THE STUDYand PRACTICE OF WRITING ENGLISH LOMERandASHMUN REVISED EDITION iiitiiiiniiMiiiiiiiiiJitiii LIBRARY NEW YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE ITHACA, N. Y. IIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIKJIllIllilllllllllllllllll PE 1408.L84T9lT"'""-''"^^ "''*]« st|icly and practice of writing Englis 3 1924 000 263 552 Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000263552 THE STUDY AND PRACTICE OF WRITING ENGLISH BT GERHARD R. LOMER, M.A., Ph.D. Formerly Instructor in English in the School of Journalism Colutnbia University in the City of New York AND MARGARET ASHMUN, M.A. Formerly Instructor in English in The University of Wisconsin Editor of " Prose Literature for Secondary . Schools," and "Modern Prose and Poetry for Secondary Schools." HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • DALI/AS SAN FEANCISCO l^'i-^t.to.CsPCf COPYRIGHT, 1914, 19171 BY GERHARD R. LOMSR AND MARGARBT ASHMUN ALL RIGHTS KESERVBD tv/^ 5 \\4' CAMBRIDGB . MAS-SACK USETTS PRINTED IN THE U . S . A PREFACE In several years of experience in teaching college students how to write, the authors have found that most of the available text- books either gave an amount of material confusing to the student, or explained matters in such great detail that the instructor was rendered superfluous or else was reduced to the status of a quiz master. In attempting to avoid the faults of ill-arrangement and of overelaboration, the writers of The Study and Practice have had the following purposes in mind: — (1) To gather conveniently into one volume enough material for one year's work of average Freshman grade. (2) To reduce, so far as possible, the confusing multiplicity of formal rules to a systematic and practical minimum. (3) To furnish outlines for the purpose of saving time ordi- narily spent by the instructor in dictating notes and by the stu- dent in copying them. (4) To supply references for further study and, for additional practice, a number of exercises drawn from the writing of Fresh- men or related to their interests. The order of the topics as they are given in the book need not necessarily be followed in teaching, for the requirements of each group of students will naturally condition the method of the instructor. In the majority of cases it will be found best to begin with the sections on taking notes, the preparation of manuscript, and theme-writing. In order to save time and to develop a valua- ble school habit, mechanical excellence of manuscript should be one of the first ideals to be inculcated. The use of the typewriter is becoming more and more general, and it is strongly urged that, when machines are available, work be tjrpewritten. The next section that may profitably be studied involves a re- view of punctuation and grammar; here the emphasis should be placed on the necessity of clearness and correctness of expression. The section on language either may be taken up entire in courses where emphasis on word-study has been found desirable, or it may iv PREFACE be referred to at appropriate times in connection with other por« tions of the textbook. Usually some volume of selections will be used as well as The Study and Practice. It has been found, for instance, that the work of the first term can be satisfactorily correlated with Cunliffe and Lomer's Writing of Today for description, exposition, biography, and criticism; and that of the second term, with Margaret Ash- man's Modem Short Stories or Maxcy's Representative Narratives. A large amount of written work in the form of exercises and themes should be required. For a three-hour course, fifteen hun- dred words a week has not been found to be excessive, and the improvement in writing that has resulted has both surprised and encouraged the writers. In general, two hours of preparation for each hour of class-work will bring the best results. In the study of the so-called "Forms of Discourse," it is not expected that the student will have time to complete all the exercises. Selection or variation is left to the discretion of the instructor and the specific needs of the class. It is suggested that progress be slow and par- ticularly thorough during the earlier weeks, and that correct copy be insisted upon. It is, of course, taken for granted that correc- tion, revision, re-writing, and personal conferences will be de- manded of the student. In conclusion, the authors offer the following suggestions re- garding the point of view of the instructor: — 1. Enthusiastic writing on the part of the students is encour- aged by enthusiastic teaching on the part of the instructor. 2. The student's dominant interests should be related as closely as possible to his own writing and to the types of writing which he ordinarily reads. 3. In every possible way the student should be encouraged to find himself, to express his personaUty, and to develop his literary originality as far as he can. Rules are useful only for guidance; they are not an end in themselves. Formalism and the memoriz- ing of rules have little place in the modern study and practice of writing English. Gerhahd R. Lomee. Makgaket Ashmun, JuTie 28, 1917. CONTENTS I. Established Usages 1. Punctuation 1 2. Capitals 30 3. Italics 33 4. Abbreviations 35 5. The Representation of Number 37 6. Syllabification 39 7. Rules for Plurals 40 8. Possessives 43 9. Rules for Spelling 45 II. Gkammatical Requieembnts 1. Syntax 49 2. Sequence of Tenses 65 3. Shall and WiU 58 4. Voice 61 5. Irregular Verbs 63 6. Sentence Structure 67 7. Paragraphs 98 III. The Use op Language 1. The Study of Language Ill 2. Some Suggestions for the Study of Words . . . 120 3. The Use of the Dictionary 121 4. Synonyms 127 5. Some Common Latin Roots 133 6. Prefixes 134 7. Suffixes 135 8. English Words for Analysis 136 vi CONTENTS 9. The Idiomatic Use of Prepositions 138 10. Foreign Words commonly used in English . . . 140 11. Phrases from Foreign Languages 142 12. Style 145 13. Figures of Speech 157 14. Diacritical Marks 164 15. Words commonly mispronounced 165 16. Common Errors in Speech and Writing .... 167 17. Vulgarisms 184 18. Hackneyed Expressions 185 19. Hackneyed Quotations 186 rV. Weitten Composition 1. Steps in Theme- Writing 191 2. Outlines 193 3. The Preparation of Manuscript 199 4. Marks for the Correction of Themes .... 202 6. Short-Theme Subjects 203 6. Long-Theme Subjects 206 7. How to take Notes 208 8. Quotations 215 9. References and Footnotes 219 10. Making a Bibliography 221 V. FOHMS or DlSCOUBSE 1. Description 224 2. Exposition 241 3. Definition 251 4. Argumentation 254 5. Biography 260 6. Narration 267 7. A Specific Study of the Short Story 269 8. The Drama 294 9. Translation 308 CONTENTS vii VI. Correspondence 1. Social and Friendly Letters 312 2. Commercial Correspondence 319 VII. The Use of Books 1. The Library and its Arrangement 328 2. The Library Catalogue 333 The Author Card — The Subject Card — The Title Card — Cross-References — Analytics — Use of the Card Index and File. 3. The Make-up of a Book 342 Appendix I. Miscellaneous Faulty Sentences for Correction . . 348 n. A Working Library of Books on Composition . . 357 Index 363 THE STUDY AND PRACTICE OF WRITING ENGLISH ESTABLISHED USAGES I. PUNCTUATION Punctuation is a convenient mechanical device foi indicating or assuring the unity, the coherence, or the emphasis implied in the written expression of thought. Punctuation is not an end in itself; it merely helps to sug- gest pauses, inflections, and intonations that in oral expres- sion are of great value in making a thought clear. In the use of punctuation, the student must master certain recog- nized conventions that depend upon a few underlying principles. The more important general rules admit of little latitude for personal opinion in their application, since they are tacitly accepted by all who aspire to be careful writers. Other rules, though less binding, are indicative of what is considered good form in writing and are a proof of literary training and experience. In minor matters, a degree of personal freedom in punctuation is permitted. On the whole, until a writer has become thoroughly in- formed as to the best practice, he will do well to allow himself very little license in the use of the marks of punc- tuation. He should carefully apply the rules that have been agreed upon by students of language as the most efficient in supplementing the written word. 2 ESTABLISHED USAGES The chief marks of punctuation are: — Period • Question mark, or interrogation point ? Exclamation point 1 Colon i Semicolon > Comma » Dash — Apostrophe * (above the line) Quotation marks "...." . . . . ' Parentheses ( ) Brackets [ ] Hyphen The Period 1. A complete declarative or imperative sentence should be followed by a period. (a) The sun is shining. (6) Give me the rifle. Exception. The rule given above is extremely important, and it should, in general, be strictly adhered to; nevertheless, good usage furnishes an exception: Two or more sentences that are closely connected in thought may be separated merely by commas, if these sentences are very short, and are parallel in construction. (a) She laughed, she sang, she danced. (6) It rained, it hailed, it snowed, and it blew great guns. N.B. For a further note on this point, see under the Comma, page 15. 2. A fragment or a subordinate part of a sentence should not be followed by a period, unless there is nothing present for the partial sentence to adhere to, and luiless the sense is clearly and completely understood. Bad: He was very inadequately prepared. Which fact soon became apparent. PUNCTUATION 8 Correct: He was very inadequately prepared, which fact soon became apparent. Bad: I had not reckoned with my enemy. As I was after- ward to learn. Correct: I had not reckoned with my enemy, as I was after- ward to learn. Note : Sometimes a fragment of a sentence is accepted as a complete thought. The expressions Yes, Not so, Of course, etc., are really condensed sentences, and may properly be followed by periods. In conversation, a fragment of a sentence may often, with good reason, be followed by a period as if it were a complete sentence. "Did you find it on the floor?" "On the floor. What have you to say?" 3. An abbreviation should be followed by a period. M.D.; e.g.; Assoc; Bros.; ibid.; R.S.V.P. The Question Mark 1. The question mark should follow a direct question. Have you heard the news? Caution: The question mark should not be used after an indirect question unless the main sentence in. which the indirect question is embedded is also interrogative in character. Wrong: He asked me whether I had heard the nev/s? Right: He asked me whether I had heard the news. Right: Did he ask you whether you had heard the news? 2. The question mark is used to indicate doubt as to the truth of an assertion. Correct: George Chapman was born in 1559(?). 3. The question mark should not be used to call atten- tion to an ironical expression. Undesirable: He certainly is a brilliant (?) young person. Better: He certainly is a brilliant young person. 4 ESTABLISHED USAGES The Exclamation Point 1. The exclamation point is used after interjections, exclamatory sentences, and words or names pronounced with emotional emphasis. Listen! Listen! Do you hear? There are horses many! Now they stop! Ah, now Feet on the threshold! Maeteelinck. 2. The exclamation point should not be used where the comma will do as well. (a) Oh, dear, no. I never thought of such a thing. (6) "For the land sake, Susannah," cried Arietta, advanc- ing upon her, "what are you doin'?" 3. The exclamation point is sometimes used, within parentheses, for the sake of an ironical or astonished com- mentary on what has been said. This practice is not to be recommended. Undesirable: He praised my meekness (!) and said it was a noble example to his sisters. Better: He praised my meekness, and said it was a noble example to his sisters. The Colon I. The colon is used as a formal introduction to an important word or expression, a list, a series of statements or questions, or a quotation of some length. (a) He sent in an order for the following books: George Meredith's The Egoist; Mrs. Gaskell's The Life of Char^ lotte Bronte; John Fiske's The Beginnings of New Eng- land; and Hawthorne's Mosses from an Old Manse. (6) Not content with this, Hawthorne adds a few com- ments at the end, exactly as would be done in a formal sermon: "Woe for the high-souled youth, with his dream of Earthly Immortality! His name and person PUNCTUATION 5 utterly unknown ; his history, his way of life, his plans, a mystery never to be solved; his death and existence equally a doubt!" C. A. Smith: The American Short Story. (c) There were two things that I looked upon with equal abhorrence: the slatternly housekeeper and the slave to a domestic routine. 