.^^^UfiAHlMHBHHlJW AUGSBURG5 bOOK 1 EDUCATIONAL PUBUSHING CO. ^m fork Hati ©aUpgp of Agrur ultur^ At CUnrttfU llnittfraitH 3tl)ara, 5J. f. IGtbrarg: NC 620.A8°5™" ""'""'""■""''" Augsburg's drawing ... 3 1924 014 453 967 The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924014453967 Hugsburg's H)rawing BOOK I. A. Text Book Designed -to Teach Drawing and Color in the First, Second and Third Grades BV 2). 1R. HuQSburg Director of Drawing in the Public Schools of Oakland, CaL EDUCATIONAL PUBUSHING COMPANY BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO COPTBIGHT, 1901 Bi. D. R. AUGSBURG PREFACE. "Augsburg's Drawing" is a Three Book System designed to teach Form and Color in the Public Schools. Each subject is treated topically, and arranged so as to give the widest latitude and the greatest flexibility in teaching. Book I. is a Teachers' Hand Book showing simple and effective methods of teaching drawing, including color, to children in the first, second and third grades. Book II. is designed as a regular text book to be placed in the hands of pupils of the fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth grades, and should be used the same as a text book in arithmetic or other subjects. It may also be used as a manual, in connection with a system of copy, blank books or drawing pads. Book II. forms a complete course of the essen- , tials of Free-hand Drawing. Book III. contains short, yet complete, courses in Brush Drawing, Wash Drawing, "Water Color Drawing, Pen Drawing, Chalk Modeling, Drawing of the Human Head and Figure, Decorative Design and Me- chanical Drawing. Book III. is to be used when any of the above sub- jects are taught. It is designed to enrich and make complete the sabjec* of drawing. CONTENTS. PAGE 0-ENERAL Principles . . . . . . • . . .7 FiKST Years of Drawing ....... 13 CHAPTER I. Drawing from Memory and the Imagination . . . 15 CHAPTER II. Action Drawing . . . . " . . . . . 21 CHAPTER III. Ambidextrous or Two-handed Drawing . . . . .35 CHAPTER IV. Place and Relation of Objects . . . . . . 47 CHAPTER V. The Drawing of Trees ........ 58 CHAPTER VI. Rklative Size ok Objects . ...... 70 CHAPTER VII. Teaching Proportion . . t , , . , . .76 4 CONTENTS. 5 PAGE CHAPTER VIII. Teaching Unity ......... 87 CHAPTER IX. Primary Object Drawing ........ 98 CHAPTER X. Quick Drawing . . . . . . . .115 CHAPTER XI. Thk Drawing of Birds ........ 125 Cr;APTER XII. The Drawing of Animals ....... 140 CHAPTER XIII. Teaching Color .......... 153 CHAPTER XIV. Brush Drawing . . . . . . . . .160 CHAPTER XV. Water Colors ......... . 170 INTRODUCTION. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. The Mental Image. — In drawing, the child does not draw directly from the object, but from the image of the object that is in his mind. It is the office of the model to stimulate, correct, and vivify this mental image. " This image is the great instrument of instruction," hence it should be one of the chief aims of the teacher to help the child form correct images ; to train the child's power of imagery. Some of the principal sources of image-making are objects, both natural and artificial, pictures, poetry, oral pic- tures, stories, music, dramatic action, geography, history, science, etc. AH oi these may be used in the drawing-class. Especially should those sources of imagery bo used that grow out of the life of the child, such as his games, plays, and sources of interest. The Idea and Its Expression. — In every mode of expres- sion there is (1) the idea, (2) the mode or method of expressing the idea. The mode of expressing the idea indicates the grasp the child has of it. The more complete the grasp of the idea the better will be the mode of expressing it. The idea and its expres- sion should be as nearly a unit as possible. It is wrong to separate the mode of expression from the idea. A mode of expression without its idea — without something to express — is a waste of time, and will be barren of results. Expression is the following of a thought — the thought expressed. This thought, this idea or concept, is the real substance which expands into the visible drawing. The Type Form. — The type form is a measure of compari- son ; a single object that is similar to or typical of many objects. The type form is useless to the child until he has something to 8 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. measure with it — until he feels the need of it. The type form should be studied in connection with the objects of which it is a type. It should not supplant, but attend. The principal type forms in drawing are the sphere, cube, cylinder, and triangular prism. It is doubtful if type forms are of much use before the fourth grade. Mediums of Expression.— There are many mediums of ex- pression within the reach of the school-room. Some of them are the lead pencil, crayon, charcoal, water colors, clay modeling, paper cutting, brush drawing, pen drawing, knife work, etc. One is apt to look on these di3"erent means of expression as having little relation to each other, but" this is not so, they may be diflferent mediums for doins; the same thinmer. The boat in which you went rowing. All children cannot draw all of these, hut most children can draw some of them. Imaginative Drawing. In the following exercises the post may be changed for any other object the teacher may choose, such as a stump, a log, a rock, or a box. The teacher may, if she wishes, show the children how to draw this first object, but no more. The post is merely in- tended for an object to start from. (1) Draw a post and on it place a ball; a basket; a bird's house ; a Jack-o'-lantern ; a cat ; a squirrel ; an owl. (2) Draw a post and to it hitch a kite ; a boat ; a horse ; a goat ; a dog ; a cow. (^3) Draw a post and place by the side of it a wheelbarrow; a cart ; a rake ; a pitchfork ; three rabbits, a deer. (4) Draw a post and represent a boy sitting on it ; standing on it ; leaning on it ; leaning against it ; sitting against it ; pushing against it ; pulling it ; hammering it ; spearing it ; throwing a stone fit it ; lassooing it. ILLUSTRATING STOEIES AND BITS OF POETRY. These oral pictures and stories should be very direct, plain, short and undivided. The teacher's aim is to make the mental image as vivid and strong as possible. The words alone should form the mental image. The teacher must not show the pupil how hy means of a drawing. The following are some simple examples of stories and bits of Doetry suitable to illustrate : There is a boy sitting on a log. He is fishing. I see a post standing alone. There is a cat on top of the post and a dog on the ground. There is a tree. A boy is leaning against the tree. He is flying a kite. I see a boy running and a little girl trying to catch him. The boy is running toward a tree. There is a bird's house on top of a post. Two doves live in the house. One is on the roof, the other is flying away to get food for her little ones inside of the house. Three wise men of Gotham Went to sea in a bowl ; And if the bowl had been stronger, My song had been longer. IT 18 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. Simple Simon went a-fishing For to catch a whale ; And all the water he had got Was in his mother's pail. High on the branch of a walnut tree A bright-eyed squirre^l sat. What was he thinking so earnestly? And what was he looking at ? There come the little gentle birds, Without a fear of ill, Down to the murmuring water's edge. And freely drink their fill. Here we go to the branches high ! Here we come to the grasses iow I i O O O f-> ^ f>- /s. A A A A The difierence between a child and a grown person is shown in the proportion of the head to the rest of the bod}-. The larcer the head in proportion to the body and limbs the smaller the child, aa shown in Figs. 23-26. in- y /. <( JO C /\ t) i n ^A^ A, /-o ti Ni 9 c5^=a. Though all may be making drawings at the same time it is not difficult to teach the pupils to be self-reliant and to depend on their own efforts. This may be done by speaking deprecatingly, but in a kindly manner, of those drawings that are copies of he one the teacher has drawn on the blackboard. Teach the 28 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. pupils to rery on their own mental image, rather than take the mental image of another. All may use the same idea, the same principle, the same method, but each should represent the idea, AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. use the principle, and employ the method in as independently as possible. (>r 29 lis own' wav, and ps-ra. C\i Cf 4 u 7S n rs so AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. Subjects for Action Drawing Children can only repre- sent those actions with which they are acquainted. The following actions most children are familiar with and can. represent if they hare been taught how to represent action. Walking Jumping the rope Eunning Playing mai-bles Jumping Shooting a gun Dancing Shooting a bow Climbing Throwing a spear Playing horse Rolling a hoop Eowing a boat Riding a bicycle Paddling a canoe Pulling a rope Playing tag Pushing Fishing Flying a kite Swimming Coasting Swinging Climbing a ladder Skating Carrying a pail Keeling over Carrying a rock Walking on hands Carrying a basket Turning a somersault Carrying a post Wheeling a wheel- log barrow Picking up Spading Sowing seed Pitching hay Mowing hay Shoveling Hoeing Pounding Crying papers Drawing a wagon Carrying a hoot Pushing a cart Driving Playing a piano Speaking a piece Beating a drum Tug of war Blowing a horn Falling down AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 3] The Action Principle the Same in Most Animals — The action of animals is in principle very much the same. For example, the running of the deer, horse, cow, dog, rat, etc., are the same in principle, but diifer in details and the characteristics of the animal. Observe in Figs. 79-86 that the position of the legs is the same in each figure. It is not necessary to learn the action of each animal separately, if the action of one animal is learned, it becomes the basis of the action of all other animals. Almost any animal may be chosen as a type for the study of action, but perhaps the deer is the best for gen- eral purposes ; the body is' simple in form, the legs long and slender, and the head and neck easy to represent. The manner of studying an animal is the same as in the study of the action fisfures : First — Learn the action through the copy. Second — Use the action in imagin- ative and memory work. Third — Perfect the action by direct observation. 1. For example, let the pupils copy the action of the deer. Figs. 55-66. Let them copy these figures systematically until they can represent an action with gome degree of accuracy. 82 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 2. tTse the action in connection with a story or a picture. J3rj^w a hay-cock on the blackboard and ask the pupils to represent a deer jumping over it ; lying to the right of it ; to the left ; in front of it, etc. /o/ /ol 3. Follow up where possible with the study of the real animal . In like manner take up the study of the horse, dog, and squirrel, observing the real animal to correct, verify, and perfect the action. A squirrel can be brought into the school-room for study and obaervation. ^ ^^i!!S„ ^IK 10 3 107 :v \3 I oil //o S4 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. The same general plan is followed in the study of the action of birds. Fig. 119 represents the principle actions in flying. Action cards containing the principle actions of the deer, horse, dog and birds arranged systematically may be procured or these actions may be copied and by means of the hectograph be given to each pupil. ^V the direction that the hand travels. All of these exercises may be reversed. Each exercise should be abandoned soon after it has become automatic. The co-ordinating exercises may be practised by the Dupila on the tops of their desks, using the forefinger in place of be crayon. Standard Units. — Figs. 13-18 represent six standard units. These units contain the principle elements found in liistoric orna- ment and in modern decoration and design. These units are of so much importance and are so foundational in character that they should be thoroughly learned and memorized. The standard units are very similar. Carry the point U of the blade around further and the ti-utnpet 38 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. is formed ; carry it still further and the whorl is formed ; eliminate the point entirely and the loop is formed ; add another point and the shoulder is formed. The wing is a compound unit made by uniting the blade with itself. Fig. 19 represents the four kinds of curves that may.be used with nearly all units. . . _ A represents the outward curve, B the inward curve, C the inward double curve, and D \\\e outward double curve. Figs. 20-2(5 i-eprcsent the principal wing units. The wing units are formed by uniting the blade with each of the standards. Thus : Fig. 20 is formed by uniting the blade with itself. Fig. 21, by uniting the blade and trumpet. Fig. 22, the blade and whorl, Fig. 23, the blade and the loop, and Fig. 24, the blade and shoulder. Fig. 25 is formed by changing the line A. of the win^ to the outward double curve, and Fig. 20, by changing line B. Figs. 27-32 represent the standard units doiibkd. Thc&c aic suitable and adjqited to two-handed exercises. Figs. 33-39 represent the wing units, Figs. 20-26, doubled. AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 39 -Figs. 27-32 are in outward cui"ve. They may be drawn in inward curve similar to Fig. 40 or in inward double curve as shown in Fig. 41, or in outward double curve as showii in Fig.. -42'. The X