Oxford Stuby GUIDES 
 
 
 EOITED eY 
 P., S,PU LLIW@,IMi,,A* 
 
 Entrance 
 
 Classical Scholahsiips 
 
 S.H.JEYES' 
 
 
 -^^^^T 
 
PAL.ESTEA OXONIENSIS. 
 
 ■ The olject of this Series is to furnish Exerdses a'xid Test Papers for Candidates 
 preparing for the variovs ExawdnAtions at oysr Public Schools 
 ' ' and Universities. 
 
 QUESTIONS and EXERCISES for MATRICULATION and 
 
 EESPONSIONS. Contents : ,(1) Grammitieal.ftueationB in Greek 
 . "and Latin; (2) MTaterials for Latin Prose; (3) Questions on 
 Authors. , Fifth Edition. Crown 8vOi doth, 'is. 6d. 
 
 QUESTIONS and EXERCISES for CLASSICAL SCHOLAR- 
 SHIPS, Contents: (1) .(Critical G-raminar Questions in Greek and 
 Lati a; (2) Unseen passage^ for translation. Adapted to the Oxford 
 and Cambridge Schools Certifickte and the Oxford First Public 
 Examinations. Grown 8to. cloth, 3S. Sd. 
 
 , A Key, for Tutors imh/, in preparation. 
 
 QUESTIONS and EXERCISES for CLASSICAL SCHOLAR- 
 SHIPS. Second iDivision. Contents: (1) Historical and General 
 Questions; (2) Subjects for English Essays. Crown 8vo. cloth, 
 3.S. 6d. , ' ' ' 
 
 QUESTIONS and EXERCISES in ELEMENTARY MATHE- 
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 Third. Edition, . enlarged. Adapted to Matriculation, Eesponsions, 
 and First Public Examinations, and the Oxford and Cambridge 
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 Answers, 5s. The Answees separately, paper covers, \s. 6d. 
 
 QUESTIONS and EXERCISES in ELEMENTARY LOGIC, 
 
 DEDUCTIVE and INDUCTIVE ; with Index of Logical Terms. 
 Crpwn 8vo. cloth. (New Edition in the' press.) 
 
 QUESTIONS and EXERCISES in RUDIMENTARY DI- 
 VINITY. Contents: (1) Old , Testament ; (2) New Testament; 
 (3) The Thirty-Nine Articles ; (i) Greek Passages fpr Translation. 
 Adapted. to the Oxford Pass and the Oxford aid Cambridge Certifi- 
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 ELEMENTARY QUESTIONS on the LAW of PROPERTY, 
 
 EEAL and PERSONAL. Supplemented by Advanced Questions on 
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 an Inde'x of Legal Terms. Crown 8vo. cloth, 3s. 6d. 
 
 QUESTIONS .and EXERCISES in POLITipAL ECONOMY, 
 
 with References to Adam Sriiith, Ricardo, John Stuaj* Mill, Fawcett, 
 J. E. Thorold Bogers, Bonamy Price, Twiss, Senior, and others.. 
 Crown! 8vo. cloth, 3s. Qd. ' - 
 
 JAMES THORNTON, 33 HIGH STREET, OXFORD^ 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tliis bool< is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031487063 
 
Cornell University Library 
 arV16594 
 
 Ueber die In der Sanskrit-Sprache durch 
 
 3 1924 031 487 063 
 olin.anx 
 
OXFORD STUDY GUIDES 
 
 Edited by F.' S, 'PULLING, M.A. 
 
 CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHirS. 
 
Published by 
 JAMES THORNTON, OXFORD. 
 
 [SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND Co. 
 ^°™°^ {HAMILTON, ADAMS, AND Co. 
 
A GUIDE TO STUDYING 
 
 FOR 
 
 CLASSICAL 
 ENTRANCE SCHOLARSHIPS, 
 
 ADAPTED MORE ESPECrALLV TO THOSE 
 OFFERED AT OXFORD, 
 
 S. H. J EYES, 
 
 LECTLTiER IN CLASSICS AT UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LATE SCHOLAR OF 
 TRINITV COLLEGE, OXFORD. 
 
 JAMES THORNTON, HIGH STREET. 
 
 SIDCCCLXXXI, 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 I'AGK 
 
 Prefatory Remarks 7 
 
 English Essay 13 
 
 Subjects for Essays 17 
 
 History .... ... 20 
 
 Questions on History 31 
 
 Miscellaneous Questions .... 40 
 
 Questions from General Papers .... 46 
 
 Critical Questions 52 
 
 Questions from Critical Papers .... 58 
 
 Translations 66 
 
 Compositions 72 
 
 Divinity 76 
 
 Questions on Divinity 77 
 
CLASSICAL 
 ENTRANCE SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 PREFATORY REMARKS. 
 
 The first object of the Scholarship Examinations is to General 
 pick out clever and industrious boys ; but as there are Purpose, 
 more scholarships to be given away than there are candi- 
 dates thus doubly qualified to receive them, these hints 
 have been written for the assistance of those who 
 can only put forward one or the other claim, as well as 
 for those who wish to supplement defective instruction 
 by private work. It is not expected that the best boys 
 in the great schools will derive much profit from these 
 (or other) suggestions upon the guidance of their studies, 
 as the teaching of most Sixth Forms travels very closely 
 upon the lines of University examinations for scholarships, 
 and is in some cases unduly subserviient to them, as if 
 winning a scholarship were the final cause of the boy's 
 existence. 
 
 No attempt has been made in the following pages to 
 indicate the qualities in a candidate which are most 
 iikely to command success at any particular college, or 
 
8 CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 to sketch the probable course of this or that examination^ 
 It had been suggested to the writer that such information 
 was very strongly desired ; but it was his opinion, which 
 has been confirmed by a close comparison of many sets 
 of old question papers, that statements under this head 
 would be either futile or misleading. There is so much 
 shifting in the examining bodies, that the papers of the 
 different colleges set in one year do not exhibit more 
 points of contrast than the papers set at the same college 
 in different years. 
 
 Value and 
 
 Tenure of 
 
 ScbolarsMpB. 
 
 Exhibitions. 
 
 Close 
 Sdiolarships 
 
 and 
 Exhibitions. 
 
 Scholarships range in annual value from £,%o to ;^ioo, 
 and at most colleges are tenable under certain condi- 
 tions for five years. But changes are now being contem- 
 plated which will probably come into operation at the 
 end of 1881. A scholar will then be elected in the first 
 instance for two years ; at the end of that time he will 
 be re-elected for two years, if the college has satisfied 
 itself, by examination or otherwise, of his merits. Under 
 special circumstances the scholarship may be extended 
 over a fifth year. The stipend of scholars will be fixed at 
 the uniform limit of ;^8o per annum; but the college 
 will have power to grant assistance to deserving persons, 
 whether scholars, exhibitioners, or commoners, in sums 
 of money to be regulated at its own discretion, provided 
 that such extra assistance be not advertised upon or before 
 the day of election. 
 
 Exhibitions are awarded at the same time and after 
 the same examination as scholarships. 
 
 The conditions under which certain "close" scholar- 
 ships and exhibitions may be obtained will be learnt 
 upon application to the Head of the College to which 
 they are attached. The examination is generally held 
 
PREFA TOR Y REMARKS. 9 
 
 at the same time and upon the same papers as for the 
 open scholarships, and a duly qualified candidate is 
 eligible at the same time for either the open or close 
 foundations. 
 
 Information upon most points connected with scholar- 
 ships (such as the number to be awarded, their value, 
 the date of election, the certificate and testimonials 
 required, and whether any limit of age is fixed) may be 
 obtained beforehand from the Oxford University Calen- 
 dar (annual) and from the Oxford University Gazette 
 (weekly throughout term), and from the notices in the 
 daily papers, which appear from time to time under the 
 heading " University Intelligence." Fuller details upon 
 all these and some other points will be found in the 
 excellent Student's Handbook to the University of 
 Oxford, published at the Clarendon Press, price 2s. 6d. 
 ( Vide pp. 83-102 of the fifth edition.) But it must be 
 remembered that the statements there made as to the 
 number of scholarships vacant each year and as to the 
 date of the examination cannot be more than approxi- 
 mately correct. It is unwise to rely upon this or similar 
 information without certifying it by direct communication 
 with Heads of Colleges. 
 
 It has seemed advisable to fill a large proportion of the 
 following pages with extracts from papers set (for the most 
 part) in recent examinations for scholarships ; and it is 
 thought that the groups of historical, miscellaneous, and 
 critical questions which have been quoted will help to give 
 a clear understanding of what is expected from candidates. 
 A larger collection of specimen questions is published 
 by James Thornton, Oxford : Questions and Exercises 
 for Classical Scholarships. Vol. I. contains (i) Critical 
 
«0 
 
 CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 Grammar Questions in Greek and Latin, (2) Unseen 
 Passages for Translation. Vol. 11. contains (i) Histori- 
 cal and General Questions, (2) Subjects for English 
 Essays. Price of each volume, 3s. 6d. 
 
 Specialize. 
 
 Classical 
 Standard. 
 
 Some few words of general advice may be useful to 
 those who are working for scholarships. Excellence in 
 one or two subjects is more likely to succeed than a 
 level mediocrity in all. No amount of time or trouble is 
 mis-spent which is given to developing the strong side. 
 This is true with one important reservation — the strictly 
 classical work must not fall below respectability. How- 
 ever brilliant the Essay and other. English work may 
 be, scholarships are seldom given to candidates whose 
 classical knowledge is markedly defective. Accom- 
 plished criticism and elegant composition are not 
 essential, but it is expected that every scholar shall 
 acquit himself with credit in the translations and Latin 
 prose. So much of the Oxford course of studies is based 
 upon the classical languages that a fair command of 
 them is necessary to success. And if this has not 
 been acquired in a tolerable ^degree before the end 
 of the nineteenth or twentieth year, it is quite certain 
 that it will not come afterwards. This is why two 
 scholarships out of every three are given for "pure 
 classics." 
 
 The course of study which is described under the 
 various headings in the following pages is too large to be 
 embraced as a whole. Parts of it must be selected, and 
 those parts which are the most congenial to each worker. 
 AVhat must not be neglected is translation, the composi- 
 tion of prose in Latin, Greek, and English, and the 
 reading of Latin and Greek texts. On this last point it 
 
PREFA TOR Y REMARKS. 1 1 
 
 is suggested that at least one or two books should be 
 read, each as a continuous whole. It is unfortunately 
 the custom at most schools to sacrifice consecutiveness 
 of work for the sake of variety. A clearer view of the 
 author's subject and style and a more solid understand- 
 ing of literature will be got from plodding for a week or 
 ten days along a single tragedy of Sophocles or a Book 
 of Thucydides than from skipping to a fresh writer with 
 every day of the week. The thread of argument or 
 feeling cannot be picked up when the impression of 
 what went before has faded or disappeared. This is 
 why so many boys seem only to read words, not what 
 the words say. Some teachers would perhaps be un- 
 pleasantly surprised, if they suddenly bade their pupils 
 to shut up the books and give an account of what they 
 had just been reading. A successful student in the 
 University has often said that he can trace his first vivid 
 belief in the reality of Greek and Roman history to an 
 idle morning, when his eyes wandered away from the 
 text to the photographs of Athens and Rome which were 
 hanging on the class-room walls. 
 
 The last four or five days before the examination ^e 
 
 should not be passed in cramming down new facts or in Examination, 
 studying old notes. The freshness of mind which results 
 from rest or comparative relaxation is far more valuable 
 for the purposes of examination than information got up 
 at the last moment. No work should be done in the 
 intervals of examination, and it is wise not to talk over 
 the papers with your friends ; wiser not to think of them 
 by yourself. 
 
 It is worth mention that questions may be answered 
 in any order. There is no advantage in adhering to the 
 examiner's arrangement. 
 
12 CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 The examination room should not be left before the 
 expiration of the given time. Ideas sometimes come 
 at the last moment, and difficulties vanish which had 
 seemed insuperable. 
 
J3 
 
 ENGLISH ESSAY. 
 
 The English Essay is more important than any except importance, 
 the translation and Latin prose papers; and it is not 
 uncommon, when a college has three or four scholarships 
 to be given away, to award one to the candidate who has 
 shown marked excellence in this, although his other 
 papers have not gone much beyond mediocrity. Un- 
 fortunately, it is more difficult to offer suggestions upon 
 this than any other subject of the examination. No list 
 of books could be given within reasonable dimensions 
 which might be expected to cover the variety of themes 
 selected for essays. There is, however, less reason for 
 regret on this account, because the essay is designed not 
 so much to elicit information as to measure thoughtful- 
 ness and power of expression. 
 
 With few exceptions the themes given are such as could Subject, 
 not be quite excluded from any but the narrowest educa- 
 tion, and such as every intelligent boy must have begun to 
 think about Reference to the specimens below quoted 
 (or to any greater number which might have been ad- 
 duced) will not bring out any more exact result than that 
 a tendency is noticeable to recur to political and literary- 
 or artistic questions. 
 
 Descartes begins his Discourse on Method with these ThouBht. 
 (perhaps half-humorous) words : " Good sense is, of all 
 things among men, the most equally distributed; for 
 
14 CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 every one thinks himself so amply provided with it that 
 even those who are the most difficult to satisfy in every- 
 thing else do not usually desire a larger measure of this 
 quality than they already possess.'' For all that, good 
 sense appears to be the quality which most sharply 
 differentiates the candidates for a scholarship. Thinking 
 is just what everybody does somehow, and the few do 
 well It is fortunate that the capacity, like most others, 
 can be almost indefinitely improved by method ; and by 
 method only can the logical sense be quickened. 
 
 No better practical suggestion can be made than to 
 follow out the advice which was given to their pupils by 
 the ancient teachers of rhetoric. Hear Cicero's emphatic 
 words : " Sin aliquis exstiterit aliquando, qui Aristotelio 
 more de omnibus rebus in utramque partem possit dicere 
 et in omni causa duas contrarias orationes, prseceptis 
 illius cognitis, explicare aut hoc Arcesilse modo aut 
 Carneadi contra omne, quod propositum sit, disserat, quique 
 ad earn rationem adjungat hunc usum exercitationemque 
 dicendi, is sit verus, is perfectus, is solus orator " (" De 
 Oratore," iii. 80). The advice may be adapted in some 
 way like this. Take Bacon's Essays edited by Arch- 
 bishop Whately : do not pass over a single word or 
 sentence until you have grasped its full significance : 
 write out on paper anything which occurs to you as 
 tending to confirm or subvert any of Bacon's propositions : 
 draw out for yourself a general conclusion upon the whole 
 subject, either such that all its parts hang together and 
 make up a unanimous total, or else such that any in- 
 consistencies which may seem unavoidable are brought 
 out into open conflict Then (but not before) read 
 Whately's criticisms upon each point, and examine 
 (ajain on paper) the justice of the critic's agreement or 
 
ENGLISH ESS A Y. 
 
 disagreement. The process may seem laborious, but it 
 will bring its reward in the activity and strength which 
 will be given to the powers of thought. It is not re- 
 commended that all the Essays should be so treated, 
 although t1iey should be all read. It will be enough to 
 select the half-dozen which are upon the most congenial 
 topics. 
 