2. The colon is sometimes used to introduce a series of thoughts which are an illustration or an elaboration of a preceding general thought. In such a case, the material following the colon is in a sense in apposition with that preceding. This use of the colon is not to be recommended to the unskilled writer. Permissible: Everywhere the signs of the gentle faith ap- pear: its ideographs and symbols are chiseled upon the faces of the rocks; its icons smUe upon you from every shadowy recess by the way; even the very landscape betimes would seem to have been moulded by the soul of it, where the hills rise softly as a prayer. Lafcadio Heabn: Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan. The Semicolon The semicolon occupies, theoretically, a position mid- way between the period and the comma. It can be made to show, at the same time, logical connection and grammati- cal separation. It is a most expressive mark, and the ability to use it effectively is one of the characteristics of the trained writer. I . The semicolon may be used to separate the two or more parts of a compoimd sentence in which the conjunc- tion is expressed or imderstood. (o) The animal was apparently as exhausted as I was; that was one comfort. (6) In his desire to be particular, Gissing describes a man on one page as a lawyer and on another as a dentist; but this is a detail hardly worth mentioning. 6 ESTABLISHED USAGES In such a sentence as that given above, the quality of the second clause seems to demand a more positive mark than the comma. The semicolon gives just the right shade of suspense between the two parts of the sentence, — shows, as it were, a pause for consideration and conclusion. There are many similar cases in which the semicolon can be made equally sig- nificant as a division between the parts of the compound sen- tence. 2. The semicolon may be used to separate a series of long subordinate sentence elements. The semicolon is especially valuable if the phrases or clauses combined in a sentence have commas within them- selves, or if they are so long as to present a confusing or a for- midable appearance. Even where the subordinate elements are not long, they are often given an individual value through being separated by the semicolon. There I learned that the stranger had arrived late one dark rainy night, after the landlord and his family had gone to bed; that he had remained three days in his room, ven- turing out only in the evening and the early morning; and that he had departed at last as mysteriously as he had come. 3. It is customary to place a semicolon before the con- junctive adverbs therefore, hence, accordingly, however, nevertheless, also, otherwise, moreover, and others of a like nature. This rule should, in general, be very strictly applied. (a) She was a woman; therefore she made excuses for him in her heart. (6) My cousin had lived the greater part of his Ufe in France; thus it happened that, when he arrived at our house that day, not one of the family recognized him. (c) I do not think that he is at home; however, I will make inquiries at once. 4. The semicolon should usually precede as, namely, and thus when they are used to introduce examples and illus- trations. PUNCTUATION 7 The plaintiff solemnly denied two of the charges; namely, breaking into the desk, and destroying the memoran- dum of his father's liabilities. 5. A semicolon may be used to separate the parts of any sentence when a conmia would be misleading or insuffi- cient. Bad: He killed the duck and the chicken, and the child stood watching him in fascinated horror. Better: He kiUed the duck and the chicken; and the child stood watching him in fascinated horror. EXERCISE Punctuate the following sentences : — 1. The problems that confront us now are two ought we to go and ought we to pubhsh our reasons 2. He sent me home for his heavy overcoat hence I was not at my desk when the secretary called to see me 3. The walls were covered with vines and brilliant flowers nodded at the windows 4. You gave me no peace until I made a promise therefore I capitulated the more readily 5. To make this clear we must distinguish three classes who stand in a certain relation to education in modern England first the schoolmasters who nominally manage the schools secondly the mass of the public who send their sons to the schools thirdly the educational theorists who write books 6. He was courteous not cringing to superiors affable not famil- iar to equals and kind but not condescending or supercilious to inferiors 7. I did not beheve his story nevertheless I pretended to put all confidence in the tale 8. Thus pressed I gave them my most sufficient reasons whereat they burst into immoderate roars of laughter 9. We hold these truths to be self-evident that all men are created equal that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights that among these are life liberty and the pursuit of happiness 10. Three states have already passed such laws namely Montana Colorado and California 8 ESTABLISHED USAGES 11. The following groups of men are dissatisfied those who out of their own means contributed to the cause those who in one way or another assisted with the actual labor and those who whether through poverty or indifference did nothing at all 12. The man who thus exquisitely repainted these pictures in words had three great gifts vivid memories of childhood ex- periences the heart of a child to interpret them and a wonder- ful power of verbal expression 13. Richardson with perfectly unconscious humor divided his characters into three classes men women and Italians 14. Kipling feels the presence of romance in shot and shell as well as in buff jerkins in existing superstitions as well as the old in the lightning express as in the stage-coach in the fishing schooner as in the viking ship in the loves of Mulvaney and Dinah as in Ivanhoe and Rowena in the huge python as in the fire-breathing dragon 15. Like the sonnet the short-story must be a unit giving expres- sion to one emotion or a series of emotions possessiQg a unity of tone its characters must be few its action must be simple it tells something but it suggests more 16. This was the way it happened four years ago my company sent me out to Montana to investigate the titles of some ranches that they intended to buy 17. The captain was by this time ready to look into the matter moreover he felt that he had really made a mistake The Comma 1 . The comma is used to set off parenthetic material, — that is, material thrown into a sentence for purposes of explanation. (a) The question, I own, puzzled me. (6) He, however, was likely to ride his hobby in his own way. (c) He would arrive, it was true, somewhat after dark. 2. The comma should be used to inclose a noun in apposition (together with its modifiers). (o) On the doorstep stood Bill Gray, the widow's eldest son, (6) Mr. Hennessey, the foreman, was much impressed. PUNCTUATION 9 (c) At Verona, the county seat, we stopped for dinner. Exception; This rule is to be disregarded, — (a) When the appositive is a title that has become a part of a name. Peter the Hermit; Philip the Fair; John the Evan- gelist. ' (6) When the appositive is so closely connected with the noun it modifies that a separation is illogical. The first to speak was his friend Charles. (c) When a word or a phrase is spoken of in such a way that attention is called to it for its own sake. (1) The word swell is not in good use. (2) The expression "Cheese it" was once a popular slang phrase. 3. The comma is used to inclose a name or title used in direct address, — that is, as a vocative. (a) I want to say, friends, that this sort of thing must stop. (6) I believe, Mr. Farley, that we have made a mistake. 4. The comma should be used to inclose a geographical name used after another to show relative location. (a) Our train stopped at Hope, Idaho. (6) My brother who lives ia Rouen, France, is coming to America next year. 5. The comma should be used to separate the clauses of a compound sentence if those clauses are short and have little or no interior punctuation. If the clauses are long or if they have commas within them- selves, the semicolon may be used to separate them. (a) His wet feet were freezing, and his exposed fingers were growing numb. (6) He was a warm-whiskered man, but the hair on his face did not protect the high cheek-bones and the eager nose that tlirust itself aggressively into the frosty air. 10 ESTABLISHED USAGES 6. The comma should be used to set off a dependent clause preceding its independent clause. (a) When I looked at my watch agam, I found that it had stopped. (6) Although he was an extremely busy man, he never refused to help me when I asked him. 7. A series of adjectives should usually be separated by commas. (o) The balloon rose higher into the clear, cold, bracing air. (6) He was a stubby Uttle man with a red face and a bris- tling, close-cropped mustache. Note : There are many occasions on which this rule is to be disregarded. If the adjective nearest the noun seems to be a part of the idea expressed by the noim, it is hkely that the other adjectives modify the whole ensuing combination of noun and adjective; in such a case, no comma need be placed between the last and the next to the last adjective. He wore a short black alpaca coat and a large white cravat. Short seems to modify black alpaca coat, which combination of words may be considered as a unit. No comma is needed between short and black. Large, modifying white cravat, need not be followed by a comma. It is not always easy to tell whether the comma is desirable or not. A study of the best usage will be helpful. On the whole, the modem tendency is to lessen rather than to increase the amount of punctuation used in ordinary prose discourse. 8. A comma should precede and, or, or nor, used to con- nect the last two links of a sequence of three or more: — (a) M6rim6e's stories are hard, ironical, and cynical. (6) You ought to write, telegraph, or telephone your family. Note: A notion exists that a comma should not be used before and. This idea is illogical. The above rule should be strictly applied. 9. Absolute phrases should be set off by commas. The house being in a state of disorder, we decided to go to a hotel. PUNCTUATION 11 10. The comma should follow any expression equivalent to he said, introducing a direct quotation. Stepping close to the little old woman, he shouted in her ear, " That train left an hour ago." 11. A comma may be used to set off an introductory phrase of considerable length or of complicated structure. With the kindest intentions and the most unimpeachable motives, I was made to appear a detestable notoriety- seeker. Note: Very short introductory phrases should not be set off by any mark of punctuation. In the late afternoon I took a walk along the river. 12. A comma may be inserted where a pause is needed in a sentence and no other mark of punctuation is suitable. 13. A comma may be used where it will remove any obscurity in a sentence. Into the envelopes filed there, goes a wealth of material cUpped from the magazines of the day. 14. A comma should set off a nonrestrictive phrase or jlaxise. A full discussion of the punctuation of restrictive and non- restrictive phrases and clauses is given below. The omission of the comma with restrictive phrases and clauses A restrictive adjectival phrase or clause is one that modi- fies a noun or pronoun in such a way as to be essential to the completeness of the sentence in which the phrase or clause occurs. It cannot be omitted without changing the sense, since it is so closely attached to the substantive it modifies that it restricts or limits the meaning of that sub- stantive in a clear and definite manner. The restrictive phrase or clause is not separated by any mark of punctua- tion from the noun it modifies. 