in the above drawings shows the beginning point when drawing with both hands. The drawing of these designs on the blackboard is*very rapid work. A class can readily draw a set similar to Figs. 27—32 in less than five minutes after they have memorized the units. Figs. 43-47 represent a very serviceable series of units' for ' IB, 1» IBr Im ISlB^ ' ^3 tt *i- fi */ -Vy *f io 17 two-handed exercises. They are based on the standard units Fig. 43 is the blade. Fig. 44 the trumpet. Fig. 45 the whorl. Fig. I 46 the loop, and Fig. 47 t\\& shoulder. All of these are drawn in i outward curves. Fig. 48 is drawn in outward curve, Fig. 49 in inward curve, Fig. 50 in inward double curve, and Fig. 51 in outward double curve. Each of the standard units may be drawn in the same manner. The Scroll. — The double curve. Fig. 52, is considered the most beautiful of lines, and the combination of the single a,nd doxMt AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. curve, Fig. 53, the most beautiful combination of lines. This union of the single and double curve is, perhaps, the most common combination found in decorative work, and is one of the important elements to be learned. The elements of the scroll. Fig. 54, are the sinsle and double curve combined. These elements are also found in the double curved units. Fig. 55 represents the scroll with outward curving branches, and Fig. 56, with inward curving branches. These represent the principal forms of the scroll. AUGSBURG'S DRAWING, 41 /igs. 57-63 represent some additional forms of the scroll that are serviceable as main lines in forming designs. To draw with ease and facility the curves of the scroll requires a great deal of practice and much persistent effort, but the gain to the pupil in skill and grace will richly repay all the work that may be put forth in the mastery of these elements. These scrolls miay be made with both hands together or with both hands alternating. For example, in Fig. 61, the part at the y&6 a C7 Ca left may be made with the left hand, and then the part at the right with the right hand, or both parts may be drawn together. The scroll, Fig. 54, and similar figures may be drawn double, the part to the left drawn with the left hand and the part to the right with the right hand. Always draw first with the left hand and then repeat with the right. All symmetrical objects can be drawn with two hands, and the power to go further increases wonderfully with practice. 4S AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. Vase forms, similar to Figs. 64-68, are well adapted to this kino of drawing, as well as many other forms of china and earthen warer- Figs. 69-80 represent another phase of this work. These drawings are more interesting to children than those of a decora- tive character, but are less valuable for training purposes. These drawings should bo used more in the nature of a device to add humor, >Miiety and ihterest to the work. Preparing for Two-Handed Drawing. — The aims are: To gain skill, freedom, and speed in the use of the hands; to co- /A ordinate the two hands so they will work easilj' and freely togethe- " to learn some of the fundamental elements of Decorative Design. To do this, facility should be placed before accuracy. Out cf facility will grow accuracy , jJrovidmg the idea groivs also. It is the endency of the idea to perfect itself through repetition, providing the band and mind work together. If there is interest, there is growth, but there is little or no progress when the mind is in a passive state and the perfecting element dormant. Quantity will not lead to quality unless there is a striving for perfection. To give the idea a chance to grow and perfect itself, ambidextrous exercises should be repeated each day for one week. Tliese exer- cises should not be more than five minutes long. The two-handed work should be divided into groups of what can be drawn in about five minutes, working under favorable con- ditions and then work to fulfill these conditions. AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 43 The standard units, Figs. 13-18, should be learned by the ]papil at his seat, by carefully copying them until they can be reproduced from memory. If desired, the co-ordinating exercises, Figs. 1-12, may be practised on top of the desk, using the finger in place of the crayon. y \- J ^ Manwek of Condfcttng a Class in Two-IIaxded Dr.AAvrxo. Divide the pupils into divisions that can comfortably work at *he blackboards, allowing two feet of space for each pupil. Each pupil should have his own place permanently. Each place should be supplied with crayon and one eraser. The leader, which may be either the teacher or ii pupil, should stand at the blackboard where all can see his work plainly. ■ The leader uses three commands: Look. Draw. Erase. At the command "Look," all pupils look at the leader while he draws, say Fig. 27. Then at the command "Draw," all draw Fig. 27 the same as the leader did. At the command " Erase," all erase their work ready for the next number in the group. The number of drawings that a class can draw in a given time depends largely on the alertness and decision of the leader. 44 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. Pebfectino Exeecises are for the special purpose of raising the standard of excellerce, correcting mannerisms, and perfecting tlie ideal. For example, all may be able to draw the trumpet. Fig. 14, but very imperfectly. Then a perfecting exercise would have for its object the perfecting of this unit ; learning how to draw it more perfectly, making it more beautiful, and raising the ideal higher. The manner of conducting a perfecting lesson is by com- parison. The leader places on the blackboard the element, say the trumpet, and nil try to make a similar one, copying .it again and Again and receiving such help and suggestions as the leader can give. ^ 'y >X.:^^ )^ \ ixl Chalk Dust in the room is caused (1) by quick erasing, (2) by the upward stroke of the eraser. The remedy is to erase slowly, downward. There is no excuse for clouds of dust in the class-room if the teacher cares to stop it. tf Joa •*/ AUOSBnRO'S DRAWING 45 Five-Minute Drill Exercises Arranged in Groups. Group 1.— Figs. 2, 3, 4, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 69, 70 and 7x. Group 2. — Figs. 27, 28, 29, 30 and 31 in inward curve, similar to Fig. 40, also Fig. 72. Group 3. — Figs. 27, 28, 29, 30, and 31 in inward double curve, similar to Fig. 41, also Fig. 73. Group 4.— Figs. 27, 28, 29, 30 and 31 in outward double curve, similar to Fig. 42. Learn the wing units, Figs. 20—26. Commit them to memory so that they are known as well as the letters of the alphabet. Group 5.— Figs. 5, 6, 7, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39 and 74. loi loi 10* tos- Pfft fYj Group 6.— Figs. 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, divided by out- ward curves as Fig. 102, also Figs. 75 and 76. Group 7.— Figs. 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, and 39, divided by inward curves as in Fig. 103, also Figs. 77 and 78. Group 8.— Figs. 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, and 39, divided by inward double curves, as in Fig. 104. Also Figs. 79 and 80. Group P.— Figs. 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38 and 39, divided by outward double curves, as in Fig. 105. Also Figs. 81, 82, and 83. Group 10.— Figs. 8, 9, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 84 and 85. Group 11.— Fig. 10. Figs. 43, 44, 45, 46 and 47 in inward curve, similar to Fig. 49. Also Figs. 36 and 37. Group 12. — Figs. 43, 44, 45, 46 and 47 in inward double curve, similar to Fig. 50. Also Figs. 88 and 89. Group 13. — Figs. 43, 44, 45, 46 and 47 in outward double curve, similar to Fig. 51. ^ 46 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. Memorize Figs. 54, 55 and 56, as the foundational elements of the scroll. Group 14.— Figs. 57, 58, 59, 60, 90 and 91. Group 15.— Figs. 61, 62, 63, 92, 93, and 94. Group 16.— Figs. 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 95 and 96. Group 17.— Draw Figs. 57, 59, GO, 61, 62, and 63, and to each scroll ending add a standard unit, as in Figs. 109—114. Group 18. — Draw Fig. 106 and substitute in place of th^ blade the other standard units. Draw Figs. 97 and 98. Group 19. — Draw Fig. 107 and substitute in place of the blade each of the other standard units. Draw also Figs. 99 and 100. Any number of groups may be made by substituting in pRice of the shoulder and whorl of Fig. 108 the various staiidard units and the wings. CHAPTER IV. Place and Relation of Objects. Drawing, from the very beginning, deals witli tlie placing of one object, or a part of an object, in proportion to and relation with another object or part of an object. If we draw a bird, we must draw the head, body and tail in right proportion and relation to emh otjpr, or, if we wish to draw two apples or three balls, the same rule applies. And when we advance to still higher levels, we are only dealing with groups of objects and things, groups of animals, groups of men and wotfJiSTi, forms of hills, dales, trees and plains, all of which must bear this relationship and proportion. Material. — Spherical objects are the best to commence with, supji as ball^, apples, oranges, walnuts, cherries, plums and similar forms, though the , principle is the same for all objects. Much better work can be done when each child has three round objects for. his individual use, but good work can be done with only three or four large round objects placed on a table where all the class cap see them. Models and Drawings. — We get from the model the idea, from the dravving how to represent the idea on a flat surface. The model is the source, the drawing, the how. In the drawing we peixeive the principle and to the model or object apply the principle. From the drawing we learn the method, and then use it to repreaeni th« kukM. 47 48 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. The drawing shows how to represent the model, the model verifies the drawing. The use of the model is to form arULcorrect the mental image tliiit of the drawing to show how to make a picture of this menta ima.> ^-*x i !(' i i\ e X ii^ General Principles. — In Fig. 1 ball 2 is at the right of ball 1, because they rest on the same horizontal line. Balls 2 and 3 are at the right, and ball 4 is at the left of ball 1. Balls 1, 2, 3 and 4 are the same distance away. Objects on the same horizontal line are the same distance away. Ball 5 is farther away than ball 1, because it rests higher in the picture or drawing. Ball 10 is nearer than ball 1, because it rests lower in the picture. The farther away the object the higher it rests in the picture, and the nearer the object, the lower it resls^mthe picture. (NOTB. — This is true only below the level of the eye and on a flat sur- face.) Ball 10 is nearest and ball 11 farthest away. Ball 10 it lowest down and ball 11 highest up in the picture. Balls 7, 8 and 9 are the same distance away. AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 4 'J no (^' ^"^ r^r\{'^ 2. ^^g^-gr— ■=-=■ . fM^^^sH^KH^^^I ~~^^' I^^HH^^^^H ^^g Methods. — The following are some of the most simple methods of teaching this subject. Draw on the blackboard, say Fig. 2, and ask the pupils to place balls in the same position on their desks. Ask a pupil to come to the table and place the balls on the table in the same position as the balls in the drawing. In like manner draw balls in various positions as suggested by Figs. 2-10, and let the pupils place balls in the same position on their desks or the table. Place the balls in the position of Fig. 2 where all the pupils can see them plainly. The chalk rail is an excellent place. Ask a pupil to go to the blackboard and draw the balls as you have placed them. Ask the class to draw the balls on their tablets in the sair* positioQ. 