations and ulcers ; the iliac glands are much swollen. Moreover, symptoms of fibrinous or sero-fibrinous peritoneal inflammation may be present.* 4. Septic Intestinal Diseases in Cattle. — The history of cases of meat poisoning has acquainted us with intestinal diseases of cattle of an undoubted septic nature, the symptomatology of which, how- ever, is still incompletely known. Five such cases of septic intesti- nal disease have acquired notoriety through the cases of meat poisoning at St. Georgen, Schonenberg, Lauterbach in Hessen, Frankenhausen, and through the extensive epidemic in Kalk {q. v.). 5. Septic Mammary Diseases in Cows. — The ordinary mammary inflammations, which are so frequently brought to the attention of the practical veterinarian, are of a quite harmless nature during the life of the animals and so far as the meat is concerned. As shown on page 314, this holds true for phlegmonous mastitis and for the typical parenchymatous inflammations of the udder, pro- duced by the mastitis bacteria of Kitt. These inflammations, as such, never give occasion to emergency slaughter, since they disturb * Albreoht in Munich, in connection with the report of two cases of poison- ing afte:^ eating the meat of cows which were affected with septic metritis, observes that in timely slaughter and thorough bleeding, he has never observed injurious consequences from eating the meat of animals suffering with this dis- ease. In such cases the gangrenous parts are removed and the rest of the meat is thereupon freely admitted to the market. Albrecht, however, recommends the greatest precaution in judging the meat of animals affected with septic metritis if they are not slaughtered until the agony of the disease has appeared, since the bleeding in such cases is imperfect and extensive gangrenous disturb- ances are present. SEPTICEMIA 573 the general health of the animals only slightly. The conditions are (juite different in the case of septic inflammation of the udder, the knowledge of which we owe to the history of cases of meat poisoning. Diagnosis. — Septic mammary inflammations run a quite different course from that of ordinary inflammations of the udder. Thny are ushered in with such a serious general disturbance and with such a depression that the owners of the animals slaughter them in order to forestall natural death. Nothing is known concerning the condition of the internal organs in the above-mentioned cases. A case of septic mastitis in cattle, which was observed by the author, showed, after emergency slaughter, all of the anatomical characters of sepsis — excessive cloudiness of the li\er, which was yellow and soft, and of the heart and kidneys. Extremely numerous petechias were found under the serous coat of the intestine, under the pulmonary pleura, and under the epicardium. Before slaughter the following conditions were conspicuous in the affected udder : All four quarters were swollen to about three times their natural size and were firm and hot. No milk was evacuated from the teats, merely a small quantity of a watery secretion. The animal had not eaten for three days, but had exceedingly great thirst. The internal body temperature was 41.5° to 41.9° C. On the third day the vital powers became so reduced ■ that a fatal issue was feared. 6. Petechial Fever, blood spot disease (morbus maculosus), is the name of a disease of horses, the etiology of which is unexplained. The name, blood spot disease, is given to this affection on account of its most conspicuous symptom, hemoirhages, which may appear in all the organs. These hemorrhages, in connection with the regular parenchymatous alterations, characterize blood spot disease as a pronounced septicemia. From an etiological standpoint, it~is important to note that petechial fever is frequently associated with previous attacks of an infectious disease, especially contagious coryza and pneumonia. Clinical Symptoms. — Petechias of the visible mucous mem- branes, swellings of the skin which may reach an acute stage and show a tendency to necrosis ; internal body temperature 39.5° to 40° C. Anatomical Findings. — Petechise in the skin and subcutis, as well as in all the mucous membranes, lungs, spleen, myocardium and voluntary musculature ; also bloody, gelatinous discharges in 574 INFECTIOUS DISEASES the subcutis under the mucous membrane and in the skeletal mus- culature. Pronounced cloudiness of the liver and kidneys, heart and skeletal musculature. With regard to the sanitary judgment of petechial fever, atten- tion should be called to the fact that in Zittau (see " Meat Poison- ing"), a large number of families of workmen became sick after eating the meat of a horse, which, according to all appearances, had been affected with this disease. According to the more recent observations, a " blood spot disease " appears to occur also in cattle. The relation between it and the petechial fever of horses is not plain from the published reports. According to the anatomical findings, however, we must classify the disease in cattle with septicemia. The aathor has observed a number of cases in hogs which began with alterations similar to those which are observed in petechial fever of the horse. In the blood spot disease of man (purpura hemorrhagica), the identity of which with the blood spot disease of horses is, however, not demonstrated, Koib found non-motile plump bacilli, three to four hours after death. "Bacillus hemorrhagicus " of Kolb is patho- genic for dogs, rabbits and mice, but not for guinea pigs and pigeons. (d) Malignant Edema. Occurrence. — We owe the first information concerning malig- nant edema to the inoculation experiments of Eobert Koch, with garden soil. The disease occurs after accidental injuries and in connection with operations on horses. Kitt has also shown that it may be transmitted artificially to horses, calves, sheep, goats, hogs and dogs, as well as to chickens and pigeons. According to Arloing and Chauveau, cattle are immune to malignant edema. According to Kitt, however, a bacillus of edema may cause extensive local swellings in cattle. Clinical Symptoms. — Malignant edema is characterized by the appearance of rapidly extending crackling edemata in the subcutis, whereby the overlying parts of the skin show a tendency to gangrene. Bacteriology. — This disease is caused by the edema bacillus. This organism is somewhat more slender than the anthrax bacillus. MALIGNANT EDEMA 575 possesses rounded ends and sometimes, but not always, exhibits motility. The bacilli are arranged in apparent threads. Spores are formed in the individual bacilli with a spindle-shaped or tadpole- shaped swelling of the latter. The edema bacilli are found as pro- nounced anaerobic organisms only locally in the edematous areas and not in the blood vessels. It is only in mice that the multipli- cation of the bacilli has been observed in the blood, and this for an unexplained reason. The edema bacilli form spores in carcasses, when they cool slowly or are artificially exposed to a high temper- ature. It is worthy of note that -the edema bacilli are regularly found in the humus layer of the soil. Furthermore, they are found in the alimentary tract of healthy animals. This is of value in making a differential diagnosis, for the bacilli, in carcasses of animals which have ^is- ^94. been left unopened from twelve to twenty-four hours, may wander into the neighboring organs, including the spleen. Gaffky has demon- strated this condition in guinea pigc / I ^ I \ which were violently strangled and kept in an incubator, and Lustig in horses which had died of colic. -IT Edema bacilli from the suboutis of a For details on differential diag- rabbit dead of malignant edema. nosis, see under "Anthrax" and Some rods are distended with ' spores. X 500 diameters. " Blackleg." Slaughter Findings.— The abnormal anatomical finding is restricted for the most part to the edema of the subcutis. The internal organs are intact ; splenic tumor is absent. Judgment. — Thus far nothing is known of any injury to human health from the consumption of the meat of animals which have been affected with malignant edema. We may, perhaps, in general, exclude the possibility of an injurious character of the meat when we consider that the bacilli of malignant edema are found in the intestinal contents of perfectly healthy animals as harmless sapro- phytes. However, the meat of animals subjected to emergency slaughter on account of malignant edema is to be treated as spoiled or highly unfit for food, according to the objective alterations. ^Il' 576 INFECTIOUS DISEASES (e) Tetanus. The unmistakable clinical symptoms of tetanus obviates the necessity of a special description, Bacteeiologt. — Tetanus is caused by the tetanus bacilli (Nico- laier-Eosenbach). They are delicate, slender rods, which, in a sporeless condition, possess a bristle-like appearance, while in the spore-bearing form they have a pin shape. The tetanus bacilli are strictly anerobic, and thrive, therefore, only in the subcutaneous, submucous or in the deeper-lying tissues and *i> not pass into the blood. They produce toxines of an unusually violent action, the resorption of which causes the Pio- 195' symptom-complex of tetanus. ' Tetauus bacilli, outside of the (^ animal body, are widely distributed ''in the surface soil. / ' -- ^ Occurrence. — This infectious ^ ^ disease is most frequent in horses / ^ ^ after accidental or intentional in- " juries ; also in goats after castration /I ^ and in cows after the retention of ' -^ the placenta. The occurrence of Tetanus bacilli, partly spore bearing, infection presupposes a lesion of from a pure culture. xSOOdiam. the skiu or mucous membrane, or at least a catarrh of the mucous membrane (Thalheim). In new-born lambs, tetanus is observeil enzootically in consequence of the infection of the open navel wound. Judgment. — Before it was demonstrated that tetanus is an infectious disease, it was considered as a simple affection of the nervous system, or a neurosis. Formerly, no hesitation was felt con- cerning the consumption of the meat of tetanized animals ; no injuries to health have been observed in consequence of this. Fur- thermore, Gerlach states that he has fed the meat of tetanized horses in large quantities to hogs without causing any results in the experimental animals. With a knowledge of the true nature of the disease, we must, nevertheless, investigate ihe question whether from a scientific standpoint the meat can be considered as iiijnvionfs ANTHRAX 577 to health. According to the investigatious of Sormani, this ques- tion is to be answered, in the negative. Sormani demonstrated that animals could be fed for a long time with pure cultures of tetanus bacilli without injury to their health. The digestive tract «ndures a dose 10,000 times larger than the fatal dose in sub- cutaneous inoculation. Accordingly, Sormani considers the meat of tetanized animals as perfectly harmless. According to Fermi and Celli, the tetanus toKin is rendered inactive by the hydro- chloric acid of the gastric juice. It was a priori probable that tetanus bacilli were iucapable of producing an infection from the alimentary tract, since other- wise tetauus must be one of the most frequent diseases of man and the domesticated animals, for the tetanus bacilli are frequently eaten along with various vegetable food materials. While the meat of tetanized animals can not be considered as injurious to health, it nevertheless possesses the property of a spoiled or inferior food material ; for we find, as a rule, in tetanized animals defective bleeding ; parenchymatous degeneration, not only of the heart, but also of the skeletal musculature ; an abnormal softness ; and, occasionally, a peculiar, faintly-sweet odor. Eesistance op the Tetanus Toxin to High Tempebatukes. — Kitasato demonstrated that the toxic metabolic products of the tetanus bacilli are totally destroyed by a temperature of 65°' C, or more, for a few minutes (five minutes or even less). By cooking the meat of tetanized animals, therefore, we may free it of all injurious properties, since meat contains only the toxic material and not the organisms of tetanus. 2.— Infectious Diseases Which May Occur in Man as Well as in Domesticated Animals. (a) Antlirax. General. — Anthrax is the best understood and most thoroughly studied infectious disease. That the entrance of anthrax bacilli produces anthrax is a discovery which preceded all other bacterial investigations and occurred, as is well known, during the middle of the previous century. Morphology and Biologt of Anthrax ORGANiSMS.^-Anthrax organisms are observed in a vegetative form (rods and threads) and 578 INFECTIOUS DISEASES ill the form of spores. Anthrax rods or bacilli, as was fir'st.showQ by Liipke, consist of cells from 1.5 to ji jn long. In a slowly- developing case of anthrax the cells may reach a, length of 3 /^ (Johue). On artificial nutrient media, the, rods' develop into extremely long, straight or coiled threads in which spores are formed (Fig. 197). Spore formation occurs only iu the preseuce of abundant oxygen under suitable conditions of temperature. The limits of temperature lie between 18° and 34° C, the optimum being 30° 0. The spores are formed, however, neither in the living, animal body nor in the intact animal carcass. Furthermore, in the diagnosis of anthrax, it is important to remember that the rods are non-motile and are surrounded bya Pio. 19b. ^^ ^'^l tmm if*' Anthrax bacilli from spleen of an •. mfeoted mouse, showing cap- sules and division walls between ' individual cells. Some- of the longer cells are constricted in the middle. X 800 diameters. Fig. 197. Anthrax threads in process of sporulation, ani free spores. X 2000 diameters. ieharacteristio capsule or gelatinous membane, by means of which the individual cells are held together. The capsule or gelatinous membrane isof greater or less thick- ness and surrounds the individual anthrax cells on both sides and on the ends in a uniform layer. Such a conspicuous capsule is wanting in all bacteria which might give occasion to confusion with Bacillus anthracis, especially the so-called cadaver bacillus (Johne). The capsules of anthrax bacilli, according to Johne, may be demonstrated by the following process : 1. A lege artis cover glass preparation,, air-dried, is grasped with the pincers in the ordinary manner and passed three times through the flame. ANTHRAX 579 2. Then, in a horizontal position, the smeared side up, a 2 per cent, aqueous solution of an anilin stain (preferably gentian violet) is dropped on the preparation until its surface is completely covered ; thereupon 3. While ill the same position, the preparation is passed through the flame or held somewhat above it until a slight steam arises from the staining solution. 4. Wash with water ; then 8 to 10 seconds in a 2 per cent, solu- tion of acetic acid ; then a second careful washing in water. 5. The cover glass is laid upon the slide, the water is removed from the upper side of the cover glass by means of filter paper, and the preparation is examined (directly in water) by a magnifica- tion of at least 400 diameters, or by oil immersion. Klett recommends a subsequent warming of the stained preparation in order to demonstrate the capsules of the anthrax , bacilli. Klett described his process as follows : The cover glass preparation, well dried in the air, and, if pos- sible, allowed to lie for a few hours, is passed three times through the flime, lege artis, then dipped in an aqueous rapid stain (violet or fuchsin) and washed. Finally, the wet cover glass is laid upon the slide and examined in the ordinary manner. Liipke, while approving Klett's method, recommended a still simpler procedure ; viz., dropping a .2 per cent, solution of gentian violet on the preparation, then heating slightly and washing thoroughly with water. As the author has frequently convinced himself, this method really makes possible a very beautiful diflferentiation of the anthrax bacilli into capsules and individual cells. A second method of staining capsules, which was proposed by Klett, renders possible a fine double stain characteristic of anthrax bacilli. A cover glass preparation, well dried in the air, and preferably left lying for a few hours, is to be made up properly in the ordinary manner. Then an alcoholic aqueous solution of methylene blue is dropped on the cover glass ; afterward the preparation is warmed over a flame until it boils and is sub- sequently washed thoroughly with distilled water. It is then treated with an alcoholic aqueous solution of fuchsin for not more than five seconds and washed again. By this method of staining, the bacterial bodies appear dark-blue, the membranes a light rose^-red and their contours dark-red (Fig. 1, lithographed plate). Finally, W. Eaebiger has proposed a very simple process for . demonstrating the capsules on anthrax bacilli. E lebigrr dissolves 580 INFECTIOUS DISEASES 15 to 20 gm. of gentian violet in 100 to 150 gm. of formalin, allows the preparation to st.iud over night, and filters ; the filtered preparation is dropped on the air-dried preparation without previous heating and, after 20 seconds, is washed off. Capsules are then demonstrated only on anthrax bacilli. Spurious capsules, as Baebiger asserts, never appear after this procedure. Klett has called attention to the fact that the capsules are very weak when the preparations are taken from cadavers which have lain for a long time. According to his method, however, Lp was able to demonstrate capsules very plainly on anthrax bacilli four days post mortem. In anthrax in horses Schmidt was able to make the capsules appear only to a slight extent. lu the ordinary method of staining, in which the capsules are not differentiated, we may observe that the ends of the individual Pig. 198. ,.-« Anthrax bacilli from the cardiac blood of a mouse, with "clavate polar swellings." X 500 diameters. Cadaver bacilli (edema bacilli from the subcutis of an artificially infected rabbit). X 500 diameters. bacterial cells are broader than the remainder of the cell body (Fig. 198). This phenomenon, previously characterized as clavate end-swelling, arises in consequence of the contraction of the middle of the bacterial body before division (Johne). Anthrax bacilli are found especially in the capillaries of the internal organs, particularly the spleen, intestines, mesenteries and lungs. On account of the retention of the anthrax bacilli in the capillaries, their demonstration in the large vascular trunks during life may be a difficult matter. Differentiation of Anthrax Bacilu and SorOAU,ED , Cadaveb Bacilli. — Attention has already been called^ (page; ^75) to the.:fact ANTHKAX 581 tliat in the alimentary canal of healthy animals, edema bacilli are found and that these organisms penetrate from the intestines into the neighboring organs, especially into the spleen and liver, if the cadaver has lain nno])pi e 1 for from 12 to 24 hours. For this reason the edejna bacilli which occur in cadavers, or, as they may be biiefly termed, cadaver bacilli, are of great practical significance in the bacteriological diagnosis of anthrax. Cadaver bacilli also form spurious threads, ^'°- 300. like anthrax bacilli. The individual bacilli, however, are more slender and longer than the anthrax bacilli and are not squarely cut at the ends like the latter, but are roundetl, or end obliquely. Furthermore, the cadaver bacilli form spores in the carcass (Fig. 199) andj)Ossess no capsule like anthrax bacilli. It sometimes occurs, to be sure, that a can- ^ - , ,., p . , 1 . 1 ,1 Ciidaver bacilli with pseu- sule-like, laint, lateral seam appears on the dn-iapsules, from the cadaver bacilli. This spurious capsule, how- ^P^^''" °^?n asphyxiated ,, -1,1 1 -.1 , guinea pig, kept m an ever, is usually unilateral and without an incubator, x 500 diam. external contour (Fig. 200), since it arises by the retraction of the serum albumen contained in the prepara- tions. Finally, the cadaver bacilli are discolored by the Gram method, while the anthrax bacilli remain well stained after the completion of this method. OccUERENCE. — Anthrax occurs in all domesticated animals and in man. The sheep is most susceptible, followed by cattle and horses. Wild members of the deer family and also hare are affected by anthrax. Finally, the disease may be transmitted to fowls (chickens, ducks and geese). The hog is usually resistent toward anthrax infection and shows in this relation a great similarity to man. Clinical Symptoms. — The clinical symptoms of anthrax vary accordiiig to the mode of infection and the susceptibility of the species of animal. Anthrax bacilli enter either by way of the alimentary tract or th:ough the injured skin. Artificial anthrax infection may be produced by rubbing the bacilli into the uninjured skin. Alimentary or intestinal anthrax is always due to a spore infection, for the spore- free bacilli are rendered innocuous by the gastric juice (Koch, Falk). Natural skin-infection, which may also be produced by the bacilli, is connected with the presence of wounds. 582 INFECTIOUS DISEASES Pathologico-anatomicaL Findings. — The spleen exhibits the most important alterations. It is considerably swollen, blackish- red and of a fluid consistency, if the capsule is incised. Moreover, •we observe a tar-like condition of the blood, hemorrhages in all organs, especially under the epicardium, and parenchymatous degeneration of the liver, heart and kidneys. Finally, yellow gelatinous or hemorrhagic infiltration may be present in the sub- cutaneous, submucous and subserous tissues. In hogs, anthrax is characterized by decided cervical edema. Swelling of the spleen in anthrax of hogs may be absent. Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis. — The following diseases may be mistaken for anthrax : (1) Malignant edema ; (2) petechial fever ; (3) hemorrhagic septicemia of cattle ; (4) blackleg ; (5) sepsis ; (6) intoxications ; (7) splenic tumors in consequence of embolic infarcts or torsion of the spleen. Anthrax, except in the hog, in which animal the bacterial find- ings in the blood and in the pathologically-altered foci is decisive, is distinguished from all these dis- FiG. 201. eases by the characteristic splenic tumor, as well as by the finding of numerous non-motile and mor- phologically well - characterized rods in the spleen. In acute anthrax in cattle and horses and in anthrax of hogs, the bacilli in the spleen may not be numerous. In such cases the mesenteric glands ought to be examined in cattle and horses (Fiorentini), and the edematous infiltrated areas of the subcutis in hogs, for the pur- pose of detecting the presence of the anthrax bacilli. In doubtful cases, animal experiments and bacteriological cultures must decide. The anthrax bacillus kills mice, as a rule, within thirty-six hours ; guinea pigs and rabbits within forty-eight hours. In plate cultures, one observes, after twenty-four to thirty-six hours, by a slight magnification, quite characteristic colonies which are formed of bundles of anthrax threads "like locks of hair" (Fig. 201). It should be noted that for the .differentiation of the anthrax bacilli Anthrax colony from an agar plate culture 24 hours old. X 35 diameters. ANTHEAX 583 irom edema bacilli inoculation of mice is not sufficient, since, strangely enough, in mice, edema bacilli occur also in the blood. ^Furthermore, attention may be called to the fact that the virulence of anthrax bacilli is weakened by putrefaction, and, in fact, may be entirely destroyed. A negative result from inoculation with putre- fying blood from suspected carcasses can not, therefore, be consid- ered as proof of the absence of anthrax. With reference to embolic infarcts in the spleen in conse- quence of torsion of this organ, attention has already been called {page 347) to the fact that this may lead to a quite considerable increase in the volume of the spleen. This increase in volume, however, is distinguished from anthrax tumor by the pronounced £rm character. A fluid condition of the spleen, such as exists in a,nthrax, never occurs. The embolic infarcts, moreover, are dis- tinguished by their conical contours. Furthermore, we may demon- strate the emboli directly, in the branches of the splenic arteries. Peocedure With the Meat op Antheacic Animals. — Sec. 31 of the Imperial law of June 23, 1880, and May 1, 1894, concerning the prevention and suppression of animal plagues, prescribes that " animals which are affected with anthrax or suspected of being affected with this plague, shall not be slaughtered"; and Sec. 33 of this law declares that " the carcasses of dead or slaughtered authracic animals or of animals suspected of being affected with this plague must be immediately rendered innocuous. The skin- ning of these animals is forbidden." This measure is primarily dictated by veterinary police consid- erations. How shall we judge the meat from a sanitary police standpoint ? Is the meat of animals affected with anthrax injurious to health ? Forensic Judgment of the Meat op Anthracio Animals. — Bollinger has already called attention to the fact that anthrax is not so easily transmitted to man by the consumption of meat as has feeen generally assumed. Accordingly, he combated the former general assumption (Heusinger) that, as a rule, cases of meat poisoning are to be ascribed to the consumption of meat of anthracic animals. Bollinger's view has received extensive confirmation by recent observations. It has been repeatedly shown that in cases of emergency slaughter of anthracic animals, the consumers, sometimes numbering hundreds, remain well, while the butchers who injure themselves during the slaughtering become a-ffected with anthrax. 584 INFECTIOUS DISEASES Thus, Behring described a case in which the meat of a bull, subjected to emergency slaughter on account of anthrax, was eaten without any harm, while the butcher and his mother, who assisted at the slaughter, contracted malignant pustule. Similar cases may be cited in large numbers, Mayer reported concerning an enzootic of anthrax in Alsace in which five diseased cows were utilized as human food. Thereupon, in one village nine persons who had come in contact with the raw meat, took sick. Of this number, two died with pustules on the thumb or arm and the remaining patients had pustules on the hands. " Of the numerous persons who had eaten the meat, only three became affected, and they recovered." Accordingly, the meat of anthracic animals ordinarily produces no injurious consequences after being eaten, and this experimeutal fact is sufficiently explained by the biological peculiarities of the anthrax bacilli. As iilieady explained, no spores develop in the meat or by ordinary methods of preservation in cool places, even upon its surface. Spore-free anthrax bacilli, however, are destroyed by the secretions of the stomach. Eesistance op Anthrax to Higher Temperatures. — Anthrax bacilli are destroyed by heating to a temperature of 65° to 60° C. for ten to fifteen minutes. For the destruction of the spores, on the other hand, a boiling temperature for several minutes is required. Although experience teaches, and science has given us a per- fectly satisfactory explanation of the fact, that the meat of anthracic animals, as a rule, does not produce harmful results after being eaten, it must, nevertheless, be treated as a dangerous food material, quite aside from the stringent provisions of the Imperial Animal Plague Law. For, 1. The possibility of infection from meat which contains only the bacilli is not excluded, if there are lesions in the mouth, pharynx and esophagus of the consumers. 2. Under especially favorable external conditions, as shown by Schmidt-Miilheim, spores may form on the surface of the skinned carcasses (high external temperature during the preservation of the meat in badly ventilated rooms), whereby exceptionally an intestinal infection may be produced. 3. It should not be forgotten that anthracic meat which con- tains only bacilli may produce an infection by mere handling ; for example, during the process of cutting up, if the persons thus engaged have lesions on their fingers. Thus, for example, in ANTHRAX 585 Germany, between 1886 and 1890, 363 human beings were affected with the skin form of anthrax. They were mostly butchers, knackers and other persona occupied with the slaughtering, skinning and burning of animals. Among the 363 human cases of anthrax, not less than 187 were butchers and knackers. In 1894 there were 109 cases of the transmission of anthrax to man in Germany, with 14 fatal terminations ; in 1896, 82 cases, with 15 fatal terminations ; and in 1900, 62 cases, 10 of which died.* Concerning primary intestinal anthrax in man, Baumgarten states, " the second form under which human anthrax appears is the primary intestinal anthrax which was formerly known as mycosis intestinalis. Bollinger, and especially E. Wagner, deserve credit for having, referred to the forms of anthrax this previously much observed but not thoroughly understood disease. Later observa- tions completely confirm the views of these authors. The majority of cases have been observed in persons who work on animal skins, especially in the preparation of animal hair.- In a case of this sort, E. Wagner succeeded in microscoiDically demonstrating, on the hair, spore-bearing rods which were identical with anthrax bacilli. The origin of the infection was thus discovered. The anthrax spores passed from the fingers to the food, thence into the stomach and from thence into the intestines of the patient." Appendix. — Perroncito reported as follows concerning a disease resembling anthrax : In Sardinia a peculiar epizootic disease pre- vails among horses, asses, cattle and hogs, and is transmissible to man. Of the various experimental animals, rabbits, guinea pigs and fowls are susceptible. The disease in question closely resembles anthrax in its coarse and clinical symptoms, but sometimes appears also under the form of hematuria or hemoglobinuria. Perroncito believed that he had found Proteus vir-dentissimus as the micro- organism which caused this disease. Probably the disease investigated by Perroncito was the hematuria of Sardinian cattle, in which Sanfelice and Loi demonstrated piroplasma to be the cause of the disease (page 537). *A case which is very instructive in regard to trafi&c in anthracic meat occurred in. the Swiss village of Gex. Of the 300 to 400 persons vi'ho ate of the meat of an anthracic beef animal in that town, only one, a woman who received an injury on the forearm in cutting up the head of the animal, becanje affected with the disease. A dog which had gnawed a raw bone became infected. Tlie anthrax infection in the dog took place on the nose, and, without doubt, from a wound which the dog received while flighting with a cat over the bone. 586 INFECTIOUS DISEASES (b) Aphthous Fever. Aphthous fever possesses great interest for experts in the practice of meat inspection, notwithstanding the fact that from a sanitary police standpoint it plays only an insignificant role. Apl^thous fever is extensively disseminated by food animals, and this brings it about that many larger cattle yards and abattoirs^ become permanently affected. Since abattoirs are to such a great extent exposed to the danger of infection by aphthous fever, expert inspectors should give careful attention, fot veterinary reasons, to this disease, both before and after slaughter. OccUERENCE. — Aphthous fever is a disease peculiar to Jioofed animals. Occasionally it is said to be transmitted to cats and fowls. Cattle and hogs are most frequently affected with the disease, wJiile sheep are more rarely affected. Home reported also concerning the appearance of aphthous fever among reindeer in northern Sweden. Etiology. — Despite numerous investigations, it has not yet been possible to demonstrate the organism of aphthous fever. Klein in London several years ago believed he had found a specific diplo- coccus in cases of this disease. This finding, however, has not been substantiated. Siegel considered very delicate rods 0.7 fi in length, which he succeeded in isolating from the cadavers of human beings dead of " mouth disease," as identical with the organism of foot-and- mouth disease, but he was unable to identify these rods in case of the lutter disease. Siegel later' saw his error and acknowledged it. Finally, Schottelius reported that in punctate hemorrhages of the epicardium in a cow which suddenly died of aphthous fever he found a peculiar organism in the contents of aphthae when certain precautions were observed. This organism was said to grow slowly in colonies of a remarkable character. The colonies contained short and long series of very different sized, roundish bodies which, as' a whole, were spherical, of which, however, many, especially those which were located on the ends, showed evaginations which in form resembled motile pseudopodia of the white blood corpuscles. Schottelius called these structures streptocytes in order to distin- guish them from streptococci. When injected with 1 cc. of a bouillon culture of eight days' growth, calves and young cattle showed a slight lever after twelve hours, a diminution of appetite and a cough, phenomena which persisted for two or three days. • APHTHOUS FEYEB. 587 Aphtha, however, did not appear and hogs utterly failed to react to! inoculations of streptocytes. Kurth corroborated the finding of Schottelius. Kurth was unable, however, to produce aphthous fever 592 INFECTIOUS DISEASES Judgment. — The meat of vaccine calves and "bulls in most abattoirs is admitted to the market after the removal of the edema- tous infiltrated subcutis under the point of inoculation. No harm from eating such meat has ever been observed. In contrast with this practice, Goltz urges that vaccine calves shall not be slaughtered until after the inoculation disease has run its course. Otherwise, he argues, the meat should be sold on the freibank. Goltz bases his view on the following facts : (1) Vac- cine calves, at the time of the removal of the vaccine, exhibit a feverish condition ; (2) the disease is transmissible to man ; (3) swellings are observed in the skin and subcutis as well as in the corresponding lymph glands of the point of inoculation. Even if pox is not transmissible by the consumption of the meat, it should not be forgotten that the meat may be contaminated with pox virus in the process of cutting up. According to the author's view, the sale of the meat on the freibank is justified only in the case of such vaccine calves as show a temperature of over 40.5° C. at the time of the removal of the vaccine, or have lost weight in consequence of accidental intestinal catarrh. With rational feeding, vaccine calves increase in weight during vaccination. Contamination of the meat with the pox virus during slaughter may be prevented by previous disinfection of the points of inoculation, preferably by the vaccine physicians after the vaccine has been taken. Sheep Pox. Sheep pox is without significance in Germany for the reason that this disease has been exterminated by the operation of the Imperial Anjmal Plague Law of Germany (prohibition of sheep pox vaccination). Merely the malignant form of sheep pox, in which the so-called cadaveric and gangrenous pox arises, would be of interest in meat inspection, sfnce animals affected with the benign form are not usually brought to slaughter. Judgment. — The meat of animals affected with benign pox is to be treated in different ways, according to the stage of the disease : In the eruption and maturation stage of the disease as a spoiled or inferior food material ; in the healing stage, however, with the ani- mal in a good nutritive condition, as a marketable food material. In cases of cadaveric and gangrenous pox, however, which, especially in very young and very old animals, often leads to the EABIES 593 development of fatal cases of sepsis, the meat, like that of all food auimals suffering with septic disease, is to be considered as a ■dangerous food material. The following regulations of the instruc- tions of the Imperial Animal Plague Law refer to the skius of ■variolous sheep : Section 97'°. " Skins of dead or slaughtered variolous sheep may be removed from the quarantine limits only in a completely dried condition, except in cases where they are to be delivered directly to the tannery." (d) Rabies. GrENEEAL. — Eabies possesses quite subordinate importance for meat inspection. The official reports concerning the distribution of animal plagues make mention each year of rabies in cattle, sheep and hogs. The number of these ca^es, however, is always very small. The Etiology of rabies is thus far unknown. Diagnosis — For the diagnosis of rabies in food animals, the history, especially the determination of a previous dog bite, is of importance. For the rest, the negative pathologico-anatomical findings and the presence of indigestible material in the stomach is characteristic of rabies. A certain diagnosis is made possible only by subdural, intraocular or intracerebral inoculation of cerebral substance (pons varolii) into rabbits. With intracerebral inocula- tion, the incubative period, as shown by Leclainche and Morel, is shorter than with subdural or intraocular inoculation. The histo- logical diagnosis of rabies, recommended by Babes, Van Gehuchten and Helis (pericellular accumulations of leucocytes in the medulla and especially in the plexiform ganglion of the vagus), is not reliable, since it may fail in the case of animals killed during the progress of the disease. Judgment. — The transmission of rabies by eating the meat of rabid domesticated animals has never been observed. Nevertheless, the meat of rabid animals is to be absolutely excluded from the market, since infection may arise in cutting it up. In Copenhagen, in 1857, a veterinary student with a wound on his finger did a post mortem examination on a dog dead of rabies, and died ; a few years ago a similar case occurred with a student in Dresden in conse- 594 INFECTIOUS DISEASES quence of an injury received during a post mortem examination o£ a rabid dog. It should be remembered in this connection that the virulence of the most important carriers of rabies virus, the central nervous system and salivary glands, does not disappear, as previ- ously assumed, within twenty-four hours, but, according to von Eatz, only after fourteen to twenty-four days. The Eussian veterinarian, Wyrsykowski, instituted careful experiments concern- ing the action of the gastric juice on the virus of rabies. Proceeding from the fact that after eating the meat and even the brain of animals dead of rabies no illness occurred, Wyrsykowski tested the action of artificial gastric juice upon the medulla oblongnta of au affected rabbit, in a thermostat. Of twenty-one rabbits which were inoculated with artificially-digested rabies virus, none contracted rabies, while seventeen control animals, inoculated with undigested virus, died of the disease. The Imperial Animal Plague Law prohibits the slaughter of rabid animals and animals suspected of rabies, as well as all traffic in the meat. Sec. 36 : " The slaughter of rabid a ■ imals or animals suspected of being rabid and the sale or utilization of individual parts, milk, or other products of such animals, is forbidden." Sec. 39 : " The carcasses of slaughtered rabid animals or animals suspected of being rabid must be immediately rendered innocuous. The skinning of such animals is forbidden." (e) Glanders. Nature and Occuerence. — Glanders is an infectious disease of solipeds (horses, asses and their crosses, mules and hinnies). The typical symptom of this disease is the appearance of tubercles which are caused by the entrance of specific bacilli (the glanders bacilli). In consequence of the disintegration of the tubercles, ulcers arise on the mucous membrane. In the parenchymatous tubercles the disintegration is characterized by a cloudiness which progresses from the center outwards. During this disintegration, hyperemia and cellular infiltration occur in the surrounding tissue. Calcification of the glanderous tubercles has not been observed (Osokor, Hahu, Kitt, Schiitz). A specific affection of the corresponding lymph glands is associated with the tubercles and ulcers. Glanders is communicable to cats, dogs, and goats as well as to man. Sheep are less susceptible. Hogs are nearly refractory and cattle are entirely immune. Among' the experimental animals. GLANDEES 595 field mice and guinea pigs react very promptly to inoculations. In zoological gardens, glanders has frequently been observed in carnivorous animals after feeding on glanderous horse meat. Bactekiology. — Glanders is produced by the glanders bacilli which were discovered by Liifflef and Schiitz. They are non-motile, short and thicker than the tubercle bacilli (Fig. 203). They may, however, grow into threads and form lateral branches. For this reason the organism of glanders has been classed with the fungi (streptothrices), or with the group of actinomyces bacteria. The formation of spores has not been demonstrated. Glanders bacilli are best stained in an alkaline or carbolized solution of methylene Fig. 204. Fig. 203. 5 ■ s * T- ki. V V v'^- C-" Glanders bacilli from young potato culture. X 500 diameters. Smear of glanderous pus from the inguinal ^land of a guinea pig, with unusually numerous bacilli. The nuclei of pus cells have split up into numerous small spherules. X 500 diameters. blue. A specific staining method for the glanders bacilli has not been perfected, in spite of numerous efforts in that direction. We are, therefore, not in a position to demonstrate glanders as we may tuberculosis, simply by staining the bacilli, since the glanders bacilli are without morphological peculiarities. Pure cultures and inocu- lation, however, give more reliable criteria for identification. Cultures of glanders bacilli on potato exhibit a honey-like layer after two days, which in six to eight days becomes opaque and at the same time assumes " a color resembling the red of cuprous oxide." (According to Loffler, the somewhat similar yellowish- brown potato cultures of green pus are distinguished by the fact that small quantities smeared on filter paper anl exposed to the 596 INFECTIOUS DISEASES fumes of ammonia immediately turn bluish-green, while cultures of glanders bacilli remain unchanged.) The glanders bacillus offers but slight resistance to disinfec- tants. Water at a temperature of SS** C. kills it after an exposure of ten minutes. The glanders bacilli are found chiefly in the pathologically altered parts. They are not always found in the blood, and, as a rule, only in small quantities. Even in the specifically-altered foci, the number of glanders bacilli demonstrable by staining is usually small. A highly important and remarkable fact in the diagnosis of glanders was demonstrated by Unna and confirmed by Schiitz, namely, that the cell nuclei in the glanderous foci become dissolved Pig. 205. Nasal septum of horse with glanderous ulcers and a cicatrix. in a remarkable manner (dissolution of the nuclei, chromatotexis, according to Unna). Schiitz also demonstrated that the chromatin of the nuclei of the round cells in the glanderous foci is not destroyed, as in other mortifying processes, but is preserved even when the nuclei are completely disintegated. The nucleus first breaks up into particles which lie close together and form a small mass of nearly the form of the nucleus (Fig. 204). Later the indi- vidual granules become separated from the nuclear mass and are distributed ia the protoplasm of the cell, or the nuclear mass is disintegrated and distributed uniformly in the cell substance. The nuclear debris retains all the properties of the nuclear substance, especially its affinity for stains. During Life. — The most important alterations in chronic glanders, and those to which meat inspectors should give chief attention in the examination before slaughter, are the following: GLANDERS 597 The glanderous tubercles in and under the skin, the characteristic farcy ulcers of the skin, indolent phlegmons on the extremities and head, ushered in with the formation of ulcers, typical swelling of the lymphatic vessels and glands, and, finally, glanderous tubercles, ulcers and scars which are observed upon an inspection of the nasal cavities. Anatomical Findings. — We may first emphasize in this connec- tion the fact already mentioned on page 157, that in cases of glanders it is absolutely necessary to dissect the head and make a careful examination of all parts of the mucous membrane of every slaughtered horse. The laryngeal lymph glands of all slaughtered horses i-hould also be subjected to a detailed examination. In addition to the alterations which are demonstrable during life on and under the skin and in the inferior third of the nasal cavities, the specific alterations in the accessory cavities of the nose, in the guttural pouch, and in the larynx and trachea are present in cases of chronic glanders. In the great majority of cases of glanders, the lungs are also affected. In 52 eases examined by Bollinger, the lungs were found unaffected in only 4 cases, and in only 10 of the 216 post mortem examinations made in the Berlin High School. The lungs are permeated either with embolic glanderous tubercles, or with infiltrations varying in size from a walnut to a child's head, the so-called glanderous growths. Furthermore, embolic glander- ous foci, as a result of glanders of the skin or respiratory apparatus, may appear in other organs, especially in the spleen, liver, kidneys, testicles, brain, heart muscles and bones. Diagnosis. — The diagnostic characters of the glanderous tubercles are the grayish, transparent, glassy appearance, the red area as well as the sympathetic affection of the corresponding lymph glands (swelling and glanderous;tubercles on the cut surface). The glanderous growths in the lungs are distinguished from all other similar alterations by their diffuse grayish- white, soft or firm character, and the uniformly constant affection of the bronchial glands. Differential Diagnosis. — The number of diseases which may be and have already been confused with glanders is quite large. Especial mention should be made of contagious coryza, leukemia, croupous rhinitis, chronic catarrh of the nose, non-ghmderous pul- monary tubercles and botryomycosis of the lungs. The positive 598 INFECTIOUS . DISEASES differentiation of these processes from glanders should not be difficult for the expert inspector, if attention is given to the charac- teristic symptoms of glanders in slaughtered animals. In doubtful cases, the question must be decided by a bacterio- logical test. In intact farcy buds and in diseased lymphatic glands, we may make a reliable bacteriological diagnosis, since in these parts the glanders bacilli are present in pure cultures. Moreover, in thsae cases, all doubt may be removed by making a culture on potatoes. The diagnosis is not so easy when the material is con- PiQ. 206. Old glanderous pulmonary tubercle, a, central necrotic portion; J, giant cells; c, boundary between necrotic portion and capsule with chromatic remains of disintegrated giant cells; d, connective tissue capsnle. X 30 diameters. taminated (secretion from ulcerous broncho-pneumonic foci, etc.). In such cases experiments on animals are indispensable, and such experiments should be made preferably on guinea pigs, since field mice frequently die of intercurrent septicemia. Formerly male guinea pigs were used almost exclusively for inoculation, since the affection of the testicles, which may appear in the second week, was considered a good means of recognizing glanders. At present intraperitoneal inoculation of female guinea pigs is recommended GLANDERS 599 {Besnie). It is stated that in these animals a purulent discharge takes place from the vagina after two days. According to Strauss, purulent orchitis appears in male guinea pigs after two days when the animals are inoculated intraperitoneally and not subcutane- ously. HisTOLOGX OF Pulmonary Glanderous Tubercles and their Differentiation from Entozoic Pulmonary Tubercles. — Accord- ing to Schiitz, recent embolic glanderous tubercles in the lungs of horses represent pneumonic foci about the size of grains of sand which are reddened and not sharply delimited, but which shade off gradually into the healthy neighboring tissue. The center of the glanderous tubercle, in consequence of mortification of the cellular exudation in the alveoli and the lung tissue in them, soon becomes cloudy and is not round, but is furnished with projecting processes, or is sometimes wedge-shaped (Fig. 206, a). The central part of the tubercles is always sharply delimited from the more deeply reddened periphery. A section through quite recently developed glanderous tubercles shows in the center as well as on the periphery a granulated character (miliary fibrinous pneumonia). In older glanderous tubercles, the granulation disappears in consequence of the necrosis of the pneumonically-altered parts. The center becomes smooth, dry and grayish-yellow and around the center a transparent gray capsule is formed (Fig. 206, d). The center of glanderous tubercles consists of a peculiar detritus, which can not be compared either with pus or with cheeSe and takes an unusually deep stain on account of the abundance of chromatin. Calcification is wanting. On the border between the central necrosed portion of the glanderous tubercle and the capsule, giant cells and plasma cells are found (Unna), both of which are characterized by their unusual size. In fresh glanderous tubercles, the giant cells and also the plasma cells are wanting. Later, the giant cells dis- integrate, while the dissolved chiomatin persists (Fig. 206, c). According to Schiitz, entozoic pulmonary tubercles (compare page 328) are caused by parasites which penetrate into the capil- laries or remain lying in the larger vessels of the lungs. In the first case a chronic miliary pulmonary inflammation arises and in the second a chronic inflammation of the vascular walls with obturating thrombosis. Tubercles of the first form consist of infiltrated alveoli and a delicate capsule. The center of the tubercles is formed almost exclusively of cellular tissue and in it a parasite is to be demon- 600 INFECTIOUS DISEASES strated (Fig. 207). After the death of the parasite, it first becomes calcified and, later, also the whole tubercle, with a thickening of the connective tissue membrane. The tubercles possess a diameter of 1.5 to 3.5 mm., and the parasites in them possess a diameter of 42 to 81 //. Entozoic tubercles of the second sort are composed of a cap- sule and the plug. The capsule is formed by the thickened vas- cular wall and is usually strengthened by the chronically-inflamed neighboring pulmonary tissue. The central plug is a thrombus which incloses the parasite and may either calcify or soften. In softened tubercles the parasite is less frequently demonstrated Fig. 207. Entozofc pulmonary tubercles of a pneumonic form in the horse (after Olt). a, inflamed alveoli; h, part of a nematode larva ; c, connective tissue capsule of the parasitic focus. X 30 diameters. The parts of the wovm are magniiied 80 diameters. than in calcified ones, since in the former case it rapidly dis- integrates in consequence of fatty metamorphosis. In the differentiation of glanderous tubercles from entozoic tubercles, it is important to note that in glanders, recent tubercles in various stages of development regularly occur in addition to the old glanderous tubercles. Pseudo-Glanders. — Nooard isolated from horses suspected of being affected with the skin form of glanders a pseudo-glanders bacillus. By means of intraperitoneal inoculation it was distin- guished from the true glanders bacillus by the fact that it could be stained by the Gram method, killed mice in from 24 to 48 hours. TUBERCULOSIS GOi with the formation of an abscess at the point of inoculation, and produced in horses only local abscesses and not glanders. Judgment. — Sec. 43 of the Imperial Animal Plague Law con- tains the following regulation- relative to glanders : " The carcasses of dead or slaughtered glanderous animals must be immediately rendered innocuous. The, skinning o^ sucli animals is forbidden." This provision renders superfluous for the practice of meat inspection all further discussion concerning the harmful or harm- less character of the meat of glanderous animals. It is of scien- tific and forensic interest, however, to discuss the question whether glanders may or may not be communicated to man by means of the meat of glanderous animals. It has already been mentioned that carnivorous animals in zoological gardens have frequently con- tracted glanders in consequence of beiug fed upon the meat of glanderous horses. A similar infection in man has not yet been observed with certainty. In fact, it has been shown in many cases that the meat of glanderous horses has been eaten by man without harm ; as, for example, during the siege of Paris (Decroix). Baumgarten ascribes the different reaction of man and carnivor- ous animals to the consumption of the meat of glanderous horses to the fact that the latter in masticating the bone connected with the meat receive wounds in the mouth cavity and thus become infected ; for primary intestinal infection appears not to occur in any animal, since specific glanderous affection of the intestinal wall has thus far never been observed. This assumption can, however, no longer be maintained since the recent investigations of Nocard, which have been confirmed by Schiitz. For, in these investigations it was shown that primary intestinal glanders could be produced by feeding glanders bacilli. Moreover, the danger of infection from glanders exists both in masticating bones and in merely handling glanderous meat, whether wounds are already present or are received from projecting bone splinters. For this reason the meat of glanderous animals must be considered as a dangerous food material. (f) Tuberculosis. 1. — Nature and Occubeence. Tuberculosis is a chronic infectious disease, which is caused and disseminated by the tubercle bacillus. It is the most frequent 602 INFECTIOUS DISEASES disease of food animals and, next to septicemia, is their most important disease from a sanitary standpoint. Tuberculosis occurs in all our domesticated animals. With regard to the frequency of the disease in different species of domesticated animals, however, a striking difference prevails. While the cases of tuberculosis among horses and.sheep must be considered as exceedingly rare, tubercu- losis is a frequent disease in, hogs and a. regular plague in cattle. With regard to the goat, it was formerly assumed that this animal was free from tuberculosis. Inoculation experiments, however, and more careful investigations at abattoirs have shown this view to be untenable. The frequency of the occurrence of tuberculosis in the two domesticated animals which are most affected varies within wide limits, according to the origin ■ of the animals. Thus, in southern Germany, tuberculosis of hogs was formerly very rare, while even in the 70's Schiitz said of northern Germany, " tuberculosis in hogs possesses a scarcely-suspected distribution, as I have learned, partly from the reports of district veterinarians and partly from personal experience." At present tuberculosis of hogs is observed more frequently also in southern Germany, biit by no means so fre- quently as in northern Germany. In the latter region the number of tuberculous swine, according to the abattoir reports, ranges from 1 to 7 per cent. In the case of cattle, such variations in the occurrence of tuberculosis do not exist within the limits of Germany. Cattle which are maintained exclusively on pastures, like the American range cattle, Bukowina cattle and the cattle of the Russian Steppes, are nearly free from tuberculosis.* In stall-fed cattle, according to reliable parties, at least every fourth animal is tuberculous, calves excluded. This proportion is closely in accord with my own experience. The Imperial Health Office, at the request of the Imperial Chancellor, collected statistics concerning the occurrence of tuberculosis in the German Empire. According to these sta- tistics the number of cases of tuberculosis observed in the year 1888-89 in cattle amounted to 0.33 per cent, of a total number of 15,750,000. In the report, however, it was expressly stated that the determined percentage did not at all correspond with the actual conditions, since the statistics were not made upon a uniform basis * Concerning Australian cattle, it is also asserted they are free from tuber- culosis. This assertion, however, is shown to b^ untrue by an examination of meat imported from Australia. In Leipsic, for example, out of 631 beef quarters imported from Australia five were found to be tuberculous. TUBEBOULOSIS 603 (presence or absence of public abattoirs, meat inspection, etc.). The percentages obtained in different parts of the Empire varied exceedingly. While, for example, it was stated that in the " Magde- burg and Brandenburg sugar cattle " almost every fifth animal was tuberculous, in the district of Angermiinde no cases were found in 13,000 slaughtered animals ; and in the district of Teltov, only 15 cases of tuberculosis were demonstrated in 40,000 slaughtered ani- mals. The percentages obtained, as is emphasized in the report itself, can not lay claim even to approximate accuracy. A better idea of the distribution of tuberculosis among food animals is obtained from the reports of the different abattoirs. Frequency of Tuberculosis in Different Species of Food Animals, accord- ing to the Showing' of the Abattoir Beports.*' (a) Cattle. — The percentage of tuberculosis among cattle slaughtered in public abattoirs iu different cities for different years ranged between 6.84 and 45.8 per cent. (b) Calves. — Formerly the number of tuberculous calves was found to be extremely small ; for example, in the Saxony abattoirs it amounted to only 0.006 per cent, in 1889, .03 per cent, in 1890, and in Berlin .079 per cent, in 1890. At present the percentage of tuberculous calves has increased considerably and ranges, accord- ing to reports from slaughterhouses in Germany for different years between .05 and 1.07 per cent. (c) Sheep and Goats. — In both these animal genera cases of tuberculosis are rare. Nevertheless, both sheep and goats are sus- ceptible, as is sufficiently shown by its spontaTieous occurrence and by inoculation experiments. In Saxony in 1890, .02 per cent, of the sheep were tuberculous, and in Berlin, during the same year, .0048 per cent. These favorable conditions, however, were found only in sheep and goats living chiefly in the open air. As a result of keep- ing goats in stalls, they become tuberculous to the same extent as cattle. Eichhorn, for example, reported concerning a herd of goats iu Dresden, in which 19, or 68 per cent., were shewn to be tuber- culous by the tuberculin test. In different parts of Germany for various years the percentages of tuberculous sheep were found to range between .0029 and 1.26. ■ * The statistiral data have been condensed into a much shorter form than in the German original. — Translator. 604 INFECTIOUS DISEASES In the Kingdom of Saxony, the percentage of tuberculosis in sheef. sank from .15 per cent, in 1894 to .07 per cent, in 1896 and .06 in 1899. This condition is connected with the fact that the p^eudo-tuberculous alterations which occur in sheep were formerly sometimes confused in part with true tuberculosis. The percentage of tuberculosis in goats in different parts of Germany for different years ranged between .41 and 7.7 per cent. (d) The Hog, next to cattle, is most frequently affected with tuberculosis. Swine tuberculosis is, without doubt, as a rule, to be ascribed to feeding the milk of cows suffering from tuberculosis of the udder, or dairy by-products, especially the centrifugal slime of such milk. Bollinger in the 80's experimentally demonstrated that hogs could be infected by the milk of tuberculous cows and this has been subsequently corroborated by numerous unexceptionable observa- tions. In Hanover, Strose also observed cases of primary pul- monary tuberculosis in hogs. In various parts of Germany for different years the percentage of tuberculosis in hogs ranged between .21 and 7.7 per cent. (e) Horses. — In different parts of Germany for different years the percentage of tuberculosis in the horse ranged between .08 and 1.6 per cent. Tuberculosis of the horse may arise in consequence of feeding raw, skimmed milk to colts, or of confining horses of any age in cow stalls. Walther observed a case of tuberculosis in a horse which had been confined for 1^ years in a cow stall and which, on account of a poor appetite, had not been taken out of the stall for six months. Spontaneous tuberculosis also occurs in the ass (Nocard and Blanc). (f) Dogs. — Among dogs slaughtered in the Kingdom of Saxony in 1895, .25 per cent, were found tuberculous ; in 1896, 2.22 per cent.; and in 1899, .21 per cent. Percentage of Tuberculosis as Affected by the Method of Beporting Cases. —The following figures may serve to indicate the extent to which the statistics on tuberculosis are affected by the accuracy of inspection and notification. In Berlin the percentage increased to 4.0 in former years to 11.5 in 1890, when the slight TUBERCULOSIS 605 cases, restricted to one organ or one lymph gland, were taken into consideration. In Leipsic, the percentage increased from 15 per cent, ill 1889 to 22.3 in 1890. Schwaimair found 15.62 per cent, of tuberculosis in Aschaffenburg when he included cases of simple tuberculosis of the lymph glands, and only 10.37 per cent, when such cases were not included. Increase in the Frequency of Tuberculosis. — From the reports of abattoirs the fact becomes evident that tuberculosis in cattle, calves, and hogs is constantly increasing. For example, in Leipsic the following percentages of slaughtered cattle were found tuberculous: In 1888, 11.1 ; 1889, 14.9 ; 1890, 22.3 ; 1891, 26.7 ; 1893, 28.14; 1896, 32.93; 1897, 36.4; 1898, 35 5; 1899, 32.93; 1900, 35.29. Similar observations were made in other slaughterhouses ; for example, in Berlin, Bromberg, Kiel, Liibeck, Schwerin, Zwickau, etc. In Schwerin, the percentage of tuberculosis increased fiom 10.7 in 1886, to 26.6 in 1893 ; in Bromberg, from 20.7 in 1892-93, to 29.3 in 1899-1900 ; in Berlin, from 11.5 iii 1890-91, to 23.14 in 1899; in Eostock, from 17 in 189.5-96, to 24 in 1896-97; in Zwickau, from 26.6 in 1894, to 45.8 in 1899. In calves, the percentage increased in Berlin from 0.16 in 1890-91, to .61 in 1897-98 ; in Zwickau, from .17 iu 1894, to .47 in 1897 ; and in hogs, the percentage increased in Berlin from 1.16 in 1895-96, to 4.1 in 1899 ; in Bromberg, from 1.3 in 1892-93, to 3.4 in 1895-96 ; in Kiel from 3.72 in 1893-94, to 6.51 in 1896-97 ; in Leipsic, from 1.89 in 1893, to 3.12 in 1900 ; in Eos- tock, from 3,in 1895-96, to 4.7 in 1896-97 ; and in Zwickau, from 1.22 in 1894, to 7.5 in 1897. The alarming increase in tuberculosis among hogs in different parts of north Germany is connected with the increase of cream- eries and is caused by feeding the raw by-products of the creamery, especially the centrifugal slime (the Auth«or). Separator milk and buttermilk may also disseminate tuberculosis among calves fed upon these materials. Falk in Madgeburg found all of the hogs fattened by creamery owners and milk dealers to be tuberculous, and in Danzig it was found, soon after opening the abattoir in that place, that hogs coming from different creameries were affected with tuberculosis to the extent of from 60 to 70 per cent. Furthermore, Borgeaud found among young pigs which were fed on centrifugal milk a regular enzootic of tuberculosis during which 2, 3 or, more pigs per day died of tuberculosis. After the centrifugal milk was boiled before feeding, no further cases appeared. Eecently, the frequency of tuberculosis among hogs and calves 606 INFECTIOUS DISEASES is beginning to diminish in certain localities. One woulJ not err in ascribing this encouraging fact to the officially-prescribed burning of the centrifugal slime and the gradual increase in the practice of heating the milk before feeding. In Kiel, during recent years, a constant diminution in tubercu- losis among hogs is observed, as shown by the following figures : In 1896-97, 6.51 per cent.; 1898-99, 5.2; 1899-1900, 42; and in Zwickau, in 1896, 6.06 ; in 1897, 7.5 ; in 1898, 6.52 ; and in 1899, 3.89' per cent. In Kiel a diminution in the frequency of tuberculosis in calves has been observed as follows : In 1896-97, 1.31 per cent.; 1898-99, 1.3; 1899-1900, 0.85 per cent. Similar observations have been made at the abattoirs in Bromberg and Danzig. According to observations which the author made fifteen years ago, as abattoir veterinarian in Bsrlin, on cattle which came from various parts of Germany (East and West Prussia, Posen, Branden- burg, Silesia, Province of Saxony, Mecklenburg, Schlesv/ig-Holstein), at least 25 per cent, of the older cattle were to be regarded as tuberculous, when incipient cases and those which were restricted to one lym[ih gland weie included. This result agrees perfectly with the observations which the author had occasion to make ten years ago in Stuttgart, as ambulatoiy clinician. According to the results of tuberculin tests, it must be assumed that the figures obtained in abattoirs were far below the actual con- ditions ; for Siedamgrotsky tested 259 cattle and obtained a typical reaction in 197, or 76 per cent. In the same manner. Bang and Noeard in Denmark and France found that in many herds the number of reacting cattle amounted to from two-thirds to three- fourths of the total number. Si^milar conditions prevail in England, Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and also in all other countries in which cattle are not maintained exclusively on pasture. Moreovef, in America it has been demonstrated by tuberculin tests that among stall-fed cattle the large majority is affected with tuberculosis. In Germany, the government district of Posen proves to be most excessively infected. In the Posen district of Schroda, it is said to be a rare occurrence that a post mortem Ui made on a two to three year old beef animal without finding ibiaffected with the disease and to a striking degree. In the region of Samter, the disease prevails on nearly all estates. Influence of Age Upon the Frequency of Tuberculosis. — The differ- ent classes of beef animals are not affected with tuberculosis to the TUBEBCULOSIS • 607 same extent. Very great differences exist with regard to age. Young animals up to one year are very rarely affected with tubercu- losis. With each additional year of age, howeTjer, the frequency of the disease increases, so that in old milch cows, the veterans among food animals, the greatest and most alaiming dissemination of tuberculosis is observed. In the animals of Berlin butchers, who slaughtered only superannuated milch cows from ten to fifteen years or more of age, I found, on an average, 75 per cent, of the lungs of these animals tuberculous. Quite in harmony with this finding, Fischoeder in Bromberg found 56 per cent, of tuberculosis among cows in general, without regard to age. This iucrease in the frequency of tuberculosis with increasing age clearly indicates that in cattle the chief source of infection is to be found in cohabi- tation with diseased animals. In agreement with this condition, we have the prevailing form of the primary infection in cattle (primary pulmonary tuberculosis), as well as the fact that in all regions in which a frequent change in a herd of cattle occurs, tuberculosis is of much more frequent occurrence. 