12 ESTABLISHED USAGES Restrictive phrase: The glass filled with the clear water was placed upon the table; that filled with the brownish liquid was put away in the cupboard. The phrases filled with the clear water and filled with the brownish liquid are restrictive; in each case they point out the glass intended, — that is, restrict or narrow down the applica- tion of the word glass. They could not be omitted without des- troying the sense of the sentence. Restrictive clause: The student who ignores the regulations will not be permitted to take part in the play. The clause who ignores the regulations tells definitely what student is meant. It restricts or narrows the application of the noun student. It cannot be omitted without destroying the sense that is intended. No comma should precede the clause. Correct: She lost the ring that her mother had given her. Correct: A gentleman has been defined as a man who. has no visible means of support. The use of the comma with nonrestridive phrases and clauses A nonrestrictive adjectival phrase or clause modifies, though very loosely, a noun or pronoun'; the information that it gives is not essential to the grammatical complete- ness or the sense of the sentence. Since it is merely paren- thetic in character, a nonrestrictive phrase or clause can be omitted without serious damage to the sentence. Such a clause should be separated from its substantive by commas. Nonrestrictive phrase: Her basket, filled with berries that she had gathered in the woods, was found upon the grass. Here the identity of the basket is clear, whether the phrase be omitted or not. The phrase does not restrict the application of the noun basket; it simply gives parenthetical information about the basket in question. It is nonrestrictive, and should be set off from the rest of the sentence by commas. Nonrestrictive clause: Arthur Doulton, who had ignored all the regulations, was forbidden to take part in the play. Here the miscreant is identified by his name; the clause who PUNCTUATION 13 had ignored aU the regulations does not point him out, but merely adds a comment upon him. The clause is nonrestrictive, and is properly set off by commas. Correct: I asked Mr. Jaffrey, who had given much attention to such matters, but he was forced to confess his igno- rance. Correct: This book, which I had once regarded as a reposi- tory of chemical secrets, now began to seem quite com- monplace. The test for restrictive and nonrestrictive phrases and clauses From the foregoing remarks upon restrictive and non- restrictive phrases and clauses, it will be seen that there is a test by means of which the nature of the modifier can be ascertained, and with it the necessity for the use of com- mas. This test is merely leaving the phrase or clause out of the sentence and then judging whether the sense in- tended is impaired: — (o) If the phrase or clause cannot he omitted without destroying the sense of the sentence, it is restrictive. It should not be set off from the word it modifies. (b) If the phrase or clause can be omitted without damage to the intended meaning of the sentence, it is nonrestrictive. It should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. Note: There may be a few cases in which the application of this test win still leave doubt; in such cases, one must decide by reference to the context, or content himself with remaining unenhghtened. The following table may be helpful in the study of restric- tive and nonrestrictive clauses: — 14 ESTABLISHED USAGES RESTHIOn^li Clause nonbestbictivb Clause Noun modified is Vague, general, and not limited without the clause Already definite, particular, limited, individual Function of clause is To denote, define, or make definite; to limit or restrict the meaning of the noun to a particu- lar case To describe; to give additional or parenthetic infor- mation Punctuation No mark of punc- tuation Commas EXERCISE Distinguish between restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses. Insert commas where they are needed. 1. Formerly the students who did not care to attend the game gave their tickets to outsiders. 2. Her eldest child who is only ten years old play^ the piano remarkably well. 3. Henry Slocum who is a friend of mine is the leader of this faction. 4. They decided to present Hamlet which always appeals to the public. 5. Even he who has committed the most outrageous crime has stiU a heart. 6. The school that he attended did not rank very high in the opinion of his relatives. 7. Our campus which is more beautiful than that of our rival college attracts many students to the University. 8. This is not the horse that I bought. 9. This gentleman who is a stranger to the city wishes to know where a telegraph ofiice may be found. PUNCTUATION 15 10. The archseologist gave a long lecture on a statue that some- body had lately discovered in Greece. 11. He went to Jackson which is a mountain town in Kentucky. 12. He was writing a Idfe of Napoleon who had always been his favorite hero. 13. The change that had taken place in Mr. O'Rourke's affec- tions showed itself in occasional fits of sullenness. 14. The man who turned out to be a distant relative of mine gave me a book that had once belonged to my gi-andfather. 15. The paragraph which produced this singular effect on the aged couple occurred at the end of a column of telegraph dispatches giving the details of an unimportant engagement that had just taken place between one of the blockading squadron and a Confederate cruiser. 16. The doctor's old horse which grows lazier every day will soon be fit only to work on the farm. 17. Alaska which was once a Russian province is now an Ameri- can possession. 18. The lasl^named college which is attended by students of many different faiths does not have a chapel. 19. That tall student who is a great favorite with his classmates has just been elected president of the Athletic Association. 20. I shingled the sides of my house which were already impervi- ous to rain with imperfect and sappy shingles made of the first slices of the log. 21. Whenever a storm which they wished to avert was threaten- ing they would run out and fire at the rising cloud whooping yelling whistling and beating their drum. 22. I usually carried my dinner of bread and butter and read the newspaper in which it was wrapped at noon sitting among the green pine boughs which I had cut off. 23. There was only here and there a board which would not bear removal. Cautions to be observed in using the comma I. Do not separate complete sentences by the comma; use the semicolon, the period, the question mark, or the exclamation point. Exception ; Very short sentences that are closely connected 16 ESTABLISHED USAGES in thought and parallel in construction may be separated by commas. See The Period, Rule 1, page 2 (Exception). Incorrect: The animal was depressed by the tremendous cold, it knew that this was no time for traveling. Correct: The animal was depressed by the tremendous cold. It knew that this was no time for traveling. Incorrect: The pay is twelve dollars a month and your rations furnished, you camp in a tent on the prame with your sheep. Correct: The pay is twelve dollars a month and your rations furnished. You camp in a tent on the prairie with your sheep. 2. Do not put a comma between a noun and an adjective modifying it. Bad: On a table stood a large, ugly, red, vase. Better: On a table stood a large, ugly, red vase. 3. Do not use a comma before the first member of a series unless it vs^ould be required if the series were reduced to one member. Bad: At the Institute I studied, cooking, dressmaking, and miUinery. Better: At the Institute I studied cooking, dressmaking, and millinery. The Dash 1. The dash may be used instead of marks of paren- thesis. For inclosing interpolated material, the dash is slightly less formal than parentheses. It was one of those fine rains — I am not praising it — ■ which wet you to the skin in about four seconds. 2. The dash is used to indicate incoherence or the sud- den breaking off of a sentence form that has been begun. (a) I could only gasp, "Six o'clock train — Green Lodge — white horse — old man — I — " PUNCTUATION 17 (b) I said to Sylvia this morning — why, what has become of Sylvia, anyway? 3. The dash, with or without the comma, may be used before a repetition or an elaboration of a thought preced- ing it. There were noises that we did not understand, — myBteri- ous winds passing overhead, tree-trunks grinding against each other, undefinable stirs and vmeasinesses. 4. The dash may be used before a word that sums up what has preceded in the sentence. In such a case, the dash is usually preceded by the comma. The hammering of the infrequent woodpecker, the call of the lonely bird, the drumming of the solitary partridge, — aU these sounds do but emphasize the lonesomeness of nature. C. D. Wabnbe: Camping Out. 5. The dash may be used, with or without the comma, to indicate a slight pause for emphasis. (a) I like to have this happen on an inclement Christmas or Thanksgiving Eve — and it always does. (6) "I shall be proud to show you my wife," he said, "and the baby — and Goliath." T. B. Aldkich: Goliath. 6. The dash sometimes follows the colon, after very formal introductory material. Aided by Patience, the spirit of Progress is enabled to close the dialogue and the poem thus: — [Here foUow a few stanzas of the poem.] 7. The dash should not be used indiscriminately instead of other marks of pvmctuation. Incorrect: I was very glad to hear from home — I had begun to get low-spirited at not receiving any news — and to entertain indefinite fears that something was wrong — You do not say anything about your own health — but I hope you are well. Correct: I was very glad to hear from home. I had begun to get low-spirited at not receiving any news, and to enter- 18 ESTABLISHED USAGES tain indefinite fears that something was wrong. You do not say anything about your own health, but I hope you are well. The Apostrophe 1. For the use of the apostrophe to form the possessive of singular and plural nouns, see pages 43—45. 2. For the use of the apostrophe to form the plural of letters, symbols, and words spoken of as words, see page 43, under Plurals. 3. Below are given a few cautions to be observed in using the apostrophe : — (a) Never form the plural of a noun (except a word spoken of as a word; see page 43) by adding an apostrophe, or an apostrophe with s. Incorrect: There stood all the httle Smith's in a row. Correct: There stood all the little Smiths in a row. (See the rule for the plural of proper nouns: Rule 15, page 43.) (6) Never use an apostrophe with the possessive pro- nouns its, ours, hers, yours, theirs. Incorrect: The word let has changed it's meaning. Correct: The word kt has changed its meaning. (c) In forming the possessive of a noim that ends in s, never insert an apostrophe before that s. Incorrect: He read Collin's Ode to Evening. Correct: He read Collins's [or Collins'] Ode to Evening, {d) In writing the contraction of a word (see Rule 1, page 35), be sure to insert the apostrophe at the right place. Incorrect: I could 'nt reach him by telephone. Correct: I could n't reach him by telephone. PUNCTUATION 19 Quotation Marks 1. A direct quotation should be inclosed by double quotation marks. I heard him say, " You had better go, or it will be the worse for you." Note: An indirect quotation does not take quotation marks. Incorrect: I heard John tell the tramp "That he had better go." Correct: I heard John tell the tramp that he had better go. 2. A single continuous speech should have quotation marks only at the beginning and at the end, unless it is broken by the author's commentary. When the speech is thus interrupted, an extra set of quotation marks should be introduced. Incorrect: " Yes," said his mother, dolefully, Johnny 's been fighting again." "That horrid Barnabee boy (who is eight years old, if he is a day) "won't let the child alone." "Well, said I, I hope Johnny gave that Barnabee boy a thrashing." "Did n't I though? cries Johnny from the sofa. You bet." Correct: "Yes," said his mother dolefully, "Johnny 'sbeen fighting again. That horrid Barnabee boy (who is eight years old if he is a day) won't let the child alone." "Well," said I, "I hope Johnny gave that Barnabee boy a thrashiag." "Didn't I, though?" cries Johnny, from the sofa. "You bet!" 3. If a speech is so long that it extends to several para- graphs, each paragraph should have a quotation mark at the beginning; only the last should have the quotation mark at the end. 4. When a quotation mark and a question mark or an exclamation point come after the same word, (a) the ques- 20 ESTABLISHED USAGES tion mark or the exclamation point should come first if it is a part of the quotation, but not of the main sentence; (6) the question mark or exclamation point should come last, if it applies to the main sentence, and not to the mere quotation. Incorrect: I said, "Are you going away"? Correct: I said, "Are you going away?" Incorrect: Did he actually say, "You are a thief?" Correct: Did he actually say, "You are a thief"? 