50 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. In like manner draw the various positions as suggested by Figs. 2-10. Draw on the blackboard Fig. 11 and erase that portion of the line of the second ball that cannot be seen so that it will look like Fig. 12. This is to show the pupils how. Now place Fig. 11 again on the blackboard and ask a pupil to come up and erase the right line, so it will look like Fig. 12. Add another ball as in Fig. 13, and ask a pupil to erase the line that could not be seen, so it will look like the next figure. Add to Fig. 13 ball A as in Fig. 14, and have the unseen line erased. Add ball B and have the unseen lihes erased. Add ball A to Fig. 15 and have the unseen line erased. Place Fig. 16 on the blackboard and have the unseen linen erased. Do this until the pupils can recognize without hesitancy, the lines that should not show in the drawing. Size of Object. — The farther away the object the smaller it appears, and of course, the smaller it is represented in the drawing. This may be shown to pupils in the following way : With your pencil measure, by sighting, various objects in the room and let th« children see you do it. This is to show them how. Stand before AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 51 the class and ask them to measure the length of your head, by sighting, with their pencil as a measure. After they have learned to do this, walk backward away from the class, and again ask them to measure your head in the same way. It will now measure less — will appear smaller. Reverse the process and the head appears to grow larger. (See chapter VI. book II.) Compare the length of various objects in the room by thus measuring them with the pencil. Compare the length of objects out of doors — houses, trees, poles, etc. Place two balls on the table in the position of balls 10 and 11 in Fig. 1, and have the pupils measure the nearer one and compare it with the one farther away. — t ♦ — Placing Objects. — Fig. 17 represents an apple with several marks around it. Each mark is numbered. This drawing is used as follows : Draw an apple on the black- board similar to Fig. 17. Place a mark, say mark 2, at the left of it, and ask the pupils to draw a similar apple on their tablets and place another apple like it in the position of mark 2. In like manner have them place apples on the other points. Place two apples on the table as in Fig. 18. Draw the one with the stem on the blackboard. Ask a pupil to stand in front of the real apples and observe them closely and then step to the board and draw the other apple at the right distance, in the righit- 52 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. position, and of the right size, as compared with the apple already drawn on the board. Let the other pupils judge whether it is drawn correctly. The character of the apple need not be required in this work, merely the size, distance, and position in regard to the apple already drawn. Perhaps repeated attempts of several pupils will be required before the apple is placed properly. After the apples have been placed on the board properly erase them and ask all of the pupils to draw the apples as they are placed . on the table. If Fig, 18 is too difficult, place three apples on the ^^ '^ N. ' ^^ ) t i ~ n table as in Fig. 19, and draw the right and left apples and ask a pupil to draw the middle one, of the right size and in the right place. '■'•■' After the pupils can place objects right and left of a given object, then positions similar to Figs. 5—10 may be given* Draw an apple or similar object on the blackboard. See Fig. 17. Give the apple to a pupil and tell him to hold it in his hand so tnat it will look as represented in the drawing. Tell hjm to point to the same places on the apple in his hand, that you point' to in the drawing. Point to the stem, right edge, tog ,edg«^,]et&i'^^^™"- Reverse this process. ' .i ; ; ". AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 63 Draw an apple, Fig. 17, or similar object, on the blackboard and ask the pupils to draw a similar one on their tablets and place another like it — At the right of it. At the left of it. Behind it. In front of it. Place two apples behind it. Place two fipplos ill front of it. Draw a pear, Fig. 20, on the blackboard and ask the pupils to draw a similar one and place another like it on mark 1. On mark 2. On mark 3. On mark 4, etc. Draw on the blackboard a box similar to Fig. 21, and ask the pupils to place an apple or similar object on top of it, on the right, left, or in front of it. Draw a nest on the blackboard similar to Fig. 22. Ask the pupils to draw a similar one and place an egg in the nest. Two eggs. Three eggs. Place one inside and two outside of the nest, etc. Devices. — Dear to every child's heart arc life and action. There is no reason why these elements may not be introduced in 6i AtTGSStTRG'S DRAWIUG. this work. Care must, however, be taken not to let the device become primary and the principle you are teaching secondary. This may be guarded against by using the device only at the end of the lesson. The primary use of a device is that of an incentive ; lightly u.-^ed, it may help to impress many of the highest truths ill expression and method. Figs. 23-26 are devices added to the object, and Figs. 27-31 , represent the ball turned into some other object of similar form. AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. Aft DKILL EXEECISES. 1. Draw Fig. 1 on the blackboard. John, you may take the pointer and point to ball 1. Point to a ball at the right of ball 1. At the left. Point to two balls at the right of ball 1. Point to four balls the same distance away. To three balls the same distance away. To the nearest ball. The farthest ball. Which is the farthest away, ball 5 or 6? Why? Which is the nearest, ball 10 or 3 ? Why ? 2. Draw Fig. 2 on the blackboard and have the pupils place two round objects in similar positions on their desks. Do the same with Fig. 3, Fig. 4, Fig. 5, Fig. 6, Fig. 7, Fig. 8, Fig. 9. 3. Place two balls on the chalk rail of the blackboard in the position of Fig. 2 and ask a pupil to draw them on the blackboard above the balls in the same position. Let the class criticise. Place the balls as in Fig. 3 and ask a pupil to do the same. Do the same with Fig. 4. The pupils may also draw^ these on their tablets. 4. Place three balls on a level surface such as a table. Ask a pupil to look at them carefully and draw the same on the black- board. Do the same with Fig. 5, Fig. 6, Fig. 7, Fig. 8, Fig. 9, Fig. 10. 5. Draw Fig. 11 on the blackboard and ask a pupil to erase the unseen line so that one ball will appear behind the other. Add another ball as in Fig. 13. Add ball A as in Fig. 15. Add ball B as in Fig. 14. Add a ball to spot A in Fig. 12. Add a ball to spot A in Fig. 14. Add a ball to spot A in Fig. 15. Add a ball to spot A in Fig. 16. 6. Show pupils how to measure, by sighting, the length and width of objects with the lead pencil as a measure. Measure thus the length of a picture on the wall ; the width of the picture. Measure the length of the teacher's head. Measure the length of her head while she advances ; while she recedes. Compare the d6 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. length of a tree near by with a tree farther off. Compare the length of three telegraph poles. Compare the width of the pave- ment near by with the same farther away. Compare the diameter of two balls, one farther away than the other. 7. Draw an apple similar to Fig. 17 and place a similar apple on mark 2. On mark 1. On marks 1 and 2. On marks 3 and 6. On marks 4 and 1. On marks 1,3, and 5. 8. Place two apples on the table similar to Fig. 18. Draw the one with the stem on the blackboard and have a pupil draw the other. Add a third apple as in Fig. 19 and have a pupil draw it yn the blackboard. AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 57 9. Draw an apple on the blackboard and place another apple at the right of it and one at the left of it. One behind it. Two apples behind it. Two apples in front of it. Four apples around it. 10. Draw a pear similar to Fig. 20 and place a similar pear on mark 2. Place a pear on mark 1. Place a pear on mark 3. On mark 6. On marks 1 and 4. On marks 2, 3, and 5. On marks 2, 4, and 6. 11. Draw the front face of a box and on it place an apple. Place an apple to the right of it. To the left. Place an apple in front. Place two pears on top of the box. Place two balls in front of the box. 12. Draw a bird's nest and in it place one egg. Two eggs. Three eggs. Place two eggs in the nest and one egg on the out- side. Place one egg inside and three cgas outside. 13. Draw a haycock and [ilace another at the right of it. One at the left. Put the haycocks in the positions of Fig. 6. Fig. 7. Fig. 8. Fig. 9. Fig. 10. o o o o The following chapter is a continuation of this subject. Trees are substituted in the place of round objects. CHAPTER V. The Drawing of Trees. The easiest and quickest way of representing trees is as follows : With a soft pencil mark in the mass of the tree with a bold, free stroke, as in Fig. 1. Then with a shorter stroke mark in the branches, softening the edges, and aiming to show the general character of the outline, as in Fig. 2. Use the end of the pencil as in ordinary work, not the flat side. Work from the center outward. The center of the tree is the trunk. When making a drawing of trees the foliage and branches should spring from this trunk 68 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 59 center outward and upward. This is one of the most important laws of foliage I'epresentation, and should always be followed, or the unity of the tree will be destroyed and it will look like a heap of rubbish. Do not uttempt at first to vary the shade of the foliage. Put it on with one uniform shade, making trunk, limbs, and foliage about the same strength, similar to a shadow picture. Aim to represent the form only. Blackboard Drawing. — Use the side of a short piece of crayon to represent the foliage. Grasp the crayon with the first three fingers and thumb and then a broad or fine line can be made by merely tilting the crayon . The method to be followed in drawing trees on the black- board is the same as when using the pencil on paper, except that both the side and the end of the crayon are used. Do not outline the trees before drawing them, but draw from within outwo't-d: aiming at the larger truths rather than the smaller 60 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. ones. It is impossible to represent all the details ; choose those which are essential to the tree as a whole and omit those of less importance. The character of the branching is of more importance than exactness of outline, or the technical accuracy of the leaves. General character is one of the larger truths, and is usually lost ifl the lesser truths are observed too closely. , — ^-^-^^u-/^,, •-.*>.^. m x^z. ^4- 7 -'•-■■^v.«i '^^ Placing of Trees. — Observe in Fig. 4 that the tree on the left and the one on the right are the same distance away, but the one in the middle is farther away. The mechanical method of placing an object farther away is to place it higher in the picture. AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 61 In Figs. 5,6, and 7 the farther the trees are away the higher they are placed in the picture. Trees are perhaps more often seen in mass of practically one shade, than in any other way. Trees between you and the light, trees seen through a haze or fog, trees seen on cloudy or dark days, and distant trees, are usually of one even shade, similar to those in Figs. 4-11. It is an excellent plan to teach pupils to re- produce trees in the mass as they appear in silhouette against the sky, especially when the trees are between them and the light. ,:?<■, /■■o^-:m'C'- '•'^V-. Ik 62 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. Figs. 12-15 represent several palm trees. They are drawn as follows : Make a small mass of uniform shade at the top of the trunk and from this draw the leaves or branches, being careful to make the leaves spring from the center or stem. The blackboard drawing, Fig. 3, is drawn in the saiiio manner. Draw a light mass with the side of the crayon and then add the details with the end o^ tfle crayon. There are many kinds of grasses, flowers, sprays of leaves that can be best represented in the same manner as the palm trees. The sprays of the pepper tree and umbrella plant on the right, in the above illustration, are made with the end of the crayon, the others with the side of the crayon, and the details marked in with the end of the crayon. This is a rapid and eflFective means of representing both flowers and leaves on the blaQkboard. AUGSBURGS DRAWING. ^•iy^\ Mi K\ :x-. '^- la DRILL EXERCISES. 1. Show the class how to represent trees in the mass, as in Figs. 1 and 2. 2. Draw a tree and place another at the right of it. 3. Draw a tree and place another at the left of it. 4. Draw a tree and place another tree be- yond it. 5. Draw a row of three trees extend- ing away and to the right. See Fig. 5. 6. Draw a row of three trees extend- ing away and to the left. 7. Draw a row of five trees extending away and to the right. See Fig. 6. 8. Draw a row of five trees extending away and to the left. 9. Draw a tree and represent two trees quite a long distance beyond il. See Fig. 7. 10. Draw a row of eucalyptus trees. Fig. 8, extending away and to the left. 64 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 11. Draw six oak trees similar to Figs. 9 and 10 various distances away. 12. Draw a row of six palm trees similar to Fig. 12, extending away and to the left. 13. Draw a row of ten palm trees similar to the cocoanut palm, Fig. 14, ex- tending away and to the right. 14. Draw palm trees similar to Fig. 13 in place of the trees of Fig. 18. 15. Combine all of the palm trees in the place of the trees of Fig. 18. 16. Figs. 19-25 are trees that have been drawn as they appeared silhouetted •against the sky. Take the class out of doors and find trees similar to these, with the sky as a background, and let the pupils draw them in mass as they appear to the eye. • 17. Place a plant in such a position as to make it practically of one shade and let the pupils draw it. 18. Procure sprays of leaves or vines and draw them as in Fig. 17. -A L a^ ji^ ^-1 W^ "^^4^ mJ^l ^^-^f*^ K"' ►' '' \:A fe'^r" *'>-.i^^^S Iffi^^V^'^ ■"^'.^^M fe,^^ ,P»S._ j-aw-* ■«0-a(i Automatic Processes. — In arith- metic there are and should be certain processes that are purely automatic, such as the processes of addition and the mul- tiplication tabic. In language the words of ordinary conversation are spoken auto- matically, in obedience to the thought which they express. Writing is and should be purely automatic so that the AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. tt whole attention may be given to the thought expressed by the written characters. In liiie manner there are certain processes in drawing that should become largely automatic, before rapid progress can be made in. the art. Among these processes may be mentioned t/ie perspective principle, proportion, and the manipulation of the pencil. The Perspective Principle consists of representing objects on a flat surface at seem- ingly different distances away, as they appear in nature. The elements of this principle may be taught to pupils of the second grade or even lower. Below are simple methods of inculcating 1,his principle. 1. Draw on the blackboard a line similar to AB, Fig. 26. Draw an object, say a post, at each end of the line, as posts 1 and. 2. Post 2 may be any size smaller than post 1. 