2. — Bactebiology and Pathogenesis. The tubercle bacillus, the discovery of which by Robert Koch in 1882 must be reckoned with the gre-atest achievements of scientific investigation and with the- most important conquests of medical knowledge, is a small, delicate, non-motile rod, five to six times as long as broad. It is from 3 to 4 /< in length. The tubercle bacillus may be cultivated on artificial nutrient media, blood sernm and glycerine agar, but only at a te*nperature between 30° and 41° C. The optimum temperatnire is 37.5° C. In the living tissue, the tubercle bacilli exercise a slow but progressively destructive action through their constant prolifera- tion. With rega.'d to the details of the pathogenic action of the tubercle bacilli, the excellent investigations of Baumgarten give u's a deeper insight, after the nature of the tubercle bacillus has long been known pathologico-anatomically, as a result of numerous thorough and clever investigations. Inoculated tubercle bacilli at first multiply at the point of inoculation and penetrate the leucocyte wall set up in consequence of the operation. From the sixth day on, in case of inoculation into the eye, one observes the first epithelioid cells, the first typical elements of the tubercle, which arise from fixed tissue cells as a result of the specific irritation of the tubercle bacilli. With increasing multiplication of the bacilli, GOB INFECTIOUS DISEASES the furtber formation of epithelioid cells ceases. Those already formed, however, swell, become multinuclear, and, as a rule, giant cells are foimed within the tubercle (Fig. 209). The formation of giant cells fails to occur only in case of extensive penetration of the tubercle bacilli or of tte penetration of very virulent bacilli. In tuberculosis of cattle, however, one always finds giant cells iu large numbers. Simultaneously, a sharp connective tissue delimitation of the small tubercle becomes apparent. This, in contrast to the condition in man, attains in domesticated animals a considerable thickness in certain organs. Fig. 309. Fig. 308. Tubercle bacilli in smear from a bovine casefied bronchial gland. X 500 diameters. Giant cell from tuberculous tissue, with peripheral nuclei and isolated bacilli. X 500 diam. The tubercle thus formed is non-vascular, Its existence is, therefore, limited. It regularly becomes affected with regressive metamorphoses, caseation and calcification.* In cases of exclusive infection with tubercle bacilli, suppuration never occurs. This is always produced by a simultaneous, so-called, mixed infection with putrefactive bacteria. Caseation in the larger tubercles beccmes macroscopically visible as a result of a cloudines"S in the center. Calcification is distinguished by a grating sound on making a section with a kuife, and effervescence after the addition of acids. Tuberculous primary * Among empirical meat inspectors, we unfortunately observe the lamentable error that processes are not considered as tuberculous until a pronounced casea- tion has taken place. It can not be too strongly urged upon empirical meat inspectors that fresh foci are much more dangerous than old, cyseated and calcified ones. TUBERCULOSIS 609 infections may be rendered harmless for the organism and may hoal in consequence of calcification. In other pases, however, new tubercles constantly appear in connection with the degenerated ones, so that finally extensive pathological products arise front these invisible processes. The tinctorial behavior of the tubercle bacilli possesses special interest. They are stained with difficulty and take basic anilin stains only after long exposure, or under the influence of warm staining solutions, or with the addition of mordants (anilin oil, carbol) to the staining solutions. After the tubercle bacilli have taken the stain, however, they retain it even when treated with mineral acids. Tubercle bacilli are, therefore, characterized as acid-fast. This property is possessed by the tubercle bacilli as well as the lepra, smegma, hay, butter and manure bacilli (the group of acid-fast bacilli). This property of these bacteria is apparently due to the possession of a waxy or chitinous substance. Although this prop- erty can not be considered as a specific characteristic of the tubercle bacilli, it nevertheless makes possible the certain demonstration of tubercle bacilli in suspicious organic foci, since in such locations, with the exception of the mammary cisterns, and perhaps also cav- erns in the lungs, other acid-fast bacteria do not occur. The best known methods for the demonstration of the tubercle bacilli are those of Koch, Erlich and Ziehl. Ziehl's method, as modified by Crabbet ([ireliminary staining with carbol fuchsin and subsequent staining with sulphuric acid methylene blue) can be best recom- mended for practice, since it is the most speedy. Tubercle bacilli are frequently demonstrable by staining only in more recent foci. In older foci, on the other hfind, especially in the horse and hog, the demonstration is frequently impossible. In such cases diagnosis can be made certain by the inoculation of guinea pigs. Resistance' of Tubercle Bacilli to Heat and Preserving Beagents. — A large number of experiments' have been made with regard to the resisting power of tubercle bacilli against high temperatures. The gist of the results is that the tubercle bacillus possesses only mod- erately strong resistance to high temperatures. This has been determined beyond question, especially by the experiments insti- tuted by the elder Bang, Schill, Fischer, Voisch, Grancher and Gennes. These authors experimented in part with sputum in which in consequence of the protecting mass of mucus surrounding the bacilli, the destruction of the latter was more difficult than when they were uniformly distributed. Bang determined that a temper- ^10 INFECTIOUS DISEASES Htnre of 85° C. was sufficient to render the tubercle bacilli liarmless. JTergiin found thiit tubercle bacilli, when uniformly distributed, Were killed by au exposure for ten minutes to 75° C, while a. temperature of 65° C did not have this effect. Forster, in cooperation with de Man, demonstrated by careful exparimeuts that for the destruction of the tubercle bacilli the higher the temperature the shorter the required time of exposure. In the experimeuts of Forster, the tubercle bacilli were killed at a. temperature of 55° C. iu four hours ; at 60°, in one hour ; at 65°, iu fifteen minutes ; at 70°, iu ten minuteg ; at 80°, iu five minutes; at 90°, in two minutes; at 95°, in one minute. Tubercle bacilli appear not to form spores ; at least in the investigations of Schmidt-Miilheim it was found that tubercle bacilli without exception lost their virulence at the coagulation tempera- ture for albumen, and he states, therefore, that one is scarcely justified in considering as spores the light-colored oval structures which one observes in the body of the tubercle bacillus (Fig. 210). Against preserving materials, the tub- "" '**■ ercle bacillus, as shown by the investigations of n J Forster, are very resistant. He sprinkled pure , I jf cultures of tubercle bacilli with sterilized com- ' \ ^ \ "^^"^ ^^^ ^^'^ found the bacilli still infectious ' after two months. Pieces of tuberculous Tubercle bacoili with organs, finely minced, were allowed to lie for Ijght colored deposits, .° •'. ,,,. , , ,, Btrongly magnified. eighteen days in salt brine and were louna by inoculation to be still capable of development. Later, Forster, in cooperation with de Freitag, investigated the influence of smoking upon the virulence of tuberculous masses of meat. He salted meat which was thickly covered with pearl disease masses and hung it, lege artis, in the smoke. In inocula- tion experiments with guinea pigs and rabbits, it was found that even salting with a subsequent smoking was not sufficient tO' destroy the infectiousness of the tuberculous masses. On the other hand, the virulence was lost when the salted pieces of meat were smoked for three or five hours at three different times or when, after one smoking, they were preserved for at least one and one-half to two months in a dry room. Influence of Dilution Upon the Virulence of Tubercle Bacilli. — Quite remarkable is the influence cf dilution upon the virulence of tubercle bacilli, especially in view of the previously entertained notion that a single tubercle bacillus was sufficient to injure the health. TUBEECULOSIS 611 According to the experiments instituted bj Gebhardt and Bollinger, the virulence of the milk of tuberculous cows, as demonstrated by intraperitoneal iuoculation, was destroyed by a dilution of from 40. to 100 times. As compared with such milk, however, the sputum of consumptive patients possesses a great infective power, for this material endures a dilution of eveu 1 : 100,000 when inoculated Rubcutaneously or intraperitoneally, or when inhaled. These methods of infection, however, are to be considered as very delicate tests for tuberculous virus, for, when administered per stomachum, 2 cc. of sputum in a dilution of 1:8 did not give positive results. Behavior of the Tubercle Bacillus W/ien Ingested with Food. — On the basis of artificial digestion experiments Falk first called atten- tion to the resisting power of the tubercle bacillus to the gastric juice. Strauss and Wiirtz found that tubercle bacilli still retained their virulence after remaining six hours in the gastric juice and that they were not destroyed until after 24 hours' exposure. Zagavi demonstrated that tubercle bacilli exposed to artificial gastric juice at a temperature of 38° C. still retained undiminished virulence after three to four hours, caused only a local tubercu- losis without a tendency to generalization after 7, 8 and 9 hours, and did not lose their virulence until after an exposure of from 18 to 24 hours. Similarly, Wesener determined, by feeding tuberculous sputum, that with small quantities "nothing happens." With large quantities, ou the other hand, tuberculosis of the mesenteric glands is produced, and only after repeated feeding of large quan- tities does tuberculosis of the intestine and also of the liver and spleen arise. In" accord with these statements are the experi- ments of Cadeae, who undertook to determine in guinea pigs under what external conditions alimentary tuberculosis is pro- duced. He fed tuberculous material to 56 guinea pigs, divided into four lots, which received 4, 3, 1 and 0.3 gm., respectively. It appeared from these experiments that alimentary tuberculosis was not produced with certainty, except when the guinea pigs received at least 1 gm. of tuberculous material moderately rich in bacilli. VThen the comparatively large amount of 0.3 gm. was fed, on the ether hand, the result was uncertain, varying and limited. 3. — Clinical Symptoms op Tuberculosis. Tuberculosis may produce various symptoms according to the extent of generalization and the preferred seat of the tuberculous 612 INFECTIOUS DISEASES alterations. A kuowledge of these symptoms is of importance for expert meat inspectors, since, especially where insurance funds are maintained, it is their duty to identify visibly-diseased animals before slaughter. The two principal forms under which tubercu- losis appears clinically are tuberculous broncho-pneumouia (the loricerly so-called lung plague) .iid tuberculosis of the serous membranes (so-called pearl disease). In the first form one observes in acute cases a frequent hollow cough which is easily saduced artificially (while the healthy beef animal does not react Pm. 311. Mammary tuberculosis. Affection of botli left quarters. to pressure upon the larynx), and also a dry, rustling sound upon thoracic auscultation. These are the most frequent and reliable symptoms of tuberculous broncho- pneumonia. The nutritive con- dition is an inconstant criterion for the recognition of tuberculosis. It is only in acute cases of the disease that it is visibly disturbed. The hair is then dull and the skin is of a leathery character and crackles when raised. In such advanced cases one observes at the same time a slight dulness of the sensorium (dejected expression) and languid movements. In a cursory inspection in stock yards, serous tuberculosis is recognizable with certainty intra vitam only in the most advanced TUBERCULOSIS 613 stages and then simply by the above described serious disturbances of the nutritive condition. In s])^'cial cases, however, the suspicion of tuberculosis may be changed to certainty by the presence of hard swellings in the lymphatic glands which are accessible to external examination, painless thickenings of the joints and a tuberculous affection of the udder. The latter represents an unusually characteristic affec- tion. There are either isolated firm tubercles in the udder, or one or more quarters, rarely the whole udder, is diffusely swollen (Fig. 210), painless, at first moderately hard and finally as hard as stone. At the same time the supramammary lymph glands exhibit a considerable increase in volume and particularly a -palpable deposition oi firm granules and tubercles. 4.— Pathological Anatomy. Upon post-mortem examination of tuberculous animals one finds the specific products of the tubercle bacillus in the most Pig. 212. I — i-.'-- Bovine kidney with tuberculosis in diflferent stages in the individual renculi. o, solitary yonng tubercle with incipient caseation; i, numerous tubercles of the same sort; c, older totally casefled tubercles; d, totally tuberculous renculus. varying form and extent. We observe perfectly diaphanous tuber- cles just on the borderland of macroscopic visibility, larger tubercles With a cloudy, casefied center (Pig. 212, a and b), conglomerations 614 INFECTIOUS DISEASES of Bucli tubercles up to the size of a walnut or even the fist, and larger. The tubercles which lie upon the surface of the mucous membrane, after complete caseation, show a partial disintegration Fig. 213. Pig. 214. ^^^::' Intestinal tuberculosis of cattle, a and b, lenticular ulcers ; c, tuberculous infiltration; d, part of a tuberculous mesenteric gland, which results in the formation of ulcers (Fig. 213). In some organs, as, for example, in the lungs, extensive destruction— tuberculous abscesses, cavities — may result from such ulcers in consequence of a mixed infec- tion with purulent bacteria from the air. Otherwise, as already mentioned, these i^^SJit^^^^''3^^ika conditions are not observed in tubercu- \' '^/^^Sv^.^*S?&j losis of the domesticated animals (rare cases of primary intestinal tuberculosis excepted, in which the formation of tuberculous abscesses in the mesenteric glands and the liver takes place in conse- quence of the simultaneous penetration of purulent and tubercle bacilli). For the rest, the tuberculous ulcers on mucous membranes are constantly accompanied with a purulent catarrh which may be best observed on the mucous membrane of the uterus. Serous tuberculosis of cattle (pearl disease). TUBEEOULOSIS 615 Tubercles which do not appear upon the surface of the mucous membrane, but which lie deeper in the tissues, preserve their original form, although they may be modified in completely cloudy, yellow, caseous foci and at last may be totally calcified. We must characterize as an anatomically-special form of tuber- culosis the so-called pearl disease (serous tuberculosis) which la PiQ. 315. tL Fig. 316. =-c —6 Beef head, a, right, b, left submax- illary glands; c, retropharyngeal glands. Call "sling." a and a', broDchial glands ; h, anterior and posterior media- stinal glands ; c, portal glands. very frequent in cattle, in contrast with hogs. In this form of tuberculosis one observes at first connective tissue outgrowths, rather richly supplied with blood, which grow over the parietal and visceral layers of the pleura and peritoneum in the form of a velvet- like coat. Later cloudy points appear in the connective tissue 616 INFECTIOUS DISEASES outgrowths, and these form caseous foci which may lead to exlen- sive thickenings or depositions upon the serous membranes. As already indicated, the tubercles on the serous membranes are distin- guished by the fact that they possess a well-delimited connective tissue. Furthermore, they have a tendency to early calcification. Finally, it is worthy of cjonsideration that serous tuberculosis, as well as tuberculosis of the lymph glands, digestive and respiratory apparatus may be apparently primary affections. This remarkable phenomenon is to be ascribed to the fact that the tubercle bacilli, contrary to the assumption of Baumgarten and Tangl, do not regularly produce tuberculous alterations at the point Beef mesentery witi tuberculous lymphatic glands. of entrance after obtaining entrance into the body, but, as shown by Bollinger, are able to pass through the epithelium of the mucous membrane, and a specific affection may be produced first in the neighboring lymph glands. Primary and Secondary Foci. — -The tuberculous foci found in the animal body must be classified into primary and secondary, according to their origin. For the sanitary judgment of the meat of tuberculous animals, it is desirable to give an especially clear definition of these terms. TUBEKCUtOSIS 617 It would seem desirable to include under primary affections, or under tuberculous foci which arise primarily, all processes which arise immediately at the point of entrance by direct infection from the outside world and in the neighborhood of this point, without the co-operation of the circulation, but simply by local growth or translocation of the bacilli by means of the lymphatic vessels. , To this class belong, therefore, primary alterations of the mucous membrane, tubercles in their vicinity, affections of tlie correspond- ing lymph glands and the tuberculous foci on the serous mem- branes which arise by extension of the original infection- As a rule, hogs and young cattle are affected by alimentary tuberculosis — primary affection of the digestive apparatus and the corresponding lymph glands — while, on the other hand, older cattle are as regularly affected by inhalation tuberculosis — primary affec- tion of the lungs (tuberculous broncho-pneumonia), or of the bronchial glands.* The hematogenous embolic foci which arise through the agency of the blood circulation must be characterized as secondary processes in contrast with the primary ones. These lie in the internal organs, at points at which the arteries undergo branching into the capillaries (in the interstitial connective tissue). They do not, therefore, communicate with the outside world, and grow to become large tubercles within the tissue. Tlie .embolic foci are characterized by the fact that in the majority of cases a simple caseation and calcification, and only exceptionally suppura- tion, are observed. Moreover, they have a tendency to retain a round form even when they have grown to be large conglomerations. All organs which are not in direct communication wibh the out- side world contain merely embolic tubercles, while in other organs both the processes, viz., primary and embolic, may be observed in co-existence. As we shall see later, the distinction between embolic and primary foci in the lungs possesses special importance ; for it is necessary in rendering a sanitary judgment in individual cases to determine whether it is a case of primary tuberculosis, broncho-pneumonia., or embolic, pulmonary tuberculosis. The anatomical picture of the most important tuberculous organic diseases has already been discussed in the section on " Organic Diseases," to which reference is here made. * Attention may be called in this connection to the fact that for the certain recognition of slight primary foci it is necessary to make an incision into the retropharyngeal lymph glands in cattle and the laryngeal lymph glands in hogs (Pig. 215), as well as the mesenteric (Fig. 217), portal, mediastinal and bronchial glands (Fig. 216) in all animals. 618 INFECTIOUS DISEASES 5. — Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis. The number of pathological alterations which may be confused with tuberculosis is large, and in this connection attention will be called to thenr briefly, especially since they may be present in an animal simultaneously with tuberculosis and may lead to the erroneous conclusion that the distribution of the disease is much greater than it actually is. Trie most important alterations from the standpoint of differen- tial diagnosis are actinomycotic processes in the organs of the mouth cavity and in the lungs, more rarely in the bones and in the udder ; echinococci and cysticerci in cases- where, in con- sequence of a coagulation necrosis or of inflammatory alterations of the surrounding membrane, they may have become modified into a caseous or plaster-like mass in the lungs, liver, spleen, lymph glands and under the serous membranes ; pentastomes in the lymph glands of cattle and sheep ; strongylid tubercles in the lungs of sheep; simple puiulent processes, for example, purulent catarrh of the uterus and abscesses in the lungs, liver, spleen and kidneys ; leukemic infiltrations in the liver and kidneys ; neomorphs, especi- ally sarcomata in various organs and lymph glands. Finally, in cattle, calcifications in the peritoneum (page 286) are of differ- ential diagnostic value, as well as the similar processes in the presternal connective tissue (page 354) ; and in hogs the peculiar alterations of hog cholera in the intestines and in the mesenteric glands. The possibility of confusion with tuberculous processes occurs most frequently in cases of caseated echinococci, calcified pentastomes and actinomycotic foci. These alterations, however, quite aside from their peculiarities, may be easily distinguished from tuberculosis by a slight magnification on account of their characteristic features (lamellate structure of the cuticula in echino- cocci (Fig. 163), claws in pentastomes (Fig. 168), and fungous weft and mycelia in actinomycosis (Figs. 222, 225). For the rest, tuberculous processes possess the following special characters : (1) They are composed of minute tubercles which at first are perfectly gray and trauspai'ent, later become cloudy in the center and finally cloudy throughout ; (2) the presence of minute tubercles around the larger tubercles ; (3) the regular sympathetic affection of the corresponding lymph glands in a typi- cal sequence : first, swelling, then formation of tubercles in the TOBEKCULOSIS 619 glandular tissue, and, finally, caseation and calcification of these tubercles.* Aids in the Diagnosis of Tuberculosis. — In doubtful cases one may make the diagnosis certain by demonstrating the tubercle bacilli according to the method of Ziehl-Gabbet (page 609). This method is simple and gives good results. It should not be for- gotten, however, that a caseous focus may have a tuberculous origin ■without its being possible to demonstrate tubercle bacilli in it by bacteriological methods. Nevertheless, such foci are very virulent, as one may readily convince himself by inoculating the anterior eye chamber, peritoneal cavity, or subcutis of guinea pigs. We do not understand the cause of this negative result from the staining method. It has often been assumed that tubercle bacilli are con- tained in such foci in the form of spores, but, according to the above mentioned investigations of Schmidt-Miilheim, the existence of spores of tubercle bacilli is improbable. Inoculation is thus the surest means of demonstrating the tuberculous nature of a sus- picious process, but even in the guinea pig, which is the most sus- ceptible animal to tuberculosis, there is the disadvantage that the result of the inoculation can not be known until after several weeks, and thereby inoculation becomes valueless in the practice of meat inspection. Diagnosis of Tuberculosis of Hogs. — As shown by Perroncito, tinctorially-demonstrable bacilli are quite frequently absent from caseated and calcified products in hogs. It would, however, betray a great lack of understanding of the nature of an outbreak if one should deny the existence of tuberculosis in hogs in cases where the bacilli could not be demonstrated in this manner. This posi- tion would not be justified until inoculation experiments with the suspected material had given negative results. It has been shown by Olt that, in tuberculosis of hogs, the tubercle bacilli may be readily demonstrated in section preparations even from foci in which they were not demonstrable from smear preparations. As stated on page 345, 1 found a simple microscopic examina- tion of a teased preparation under a magnification of 40 diameters * With the exception of tuberculosis, caseation occurs in the lymph glands only in consequence of hog cholera and pseudo-tuberculosis in sheep. Moreover, casefled cysticerci and echinococci may be present in the lymph glands and pentastomes inclosed in caseated and calcified masses. 620 INFECTIOUS DISEASES to be a very convenient diagnostic aid. One may thus distinctly observe round or oblong giant cells which are especially well devel- oped in the tubercles of domesticated animals.* This method is well adapted to the examination of suspected lymph glands for the presence of macroscopically invisible erup- tions of tubercles. While simple, non-specific lymphadenitis Fig. 218. ■^'V. :■■■•■ -J ■ ■ .v^^VX Miliary tubercle ■with numerous giant cells, X 75 diameters. exhibits an uniformly transparent tissue when examined in the above mentioned manner, one observes, when tubercles are present, roundish, cloudy foci with giant cells in the center and epithelioid cells around the periphery (Fig. 209). The latter are never wanting, while the giant cells may sometimes be absent. 6. — Local and Geneealized Tubeeculosis. We commonly characterize as local diseases those which are restricted in an anatomical sense to one organ. In the case of tuberculosis, we extend the meaning of the local character, since * Giant cells are found also around encapsulated foreign bodies and con- stantly in a radial arrangement around Echinococcus multilocularis, as well as in the neighborhood of colonies of actinomyces. These conditions, however, may be readily distinguished from tuberculosis by the above mentioned method of examination, since in the iirst case the foreign bodies, and in the other cases the echinococci or actinomyces, are demonstrable. TUBERCULOSIS 621 this condition is set in contrast with the dissemination of the dis- ease throughout the whole body. The latter condition, however, is possible only through the aid of the systemic blood circulation. Tuberculous processes, therefore, are characterized as local in the broader sense as long as a mere extension or distribution has taken place through the lymphatic vessels, and the general circulation is not concerned in the dissemination of the tuberculous virus. In cases where the systemic blood has become the carrier of the virus, we characterize this condition as generalized or general tuberculosis (Weigert). This distinction is of the greatest impor- tance for meat inspection, since tubercle bacilli gain entrance into the musculature, " the meat of traffic," only by the aid of the circu- lating blood. The musculature, therefore, can be considered as infected aud injurious to health only when the organisms of tuber- culosis are distributed through the body by means of the blood (Johne). Tuberculosis of domesticated animals has a pronounced tendency to localization. This phenomenon maybe explained most simply by the assumption of a prompt filtering action of the lymph- atic glands as well as by the fact that the tuberculous products in domesticated animals are, as a rule, poor in bacilli. As asserted by Johne, however, and confirmed by the experiments of Nocard (see page 640), individual bacilli which accidentally escape the protective filtering action of the lymph glands, become inactive in the circu- lating blood. The generalization of tuberculosis arises in consequence of the penetration of nuiderous bacilli into the systemic circulation. This may occur in veins affected with tuberculous processes or in tuber- culous lymphatic glands ; in the latter case, with the aid of the thoracic duct or the right tracheal, duct. " Flooding " of the blood with tubercle bacilli is, according to Weigert, always to be ascribed to tuberculous affection of the wall of a blood vessel, or thoracic duct. . General tuberculosis appears in two principal forms : A slight infection of the blood leads to the formation of isolated tubercles in various organs ; an extensive infection, to the eruption of innumer- able tubercles in the majority of the organs. In the first case the small tubercles commonly grow to become large tubercles or case- ous foci by peripheral expansion, since in such cases infection of the blood scarcely appears clinically and, therefore, in and of itself, gives no occasion for slaughter (chroaic general tuberculosis). In the latter case, on the other hand, tubercles are often observed in a but slightly altered condition, since this form of generalization, as a 622 INFECTIOUS DISEASES rule, gives cause for slaughter (acute miliary tuberculosis). If a slight infection of the systemic blood has precedbd the extensive invasion of the tubercle bacilli, we have both processes simulta- neously. Weigert characterizes this condition as a " transition form." ♦ The Participation of Individual Organs in the Eruption of Tubercles in Cases of Generalized Tuberculosis. — After the entrance of tubercle bacilli into the circulating blood, tuberculous alterations do not, by any means, occur in all organs in food animals. One observes, on the contrary, that certain organs are constantly affected, others rarely, and some almost never. This peculiar behavior is partly explained by the peculiar connection of the indi- vidual organs with the blood circulation and by the rapidity of the circulation in them ; in part, also by the presence of specific sub- stances ; for example, secretions which influence the development of the tubercle bacilli in different ways. For other organs we must assume a resisting power in the tissue itself, against tuberculosis. Thus, Ziegler characterizes the musculature as " almost immune " to tuberculosis. The connection with the blood circulation is of considerable importance, since this determines the quantity of the bacilli which may find their way into the organ. The lungs, for example, in cases where the blood is infected through the agency of the thoracic duct, receive blood which contains many more bacilli than all the other organs together, for all of the infected blood cir- culates through the lungs and thereby large quantities of bacilli may be removed from the blood by becoming lodged in the pulmonary capillaries. A similar condition may exist in the liver if infection is brought about by entrance of the bacilli into a branch of the portal vein. In fact, in this case the filtration of the blood through the hepatic circulation may restrict the pathological pro- cesses to the liver. Sequence in tJw Organs Which Are Affected by General Tubercidosis. — The author has already called attention (Berliner Archiv, Vol. XIV) to the fact that in generalized tuberculosis of cattle a certain sequence of participation of various organs is to be observed. One finds uniformly an infection of the lungs and liver ; then follows the spleen and kidneys, and then the prescapular and inguinal glands, udder, bones and joints. When the posterior part of the peritoneum in female animals is affected, the uterus is also attacked, almost without exception. TUBEECULOSIS 623 It is a remarkable fact that in geueralized tuberculosis of young cattle (up to four years of age), the spleen is almost always affected and the kidneys are free from tuberculous foci, while in olJer cattle the kidneys, but not the spleen, uniformly show tuberculous alterations. In hogs, the lungs, liver, spleen and kidneys are similarly affected in generalized tubei culosis. Furthermore, affections of the bones in hogs, especially the vertebral column, are much more frequent than in cattle. Bieck, in 430 cases of general tuberculosis in cattle identified at the abattoir in Leipsic, 1880 to 1891, deter- mined the following sequence in the affection of different organs : Lungs, 100 per cent.; liver, 83 ; alimentary canal, 73 ; serous mem- branes, 57.4; kidneys, 52.5; meat, 49.3; spleen, 18.6; udder, 16.7; bones, 8.8. Moreover, Eieck found that 80 per cent, of the cases of tuber- culosis were restricted to the lungs or bronchial glands. Several organs of one cavity of the body, usually the thoracic cavity, were affected in but 3.9 per cent. ; the processes extended beyond the thoracic cavity in 1888 in 9.3 per cent, of the cases ; in 1889, in 13.3; in 1890, in 11.9 ; and in 1891, in 19.6 per cent, of the cases. In a considerable proportion of the last-named cases, only the lungs and mesenteric glauds were affected. Tuberculosis of the serous membranes was demonstrated in Leipsic in 10.8 per cent, of all tuberculous cattle (7.2 of male and 14.8 of female animals). 7. — Examination op Slaughtered Tubebculous Animals. For determining the extent of the disease in animals found to be tuberculous, it is desirable to adopt a certain method of inspec- tion.* The essential features of this method of inspection consist in first subjecting to a regular examination the organs and groups of lymph glands which may be affected by general infection, and which, according ^o present knowledge, are most important in the determination of generalized tuberculosis. For this purpose the most important organs are the lungs, liver, spleen, kidneys, sexual organs, sternum and vertebral column; also the prescapular, axil- lary, popliteal, kneefold and inguinal glands. Affections of the bones of the extremities, joints and skeletal musculature are always characterized by alterations of the last- * With reference to the determination of primary tuberculous alterations in slaughtered animals, compare page 617. 624 INFECTIOUS DISEASES named lymplaatic glands. Affections of the meninges of the brain, the myocardium and the tongue possess only a slight significance, since they are seldom present and then only in the most pronounced cases of generalization. A quite subordinate role in the determina- tion of generalized tuberculosis is played by the affections of the serous membranes. In judging the meat of tuberculous cattle, one must become accustomed to disregarding completely the affections of tha pleura and peritoneum. It should always be remembered that, as shown by Schmidt- Miilheim, peritoneal tuberculosis may pass over in a purely local manner to the pleura. Peritoneal tuberculosis, moreover, may be associated with a local process in the lungs, either with or with- out affection of the pleura and without generalization in cases where bronchial slime is swallowed and gives rise to an affection of the intestine, or, what is more frequent, to the mesenteric glands (auto-infection). Tuberculosis of the serous membranes, particu- larly of the peritoneum, comes into consideration only in case of affection of the uterus, since in this organ a local invasion of the specific process from the peritoneum to the mucous membrane is possible and frequent. The greatest extension of tuberculosis upon the peritoneum and pleura may, however, occur with the complete integrity of the parenchyma of the lungs, liver, spleen, etc.,* while, on the other hand, in the typical picture of acute miliary tuberculosis, or of chronic general tuberculosis with exten- sive alterations, even of the lymph glands, which lie in the skeletal musculature, the serous membranes are often only slightly or not at all affected. A significance equally subordinate with that of the peritoneum and pleura and their lymph glands, with regard to the determina- tion of the question whether generalized tuberculosis exists, is possessed by frequent alterations of the pericardium and epi- cardium, trachea and larynx, as well as the lymph glands of the head and mesenteries. The first-named alterations are usually associated with tuberculous processes in the lungs ; the latter, however, may arise in consequence of swallowing tuberculous bronchial secretions (auto-infection, see above), or by the direct ingestion of the specific virus with the food. I emphasize this point for the reason that some importance in judging meat has been erroneously ascribed to the affection of the mesenteric glands. * For this reason distinction should be made in afifections of the organs of the thoracic and abiominal cavities between parenchymatous tuberculosis and tuberculosis of the serous membranes. TUBEECULOSIS 625 The organs which for the determination of generalized tuber- culosis are without significance are to be examined next in order and merely for the purpose of determining what parts are to be ■condemned in case of the eventual release of the meat. The examination of parts which are important for reaching a sanitary judgment on meat should not, as was formerly the general custom, proceed from organs known to be diseased, but from those which are presumably healthy. However unimportant this point may seem, it can not be impressed too strongly upon the meat inspector. Through the contamination of a liver by means of a knife which was previously used in sectioning a tuberculous focus in another organ, as, for example, the lungs, more damage can be done in case the liver is released after the determination of its intact character than under other conditions by the release of the meat of an animal suffering from general tuberculosis. For, by the above mentioned manipulation, the liver may receive a large qqan- tity of tuberculous virus. It therefore frequently happens that the liver is eaten in an incompletely cooked condition. The muscula- ture, on the other hand, is quite rarely, the seat of tuberculous alterations and even its lymphatic glands are only in certain cases affected with generalized tuberculosis. The practice which was formerly observed in certain locali- ties of condemning all internal organs in all animals affected with tuberculosis, but which were released for sale, is a radical and, so far as human health is concerned, a safe one, but can not be approved from a scientific standpoint or from a consideration of the material loss to the producers. When it can be determined with certainty that the organ is free from pathological alterations, it should never under any circumstances be withheld from sale. If, however, it is contaminated with tuberculous material, this material must be removed, but the expert has thereby committed a technical error. This technical error may be avoided if the examination of tuberculous animals begins, not with the organs which are known to be tubeiculous, but with those which are presumably healthy. I purposely emphasize this point since the warning already sounded from another source (Deutscher Veterinar Kalender and Zachokke), not to contaminate healthy parts by tuberculous material, does not, in and of itself, furnish any guide for the mani- pulation and may, perhaps, briug it about that the above direc- tions are followed by merely washing the contaminated knife before making an incision into an apparently healthy organ. More- 626 INFECTIOUS DISEASES over, for reasons already given, all unnecessary cutting of tubercu- lous foci should be avoided. Butchers should likewise be expressly forbidden to cut into the tuberculous organs of tuberculous ani- mals or to continue the operation of cutting up the animal with knives used for this purpose. The examination of slaughtered tuberculous animals must pro- ceed postero-anteriorly, and, on animals which are hung up, from above downward. We examine first of all the "meat" and the lymphatic glands which receive the lymph from it, and then the internal organs. In making the examination, the following sequence may be observed : 1. Popliteal, kneef old, inguinal, pubic or supramammary lymph glands. 2. In case of an intact peritoneum, the iliac and the other retro- peritoneal lymph glands. 3. Vertebral column, ribs and sternum. 4. Prescapular and axillary glands. (For the examination of the latter, the anterior extremities must be removed. The prescap- ular glands, however, may be conveniently reached without removing the extremities by a simple incision in front of the shoulder joint.) 5. The udder in female animals. 6. The kidneys and renal lymphatic glands. (The latter are usually found by making an incision directly over the point where the renal artery branches off from the aorta.) 7. Spleen. 8. Liver. 9. Lungs. 10. The other internal organs, together with the corresponding lymph glands. The characteristic symptoms of tuberculous affection of the above named parts of the body have already been described in the chapter on "Oiganic Diseases." In addition to the discussion found there, the following notes may be added with reference to the technique of the demonstration of tuberculous processes in individual organs. The tuberculous affection of the udder is best demonstrated by palpation. The healthy udder, although of strikingly large size, possesses in all its parts a uniformly, moderately soft character. A tuberculous udder, on the other hand, as is well known, in case of striking enlargement of one or more quarters, shows a firm, often TUBERCULOSIS 627 stony consistency of the affected parts. One must remove all ■uncertainty concerning the nature of doubtful tubercular thicken- ings present in the udder by means of a cross section. It should be noted that Bang, in his well known work ou tuberculosis of the udder, called attention to the absence of softened spots (abscesses) in tuberculosis of the udder. In general, abscesses in the udder are to be considered as non-tuberculous alterations. Any possible doubt, however, may be easily removed by an examination of the supramammary lymph glands. The kidneys and suprarenal bodies are to be removed from the fatty capsule in situ, and after a superlicial examination are to be cut open by several sections running toward the renal pelvis. Since, however, palpation as well as sectioning of the kidneys can not be performed in such a satisfactory manner that a reliable con- clusion can be drawn upon this basis, for the absence of tuberculous foci, the aid of an examination of the lymph glands is indispensable for reaching a diagnosis of the condition of the kidneys. The tissue of the spleen should be examined by making numerous parallel longitudinal sections. Moreover, even small tubercles in the spleen may be demonstrated by palpation. In case of the liver it must be insisted upon that the portal lymph glands shall in no case be removed before a veterinary inspection is made, for frequently these glandsexhibit a much more strikingly diseased condition than the tissue of the liver. Similar conditions are present in case of the bronchial glands and the lungs. Tuberculous alterations in the latter may be of two sorts : There are either sm'all or large cavities (primary pulmonary tuberculosis) or round small and large tubercles (embolic pulmonary tuberculosis). The cavities have their seat especially at the base and apex, as well as in the lower border of the lungs. The embolic foci, on the other hand, are uniformly distributed in the interlobu- lar tissue. When inspection is made according to the foregoing directions, the inspector can, as a rule, decide without difficulty whether in a particular case tuberculosis is local or generalized. The internal organs, particularly the lungs, liver, spleen and kidneys, as well as the intermuscular lymph glands, present a more favorable nutrient medium for tubercle bacilli than the meat. The most recent alter- ations, incipient tubercles, are therefore much more easily and certainly demonstrated in the internal oigans and lymph glands than in the various joints and in the marrow of the bones, quite aside from the fact that the dissc^ction of the meat for the purpose 628 INFECTIOUS DISEASES of inspection is quite limited. Tlie alterations in the organs, there- fore, together with those which may be demonstrated in the skeleton, musculature and intermuscular lymph glands, must be considered as final criteria for deciding the question whether the case is one of Fig. 319 a. Fig. 219 6. Wj""'' W"-'- "-----— C ^w ;>-(i >3 Half of beef, seen from the outside. a, popliteal glands; J, kneefold glands; c, presoapular glands. Half of beef, seen from the inside, a, super- ficial inguinal glands ; 6, deep inguinal glands (of variable size and not always pre- sent) ; c, internal iliac glands; d, lumbar glands; e, renal glands; /, lymphatic glands of the inferior thoracic wall ; g, glands of the superior thoracic wall ; h, lower cervical glands. local or generalized tuberculosis. By means of-the above described exainination the organic alterations may be most perfectly deter- mined, and, when taken together, give positive evidence on the question whether tubercle bacilli have gained entrance into the TUBERCULOSIS 629 general circulation or have distributed themselves beyond the point of entrance into the neighboring organs, or not. At the same time , Pig. 219 c. Position of the most important lymphatic glands after removal of the retroperitoneal fat tissue, a, lymphatic glands above th' hoek ; b, popliteal glands ; c, super- fiei.'.l inguinal glands; d, kneefold glands; e and /, interna! iliac glands; g, lymphatic glands of the Idwer thoracic walls; A, lower cervical glands ; i, upper cervical glands; k, submaxillary glands. it may be determined by the above described method of examination what parts are to be destroyed in case the meat is released. 8. — Sanitary Judgment on Tuberculosis. (a) Taberculous Organs. It must be assumed that tuberculosis may be transmitted to man by the consumption of tuberculous organs. For, tuberculosis of man and animals is produced by a bacillus which, in regard to its 630 INFECTIOUS DISEASES form, stainability, growth, and transmissibility to small experi- mental animals, exhibits no essential differences. Furthermore, it is possible in a proportion of the cases, if not always, to transmit human tuberculosis to cattle, hogs and sheep. Finally, a number of cases is known in which tuberculosis of domesticated animals has been transmitted. to man (skin infection from handling tubercu- lous material and alimentary tuberculosis after eating the milk of cows affected with tuberculosis of the ndder). By means of experiments on animals it has been shown that the tubercle bacilli introduced in food may be taken up by the lymphatic apparatus of the gums and pharyngeal cavity, and that they are also capable of passing through the stomach and may pro- duce specific alterations in the intestines or mesenteric glands. A necessary condition, however, is that the tubercle bacilli shall be introduced in a certain quantity (see page 611). Eecently the question of the transmissibility of tuberculosis of domesticated animals to man has been thrown into doubt byBobert Koch on the basis of experiments which he carried out in coopera- tion with Schiitz. In these experiments it was found impossible, by any method of inoculating human tuberculosis, to render cattle, nineteen in number, tuberculous, while, on the contrary, cattle which were inoculated with tuberculous material from other cattle became seriously affected;; and part of them died. Before the experiments of Koch and Schiitz, Piitz, Theobald Smith, Frothingham, Dinwiddle and Gaiser had demonstrated the difficulty of transmitting human tuberculosis to cattle ; Koch and Schiitz, however, conducted their experiments, in so far as they operated with pure cultures, exclusively with one culture. This is of the greatest significance in judging the results, as was shown by the experiments of Thomassen. He infected four cattle with four cultures of tubercle bacilli of various human origins and produced positive results in two cases. Furthermore, Karlinski succeeded in infecting cattle with human tuberculosis in ten cases during twenty-five experiments. Similarly, Bollinger, Kitt, Frothingham, Crookshauk, Svennson, Delepinf», Arloing, Krebbs and Eievel, as well as de Jong, obtained positive results in the transmission of human tuberculosis to calves. We may, therefore, agree with Thomassen when he states that it is difficult but not impossible to transmit human tuberculosis to cattle. In the case of -hogs and sheep, even Koch and Schutz suc- ceeded in part of their experiments in producing tuberculosis, if only of a local character, in the experimental animals by means of TUBEB0ULOSI8 631 tuberculous material of human origin. In hogs and sheep also, tuberculous material of bovine origin was found to be much more infectious than that of human origin. The rarity of primary intestinal tuberculosis in man seems to speak for the soundness of Koch's assumption. The question should not be decided by this evidence, but rather by the occur- rence of primary tuberculous alterations in the laryngeal, cervical and mesenteric glands, ■^hich affections appear much more fre- quently after the ingestion of tubercle bacilli with the food than does a tuberculous affection of the intestinal mucous membrane. Heller in Kiel recently found that in nearly one-half of the cases of tuberculosis of children there was an affection of the mesenteric glands. Moreover, Dr. Still, working on material obtained from autopsies in a London hospital for children, found 29.1 per cent, and Dr. Shiennau in Edinburgh found primary tuberculosis in 28.5 per cent, of the cases of tuberculosis in children. Negative results in the transmission of a given race of tuber- culous cultures of bovine origin to man, as reported by Baum- garten, are not sufficient, according to the results of the experi- ments by Thomasseu and Karlinski, to prove the non-transmissi- bility to man of bovine tuberculosis. In favor of the possibility of the transmissibility of bovine tuberculosis to man we have the case of Moses, that of Priester, several cases of skiu tuberculosis of animal origin and cases of alimentary tuberculosis which have been observed in man after drinking tuberculous milk. The veterinarian, Moses, of a healthy family, received in the summer of 1885, a wound on the left thumb while making a post-mortem examination of a tuberculous cow. The wound healed without suppuration, although the point of the knife probably penetrated into the joint. After six mouths, how- ever, a so-called skin tubercle developed on the cicatrix and the joint became loose. In the autumn of 1886 acute catarrh appeared, and thereupon a chronic hoarseness, and, in January, 1887, death resulted (Pfeiffer). Priester reported a case, observed in a surgi- cal clinic in Kiel, of skin tuberculosis in a man who for the pur- pose of removing a tattooing of the skin pricked the tattoo marks and rubbed milk into the punctures. This operation was repeated several times. Skin tuberculosis developed in the punctures which were rubbed with milk on a certain day. Concerning skin tuberculosis in veterinarians and butchers, which may be ascribed to infection with bovine tuberculosis, we have the communications of Tscherning, Eavenel, Johne, Miiller in ;;632 INFECTIOUS "-DISEASES . Efcfurt, SicK and the author' (bompare Zeit. f.-I'leisoh u. Milchhyg., Vol. XI., Noi 12). In this connection it should be remembered that skin tuberculosis can be inducedi artificially only ■rt^ith some diffi- culty. Chauveau did not 'succeed in infecting calves by snper- . ficial scarification of the skin and subsequent rubbing-in of the tuberculous material. Similarly, Bollinger obtained negative results by cutaneous inoculation of guinea pigs. With regard to the transmissibility of tuberculosis by means J of the milk of tuberculous cows, particularly such as are affected with mammary tuberculosis, the following observations may suffice : According to a report of OUivier in the Academy of Medicine at Paris, twelve girls in a Girls' Academy contracted tuberculosis. Of .this number, five died. The fact that the Infected and dead girls came from healthy parents and showed principally the symptoms- of intestinal tuberculosis awakened the suspicion of alimentary infection, and this suspicion was fully confirmed by the slaughter of a cow which for years had furnished the milk for the Academy.* The cow was found to be infected with extensive tuberculous processes of the internal organs and udder. t All organs affected with tuberculosis must, therefore, be excluded from the market as dangerous food material. In this connection, it should be observed that also those organs are to be considered tuberculous in which we find merely an affection of the lymph. glands, for although it is known that tubercle bacilli possess the power of penetrating intact epithelia and producing alterations in the neighboring lymph glands, nevertheless we do not know with certainty, in individual case.«, that no tubercles are actually found in the organs. The organs can not be dissected to such an extent that all macroscopically-visible tubercles in them may be demon- strated. Moreover, even if this were true, the foci which stand on the borderland of macroscopic visibility might escape our atten- tion. if For this reason also, as frequently mentioned, all lymphatic * This one case, mentioned incidentally, should -furnish sufficient reason for all abattoir directors allowing tlie milk of cows maintained at abattoirs, a very large percentage of which are found to be tuberculous, and often some with mammary tuberculosis, to be admitted to the market only after previous boiling (compare Ostertag, Zeit. f. Fleisch u. Milchhyg., Vol. V.). t Koch has recently stated that OUivier subsequently corrected his report and asserted that the girls did not receive the milk of the tuberculous cow. — Translator. i Eieck emphasizes the fact that in the frequently occurringaflfecUon of the bronchial glands there are often only isolated minute peribronchial foci to be ;found, which are distinguished from thfe normal parenchyma by their darker color. TUBERCULOSIS ' 633 glands at the natural openings (alimentary and respiratory tracts) in every food animal should be carefully examined for the presence oi tubercles, by palpation and incision. The requirement is evidently well based that even in the case of the presence of isolated foci in a given organ, the whole organ is always to be considered as dangerous to health. For, quite aside from the fact that the tubercle bacilli quite regularly make their way from isolated foci to neighboring lymphatic glands and thus pass through the apparently healthy parts of the organ, we have no means of knowing whether or not similar foci have developed at a greater or less distance from the visible tubercles. A tuberculous organ can not, like one which is infested with animal parasites, be ren- dered innocuous by removing the affected parts.* ' On account of the danger to health from eating tuberculous organs, they should be carefully removed with all their appendices and rendered innocuous ; especially the corresponding lymph glands of such an organ must in each case be excluded from market along with this organ. I emphasize this fact, since this requirement of the sanitary police is frequently violated. It sometimes happens that the lobes of the lungs are removed, but not the bronchial glands, trachea, or larynx ; and also that the peritoneum or pleura is removed, but not the groups of lymphatic glands which belong to these structures. It also occurs that the mesenteric glands are condemned, but not the corresponding portion of the intes- tine, etc. (compare page 182, ff.). Procedure in Oases of Local Affection of the Pleura and Peritoneum. — In local affection of the pleura and peritoneum, it is the common practice merely to remove these membranes with the lymphatic glands which lie upon them (Fig. 219). Objection may be raised to this practice that by the careless dissection of the membranes in question tuberculous material may remain on the thoracic or abdominal walls. Hartenstein, therefore, rightly demands that the rettioval of the tuberculous pleura and peritoneum shall be per- formed only by the meat inspector himself or by some other reliable , official. Still better, however, is the suggestion of the same author * A quite formidable danger lies in a procedure which I have unfortunately observed in the case of insufficiently-trained empirical meat inspectors. Sucli persons content themselves with the removal of the rriore extensively altered -parts, or with cutting out superficial foci, and admit the rest of the organ to market withoiut restriction. These improperly instructed officials do not know that they are thereby in each individual case laying themselves liable to punish- ment (Sees. 13 and 14 of the P'ood Law). 634 INFECTIOUS DISEASES that in case of pleural tuberculosis the whole thoracic wall (ribs, intercostal muscles and pleura) be removed, and that in peritoneal tuberculosis, the whole abdominal wall, or the peritoneum, together with the lymphatic glands and abdominal muscles which lie imme- diately under it, should be removed, (b) Judgment of the Meat of Taberrulons Animals. The careful elimination of organs showing tuberculous altera- tions is the most important function of the sanitary police with regard to tuberculosis of food animals. Tuberculous organs con- stitute the chief danger to human beings. In comparison with it the danger from the consumption of the meat of tuberculous animals is slight. The question whether and to what extent the meat of tubercu- lous animals possesses harmful properties has given rise to more investigations and experiments than any other problem of hygiene. The modifications of the prevailing views concerning this question during the pre-Kochian epoch may be passed over, since they possess rather a historical interest. At the present time the stand- point with regard to the mooted question may be described as follows : The belief that the meat of tuberculous animals is, as a rule, harmless and that only in exceptional cases does it possess harmful properties must be looked upon as scientifically well founded. It is one of Johne's great merits that he introduced clear con- ceptions concerning the harmfulness of the meat of tuberculous animals in the place of the previously prevailing vague and ill- defined ones. Johne established the proposition that " the gist of the question regarding the point of time from which the meat of tuberculous animals is to be considered as infected and therefore infectious is not, as maintained by Gerlach, determined by the affection of the lymph glands of the neighboring organs, but simply by the demonstration of generalized tuberculosis. This alone furnishes positive proof of the fact that the virus has entered into the systemic circulation and has infected the meat. Not until this point of time, therefore, are we justified in unconditionally exclud- ing from the market a given piece of meat." Thus formulated, this principle constitutes a great stride in advance as contrasted with the general, meaningless phrases which formerly passed current regarding the judgment of the meat of tuberculous animals and which are, unfortunately, still to be found in some regulations con- cerning meat inspection. TUBERCULOSIS 635 The conception of the generalization of tuberculosis which Weigert introduced into pathological anatomy has become an axiom in meat inspection since Johne. At present, the view is generally entertained that in undoubted cases of Iftcal tuberculosis the meat is harmless, while in generalized cases it is harmful. In cases intermediate between the local and generalized forms, according to the rules which serve for the guidance of sanitary police, viz., to assume in dvbio the less favorable condition, the meat is to be sus- pected of possessing harmful properties and is to be treated accordingly. ' The first point, the assumption of the harmlessness of meat in cases of undoubted local tuberculosis, will probably remaiii for all time as an immutable dogma of meat inspection. The second propo- sition, on the other hand, viz., that the generalization of tuberculosis is always associated with a harmful property of meat, can no longer be maintained. Only under certain conditions and not uniformly does the generalization of tuberculosis produce a harmful property in the meat. 9. — Experiments Concerning the Virulence op the Meat op Tuberculous Animals. Nocard made inoculations with the muscle serum of twenty-one cows which were affected with generalized tuberculosis. In only one case, however, was one of the four guinea pigs infected. Each experimental animal received 1 cc. of fresh muscle serum in the body cavity. In this connection, however, it should be remembered, as stated by Nocard, that intraperitoneal infection is by no meuns synonymous with the possibility of an infection through the alimentary tract. All experiments by the last-named method of inoculation gave negative results. Even the meat of the cow, the muscle serum from which produced an infection in an inoculated guinea pig, was eaten by four cats without any ill effects, although each cat received over 500 gm. Galtier, who had previously studied the question of the virulence of the meat of tuberculous animals, on the basis of later experiments (1891-189S) drew the same con- clusions that he had previously drawn, namely, that the muscle serum of tuberculous animals may contain tubercle bacilli, but that, as a rule, such is not the case. In inoculating the musc>e serum of fifteen tuberculous animals in quantities of from 4 to 12 cc, Galtier was able to transmit the disease to experimental animals 636 INFECTIOUS DISEASES in only two cases. In one case, 4 cc. was inoculated into the experimental animal without any reaction, while 12 cc. produced tuberculosis. In order to obtain information concerning the danger of eating raw meat, Galtier fed the meat of tuberculous cattle to cats, dogs, calves and hogs — as much as they would eat. In no case, however, was he able to produce tuberculosis in these animals. This result is particularly remarkable, since among the samples of meat which were fed two were found the serum from which produced pro- nounced cases of tuberculosis in rabbits after subcutaneous inoculation. Galtier concludes from these experiments that the consumption of the meat of tuberculous cattle is not especially dangerous, and he holds to his previously expressed opjnioa that in slight cases of tuberculosis the destruction of the dis- eased organs is sufficient, while the meat may be admitted to the market. . Van der Sluys fed ten young pigs with the raw meat of animals which were affected with acute generalized tuberculosis. For the purpose of favoring infection, bone splinters were mixed with the meat. Among the ten experimental pigs, three, or 30 per cent, became infected with alimentary tuberculosis. Forster obtained positive results in three out of seven experiments in feeding finely minced meat of highly tuberculous animals. Bang attempted to transmit tuberculosis by means of the blood of badly affected cows. He obtained positive results, how- ever, in only two out of 21 experiments. According to the view of this noted Danish investigator, there is no danger from eating the meat so long as tuberculosis is plainly localized. Bang states that his experiments demonstrated that the muscle serum aud muscle tissue are unfavorable media for the multiplication of tubercle bacilli. Bollinger had his pupil, Hagemann, inoculate guinea pigs with the blood of six tuberculous cows. In these experiments it was found that the blood of one cow which showed extensive tuberculosis was virulent. Under Bollinger's direction,. Kastner instituted experiments concerning the infectiousness of the meat of tuberculo.us animals. In the first series of experiments he prepared muscle serum from 12 animals affected with tuberculosis in different degrees, and inoculated 16 guinea pigs intraperitoneally with this material. All experiments gave negative results. This result was surprising, since Bollinger's pupil, Steinheil, had found the muscle serum of human beings, dead of phthisis, to TUBERCULOSIS 637 bo uniformly infectious. Kastner's cattle, however, were affected with tuberculosis to such a slight extent that their meat could be admitted to the market. In a second series of experiments, Kastner operated with the muscle serum of cattle the meat of which, with one exception, was condemned on account of extensive tuberculosis in nearly all the organs. lu the animals in question the tubercles in the lungs and other organs were casefied as in man and did not, as is usually the case in cattle, become calcified. In all, twelve experiments were instituted with the meat of seven animals. In only two cases was a negative result obtained (among them the slight case mentioned as an exception) ; in all the other cases, the muscle serum showed itself to be virulent in intraperitoneal inoculation of guinea pigs. According to these recent experiments the chief attention is to be directed to the pathologico-anatomical conditions in rendering a judgment on the danger of infection. "As shown by the first series of experiments, a complete calcification of the tuberculous processes may indicate only a slight danger of infection. If, on the other hand, casefied masses are found from which the virus may escape, the danger of infection must be recognized. It is accordingly the function of meat inspection to render a judgment on this point, and that this is possible by a conscientious fulfil- ment of duty, is completely proved by the work of the sanitary authorities of the Munich abattoir and stockyard. For I was unable to obtain a positive result from a single case of the meat admitted to the market, while the condemned meat proved to be infectious in all cases except one " (Kastner).* Under the term calcification, Kastner understood dry caseo- calcareous, often mortar-like metamorphoses. Under caseation, on * That it would be quite irrational, on the basis of Kastner's highly inter- ■esting experiments, to conclude upon the necessity of a rigorous procedure of the sanitary police against tuberculosis of cattle is proved by the statistics of condemnations from meat inspection in Munich, set up as a model by Kastner. Kastner instituted his experiments in 1890 with material which liad been con- demned by the Munich meat inspectors. In Munich in 1890 the following num- bers of animals were absolutely excluded from market on account of tubercu- losis: 3 steers, 21 cows and 2 young cattle out of 23,390 steers, 21,540 coWs, 7,511 bulls and 8,290 young cattle slaughtered. Among the cattle slaughtered,' 394 steers, 1,353 cows, 67 bulls and 41 young cattle — a total of 1,854 animals — were tuberculous, and of this number only 41 had to be excluded from the market. This is a minimum proportion, particularly if we consider the fact that the percentage of tuberculous animals in Munich was very low ; viz., 3 per cent, of all animals slaughtered, for in this 8 per cent, numerous cases of primary tuber- culosis of the lymphatic glands were not included. , 638 INFECTIOUS DISEASES the other hand, which renders the meat evidently dangerous, he understood purulent caseous disintegration.