5. A quotation within a quotation should be inclosed by single quotation marks; a third quotation, within the second, should be inclosed by double marks, and so on, in indefinite alternation. I have often heard my grandfather say, "You can't do better than to take the advice of the old proverb, 'Early to bed and early to rise.' " Incorrect: "The next day," the stranger continued, "my foreman came to me and said, " If you don't look out, you will lose your job." Correct: "The nejrt day," the stranger continued, "my fore- man came to me and said, 'If you don't look out, you will lose your job.' " 6. It is sometimes permissible to use quotation marks to inclose a technical term, or a word that is imusual or less dignified than the rest of a discoiu'se. This rule must be applied with great caution. (See Rule 7.) Permissible: (o) The street gamin looked anxiously about, to see if a "flatty" [pohceman] were in sight. (6) It has already been said that Irving . . . inaugu- rated a distinctive type of short story, the short story of local color. This has been called, since 1870, the "garden-patch" type of story, because in it each writer may be said to cultivate his own garden, or rather his own "patch" in the national garden. C. Alphonso Smith: The American Short Story. PUNCTUATION 21 7. Quotation marks should not be used loosely for apology or irony. They should never be employed without good reason. When one is in doubt whether to use quota- tion marks for any purpose except the reporting of dia- logue, he is usually safe in omitting them. Bad: My dog "Toby" followed me to the gate. Better: My dog Toby followed me to the gate. Bad: I hope you are not going to "go back on" us. Better: I hope you are not going to go back on us. Bad: His is a "noble" soul indeedl Better: His is a noble soul indeed! 8. Quotation marks should not be used to inclose the title at the head of a composition, — unless the title is in itself a quotation not easily recognized. Current proverbs and well-known quotations may be used as titles without being inclosed by quotation marks. 9. Quotation marks may be used to inclose titles em- bedded in any sort of discourse; however, italics are com- monly used for this purpose. Permissible: Judged by the strict demands of structure, as outlined by Pee, both "Rip Van Winkle" and "The Legend of Sleepy HoUow" are tales rather than short stories. EXERCISE IN PUNCTUATING CONVERSATION Why as for being honest master said the man laughing and sitting down beside me I havent much to say many is the wild thing I have done when I was younger however what is done is done I have lived long enough to learn the grand point of wisdom what is that said I that honesty is the best policy master you appear to be a sailor said I looking at his dress I was not bred a sailor said the man though when my foot is on salt water I can play the part and play it well too I am now from a long voyage from America I asked farther than that said the man have you any objection to telling me said I from New South Wales said the man looking me full in the face dear me said I why do you say 22 ESTABLISHED USAGES dear me said the man it is a very long way off said I was that your reason for saying so said the man not exactly said I no said the man with a rather bitter smile it was something else that made you say so you were thinking of the convicts well said I what then you are no convict how do you know you do not look Uke one thank you master said the man cheerfully to a certain extent you are right bygones are bygones I am no longer what I was the truth however is the truth a convict I have been a convict at Sydney Cove. EXERCISE Punctuate the following sentences: — 1. I think Mr. Morgan that the man you were speaking of is now in Las Vegas New Mexico. 2. The house after it had been inspected proved to be less remarkable than we had been led to suppose. 3. I did not see him anywhere and Bill refused to tell me what had become of him. 4. The narrow dusty white road lay shining in the moonlight. 5. In San Francisco California there is a memorial to Robeit Louis Stevenson the celebrated Scotch novelist. 6. When we mounted the hill our long shadows stretched up its slope before us as if eager to nm ahead of us and taste the mystery of the new life that lay beyond. 7. The theater the church the school and the home are all edu- cational institutions. 8. He swore by all the saints in the calendar of Rouen and these are many that he would not forget this insult that he would avenge it at any cost. 9. Presently in a quiet voice he said to the servant take this let- ter to your master and do not let any one see you give it to him. 10. It is so indeed Richard says King Phihp looking rather foolish. 11. The firm mouth the finely lined nose the clear questioning eyes the full broad forehead all speak the man of logical mind of an unruffled contemplative nature. 12. An iron foundry a deserted college a clock factory and a flour mill to-day stand as monimaents to the energy of the "boom" and the potent influence of the organized scoffers. 13. He is not eminently that is to say not saliently selfish not PUNCTUATION 23 rancorous not obtrusive but dull dull as a woolen nightcap over eyes and ears and mouth. 14. A witty woman is a treasure a witty beauty is a power. 15. The gathering darkness with its few large liquid stars which a moment before had seemed so poetical began to fill me with apprehension. 16. By the time the hawk was ready to fly he had consumed twenty-one chipmunks fourteen red squirrels sixteen mice and twelve English sparrows besides a lot of butchers meat. Parentheses 1. Marks of parenthesis are used to inclose interpolated material, — that is, material thrown into a sentence or a group of sentences for explanatory purposes. The book proved a great success, passing speedily into many hbraries (into Gray's among others), and Andrew Millar ultimately purchased the copyright. Note: The comma or the double dashes may be used in the same way, and in many cases are to be preferred to paren- theses. 2. Parentheses may be used to inclose letters of the alphabet numbering a series of rules, examples, or the like. For an illustration of this point, see the cautions under The Apostrophe, page 18. 3. Parentheses should not be used to inclose material that is not properly parenthetic, — that is, not interpo- lated into other material for purposes of explanation. Bad: I said (who) and not (which). Correct: I said who, and not which. Bad: He was criticized for his incorrect use of (guess). Correct: He was criticized for his incorrect use of guess. Bad: On the box was a large figure (4). Correct: On the box was a large figure 4. Caution: Parentheses should never be used to indicate the omission of incorrect or undesired material. 24 ESTABLISHED USAGES Bad: I spoke of the matter to Mr. (Jones) Evans. Better: I spoke of the matter to Mr. -Jeaes- Evans. 4. Interpolated material inclosed in parentheses should not be placed before the expression it is meant to explain. Bad: I am inclosing (10) ten dollars in cash. Better: I am inclosing ten dollars ($10) in cash. Square Brackets J. Square brackets are used to inclose material inserted in a quotation and representing the comment of some one other than the author of the quotation itself. See Rule 3, under Quotations, page 215. Not long after they reached Ryde, he wrote to his half- brother and successor John (afterward Sir John) Field- ing: "I beg that on the Day you receive this, Mrs. Daniel [his mother-in-law] may know that we are just risen-from Breakfast in Health and Spirits [the italics are ours] this twelfth instant at 9 in the morning." Austin Dobson: Eighteenth Century Vignettes. 2. Square brackets are sometimes used to indicate material inserted by an editor or commentator when the text under consideration is illegible or otherwise imcertain. I could not find any man for whose name this book was more agreable for hope [of] protection. Roqbe Ascham : The Schoolmaster, ed. by Edward Arber. 3. A single square bracket is used at the left of a word or words set above the end of a line, when to save space the extra material is not carried over. [here, Poor, shining dove, — I would not hold thee The Hyphen I. When a word is broken and carried over from the end of one line to the begiiming of the next, a hyphen should indicate the transition. PUNCTUATION 25 Note : A hyphen should never be used at the beginning of a hue. 2. Authorities differ as to the use of the hyphen in com- pound words, but any good dictionary may serve as a guide. The tendency of the untrained writer is to hyphenate too much; hence some care should be taken to modify that tendency. Note: To-day, to-night, and to-morrow are usually written with the hyphen. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE IN PUNCTUATION 1. It was hard work for the fish was a large one. 2. Children have you ever heard of Cinderella the beautiful girl who was treated unkindly by her cruel step-mother and who was rescued by a fairy god-mother and a prince. 3. Ethel was it is true flighty and unreliable but her aunt liked her and her cousin found her extremely amusing. 4. This fact and I can truly say I have proved that it is a fact interests the scientists greatly. 5. He settled at last in Helena Montana which is situated at the mouth of Last Chance Gulch. 6. I was going to teU you but after all I think I won't. 7. I remember a sea-captain once saying to a young lady who had used the term common sailor Madam there is no such thing as a common sailor a sailor is an uncommon man. 8. You are very kind very kind responded Dr Henderson that would indeed be dehghtful. 9. A little fat red hen was sitting on the doorstep. 10. It was as good as money better in fact because money could not buy food in that place. 11. One of them on my appearing raised her tall bony figure from her chair not as if to welcome me for she threw me no more than a brief glance of surprise but simply to set about prepar- ing the meal which her son's absence had delayed. 12. She directed the letter to Copenhagen Denmark in care of Mr. Edward Houghton American consul for that city. 13. He provided the tickets for his mother and his aunt and his brother paid the travehng expenses of the two younger sisters. 26 ESTABLISHED USAGES 14. I recorded the deed at the county-seat which was only three miles from my claim. 15. Tuition fees fall term $20.00 winter term $23.00 spring term $23.00 see pages 45 and 48 of catalogue. 16. There are two kinds of debating oral and written. 17. He went to Africa to shoot lions and his friends did not hear from him for more than a year. 18. It is n't very early now Mary she said I was up hours ago and I'm terribly hungry. 19. A tame crow he considered would be an ornament to his vari- ous possessions it would at the same time fill all his friends with envy. 20. And indeed the matter when it was discussed at the dinner- table began to assume proportions of which he had never dreamed. 21. He made no complaints he stated the simple facts he was reticent concerning his wife's departure. 22. I once saw a tourist party hurried through the Louvre with an impatient cry on the part of the conductor now ladies and gentlemen you have nt time to stop and look at anything just walk on as fast as you can this gallery is an eighth of a mile long. 23. The traveler was old bent and gray-haired his clothes were faded and worn he walked feebly helping himself with a stout staff. 24. Before his own fire he puzzled over the problem something must be done but what 25. It was a high serene night with a growing moon and a scat- tered company of major stars and if no choir of nightingales sang there was at least a very active whippoorwiU. 