 Next in importance to " good sense " comes power of 
 expressing thought. The idea which cannot find its way 
 into words might as well not be in the mind. Practice, 
 and practice only, will give an easy command of lan- 
 guage : the faculty is generated by the habit. This is 
 the main reason why the process above described must 
 be conducted in writing. That the advice is wanted may 
 be seen from many of the essays sent in at scholarship 
 examinations, the writers of which have been obviously 
 "making a first attempt." A second reason, almost as 
 cogent as the first, is that nothing quickens thought so 
 much as the necessity of expressing it in words. This is 
 not the place to discuss the influence of language upon 
 thought, but this subject and others which it brings into 
 view would be very suitable for " trial " essays. 
 
 Further assistance, which is not by any means to be 
 despised, may be given to the powers of reason and 
 expression by taking an active part in -the debating 
 societies which are set up at most of the great schools, 
 and by the less formal discussions among a few friends 
 where there is variety of opinion. The advantage is got 
 not so much from what others say (which you may be 
 inclined to under-estimate), as from the effort to convince 
 others of your own opinions. What these are, matters 
 very little, as they are quite likely to be changed within 
 a few years beyond your own recognition. But the mental 
 
 Expression. 
 
 Furtlier 
 Assistance. 
 
i6 CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 discipline of having to find reasons which will bring over 
 a hostile mind, or at least make it feel uncomfortable jn 
 its own position, is not less valuable than the practical 
 skill in exposition, which is best got from " thinking 
 aloud " before an audience less indulgent than your own 
 mind. 
 General Plan. The idea which blunders out at the wrong time may 
 upset a train of thought and spoil a whole essay. It is 
 like dirt — " matter in the wrong place.'' It is important, 
 therefore, before you begin writing your essay, to draw 
 out a general plan, and to marshal all your ideas in their 
 proper places. Half an hour, or even a longer time, so 
 spent is well invested. Be very careful not to derange 
 your plan when once .you have begun writing; and do 
 not allow a favourite idea to obtrude its presence before 
 it is wanted. If you write an introduction let it be brief, 
 and let it be a real -introduction to your treatment of 
 the given subject, not a bird's-eye view of things in 
 general. 
 
 Play to the score; that is> draw out such a scheme 
 as can be accomplished in the allotted time. If you 
 find out after the end of the second hour that your 
 designs have been too big, spend five minutes in seeing 
 whether they cannot be contracted by omitting what 
 is not essential. If that is impossible, complete as much 
 of your original design as you can in the time. In 
 no case hurry your work so ■ much that pen and brain 
 cannot keep step. 
 Style. Do not try in examination to model your style upon 
 
 any great writer whom you may admire, whether Gibbon 
 or Carlyle or Herbert Spencer. To do this well requires 
 more time than will be at your disposal, and to do it 
 badly is to produce a rather sickening travesty. Say out 
 
ENGLISH ESS A Y. 1 7 
 
 what you have to say, so that it cannot be mistaken. The 
 best style for essays written in an examination is that 
 which seeks to draw no attention to itself — of time olent 
 quum non olent. 
 
 A list has been added (which might be enlarged almost 
 indefinitely) of books which are likely to be useful for the 
 essay either because they are models of style or because 
 they contain suggestive and stimulating matter : — 
 
 Dissertations and Discussions ... J. S. Mill. 
 
 Origin of Species Darwin. 
 
 First Principles (part ii.) Spencer. 
 
 Analogy and Sermons Butler. 
 
 Past and Present Carlyle. 
 
 Hero- Worship ,, 
 
 Speeclies on Warren Hastings . . . Btirke. 
 
 Short Studies on Great Subjects . . Frmidc. 
 
 Essays Sydney Smith. 
 
 Essays /. Foster. 
 
 Kealmah Sir Arthur Helps. 
 
 Friends in Council , , , , 
 
 Essays in Criticisms Matthew Arnold. 
 
 Essays Hume. 
 
 Essays Herbert Spencer. 
 
 Religio Medici Sir Thomas Browne. 
 
 Essays of Elia Lamb. 
 
 The Greek Poets (series i. and ii.) . . /.A. Symonds. 
 
 Professor at the Breakfast Table . . Holmes. 
 
 Knickerbocker's History of New York. W. Irving. 
 
 Letters from a Citizen of the World . Goldsmith. 
 Recreations of a Country Parson . . 
 
 The Mill on the Floss George Eliot. 
 
 Middlemarch „ ,1 
 
 Sybil Lord Beaconsjield. 
 
 Gil Bias LeSage. 
 
 Tales of Balzac. 
 
 Wilhelm Meister Goethe. 
 
CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 SUBJECTS FOR ESSA VS. 
 
 1. Present compared with posthumous renown. 
 
 2. In what respects, other than the general purposes of 
 education, is the study of ancient Greece and Rome 
 valuable to the modern world ? 
 
 3. Patriotism. 
 
 4. Ought knowledge to be formed for its own sake or 
 not? 
 
 5. " History repeats itself." 
 
 6. The characteristic defects of ancient historians. 
 
 7. What grounds have we for believing that the human 
 race will steadily progress ? 
 
 8. Common sense. 
 
 9. How far do poetry, painting, and sculpture differ 
 from and resemble one another in their nature, capacity, 
 and application ? 
 
 ip. Consistency. 
 
 1 1. The taste for the picturesque among the ancients 
 and moderns. 
 
 1 2. On courage. 
 
 13. The reciprocal influence of political constitution 
 and national character. 
 
 14. The influence of works of fiction. 
 
 15. The influence of conquest on the conquerors and 
 the conquered. 
 
 16. The advantages and disadvantages of anonymous 
 authorship. 
 
 17. The influence of commerce on civilization. 
 
 18. Discuss the question whether a good poet or 
 other artist need also be a good man ? 
 
 19. The elements of national prosperity. 
 
ENGLISH ESS A Y. 19 
 
 20. Originality. 
 
 21. How far should the State attempt to guide 
 opinion ? 
 
 22. The evils of party government. 
 
 23. The Idylls of the King considered from any point 
 you please. 
 
 24. Does excellence in poetry or art afford any evi- 
 dence as to the moral and political conditions of a 
 nation ? 
 
 25. Estimate the influence of eloquence in settling 
 political questions. 
 
 26. The drama regarded as an instrument of educa- 
 tion. 
 
 27. The prejudices which nations entertain against one 
 another. 
 
 28. Enthusiasm. 
 
 29. English manners and customs of the present day 
 compared with those of the last century. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 It is the custom of most colleges to devote one paper 
 to history and another to miscellaneous questions ; but 
 where special importance is attached to I^atin and Greek 
 composition, it is usual to combine the history and 
 " general " papers by adding to the history a few ques- 
 tions which will give a candidate the chance of display- 
 ing any knowledge that he may have of the science of 
 politics and political economy or of art and literature. 
 Again, the study of divinity survives at a few colleges in 
 the form of questions appended to the history paper ; but 
 it is not recommended that these should be attempted 
 before justice has been done to the other questions, 
 unless such answers can be given as will hold out the 
 promise of future success in the Theology School, or 
 in the competitions for the University Greek Testament 
 prizes and theological essays. 
 Selection of The questions of the history paper range in number 
 Questions. from eight to fifteen ; but it may be safely said that no 
 examiners expect anything like the full number to be 
 attempted. It is not uncommon to print a recommenda- 
 tion to the candidates not to answer more .than a certain 
 proportion of the questions. It may sound strange, there- 
 fore, but it is true, that the advice so given is very often 
 
HISTORY. 21 
 
 disregarded ; and instead of a few thorough answers a 
 greater quantity is sent in, which being thin and inade- 
 quate does the writer no good, and creates an impression 
 of hi« vanity or fussiness. Out of twelve questions, five 
 or six well answered would make up a first-rate paper ; 
 and more than six should not be attempted in three 
 hours. It would be better to give up one or two ques- 
 tions which you could discuss than to spoil the whole 
 paper by abbreviating or condensing each part. It is to 
 be recollected in all competitions where the hours are 
 strictly limited that nothing takes up so much time as 
 condensation. Write out what you know and think fully 
 and freely, and you will cover more ground than if you 
 try to economize your sentences. Remember that you 
 want to save time, not paper. 
 
 It is not, as a general rule, advisable to give up all the 
 time to one or even two questions by writing an " essay " 
 on each. This should only be done if the candidate has 
 nothing to say that is worth saying about the others. 
 He must then make the best of himself as he can, and 
 try to compensate the narrowness of his knowledge by 
 displaying its thoroughness. Certainly he ought not to 
 leave the room before he has emptied himself of every 
 idea that bears upon the point of the question. There 
 have been instances, indeed, of scholarships awarded 
 mainly on account of a single question taken from a his- 
 tory or " general " paper, and cleverly treated. But -this 
 is only likely to be successful when a subject has been 
 studied with uncommon zeal and interest. 
 
 There is some room for discretion in the selection of 
 the questions to be answered and in leaving alone what 
 you cannot do respectably. A quarter of an hour may 
 very well be spent at the beginning in reading and 
 
CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 Metbod of 
 answering 
 Questions. 
 
 re-reading the paper. Compare each question with the 
 amount of your knowledge of its subject, and pay espe- 
 cial attention to the form in which it is expressed, so that 
 you may answer what is asked and nothing else. It is 
 desirable to show that your knowledge is either wide or 
 exact ; and you should pick out those questions which 
 will allow you to turn your best side to the light. If 
 your memory is exact, take those questions on the 
 ancient history which will give play to precision in dates, 
 names, and geography. These, perhaps, pay best, be- 
 cause it is easy for an examiner to estimate their merits, 
 and because they are seldom done well. 
 
 If, on the other hand, your tastes and training have 
 turned your attention more to the general course of his- 
 tory than to the minutia of this or that period, leave the 
 special questions well alone. Nothing can be less useful 
 than muddled geo.graphy and misquoted dates; they 
 may even produce a minus effect. Avoid, therefore, such 
 questions as the "life of Agesiiaus, or Alcibiades;" 
 take such as, "What various purposes were served by 
 Greek colonization ? " Or the comparison of some point 
 in Greek and Roman history, such as, "Compare the 
 political influence of oratory at Athens and Rome." 
 Still better to trace the connection between ancient and 
 modern history, as in stating " the forms in which Greece 
 and Rome have influenced the thought and action of 
 later ages.'' 
 
 It is, perhaps, unnecessary to insist upon the import- 
 ance of writing upon any question all that you know. 
 Do not imagine that you will get credit for any informa- 
 tion which you have withheld. It is well, therefore, to 
 be explicit and to avoid an allusive style, which often is, 
 and always seems to be, the cover of ignorance. It is 
 
HISTORY. 23 
 
 quite useless to play at hide-and-seek with examiners, 
 who ai-e familiar with every turn and twist in the 
 game. 
 
 Answer the whole question fully, but no more than the 
 question. Give all that you are asked for, but volunteer 
 nothing. There is no advantage gained, and much time 
 is wasted, by dragging in statements and reflections which 
 are more or less closely connected with the question but 
 are not a part of itself. Writing on the point and never 
 writing off the point is the one infallible recipe for getting 
 a scholarship. Misplaced knowledge is nothing but 
 lumber ; and it would be well for their pupils if ' ' coaches " 
 paid less attention to matter and more to form. A boy 
 working for a scholarship could not spend some of his 
 time more profitably than in writing answers for a merci- 
 less teacher who would scratch out all the irrelevant stuff. 
 It is no good to pile up facts unless you know their 
 meaning. An old college servant well explained his 
 master's failure in an examination by saying that " he 
 would have done better if he had read a little less and 
 thought a bit more." It is no good wearing out your 
 trousers on a study chair if you do not set your 
 brains to work. Locke's advice in his " Thoughts Con- 
 cerning Reading and Study for a Gentleman " should be 
 well considered : "The next step towards the improve- 
 ment of his understanding must be to observe the 
 connection of these ideas in the propositions which those 
 books hold forth and pretend to teach as truths ; which, 
 till a man judge whether they be tiuths or no, his under- 
 standing is but little improved ; and he doth but think 
 and talk after the books that he hath read, without having 
 any knowledge thereby. And thus men of much reading 
 are greatly learned but may be little knowing." 
 
24 
 
 CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 Style. 
 
 Short 
 Histories. 
 
 A prevalent and very offensive form of writing off the 
 point is " the drawing of a moral lesson " by way of 
 finishing an answer. Anybody can do it ; nobody wants 
 it ; and it leaves a nasty taste in the mouth. It is there- 
 fore unwise to conclude an account of Alcibiades with 
 the edifying reflection that "We learn from the career 
 and end of this gifted being how fatal ambition ever is 
 to him who has not rectitude of heart." 
 
 Do not " form a style." You cannot do better than 
 follow the maxim, "Take care of the sense, and the 
 sounds will take care of themselves." 
 
 A common mistake in the reading of history is to 
 choose short books such as the Student's Greece, where 
 the events of long periods are closely packed into a 
 small number of pages. The knowledge which is to be 
 got from good manuals is exceedingly valuable as the 
 nucleus of a larger information. But a reference to the 
 specimens of questions below appended will show that 
 what is wanted in scholarship examinations is not what 
 is supplied from such books. You are asked to trace the 
 causes of some movement, to develop the effects of an 
 institution, to piece together scattered fragments of history, 
 to describe the career and character of a great man, or 
 perhaps to estimate the qualities of an ancient historian. 
 Such demands will not be met if you can only draw upon 
 a chronological analysis. It will be found more profit- 
 able, as it will certainly be more agreeable and stimula- 
 ting to the understanding, to master the inner history of 
 a couple of centuries as told by Grote than to have 
 an outside acquaintance with Athens from the time of 
 Theseus to Demetrius. 
 Greek History. The following course of historical study is suggested, 
 or such parts of it as may be found practicable. For 
 
HISTORY. 2S 
 
 Greek affairs take three or four of Grote's volumes, and 
 compare the treatment of the same period by some other 
 writer, such as Sir George Cox, Thirlwall, Mitford, or 
 Curtius. When you detect any points of difference 
 between your two authorities, try to make up your mind 
 which of them is in the right. At least, examine the 
 evidence for each opinion, and face the alternative dif- 
 ficulties. The labour would be well spent even if no 
 scholarship were its direct result. A habit of mind would 
 be acquired which would be not less useful in practical 
 life than in a University course. Of the four historians 
 suggested. Cox presents least, and Mitford most, points of 
 divergence from Grote ; Thirlwall is the most balanced, 
 and Curtius is the most difficult, but in some ways most 
 instructive, as showing how much theory may be built 
 upon a small number of ascertained data. The reading 
 of Grote side by side with Curtius will mark the dif- 
 ference sharply between the record of facts and their 
 subjective reconstruction. Grote's constant reference to 
 the original authorities and his examinations of their 
 claims to credibility will give you an opportunity, not 
 otherwise easy to get, of seeing history in the making ; 
 and you will be better enabled to answer the questions, 
 which constantly recur in scholarship examinations, as to 
 the merits of this or that ancient writer and as to the 
 materials which they had at hand. For this reason it is Texts, 
 well to choose for study the parts of your English history, 
 whether of Greece or Rome, which are parallel with your 
 reading of Greek or Latin texts, whether in prose or 
 verse. It must not be forgotten how much side-light is 
 thrown upon the darkness of a past age by the allusions 
 of contemporary poets. As much of Athenian history 
 may be learnt from the study of the comedies of Aris- 
 
26 
 
 CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 Beferences. 
 