* The author instituted inoculation experiments in 18 guinea pigs with what had the microscopic appearances of being healthy pieces of muscle, lymph glands and spleen from cattle which were affected with dry caseous foci in the mesenteric glands, lungs, liver and spleen. One animal soon died of peritonitis. All other ani- mals were found to be non-tuberculous after from 6 to 8 weeks. Perroncito, during the years 1889-1891, conducted experiments concerning the virulence of the meat of tuberculous cattle on a large number of guinea pigs, rabbits and hogs, as well as on two cattle. These experiments, however, like those already mentioned by the same author in 1874 and 1875, had a uniformly negative result. In his experiments Perroncito used the meat of cattle which had been condemned in the abattoir at Turin on account of "a considerable extension of the disease." Part of the meat was fed, and from another part muscle serum was expressed and used in subcutaneous and intraperitoneal inoculations. In three series of experiments with young pigs, Perroncito fed meat from tuberculous animals without producing infection in the pigs. In more than 200 rabbits and as many guinea pigs the muscle serum was injected under the skin or into the body cavity without producing a trace of tuberculosis observable when the ani- mals were slaughtered after 1^ months or longer. The result from subcutaneous injection of muscle serum in the two cattle was like- wise negative. * These distinctions should be borne well in mind. Dry caseation with a strong tendency to calcification is very frequent in tuberculosis.of domesticated animals. It is the usual case in alimentary tuberculosis and is, therefore, met with in a great majority of tuberculous calves and hogs. Purulent disintegra- tion forms the exception. It takes place most frequently in primary bronchial pneumonia of cattle, chiefly old cows and steers, in which it may become very extensive under certain conditions. The author has previously had opportunity to explain that in cattle those forms of tuberculosis are undoubtedly most dangerous, in so far as the meat is concerned, in which softened tuberculous foci are found in the organs (mixed infection of the tubercle bacilli with staphylococci and purulent streptococci). For, with the presence of extensive tuberculous abscesses at the natural fentrances to the body, one usually finds embolic foci of very different age in the spleen and in the kidneys, and very frequently, moreover, an emaciation as evi- dence of the fact that the bacteria themselves or their metabolic products have constantly had opportunity to enter into the blood circulation. It may be inci- dentally mentioned in this connection that the histolytio property of pyogenic bacteria must be considered responsible for this varying condition of the dry caseous and softened tuberculous foci. TUBERCULOSIS 639 Four young pigs of Italian breed, six months old, were fed for four months on the meat of tuberculous cattle and remained healthy. Moreover, a litter of twelve pigs, two months old, were fed for five months on such meat without becoming in- fected. The majority of the above described experiments were unfortu- nately made without an accurate determination of the extension and special condition of the process in the animals the musculature of which was used for inoculation. Data on these points would have greatly increased the value of the experiments. These experiments, however, in connection with those of Kastner, Bang and the author, justify the conclusion that the meat and muscle serum of tubercu- lous animals, as a rule, contain no bacilli or not enough to produce tuberculosis in the experimental animals. Only in acute stages of tuberculosis and in cases of a purulent softening of the tuberculous foci is the meat infectious. In this connection, however, it should be remembered that, even presupposing the same susceptibility to tuberculosis in man as in experimental animals, the quantity of the tubercle bacilli which produces tuberculosis in intraperitoneal inoculation is not sufficient to cause infection when administered by way of the alimentary canal (page 611). A positive result from inoculation does not, therefore, indicate an injurious property of the meat when eaten. Accordingly, it requires no further argument to disprove the vie,w which was once entertained in all seriousness by an expert on the occasion of a litigation concerning tuberculosis, viz., that a single tubercle bacillus is sufficient to injure human health when ingested with the food. A certain quantity of bacilli are required in prder to exercise an injurious effect. For the rest, the experience of the pathological anatomists show in the most unambiguous manner that the meat of tuberculous animals plays only an inconspicuous role in the etiology of human tuberculosis. Baumgarten states on the basis of his experience that, despite the strong tendency of the digestive tract toward tuberculous affection, " no great significance for the origin of human tuberculosis can be ascribed" to this method of infection. " "We are forced to accept this view by the fact that primary tuberculosis of the digestive tract in man is, on the whole, quite a rare occurrence." Bollinger also emphasizes the fact that alimentary tuberculosis in man is much more frequently secondary than primary. Primary tuberculosis of the intestine was observed chiefly in young individuals and was to be ascribed mainly to eating raw milk. 640 , INFECTIOUS DISEASES Moreover, when we remember that, under unregulated or badly- regulated meat inspection, yearly, nay, daily, immense quantities of tuberculous organs are placed upon the market and are eaten — I would call attention merely to the frequency of pulmonary tubercu- losis, to which, unfortunately, proper attention is not yet given everywhere — and that this is undoubtedly infectious material, only a very slightly dangerous property for human health can be assumed for the meat of tuberculous animals, in view of the rare occurrence of primary intestinal tuberculosis in adult human beings and the great extent of tuberculosis among cattle* Merely for the sake of completeness, it should be stated that the Tuberculosis Congresses in Paris in 1885 and 1891 voted for the aibsolute exclusiou from the market of the meat of all tubercu- lous animals. Outside of the Tuberculosis Congresses, this, from a ecientifie standpoint, absolutely unwarranted requirement found no advocates. The same proposition was also brought before the Seventh International Congress for Hygiene in London and was unanimoi-.sly rejected. Later Tuberculosis Congresses (1893, 1898) fortunately took a more rational view of the question, since they considered the sale of the meat of animals affected with localized tuberculosis as admissible without qualification and that of animals affected with generalized tuberculosis as admissible after previous sterilization. Of considerable importance for the judgment of the meat of tuberculous animals is the fact, determined by Nocard, that the blood possesses properties by means of which it soon frees itself of tubercle bacilli which may be found in it. Nocard demonstrated that after the intravenous injection of tubercle bacilli the blood *The Bavarian Minister of State on August 11, 1879, ordered the collection of statistics concerning the' distribution of tuberculosis among the Bavarian pop- ulation, with especial reference to the connection between tuberculosis of man and that of cattle. During the investigation it was found , as stated by Bollinger, that a large number of isolated observations were collected which indicated the harmless character of the meat of tuberculous animals. In the village of Eeiterswiesen, for example, with 453 inhabitants, almost exclusively the meat of tuberculous animals was consumed. Nevertheless, tuberculosis occursthere very rarely and the families which are the almost exclusive consumers of the meat of tuberculous animals were all found to be free from tuberculosis. Bauwerker reports that a shoemaker lived in Alsenz who, together with his whole numerous family, had for years lived almpst entirely upon the meat of tuberculous cattle. "The meat, which was often without any trace of fat, was salted, boiled and eaten." Tuberculosis was never observed in the family. Bollinger and Bauwerker called attention to the fact that in Bavaria meat is eaten only after being cooked. TUBERCULOSIS 641 loses its ilifectiousness within four, five, or, at most, six days (destruction and excretion of the bacilli). It is therefore evident that the meat of tuberculous animals may be quite harmless in spite of a previous generalization of tubercu- losis. The tubercle bacilli are either excreted from the body or are destroyed by a specific action of the blood. In the generalization Pig. 320. Tuberculosis of the dorsal vertebrae in a hog. as, caseous focus; h, deposition of lime in the caseous focus; c, bony bands and islands on the border of the caseous focus; d, section of a vertebra after removal of the tuberculous products. of tuberculosis and the entrance of the tubercle bacilli into the blood, the musculature escapes infection for the reason that it is almost immune to tuberculosis. Even in cases of extensive flooding of the blood with bacilli, during which all the internal organs appear to be infected with tubercle bacilli, and in the so-called acute miliarf tuberculosis, the musculature is usually free from tuberculous alter- ations. 642 INFECTIOUS DISEASES Nevertheless, the meat of tuberculous animals, even after the process of generalization has ended, can not be unconditionally- admitted to the market; for, while the musculature, "the chief con- stituent of the meat of traffic," is, as a rule, free from tuberculous, alterations, the other elements of the meat, lymph vessels, bones and lymphatic glands in the meat, may be tuberculous. In such cases the diseased meat of tuberculous animals is to be considered, from a sanitary police standpoint, in the same category with tuber- culous organs. ' For the determination of such alterations in the meat, we now possess valuable criteria in the intermuscular lymphatic glands, particularly in, the prescapular, axillary, popliteal, inguinal, knee- fold and iliac glands, as well as in the glands which lie underneath the spinal column. If there are tuberculous foci present in the meat, these lymphatic glands are altered. In case of localized tuberculosis, on the other hand, these glands, with the exception of the lumbar glands, which may be affected also in localized peritoneal tuberculosis, are intact. As a rule, however, it is an easy matter, from the absence or presence of embolic foci in organs which are accessible only through the blood circulation, to determine the general nature of this affection. For the rest, the less favorable condition is to be assumed. Tuberculous processes on the spiDal column and sternum may be immediately recognized in animals which are cut up according to the butchers' ordinary method, since in such portions the median plane of these bones is exposed (Fig. 220). In the case of the ribs, careful attention should be given to thickenings. Alterations of- the bones of the extremities manifest themselves uniformly by conspicuous alterations of the lymphatic glands in the shoulder and pelvis. Attention should also be called in this connection to the fact that costal tuberculosis is always an expression of generalization. It never arises in a local manner by extension of alterations in the pleura. Doubt concerning the judgment of the meat of an animal in which the process of generalization has taken place (tuberculosis of the lungs, liver, spleen, or kidneys) can arise only in cases in which the tubercles in the parenchymatous tissues are very small. In such cases it may not be possible, by the ordinary macroscopic inspection, to demonstrate such small foci in the intermuscular lymphatic glands, the inspection of which is, for the above men- tioned reasons, of greatest importance. It should be remembered, however, that in the lymphatic glands the tubercles grow much more rapidly and become visible sooner than in the parenchyma of TUBERCULOSIS 643 the organs. For example, in cases where the foci in the spleen are not quite the size of hemp seed, one finds in the prescapnlar glands, in consequence of an infection of the blood, quite conspicuous tubercles which are much larger than hemp seed. In order, hoW" ever, to proceed with certainty, it is necessary in the presence of embolic tubercles in the spleen or kidneys of the size of hemp seed, not to consider the macroscopic inspection of the lymph glands lying in the musculature as sufiScienl^ but to base fiual judgment upon the microscopic inspection of the lymph glands by means of teased preparations. 10. — Ckitebia Fuenished by Expeeiments Conceening the Habmeul OR Haemless Chaeactee op the Meat op Tuberculous Animals. According to the foregoing discussion, we must consider the meat of tuberculous animals which are infected with undoubted localized tuberculosis as harmless. To this category belong all cases of localized tuberculosis in which the tuberculous processes possess a purely caseous or calcareous character and are not purulent. We must render similar judgment concerning all healed cases of typical generalization restricted to the internal organs. As injurious to health, on the other hand, we must characterize the meat of all cases of generalization 'with tuberculous alterations in the musculature, bones, joints and lymphatic glands of thei muscles, and also all cases of fresh generalization with tumefaction of the spleen and all the lymphatic glands. We must consider the meat as probably possessed of a harmful character to a high degree, and must treat it in the same manner as that which has been shown to be harmful in cases where the local character of. the tuberculous process is doubtful. This is especially the case in the formation of extensive cavities in the lungs, mesen- teric glands, or liver, since, in addition to the experiments of Kastner, experience teaches that in the presence of tuberculous cavities frequent outbreaks of tubercle bacilli into the blood take place, a phenomenon which is readily recognized from the fact that in such cases, in contrast with other cases, foci of varying size and, therefore, to be considered of varying age, usually occur in the spleen or kidneys. The meat of emaciated tuberculous animals is to be judged as highly unfit for food, without regard to the tuberculous processes. 644 INFECTIOUS DISEASES The distinction, however, between emaciation and poorness should be kept in mind. 11. — Boiling and Sterilization op the Meat of Tuberculous Animals. At the Sixteenth Session of the German Association for Public Sanitation, Bollinger called attention to the possibility of admitting to the market in a cooked condition the meat from cases of gener- alized tuberculosis. At the same time Hertwig in Berlin instituted experiments to determine to what extent we are in a position to destroy with certainty the tubercle bacilli present in the meat, by ^ boiling or some other process. The results of these experiments, which will receive special consideration iu an appendix, led to the recommendation of a steam sterilizing process for rendering harm- less the meat of tuberculous animals. By means of this process it is possible in a comparatively short time to heat the meat uniformly, that is, also in the central layers, to a temperature of 100° C, whereby we have the assurance that all the bacilli present in the meat will be destroyed. The organisms of tuberculosis are rendered harmless by heating to a temperature of 95° C. (compare page 610). By means of steam sterilization it is possible to save considerable quantities of the meat of tuberculous animals which formerly had to be destroyed. The meat of tuberculous animals can not immedi- ately be utilizable as human food, even after the general introduction of the steam sterilizing process. The meat of tuberculous animals which gives evidence of a character highly unfit for food can not be improved in quality by treatment with steam, and must, therefore, be excluded from the market after such treatment, as well as before it. The same is true of meat which«exhibits tuberculous foci in its substance ; for tuberculous foci are not human food, even if they are sterilized. However, all meat which heretofore had to be excluded from the market because of the local character of the tuberculosis and the harmlessness of which was consequently doubtful, may from now on be admitted to the market conditionally, after a previous sterilization.* * Some authorities, among them the American author, Law, have raised the objection against the boiling and sterilization of the meat of tuberculous animals that the tuberculin contained in the meat was not thereby destroyed. It has been shown by A. Eber, however, that tuberculin is not demonstrable even when present in large quantities, in the blood of extensively tuberculous ani- mals. TUBERCULOSIS ' 645 Utilization of the Fat of Tuberculous Animals. — The Eoyal Presi- dent of Police, in agreement with the magistrate in Berlin, has allowed the fat of rejected tuberculous hogs to be utilized as human food after previous rendering. As a result of this permission, the sides of bacon from fat tuberculous hogs, which heretofore had to be delivered to the knackers, may be removed from the carcasses, after carefully separating the tuberculous lymphatic glands or other tuberculous foci, and rendered in a digester in which a tem- perature of 150° C. is maintained. From a hygienic standpoint, not the slightest objection can be raised against this procedure. The sale of rendered fat, however, must take place under declara- tion on account of the abnormal material which is utilized in pre- paring the product. 12. — Obligatory Declaration for the Meat of Tuberculous Animals Admitted for Food. In slight cases of tuberculosis, which, as a rule, are "unex- pectedly met with in animals which during life exhibited a picture of perfect health," and which also exhibited no disturbance in their fattening, there is no occasion, on the basis of the foregoing discus- sion, to exclude the meat from unrestricted traffic. Such meat is to be considered as marketable material. In cases of extensive local distribution of the tuberculous processes, especially in cases with widely distributed serous tuberculosis, not alone upon the internal organs, but also on the membranes of the body walls, it is necessary, that the meat should be sold as an inferior food material under declaration of its particular character. The meat of tuber- culous animals which has been boiled or sterilized with steam is likewise to be sold under declaration. Rumpel studied the meat of slightly tuberculous animals by means of feeding experiments with a bitch, and found, according to these experiments, that there is no reason for characterizing the meat of tuberculous animals as of inferior quality. Such meat fur- nished the same amount of nutriment as was secured by feeding nor- mal meat. Likewise, with regard to the completeness of assimilation, the meat of tuberculous animals was quite equal to normal meat. 13. — Scientific Method of Procedure With the Meat of Tuberculous Animals. 1. The meat of animals with slight or not greatly extended, local, purely tuberculous alterations is to be freely admitted for 646 INFECTIOUS DISEASES « sale as marketable material after the removal of tlie tuberculous foci. 2. The meat of animals affected with a greatly extended, but undoubtedly local tuberculous process, is to be sold as an iuferior food material under declaration (on the freibank). 3. In cases of healed generalization, restricted entirely to the internal organs (lungs, liver, spleen and kidneys), the meat is to be treated as marketable or of inferior value, according to the degree of the affection. 4. All animals, on the other hand, which exhibit pronounced emaciation, or the symptoms of a recent infection of the blood (splenic tumor and swelling of all the lymphatic glands, miliary tubercles in the lungs, liver or spleen), as well as muscle meat which is permeated with tuberculous alterations, are to be excluded from the market as unfit for human food and are to be utilized only for technical purposes.* 5. Finally, the meat of animals in which the local character of the tuberculosis and the harmlessness of the meat is doubtful (particularly in the presence of extensive tuberculous cavities and incipient disturbance of nutrition) is to be admitted to the market as conditionally marketable food material when cooked in small pieces, or, better, when sterilized with steam. Likewise, muscle meat, after careful removal of the included lymphatic glands, bones aud vascular trunks, may be utilized in cases in which merely the corresponding lymph glands, and not the musculature itself, exhibit tuberculous alterations. With regard to the fat, it may be made utilizable by rendering in the place of cooking or steaming. * In animals in which only one or a few', but not all, of the lymphatic glands of the muscles are aflfected, the procedure recommended by Hartenstein may be unhesitatingly recommended : that only the parts which are tributary to those lymph glands should be excluded from the market ; for example, in case of the affection of one kneefold gland, the corresponding hind quarter. Harten- stein recommended that the rest of the meat of such animals be admitted to the market in a cooked or sterilized condition, since "a certain suspicion " rested upon it. Since, however, we are able, by means of a careful examination, to assure ourselves whether this suspicion is well foxmded or not, there can be no real objection to the utilization in a raw condition of the rest of the meat which is free from tuberculous alterations (compare the Posen Declaration to the Decree of the Prussian Ministry, of March 26, 1893, page ( TUBERCULOSIS 647 14. — Official Eegulations Conceening the Method of Pbo- CEDURE With the Meat op Tuberculous Animals. Under the complex conditions which prevail with regard to the sanitaiy judgment of the meat of tuberculous animals, the fixed form of legal provisions or of authoritative decrees does not well adapt itself to the evident requirement of the principles by which the sanitary police should be governed. In order to prevent the possibility of error, a statement of reasons must be given for the authoritative decrees and instruction for the expert inspectors. These features, however, are wanting in all official provisions con- cerning the procedure with the meat of tuberculous animals. These provisions, therefore, have not everywhere served their purpose as well as could be desired. At the present time, the following legal proceedings concerning the meat of tuberculous animals are in force : * A. Kingdom of Prussia. — Becree of the Ministers of the Interior, Agricul- ture, Education and Commerce, of March 26, 1893. The regulations decreed September 15, 1887, concerning the judgment of the fitness for food of the meat of the tuberculous food animals, have recently given rise to an erroneous conception. We, therefore, order the repeal of this decree as well as all regulations published in technical periodicals July 22, 1883, and June 37, 1883, and of the decree of February 11, 1890, and order that the per- sons concerned should give heed to the following: As a rule, a harmful character of the meat of tuberculous cattle must be assumed when the meat contains tubercles, or when the tuberculous animal is emaciated without exhibiting tubercles in its meat.f On the other hand, the meat of tuberculous animals is to be considered fit for food (not injurious) when the animal is well nourished, and (1) When the tubercles are found exclusively in one organ; or, (3) When, in case two or more organs are affected, these organs lie in the game body cavity, and are directly connected with one another, or indirectly by * Through the decrees regarding the enforcement of the Imperial Meat Inspection Law, provisions of general application have been made concerning the procedure with the meat of tuberculous animals. \ By means of a decree of the Royal Government President at Posen, July 8, 1898, March 26, 1899, issued with the consent of the Ministries concerned, the above regulation is explained as referring only to those quarters of the meat which show tuberculous alterations. On the other hand, it is held that the other quarters in which the intermuscular lymphatic glands are unaltered may be admitted to the market without restriction ; and that, furthermore, the ren- dering and utilization of the fat of tuberculous animals as human food is to be permitted in all cases with the exception of parts infected with tuberculous alterations, which must be rendered innocuous. The sale of the fat in question may be permitted only under declaration. 648 INFECTIOUS DISEASES means of the lymphatic vessels or blood vessels which do not belong to the systemic circulation, but to the pulmonary and portal circulation. Since in reality a tuberculous affection of the muscles occurs very rarely, and, furthermore, since experiments conducted on a large scale for years at the Berlin Veterinary High School and" at several Prussian Universities, in feeding muscle meat of tuberculous animals for the purpose of producing tuberculosis in other animals, have had for the most part negative results (the opinion of the Scientific Deputation for Medical Service of December 1, 1886, Eulenbuig's Vierteljahrsschrift filr Gerichtliche Medizin und Oeffentliches Sanitatswesen, Vol. XL VII., pp. 307, ff.); since, therefore, the transmissibility of tuberculosis by consumption even of meat affected with tubercles is not proved, therefore the meat of well-nourished animals, even if the pathological conditions men- tioned under 1 and 2 are present, can not, as a rule, be considered as of inferior value, and the sale thereof can not be placed under especial police supervision. From the standpoint of national economy, it is desirable that meat which possesses a comparatively high nutritive value, such as that of superannuated and poor cattle, etc., shall be admitted tg market, the more so since a uni- form judgment of such meat in all localities is impossible when we consider the present defective meat inspection in many regions and the utter absence of meat inspection in a large part of the country. In the future, therefore, such meat is to be freely admitted to the market. In doubtful cases the opinion of an approved veterinarian should be sought, but the courts must decide whether the meat of tuberculous animals is to be considered as spoiled and whether the sale thereof violates the provisions of Section 367' of the Criminal Law Statute, or the regulations of the Food Law of May 14, 1879.* B. Kingdom of Bavaria. — ^Police regulations with regard to the inspection of cattle and sheep apparently affected with tuberculosis (pearl disease and lung plague) , June 35, 1893. Sec. 1. — If after slaughtering cattle and hogs, localized tuberculosis is found (pearl disease, lung plague) in the first stage of development, and if at the same time the slaughtered animal exhibits a good condition of nutrition, the meat of such animals, after the removal and destruction of the diseased organs, is to be freely admitted to the market and may be sold for human food. Sec. 3. The meat of cattle and hogs affected with generalized and advanced tuberculosis (pearl disease and lung plague), and exhibiting at the same time a state of emaciation, as well as meat which contains tuberculous foci, is to be con- sidered harmful and to be excluded from use as human food. It can not be offered for sale or sold for this purpose. If, in case of Sec. 3, the meat inspector is not a veterinarian, a subsequent inspection by an approved veterinarian may be demanded. Sec. 3. In doubtful cases (tuberculosis of the organs of one or more body cavities, transition forms between local and generalized tuberculosis), the opinion of an approved veterinarian is to be obtained. If such a veterinarian finds that the conditions of Sec. 1 or 3 are not present, then the meat may be admitted to the market under certain conditions and * A similar regulation concerning procedure with the meat of tuberculous animals lias been issued in the Principality of Reuss. TUBERCULOSIS 649 restrictions and may be sold for humah food, according to the degree of exteri- sion, stage and intensity of the pathological process, and according to 'the general nutritive condition of the animal. C. In the Kingdom of Saxony, the following provisions are in force :* 1. As unfit for food are to be considered : internal organs which contain tuberculous areas, or the lymphatic glands of which are infested with tubercu- lous foci. , 2. The meat is to be considered as unfit for food and the fat as fit for food, but not marketable (conditional utilization), in cases of tuberculosis in which the disease is generalized, that is, when the extension of the tuberculous process in the body may have taken place by means of the circulating blood (the portal circulation excepted) and v,hen fresh (that is, not calcified, dried up, or encap- suled), or numerous older tubercuious foci are present in the muscles, bones, or the lymphatic glands belonging to them, or when acute, miliary tubercijlosis is present, or when in cases of acute generalized tuberculosis, a high degree of emaciation is found. 3. The meat and fat are to be considered as unfit for food in a raw condition, but as fit for food but not marketable (conditionally utilizable) in a cooked con- dition in cases of tuberculosis where (a) With generalized tuberculosis, the evidences of fresh generalizations are restricted to the internal organs and their lymphatic glands, particularly to the spleen, kidneys and udder, or when isolated, older (calcified, dried up or encap- suled) tubercular foci are present in the bones, muscle substance or lymphatic glands of the muscles, and these foci may be removed with certainty ; or, when (6) "With acute- and generalized tuberculosis extensive softened foci and emaciation exist. In the same manner are to be judged and treated parts of meat which become contaminated with tuberculous material in removing tuberculous parts. Cooking can be considered as rendering the meat harmless only when it is accomplished in a steam cooking apparatus with pieces of meat weighing not more than 5 kg, ; so that the inside of the pieces of meat has been demonstrably exposed to a temperature of not less than 80° C. for a period of thirty minutes ; or when pieces weighing not more than 3 kg. are cooked for not less than three lioiirs in open kettles. The rendering of the fat can be considered as making it harmless only when this operation is carried out in kettles on the open fire or when with the use of a steam apparatus a temperature of at least 80° C. is reached before the fat is poured off. 4. All the meat, including the fat, is to be considered as non-marketable in cases where tuberculosis is acute and simultaneously generalized and where the * In the Kingdom of Saxony, the meat of animals found to be tuberculous lias been utilized as follows : In 1895, 1.93 per cent, of tuberculous cattle was destroyed, 5.51 per cent, was sold on the freibank and 92.54 pp.r cent, freely admitted to the market ; while 1.42 per cent, of the tuberculous hogs was destroyed, 24.25 per cent, sold on the freibank and 74.3 per cent, freely admitted to the market. In 1899, 1.41 per cent, of tuberculous cattle was destroyed, 5.15 per cent, sold on the freibank and 93.43 per cent, freely admitted to the market ; while 0.83 per cent, of tuberculous hogs was destroyed, 26.06 per cent, sold on the freibank and 73.01 per cent, freely admitted to thewnarket. 650 INFECTIOUS DISEASES animals are found in a good nutritive condition, or in cases 6f generalized tuter- culoSisin which the generalization from the character of the tuberculosis is to be considered as having run its course and is restricted to the internal organs, or when only isolated, calcified, separable foci are present in the muscles, bones or lymphatic glands of the m.uscles. i D. The regulations of Wurtemburg and Baden with regard to tuberculosis are restricted to a statement that the meat in cases of "generalized lung plague or pearl disease " is to be considered as ' ' unfit for food." E. In the Chrand Duchy of Hessen a decree of the Ministries of the Interior and Justice, Section for Public Hygiene, of October 12, 1883, makes the following provisions: "According to these principles the meat of tuberculous animals is to be declared unfit for food when it must be considered as infected with tuber- culosis, and, therefore, as harmful, a condition which, from a scientific standpoint, occurs only " when the animal in question has been affected with generalized tuberculosis ; that is, when, according to present experience, it must be assumed that the tubercle virus has entered into the general circulation and has been distributed to all parts of the body, and especially when the meat itself contains infected lymphatic glands ; furthermore, when the animals, in conse- quence of tuberculosis or other incidental infection, are in a poor nutritive condition, or when the meatof such animals, on accountof its general character, does not appear to be suiatble for human food. " In all other cases of tuberculosis, the meat is to be recognized as fit for food but not in prime market condition. The diseased parts and the surrounding tissue are always to be removed. This must take place, especially in tubercu- losis of the pleura and peritoneum, together with the parts of the meat which lie ' next to the pathologically-altered parts of these organs." F. For the Grand Duchy of Meoklenburg-Schwerin a circular letter con- cerning the sanitary judgment of the meat of tuberculous animals, dated May 9, 1895, orders as follows : According to the observations of the undersigned Minister, the meat inspec- , tors appear to judge the fitness for food of the meat of tuberculous food animals in very different ways. Since it is of not less interest to public sanitation that meat should not be unnecessarily excluded from the market than that no injurious meat should be admitted to the market, and since the lack of uniformity in the practice of meat inspection has already produced harmful results, therefore, the undersigned Minister feels obliged to prescribe for the district veterinarians principles which, according to the present status of science, are considered by the Minister as well adapted for the classification of the meat of tuberculous food animals : 1. The following animals are to be absolutely excluded from use as food material and are to be utilized only for technical purposes : (a) Those in which tuberculous alterations are found in the meat, in the bones or in the corresponding lymph glands. (6) Those in which symptoms of acute miliary tuberculosis with fever are found. (c) Those in which the emaciation of the body is far advanced and in which numerous widely-distributed tubercles are found, or in which the symptoms of TUBERCULOSIS 651 generalized tuberculosis are present, giving evidence of the distribution of a toxin through the systemic circulation. 3. As harmless for the consumers in a cooked condition (Rohrbeok's steam cooking apparatus) , and, therefore, admissible as food material, with this restric- tion, is to be considered the meat of animals which are affected with tuberculosis to the extent described in 1, c ; or the body of which is still well nourished or at least not conspicuously emaciated. For the rest, it is not required from a sanitary standpoint and it is opposed to the interests of public economy that the meat of animals in which tuberculous alterationg are found in a less extensive form than those described in 1 and 2, should be excluded from market simply oa account of the presence of tuberculosis. (Signed) The Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg, Ministry, Section for Medical Affairs, Miihlenbruoh. ^i Tuherculosis of Birds. — Through the investigations of Rivolta, Mafucci, Strauss, Gamaleia, et al., it has been demonstrated that avian tuberculosis is produced by a bacillus which is not essentially different, biologically, from the organism of mammalian tuberculosis. The bacillus of avian tuberculosis resembles that of human and . bovine tuberculosis with regard to form, behavior toward reagents and the gross anatomical lesions. However, as a rule, it is essen- tially pathogenic only for birds and not for mammals, as, vice versa, the bacillus of mammalian tuberculosis, as a rule, is not ; transmissible to birds. Nocard demonstrated that by repeated '. passages through animals the organism of mammalian tuberculosis could be rendered virulent for birds. The bacillus of avian tuber- i- culosis vegetates at temperatures between 25° and 45° 0. Mafucci emphasizes, as a prominent distinction between the pathogenic '• action of the two species, the fact that the tubercle of mammals ■ usually possesses giant cells, while the latter are absent in avain tubercles. Mafucci suggested that possibly the bacilli of tuberculosis of chickens play a part in the etiology of local tuberculosis of man. From a histological standpoint, Pfauder demonstrated that the specific products of avian tuberculosis were not completely free ^ from, but are very poor in Langhans' giant cells (with peripheral nuclei, Fig. 209), and that they exhibit caseation, not in the form of cloudy and finely granular masses, as in the case of mammalian tuberculosis, but rather in the form of a hyaline, -glassy sub- stance. 652 INFECTIOUS DISEASES (g) Pseudo-Tuberculosis. Nature and Etiology. — Under the term pseudo-tuberculosis are included pathological processes which, without being caused by the tubercle bacillus, have the essential character of caseatiou in common with tuberculosis. The etiology of so-called pseudo- tuberculosis is exceedingly multiform. Micrococci, bacilli, clado- thrices and mold fungi may cause tubercle-like processes. Formerly tubercles produced by animal parasites were classified with the pseudo-tuberculous processes ; for example, when degenerated tape- worm larvae were present in the musculature, one spoke of cestode tuberculosis. Ebstein and Nicolaier accepted this term for vermin- ous tubercles in the kidneys of dogs and in the lungs of cats. OccuKEENCE. — Tubercle-like alterations which were not pro- duced by the tubercle bacillus were observed by Eberth, Pfeiffer and other authors in guinea pigs and rabbits ; by Melassez and Vignal in chickens ; by Megnin and Mosny iu horses ; by Hayem, Toupet and Eppinger in man ; and, finally, also by a large number of observers in food animals, especially cattle and sheep. In the last named animal pseudo-tuberculosis may appear as an epizootic, as has been the case of la'te years in Australia and America. ' Kitt described a case of bacterial caseous pneumonia in cattle. The lungs exhibited the symptoms of caseous bronchial pneumonia. The disease was distinguished, however, microscopically from tuberculous, bronchial pneumonia by the complete absence of calcification and the formation of cavities. The condition of the lymphatic glands could not be determined. In the caseous material, thick masses of fine rods were found which were 1.5 y. long and about as broad &s swine erysipelas bacilli. They were readily stained by the Gram method and when so stained were to be recognized by their abundance, even in sections from the freezing microtome, under low magnification. In connection with this, from a sanitary standpoint, highly important observation, Kitt cites the following similar cases from literature : Stohr saw a ease of pseudo-tuberculosis (caseous pneu- monia) in sucking calves, which was produced by a bacillus. Nocard discovered masses of bacilli lying close together in the tubercles which occur in France in pseudo-farcy of horses and which appear in the lungs, liver, spleen and lymphatic glands and show a central caseation. These bacilli were about as long as those of swine PSEUDO-TUBEECULOSIS 653 erysipelas and as wide as tubercle bacilli. Tbey were stained by the Weigert modification of Gram's method. Courmont found a specific bacillus in a case of pleural tubercles in a cow, and, finally, Baumgarten found a specific micrococcus in a caseating granulation tumor in a lamb. Preisz and Guinard reported concerning a case of pseudo- tuberculosis in To sheep. Both kidneys of a sheep which was slaughtered in an abattoir were covered with old calcified granules which greatly resembled tubercles. Koch's bacillus, however, coula not be demonstrated in the granules. By the inoculation of rabbits and guinea pigs the authors uniformly obtained positive results : a rapid generalization of small tubercle-like structures which con- tained large quantities of very delicate fresh bacteria, rounded at both ends. This micro-organism could also be demonstrated in the tubercles of the sheep kidneys. Preisz and Guinard a,re of the opinion that the bacterial pseudo-tuberculoses are all identical. Later Preisz called attention to the fact that the pseudo-tubercu- losis investigated by him was distinguished from true tuberculosis by the fact that, in the former, tubercles were nipidly produced and casefied immediately after their appearance, while true tubevclek do not become visible and begin to casefy until three or four weeks after inoculation. In the frequently-occurring pseudo-tuberculosis of rodents, w» apparently have to do with a bacterial affection as in similar casat in sheep and cattle. The Bacillus pseudo-tuberculosis of A. Pfeiffer, which is identical with the zoogleacoccus of pseudo-tuberculosis, described by Eberth aud others, may be successfully transmitted to house mice, hamsters, guinea pigs, rabbits and hare. The author was able to demonstrate Bacillus pseudo-tuberculosis, as described by Kitt, Preisz and Guinard, in caseated lymphatic glands in sheep of various origin. In one case, reported by Turski, there was au extensive outbreak of pseudo-tuberculosis in a herd of Merino sheep. Among 150 ewes, 44, or 29 3 per cent., were more or less affected. The sheep which were affected with pseudo-tuberculosis were emaciated and after slaughter exhibited caseous alterations in various lymphatic glands, bronchial, mediastinal, portal, prescap- ular, kneefold and other intermuscular lymphatic glands. The lymphatic glands were either completely modified into caseous foci, or were sprinkled with caseous areas, varying in size from a hemp seed to that of a hazel nut. The substance of these areas was greenish-yellow, caseous, purulent, crumbling or dry, and in layers* like an onion. Calcification was completely wanting in the case 654 INFECTIOUS DISEASES described by E.itt. Moreover, the parenchyma of the internal organs was unaltered. On the other hand, metastatic, caseous foci were found in the musculature. In these foci numerous rods, resembling those oi swine erysipelas, were demonstrated by Gr.am's staining method (I'ig. 221 ). These rods grew on blood serum in the form of milk-white colonies, produced pseudo-tuberculosis in mice, rabbits and guinea pigs, and killed sheep with symptoms of violent septicemia, even when inoculated in comparatively small doses. Likewise in pseudo-tuberculosis of sheep, which has occurred in epizootic form m Australia and America, the bacillus pseudo- tuberculosis in question was demonstrated Fig. 221. as the pathogenic organism (Cherry and Bull, Norgaard and Mohler). ' ' - ' Diagnosis and Differential Dia nosis.— /•- ') -^" The general symptom of pseudo-tuberculous >- ^ ^ processes, caseation, has already been men- ^ / f - '' -" tioned. Pseudo-tuberculosis has this symp- "^ tom in common with true tuberculosis. For ^ "^ "• the differentiation of the two processes, the „ .„. , -, . ■, casualistic material furnishes essentially two Baeilu of pseudo-cubercu- •■ • -n- j ji t i i losis in a smear prepara- criteria: Hirst, the pseudo-tuberculous tu- t"m1dfa?WrSoi ^^'^^'^ ^^V^^^' ^\^ ^^1^'^°* *« <^°^i^^^ giant a sheep. X 500 diam. cells or epithelioid cells ; furthermore, it is to be concluded from observations thus far made that the caseous foci which appear in the lymph glands in pseudo-tuberculosis do not calcify, but dry up, and, consequently, exhibit an onion-like stratification. Judgment.— The sanitary police judgment of pseudo-tubercu- lous alterations varies like their etiology. In all cases, however, the character of the process justifies the complete exclusion from the market of organs which are affected with the alterations in question, and of the meat which is sympathetically affected by the generalization process. (h) Actinomycosis. ETiOLOtJf.— Actinomycosis (ray fungus disease) belongs to the chronic infectious diseases. It is produced by actinomyces (ray fungus), which was observed by Perroncito, Rivolta and Hahn, but ACTINOMYCOSIS 655 was first recognized as an etiological factor and described by -Bollinger in 1877. MoEPHOLOGy. — Actinomyces is classified with the pleomorphic Tjacteria for the reason that in cultures it forms short and long rods, simple and branched threads, spirally twisted organisms and cocci- like elements (Wolff and Israel). In animal tissues the ray fungus is observed in the foim of graceful rosettes, the chief character of which consists in club-shaped swellings of the radially-arranged mycelia (Fig. 222). In domesticated animals, actinomyces does not produce sup- puration, but simply an extensive infiltration of round cells and, in I- Actinomyces mycelia from a sub-maxillary actinomyeoma of a beef animal. X 340 diameters. the neighboring tissue, giant cells, the formation of which, to the best of the author's knowledge, was first described by Kitt (Fig. 223). The giant cells, however, are not of such regular form as iu tuber- culosis, but are of a more irregular shape. Suppuration in domesti- cated animals is to be attributed to a mixed infection with pyogenic bacteria. In purulent actinomycotic foci, I was impressed with the fact that the fungus rosettes do not show the fine growth and development which we are accustomed to see in domesticated ani- mals, but that they resemble in this respect more nearly the ordi- nary picture of actinomyces in man (Fig. 225). By transmitted light the actinomyces rosettes exhibit an evi- dent greenish sheen ; in consequence of calcification they lose this sheen and become black under transmitted light. The ray fungus rosettes are commonly located close together, in "mulberry-like 656 INFECTIOUS DISEASES masses," and thereby form pale-yellow granules of the size of millet seed, visible to the naked eye, and which are plainly distin- guished from the diseased tissue (Fig. 224). Pathogenesis. — Actinomyces may produce ulcers of consider- able size. According to their exterior condition, these ulcers are classified into soft and firm aetiuomycomata, the former being the more frequent. They possess the firmness of myxofibromata, while in the case of the firm actinomycomata, the consistency is similar Fig. 233. h a — Section through an actinomycotic tongue, a, central part of the aotinomyces; J, radially arranged clavate hyphse; c, giant cells in the adjoining zone of infiltration. X 240 diameters. to that of pure fibromata. The firm actinomycomata are compara- tively poor in myeelia. All actinomycotic foci are delimited from the surrounding tissue by a thick wall of connective tissue. In case of actinomycosis of one part of the body, the cor' responding groups of lymphatic glands may take part in the affec- tion. Ray fungi which accidentally find their way into the afferent lymphatic vessel produce in the lymphatic glands, as well as in the other tissues, small infiltration foci, inside of which the fungus colo- nies may be plainly recognized (compare Fig. 223). Neither sup- puration nor caseation appears in actinomycotic lymph glands. ACTINOMYCOSIS 657 Occ0REENCE. — Actinomycosis is of frequent occurrence in cattle aud hogs. As a rule, the disease appears sporadically. It may, however, attain an enzootic distribution (Jensen, Stienon, Claus. Neuwirth). la rare cases the ray fungus disease has been observed in horses, sheep and deer. In cattle, it is especially the head which is the seat of the dis- ease. Almost all parts of the head may be attacked by the ray fungus. Formerly the lower jaw was considered the most fre- quent point of attack. In this location the fungus may produce enormous deformities in consequence of raref active ostitis, on the one hand, and enormous granulation formations, on the other. Likewise, in the upper jaw, actinomycomata have frequently been demonstrated. According to recent investigations, however, the Fig. 335. 6 i»SpBSBpti*'^^'^ *|^fcfc'%|Hf.,* '. '^ * ■*( =. A , -^^ i \^j _ it A jhAy* ' 1 ' '''H-:'^S^^M> t- Tlf^!*^ n Actinomyces mycelia from a laryngeal actinomycoma. X 35 diameters. Actinomyces mycelia from a purulent actinomy- coma in a beef lung, x 340 diameters. accuracy of which the author can fully verify, the tongue must be considered as the most frequent seat of actinomycosis. Henschel and Falk called attention to the fact that besides the form of lingual actinomycosis in cattle, known under the name of wooden tongue, actinomycosis occurs in this organ quite frequently in the form of tubercles. Henschel and F.ilk specified a particular part of the dorsal surface of the tongue which is frequently affected with primary actinomycosis, and which must, therefore, be carefully inspected iu every slaughtered animal (Fig. 52). Besides in the musculature of the tongue, one observes fungoid actinomycomata (Fig. 226, b) and superficial actinomycotic erosions (Fig. 226, o) oii the mucous membrane of the tongue and also on the mucous mem- brane of the cheeks and gums. These erosions are distinguished from similar alterations by their firm, leathery basis. Moreover, -actino- mycotic foci may be plainly recognized in the form of yellow spots. 658 IITFECTIOUS DISEASES It was showu by Klepzow that iu cattle slaughtered at the Moscow abattoir the mucosa and submucosa of the under lip are very frequently permeated with actinomycomata. From March to June, 1892, among 42,230 slaughtered cattle, 1,030 cases of actino- mycosis were found, and among these not less than 621 cases, of labial actinomycosis. In the pharyngeal cavity, larynx and esophagus, pedunculate actinomycomata of the size of a hazel nut or a potato frequently occur (Fig. 227). These are distinguished from non-actinomycotic polyps by their rough, pale-red surface and the sprinkling of yel- low spots. Moreover, the skin of the head and neck, as well as the sub- cutis of these parts of the body, are frequently the seat of hard or Fig. 336. tongue with (a) actinomycotic erosions ; i, mushroom-shaped kotinomyoomata. The tip of the tongue also exhibits the condition of wooden tongue. soft, sharply delimited or diffuse tumors, in which, when carefully examined, yellow spots or actinomyces colonies may be observed. The neighborhood of the angle of the jaw and the larynx are very often affected with actinomycosis. According to Rasmussen, sub- cutaneous actinomycomata also occur on the back, elbow and femur, and in the form of the so-called knee-sponge. Liipke observed a case of elephantiasis which was caused by actinomy- cosis. Actinomycosis may also take its origin from castration, wounds. Contrasted with the frequency of actinomycosis in the head, that of other organs is rare. Iji the first stomachs one finds pedunculate actinomycomata like those iu the pharyngeal cavity and esophagus. In the lungs smaller scattered tubercles and large tumors occur up to the size of a child's hea 1 ; the latter in delimited ACTINOMYCOSIS 659. portions of the lungs. The large tumors are, without exception, of a soft, myxoma-like consistency. They frequently show a central puriform softening. Hepatic actinomycosis appears either in the form of solitary tumors (infection through fungi-bearing bodies from one of the first stomachs) or in the form of numerous abscess-like tubercles (infection through the portal vein). Actino- mycosis of the udder is found in cattle in the form of tubercles varying in size from that of a bean to that of a hen's egg, and pos- sessing a fibrous peripheral zone with a soft center permeated with actinomyces foci, or in the form of diffuse, acute inflamma- tion with a tendency to induration. Bang and Jensen also found Bovine larynx with an aotinomyeolna on the epiglottis. actinomycomata in the kidneys. Affections of the intestines, blad- ■der,'vagina, spleen, peritoneum, vertebral column and sternum are rare. In hogs, Johne has shown that the tonsils are a frequent seat of actinomyces. Moreover, in the hog the ray fungus fre- quently leads to the infection of the mammary glands, which affec- tion frequently appears in the form of a cold abscess. In the contents of the abscess one finds well developed rosettes in great quantity, which do not differ in any respect from Actinomyces bovis. Besides the abscess form, actinomyces of the mammary gland may appear also in the form of tubercles and large tumors leading to suppuration and the formation of fistulse. Fungoid actinomyco- mata may grow out through the openings of the fistulse. Rasmus- sen states that at the abattoir in Copenhagen he observed actino- 660 INFECTIOUS DISEASES myces of tlie mammary gland in liogs in 52 cases inside of three months. The same author demonstrated actinomycomata in the subcutis on the neck, in the fore-arm, abdominal wall (castration cicatrices) and hind quarters of hogs. Finally, in the horse several cases of actinomycosis of the tongue, lymphatic glands and of the generalized form have been observed. In the sheep, one case of pulmonary actinomycosis was observed by Grips, and two cases of lingual as well as one case of labial actinomycosis by Berg. In the last named case and in one of the cases of lingual actinomycosis, specific alterations in the cavity of the lower jaw were present simultaneously. Geneealization op Actinomycosis. — The ray fungus may, under certain circumstances, exhibit a general distribution. This, how- ever, is an extremely rare occurrence. Hertwig described a case of this sort in the hog, the only one in several million hogs which were slaughtered in Berlin. In the case in question, in addition to actinomycomata in the mammary gland, softened actinomycotic foci were found in various dorsal vertebrae. Moreover, two cases of generalized actinomycosis were demonstrated in cattle in Berlin, In these two animals, in connection with actinomycosis of the head, embolic foci had developed in the lungs, liver, and, in one case, also in the neighborhood of the kidneys. Furthermore, in the second cervical vertebra, embolic actinomycosis (granulations and granular pus) was observed in a beef animal by a Swedish veterinarian (Jensen). Difeekential Diagnosis. — Upon superficial examination, actino- mycosis may be confused with tuberculosis and also with simple non-specific tumors (fibromata, myxomata, etc.). In all these cases microscopic examination makes certain the diagnosis of actinomy- cosis. Moreover, the above described microscopic peculiarities of actinomycomata, especially the sprinkling of punctate yellow foci and the usual negative findings in the corresponding lymphatic : glands, furnish important criteria for the identification of the disease, without the assistance of the microscope. Judgment. — The question whether actinomycosis of animals may be transmitted to man has recently been made a subject of lively investigation, especially in America. The possibility of such a transmission must be theoretically admitted, since Wolff and Israel succeeded in inoculating actinomycosis from one animal to another. ACTINOMYCOSIS 661 However, all experience is opposed to the spontaneous occurrence of a direct transmission of the disease from animals to man. According to statistics collected by Moosbrugger, including 75 cases, 54 in men and 21 in women and children, the greater propor- tion of the actinomycotic patients had no contact with animals. In 11 cases the occupation was not stated ; 20 cases developed among farmers ; 33 patients, however, had nothing to do with animals (millers, glaziers, tailors, merchants and students). Contact with diseased animals could be demonstrated in only one case. Of the 21 women and children, not more than 4 belonged to the farming class and none of these individuals had come in contact with a diseased animal. Concerning the transmission of actinomycosis by the consumption of actinomycotic organs or meat of actinomycotic animals, nothing whatever is known. Ponfick, Bostrbm, Nocard, Crookshank, et al., are of the opinion that man and animals become affected with actinomycosis from one and the same source, and that in this regard grains are highly suspicious. Of special importance is the communication of Bostrom, according to which, after he had especially directed attention to this point, he could uniformly demonstrate the undoubted presence of grains in the actinomycotic foci. Bostrbm thereby substantiated the early observations of others, especially the observation of Lanow, Schartan, Soltmann, Fischer and Bertha, who likewise found portions of grains in actinomycotic foci in man. Since Bostrbm has called attention to this point, the grains of barley and the chaff of oats have been found in actinomycotic foci in man by Hummel, Bernstorff and Jurnika. These experiences agree entirely with those had in connection with domesticated animals. The usual occurrence of the disease in the anterior portions of the digestive apparatus in cattle speaks in favor of infection through the food, and the affection of the mammary glands in hogs, of infection through straw. Furthermore, one quite frequently finds positive proof of the assumed method of infection in parts of grains surrounded by ray fungi, especially cereal grains and particles of straw, within actinomycotic foci in cattle and hogs. Henschel and Falk have shown beyond question that lingual actino- mycosis arises exclusively in consequence of the penetration of fungus-bearing food material. Finally, the transmission of the disease from one animal to associated animals has never been observed with certainty. Accordingly, the assumption that the consumption of actino- mycotic organs is injurious to health, is scarcely justified. Under GG2 INFECTIOUS DISEASES all conditions, we must combat this assumption for the meat of actinomycotic animals in case of local actinomycosis. The activity of the sanitary police should therefore be restricted to the removal of all affected organs, and these should be excluded from the market as highly unfit for fuod in so far as the removal of the specifically altered parts is not possible. This is the case in isolated foci in the tongue, and the removal of the diseased parts for the purpose of releasing the rest of the tongue is very desirable, since the tongue is so valuable an organ. In the extremely rai'e cases of generalization, the whole animal should be excluded from the market, since generalization in actino- mycosis appears to run a very atypic course, and the detection of all the foci (in the bones and inside the muscles) is much more difficult than in tuberculosis, in which a uniform affection of the regional lymphatic glands furnishes a valuable guide in finding the diseased parts. (i) Botryomycosis. HiSTOET. — Under the term botryomycosis, we understand a chronic proliferation of the connective tissue which is produced by a specific micro-organism (botryomyces of Bollinger). Bollinger first found this fungus in 1869 in firm pulmonary tubercles of the size of a hazel nut or a walnut in a horse, and gave it the name " Zooglcea pulmonis equi." Later this fungus, after it had been forgotten, was discovered " anew " by Bivolta, who named it " Discomyces equi," as well as by Johne and Babe, who proposed the names Micrococcus ascoformans and M. hotryogenus. Hereupon Bol- linger changed his first name to botryomyces (grape fungus). Pathological Anatomy and Bacteeiology. — Through the investigations of Babe, Johne and Kitt, concerning botryomycomata and botryomyces, the following points have been determined : Botryomycoma is a connective tissue tumor of chronic charac- ter and peculiar structure. It has thus far been demonstrated only in horses and in one beef animal and one hog. In horses the tamor is found most frequently on the spermatic cord after castration; also in the intermuscular and intramuscular tissue in the retro- peritoneal tissue, in the subcutis under the collar, on the breast and tail, and, finally, in the udder, lungs, ribs and pleura. Botryomycosis of the lungs may arise primarily or secondarily. Kitt reported a case in which metastatic foci in the lungs developed BOTBYOMTCOSIS 663 after a case of botryomycosis of the spermatic cord. Jensen enlarged the casuistics of metastatic pulmonary botryomycosis by three other cases : one of his own and two of Steiner and Thomsen. The case observed by Jensen is remarkable in that the lymphatic glands lying at the entrance to the thorax showed some botryo- myces foci as large as nuts. A similar case was observed by Frohner in a horse. In this case, in addition to botryomycosis of the spermatic cord, skin, abdominal musculature and lymphatic glands, metastases were present in the lungs ; also botryomycotic peritonitis. Botryomycoma appears in the form of tubercles of various size which consist of a firm connective tissue framework and soft, yellowish-brown tissue in the interstices. The latter con- FiG. 338. h -<- ■a Botryomyees colonies, a intaxst, h calcified. X 35 diameters. sists of small tubercles, softened in the center, in which without exception yellowish-white granules of the size of a grain of sand may be demonstrated (Fig. 228). " These depositions, of the size of grains of sand, like the similar granules in actinomycomata, are to be considered as the pathogenic criteria of this new infectious tumor " (Johne). In a microscopic examination one observes that these deposi- tions are nothing but " mulberry and grape-shaped conglomerations of micrococcal masses, which lie close together, are mostly round, and are about 5 to 10 or even 100 /i in diameter " (Fig. 229). These structures are held together by a membrane or capsule. The masses of micrococci are stained by gentian violet and Loffler's -methylene-blue solution. 664 INFECTIOUS DISEASES Relationship of Botryomyces to Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus.— Eiibe determined that pure cultures of botryomyces killed guinea, pigs, and in sheep and goats produced an acute iiiflamiiiatoi'y edema. Kitt succeeded in cultivating cocci from colonies of botryo- myces which possessed great similarity to Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus and produced suppuration as well as connective tissue pro- liferation. Hell states that he always obtained 8. pyogenes aureus in pure cultures from botryomycomata. According to Poucet, Dor and Parascandolo, botryomyces is a specific bacterium, never agrees in form, size, stainability, formation of pigment and growth Fig. 239. Botryomyces colonies from a botryomycoma of the spermatic cord. X 240 diameters. on various nutrient media with S. pyogenes aureus, and can be dis- tinguished from it by serum diagnosis. DrPEEEENTiAL DIAGNOSIS. — Botryomycomata may be confused with actinomycomata, simple tumors and glanderous neomorphs. In all cases the findings of sand-like depositions and a micro- scopic examination make certain a positive diagnosis. Judgment. — Botryomycosis has iiever been demonstrated in man. It is not impossible, however, that botryomyces may be patho- genic for man in another form than in the horse — perhaps as a purulent organism (compare the investigations of Babe, Kitt and EINDEKPEST 665 Hell). For these reasons, at least, the parts of the organs which are affected with botryomycomata must be carefully removed and rendered innocuous. 3.— Infectious Diseases Which Occur Only in Animals and are not Communicable to Man in any Form.* (a) Rinderpest. Einderpest possesses interest merely from a veterinary police standpoint. For clinical and pathologico-anatomical details, refer- ence is here made to text books on epizootic diseases and special pathology. The only matter of importance to experts in meat inspection is the differential diagnosis of this plague, which, despite its unusually great infectiousness, is still quite unexplained from an etiological standpoint. As a result of the great development of our commerce, it may occur and has occurred, in spite of our strict quarantine regulations, that rinderpest has suddenly broken out in the interior of the country. This plague is, therefore, to be kfept constantly in mind, in stock yards and abattoirs. The following are the chief diseases which may give occasion to confusion with rinderpest : Malignant catarrhal fever and intoxications. In malignant catarrhal fever, as well as in rinderpest, all the mucous membranes may be inflamed (catarrhal, croupous and diphtheritic inflammations). Malignant catarrhal fever, however, is distinguished from rinderpest by its very slight infectiousness and especially by the usual involvement of the mucous membrane of the respiratory apparatus, by the appearance of parenchy- matous keratitis and by the integrity of the parenchyma of the internal organs. In cases of rinderpest, cloudiness of the eyes is wanting, while, on the other hand, the parenchyma is greatly altered (cloudy swelling, fatty metamorphosis). * The infectious diseases peculiar to the horse, viz., horse distemper, pneu- monia and contagious coryza, possess only a very subordinate signifloanoe for meat inspection. This is evident, on the one hand, from the usual benign course of these diseases, and, on the other, from the low slaughter value of horses. In severe oases the owner will, as a rule, prefer the risk of eventual death to a saving of an inconsiderable slaughter value. Transmission of horse distemper, pneumonia and contagious coryza to man from eating meat, has thus far nev«r been observed ; nor have infections appeared in the attendants of ani- mals affected with these diseases. 666 INFECTIOUS DISEASES lufcoxications are clinically sufficiently diflferentiated from rinderpest by the absence of infectiousness. Intoxication may, however, occur in the form of an extensive outbreak. Thus, for example, it may occur, in the careless use of gray mercurial salve as an insecticide, that several or all the cattle of a herd become sick at the same time. Mercurial poisoning is characterized by the fact that it produces alterations in the digestive and respiratory appara- tus, which, to some extent, resemble the alterations in rinderpest, especially the punctate and spotted reddened areas, ulcers and sub- mucous infiltrates in the intestines and, finally, croupous deposits on the respiratory mucous membranes. In cases of mercurialism, on the other hand, there is wanting that universal croupous diph- theritic inflammation of the mucous membranes which characterizes rinderpest. In addition to mercurial poisoning, other intoxications may be confused with rinderpest. Such a confusion occurred a few years ago in the Rhine Province, where a large number of cattle suddenly became seriously affected after feeding on poisoned maize slump. In a subsequent investigation of the case one was inclined to ascribe the disease to the development of hydrogen arsenide which may have gotten into the slump by the utilization of impure sul- phuric acid. •Judgment.