26. If I do go around the world said Zora a little while later when they had settled on which side of South America Valparaiso was situated and how many nice and clever people could tell you positively off-hand if I go around the world you and Emmy will have to come too. 27. The antique furniture the rich dark rugs the cheerful open iires the masses of flowers all these gave the house an air of elegance and refinement. 28. There was only one thing lacking to complete his satisfaction a companion to whom he could relate the story of his won- derful discovery. PUNCTUATION 27 29. Skepsey would have explained but the case was over and he was hustled out. 30. He was much admired for his clever wit that is for his rude personal remarks that passed in his circle for wit. 31. After all said Sypher the great thing is to have a purpose in hfe not every one can have my purpose he apologized for hu- manity but they can have some guiding principle whats yours 32. I had some difficulty with the janitor and the landlord sug- gested (that I find another apartment. 33. I a,m going to buy a house in the countrythat is to say I am going to^if I can get the money. ' 34. Please send me the following articles: a spadcia watering-pot a troweLa rake^and a lawn-mower. ^ 35. It has always seemed to me^Mr. Chairman, that the persons who have charge of this matter should be more explicit in their account of their proceedings'nevertheless I am willing to accept their spoken word with regard to the subject of ex- penditures. 36. Mr. MU wick, the proprietor of the shop .stood glaring apo- plecticaUy at his neighbor Dr GaUoway. 37. This strange personage had just arrived from Hong Kong, China'jhis costume was uniqueiis manners were atrocious and his coiiversation was appaUihg in its unnecessary frankness. 38. The order did not reach him tiU late in the week'thencejifc remained unfilled. »S, ii 39. He answered aiigrUv 'p.o I did nt forget, but its as dark^ as Egypt outdoors»|f theres a moon we might go to-morrowiShe did not reply du-ectlyibut muttered something that sounded like poor excuses. 40. RobbinS),who was an expert tool-makeriound employment at once, but his friend .Bardwell did not succeed ia getting any sort of work. 41. While I was sitting there, a limp bedraggled, white man ap- peared from behind the hedge and shouted soiie unintelligible words at the negro. 42. The farmer regarded aU unexplained wayfarers with suspi- cion therefore he was not particularly cordial when the two boys appeared at his door. 43. I have been told although I am loath to believe the assertion that two of his personal friends were victims of his dishonesty and avarice. 28 ESTABLISHED USAGES 44. Carlyle declined to work in the same room with any one else and he therefore dehberately gave up the idea of using the accessible material that lay at his disposal in other words he did not show the greatest possible diUgence in studying all accessible material and avoided the vast mass of information on his subject which existed in the library of the British Museum because his request for personal privacy could not be granted. 45. I got my opera-glasses and read and pleasant reading it was the following inscription. 46. I had arranged that the girl Jenny who was wearing an out- rageous bonnet should accompany us as far as the station. 47. He was in the news-room and having questioned him about the saddle I said by the way what is this story about your swearing at one of the waiters. 48. I had to repeat sardine on toast twicejand instead of answer- ing yes sir as if my selection of sardine on toast was a personal gratification to him- which is the manner that one expects of a waiteij he glanced at the clock then out of the window, and starting asked^'did you say sardine on toast, sir.'' 49. Shot cried the colonel angrily by heaven if I thought there was a villain on earth capable of shooting that poor inof- fensive dog Id why should they shoot him Lilhan. 50. There was Riggss bill for hay that was seven doUars. 51. The great literary and philosophical book to which I allude a book which deserves to hold a permanent place in English literature and which has profoundly influenced the minds of political writers but which infringes all the canons laid down by the modern scientific historian is the famous work that Thomas Carlyle entitled The French Revolution A History. 52. She gave liim a list of the materials that she wanted twelve yards of sUk two yards of chiffon five yards of lace a vast number of hooks and eyes spools of thread and the like he was appalled I can never suit you Im sure he groaned de- spondently. 53. But my good sir you quote me your English Latin I must beg of you to write it down it is orally incomprehensible to us Continentals. 54. It is and I said not or. 55. His health was now firmly established he had a commanding physique his figure was tall and muscular and his bearing PUNCTUATION 29 full of a dignity which had a touch almost of haughtiness in it. 56. Scarce a man heard the report of the long slim gun so intent were aU in watching the flight of its five-pound missile which however showed from its curve before it vanished in the dis- tance that it was soaring wide of its swiftly moving mark. 57. The Fearless was now speeding ahead at the rate of forty knots an hour while the monoplane after making two wide circles to gain height was flying a half-mile to starboard some- what in advance of the war-ship and rapidly distancing her. 58. It is high time that authors should take heed what company they keep.'the trouble is they all want to be in societyj over- whelmed with invitations from the publishers^well known and talked about at the clubs named every day in the newspapers photographed for the news-staUsjand it is so hard to distin- guish between fashion and form,costume and substance con- vention and truth the things that show well and the things that last wellKO hard to draw away from the writers that are new and talked about and to note those who are old and walk apart to distinguish the tones which are merely loud from the tones that are genuine to get far enough away from the press and the hubbub to see and judge the movements of the crowd. , 59. Alas lady "he replied in a tone no longer wild but sad as a funeral bell' we must meet shortly when ybur face may wear another aspect. 60^* Away answered Hutchinson fiercel;^'though yonder senseless picture cried' Forbearjit should not'move me. REFERENCES Brewster, W. T. English Composition and Style, pp. 479-84. Hanson, C. L. English Composition, pp. 36-54. Hebrick and Damon. New Composition and Rhetoric for Schools, pp. 168-99. Hill, A. S. Beginnings of Rhetoric and Composition, pp. 23-34. Hitchcock, A. M. Enlarged Practice-Book of English Composition, pp. 260-82. Linn, J. W. The Essentials of English Composition, pp. 102-08. LocKwooD, S. E. H. Lessons in English, pp. 222-56. Newcomer and Seward. Rhetoric in Practice, pp. 165-81. Shaw, E. R. English Composition by Practice, pp. 1-28. 30 ESTABLISHED USAGES Stebbins, C. M. a Progressive Course in English, pp. 382-90. Thomas and Howe. Composition and Rhetoric, pp. 424-54. Waddt, Virginia. Elements of Composition and Rhetoric, pp. 375- 410. Williams, William. Composition and Rhetoric by Practice, pp. 20-37. WooLLBY, E. C. Mechanics of Writing, pp. 93-205. 2. CAPITALS 1. The first word of a complete sentence should begin with a capital. Tliis rule applies to quoted sentences as well as to those not quoted. (a) The time for action has now come. (6) He shouted, "The time for action has now come." Caution 1: A fragmentary quotation introduced into an original sentence does not need the initial capital. She made it clear that she hoped I would "do mamma jus- tice." K'ENB.Y James: Greville Fane. Caution 2 : A clause following a semicolon should not be capitalized. It 's not a personal feeling on my part; my advice is that of a disinterested friend. 2. The first word of every line of poetry should begin with a capital. Tiger, Tiger, burning bright In the forests of the night, What immortal hand or eye Could frame thy fearful symmetry? William Blake: The Tiger. 3. A proper noun should begin with a capital. Under this rule are included : — (a) Names, titles, and epithets of persons. The hitherto obscure Simpkins was loudly pro- claimed the Man of the Hour. (6) Names of particular places. I spent the day in White Sulphur Springs. CAPITALS 31 (c) Names of the months and of the days of the week. During November she will be at home on Tuesday and Friday afternoons. (d) Names of specific holidays and festivals. 1. He gave addresses on Memorial Day and the Fourth of July. 2. They attended church services on Ash Wednes- day and Good Friday. (e) Names of races and tribes. His comrades were Slavonian hunters and Russian adventurers, Mongols and Tartars and Siberian aborigines. Jack London: Lost Face. (/) Names vised to personify abstract ideas and qualities. I am an apostle of Nature. 4. Most adjectives derived from proper noims should be capitalized. The progress of French art; the observance of the Jewish Sabbath; the flavor of Turkish coffee; the strength of the Doric column. Note: A few adjectives derived from proper nouns begin with the small letter; in such cases the origin is ignored or for- gotten. (a) We have macadamized roads. (6) They thought his ideas quixotic, and his great schemes merely Utopian. 5. The name of a political, religious, or social organiza- tion should begin with a capital; in general, each important word included in such a name should be capitalized. an appeal to the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children; a member of the Church of England; the vic- tory of the Democratic party; a meeting of the Associa- tion of Collegiate Alumni. 32 ESTABLISHED USAGES 6. The names of specific governing bodies and the titles of government officials of high rank should be capitalized. the members of the Reichstag; the powers of Congress; a consultation with the Secretary of the Interior. Conversely, the names of officers of inferior rank are not usuaUy capitafized. He called upon the constable of the village. 7. The names of historical events and periods of great general significance should be capitafized. Usage must decide the application of this rule. the state of learnmg in the Middle Ages; the Charge of the Light Brigade; the Wars of the Roses; the immediate results of the Norman Conquest. 8. Names, titles, and pronouns applied to the Deity aaould usually be capitalized. the story of the Carpenter's Son; an aU-wise Providence; the ancient conception of Jehovah; the protection of Heaven. 9. Names for the Bible and other sacred books should be capitalized. the teaching of Holy Writ; the language of the Vedas; translations of the Avestas and the Upanishads. 10. The important words of titles in literature and art should be capitalized. There is no absolute rule for deciding which are the most important words in titles, but it is safe to capitalize aU nouns, and such verbs, adjectives, and adverbs as appear especially significant. An Enemy to the People; The Girl of the Golden West; The Man Who Would be King; Far from the Madding Crowd. 11. The pronoun I and the vocative interjection are written as capitals. I mean to have a moral garden . . . one that shall teach, O my brothers! my sisters! the great lessons of life. C. D. Waeneb: My Summer in a Garden, ITALICS 33 12. Cautions: (o) The names of the seasons — spring, summer, etc. — should not be capitalized unless they are dis- tinctly personified. Last spring I went to visit my aunt in California. (b) The names of the points of the compass — north, south, etc. — should not be capitalized unless they are used to indicate sections of territory. the political tendencies of the South; two miles north of the boundary line; a trip through the Mid- dle West; a wind from the east; our commercial relations with the Far East. (c) The words school, church, street, and river should not be capitalized unless they form parts of proper names. the high schools in Illinois; the academic standards of the Jefferson High School; a well-kept street; a tenement house in Rivington Street; the depth of the river; a stream called Crystal River. (d) No word should be capitalized without good reason. a contest between the juniors and the seniors; the benefits of studying geography, botany, and Ger- man. 3. ITALICS In manuscript, italic type is represented by a horizontal line drawn imder the letter or the word to be distinguished. I. Words from a foreign language, if they have not been anglicized, should be printed in italics. (a) He was playing the part of a deus ex machina. (6) The piece was a clumsy rechauffS. If one is in doubt whether a word has been adopted into English, one is safe in italicizing. 