2. Ask the pupils to draw another post half way between posts 1 and 2. Post 3, Fig. 27. Do not draw this post in your drawing, but let the pupils draw it according to their judgment. You may, however, lead them to see that this post will be smaller than post 1, and larger than post 2. ....,,.Xs U 66 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. Q ,^'ij|!L« n U'J n -Z? 3. Iniike manner ask them to draw post 4 half-way between posts 1 and 3, and post 5, half-way between posts 3 and 2. il.jA;, • ■i..|lt/ V' .'i4 ..tkS^ .../i,V, 29 A L-J^ A. -jf In the same manner use hay-cocks, Fig. 28. Draw the lignt line and hay-cocks 1 and 2 with the pupils. Then ask the pupils to draw hay-cock 3 half-way between hay-cocks 1 and 2. Ther hay-cocks 4 and 5 half-way between 1 and 3, and 3 and 2. In like manner draw the wigwams and trees, Figs. 29 and 30. AtJGSBUBG'S DRAWING. 67 Draw a row of posts on line AB, Fig. 31, in the same manner as in Fig. 27. Draw a line parallel with line AB, similar to line CD, and dictate to the class as follows : Draw at the right of post 1, on line CD, a ball. Draw at the right of post 3, on line CD, a ball. Do the same at the right of post 2. Post 4. Post 5. Draw another line, as EF, and go through the same drill as above, using a rock, or other object, in the same manner as the ball. Two or more objects of different size may be associated together, as the wigwams and trees in Fig. 32. Draw the row of trees the same as the posts. Fig. 27. Lead the pupils to see that a wigwam is smaller than a tree, then let them draw a row of trees in the same manner as the posts, Fig. 27. 68 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. Then dictate : At the right of tree 1 draw a wigwam. Draw a wigwam at the right of tree 4. At the right of tree- 3 ; tree 5 ; tree 2. The wigwams may be placed at the right, left, in front, or back of each tree. J* The objects may be arranged as the balls in Fig. 33, or as the posts in fig. 34. Draw the line 1, 3, 2, and the balls 1 and 2. Dictate as follows : Draw a ball at angle 3. Draw a ball half-way between balls 1 and 3. 1^-- r AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 69 Draw a ball half-way between balls 3 and 2. Draw a ball at the left of ball 1. At the right of ball 3. In front of ball 4. Back of ball 5, etc. Substitute hay-cocks, trees, wigwams, or similar objects, in the place of the balls and posts, of Figs. 33 and 34. Draw on the blackboard a base-ball diamond, similar to Fig. 35. Draw the boy striking, and the one on second base, and then let the pupils draw the boys on the first and third bases, the short stop, catcher, pitcher, right, left, and center-fielders, umpire, etc. By comliining these figures and objects an endless variety of exercises may be given, until the perspective principle has, at least in part, become automatic. CHAPTER VI. Relative Size of Objects. To represent the relative size or proportion of objects is perhaps the most essential mechanical element in good drawing. This relative size is difficult for pupils to see and represent with- out aid from the teacher. The following is a simple and quite effective method of teaching this, while leading the pupil to note the relative difference in the size of objects. It is necessary to choose some object for a unit of measure or 70 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 71 comparison, that all children are acquainted with, such as a ball or apple. In this chapter we will use an apple. Place on the blackboard a ball, a cherry, a hat, and a wheel- barrow. Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4. Ask the class to show with their thumbs and forefingers about how large a ball is, then how large an apple is. Draw from them the fact that they are about the same size. If possible hold up an apple and ball together, that the pupils may see that they are about the same size. Draw the apple on the blackboard by the side of the ball, as in ?ig. 1. Ask the class to show with their curved forefingers and thumbs t::> ll. AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 73 how large a cHerry is, then how large an apple is. Draw from them the fact that a cherry is much smaller than an apple. If possible show an apple and cherry to the class. Draw the apple by the cherry, as in Fig. 2. In like manner compare the hat and apple. The wheelbarrou and apple. Figs. 3 and 4. Place an acorn, Fig. 8, on the blackboard and ask a pupil to draw an apple by the side of it. Let the other pupils judge whether the proportion is correct. In like manner place a walnut, Fig. 7 ; a berry basket. Fig. 6 ; a hay-cock and a tree. Fig. 5 ; and ask pupils to draw an apple by the side of each. Use the real objects whenever possible to aid the comparison. Draw on the blackboard a hay-cock, tree, berry-basket, walnut, and acorn, and ask the pupils to copy them on their tablets, and to place an apple by the side of each. Place on the blackboard various objects, such as Figs. 9-16, and let the pupils copy them, both on the blackboard and on their tablets, and by each place an apple of the right size and propor- tion. Until they have tried and failed, do not aid the pupils in making this comparison. It is an excellent plan to represent the size of the apple by means of height and width lines. 74 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. Any object the pupils are familiar with may be used ao a unit of comparison, such as a base-ball, foot-ball, pear, or pumpkin. The object used should be eas^' to represent. Always use models whenever possible ; the progress is more rapid and the results more sure when this is done. Draw on the blackboard a row of trees. Represent trees 1, 3, and 5 of the same height, and tree 2 shorter and tree 4 taller than the others. Ask a pupil to point to the nearest tree. The tree farthest away. The shortest tree. The tallest tree. The trees of the same height. Lead the pupils to see that the lurther away the object, the smaller ., is drawn. \ 3f> AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. DRILL EXERCISES 1. Draw a carrot and an apple. 2. Draw a tomato and an apple. 3. Draw a lemon and an apple. 4. Draw a turnip and an apple. 5. Draw a potato and an apple. 6. Draw a toadstool and an apple. 7. Draw a banana and an apple. 8. Draw a bird's nest and an apple. 9. Draw a pocket-knife and an apple. 10. Draw a pitcher and an apple. 11. Draw a mug and an apple. 12. Draw a wallet and an apple. 13. Draw a hatchet and an apple. 14. Draw a cap and an apple. 15. Place an apple on the head of Fig. 32. 16. Place an apple by the side of the dog's head, 17. Place an apple behind the chick, Fig. 34. 18. Draw a hat and place an apple in it. 19. Place the spider, Fig. 9, on an appie. 20. Draw a peanut and an apple. 21. Draw a foot-ball and an apple. 22. Draw a walnut and an apple. 23. Draw an acorn and an apple. 2i. Draw a squash and an apple, 25. Draw a frog and an apple. 26. Draw a cat and an apple. 27. Draw a rabbit and an apple. 28. Draw a squirrel and an apple, 29. Draw a mouse and an apple, no. Draw a bird and an apple. ■a\iTT\i^^ face smE Fi\tE #^ 6 CHAPTER VII. Teaching Proportion. Models. — A common crayon box is one of the best models to teach the recognition of the proportion of square-cornered forms. It has no superior in the variety of its faces and in its convenience and adaptability as a model. If preferred, faces made of cardboard may be used. There should be four of each kind, cut 7 x 7, 7x8, 7 x 9, 7 x 10, 7 x 11 and 7x12 inches. The cardboard models are to be used the same as the crayon box faces. 76 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 77 The following are good methods for teaching proportion : 1. Hold the side of the crayon box towards the class and ask each pupil to find a similar shape in the room. Call on a pupil for his form, and then let the class decide whether it is similar to the shape of the side of the box or not. It is the proportion and not the size, that pupils are to recognize. Turn the box with the end view to the class and ask them, as before, to find a similar shape. Do not take up a whole recitation in this kind of work, but spend a few moments at the beginning of each recitation, until pupils can recognize proportion readily. There are always plenty of objects in the school-room that have faces similar to each face of the box, such as door, panel, transom, window, glass, blackboard, wall, ceiling, floor, chart, card, map, picture, book, top of table, desk, platform, etc. 2. Draw all the faces of the box. Figs. 1—6, on the black- . board. Ask the class how face 1 differs from face 5 ; face 2 from face 4 ; face 3 from face 6. In connection with these exercises teach the following words : vertical, horizontal, parallel, right angle, square and rectangle. The word rectangle is better than the word oblong as applied to Figs. 1—6. Figs. 1, 2 and 3 may be called horizontal rectangles, and Figs. 4, 5 and 6, vertical rectangles. Teach the above words with the model, with the drawing and with similar forms in the room. f Note. — Some teachers have trouble to draw the faces on the blackboard in the right proportion. This' is overcome by cutting out the different faces from pasteboard double the size of the crayon box face, then marking the comers with a lead pencil on the blackboard. Do this before the class is called, and then draw the faces on the blackboard while the class is present.) 3. Draw faces 1-6 on the blackboard. Hold a face of the box toward the class and ask them to find on the blackboard the rectangle that represents it. Do so with all the faces. 78 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 4. Draw face 1 on the blackboard. Give the box to a pupil and ask him to find on the box the face represented on the blackboard. Teach the pupil to hold the box at arms' length and on a level with his eye when looking for the face. In like manner drill with all the faces. Teach him to compare intelli- gently. / ,''^~\=r 5. Place several boxes in position (one in front of each alternate aisle is perhaps the best place) where the pupils can plainly see the face, say face 1. Let each pupil draw this face on his tablet. Pass among the pupils and kindly criticise those who have not drawn the form correctly, by holding the face of the box before them, and asking them to compare their drawing with it. This is the lesson proper . AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 79 Draw this face again on the blackboard and turn it into jome other object shaped like the face, and let the pupils do the same. The drawings in this chapter are in form similar to the sides of the crayon box. The aims in these drawings are : 1. As a device to make the forms interesting. 2. To show the similiarity between the faces of the box and similarly formed objects both large and small. 3. To teach picture making. In turning these faces into various other objects the different kinds of line, methods of expres- sion, and technique that are so difficult to teach with the real object, may be readily taught through imitation. .^■.£- '-*^r..A^ iiuiimMMitiiiiHHJiillliiiliiifiiimillliniilK!!! /5 Do not turn the rectangle into another form, or add devices until the lesson in proportion is complete. For example, do not place the form. Fig. 7, on the blackboard or add the apples until all pupils have reproduced the face of the box on their tablets in the right proportion. The houses I'epresented in Figs. 14-18 are alike in form but differ in the arrangement of details and the materials of ivhich ther '^re composed. They are all drawn as follows : I. Draw the rectangle ABCD, Fig. 14. 2. Bisect AB as 80 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. .L /f \ ..'Sw-TItu.^ 1;^*^ j.1. \i I U ik^. rsA .w, c-l r:<^:>^ ^^' _^-- 'K '.5''- /s- at E and from this point draw th(|, vertical fine as high as the apex F is to be, and draw lines FA and FB. . I ' •■* ^■'■ I ,.J.. i,. As stated above-, while the form of the houses is the same, ihey differ in the arrangement of the details and in the representa- AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 81 tion of the materials of which they are composed. Fig. 15 is to represent a hen house built of boards; Fig. IG, a barn. Fig. 17 , represents a stone house ; and Fig. 18, a log house. All of these houses may be introduced in .connection with the forms of Figs. 1-6. Figs. 19-22 represent the same landscape adapted to various shaped rectangles. Place any simple landscape on the blackboard, and then adapt to various shaped rectangles. Figs. 23-25 represent the three principal triangles. Cut four of each' triangle from paste-board or similar material. Cut each base 9 inches long, and teach the pupils to draw them on their tablets the same as they did the rectangles, Figs. 1—6. 82 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. t ciVA.\\aUxc«\T\\a.*\(j\fe "UvoWt Ano\eA'Tr\cvv\oJLC UUu^e ^v^^J^e^\.Tv\ttWQ\e Teach the words — triangle, equilateral, right-angle, obtuse- angle, altitude, and oblique. The roofs of Figs. 14-18 are all obtuse-angled triangles. These may be di'awn first, and the rectangle representing the l»ody of the house added to the triangle if so desii-ed. The roofs of Figs. 31 and 39 are both equilateral trian- gles. The roofs of Figs. 33 and 38 are right-angled triangles, AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 83 and the roofs of 29, 34, 35, and 36 are right-angled triangles. See Figs. 24 or 25. A semi-circular form may be taugh.t in the same manner, and be made the basis of Figs. 32, 37, and 50. Chalk Drawing. — Children enjoy quickness in drawing. They love to represent an idea at every stroke if possible, and to repeat this idea over and over. For these reasons drawings similar to Figs. 26-60 are especially pleasing to them. In putting such designs on the blackboard the side of short pieces of crayon is used. If a lead pencil is used, it should be sharpened flat like a chisel — chisel-shaped — but the best result is with a short piece of crayon on the blackboard. The advantages of such drawing are as follows : 1. By using the side of the crayon the lines are more firm. 2. An idea is represented with each stroke of the pencil, and is repeated an indefinite number of times, thus giving much practice. 