— The meat of cattle affected with rinderpest is harmless for man. This is to be considered as demonstrated by the numerous experiences, especially those which were had in field campaigns. Gerlach emphasizes the fact that rinderpest followed the armies in all of the European wars of the nineteenth century and that the meat of affected cattle was eaten without any harm. From 1813 to 1815, the allied as well as the French troops received cattle affected with rinderpest, and among them many animals in an acute stage of the disease. An isolated observation of Ziickert on the alleged injuriousness of the meat of a beef animal affected with rinderpest has no weight against this experimental material, especially since in the case in question it is very probable that the meat had already begun to decompose. Despite its harmlessness, however, the meat of cattle affected with rinderpest in well regulated conditions in time of peace can not be admitted to the market, for veterinary police reasons. The Imperial law of April 7, 1869, concerning regulations against rinder-. pest prescribed incineration of animalk killed on account of rinder- pest or dead of this disease. MALIGNANT CATARRHAL FEVER OF CATTLE 667 (b) Malignant Catarrhal Fever of Cattle. Nature and Occurkenge. — Malignant catarrhal fever is a specific disease of cattle. In all probability it depends upon the entrance of micro-organisms. Thus far, however, they have not been demonstrated. The disease is usually not directly infectious. It appears, rather, to be contracted exclusively through intermediate carriers (food, floors of stalls). Malignant catarrhal fever in the majority of cases appears sporadically. Under certain conditions, however, it may obtain great distribution as a local plague. Frank, in Alsenz, called atten- tion to the occurrence of catarrhal fever ju an enzootic form. Mauy similar occurrences, however, had been reported previously. The author, himself, observed an outbreak of the disease in which, among a herd of 80 animals, 60 became more or less seriously affected within a short time. Anatomical Findings. — Pathological alterations are primarily observed on the mucous membrane of the respiratory apparatus. The mucous membrane from the nostrils to the small bronchi may exhibit all degrees of inflammation, catarrh, croup and diphtheria. The inflammatory phenomena of the alimentary tract may be asso- ciated with symptoms in the form of a croupous and diphtheritic stomatitis and of gastritis and croupous enteritis and with the formation of the well-known croupous tubes. Moreover, malignant catarrhal fever may be complicated with inflammatory phenomena of the urino-genital apparatus (nephritis, cystitis and vaginitis of various degrees). The affection of the eyes is of characteristic and differential diagnostic importance (Gerlach). One observes in nearly all cases inflammation of the lids, conjunctivae, cornea and even of the iris. It is quite remarkable that in spite of the serious character of the disease, the parenchyma of the internal organs is found to be intact post mortem. Bollinger characterizes this fact as an important differential diagnostic criterion of this disease, as com- pared with rinderpest. The musculature also, as mentioned by Frank, shows no variations from the normal condition. Judgment. — In. the larger number of cases with which I am acquainted, the meat of animals affected with malignant catarrhal fever was eaten without harm. Likewise in the literature of the G68 INFECTIOUS DISEASES subject there are no statements of injury to human health from eat- ing the meat of animals which had been affected with malignant catarrhal fever. Ill my own opinion, therefore, there can be no objection to the sale of the meat as an inferior food material if the symptoms are restricted simply to the respiratory apparatus, for all the post- mortem findings in these cases are in favor of the propositon that the process runs a local course. In cases of complication with croupous enteritis, on the other hand, and with serious inflamma- tory phenomena in the' urino-genital apparatus, the meat is to be considered as highly unfit for food and is to be excluded from the market, for in these cases there is usually a rapid emaciation of the diseased animals. (c) Pleuro-Pneumonia of Cattle. General. — Pleuro-pneumonia of cattle, like rinderpest, is of interest chiefly from a veterinary police standpoint. This fact, however, should not prevent the meat inspector from giving care- ful attention to the disease ; for, by means of an expert control of the slaughter of cattle it is possible to render material assistance to the veterinary police in combating pleuro-pneumonia, since the inspection in abattoirs may serve to detect with certainty cases which run an occult course, and hereby to furnish a timely demon- stration of concealed foci of pleuro-pneumonia. I Etiology. — Nocard and Roux, by means of a new and excellent culture method, succeeded in obtaining from lungs affected with pleuro-pneumonia micro-organisms, which, according to the state- ment of both investigators, do not possess the power of producing pleuro-pneumonia, but, like the lymph of pleuro-pneumonia, are capable of producing immunity against pleuro-pneumonia in cattle. Nocard and Boux prepared small sacks of collodion, filled them with bouillon, and, after a previous sterilization, inoculated them with a small quantity of the fluid exudation from the lungs of a beef animal affected with pleuro-pneumonia. When the collodion sacks thus prepared were placed in the abdominal cavity of cattle or small experimeutal animals, the bouillon became cloudy and under a microscopic examination was seen to contain a pure cul- ture of extraordinarily minute micro-organisms. The dimensions of these micro-organisms were smaller than those of the smallest known bacteria. They are capable of passing through the pores. PLEURO PNEUMONIA OF CATTLE 669 of a Beikefeld and Chamberland filter, and can uot, therefore, be definitely identified, even after a previous staining. Nocard suc- ceeded in rendering cattle insusceptible to pleuro-pneumouia by inoculation with the organisms cultivated " in vivo." The clinical picture of pleuro-pneumonia offers little of inter- est to us. Of much more interest are the pathologico-anatomical findings. Pleuro-pneumonia is a chronic, progressive pneumo- pleurisy. It is restricted, as a rule, to one lung (chiefly the left). The most striking feature of the process is the affection of the inter- lobular tissue, hyperemia, gelatinous infiltration and thrombosis of the lymph and blood vessels. The lobuli which are surrounded by the diseased, greatly enlarged connective tissue strands, uniformly exhibit various stages of hepatization (red, yellow, gray). More- over, necrotic lobuli (sequestration) may be present, or lobuli which have lost their original structure in consequence of puriform altera- tions. The pleura exhibits the alterations of fibrinous pleuritis. At first one finds only small foci in the lungs, of the size of a hazel nut or walnut. Finally, however, the larger portion of the lungs may be attacked by the progressive pathological process. The characteristic symptoms of pleuro-pneumonia are the extensive affection of the interlobular connective tissue and the presence of inflammatory foci of different ages in the pulmonary parenchyma between the diseased interlobular connective tissue strands (mar- bled hepatization, according to Gerlach). A cross section through a lung affected with pleuro-pneumonia presents no uniform picture, as, for example, is obtained by a cross section through lungs affected with hemorrhagic septicemia of cattle, pneumonia of horses, or swine plague ; but always presents to view freshly inflamed foci, together with older ones (see Fig. 4 of the lithographic plate). DrPFEBENTiAL DIAGNOSIS. — 1. Genuine Pneumonia. — In the litera- ture of the subject, we find isolated statements coaoerning the occurrence of a genuine non-infectious pulmonary inflammation in cattle. This usually occurs on the right side. Genuine pneumonia is distinguished from pleuro-pneumonia by its acute course, and, therefore, by the fact that the alterations in the lungs are all of the same age. 2. Pectoral Form of Hemorrlvagic Septicemia of Cattle. — In the. pneumonia of hemorrhagic septicemia, we also find extensive infiltra- tion of the interlobular tissue and pleuritis. The hepatization of the lungs, however, is uniform and of the same age (as in pneumonia of horses). Moreover, the inoculation of animals furnishes an excellent 670 INFECTIOUS DISEASES differential diagnostic criterion (see under "Hemorrhagic Septicemia of Wild Game and Cattle "). 3. Infectious Broncho-pneumonia of Calves. — In this disease, the distension of the interlobular tissue is entirely wanting and the pulmonary parenchyma exhibits phenomena of a lobular desquama- tive pneumonia. The affected parts of the lungs are grayish-red, rich in fluids and free from air. A slimy purulent secretion is found in the bronchi. The inoculation of diseased portions of the lungs does not, as a rule, kill small experimental animals. Nocard observed, in five steers imported from America, a contagious bronchb-pneumouia which aroused a suspicion of pleuro-pneumonia. The disease in question, however, was distin- guished from pleuro-pneumonia by its acute character, flabby hepatization and the less extensive infiltration of the interlobular tissue. A considerable quantity of ropy, slimy, purulent secretion escaped from some of the bronchi. In this secretion Nocard found a micro-organism which killed mice, guinea pigs, rabbits and pigeons within forty-eight hours. 4. Traumatic Pneumonia. — The differentiation of traumatic pneumonia from pleuro-pneumonia is simple. In cases of traumatic pneumonia, a " marbled " appearance may arise in the tissue sur- rounding the foreign body in consequence of the extensive affection of the interstitial pulmonary tissue by the process. The easily demonstrable trauma, however, removes all doubt. 5. Aspergillosis (see page 325). Judgment. — Section 85 of the Instructions with regard to the Imperial Animal Plague Law declares that " the lungs of animals killed on account of pleuro-pneumonia, or dead of the disease, must be buried at least one meter deep, in order to render them innocuous. The meat of such animals shall not be removed until it is entirely cooled off." According to the provisions of the Imperial Animal Plague Law, the sale of the meat of animals affected with pleuro-pneumonia is permitted. The restriction that the meat of such animals sliall not be transported until after it is perfectly cool was adopted on account of the fact that it was assumed that a virulence attached to the meat while still possessed of the animal heat. From a sanitary standpoint, no objection can be raised against the release of the meat as permitted by the Imperial Animal Plague Law, for the meat of animals affected with pleuro-pneumonia is eaton withou-t any bad effects. In cases where the lungs are not HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA 671 seriously affected, the meat may be considered as marketable. If, on the other hand, the animals are slaughtered during the crisis of the disease in an acute, feverish condition, in which animals sub- jected to emergency slaughter do not bleed adequately, the meat is to be sold under declaration as an inferior food material. The meat is usually absolutely excluded from the market in cases in which emaciation and edematous processes have developed during the course of the disease.* In a dissertation prepared under the direction of Jiirgensen, Wiedermann propounds the question whether pleuro-pneumonia occurs in man. The occasion for this was given by the post-mortem findings in two children in a region (Lustnau, near Tiibingen) in which at the time in question pleuro-pneumonia was very prevalent among cattle. The lungs of both of the children were stated to have exhibited a picture resembling that of pleuro-pneumonia, viz., fibrinous pneumonia and purulent pleuritis, together with peri- carditis. No transmission of the virus from eating the milk dr by any other method could be demonstrated with certainty in other cases and no confirmation of this observation (1878) has since been furnished, although there has been no lack of opportunities for observation in the districts affected with pleuro-pneumonia for example, in the government district of Magdeburg. (d) Hemorrhagic Septicemia of Wild. Game and Cattle. Etiology. — This disease, thus named by Bollinger, who first described it, has been explained from an etiological standpoint, especially through the investigations of Kitt. The disease is due to bacteria which are classified with the group of rabbit septicemia (Koch), or of hemorrhagic septicemia (Hiippe). In addition to rabbit septicemia and the septicemia of wild game and cattle, this bacteriological pathogenic group includes also swine plague, buffalo plague and fowl cholera. In order to avoid repetitions, the most important peculiarities of the bacteria in question may here be dis- cussed together. The organisms of septicemia of wild game and cattle, swine plague, rabbit septicemia and fowl cholera are characterized by ' As in pleuro-pneumonia of cattle, so in infectious broncho-pneumon'>a of calves and infectious pneumonia of horses, sheep and goats, no injury to health has been observed from eating the meat. With regard to Swine Plague, com- pare page 695. 672 INFECTIOUS DISEASES their almost complete agreement in morphology, biology and experi- mental pathogenic properties (Baumgarten) The identity of these bacteria, however, may still be doubted, for the certain proof of identity has thus far been furnished only for fowl cholera and rabbif- septicemia (Kitt). The bacteria of this group are about 1 to 1.4 fj. long, 0.4 to .7 /* wide, and rounded at the ends (Fig. 239). They are non-motile, and stain most deeply at the poles. They are decolorized by Gram's method. Inoculation witbthem kills rabbits and mice, as well as pigeons. With regard to other experimental animals, considerable differences exist. Quite remarkable is the peculiarity of the bacteria of the rabbit septicemia group that they possess, with the exception of the swine plague bacteria, the power of passing through the stomach unatten- uated. For the rest, they die in aqueous suspension at a tempera- ture of 55° C. for fifteen minutes, or 80° 0. for ten minutes. For the destruction of the bacteria in the meat, however, thin slices must be exposed to a temperature of 80° C. for at least one hour. According to Hiippe, the bacteria in question are killed by being brought to a boiling temperature, a result which, according to Volsch, is not observed, in imbedding the bacteria in substrata con- taining mucin. OcoUEKENCE. — Hemorrhagic septicemia of wild game and cattle occurs in deer, wild boars and cattle. Moreover, the disease is transmissible to horses, hogs and goats, while sheep are infected with difficulty. CouESE AND Anatomical Findings. — Hemorrhagic septicemia of wild game and cattle appears in three principal forms : As an exanthematic, pectoral and intestinal affection. In the exanthe- matic form, which is the common form of affection in cattle and which sometimes occurs also in wild game (Liipke), rapidly appear- ing swellings of enormous size are formed on the soft parts of the head, neck, and develop with an elevation of the internal tempera- ture up to 42° C. Death may result within six hours. As a rule, however, it does not appear until after twelve to thirty-six hours. The swelling arises in consequence of serous infiltration of the subcutis and submucosa of the mucous membrane of the mouth. After death we find not only swellings, but hemorrhages in the different organs. In the pectoral form of hemorrhagic septicemia, which is the common form in wild game, one observes the phenomena of an HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA 673 acute pneumo-pleuiisy. This form is characterized by a less rapid course (five to eight days). In addition to alterations in the thoracic cavity, hemorrhages are found, in the pectoral form of the disease, in all parts of the body. The intestinal form is, as a rule, present in association with the two nrst-named forms and is characterized by the fact that the feces exhibit a bloody character in consequence of hemorrhagic inflammation of the intestinal mucous membrane, especially of the small intestines. Differential Diagnosis. — Hemorrhagic septicemia may be con- fused with anthrax (exanthematic form) and with pleuro-pneumonia {pectoral form). The disease is distinguished from anthrax by the absence of splenic tumor and anthrax bacilli, and from pleuro- pneumonia by the fact that the pulmonary foci are all of the same age. The interlobular connective tissue strands are serously infil- trated and consequently distended. The pulmonary lobules, how- ever, which lie between the infiltrated connective tissue strands always exhibit the same stage of inflammation, and not, as in the case of pleuio-pneumouia, old inflammatory foci side by side with fresh ones. Furthermore, in all cases hemorrhagic septicemia is usually recognized as such by a bacteriological examination and inoculation of animals. In the blood and in the bloody exudations one always finds the above described bacteria in large numbers. Mice and rabbits die within from 12 to 36 hours after cutaneous or subcutaneous inoculation, and exhibit, post mortem, a' pro- nounced laryngo-tracheitis, characterized by a scarlet-red colora- tion of the mucous membrane of the trachea (Kitt). Moreover, hemorrhagic septicemia — and hereby the disease is distinguished from many other infectious diseases — is transmissible to experi- mental animals by feeding. Judgment. — The resistance of the bacteria of hemorrhagic septicemia to the gastric juice has already been mentioned. Never- theless, the meat of animals affected with hemorrhagic septicemia can not be considered as injurious to health ; for the transmission of the disease to man has never been observed. Injuries received in making post-mortem examinations have never been followed by evil consequences and the meat of animals subjected to emergency slaughter has never caused any harm when eaten (Freidberger and Frohner). In his first communication concerning this interesting disease, Bollinger emphasizes the fact that the meat of diseased 674 INFECTIOUS DISEASES animals had been eaten by men in numerous instances and pre- pared in various ways without any demonstrable harm. This was confirmed by Frauck. Moreover, accordiup; to Bollinger, contamina- tion of the hands with the blood while making post-mortem exami- nations was followed by no bad consequences. A case of illness in a workman after the sting of an insect at a time when hemorrhagic septicemia prevailed extensively could not be definitely referred to infection with the virus of hemorrhagic septicemia. The possibil- ii:y was not excluded that the case was one of ordinary septic infec- tion. Moreover, the meat of animals which have been affected with hemorrhagic septicemia can not be admitted to the market, since this disease, from a, veterinary police standpoint, is classed along with anthrax, and is to be treated like the latter (-^ee page 583). The buffalo plague (barbone disease) is also classified with the diseases which belong to the group of hemorrhagic septicemia, Buffalo plague usually attacks young animals and runs a coui-se of peracute or acute septicemia with the simultaneous appearance of hot, doughy tumefactions in the region of the larynx. Upon post- mortem examination, the mo.-^t striking alteration observed is an extensive edema of the neck, face and the base of the tongue. The cause of buffalo plague was discovered by Oreste and Armanni in a micro-organism 0.9 to 18 fi long and .4 to .6 jj. wide, which, mor- phologically and biologically, is closely related to the organism of hemorrhagic septicemia. The organisms of buffalo plague are found especially abundant in the subcutaneous edematous swellings, less abundantly in the internal organs, and not at all in the cardiac blood of affected animals. It w.is demonstrated by von Eatz that the rabbit is extraordinarily susceptible to infection from buffalo plague. Babbits die within 9 to 15 hours after subcutaneous inocu- lation. Guinea pigs are more resistant, pigeons still more so, and inoculated chickens and ducks remain perfectly healthy. On the other hand, white and gray mice die in from 19 to 36 hours. The disease may be artificially transmitted to cattle, horses, sheep and hogs. Spontaneous transmission, however, during an outbreak of buffalo plague has been observed only in hogs. According to von Eatz, buffalo plague is most closely related to hemorrhagic septi- cemia. (e) Blackleg. OccuEKENCE.— Blackleg of cattle is a stationary disease. It i» observed almost exclusively in so-called blackleg districts and is BLACKLEG 675 ouly occasionally conveyed to other localities in tlie transportation of animals already infected. The incubation peiiod is two days. It is worthy of mention that usually ouly cattle between one and four years of age are affected. Besides cattle, blackleg may rarely attack goats, sheep and horses. Hogs are immune to the disease. Bactbeiologt. — Blackleg, as shown by Feser and Bollinger, is caused by the strictly anaerobic blackleg bacillus. On account of its behavior toward oxygen, it is found only in affected connective tissue and muscles and never in the liviug blood. It may occur, however, in the de-oxydized cadaveric blood. Blackleg bacilli are 3 to 6 /* long and about 1 jx wide and are characterized by an evident motility. As soon, however, as sporu- lation begins, they become non-motile (Kitasato). The spores occupy a polar position in the straight, stiff rods and the blackleg spores are character- Fig. 230 ized by their strong resistance to heat. ^ Kitasato emphasizes the fact that the \ irregular, shining corpuscles, which may be ^ iJ found in the bacilli while the animal is o living, and which are characterized by the I ^ " fact that they stain better in the ordinary manner than the bacilli themselves, are not * spores. "The true blackleg spores (resting Blackleg bacilli, mostly ^ . . spore bearing, spores) are not formed in the animal body X 500 diameters. until from twenty- four to forty-eight hours after the death of the animal." Pieces of meat taken immediately after death and heated for twenty minutes at a temperature of 65° C. proved to be sterile upon inoculation, while material which was taken two days after death and treated in the same manner killed all the experimental animals by the development of blackleg. According to the experiments of Kitt, blackleg bacilli in dried meat are not destroyed by live steam, but are merely attenuated. Fresh blackleg meat was not sterilized, but was merely rendered somewhat less infectious by boiling one hour in a steamer, and the same is true for dry meat powder after similar treatment for six hours. Symptoms. — Blackleg infection, as in the case with all diseases caused, by anaerobic material, takes place only in the subcutis or submucosa in consequence of injury to those parts. The most important criterion of this almost always fatal.disease is the appear- ance of crackling tumors which contain g;is and which extend very 676 INFECTIOUS DISEASES rapidly. The most frequent locations of the tumors are the thigh, neck, shoulder and lower part of the breast as well as loin and sacral regions (Friedberger and Frohner). Simultaneously there is a serious disturbance of the general condition and a high fever (42° C). Anatomical Findings. — The skin over the tumors crackles when stroked and is, as a rule, necrotic. The subjacent subcutis is infil- trated with bloody gelatinous material and the musculature is cloudy and either reddish-brown or black. An abundaut accumu- lation of gas may be demonstrated in the subcutis and musculature. The gas possesses a disagreeably stale odor (chiefly carburetted hydrogen), but no odor of decomposition. The rest of the muscu- lature may be only slightly altered. Numerous hemorrhages are found under the serous membranes. The parenchyma of the liver and kidneys and the myocardium are cloudy. In the thoracic and abdominal cavities, serous effusions mixed with blood may be present. The spleen is intact and the blood shows no alterations. Differential Diagnosis. — Blackleg may be confused with dermal emphysema of mechanical origin, malignant edema and anthrax. Dermal emphysema may arise mechanically from injuries of the external skin, trachea and larynx, as well as secondarily in con- nectiou with interstitial pulmonary emphysema (see page 321). Emphysemata of mechanical origin gradually progress from the cervical region ; the skin does not become necrotic and when an incision is made we do not find any bloody, gelatinous effusions. Finally, no bacilli are demonstrable. In malignant edema, the gases, after necrosis of the skin has taken place, possess the odor of decomposition. Furthermore, in a bacteriological examination, the bacilli of blackleg are distinguished from those of malignant edema by the fact that they are more slender than the latter and never develop into threads in the carcass. Spore formation in blackleg bacilli occurs only in a polar position (drum-stick form) and not in the middle as in the bacilli of malignant edema. With malignant edema is associated a so-called parturient blackleg (Carl). This rarely occurs in blackleg regions, but fre- quently in regions in which true blackleg has never been observed. In contrast with true blackleg, it is also frequently observed in old cows. According to Albrecht, parturient blackleg occurs two to five days after parturition and usually causes death within one to three BBASY 677 days. The chief clinical symptoms are fever (41° C. or more), depression, lack of appetite and thirst, and a tumefaction of the external genitals which extends to the sacrum, thigh and back, and crackles on stroking. A foul-smelling fluid is found in the uterns and vagina, post mortem, pronounced reddening of the mucous membrane and edema of the submucous and muscularis coats of the uterus. The emphysematous parts of surrounding tissues are affected with bloody serous or fibrinous infiltration. In two cases of parturient blackleg, Carl demonstrated the bacillus of malignant edema as the cause of the blackleg-like alterations. The differentiation of blackleg from anthrax should not offer any difficulty in the present state of our knowledge concerning the etiology of both diseases. Blackleg is distinguished macroscopi- cally from anthrax by the crackling tumors, intact spleen and the normal character of the blood. All doubt may be removed, how- ever, by the bacteriological findings, and especially by the inocula- tion of animals. Rabbits are immune to blackleg and guinea pigs' are infected with blackleg only by a subcutaneous injection, while anthrax kills rabbits as well as guinea pigs by mere cutaneous inoculation. Judgment. — The older veterinary observers have already called attention to the fact that the meat of animals affected with blackleg may be eaten by man without any harm, and that, in contrast with anthrax, infection does not take place in man even in dissecting the carcasses. The meat of animals affected with blackleg is accordingly not injurious to health. Nevertheless, it is always highly unfit for food, for it rapidly passes into decomposition, and while being pre- served develops a disagreeable, rancid odor resembling smoked herring (Kitt). For veterinary police reasons, the carcasses of animals affected with blackleg must be rendered innocuous, since blackleg, like hemorrhagic septicemia of cattle, is, from a veterinary police stand- point, classed with anthrax (page 583). (f) Braxy. Nature and Occueeence. — Braxy (braasot of the Norwegians and braxy of the Scots) is an infectious disease of sheep, which runs an acute or peracute course, which begins as a hemorrhagic inflammation of the mucous membrane of the fourLli stomach, is accompanied with a pronounced development of gas in the alimen- 678 INFECTIOUS DISEASES tary tract, especially in the stomachs, and in some cases causes the death of the animal by general infection, in others, presumably, by intoxication or dyspnea, due to tympanites (Jensen). The disease for the most part attacks young animals ; animals over three years of age are seldom affected with braxy. It is, furthermore, worthy of note that braxy is observed almost exclusively in the winter months and either does not occur at all in the summer or only rarely. Braxy occurs in an epizootic form on the west coast of Norway, in Iceland, Faroe Islands and in Scotland. According to Gamgee, the annual loss from braxy in Scotland amounts to about 150,000 sheep. In Germany the disease has been identified in Mecklen- burg. It is said to occur there quite frequently (Peters). Etiology. — Credit should be given to Ivar Nielsen for having cleared up the etiology of braxy. In the hemorrhagically altered parts of the alimentary tract and in other Pig. 331. organs of affected animals, he found a •s, bacillus 2 to 6 /t long and 1 /t wide, B. ^ gastromycosis ovis (Fig. 231). The bacillus is actively motile and is stained by Gram's ^ \ / method. It is often found associated in __ pairs ; seldom, however, in longer chains. -v. The braxy bacillus is anaerobic, grows in N ' gelatin, agar and gelatiu-agar, but best on '>' — * blood-serum-agar and blood-serum-bouil- Braxy bacilli from the hem- lon (Jensen). In the carcass and iu arti- cuSuryltctd'^ine^ ^"-1 ^"^rient media, the bacillus forms pig. X 500 diameters. spores, either in the middle or at one pole, and may be transmitted to mice, pigeons, chickens, guinea pigs; rabbits, sheep, calves and hogs by subcutaneous inoculation. At the point of inoculation a hemor- rhagic inflammation develops with the formation of gas as in blackleg. Artificial infection of sheep by feeding has not been accomplished. The spores of the braxy organisMS are very resist- ant and withstand boiling heat. Clinical Symptoms.— Sheep become suddenly sick, exhibit weakness, usually lie down and are unable to stand again. This comatose condition persists for a few hours and leads almost uni- formly to death. Post-moetem Findings.— The carcasses of dead animals are much bloated. The wool is so loose that it may be rubbed off . DIPHTHERIA OF CALVES 679 -witli the hand. The most striking alterations are dark, bluish-red spots in the wall of the fourth stomach. The mucous membrane of this organ is of a dark-red color and shows a bloody or bloody- serous infiltration. Hemorrhagic inflammation may also be present in the first stomachs and to a greater or less extent in the intes- tines. The parenchyma of the liver and kidneys, as well as the myocardium, are cloudy. Occasionally the spleen is somewhat swollen. The carcasses rapidly pass into decomposition and give rise to a powerful stench. Judgment. — Braxy runs its course so rapidly that, as a rule, -affected animals die. The question of judging the meat of sheep affected with braxy, therefore, possesses no practical interest. It should be remembered, however, that the disease may be carried by means of meat traffic, and that, on account of the resistance of the braxy spores to heat, we are not in a position to destroy the virulence of the meat by boiling. The meat of sheep affected with braxy is, therefore, to be rendered innocuous, for sanitary and veterinary police reasons. It is of interest, however, to note that the meat of sheep which have died of braxy is quite commonly eaten in Scotland, without a single case of illness having appeared in the consumers (Jensen). To remove the disagreeable odor, the meat is rubbed with salt, washed in water, again salted and smoked. After some weeks, braxy meat, according to the somewhat questionable statements of Scottish informants, is as good or even better than the meat of healthy sheep. Reindeer Plague. — Beindeer plague, which, in the summers of 1895 and 1896, prevailed among the reindeer herds of the Laps, appears with symptoms resembling blackleg. The subcutaneous emphysema is not so well delimited as in blackleg. Furthermore, on post-mortem examination one finds, in addition to the accumnlu- tion of gas in the subcutis, .occasionally a fibrinous inflammation of •the pleura and peritoneum. In the spleen and pericardial fluid, bacilli are found, which are more slender than the anthrax bacilli and bear an oval spore iu the center or at one pole. The bacilli are stained by the Gram method, are aei'obic, produce gas and kill mice as well as guinea pigs. (g) Diphtheria of Calves. Nature. — In 1877, Dammann described under the name of " calf diphtheria " a disease of calves, the most conspicuous symp- \ 680 INFECTIOUS DISEASES toms of which consist in the appearance of croupous deposits and diphtheritic inflammation upon and in the mucous membranes of the mouth and pharyngeal cavities. These alterations may also develop in the esophagus, second stomach, small intestine, nasal cavity, larynx and trachea, and may reach an acute stage. The dis- ease possesses an unusually malignant character ; most animals die after four or five days, or after two or three weeks. Etiology. — According to the investigations of Dammann, the infectious nature of the disease is certain. He succeeded in trans- mitting the disease to rabbits and lambs. Loffler studied the pathological products of calf diptheria and found in them bacilli which formed large undulating threads, but which were essentially different from the diphtheria bacillus of man. According to Bang, the bacillus found by Loffler in the caseous foci of calf diphtheria is a widely distributed pathogenic organism and not only has the power of producing the alterations of calf diphtheria in calves, but may also cause necrosis in other domes- ticated animals and in various organs. Bang, therefore, gave the bacillus the name " necrosis bacillus." It is identical with the organism discovered by Schmorl in an epizootic disease of rabbits, and called Streptothrix cunicuU. The necrosis bacilli are thread bacteria which appear as short or long rods and as threads of 80 to 100 /« in length and 0.75 to 1.5 /t in thickness. The threads are stained with Loffler's blue and with carbol fuchsin, but not by the Gram method. In the necrotic foci the necrosis bacilli are found arranged radially and often in thick bundles like palisades on the boundary between the living and the dead tissue. Inside of the necrotic parts they are not demonstrable, or, if so, only with difficulty. The necrosis bacilli are strictly anaerobic, grow only in blood serum and blood serum agar, and may be transmitted to mice and rabbits by subcutaneous inoculation. In mice a necrosis of the inoculation wound appears, with pronounced collateral edema and death after about 12 days. In rabbits, on the other hand, necrosis is progressive and results in death in from 12 to 16 days. In addition to calf diphtheria, the necrosis bacillus of Bang has been found in panaris of cattle, in dry gangrene of the skin and subcutis of the teats of cows, in multiple necrosis of the liver of cattle, in one form of liver abscess of cattle which arose from necrosis of the liver, in deeply penetrating diphtheria of the small intestine of the calf, in diphtheria of the uterus and vagina, in DYSENTERY OF CALVES 681 embolic necrosis of the lungs,* in cardiac necrosis, one case of which was of embolic and the other of traumatic origin, in wound necrosis of a beef animal, in gangrenous dermatitis, fistula of the hoof, and diphtheria of the colon of a horse, and in necrosing processes in the oral and nasal cavities, lungs and intestine of a hog (see under "Hog Cholera"). M'Fadyean and Hamilton found multiple necrosis also in the liver of a sheep and of a mule. Fur- thermore, the author has repeatedly demonstrated bacillar necrosis of the mucous membrane of the first stomachs of cattle. Eelation Between Diphtheria, of Calves and Human Diph- theria. — The assumption of Dammanr that calf diphtheria is identical with diphtheria of man is accordingly not substantiated by bacteriological investigations, since no observation whatever has been recorded of the occurrence of true diphtheria in domesticated animals identical with human diphtheria (compare also " Diph- theria of Fowls "). Likewise, inoculation experimelits with virus of human diphtheria have given negative results in animals. In no case has a disease been produced in experimental animals similar to human diphtheria. At most there were local affections of the mucous membranes. Friedberger and Frbhner emphasize the fact that similar inoculation experiments with exclusively negative results have been made by Colin in hogs, Harley in dogs, Pentzoldt in rabbits, chickens and pigeons, and Esser in calves. Judgment. — The necrosis bacillus is characterized by its ten- dency to localization. In the case of a local necrosis, as in diphtheria of calves, and in the absence of symptoms of septicemia of a secondary nature arising from necrosis, the meat can be admitted to the market as a spoiled (inferior) food material. In cases of a secondary sepsis, the meat should be treated as a dangerous food material. (h) Dysentery of Calves. Among the intestinal diseases of domesticated animals, enzootic, so-called, white dysentery of calves possesses special interest on account of the frequency of its occun-ence. Bacteriology. — Jensen demonstrated that not only in the intestinal contents and the inflamed mucous membrane, but also in * Embolic pulmonary necrosis in cattle may occasion confusion with pleuro- pneumonia. 682 INFECTIOUS DISEASES the swollen lymphatic glands and in the blood of calves affected with dysentery, oval bacteria (" calf dysentery bacteria ") occur, which in feeding experiments produce fatal dysentery in new-born calves,- but in subcutaneous inoculation cause either a local swellintr or septicemia. The organism of calf dysentery is morphologically and biologically closely related to Bacillus coli communis, B. neapoli- tanus and B.fcetidus lactis (Fig. 232).* The clinical symptoms of dysentery of calves are well known. Upon post mortem examination one finds advanced emaciation, diffuse red coloration of the mucous membrane of the small intestine and cecum, swelling of the mesenteric glands and often hemorrhages in them, petechise under the epicardium and a dirty-red coloration of the skeletal musculature. As a rule, the liver, spleen and kidneys show no gross alterations. Pig. 233. Fig. 233 T>. * Bacteria of calf dysentery from an Bacteria of calf dysentery from a agar culture 24 hours old. smear preparation from the crural I X 500 diameters. vein of a calf slaughtered in the crisis of dysentery. X 500 diam. Judgment. — The meat of calves affected with dysentery— that is, of calves which are prematurely slaughtered on account of dys- entery—is almost always admitted to the market, and, as a rule, no harm has resulted therefrom. The meat, however, is a spoiled (inferior) food material and should be sold only under declaration. The attention of the purchasers should be called to the fact that the meat must be eaten soon, since it passes into decomposition in a comparatively short time. If calves affected with dysentery are not slaughtered until the agony of the disease, the meat must be con- sidered as a harmful food material, according to present knowledge. At any rate, the harmfulness of the meat of dysenteric calves * During his investigations of white scour in Ireland, Nocard found a pas- teurella to be the pathogenic organism. Calves become infected at the time of birth, through the umbilicus.— Teanslator. SWINE ERYSIPELAS 683 slaughtered during Ihe agony is connected witli the fact that in such cases the specific bacteria are found also in the blood (Fig. 233). Furthermore, the dysentery bacteria may multiply excess- ively, even at ordinary temperatures, in the carcasses of calves sub- jected to emergency slaughter (the author). In doubtful cases, therefore, the decision concerning the admission of the meat to the market should be based on a bacteriological investigation (compare paga 739). (i) Swine Erysipelas. Natuee. — The elucidation of the term " sv^ine erysipelas " is due entirely to bacteriology. Swine erysipelas has nothing in com- mon with erysipelas of man except the reddening of the skin. Pig. 234. Fig. 235. Bwine erysipelas bacilli. Smear pre- paration from the cardiac blood of an inoculated mouse, stained with f uehsin. X 500 diameters. Same preparation as Pig. 234, staiced ty the Gram method. While, however, the erysipelas of man, or traumatic erysipelas, which also occurs in hogs, is caused by Streptococcus erysipelatis (Fehleisen), the organism of swine erysipelas is a delicate, slender bacillus., and, for the purpose of differentiation, swine erysipelas is also called " bacillar erysipelas of swine." Bactekiology. — The discovery of the swine erysipelas bacillus is due to the investigation of the bacteriologist Lbffler, who has done much toward the elucidation of the etiology of animal plagues. As a result of the discovery of the swine erysipelas bacilli, we are in a position to distinguish bacillar erysipelas from the other epizootic diseases of hogs with which it was formerly classified and confused. Further valuable results in the elucidation of the subject 684 INFECTIOUS DISEASES were accomplished by the work of Schiitz, Lydtin and Schottelias. The bacilli of swine erysipelas are about 0.8 to 1.5 fi long and .1 to .2 fA. wide. They are rendered visible, therefore, only by the use of oil immersion. The bacilli are stained by all the basic analin dyes as well as by Gram's method. By means of the latter stain, it is possible to demonstrate all the erysipelas bacilli present in the preparation (compare Figs. 234, 235). The growth of these bac- teria on gelatin is characteristic. Stab cultures at a living tempera- ture, after three or four days, take on the form of a test tube brush. In plate cultures, on the other hand, bluish gray spots appear after two or three days, wliich under slight magnification exhibit a deli- cately branched figure (configuration of a bone corpuscle). Spores have not been observed in the erysipelas bacillus. Petri and Maasen demonstrated that the erysipelas bacilli possess to a high degree the power of forming sulphuretted hydrogen. The fact that the growth of erysipelas bacilli does not require a blood temperature explains the fact demonstrated by Lydtin and Schottelius, that erysipelas bacilli in the carcass may multiply to such an extent that within twenty-four to forty-eight hours all the vessels are filled with bacilli. Susceptibility of Other Animals to Erysipelas Bacilli.— The erysip- elas bacilli are transmissible by inoculation to mice, rabbits and pigeons. Horses, cattle, sheep, dogs, cats and guinea pigs, on the other hand, are immune to bncillar erysipelas. At first it was sus- pected that the erysipelas bacillus of hogs was identical with the bacillus of mouse septicemia, with which it agrees almost completely, morphologically and biologically, as well as with regard to its pathogenicity to mice, rabbits and pigeons. This view, however, can not be sustained, since Preisz has shown that in the inoculation of hogs the erysipelas bacilli are virulent, while those of septicemia are not. Prettner, however, has lately maintained the identity of both species of bacteria on the basis of experimental investigations. Resistance of Erysipelas Bacilli to Heat and Preserving Re-agents. — The erysipelas bacilli belong to the least resistant micro-organisms. It is difficult, .however, to kill the bacilli, with certainty, in meat by means of the common domestic and commercial methods of prepar- ing and preserving. This has been demonstrated by the thorough investigations of Petri. The same investigator reported as follows concerning these investigations : 1. The bacilli of swine erysipelas may usually be killed by heating to 55° 0. for five minutes. In some cases, however, they endure a temperature of 70^ C. for the same period. SWINE EETSrPELAS 685 2. In the usual methods of cooking, frying and roasting,' the heat penetrated into the pieces of meat very irregularly and slowly even when the period of application of heat was extended to four hours. Bones seemed to conduct the heat into the center of the mass more rapidly than the soft parts. 3. In pieces of meat not heavier than 1 kg. from hogs affected with erysipelas, it was not possible to kill with certainty all the erysipelas bacilli, especially those which were found deep in the muscle or in the bone marrow, by means of the ordinary methods of boiling, frying and roasting. By boiling, for two and one-half hours, pieces of meat which were not heavier than those mentioned above, this result was obtained with certainty, although the same result was not secured by long frying and roasting. 4. The usual salting and pickling materials, common salt, salt- peter and sugar, in a concentrated aqueons solution, affected the germinating power of erysipelas bacilli in pure cultures only slightly and slowly; so that the destruction of the bacilli was not accomplished until after four weeks. Pickling brines containing ■albumen and other materials obtained from the meat itself exer- cised a more energetic effect upon the bacteria. The death of the bacteria occurred after about eight days. 5. In the meat of hogs affected with erysipelas, the virus was present in an unattenuated form after salting for one month. 6. lu pickling meat covered with brine, the erysipelas virus retained its normal virulence for several months. A slight attenua- tion appeared after the lapse of this time, but even after six months there were still virulent erysipelas bacilli in the pickled meat. 7. After meat which had been salted or pickled for one month was thoroughly smoked for 14 days, the erysipelas bacilli in pieces of meat freshly removed from the smoke were still unattenuated. It was not until after a further preservation of the meat that the bacilli appeared gradually to lose their virulence. After a period of three months some virulent bacilli could still be demonstrated in smoked hams. In the bone marrow, also, the bacilli retained their virulence for a long time. It was not until after the lapse of six months after smoking that the erysipelas bacilli in hams appeared to have died. According to Peti'i, however, boiling small pieces (under 1 kg.) for 2^ hours gives t: guaranty that the erysipelas bacilli are destroyed, even iu the central parts of the meat. A certain destruction of the bacilli in the meat of hogs affected 686 INFECTIOUS DISEASES with erysipelas is accomplished by steam sterilization more quickly thau by boiling. Occurrence. — The improved breeds of hogs with light-colored skin are most disposed to erysipelas, while native hogs are least sus- ceptible. In animals under three months of age, erysipelas is rare. Erysipelas causes annually enormous losses in the national wealth. According to statistics collected in the Grand Duchy of Baden, the number of hogs affected with the disease in that region in the period 1875 to 1884 was not less than 62,568, or 1.8 per cent, of the total number of hogs. Of this number, 7,004 recovered, 15,512 died and 40,052 were slaughtered for meat. In Saxony, the annual loss is estimated to be at least 1.3 to 2.8 per cent. Distribution op Swine Er'Xsipelas by Means op Meat Trap- pic. — From a veterinary police standpoint, the question whether bacillar erysipelas of hogs can be disseminated as a result of feed- ' ing offal and meat or blood of diseased animals is of the greatest importance. Several observations appear to favor an affirmative answer, and Pasteur, Lydtin and Schottelius assert they have pro- duced the disease by feeding erysipelas material. Against these positive results, however, we have the negative results of Petri, who tried in vain to infect three young hogs by feeding erysipela- tous organs and parts of meat, although in two experiments he fed 100 gra. of coarsely minced material. Fischer and Bang jed material from acute erysipelas of hogs with similar negative results. Fischer fed the spleen, liver, contents of the stomach and intestines, and excrement without result, while he obtained positive results by confining healthy hogs with diseased ones. It should always be remembered, however, that the erysipelas bacilli disseminated by means of meat traffic may, when set free, acquire an increased viru- lence under conditions which are thus far not well understood, and may produce outbreaks of erysipelas. Clinical Symptoms and Pathologico-anatomical Findings.— Bacillar erysipelas of hogs appears suddenly, and, as a rule, quickly leads to death. The essential symptom of bacillar erysipe- las, in addition to fever, great depression and weakness, is a red coloration of the skin, which first appears in spots, but rapidly spreads over the whole body. The redness of the skin is character- ized by its dark shade. Upon post-mortem examination of animals affected with ery- sipelas, one uniformly finds extensive alterations in the internal SWINE ERYSIPELAS 687 organs. In addition to the reddening of the skin and of the panni- culus adiposu'=!, there appears extensive parenchymatous degenera- tion of the liver, heart, and, in a higher degree, also of the kidneys. Hemorrhages are observed under the serous membranes. The spleen is quite swollen and of a bluish-red color. In the stomach and intestines, cue observes the symptoms of inflammation in vari- ous stages, but, as a, rule, bloody, with extensive affection of the lymph follicles in the inflamed area. The lymphatic glands exhibit tumefaction and hemorrha- ges. Moreover, nephritis of ^is- ^^• a hemorrhagic character is seldom absent. The kidneys are dark, grayish-red and swollen, and a cloudy, red- dish - colored fluid exudes from the cut surface. The symptoms vary, as is readily understood, according to the stage of the disease in which the animals are slaughtered. In animals slaughtered dur- ing the figony of the disease, the above described altera- tions are very pronounced. Moreover, in these cases the musculature is discolored, grayish-red, and, altogether, theinternal organs, especially the liver, are very rich in blood. The carcasses of animals affected with erysipelas, in addition to the above mentioned alterations, possess the further peculiarity that, as a rule, they exhibit either no, or only a slightly pronounced, rigor mortis (Hertwig), and rapidly pass into decomposition. Bang has given us detailed information concerning an interest- ing and important sequela of bacillar erysipelas. After Hess and Gillebeau, as well as Schottelius, had called attention to the fact that hogs which recover from natural or inoculation erysipelas may subsequently become affected and die of endocarditis, Bang made the surprising discoveiy that this endocarditis of hogs which recover from erysipelas is due to a localization of the erysipelas bacilli in the valves of the heart. This endocarditis (Fig. 236) may Heart of a hog with valvular verrucose endo- carditis as a sequela of swine erysipelas. a, warty thickenings. 688 INFECTIOUS DISEASES reach such an acute stage within two months that it causes death from mechanical causes. The animals either die suddenly or show symptoms of disease for, eight to fourteen days. In the latter case a reddening of the skin appears. This, however, in general is less intense than in cases of acute erysipelas. It is worthy of mention, according to Bang, that this reddening of the skin may appear more conspicuously after death than during life. Burggraf demonstrated erysipelatous endocarditis in four out of 30,000 slaughtered hogs. DiFFEKENTjiAL DIAGNOSIS. — The following diseases may be mis- taken for the hemorrhagic infiltration of the skin in cases of bacillar erysipelas : (1) Reddening of the skin from mechanical causes (blows from clubs, whips, etc.) ; (2) inflammation of the skin from thermic causes (sun's rays, intense cold) ; (3) traumatic erysipelas ; (4) swine plague ; (5) hog cholera ; (6) urticaria. Eiythrism of the skin from mechanical or thermic causes is always confined to the skin. In extreme cases of blows from clubs, which are, however, distinguished by their characteristic form, the panniculus adiposus may also be colored red in consequence of hemorrhages. The internal organs, however, are always intact. Reddening of the skin from mechanical causes is due to hemor- rhages. In cases of inflammation of the sTsin which appear after prolonged direct action of the sun's rays upon susceptible hogs, we have a reddening which at first is punctate and confined to the pap- illae ; later the inflammatory reddening of the skin assumes a diffuse character, bat is. distinguished from erysipelas by its lighter shade and the complete integrity of the hypodermal fat tissue. Inflam- matory phenomena of the skin in consequence of freezing are usually localized on the inferior parts of the body (lower portion of the breast and abdomen, posterior portion of the cheeks). This condi- tion may result in necrosis in cases of prolonged transportation during intense cold. In cases of defective bleeding, it may occur that stunned and stuck hogs exhibit active movements after being placed in the scalding vat. In such animals one observes alight red color similar to that which is due to the action of the sun's rays and restricted to the unscalded parts of the skin. Brusaffero maintains, further- more, that he observed hyaline degeneration in the muscles which were not submerged. Traumatic erysipelas in hogs usually appears in the form of a painful inflammation of the skin about the head and may lead to necrosis. According to Graffunder, erysipelas of the head in hogs SW1-\'E EhYSIPELAS 689 Fig. 337. is usually unilateial. When one considers the usual picture of swine plague and hog cholera, it is difl&cult to understand how these diseases were formerly confused with swine erysipelas. The alter- ations in the internal organs, especially in the lungs, spleen, intestines and kidneys, are of a totally different sort (page 694 to 703). Moreover, the reddening of the skin which is common to the diseases just named is in cases of swine plague restricted to the deeper-lying parts of the body and possesses a lighter shade of color. Urticaria appears in the form of rhombic, dark-red, elevated areas (Fig. 238). The red spots on the skin do not coalesce. The internal organs are intact. In all cases erysipelas should be recognized ■without special difficulty by the course of the disease and the findings at the time of slaughter. For a bacteriological confirmation of the diagnosis, Johne recommends the preparation of a stab culture from the interior of the spleen in addition to the demon- stra,tion of the erysipelas bacilli under the micro- scope. Stab cultures in gelatin show the character- istic form of a test tube brush after a few days (Fig. 237). ur I Judgment. — It must be considered as demon- strated by experience in hundreds and thousands of cases that the consumption of the meat of erysipe- latous hogs is without injurious effect upon man. This fact was emphasized even during the '50's by experienced veterinarians (Nicklas, Hartmann, Straub, Gerlach, et al.) at a time when bacillar ery- sipelas of hogs was still erroneously considered to be anthrax. Hartmann, for example, in his veter- inary reports, states that in the government district of Oppeln, the meat of hogs dead of erysipelas was quite commonly eaten by man without any bad consequences being noted. Straub reports that the consumption of such meat is harmless, even when the hogs are affected with erysipelas in an acute stage. The unavoidable conclusion from this enormous mass of experimental material is not altered by the fact that erysipelas bacilli are occasionally found in human excretions (Lubowski), and may be transmitted to man by inoculation (Hille- bra^idt, Casper). At the end of the '80's, Dieckerhoff, and after Stab culture of swine erysipelas bacilli in gelatin at a living room temperature (18° C), 4 days old. Natural size. 690 INFECTIOUS DISEASES him, Schmidt-Miilheim, expressly emphasized the fact of the harm- lessness of the meat of erysipelatous hogs, with special reference to the assumption of the harmful property of the meat in question, which prevailed in medical circles. The necessity for this is best shown by the " extracts from legal decisions concerning the food law," published by the Imperial Health Office. In these decisions, 38 cases are reported in which swine erysipelas gave occasion to crimiual procedures. In these 38 cases the meat was considered harmful in 25 cases and a spoiled food material in 9 cases. In 4 cases the opinions of experts were directly contradictory. In agreement with the opinion rendered by Dieckerhoff, that the meat of erysipelatous hogs, as long as it is fresh and not passinj^ into decomposition, is not harmful to human health, the Eoyal Prussian Scientific Deputation for the Medical Service, in an opinion rendered November 6, 1889, declared that proof was not forthcoming that the consumption of the meat of erysipelatous hogs was calculated to injure human health. We must particularly combat the erroneous belief that the bacterial nature of swine erysipelas, in and of itself, iudicates the presence of a harmful property in the meat. This is by no means the case, since, according to all experience — infection in man has not been observed in a single case, even after handling erysipelatous meat — the erysipelas bacilli are harmless saprophytes for the human organism. In so far, therefore, as the meat of erysipelatous hogs does not give evidence of a badly spoiled condition as a resulb of advanced stage of the disease (intense reddening of the skin and of the panniculus adipoaus, discoloration of the musculatuie, etc.), it may be sold as an inferior food material under declaratiou. This is to be permitted especially in cases where the animals were slaughtered in an early stage of the disease. Declaration is to be required, however, in all cases in the sale of erysipelatous meat, since it comes from badly diseased animals, and, in contrast with normal meat, possesses much poorer keeping qualities, even when the specific alterations are not especially pronounced. Eegard for the prophylaxis of the bacillar erysipelas of hogs requires that the meat of erysipelatous animals shall be admitted to market only in a cooked or sterilized condition. For, while bacillar erysipelas is pre-eminently a stationary disease, restricted to certain localities, there is a possibility that an opportunity may be given for the dissemination of the disease through the unregu- lated sale of the raw meat of erysipelatous animals. It is imma- UETICAEIA 691 terial in this connection whether the infection of hogs takes place through the feed, the water used for washing the meat, or by other means. The Royal Saxon Commission for the Veterinary Service recom- mended, for preventing bacillar erysipelas, the compulsory boiling or pickling of the meat of animals subjected to emergency slaugh- ter and intended for shIp. It has already been stated, however, that pickling does not have the effect ascribed to it by the Saxon Commission. Pickling may be permitted merely as a temporary method of treating meat in localities in which erysipelas occurs in an epizootic form and where, consequently, the utilization of the meat in a cooked condition is impossible. Furthermore, pickling in cities is unobjectionable, since here traffic in meat can not give rise to the dissemination of erysipelas bacilli in hog yards, as would be the case in country districts.* The Danish Government has ordered that erysipelatous hogs, against the consumption of which the veterinarian raises no objec- tion, shall be used for food only within the limits of the infected .locality. In order to avoid the danger of dissemination of ery- sipelas by means of the meat of infected animals, it was also ordered that permission for the sale of hogs in an infected herd, including those which appeared to be healthy, shall be made dependant upon the proof of the normal character of various parts, including the heart. The restriction of the consumption of the meat to the infected localities is undoubtedly an effective means of preventing the dis- semination of erysipelas bacilli. In cases, however, in which emergency slaughter is performed on a large scale on account of erysipelas, the restriction is priictically the same as an absolute destruction of the meat, since the owners, especially in summer, are not able to eat all of the meat. In snch cases traffic may be conducted by permitting preliminary pickling, since pickled meat is eaten only in a cooked condition, and the erysipelas bacilli are destroyed after a short exposure in the pickling brine (page 685). (k) Urticaria. Nature. — Urticaria ("backsteinblattern," formerly also called "spot erysipelas of hogs") is a disease of swine, characterized by * By proclamation of the Imperial Chancellor, September 8, 1898, compul- sory notification for erysipelas of hogs is required for the whole German Empire. 692 IXl'ECTIOUS DISEASES the eruption of hemorrhagic, diamond-shaped patches. Simul- taneously there appear a riither serious disturbance of the general condition, inappeteucy and obstipation. The diamond-shaped patches are scattered irregularly over the body. Their color at first is dark-red (hemorrhages) ; later they become pale in the superficial layers, and still later, also in the deeper layers of the tissue. After slaughter the diamond- shaped patches subside somewhat and exhibit a pronounced rhombic form (Fig. 238). By means of an incision one may be convinced that the disease affects not only Skin ol hog affected with urticaria, two-tiiirds natural size, a, rhombic hemorrhagic area; b, area disappearing. the skin, but extends quite deeply into the panniculus adiposus. When the diamond-shaped patches begin to heal, they become round and lose their sharp delimitation from the surrounding tissue. Etiology.— Lorenz in Darmstadt demonstrated bacilli in the diamond-shaped patches which, according to Hessian usage, he designated as " backsteinblattern." They possessed great similar- ity with those of mouse septicemia and erysipelas. According to a private communication, Liipke, independently of Lorenz, suc- ceeded in producing urticaria-like eruptions by the intravenous URTICARIA 693 inoculation of the bacilli of mouse septicemia. Simultaneously with Lorenz and Liipke, Jensen found bacilli in cases of urticaria. Jenseu, however, did not consider them a distinct species, but held them to be merely erysipelatous bacilli. Jensen drew the conclu- sion that bacillar erysipelas of hogs can no longer be considered as a simple process. According to our present knowledge, erysipe- las appears in several different, well-characterized forms, between which, however, transition forms sometimes occur. Jensen distin- guishes the following clinical forms of bacillar erysipelas: (1) "rouget blanc;" (2) erysipelas in the narrower sense ; (3) diffuse necrosing inflammation of the skin (dry gangrene of the skin) ; (4) nettle fever (urticaria) ; (5) bacillar verrucose endocarditis. With regard to " ronget blauc " of the French, he remarks that this dis- ease does not often occur and runs its course very rapidly, without any red coloration. Even on the carcass, the skin in cases of "rouget blanc" possesses its normal character. Judgment. — The meat of hogs which have beet affected with urticaria is everywhere admitted to the market after the removal pf the diseased spots. As in cases of erysipelas, no injury to human health has been observed. In the more acute forms of the disease, the meat is to be treated as an inferior food material. For the rest, meat inspectors will do well, on account of the depreciation of the value of the meat in by far the larger number of cases, to advise against emergency slaughter of animals affected with urticaria, since the disease commonly ends in recovery, especially if suitable therapeutic measures (administration of cathartics) are taken. Veterinary Police Treatment op Urticaria. — Opinions vary on the question whether urticaria, from a veterinary police stand- point, should be treated like erysipelas. Against the justification of such a procedure, the objection has been raised that erysipelas caa not be produced by inoculation of urticaria material, and, furthermore, that veterinary police measures against urticaria are practically of no importance, and the value of such procedure in any case stands in no relation to the hardships which result from a veterinary police interference. This point of view receives strong support from the more receut investigations concerning the sapro- phytic occurrence of the organism of urticaria in the intestines of healthy hogs (Olt, Jensen). 694 INFECTIOUS DISEASES (1) Swine Plague. Nature and Occureence.— Swine plague is an infectious dis- ease of hogs which is produced by micro-organi.:iins similar to those of hemorrhagic septicemia of cattle (compare page 671). According to an observation of LofHer, swine plague may appear as septicemia with serous iufiltration of the subcutis. Usually, however, it occurs in the form of a multiple necrosing pneumonia. This is the genuine swine plague, as described and demonstrated bacteriologically by Schiitz. As a rule, in addition to pneumonia, there exists a sero-fibrinous pleuritis and pericarditis. The latter affections, however, may constitute the only anatomical alterations of swine plague. Furthermore, a diffuse fibiinous pleuro-peritonitis (pectoral-abdominal Fig. 239. form of swine plague, according to Graffunder) is observed, as a result of swine plague. During the acute stage one ob- serves general phenomena in the form of cloudy swelling of the parenchyma of the liver and kidneys, myocardium and skeletal musculature, associated • under certain conditions with an en- largement of all the lymphatic glands of the body. Moreover, specific pneu- monia, like pneumonia of horses, is fre- quently ushered in by hematogenous icterus. The sequelae of swine plague possess special interest. After the acute inflammatory stage is passed, adhesions of the pulmonary pleura and pericardium with the pleura may occur, as well as adhesions of the pericardium with the epicardium. Moreover, the formation of caseous, purulent and dry necrotic foci (sequestrations) may take place in the lungs. Differential Diagnosis. — Upon a superficial examination dur- ing the acute stage, swine plague may be confused with swine erysipelas, especially since in cases of swine plague, a reddening of the skin is observed. Acute swine plague, however, is distinguished from erysipelas with regard to its gross anatomy, by the lighter shade of the red coloration ; the restriction of the latter to the Swine plague bacteria in a smear preparation from the cardiac blood of an infected mouse. SWINE PLAGUE 695 under parts of the body and the absence of splenic tumor and inflammatory phenomena in the intestines. Furthermore, in swine plague the hemorrhagic nephritis which is characteristic of erysipelas is wanting. Finally, however, the presence of the specific alterations in the lungs and on the serous membranes of the thoracic cavity in ordinary cases furnishes a demonstration of the presence of swine plague. In doubtful cases a decision must be reached by a bacteriologi- cal investigation. This is most usually accomplished by making streak cultures, or, if this is without result, by diagnostic inocula- tion. After inoculation with erysipelatous material, mice and pigeons die, rabbits develop merely typical erysipelas, and guinea pigs remain healthy. With swine plague, however, mice, rabbits, and guinea pigs die within one to three days after inoculation, while pigeons are not affected. Accordingly, in doubtful cases differentiation is made possible by merely inoculating guinea pigs or pigeons (Kitt). The pneumonia of swine plague is distinguished from catarrhal pneumonia by its fibrinous character, the lobular distension, the greater firmness of the diseased parts of the lungs and the finding of ovoid bacteria which are pathogenic for experimental animals, especially mice. According to Strose and Heine, catarrhal pneumonia occurs in one per cent, of the hogs slaughtered in Hanover, causes no patho- logical symptoms except coughing, and, as a rule, is restricted to a lobular affection of portions of the anterior lobes of the lungs. In the bronchial glands of hogs affected wilh catarrhal pneumonia, ovoid bacteria could also be demonstrated, but, in contrast with the bacteria of swine plague, they were not pathogenic for mice. Judgment. — Fiedler and Bleisch are of the opinion that the meat of hogs affected with swine plague should be considered as injurious to health. They state, "We should not fail to mention that as long as the immunity of man toward the bacteria of swine plague has not been demonstrated, the pathogenic action shown in our experiments of the bacteria of swine plague toward different animal genera creates a fear of such action toward man. Especial care in the practice of meat inspection appears to be required with regard to this matter." Against this view is arrayed the experience of meat inspection. Quite aside from the fact that the pathogenic action of the micro-organism in experimental animals proves nothing with regard t") man (page 114), before the discovery of the BOG INFEOTIOnS DISEASES specific nature of swine plague, the meat of animals affected with the pectoral and intestinal form of the disease was always admitted to the market for the reason that the disease was considered as a simple pulmonary iuflammation as a result of colds. Nothing, however, is known concerning injury to human health from eating such meat. To be sure, Pouchet and Zschokke reported observa- tions, according to which the meat of hogs affected with swine plague is said to have exercised harmful effects. These observa- tions, however, are not unexceptionable. In the case reported by Pouchet, the pork was in a state of decomposition, while the case of Zschokke is not clearly explained, and, as the author himself states, was perhaps to be considered as a case of poisoning from saltpeter. Prettner made inoculation experiments on mice with swine plague by rubbing infectious exudations from a hog into skin wounds. The result was negative. Furthermore, an infection of man from handling the altered organs of animals affected with swine plague has never occurred. ' If in spite of these facts all scruples against the admission of the meat to the market can not be overcome, at any rate no objec- tion can be raised against the sale of the meat when well boiled or sterilized, since we know that the bacteria of swine plague in pieces of meat which are not too thick are destroyed by exposure for one hour to a temperature of 80° C. In this way, also, the requirements of the veterinary police are satisfied. Such a pro- cedure, however, is necessary only in case of acute swine plague, since in this form bacteria are present in the blood and even in the meat. The meat of hogs affected with swine plague is to be excluded from the market as highly unfit for food when icterus is associated with an acute stage of specific inflammation of the pulmonary and costal pleura ; or when the animals are greatly emaciated in conse- quence of the disease.