34 ESTABLISHED USAGES 2. The names of ships and boats should be italicized. (a) They sailed on the Lusitania. (6) I named my canoe the Water Sprite. 3. Titles of literary and artistic productions, when in- cluded in the body of a discourse, should be italicized. Quotation marks are sometimes used to set off titles, but italics appear to be gaining in favor. (a) I have been reading The Glory of Clementina. (6) She sang The Last Rose of Summer. (c) Wharton knew that the editor of the Farmer's Friend would be glad to print the article. Note: (a) When a title begins with an article — a, an, or the — the article should be italicized with the rest of the title. They bought Celia Thaxter's An Island Garden. (b) The word the preceding the name of a newspaper or any other periodical should not be italicized. He was reading the Saturday Evening Post. 4. A word which is the subject of discussion in any given context, or to which attention is to be called because of its interest as an unusual or newly coined word, should be italicized. Quotation marks may also be used for this purpose; see page 20. (a) The word swell as an adjective should be avoided. (6) Complected is a corruption of complexioned. (c) Between brealcfast and luncheon we have a meal that we call brunch. 5. Scientific (usually Latin) names of genera and species are, in general, to be italicized. We found that the Amelanchier canadensis grew plentifully on the banks of the lake. 6. A word or a phrase needing particular emphasis may be italicized. ABBREVIATIONS 35 Great caution should be observed in the application of this rule. One shoxild never italicize a word without good reason. (a) The pubUc mind! — as if the public had a mind, or any principle of perception more discoverable than the stare of huddled sheep! Henht James: Sir Dominick Ferrand. (6) But what induced the dear lady to take him is the ques- tion we're all of us asking. George Meeedith: Diana of the Crossways. 4. ABBREVIATIONS X. An abbreviation of a word is followed by a period. It should be noted that a contraction — the leaving out of a letter or letters in the interior of the word — is not followed by a period. The omission is indicated by an apostrophe. 2. Abbreviations should not be used in literary dis- course. Bad: I had not walked more than a few yds. from the spot before I met Capt. Seymour and an army M.D. Better: I had not walked more than a few yards from the spot before I met Captain Seymour and an army doctor. Exceptions: A few abbreviations are commonly permitted in any literary discourse. Those most frequently used are: — Mr.; Mrs.; Dr. (prefixed to a name); i.e.; e.g.; viz.; A.D.; B.C.; M. (Monsieur); A.M.; P.M. 3. Etc. is meaningless and inharmonious in literary dis-. course; it should be used only in legal documents and busi- ness forms. Bad: The air was heavy with the perfume of roses, violets, carnations, etc. Better: The air was heavy with the perfume of roses, violets, carnations, and other hothouse flowers. 4. In addressing letters, one should ordinarily write out the titles prefixed to a name; titles and degrees following a name may be abbreviated. 36 ESTABLISHED USAGES Mr. and Mrs. are always abbreviated, as noted above. Messrs., Dr., and Hon. are permitted when prefixed to names. The following addresses are bad: — Rev. Albert Hutchinson; Col. Faversham; Att'y L. R. Bernard; Pres. Jas. M. Field. When properly altered, these addresses become : — The Reverend Albert Hutchinson; Colonel Faversham; Mr. L. R. Bernard, Attorney at Law; President James M. Field. Caution: The title Miss should not be written with a period. 5. When in doubt as to whether to abbreviate, write out words and expressions in full. A LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS IN COMMON USE A.B. (Artium Baccalaureus) , Bache- lor of Arts. A.D. (Anno Domini), In the year of our Lord. Ad lib. {Ad libitum). At pleasure. M., Mt. (JEtatis), Of [a certain] age. A.M. (Artium Magister), Master of Arts. A.M. (Ante Meridiem), Before noon. Anon., Anonymous, without a name. A.R.A., Associate of the Royal Academy. A S, A-S, A.-S., A.S., Anglo-Saxon. Bart., Baronet. B.L., Bachelor of Laws. B.Mus., Bachelor of Music. B.S. (Baccalaureus ^cieniicE) , Bach- elor of Science. Caps., Capitals. Cf. (Confer), Compare. C.O.D., Cash on delivery. Cp., compare. d. (denarius, or denarii), Penny or pence. D.D. (Dimnitatis Doctor), Doctor of Divinity. D.D.S., Doctor of Dental Surgery. D.Lit., Doctor of Literature. Do., Ditto, the same. Ed., Editor or edition. e.g. (exempli gratia). For example. Esq., Esquire. et al. (et alii). And others. etc. (et cwtera). And so forth. et seq. (et seguentes). And follow- ing. F.R.S., Fellow of the Royal Society. G.A.R., Grand Army of the Repub- lic. H.R.H., His [or her] Royal High- ness. lb., ib.. Ibid., ibid. (Ibidem), In the same place. Id., id. (Idem), The same. I.e., i.e. (Id est). That is. Inst. (Instant) , This month. J.D. (Jurum Doctor), Doctor of Laws. Lit.D., Litt.D., Doctor of Litera- ture. LL.D. (Legum Doctor), Doctor of Laws. M. (Mills), Thousand. M., Monsieur. M., Meridian or noon. ** M.A. [see A.M.], Master of Arts. THE REPRESENTATION OF NUMBER 37 M.D. {MediciruB Doctor), Doctor of Medicine. Mdlle., Mile., Mademoiselle. Messrs., MM., Messieurs, gentle- men. Mmes., Mesdames, ladies. MS., Mamiscript. MSS., Manu- scripts. Per cent, {per centum) , By the hun- dred. Ph.B. (PhilosopMcB Baccalaureua) , Bachelor of Philosophy. Ph.D. (Philosophice Doctor), Doctor of Philosophy. P.M. (Post Meridiem), After noon. P.M., Postmaster. P.P.C, p.p.c. (Pour prendre congS) , To say good-bye. Pro tem. (Pro tempore). For the time being. Prox. (Proximo) , Next month. Q.v. (Quod vide). Which see. R.S.V.P. (Repondez, s'il vous plait). Answer if you please. Sc. (Silicet) , To wit, namely. Sc.B., Bachelor of Science. S.J., Society of Jesus. S.P.C.C, Society for the Preven- tion of Cruelty to Children. Ult. ( Ultimo) , Last month. Vid., vide, See. Via: or viz. (Videlicet), Namely. S. THE REPRESENTATION OF NUMBER 1. In literary discourse, as well as in commercial and technical writing, it is customary to use figures for dates, and for the street numbers in addresses. (o) On July 12, 1896, he was hving at Number 249 Fairview Avenue. ^ (6) They stayed in Belgium from October 18, 1904, to January 27, 1905. (c) She lives at 142 Everett Street. Note: (a) It is permissible to speU out the day of the month; thus, one may write May 4, or May fourth, or the fourth of May. (b) When streets are designated by numbers instead of names, it is ia good form to write out the numbers below one hundred; thus, Forty-second Street; Ninety-third Street; 248th Street. 2. The paging of books, and the designation of files, records, and other formal arrangements of data are usually indicated by figures. (a) It is on page 562 of this volume. (6) I have read chapter 28 and found no errors in it. (c) He looked in File 742. (d) That book was on shelf 44 in the reading-room. 38 ESTABLISHED USAGES 3. A series of statistical data should be represented by figures. 4. In ordinary prose discourse, numbers should be writ- ten out if they can be expressed in a few words; they should be represented by figures if they require three words or more. (a) There are seventeen students in the room. (6) He fell heir to thirty thousand dollars. (c) One million square miles of territory were ceded. (d) Our University has 4246 students. (e) The exact number of persons present was 3288. (/) The region flooded comprised 1,241,000 square miles. Note : Some discrimination must be exercised ia the appli- cation of this rule; the student should make a study of the best usage. 5. In ordinary prose discourse, sums of money under a dollar are written out in words. Sums over a dollar may be written out if they can be represented in a few words ; other- wise they may be given in figures. (See Rule 4.) (a) He paid me only sixty cents. (6) I gave him fifty-two dollars. (c) The company owed eighteen hundred dollars. (d) He said that $618.35 was the entire cost of the garage. (e) I found that $15,242.72 was the amount expended during the year. Note : When a number has been spelled out, it should not be repeated in parentheses except in very formal legal and commercial papers. 6. The time of day should be written out in words. (a) You had better go at twenty minutes of five. (6) Dinner will be served at half after [or half past] eight, (c) The beU rings at a quarter of one. Note: In discourse not of a strictly literary nature, the expressions 9.30, 5.15, 6.00 are permitted; they are usually SYLLABIFICATION 39 followed by the abbreviation a.m. or p.m. In general, it is in better form to use words for representing time. 7. Ages should be written out in words. (a) She is four years old to-day. (6) His age was sixty-five years and three months, (c) He was a month less than ninety years old. 8. Figures should not be used at the beginning of a sentence. If the number to be expressed cannot be written out in words, the sentence must be reconstructed so that the figures do not come at the beginning. Bad: 4568 pairs of shoes were sold. Better: They sold 4568 pairs of shoes. 6. SYLLABIFICATION 1. A word that comes at the end of a line on either a written or a printed page should not be broken and car- ried over to the next line unless such division is imperative. Some care should be taken with spacing so that hyphenat- ing does not become frequent enough to impair the unity of the page. 2. A monosyllable should never be broken, even though it be very long. 3. Proper nouns, especially the names of persons, should ordinarily not be divided. 4. Hyphenated words should be divided only at the hyphen. 5. A word that is to be broken at the end of a line should be divided only between syllables. There are very few hard-and-fast rules for grouping letters into syllables; but with a little study one can acquire the habit of judging fairly accurately as to where a word should be divided. The following suggestions for syllabification may be noted: — 40 ESTABLISHED USAGES (a) Prefixes and suffixes are usually considered as separate syllables. dis-mount; be-lie; sing-ing; brown-ish. (6) Double consonants are usually divided. This rule takes precedence of that just given. slip-ping; col-lar; af-fable; permis-sion; corol-lary. (c) Two consonants separately pronounced belong in separate syllables. pic-ture; chil-dren; hun-dred; pam-phlet; ear-nest. (d) When a short vowel is followed by a single con- sonant or a digraph, as -ph, the consonant is in- cluded in the syllable with the vowel; but when the sound of the consonant would be misrepre- sented by inclusion in the earlier syllable, the consonant goes into the next syllable, diph-thong; sep-arate; ne-cessary; ma-gic; lo-gic, pre-judice. (e) Long vowels and unaccented short ones usually close a syllable without the consonants that follow, pa-triot; me-dium; igno-rant; exami-nation; pe-cuUar. 7. RULES FOR PLURALS Z. Most nouns add s or es to form the plural. The use of s or es depends upon the sound at the conclusion of the word; es is added if the word ends in the sound of sh, x, 3, s, z, or ch as in church. cups; papers; maps; rings; foxes; brushes; hisses; buzzes. 2. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change the y to i and add es to form the plural. ' lady, ladies; mercy, mercies; fancy, fancies. 3. Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel add s to form the plural. key, keys; valley, vallej'-s; attorney, attorneys. RULES FOR PLURALS 41 4. Some nouns ending in/ or/e change the/ or/e to v and add es to form the plural. thief, thieves; half, halves; shelf, shelves; knife, knives. 5. A small number of nouns ending in add es to form the plural. There is no way of knowing these nouns except through sheer effort of memory. Below are the most common: — Buffalo; cahco; cargo; domino (a counter in a game) ; echo; flamingo; hero; manifesto; mosquito; motto: mulatto; negro; potato; tomato; tornado; volcano. 