 Kinutlse of 
 Ancient 
 History. 
 
 tophanes as from Xenophon's Hellenica; and an attentive 
 reading of those poets who deal less directly with the 
 events of their own times, such as the early lyricists, 
 Pindar, or Euripides, will give no little insight into the 
 social life and state of culture which surrounded the 
 writers. 
 
 Let your study of ancient history be based upon the 
 ancient authors whom you are reading. If it is im- 
 possible to enter upon the somewhat laborious course 
 which has been indicated, take a less ambitious line. 
 Read, for instance, Herodotus' account of the Persians 
 in Greece alongside with the half crown volume written 
 by Sir George Cox for the series of " Epochs of Ancient 
 History," and think out for yourself confirmations or 
 refutations of the doubts which have been cast upon the 
 traditional accounts of the battle of Thermopyte. 
 
 Verify quotations. 
 
 No reference in poet, orator, or historian must be 
 passed over until you have fully understood its meaning, 
 or, at least, until you have found that it cannot be under-^ 
 stood. The passage in the Knights of Aristophanes, where 
 it has been suggested to read the name of Chalcedon 
 instead of Carchedon, shows how history may be picked 
 up by the way. So, too, the best commentary on Demos- 
 thenes is the history of his times. 
 
 It is not recommended that much time should be spent 
 over the intricacies of campaigns in Greek or Roman 
 history, or upon international complications, unless a 
 special taste has generated a special aptitude. In that 
 case, particular attention should be paid to the correct 
 chronology and geography, and notice should be taken of 
 any confusion on these points which can be traced in the 
 ancient writers, such as Herodotus or Sallust. What is 
 
HISTORY. 27 
 
 most important is that the causes and issues of the great 
 wars and their reaction upon political and social history 
 should be fully understood. Some attention may also 
 be profitably spent upon the constitution of Greek or 
 Roman armies at different periods, and upon the changes 
 associated with such names as Epaminondas or Marius. 
 Lastly, it is suggested that the state of foreign tribes or 
 nations,'especially Persia and Carthage, before they came 
 into contact or conflict with Greece or Rome, should be 
 compared with their subsequent condition, and that their 
 reaction upon the higher civilization should not be 
 overlooked. 
 
 Remarks of the same general character may be made 
 about Roman as about Greek history. It is better to 
 study parts of the best books than the whole of a small 
 one. Long's Decline and Fall of the Roman Republic, 
 Mommsen's History of Rome, and Merivale's Empire, 
 or parts of one or all of these books, will be found 
 most useful for scholarships. To these might be added 
 the early part of Gibbon's work, Bryce's Holy Roman 
 Empire, and Freeman's Historical Essays (ist, 2nd, 
 and 3rd Series). It is quite as important in Roman 
 history to have a general acquaintance with the influence 
 of Rome upon the after history of Europe as to know 
 the actual history of the Republic and Empire. 
 
 Pay especial attention to the legislation, and identify 
 the names of men with the laws which they carried. 
 This requires some little care, as the name affixed to the 
 lex is not always that by which its author is best known. 
 A general acquaintance with the topography of Rome, 
 and with the main roads throughout Italy and the pro- 
 vinces, and a clear understanding of the shifting bounda- 
 ries of the empire, are almost indispensable to a proper 
 
28 CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 understanding of the history. The chapters which come 
 at the end of each of Mommsen's volumes give a great 
 deal of social and literary information. If the rest is 
 omitted, these chapters ought to be thoroughly studied. 
 If you take Moramsen as your guide in other matters, it 
 will be well not to follow him in his admiration of some 
 of the great personages of his history, unless you can 
 give reasons expressed in hard facts. If you choose to 
 talk of the " unique " Csesar, the epithet must be justified 
 by a detailed account of his achievements. The intro- 
 ductions to each of the five parts of Mr. Watson's edition 
 of Cicero's Letters (Clarendon Press) will furnish you 
 with the events of the period. An easier account is 
 published in the Epochs of Ancient History. 
 
 Few history papers are without one or two questions 
 upon the history of England, and most such questions 
 could be fairly well answered by any one who had Green's 
 Short History of the English People at his fingers' 
 ends. It is recommended that this book should be read 
 carefully from the beginning to the end, but that the 
 study of one or two periods (such as the reign of John, 
 the Wars of the Roses, the Reformation, the Great 
 Rebellion, the Revolution of 1688, or the reign of George 
 III.) should be supplemented either by reference to the 
 original authorities quoted at the head of each chapter, 
 or by some more detailed history, such as parts of Ranke's 
 History of England, Lecky's History of England in the 
 Eighteenth Century, and Hallam's History of England. 
 It is not recommended that great labour should be be- 
 stowed upon the foreign campaigns or upon any recondite 
 or intricate questions — merely that the general features of 
 some or all of the great epochs of the national history 
 should be clearly understood. The knowledge of con- 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 29 
 
 temporary history is also likely to be of service; and 
 half-an-hour spent each day over a newspaper is not by 
 any means wasted time, especially if you make a point 
 of strictly examining the truth of such historical state- 
 ments as you may find in the political articles. To 
 stimulate your zeal in this respect, it would be well that 
 you should read a paper opposed to what you believe to 
 be your own political opinions. 
 
 The above advice may be summed : Concentrate your 
 work upon some one or two periods rather than spread 
 it over a larger area. But there is an obvious objection 
 that all the eggs are being put into one basket : it may 
 well happen that no such question will be asked as will 
 give the candidate any chance of displaying his special 
 excellence. This may be true of his first or second 
 examination, but the third or fourth will not fail to give 
 him the desired opportunity ; and neither these hints 
 nor any other that could be written profess to guarantee 
 success at the first competition. 
 
 For the questions upon general history it is almost 
 impossible to give advice which is likely to be of any 
 practical value. The area is so wide that no prescribed 
 course of reading could be reasonably expected to cover 
 anything like the whole ground. But if a candidate has 
 rendered a satisfactory account of the Greek, Roman, 
 and English history, he need not trouble himself about 
 the rest. Indeed, he will have very little time to spare 
 them. It may, however, be suggested that those parts 
 of European history should be studied which are from 
 time to time brought back to men's minds by current 
 events or recent controversy. Thus the disputes about 
 the settlement of South-eastern Europe might well have 
 prompted an inquisitive mind to investigate the previous 
 
 Summary. 
 
 General 
 History. 
 
30 CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 history of the Ottoman Turks in Europe, and so on 
 backwards, perhaps to the early history of Byzantium. 
 It may be added that such curiosity would not have gone 
 without its reward among the candidates for scholarships 
 in the last four years. 
 
 Unless there is a strong taste for history, or a special 
 attraction to some one period, the study of general 
 history must not interfere with the orthodox classical 
 course. Let the reading selected be easy ; e.g.. Motley's 
 Rise of the Dutch Republic, or some of the articles in 
 the Saturday Review. The general history should be 
 rather by way of relaxation than your main work. But 
 there will be no harm done if Don Quixote takes your 
 thoughts awhile to the break-up of mediaeval chivalry, if 
 Gil Bias makes you think of the influence of the Roman 
 Catholic religion upon Spanish history, or if George 
 Eliot's Romola and Manzoni's Betrothed make you 
 dwell awhile upon modern rather than ancient Italy. 
 
 A more precise idea of the history paper will be got 
 from the following questions, which have been collected 
 from papers lately set at the different colleges in the 
 examinations for scholarships. All of them should be 
 carefully studied ; and it is recommended that a fair pro- 
 portion of those which deal with ancient history should 
 be answered at length with the help of good books of 
 reference. It might also be wise for a candidate to 
 exercise himself in writing answers to a few questions 
 under the same conditions as in an examination — without 
 books and against time. 
 
HISTORY. 31 
 
 QUESTIONS ON HISTORY. 
 Greek History. 
 
 1. Describe the formation of the Confederacy ofDelos 
 and its transition into the Athenian Empire. 
 
 2. Illustrate the military and political genius of Philip 
 of Macedon. 
 
 3. What part did the Delphic oracle play in Greek 
 history ? 
 
 4. The characteristics of Greek tyranny. 
 
 5. The sources of the strength and weakness of Athens 
 and Sparta respectively in the Peloponnesian war. 
 
 6. Stages in the development of the Athenian con- 
 .stitution. 
 
 7. Confederacies in Greece. 
 
 8. Criticise the - speeches of Thucydides as to style 
 and matter. 
 
 9. How did the Greeks regard their own mythology ? 
 
 10. Sketch any two of the following characters: — 
 Cleomenes, Brasidas, Nicias, Alcibiades, Lysander, 
 Philip of Macedon. 
 
 11. The nature and extent of Hellenic intercourse with 
 different European tribes before 400 b.c. 
 
 12. Contrast the aspects of Greek life presented by 
 Homer and Hesiod. 
 
 13. Distinguish the " tyrants " of Greece from other 
 types of absolute sovereigns. 
 
 14. " The Spartans were not a nation but a garrison." 
 Examine this assertion. 
 
 15. Write short accounts of Polycrates, Cimon, and 
 Theramenes. 
 
32 CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 1 6. Sketch the social and iDolitical condition of a poor 
 Athenian citizen in the time of Pericles. 
 ■17. Write a short history of Thebes. 
 
 18. Give some account of the Council of the Areo- 
 pagus. 
 
 19. What various purposes were served by Greek 
 colonization ? 
 
 20. Compare the position of a leading statesman of a 
 Greek republic with that of a minister of a modern state. 
 
 21. Discuss the mutual influence of national character 
 and political institutions with special reference to the 
 history of Athens and Sparta. 
 
 22. The influence of the Greek colonies on the coun- 
 tries in which they were planted. 
 
 23. The special merits of Pericles as a statesman. 
 
 24. Trace the influence of the Phenicians in the 
 ancient world. 
 
 25. -rroKejjbiKol re Ka\ ev^ovKoi Sia to evKOfffiov 
 'yivoixeOa. Examine this in reference to Spartan cha- 
 racter and policy. 
 
 26. Sketch in outline, showing the causes of failure 
 and success, either {a) the great invasion of Greece by 
 the Persians, or {b) the Peloponnesian war, down to the 
 end of the Sicilian expedition. 
 
 27. What important effects had the conquests of Alex- 
 ander the Great on subsequent history ? 
 
 28. Characterize briefly the great men who most dis- 
 tinctly mark the successive periods of Athenian history. 
 
 29. What were the causes of the Peloponnesian war ? 
 
 30. Give a brief sketch of the principal events and 
 divisions of the Peloponnesian war ? 
 
 31. How far did Greece succeed in attaining national 
 unity ? 
 
HISTORY. 33 
 
 32. A man had killed another at Athens. Describe 
 his trial. 
 
 33. Illustrate the strong and weak points in the 
 Athenian Empire. 
 
 34. What was the foreign policy recommended by 
 Pericles ? Was it reasonable ? How far was it adhered 
 to by the Athenians ? 
 
 35. What were the chief causes of dissension among 
 the Greek states before the Persian war? 
 
 36. How far were the characteristic features of the 
 Greek mind in harmony with democracy ? 
 
 37. Give the geography of the Hellespont and Bos- 
 phorus, noting the most considerable places situated on 
 them in ancient times, and explaining their geographical 
 importance. 
 
 38. State some of the leading distinctions between the 
 Dorian and the Ionian races. Where did their respective 
 colonies lie ? 
 
 39. Describe the attempts made by different Greek 
 states to resist the advance of the power of Macedon. 
 
 40. The services of Alcibiades to Athens. 
 
 Points in Greek and Roman History Compared. 
 
 1. Compare the functions and mode of procedure of 
 the Athenian ecdesia, the Roman senate, and the British 
 parliament. 
 
 2. Compare the imperial systems of Persia, Athens, 
 Sparta, and Rome. 
 
 3. Some account of slavery in Greece and Rome. 
 
 4. Account ■ for the following names : — Alexandria, 
 Naples, Provence, Cologne, Venice, Chester. 
 
 3 
 
34 CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 5. Account for the fact that the monarchical principle 
 of government was less commonly accepted by Greek 
 and Roman communities than by modern states. 
 
 6. The attitude of the ancients to commerce, and 
 especially to usury. 
 
 7. State briefly the forms in which Greece and Rome 
 have most influenced the thought and action of later 
 ages. 
 
 8. Illustrate from Greek, Roman, or English history 
 the tendency of authors in our time to reverse the 
 received estimate of historical characters. 
 
 9. Compare the political influence of oratory at 
 Athens and Rome. 
 
 Roman History. 
 
 1. Trace the growth of a system of foreign policy in 
 the Roman Republic. 
 
 2. Compare the types of statesmanship in Sulla, Julius 
 Caesar, and Tiberius. 
 
 3. Describe the system by which Rome incorporated 
 her conquests in Italy and the provinces. 
 
 4. What were the chief causes which led to the estab- 
 lishment of the Empire at Rome. 
 
 5. The causes, history, and results of the different 
 secessions at Rome. 
 
 6. The policy of the reign of Augustus. 
 
 7. The critical battles of Roman history. 
 
 8. The services of Cicero to his country. 
 
 9. What was the theoretical and practical position of 
 the Tribuni Plebis i 
 
 10. Compare the position of the governor of an 
 English dependency and a Roman province. 
 
HISTORY. 35 
 
 11. The origin and progress of agrarian movements 
 at Rome. 
 
 12. Grcecia capta ferum vidorem cepit, et artes 
 Intulit agresti Latio. Illustrate this. 
 
 1 3. Examine historically the use of the words Impera- 
 tor, Emperor, Empire. 
 
 14. The life and character of Mark Antony. 
 
 15. To what causes may the military successes of the 
 Romans be chiefly attributed ? 
 
 16. What light does Horace throw on the education of 
 the ordinary Roman of his day ? 
 
 17. Describe the chief laws at Rome which dealt 
 with (i) debt, (2) public lands, (3) intermarriage ot the 
 orders. 
 
 18. Compare Sylla and Marius as types of their re- 
 spective parties. 
 
 19. Account for the absence of biographical interest 
 in the history of the^ Roman Republic before its decline. 
 
 20. The character and career of Pompey. 
 
 21. How did Rome govern her dependencies ? 
 
 22. The growth of the Roman constitution down to 
 B.C. 367. 
 
 23. Under what forms and by what means did the 
 Roman senate become the ruling power of the Republic ? 
 
 24. What degree' of credibility can be accorded to the 
 stories of the Roman kings ? 
 
 25. To what form of government would you refer the 
 Roman constitution after the passing of the Hortensian 
 law? 
 
 26. AVhat circumstances favoured the Romans in their 
 conquest of Italy ? 
 
 2 7. What were the powers of the Roman censors ? Can 
 you mention any similar officer existing elsewhere ? 
 
36 CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 28. What is meant by the decay of a nation ? Illustrate 
 your answer from Roman history. 
 
 29. The Roman administration of Britain. 
 
 30. Write short accounts of Cinna, Maecenas, Seneca, 
 Polybius. 
 
 31. Describe accurately the extent of the Roman 
 Empire at the end of the reign of Augustus. 
 
 32. How was a Roman province governed in Cicero's 
 time? 
 
 33. What different estimates have been formed of 
 Cicero's political capacity and conduct ? 
 
 34. Estimate the importance of the fall of Carthage as 
 a crisis in the history of Rome. 
 
 35. How were the various magistracies of republican 
 Rome united in the Emperor ? 
 
 English History. 
 