84 AUGSBltBG'S DRAWING. 3. There are few obstrdctions and no erasing. For example, in Fig. 43, the posts are drawn directly through the fence boards. 4. The lines are not suggestive, but positive and direct, a feature that is peculiarly attractive to childi'en. Figs. 26—50 being based on the rectangular and triangular forms, are drawn in the same manner as Figs. 10-22. DRILL EXERCISES. 1. Find in the room a similar form to Fig. 1. 2. Find in the room a similar form to Fig. 5. 3. Find in the room a similar form to Fig. 2 4. Find in the room a similar form to Fig. 4. 5. Find in the room a similar form to Fig. 3. 6. Find in the room a similar form to Fig. 6. Draw on the blackboard faces 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 dmMe the size of the original crayon box, and drill as follows: 7. How does face 1 differ from face 5 ? 8. How does face 2 differ from face 4? 9. Point to a vertical line in the drawing. To two vertical lines. Find a vertical line on the box. Two vertical lines. Hold your arm in a vertical position. Find a vertical line in the room. Two. Three. 10. Point to a horizontal line in the drawing. To two horizontal lines. To six horizontal lines. Find a horizontal line on your desk. In the room. 11. Point to two vertical parallel lines. Find two vertical parallel lines on the box. Find three. Four. Hold your arms in a parallel horizontal position. Find two parallel horizontiil lines on your desk. In the room. Find three. Four. 12. Find a right-angle in the drawing. Find two. Three. Four. Find one on your desk. In the room. 13. Draw on your tablet or the blackboard ii veilical line. AUGSBUEG'S DRAWING. 85 Two vertical parallel lines. A horizontal line. A right-angle. Two horizontal parallel lines. 14. Give a crayon box to a pupil and ask him to find on it Face 1. Face 5. Face 3. Face 6. Face 2. Face 4, as you point to them on the blackboard. 15. Point to Face 1 on the box and ask a pupil to find it on the blackboard. Face 2. Face 3. Face 4. Face 5. Face 6. 16. Have the pupils draw Face 1 of the box. Turn it inlo a cage, Fig. 12. 17. Have the pupils draw Face 2 of the box. Turn it into Fig. 10, or Fig. 11. 18. Have the pupils draw Face 3 of the box Turn it into Fig. 13. 86 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 19. Have the pupils draw Face 1 of the box, and turn it into Fig. 16. Fig. 17. Fig. 18. 20. Draw on the blackboard Fig. 19. Have the pupils draw on their tablets Face 1, and place the landscape in it. 21. Draw Fig. 22 and have it placed in Face 5. 22. Draw Fig. 21 and place it in Face 4. Plxce the triangles along the blackboard rail. 23. Charles may choose an equilateral triangle. A right- angled triangle ; an obtuse-angled triangle. How does the equilateral triangle differ from the right-angled triangle ? From the obtuse-angled triangle ? 24. Draw a right angle. An acute angle. An obtuse angle. 25. Draw an equilateral triangle. Show what equilateral means. Show what altitude means. What kind of angles has an equilateral triangle ? 2(5. Draw a risrht-angled triangle. Point to the right angle. What are the other two angles ? 27. Draw an obtuse-angled triangle. Point to the obtuse angle. What are the other two angles? 28. Draw an equilateral triangle. Turn it into Fig. 28. 29. Draw an equilateral triangle. Turn it into Fig. 30. 30. Draw a right-angled triangle. Add Fig. 1 to it. Turn it into Fig. 33. In like manner all the various houses and fences represented by Figs. 2G— 50 may be evolved from the rectangles and triangle-!. Figs. 1-G and 23-25. CHAPTER VIII. Teaching Unity. Relative Size, Proportion and Unity of Form are different names for very much the same concept. The 7'elative sl-e may be called the relation of objects and parts of objects to themselves ; as the relative size of the eyes, nose, mouth and head ; or the bowl, handle, lid and nose of a teapot. Proportion may be called the relation of geometrical forms to themselves and similar forms, as the proportion of rectangles ; the proportion of a rectangle, to the side of a barn. Unity may be called the relation of geometrical form to dissimilar objects, as the relation of a triangle to a tree top or a sail boat. Unity in Drawing is the ability to see and recognize objects or a collection of objects as a whole — as a unit; to set and unite the parts of an object or several objects in right rela- tionship. Childi-en naturally see objects as a whole, but the moment they attempt to reproduce them in drawing, the oneness is largely lost and each part, to them, becomes a unit by itself. Ask a child to draw a bird, and he will begin with some smaller part, such as the bill, and draw each part with but little relation to the whole bird. The power of seeing and reproducing an object as a whole must be acquired — must be taught to children. 87 88 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. Method of Teaching Unity. — An excellent method of teach- ing unity to children is to teach the triangle, square, rectangle or oblong, circle, oval and ellipse (Figs. 12-19), and then apply the knowledge in the drawing of objects. There are few forms, however complicated they may be, that cannot wholly or in part be proportioned by these forms. Figs 12—19 may be taught by cuttinsr the figures from card- board, and then teaching their form as shown in this chapter. It is not enough to simply know the names of these forms, and to be able to recognize their shape ; they must be understood to the extent that they can be used — used as a measure of form, as type forms. It can be truly said that a pupil does not know these forms until he can draw them. The test of his knowledge is his ability to use the forms in connection with his work. Teaching Geometrical Forms. — Cut from cardboard or similar material the following gepmetrical forms : Three rio-ht- angled and three obtuse-angled triangles with the longest side 4, 7 and 9 inches long. Figs. 13 and 14. AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 89 Thvee equilateral triangles 4, 7 and 9 inches long on each side. Fig. 12. Three squares, 3, 6 and 8 inches square. Fig. 15. Three rectangles or oblongs, 5x6, 5x7 and 5x8 inches. Fig. 16. Three circles, 3, 6 and 8 inches in diameter. Fig. 17. = Three ovals and three ellipses, 3, 6 and 8 inches long. Teach these forms in three groups: (1) The triangles, (2) the square and rectangle, (3) the circle, oval and ellipse. Teach each form : (1) on the model, (2) in the drawing, (3) its application. ( 10 U ZZAVO u u Draw on the blackboard the three angles — right, acute and obtuse. Lead the pupils to see what a right angle is. Do not describe it, let them see it. Example — George, point to a right angle on this book. To another. To another. Still another. Show me a right angle with your fingers. Find a right angle in this room. 90 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. All may look for a moment, and then at a signal, point to i right angle in the room. To another. Another. Lead the pupils to see that an acute angle is less, and an obtuse angle is more than a right angle. All may stand. With your forefingers make a right angle. Acute angle. Obtuse angle. With your arms make a righl angle. An acute angle. An obtuse angle. With your forefinger mark in the air a right angle. An acute angle. An obtusv angle. Draw on your tablets a right angle. An acute angle. Al obtuse angle. Draw on the blackboard right, acute and obtuse angles as it Fig. 23. Helen may take the pointer and find three acute angles, three right iingles. three obtuse angles. Draw on the blackboard a right-angled triangle. Fig. 24. Tell the pupils the meaning of " tri " and that triangle meai., a figure with three angles. Ji>hn, point to a right angle in the triangle. Can you find more than one right angle ? What are the other two angles ? Draw Figs. 24—29 on the blackboard. Julia, point to a rigta; angle in each. What are the other two angles in each? Robert, take this card board triangle and hold it in the positiou of Fig. 24, Fig. 25, Fig. 26, Fig. 27, Fig. 28, Fig. 29. All may stand. Hold the right-angled triangle in the posi- tion of Fig. 24 and ask the pupils to draw it in the air with their AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 91 fingers. Change it to Fig. 25 and let them do the same. Fig. 26, Fig. 27, Fig. 28, Fig. 29. In the same manner let the pupils draw the right angled tri- angle on their tablets. In like manner, teach all the geometrical forms, Figs. 12—19. The reasons for teaching these forms are : They are standard forms. Children can learn and understand these forms at a very early age. They will aid the pupil to see and grasp the form and propor- tion of other forms, both similar and dissimilar. Recognizing these forms in other objects m.akes the reproduction of those objects more simple and easy. They are a great aid in remembering the form and proportion of objects. 92 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. Applying the Form Knowledge. — ^The following methods are to show how to apply this knowledge to the study of objects both real and in pictures, to the end that complicated objects may be made more simple and their form more easily graisped. Procure a round, an oval and an elliptical shaped apple or similar objects, Figs. 32, 33 and 34. Place these apples before the class and ask pupils to pick out the round apple ; the oblong or elliptical apple ; the oval apple. Draw these apples on the blackboard and ask the pupils to point to each form. Point to a drawing and ask a pupil to point to the apple it represents. Point to an apple and ask a pupil to point to the drawing it represents. Draw on the blackboard a circle, oval, ellipse and square and turn each into a padlock. Mary, take the pointer and point to a round padlock. A square one. A triangular shaped one. An oval one. An elliptical one. George, trace the circle in one of the padlocks ; the ellipse ; the oval ; the square ; the triangle. All may draw a square ; a circle ; an oval and an ellipse on their tablets. Turn each into, a padlock. In like manner use the teapot. Figs. 9-12. Draw on the blackboard trees similar to Fig. 35 and let a ptipil point to a- tree with a round top, with an elliptical top, a triangular top, a rectangular top and an oval top. AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 93 Ask the pupils to draw on their tablets a tree with an oval top, a triangular top, a rectangular top. Lead the pupils to observe these forms in tree tops. One who has never observed the shape of tree tops will be surprised to find how often geometrical forms occur in such seemingly compli- cated forms. Fig. 47 represents a landscape, in which the trees, mountain, lake, hills and road are all triangular, showing to what an extent a landscape may be made up of these forms, A knowledge of these forms is a great aid in the drawing of animals, where quickness of observation and speed in execution are desirable. In Fig 30 observe that the shape of the body is rectangular, and that of the pig, in Fig. 31, is elliptical. The bodies of the I'abbits, Figs. 36 and 39, are oval, and in Figs. 37 and 38 are elliptical. To recognize these shapes is a great aid in " blocking- in " the general form of animals. Even in as complicated an object as the human head, these forms can be readily traced, and when once recognized, greatly aid in making the general proportions. Head 40 is square. Heads 41 and 42 are oval. Heads 43 and 44 are square. Head 45 is triangular. The hair and faces in heads 40, 43 and 44 are triangular. 9i AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 9^ Fig. 46 is made up almost entirely of squares. Head, waist, Iress and legs, are each contained in squares. DRILL EXERCISES. 1. Form with your forefingers a right angle. An acute angle. An obtuse angle. Form with your arms a right angle. Acute angle. Obtuse angle. 2. Di-aw on the blackboard a right angle. An acute angle. An obtuse angle. 3. Find in the room a right angle. An acute angle. An obtuse angle. (Note. — Tell the pupils that the right angle Is made almost exclusively by man and is seldom seen in nature. The acute and the obtuse angles are the pre- dominating lines found in nature. Ask the pupils to try and find a right angle in nature that has not been made by the hand of man.) 4. Draw a right angle. Acute angle. Obtuse angle. Write the name of each angle. 5. Hold up the cardboard triangle in the position of Fig. 24 and let the pupils draw it; Fig. 25, Fig. 26, Fig. 27, Fig. 28, Fig. 29. 96 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 6. Draw an equilateral triangle. What does equilateral mean? 7. Hold the cardboard equilateral triangle in the position of Fig. 28 and let the class draw it. In the position of Fig. 29. 8. Draw a right, equilateral and obtuse-angled triangle, all in the position of Fig. 28. In the position of Fig. 29. 9. What angles has a right-angled triangle ? An equilateral triangle ? An obtuse-angled triangle ? 10. Draw a square on the blackboard. What kind of angles has it? How many angles has it? How many sides has it? Which side is the longest? 11. Draw a square. Draw a square shaped like a diamond. 12. Draw a square. Draw a diagonal. Into what does the diagonal divide the square ? 