* (m) Hog Cholera. OcoUKRENCE. — Hog cholera is a devastating infectious disease of hogs which has been brought into Europe from the New World. For nearly forty years the disease has been known in America under the names hog cholera and swine fever. The losses from this plague in the United States, for a period of a few years, amounted. •■■With regard to compulsory notification of swine plague, see page HOG CHOLERA 697 according to Schiitz, to from twenty-five to thirty million dollars. In 1862 the disease was introduced into England and became stationary -there. From England it was carried to Sweden, pre- sumably through the agency of breeding boars, and from thence was introduced into Denmark in 1887. Recently the disease has also appeared in an epizootic form in Germany, especially in Austria-Hungary. Bacteriologt. — Hog cholera is produced by small, motile bacilli which accumulate in the organs in very characteristic masses like the typhoid bacillus. They are stainable with some difficulty. The staining is best accomplished with Lbffler's alkaline methylene blue solution, carbol fuchsin, and according to Kuhne's method (carbol methylene blue). Mice, guinea pigs and rabbits are killed by the bacilli within from two to twelve days either by inoculation or by feeding. Hogs like- ■ "• wise die of pronounced cases of hog cholera after \ ' . , receiving the bacilli in food. In animals fed on • "^ » such material, an extensive enteritis is uniformly , ^ \ » present. The mucous membrane of the small ~ ^ . * intestine is reddened and congested. The intes- ^■' tinal contents are mixed with blood. In chronic ♦ . • cases of the disease there is a localization in the gog cholera bacillus inferior portion of the ileum and cecum in the ^o™ »" ^'S&t^ culture . i ■ 1 1, • J- v.i •.• 24 hours old. X 500 form or a simple hyperemia or diphtheritic diameters. destruction of the mucous membrane. In ex- perimental animals fed on hog cholera bacilli, the organisms are recovered particularly from the intestine, mesenteric glands, liver and spleen. The bacilli of hog cholera are commonly found in the blood of hogs only in cases which run a rapid course and even then are not very abundant. Clinical Symptoms. — Hog cholera most frequently attacks young animals, sucking pigs and young pigs up to four months of age. The period of incubation is from five to twenty days. The pathological symptoms are inappetence, slight constipation and, later, a, stinking diarrhea. Frequently red spots and a scab-like eczema appears on the ears, snout and in the region of the anus. A purulent conjunctivitis is frequently present. There is rapid emaciation and death takes place after five to eight days, or several weeks with progressive coma. In slight cases of the disease the perceptible pathological symptoms are less pronounced. The ani- 698 INFECTIOUS DISEASES mals which recover are stunted, fail to develop and die after linger- ing several months. Anatomical Findings, — Diphtheritic alterations on the tongue, pharynx, gums, and in the stomach; catarrhal, croupous, diph- FiG. 341. a Mild case of hog cholera, large intestine of a hog. a, croupous deposits ; b, diphtheritic alterations of the lymph follicle?. theritic and hemorrhagic inflammation in the duodenum and ileum. The chief alterations, however, are found in the large intestines. Acute cage of hog cholera, a, incipient diphtheria of the lymph follicles; b, button- like caseous foci with walled borders ; c, erosions becoming cicatriced. The surface of the mucous membrane of the cecum, colon and rec- tum is covered with a croupous deposit (Fig. 241, a), or undergoes extensive diphtheritic alteration. The diphtheritic alteration usually HOG CHOLEEA 699 Pig. 243. begins in the lymph follicles (Fig. 241, b) and changes them together with the surrounding tissue into button-like caseous foci of the size of peas or hazel nuts (Fig. 242, b). If the diphtheritic foci are sloughed off, irregular ulcers appear, which may become smoothly cicatrized (Fig. 242, c). The ileo-cecal valve is enlarged and case- fied in a quite pathognostic form. The lymph glands of the digestive apparatus are simultaneously swollen. The tumefied laryngeal and mesenteric glands may exhibit caseous deposits or may be totally casefied. Calci- fication is not observed in the caseous products of hog cholera. The respiratory organs of hogs affected with hog cholera may be perfectly healthy. On the other hand, a pneumonia due to bacteria of swine plague may be associated with hog cholera as a complication; the spleen is unaltered and the liver slightly clouded upon cross sec- tion. The flabby kidneys exhibit a slightly-clouded cortical sub- stance. Etiology op Pneumonic and Necbotio Alteeations in Hog Cholera. — Bang demonstrated that the different kinds of pneu- monia which occur in the chro- nic form of hog cholera are not produced by the hog cholera bacillus, but by the organism of swine plague, which Bang called the vacuole bacillus and which occurs also in the nasal mucus and in the lungs of healthy hogs. It was also demonstrated by Bang that in case of chronic hog cholera the so-called necrosis bacillus constantly occurs in addition to the hog cholera bacillus and the vacuole bacillus (page 680). The necrosis bacillus is sometimes found in the intestinal contents of healthy hogs and may nrot^nce deeo necrosing pro- cesses in the hog, in which the hog cholera bacillus has already Hog cholera. Deep iieciotio processes fol- lowing secondary localization of the necrosis bacillus. 700 INFECTIOUS DISEASES caused a superficial croupous inflammation. In consequence of the caseation of the mucosa and muscularis, due to the action of the necrosis bacillus, the diseased parts of the intestine are modified into rigid tubes which do not collapse. If the process extends to the serosa, we have a fibrinous or fibrous peritonitis and, during the course of the latter, manifold adhesions between the folds of the intestines. According to Bang,. the necrosis bacilli also cause the necrotic processes which are observed in the lungs. The investigations of Bang on the etiology of the complications which appear with hog cholera have been substantiated by the studies of Preisz, Karlinski and the author. In isolated cases of diphtheritic inflammation of the stomach and intestines in hogs, Kitt found the necrosis bacillus in unusual quantities in teased preparations . and in sections, and he is, there- fore, of the opinion that diphtheritic anomalies in the digestive tract of hogs are produced only by the necrosis bacillus and that hog diseases may occur in Germany in -a sporadic and epizootic form which closely resemble the American disease clinically and anatomically, but, from an etiological standpoint, have nothing to do with the latter. Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis. — The slaughter find- ings in animals which are affected with hog cholera are, as a rule, so pronounced and characteristic of the disease that the recognition of hog cholera in ordinary cases should present no difficulty what- ever to the expert entrusted with the practice of meat inspection. It is only in cases with a peracute course, in which there is merely a bloody inflammation of the stomach and intestines, a swelling of the lymphatic glands with petechise in them and the kidneys, that the disease may be confused with swine erysipelas. Such cases, however, are distinguished from erysipelas by the fact that the spleen is not swollen and the kidneys do not show the symptoms of hemorrhagic nephritis. Moreover, the erysipelas bacilli are wanting in the blood and parenchyma, while, on the other hand, the hog cholera bacilli may be demonstrated in the swollen mesenteric glands, by a teased preparation or a culture. In inoculation experi- ments, it should be remembered that the hog cholera bacilli are comparatively of slight virulence for small experimental animals and that, therefore, the animals may die of intercurrent diseases if other organisms more pathogenic lor the experimental animal con- cerned are accidentally present m the organic material used in. making the inoculation. HOG CHOLEEA 701 The distinction between intestinal diphtheria of hogs (Kitt) due merely to the necrosis bacilli and the diphtheria of hog cholera may be made evident only by means of a thorough bacteriological investigation, especially of the mesenteric glands. Since during the couise of hog cholera caseous alterations arise in the alimen- tary tract and its lymphatic glands, there may be a confusion of this disease with alimentary tuberculosis. Hog cholera, however, is distinguished from alimentary tuberculosis by the fact that it is ushered in with acute alterations of the mucous membrane and exhibits only in rare cases pronounced alterations of the lymphatic glands in contrast with tuberculosis. In tuberculosis of hogs, the mucous membrane, even in the acute cases of the alimentary form, are, as a rule, without alterations, while the corresponding lymph glands are always specifically altered to a high degree. The caseous alterations of the mucous membranes in tuberculosis are, moreover, not caused by croup or dii)htheria, but represent ulcers, the bases of which consist of disintegrating tubercles (Fig. 213). A further distinction between hog cholera and tuberculosis is found in the fact that in cases of natural infection, the former pro- duces caseation only in the alimentary tract, while tuberculosis through generalization of the process may cause caseation in most of the internal organs, especially in the lungs, liver, spleen, bones, joints, sheaths of the tendons and the lymphatic glands which belong to these organs. Finally, the caseation which appears in the lymphatic glands of the digestive tract in cases of hog cholera may be distinguished from tuberculous alterations of those structures by observing the foUowiug criteria : (a) Hog cholera produces either a partial or total caseation of the lymphatic glands. The caseous material deposited in them is grayish-yellow and in cases of partial caseation is readily separable from the surrounding tissue of lymphatic glands. Tuberculosis always begins with partial caseation at several points ; for it is asso- ciated with the pre-existence of numerous small foci or tubercles. (&) The caseations which appear in the lymphatic glands of the digestive organs in case of hog cholera do not become calcified. In cases of tuberculosis of the lymphatic glands of hogs, on the other hand, calcification is uniformly associated with caseation. (c) In cases of partial caseation of the lymphatic glands as a result of hog cholera, the tissue of the lymphatic glands which lies in contact with the caseous deposits commonly exhibits no gross a,lterations. 702 INFECTIOUS DISEASES In tuberculosis, as shown by Johne, there are always small, perfectly transparent, grayish tubercles, which may be clouded in the center, in the immediate neighborhood of the caseous areas. These macroscopic criteria are more important in the differen- tiation of hog cholera from tuberculosis than those which may be secured by bacteriological investigations. For it is a well known ' fact that in old caseous areas the bacteria of hog cholera as well as those of tuberculosis frequently can not be demonstrated by microscopic investigation, but only by inoculation. Bang and Jensen have called attention to the fact that the normal condition of the ileo-ceca^ valve may lead to confusion with hog cholera. In the ducts of the glands of the ileo-cecal valve, yellow cloudy plugs are frequently observed which -on superficial examination might be mistaken for caseous foci. These plugs, which arise by retention of the secretion of the glands, may be readily pressed out from the ducts of the glands without losing auy of their substance (Fig. 244, a). Fur- thermore, the mucous membrane of the ileo-cecal valve itself is without any alteration. Pig. 244. Ileo-cecal valve of a hog. a, seat of retention plugs which may give riso to confusion with hog cholera. Judgment. — A decree of the Eoyal Prussian Ministers for Agri- culture and Education, of July 9, 1894, declares on the basis of the expressed opinions of the Technical Deputation for Veterinary Service and the Scientific Deputation for the Medical Service, that the meat of hogs which have been subjected to emergency slaughter on account of swine plague or hog cholera is not injurious to human health. The decree prescribes the following procedure for the meat in question. /■ " The meat, however, is to be sold under declaration and in a cooked condition, unless it is eaten on the premises where the disease occurs. The affected internal organs, together with their appendices, are to be buried or burned. The carcasses are to be excluded from the market but admitted for technical utilization in FOWL CHOLEEA 703 the case of hogs in which sequelae, such as icterus or peritonitis, have developed."* APPENDIX. The Most Important Infectious Diseases of Fowls. In connection with the discussion of the diseases of the larger domesticated animals, the two most important diseases of useful domesticated fowls, fowl cholera and diphtheria of fowls, may be briefly considered. (a) Fowl Cholera. OccaERENCE. — Fowl cholera occurs in chickens, geese, ducks, pigeons, turkeys and pheasants and causes enormous losses during the outbreaks. The disease has nothing in common with cholera in man except the name. Etiology. — Fowl cholera is produced by bacteria which, in respect of their morphology, cultural and pathogenic properties for experimental animals, agree with the organisms of hemorrhagic septicemia of cattle, swine plague and rabbit septicemia (compare page 671). Symptoms and Anatomical Findings. — The disease is charac- terized by its rapid, fatal course. The birds die suddenly with apoplectiform symptoms, or show signs of illness for several hours or three days at most. The internal temperature is considerably elevated. Upon a post-mortem examination one finds a hemorrhagic inflammation of the small intestine and a chocolate colored intes- tinal content ; occasionally, also, croupous enteritis, numerous hemorrhages under the epicardium and a congested or inflammatory condition of the lung tissue. Since the internal organs of diseased and dead fowls are care- fully removed before sale, it is not always an easy matter to * By promulgation of the Imperial Chancellor, September 8, 1898, compul- sory notification of swine plague, hog cholera and swine erysipelas, in the sense of Section 9 of the Imperial Animal Plague Law, is introduced for the whole German Empire until further notice, on the basis of Sec. 10* of the law. 704 INFECTIOUS DISEASES demonstrate the presence of fowl cholera in the carcasses brought to market. Nevertheless, in fowls which are slaughtered during the agony or which die of the disease cadaveric spots of a dark bhie color are commonly found on the inferior surface of the abdomen and on the internal surface of the thigh, The skeletal musculature may appear intact in cases of the disease with an acute course. As a rule, however, it is rich in blood, and, under certain conditions, may be affected with cloudy swelling or may undergo fatty and wax- like degeneration. Differential Diagnosis. — For confirming the diagnosis it is desirable to examine a drop of blood from the interior of the mus- culature for the presence of the fowl cholera bacteria, which are 0.3 to 1 /< in length (Fig. 245). Furthermore, Kitt recommends, as a convenient means of confirming the diagnosis, the inoculation of a pigeon by introducing a drop of blood into the musculature of the breast. In cases of fowl cholera, the animals die after twelve or at most forty-eight hours. The disease may be transmitted by feeding, with the same fatal result. Fig. 345. Smear preparation from the car- diac blood of a pigeon infected ■with fowl cholera. X 500 diam. Judgment. — The infectiousness of fowl cholera is of a limited order. It is transmissible to fowls, rabbits and mice. Guinea pigs die after inoculation only in exceptional cases. In these animals the result of inoculation is, as a rule, local, as well as in horses and sheep. According to the investigations of Perroncito, Marchiafava and Celli, as well as those of Kitt, dogs and cats may with impunity eat large quantities of the raw carcasses of fowls which have died of cholera. The behavior of man toward the bacteria of fowl cholera requires further elucidation in certain respects. Marchiafava and Celli assert that the bacteria in question may produce abscesses in small skin wounds. This, however, is of little importance. More- over, according to Ziirn, one person was made seriously ill by eat- ing the meat of choleraic chickens. These observations, however, are opposed to numerous others, according to which even the con- sumption of the meat of fowls dead of cholera was without harm to the consumers. DIPHTHERIA OP FOWLS 705 Perroncito frequently observed servants in his laboratory eat- ing, in a cooked condition, the chickens which had died of the dis- ease, and without experiencing the slightest harm. Likewise, dis- eased chickens were eaten by the farmers without bad results, during the great prevalence of the disease in Casalgrassa and in the Campagna near Rome. According to Kitt, the same statement is true cr the neighborhood of Munich. In rendering a decision concerning the admission of the meat to the market, it is an important consideration that the disease may be disseminated by means of the carcasses of dead or slaughtered chickens.* The fact just mentioned is sufficient to justify the exclu- sion from the market of fowls affected with cholera. Moreover, these carcasses, on account of the objective alterations of their sub- stance, frequently exhibit the character of a high degree of unfitness for food. The sale of the meat of fowls which are slaughtered at the beginning of the disease may be unhesitatingly permitted after pre- vious cooking ; for Kitt found that the bacteria of fowl cholera lose their virulence after exposure for three-fourths of an hour to a temperature of 45° to 50° C. (b) Diphtheria of Fowls. According to the investigations of Friedberger and Frohner, we have to distinguish two forms of so-called diphtheria of chickens : one form, probably, produced by bacteria and another form pro- duced by protozoa. The probably bacterial form of roup is, accord- ing to Friedberger and Frohner, next to fowl cholera, the most fre- quent and most dangerous plague of fowls. It attacks chickens and pigeons, and usually younger individuals of improved races. The essential symptoms of this form of avian diphtheria are croupous, diphtheritic inflammation upon the mucous membrane of the mouth and pharyngeal cavity, or of the respiratory passages (nasal cavity, larynx, trachea), of the eyes, or alimentary tract, The local phenomena are introduced by inflammatory jreddening. There- upon one observes " ropy " and, later, caseous deposits. The clini- * Notification is required for fowl cholera, according to the proclamation of the Imperial Chancellor's OflSce, in the Grand Duchies of Baden, Hessen, Meck- lenburg-Schwerin, Saxe-Weimar ; in the Duchies of Anhalt, Brunswick, Gotha, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Meiningen ; and in the Principalities of Waldeck-Pyrmont and Lippe-Detmold. 706 INFECTIOUS DISEASES cal symptoms vary according as there is exclusive or predominatiiij^ localization of the inflammatory phenomena. Upon post-mortem examination one finds, in addition to the local alterations, emaciation, anemia, cloudy swelling of the parenchyma and hemorrhages under the epicardium. In the croupous diph- theritic deposits upon the mucous membrane, Loffler demonstrated a bacillus which was pathogenic for mice, and which, when rein- oculated into two pigeons, produced a diphtheria of the oral mucous paembrane. Protozoa are claimed by Kivolta and Silvestri as being the cause of one form of avian diphtheria. This form, according to Friedberger and Frohner, is distinguished from the presumably bacillar form by its ready transmissibility, the milder course of the disease, and the frequent extension of the process from the oral mucous membrane upon the general integument. Upon the latter . organ, especially on the featherless parts of the body, from miliary to bean-sized neomorphs (epithelioma, according to Bollinger) appear. These at first are gray, often with a pearl-like sheen, and firm. Later they are covered with a scab and become more elevated. In the proliferating epithelial cells of the epithelioma, highly refractive homogeneous bodies appear, which stain easily with picro- carmin, and are thereby differentiated from the epithelial cells, which stain brownish-red. Judgment. — Practically the same statement holds true for the bacterial form of avian diphtheria as was made concerning the so-called diphtheria of calves. The form of diphtheria of fowls pro- duced by protozoa occupies a special position in contrast with this disease, for it is a local disease. The general symptoms in this form are due simply to the mechanical hindrances to ingestion and respiration (compare page 523). With regard to the bacterial form of roup, Friedberger and Frohner mention a fact of great importance in the judgment of the meat: viz., that they themselves examined thousands, of roupy chickens and pigeons without becoming infected in a single case or without having observed infection in other persons. This fact can be considered as conclusive evidence of the non-transmissibility of the bacterial form of avian diphtheria to man. Nevertheless, the meat of chickens and pigeons which were infected with bacterial diphtheria, in cases where a disturbance of the nutritive condition is present, is to be considered as at least spoiled, if not highly unfit for food. DISEASE3 OF FISH 707 An opinion of the Eoyal Prussian Deputation for the Medical Service, of December, 1886, recommends the prohibition of the sale of slaughtered diphtheritic birds and calves, " although the state- ments of Dr. Emmerich (who claimed to have observed the trans- mission of avian diphtheria to man) can not be considered as scien- tific common property." Siuce the promulgation of this opinion, however, twelve years have passed without bringing any support from observations or experiments to the recommended procedure. Other Fowl Plagues. — Belfanti and Zenoni described a plague of fowls which caused great losses in Lombardy. It appeared with localization in the respiratory passages (pneumo-pleurisy, pericar- ditis) or in the alimentary tract (enteritis with splenic tumor). In both cases there were also ecchymoses on the pericardium. Bel- fanti and Zenoni isolated from the exudations a micro-organism which appeared in the form of oval bacteria and long bacilli. Recently an intestinal plague of fowls has appeared in Ger- ■ many, which has nothing in common with fowl cholera, from an etiological standpoint, but is equally as destructive as the latter. The etiology of the new plague is still doubtful. Gabritschewski reported concerning a spirochete septicemia of geese which appeared in an epizootic form. The disease was ushered in with fever and diarrhea, and resulted in death in 80 per cent, of the cases. At the outbreak of the pathological symptoms, the spirochetse were demonstrable in the blood ; later only in the bone marrow. Infectious Diseases of Fish. —According to Maurizio, who com- piled the literature relating to the fungous diseases of fish and spawn Unger first described a fungous disease of fish which was probably caused by AcUya and Saprolegnia. A. Sticker reported concerning fish plagues iu the West Indies. Goeppert demonstrated Leptomitus lacteus as the cause of an infection of a stream in upper Silesia. Hnxley and Murray described a disease of fish, which, during the years 1877 to 1882, became distributed throughout a number of streams of England and Scotland. Walentowicz described a disease of carp in Kaniow and Kaciborski determined the pathogenic fungi as AcJilya noivicki and Saprolegnia monoica. AcJiyla prolifera and Saprolegnia fero were demonstrated by Blanc and Schnetzler to be the cause of a disease of pike in Lake Geneva in 1887. This fungus is said to have caused a fish disease in the State of New Jersey (Gerard)., Maurizio himself frequently observed Leptomitus lacteus 1111/ 708 INFECTIOUS DISEASES on fish and spawn. Finally, attention is called to a bacterial dis- ease of fish described by Emmerich and Weigel which consisted of a furunculosis resulting in septico- pyemia. Wyss examined fish which were dying in large numbers in Lake Zurich. On various parts of the body the fish exhibited circumscribed, pale-yellow spots, varying in size from a silver quarter to a silver dollar. The scales were wanting on the spots or were easily rubbed off. In the blood, bile, liver and intestinal contents, micro-organisms were iound which were not found in healthy fish. The organisms were easily cultivated by adding small quantities of the cultures to the water in which fish were living and the disease was easily trans- mitted to the fish. Fish thus affected soon died with all the pathological symptoms which were observed in cases of spontaneous infection. The micro-organism isolated from the diseased fish was transmissible by inoculation to rabbits, guinea pigs and mice. Fischer and Enoch isolated a rod-sliaped micro-organism from the cardiac blood of a carp which had died, presumably from contami- nation of the water and which was conspicuous on account of the • presence of numerous external hemorrhages. The micro-organipm was highly pathogenic for cold and warm blooded animals (in corresponding quantities also per os). The rods in cultures as well as in the animal organism produced a toxin (albumose) which caused paresis of the extremities, hemorrhages and paralysis of the respiratory and vasomotor centers. The toxin was destroyed by boiling. Infectious Diseases op G^kYmsa— Crayfish Plague. — Hofer succeeded in cultivating a bacillus from the muscle meat of diseased crabs, which was 1 to 1.5 }^ long, .25 y. thick, rounded at both ends and actively motile. The bacillus is stained by Gram's method, liquefies gelatine and blood serum, and in gelatine plate cultures develops a conspicuous odor of semen and a honey-like odor on blood serum. This micro-organism, as demonstrated also by "Weber, kills crabs upon injection even in quantities of 1-1,000 of a Pfeiffer's oese, with symptoms of crab plague (casting of the appendages and the appearance of spasms). Spot Disease of Crayfish.— In a spot disease of crayfish, which is characterized by the appearance of black spots on the caripace, Happich found a thread fungus (Oidium astaci) to be the pathogenic organism. This fungus grows on the ordinary bacterial nutrient media, and, like Oidium lactis, forms a snow-white aerial mycelium. CONCLUDING KEMAEKS 709 Concluding Remarks on Diseases of Food Animals Which Have Not Been Considered. In the preceding discussion, only the more important diseases of food animals have received a detailed consideration. Other dis- eases, less important from a standpoint of meat inspection, may be omitted, especially since a sanitary police judgment with regard to them is not a difficult matter, according to the analogy of the groups of diseases to which they belong (organic diseases, blood anomalies, zooparasitic diseases, intoxication diseases and infectious diseases). With regard to diseases of unknown or imperfectly understood nature, however, compare the following chapter concerning "Emergency Slaughter " and " Meat Poisoning." * *In connection with the chapter on " Infeotioug Diseases," it should also be noted that a decisive significance in the judgment of meat was formerly attrib- uted to fever when it had been demonstrated in food animals before slaughter. This standpoint, as is apparent from the discussions in Chapter XII, is no longer tenable. It is not the fever which should determine the judgment on the meat, but the disease which causes the fever, since fever is a symptom of numerous diseases, which, from a sanitary standpoint, are to be judged differently. XIII. EMERGENCY SLAUGHTER ON ACCOUNT OF SERIOUS INFECTIOUS DISEASES AND MEAT POISONING —ACCIDENTS— DEFECTIYE BLEEDING- NATURAL DEATH. 1. — General Discussion of Emergency Slaughter on Account of Serious Infectious Diseases. The most important and most difficult part of the duties of meat inspectors is the rendering of opinions on emergency slaugh- ter. It is the most important part for the reason that emergency slaughter, if we disregard so-called accidents, is concerned, exclu- sively with seriously diseased animals, which, on account of the nature of their disease, must, in the large proportion of cases, be excluded from the market. The following figures furnish an instructive conception of the extent of condemnation in emergency slaughter as compared with ordinary commercial slaughtering : In the Grand Duchy of Baden in the year 1889, 205 large animals were condemned among 129,619 slaughtered in the ordinary way ; while 923 out of 6,139 animals subjected to emergency slaugh- ter were condemned, or 100 times as large a percentage. Moreover, 127 small animals out of 392,775 slaughtered in the ordinary manner were excluded from the market, while 107 out of only 1,451 animals subjected to emergency slaughter were condemned, or about 245 times as high a percentage. The total number of cases of emergency slaughter in Germany is estimated by Lydtin at 160,000 per annum, or 1 per cent, of the total number of animals. It is not, however, merely the considerable value which we have to save or destroy in emergency slaughter that makes the work of expert inspectors so important in such cases, but the hygienic side is important to a still greater degree. " The experience of the last decade in tlie line of epidemics as a result of eating the meat of 710 GENERAL DISCUSSION 711 diseased animals has shown beyond question that at least four- fifths of these numerous cases of diseases are connected with so-called emeigency slaughtei." This fact, to which attention was called by Bollinger, is, more than anything else, calculated to set iu the proper light the great importance of expert inspection in cases of emergency slaughter. In the Grand Duchy of Baden, from 1888 to 1891, the following numbers of animals, according to Lydtin, furnished meat which was injurious to health : Per thousand Per thousand eases of cases of ordinary slaugKter emergency slaughter In large animals 1.6 cases. 138 cases. In calves .4 " 4.9 " Insheep 3 " 20.2 " Ingoats p " 72.5 " In hogs 3 " 63.4 " In horses 14.3 " 44.4 " The difficulties in rendering an opinion in emergency slaughter are based on the fact that we do not, by any means, have to do always with typical diseases, but in many cases with diseases of doubtful origin (cryptogenetic sepsis). The difficulty in diagnosing these cases has already been referred to in the section on " Septi- ■ cemia " (page 569). Judgment. — In the greater number of diseases which give occa- sion to emergency, slaughter, the formulation of general view points for rendering judgment is not possible, except to a limited extent. However, it should be emphasized that, on account of its connec- tion with cases of meat poisoning, the meat of all animals subjected to emergency slaughter is to be considered as highly suspicious, and is to be subjected to a more careful inspection than the meat of animals slaughtered in the ordinary manner. Moreover, the meat of animals subjected to emergency slaughter, on account of infectious disease, and which is admitted for human consumption, should not be admitted to the market freely, but should be sold only under declaration. Compulsory declaration is indicated especially for the reason that in animals subjected to emergency slaughter on account of infectious disease, bleeding is, as a rule, defective. The keeping quality of the meat, as stated iu another place (page 130), is thereby affected. It is also a fact, learned from experience, that the meat of animals subjected to emergency slaughter readily passes into decomposition. This bad quality of I 712 EMERGENCY SLAUGHTER the meat from cases of emergency slaughter must be made known to the purchaser, in order that he may eat it in as fresh a condi- tion as possible, and in order that he may avoid the injurious effects which may be produced by eating such meat after it has been preserved for a long time, or made up into sausage. The materials which served to form the technical basis of the draft of the food law contained the following statement on this point : " It can not be considered as a desirable thing to prohibit absolutely the slaughtering of diseased animals. If, according to experience, the meat of these animals is harmless, slaughter should be permitted, with the proviso, however, that if the meat has suf- fered a depreciation of its nutritive value or keeping quality in con- sequence of the disease of the animal in question, this fact must be brought to the knowledge of the purchaser ; that is, the meat caa be sold only as inferior or diseased meat. Otherwise, the purchaser might be deceived, or might injure his health. The latter case might occur if meat without good keeping qualities should, without knowledge of this fact, be kept by the purchaser for a certain period before eating, like ordinary wholesome meat, and should thereby become spoiled." As stated by Bollinger, the District Veterinarian, Diiiter, in Saxony made the worthy suggestion that legal regulations should require that animals subjected to emergency slaughter should not be dealt in by the ordinary butchers, but should be sold in the com- munity in question under police control. In this manner deceptioo of the consumers by the meat dealers would be effectively pre- vented. The most important duty of inspectors in case of emergency slaughter is the determination of animals the meat of which must be considered as dangerous to health, and which, for this reason, must be absolutely excluded from the market. For the proper ful- filment of this duty, an accurate knowledge of the causes of meat poisoning thus far observed is indispensable, because these concrete cases furnish the inspector the best criteria for determining the sanitary police method of procedure in cases of emergency slaughter. 2.— Meat Poisoning. Cases of meat poisoning (sepsis intestinalis, according to Bol- linger ; infectious enteritis, according to Gaffky) have occupied the attention of the medical world for several decades. More pavticti- larly, Bollinger has repeatedly called attention to the great impor- MEAT POISONING 713 tance of meat poisoning in human hygiene. In an address deliv- ered at the fourth session of the German Society for Public Hygiene in Diisseldorf, in June, 1876, Bollinger first emphasized the fact that the pyemisB and septicemise of our food animals are moro important, from the standpoint of human health, than anthrax and glanders, since the former are much more frequent than the latter and since the toxins of pyemia and septicemia are not destroyed by cooking. Four years later, in an address before a medical society in Munich, Bollinger stated that this assertion had unfor- tunately been only too well confirmed, for, since that time, eleven extensive outbreaks of meat poisoning with 'about 1,600 cases had been observed, the greater part of which were of septic or pyemic natuie. In the latter address, Bollinger collected the literature relating to cases of meat poisoning up to 1880 and reviewed this literature in a critical manner. Shortly before this address, Siedamgrotsky (Lectures for Veterinary Surgeons, third series) laid the founda- tion for comparative investigations by means of his work on meat poisoning. This work is contained in Bollinger's address, so that we may consider the latter as a comprehensive treatment of the question up to the year 1880. Bollinger cites the following cases : 1. The outbreak of meat poisoning in Fluntern, Switzerland, in the year 1867, in which 27 persons became ill after eating veal. The calf in question was five days old and had "yellow water" in the joints. The chief symptoms in the human patients were vomi- tion of thin, fluid, green masses, watery stools and great depres- sion. These symptoms were frequently preceded by chills ; later the temperature became normal or subnormal. Furthermore, stupor was observed, combined with delirium, or headache, and vertigo in the milder cases. Recovery took place slowly and required from two to four weeks in twelve individuals. One patient died, a man 52 years of age, who had eaten large quantities of the improperly cooked and, in part, almost raw liver. A post-mortem examination of this man disclosed petechise under the skin and under the epicardium, in the kidneys, intestines and lungs. Bollinger assumes that the calf was affected with congenital sepsis or pyemia. According to the experience of the writer, the symptoms resemble those of septic calf lameness, which may appear within a few days after birth. 2. Outbreak of meat poisoning in L. Bregenz, in 1874, after eating the meat of a cow which had been subjected to emergency 714 EMEEGENCY SLAUGHTER slaughter five days after parturition, on account of injuries to the sexual organs and retention of the after-birth, with putrid decom- position. After eating this meat, or the broth made from it, 51 persons were affected, either immediately, or in from 11 to 48 hours. Those who ate the liver were affected most violently. Watery stools of a green color, retching, headache, vertigo and weakness in the limbs were the milder symptoms. In severe cases, vomiting, coliky pains, foul-smelling discharges, inability to stand, a burning sensation in the oral cavity, ringing in the ears, cholera- like feeling, flabby skin and weak pulse. The diarrhea persisted for fourteen days ; the weakness and depression, however, persisted longer. No death. 3. Meat poisoning in Griessbeckerzell in May, 1876. The noxious meat came from a cow which had been slaughtered four- teen days after parturition and which was affected with prolapsus uteri aud ichorous metritis. Twenty-two persons were affected with acute cerebral symptoms and other symptoms resembling those of cholera. Slow convalescence (two to five weeks). Cooked meat and cooked sausage were also injurious. A twenty-year-old girl, who ate of the dressed meat along with her family, remained well, while all of the others were affected. The girl had drunk brandy before and after eating the poisonous sausage. 4 Meat poisoning in Sonthofen, after eating the meat of a two- year-old heifer which had been subjected to emergency slaughter while in a moribund condition on account of puerperal sepsis. Contrary to the orders of a veterinarian, the ill-smelling meat was sold to a neighbor. Among the ten persons who ate of it, seven became ill. Eecovery of all these persons after four days. It is worthy of note that the unwholesome meat exhibited a high degree of decomposition within four days. Bollinger emphasizes the fact that in the cases of meat poison- ing above enumerated, their connection with the diseases of food ani- mals is self-evident.* This can not be claimed for other cases of * The observations of Gerlach are also of interest, in which the connection between the diseases of food animals and cases of meat poisoning is obvious. A fresh milch cow received a severe injury of the udder from a scythe ; the wound assumed a gangrenous character and the animal was killed after being seriously ill for two days. Although Gerlach forbade the consimiption of the meat, the herder removed a piece, and he and his family ate it. All were affected with general illness, vomiting, diarrhea and extensive weakness. After eating the meat of another cow, which became very sick after parturi- tion and which had been subjected to emergency slaughter 36 hours later, 46 persons became ill ; one patient died. The district physician, who did not believe MEAT POISONING 715 meat poisoning. In the cases enumerated below, the viiuleut char- acter of certain viscera was so apparent that it was necessary to assume a local affection of these organs. In this group Bollinger includes the following epidemics : 1. Meat poisoning in Lahr, in August, 1866. The cause was the meat of a cow which had eaten but little for several weeks, passed bloody urine, and was so emaciated and weak that it was necessary to haul the animal in a wagon to the place of slaughter. The meat of the cow is alleged to have had a good appearance and to have possessed no disagreeable odor. Schwartenmagen was prepared from the meat of the cow, mixed with pork which was known to be of good quality. After the consumption of this pre- paration, all persons who had eaten of it were affected, about 70 in number, including also those who had eaten only a few ounces. The innkeeper who prepared the schwartenmagen and ate of it, together with three other persons, died. The fact should be emphasized that the schwartenmagen appeared to be of good quality in every respect, and that the consumption of the meat of the cow in all other methods of preparation was without bad effects. Pathological symptoms: Summer-cholera with nervous phenomena, including dilation of the pupils, with diminished sen- sibility of the iris toward light in severe cases. Bollinger concludes that the schwartenmagen acquired its peculiar harmful property from the kidneys, which were probably utilized in the preparation of this material. 2. Meat poisoning in Garmisch, June, 1878. Seventeen per- sons became ill after eating liver noodles and tripe which, contrary to the directions of the meat inspector, had been prepared from the viscera of a cow subjected to emergency slaughter. The cow had been affected with hepatic degeneration and, " peritonitis" (according to Bollinger, perhaps ichorous peritonitis). After about ■is hours, headache, chills, summer-cholera, visual disturbances, etc. The meat, or skeletal musculature, was very slightly or not at all toxic. 3. Meat poisoning in St. Georgen, near Friedrichshafen, from the consumption of the meat of a cow subjected to emergency slaughter. At first this animal had a defective appetite, followed by a pronounced fluid, ill-smelling diarrhea. Eighteen persons were affected. The effects were manifested most quickly and vio- in any connection between the outbreak of poisoning and the consumption of the meat, ate some of the meat himself in order to prove the accuracy of his view. He became dangerously sick as a result. 71G EMEBGENCY SLAUGHTER lently after eating leberspatzen. Period of incubation, two to three hours. In conclusion, Bollinger describes the outbreak of meat poison- ing in Nordhausen, which occurred in June, 1876, as a result of eat- ing the meat of a cow slaughtered while in a moribund condition, lu all, about 400 persons were affected, one of whom died. The cow is said to hare been sick for four or five clays and finally to have become very weak. Very malodorous feces were passed. Most of the patients ate raw sirloin or partly fried meat cakes. The one patient who died ate only raw sirloin. A large number of the persons who ate the meat in a boiled or roasted condition remained healthy. The outbreak of poisoning in Nordhausen was attributed by the district physician, Dr. Gasenick, and by Gerlach — by the latter, however, with reserve — to anthrax, an assumption which Bollinger rightly rejected. The case of meat poisoning in Nordhausen com- pletely agrees with regard to symptoms with other cases of meat poisoning produced by known and unknown micro-organisms. An outbreak of meat poisoning in Wurzen (July, 1877) greatly resembled that at Nordhausen. In the course of this outbreak, 206 persons were affected after eating the meat of a cow which ten weeks post partum became affected with mammitis and paralysis of the posterior extremities, accompanied with a high' fever. The animal was slaughtered while in a moribund condition. The meat "was eaten partly raw, partly cooked and partly as sausage or • pickled meat during the four days following slaughter. Some of the meat possessed a bad odor, was of a grayish color, and olea- ceous. The symptoms in some cases were exceedingly like those of cholera. Six deaths. The most serious cases appeared after eating the raw meat. "The degree of decomposition corresponded with the acuteness of the disease."' Bollinger assumes that the original septic toxin had undergone a post-mortem increase of virulence. The other cases of meat poisoning described by Bollinger in connection with the two last named epidemics may be dismissed briefly. These are the outbreaks which occurred in Lockwitz and Niedersedlitz in July, 1879. Forty persons were affected after eat- ing raw minced meat from a cow which had been subjected to emergency slaughter on account of torsion of the uterus ; also the case of meat poisoning in Middleburg, Holland, in March, 1874, duiing which 349 persons were affected and six died as a result of eating fresh leberwurst of unknown origin; the case of meat pois- MEAT POISONING 717 oniug in Neubodenbach from eating fresh knoblauchwurst, the cause being unexplained — Bollinger suspected pyemia in the animal — and finally the poisoning of 13 persons on an estate in Eiesa, in June, 1879, after eating the meat of a cow which had been slaughtered on account of mammitis and emaciation. Reference should be made to the works of Bollinger for infor- mation concerning the much-disputed cases of meat poisoning in Andelfingen (1841), Kloten (1878), Birmenstorf (1879) and Wiirenlos (1880), part of which were considered to be typhoid fever (Griesinger). Bollinger, in agreement with Lebert, Kohler, Lieber- meister and Biermer, with regard to the case of poisoning in Andel- fingen, combats the view that this outbreak was due to typhoid fever. Bollinger argues in the first place that typhoid fever does not occur in domestic animals, and in the second place, that, especially in the outbreak in Andelfingen, dilation of the pupils and visual disturbances were always present, symptoms which speak against the typhoid nature of this epidemic. In the epidemic at Andelfingen, 450 persons became ill on the occasion of a sangerfest and ten of the patients died. Veal was suspected of being the cause. Difficulties in swallowing and dilation of the pupils were noticeable in the patients. The suspected meat had apparently transmitted its toxicity to beef while stored together. The toxin was not destroyed by cooking. Bollinger is of the opinion that the virulence of the toxin was increased post mortem as a result of packing the meat together while still warm. The outbreak of meat poisoning in Kloten (June, 1878) is char- acterized by Bollinger as the most interesting of all cases of meat poisoning. In this case, also, 591 persons attending a sangerfest, other persons who ate the meat from the same abattoir, and, finally, a still larger number in the case of which this was not demonstrated — in all, 657 persons — were affected, with six deaths. According to Bollinger, this outbreak is undoubtedly to be ascribed to the con- sumption of the meat of a calf one week old, which had either died or was slaughtered during the death agony. Unquestionable symptoms pointed to this conclusion. In this case also the original virulent veal had infected other meat, viz., hams which had been stored together with the former in a wooden vat. Persons who drank plenty of wine were either only slightly affected or remained unaffected.* It is a highly interesting fact, and one not observed in * In other cases of meat poisoning, it has been observed that persons who have consumed large quantities of alcoholic drinks after eating unwholesome meat have remained well (compare page 714). 713 EMEEGENCY 8LAUGHTEE any other than a case of poisoning in Kloteu, that 55 secondary cases appeared which were not attributable to eating the meat, but to a transmission of the disease by the affected persons. This circum- stance coufirmed certain observers in the conclusion that the cases were typhoid fever. In the outbreak of poisoning in Birmenstorf, at least eight patients died. The symptoms resembled those of typhoid fever. The cause was the consumption of the meat of a calf four days old which was affected with "yellow water" (polyarthritis septica). Finally, with regard to Wiirenlos, it was merely demonstrated that a "large number of persons" became ill after eating unhealthy veal. The symptoms, like the cases just mentioned, resembled those of typhoid fever. Bollinger concludes his valuable treatise with a statement that there can be no doubt of the fact " that the pyemic and septicemic diseases of food animals bear all the characters of dangerous dis- eases, and, accordingly, require very different treatment from a sanitary police and prophylactic standpoint than has previously been given to them, to the injury of human health." The well-founded warning of Bollinger, however, has not received the consideration which it deserves. The best proof of this statement is the fact that cases of meat poisoning are still com- paratively frequent occurrences. The writer has succeeded in compiling the statistics of 85 out- breaks of meat poisoning which occurred during the years 1880 to 1900 with more than 4,000 cases, the larger number of which occurred in Germany. The history of these epidemics is also very instructive from the standpoint of etiology and prophylaxis. It proves anew the especially dangerous character of the meat of calves affected with sepsis in association with umbilical affection, and also of cows which have to be subjected to emergency slaughter on account of inflammatory processes after parturition, or on account of peculiar affections of the intestines and udder. Quite special interest, however, attaches to the history of the cases of meat pois- oning during the last twenty years, for the reason that it furnishes the first careful investigations concerning the cause of these epidemics. The more important of these epidemics are briefly described in the following paragraphs : 1. In the Saxon district Bautzen, on September 1, 1881, a cow died of septic metritis. The throat of the animal was subsequently cut in order to give it the appearance of having been slaughtered. MEAT POISONING 719 After eating the meat, which was not inspected, more than 120 persons became ill, but recovered quite soon. The symptoms appeared, as a rule, within two or three days after eating the meat. (Konig.) 2. In 1881, several families of laborers in the Saxon district of Zittau became ill after eating the meat of a horse which apparently was subjected to emergency slaughter on account of petechial fever. The children were most violently affected. One woman who laid the meat in vinegar before cooking was not affected. No deaths. (Grimm.) 3. In Spreitenbach, Switzerland, in 1881, 30 persons became sick after eating the meat of a cow which had been subjected to emergency slaughter after parturition. (Strebel.) 4. In the same town, 4 persons died after eating the meat of a diseased cow and calf, while in all 15 families were affected. No further details concerning the disease of the food animals weie determined. (Strebel.) 5. Meat poisoning in Oberlangenhardzell (Canton of Ziirich)- Toward the end of June, 1882, two families of four persons each became affected with symptoms of violent gastro-enteritis. All the patients were sick for from two to three weeks. The youngest child of one family, an infant twO years old, died on the eighth day in convulsions. The official iavestigations showed with certainty that the cases of illness in both families were attributable to eating the meat of a calf which had evidently died of a "disease. 6. The Saxon district veterinarian, Wilhelm, reported a case of meat poisoning which occurred in the year 1884 and was connected with the sale of the meat of a cow which had been subjected to emergency slaughter two days after a difficult parturition. Ten persons were affected. They recovered, however, within from eight to twenty-four hours. The veterinarian who had declared the meat to be edible was punished for criminal carelessness. 7. Meat poisoning in Lauterbach, 1884. After eating the meat of a cow subjected to emergency slaughter, a large number of per- sons were affected and three died. The symptoms consisted of headache, vertigo, bodily • pains, diarrhea, and, in some cases, vomiting. It was shown that the meat and also the meat broth were poisonous. The cow is alleged to have been affected with a dysenterial enteritis. The animal had suddenly refused to eat, gave no more milk and evacuated " slimy intestinal discharges devoid of vegetable matter." Six days later it became necessary to slaughter the cow. It was alleged that after slaughter merely a 720 - EMERGENCY 8LAUGHTEB slight erythrism of the intestines was observed. The veterinarian who made the inspection was tried, but not convicted. 8. Meat poisoning in Schouenberg, Switzerland, From June 17 to 19, 1886, about fifty persons became ill after eating the meat of two cows which were slaughtered on the 14th and 15th of that month on account of " dysentery." A woman in poor health died from the effects of diarrhea. 9. Meat poisoning in Ludwigshafen-Hemshof. From April 17 to 25, 1886, 90 persons became sick, all of whom had purchased meat sausages from the same butcher. An official investigation showed that this butcher had during the night slaughtered a cow which had been treated by a veterinarian for three weeks on account of retention of the placenta and a malodorous discharge from the uterus. The veterinarian who inspected the meat examined the uterus in a cursory manner exteriorly and gave permission for the free sale of the meat. The effects of eating the meat began to appear within two or three hours, and in no case later than eighteen to twenty hours. Two persons died. 10. The second outbreak of meat poisoning in Middleburg, Holland. This epidemic, which appeared at the beginning of Sep- tember, 1887, and which affected 286 persons, was also attributed to the retention of the placenta and a septic metritis which was con- nected with this condition. The fetal membranes were not ejected until the ninth day. The animal was then butchered while in a moribund condition. The meat is said to have possessed an unusual odor and taste, especially manifest during cooking. The cooking, however, did not destroy the toxin, for the meat broth was noxious. The first effects of eating the meat appeared after -a period varying from twelve hours to one or two days. 11. Kiihnert in Gumbinnen made a report concerning the sick- ness of -a large number of persons after eating the meat of a cow which could not expel the fetus on account of the abnormal position of the latter, and, therefore, had to be slaughtered. After three days, eight persons were affected and a few days later twenty-six others were affected with a high fever, a burning sensation in the stomach, vomition, pains in the extremities and diarrhea. 12. Meat poisoning in Frankenhausen, May, 1888, with fifty-nine cases and one death. The cow the meat of which was the cause of these cases had been affected with persistent diarrhea. One patient, who died, was affected within one hour after he had eaten 800 grams of the raw meat. The cooked meat was also injurious. MEAT POISONING 721 "When the cow was slaughtered, merely a partial reddening of the intestines was observed. The appearance of the meat is said to have been good and the spleen, liver and other organs not enlarged. 13. In Richenau, Saxony, in May, 1889, more than 150 persons became ill after eating raw bratwurst and raw minced beef from a cow which was slaughtered while in a diseased condition. Upon, cutting up the cow, only a slight gastritis was observed, and, there- fore, no scruples were entertained against admitting the meat to market. In this case it was not determined to what extent the warm weather of the month of May favored the formation of toxins. It is worthy of mention, however, that two other cattle in the same stable with the one which was subjected to emergency slaughter exhibited the same symptoms of "slight gastritis " and died of the disease. 14. Meat poisoning in H , Saxony, 1889, after eating the meat of a cow which was subjected to emergency slaughter and which was said to have shown no evidence of serious disease, but, according to the testimony of one witness, exhibited an ill-smelling, fluid evacuation while being slaughtered. Numerous cases after eating the raw meat. The owner of the cow also became ill. 15. Meat poisoning in Darkehmen, East Prussia, November, 1889. Number of cases, thirty. Cause, a beef animal slaughtered while in a diseased condition and not inspected by a veterinarian. It is a remarkable fact in connection with this case of poisoning, that only the consumption of the meat broth was injurious, while the meat, either in a cooked or roasted condition, did not cause any bad effects (intoxication). 16. At the Tenth International Medical Congress, de Vischer made a report of an outbreak of poisoning after eating the meat of a calf which had died of umbilical arterio-phlebitis (so-called calf lameness). The bad effects were noticed in thirty-one persona and resembled typhoid fever. 17. Meat poisoning in Eohrsdorf, in October, 1885, after eating horse meat, horse meat sausage and cooked horse liver. Nothing was learned concerning the condition of health of the horse from which the injurious meat originated. One horse was said to have been affected with abscesses. The effects of eating the meat appeared in the majority of cases within six hours. Numerous cases ; one death. 18. Meat poisoning in Cotta, Saxony, in June, 1889, after eating the meat of a cow which was slaughtered on account of a serious case of mammitis, in which 136 persons were affected, four of whom 722 EMERGENCY SLA.UGHTEB died. In the majority of cases the meat was eaten in a raw condi- tion. Boast meat and meat broth, however, produced the same effects. The butcher and his assistant, who ate only a mouthful of appetitwiirstcheu, were likewise affected. The meat is said to have possessed a good appearance and good odor. 19. The outbreak of meat poisoning in Katrineholm, Denmark, as the result of eating the meat of a beef animal which had suffered from " milk fever " and had to be slaughtered. Of the 115 guests who sat at a table at a family celebration, one-half were affected, the most serious cases being observed in those who had eaten freely of the meat broth. According to all our experience, however, this can not have been a case of so-called parturient paresis, but only an inflammatory form of puerperal fever (septic metritis and its sequelae). 20. Poisoning from eating horse meat in Altena, November, 1890. Twenty persons bought minced meat from a horse butcher and became ill about twelve hours after eating it. One patient died. The horse butcher in question had slaughtered two horses a few days before, one of them having been found down in the stall and unable to stand. The horse perspired excessively and showed diffi- culty in respiration, but no loss of appetite. 21. Epidemic of meat poisoning in Kirchlinde and Frohlinde, near Dortmund, in the summer of 1891. After eating the meat of a cow which was affected with a disease imperfectly described as " abdominal inflammation," with an ill-smelling exudation, numer- ous persons became ill. The meat had been brought to the market contrary to the orders of a veterinarian. 22. Outbreak of meat poisoning in Piesenkam. In the middle of June, 1891, a number of persons became ill after eating blood and liver sausages from a cow subjected to emergency slaughter. One man died. The animal was slaughtered under the supervision of a butcher appointed as inspector. This butcher, in spite of the fact that the cow was affected with gastritis, enteritis and cystitis, declared that the meat was edible, and he himself prepared from the intestines, blood and meat of the cow the sausages which appeared to be so highly toxic. The butcher was punished by three months' imprisonment for failure to call a veterinarian in a case of evident disease. 23. An outbreak of meat poisoning, the etiology of which was not well understood, occurred near the end of November, 1890, in Friedberg, in Hessen. The whole retinue of a land owner, in all, 21 persons, suddenly became ill after eating mestt preserved in brine MEAT POISONING , 723 and which came from a cow which had been slaughtered ten days before, on account of the loss of a hoof, as a result of foot-and- mouth disease. Mixed sausage prepared from the meat of this cow and the meat or viscera of two healthy hogs was also injuri- ous. The fresh meat of the cow was eaten in large quantities in a boiled or roasted condition without auy bad effects. 24. In an outbreak of meat poisoning at Corres, five families became ill after eating the meat of a cow which had been sub- jected to emergency slaughter on account of the sequelae of foot- and-mouth disease. At iirst the cow exhibited suppuration of the matrix and coronary band of the hoof; later, emaciation and inabil- ity to rise. After slaughter, an abscess of the size of a man's fi.st was found near the hip joint. Furthermore, all the consumers agreed in the statement that the bone marrow was clouded and fluid and readily ran out of the marrow cavities. The symptoms among the affected persons consisted in all cases of violent diar- rhea, bodily pains, and, in some cases, included vertigo and fainting. The outbreak of meat poisoning at Corres is of special inter- est on account of the fact that it can be attributed with certainty to pyemia. 25. In August, 1892, in Moorseele, in Belgium, about 80 per- sons, after eating veal, were affected with violent vomiting; accom- panied with diarrhea and dullness of the sensorium. The injurious meat was shown to have come from two calves, one of which had died and the other had been slaughtered while in a diseased con- dition. According to the statement of witnesses, both calves had suffered with acute diarrhea. The intestines of both animals are said to have been dark-red in color and the livers swollen, while the musculature did not exhibit any great variation from the normal condition. It is worthy of mention that the meat was eaten veiy soon, either on the same evening or on the morning after the death of the animals. It should also be remembered that the meat was eaten in a well-boiled or well-roasted condition, as is the custom with Belgian peasants, to whom raw meat is objectionable. Several persons remained perfectly well, although they had eaten the meat which caused serious illness among their messmates. The period of incubation varied ; some of the patients exhibited nausea and diarrhea within three hours after eating the meat; in the majority, however, the symptoms did not appear until after 24 hours. One man was affected after an unsually long period. On August 14 and 15, he ate meat pies made of the poisonous veal and felt well on the 724 EMEBGENCY SLAUGHTER leth and 17tli. On the 19th, however, he had to call medical assist- ance. He died on the same day. 26. In Breslau, October 14-16, 1893, 86 persons were affected with gastro-enteric catarrh, connected in some cases with vertip;o, fever, herpes, lassitude and slow convalescence. These symptoms appeared within three to sixteen hours after eating raw minced beef. All of the persons who had eaten the meat, however -small the quantity, became ill. In general, the severity of the symptoms corresponded to the quantity of meat which was eaten. The great- est quantity which was eaten by a vigorous adult male was 125 grams. In all other cases, this quantity sufficed for six persons. One child, who had merely licked the plate, was affected ; no death. The period of convalescence was, however, unusually long, in some cases more than six months. The meat appeared to be of a fresh red color, did not smell badly, but to some of the patients had a disagreeable taste. It was shown that the injurious meat came from two cows, one of which was slaughtered on account of an injury received during parturition, and the other on account of " acute inflammation of the liver and watery infiltration of the whole musculature." i 27. Outbreak of meat poisoning in the district of Weissenfels. In this region more than 100 persons, one of whom died, became ill after eating meat. The meat, which was eaten in the form of sausage and hash, came from a cow which had to be slaughtered on account of a "-hoof affection " as a sequela of foot-and-mouth disease. The symptoms in all of the patients were those of acute gastro-enteritis. Likewise, in one fatal case there were alterations such as occur in acute enteritis. Hyperemia of the brain and its meninges was also observed. 28. In Stollberg a butcher slaughtered a calf suffering from diarrhea and already in a moribund condition, and brought the meat to the market. A large number of persons were affected by eating this meat. One seven-year-old boy died after eating an especially large quantity. 29. In 1894, in Briigge, Belgium, more than 70 persons became ill after eating meat from a calf which apparently had died. The symptoms closely resembled those of cholera. The first symp- toms consisted of spasms and vomiting. Two of the patients died. 30. In the spring of 1894, in Gersdorf, an epidemic was observed as a result of eating meat. The symptoms were bodily pain, diarrhea, vomiting, fever, excessive weakness and skin erup- tions. The poisonous meat came from a cow whiih became affected MEAT POISONING 725 ■with peritonitis after parturition and for this reason had to be sl.iughtered. 