 1. Roman Catholicism as affecting English politics 
 since the time of Mary. 
 
 2. The various races of the British Isles. 
 
 3. What were the causes of the decline of the 
 monarchical power in England ? 
 
 4. How far were the great party questions of English 
 politics complicated by local and family influences in the 
 Wars of the Roses and the Great Rebellion ? 
 
 5. What circumstances led to the outbreak of the 
 Crimean War as (i) a conflict of powers, and (2) a 
 struggle for right? 
 
 6. How far were the same causes at work in producing 
 the English Rebellion and the French Revolution ? 
 
 7. The causes of the English Revolution of 1688. 
 
HISTORY. 37 
 
 8. The tendency of the legislation of the reigns of 
 Edward I. and George IV. 
 
 9. Describe and explain the foreign policy of William 
 the Third. 
 
 10. At what periods has the foreign policy of England 
 been affected by religious or commercial considerations ? 
 
 11. Account for the vacillating policy of Elizabeth 
 towards the reforming party both at home and abroad. 
 
 1 2 . Criticise the statement that " the British Constitu- 
 tion is a limited monarchy." 
 
 13. Origin and nature of the powers of the English 
 Cabinet. 
 
 14. In what particulars did the Tudor and the Stuart 
 kings claim or exercise greater powers than those pos- 
 sessed by earlier English sovereigns ? 
 
 15. What evils did the following Bills propose to 
 remedy: — Reform Bill of 1832, Repeal of the Corn 
 Laws, Mr. Pitt's India Bill, and the Irish Church Bill? 
 
 16. Indicate the general course of the English Re- 
 formation. What are the stages and tendencies marked 
 by the names of Wiclif, Erasmus, Thomas Cromwell, and 
 Hooker ? 
 
 17. The relations between England and Scotland in 
 
 1745- 
 
 18. Account for the support given to the Pretender. 
 
 European and General History. 
 
 1 . The cause of the stability of the Swiss Republic. 
 
 2. State the causes which led to the Thirty Years' 
 War. 
 
 3. Sketch briefly the origin and course of the American 
 War of Independence. 
 
38 CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 4. Write a short history of the Duchy of Burgundy. 
 
 5. Describe the state of letters in Europe immediately 
 before the introduction of printing. 
 
 6. What events do you associate with {a) the Teutonic 
 Knights, (b) the Janissaries, {c) the Jacobins, {d) the 
 Pilgrim Fathers ? 
 
 7. The struggle for power between the Crown, the 
 nobility, and the communes in France. 
 
 8. The rise of the kingdom of Prussia. 
 
 9. Give the ancient equivalents for Provence, Nismes, 
 Milan, Corfu ; and the modern for Brixia, Camelodunum, 
 Confluentes, Aqu£e Sextise. 
 
 10. Compare the capacity, as colonizing races, of the 
 French, the Russians, the Spaniards, the Dutch, and the 
 English. 
 
 11. What races inhabit, and what are the languages 
 spoken in Belgium, Hungary, Brazil, Bohemia, Lower 
 Canada, the Cape Colony, and the Faroe Islands ? 
 
 12. The causes of the greatness and decline of Spain. 
 
 13. What results have been produced in the internal 
 condition of England, Spain, and Holland, by the posses- 
 sion of colonial and other dependencies ? 
 
 14. Enumerate the men who from 1600 downwards 
 could fairly claim to be called the most prominent and 
 powerful men in Europe. 
 
 15. Give an account oifour of the following persons : — 
 Judas Maccabseus, Sulla, Epictetus, Belisarius, Cardinal 
 Beaufort, Savonarola, Erasmus, Titian, Turenne, Van 
 Tromp, Bliicher. 
 
 16. Give a short account of the Benedictine order. 
 
 1 7. Illustrate from any historians you may have read 
 the chief causes of the falsification of history. 
 
 18. Explain the following terms : — Concordat, Prag- 
 
HISTORY. 39 
 
 matic Sanction, Phalanstery, Renaissance, Frondeur, 
 Ghibelline, Commune, Encyclopaedist, Metayer, Ro- 
 mance. 
 
 19. What was the influence of Charlemagne in the 
 creation of modern Europe ? 
 
 20. What is meant by feudalism ? 
 
 21. The chief political changes in Italy since 1000 a.d. 
 
 22. The relations of Mohammedanism to Europe. 
 
 23. The good and evil of the Crusades. 
 
 24. What various races are represented among the 
 existing populations of Europe ? 
 
 25. The political characteristics of Italy in the 15th 
 century. 
 
 26. 'The historical relations between Russia and 
 Poland. 
 
 27. The historical connection between France and 
 Scotland. 
 
 28. Explain the following phrases : — Donation of Con- 
 stantine. Question of Investitures, the Great Schism, 
 Petition of Right, Lit de justice, Lettres de cachet, the 
 Spanish Succession. 
 
 29. What were the best and worst features of European 
 society in the Middle Ages ? 
 
 30. Describe (with dates) the conquests made by the 
 Normans in other countries than England. 
 
 31. The exact positions of Cawnpoor, Allahabad, 
 Patna, Seringapatam, Indore. What are the rivers of the 
 Punjaub ? 
 
 32. The place of the Netherlands in European history 
 from the middle of the isth century. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 
 
 The miscellaneous questions which either make up 
 this paper or are appended to the History deal for the 
 most part with English literature, the canons of art and 
 artistic criticism, the elements of political economy, and 
 of poUtical and moral philosophy, or the great stages in 
 the advance of the physical sciences. The same sort of 
 points are raised as you will find discussed in the lead- 
 ing periodicals ; e.g., The Fortnightly and Nineteenth 
 Century Reviews and The Cornhill Magazine, and the 
 Revue des deux Mondes. But caution must be used in 
 the reading of ephemeral literature. Much time may be 
 frittered away for the sake of a little knowledge, chiefly 
 because the recent multiplication of magazines and the 
 present fashion of signing the writer's name serve to 
 introduce many bad articles into good company. More- 
 over, a cheap kind of sciolism is generated in the 
 habitual reader's mind, which is more likely to be of 
 service at a third-rate dinner-party than in an Oxford 
 examination-room ; and a piece-meal way of thinking is 
 acquired which shrinks from the labour of digesting an 
 entire treatise or system. 
 
 Political Let your non-classical studies be regulated by your 
 
 Gonomy. sympathies and aptitudes. It is unwise to pull away 
 
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 41 
 
 from the bias. If political economy be your hobby, 
 the following course is suggested : — Begin with Mrs. 
 Fawcett's Introduction to the science (published at 
 2s. 6d.), and go on with Mill's Principles. If there is 
 not time to master the whole of this book, take the 
 following selection of parts: — Book I; Book II, 
 chapters i to 5, chapters 11 and 12 and 16 ; Book III, 
 chapter x to 6, and chapter 26 ; Book IV, chapters i 
 and 6 ; Book V, chapters i to 3, chapter 6, and chapters 
 8 to II. When the principles of the science have been 
 fairly grasped, they should be fixed in the memory, and 
 made an active part of the mind by the constant applica- 
 tion of them to such economical disputes as you will find 
 conducted (not always with so sound a knowledge as your 
 own) in the public papers and in the speeches of public 
 men, and to those more numerous questions which 
 economical principles underlie. 
 
 No better beginning can be made in political philosophy Political 
 than from a careful study of Mill's Liberty (published by Pi»ii<'s''P»'y- 
 Longman at is. 4d.). If you can, refute the principles 
 which are there laid down, or modify them so far as you 
 think correct. Follow this with Sir James Stephen's 
 Essays on Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity, and with 
 Sir G. C. Lewis's Use and Abuse of some Political 
 Terms, and Herbert Spencer's Study of Sociology, and 
 Bagehot's Physics and Politics. If there is time and in- 
 clination to prosecute the study, Hobbes' Leviathan 
 may be read in connection with Locke's Treatises on 
 Civil Government. A further advance would be made 
 by taking two or three of the following books : — 
 
 Buckle's Histoiy of Civilization. 
 Freeman's Comparative Politics. 
 
42 CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 Rousseau's Contrat Social ; or Morley's account of this book 
 
 in his Rousseau. 
 Hegel's Lectures on the Philosophy of History. Parts II. 
 
 and III. (Bohn.) 
 Guizot's History of Civilization in Europe. (Bohn.) 
 Plato's Republic (Jowett's translation and preface). 
 Machiavelli's Prince. 
 Lieber's Political Ethics. 
 De Tocqueville's Democracy. 
 Mora's Utopia. (English Reprint.) 
 Milton's Arcopagitica. „ „ 
 
 It is to be remembered that political philosophy can 
 only be properly studied side by side with history. It 
 will, therefore, be better to draw the illustrations of such 
 principles as you may adopt from your own knowledge 
 of history, than to take those which are furnished in any 
 political treatise. The histories of Grote, Mommsen, 
 and Green will give you plenty of examples, if you will 
 read with your eyes open. 
 Fartlzansbip. It is, perhaps, worth mention that no advantage is 
 gained by deferring to what you imagine to be your 
 examiner's opinions or prejudices. Say out what you 
 think boldly, but give reasons. Brains get a scholarship, 
 not sentiments; and the reasoning powers show them- 
 selves to best advantage when the heart goes along 
 with the pen. Write Nihilism, if you think you can 
 make out a good case for your creed. Nobody will be 
 frightened. And, on the other hand, an over-scrupulous 
 balancing of expression is apt to stifle all symptoms of 
 originality. 
 
 Philosophy. If you decide to enter upon philosophy (a course 
 which is not recommended unless you have a strong 
 bent in that direction), do not begin with histories of 
 
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 43 
 
 philosophy, or with the last criticism upon some great 
 thinker. Read what the big men say for themselves, not 
 what the little men say about them. The master tells 
 his tale more clearly than the most zealous disciple or 
 the acutest . critic. Most systems are tolerably clear 
 until they have been explained. 
 
 It is not, however, possible to suggest any course of 
 reading which will not be full of great difficulties. A 
 good introduction to moral philosophy would be to 
 study parts of Bentham's Principles of Morals and 
 Legislation, or Mill's Essay on Utilitarianism, or 
 Spencer's Data of Ethics, and to compare the views 
 put out in some of Bishop Butler's Sermons, and 
 in the first chapter of Lecky's History of European 
 Morals. 
 
 In mental philosophy take one or two of the following 
 books : — 
 
 Bacon's Novum Organum (in Professor Fowler's edition, and 
 
 with the help of an English translation). 
 Descartes' Discourse of Method. (A translation is published by 
 
 Blackwood.) 
 Berkeley's New Theory of Vision, and Principles of Human 
 
 Knowledge. 
 Locke's Human Understanding (Books I, H, and IV.). 
 
 There is a large and rapidly increasing literature of 
 art, through any great portions of which it is not desir- 
 able that you should try to wade. Take one of the Art. 
 best books (e.g., Ruskin's Stones of Venice), and think 
 upon what you have been told, and seek to be always 
 applying the principles that have been learnt to objects 
 of your own observation. Educate the eye or ear rather 
 than the memory. A little technical knowledge of colour 
 
44 CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 or sound is worth all the essays that were ever written. 
 Be careful how you reproduce criticisms upon what you 
 have not seen or heard. Vapourings about a Botticelli 
 which you never set eyes on are more likely to give the 
 idea of affectation than of enthusiasm. A few mornings 
 spent at the British Museum or the National Gallery 
 in the company of a friend who knows the difference 
 between the statues or pictures, and can explain its 
 reasons, will supply more material for thought than 
 can be got in the same time from a book, or evolved 
 out of an inner consciousness. But it is not denied that 
 the intelligence may be quickened by such detailed 
 criticisms of some ancient or modern work of art, as 
 appear from time to time in the leading magazines. 
 
 Those who have a natural sympathy for any one of 
 the arts, and do not only re-echo a conventional admira- 
 tion, stand in little need of guidance. They have only 
 to follow whither their pleasure leads. Others must 
 learn to analyse the vaguer emotions with which they 
 are affected by an object of art, and trace them back to 
 their sources. They might, perhaps, be well started 
 along this road by Poe's account how he wrote " The 
 Raven." Poeta fiascitur non fit is only half a truth ; 
 one of England's greatest poets is known to have kept a 
 " book of common-places." Much help may also be 
 got from Physiological Esthetics, by Grant Allen, and 
 some of Herbert Spencer's Essays, especially the one 
 on music. 
 
 Special attention should be paid to the different 
 powers of expression possessed by the different arts, and 
 to the reasons why this or that art flourished at a par- 
 ticular time and place. Such questions will be found 
 discussed in many of the criticisms upon the pastoral 
 
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 45 
 
 poems of Theocritus, or Vergil (Sellar's), or Pope, and 
 in most of the accounts of the Renaissance. It is 
 important also to estimate the influence which a man's 
 life and circumstances exercise upon his work. Ideas 
 upon this subject may be got from Ruskin's accounts 
 of Turner, and from biographies and memoirs, such as the 
 autobiography of Benvenuto Cellini. Something of the 
 origin of art may be learnt from going carefully through 
 parts of the British and South Kensington Museums, 
 and from such articles as those which appeared last year 
 in the Cornhill Magazine upon Chippers of Flint, and 
 the Growth of Sculpture. 
 
 Histories of literature will not be found of much use Literature, 
 for the literary questions. Much more will be got from 
 systematizing your own English reading, and focus- 
 sing it upon two or three periods. No book should 
 be read without an attempt to understand how it came 
 to be written, and how it was received. At first, the 
 labour may be somewhat disgusting, but it will not fail 
 in the end to enhance the intellectual pleasure. Few 
 books, for instance, could be duller than Butler's 
 Hudibras to one who had no acquaintance with its 
 times. 
 
 It is a good plan to read all the great writers of one 
 period, to compare them one with another, and to con- 
 sider what justifications there are for the conventional 
 opinions about that epoch of literature, and how far 
 each writer went along with, or held aloof from, the 
 general tendency. Do your own criticism. Its real 
 value may be less, but to you its worth will be greater 
 than what the most accomplislied critic has laid down. 
 Certainly, it is preposterous to read a criticism if you 
 have not read the book. Such detailed studies as 
 
46 CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 Hours in a Library (Leslie Stephen) will be found 
 useful, if they lead you on to make acquaintance with 
 the books themselves. 
 
 The truest economy of time is to read slowly. There 
 ought to be almost as many difficulties in Hamlet as in 
 the Agamemnon of ^schylus. It may here be noticed 
 that a great many questions are set from time to time 
 about Shakspere's plays. Very useful editions of single 
 plays, with notes, are published at low prices by the 
 Clarendon Press. Along with them the Commentary of 
 Gervinus on Shakespere might be studied with profit, 
 or Hazlitt's Lectures on the Literature of the Age of 
 Elizabeth. (Bohn.) 
 
 Attention should be paid to the growth of the lan- 
 guage, as affected by other than literary causes, and to 
 the changes introduced by its great masters, as well as to 
 the influence of classical and foreign upon the English 
 literature of past and present times. 
 
 QUESTIONS FROM "GENERAL PAPERS." 
 Political Philosophy and Economy. 
 