6. Some nouns have plurals ending in en. Such nouns have preserved their Early English speULag. Below are the most common: — ox, oxen; child, children; brother, brethren. 7. A few noims form the plural by internal change. Such nouns retain their Early EngUsh forms. man, men; foot, feet; goose, geese; tooth, teeth; mouse, mice; woman, women. 8. Some nouns adopted from foreign languages retain their original plurals. Some of these nouns have acquired regular (English) plural forms; but usage only can decide which plural is the bet- ter. Below is a list of Latin, Greek, and French nouns which retaia their foreign plurals: — alumna alumnae ellipsis elhpses alumnus alumni erratum errata amanuensis amanuenses genus genera analysis analyses hypothesis hypotheses antithesis antitheses larva larvae apex apices medium media appendix appendices memorandum memoranda automaton automata miasma miasmata axis axes nebula nebulae basis bases phenomenon phenomena beau beaux radius radii crisis crises stratum strata criterion criteria tableau tableaux datum data thesis theses dictum dicta vertex vertices effluvium effluvia vortex vortices 42 ESTABLISHED USAGES Note: Since the English words Mr. and Mrs. have no plurals, the French plurals have been borrowed; they are usually written in the abbreviated form, Messrs. (Messieurs) and Mmes. (Mesdames). 9. Some nouns that are plural in form are used in the singular. means; news; amends; odds; tidings; wages; summons; gallows. Note: Several of these words are sometimes used in the plural; as, means, wages, and odds. 10. Some noims naming articles found in pairs or con- sisting of several parts are used only in the plural. scissors; victuals; scales; measles; shears; pincers; tongs; breeches; tweezers; trousers; nuptials; entrails; dregs; matins. 11. Compound nouns usually form the plural by adding a or es to the principal word. courts-martial; sons-in-law; passers-by. Note: (a) When the parts are closely joined, it is custom- ary to add the sign of the plural at the end of the compound word; thus: four-per-cents; bystanders, (b) A few compound words form the plural by adding the sign of the plural to each important part; thus: knights-templars; men-servants. 12. Some nouns have the same forms in both the singular and the plural. deer; fish; trout; mink; otter; grouse; quail; sheep. 13. A noun modified by a numeral sometimes omits the sign of the plural. five yoke of oxen; ten dozen eggs; fourteen pair of gloves; eighteen head of cattle; a two-foot rule. 14. "A few nouns derived from the Greek, ending in ics, are ordinarily used in the singular. politics; ethics; physics; mathematics; optics ; statics; eco- nomics. POSSESSIVES 43 Note: Some of these nouns are occasionally used in the plural by good writers. 15. Proper nouns usually form their plurals in the regular manner. Thus a proper noun forms its plural by adding s, if the plural is not pronounced with an extra syllable; a proper noun ending in a consonant forms its plural by adding es, if the plural is pronounced with an extra syl- lable. the three Marys; in the time of the Henrys; the Lelys; the Joneses; the five little Robertses; the Howellses; the Charleses; the Burnses. 16. The plural of letters, figures, symbols, and words considered as words is formed by adding an apostrophe and s to the singular. (a) There should be two I's in that word. (b) When 6's are inverted, they look like 9's. (c) One of those that's might be omitted. Caution: The plural of ordinary nouns should never be formed by the addition of an apostrophe and s to the singular. Bad: I saw two bear's climbing a tree. Correct: I saw two bears chmbing a tree. Bad: The Morse's are going to California. Correct: The Morses are going to California. 8. POSSESSIVES 1. To form the possessive of a singular noun add 's, boy, boy's; John, John's. 2. To form the possessive of a plural noun, add only the apostrophe. boys, boys'; horses, horses'. Note: If the plural ends in the letter n, 's must be added, men, men's; women, women's; children, children's. 3. If the singular ends in s or x, since the possessive s is, 44 ESTABLISHED USAGES for the sake of euphony, generally not pronounced, the apostrophe may alone be used to indicate possession. Moses' rod; Jones' business. 4. In the case of inanimate things and with the names of cities and countries the preposition 0/ should be used instead of the apostrophe. the cover of the book; the population of New York. 5. Possessive pronoims do not take the apostrophe, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs. 6. If two words are in apposition, the sign of the posses- sive is usually added to the latter. Richard Coeur de Lion's armji ; Smith the hatter's store. 7. In compound nouns the sign of the possessive is usually added to the last word. brother-in-law's house; attorney-general's death. 8. A noun or pronoun modifying a verbal noun or gerund must be in the possessive case. (o) I cannot imagine his refusing. (6) I object to my daughter's marrying him. Note : Compound expressions omit the sign of the posses- sive.' There is no possibility of the question of his eUgibUity being decided before the game begins. 9. In the phrases anybody else, somebody else, every one else, nobody else, and no one else, the form of the possessive to be preferred is else's. I found that I had taken some one else's umbrella. 10. The distinction should be noted between a painting oj my father and a painting of my father's. 11. Care should be taken to avoid the ambiguity some- times arising from a use of the possessive which may be understood in either the subjective or the objective sense. RULES FOR SPELUNG 45 In the sentence The love of children is a feeling of high moral value, the subject may imply either the love which children feel or the love which others have for children. The former is an example of the subjective possessive, and the latter an instance of the objective use of the possessive. 9. RULES FOR SPELLING 1. In adding a suffix beginning with a vowel, monosylla- bles and words accented on the last syllable double the final consonant if it is preceded by a vowel. plan, planning; infer, inferred; regret, regretting; excel, excelling; repel, repellant; expel, expelled. Note : There are a few exceptions to this rule, as there are to most rules for spelling. 2. A word ending in a double consonant usually keeps both consonants when a suffix of one or more syllables is added. stiff, stiffness; shriU, shrilling; distress, distressing. Exceptions: almost; although; altogether; albeit. Caution: All right does not belong in the group given above; it is composed of two separate words, and should never be spelled as one word. 3. Final e is usually retained before a suffix beginning with a consonant. fade, fadeless; amaze, amazement; enhance, enhancement; fine, finely; sincere, sincerely. Exceptions: awful; duly; truly; wholly; nursling; acknowl- edgment (alsO' spelled acknowledgement;) abridgment (also spelled abridgement); judgment (also spelled judgement). In England the last three words are usually spelled with the e before the sufBx. 4. Final e, when silent, is usually omitted before a suf- fix beginning with a vowel. grieve, grievance; make, making; please, pleasure. 46 ESTABLISHED USAGES Exceptions : Words ending in ce or ge retain the e in order to lieep c and g soft before suffixes beginning with a and o. service, serviceable; change, changeable; manage, manage- able; outrage, outrageous. 5. Final y preceded by a vowel is retained when a sufl&x is added. monkey, monkeys; joy, joyful; enjoy, enjoying. 6. Final y preceded by a consonant is usually changed to i when a suffix is added, except when the sufiix is ing. ' icy, iciest; cozy, coziest, cozily; tidy, tidiness, tidjdng; dry, drying. 7. A small group of words in which the digraphs ei and ie occur may be tested by the word Alice. Thus i comes after I, as in relieve; e comes after c, as in deceive. , believe; conceive; receive. Note: The foUowiiig words do not come under the rule: — ancient; conscientious; counterfeit; height; heinous; seize; mischievous; siege; weird. REFERENCES Bell, R. H. Changing Values of English Speech, pp. 217-53. Hitchcock, A. M. Enlarged Practice-Book in English Composition, pp. 128-49. Jordan, M. A. Correct Writing and Speaking, pp. 193-206. Matthews, Brandeb. Parts of Speech, pp. 295-340. Newcomer and Seward. Rhetoric in Practice, pp. 183-88. WooLLEY, E. C. Mechanics of Writing, pp. 25-75. WORDS COMMONLY MISSPELLED anaesthetic angel (cf. angle) antithesis arctic athletic augur (cf . auger) abscess acquiescence accept (cf. except) adviser accidentally affect (cf. efiect) accommodate alley ascetic aUy acoustics altogether RULES FOR SPELLING 47 balance ecstasy liquefy Baptist eighth hzard boundary embarrass loose (cf. lose) burglar emigrate lovable business ensconce maintenance •^ calcimine erysipelas mathematics calendar (cf. calen- especially mineralogy der) excel mischievous casualty exhilarate monastery cavalry (cf. calvary) extol necessary cede feasible Niagara cemetery (cf. semi- February nineteenth nary) fiancS (cf . finance) oblige changeable fiery occasion chute (cf. shoot) fortieth occasionally complement forty (cf. four) odor compliment fricassee opposite confectionery frieze (cf. freeze) original conscience fuchsia outrageous conscious genealogy paraflnne corroborate gnarl parallel costume (cf . custom) Grecian parliament criticize grievous participle cupola guerrilla (cf . gorUla) passenger currant (cf. current) Hallow-e'en pavilion decease (cf. disease) harass percolator deceive height perhaps definite humorous perspiration deliriuTTi immediate possession description impassable potato desiccate impromptu prairie despair indispensable precede (cf . proceed) despondent infinite prejudice dessert (cf . desert) irrelevant preparation dining laboratory prescription disagreeable larynx principal (cf . princi- disappear later (cf . latter) ple) disappoint license privilege discomfit lily procedure (cf . pro- dispel lineament (cf. lini ceed) divisor ment) professor ESTABLISHED USAGES prophecy (cf . pro- siege (cf. seize) too phesy) similar tragedy prosecute (cf. perse- simulate triple cute) sleight trousers pursue sophomore truly quiet (cf . quite) Spanish Tuesday rarefy stationery (cf . sta- tyranny rarity tionary) vegetable receive statue (cf. stature) vermilion recommend stratagem (cf . strat- victuals (cf. vitals) relieve egy) villain repetition studying wafer resurrection succession waive (cf. wave) rhythm suffrage whether (cf . weather) ridiculous supersede weird sacrilegious (cf . re- surprise welcome hgious) suspicion welfare secede temperament Welsh seize temperature woman separate thorough writing shining tiU n GRAMMATICAL REQUIREMENTS I. SYNTAX Case 1. The subject of a verb is in the nominative case. Ordinarily, this rule presents no difficulties; occasionally, some care must be taken to apply it in the use of pronouns. Correct : (a) You know that as well as I. [J is the subject of the verb know, understood.] (6) The lawyer has a larger income than he [has]. (c) My brother, who [not whom] I supposed had perpe- trated the joke, denied aU knowledge of it. [Who is the subject of had perpetrated.] 2. The complement of an intransitive verb is in the nominative case. Great care must be taken in applying this rule to the forms of the verb be. Correct: (a) It was he who asked for it. (6) The victims were they who least suspected treason. (c) I did not think it could be sh^. (d) It is I. 3. The object of a verb or a preposition is in the objec- tive case. One sometimes forgets to apply this rule when the object precedes or is widely separated from the verb or preposition. Correct: (a) I could not guess whom he had given it to. 60 GRAMMATICAL REQUIREMENTS (b) Whom do you think I met on the street the other day? (c) He gave tickets to the man who had just arrived, and to me. (d) I met her sister and her uncle, — him of the immense fortime and the bad manners. [Him is in apposition with uncle, which is in the objective case.] 4. A noun or pronoun modifying another noun or pro- noun meaning the same thing is in the same case as the word it modifies. Such a substantive is said to be in apposition with the substantive that it explains. Correct: (a) The next person to arrive was the prince, — heoi the golden wand. [He is in apposition with prince, a noun in the nominative case; hence the nominative form of the pronoun.] (&) The woman who brought the message — she who had endured so many hardships — received a suitable reward. 