31. An outbreak of meat poisoning in Bischofswerda. On May 24-28, 1894, more than 100 persons became ill in this locality after eating knackwnrst and mettwurst ; in a few cases, also, after eating raw minced beef and cooked beef. The general similarity of symptoms (vomiting, dysentery-like diarrhea, with more or less acute bodily pains, headache, pains in the extremities, vertigo, great weakness, lassitude, depression, burning thirst and fever up to 40° C.) pointed to a common cause. In most cases the effects of eating the meat appeared within from 9 to 20 hours, persisted 2 to 3 days, rarely longer, and all cases terminated in recovery. The convalescent patients complained of a long-persisting, excessive weakness. In some patients it is said that during the course of the disease an eczema appeared on the lips and rapidly healed up. The cause of this epidemic was not explained, since it was impos- sible to determine the disease with which the suspected beef ani- mal was affected. 32. An outbreak of meat poisoning in Denis. Kuborn made a report concerning an outbreak of meat poisoning in Denis, during which 30 persons were affected and 9 died. The meat came from a cow which had died a natural death. 33. An epidemic of meat poisoning in Gaustadt. In the insane asylum at Gaustadt, near Ghristiania, 81 among 101 persons who had eaten meat at the same time were afft^cted with fever, vomiting and diarrhea. In a number of cases there was also facial herpes or erythema with subsequent desquamation. Four patients died. In these latter, it was possible to demonstrate only petechias under the serous membranes and more or less pronounced symptoms of acute intestinal catarrh, together with small infarcts in the lungs. In one case, in which the disease took a chronic course, there were also numerous ulcers in the colon. 34. An outbreak of meat poisoning in the district of Kempen, in Posen. During the pentecost of 1896, in four localities of the dis- trict of Kempen, more than 100 persons became ill after eating pork sausage and meat broth. A majority of the patients were seriously ill, and one man died. The investigation of the outbreak failed to demonstrate the disease affecting the animals from which the meat had been obtained. 35. Meat poisoning in Daber. In this locality 33 persons became ill, a number of them seriously so, after eating the meat of a cow which had been slaughtered on account of diarrhea and great 726 EMERGENCY SLAUGHTER depression. After the slaughter it was found that the animal was suffering from enteritis. The butcher who, contrary to orders of the veterinarian, J , by whom the inspection was made, sold the meat not only without declaration, but as "firm, fat steer beef," was condemned to six months' imprisonment on account of a violation of the food law and deception. The veterinarian was also tried, but not convicted. 36. An outbreak of meat poisoning in the Canton of Thurgau. According to Silberschmidt, many persons of the Canton of Thurgau in the spring of 1896 became ill after eating cooked, pickled and smoked pork. The meat was alleged to have come from animals which had been subjected to emergency slaughter on account of a reddening of the skin and symptoms of gastro-enteric catarrh. Seven persons who ate the meat were affected with gastro-enteric ■catarrh within a few days, and a four-year-old child, previously in ■excellent health, died after two days with symptoms of acute diar- ihea and convulsions. 37. An outbreak of meat poisoning in Sielkeim, East Prussia. In June 13-16, 1896, 41 persons in Sielkeim were affected, 15 of them seriously, with symptoms of summer-cholera, acute bodily pains and excessive weakness. The feces were malodorous and, in some cases, bloody. The symptoms appeared within a few hours to two days after eating the meat. Seven families who ate of the meat were not affected. No death. All the patients recovered by June 22. The district veterinarian, Kriiger, demonstrated that the epidemic was caused by the meat of two three-months-old calves which had been slaughtered on account of diarrhea associated with great depression. 38. An outbreak of meat poisoning at Kalk, near Koln. On July 19, 1897, and subsequently, 41 persons in Kalk were affected with summer-cholera associated with disturbances of the general condition. Two died. The most serious cases appeared after eat- ing minced raw meat. A small mouthful of this was sufficient to produce more or less serious illness. The cooked meat was also found to be injurious. The butcher, E , who brought the toxic meat to market, at first asserted that it came from a healthy cow which had been slaughtered at the cattle yards of Koln. Later, however, it was found that E had substituted, in the place of the healthy one, another cow which had been sub- jpcted to emergency slaughter on account of diarrhea associated with inappetency and serious disturbances of the general condi- tion. The meat of this cow was shown to have caused the out- MEAT POISONING 727 break of meat poisoning at Kalk. E , who had brought the meat to market without a previous inspection by an inspector, was condemned to three months' imprisonment. 39. An outbreak of meat poisoning in Biilstringen. In an action in the Criminal Court in Magdeburg, it was shown that in Biilstringen, in 1898, 40 persons became affected with gastro-enteritis after eating the meat of a calf which had been subjected to emergency slaughter. A -veterinary inspection of the condemned pieces of meat showed that the calf had been affected with diarrhea and inflamma- tion of the joints. 40. An outbreak of meat poisoning in Sirault. In 1898, in Sirault, about 100 persons were affected with vomiting, gastric cramps, colic, diarrhea, evacuation of green, malodorous stools. These symptoms appeared after eating pork. Simultaneously there were chills, headache, formication, twitching of the skin and great thirst. Fever was present only at the onset of the disease. In some patients urticaria and labial herpes were observed. Improve- ment took place after eight days. In some patients, however, the convalescent period was prolonged for weeks. In three cases the disease ran a fatal course. The above are the more important epidemics of poisoning as a result of eating meat, which have been reported in the literature of the subject in the last twenty years. Doubtless, however, by no means all cases, even when they affected a large number of persons, have come to public notice. The majority of practicing veterina- rians, like the Saxon district veterinarian, Lehnert (Jahresbericht, 1884), could report experiences in this Hue. Lehnert states that he has repeatedly observed cases in which the meat of cows which have been affected with metritis after parturition and in which the placenta had been entirely or partly retained, caused symptoms of poisoning (vomiting and diarrhea) after the meat was eaten. In many cases, however, the illnegs persisted for only a few days. Bollinger stated in a lecture which he delivered at a meeting of the Society for Public Sanitation that "the number of undeter- mined infections, intestinal infections, the cause of which is chiefly found in the food, is, even in adult persons, much larger than is commonly assumed .... As a result of eating meat which comes from diseased, especially septic food animals, pathological condi- tions are produced, which, with regard to their course and also with regard to their anatomical alterations, show a great variation. All transition stages exist from simple digestive disturbances, gastric catarrh and summer-cholera, to serious febrile attacks, which at 728 EMERGENCY SLAUGHTEE times appear under tlie form of the so-called pituitous fever, gastric fever, ileo-typhoid or dysentery .... To tlie domain of meat poisoning belong probably many other cases of sickness which assume the form of petechial typhoid or febrile icterus (Weil's dis- ease) .... It has been demonstrated by experiments on animala (Kocher) that septic and bacterial toxins may make their way from the alimentary canal into the body and cause serious inflammatory processes (for example, infectious iuflammation of the bone marrow) without leaving any trace at the point of entrance." -Pkophylaxis of Meat Poisoning. — With regard to the prophy- laxis of meat poisoning, the following considerations are to be borne in mind : 1. It is necessary that a decision by a government veterinarian should be required in all cases of emergency slaughter and that empirical meat inspectors who err, as a result of their own arbitrary decisons, should be punished severely. 2. The veterinarian should always perform a careful and detailed inspection of all organs. 3. The veterinarian should not admit the meat to the market unless he is perfectly satisfied concerning the disease of the animal and when, according to existing knowledge on the subject, it can be considered as certain that the consumption of the meat will not cause any injury to health. 4. The meat of all animals subject to emergency slaughter, with the exception of those which, on account of accidents, are slaugh- tered immediately afterward, is to be sold only under declaration and, wherever possible, at the place of slaughter. It is, however, a duty of veterinary science, in cooperation with practical veterinarians, to solve the numerous problems connected with cases of meat poisoning which still require an explanation. We must, in particular, attempt to determine all diseases in which there is a possibility of injury to health from eating the meat. These problems, even to-day, belong to the more obscure parts of pathology, although during the last ten years much important material has been collected for explaining these disputed questions. From the history of cases of meat poisoning, we know that certain diseases of female breeding animals, as well as of new-born animals, are of prime importance in the etiology of meat poisoning. We do not know for certain, however, why meat from animals suf- fering from the disease in question is not p.lways injurious. MEAT POISONING 729 Furthermore, the septic and pyemic diseases of cryptogenetic character, especially those mysterious septic diseases of the intes- tines and udder in cattle, are in urgent need of more exact etiologi- cal investigations. Beginnings have already been made by the work of Johne, Gartner, Gaffky and Paak, Poels and Dhont, Van Ermengem, Fliigge, Kansche, Hoist, Kuborn, Silbevschmidt, Giiu- ther, especially by the brilliant investigations of Basenau, which are of greatest importance in rendering a decision on emergency slaughter. Etiology of Meat Poisoning. — The first bacteriological inves- tigation on the subject of the etiology of meat poisoning was done by Johne. In an outbreak of meat poisoning in Lauterbach, he found a bacillus in the injurious meat which was pathogenic to mice and other experimental animals, and possessed morphological characters quite similar to ^ii- 346. those of Bacillus anthracis. Bostrom also considered the micro-organism in question to be B. anthracis. In the outbreak of meat poisoning in Frankenhausen (page 720), Gartner de- monstrated a bacillus in the meat and inside the blood vessels It was motile, easily stainable, but took the stains most intensely at one pole, the remainder of the bacillus being only slightly stained. Dogs, cats, chickens and sparrows proved to be immune. Mice, rabbits, guinea pigs and goats, however, were affected by inocu- lation and also per os. B. enteritidis, as Gartner named the organism, produces a chemical toxin which is not destroyed by cooking. This explains the fact that in the case of meat poisoning in Frankenhausen persons who had eaten cooked parts of the meat were also affected. Johne demonstrated B. enteritidis also in the meat of the cow which caused the outbreak of meat poisoning at Cotta. Strange to say, however, the bacilli in this outbreak were found only in the connective tissue and not in the blood vessels. Later, Johne isolated the same micro-organism from mettwurst and knackwursfe which were condemned on account of their connection with the outbreak of meat poisoning at Bisch- offswerda. Mice died within from six to twelve days after being fed material obtained from the sausage, and the bacteria in question were found in large numbers in the spleen and in small numbers ** ^ . ' 1 •, "" ' •«. K :. *^;r 'J.' 1 ' i '' •' ,^ , '. I. i-U-^ -■«- .'.-^ ' \'i: Bacillus enteritidis Gartner from an agar culture 34 hours old. X 500 diam. 730 EMERGENCY SLAUGHTEB also in the blood and transudations. Karlinsky states that he found B. enteritidis in dried mutton which had proved to te poisonous. In the outbreak of meat poisoning at Bohrsdorf, Gaffky and Paak made cultures of pathogenic micro-organisms from two sau- sages which were sent to them. These organisms were called " sausage bacillus." The latter was found to be a motile rod which did not stain as well in aqueous staining solutions as after the addi- tion of anilin oil. In stab cultures the sausage bacillus resembles the typhoid bacillus. It is a facultative anaerobe and is killed by flaming. However, it possesses the property of producing patho- genic effects when ingested with food. Mice, guinea pigs and apes proved most susceptible to this method of infection. Gaffky and Paak were unable to demonstrate the sausage bacillus in samples of meat sausage from any other source. In the outbreak of meat poisoning at Rotterdam, Poels and Dhont found short and extraordinarily delicate rods on the surface of the meat and in the intermuscular tissues. These organisms were much more numerous than other demonstrable bacteria. The Rotterdam bacillus is slowly motile, produces indol, but does not coagulate milk. Intravenous injection of the bacillus in large quan- tities kills cattle within fourteen hours, and the bacilli have been found in all organs, blood and muscles. When inoculated with small doses (J cc.) cattle recovered after a temporary affection aud the meat of a beef animal slaughtered four days after such inocula- tion was eaten by the personnel of the Rotterdam Cattle Tarda without injurious effect. Another experimental beef animal was killed twenty minutes after the inoculation of a small quantity of the pure culture, and part of the meat was preserved at 20° C. and another part in a refrigerator. Immediately after slaughtering the bacillus was found in the spleen and liver, as well as in the blood vessels in small quantities, while it could not be demonstrated in the muscles, except in their blood vessels. Ou the other hand, meat which was preserved for seventy-two hours at a temperature of 20° C. was found to be thoroughly permeated with the bacilli.* At the instigation of Poels and Dhont, 53 persons ate of the meat which had been preserved in cold storage, 15 of them were affected with *This finding is of importance in explaining the fact that meat of animals subjected to emergency slaughter, when eaten soon after slaughter, is often harmless or only slightly harmful, while that eaten later may develop very toxic properties, as a result of the multiplication of the bacilli which has taken place in the meantime. MEAT POISONING 731 headache, gastric enteric catarrh and bodily pains. The symptoms appeared within from twelve to eighteen hours after eating the meat. Some of the patients were affected with severe diarrhea.* In the outbreak of meat poisoning at Moorseele, Van Erraengem demonstrated bacilli, which he called the Moorseele bacillus, in the marrow of the femur of two calves concerned in the c'ase of poison- ing. This bacillus was 0.6 to 1.5 jji long, somewhat thick but often slender at both ends. It is commonly grouped together in pairs and rarely forms chains in the tissues. It is surrounded with a glistening zoue. The rods are very motile and possess numerous (4 to 8) long flagella which are easily stained with Loffler's flagel- lum staiu. In saccharine media, the bacillus of Moorseele produces gas by a decomposition of the sugar. Neutral milk is not coagu- lated by the bacillus. The milk becomes clear and after eight to ten days is almost transparent. It becomes slightly brownish at the same time and assumes an alkaline reaction. The Moorseele . bacillus proved to be pathogenic for calves, apes, dogs, guinea pigs, rabbits, pigeons and mice by any method of inoculation. In the majority of cases, a more or less severe enteritis with hemorrhages in the lungs, liver and spleen appears after inoculation, and in this case the Moorseele bacillus could always be demonstrated in the organs and blood. The bacillus produces a toxalbumen which is not destroyed by heating to a temperature of 100° or even 120° C Tan Ermengem found a great similarity between his bacillus and B. enteritidis of Gartner. However, the two micro-organisms are not identical. The difference in the appearance of pure cultures and in their behavior toward stains argues against their identity. The bacillus of Moorseele stains homogeneously, while B. enteritidis does not. In an epidemic of meat poisoning in Breslau, Sanitarian Fliigge fed parts of the poisonous meat to mice. The animals died after two days with symptoms of severe diarrhea. In the intestines of the animals a pure culture was found of a bacterium resembling B. coli. From the intestinal contents and the internal organs of the mice, the same bacteria were isolated which had been found in the poisonous meat. Pure cultures of the bacteria killed mice in two to three days with the same symptoms. The bacterial species in question multiplies rapidly in the organism, but ultimately produces its effect by means of a toxin, for the number of bacteria is not sufifi- * The repetition of this experiment on man does not recommend itself, since the results of such expeiiments' can not be foreseen with certainty. 732 EMERGENCY SLAUGHTER ciently large to enable them to operate mechanically. Kansche states concerning the Breslau bacillus that he was able to demon- strate it in streak cultures made directly from the meat and that it forms gas in saccharine media and produces a toxin which is not destroyed by boiling the pure culture for two minutes. The rods are from two to three times as long as thick, rounded at the ends, stain readily with the' ordinary anilin stains, but are decolorized by the Gram method. They are actively motile, grow on gelatin in a manner similar to the typhoid bacillus. Growth is very luxuriant on potatoes. ludol reaction is negative, and milk is not coagu- lated. The Breslau bacillus is highly pathogenic for mice and pigeons, less so for rabbits. Dogs and cats are refractory. Cooked pigeon and rabbit meat killed rats and mice with symptoms of intoxication. Bacteria could not be demonstrated in the organisms of these experimental animals. Sterilized bouillon cultures (boiled for two minutes) also proved to be toxic for mice. By means of a tabular comparison of the organisms thus far found in cases of meat poisoning, Kansche showed that the Breslau bacillus is identical with the Moorseele bacillus and perhaps also with the bacillus of Poels and Dhont, but that it was distinct from the other bacilli (Gartner, Karlinski, Fischer, Gaffky and Paak, and Basenau). Basenau made cultures of " B. hovis morhificans " from the meat of a cow which had been slaughtered on account of a disease occurring after parturition. This organism is of the size of the typhoid bacil- lus (1 to 1.2 fj. long and .3 to .5 /x wide), is motile and grows rapidly. It is a facultative anaerobe, grows in and upon meat, forms no spores, and is killed by exposure to a temperature of 70° C. for one minute. B. hovis morbi/icans does not produce toxins. It is patho- genic for mice, white rats, guinea pigs and calves, whether trans- mitted by inoculation or per os. Jliater, Basenau demonstrated that this bacillus forms indol, but gives no nitroso-indol reaction with sulphuric acid ; that it ferments grape sugar, but not milk and cane sugar; produces volatile sulphur compounds, and possesses considerable reducing power toward litmus. It lives in beef broth for three years, but dies after four days in meat broth containing an excess of common salt, and within ten days on agar containing salt. In an epidemic of meat poisoning in Gaustadt, Hoist isolated a micro-organism from the spleen of three of the patients which died, and from the intestinal ulcers of one. The organism was con- sidered identical with the Moorseele bacillus. The Gaustadt bacil- lus is very virulent for rabbits, less so for guinea pigs, mice and MEAT POISONING 733 pigeons. It kills auimals by any means of transmission, inpluding the method per os. The bacillus thrives on all ordinary media, and in bouillon forms toxins which are very virulent for rabbits when injected intravenously. These toxins are not destroyed by cooking. An evident diminution of virulence was often observed. The attenuated bacillus, however, again became perfectly virulent by passage through pigeons. In an outbreak of meat poisoning in Denis, Kuborn deter- mined Staphylococcus pyogenes flavus as the cause of the outbreak. This organism was demonstrated also in five samples of the toxic meat of the cow.* Silberschmidt investigated the sickness which was observed in a family in the Canton of Thurgau after eating the meat of young pigs. The suspected meat caused no pathological symptoms when fed to experimental animals. On the other hand, the injection of a bouillon culture which had been prepared from the dejecta of one of the patients, and from the meat, killed guinea pigs in nearly all cases in which inoculation was made intraperitoneally. In the dejecta of the patients and in the meat of the pig a short rod with rounded ends was found with 4 or, rarely, 8 flagella of considerable length which were evenly stainable, but which were decolorized by Gram's method. The bacillus was killed when heated to a tempera- ture of 58° C. It did not liquefy gelatin, produced much gas in grape sugar agar, but did not coagulate milk. The odor was slightly sweet and the organism is thereby distinguished from the otherwise similar B. coli communis.f In the epidemic of meat poisoning in Kempen, an examination of the spleen and liver of the persons who died after eating the meat showed the presence of a micro-organism, which Giinther, on the basis of his investigations, considered identical with B. enteri- tidis. Bacteria which are similar to B. enter Itidis and B. coli communis were also demonstrated to be the cause of meat poisoning by Hoef- nagfil (outbreak of meat poisoning on an estate ne.ir Rotterdam), ProiJbise (two outbreaks of meat poisoning in Belgium after eating * Basenau called attention to the fact that the outbreak of meat poison- ing in Denis was the only instance in which cocci were found as the cause of dis- ease in the place of bacilli, as iu other cases of meat poisoning. t The outbreak of meat poisoning reported by Silberschmidt proves anew that pickling and smoking are not sufficient to kill pathogenic bacteria in meat. This fact was experimentally demonstrated by Stadler for the bacteria which are found in cases of meat poisoning. Stadler found that bacteria are not killed by ordinary pickling, if they were present in the muscles intra vitam. 734 EMERGENCY SLAUGHTER insufficiently cooked sausages of good appearance), Hermann (out- break of meat poisoning at Sirault), and Nobele (outbreak of meat poisoning in Flanders). Hermann demonstrated that the serum of men and animals ■which had withstood an invasion of the bacillus which causes meat poisoning possesses an agglutinating property iu dilutions varying from 1 : 6 to 1 : 400, and Nobele showed that the serum of human beings who had recovered from a case of meat poisoning in Flanders possessed agglutinating properties, not only toward the bacilli which were obtained from these cases of meat poisoning, but also toward the organisms found in the outbreaks at Moorseele, Geneva, Calmpthout and Sirault, even in dilutions of 1:200. Finally, Basenau made a bacteriological investigation of six cases of a disease in slaughtered animals and thereby obtained a confirmation of his previously-expressed opinion that, as a rule, the ' pathogenic bacteria which penetrate into the meat of animals intra vitam are bacilli. Basenau also demonstrated that some of these bacilli, which he called " meat bacilli " (more properly, meat poison- ing bacilli), form toxins'which are not destroyed by cooking, while in others, as shown by Gartner and Yan Ermengem, this is. not the case. All the bacilli thus far found in cases of meat poisoning show a great morphological resemblance to B. coli communis, but differ from this organism in their biological and pathological characters. Base- nau states, therefore, that two views may be held : either all of the bacteria in question arise from one and the same biologically and pathologically variable mother species, or we have to deal with distinct races which preserve their characters within narrow limits. Moreover, from the above-discussed bacteriological studies on the problem of meat inspection, Basenau draws the following conclu- sion : " In all cases of Judgment of the meat of diseased animals, except in cases in which the meat must be condemned without any hesitation, on the basis of a microscopic examination of the animal carcass — or with the aid of the known pathological symptoms — a proper bacteriological investigation will lead in the best and most certain manner to a result which will satisfy all concerned." Basenau rightly holds the opinion that meat containing only bacteria which die at a temperature of 70° C. and a toxin which is destroyed at 100° 0. may be admitted to the market without hesi- tation, after a previous treatment in a steam disinfector. Aside from the bacteriology of cases of meat inspection, the clinical and puthologico-anatomical characters which are common to MEAT POISONINa 735 septic diseases are of tlie greatest importance in the prophylaxis of meat poisoning. The most conspicuous clinical characters are a serions disturbance of the general condition and the great depres- sion of the animals, which is often out of all proportion to the local diseases. From a pathologico-anatomical standpoint, lesions of certain viscera (cloudy swelling and fatty metamorphosis of the liver, 'heart and kidneys), associated with hemorrhages under the serous membranes, as well as swelling of all lymphatic glands, fur- nish the most valuable criteria to the veterinary inspector for rendering a judgment in critical cases. It is precisely because this decision is so. difficult that we must consider the duty which has devolved upon us as highly thank- worthy. To withhold from the market all the meat in cases of emergency slaughter would mean an unjustifiable waste of national resources ; while, on the other hand, too great leniency in judgment would injure the health and endanger the lives of hundreds of human beings. By a proper performance of our duty we reach the desired goal, namely, the withholding from consumption of only such animals subjected to emergency slaughter as is absolutely necessary. At the same time, however, we extricate the veterinarian from an embarrassing position which can be appreciated only by those who have passed sleepless nights after rendering opinions in cases of emergency slaughter, although experiencing no compunc- tions of conscience. By the use of the above mentioned criteria, the expert will not, as a rule, experience especial difficulty in rendering judgment on meat from cases of emergency slaughter. In doubtful cases he m!iy have resort to the bacteriological test mentioned by Basenau, for securing a certain criterion. Cases of meat poisoning will probably not entirely disappear. It may be assumed, however, that they will become very rare. In spite of the greatest conscientious- ness, errors in judgment will still occur, since there are limits to human knowledge and power, but, ultra posse nemo tenetur. With regard to the practice of meat inspection in cases of emergency slaughter, a circular letter of the Imperial Commission for Veterinary Service in the Kingdom of Saxony states that inspec- tors should not render judgment according to the appearance of the meat, since even when possessed of decidedly harmful pro- perties, it may appear perfectly normal. Soon after slaughter, but with a thorough dissection, a careful investigation of all organs should be undertaken. As diseases which have frequently led to meat poisoning, the following are mentioned : Inflammation of the 736 EMEEGENCY SLAUGHTER sexual passages connected with parturition (puer{)eral ; especially inflammations which occur in consequence of lesions or retention of the embryonic membranes), parenchymatous inflammations of the udder with serious febrile conditions; febrile gastro-enteric catarrhs, which, in and of themselves, are not very serious, but in which the tendency to hemorrhages and blood effusions, the redness of the serous covering and mucous membrane of the intes- tines, swelling of the lymphatic follicles in the latter, the swelling of the mesenteric glands and parenchymatous degeneration (cloudy swelling) of the kidneys, liver and cardiac muscle, however slight these processes may be, indicate an absorption of harmful sub- stances from the intestine into the blood ; and, finally, peritonitis and pleuritis, as a result of perforation of the wall of the stomach or intestines, as well as cases of traumatic pericarditis in which the exudation in the pericardium possesses a conspicuously vile odor. Thus, experience has shown that an intoxication of the blood may easily take place from the serous sacs by the absorption of the organic toxins which are formed in consequence of the ichorous (septic) inflammation. Moreover, attention is called to the rapid decomposition of carcasses of animals affected with septic diseases. These processes may be readily recognized by the change in the chemical reaction of the meat. If the meat of animals slaughtered on account of disease shows an alkaline reaction within twenty-four hours after death, the meat is to be considered, in doubtful cases, as unqualifiedly foul, and, therefore, unfit for food. Likewise, in doubtful cases, the unfitness for food of the meat of animals slaugh- tered on account of disease is unquestionable, if, within forty-eight aours after death, the muscle fibers show under the microscope a loss of their characteristic cross striation, a granular cloudiness and a disintegration into fragments. If, even after all these view points are considered, doubt arises concerning the fitness of the meat for food, it appears desirable that a decision in the matter should not be reached in summer before twenty-four hours and in winter not before forty-eight hours after slaughter. Experience teaches that within this period in cases of septic and toxic poisoning, such conspicuous abnormal alterations of the meat appear with respect to its color and odor as to furnish sufficient criteria for judging the character of the meat in doubtful cases. Eecent Experience Co>jcerning the Slaughter Findings in Oases of Septicemia and Pyemia op Food Animals.— Hartenstein, MEAT POISONING 737 as a result of his experience, lays great stress on the reaction of the musculature in judging cases of emergency slaughter. He rightly asserts that the meat in emergency slaughter maybe unhesitatingly declared fit for food if the musculature shows an acid, or at least not an alkaline reaction, and if the heart, intestines and liver are normal. Moreover, with reference to the differential diagnosis of osteomyelitis, Hartenstein calls attention to the fact that the soften- ing and liquefaction of the bone marrow may also be observed in many harmless diseases, in which, however, the marrow does not appear as if clouded with pus, but like yellow vaselin or Proven§e oil. Finally, Hartenstein states that he has frequently found a fatty degeneration of the liver in cases in which the clinical symp- toms did not lead to a suspicion of sepsis, and that, therefore, importance is to be ascribed to this hepatic alteration only in cases in which the other anatomical characters of sepsis are also present. Angst made an important observation, that in obstruction of the esophagus, traumatic pericarditis, acute pneumonia, and, in general, in all diseases which am ushered in with dyspnea, the musculature does not show its normal acid reaction until twenty-four hours or more after slaughter, but has an alkaline reaction up to that time. Edelmann and Noack made an extensive investigation on the occur- rence of alkaline reaction in the meat of freshly slaughtered animals. An alkaline reaction of the musculature was found in 147, or 10 per cent., of 1,474 hogs ; 4, or 4.5 per cent , of 89 cattle ; 5, or 8 per cent., of 62 sheep ; and 5, or 2 per cent., of 251 calves. In no case did septicemia oi- pyemia exist. In the majority of cases, the alkaline condition persisted for days, or until decomposi- tion set in. The appearance of an acid reaction in the meat of normal slaughtered cattle and hogs frequently did not occur until after from three to six hours. According to Edelmann and Noack, an abnormal reaction in meat is due to a disturbance of the chemism of the musculature, in which asphyxiating conditions, heart failure, insufficient oxidation of the blood, etc., play an important role. Hartenstein made a report on a cow which was slaughtered on account of the appearance of tetanus a short time after parturition, which showed a fatty degfeneration of the liver, and an alkaline reaction of the. meat from the first to the seventh day. On the seventeenth day the meat was sold on a freibank in a raw condition. Furthermore, Hartenstein found an alkaline reaction of the meat in a cow which was slaughtered on account of tympanites and in another which w.is slaughtered on account of malignant catarrhal 738 EMERGENCY SLAUGHTER fever. . Since no further suspicious symptoms were present, the meat in both cases was sold on a freibauk. Moreover, according to Augst, all of the lymphatic glands are swollen in cases of sepsis and under certain conditions permeated wiih hemorrhages. Naturally the lymphatic glands in the region in which inflammatory processes take place (as, for example, the bronchial glands in pneumonia, the mesenteric-glands in intestiual inflammations, etc.) do not come iuto consideration in this connec- tion. Moreover, septic alterations of the lymphatic glands should not be confused with the red coloration of the bronchial glands in cases of blood aspiration, the dark brownish-red coloration of the- borders of the corporeal lymphatic glands in cows, and the red col- oration of certain follicles and accessory lymphatic glands which ■ occur so frequently in food animals. Ac- Fig. 247. cording to Augst, the lymphatic glands may be altered in the above described manner, while other symptoms of sepsis are wanting immediately after slaughter. However, he never observed swelling of the lymphatic glands without a degeneration of the organic parenchyma in cases of sepsis. Both abnor- mal conditions exist together. Moreover, the frr™1\,lf pSarS ^'^ ^^'^.'^''^ "^^ emphasized that in all cases from the crural vein of a of sepsis all of the corporeal lymphatic criLorgentely.'xSOO ^'ands are swollen, and that, therefore, no diameters. importance is to be attached to the enlarge- ment of a single lymphatic gland. Augst tests the reaction of the musculature by making a deep incision into the musculature of the thigh and pressing a piece of litmus paper moistened with water against the cut surface by mean* of a knife. This should not be done with the finger, since the finger tips frequently have an acid reaction. After a period of ten minutes the paper is removed from the muscle and laid upon a white sub- stratum and compared with a moistened sample of the original litmus paper. Edelmann and Noack called attention to the fact that the reaction of the musculature may be different in different parts of the body, and that, therefore, in doubtful cases a test of the reaction must be made with different muscle parts somewhat dis- tant from one another. Augst recommends caution in making a microscopic examina- tion of meat, for he was able to demonstrate^granular cloudiness and loss of the transverse striation even in perfectly healthy meat. MEAT POISONING 739 Finally, in the meat of animals wLich Angst did not observe during life, he always applies a cooking test for determining the abnormal odor. For this purpose one-fourth to one-half a pound of chopped meat is boiled with a little water in a closed vessel for one-fourth hour. The cover of the vessel is then lifted and the odors tested. Augst makes the microscopical examination and the cooking test at home. If, despite this careful preliminary examination, some doubt &ti 1 remains, he makes another examination of the meat after twenty-four to forty-eight hours, in accordance with the Saxon circular letter (test of the reaction, microscopical examination and cooking test). Bacteriological Investigation cp Meat in Cases of Emek- GENCT Slaughtek. — In cases suited to this purpose (page 734), Basenau proposed the following bacteriological test of the meat : "It is desirable that the investigation be undertaken twenty-four hours after ordinary or emergency slaughter, for the reason that the bacteria of meat poisoning multiply even at low temperatures and the large numbers which are thus obtained f.icilitate investigation. In this connection it is naturally "supposed that after slaughter the stomach, intestines, etc., are removed in the usual manner. We thus exclude the possibility that bacteria which may be found in the interior of the meat have made their way thither as a result of post mortem invasion from the intestines. For, according to mani- fold experience, no micro-organisms are found in the meat of healtby animals even when examined a long time after slaughter. Sheak cultures and gelatin plate* cultures are then to be prepared from the inside of a piece of meat which contains much loose con- nective tissue.f Gelatin plates are quite satisfactory for this pur- pose, provided one uses Forster's gelatin with a high liquefaction point. Simultaneously, two mice should be fed with pieces of raw meat and two others with pieces of meat which have been subjected for one hour to a temperature of 100° C. | * The preparation of gelatin plates may offer considerable diflculty in the praotice of meat inspection, especially in the country. It is, however, not abso- lutely necessary to use them. The determination of bacteria in meat may be made with sufficient certainty by streak preparations on slant agar. Agar tubes may be readily transported in a sterile condition, while gelatin plates can not. For this reason, I recommend streak cultures on slant agar, in place of the plate method descriued by Basenau for the demonstration of bacteria in meat. . t Poels and Dhont have shown that " meat bacilli " multiply most rapidly in muscles which exhibit a loose intermuscular connective tissue. 740 EMERGENCY SLAUGHTER " If micro-organisms are not found in the preparations and if no colonies develop in the plates within twenty-four hours, the meat can be discharged without further investigation. " If the presence of bacteria is demonstrated in the streak cul- tures or plates, the meat should be preserved temporarily in a suit- able manner and the result of the animal esperimeat, which should be manifest ia most cases within at most three days, if the result is positive, will assist in rendering the final judgment. If the mice which are fed with the raw meat die, while those which are fed with meat cooked for one hour do not die, it is apparent that the poisonous property is removed by cooking. According to previous experience, the meat may then be admitted to the market without any danger to human health, after a previous sterilization in a steam apparatus. If no apparatus for sterilization is available, then the simple demonstration of the presence of large quantities of bac- teria in the meat is sufficient to justify condemnaton. If the ani- mals fed on the pieces of boiled meat ialso die, the meat is to be excluded from the market, or at least admitted only for technical purposes. This procedure would be in the spirit of the recom- mendations of Gerlach, who, several decades ago, stated that the aim of meat inspection should be to protect the health of the consumers and at the same time to utilize as much as possible of the abnormal food animals." While, up to the present time, no case of meat poisoning has occurred where meat has been inspected in a regular manner, never- theless, the investigation suggested by Basenau is an important step in advance in the problem of rendering judgment on the meat in cases of emergency slaughter. For, according to the method of Basenau, it becomes possible to admit meat to the market in cases in which, up to the present time, the meat must have been excluded from consumption on account of a presumption of its injurious character. Technique oe the Demonstration op Bacteria in the Interior OF Meat. — For the demonstration of bacteria in the interior of meat, a piece of meat is singed with a broad knife heated almost to a glowing temperature ; a deep vertical incision is then made into the meat with the sterilized knife. By means of a third and fourth aterile knives, horizontal sections are made and out of the piece i Mice are particularly well adapted for feeding experiments with suspected meat. In all expeiimental investigations thus far made in cases of meat pois- oning, they have proved to be uniformly susceptible to a high degree (Basenau). SO-CALLED ACCIDENTS 741 thus separated tlie material is taken for investigation by means of a. platinum loop (Forster). The contamination of the interior portions of the meat is thus most effectively prevented, since, according to the investigations of Gartner and Forster, the meat of healthy animals contains bacteria only to a depth of one centi- meter, even after a period of ten days. In a piece of meat which had been preserved in ice for fourteen days, Forster found millions of bacteria on the surface in one milligram of substance, but no bacteria, on the other hand, two millimeters under the surface.* 3. — So-called Accidents. Slanghter as a result of so-called accidents is to be judged quite differently from the above described cases of emergency slaughter on account of serious infectious diseases. As accidents, we may enumerate bone fractures, serious penetrating wounds while, if stained with group 3, the fat is of a bright red color. Demonsteation op Dye Stupfs. — Lehmann recommends for the demonstration of fuchsin in sausages extraction with ethyl or 788 COLORING AND INFLATION OF MEAT amyl alcoliol. " If a distinct red coloring matter is dissolved out, the sausages are evidently stained with artificial dyes." According to Fleck, comminuted meat samples are treated with amyl alcohol as long as the latter shows any red color. The larger portion of the solvent is distilled ; the remainder is volatilized on the water bath and the residue dissolved in petroleum ether. The reddish-brown solution thus obtained is shaken together " with absolute alcohol after the addition of a few drops of dilute sul- phuric acid 1:4 The petroleum ether together with the fat which may be present then comes to lie as a layer upon the alcoholic fuchsin solution. The latter is repeatedly washed in a filter with petroleum ether until the ether leaves no residue of fat after evaporating. The alcoholic fuchsin solution, thus carefully obtained, is now diluted with an excess of ammonia. The ammo- nium sulphate which is formed is separated by filtration from the fluid which" is now colored slightly yellow, and the latter is evapor- ated in a tared platinum or glass cup. From 80 to 85 per cent, of the fuchsin used in coloring the meat should be demonstrated by Fleck's method. For the demonstration of cochineal, Klinger and Bujard first suggested a method which is based on extraction by means of glycerin. Twenty grams of finely minced sausage is boiled on a water bath with a mixture of equal parts of water and glycerin. If cochi- neal is present, a conspicuously red colored solution is obtained in a short time. In the absence of this dye, the glycerin is not at all stained or at most somewhat yellowish. After cooling, the solution is filtered and if only small quantities of the dye have been dissolved the process is repeated with the filtrate obtained from another 20 grams of sausage. The perfectly clear, and, what is of special importance, fat free, more or less red colored glycerin solution may, as a rule, be then directly examined by means of the spectroscope, during which the g,bsorption bands characteristic of carmin may be plainly recognized in all cases. Otherwise the carmin-lac may be precipitated out of the solution in the usual manner. This sub- stance is then collected upon a filter and dissolved in a small quantity of tartaric acid. A quite concentrated solution of the dye is thus obtained with which the usual reactions may be demon- strated. According to Petsch, extraction with ammoniacal alcohol is a more rational method. By shaking the samples of colored sausage in a vessel containing ammoniacal alcohol, a more intensive colora- OOLOKING 789 tioa of the filtrate appears than with glycerin extraction. Petsch, therefore, proposes, as a method for the demonstration of foreign coloring materials in sausage, that after negative results from the amyl alcohol test, the comminuted sample should be treated with a mixture of alcohol and ammonia by the cold method. Spath recommends extraction with a 5 per cent, solution of sodium salicy- late as a preliminary test in the demonstration of carmin from analin dyes in sausage. The minced sausage is warmed on a water bath in this solution for fifteen minutes. It is then allowed to cool and is filtered. The filtrate is stained if artificial coloring materials are present. Iq old sausages (two years old) Polenske found that carmin was readily recognized by the color of the extract, while the analin dye (brilliant-berolina) was not. However, when the extracts were treated with dilute sulphuric acid, the salicylic acid was separated with a yellowish white color in the case of non-colored samples of sausage, while with sausages stained with carmin or brilliant-berolina, the salicylic acid was colored crimson. In order to be able to demonstrate even small quantities of carmin, Bremer recommends that in suspicious samples of sausage, extraction of the coloring material should be attempted not only with alcohol, amyl alcohol, or alcohol and glycerin, but also with a slightly acidified (tartaric or hydrochloric acid) mixture of glycerin and water in equal parts. From this solution, which, moreover, in the presence of acids, is colored merely yellowish, the coloring material m;iy be precipitated as lac. This is brought Etbout by boiling the fluid with ammonia and diluting with water and allowing to settle. After twenty- four hours, if small quantities of carmin are present, a deep crimson precipitation is formed which may be col- lected on the filter. On the basis of extensive experiments, Polenske considers a combination of the methods of Bremer and Spath as most suitable in demonstrating artificial dyestuifs in sausages. Polenske recom- mends a solution containing 5 grams salicylate of soda, 50 cc. of water and 5 cc. of glycerin. Twenty grams of the sausage is pressed into a paste, 30 cc. of the extraction fluid added, and the whole heated on a water bath for half an hour with repeated stirring. After cooling, the whole is pressed through gauze and flltered. The presence of " carmin substitute " is easily demonstrated by a boiling test. In boiling a piece of sausage, the fat stains red and floats like red oil on water (Bischoff). Marpmann and Spath recommend a microscopic examination as a certain method of demonstrating dyestuffs in sausage. Under 790 COLOBING AND INFLATION OF MEAT the microscope one recognizes artificial coloration by the fact that iso- lated portions of tissue paper appear to be stained red, while fresh tissue, even from smoked meat, exhibits a yellowish, yellowish-green or yellowish-gray color. According to Polenske, however, the microscopic demonstration of dyestuffs in smoked saui?agps is not easily made, while a chemical demonstration offers no difficulty, even in case of smoked sausages two years old. A microscopic examination, however, may serve as a test for orientation. Marp- mann considers as most suitable the following method of microscopic determination of dyestuffs in sausage: A piece of sausage to be examined is macerated in water. It is then saturated with 50 per cent, alcohol, after which the coloration of the cells may be recognized. Sausages which when covered with 50 per cent, alcohol possess a decolorized appearance after standing for two hours at ordinary living temperature must be considered as unstained, while, conversely, if the sausage still possesses a color, it is sufficient evidence of adulteration by artificial stains. If one treats a sausage with carbol xylol and replaces the latter with tetrachloromethane, treatment with cedar oil renders the prepara- tion more favorable for a microscopic examination. Official Directions for Demonstrating Coloring Matters IN Sausages. — The Berlin Police President issued the following directions for the demonstration of dyestuffs in sausages for the food control stations which are under the direction of the district veterinarians : 1. Small pieces weighing about 10 gm. of the sausage to be tested are placed in a test tube and covered with a mixture of offi- cinal glycerin and water, so that the pieces of sausages are about 1 cm. beneath the surface of the fluid. If, after the test tube has been kept for fifteen minutes on a boiling water bath, the fat layer upon the glycerin or the glycerin water itself or both fluids are colored red the sausage must be considered as artificially colored with carmin or azo-dyes. 2. If by the application of the method just described a negative result is obtained, a piece of sausage weighing about 10 grams is to be placed in a cold mixture of officinal ammonia and water in the proportion of 1 : 3. If after some time the sausage exhibits violet red, or crimson spots, it must be considered as having been colored with carmin powder. 3. If these tests give a negative result, a portion of the sausage is to be heated in 95 per cent, alcohol. If the alcohol is colored COLOEING 791 red the sausage must be considered as having been dyed with fuchsiu. 4. The application of these methods is left to the discretion of the veterinarians. Against the above directions, Weller and Eiegel have raised the objection that they may fail to give results, since sausages which are made from meat prepared with saltpeter always yield a bright red colored fluid after treatment with the solvents mentioned in the above directions. Weller and Riegel demonstrated by means of spectrum analysis that the coloring material, which is soluble in ether, alcohol and in aqueous and alcoholic glycerin, but which does not stain wool, is methemoglobin. The modification of the hemoglobin into a per- manent red coloring matter under the influence of saltpeter appears to be a specific peculiarity of the hemoglobin of hog blood, since in a control experiment with calf's blood, only small quantities of yellow coloring materials were obtained in the ether which was used as an extraction reagent. The experiments which were instituted by Weller and Eiegel, however, as indicated by Juckenack and Sendtner, do not correspond with actual conditions, for it never occurs in practice that meat sausages intended for long keeping are prepared by adding blood, since blood would reduce the keeping property of the sausages. Judgment. — The dye stuffs which are used for coloring sau- sages are not injurious from the nature of their composition, nor do they produce a substantial depreciation of the value of the meat or meat products on account of the quantity which is added. Never- theless, from the standpoint of meat inspection and also from the legal standpoint, the addition of dye stuffs must be treated as an adulteration, and this is right and just. It is undoubtedly a case of adulteration if the coloration deceives the consumer concerning the age of the meat, as in the case of mince meat, or with regard to the fraudulent addition of flour and water. It is an adulteration and also a violation of Sec. 12 of the Food Law if decomposing meat is colored and offered for sale,* for decomposing meat is injurious to health (page 757). It is only in the case of, the coloration of otherwise good sau- sage intended for long keeping that judgment may be doubtful. * Reichardt (cited from Lehmann) describes an outbreak of illness which affected a whole family and was due to colored sausage. It is highly probable that in this case the sausage was prepared from decomposing meat. 792 COLORING AND INFLATION OF MEAT This is done in order to conceal the gray color of the sausage ami, according to the statements of Bi^choflf, is extensively practiced in Thiiriugen, but even in this locality the courts without exception condemn the practice on the basis of Sec. 10 of the Food Law, since fachsin and cochineal are not constituents of normal sausage and since the addition of these dye stuffs is made for the purpose of giv- iijg the sausage the appearance of freshness and increased nutritive qualities. Moreover, Bremer rightly states that coloration may conceal not only the gray color, but also other decomposition }>rocesses in sausage, which may spoil the taste of the sausage. It is stated that in Munich sausages have repeatedly been examined which, at first glance at the fresh, smoothly cut surface, would be cousidered as excellent material, while they were absolutely inedible, except to a perverted palate. Thus, for example, in the institution for the examination of foods in Munich, cervelatwurst was found of very good external appearance, but exhibiting a rather bright red color on the cut surface. It possessed an acid content of 76 per ceirt., however, and was literally inedible. Moreover, with the utilization of azo-dyes, which give a red color to the fat, the appear- ance of pure meat sausage is produced.* Finally, it should be observed that hundreds of sausage makers in Gotha, which is the chief location for the manufacture of cervelatwurst, have declared that the prohibition of the use of dye stuffs would be to the interest of reliable dealers ; for, with the help of dye stuff -i, cheap American beef may be worked over into sausages, and thereby the good reputation of domestic sausages may suffer. Decisions of the Eeichgebicht. — The coloration of the gills of fish with red dye stuffs in order to give them the appearance of fresh fish is an instance of adulteration (Decision II., Criminal Senate, December 2, 1891). Likewise, the coloration of sausage by means of dye stuffs in order to preserve the color of fresh products * Juokenack and Sendtner have demonstrated by means of analyses that the addition of dye stuffs makes possible the preparation of sausage intended for long keeping with a higher fat and water content or, in other words, sausages which are of inferior value as compared with uncolored sausages. The sausages exhibited the following average conditions : Deficiency Excess of Excess of in lean meat. fat. water. , Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 1 kg. colored mettwurst 23.96 14.68 14.68 1 kg. colored cervelatwurst 33.67 7.44 14.93 1 kg. colored salamiwurst 33.41 7.19 15.56 INFLATION 793 for a period during -which without such manipulation it would be apparent from the alteration of the natural color that the products were not fresh (Decision III., Criminal Senate, February 18, 1882). The Position op the Imperial Health Office with Kegard TO THE Coloration of Sausages. — Concemiug the coloration of sausages, the Imperial Health OflSce has published a memorial, the gist of which may be stated in the following propositions : 1. If meat rich in natural coloring matter is utilized with proper regard to care and cleanliness, a uniformly red colored sau- sage, suitable for long keeping, may be prepared without the help of artificial dye stuffs. 2. The addition of dye stuffs makes it possible to lend the appearance of a better quality to a sausage which is prepared from less suitable material or with insufficient care, and the purchasers are thus deceived concerning the true character of the sausage. 3. In accord with the principles laid down by the Keich- gericht, the majority of the courts which have considered this ques- tion assume that the artificial coloration of sausages, which has become established in many regions, can not be considered as legitimate business practice from the standpoint of the food law. 4. By the utilization of poisonous dye stuffs, the consumption of sausages colored with them may be injurious to human health.* 3. — Inflation. Purpose. — The inflation of whole calves and sheep, as well as the lungs of these animals, is considered by the butchers as a tradi- tion of their trade, so well founded that strong objections were raised when the authorities in many localities decided to prohibit the practice. Butchers especially assert that the process of remov- ing the skins from the animals just mentioned is made much easier after inflation. Daily experience in abattoirs, however, where infla- tion is forbidden, teaches that skinning of calves and sheep — in the latter inflation is a much more general custom than in the former — does not offer any special difficulties, even without artificial infla- tion with air forced into the subcutaneous connective tissue. The * By order of the Federal Cotinoil of February 16, 1903, the artificial colora- tion of meat and meat products, with the exception of the coloration of sausage casings, is forbidden in the whole German Empire from and after October 1 , 1UU2. 794 COLORING AND INFLATION OF MEAT actual reason of the objection of tradesmen to the prohibition of inflation from the side of the authorities is, therefore, doubtless, not the reason alleged, but another, namely, that it is possible, by means of inflation, to increase the apparent value of the meat. Meat is rendered more plump and of better appearance by inflation. It is very doubtful whether, as Schmidt-Miilheim assumes, it also becomes more appetizing. This appears to be a matter of taste. The effect sought in inflation is at any rate a possible advantage for the butcher in all cases in which poor, immature animals are concerned, which do not produce a favorable impression in the non- inflated condition. In the case of the lungs, a volume is obtained by means of inflation which is not seen in them in the non-inflated condition. In this case it can not be denied that the organs are not only of better appearance, but that they exhibit a more appetizing exterior than when not thus treated. On the other hand, inflation makes it possible to substitute inferior hog and sheep lungs for the more valuable calf lungs. This substitution may be accomplished to the satisfaction of the laity more easily than when inflation is for- bidden. Schmidt-Miilheim mentions an increase in the keeping property of the meat as a hygienic advantage in inflation, provided that this operation is done by means of bellows with air filtered through cot- ton. The lymph which remains in the subcutaneous and inter- muscular connective tissue is forced into the larger lymph vessels by the pressure of the air, and the drying-out of the subcutis, an important factor in the keeping quality of meat, is thus favored by the enlargement of the body surface due to inflation. In this con- nection, however, experience also teaches that we may well dispense with inflation without exposing the meat to a more rapid process of spoiling. In addition to calves and sheep, light, poorly fed geese are also inflated, with fraudulent intent. Technique. — Inflation is done in its simplest form by means of the mouth. As a rule, the lungs are inflated in this manner. For inflating whole animals, however, tradesmen usually employ a bel- lows. These possess a pointed canula, which is introduced into the subcutis in any part of the body through a slit in the' skin. The air after being forced into the subcutis is distributed over the whole surface of the body by rubbing with the hand. Geese are inflated by means of a quill. INFLATION 795 Eecognitxon.— It is not difficult to recognize the inflated condi- tion of a whole animal. This condition is apparent at first glance from the unusual size of the slaughtered animal and from the peculiar sheen exhibited by the subcutis in place of the cloudy character of the panniculus adiposus or of the pure white appear- ance of the subcutaneous tissue which is not filled with fat. A spongy feeling on palpation and a crackling sound are conspicuous. The detection of inflated lungs is not so simple. The condi- tion of su6h lungs is best understood by making an inflation experiment. If warm lungs are inflated by means of a tube inserted into the trachea, under slight pressure, the lungs swell greatly, the mediastinal surfaces come to lie in contact and the borders of the lungs become unusually sharp. The inflation is uniform and appears also in the anterior lobes, which consequently do not hang down or at the side, but stand out in the natural direction from the principal lobes. Moreover, as a rule, sub-pleural emphysema is observed as a result of excessive mechanical tension, and rupture of the alveolar walls by the pressure of the air. All of these points should be carefully observed, for, since the prohibition of inflation has come into force, butchers have found another method of producing "large" lungs, which can not be con- demned. This consists in the clever utilization of the mechanics of the thorax. After the exenteration of the abdominal cavity, and after the incision is made through the isehio-pubic symphysis, the animals are hung by the posterior extremities on gambrels, the hind legs are forced as far apart as possible, and the abdominal walls above the sternal cartilage are likewise forced apart by means of wooden braces. The artificial enlargement of the thorax causes an excessive inspiration into the air-tight lungs and this air is retained after the removal of the lungs from the thorax, if the removal does not take place too soon, but only after the appear- ance of a more or less complete rigor mortis. Such lungs with artificially increased inspiration are distinguished, however, from inflated lungs by their snjaller size, less sharp borders, the absence of interstitial emphysema and, finally, by the flabby character of the anterior lobes. The latter possess only a medium air content, and, therefore, hang to the side or downward, for the artificial enlargement of the thorax on account of the natural anatomical conditions is greater in the posterior parts of the lungs and much less in the. anterior parts. A condition which resembles inflation is occasionally observed in the lungs of slaughtered Ciittle when aspirated fodder balls 796 COLORING AND INFLATION OP MEAT become wedged in the trachea or in the chief bronchi, as a result of violent inspirations during bleeding, so that they can not be driven out again by expiration. Judgment. — While it can not be denied that the inflation of whole animals renders skinning easier and increases their keeping quality, nevertheless experience teaches that these advantages of inflation may well be dispensed with by tradesmen. Moreover, inflation is a trade custom the prohibition of which is justified for hygienic and commercial reasons. With but few exceptions, consumers might reasonably reject a food material which is filled with the expired air of another person. In addition to the subjective feeling, however, it should also be remembered that in inflation by means of the mouth numerous putrefactive, often pathogenic, bacteria are inoculated into the meat and thus the advantage of increased . keeping qualities is not real- ized, while under certain circumstances the meat may be given an actually dangerous quality. Putrefactive bacteria are also forced into the meat, even when the bellows is employed, if the filtering apparatus for the air recommended by Schmidt-Miilheim is not used in connection with the bellows. Moreover, in any individual case it can not be determined whether the animal body or a lung has been inflated by means of bellows or with the mouth. A general prohibition of inflation is, therefore, sufficiently justified by the reasons which have already been mentioned. It should also be remembered that the less observing pur- chasers may be deceived concerning the true character of the products in consequence of inflation and consumers may be enticed into buying meat which they perhaps would not have bought in an uninflated condition. Decision of the Reichgeeioht. — The Reichgericht declared in a decision of May 27, 1888, that inflated meat must be considered as spoiled in the sense of Sec. 367' of the Criminal Law Statutes, and must, therefore, be absolutely excluded from the market. The case in question concerned the offering for sale of a leg of veal which had been inflated with the mouth. The Reichgericht held that the meat into which air had been forced by means of the mouth was dis- gusting to the majority of consumers and was thereby, as well as from the fact of the danger of the transmission of pathogenic organ- isms from the person who inflated it, unsuited for ordinary con- INFLATION 797 sumption. Moreover, it was considered that the meat was depre- ciated below its normal condition and was thus rendered of inferior value. PEOHrBiTiON OF INFLATION. — A circular letter of the Eoyal Prus- sian Ministries of February 13, 1885, recommends to the Govern- ment presidents the decree of a police regulation against inflation of meat. The inflation of meat with the mouth had already been prohibited by decree of the Ressort minister of August 17, 1861, and furthermore under the decree of November 15, 1879, the abso- lute prohibition of inflation was declared to be justifiable. Accord- ingly, the inflation of meat in Berlin as well as in the governmental districts of Konigsberg, Frankfurt, Posen and Brpmberg was for- bidden. The Prussian Kammergericht, on an appeal of a butcher against an unfavorable judgment of the Landgericht in Frankfurt, decided that police ordinances forbidding inflation were legal. XTI. PRESERTATION OF MEAT. As with milk, so also with meat, we may speak of a certain keeping quality. While, however, in the case of milk, the keeping property may be endaugered and destroyed by acid and zymogenic bacteria, in meat it is the putrefactive bacteria, those " ubiquitous organisms " which are everywhere present and which wait only for a favorable opportunity to induce decomposition in meat. Tbe keeping property of meat depends upon various conditions. Atten- tion has already been called (page 711) to the fact that the meat of animals slaughtered on account of disease is characterized by poor keeping property. For the rest, however, the keeping power of the meat depends chiefly upon the temperature and moisture con- tent of the air in the room in which the meat is preserved. In cold, dry rooms meat keeps much longer than in warm, moist rooms. This fact finds its natural explanation in the biological properties of putrefactive bacteria. The latter thrive in a certain moisture content of the nutritive substratum and at a temperature which is not too low. One necessary condition of good keeping property of wholesome meat is, therefore, a careful cooling immedi- ately after slaughter, since the animal heat is the optimum temperature for the growth and multiplication of putrefactive bac- teria. By the application of artificial agents — so-called preserving agents — it is possible to increase the normal keeping power of meat. The preserving agents are of a chemical and physical nature. The former are utilized more extensively in traffic in meat preparations, while the latter are more applicable to the traffic in unprepared meat. It is doubtful whether it is possible to protect meat from decomposition by preservation in sterile air. The Argentine Govern- ment is said to have made an experiment in preserving fresh meat in sterile air in special rooms on transport vessels. The method of 798 KEEPING QUALITY OP MEAT 799 Emmerich was also devised for the purpose of accomplishing sterile preservation. This method consists in exenterating and cutting up food animals with instruments rendered aseptic by passing them through a flame. The natural casing of the meat, viz., the skin, fat, connec- tive tissue, etc., are not removed. The surface of those portions of the meat not covered by the skin are sprinkled with glacial acetic acid and the pieces of meat to be preserved are finally packed in sawdust for the purpose of keeping them dry. The sawdust is sat- urated with common salt and heated and dried at a temperature of 180° C. How long will meat keep under the ordinary conditions of preservation ? Concerning this important question, accurate state- ments are found only in a work which has already become historical, namely, in Johann Peter Frank's " System einer vollstftndigen medizinischen Polizei." Mannheim : 1804. Frank makes the fol- lowing statements : The learned contributions to the Braunschwei- gischen Anzeigen of 1773 contain a table on the length of time during which raw meat may be kept in the air without spoiling. The table gives the following data for the keeping power of meat of different origins : In Summer In Winter Days Days Deer 4 8 Wild boar 6 10 Hare 3 6 Pheasant 4 10 Black grouse 4 10 Wood grouse 6 14 Partridge 3 6-8 Cattle and hogs 3 6 Sheep •...: 3 3 Calves and lambs 2 4 Turkeys and geese 4 8 Capons 3 6 ■ Old roosters 3 6 Young roosters 3 4 -Young pigeons 3 4 Naturally, as observed by Frank, this table would not hold true for all climates and all kinds of game. " On sultry days and during thunder storms, meat may begin to decompose within one-half day." 800 PRESERVATION OF MEAT 1.