 1. Define Csesarism, rhetoric, luxury, pessimism, free 
 trade. 
 
 2. Illustrate the dangers and disadvantages of aristo- 
 cratical governments. 
 
 3. The merits and demerits of government by party. 
 
 4. "Men look everywhere to a man rather than to a 
 system for military success." Examine this. 
 
 5. Of what value is the encouragement to trade 
 afforded by luxuries ? 
 
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 47 
 
 6. How far is political action to be judged by ordinary 
 moral standards ? 
 
 7. " Whereas many men become unable to maintain 
 themselves by labour, they ought to be provided for by 
 the lawes of the Commonwealth; for as it is uncharitable- 
 ness in any man to neglect the impotent, so it is in the 
 Soveraign of a Commonwealth to expose them to the 
 hazard of such uncertain charity." Comment on this. 
 
 8. What are the principles on which punishment 
 should be inflicted by the State? 
 
 9. Is parliamentary government as well fitted for the 
 management of foreign as of domestic affairs ? 
 
 10. What is meant by Depression of Trade ? and what 
 are the best remedies for it ? 
 
 11. Compare the powers of a President of the United 
 States with those of an English Prime Minister. 
 
 12. Why are the precious metals preferred as a medium 
 of exchange to other forms of money ? 
 
 13. The advantages and disadvantages of large as 
 compared with small states. 
 
 14. The influence, political and social, of communistic 
 ideas. 
 
 1 5. Discuss the moral right to extend civilization by 
 force. 
 
 16. Explain and give instances of Constituent As- 
 sembly, Mixed Governments, Coup d'Etat, Federal 
 Government. 
 
 17. Can objections be made to the attempt to prohibit 
 drunkenness by law ? 
 
 18. The advantages and disadvantages of vote by 
 ballot. 
 
 19. The history of national debts. 
 
 20. The arguments for and against direct taxation. 
 
48 CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 2 1. The political efTects of the concentration of popu- 
 lations in towns. 
 
 22. The economical effects of the increasing substitu- 
 tion of machinery for human labour upon the working 
 classes. 
 
 Literature. 
 
 1. Describe the influence of Chaucer, Addison, and 
 Wordsworth on English literature. 
 
 2. What is the meaning of the " three dramatic 
 unities " ? Trace the history of their authority as 
 canons of art. 
 
 3. Give an account of the following books :• — -The 
 Castle of Indolence, Areopagitica, The Anti-Jacobin, 
 Hyperion, Pascal's Provincial Letters, Goethe's Faust. 
 
 4. Compare the influence of classical models upon the 
 drama in England and France; 
 
 5. What is an epic ? Under what conditions could a 
 modern epic be written ? 
 
 6. Illustrate the growth of the sense of the pictur- 
 esque. 
 
 7. Can satire be fairly taken as an evidence of the 
 social condition of an age ? 
 
 8. Discuss the characters of Shylock, Richard III., 
 and Othello. 
 
 9. What is the value of historical dramas and novels to 
 students of history ? 
 
 10. What materials have we for a life of Shakspere? 
 
 11. What points is it most important to touch upon in 
 drawing the character of a man ? 
 
 12. Discuss the various methods of translating the 
 Homeric poems. 
 
 13. Give a brief account of English prose literature 
 
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 49 
 
 during the eighteenth century. Had it any strongly 
 marked characteristics ? 
 
 14. Discuss the expediency of a reform: of English 
 spelling. 
 
 1 5. Compare the characters of King Lear and CEdipus, 
 or of Lady Macbeth and Clytemnestra. . ; 
 
 1 6. Give an. account of one of the following writings : — 
 Dante's Inferno, Vision of. Piers. Plowman, Ngvum 
 Organum, Tale of a Tub, Don Quixote., 
 
 1 7. Discuss and illustrate the use made by Shakespere 
 of the comic element in his tragedies.'., 
 
 18. " Metaphors reflect the. JifCi of a people." Explain 
 and- illustrate this. 
 
 19. What differences are there between. Athenian and 
 English tragedy, and how can they be accounted for ? 
 
 20. To what kinds of literature is modern' civilization 
 (i) favourable, and (2) unfavourable ? 
 
 21. Compare the style of any modern., poet- with that 
 of Chaucer or Spenser. 
 
 22. Illustrate from Hamlet the; care with which Shake- 
 spere discriminates his minor characters. 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 1. Trace the successive stages' in the. development of 
 any two of the following sciences :^ — Botany, geology, 
 astronomy, and chemistry. 
 
 2. Explain carefully the following terms : — Myth, com- 
 parative method, eclecticism, autonomy, 
 
 3. The true place of amusemeht in life. 
 
 4. How far is art bound to- copy nature ? 
 
 5. What help does imagination- give to scientific inves- 
 tigation ? Illustrate with reference to your favourite study. 
 
 6. The chief characteristics of early Gothic architecture 
 in England. 
 
 4 
 
50 CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 7. What is meant by comparative mythology ? 
 
 8. Why should a man keep his word ? 
 
 9. Explain the following : — 
 
 (i) An inductive proof. 
 
 (2) It is difficult to prove a negative. 
 
 (3) The exception proves the rule. 
 
 (4) No rule is without an exception. 
 
 10. When is the argument from general assent valid? 
 
 1 1 . The value of non-professional criticism in relation 
 to art. 
 
 1 2. Compare and account for the influence which re- 
 ligion has exercised upon art at different periods. 
 
 13. Give some account of Paracelsus, Kepler, Galileo, 
 Franklin, Linnaeus. 
 
 14. "Art is imitative." How far is this true of music 
 and poetry ? 
 
 15. What is meant by scientific method? 
 
 16. State briefly the theory of Natural Selection ; to 
 what subjects and under what limits is it applicable ? 
 
 1 7. How far is the success of a philosophy determined 
 by clearness of statement ? 
 
 18. The history and use of the terms "Nature" and 
 " Natural." 
 
 19. Pain as a condition of moral devolopment. 
 
 20. Knowledge is power. 
 
 21. Discuss any two of the following statements : — 
 
 (1) Might is right. 
 
 (2) Vox populi vox Dei. 
 
 (3) The end justifies the means. 
 
 (4) La propriety c'est le vol. 
 
 (s) A little knowledge is a dangerous thing. 
 (6) Si non vero e ben trovato. 
 
 22. Define Instinct, Ennui, Culture, ^stheticism, Con- 
 
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 51 
 
 stitutionalism, Cosmopolitanism, the Spirit of the Times, 
 a Law of Nature, Innate Ideas, Evolution. 
 
 23. Compare the powers of expression possessed by 
 sculpture and painting. 
 
 24. Criticise and explain : — 
 
 (a) A condition rather than a cause. 
 {p) Corruptio optimi pessima. 
 
 (c) Words are wise men's counters but the money of 
 
 fools. 
 
 (d) Pessima res est errorum apotheosis. 
 
 25. It has been said that "mythology is diseased 
 language." Discuss this. 
 
 26. Explain : — Balance of Power, Dialectical Regen- 
 eration, Natural Selection, Correlation of Forces, Spectrum 
 Analysis. 
 
 27. What arguments could be used for or against 
 anonymous journalism ? 
 
 28. What were the first effects of the Renaissance upon 
 literature, art, and religion ? 
 
CRITICAL QUESTIONS. 
 
 Grammar and The questions upon Latin and Greek Grammar and 
 Syntax may be satisfactorily answered by any one who 
 has made the habit of referring to the grammars of Zumpt, 
 Madvig, or Roby, and of Jelf or Curtius (of these Curtius 
 is the shorter and more modern ; but the value of' Jelf 
 lies in the fuller syntax, the more copious illustration, 
 and in the excellent index). It is always good to adduce 
 parallel examples of an unusual form or construction 
 quoted from your own reading, which should be carefully' 
 collected for the purpose in a note-book. Let the ex- 
 planations given be rational. That is, let them state the 
 principles which underlie every usage of case, mood, 
 or tense. It is no elucidation to say, for instance, " This 
 is the Relative Genitive." The technical terms must be 
 learnt, because many of the most convenient modern 
 editions adopt them for the sake of brevity. They are, 
 as it were, the paper-money of criticism, which must 
 not be put into circulation unless it can be redeemed 
 by what alone has an intrinsic value — the rational 
 explanation. 
 
 Syntax must be studied as a whole, not in detached 
 bits. If rules are laid down instead of principles being 
 
 ' The value of a competent knowledge of the German language 
 cannot be overrated for any one who aspires to become an accurate 
 scholar. 
 
CRITICAL QUESTIONS. 53 
 
 explained, what is got is, at the best, information without 
 intelligence — so many masses of dead matter, not a 
 living organism which can adapt itself to new problems, 
 Moreover, what has been stored away without system 
 cannot always be found when it is most wanted ; and if 
 it has not been altogether lost, the memory is unduly 
 strained by bearing a load which would be light to the 
 intelligence. The most recent results of grammatical 
 research are put out in Goodwin's Greek Moods and 
 Tenses (Macmillan). Clyde's Greek Syntax will impart 
 an interest to a subject which is generally thought dull, 
 and it has the advantage of being a short book. The 
 following passage is quoted from the Introduction : — 
 
 " The analysis of language proceeds on the supposition 
 that it is the articulate expression of mind ; but mind is 
 not always or merely logical. Thought is often unclear 
 in itself, often complicated with emotions, and to the 
 imperfections of mind must be added the imperfections 
 of language. Thought is often too subtle, passion too 
 strong, conversation too rapid for language; hence 
 ellipses, idioms, and manifold departures from the norm, 
 which are often only confessions of weakness, or actual 
 down-breakings on the part of language in its attempt to 
 render fully, or to keep pace with thought. Besides the 
 logical and emotional elements, ' phonetics ' must also 
 be taken into account; and these magistral influences 
 are modified by the peculiar genius and fortunes of each 
 people, in an endless variety of ways which cannot 
 always be distinctly traced. Syntactical irregularities are 
 numerous in Greek. From the variety of dialects, and 
 the long duration of the classic era, throughout which 
 the analytic forms of language were growing up by the 
 iside of the synthetic, without however supplanting them. 
 
54 
 
 CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 Etymology. 
 
 ComparatiTe 
 Philology. 
 
 the totality of Greek appears not so much a continent of 
 fixtures as an ocean of moving forms : and even in one 
 dialect, and at one period of its history, that rigid 
 uniformity of construction which the Latin observed was 
 not found in Greek." 
 
 Increasing importance is attached to knowledge of 
 etymology. For this your own work with lexicons will 
 give the most practical assistance. It is not enough, 
 when a word has been turned up, to pass the eye over 
 the different collected meanings, and so pick out the one 
 which best fits your context. That is puzzle-work only 
 fit for children. The connection between the various 
 meanings, the causes of that variety, and the stages of 
 transition from the primitive force of the root must be 
 carefully considered, as, for instance, in the Latin 
 "instar" or "provincia." This process should be 
 applied to familiar not less than to new words, and with- 
 out it there can be no scholarly use of dead or living 
 languages. 
 
 Peile and Curtius (translated) may be studied with 
 great advantage ; but it is well not to take upon trust any 
 derivation which you may find suggested there or else- 
 where. Especial attention should be paid to the meaning 
 of the simple preposition apart from the cases to 
 which it is joined, that you may avoid the absurdity 
 of. saying that one word has two or more unconnected 
 meanings. 
 
 Few critical papers are without one or two questions 
 upon comparative philology. It may therefore be wise to 
 study the principles of this science; at least for those 
 who have little aptitude for the critical examination of 
 the classical languages or are devoid of literary apprecia- 
 tion. These defects might perhaps be fully compensated 
 
CRITICAL QUESTIONS. SS 
 
 by a sound knowledge of comparative philology. One 
 danger will at least be avoided. The natural reluctance 
 to send in a blank paper will not tempt such candidates 
 to damage their own chances of success by writing about 
 that for which they have no capacity. 
 
 Although Sanskrit is not indispensable, it will often be 
 found directly useful, and its indirect value cannot be 
 too firmly insisted upon. Even a moderate acquaint- 
 ance with Sanskrit accidence opens out a far wider view 
 of the history of dead languages, and conveys a far more 
 lively comprehension of the evidences upon which philo- 
 logical theories rest than can be reached by those who 
 only know Latin and Greek. 
 
 Beginners are recommended to read Sayce's Princi- 
 ples of Comparative Philology, or Papillon's Philology. 
 Those who wish to pursue the science further are 
 referred to Max Miiller's writings (especially to the first 
 volume of the Science of Language) and to the 
 Grundziige of Curtius (translated), Schleicher's Com- 
 parative Grammar (translated), Ferrar's Comparative 
 Grammar of Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin (Longmans), 
 and the introduction to Wordsworth's Fragments and 
 Specimens of Early Latin. 
 
 It is not desirable that much labour should be spent Textual 
 upon textual criticism, except in the course of ordi- dlticlsin. 
 nary reading. Cobet's Variae Lectiones and Madvig's 
 Opuscula might be used with advantage. The best 
 thing is to buy good editions of one or two authors, and 
 to read the notes and verify every reference. A sound 
 foundation for textual criticism would be laid by the study 
 of Shilleto's De Falsa Legatione, Munro's Lucretius, 
 or Ellis's Text and Commentary upon Catullus. 
 
 No money is saved by buying bad texts, and needless Texts. 
 
S6 CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 difficulties are encountered. The following list (taken 
 frotti the Oxford University Examination Statutes) may 
 be useful: — 
 
 Homer Dindorf (Teubner's Series). 
 
 Demosthenes Baiter (Zurich). 
 
 ilischylus Dindorf (edition of 1851). 
 
 Sophocles Campbell (text without notes). 
 
 Euripides . Dindorf. 
 
 Aristophanes Dindorf. . 
 
 Theocritus Fritzsche (Teubuer). 
 
 Plato Baiter and Orelli (Zurich). 
 
 Thucydides Bekker. 
 
 Vergil Conington. 
 
 Cicero's Orations . . . Baiter and Kayser. 
 
 Horace Orelli. 
 
 Fersius Conington. 
 
 Fropertius Haupt. 
 
 Plautus (Aulularia) . . . Wagner. 
 
 Terence Wagner. 
 
 Livy Madvig. 
 
 Tacitus ..... ^ . Halm. 
 
 The study of every text must be supplemented by 
 Life and inquiry into the writer's life, the state of culture around 
 Times j)f tlio him, his other works, and any peculiarities which dis- 
 tinguish him from other writers and from different epochs 
 of literature. Most of these questions will be found 
 discussed in the introductions or appendices of good 
 editions, but if these are not accessible, reference must be 
 made to histories of literature — Donaldson for Greek, 
 and Teuffel or Cruttwell for Latin authors. It is not 
 recommended that any of these books should be read 
 from beginning to end, unless the student has plenty of 
 time at his disposal ; but if he is not pressed with over 
 much work, he will find his appreciation of an author 
 noticeably quickened by tracing out the succession of 
 literary periods, by developing the relation in which 
 
 Author. 
 
CRITICAL QUESTIONS. 57 
 
 each writer or cycle of writers stands to a preceding age, 
 and by estiniating the influence which was in turn 
 exercised upon those wlio came afterwards. For these 
 ends it will be useful to study the whole of Donaldson's 
 and CrCttwell's histories. (Teuffel's can only be used as 
 ,a book of reference.) Jebb's Primer (published at one 
 shilling) will be found equally useful by those who know 
 nothing and those who know much — in the one case 
 to guide the ignorant, in the other to refreshen fading 
 memories. A tolerable acquaintance with some parts of 
 Latin literature might be obtained from the reading of 
 Horace's Ars Poetica, accompanied by a conscientious 
 investigation into every reference and a careful study of 
 the growth of the chief Latin metres. (On this point 
 Wagner's edition of the Aulularia of Plautus should be 
 consulted, as well as Munro's Metrical Treatise in the 
 Public School Latin Grammar.) 
 