13. Draw a rectangle on the blackboard. How does it differ from a square? o (Note. — -Fig. 16 Is often called an oblong, bat this is a general term meaning longer one way than the other. Rectangle also includes the square, but we seldom speak of the square as a rectangle, thus leaving the word rectangle as applying to a square-corne'red figure longer one way than the other. The terra vertical rectangle means a rectangle longer vertically than horizon- tally. A horizontal rectangle is one longer horizontally than vertically.) 14. Draw a vertical rectangle. A horizontal rectangle. 15. Draw a short vertical rectangle. A long vertical red angle. A short horizontal rectangle. A long horizontal rectangle. 16. Draw a circle, an oval and an ellipse on the blackboard. How does the oval differ from the ellipse? What is the oval shaped like ? Are both ends of the oval alike ? Are both ends of the ellipse alike ? 17. Draw a circle. An oval. An ellipse, 18. Draw a wide oval. A narrow oval. ' 19. Draw a wide ellipse. A narrow ellipse. AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 97 angle. Acute angle. 20. Draw an oval wilh the smaller end pointing downward. Upward. To the right. To the left. 21. Draw a vertical ellipse. Draw a horizontal ellipse. Draw an oblique ellipse. 22. Place Figs. 12-19 on the blackboard. Helen, take this pointer and point to a circle. An equilateral triangle. A right- angled triangle. An obtuse-angled triangle. A square. A rect- An oval. An ellipse. A right angle. Obtuse angle. A diameter. A diagonal. 23. Class may draw in the air : A right angle. Obtuse angle. Acute angle. Square. A vertical rectangle. A horizon- tal rectangle. A circle. An ellipse. An oval. An equilateral triangle. A right-angled triangle. An obtuse-angled triangle. 24. What is the shape of this book? The window? The transom ? This blackboard ? The top of this cap ? The opening of the door ? etc. 25. Find an object shaped like a circle. Square. Rect- angle. Oval. Ellipse. Triangle. 26. Draw a round apple. An oval apple. An elliptical apple. Draw a round padlock. A square padlock. An oval An elliptical padlock. Draw a round, oval, elliptical, rectangular and triangular 27. padlock. 28. teapot. 29. Draw a tree with an oval top. An elliptical top. A triangular top. V7 CHAPTER IX. Pkimary Object Drawing. The Model. — The use of the model in drawing is to form, and correct, the image in the child's mind. If the child has never seen the object, then a new image is formed. If the child his seen the object, or if an image has already been formed, then it .? the function of the model to correct and make more perfect this image. It is this image, and not the model, that the child repro- duces in drawing. The model before the child invites him to look again, to compare, to perfect, to make the image in the mind like the model. The Copy or Drawing. — The office of the drawing or copy is to show how to represent the image that the mind has formed. There is nothing in the object or model to show how to represent it on a flat surface. The drawing does this. The model repre- sents the idea, the drawing how to represent the idea on a fiat surface. The model is the source, the drawing is the how and represents the technique, or the mode of expf fission. 9< AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 99 Teaching Drawing. — The most effective means of teaching drawing to children is by example. The teachei* must lead, not push, must draw, not talk, must show how by drawing, not by explaining. What has been your great desire when you wanted to make this or that and did not know how? — Oh, if I could only see some one do it ! If I could only see. If this is true with you, how much more is it with little children, who are all eyes, and who see, imitate, and do, in the superlative degree? How does a boy learn how to swim? (1) He sees other boys swim. (2) He wants to swim. (3) Given the opportunity, he learns. It is the same with flying kites, jumping the rope, riding a bicycle, etc. They see, they have the desire, they learn. Your pupils will learn drawing in precisely the same way if they have the opportunity. A Method of Teaching. — Ask one of your pupils (not the whole school) to procure for you as many acorns as you have pupils (leaves, buds, flowers, fruit, nuts, shells, etc., of various kinds will do as well). First Step. — Give an acorn to each pupil and let them begin to draw an outline picture of it at once. Teach them to hold the 100 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. acorn in the left hand and draw with the right. Teach them to look carefully at the acorn first and then begin to draw, then to look again and do the same. The try is what you are after, not the drawing. The reasons for holding small objects, in one hand and draw- ing them with the other, are : 1. Convenience, especially when drawing at the blackboard. 2. The object is naturally held in a good and easy position and may be studied to the best advantage. 3. The method is always available and each pupil can attend to his own model without the teacher's aid. Second Step. — Step to the blackboard with an acorn between your thumb and forefinger and draw a picture of it on the black- board, similar to Fig. 3. The pupils have probably made their drawing similar to Fig. 1, without the least expression and with one unalterable line. This is right, but we must extend the range of the line. Now, if you afterwards place your drawing on the board they will have something for comparison. They will see that you first sketch your acorn with light lines, as in Fig. 2, carefully blocking in the proportion and then finish it with heavier and accented lines, as in Fig. 3. Don't talk, don't explain, don't say a word ; simply draw, and bright eyes will do the rest. Your draw- ing is not for them to copy, but to show how, to lead, to encourage. The pupils see how you draw, see the drawing on the blackboard and try to do likewise. To be sure there will be more or less copying of your drawing, but never mind, this is a tendency inborn in the human race and is a force that will serve you well if rightly directed ; so when looking at the draw- ings of each do not judge harshly those who have copied your drawing, but lead them to draw what they see ; to draw their own acorn. AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 101 Turn the acorn over and draw it with the point upward, as in Fig. 5. There is no reason why pupils should not draw from two to six acorns in one lesson, and draw each as well as if only one was drawn. Slow, laborious drawing, in a class of little ones, is not desirable or profitable. Drawing is not slow work unless it is made so. Children are full of life, action and vigor; they love quickness as well in the drawing-class as in their sports, so do not allow the class to lag, but draw the acorn in many positions — with the point down, up, to the right, to the left. Draw the acorn with the cap removed. Draw the cap in various positions. Figs. 4-12 represent the various positions that may be drawn. Cut some twigs containing bunches of acorns, similar to -Fig. 12, and let the pupils draw them. A good way to save time is to place small objects on the chalk rail of the blackboard, where they may be available for instant use, both at the blackboard and seats. Children's Interest in Form. — Of all the attributes of objects and things, children are the least interested in form. They are interested in the life and action, the color, and the use of things, but about the form, for form's sake, they care little. They love animals and birds because they are alive ; they love flowers for their color ; they love guns, marWes, kites, etc. for their use ; 102 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. they love dolls because they suggest life ; but they seldom love an object for its beauty of form. DaVices.-^After the children have dniwu the acorns in several positions, and have become a little weary, interest may be revived and carried through almost any number of lessons by a judicious use of devices. As children are so passionately fond of life, connect life with the object they are drawing. Figs. 13-18 104 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. show how this may be done. Care must be taken not to carry the device too far. It is perhaps best to use the device without say- ing anything about it. It should be used toward the close- of the lesson. Shells are both interesting and beautiful, and it is well to have a supply to be used as models for drawing, as well as for other purposes. Perhaps there is no other available object that contains such perfect proportion combined with such beautiful and graceful lines. Figs. 19—27 represent the same shell drawn in many positions. This is the way all objects should be studied and drawn. It is better to draw one object seven times than seven objects one time. It is not necessary for each pupil to have the same kind of an object to draw. It is desirable, but not necessary. Excellent work. may be done even when each pupil has a different object. Objects not Suitable for Drawing. — Very few objects are suitable to learn to draw from. Those that are not suitable are : (1) Decorated objects ; (2) delicately formed and finished objects ; (3) complicated objects. The decorations on an object tend to draw the attention from the form and thus to confuse the mind of the pupil. Finely formed and finished objects have necessitated a high degree of skill to construct them, and require much the same skill to reproduce them in drawing ; and complicated objects are confus- ing and diflicult to understand. Objects Suitable for Dravdng. — In general, objects suit- able for drawing are: (1) Plain and simple objects; (2) crudely-formed objects ; (3) old and broken objects ; (4) natural objects. I*l?,in and simple objects are easy to understand, which is a AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 105 strong factor in their successful reproduction. Crudely-formed objects have required little skill to fashion them, and in conse- quence are easier to reproduce in drawing. Old and broken objects are more interesting than new and whole objects. Much of their skilled accuracy is worn away and the interesting element of use is seen to better advantage ; besides, they are comparatively easy of reproduction. Small Objects that are Suitable to Hold in One Hancl and Draw with the Other. — Key, end of pencil, pen, clothes' peg, fish-hook, sinker, feather, wing, bird's tail, shears, scissors, top, knife, button-hook, pin, tack, nail, screw, pincers, corkscrew, pistol, needle, cup, mug, pipe, tooth-brush, hair-brush, padlock, book, swivel, three chain links, buckle, spool, ink, paste or mucilage bottle. Box-elder seeds, ash seeds, milkweed pods, ear of corn, wheat, rye, barley and oat heads, acorns, horse-chestnuts, oak galls, pep- pers, clusters of walnuts, peach stones, gourd, tomato, onion, cucumber, turnip, potato, eggplant, carrot, apples, pears, quinces, peaches, grapes, plums, sweet-peas, poppies, golden-rod, wax balls, rosebuds, roses, chrysanthemums, cosmos, asters and sun- flowers, fir cones, pine cones, hol'ly, birds' nests, wasps' nests, cocoanuts, bananas, lemons, lilac buds, horse-chestnut buds, cat- kins, leaves, grasses, roots, flower buds, dandelion, pansies, violets, apple, peach and cherry blossoms, tulips, crocus, daffodil, radishes, cherries, strawberries, currants, gooseberries. Cannot Draw All. — It is not necessary to reproduce all the ideas that the object contains. This is usually impossible. We cannot draw all we see, nor is it desirable that we should. We use the model or object to get ideas of form, of size, of relation, of constrviction ; and then represent as many of these ideas as is 106 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. desired. Of the myriad of ideas that each object possesses we choose those we wish to express — to represent, and no more. We have the power and the right to omit all we do not wish to appear in our drawing. In the maple seeds, Figs. 28-30, there were many little details that could be seen, there were hundreds of little veins and pores that the eye could easily detect, but as they were not wanted, they were rejected, and only a few veinlets suggested. Use the Model Constantly and persistently. The model is the source of the mental image which the pupil reproduces — the source of the idea. If the model is not used then the source of growth is cut off and the pupil uses the same old image over and Memory Drawing. — The object is the source, the drawing is the how, and memory drawing is the test. Memory drawing is the test of what the pupil knows of the object. After the model has been studied, test the knowledge by a memory drawing, the same as a test is made in language. Draw and study the maple seed, Figs. 28-30, and then test the knowledge by drawing the seed from memory. The imagina- AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 107 tion may also be used in the^e tests as in Figs. 31-35, which repre- sent devices that may be used in connection with the seeds to make them interesting, as well as adding life and zest to the drawing. Drawing Large Objects. — Holding objects in one hand and drawing them with the other, necessarily confines the objects to a size such as can easily be held in one hand. When drawing larger objects, such as a pumpkin, basket, or anything too large to be held in the hand, then the following plan may be followed. 1. Have four boards made that will reach across the aisle from seat to seat, as in Fig. 36. These boards must he made level. This may be done by placing books under the edges, but a better 108 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. way is to nail a cork or cleat to the under face of each end so that it will be level when placed on the slanting surface of the desk. 2. Place the object or objects to be drawn on these boards. 