— Chemical Preservatives. The most common methods of preserving meat by means of chemical materials are those of salting and pickling. Moreover, the disinfecting agents, boric, salicylic and sulphurous acid, are used in the preservation of meat. Smoking is a combination method of preservation in which chemical materials and hot air act together. With regard to the application and effectiveness, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of the various preserving agents, the following statements may be made : (a) Salting and Pickling. Application. — Common salt is used especially in the preserva- tion of bacon sides and hams. Moreover, in America and Australia, beef is prepared for export by means of salt (" salt meat "). Salt is either rubbed into the pieces of meat in a dry condition (salting) or is applied in the form of a salt brine (pickling). For determining the salt content of the brine a so-called alkalimeter is employed, which is constructed according to the principle of Quevenne's hydrometer. The introduction of brine syringes marked an impor- tant step in advance in the field of preservation technique. These syringes end in a long, hollow needle which is introduced deeply into the connective tissue lying between the bones and muscles. By means of brine syringes it is possible, in a very short time, uni- formly to impregnate large pieces of meat, especially hams, with salt water. This result would not be possible by simply laying the meat in salt brine. In large meat salting establishments, brine pumps, constructed on the principle of the force pump, are used. Euppert and others recommend pickling in iron tanks from which the air has been exhausted and in which the pickling brir^e i' allowed to penetrate the meat under pressure for a period of seven to eight hours. Pickling is thereby said to be more uniform than by the old method and much accelerated, so that the whole process of pickling hams requires only fourteen days, while by the old pickling method six to nine weeks were required. By means of a patent apparatus (rapid pickling apparatus "Meteor"), it is said that pickling takes place so rapidly that meat may be prepared ready for sale and cutting up within one to two days. salting and pickling 801 Pickling Through the Medium of the Circulatoky System. — The Swedish investigator, Fjelstrup, recently attempted to introduce a method of pickling which utilizes the circulatory system for trans- porting pickling brine. The animals are killed by shooting, the hair is removed from hogs in the usual manner after death. The blood is still perfectly fluid under ordinary circumstances and this is a necessary condition for the success of the injection. The ani- mal is then placed on its back in a trough table, so that the blood may run off completely. The thoracic cavity is opened by a long incision through the soft parts and by sawing through the sternum, and a canula is in,troduced through the left ventricle into the aorta and ligated. A pump is connected with the canula, by means of which the salt brine after the right side of the heart is opened, is forced in under a pressure equal to the normal aortic pressure. The salt brine thus forces the blood out through the right side of the heart and at the same time fills the blood system. The process requires from three to four minutes. After being cut up, allowed to cool and lying for a short time, the meat is ready for export or smoking. Cattle and sheep are injected with sterilized water or very weak brine immediately after death, in order to force out the blood. This process is not new. J. P. Frank, in his " System," already referred to, states : " According to the statements of the Englishman Hales, an attempt has been made to inject with saltwater the blood vessels of animals which have been killed by bleeding. This is done in order to preserve the meat longer.. This method was first tested in Madagascar and is really the most rapid method of thor- oughly saturating the meat." Experiments with the new methods of preservation are not yet complete. According to Kiihnau, the public objects to the utiliza- tion of injected meat in the form of fresh meat on the ground that it retains its red color in cooking. Pickling With the Aid op Electricity. — The South Ameri- can author Pinto claims that rapid pickling (within ten to twenty hours) may be brought about by passing an electric current through the meat while lying in the brine. Effect.— The preserving action of brine depends upon the dry- ing effect as a result of the extraction of water. Furthermore, chloride of sodium possesses slight disinfecting properties. The disinfecting action of salt consists in a general check upon the mul- 802 PRESERVATION OP MEAT tiplication of micro-organisms, the prevention of the powerful pro- teolytic action of these organisms, even in a comparatively dilute solution, and the reduction of the chemical functions of certain organisms (Petterson). Salt does not exhibit a pronounced checking effect upon micro- organisms except in solutions of from 20 to 23 per cent. In a concentration of 5 per cent, it hinders the multiplica- tion of obligate anaerobes, but not that of facultative anaerobes and aerobes. Putrefactive bacteria are much more susceptible to the action of salt than cocci. In general the growth of bacilli is checked by a 10 per cent, solution of salt. Some of them, however, endure a concentration of 12 per cent, and occasionally one of 15 per cent. in pure cultures in bouillon. The majority of cocci thrive even in a solution containing 15 per cent, of salt. Salt is well adapted for use in the preservation of the meat of healthy animals. The action of salt upon pathogenic bacteria in meat, however, has been considerably overestimated, although J. P. Frank, at the close of the 18th century, stated : " Brine on meat which is fundamentally spoiled is nothing more than an unwhole- some broth, and if any one believes that salt can extract the poison from suspicious meat in the manner in which it dissolves the aque- ous parts thereof, such a person would allow his imagination to influence his most important business dealings for very slight rea- sons." Frank rightly characterizes the pickling of the meat of diseased animals as " painting with a sort of healtih varnish," and called attention to the fact that pickling has no other effect upon the meat of diseased animals than to preserve it from total decom- position in the same manner as it preserves healthy meat. This empirical demonstration of the great sanitarian of the 18th cen- tury has been confirmed from a scientific standpoint by recent exact experiments. According to the experiments of Forster, pathogenic staphylococci, the streptococcus of erysipelas and the bacilli of swine erysipelas, remain alive for weeks and months when pure cul- tures of these micro-organisms are covered with salt. Tubercle bacilli in cultures treated in the same manner proved virulent after two months, Pieces of tuberculous organs finely minced also proved to be virulent after lying in salt brine for eighteen days. Anthrax bacilli were destroyed in from eighteen to twenty-four hours. Anthrax cultures, however, containing spores, retained their viru- lence for months, despite treatment with salt. Salting the meat of diseased animals has, therefore, by no means the high value which is commonly ascribed to this method of preservation. SALTING AND PICKLING 803 The effect of salt manifests itself in the meat by a decoloriza- tion of the musculature. In order to prevent this result, it is customary to add saltpeter to the salt brine.* According to Glage, however, the persistence of the red color of meat is not due to salt- peter, but to the effect of the nitrites and perhaps nitric oxide, which are formed from the saltpeter in the brine. In cooked meat products, the addition of a small quantity of nitre to the pickling salt is a sure means of producing the red color. Also in the case of raw meat products it is not the saltpeter, but one of its decomposi- tion products (nitric oxide?) which preserves the redness of the coloring matter of the muscle. Glage determined, furthermore, that in raw meat products, in addition to saltpeter and cane sugai, di-phosphate of soda, potash and borax have the effect of gradually producing a red color. Composition op Oedinaky Beine. — Sixteen parts of salt are mixed with one-half part saltpeter and 1.5 to 2 parts of sugar. For each 100 kg. of meat, 5 kg. of this mixture is used, or 4,350 gm. of salt, 150 gm. of saltpeter and 500 gm. of sugar. The sugar is added to the meat on account of its marked action in preventing putrefac- tion (impoverishment of the nutrient medium for putrefactive bacteria). On the other hand, the addition of sugar may cause a slimy fermentation of the brine, which, however, is said to be with- out effect upon the character of the pickling material. Special Pickling Methods. — In America, the so-called dry pickled beef is prepared in the following manner : A 20 per cent, salt brine is prepared with the addition of salt- peter and sugar. The meat is thus pickled in a moist condition. Before it is shipped the meat is dried by means of special machines and is sprinkled with borax. The addition of borax is said to amount to from 1 to 2 per cent.f After the meat is sprinkled with borax, it is pressed by machine power. * " Stabil," which is recommended by the preservative manufacturer Adamczyk for the preservation of sausage for long keeping, contains 79 per cent. of saltpeter (Polenske). t According to an analysis made in Germany, the content of boric acid is much greater. -Thus, in Dresden, 3.87 per cent, boric acid was demonstrated in American dry pickled beef. Amthor found in American beef 70.37 per cent, water and 7 61 per cent, mineral substances which consisted of 68.5 per cent, salt and 19.5 per cent, borax. In 51 samples of American dry pickled meat (partly pork and partly beef) Polenske demonstrated boric acid in every case. Nineteen samples contained from 1 to 3 per cent. ; 13, 3 to 3 per cent., and 1 sample, 3.36 804 PKESERYATION OF MEAT The Chicago firm of Nelson, Morris & Co. declares that it pickles meat ouly by mean's of a salt brine and that at least sixty days are occupied with the process. The meat is then allowed to hang eight to ten days more before it is ready for export. American pickled tongues are slightly salted, but, like the greater part of American dry pickled beef, contain the forbidden boric acid. The tongues are washed in water, thoroughly cleaned and dried. They are then rubbed with a mixture of 50 kg. coarse dry salt, 350 gm. of saltpeter and 750 gm. of borax, or with the same weight of boric acid, and placed in tight oak casks. Usually there is such an abundant production of brine that the subsequent addition of artificial brine is unnecessary. The casks are hermeti- cally sealed after three or four days. Demonstration op Pickling. — Probably under the erroneous supposition that any injurious properties which are contained in the meat are destroyed by the pickling process, the introduction of pickled meat was favored as compared with that of fresh meat. Por this reason the distinction between pickled meat and fresh meat is of practical value. As shown by Glage, pickled meat has an alkaline reaction, tastes salty and is darker red and firmer than fresh meat and exhibits a lacquer-like cut surface, while the cut surface of fresh meat shows grooves and channels on account of the unequal retraction of the muscle fibers. For the certain detection of pick- ling, Glage recommends, in the place of the simple silver nitrate solution proposed by the author, a solution of silver nitrate partly neutralized by ammonia and possessing the following composition : Argent, nitric, 2. Aqua destill., 100. Mf. sol. Adde exactissime Liquor. Ammonii caustic, q. s. ad prsecipit. et perfect, resolut. Argent, nitr. ; deinde Liquor. Ammonii caustic, volumetric 40 cc. Aq. destill. q. s. ad 200 oc. M. D. in vitro flav. Sig. Reagent for the differentiation of salt and fresh meat ; 10 cc. for each sample of 1 gm. The reagent is to be preserved in well-stoppered yellow glass bottles. For making the test, 10 gm. of the reagent is poured into per cent. The pieces of meat were surrounded by a gray layer 1 cm. thick. The inside of the beef possessed a deeper red color than fresh meat. The water con- tent of the dry pickled beef ranged between 65 and 69 per cent. SALTING AND PICKLING 805 a glass bottle with a wide ueck and a ground glass stopper. A piece of meat, as free from fat as possible, about the size of a nut (1 gm.) is taken from the interior of the piece of meat to be tested and thrown into the reagent. The piece of meat should not be comminuted. If one observes a white precipitation of chlorid of silver which by daylight rapidly becomes violet or black, but by lamplight slowly, or not at all, the meat has been pickled. Fresh meat produces only an albuminous cloudiness which does not become discolored. Fresh meat also retains its red color, while pickled meat becomes coated with chlorid of silver on the surface. Effect op Pickling on the Composition of the Meat. — As a result of pickling, meat suffers a loss of nutritive material. Polenske pickled meat in a solution of 1^ kg. salt, 15 gm. saltpeter, and 120 gm. of sugar in 6 kg. of water, and found that the weight of the pickled meat was considerably diminished as a result of the mutual exchange between the meat juice and brine. The maximum of increase of weight was observed within three weeks and amounted to 12 per cent, of the original weight. By the action of the brine, however, the following quantities of materials were extracted from the naeat : Anhydrous Nitrogen Phosphoric acid J'er cent. Per cent. After three weeks' pickling 7.77 34.73 After six months' pickling | J^;^^ | 54-46 Polenske was unable to demonstrate directly the loss of any potash salts. On the other hand, the high content of phosphoric acid in the brine showed that the potash salts had also been extracted to a large extent. According to an analysis of Voit, the nutritive value of meat appeared not to have been greatly diminished by pickling. This investigation, however, was made on meat which had been pickling only 14 days. At this time 1,000 gm. of fresh meat had absorbed 43 gm. of salt and had given up 79.9 gm. of water, 4.8 gm. organic materials, 2.4 gm. albumen, 2.5 gm. extractives and 0.4 gm. phosphoric acid. Expressed in the form of a percentage, the loss amounted to 10.4 of watfer, 2.1 organic materials, 1.1 albumen, 13.5 extractives and 8.5 of phosphoric acid. Experiments conducted by Nothwang, however, confirmed the result which had been obtained by Polenske. Nothwang found the 806 PEESERTATION OF MEAT extraction of phosphoric acid, and especially of extractives, to be so considerable that pickled, meat must be regarded as actually an inferior product. Nothwang demonstrated that pickling causes a greater loss of material than mere salting. In pickling, 2.1i per cent, of the protein and 50.1 per cent, of the phosphoric acid was lost, while meat which bad lain in salt for the same length of time — the maximum of extraction of materials was reached during the first two weeks — lost only 1.3 per cent, of the protein, 39 per cent, of the extractives and 33 per cent, of the phosphoric acid. Judgment 6e the Saltpeteb Content of Pickled Meat. — Lehmann emphasizes the fact that saltpeter is a powerful poison for man. Five gm. may cause decided, illness and 8 gtn. (more often 1.5 to 25 gm. are required) prove fatal. Nothing is known concerning saltpeter poisoning from the consumption of meat. The question of the hygienic judgment of saltpeter appears still to. require a more thorough examination. Nothwang investigated the saltpeter content of various meat products and obtained the following data : Dry pickled meat products do not always contain saltpeter, but often contain only common salt. The greatest amount of saltpeter was found in raw hams and the so-called country hams, but always in harmless quan- tities (0.197 to .328 per cent.). Even if an adult person should eat 200 to 300 gm. of such meat, he would receive only 0.66 to .99 gm. — quite a harmless dose. The salt content of dry pickled meat products varies between 3.42 per cent, (boiled hams), 5 per cent, (raw hams) and 8.7 per cent. (Kassel spare ribs). In a series of experiments it was found that meat pickled in brine absorbed a constantly increasing quantity of salt, while the salt- peter content became less after a short time (eight days). Nothwang ascribes this disappearance of the saltpeter, which, however, did not always occur, to reduction processes in the meat (formatior of nitrous acid). For the rest, the content of salt and saltpeter in meat is dependent, according to Nothwang, upon the concentration of the soliition which is used, upon the length of the period of application,.upon the transformation of saltpeter into ammonia, the pressure brought to bear upon the meat, and perhaps also upon the temperature and certainly upon the size of the pieces of meat which are subjected to the pickling process. SMOKING 807 (b) Smoking. Different Methods of Smoking. — Since ancient times the pre- serving action of smoke has been utilized for increasing the keeping powers of meat and meat products (smoked meat). la practice, distinction is made between {wo kinds of smoking : slow and rapid or so-called hot smoking. The greater part of meat products is smoked slowly, that is, for days at a temperatura of about 25° C. Certain products, however, like knackwurst, also all Jish, are either exposed to smoke for several hours at a temperaiure of 70° C. and thereupon for a shorter time at a- temperature of 100° C. or more, or they are immediately exposed to smoke at a temperature of 100° C. Discontinuous smoking, in which the smoking process is maintained only during the day, is highly unsatisfactory. It is thus brought about, as shown by Senkpiehl, that in winter the pieces of meat are frozen during the night and thawed out again during the day, as a result of smoking. There can be no doubt that the process of decomposition is favored by the repeated freezing and thawing of the meat. Materials for Producing Smoke.— Only wood smoke is uti- lized for smoking meat. Jumper bushes, beech chips with juniper berries, tanbark with mahogany chips and other waste material from hard wood furnish very good smoke. Fir chips are not desir- able, since they unfavorably affect the taste of the smoked pro- ducts. Pbeservatite Effect of Smoking. — The action of smoke con- sists in extracting water as a result of the high temperature of the smoke and in the influence of the disinfecting materials contained in the smoke ; for example, creosote, empyreumatic oils and car- bolic acid.* Serafiui and Uugaro mention the higher tar-like sub- stances as active constituents of smoke. The effect of these sub- stances is increased by the disinfecting action of carbonic acid. Beu examined smoked products from the market, and animal food materials which he smoked. During this investigation it was found that among the meat products which are found on the market and which had been smoked slowly, bacon was the only one which * It thus appears that simple moistening of meat products with pyroligneous acid, wliii.li lias been a common practice for mznj years, as a substitute for i smoking, can not produce the preserving effect of smoke. 808 PEESERVATION OP MEAT was absolutely free from bacteria in its interior. Country mett- ■wurst exhibited some colonies of 3Iicrococcus candicans. Hamburg smoked meat which had been pickled for from three to four weeks, then slowly smoked for five days, showed several colonies of white staphylococci. In a piece of the same meat products which tad been smoked for three days, numerous bacteria were found, among which a species of proteus was observed. Fish smoked at a high temperature were either free from bacteria or showed but few colo- nies which did not liquefy gelatin. Numerous putrefactive bacteria, among them Proteus vulgaris, were found in the knackwurst which had been smoked at a high temperature. The experiments which Beu instituted for determining the influence of a gradual smoking at a temperature of 22° to 25° C. yielded the following results : Pickled lean pork which before smoking contained large numbers of putrefactive bacteria was absolutely free from bacteria after a six-day period of smoking. Similarly, bacon became free from bacteria after subjection to smoke for seven days. A piece of unsalted pork, on the other hand, began to decompose in spite of smoking, and in knackwurst with which Beu experimented he was unable to observe any con- siderable effect upon the bacterial content despite long continued smoking. The marked influence of a previous extraction of water by salting upon the preservative effect of the smoke thus becomes apparent. The disinfectant influence of smoke, whether by the slow or by the hot process, can not be denied. On the other hand, putrefac- tive bacteria are destroyed with difficulty or not at all in meat products which contain much water and which have not been previously dehydrated by pickling. Effect of Smoke Upon Pathogenic Baoteeia. — Serafini and Ungaro demonstrated that smoke exercises a very energetic bacteri- cide action upon pure cultures of bacteria. The effect is observed in the case of the anthrax bacillus and staphylococcus after not more than 2.^ hours ; in the case of the hay bacillus after S^ hours, and in the case of anthrax spores after 18 hours. Palozzi found that staphylococci, diphtheria bacilli and anthrax bacilli were killed in 1 hour and anthrax spores in 8 hours, and the tubercle bacillus in 2 hours. In experiments with infected meat, however (pieces of guinea pigs infected with anthrax), Serafini and Ungaro found that the process of smoking did not appear to act so energeti- cally upon the bacteria contained in the meat as upon pure cul- PEESERVATION WITH BORIO ACID 809 tures. Smoke penetrates with difficulty into the interior of the meat, chiefly for the reason that under the influence of the smok- ing process a layer of coagulated albumen is farmed upon the sur- face of the pieces of meat. Serafini and Ungaro came to the con- clusion that smoking in and of itself had the effect of checking the growth of bacteria as a result of desiccation, but that it did not destroy the pathogenic bacteria which might be present in the meat. (c) Preservation ■with. Boric, Sulphurous and Salicylic Acids. Boric, sulphurous and salicylic acids exert a more decided influence in checking the growth of bacteria than does salt. It was, therefore, probable from the first that the keeping property of the meat could be considerably increased bj* means of these agents. Against the use of these chemical substances, however, it may be objected that they are not indifferent for the human organism, especially for the sick or convalescent, and that furthermore the consumer in buying meat and meat products assumes that foreign materials like boric, sulphurous and salicylic acids are not con- tained in those products.* 1. — Boric Acid. Application.: — Boric acid is used either alone as a powder and in an aqueous solution, or together with other preserving agents. In the powdered form boric acid is dusted upon the livers after a previous cutting into strips, and upon American dry pickled beef (page 803). Otherwise boric acid is used only in a fluid form, that is, in solution with water. Thus, in America, Denmark and Eussia, the practice prevails to a large extent of injecting livers with a solu- tion of boiic acid ("Hamburg" or "injected livers"). Boric acid is a good reagent for checking putrefaction. As shown by Petter- son, however, it does not completely prevent decomposition of * For this reason the Swiss Government has prohibited the use of chemical agents in preserving meat and meat products, with the exception of salt and saltpeter. Likewise, the German Federal Council has forbidden through a decree of February 16, 1902, which went into effect October 1, 1903, the use, for meat preserving purposes, of boric acid and its salts, formaldehyde, hydroxids and carbonates of alkalies and alkaline earths, sulphurous acids and their salts, as well as the salts of hyposulphurous acid, hydrofluoric acid and its salts, sali- cylic acid and its combinations, and, finally, the salts of hydrochloric acid. 810 PBESEEVATION OF MEAT meat. Borax, on the other hand, is, according to Petterson, a very effective agent in checking the growth of bacteria when' used in combination with salt. Trade Peepabations "Which Contain Boeio Acid. — According to Venzko and Schorer, the following preparations should be classed under this head : 1-3. — Australian salt II.; Barmeait, and "strong preserviDg salt," consisting of etjual parts of salt and boric acid. 4-5. Boroglycin, Bohkrdmer's preserving salt (95 per cent, boric acid and 5 per cent, sugar). 6. Eckhart's preserving salt (60 per cent, salt, 40 per cent, boric acid). 7. Ziffer's preserving powder (30 per cent, salt, 1,5 per cent.' Glauber salts and 68.5 per cent, boric acid). 8. Sanitdt, a brine f)reserving fluid containing in each liter 45 gm. boric acid, 8.5 gm. salt, 2.5 gm. ferrous gypsum and Glauber ' salts. 9. Three-fold preserving salt (93.5 per cent, boric acid, 5 per cent, saltpeter and 1.5 per cent, salt and Glauber salts). 10. Simply preserving salt (48 per cent, saltpeter, 50 per cent, boric acid, 1.5 salt, and 0.5 Glauber salts). 11. Ziffer's preserving salt (30 per cent, boric acid, 35 per cent, saltpeter, 33 per cent, salt and 2 per cent. Glauber salt). 12. Oppermann's cervelatwurst salt (77.5 per cent, salt, 13.5 per cent, saltpeter, 8.7 per cent, borates and 0.3 per cent, organic sub- stances). Furthermore, according to Polenske, the following should be mentioned in this connection : 13. DreseVs preserving or pickling salt (80 per cent, salt, 12 per cent, saltpeter, 8 per cent, borax). 14. Preserving salt for covering and packing American hams after removal from the pickling water (84 per cent, borax, 3 per cent, salt, 13 per cent, water). 15. Stare's "sausage salt," Stare's " conservator " Stare's "sani- tdt," for pickling, containing as their chief constituent boric acid (about 60 per cent.) and also saltpeter (12 to 14 per cent.), cane sugar (4 to 8 per cent.) and sodium salicylate (7.6 per cent). The conservator, which Stare claims will keep meat dry and fresh, was found to contain 32.3 per cent, borax and 42 per cent. salt. 16. Stern's three-fold preserving salt (80 per cent, borax, 17 per cent, boric acid and 3 per cent. salt). PEESEKTATION "WITH BjKIO ACID 811 17. Delventlial and Kiinzel's Berlinit, concentrated (7.46 per cent, salt, 9.8 per cent, boric acid, 45.75 per cent, borax, with 36.8 per cent, water of crystallization). Berlinit for pickling (45.92 per cent, salt, 32.2 per cent, saltpeter, 19.16 per cent, boric acid, 2.28 per cent, water). The following preservative agents also contain borax: viz., China preserving powder, Minerva (contains also sodium sulphate), Ohrtmann's Australian salt, Magdeburg preserving salt, Heydrich & Co.'s preserving salt. Experience Concerning the Preservative Effect of Boric Acid. — According to a statement of Lehmann, a 1 per cent, solution of boric acid has the effect of keeping meat for four to seven days longer than normal. Schiff highly recommends the method of Her- zen, according to which crude boric acid is dissolved in water with the addition of borax and a little salt and saltpeter, and poured upon the meat. The meat is then said to retain a perfectly fresh appearance. Koosen recommends boric acid in combination with tartaric acid and salt (about 3 parts of the mixture to 97 parts of water) for the preservation of fresh meat, and especially of salt water fish. Roosen claims for his method that it extends the mar- ket for salt water fish in the interior. The fish keep very well in casks. When, however, the fish are removed fiom the casks, they keep but a few days in an undecomposed condition. Demonsteation of Boric Acid in Meat. — According to Kam- merer, one may employ either the flame test or curcuma paper. For making the flame test, 10 gm. of the suspected meat are saturated with a soda solution and incinerated in a platinum or porcelain vessel. The incinerated mass is carefully neutralized with dilute sulphuric acid (1 : 10), 5 cc. of concentrated sulphuric acid, and 5 cc. of methyl alcohol are then added and the mixture is ignited. In the presence of boric acid, the flame exhibits the familiar emerald green color. Likewise, in making a test with curcuma paper, the. mixture is neutralized with sulphuric acid and the curcuma paper is dipped into the solution. If boric acid is present, the curcuma paper exhibits a brown or red color after drying and then moisten- ing with water. If the paper is then sprinkled with 10 to 12 per cent, potash lye, a green coloration appears if boric acid is present. The following method is prescribed, for demonstrating boric 812 PRESERTATION OF MEAT acid, by a decree of the Swiss Agricultural Department concerning the veterinary service along the frontier, December 5, 1898 : A piece of meat not smaller than a walnut, from which most of the fat has been removed, is finely mihced and shaken up iu a wide test tube together with 20 to ,30 cc. of water and a few drops of hydrochloric acid. It is then heated to the boiling point, during which part of the boric acid which is present passes over into the solution. A strip of curcuma paper is then dipped into the solu- , tion. If the paper appears red after drying in the air, borax was present in the sample of meat. Hafelin recommends the following method for the quantitative demonstration of boric acid in meat and sausages : 10 gm. of meat or sausage, as free as possible from fat, is finely minced and boiled for about one minute in a wide test tube together with a mixture of 2 cc glycerine, 4 cc. alcohol, 4 cc. of water and a few drops of hydrochloric acid (enough to give an acid reaction). The mixture is then filtered through a moist folded filter if fat is present. It is then tested with curcuma paper of known sensitiveness. The paper is dried by rapidly passing over the fiame of a Bunsen burner. If boric acid is present, a cherry-red or brown color appears, which must persist when the paper is sprinkled with water, but which passes into a bluish black when sprinkled with ammonia. Hafeliu calls attention to the fact that in case of the combinations mentioned by the Imperial Health Office, the flame reaction may lead to erro- neous conclusions, since the CH3CI or CjHjCl which is formed under certain circumstances, burns with a green color. The Effect op Boeic Acid on Man. — Liebreich is of the opinion- that fish treated with boric acid according to Roosen's method can not exercise any injurious efi'ect upon health. It is maintained that man can consume two to four grams of boric acid daily without any bad consequences. However, fish preserved according to Koosen's method contain only two grams of boric acid per kilogram, three-fourths of which may pass over into the water in boiling. Accordingly, so small a quantity remains in the meat of the fish that no injurious effect need be feared from daily consump- tion of the material. In opposition to the assumption of Liebreich, Amthor showed that the quantities of borax demonstrated by him in American dry pickled meat (page 803) are not completely removed even by wash- ing in water for eighteen hours. Heinze obtained the same results. Pieces of American dry pickled meat containing 1.16 per cent. PEESERVATION WITH SULPHUROUS ACID 813 boric acid were washed under tap water. They were then soaked in water for two and one-half to twelve hours and boiled for three and one-half hours. Heinze found that the meat was not com- -pletely free from boric acid even after soa'king for twelve hours, but still contained 0.93 per cent, of boric acid, while 0.28 per cent, was found in the bouillon. Emmerich considers the use of boric acid as a preservative as unallowable, since, according to his experiments, a dog was made very sick by eating two grams and a large rabbit was killed with four grams. On the basis of these experiments and other experi- ence, the Association of Bavarian Representatives of Applied Chem- istry declared that " the use of boric acid as au addition to foods and condiments is not an indifferent matter from a sanitary standpoint, according to the present knowledge of the subject." Likewise, the physiologist, Halliburton, and the sanitarian, Gruber, have argued against the admission of borax preparations and similar materials as preservatives. Moreover, Annett and Chit- tenden, as well as Gies, have experimentally demonstrated the harmful effect of borax and boric acid. Chittenden and Gies demonstrated that boric acid and borax produce indisposition and vomiting in experimental animals when the dose amounted to 1.5 to 2 per cent, of the daily ration. In accordance with this view, the Swiss Government has for- bidden the importation of American dry pickled meat and has also issued the following decree of March 19, 1897, concerning the intro- duction and sale of meat : " The use of borax preparations, salicylic acid, formalin, combi- nations of sulphurous acid and other cjiemical agents for the preser- vation of meat and meat products, with the exception of salt and saltpeter, is forbidden for all meat intended for sale and subject to inspection." 2.— Sulphurous Acid. Application. — For natural reasons, gaseous sulphurous acid is not used in the technique of meat preservation. On the other hand, the use of acid calcium sulphite and acid sodium and potassium sulphite is a common practice in the preservation of meat. As shown by Fischer in his Yearbooks, as much as 50 per cent, of the inspected samples of minced meat in Breslau have been treated with the salts of sulphurous acid. 814 pbeseevation of meat Tbade Pkepabations Which Contain Sulphurous Acid or Its Salts. — Venzko and Schorer have demonstrated sulphurous acid or its salts in the foUowiug preservatives which are found on the market : 1. 3Ieat preserve, consisting of an aqueous solution of calcium sulphite. One liter of the fluid contains 68 grams sulphurous acid and 18.5 grams lime. 2. Best Australian and New Zealand meat preserve (powder, con- sisting of sodium sulphite, 23 per cent.; salt, 40 per cent.; Glauber salt, 37 per cent.). The fluid which has been placed on the market under the same name consists of acid calcium sulphite (77 grams of sulphurous acid and 22.5 grams lime per liter). 3. Royal Australian meat preserve, consisting of sodium sulphite, 19 per cent.; Glauber salt, 79 per cent.; common salt, 2 per cent. 4. Sjzolith, consisting of 80 per cent. Glauber salt and 20 per cent, sodium sulphite. 5. Double concentrated sodium sulphite (fluid), containing 254 grams sodium bisulphite and 71 grams Glauber salt, per liter. 6. Meat preserve crystal (powder), consisting of 63 per cent, sodium sulphite, 6 per cent, salt and 41 per cent. Glauber salt. 7. Meat preserving crystal excelsior (powder), consisting of crys- talline sodium sulphite, 85 per cent., and Glauber salt, 15 per cent. 8. Carnat (powder), consisting of 43 per cent, salt, 25 per cent, sodium sulphite, 27 per cent. Glauber salt, 5 per cent, sugar. 9. Meat conserve fluid, containing 38.7 grams sulphurous acid and 16.2 grams lime per liter. It, accordingly, consists of bisul- phide acid calcium sulphite. According to analyses made by Polenske in the Imperial Health Office, the following preservatives also belong to this group: 10. Odorless meat preserve fluid, consisting of 22 parts common salt, 73 parts Glauber salt, 171 parts sodium sulphite, 34 parts sulphurous acid and 0.15 parts vanillin per liter of water. 11. Meat preserve powder, consisting of sodium hyposulphite^ which is in large part oxidized to sodium sulphite. 12. Newest meat preserve powder, consisting of sodium hyposul- phite, one-half of which is oxidized into sodium sulphate. 13. Chromosot, consisting of coloring material which does not belong to the analin dyes, and also sodium sulphite, sodium sul- phate and albumen. 14. Adamczyk's " Prohat " (47.5 per cent, sodium sulphite, 11 per cent, sodium sulphate, 10.5 per cent, common salt, 4.5 per cent, sugar). PEE8EEVATI0N WITH SULPHUROUS ACID 815 15. Preserving salt of Langhein & Co. (80 per cent, crystallized sodium sulphite, 20 per cent, crystallized sodium sulphate, with a small percentage of soda). Finally, salts of sulphurous acid are contained in " treuenit," manufactured by the druggist Wolf iuTreuen; "Universal Preserv- ing Fluid," made by Druggists Volz and Oehme ; Stuttgart Conserve Salt, and in " German Meat "Water." In an extensive series of analyses made in Niirnberg, 29 per cent, of the samples examined contained the salts of sulphurous acid, and in a similar test of samples in Dresden 52 per cent, con- tained these salts. Presebtative Effect. — According to Baierlach^r, sulphurous acid operates most vigorously on yeasts. It also prevents the for- mation of mold and delays the process of decomposition, without, however, preventing it entirely. Schmidt-Miilheim recommended calcium sulphite on the basis of his experiments for preserving raw minced meat. If from 30 to 40 cc. of a saturated solution is poured upon 10 kg. of minced raw beef, the ])enetrating odor of sulphurous acid rapidly disappears, for the reason that it is oxidized in the meat. It is claimed also that in boiling and roasting such meat, no odor of sulphurous acid is apparent. The keeping property of the meat is said to be greatly increased. After exposure to the air for a long time the meat possesses the appearance of a perfectly fresh color, and even after standing for days at a living temperature exhibits no evidence of decomposition. On the other hand, the development of molds was not prevented in all cases. These statements were subsequently found to.be not strictly correct. It appears that sulphurous acid is a good preservative for the muscle pigment, but not for the meat itself. Detection op the Addition op Sulphurous Acid and its Salts. — Under a microscopic examination of meat which has been treated with sodium or calcium sulphite, the presence of Glauber salt or gypsum crystals becomes manifest in consequence of the partial oxidation of sulphurous acid in the meat. Eammerer recommends a method of demonstration by means of potassium iodate paper. Samples of meat are laid on potassium iodate paper and moist- ened with sulphuric acid free from nitric oxide (1:8). In the pres- ence even of small quantities of sulphurous acid, a pronounced blue co^or immediately appears in the paper. If the meat has not been 816 PEESEBTATION OF MEAT treated with sulphurous acid, there is either none or only a slight blue color, and that not until some time after. The latter case occurs when the meat is not quite fresh. The color change which appears in such cases, however, can scarcely be mistaken for the instantaneous blue coloration caused by the presence of sulphites. Kammerer notes, furthermore, that many samples treated only with dilute sulphuric acid give off immediately the odor of sulphur- ous acid. Salted meat can not be tested with potassium iodate paper and sulphuric acid, since the hydrochloric acid which is set free after the addition of sulphuric acid is immediately decomposed in con- tact with the iodic acid. Similarly, meat products treated with saltpeter can not be tested according to the method of Kammerer, since in this case the nitrites immediately produce a pronounced blue color. Judgment op the Addition of Sulphurous Acid to Meat. — Since each pound of meat requires only one-fifth giam of sulphur- ous acid and one-fifteenth gram of lime, there can not exist, according to Schmidt, any possibility of an injurious effect from so slight an addition of calcium sulphite to meat. Nevertheless, the addition of " meat preserve " to minced or chipped meat should be forbidden ; for, in the first place, such an addition is not expected by the consumers. In buying minced meat in ordinary trade, it is assumed that it is pure meat without the addition of chemical agents. In the second place, the amount of the addition can not be controlled in individual cases, and, con- sequently, in a careless application it may occur that poisonous quantities of the preservative are added to the meat. In samples of minced meat, taken under police supervision, 0.5, .85, and 1.4 per cent, of the salts of sulphurous acid were frequently demon- strated, and in one case (Koln) as much as 2.24 per cent. In some cases Kammerer found minced meat thickly covered with preserv- ing salt, ostensibly for the purpose of keeping flies away from the meat. Moreover, even in the case of the addition of ordinary quan- tities, injurious amounts may be present in certain parts as a result of an unequal distribution. It is thus a fact of great importance that the salts of sulphurous acid do not commonly hinder the process of decomposition, but merely obscure it (compare the observation of Mobius). It should also be remembered that the addition in question is calculated to deceive the buyer concerning the true character of the meat, for this addition gives inferior meat a PBESEEVATION WITH SULPHUKOUS ACID 817 better appearance, renders possible a fraudulent addition of water, and also makes it possible to sell old minced meat as fresli material. Moreover, it is not at all desirable that minced meat should be capable of preservation for a long time. Minced meat should be prepared only for immediate use, since, in contrast with meat which is not minced, it possesses a striking tendency to decomposition (compare "Minced Meat Poisoning"). Finally, attention should be called to the fact that the use of preservatives which contain sulphurous acid or its salts is not to the interest of tradesmen. For, according to Schorer, sulphurous acid frequently becomes changed into sulphuretted hydrogen and the meat thus acquires the familiar odor of rotten eggs and becomes absolutely unsaleable. According to a report of the Saxon District Veterinarian, Mqbius, several persons, adults and children, became ill after eat- ing minced meat sprinkled with meat preserve. The symptoms were loss of appetite, vomiting, internal pains and diarrhea. A microscopic examination of the minced meat in question showed that the transverse striation of the musculature was still retained. Bacteria, micrococci, triple phosphate and gypsum crystals were present. The presence of triple phosphate crystals, demonstrated by Mbbius in the poisonous minced meat, shoys that decomposition may take place in meat in spite of the preserving fluid. L. Pfeiffer, in Munich, collected the statements contained in literature concerning the toxic effect of sulphurous acid upon man (compare Lehmann). These statements varied greatly. Polli found 8 to 12 grams of the salts of the sulphurous acid to be harm- less for adults, and other authors found 1.8 grams per day of these salts to be without effect upon children, while, according to Ber- natzik and Braun, doses of even one gram magnesium sulphite with 0.3 gram sulphurous acid were not well endured by women in child- birth (vomiting and diarrhea). On the other hand, one-third of these patients who received 3.75 grams sodium sulphite (with 2.28 grams SOJ and two- thirds of those who received 3.75 grams potas- sium sulphite (with 1.98 grams SOJ, showed no bad effects of the treatment. The other women showed digestive disturbances. Kionka found that a young dog which during a period of five days had received 90 grams of the preserving salt of Heydrich 33 in the upper room, while the conical bottom projects into the lower room. After the fluid has settled, the " soup " is drawn off through a cock in the bot- tom and the fat remaining behind is boiled with water. After the fiit has been purified in this manner, it is drawn off into vessels and thus furnishes a finished trade product, utilizable for techni- cal purposes. The steam obtained by blowing off the destructors and from boiling the meat is conducted into a worm in a recep- tacle filled with water. The steam is thus condensed and the fluid is carried off i:ito the sewer. By this moans warm water is obtained for bathing, washing and filling the vessels, and at the same time bad odors from the boiling processes are avoided. 3. The Method op Podewils. — This method, which has been in practical use for 18 years in Augsbnrg, consists of cutting up the animal carcasses into large pieces and placing them in a heated rotating drum. This drum operates as a high-pressure steamer, drying apparatus and pulverizing machine. The parts of carcasses are steamed under a pressure of 5 to 6 atmospheres (corresponding to a temperature of 150° to 160° C), and after the fat has been drawn off, together with the so-called gelatin broth, it is dried by steam heat and simultaneously pulverized. The extraction of the fat from the carcasses is promoted by washing the cadaveric mass after a period of 2 hours' steaming by means of hot gelatin broth obtained from a previous operation of the apparatus, and this process is con- tinued until the whole apparatus is filled up to the level of the manhole. By means of a valve located near the manhole and a connecting pipe, the fat is then forced out of the apparatus in a pure condition. After the separation of the fat, the gelatin broth is also dried. The whole process takes place without contact with the air and the fumes which are developed are condensed in water, while the gases which can not be condensed are passed under fire. The part.:? of carcasses introduced into the apparatus leave it in the form of a pulverizable, dry animal meal. The advantages of tliis method, according to a statement of the inventor, consist (1) in the complete absence of odors ; (2) in a favorable action of the rotation of the drum upon the commi- nution and desiccation of the material ; and (3) in the simultane- 860 BOILING, STEAM STERILISATION, ETC. ous desiccation of the so-called gelatine water, whereby all dangev associated with the fluid is avoided. The method of Podewils has been introduced into the abattoirs at Barmen, Kattowitz and Beuthen in Silesia, and Aarhus and Odense in Denmark. It has also been utilized for a long time n • Fig. 359. Podewils' apparatus for reducing carcasses. various knackers' establishments (Augsburg, Munich, Graz, Ham- burg, Friedberg in Hessen, Dresden, Cannstatt, Hatzfeld, near Bar» men, and Lausanne in Switzerland. Profit from the Application op Podewils' Method. — In judg« ing the profit to be derived from the application of Podewils' method for the treatment of carcasses, the following table, published by VoUers, may be of interest : DISPOSAL OF MEAT 861 Pee- tilizer Obtained 4^ t-t-!OQ0t-i.-«)t--5O5Ot-S>«300« o O t^" OlOOiOOOlOOOOOlOOOO i-l-iH«rHi-lTHrtr-(T-l(Kl,-iso(MSoCDSM-<* ct" «* o* c^ cT «* crT «" oif ©T «' c, 1 lOOo.oooi Sheep Lambs Goats Kids t^ ^ 1 1 1 1 ^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 m 1^ 4 Sllllll|llll|S| 1 ^ oooooo ooo o-ooo oc>ioo»co ooo ooow o^oo^oscq^^ 1 ioo^iq^ I ur^ooo^cj^ T-^(^fr-^ tH 1-1 lyfrH" i-T r-Tr-T Horses and Colts t^^ oooiniooino I loooojo 00-^O300«DQ0COOS 1 l0'<*50a503 T-T of 862 BOILING, STEAM STERILIZATION, ETC. The price obtained for the fat is 40 lo 42 marks per double centner, and for the fertilizer 11 to 12 marks. I:i 1894, a total of 509,565 kg. of raw material was utilized. The profit amounted to 53,350 kg., or 9.04 per cent, fat, with a value of about 23,474 marks, and 139,456 kg., or 24.5 per cent, of the mass in fertilizer, with a value of 16,734 marks. The fat obtained by Pode- wils' method, as in all other methods, naturally varies according to the fat content of the material used. Fig. 360. Kafill disinfeutor. 4. De la Cboix's System, named for the Veteeinarian db la Croix, Director of the Abattoir in Antwerp. — The apparatus constructed by this veterinarian has been introduced also in Ger- many through the efforts of Lydtin and is now manufactured by the firm of Rietschel & Henneberg in Berlin under the name "Kafi-.lDisinfector." The apparatus consists of three cylinders (Fig. 260). The Lugest cylinder or disinfector proper (the first cylinder on the left DISPOSAL OF MEAT 863 in the figure) is furnished with a steam chest ; that is, it is con- structed with double walls and possesses at the top an easily remov- able cover for introducing the carcasses, etc. The second cylinder is a receiver, in which all of the fluid portions, fat and gelatin broth extracted from the carcasses are collected, while the third and smallest cylinder serves as a condenser for the fumes and gases which are drawn off from the other cylinders. The sterilizer is con- nected with a steam boiler by means of a special pipe and is heated by one pipe from the steam boiler, while another pipe leads to the inside of the sterilizer by means of three branches which maj be closed with valves. Other pipes furnished with valves branch off from the highest and lowest point of the disinfector. They unite and pass to the receiver in the form of curved pipe. The connection of the latter with the condenser consists in a transfer pipe which can not be closed, the end of which is bent in the form of a semicircle, is per- forated with small holes and penetrates into the water in the con- denser. From the upper end of the condenser, a pipe which is kept constantly open leads to the fire box. The remainder of the construction of the receiver and con- denser is alike. It consists of sprays, gauges, stop cocks and dis- charge valves. Moreover, the receiver is provided with special stop cocks. After the apparatus is filled in the proper manner, the cover is closed steam-tight and the apparatus is heated by opening a valve in the steam chest. The dry heat in the interior of the dis- iufector is thus communicated to the layers of meat, so that the steam which operates on them later finds a material which is already hot and produces its fall effect without condensing. After this preliminary warming process has been carried on for thirty minutes, the true disinfection process is begun by introducing steam into the disinfection cylinder. The steam is now under the full pressure of the steam boiler and the material in the disinfector is subjected to the action of the steam for six to twelve hours. 5. Haktmann's Exteactiox Appaeatus. — This apparatus for the destruction of carcasses is constructed like the KafiU Disinfector. This new apparatus, like the Kafill Disinfector, consists of three vessels connected with one another by pipes ; viz.: (1) a vertical sterilizer which serves at the same time as a fat extractor; (2) a liorizoutal cylinder for the reception and evaporation of the gelatin 864 BOILING, STEAM STERILIZATION, ETC. water ; (3) a rectangular wrought-iron condenser for receiving the fumes from the other two vessels. Furthermore, the structure consists of a drying apparatus with rotating catchers and two steam-heated iron shoulders, as well as a Gruson Excelsior Mill. While in the KafiU Disinfector destruction is brought about by direct steam from the boiler after the preliminary heating of the meat, the material in Hartmann's apparatus is steamed in its own water, as in an autoclave, for the purpose of saving expense. It was found, however, that steaming the material in its own water required a longer time, and was, therefore, more expensive than steaming with direct steam from, the boiler. For this reason Hart- mann has abandoned his new method and boils the material with direct steaming during the first half of the boiling period. The time required by this method, which, like that of the Kafill Disinfector, is odorless, is, according to Colberg, from 6 to 8 hours. After the process is ended, the clarified fat may be completely drawn off from the first cylinder. The gelatin water in the second cylinder is then steamed until a thick fluid mass remains. The steaming process lasts " several hours " and takes place during sterilization and also during the drying and pulverization of the residue of the meat and bones. According to a statement of the manufacturer, Hartmann's destroying apparatus has been introduced into 12 institutions dur- ing the last two years (1900-1901). The dry fertilizer powder amounts to about 12 per cent, of the raw material. The fat obtained in 24 experiments amounted to only 5.3 per cent., but, according to Colberg, may be estimated at 8 per cent, on an average. The amount of gelatin obtained was also 8 per cent. In Magdeburg, 36 marks was the price paid for fat per double centner and 11 marks for the gelatin. The value of a double centner of fertilizer was estimated at 8.5 marks. 6. Otte's Apparatus. — This apparatus is said to accomplish steaming, drying and pulverizing in one apparatus, as in Podewils' method. The whole apparatus consists, likewise, of three vessels, a disinfector, receiver and gelatin steamer. A simple digestor is also used as an accessory apparatus for receiving whole carcasses. The most important part of the apparatus, the disinfector, is a double walled stationary cylinder, within which a perforated drum revolves which serves to receive dissected carcasses, parts of meat and other animal waste products. Inside the mantle of the station- CONCLUDING REMARKS 865 axy cylinder are peculiarly arranged shovels and brushes, which, by constant motion and turning, hasten the desiccation of the animal meal and serve to empty the apparatus completely after the desicca- tion is accomplished. In order to operate the apparatus, the mantle of the cylinder is first heated by steam under a pressure of from 4 to 6 atmospheres and the drum is turned. After a short time the steam is admitted into the interior of the cylinder, whereby the cooking process is begun. In the meantime the revolution of the cylinder is continued for about one hour. The drum is then allowed to remain quiet until the extraction of the fat and gelatin is completed, after about 3 hours. The fluids which drip through the perforated drum are forced into the receiver. As soon as the dripping ceases, the outer mantle of the cylinder is heated for the purpose of drying the extracted cadaveric masses. The perforated drum is also moved backward and forward. It is said that after about five hours the whole contents of the drum become dry and may be ground through the perforations by means of edge rollers. It should also be noted that there is a steaming vessel in use for the technical utilization of confiscated meat in the abattoir at Zwickau, and Kohrbeck and Budenberg recommended their disin- fectors also for the harmless destruction of animal carcasses. Concluding Remarks. Veterinarians will deserve the great gratitude of stock raisers if they earnestly strive to introduce devices everywhere, but chiefly in abattoirs, whereby not only a certain destruction of whole animals and parts excluded from consumption, but also an advan- tageous technical utilization of this material may be accomplished. By this m'eans a considerable portion of the national wealth will be saved instead of wasted and the great loss which agriculture suffers through the condemnation of whole animals or parts of animals will be diminished. Appendix. Enforcement of Section 21 of the Imperial Meat Inspec- tion Law. By an Imperial decree of February 16, 1902, it was ordered that Section 21 of the Meat Inspection Law should go into force October 866 BOILING, STEAM STERILIZATION, ETC. 1, 1902. This pfaragraph forbids the utilization of materials and also methods of procedure in the commercial preparation of meat, which maj lend the prodiTcta an injurious property or which are calculated to conceal harmful or inferior quality. In the proclama- tion of the Imperial Chancellor of February 18, 1902, the materials the utilization of which is forbidden from and after October 1, 1902, are named. The decree of February 16, 1902, with regard to the partial enforcement of the law concerning the inspection of food animals and meat of June 3, 1900 : ' We, Wilhelm, by grace of God German Emperor, King of Prussia, etc., in the name of the Emperor and with the consent of the Federal Council, decree on the basis of Section 30, line 3, of the law concerning the inspection of food animals and meat, of June 3, 1900, the following : Section 21 of the law concerning the inspection of food animals and meat of June 3, 1900, shall go into force October 1, 1903. Simultaneously, the provisions of Section 36, No. 1, Section 27, No. 1., and Sections 38 and 29, shall go into force so far as they concern violations of Section 21, paragraphs 1 and 2, of a prohibition issued on the basis of Section 21, paragraph 3. Wilhelm, Coimt von Posadowsky. The proclamation of the Imperial Chancellor reads as follows : Proclamation concerning injurious and deceptive additions to meat and its products, February 18, 1902. On the basis of Section 21 of the law concerning the inspection of food animals and meat of June 3, 1900, the Federal Council has rendered the following decisions : The provisions of Section 21, paragraph 1, of the law apply to the following materials, as well as to preparations containing such materials : Boric acid and its salts ; formaldehyde ; hydroxidsand carbonates of alkalies and alkaline earths; sulphurous acid and its salts as well as hyposulphites; fluoric acid and its salts ; salicylic acid and its combinations ; salts of hydro- chloric acid. This applies also to coloring materials of all kinds, except that it shall not be construed to mean the prohibition of the utilization of a yellow coloration of oleomargarine and the coloration of sausage casings in so far as this utilization does not violate other provisions. CoTJNT VON Posadowsky, Berlin, February 18, 1903. INDEX Abattoir; see Slaughterhouses. — veterinarians, appointment of, 54. Abdominal glands, 183. Abnormal physiological conditions, 237. Accidents, 741. Achlya nowicki, 707. — prolifera, 707. Acid fermentation, 745. in game, 746. Actinomyces bovis, 343, 654. Actinomycomata, 656. Actinomycosis, 275. — general account, 654-663, — of the muscles, 366. — of the tongue, 276. — in the horse, 660. — in sheep, 660. — in man, 660. Adenoma of liver, 297, Adipose tissue, abnormal coloration of; see also Fat, 345. — appearance of, 184, 303. Adulteration, 103. — of sausage with flour, 770. — with other material, 782. — Gei-man law concerning, 783. Agamodistomum, 404. Age, criteria for judging, 331, 236. — of cattle, 233. — deer, 235. — ducks, 338. — fowls, 337. — geese, 237. — hens, 227. — horses, 331. — partridges, 238. — pheasants, 338. — pigeons, 228. — sheep, 234. — slaughtered animals, determina- tion of, 331. Age of swine, 335. — turkeys, 337. Air bladder mesentery, 389. Air expansion machines, 833. " Albumina," mixed with sausage, 780. Alcohol as a preventive of meat pois- oning, 714, 717. Alimentary canal, normal appearance of, 168. Alkalimeter, 800. " Alkermessaft " for coloring meat, 787. Allantiasis, 758. Ammonium acetate, 830. Ampldstomum conicum, 281, 898. Amyloid degeneration, 257. Amylum, demonstration of, 777. Anasarca, 273. Anchylostomum bovis, 383, 383. — longemuoronatum, 410. Anderson, Zimmermann and Aoclom system of refrigerator cars, 830. Anemia, 367. Angiomatosis of the liver, 391, Anguillula aceti, 477. Animal meal, 858. Anoplocephala mamillana, 281, 395. — perfoUata, 281, 395. — plicata, 281, 395. Anthrax, 577-585. — bacilli, capsules of, 579, resistance to high temperature, 584. — bacillus and cadaver bacillus, dif- ferentiated, 580. — differential diagnosis, 583. — procedure with meat in cases of, 583. Antigrisein, 830. Antisepsis, importance of, 548. Aphthous fever, 586. 867 868 INDEX Apiosowa higcnii:niT,i, iJCj. Arsenic, 380. Asafetida, odor of in meat, 384. Ascaris capsularis, 407. — lumbricoides, 281, 406. — megalocephala, 281, 406. Aspergillosis, 326. Aspergillus fumigatus, 326. — niger, 336. Aspiration of blood, 331. — of stomach contents, 330. — pneumonia, 324. Atelectasis, 330. Atrophy, 251. Australian meat preserve, 814. Austria-Hungary, meat inspection in, 30. Autointoxication, 379, 38ri. Avian diphtheria, 705. — tuberculosis, Gol. Axillary glands, 170. Azo-djcs for coloring meat, 787. Azoturia ; see Ischuria. Bacillus anthrncis, 578. — botulinus, 761, 702. — bovis morbijicans, 732. — — revalis, 307, 559. — celluldeformans, 752. — chauvmi, 675. — eoli communis, 682, 731, 738, 734. — crassus bovis, 559. pyogenes bovis, 559. — cyanogenes, 748. — enteritidis, 314, 315, 739, 730, 731, 733, 752. — fcetidus lactis, 682. — gastromycosis avis, 678. — hemorrhagicus, 574. — liquefaciens pyogenes bovis, 559. — mallei, 595. — m,esentericus, 749, 752. — neapolitanus, Q82. — prodigiosus, 7-18. — proteus vulgaris, 752, — pseudo-tuberculosis, 653. — pyocyaneus, 307. — pyogenes bovis, 559. fcetidus, 559. — stibtilis, 835. — suipestifcr, 697. — suisepticMs, 694. Bacillus tetani, 576. — tuberculosis, 607. avium, 651. Backsteinblattern, 691. Baconj black coloration of, 254. — pigmentation of, 269. — German and American, 320. Bacteria, chemism of, 551. — demonstration ia meat, 740. — on meat, 748. — resistance to heat, 551 . Bacteriology and meat inspection, 548. Bacterium coli; see Bacillus coli, Balbiania gigantea, 532. Balbiauidse, 533. Barbone disease, 674. Barmenit, 810. Barrovrs, 232. Beech chips for producing smoke, 807. Beech nuts, effect on bacon, 187. Beef bladder vcorm, 419. — usual location of, 427. Beef, character of, 300. — bones, 204. — classification of, 148. — fat, 203. Belgium, meat inspection in, 30, 33. Berlinit, 811. Bierwurst, 773. Bile ducts, inflammation of, 297. Bilharzia crassa, 405. Biliary peritonitis, 287. "Blackberry red," 787. Blackleg, 674-677. — bacillus, 675. — diagnosis, 676. • — symptoms, 675. Bladder, diseases of, 309. — inspection of, 158. — worms, 419. Bleeding, defective, 742. — normal, 131. — obtained by different methods of slaughter, 138. Bloating, 741. Blood, anomalies of, 367. — aspiration, 331. — bread, 168. ' '■ Blood color," for coloring meat, 787. Blood, normal appearance of, 167. — food, value of, 168. — quantity of, 131, 139. INDEX 869 Blood sausage, 773. — spot disease, 574. — vessels, diseases of, 341. Bloody urine, 537. Blunzen, poisoning from, 759. Boars, cryptorchid and castrated, odor of meat of, 347. Boiling meat, 841. Boiling, effect of high temperatures upon dangerous meat, 841. — effect of high temperatures upon parasites, 841. — effect of high temperatures upon toxins, 843. — effect on weight and composition of meat, 846. Bolt hammer, 138. Bones, actinomycosis of, 358. — diseases of, 350. — aormal appearance of, 176. — tuberculosis of, 351. — weight of, 177. Boophilus boi'is, 536. Borax, use in pickling meat, 803. Boric acid, application in preserva- tion of meat, 809. — demonstration in meat, 811. — effect on man, 813. — in trade preparations, 810. — preservative effect of, 811. Boroglycin, 810. Bothriocephalus lotus, 418. Botryomyces, 663. Botryomycosis, 663-665. — of the muscles, 366. — of the udder, 316. Botulism, 758. — bacteriology, 761. — occurrence, 759. — etiology, 760. — mortality, 763. — pathology, 763. — prophylaxis, 764. Braasot; see Braxy. Brain, diseases of, 348. Bratwurst, 773. Braxy, 677-679. Breslau bacillus, 733. Brilliant-berolina in sausage, detec. tion of, 789. Brine, composition of, 803. — effect on microorganisms, 803. Brine for preserving meat, 800. . — syringes, 800. Bronchial glands, 188. Broncho-pneumonia of calves, 670. Brown coloration of skeleton, 353. Bruhwurst, 773, 773. — water content of, 774. — starch in the preparation of, 774. — flour in the preparation of, 775, 779, Buck sheep, odor of meat of, 348. Budenberg disinfector, 853. Buffalo meat, 300. — bones, 304. — plague, 674. — skeleton, 305. BuUs, odor of meat of, 348. Burning condemned meat, 856. Butchering, art of, 133. Butchers' jelly, 391. Cachexia, 369. Cadaver bacilli, 575, 580. Cadaverin, 553. Calcareous concretions, 539-546. — deposits, 354. — fibrous tubercles in liver, 399. Calcification of peritoneum, 885, Calf diphtheria, 679. — dysentery, 681. " Calf feet," 778. Calves, inspection of, 159. Camphor, odor of in meat, 384. Canned meat, 838. — injurious decomposition of, 756. — introduction of, 85. — judgment on, 833. Carcass, treated in digesters, 857, — utilization of, 40. Carceag, 537. Carcinoma, 865. Carmin for coloring meat, 787. — detection of, 789. " Carmin substitute " in meat, detec- tion of, 789. Camat, 814. Came pura, 833. Carrion, 744. Caseous lymphadenitis, 653. Casting apparatus, 140. Castration of female animals, 333. Cat, skeleton of, 308. Cattle inspection, 157. 870 INDEX Cattle ticks, 536. Caviar, adulteration of, 783. — American, 783. — Elbe, 783. — Russian, 783. Cephenomyia ruflbarbis in pharynx of stag, 279. — stimulator in pbarynx of roebuck, 279. — trompe in pharynx of reindeer, 279. Cerebrospinal meningitis, 348. Cervelatwurst, 772. Cervical glands, 179. Cestodes, 394. Charque, 833. — duloe, 823. Cheiracanthus hispidus; see Gfnatho- stomum hispidum. Chemical preservatives, 800. prohibition of use of, 866. — utilization of condemned meat, 856. ChemismoE bacteria, 551. Chemistry of the musculature, 196. Chicken pox, 524. Chlorin flavor of meat, 747. Cholemia, 375. Cholin, 553. Chromosot, 814. Circulatory disturbances, 258, 336. Cirrhosis of the liver, 292. Clam poisoning, 767. nature of, 768. recognition of , 768. Classification of beef, 148, in Berlin, 150. in Vienna, 150. in Paris, 149. in London, 148. • — of food animals, 234. mutton, 151, pork, 151. veal, 151. " Clean " animals, 10. Cloudy swelling, 255, Clump liver, 291. Cocci, 549. Coooidia, 521. — in rabbit liver, 521. hog liver, 522. sheep intestines, 524 Cocaidium fuscum, 272. Coccidium oviforme, 272, 309, 521. — perforans, 523. — tenellum, 523. Cochineal for coloring meat, 787. — detection of, 788. Coenurus cerebralis, 348, 395. — serialis, 395. Cold air machines, 833. Cold as a preservative, 824. " Cold butchering," 113, 132. Cold, effect of on putrefactive bac- teria, 825. — effect of on pathogenic bacteria, 825. — for preserving meat, sources of, 828. — cars, 830. .