 Valuable information will be got also from the literary 
 chapters of Mommsen's history, Sellar's Augustan Poets 
 and Poets of the Republic, the introduction to Woirds- 
 worth's Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin, 
 Munro's Lucretius, Donaldson's Greek Theatre, Jebb's 
 Attic Orators, The G-reek Poets (Series i. and ii.), by 
 J. A Symonds, the collection of essays called Hellenica, 
 and (about the Homeric question) from Grote's history. 
 
 Some idea of the daily life of Greeks and Romans 
 may be got from Bekker's tales, Charicles and Gallus. 
 More precise information upon laws and customs should 
 be sought by constant reference to Smith's (larger) 
 Dictionary of Antiquities. For Roman matters, Ramsay's 
 Antiquities will be useful. 
 
S8 CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 QUESTIONS FROM CRITICAL PAPERS. 
 
 1. What changes have the following words undergone? 
 Arena, bibere, bonus, jam, levis, liber, lingua, quattuor, 
 quinque, avrjp, ero?, e'^a>, ^vyov, Ke<^aXri, p'i^a, re ? 
 
 2. Name and explain the metres of the following 
 lines : — 
 
 fir/Sev aWo ^vrevarj^ irpoTepov SivSpiov dfnreXo). 
 vvv 'xpr) fieOvaOriv KaL riva Trpo? /3idv. 
 yXvKeia fidrep, ovireo Svvafiai KpeKTjv rbv Icnov. 
 dffT6/>6? fiev afi<f)l KoXav aeKavvav. 
 vvv B' dOeo's fiev iifi avo<rieov Se Trat?. 
 fieyaXofirjTi'i et irepCcjypova B' e'Xawe?. 
 
 3. Explain the Homeric use of the following words : — 
 euSet'eXo?, ijepio';, aficf)i<;, rjXi^aro';, lepo^, KovpiZio<s, 
 iirap^dfievoi, Beirdeaaiv, ovXai or ovXovvrai, virep- 
 ^iaXo^, TToXv^paTO^, 
 
 4. Explain fully and give instances of the following : — 
 Enallage, Litotes, Hendiadys, Simile, Hyperbaton, 
 Zeugma, Climax, Prosopopoeia. 
 
 5. Account for the following uses of the dative : — 
 
 (i) Propino hoc pulchro Critise. 
 
 (2) It clamor ccelo. 
 
 (3) Talia jactanti stridens Aquilone procella 
 Velum adversa ferit. . 
 
 (4) Radix vescendo est decocta. 
 
 (5) Frugi est homo. 
 
CRITICAL QUESTIONS. 59 
 
 (6) Dis musa Cordi est. 
 
 (7) iJLLav vavv avToii avBpdo'iv eXa^ov. 
 
 (8) T(p nrXridei ov ^ovKofievto rjv a(f}icrraa-dai, 
 
 6. Connect together and account for the ' different 
 meanings of the following words : — sors, Gvn^aKaiov, 
 calumnia, hUy], repono. 
 
 7. Explain a-j^ij/j,a tT/oo? to aTjfiaivofiei/ov — a')(fj/j,a 
 Ka6' bXov Kal fiepo<; — a'^fjlia Bouotikop — a'xfjfia AXk- 
 fiaviKov, Which of these are peculiar to the classical 
 languages ? 
 
 8. How does the Latin language compensate for its 
 small power of forming compounds ? 
 
 9. Distinguish the article from the pronoun. To what 
 extent does the former occur in Homer ? 
 
 10. Enclitics in Latin. 
 
 1 1. Translate into Latin and Greek, " Good morning ! " 
 " How do you do ? " " Yes ! " " Good-bye ! " " Give 
 my kind regards to your wife." 
 
 12. Explain the construction of the following pas- 
 sages : — 
 
 (a) Facultas agrorum condonandi. 
 
 (^) ^ternas quoniam poenas in morte timendumst. 
 
 (c) Sunt qui non habeant, est qui non curat habere. 
 
 (d) a.d. vi: Kal. Jan. 
 
 (e) ir6\e/j,o<! af toXoymroTO? t&v TrpoyeyevrffjAveov. 
 (/) wffTfi fir) \iav arive. 
 
 (/) /JLT) oil KaX<o<; Xiyerai rdyaObv elvat ttjv ■^Bovt^v. 
 {h) cre/jLvvveTai T&3 'Ypa<j>ei<; diro<j)vye2v. 
 
 13. Translate and explain : — 
 
 (r) Haud procul inde citse Mettum in diversa 
 quadrigae 
 Distulerant — at tu dictis Albane mansres. 
 
6o CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 (2) Aut si quis posita judex sedet ^acus uma, 
 
 In mea sortita vindicet ossa pila. 
 
 (3) 57/t6t? he. KaKol irplv iv riS iraOeiv mfiev 
 7rpoif>v\a^a(r0di re km, aiadofievoi. eire^ek- 
 deiv. 
 
 (4) evTo<i S' av ovcra /jLoptri/juov a^pevfiaTayp 
 ireidoC av it ireidot'' airet^ow;? S' itrmt. 
 
 (s) Accendebat haec onerabatque Sejanus peritia 
 morum Tiberii odia in longum jaciens quae 
 reconderet auctaque promeret. 
 
 14. How far is the use of the term Deponent Verbs 
 correct ? 
 
 15. On what case theory should you explain the follow- 
 ing constructions ? — 
 
 (a) Mille fiigit refugitque vias. — Unum exuta 
 pedem vinclis. — ^Si; rja-devei, raVTfjv t^v 
 voerop. — Aurj(l,vrj<; KT7}anf>&vTa ypd^v 
 eSitoKep. 
 
 (6) Victoriam hosti extorqueamus. — Cui bono 
 erit? — TovTO) fioi irpoo'ej^ere top vovv. » 
 
 {c) Te duce militavi — hostium perfidiS. interiit — 
 Regno potitus est. 
 
 {d) TO, eirX OpMcrji; — ttoj? aywvoi; ijKOfiai — tovt 
 iari BiKaiov avSpo^. 
 
 16. AVhat traces are there in Latin of an optative mood, 
 a present participle passive, a locative case ? 
 
 1 7. Briefly give the rules of Latin oratio obliqua as to — 
 
 (a) pioods, (b) tenses, (c) commands, (d) ques- 
 tions. 
 i8. How far was the use of oratio obliqua a feature of 
 Greek ? 
 
 19. Explain i-jratvi] IIepa-€<j>6veui — erepaXjcia vIktjv — 
 
CRITICAL QUESTIONS. 6i 
 
 KTSive B' i'jriaTpo(f)aSrjv — OTrXdrepo? yevefj — /itjB' ovtw? 
 KXeirre v6a> — quo numine Iseso — damnabis tu quoque 
 votis. 
 
 20. What is the fundamental notion of the aorist ? 
 
 2 1. Use of Be in the apodosis. 
 
 22. Translate and explain any peculiarities of construc- 
 tion :— 
 
 (i) rfiv 6eov B' otto)? XdOeo 
 
 BeBoiKa. 
 
 (2) daviJLaffT&i; to? eirelaOTjv vtt' avTov. 
 
 (3) oiiK ■tjv aXe^r]fj,' ovBev — irpiv 7' e'lyo) a^icnv 
 eBeb^a KpdcreK rjiriiov dKeafidrcov. 
 
 (4) Toil's yap evae^et<; 6eol 
 0vi](TKOVTa^ ov 'xaipovtriv.. 
 
 (5) Namque ferunt fama Hippolytuni, postquani, 
 
 arte novercse 
 Occiderit — superas coeli venisse sub auras., 
 
 (6) Purpureo velare comas adopertus amicfti. 
 
 (7) Daunus agrestium 
 Regnavit populorum. 
 
 23. How far are the Greek middle and passive voices 
 really distinct (i) in their forms, (2) in their use? Com- 
 pare the use of the Latin passive. 
 
 24. Explain and illustrate the uses of the following 
 words : — repono, exigo, adoleo, lustro, honor, caput, 
 nomen, numen, vices. 
 
 25. Distinguish between voieiv, trpdacreiv, ayeiv^ 
 Trdaveiv — yiyvcocrKeiv, elBevat — ypatprj, Biicrj—rypdtf>eip,, 
 ypd^eadai. 
 
 26. Quote or frame examples to illustrate the various 
 constructions of wo-re, irplv, dum, quin., 
 
62 CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 27. Derivations of connive, giant, supercilious, treacle, 
 blame, manure, poison, usher, spice, cousin, strange, 
 alligator, fanatic, couch. 
 
 28. The chief points in which the syntax of Homer 
 differs from that of later Attic writers. Give illustrations. 
 
 29. Mention any peculiarities of the ^olic dialect. 
 Can it be called a dialect in the same sense as the Ionic 
 and Doric? 
 
 30. What is meant by roots, and how do they differ 
 from themes or stems ? Are all roots of one kind ? What 
 account can be given of their origin ? 
 
 31. Rules of the Porsonic pause. 
 
 32. In what different ways may languages be classified? 
 
 33. In what cases may either the indicative or sub- 
 junctive be employed in Latin, and what is the difference 
 between them ? 
 
 34. How far is it true that the modern use of auxiliary 
 verbs can be discovered in classical Latin and Greek ? 
 
 35. State and discuss Grimm's law with regard to 
 labials. 
 
 36. Explain the following terms: — agglutinative lan- 
 guage, phonetic decay, dialect, etymology, comparative 
 philology. 
 
 37. What are the Romance languages, and what theories 
 have been held about them ? 
 
 38. What are the limitations of the historic use of the 
 present tense in Latin ? 
 
 39. Is the collocation of words in a Latin sentence 
 important for the same reasons as in an English sen- 
 tence ? ■ If not for the same, then for what others ? 
 
 40. For what reasons respectively did the ancients 
 make the names of festivals and of some places plural? 
 
 41. When did. Cicero, Tacitus, and Thucydides live? 
 
CRITICAL QUESTIONS. 63 
 
 Give some account of the political opinions and writings 
 of each, with remarks upon their style. 
 
 42. What other dialects besides Latin were spoken in 
 the Italian peninsula ? how were they related to the 
 Latin ? what remains of them exist ? 
 
 43. Sketch the plan of the Oresteian trilogy, with any 
 remarks and criticisms you please. Had the poet any 
 political object in view? 
 
 44. Sketch the history of the Greek tragic chorus. 
 
 45. " The heroic epos was impossible at Rome in its 
 original state." 
 
 46. What is meant by the use of the phrase, " poetic 
 license " ? How far is it justified ? 
 
 47. " It is the tendency of the Greek and Latin to 
 substitute syntax for inflection.'' Explain and illustrate 
 this. 
 
 48. Explain "Ketrovfyyia — ela-ayyeXia — irapavofixov 
 ypd^eaffai, avTihoai<; — rtfirjTi) Sikt} — quadruplator — 
 diem dicere — solvendo esse — prserogativa. 
 
 49. With what cases are Bid, iierd, irapd, tt/jo? 
 used ? Construct each with the pronoun av in as many 
 cases as possible, and translate accurately each combina- 
 tion. 
 
 50. How far does Homer's geographical knowledge 
 extend ? Can we draw any line between mythical and 
 real localities ? 
 
 51. Compare the principal writers of Latin elegy. 
 
 52. Whence did the GreeR tragedians derive their 
 themes, and can any limitations observable in their 
 choice be accounted for ? 
 
 53. Compare any of the Greek lyrical poets with 
 modern writers. 
 
 54. Is it true to say that the religious and moral 
 
64' CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 element is the predominant one in the plays of Sopho- 
 cles? 
 
 55. Criticise the various forms in which the doctrine 
 of the divided authorship of the Homeric poems has 
 been held. 
 
 56. How does the Latin language supply its want of 
 abstract words ? 
 
 57.. What are the principal sources of metaphor in 
 Latin and Greek respectively ? 
 
 58. Examine the following criticisms : — 
 
 (i) In comoedia maxime claudicamus (Quintilian).' 
 (2) (Grseci) causas orabunt melius. 
 
 59. Criticise the speeches of Thucydides as to style 
 arid matter. 
 
 60. Sketch the history of Roman satire. 
 
 61. Give an account of one of the following : — the' 
 construction of a Roman house,. the plani of a Greek 
 theatre, or the manner of reckoijing interest in Rome' 
 and Athens, with. the principal terms used.. 
 
 62. Compare Homer, Lucretius,, and Vergil in their 
 employment of the hexameter. 
 
 63. " Language is fossil history.'" Examine this. 
 
 64. What are our authorities in the matter of Latin, 
 spelling ? 
 
 ■^ 65, Give a short sketch of the rise and history of 
 bucolic poetry in various countries and times. Is, it 
 necessarily conventional and unreal ? 
 
 66. Give a short account of the life, works, and literary 
 position of Archilochus, Plato, Naevius, and Lucilius., 
 
 67. Quote passages from Latin authors to illustrate 
 ( I )• the amusements, (2) the dress, (3) the education of 
 the Romans. 
 
 68. The merits and demerits of Euripides as a 
 tragedian. 
 
CRITICAL QUESTIONS. 65 
 
 69. What great authors seem to have exercised the 
 greatest influence on Latin literature, and at what 
 periods ? 
 
 70. Give any evidence you can from Homer as to the 
 progress made in invention and the arts at the time when 
 the Iliad and Odyssey were written. 
 
 71. What is meant by literary style? Illustrate your 
 answer by characterising the styles of any two great prose 
 writers with whom you are acquainted. 
 
 72. Is the question of the date and authorship of the 
 Homeric poems an important one ? State briefly any 
 reasons for thinking it is soluble. 
 
 73. What are the main arguments for and against 
 change in the English system of Latin pronunciation ? 
 Give a few instances of such changes as seem desirable. 
 
 74. Plato condemns the poets (i) as teaching a vicious 
 morality, (2) as mere imitators, (3) as giving no practical 
 instruction. How far were these criticisms well founded 
 and pertinent at the time when he wrote, and have they 
 any value as applied to poetry at the present day ? 
 
TRANSLATIONS. 
 
 The papers in Greek and Latin translation are very 
 important, because they supply the best test which exami- 
 nation can give of comparative merit. In other subjects it 
 is not so easy to arrange all the candidates in an exact 
 order according to work done, and to decide between 
 nearly equal claims. Moreover, success in picking the 
 way through the difEculties of an " Unseen " is no bad 
 criterion of general ability. 
 