3. Place the pupils that occupy these seats across which the boards are placed, either at the blackboard to draw objects in their hands, or they may be placed in vacant seats. All is ready now for work. This plan will necessitate the use of four objects, or four groups of objects. It is not necessary that the objects should be alike. O □ n □ [ □ !s5 □ □ □ o o o □ an o □ L o □ □ o □ o □ o □ o P o □ C X □ o □ □ Accent. — Children in general use only one kind of line whei, drawing, and this line is light or heavy according to the tempera- ment of the child. Children must be taught to use a variety of lines in their drawing. The use of one line alone is monotonous ; it is like singing in only one tone, or talking without modulating the voice. Children must be taught to use light lines and heavy lines ; fine gray lines, and broad gray lines ; fine black lines and broad black lines ; AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 109 graded lines ; broken lines ; lines to express all the varying phases of thought. Line Accent. — Accent in drawing is A'ery much like accent in talking, and both are and should be caused by the same force — thought. Thought causes the modulation of the voice in talking, and thought should cause the modulation of the line in drawing. It is not interesting to talk in a monotone and it is as uninteresting to draw with only one kind of a line. '■^■^r .'■■.i. ■^5'.^UtKe4»tliT^*-M-*'Wv«*M< There are two conventional rules that govern line accent, both of which, to some extent, are observable in nature. They are : 1. Accent the right hand and under lines. Figs. 37 and 38. 2. Accent the nearest lines. But a higher and better way is to accent the line in such a manner as to bring out your own thought. By giving freedom in accent the progress at first will be less, but in the end it will be more rapid and of a higher quality. Figs. 39, 40, and 41 are examples of thought accent. 110 A.UGSBURG'S DRAWING. ^.jxo\.\m An excellent plan to teach a variety of line is to divide lines into three kinds, as follows : Three light lines, which for convenience are called copper. Two medium lines, which are called silver, and one heavy lino which is called gold. Kequire the pupils to use all of these lines in every drawing. It will be found that by naming the lines copper,, silver, and gold, that work can be very easily criticised. The teacher can say of a pupil's drawing, "You have used only copper lines in AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. HI your drawing. Where are the silver and gold ? " or, *' x do not see the copper and silver lines." The aim is to make the range of line as wide as possible. It is better to study an object and gain some degree of proficiency in representing it, than to skip from object to object -'t -_ ____'- >M--, ...'-> (,«i. - ■■;c:e^.._c-''' 4i ^^ 112 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. ing it in many ways, as the leaf in Fig§. 43-53, than to study many different objects with a less degree of thoroughness. Forming Collections. — Beginning at about the third grade, there is a strong desire on the part of pupils to collect — to form collections of marbles, bits of ribbons, postage stamps, minerals, shells, etc. This strong desire for collecting things may be utilized in the drawing class by making a collection of the drawings of a class of objects in place of the object itself. For example, to make a drawing of all the various kinds of head-wear, such as hats, caps, helmets, turbans, head-dresses of all descriptions, nations, and tribes, both modern and historical. In doing this begin with the cloak-room and extend to the museum, and lastly to pictures. Lead the pupil to the real object as much as possible. Pupils will take more interest in collecting, if they have a blank book in which to place or paste the drawings after they are made. The following objects are excellent to form lines of collecting ; leaves keys cups brid2;es chairs, etc. This list could seeds nuts vegetables fruits houses barns wagons I cans pitchers vases knives axes boats head-wear foot-wear Figs. 54- ■70 show a collection of head-wear be extended into the hundreds. DRILL EXERCISES. This drill exercise is merely to suggest lines of work and hinds of objects that might, perhaps, be overlooked by the teacher. 1. Mary, show me how the end of my key looks, by means of a drawing. (Either on blackboard or tablet.) 2. Paul, show me, by means of a drawing, how you have sharpened your pencil. AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 113 3. Show how your pen fits into the pen-holder. • 4. Is that a new knife you have, Henry? Make a drawing of it on the blackboard. 5. Is that a peanut you have, Jane? Make a drawing of it on your tablet. 6. Stand at the window, Peter, and draw that tree yonder. 7. Children, watch this milkweed seed as I blow it into the air. Make a drawing of it as it appears in the air. 8. I will hang this hat on a pointer. Each one make a drawing of it. 9. This afternoon we will close school twenty minutes early, and draw the big tree in the coi-ner of the yard. 10. Who can bring sixty milkweed pods to school to-morrow? Henry and George may bring them. Pick them with long stems and stalks and we will use them for a drawing lesson. 11. To-morrow the circus is coming to town. I would like Charles, Henry, Allen, James, and Paul to make a drawing of the tent, on paper, and then reproduce it on the blackboard. 12. Abner has made such a funny Jack-o'-Lantern ; I will place it here where all can see it. Each make c drawing of it. 13. Are the violets out so soon ? Thank you for this bunch. Let each of us take one and see if we can make a drawing of it in three positions. 14. This old canteen was carried through the war by Mr. James. (Story.) I will hang it up here where we can make a drawing of it. 15. The last hour on Friday afternoon we will visit that old deserted stone house and make a drawing of it. 16. Mary, you may be excused to draw the stump yonder. Susie, the fence corner. Edna, the gate, and Julia, the old apple tree. 114 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 17. The following are good groups to place on the boarda that are placed across the aisles : Pumpkin and gourd. Pumpkin and squash. Three turnips. Turnips and basket. Turnips, kettle, and knife. Tomatoes and bowl. Three apples. Three pears. Three carrots. Apple, pear, and lemon. A cluster of nuts on a limb. A pear on a limb with l«ayes. A simple plant in its pot. ' Teapot and cup. Three flowers in a vase or bottle. 18. Make a collection of the drawings of leaves. 19. Make a collection of the drawings of keys. 20. Make a collection of the drawings of knives. 21. Make a collection of the drawings of pitchers. 22. Make a collection of the drawings of foot-wear CHAPTER X. Quick Drawing. The aim in this chapter is to show how to draw rapidly, and n the most direct manner, any object or idea the teacher may wish to represent. The Idea. — An idea is the strongest and quickest force in the world, and consumes in its representation comparatively little time. Ignorance is the negative element of the idea, and is the weakest and slowest condition in the world, and the great time consumer. The idea, then, is the great propelling force in drawing and must he first. Suggestion. — The chief hand maid of the idea is suggestion. Next to the idea, suggestion is the most important word in draw- ing. If rightly used it can do more work, save more time and accomplish greater results, than any other word. In drawing, we cannot represent everything we see ; we must discriniinate between the very few essentials and the many non- essentials. There are thousands of little details that must be rejected, there are dozens of accessories that need only to be suggested, and there is usually only one idea that must be represented. For example, the idea is a rabbit. Fig. 1, which is repre- ■ sented as directly and with as few lines as possible. There are hundreds of little details about the rabbit which are not repre- sented — spots, fur, color, light, shade, are all rejected because the idea in its simplest form is wanted. Surrounding the rabbit there 116 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. ; ,!.% ^'/- "- may be many accessories, twigs/leaves, grasses, pebbles, etc., but as they are not needed in connection = with the central idea — the rabbit — they are also rejected. The point is this : we are not bound by the number of details and accessories that exist, but simply by those we wish to introduce into our drawing to make our idek as complete as we wish to have it. The object we are drawing has no power to dictate to us and say how much or how little we shall represent of, ilj. This is determined solely by the desire of the draughtsman ; light, shade, shadows, details, accessories are our servants, not our masters. How to Use the Idea. — The following -rule or law will show how, in a general way, to use the idea in drawing : Connect the mind with the idea or object you wish to represent by means of its leading features or characteristics, and when the con- nection is made, stop. AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 117 For example, suppose one wishes to represent a hat. What is the leading feature of a hat? A moment's thought will con- vince us that it is the rim. Supply this to almost any shaped form for a crown and a hat is the result. The band also, is a prominent characteristic. Suppose we wish to represent a cart. What is the leading feature of a cart? What makes a cart a cart? You will see at once that it is the two wheels. If these are added or suggested to almost any kind of a form, the idea cart will be represented as in Fig. 6. The leading feature of a wagon \afour wheels. The lead- ing features of a wheel-barrow are four in number, one wheel, handles, hack and legs, Fig. 7. The le iding feature of a house is the roof. Attach a roof to. any regular form, such as Fig. 8, and a house is suggested, as Fig. n» augsbubG's Drawing. 9. Big doors are the leading features of a barn, Fig. 10. A window and chimney suggest a dwelling house, Fig. 11. The curtains in the window suggest that somebody is living in the house. Fig. 12. The smoke coming out of the chimney suggests that the people are at home, Fig. 13. Fig. 12 suggests that the house is made of boards. Fig. 13 of logs. Fig. 14 of stone. It is not necessary or desirable to place the boards, logs or stone all over the side of the house. This would emphasize this feature too much, besides the eye does not see at the same time in more than one place. It does not see all. It sees only what is cognized by the mind. \Jil Choose a common form, say an oval. Fig. 15. Think of most any object that is oval, or may be made to appear in an oval form, and by adding the leading characteristics of the object, it can be represented. For example, the leading characteristics of a pitcher ai-e its nose, handle, bowl and standard. By letting the oval take the place of the bowl and adding the nose and handle, the pitcher. Fig. 17, is represented. In like manner, the fan. Fig. 16 ; the basket. Fig. 18 ; the head. Fig. 19 ; the apple. Fig. 20 ; the bird's nest, Fig. 21 ; the bird. Fig. 22 ; the jug. Fig, 23 ; as well as many other objects may be represented. ^ ^ AUGs not suggest water, but the swan swimming does. A horse wiil net suggest water, but a horse drinking, swimming, or wading, will. A boy will not suggest water, but a hoy fishing, diving , fi.oating or rowing, will. The object itself does not suggest water, but its action may. a 122 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. Invisible forces, such as air and light, can be represented by their effect on visible objects. We look out of doors and say the wind blows, or the air is still, by its effect on unstable substances, such as the foliage of trees, Figs. 37 and 38, water, smoke, dust, bunting, etc. We say the sun shines, by its effect on visible objects, making one side light and leaving the other darker, as in Fig. 39. Many i.itists depend largely on representing different phases of light, for the chief beauty of their picture. The Spiritual. — Now we are coming to the representation of that which has neither form nor color, that which is without visible appearance or tangible shape, that which the eye cannot iee, nor the ear hear, and yet, which is higher, more important, more powerful, more real, and more lasting, than all other quali- ties — the representation of the spiritual. Many, if not all visible objects, have a double meaning — their material and symbolic meaning, — which is more or less recognized. The spiritual is represented through these higher or symbolic meanings. For example, an anchor is used to drop to the bottom of the sea to keep the vessel from drifting, or being blown about by the wind ; but when an anchor is chiseled on a monument, it becomes the symbol of hope, which is its spiritual meaning. In the same manner, the key is the symbol of knowledge ; 4ie sword of truth ; and the crown of honor. AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. .123 The following are symbols that may be used with profit in the school-room : Lamp — learning Keed — weakness Shackles — bondage Fountain — source Cross — victory, trials Altar — sacrifice Grapes — fruitfulness Beehive — industry Hour-glass — time Ark- Olive branch — peace Eock — constancy Star — promise Sun — Creator Toi'ch — anarchy or learning Rainbow — promise Harp — praise Scales — justice Lily — purity safety In the same