— storage, Fixary system, 836. plants, necessity and value of, 839. with artificial contrivances, 832. with ice, 828-. value of, 830. various systems of, 830. position and structure of, 836 — vapor machines, 883. with circulating salt solu- tion, 833. Coloring fish gills, 102. — material, kinds of, 787. directions for detecting, 790. — matters, prohibition of use of, 886. — meat, 786. purpose, 786. — sausages, judgment of, 791 . — Imperial Health Office, position of, 793. Colpitis, pernicious, 313. Compression machines, 833. Condemnation of meat, 84, 115, 155. Condemned meat, harmless methods ot disposal, 854. Cooking meat, 841. Cooking, effect on weight and com- position of meat, 846. Cooling meat, 826. Copenhagen method of destruction, 858. Copper in oysters, 769. Corallin for coloring sausage casings, 787. INDEX 871 Com, effect on bacon, 187. Corned beef, 831. Corned brown, 821. — mutton, 821. Cotton seed oil in lard, 782. Courtoy and Cor«mans' method for demonstrating horse meat, 216. Cow pox, 591. Crangon vulgaris, 784. Crab plague, 708. Crayfish plague, 708. — spot disease, 708. Crustacea as food, 125. — poisoning, 766. Cryptogenetic pyemia, 563. Cryptorohids, 232. Curcuma paper for demonstrating boric acid, 811. Customs, inland, 86. — officials, 86. Cutis, erythrisms of, 268. — solutions of continuity, 268. Cysticeroi, calcified, 543. — degeneration of, 433. — in sausages, demonstration of, 430. — methods of killing, 434r-438. by acids, 438. — — by freezing, 437. by heat, 434. long preservation, 437. pickling, 435. — unusual findings of, 428. Cysticercus bovis in the liver, 298. in the lung, 828. in the heart, 341. in the brain, 348. general account, 419. — cellulosoR, 8. caseation and calcification, 446. infestation by, 447. location of, 448. in the liver, 298. in the lung, 328. in the heart, 341. in the lymph glands, 346. in the brain, 348. general account, 442-453. — disease in man, 8, 452. — inermis; see Cysticercus borns. — ovis, 417. — pisiformin, 398. — tenuieollis, 9. Cysticercus tenuieollis in the liver, 298. in the lung, 828. ' in the peritoneum, 291. general account, 395, 450. Cystitis, 309. Cytodites nudus, 273, 335. Davainea tetragona, 283, 395. Death, natural, 743. diagnosis and judgment of meat in, 743. Deception in labels, 100. Decomposing meat, alkaline reaction of, 755. Decomposition, demonstration of, 754. in canned meat, 756. — judgment of, 757. — of meat, 751. influence of air on, 753. partial, 753. — toxins, 754. isolation of, 754. Deer, skeleton of, 207. Degenerations, 254. De la Croix system for treating car- casses, 862. Demodex phylloides suis, 890. Denmark, meat inspection in, 31. Deposits of lime, 254. — of pigment, 252. Diamond sMn disease, 691. Differentiation of meat and organs of dififerenl animals, 166. Digesters for treatment of carcasses, 857. Diphtheria of calves, 679. — relation to human diphtheria, 681. — of fowls, 705-707. Dipterous larvae, 390. Dipylidium caniuum, 395. Discomyues equi, 662. Diseases, most important, 128. Dispharagus unainatus, 407. Dissolutions of continuity, 251. Distomatosis, 401. Distomes, development of, 403. Distomum hepaticum, 328, 399. — lanceolatum, 403. — magnum, 405. — pancreaticum in pancreas, 300, 405. Dog, bones, of, 207. — fat of, 303. 872 INDEX Dog, skeleton of, 207. Dogs slaughtered for food, 125. Double liver, 291. Double-loin calves, 201. Dourine, 538. Drepanidotcenia lanceolata, 394. — setigera, 394. Dresel's preserving salt, 810. Dressed weight, 188. rules for determining, 190. Dried meat, 833. Dropsy, cellular, 370. Drugs, odorific, effect on meat, 384. Dry pickled beef, 803. DyestufEs in meat, demonstration of, 787. Dysenteria hemorrhagica coccidiosa, 523. Dysentery of calves, 681-688. Ecchymoses, 258. Ecchinooocci in the myocardium, 340. — in the liver, 298. — in the lymph glands, 346. — general account, 501. — calcification of, 544. — death of, 508. MJchinoGocciis alveolaris, 508. — cysticus fertilis, 504. sterilis, 504. — disease in man, 9, 499. — granulosus, 504. — hydatidosus, 504. — midtilocularis, 386, 501, 508. in man, 510. — polymorphus, 501, 503, 505. — unilocidaris, 503. Echinorynchus gigas, 406. Eckhart's preserving salt, 810. Edema, 273. — bacillus, 574. — malignant, 574. Egyptian meat regulations, iO. Electricity as an aid in pickling, 801. Emaciation, differentiation from poorness, 343. — judgment on, 244. Emergency slaughter, 63, 73, 710. percentage of injurious meat from, 711. difBculty in judging meat from, 735. Emergency slaughter, bacteriological study of meat in oases of, 739. Emphysema, 320. — mesenterial, 288. Endocarditis, 338. — bacterial, 568, 698. Endocardium, diseases of, 337. England, meat inspection in, 31. English patent method of slaughter- ing, 130. Enteritis, hemorrhagic, of calves, 571. — infectious, 712. Entozoa and inspection, statistics of, 8. — in intestines, 381. — in the lungs, 329, 599. Eosin for coloring meat, 787. Epicardium, diseases of, 386. Epithelioma contagiosum of fowls, 524. Erysipelas of swine, 683. Eserin, 381. Esophagus, diseases of, 279. Esox lueitis, 418. Ether, odor of in meat, 884. Eustrongylus gigas, 309, 407. Expansion machines, 833. Extractives of meat, 196. Farcy; see Glanders. Fasciola; see Distomum. Fat, anatomy and physiology of, 186. — decomposition of, 749. — importance of, 188. — influence of feed on, 187. — ■ normal appearance of, 184, 303. Fatness, means of judging, 186. Fats, differentiation of, 202. Fattened condition, 185. Fatty abscesses, 357. — degeneration, S55. — infiltration, 256. — metamorphosis, 185, 256. — necrosis, multiple, 288. Feeding, influence on fat, 187. — — meat, 195. odor of meat, 245. Feijaoada, 823. Fenugreek, influence on odor of meat, 246. Fermentation of meat, 745. Fertilizer factories, 42. Fetuses, meat of, 241. INDEX 873 Fetuses, judgment on, 343. Fibrillar rupture of muscles, 356. Filaria hemorrhagica, 407. — immitis, 407. — megastoma, 381, 407. — microstoma, 281, 407. — papulosa, 291. — pectinifera, 407. — scutata esophagea bovis in esopha- gus of cattle and sheep, 279, 407. — strongylina, 281, 407. — uneinata; see Dispharagus un- cinatus. Fir chips for producing smoke, 807. Fish, 135. ,— decomposition of, 766. detection of, 766. — diseases, 525, 707. — influence of as feed for animals,245. " Fish meat " degeneration, 257, 358. — parasites, 398, 418, 525. — poisoning, 766. — pox, 525. Fishy meat, 245, 247. Flaxseed, influence on the odor of pigeon meat, 247. Flour, adulteration of sausage, 770. — in sausage, judgment on, 779. legal considerations, 779. Flukes, 398. — in muscles, 404. Fluorin sodium silicate, 820. Food animals, 132. Foot-and-mouth disease, 121, 586. — diagnosis, 589. — sequelas of, 590. — virus of, 587. Formalin, 830. Fowl cholera, 672, 703, 705. — plagues, 703, 707. Fowls, inspection of, 87. Fractures, 351. France, meat laws in, 29, 30. Freezing meat, 836. Freibanks, 28, 46. — history of, 49. — distribution in Germany, 49, Frozen meat as army ration, 836. Fuchflia for coloring meat, 787. detection of, 788. Galactococcus alius, 315. Galactococcus flavus, 315. — vei-sieolor, 315. Game, inspection of, 87. Gastroenteritis, 279. Qastrophilus in pharynx of horse, 378. — equi, 381, 394. — hcemorrhoidalis, 281, 394. — nasalis, 381, 394. — pecorum, 281, 394. Gaustadt bacillus, 732. Gelatin water, 858. German Imperial law concerning traffic in food, condiments and manufactured articles of May 14, 1879, 95-99. — commentary on, 99-117. German Imperial law for control of rinderpest, 121. German Imperial law for the preven- tion and suppression of animal plagues, 117-121. German Imperial meat inspection law of June 3, 1900, 63-71. — commentary on, 71-95. German Imperial meat inspection law, enforcement of, 865. German meat regulations before Thirty Years' War, 12. after Thirty Years' War, 21. German quarantine decrees, 163. Germany, meat inspection in, 34, 68. Glanders, 594-601. Glanders bacillus, 595. — tubercles, 599. Glauber salts, 810. Glycogen, determination according to Lebbin, 217. — in horse meat, 210. — in veal, 239. — in fetuses, 342. Gfnathostomum Kispidum, 281, 407. Goat, fat of, 203. — bones, 306. — meat, differentiation of, 201. Goose septicemia, 707. Granular eruption, 370. Granulations, infectious, 267. Greek meat regulations, 11. Groenbarden oysters, 769. Hair follicle mite of hog, 390. Haplococeus reticulatus, 477. 874 INDEX Hare, skeleton of, 208, 209. — venereal diseases of, 398. Hartmann extraction apparatus, 863. — meat sterilizer, 852. Hautgout, 198, 745. Head, inspection of, 157. Head cheese, 772. " Head meat," 167. Heart, diseases of, 386. — inspection of, 157. — normal appearance of, 174. — tumors of, 339. Heat as a preservative, 821. — penetration into meat, 842. experiments to determine, 842. results of experiments, 845. Helminthiasis of dogs and meat in- spection, 9. Hematosporidia, 533. Hematuria of cattle, 310, 537. Hemin crystals in horse meat, 210. Hemoglobinemia, 374. Hemoglobinuria, 374, 537. Hemorrhages, 258. — course of, 259. Hemorrhagic septicemia, 669. — general account, 671. Hemosiderin, 260. Henneberg meat steamer, 851. Hepatitis, 297. Herring, effect on bacon, 187. Heterakis inflexa, 407. — maculosa, 407. — vesicularis, 407. Hippophagy, 123. Himleberwurst, 772. Hog, bladder worm, 442. — bones of, 207. — cholera, 696-703. anatomical findings, 698. bacteriology, 697. clinical symptoms, 697. diagnosis, 700. etiology, 699. judgment concerning, 702. — fat of, 203. Hogs, inspection of, 159. Holland, meat inspection in, 80. Holomyaria, 406. Horns, development of, 239. Horse, fat, 202. — bones, 204. Horse meat, 123, 199. declaration for, 88. diarrhea caused by, 124. and beef, differentiation of , 210. and beef, differentiation of, Niebel's method, 210. and beef, differentiation of, modified Niebel's method, 214, 216. demonstration according to Hasterlik, 219. extract, 834. Horses as food, 123. — inspection of, 88, 157. Hyaline degeneration, 257. of muscle in hogs, 360. Hydremia, 369. Hydrophobia, 593. Hydrops, 258. Hypertrophy, 252. Hypostasis in pleura, 338. "Ice balls "530. Ice houses, 829. value of, 839. Ichthysm, 766. Ictero-hematuria, 537. Icterus, 375. Hiac glands, 183. Imitations, 101. Immature veal, judgment concern- ing, 241. recognition of, 238. Immaturity, 237. — in calves, 238. Infectious diseases, 267, 647. etiology of, 549. transmissibility of, 114. Inflammation, 261. — croupous, 263. — diphtheritic, 263. — hemorrhagic, 264. — interstitial, 264. — oral mucosa, 273. — parenchymatous, 264. — productive, 261. — purulent, 263. — serous, 262. — with putrid exudations, 264. Inflation, effect on keeping quality of meat, 794. — of meat, 793. forbidden, 19, 797. INDEX 875 Inflation, judgment on, 796. — purpose of, 793. — recognition of, 795. — technique of, 794. — of lungs, 794. Infusoria, 537. Inguinal glands, 181. " Injected livers. ' ' 809. " Injurious to health," definition of t«rm, 113. — experiments to determine this property, 113. Insects on meat, 747. Inspection, before slaughter, 136, — after slaughter, 153. — of diseased organs, 156. — course, 156. — of imported meat, 71, 160. — chief points in, 155. — compulsory, 45. — districts, 64. — post mortem, 65. — exceptions to, 74. — repetition of, 88. Inspectors, appointment of, 53, 77. — assistant, 56. — empirical, 57. — examination of, 58. — appeal from, 59. — compensation, 53. — fees, 53. — hours of service, 55. — number of animals which they can inspect in one day, 56. — training of, 50. Intestinal contents, 169. Intestines, diseases of, 379. — septic diseases of, 573. — inspection of, 158. Intoxications, 379. Invasion diseases, 389. lodin number of fat, 188, 319, 783. — reaction for glycogen, 314. Iridescence in meat, 363. Ischiatic glands, 184. Ischuria, black, in horse, 374. Italy, meat inspection in, 38, 30, 38. Ixodes bovis, 536. Jauerschewurst, 773. Japan, meat inspection in, 33. Jaundice, appearance of fat in, 345, Jerked beef, 323. Jewish meat regulations, 10. Jewish method of slaughter, 131, 133, 138, 140, 143. Joints, diseases of, 3.53. Juniper berries for producing smoke, 807. — bushes for producing smoke, 807. KafiH disinfector, 863. Karnlt, 787. Keeping quality of meat, 798-799. Kerosene, odor of in meat, 384. Kidney, degenerations of, 301. — induration of, 304. — infarcts in, 301. — infectious granulations of, 308. — inflammation of, 303. — inspection of, 158. — lime and pigment deposits in, 301. — malformation of, 301. — normal appearance of, 174. — purulent inflammation of, 303. — nephritis in, 302. — tumors in, 308. — " white spot " in, 304. Killing ax, 134. Kleinschmidt's spring bolt, 136. Knacker's establishment, 40. — privileges, 40. Knackwurst, 773. Kochwurst, 773, 773. — water content of, 773. Kogler's spring bolt, 136. Kosher meat, 133, Kiirten's spring bolt, 137. Lactic acid in muscles, 194. Lameness of newborn animals, 564^ 566. — of calves, 570. Laminosioptes eysticola, 373. Lard adulterated with cottonseed oil, 783. Larynx, diseases of, 319. Laws, enforcement of, 94. — German Imperial of 1900, 63. commentary on, 71. — German law on foods, etc., of May 14, 1879, 95. — court decisions, 105. — on suppression of animal plagues, 117. 876 INDEX Laws, rinderpest, 121. Lead poisoning, 383. ■' Leather meat," 167. Lebbin's method for determination of glycogen, 217. Leberwurst, 772. ' Leptomitus lacteus, 707. Leucomaine, 387, 768. Leukemia, 371. Licked beef, 391. Lime concretions, 539-546. — deposits, 254. Linguatula; see Pentastomum. Linseed oil, effect on fat, 188. Lipoma in fat tissue, 288. Lithotheria, 311. Live weight of animals, 189. Liver, abscess of, 297. — adenoma of, 297. — appearance of, 171. — atrophy of, 293. — cadaverous alterations in, 300. — calcareous-fibrous tubercles in, 299. — cirrhosis of, 296. — coccidiosis of, 299. — degenerations of, 294. — diseases of, 291. — hemorrhag'es of, 294. — Infectious granulations of, 298. — inflammations of, 296. — inspection of, 157. — in Texas fever, 294. — necrosis of, 295. — pigmentation of, 293. — rupture of, 293. — tumors of, 297. Lobster poisoning, 767. Lota vulgaris, 418. Lumbar glands, 188. Lung, deposits of lime in, 321. — diseases, of, 320. — inspection of, 157. — mycosis of, 325. — non-glanderous tubercles in, 328. — normal appearance of, 173. — tumors in, 327. Lungwurst, 772. Lupinosis, 376. Lymphadenitis, 342. Lymphatic glands, appearance of, 177. — diseases of, 343. ~ tuberculosis of, 343. ^ Lymphoma, 345. Lyssa of dog tongue, 176. Malaria, bovine, 537. Male animals, odors of, 247. Malformations, 250. Malignant catarrhal fever, 667. — edema, 574. Mammitis; see Mastitis. Mange, 121. Marennes oysters, 769. Marennin, a coloring matter in oys- ters, 769. Masticatory muscles as seat of cystl- cerci, 427. Mastitis, etiology of, 314. — septic, 572. Measle worms, 419. Measly beef, judguient of, 441. Measly cattle, regulations concerning, 439, — meat, sale of, 17, 19. — pork, procedure with, 453. Meat, abnormal odor of, 245. — absorption of water by, 770. — — as ailected by the addition of flour, 771. — as food, 2. — as medium for bacteria, 198. — bacteria in, 748. — classification of according to food law of Germany, 115. — " combining power " of , 770. — consumption of, 3. ■ — contamination during slaughter, 745. from insects, 747. — cuts and classification, 145. of beef, 146. of mutton, 151. of pork, 151. — — of veal, 151. — decomposing, 751. — definition of, 77. — demonstration of abnormal odor, 248. — diflEerentiation of, 115, 199. — extract, 215, 833. nutritive value of, 824. of Liebig, 834. of Maggi, 834. of Koch, 834. of Kemmerich, 824. INDEX 877 Meat extractives, 196. — fitness for table, 197. for food, 81, 83. — industrial utilization of, 75. — influence of feed on, 195. — inspection and entozoa, 8. — inspection, detection of epizootic outbreaks by, 6. -^ — history of, 9. in antiquity, 9. in Germany before Thirty Years' War, 12. ■ — since Thirty Years' War, 21. other countries, 28. in cities, 36. — — rural districts, 37. ■ municipal ordinances, 60. nature of, 1. — — present status of in various countries, 29. ■ — ■ Germany, 34. problems, 1. value of for agriculture, 5. — judgment on odorous, 249. — mincing establishments, 42. — nutritive value of fat and poor, 191. — percentage composition, 192. — poisoning, 713. etiology, 729. list of outbreaks, 713. prophylaxis, 728. — post-mortem alterations in, 745. — power of conducting heat, 842. — meat preserve, 814. — rations in German army, 4. — signs of disease in, 76. — toughness of, 197. — traffic, German prohibitive decrees against various countries, 168. supervision of, 50. scientific experts, 50. compensation and appoint- ment, 53. fees, 53. abattoir veterinarians, 54. hours of service, 55. Mediastinal glands, 182. Melanin on peritoneum, 288. Melanosis, 252. Mercaptan in decomposing meat, 755. Mercuric poisoning, 382. Merluccius vulgaris, 786. Meromyaria, 406. Mesenterial emphysema, 288. Mesenteric glands, 184. — inspection of, 158. Mesogonimus westermanni, 405. Metals, harmful, admixture with meat. 747. Metamorphosis, fatty, 255. Metaplasias, 254. Metastases in pyemia, 560. Methemoglobin in sausage, 791. Metritis, septic, 571. Mettwurst, 773. Micrococcus ascoformans, 662. — botrydgeniis, 663. — candicans, 808. - mastitidis gangrcenosce avis, 315. — tetragenus, 315. MiescheridsB, 528. Miescher's sacs, 528-531. — calcified, 540. Milk fever, 386. Minced meat poisoning, 764. — cases, 765. — occurrence, 765. — prophylaxis, 766. — symptoms, 765. Mohammedan meat regulations, 13. Moniezia alba, 395. — • henedeni, 395. — ■ expansa, 281, 394. — ■ neumanni, 395. — planissima, 395. Moorseele bacillus, 731. Morbus maoulosus, 573. Mosaic food laws, 10. Mouth, diseases of, 273. Mucoid degeneration, 357. Multiple hemorrhages, 355. Mummified fetus, 311. Municipal regulations, 60, Muscarin, 553. Muscle, distomes, 404. — rigor, 194. — • power of fixing water, 1 95. Muscular degenerations, 357. Musculature, chemical properties of, 196. — diseases, 355. — histology of, 194. — normal appearance of, 192. — pale condition of, 364. 878 INDEX Musculature, physical characters of, 194. Mussels, poisonous, 768. Mutton, cuts of, 151. — differentiation of, 201. Myocardium, diseases of, 340. Myosin, 194, 196 Myositis, 364, 530. Mytilism, 768. Mytilotoxin, 768. Myxobolus cyprini, 536. — pfeifferi, 535. Myxofibroma, 334. Myxosporidia, 535. Nagana, 537. Nasal cavity, diseases of, 318. Navicula ostrearia, eaten by oysters, 769. Nebelah, 133. . Necrosis, 260. — bacillus, 396, 680. Necrotic skin disease of hogs, 693. Nematlielminthes, 405. • Nematodes, 405. Nematode tubercles in intestines, dif- ferentiation of, 384. — in wall of intestines, 381. Nephritis of various forms, 301-308. Nerves, diseases of, 349. Nettle fever, 693. Neuridin, 553. Neurin, 553. Neuroma, 834, 349. New Zealand meat preserve, 814. Niebel's method of demonstrating horse meat, 310. Normal appearance of meat and organs of animals, 166. Norway, meat inspection in, 31. Notification of disease, 79. Nutmeg liver, 393. Nux vomica, 380. Ochronosis, 253. Odorific drugs, effect on meat, 384. Odors, absorption by meat, 747. — demonstration of, 248. — in meat, 245. — of male animals, 347. (Esophagostomum columbianum, 283. — inflatum, 283. CEstrus bovis, 390. — development of, 391. — , in esophagus of cattle, 279. — ovis, 394. Oidium astaei, 708. — lactis, 315. Oleomargarine factories, 43. Oligemia, 367. Omentum, inspection of, 158. Oncorhynchus quinnat, 786. Oppermann's cervelatwurst salt, 810, Organic diseases, 268. Originals, 233. Osmazo'm, 196. Osteomalacia, 350. Osteomyelitis, 350, 563. Otte apparatus for treating carc^seSi 864. Oyster poisoning, 768. etiology, 769. prophylaxis, 769. — containing copper, 769, Palcemon squilla, 784. Palisade worms, 410. Panaris of cattle, 680. Pancreas, diseases of, 300. Papilloma polyposum omasi, 285. Parasites, animal, 267. general account, 389-546. — meat infected with, 417. Parenchymatous degeneration, 255. Parturient paralysis, 386. — paresis, 386. Passing animals for slaughter, 80. Pathogenic bacteria, raorphology o^ 549. — biology of, 550. Pathology, general, 250. Pearl disease, 335, 615. Pelvic glands, 183. Pentastomum, 281. — alterations caused by, 517. — distribution, 516. — denticulatum, 514. — toenioides, 319, 499. general account, 513. Pepper amylum, 777. Perforative peritonitis, 286. Pericarditis traumatica, 555. Pericardium, diseases of, 337.. Peritoneum, diseases of, 285. INDEX 879 Peritoneum, normal appearance of, 175. Peritonitis, 286. — biliary, 387. — perforative, 281. Perlsucht; see Pearl disease. Pernicious anemia, 368. — colpitis, 313. Petechias, 258. Petechial fever, 578. Pkaryngomyia picta in pharynx of stag, 279. Pharynx, diseases of, 278. Phlegmon of subcutis, 278. Phoenician meat regulations, 11. Phosphorescent meat, 749. — etiology of, 750. Photobacterium baltieum, 750. — fischeri, 750. — indicum, 750. — luminosum, 751. — pfluegeri, 750, 751. — phosphorescens, 750. Pickling cellars, 41. — demonstration of, 804. — effect of, 801. on composition of meat, 805. — meat, 800. through the circulatory sys- tem, 801. — special methods of, 808. — with aid of electricity, 801. Pigment deposits, 252. Pilocarpin, 881. Piroplasma hegeminum, 535. Pitchy mange, 270. Pithing, 134. Plant parasites, 547. Plerooerci, 413. Pleura, diseases of, 332. — infectious granulations of, 835. — normal appearance of, 175. — tumors of, 334. Pleuritis, 382. Pleuro-peritonitis of hogs, 287. Pleuro-pneumonia of cattle, 121, 668. Pneumatosis cystoides intestinorum, 289. Pneumomycosis, 825. Pneumonia, 32&, 669. — by aspiration, 324. — veririnous, 824. Podewils' method of treating car- casses, 859. Poisoning, 379. — by alkaloids, 379. — minerals, 379. Poisons, distribution in various organs, 388. Polyarthritis, 565. — septica, 570. Polymyaria, 406, Poorness, 242. Popliteal glands, 181. Pork, classification, 151. — differentiation of, 202. — measleworm, 442. Portal glands, 184. Post-mortem changes in meat, 745. ' Pottassium permanganate, 820. Potato flour mixed with sausages, 771. Pox, 691. Precrural glands, 181. Pregnancy from the standpoint of meat inspection, 249. Prescapular glands, 179. Preservation of meat, 798. Preservation of meat by chemicals, 800. — in sterile air, 798. Preservatives, 90, 798. Presssack, 772. Presternal calcification, 354. Probat, 814. Proteus virulentissimus, 585. — vulgaris, 568, 752. Protozoa, 520. Pseudo-farcy, 652. Pseudo-glanders, 600. Pseudo-leukemia, 345, 373. Pseudo-trichinse, 455. Pseudo-tuberculosis, 652. Psorosperm sacs, 533. Ptomaines, 553. Purpura hemorrhagica, 574. Purulent processes, generalization of, 560. Putrefaction of meat, 752. Putrefactive bacteria, 752. Putrescin, 553. Putrid intoxication, 552. Pyelo-nephritis, 306. Pyemia, 5oO. 880 INDEX Pyemia, slaughter findings in, 561, 736. — judgment on, 562. — special forms of, 563. Pyroligneous acid for preserving meat, 807. Pyrosoma bigeminum, 534. Quarantine regulations of Germany against foreign countries, 163-165. Rabbit, skeleton of, 209. Rabies, 593. Rachitis, 350. Railroad disease of cattle, 128. " Raincooling " apparatus, 835. ' Rancid fat, 749. — odor of meat, 677. Rape seed, influence on odor of meat of fowls, 247. " Red dysentery" of cattle, 523. Red water of cattle, 537. Reducing power of the musculature, 198, 806. Refrigeration; see Cold storage. Refrigerator cars; see Cold storage cars. Reindeer plague, 679. Removal of meat in illegal manner, 156. Renal glands, 184. Residual air in lungs, 173. Respiratory apparatus, 318, Retentio secundinarum, 553, 554, 556. Rhabditis, 408, 477. Rhachitis; see Rachitis. Rhinitis, croupous, 318. Rigor mortis, 194, 196, 197. Rinderpest, 665. Roebucks, distinction of sex in, 233. Rohkramer's preserving salt, 810. Rohrbeck steam disinfector, 847. Roman meat regulations, 11. Rosalin for coloring meat, 787. Rotlauf ; see Swine Erysipelas. Rouget blanc, 693. Roumania, meat inspection in, 30. Roumanian cattle plague, 537. Round worms, 405. Roup, 705. Russia, meat inspection in, 31. Sacral glands, 184. Saf ranin for coloring meat, 787. Saitenwurst, 773. Sal-ammoniac test for decomposition, 755. Salicylic acid as a preservative, 819. — toxic action of, 819. Saline salt II, 810. Salmon, adulteration of, 785. Salt, effect on bacteria, 802. Salting meat, 800. Saltpeter, effect on man, 806. — influence on color of sausage, 791. — in pickling brine, 803. meat, 806. Salufer, 820. Sanitary significance of organs in- fested with non-transmissible para- sites, 417. Sanitat, 810. Sapremia, 552. — judgment on, 554. Saprin, 553. Saprolegnia fero, 707. — monoica, 707. Saprophytes, 552. Sarcocystis miescheriana, 529. — tenella, 532. Sarcolactic acid, 196. Sarcoma, 265. Sarcophosphoric acid, 196. Sarcosporidia, 527. — in esophagus, 279. Sausage, adulteration with flour, 770. — factories, 42. — gray coloration of, 749. — introduction of, 85. — kinds of, 772. — poisoning, 758. Schachten, 132, 140. Scheohita, 133. Schlackwurst, 772. Schreiber refrigerator cars, 830. Schwartenmagen, 772. Schweinsberger disease, 296. Sclerostomum equinum, 309. — pinguicola, 309, 415. Scotland, meat laws of, 28, 31. Scour of calves, 681. Sepsis; see Septicemia. — intestinalis, 712. Septic intestinal diseases of cattle, 578. INDEX 881 Septicemia, 566. — diagnosis of, 569. — etiology of, 567. — hemorrhagic, 671. — of geese, 707. — slaughter findings in, 736. Serous tuberculosis; see Pearl Disease. Serum manufacture in connection with slaughterhouses, 43. Sex of slaughtered animals, recogni- tion of, 338. — in cattle, 328. — in deer, 333. — in hogs, 233. — in sheep, 331. Sexual organs, diseases of, 310. Sheep, fat of, 208. — bones, 306. — inspection of, 159. — pox, 131, 592. "Shield" in boars, 167, 333, 369. Shooting mask, 134, 185. Shrimps, adulteration of, 784. — coloring by fuchsin, 785. Skeleton, differences in different ani- mal species, 204, — diseases of, 349. Skin, normal appearance of, 166. — used for sausage, 167. — inspection of, 157. Slaughter, methods of, 130. simple bleeding, 132. pithing, 134, 143. . stunning, 134, 144. — advantages of different methods, 138. — Jevsdsh method, 183. — order of procedure in, 145. — English patent method, 180. — ax, 134. — mask, 134. Slaughterhouses and stock yards, 42. and accessory industries, 41. — French room system, 89. — German hall system , 39. — in German Empire, 87. — in Prussia, 37. — in large cities, 88. — in rural districts, 44. — on frontier, 163. — structure and equipment of, 38. Smelt as hog feed, 246. Smoke, effect on pathogenic bacteria, 808. Smoking meat, 807. methods of, 807. preservative effect of, 807. — rooms, 41. Soap manufacture, 858. Sooty mange of young pigs, 370. Sour fermentation, 746. Sozolith, 814. Spain, meat inspection in, 30. Spaying covrs, 233. — hogs, 283. Spinal cord, diseases of, 348. Spiradenitis coccidiosa, 272. Spiropiera reticulata, 391. Spleen, appearance of, 170. — diseases of, 346. — inspection of, 157. — swelling of, 347. Splenic glands,'184. " Spoiled " meat, 103-107. Sporozoa, 520. Spot erysipelas of hogs, 691. Spring bolt apparatus for killing hogs, 136. " Stabil " for coloring meat, 787. — for preserving sausages, 803. Stamping inspected animals, 155, Staphylococcus alius, 559. — iovis, 560. — citreus, 559. — mastitidis, 315. — pyogenes in anemia, 369. aureus, 304, 315, 557, 561, 664. hovis, 559. flavv,s, 633. Starch, addition of to sausages, 771. — and the water content of sausages, 775. — and the loss of water in smoking and drying, 775. — demonstration of in sausages, 777. — histology of, 778. — quantitative demonstration of, 778. Stare's conservator, 810. — Sanitas, 810. — sausage salt, 810. Status adiposus, 186. Steam sterilization cf meat, 847. — loss of weight during, 854. — methods Of, 847. 882 INDEX Steam sterilization of meat, results of experiments, 849. — value of, 847. — under high pressure, 857. Steatosis of musculature, 364. Stephanurus dentatus, 309. Stern's preserving salt, 810. Stockyards, connection veith slaugh- terhouses, 43. Stomach, appearance and weight, 169. — diseases of, 279. — inspection of, 158. Stomatitis, 274. Straschiripka and Tiffany system of refrigerator cars, 830. Streptococcus erysipelatis, 683. — involutus, 587. — mastitidis contagiosa, 315. — pyogenes, 557. Stroptothrix cunicuU, 680. Stripperies, 42. Strongylidse, 408. Strongylus armatus, 281, 291. in lungs, 322, 339. in blood vessels, 341. — capillaris, 325, 328, 411, 412., — eernuus, 408. — comrmitatus, 328, 410, 413. — contortus, 281, 408. — eonvolutus, 409. — curticei, 281. — dentatus, 283. — filaria, 325, 328, 411. — fiUicolUs, 281, 410. — follicularis, 283. — harkeri, 281, 410. — hypostomus, 408. — inflatus, 408. — micrurus, 325, 328, 410. — oncophorus, 281, 409. — ostertagi, 281,409. — paradoxus, 328, 410, 414. — radiatus, 408. — retoriceformis, 281, 410. — strigosus, 410. — ventrieosus, 408. — venulosus, 408. Strychnin in poisoned animals, 381. Stvrtining animals, 134. Subcutis, edema of, 372. — fat tissue of, 272. — urinous infiltration in, 373. Subiliac glands, 181. Submaxillary glands, 179. "Suffocated " meat, 747. Sugar factory oxen, dropsy in, 370. Suggillation, 358. Sulphurous acid, preservative effect of, 815. — as a preservative, 813. — application of, 813. — demonstration, 815. — in minced meat, 817. — in trade preparations, 814. — judgment on, 816. Sillzwurst, 773. Suppurations, 556. Surra, 637. Sweden, meat inspection in, 31. Swill, effect on bacon, 187. Swine erysipelas, 683. — diagnosis, 688. — distribution by meat traffic, 686. — resistance of bacilli to heat, 684. — susceptibility of other animals, 684. — symptoms, 686. — fever; see Hog cholera. — inspection of, 159. — plague, 694-696. — diagnosis, 694. — judgment concerning, 695. — plague followed by pyemia, 566. Switzerland, meat inspection in, 31. Syngamus laryngeus, 330. — trachealis, 330, 407 ' Table ripeness of meat, 197. Tmnia ccenurus, 395. — echinococcus, 501, 513. — inermis, 420. — marginata, 9, 395, 433, 519. — mediocanellata, 420. — saginata, 8, 420, 421, 426, 439, 433. — serrata, 395. — solium, 7, 8, 26, 435, 443, 451. — tenella, 417. Tallow factory, 43. Tallow-like muscle alteration, 364. Talmud meat laws, 11, 133. Tanbark for producing smoke, 807. Tapeworms, 394. — larval stages, 395. Tartarus stibiatus, 380. Tasajo, 823. INDEX 883 Terepha, 133. Testicles, diseases of, 310. — in sausages, 782. — inspection of, 158. Tetanus, 576. — bacillus, 576. — toxin, 577. Tetrarhynchus, 898. Texas fever, 53S-587. Thoracic lymph glands, 182, Thrombophlebitis umbilicali^, 564,570. Throwing animals, methods of, 140. Thymus gland, 151. Thyscmosoma actinoides, 395. — oviUa, 895. Tongue, normal appearance of, 176. — diseases of, 273. — pickling of, 804. Tozigen in parturient par^ysis, 387. Toxins, 551, 558, 568, 754. Trachea, diseases of, 819. Transportation of animalp, 127. — and rest before slaughter, 127. Transudation, 258. Traumatic pericarditis, 555. — pneumonia, 670. Trematodes, 398. Treuenit, 815. Trichina calcification, 468, 541. — degeneration of, 465. — diagnosis of, 476. — encapsulation of, 465. — false, 455. — general account of, 454. — in American pork, 32, 471, 498. — in dogs, 478. — in badger, wild hog, cat, bear, fox, marten and pole cat, 468. — in meat preparations, 490. — in salt pork, 496. — inspection, 483. — inspection for American salt pork, 496. — inspection in Prussia, 494. — inspectors, 487. — in rats, 479. — in sucking pigs, 473. — morphology of, 466. — occurrence of 468. — preparations, 491. — proper muscles to examine, 488. Trichinosis, 455. Trichinosis in man, 478. — and raw meat, 2. Trichinous pork, method of procedure with, 482. Trigonella fcBcum-grmcum, influence on odor of meat, 246. Triple phosphate crystals in decom- posing meat, 546. Troops, condition of meat for, 335. Trutta solar, 785. Trypanosomata, 588. Tsetse fly, 588. Tubercle bacillus, 607. — resistance to heat, etc., 609. — virulence of, 610. Tuberculosis, general account, 601- 651. — and age of animals, 606. — diagnosis of, 618. — ^ experiments to determine the char- acter of meat in, 648. — frequency of, 605. ' — German regulations concerning, 647. — in birds, 651. — in different organs, 632. — in different species of food aninials, 603. — in hogs, 619. — in lymph glands of head. 277. — in slaughtered animals, 623. — intestinal, 285. — of the muscles, 365. — local and generalized, 620. — obligatory declaration for meat, 645. — pathological anatomy of, 613. — sanitary judgment of, 629. — scientific procedure with meat, 645. — sterilization of meat, 644. — symptoms of, 611. — transmission of bovine form to man, 629. — treatment of fat, 645. — virulence of meat of affected animals, 635. Tumors, 265. — benign, 265. — judgment of, 266. — malignant, 265. Turpentine, odor of in meat, 384. Tympanites, 741. 88i INDEX Tyrosin deposits in smoked pork, 545. Udder, actinomycosis of, 317. — botryomycosis of, 316. — diseases of, 313. — edema of, 818. — tuberculosis of, 316. Ulcus pepticura, 380. Umbilical vessels, changes in after birth, 240. "Unclean " animals, 10, 40. — meat, 116. United States inspection (see also the Introduction), 82. Uremia, 377. Uremic gangrene, 377. Urethra, diseases of, 309. Urino-genital apparatus, diseases of, 301. Urinous infiltration of subcutis, 373. Urticaria, 691-693. — etiology, 692j — treatment, 693. Uteri in sausage, 783. Uterus, catarrh of, 311. — diseases of,,311. — inspection of , 158. — tumors of, 313. Vaccination with cowpox, 591. Vaccine establishments, 43. Vacuole bacillus, 699. Vagina, diseases of, 813. Veal, classification of, 151. — differentiation of, 201. Vegetarianifm, 2, 3. Veratrin, 381. Verminous pneumonia, 324. Vinegar eel, 477. Warble fiy of ox, 390. Water absorbed by pounded meat, 770. Whale oil odor in meat, 345. Wheat bread added to sausage, 783. White scour of calves, 681. Wiokes' refrigerator cars, 831. Wooden tongue, 377, 657. Worms, 394. Xanthosis, 353. Ziffer's preserving powder, 810. — preserving salt, 810. Zoogl(Ba pulmonis eqiii, 663, COLORED PLATE. Fig. 1. Anthrax Bacilli. — Double stain according to Klett. X 500 diameters. Fig. 2. Tubercle Bacilli. — Double stain according to Ziehl-Gabbet. X 500 diameters. Fig. 3. Swine Erysipelas Baoilll— Gram method, subsequently stained with eosin. X 500 diameters. Fig. 4 Plexteo-pneumonia. — a, fresh focus of inflammation ; 6, older foci ; c, necrotic focus (without sequestration as yet). Thrombi are shown in the blood and lymph vessels in the much thickened interlobular tissue of the freshly inflamed foci. Ostertag's " Meat Inspection " CATALOGUE OF William R. Jenkins Co/s Works Concerning HORSES, CATTLE, SHEEP, SWIHE, Etc. 1907-8 (*) Designates New Books. (t) Designates Eecent Publications . AXDEBSON. "Vice in tlie Horse" and other papers on Horses and Biding. By E. L. Anderson. Size, 6x9, cloth, illustrated '. i 75 A.BMSTEA.D. " The Artistic Anatomy of tlie Horse." A brief description of the various Anatomical Struc- tures which may be distinguished during Life through the Skin. By Hugh W. Armstead, M.D., F.E.C.S. With illustrations from drawings by the author. Oloth oblong, 10 x 12^ 3 75 BACH, "How to Judge a Horse." A concise treatise as to its Qualities and Soundness ; Including Bits and Bitting, Saddles and Saddling, Stable Drainage, Driv- ing One Horse, a Pair, Four-in-hand, or Tandem, etc. By Capt. F.W. Bach. Size, 5x7J, clo., fully lllus.l 00 BANHAtl. "Tables of Veterinary Posology and Tliera- pentics," with weights, measures, etc. By Geo. A. Banham, P. K. C. V. S. New edition. Cloth, size 4x5 1-2, 192 pages 1 00 BAUCHKIt. "Metliod of Horsemansliip." Including the Breaking and Training of Horses. By F. Baucher 1 OO BELL,. (•)"The Veterinarian's Call Book (Perpetual)." By Kosooe K. Bell, D.V.S., editor of the American Veterinary Remew. Completely revised 1907. A visiting list, that can be commenced at any time and used until full, containing much useful informa- tion for the student and the busy practitioner. Among contentn are items concerning: Prescription writing; Veterinary Drugs; Poisons; Solubility of Drugs; Composition of Milk,Bile, Blood, Gastric Juice, Urine, Saliva ; Besplration ; Dentition ; Temp- erature, etc., etc. Bound In flexible leather, with flap and pocket , , , , , , . . X ^ BITTING. "Cadiot's Exorcises in Eqnine Surgery." See "Cadiot." BRADLEY. "Outlines of Veterinary Anatomy." By O. Charnock IJradley, Member of the Boyal Cui- lege of Veterinary Burgeons ; Professor of Anatomy In the New Veterinary College, Edinburgh. The author presents the most Important facts of veterinary anatomy in as condensed a form as possible, consistent with lucidity. 12mo. Complete In three parts. 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Cloth, size 7 x 9 3-4, 619 pages, 94 black and white illustrations. 5 35 —(•)" A Treatise on Surgical Therapeutics of the Domestic Animals." By P. J. Cadiot and J. Almy. Translated by Prof. A. Liautard, M.D.,V.M. I. General Surgery. — Means of restraint of animals, general aneesthesia, local aneethnsia, surgical anti- sepsis and asepsis, hematosis, cauterization, firing, II Diseases Common to all Tissues. — Inflammation, abscess, gangrene, ulcers, fistula, foreign bodlps, traumatic lesions, complications of traumatic les- ions, granulations, cicatrices, mycosis, virulent illseases, tumors. III. Diseases Special to all Tissues and Affections of the Extremiliea. — Diseases of skin and cellular tis- sue, of serous bursae, of muscles, of tendons, of ipn'dinoiis svnovial sacs, of aponeurosis, of arteries, ot veins, of lymphatics, of nerves, of bones, of artloulation.si. Cloth, size fi x 9, 580 pages, 118 illustrations 4 60 CHAPMAN. 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Cloth, size 5 1-4x7 1-2, 573 pages 2 75 COX. "Horses: In Accident and Disease." The sketches Introduced embrace various attitudes which have been observed, such as in choking; the disorders and accidents occurring to the stomach and intestines ; affection of the brain ; and some special forms of lame- aess, etc. By J. Koalfe Cox, F.E.C.V.S. Cloth, size 6 X 9, 28 full page illustrations 1 60 DALRTMPIjE. (*)"Veteri nary Obstetrics." A oompen- dium for the use of advanced students and Practi- tioners. By W. H. Dalrymple, M. B. C. V. S., principal of the Department of Veterinary Scienee in the Louisiana State University and A. & M. College ; Veterinarian to the Louisiana State Bureau of Agriculture, and Agricultural Experiment Stations. Second edition revised. Cloth, si^e 6x9 1-4,162 pagps, 51 illustrations 2 50 DALZIEL. " Breakini? and Training Dogs." Part I, by Pathfinder. Part II, by Hugh Dalziel. Clolh, illustrated 2 50 — "The Collie." By Hugh Dalziel. Paper, Illustrated 50 — "The Diseases of Dogs." Causes, symptoms and treatment. By Hugh Dalziel. Illustrated. Paper, 50c. Cloth, 1 f^O -^ "Diseases of Horses." Paper 50 — " The Fox Terrier." By Hugh Dalziel. Paper, 50 ; clo.l 00 — "The Greyhound." Cloth, Illus l oo — " The St. Bernard," Cloth, Uluatrated ...,,,... 1 OQ DANA. «' Tables in Comparathe Phyriology." By Prot. C. L. Dana, M.D. Chart, 17 x 17. JB DAKCE. " Veterinary Tablet." By A. A. Dance. Chart, 17 X 24, mounted on linen, folded In a cloth case for the pocket, size 3 3-4x6 1-2. Shows at a glance the synopsis of the diseases of horses, cattle and doga ; with their cause, symptoms and cure 75 X)E BRUiy. (•)"BoTine Obstetrics." By M. G. De Bruin Instructor of Obstetrics at the State Veterinary School in Utrecht. Translated by W. E. A. Wyman, formerly Professor of Veterinary Science at Clemson A. & M. College, and Veterinarian to the South Carolina Experiment Station. Cloth, size 6x9, 382 pages, 77 illustrations 5 00 Synopsis of the Essential Features of the Worl& 1. Authorized translation. 2. The only obstetrical work which is up to date. 3. Written by Europe's leading authority on the subject. 4. Written by a man who has practiced the art a lifetime . 6. Written by a man who, on account of his eminence as bovine practitioner and teacher of obstetrics, was selected by Prof. Dr. FrOhner and Prof. Dr. Bayer (Berlin and Vienna), to discuss boyine obstetrics both practically and scientifically. 6. The only work containing a thorough differential dJaK- nosis of ante and post partum diseases. 7. The only work doing justice to modern obstetrical surgery and therapeutics. 8. Written by a man whose practical suggestions revolu- tionized the teaching of veterinary obstetrics even in the great schools of Europe. 9. The only work dealing fully with the now no longer qbscure contagious and infectious diseases of calves. 10. Absolutely original and no compilation. U. The only work dealing fully with the difloult problem of teaching obstetrics in the colleges. Vi. The only work where the practical part is not over- shadowed by theory. ... A veterinarian, particularly if his location brings him in contact with obstetrical practice, who makes any pretence toward being scientiflc and in possession of modern knowledge upon this subject, will not be without this excellent work, as it is really a very valuable treatise.— Pro/. Boscoe B. Bell, in the American Veterinary Beview. In translating into English Professor De Bruin's excellent text- book on Bovine Obstetrics, Dr. Wyman has laid British and American veterinary surgeons and students under a debt of gratitude. The works represents the happy medium between tlie booklets which are adapted for cramming purposes by the student, and the ponderous tomes which, although useful to the teacher, are not exactly suited to the requirements of the everyday practitioner . . . We can strongly recommend the work to veterinary students and practitioners.— rfte Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics. DOLLAR. fi" Diseases of Cattle. Sheep, Goats and Swine." By G. Mouasu and Jno. A. W. Dollar, M.K.O. V.S. Size 6x9 1-2, 785 pages, 329 illustrations in the text and 4 full page plates 8 75 ^ (t)"A Hand-book of Horse-Shoeing," with Introductory chapters on the anatomy and physiology of the horse's foot. By Jno. A. W. Dollar, M.R.C.V.S., with the collaboration of Albert Wheatley, F.R.O.V.S. Cloth, size 6x8 1-2, 433 pages, 40? Ulustr^tigns , ,4 75 DOtiLAR (continued) — (t) "Operative Teclinitiue." Volume 1 of '"the Practice of Veterinary Surgery." Cloth, size 6 3-4 x 10, 264 pages, 272 illustrations 3 75 , — " General Surgery." Volume 2 of " 'Hie Practice of Veter- inary Surgeiy." In preparation. — (t)" Regional Veterinary Surgery." Volume 3 of "The Practice of Veterinary Surgery." By Drs. Jno. A. W. Dollar and H. Moller. Cloth, size 61-2 x 10 853 and xvi pages, 315 illustrations 6 25 — "Cadiot's Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Surgery," See '• Cadiot." — " Cadiot's Roaring in Horses." See " Cadiot." DUN. "Veterinary Medicinesj their Actions and Uses." By Flnlay Dun, V.S., late lecturer on Materia Medica and Dietetics at the Edinburgh Veterinary College, and Examiner in Chemistry to the Boyal College of Veterinary Surgeons. Edited by James Macqueen, F.R.C. V.S. Tenth revised English edition. Cloth, size 6x9 3 75 FLEMING. " The Contagious Diseases of Animals." Their influence on the wealth and health of nations and bow they are to be combated. Paper, size 5x7 1-2, 30 pages 25 — " Human and Animal Variol89." A Study in Comparative Pathology. Paper, size 5 1-2x8 1-2, 61 pages . '. . 25 — " Parasites aud Parasitic Diseases of the Domesticated Animals." By L. G. Neumann. Translated by Dr. Pleming. See " Neumann." — "Operative Veterinary Surgery." Vol. I, by Dr. Geo. Fleming, M.K.C.V.S. This valuable work, one of the most practical treatises yet issued on the subject in the English language.is devoted to the common opera- Uons of Veterinary Surgery ; and the concise descrlp- uons and directions of the text are Illustrated with numerous wood engravings. Cloth, size 6x9 1-4, 285 and xviii pages, 343 illustrations 2 75 (•)Vol. II, edited and passed through the press by W. Owen Williams, F.K.C.V.S. Cloth,^size 6x9 1-4, 430 and zxxvii pages, 344 illustrations 3 25 — " Roaring in Horses." By Dr. George Fleming, F.R.O.V.S. Its history, nature, causes, prevention and treatment. Cloth, size 5 1-2x8 8-4, 160 pages, 21 engravings, 1 colored plate 1 50 — " Veterinary Obstetrics." Including the Accidents and Dis- eases Incident to Pregnancy, Parturition, and the Early Age in Domesticated Animals. By Geo. Fleming, P.fi.C.V.S. Cloth, size 6x8 3-4, 758 pages, lUus.6 25 ifOTTai^L. (•)"A Manual of felenerai BiBtoIogy." By Wm. S. Gotthell, M.i)., Professor of Pathology in the Amarlcan Veterinary College, New York; etc., etc. Histology is the basis of the physician's art, as Anatomy is the foundation of the surgeon's science. Only by knowing the processes of life can we under- stand the changes of disease and the action of remedies; as the architect must know bis building materials, so must the practitioner of medicine know the intimate structure of the body. To present this knowledge in an accessible and simple form has been the author's task. Second edition revised. Cloth, size 5 1-2 x 8, 152 pages, 68 illustrations. . . 1 OU OKESSfTELL. " The Bovine Prescriber." For the use of Veterinarians and Veterinary Students. Second edition revised and enlarged, by James B. and Albert Gressweli, M.E.O.V.S. Cloth, size, 5x7 1-2, 102 pages 75 — "The Equine Hos|>ital Prescriber." For thp use of Veter- inary Practitioners and Students. Third edition re- vised and enlarged, by Drs. James B. and Albert Gressweli, M.B.C.V.S. Cloth, size 5 x 71-2, 165 pages , 76 — " Diseases and Disorders of the Horse." A Treatise on Eqiiiue Medicine and Surgery, bf-ing a sontribution to the science of comparative pathology. By Albert, Jas. B. and Geo. Gressweli. Cloth, size 5 3-4x8 3 4, 227 pages, illustrated 1 75 — Manual of "The Theory and Practice of Equine Medicine." By James B. Gressweli, F.B.O.V.8., and Albert Gressweli, M.R.C.V.8. Second edition revised. Cloth, size 5 1-4x7 1-2, 539 pages .2 75 — (t) "Veterinary Pharmacopseia and Manual of Comparative Therapy." By George and Charles Gressweli, with descriptions and physiological actions of medicines, by Albert Gressweli. Second edition revised and enlarged. Cloth, 6x8 3-4, 457 pages 3 60 UASSLOCH. " A Compend of Veterinary Materia Medira and Therapeutics." By A. 0. Hasslocb) V.S., Lecturer on Materia Medica and Therapeutics, and Professor of Veterinary Dentistry at the New Yoik College of Veterinary Sureeons and School of Compa- rative Medicine, N. Y. Cloth, size 5 1-4x7 1-2, 225 pages 150 HEATLEV. " The Stock Owner's Guide." A handy Medi^ cal Treatise for evfiy man who owns an ox or cow, Bv George S. Heatley, M.E.C.V.S. Cloth, size 5 1-4 X 8, 172 pages 1 26 ]a:iL,L. (+)'^The Diseases ot the Cat." By J. Woodrotfe Hill, F.U.C.V S. CloLh, size 5 1-4x7 1-2, 123 pages, Illustrated. 1 25 Written from the experience of many years' prac- tice and close pathological research into the maladies to which our domesticated feline friends are liable— a subject which it must be admitted has not found the pirominence lu veterinary literature to which It is undoubtedly entitled. — "The Management and Diseases of the Dog." By J. Woodroffe Hill, F.R.O.V.S. Cloth, size 5x7 1-2, extra fully illustrated. HINEBAUCH. "Veterijiary Dental Surgery." By T. D. Hinebauch, M.S.V.S. For th« use of Students, Prac- titioners and Stockmen. Clotli, bize 5 1-4 x 8, 256 pages, illustrated 2 ou HO ARE. (')"iL Manual of Veterinary Therapeutics and Pharmacology." By E. Wallis Hoare, F.B.C.V.S. Cloth, size 5 1-4x7 1-4, xxvi plus 788) pages 4 75 HOBDAY, (t)" The Castration of Crjptorchid Horses and the Ovariotomy of Troublesome Mares." Uy Frederick T. G. Hobday, F.E.C.V.S Cloth, size 6 3-4 X 8 3-4, 11 6 pages, 34 illustrations 1 75 HUNTING, (t) The Art of Horse-shoeing. A manual for Horseshoers.' By William Hunting, F.R.C.V.S., ex-President of the Boyal College of Veterinary Sur- geons. One of the most up-to-date, concise books of its kind in the English language. Cloth, size 6x9 1-4. 126 pages, 96 illustrations 1 00 JENKINS. (*)" Anatomical and Physiological Model of the Cow." Half life size. Composed of superposed plates, colored to nature, showing internal organs, muscles, skeleton, etc., mounted on strong boards, with explanatory text. Size of Model opened, 10 ft. X 3 ft., closed 3 ft. x IJ ft 12 00 — "Anatomical and Physiological Model of the Horse." HalJ life size. Size of Model 38 x 41 in 12 no These models may also be obtained in smaller sizes together with Models of the Dog, Sheep and Pig- JONES. r)'*The Surgical Analomy of the Horse." By Jno. T. Share Jones, M.R O.V.S. Part I. To be completed in four parts. Each part — paper, $4.25 ; cloth, $5.00. Subscriptions for the. four parts, pay- able in advance, paper, $15.00;' cloth, $17 50, kOBERT, "Practical Toxicology for Physicians and Students " By Professor Dr. Budolph Eobert, Medical Director of Dr. Brehmer's Sanitarium for Pulmonary Diseases at Goerbersderf in Silesia (Prus- sia), late Director of the Pharmacological Institute, Dorpat, Kussla. Translated and edited by L. H. Frledburg, Ph.D. Authorized Edition. Practical knowledge by means of tables which, occupy little space, but show at a glance similarities and differ- onces between poisons of the same group. Also rules for the Spf lllng and Pronunciation of Chemical Terms, as adopted by the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science. Cloth, 6 1-2 z 10, 201 pp. .2 60 KOCH, "aitiology of Tuberculosis." By Dr. R. Koch. Translated by T. Saure. Cloth, size 6x9 1-4, 97 pages , 1 00 LAMBEMT. "The Germ Theory of Disease." Bearing upon the health and welfare of man and the domesticated animals. By James Lambert, F.B.C.V.S. Paper, size 5 1-1x8 1-4, 26 pages, illustrated 25 LA W. " Farmers' Veterinary Adviser." A Guide to the Prevention and Treatment of Disease in Domestic Animals. By Prof. James Law. Cloth, size 5 1-4x7 1-2, Illustrated 3 00 LIAUTABD, (t)" Animal Castration." A concise and practical Treatise on the Castration of the Domestic Animals. The only work on the subject in the English language. By Alexander Liautard, M.D.,Y.S. Having a fine portrait of the author. Tenth edition revised and enlarged. Cloth, size 5 1.4 x 7 1-2, 165 pages, 45 illustrations 2 00 . . . The most complete and comprehensive work on the subject in English veterinary literature.— jimericon Agri- culturUt. — " Cadiot's Exercises in Eqnine Surgery." Translated by Prof. Bitting and edited by Dr. Liautard. See " Cadiot." — "A Treatise on Surgical Therapeutics of the Domestic Animals." By Prof. Dr. P. J. Cadiot and J. Almy. Translated by Prof. Liautard. See " Cadiot." -^ " Ho^ to Tell the Age of tlie Domestic Animal." By Dr. A. Liautard, M.D., V.8. Standard work upon this subject, concise, helpful and containing many illustrations. Cloth, size 5x7 1-2, 35 pages, 42 illustrations , 60 — " Lameness of Horses and Diseases of the Locomotory Apparatus." By A. Liautard, M.D.,V.S. This work is the resnlt of Dr. Liautard's many years of experi- ence. Cloth, s)ze 5 1-4 X 7 1-2, 314 pages 2 dU tilAIJTAEi) (continued). — (•)" Manual of Operatire Veterinary Surgery " By A. liiautard, M.D., V.M. Engaged for years In the work of teaching this special department of veterinary medicine, and having abundant opportunities of realizing the difficulties which the student who earnestly strives to peifect himsell in bis calling is obliged to encounter, the author fo^ed the deter- mination to facilitate his acquisition of knowledge, and began the accumulation of material by the com- pilation of data and arrangement of memorandum, with tlie recordpd notes of his own experience, the fruit of a long and extended practice and a careful . study of the various authorities who have illustrated and organized veterinary literature. Kevised edition, with complete index. Cloth, size 6 1-4 x 9, xxx and 803 pages, 563 illustrations 5 00 — " Pellerin's Median Neurotomy in the Treatment of Chronic Tendinitis and Periostosis of the Fetlock." Translated by Dr. A. Llautard. See " Pellerin." — "Yade Mecum of Equine Anatomy." By A. Llautard, M.D.V.S. For the use of advanced students and veterinary surgeons. Third edition. Cloth, size 5x7 1-2, 30 pages and 10 full page illustrations of the arteries 2 00 — Zundel's " The Horse's Foot and Its Diseases." See " Zundel." LONG. " Book of the Pig." Its selection, Breeding. Feeding audManagement. Cloth 4.00 LOWE. (t)" Breeding Racehorses by the Figure System." Compiled by the late 0. Bruce Lowe. Edited by William Allison, " The Special Commis- sioner," London Sportsman, Hon. Secretary Sporting League, and Manager of the International Horse Agency and Exchange. With numerous fine illustra- tions of celebrated horses. Cloth, size 8 x 10, 262 pages * 7 50 LUDLOW. "Science in the Stable"; or How a Horse can be Kept in Perfect Health and be Used Without Shoes, in Harness or under the Saddle. With the Reason Why. Second Edition. By Jacob E. Ludlow, M.D. Late Staff Surgeon, U. S. Army. Paper, size 41-2x5 3-4, 166 pages 50 LUPTON. "Horses: Sound and Unsound," with Law relating to Sales and Wairarily. By .T Irvine Lupton, F.B.C.V.S. Cloth, size 6 3-4x7 12, 217 pages, 28 illustrations 1 25 M'pAD'ttjAif. (t) " Anatomy of the Horse.*' Second edition completely revised. A Dissection Guide. By John MTadyean, M.B., B.So., F.R.S.E. Cloth, size 6 X 8 3 4, 389 pages, Illustrated. 8 50 This book Is intended for Veterinary students, and offers to them In its 48 full-page colored plates, 54 illustrations and excellent text, a valuable and practical aid in the study of Veterinary Anatomy, especially in the dissecting room. — " ComparatiTe Anatomy of the Domesticated Animals." By .f. M'Fadyean. Profusely illustrated, and to be Issued in two parts. Part I— Osteology, ready. Size 5 1-2x8 1-2, 166 pages, 132. illustrations. Paper, 2 60; cloth 2 75 (Part II in preparation.) MAGNEB. "Standard Horse and Stock Book." By D. Magner. Comprising over 1.000 pages, illustrated with 1756 engravings. Leather binding 6 (0 MILLS. "How to Keep a Dog in the City." By Wesley Mills, M.D., D.V.8. It tells how to choose, manage, house, teed, educate the pup, how to keep him clean and .teach him cleanliness. Paper, size 5x7 1-2, 40 pages 26 MOHLEK. " Handbook of Meat Inspection." By Robert Ostertag, M.D. Translated by Earley Vernon Wilcox, A.M., Ph.D. With an introduction by John R. Mohler, V.M.D., AM. See " Ostertag." MOLLEB — DOLLAR. (f)" Regional Veterinary Surgery." See " Dollar." MOSSELMAN-LIEKAUX. "Manual of Veterinary Microbiology." By Professors Mosselman and Llenaux, Nat. Veterinary College, Cureghem, Belgium. Translated and edited by R. R. Dinwiddle, Professor of Veterinary Science, College of Agriculture, Arkansas State University. Cloth, size 6 1 2 x 8, 342 pages, illustrated 2 00 MOUSSV. (•'("Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, Goats and Swine." See " Dollar." NEUMANN. CY'X Treatise on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases of the Domesticated Animals." A work to which the students of human or veterinary medi- cine, the sanitarian, agriculturist or breeder or rearer of animals, may refer for full information regarding the external and internal Parasites — vegetable and animal — which attack various species of Domestic Animals. A Treatise by L. G. Noumann,' Professor at the National Veterinary School of Toulouse. Translated and edited by Geo. Fleming, C.B., LL.T).. F.R C.V.8. Second edition, revised and edited by James Macqueen, F.R.O.V.S., Professor at the Royal Veterinary College. London. Cloth, size 6 34 x 10, xvl + 698 pages, 365 lllustratlone 6 7S ifOCARD. " The Animal Tuberculoses, and their Kelation to Human Tuberculosis." By Ed. Noeard, Prof, of the Alfoit Veterinary ColleKe. Translated by H. Sourfield, M.D. Ed., Ph. Camb. Cloth, 5x7 1-2, 143 pages . . 1 00 Perhaps the chief interest to doctors of human medicine in Professor Nocard's book lies in the demonstration of the small part played by heredity, and the great part played by contagion in the propa- gation of bovine tuberculosis. NUJfN'. (*)" Veterinary Toxicology." By Joshua A. Nunn, P.RC.V.S. The study of toxicology is intimately blended with other biological sciences, particularly physiology and chemistry, both of which it on many occasions overlaps. A carefully arranged aijd com- plete index' is given in the front of the volume. Cloth, size 0x83-4, vii + 191 pages 1 75 OSTERTAG. (*)" Handbook of Meat Inspeclion." By Robert Ostertag, M D. Authorized Translation by Earley Vernon Wilcox. A.M., Ph.D. With an intro- duction by John K. Mohler, V.M.D., A.M. The work is exhaustive and auihorative and has at once become the standard authority upon the subject Second edition, revifeed. Cloth, size 6 3-4x9 3-4, 920 pages, 260 illustrations and 1 colored plate 7 50 PAT, LIN. (*) " A Treatise on Epizootic lymphangitis." By Capt. W. A. Pailiu, F.B.C.V.S. In this work the author has endea\ored to combine his own experience with that of other writers and so attempts to give a clear and complete account of a subject about which there is little at present in English veterinary litera- ture. Cloth, size 5 3-4x8 1-2, 90 pages, with 17 fine full page illustrations 1 25 PEGLER. " troat Keeping for Amateurs." Paper, 5x7J, 77 pages, illustrated 5o PELLERIN. "Median ITenrotomy in the Treatment of Chronic Tendinitis and Periostosis of the Fetlock." By C. Pellerin, late repetitor of Clinic and Surgery to the Alfort Veterinary School. Translated, with Addi- tional Facts Relating to It, by Prof. A. Liautard, M.D., V.M. Having rendered good results when performed by himself, the author believes the operation, which consists in dividing the cubito-plantar nerve and in excising a portion of the peripherical end, the means of improving the conditions, and consequently the values of many apparently doomed animals. Agricul- ture in particular wiU be benefited. The work is divided ino iwo parts. The fiist covers the study of Median Neurotomy itself; the second, the exact relations of the facts as observed by the author. Boards, 6x9 1-2, 61 pages, illustrated . . 1 00 PtiTHRS. " A Tuberculous iterd— lest with tuber- culin." By AusMh Peters, M. B. C. V. S., Chief Inspector of Cattle for the New York State Board of Health during the winter of 1S92-93. Pamphlet 25 REYNOLDS. "An Essay on the Breeding and manage- ment of Draught Horses." By B. 8. Beynolds, M.K.C.V.S. Cloth, size 6 1-2x8 34, 104 pages. .1 4U BOBERGE. " The Foot of the Horse," or Lameness and all Diseases of the Feet traced to an Unbalanced Foot Bone, prevented or cured by balanclnK the foot. By David Boberge. Cloth, size 6x9 1-4, 308 pages, . Hlustrated 6 00 SESSIONS. (•)" Cattle Tuberculosis," a Practical Guide to the Agriculturist and Inspector. By Harold Sessions,. F.B.C.V.S., etc. Second edition. Size 5 x 7 1-4, vi -f 120 pages.... 1 00 The subject can be understood by those who have to deal particularly with it, yet who, perhaps, have not had the necessary training to appreciate technical phraseology. SEWELiLi. "The Examination of Horses as to Sound- ness and Selection as to Purchase." By Edward Sewell, M.K.C.V.S. Paper, size 51-2x8 1-2, 86 pages, illustrated with 8 plates in color 1 £0 It is a great advantage to the business man to know something of the elements of law, and nobody ought either to buy or own a horse who does not know something about the animal. That something this book gives, and gives in a thoroughly excellent way SMITH. (')" k Manual of Teterinary Physiology." By Col. F. Smith, CM.S., F.K.av.S., F.l.C, author of " A Manual of Veterinary Hygiene." Throughout this manual the object has been to con- dense the information as much as possible. The broad facts of the sciences are stated so as to render them of use to the student and practitioner. Bevised and enlarged, 1907. — (*)'* Manual of Teterinary Hygiene." Third edition revised. Cloth, size 5 1-4x7 1-2, xx -t- 1036 pages, with 255 illustrations 4 75 Becognizing the rapid advance and extended field of the subject since the previous issue, the author has entirely re-written the work and enlarged its scope, which is bfought thoroughly up to date. Con- tains over 600 more pages than the second edition. STRANOEWAY. (t)"Teterinary Anatomy." Edited by I. Vaughan, P.L.S., M.R.O V.S. New edition reylsed. Cloth, size 6 1-4x9 1-2, 625 pages, 224 lllus 5 OU SUSSDORF. "Six Large Colored Wall Diagrams." By Prof. Sussdorf, M.D. (of GSttingen). Text translated by Prof. W. Owen Williams, of the New Veterinary College, Edinburgh. Size, 44 inches by 30 Inches. 1. — Horse. 4.— Ox. 2. -Mare. 5.— Boar and Sow. 3.— Cow. 6.— Dog and Bitch. The above are printed in eight or nine colors. Showing the position of the viscera in the largo cavities of the body. Price, unmounted 1 76 each " mounted on linen, with roller 3 50 " THOMPSON, ft)" Elementary Lectures on Teterinary Science." For agricultural students, farmers and stock keepers. By Henry Thompson, M.R.C.V.S., lecturer on Veterinary Science at the Aspatria Agri- cultural College, England. It is complete yet concise and an up-to-date book. Cloth, 397 pp., 51 lllus.. 3 75 VAN MATEB. "A Text Book of Veterinary Opli. thalmology." By George G. Van Mater, M.D., D.V.S., Professor of Ophthalmology in the American Veterinary College; Oculist and Auristto St. Martha's Sanitarium and Dispensary ; Consulting Eye and Ear Surgeon to the Twenty-sixth Ward Dispensary ; Eye and Ear Surgeon, Brooklyn Eastern District Dispen- sary, etc. Illustrated by one chromo lithograph plate anil 71 engravings. Cloth, 6x9 1-4, 151 pages.. .3 00 . . . We intend to adopt this valuable work as a text book.— E. J. OreiLy, D.V.S., Dean of the San Fraucisco Veterinary College. VETERINARY DIAGRAMS in Tabular Form. Size, 28J in. x 22 inches. Price per set of five 4 00 Mounted and folded in case 7 CO Mounted on roller and varnished 10 00 No. 1. "Tlie External Form and Elementary Ana- tomy of the Horse." Eight colored illustrations— 1. External regions ; 2. Skeleton ; 3. Muscles (Superior Layer) ; 4. Muscles (Deep Layer) ; 5. Bespiratory Ap- paratus ; 6. Digestive Apparatus ; 7. Circulatory Ap- paratus ; 8. Nerve Apparatus ; witb description. ... 1 26 Mounted on roller and varnished 2 2S No. 2. "The Age of Domestic Animals." Forty-two figures illustrating the structure of the teeth, indicat- ing the Age of the Horse; Ox, Sheep, and Dog, with full description 76 Mounted on roller and varnished . , 2 00 ETERIXARY DIA.aRA.MS foontinued). No. 3. "The Unsoundness and Defects of the Horse." Fifty fifjures illustrating — 1. The Defects of Confor- mation ; 2. DefHCts of Position ; 3. luHrmlties or tiigns ' of Di8«ase ; 4. Unsoundnesses ; 6. Defects of the Foot ; with full fiesoription 75 Mounted on roller and varnished 2 00 No. 1. "The Shoeing of the Horse, Mnle and Ox." , Fifty figures descriptive of the Anatomy and Physio- logy of the Foot and of Horse-shoeing 75 Mounted on roller and varnished 2 00 No. 5. "The Elementary Anatomy, Points, and But< Cher's Joints of the Ox." Ten oolored illustrations — 1. SkelHton; 2. Nervous System; 3. Digestive System (Right Side) ; 4. Respiratory System ; 5. Points of a Fat Ox ; 6. Muscular System ; 7. Vascular System ; 8. Digestive System (Left Side) ; 9. Butcher's Sections of a Calf ; 10. Butcher's Sections of an Ox ; with full flBscription 1 25 Mounted on roller and varnished 2 25 WALLET. " A Practical Guide to Meat Inspection." By Thomas Walley, M.R.C.V.S., late principal of the Edinburgh Royal (Dicli) Veterinary College ; Pro- fH.s8or of Voterlnary Medicine and Surgery, etc. Fourth Eilltion, thoroughly revised and enlarged by Stewart Stockman. M.R.C.V.S , Professor of Pathology, Lecturer on Hygiene and Meat Inspection at Dick Veterinary College, Edinburgh. Cloth, size 6 1-2x8 1-4. with 45 colored illus., 295 pages 3 00 An experience of over 30 years In his profession and a long official connection (some sixteen years) with Edinburgh Abattoirs have enabled the author to gather a large store of information on the subject, whiph he has erabo'lied in his book. While Dr. Stockman is indeed indebted to the old for much iiseful Information, tills up-to- date work will hardly be recognized as the old " Walley's Meat Inspection." WILCOX. (*)" Handbook of Meat Inspection." By Rotiert Ostertag, M.D. See " Oatertog." ■ WILLIAMS. "Principles and Practice of Veterinary Medicine." Author's edition, entirely revised and illustrated with numerous plain and colored plates. Bv W. Williams, M.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 5 3-4x8 3-4, 86S pages 7 50 ' — " Principles and Practice of Veterinary Surgery." Author's edition, entirely revised and illustrated with numerous plain and .colored plates. By W Williams, M.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 6 1-2x9 1-4, 756 pages .... , .7 50 THE MOST COMPLETE, PROGRESSIVE AND SCIENTIFIC BOOK ON THE SUBJECT IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE (•) WINSLO W, "Teterinary Materia Medica and Therapeu- tics." By Kenelm Winslow. B.A.S., M.D.V., M.D., (Harv.i ; formerly Assistant Professor of Therapeutics in the Veterinary School of Harvard University; Fellow of the Massachusetts Medical' Society ; Surgeon to the Newton Hospital, etc. Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged Cloth, size 6 1-4x9 1-4, x + 804 pages 6 00 In accordance with the hitherto expressed desire of the author and publishers to keep this work at its highest point of efficiency, it has been deemed incumbent upon them to again present a new and revised edition— the fourth edition of 1906 being exhausted. In the present revision the most notable f eatui-e is the substitution of a section on Condensed Treatment of Diseases of the Domestic Animals for the Index of Diseases and Remedial Measures, at the end of the book. In the preparation of this matter, very considerable time and pains have been taken to render this section a reflection and epi- tome of all that is most modern and progressive in veterinary thera- peutics. Special Indications for treatment, including drugs and therapeufjo agents othei' than drugs, in the different phases and stages of all the important diseases of ttie domestic animals are to be found. These dis- eases embrace not only medical and surgical disorders, but those of the EYE, SKIN and EAB. If the attempt has been in any degree successful, this new edition to the book should prove one of its most valuable features both to practitioners and students. Moreover, many changes have been made in the text in consonance with recent advances in our knowledge of the action of drugs. WYM:a.N. f*)" Bovine Obstetrics." By M. G. De Bruin. Translated by W. E. A. Wyman, M.D.V.,V.S. See also " De Brum." — (•)" Catechism of the Principles of Veterinary Surgery." Bv W. E. A. Wyman, M.D.V..V.S. Cloth, size 6x9, 321 pages 3 50 Concerning: this new work attention is called to the following points: 1.— It discusses the subject upon the basis of veterinary investigations. 3.— It does away with works on human pathology, histology, etc. 3.— It explains each question thoroughly both from a scientific as well as a practical point of view. 4.— It is writen by oneinowing the needs of the student. 6.— It deals exhaustively with a chapter on tumors, heretofore utterly neglected in veterinary pathology. 6. — The only work in English specializing the subject. 7.— The only work thoroughly taking into consideration American as well as European investigations^ 8|— Offering practical hints which have not appeared in print, the result of large city and country practice. WYMAN (Continued) — (t,"The Clinical Diagnosis of Lameness in the Horse." By W. E. A. Wyman, D.V.S., formerly Professor of Veterinary Science, Clemson A. & M. College, and Veterinarian to the South Carolina Experiment Station. Cloth, size 6x9 1-2, 182 pp., 32 illus. . . .2 50 (t)" Tibio-peroneal Neurectomy for the Belief of Spayin Lameness." By W. E. A. Wyman, M.D.V., V.S. Boards, size 6 x 9, 30 pages, illustrated 50 Anyone wanting to perform this operation should ptoonre this little treatise ; he will find it of considerahle help.— The - Veterinary Journal. ZTTILL. "Typhoid FcTer; or Contagions Inflnensa in the Horse." By Prof. W. L. Zuill, M.D.,D.V.S. Pamphlet, size 6x9 1-4, 29 pages 25 ZUKDEL. "The Horse's Foot and Its Diseases." By A. Ziindel, Principal Veterinarian of Alsace Lorraine. Translated by Dr. A. Liautard, V.S. Cloth, size 5x7 3-1, 248 pages, illustrated 2 00 Any boolc sent -prepaid for the price WILLIAM R. JENKINS GO. 851 and 853 Sixth Avenue, NEW YORK. I I "-3 ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^s MMAi