 The first thing is to make out the sense ; the second 
 to write it in English. Fewer failures occur under the 
 first than the second head. 
 Metbod. The paper should be read slowly from beginning to 
 
 end two or three times. This will give some notion 
 aboiH the relative difficulty of the different pieces, which 
 are gefterally three in number. If it happens that you 
 get a familiar passage, or that you can see your way 
 through any one of them, leave it alone for the 
 present, and concentrate your energies, while they are 
 fresh, upon whatvis mpre difficult. Give about half an 
 hour to each of the two remaining pieces, and if by the 
 end of the hour you are sure that you have made out 
 the general sense of either, write it out carefully in your 
 best English, leaving spaces for any interpolated transla- 
 tiftg-of omitted parts. Then return for a short time to 
 the piece which remains to be interpreted. If no fresh 
 
TRANSLATIONS. 67 
 
 light occurs to your mind to illuminate what had been 
 obscure, abandon it again, until you have thoroughly 
 mastered the piece which you had judged familiar or 
 easy. It may well be that you will now discover difficul- 
 ties that had been overlooked. Afterwards spend such 
 extra time as may be necessary upon the revision of the 
 other piece. When both have been disposed of to your 
 satisfaction or to the best of your powers, come back once 
 more to the piece which was left. Stick to it up to the 
 last moment of your time. It sometimes happens that 
 an idea strikes the mind, as if by inspiration, which gives 
 a clue to the meaning of the words, just when you have 
 quite despaired of ever finding one. 
 
 The method of work here sketched does not pretend 
 to be the only one, or even the best, which is possible. 
 It may be useless to clever boys and to those who can 
 concentrate their thoughts upon one subject for a long 
 time together. But it has the merit of keeping the mind 
 fresh through the morning's work, and of utilizing every 
 minute of the allotted time. Very little good comes 
 from hammering at one piece after the brain is weary 
 and you have begun to feel disgusted with yourself It 
 generally ends in staring at the roof of the hall, or in 
 frowning upon the unconscious words and muttering 
 imprecations. 
 
 Proficiency comes by practice, and sooner than might Practice, 
 be expected. Nobody need despair of mastering the art 
 if he will only seek it by method. But it must be 
 added that skill of interpretation is very seldom acquired 
 by the boy who has accustomed himself to resort in every 
 difficulty to an English version. This, like most other 
 faculties, depends for its strength upon constant exercise, 
 and is enfeebled by disuse. 
 
68, 
 
 CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 It is not enough in practice for unseen translations 
 to pick out a passage from any author for yourself. In 
 doing So you have unavoidably made yourself acquainted 
 with the general sense of the context, and this is just 
 what you do not know, and what you would give any- 
 thing to know, in an examination. Books of selections 
 must be used. It has been found impossible to incor- 
 porate passages from Greek and Latin authors in these 
 pages; but a sufficient number will be found in Ques- 
 tions and Exercises for Classical Scholarships (Second 
 Division, published by James Thornton, Oxford). A 
 greater quantity are collected in Cruttwell's Specimens 
 of Roman Literature, and Gantillon's Meletemata will 
 be serviceable for beginners. 
 
 Wherever there is cause for hesitation, parse the word 
 to yourself. The neglect of this humble expedient is 
 responsible for the greater part of what are called classi- 
 cal jokes. If the same form is common to several 
 words, close regard to the syntax will almost always 
 guide the choice aright. There are not many difficulties 
 in such passages as are set in examinations for scholar- 
 ships to which grammar and syntax combined will not 
 furnish the clue. You will not go far wrong if you never 
 write what is not forbidden by one or the other. Let 
 your English translation show that you appreciate the 
 difference between different moods and tenses ; that you 
 know a Greek imperfect when you see it, or a Latin sub- 
 junctive in oratio obliqim. The Greek indirect moods 
 will not present much practical difficulty to a translator 
 who has mastered the main principles which govern the 
 use of the particle av (for which cf, Goodwin or Clyde). 
 Think why it is present or absent, and you will understand 
 the clause. 
 
TRANSLATIONS. 
 
 69 
 
 It may be considered excusable if some advice is 
 offered even simpler than the foregoing. Learn the 
 fundamental meaning of each preposition, and trace the 
 modifications of it effected by the case of the noun to 
 which it is joined. Next learn the force of the preposi- 
 tion when it is compounded, and do not omit to bring it 
 out in your translation. Lastly, distinguish carefully 
 between the significations of the various substantival, 
 adjectival, and verbal terminations ; and translate par- 
 ticles, but translate them tersely. (Cf. Sidgwick's 
 Greek Prose Composition, pp. 228-230 of the third 
 edition). 
 
 There is one class of difficulties against which none of 
 these precautions will avail — where the word itself falls 
 outside your vocabulary^ It may sometimes happen, 
 indeed, that very long words, e.g., the comic epithets of 
 Aristophanes, can be picked to pieces and mastered in 
 detail; and again, Latin words sometimes reveal them- 
 selves when they are spelt in Greek letters. But when 
 neither of these devices will serve, only one thing 
 remains — guessing ; and it must be confessed that lucky 
 guesses sometimes pass themselves off for erudition. 
 There is, however, something besides luck in these con- 
 jectures. They do not come at random, but only when 
 the mind is travelling straight along the context. 
 
 A conjecture may be tried by one unerring test. Is 
 it consistent with the general sense ? If it is, let it stand. 
 For although there remains a possibility of error, no 
 foolishness will have been displayed. If it is not con- 
 sistent, it must be wrong. Do not send in any translation 
 where there is not an intelligible coherence of thoughts. 
 Between each sentence and what went before it there is 
 a relation of some sort, which it is the translator's business 
 
 Cases, Prepo- 
 sitions, and 
 Terminations. 
 
 Interpretation 
 of Words. 
 
 Conjectures. 
 
 Coherence of 
 Ideas. 
 
70 
 
 CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 to detect. The nonsense, if there is any, comes not 
 from the Greek or Latin, but from another source. 
 
 It has been said that the translation must be English ; 
 that is to say, the forms of expression must be such as 
 might have been chosen by an English writer who wished 
 to convey the same idea. English words do not make 
 an English sentence; and it is not enough that your 
 translation should sound like an extract from one of 
 Bohn's volumes. What is meant will be best understood 
 by a close comparison of a passage translated by yourself 
 with the same passage in Morris's JSa\€\A, Butcher and 
 I^ang's Odyssey, Church and Brodribb's Tacitus, Dale's 
 Thucydides, or the collection of translations by Jebb, 
 Jackson, and Currey. It will be seen from these books 
 that love of English may be combined with fidelity to 
 the original text. Such a combination is, indeed, 
 always difficult ; and where it is found impossible, the 
 more ornamental effect must be sacrificed, especially if 
 the syntax of the original leaves any loophole for mis- 
 takes or for the suspicion of mistakes. 
 
 Finish all the pieces, or do as much of each as you 
 can. 
 
 Notes should not be given unless they have been asked 
 for. If some explanation of any sentence is necessary, 
 the note must not be written in the body of the transla- 
 tion, but below at the end. If several interpretations 
 seem admissible, incorporate the one which seems best 
 in the translation, and explain in the note what the others 
 are and why the one selected is the best of them. 
 
 No opinion is given as to the likelihood of a passage 
 being set from this or that author. The best advice 
 is vary your reading, so that you may not be quite 
 baffled by a strange style, an unexpected turn of thought. 
 
TRANSLATIONS. ^l 
 
 or an unknown dialect or inflexion. Short portions of 
 the following authors may be read with advantage: — 
 Plautus, Terence, Lucretius, Tibullus, Martial, Statins, 
 Claudian, Tacitus, Hesiod, Anacreon, Aristophanes, 
 Theocritus, Herodotus, Plato, and a few pieces from the 
 Greek Anthology, and the Fragments of the Tragedians. 
 It may be added that a good knowledge of Homer is 
 almost certain to be useful. 
 
Latin Prose. 
 
 COMPOSITIONS. 
 
 It does not fall within the scope of these hints to lay 
 down the principles of Greek and Latin composition. 
 One suggestion only will be offered, which is not novel, 
 but, if adopted, it would lead to brilliant results. For 
 Greek and improvement in Latin and Greek prose, select a passage 
 from Cicero de Oratore, Livy's Histories, the letters of 
 Pliny the Younger (Clarendon Press), the narrative parts 
 of Thucydides, or the dialogues of Plato : write a transla- 
 tion (not too literal) in the best and most idiomatic Eng- 
 lish at your command, and put it away for three days. 
 Meantime do not look at the Greek or Latin, but on the 
 fourth day take up the English, and turn it as closely back 
 into the original language as your memory will allow. It 
 will then appear that you have recollected the greater part 
 of the author's words. These will remain in your mind 
 as the permanent stock of your vocabulary, and will be 
 always ready to hand in an examination : they will not, like 
 words got from a dictionary, pass away from the mind as 
 soon as they have been used. A more important result will 
 follow from the difference which you will detect in your 
 arrangement of the sentences and in the use of little words. 
 In this way (and perhaps in no other) will you get a practi- 
 cal insight into your own shortcomings ; and you will have 
 them corrected by the best of all possible teachers. If 
 this process is persevered in three or four times a week 
 
COMPOSITIONS. 
 
 73 
 
 for a few months, you will begin to understand the 
 principles which regulate and explain " Latin order " and 
 the Greek particles. Moreover, it takes little time or 
 trouble. 
 
 It is usual to give three papers in composition, the 
 Greek verse being combined either with the Greek prose 
 or Latin verse. Composition in verse is not essential to 
 success in the examination, but excellence in the art 
 scores high. 
 
 It is advisable to get practice in more than one kind 
 of Latin verse-writing. The candidate who can only use 
 one metre may find himself in difficulties before an 
 uncongenial piece of EngUsh poetry. And it may be 
 noticed that the art of writing hexameters does not 
 consist in stringing together the first lines of elegiac 
 couplets, but requires a special training. It is unusual to 
 demand any Greek verse except iambics. 
 
 Facility of composition will be much assisted if you 
 have stored in your memory a collection of striking 
 passages from Greek and Latin writers of prose and 
 verse. Before you begin to write repeat to yourself the 
 one which seems to you nearest in language and spirit to 
 the English original. Learning by heart is essential to 
 success in composition, whether of verse or prose. One 
 of the reasons why most undergraduates fail to make 
 much improvement in this art is that tliey gave up the 
 practice of " recitation " as soon as they left school. 
 
 The best English-Greek lexicon is Fradersdorf s which 
 has been translated (published at 21s.); the best Eng- 
 lish-I/atin is Smith's (larger). Both should be used 
 sparingly, because the memory must be exercised to 
 supply appropriate words and phrases from your own 
 reading. But it is better to consult a lexicon than 
 
 Greek and 
 Latin Verses. 
 
 Communes 
 Loci. 
 
 Books of 
 Eeference. 
 
74 CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 to drag in a phrase which conveys an idea " something 
 like the English." 
 
 Only those who have self-control must use a "Gradus 
 ad Parnassum " for Latin verse. For the elegiac metre 
 Ovid should be your model, the most finished specimens 
 of his art being found among the Amores. Neglect of 
 Ovid is one of the reasons why elegiac verse-writing is 
 fast becoming a lost art. 
 
 For Greek iambics let the mind be well stored with 
 passages from the Attic tragedians. Beatson's " Indices in 
 Tragicos '' would be exceedingly useful ; but it is some- 
 what scarce, and costs about thirty shillings. 
 
 Farrar's Greek Card (is. 6d.) and Moore's Rules for 
 Latin Prose (6d.) will give you all the information about 
 syntax which is wanted for composition, as it is better to 
 avoid unusual constructions. With regard to Greek 
 accents, it is enough that the main rules be observed. 
 These can be learnt from Griffith's Rules of the Greek 
 Accents (6d.). 
 Sense. Let the first half-hour be spent upon the English. Not 
 
 only must all the ideas conveyed by the language be 
 firmly grasped, their connection one with another must 
 be considered, and the importance of each as compared 
 with the rest, and the subordination of all to the lead- 
 ing thought. If any of these points is neglected, the 
 only possible result will be a translation of words. 
 
 Some value is attached to rapidity of work ; but 
 hurried compositions are not worth so much as a little 
 well done. Half the verse paper is generally thought a 
 good allowance. 
 
 At least half an hour before the end of the time begin 
 to write out the fair copy of your work, and leave a wide 
 space between the lines, that you may have time and 
 space for corrections and after thoughts. 
 
COMPOSITIONS. 75 
 
 GREEK AND LATIN ESSAYS. 
 
 At one or two colleges candidates who do not attempt 
 composition in verse receive themes for Greek and 
 Latin essays. Some specimen-subjects are subjoined : — 
 
 SUBJECTS FOR GREEK AND LATIN ESSAYS. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 1. Alexander, before engaging the Persians at Granicus, 
 addresses his army. 
 
 2. The siege of Paris. 
 
 3. De Gymnastica : — 
 
 ou fiev yap fieV^ov Kkeoi dvepo<; o<j}pa k stjo-iv 
 7) b ri TToaalv re pe^""} koX 'xepalv irjaiv. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 1 . On the use of fables among the ancients. 
 
 2. An officer in the Confederate army writes to a friend 
 in the North (1865). 
 
 3. The present condition of Spain (1875). 
 
 4. Quseritur de causis conjurationis Catilinarise. 
 
 5. Utrum, scientia bellicamagis explorata, pax et Con- 
 cordia gentium firmatur, necne ? 
 
 6. Grseci poetse magis quam oratores, Romani oratores 
 magis quam poetae. 
 
 7. Cur Romani potius quam Greeci orbis terrarum 
 imperio potiti sint. 
 
DIVINITY. 
 
 It is unusual to give up a whole paper to divinity, but 
 at two or three colleges some questions upon this subject 
 are inserted in the history paper (q.v.). Creditable 
 answers could be given by any one who had combined a 
 thoughtful reading of the sacred writings with a fair 
 knowledge of the Greek of the New Testament. But in 
 reading Hellenistic Greek the critical faculty must be 
 kept constantly awake, lest your Greek composition be 
 infected with unclassical forms of expression and modes 
 of thought. The questions are similar to those asked in 
 the University examination for the Rudiments of Faith 
 and Religion, specimens of which will be found iu 
 Questions and Exercises in Rudimentary Divinity, pub- 
 lished by James Thornton, Oxford, price 3s. 6d. 
 
 DIVINITY QUESTIONS. 
 
 I. Translate and explain, stating in each case the 
 context : — 
 
 (a) Kol iStKauodr] rj a-o(j}ia diro t&v reKvcov avrrji;. 
 
 (y8) KoXafiov avvTerpifi/ievov ov Karea^et., koX \lvov 
 TV<p6fi£vov ov <7/8e<7e4" eiu? av eK^aXy et? vlico<; T-qv 
 Kpia-iv. 
 
 (7) Ka\ iav aKovaOfi tovto iirl tov ^yefi6vo<;, ij/iet? 
 ireiao/Mev avTov, Koi vfia<; dfiepi/ivov^ irofqo'OfjLev. 
 
 (S) 'ISoii ovTO'i Keirat ei? TTTwcnv koI dvda-Taaiv 
 
DIVINITY. 77 
 
 irotCKw) ev tc3 'laparp^,, Koi ets <Trjfjt,ecov avTiS-eyo/Mevov' 
 Kal crov Be auT?}? ttjv '^v)(r]v BteKevaerai, pajjif^aia' 
 OTTO)? av airoKa\v<^d5)cnv ex TroW&p KapBiav SiaXo- 
 
 (e) Kayeb vfui/ Xiyeo, TrotTjcrare eavToi<; tpiXov; sk 
 Tov pLaiJLwva t^? dStKiai;, iva, orav i/cXiinjTe, Be^annai, 
 vfia<; elq rd? ala)viov<; aK7)vd<;. 
 