manner many birds and animals have been sym- bolized or made typical of qualities that are generally recognized : Dove- Hawk • Horse Hog- Mule- - gentleness — voracity — strength greed - stubbornness Owl — wisdom Ox — patience Tiger — ferocity Serpent — sin Lion — dignity DRILL EXERCISES. "" -Hepresent in drawing, by means of their leading features and characteristics, the following objects: A bowl A barrel A rubber overshoe A teapot A basket A hammer A pitcher An umbrella A saw A jug A hat A wrench An oil can A cap A mallet A flower-pot A slipper A book A pail A shoe A valise A drum A horn. A flag 124 AUGSBURG'S DBA WING. A sled A cart A broom A brush A skate A key A fish-hook A mug A feather A padlock An ear of corn An acorn A pumpkin A squash A tomato An onion A cucumber A turnip A potato A cherry A tree A pine tree A poplar tree An elm tree A palm tree A barn A shed A cabin A house A tent An island A peninsula Still water A lake Hi Ifi- CHAPTEE XI. The Drawing of Birds. In drawing, all objects should be studied under the general heads of: The Copy, or Imitation. The Object, or Observation. The Memory and Imagination. In general, these three divisions should go hand in hand, each helping to explain and make clear the others. But if an order is followed in the study of birds, the best one for young pupils is as follows: (1) The copy; (2) memory and imagination; (3) the object. This order, however, is not intended to be arbitrary. If the object is something that can be leisurely studied, like a leaf, or a flower, then an order similar to this should be followed : (1) The object; (2) the copy; (3) memory and imagination. Birds. — The principle of the construction of all birds is, in general, the same ; the difference is in the proportion and minor details. By learning the proportions and general features from pictures and drawings, much time will be saved, and the work made more eflfective and less discouraging than if the study is at- tempted from the living bird alone. This does not mean to blindly copy the drawings of others, but to study them intelligently, to studj' them with a view of learning their form and proportion and the general principle of bird construction. To learn such points 12S AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 127 «« the following : The size of the head as compared with the body ; the movemente of the tail, head and body ; how the feet are placed under the body to give perfect balance ; how the wings rest on the body, and their movements when flying. All of these can bo studied from drawings cnupled with observation, and then verified on the real bird, much better than from the real bird alone. It is doubtful if one untrained in drawing can make very much headway learning to draw from such a restless bit of animation as a live bird, with its multiplicity of markings and numberless details. One must have both knowledge of the bird and skill in drawing to do this. n l^vo\^X V\ttW -\ i^ MM -MM \U /\ ,.^ ',^\ augsbubg's drawing. 129 Divisions of Study. — For convenience, the study oi' the bird may be divided into — 1. Side views; 2. Front views; 3. Back views; 4. Quarter views;. 5. Flying. AVhile the study of the bird in these various positions is an aid in their representation, giving variety of position and mechanical channels of thought, still, it is the idea back of these devices that is the vital force. These positions are merely mechanical aids, and are attendant to and subordinate to the idea. If you wish to represent a bird singing, they say, You can represent a bird singing in various positions; among the most promine.it are the side, front, bach, and quarter views. K^ """^S p AUGSBURG'S. DRAWING. 131 General Directions. — Draw the large part of the bird first. The body is the largest part. It is easier to add the snsaller parts — such as the head, tail, and legs — to the body, than to add the the body to these smaller parts. Work from the large to the small, from the mass to the details, from the general to the special. Sketch the bird with light lines to get the general proportion and action, as shown in Fig. 58, and then finish in detail. Be sure the proportion, balance, and action of the bird arc correct before finishing the drawing. By proportion is meant the proper relative size of body, head, tail, and legs, ^y balance is meant standing firm and stable, without the feeling that the bird will fall backwards or forwards. This balance may be secured by passing a vertical line through the center of the body in such a manner as to fall between or within the area of the feet. By correct action is meant making the bird appear to be doing what you intend it to do; such as flying, eating, singing, etc., as in Figs. 61-70. Learn the limitations of each part of the bird. For example, the tail may be elevated or depressed, as in Fig. 54 ; and it may be closed up or spread out like a fan, as in Figs. 59 and 60. The head has a vertical range, greaterthan is pictured in Fig. 55, and on a pivot of at least one complete revolution. Fig. 54. The combination of these two movements enables the bird to practically place its head in any position. The body als.o has movements on the legs that are both lateral and vertical. Figs. 56 and 57 show the principal positions of the wings when flying. The idea, being the strongest force in drawing, should also be the propelling force in all of this work. The following general outline will be found an orderly and progressiva method V stiidy-: '' •' 132 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. ,/C" .^\ )( J M m\ 1. Draw the various positions side view. 2. Draw the various positions front view. 3. Draw the various positions back view. 4. Draw the various positions quarter view . 5. Draw the various positions flying. The following sources for the study of the bird may be mentioned: 1. Drawings; 2. Pictures of birds; 3. Mounted specimens ; 4. The living bird. Figs. 61—70 represent what is meant by making the ii^ea prominent in each drawing. In each one of these the bird id AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 133 \ tvwv (X Vi\vA . m represented as doing something. This is better and much more interesting than simply drawing a bird. The element interest is the greatest incentive to progress. There is little or no pro- gress if the minds of the pupils are passive, however much they may be urged by the teacher. Busy-ness is not necessarily progress. A pupil may be busy drawing, and his mind passive; WOW. C\ SOi\0 134 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. especially is this true in drawing lessons twenty or thirty minutes long. Twelve minutes is about the right length of' time. This will give one minute to get ready, one minute to close, and ten minutes for drawing. Long lessons are tiresome to pupils. If explanation and instruction are necessary, add three minutes more, making fifteen minutes in all. . ^, ^; \ ^ovwe timtb stuVd iKe nuwoVitu cvowi. By making the idea the prominent part in the drawing, interest is at once awakened and progress carried on much more rapidly than can possibly be done otherwise. If a child tries to represent a bird singing, and is not entirely successful, he will be very apt to watch the next bird he sees, in order to perfect his image of the bird in the act of singing. Li \ in , \ It \oo\ 0U« Wck.t\\tYb. AUGSBUKG'S DRAWING. 135 rtfe&t.' Figs. 71—79 represent a swimming bird — the duck — doing the various things a duck will do during his daily round of life. These drawings are given as an example to show how any bird may be studied. Figs. 61-70 are given as examples for any of the common birds, and Figs. 71-79 for any swimming bird.. In like manner any of the following birds may be studied : Common birds — swallow, cedar bird, sparrow, lark, oriole, bobolink, crow, jay, kingfisher, wood-pecker, robin, and blue- bird. Birds of prey — hawk, eagle, buzzard, owl, osprey. Swimming birds — duck, swan, goose, loon, pelican, and gull. • Wading birds — crane, stork, woodcock, and snipe. O 'A C\\ O O O c\ O V ■^i- >^, cvx .„:?) - -^ Ay /#^ lAH^I — ^ , ^ --^ — ^- UJe ovvt n-vc«-\\\no ova^v To\Ve.t . A-; ' ) / /^ \ --t: ^^ i \ 1 tL 7r AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 139 DRILL EXERCISES. 1. Draw a bird, side view, looking up. 2. Draw a bird, side view, looking down. 3. Draw a bird, side view, sleeping. 4. Draw a bird, side view, sitting on a limb. 5. Draw a bird, side view, building its nest. 6. Draw a bird, side view, sitting on its nest. 7. Draw a bird, side view, singing. 8. Draw a bird, side view, eating. 9. Draw a bird, side view, drinking. 10. Draw a bird, side view, scolding. 11. Draw a bird, side view, preening its feathers. 12. Draw a bird, side view, sharpening its bill. 13. Draw a bird, side view, pulling a worm from the ground. 14. Draw a bird, side view, bathing. 15. Draw a bird, side view, flying. Note. — The above actions and as many more as are desirable, should be repeated In (1) front view; (2) back view; (3) In any of the four quarter views. 16. Draw a bird flying, side view. Front view. Back view. Quarter view. Flying upward. Downward. To the right. To the left. 17. Draw three birds on a limb, front, back, and quarter views. 18. Draw three birds on the ground, side, front, and back views. In like manner these examples may be multiplied indefinitely. 7 S CHAPTER XII. The Drawing of Animals. The General Plan for the study of animals is as follows : 1. Study and learn one animal thoroughly. 2. Use the knowledge thus acquired in the study of all animals. The Cat as a Type. — Of all animals, the cat is the best as well as the most available animal to make the basis of study. This is not because of her domestic relation to us so mush a-^ on account of her uniform size, appearance, and accessibility. Children generally are better acquainted with the cat than wilh any other animal. The dog and the rabbit are also excellent models, and if more convenient may be used in place of the cat. The general plan for the study of the cat or other animal is as follows : 140 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 141 Through imitation or the copy. Through observation or the object. Tlirough memory and imagination. Imitation Draw^ing. — Through imitation or the copy the relative size and position of the parts, the details, and genersil facts of the animal are best learned. It is possi'ile to learn these facts directly from the live animal, but it is more difficult and not nearly as convenient. The drawing or copy is at rest and admits of close sbudy in one position; the animal is restless and will not remain quiet long enough for art untrained pupil to sketch or draw it. The copy contains both the idea and how to represent the idea ; the animal represents the idea only, and there is nothing to show how to represent it on a flat surface. The copy is convenient for use in the class-room ; the animal is so inconvenient that few teachers will even attempt its study. ,ji, ,The aim, then, in copying the different positions of the ..cat, is : , 142 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 1. To learn the form and position of each part. 2. To learn the relative size and proportion of each part. 3. To learn how to represent the animal on a flat surface. Blind copying without a worthy end- in view, is as wrong in drawing as in language. Copying alone is incomplete ; it is merely the first step toward learning to represent animals, and should be followed by both the study of the real- animal, and tested by imagination and memory drawing. Study of the Real Animal. — After the facts about the animal have been learned, such as the relative size of each part, the shape of the ear, head, body, and legs, then all of these can be verified on the real animal. This may be done by bringing a pet cat or kitten into the school-room and keeping it there until it feels at home, then drawings may be made from it at such times as opportunity presents. A better plan, however, is to encourage pupils to draw from the animal at home, and then bring their drawing to the school, thus encouraging independent work. Such drawings should be copied or drawn from memory on the black- board, by way of encouragement. Imaginative or Memory Drawing is the fruit of the •tudy from both the copy and the object. It is the pupil's expres- AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 143 aion of what he knows about the animal or object he is study- ing — the guage of what he really possesses — the index to the power he has to express, and as such should be of common use. These three divisions — imitation, observation, and imagina- tion — are given in a definite^ order, but in practice they merge into each other at every point. The copy, the object, and the memory test should be of mutual help in acquiring a mastery over the common object. Similarity of Animals. — Animals are very much alike in the general principle of their construction. All of them have a body, head, ears, tail, and legs, that are alike in plan, but differ in size, proportion, and minor details. Examine the hind leg of a cat, for example, and it will be found very similar to the hind leg of a mouse, a squirrel, a sheep, a cow, a horse, or a lion. The difference being »o slight in the general principle that the learn- ing of one will be found the key to all the others. The same similarity will be found in the other parts of the animals as well, so much so that the thorough understanding of the draw- ing of one animal becomes the basis of the drawing of all animals. 144 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. Flan of Dravring.^ Draw the large parts first. It is easiet and better to add the small parts to the large than it is to reverse the order. /