 (^) ouTos ea-riv 6 yevo/j.evo'; ev rrj eKKXTjaia ev rfj 
 eprjfjLui fierd tov dyyeXov tov \a\ovvTO<s avrm ev rm 
 opei Stvd Kal twv TruTepcov rjuSyv, o? iBi^aTO Xoyia 
 ^5)VTa hovvai rjfuv. 
 
 {t]) ov yap vveaTeiXdfirjv tov fir) dvayyetXai vfilv 
 iraaav TrjV j3ov\rjv tov &eov. irpoerej^eTe ovv eavTol^ 
 Kal iravTt T&i Troifivia, ev «S u/ias to irvevfia to dyiov 
 edeTO t-ma-KOTTOv^, iroifiaiveiv Trjv eKK\r)aiav tov 
 &eov, rjv Trepi^eTTOirjcraTO Bia tov iSi'ov al/^arof. 
 
 2. " Yea, and all the prophets from Samuel and those 
 that follow after, as many as have spoken, have likewise 
 foretold of these days." To what passages might S. 
 Peter be supposed to allude ? 
 
 3. Give some account of Balaam, Jephthah, Jehu, 
 Uzziah, Barnabas, Cornelius. 
 
 4. Describe the events which brought about the return 
 of the Jefvs from the Captivity. What was the part taken 
 by Zerubbabel, Ezra, and Nehemiah respectively in the 
 restoration of the Jewish state ? 
 
 5. What are the chief points of difference between S. 
 John's Gospel and the Synoptic Gospels ? 
 
 6. State the substance of our Lord's teaching respect- 
 ing (i) Prayer, (2) the Mosaic Law, (3) the Church, (4) 
 the Future Life, (5) Humility. Mention any parables 
 which bear upon the subjects named. 
 
WORKS ON LAW AND POLITICS 
 
 PUBLISHED BY JAMES THORNTON. 
 
 REMARKS on the USE and ABUSE of SOME 
 POLITICAL TERMS. By the late Right Hon. Sir George 
 CoRNEWALL LEWIS, Bart., sometime Student of Christ Church, 
 Oxford. A New Edition, with Notes and Appendix. By Sir 
 Roland Knyvet Wilson, Bart., M.A., Barrister-at-Law ; late 
 Fellow of King's College, Cambridire ; Author of ' History of 
 Modern English Law.' Crown 8vo, 6s. 
 
 FROM THE EDITOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 ' The value of the book for educational purposes consists not so much 
 in its positive results, as in the fact that it opens a vein of thought which 
 the student may usefully follow out to any extent for hirrtself, and that it 
 affords an instructive example of a thoughtful, scientific, and in the best 
 sense academical style of treating political questions. 
 
 ' With regard to my own annotations, the object which I have chiefly 
 kept in view has been to direct attention to such later writings as have 
 expressly undertaken to fix the scientific meaning of the political terms 
 here discussed, and above all " Austin's Lectures on Jurisprudence, " to 
 which the present work may be considered as a kind of companion 
 volume.' 
 
 THOMAS HOBBES, of MALMESBURY, LE- 
 VIATHAN ; or, the Matter, Forme, and Power of a Com- 
 monwealth. A New Reprint. With a facsimile of the original 
 fine engraved Title. Demy 8vo, glazed cloth, I2s. dd. A small 
 edition of 250 copies only on Dutch hand-made paper, demy 8vo, 
 l&r. [Just published. 
 
 An ABRIDGMENT of ADAM SMITH'S IN- 
 QUIRY into the NATURE and CAUSES of the 
 WEALTH of NATIONS. By W. P. Emerton, M.A., 
 B.C.L. Crown 8vo, cloth, gj. [fust published. 
 
 This work (based on Jeremiah Joyce's Abridgment) originally ap- 
 peared in two parts, and is now republished after careful revision, with 
 additional Notes, Appendices, and a complete Index. 
 
 The two parts can still be had separately. Part I., Books I. and II., 
 4J. 6d. ; Part II., Books III. IV. and V., Sj. 
 
QUESTIONS and EXERCISES in POLITICAL 
 ECONOMY, with References to Adam Smith, Ricardo, John 
 Stuart Mill, Fawcett, Thorold Rogers, Bonamy Price, Twiss, 
 Senior, Macleod, and others. Adapted to the Oxford Pass and 
 Honour and the Cambridge Ordinary B.A. Examinations. Ar- 
 ranged and edited by W. P. Emerton, M.A., B.C.L., Christ 
 Church, Oxford. Crown 8vo, cloth, 3j-. 6d. 
 
 This volume consists of Questions mainly taken from various Exami- 
 nation Papers with references in the case of the easier questions, and 
 hints, and in some cases formal statements of the arguments pro and con. 
 to the more difficult questions. There are also two Appendixes on the 
 debated questions—' Is Political Economy a Science ? ' and ' Is Political 
 Economy Selfish ? ' 
 
 An ANALYSIS of the ENGLISH LAW of 
 
 REAL PROPERTY, chiefly from Blackstone's Commentar)-, 
 with Tables and Indexes. By Gordon Campbell, M.A., Author 
 of 'An Analysis of Austin's Lectures on Jurisprudence,' and of 'A 
 Compendium of Roman Law.' Crown 8vo, cloth, 3^. 61/. 
 
 A BRIEF DIGEST of the ROMAN LAW of 
 CONTRACTS. By F.W. Harvey, M.A., Hertford College. 
 Crown 8vo, cloth, 2s, 
 
 An ANALYSIS of JUSTINIAN'S INSTI- 
 TUTES of ROMAN LAW, with Tables. lln preparation. 
 
 A CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY of the 
 CHIEF REAL PROPERTY STATUTES, with their more 
 Important Provisions. For the Use of Law Students. By P. F. 
 Aldred, M.A,, B.C.L. Crown 8vo, 2s. 
 
 ELEMENTARY QUESTIONS on the LAW of 
 PROPERTY, REAL and PERSONAL. Supplemented by 
 Advanced Questions on the Law of Contracts. With Copious Re- 
 ferences throughout, and an Index of Legal Terms. Crown 8vo, 
 cloth, 3J. 6(/. 
 
 The SPECIAL STATUTES required by Candidates 
 for the School of Jurisprudence at Oxford. Fcap 8vo, sewed, 
 2s. 6tf. With brief Notes and Translations by a B.C.L. Cloth, 5^. 
 
 JAMES THORNTON, 33, HIGH STREET, OXFORD 
 
33 High Street, Oxford. 
 
 OCTOBER 1881. 
 
 JAMES THORNTON'S 
 
 SELECT 
 
 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 
 
 CHIEFLY EDUCATIONAL, 
 
 MANY IN USE AT THE HIGHER SCHOOLS & UNIVERSITIES. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Class Books 6 
 
 Classicai, ....... 4 
 
 Law and Political Economy . , .9 
 
 Miscellaneous 3 
 
 Oxford Study Guides . . . .11 
 paliestra oxoniensis . . .7 
 Translations 4 
 
 Also Sold by SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO., London. 
 
 A Catalogue of these Publications with fuller descriptions, 
 some notices from the press, and specimen pages, will be forwarded 
 graiis on application. 
 
James Thornton desires to direct attention to the accompany- 
 ing List of Educational Works, many of which have now 
 attained a wide circulation. 
 
 The Authors and Compilers are mostly scholars of repute, as 
 well as of large experience in teaching. 
 
 Any notices of errors or defects in these publications will be 
 gratefully received and acknowledged. 
 
 The Books can generally be procured through local Booksellers 
 in town and country; but if at any time difficulty should arise, 
 James Thornton will feel much obliged by direct communication 
 on the subject. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 THE CAROLINE LITURGIA ; or, an Account of the Latin 
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 and Appendices hy the Bev. Chaeles Makshall, M.A., Chaplain to 
 the Lord Mayor of London, 1849-1850 ; and William W. Mabshall, 
 B.A., late Scholar of Hertford College, Oxford. [Readi/ in November. 
 
 The Authors hare been led to the present undertaking by a desire to 
 attract more attention to the Latin Prayer Book of 1670, and desire this 
 for two reasons. Firstly, on account of the remarkable scarcity of the 
 book itself. (In many of the most notable libraries no copy is to be found.) 
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 An UNDERGRADUATE'S TRIP to ITALY and ATTICA in 
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 A SYNOPSIS and SUMMARY of the REPUBLIC of PLATO. 
 
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CLASS BOOKS. 
 
 OUTLINES of CHEMICAL THEORY. By Feedeeiok Finnis 
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 MELETEMATA; or, SELECT LATIN PASSAGES IN 
 PROSE AND VERSE FOR UNPREPARED TRANS- 
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 time Scholar of St. John's College, Cambridge, Classical Master in 
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 * We find this collection to be Tery judiciously made, and think it one of the best 
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 MELETEMATA GR.ffiCA ; being a Selection of Passages, Prose 
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 Forming a Companion Volume to the above. 
 
 SELECTED PIECES for TRANSLATION into LATIN 
 
 PEOSE. Selected and arranged by the Eev. H. C. Ogle, M.A. 
 Head Master of Magdalen College School, and T. Clayton, M.A. 
 Crown 8vo. cloth, 4s. 6d. 
 
 This selection is intended for the use of the highest forms in Schools and for University 
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 would be most serviceable. 
 
 ' The selection has^een made with much care and the passages which we have more 
 particularly examined are very appropriate for translation.' 
 
 School G-uaiudiaii', June 7, 1879. 
 
 Latin and Greek Versions of a considerable number of these Pieces, for 
 
 the use of Tutors only, will shortly be published. 
 
 DAMON ! or, The ART of GREEK IAMBIC MAKING. By 
 
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 6 JAMES THORNTON, 33 HIGH STREET, OXFORD. 
 
CLASS mOKS—conmuA 
 
 ARS SCRIBENDI LATINE ; or, Aids to Latin .tiose„C6mp,osition: 
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LAW AND POLITICAL ECONOMY. 
 
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 REMARKS on the USE and ABUSE of SOME POLITICAL 
 
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 OUTLINES of ENGLISH CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 
 
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OXTOED STUDY GUIDES. 
 
 A SERIES OP HANDBOOKS TO EXAMINATIONS. 
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 Each volume will be confined to one branch of study, and 
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OXFOED STUDY GJJWl^S-contmued. 
 
 ENTRANCE CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIPS, By S. H. Jetes, B.A., 
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 * It is quite refreshing to find a guide to an examination that so thoroughly discourages 
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 as to the best way of preparing for the different sorts of papers and also for the best 
 
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 useful,'— The Academy, June 18, 1881. 
 
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 LITERiE HUMANIORES. ByE. B. Iwan-Muu.ee, B.A., New CoUege. 
 
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 MODERN HISTORY. By F. S. Pdllinq, M.A., Exeter College. 
 
 NATURAL SCIENCE. By E. B. Poclton, M.A., Keble CoUege. 
 
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 MATHEMATICS.— 2b be arranged for. 
 
 12 JAMES THORNTON, 33 HIGH STREET, OXFORD. 
 
TEANSLATIONS. 
 
 The AGAMEMNON of ^SCHYLUS. A new Prase Translation, 
 Crowi 8vo. cloth limp, 2s. , 
 
 THe NICOMACHEAN ETHICS of ARISTOTLE. A New 
 
 TraHslation, with an Introductioit, a Marginal Analysis, and Ex- 
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 . Chasb, M.A., Fellow of Oriel College, a,nd Prindipiil of St. Marj- 
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 ARISTOTLE'S ORGANON : Translations from the Organon of 
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 jeqilired for Honour Moderations. By Waltbk Smith, New College, 
 and Allan &. Sumnee Gibson, Scholar of Corpus Christi College, 
 Oxford. Crown 8to. 2s. 6fl!. ''■"■- \r' . '/ 
 
 The ELEMENTS of ARISTOTLE'* LOGIC, foUowing the order 
 of Trendelenburg, , with ■ Introdiietion, English TransMon, and 
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 and pometime Fellow of Brasenose College. [Pr^aring. 
 
 The PHILIPPIC ORATIONS of CICERO. A New Translation,; 
 By the Eev. John Eiohaed Kins, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Oriel 
 College, Oxford. Crown Sm cloth, 6s. 
 
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 DEMOSTHENES on the CROWN. The Text'after Baiteb. With 
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 [In the press. 
 
 LIVY'S HISTORY of ROME. TheFifth, Sixth, andSeTOntih Books. 
 A Literal Translation from the 'Text of Madtig, with Historical 
 . Introductions, Summary to each Book, and explanatory Notes. By 
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 The MENO of PLATO. A New Translation, with Introduction and 
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MISCELLANE OUS STUDEN TS' BOOKS. 
 
 MELETEMATA ; or, SELECT LATIN PASSAGES IN 
 PROSE AND VERSE FOR UNPREPARED TRANS- 
 LATION. Arranged by the Eev. F. J. F. Gaktillon, M.A., some- 
 time Scholar of St. , John's College, Cambridge, Classical Master in 
 Cheltenham College. Crovm 8vo. cloth, is. 6di [Jttst published. 
 The object of this volume' is to furnish a eollection of about 250 passages, giaduated 
 in difficulty, and adapted to the various Examinations in which ' TTnprepared Trans- 
 lation ' finds a place. 
 
 A Companion Volume of Passages from Greek Authors in preparation. 
 
 SELECTED PIECES for TRANSLATION into LATIN 
 
 PROSE. Selected and arranged by the Rev. H. C. Ogle, M.A. 
 
 Head Master of Alagdalen College School, and T. Clayton, M.A. 
 
 Crown 8vo. cloth, 4s. Qd. 
 This selection is intended'for the use of the highest forms in Schools and for University 
 Students for Honour Examinations, for Whom it Was felt that a small and compact book 
 would be most serviceable. 
 
 A Latin Version of a considerable number of these Pieces, for the use of 
 Tutors only, will shortly be published. 
 
 DAMON; 6r, The ART of GREEK IAMBIC MAKING. By 
 
 , the Eev. J. Herbert Williams, M.A., Composition Master in S. 
 ■. .'-;. "-.ny of Magdalen College. 
 ,. -. :. __ -,he press. [Nearly ready. 
 
 SHORT TABLES and NOTES on GREEK and LATIN 
 
 GRAMMAR. By W. E. W. Collins, M.A., Jesus College. Crown 
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 ARS SCRIBENDI LATINE; or, Aids to Latin Prose Composition. 
 In the Form of an Analysis of Latin Idioms. By B. A. Edwards, 
 B.A., late Scholar of Jesus College, Oxford. Crown 8vo. Is. 
 
 A SYNOPSIS of LIVY'S HISTORY of the SECOND PUNIC 
 
 WAR. Books XXI.-XXIV. With Appendices, Notes, Maps, and 
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 A SYNOPSIS and SUMMARY of the ANNALS of TACITUS. 
 
 Books I.-VI. With Introduction, Notes and Indexes. By G. W. 
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 A SYNOPSIS and SUMMARY of the REPUBLIC of PLATO. 
 
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 * Here is everything needful for a beginner.' — Educational Times. 
 
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 Jesus College. Second Edition. Crown 8vo. limp jjoth, 2s. 
 
 JAMES THORNTON, 33 HIGH STREET, OXFORD. 
 
JAMES THORNTOi 
 
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 «Ba nai