5. A noim or pronoun modifying another noun or pro- noun signifying a different thing is in the possessive case. Correct: (a) She gave me one of her books. (6) I had not heard of the hunter's departure. (c) I had not heard of the hunter's leaving the camp. (d) I was annoyed at his arrival. (e) I was annoyed at his arriving so early. In the sentence just given, arriving is a verb-form with a noun-meaning and a noun-use. The pronoim modifying it should have the possessive case. See Possessives, pages 43-45. 6. The subject of the infinitive is in the objective case. Correct: (a) The farmer, whom I considered to be comfortably situated, began to grumble. [Whom is the subject of SYNTAX 51 the infinitive to be. Note the difference between this sentence and the third under i, page 49.] (6) He did not believe me to be the rightful heir. (c) I did not want her to see me. 7- A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, gender, and number, but not in case. Correct: (a) I, who am the last of my line, tell you this. [Who, agreeing with I, is in the first person; it demands the verb am.] (6) He will give the message to you, who are the legal representative of the family. (c) Every one gave his name and address. (d) Many a soldier forgot himself in the struggle. (e) The box was lying on its side. Adjectives and adverbs 1. An adjective modifies a noun or its equivalent. Correct: (a) Courageous men do not flinch in danger. (6) Empty casks were lying on the floor, (c) He gave me some apples. 2. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Careless persons sometimes use adjectives for adverbs. Incorrect: You did your work just splendid. Correct: You did your work very well. [Splendidly is not an appropriate adverb here.] Incorrect: I think he is some better. Correct: I think he is somewhat better. See some, page 182. Agreement of subject and predicate I. A verb must agree with its subject in person and number. A singularnoim demands a singular verb-form; a plural or compound subject demands a plural verb. 52 GRAMMATICAL REQUIREMENTS Correct: (a) The commander of the troops was an Englishman. (6) A woman and a child were in the room. 2. Care should be taken that the modifying elements placed between subject and predicate do not obscure the necessity for agreement. Incorrect: The purpose of these remarkably delicate instru- ments were not clearly understood. Correct: The purpose of these remarkably deHcate instru- ments was not clearly understood. 3. Two or more singular subjects connected by or or nor require a singular verb. Correct: (a) Either a criminal or a madman has done this deed. (6) Neither Keats nor Shelley uses the word. 4. The compound conjunction as well as requires a sin- gular verb, because it permits the mind to consider each noun separately. Correct: The hero, as well as his son, was condemned to death. 5. A singular subject modified by a phrase in which with is the introductory preposition demands a singular verb. Correct: The President, with his secretary, is on the train. 6. When two or more nouns used as subjects of the same verb seem to be identical in meaning, they may take a singular verb. Correct: Poverty and need now compels me to part with this treasure. In such a case it is usually wise to omit one of the redundant expressions; nevertheless, there are situations, especially in poetry, in which the double nouns are emphatic and effective. SYNTAX 53 7. The expressions each, every, one, every one, everybody, a person, no one, and nobody take verbs in the singular. Correct: (a) Each member contributes what he can. (b) Nobody sees any difference in her behavior. (c) A person never knows what to expect when he goes there. 8. Collective nouns take singular or plural predicates, according to the meaning intended. Correct: (a) The crowd is densely packed in the pubUc square. (6) The crowd are not all of the same mind. EXERCISE Correct the syntax in the following sentences: — 1. The sudden appearance of thousands of soldiers marching on the plains below were striking in the extreme. 2. Here is wealth and beauty, and all that one's heart could wish. 3. Science, as well as philosophy and religion, agree with this theory. 4. A course in ancient history, with a few lectures on Greek art, were offered this year. 5. Neither of them show any signs of weakening. 6. In both these cases there is avarice and cruelty displayed. 7. One class of writers have favored this method. 8. Sneers and insults was all our reward. 9. Each of the miners were jubilant at the prospect. 10. He is one of the fastest runners that has ever run on this track. 11. Between you and I, the fault is Herbert's. 12. Let he who hears profit by my words. 13. Who are you looking for? 14. Who should you like to have win? 15. Whom do you think won the race? 16. The congregation was free to express their opinion. 17. He wrote her letters, sentimental and otherwise. 54 GRAMMATICAL REQUIREMENTS 18. She loolcs charmingly to-night. 19. I think you should have repeated it very slow. 20. It can be done as easy as rolling off a log. 21. This matter affects both my brother and I. 22. It was her you saw at the window. 23. Him that you would have murdered has fled. 24. Who shall I let take control in my absence? 25. He selected the guide whom he thought was the most capable. 26. I have never seen so agreeable a woman as her. 27. What distinguished Frederick and Walter were their man- ners. 28. "Gulliver's Travels" are most amusing. 29. The affair went on without me being aware of it. 30. I don't think we ought to mention him being here. 31. I never believed it was him. 32. The music sounded sweetly. 33. He was one of those men who always get angry if any one disagrees with him. 34. She is one of those women who is determined to take the worst of everything. 35. It was her to whom you gave it. REFERENCES Abbott, E. A. How to Write Clearly. Bell, R. H. The Changing Values of English Speech, pp. 97-107. Brewster, W. T. English Composition and Style, pp. 486-93. Cody, Sherwin. Art of Writing and Speaking the English Language : Grammar and Punctuation. Genung, J. F. The Working Principles of Rhetoric, pp. 221-310. Hanson, C. L. English Composition, pp. 87-130. Hill, A. S. Beginnings of Composition and Rhetoric, pp. 44r-340. Hinsdale, B. A. Teaching the Language- Arts, pp. 147-70. Hitchcock, A. M. Enlarged Practice Book in English Composition, pp. 150-211. Jordan, M. A. Correct Writing and Speaking, pp. 207-20. Kimball, L. G. Structure of the English Sentence. Krapp, G. p. Modem English, pp. 286-324. Nesfield, J. C. Errors in English Composition. NiCHOL, John. English Composition, pp. 18-33. Sheffield, A. D. Grammar and Thinking. Stebbins, C. M. a Progressive Course in English, pp. 175-218. Strang, H. I. Exercises in English, pp. 1-67. SEQUENCE OF TENSES 55 Thomas and Howe. Composition and Rhetoric, pp. 455-504. Welsh, A. H. English Composition. WooLLBT, E. C. Handbook of Composition, pp. 1-125. 2. SEQUENCE OF TENSES In all written discourse, an appropriate relation of tense- forms should be preserved. It is impossible to give rules that will apply to every situation in which compHcations oi censes are involved. A writer must learn to take great car& with his verbs, so that the time relations expressed may be exactly what he intends. A few rules for the use of tense- forms are given below. 1. In dependent clauses and infinitives, the tense is to be considered in relation to the time expressed in the prin- cipal clause. Inaccurate: I intended to have gone. In this sentence the principal verb intended is in the past tense; the speaker, then, at the (past) time indicated, expected something. What? Did he intend to have gone, or did he intend to go? Clearly, his iatention was not to have gone, but to go. Th« tense in the infinitive should be governed by the idea conveyed in I intended. Accurate: I intended to go. Incorrect: We should have been glad to have given up our plans. Correct: We should have been glad to give up oiu' plans. Incorrect: I wanted to have asked you a question when I saw you yesterday. Correct: I wanted to ask you a question when I saw you yesterday. Incorrect: I did not suppose that you would have done it. Correct: I did not suppose that you would do it. 2. When a piece of narration in the past tense is inter- rupted for reference to a preceding occmrrence, the past- perfect should be used. 56 GRAMMATICAL REQUIREMENTS Vague: Armed in such a combat sat Hawkins, the chief clerk, a grim man, dark, pallid, sinister. Of what, out in the world of life, Hawkins was chief clerk, it does not matter now. He was a busy man, firm, taciturn, self- contained. He sat now at his post in the battle, sneering at the folly of those who were trying to wrest a few mortal moments from eternity. Clear: Armed in such a combat sat Hawkins, the chief clerk, a grim man, dark, pallid, sinister. Of what, out in the world of life, Hawkins had been chief clerk, it does not matter now. He had been a busy man, firm, taci- turn, self-contained. He sat now at his pQst in the battle, sneering at the folly of those about him who were trying to wrest a few mortal moments from eternity. William Allen White: The Story of a Grave. 3. Universal truths, or general propositions into which time relations do not enter, should usually be expressed in the present tense. Correct: (a) She said that Eskimos live in snow houses. (6) A good name is rather to be chosen than great riches, and loving favor rather than silver and gold. Note: Exceptions occur in the application of this rule: — (o) When the author does not agree with the proposi- tion expressed. The orator remarked that we were a most unpatriotic nation. (6) When confusion or irritation may occur by reason of frequent changes in tense. Correct: That day we traveled for several hours beside the Yellowstone River. It was a dirty, sluggish stream that disappointed us greatly, for we had expected it to be clear and majestic. The next day, however, we found ourselves among the mountains, where the rivers, though narrow and shallow, were delightfully transparent, show- ing every variety of color in the rocks beneath. They were animated, too, and full of rapids, as well as sudden foamy falls. SEQUENCE OF TENSES 67 No doubt the Yellowstone River and the mountain streams are still dirty and sluggish, or clear and animated, as the case may be; but, in the passage given, a constant change of tense for past events and present conditions would prove vexing and futile. Hence the past is consistently employed. (See Rule 5 below.) 4. The historical present, or the device of throwing past events into present form for the sake of vividness, is to be used with caution. This device has been so cheapened by mediocre writers, that it is not to be recommended except in rare instances. 5. A mixture of tenses destroys unity. Bad: Sir Hugh now proceeds to fight with the stranger. The sword that the intruder carried was exceedingly long and sharp, with a golden hilt. Sir Hugh, although his own sword is blunted by his previous encounter, boldly approaches the stranger, and prepared for a deadly conflict. Better: Sir Hugh now proceeds to fight with the stranger. The sword that the intruder carries is exceedingly long and sharp, with a golden hilt. Sir Hugh, although his own sword is blunted by his previous encounter, boldly approaches the stranger, and prepares for a deadly conflict. EXERCISE Correct the errors in the following sentences. Give reasons for changes : — 1. He might have succeeded in winning the prize, if he would only consent to abide by the rules. 2. It was almost inevitable that dissensions should have taken place. 3. He thought the message for which he was waiting would never have arrived. 4. The doctor said that fever always produced thirst. 5. The Declaration of Independence was said to be written by Jefferson. 6. There were some bits of news that she would like to have revealed to him. 58 GRAMMATICAL REQUIREMENTS 7. He perceived that the world was ruled by a just Being. 8. If he were not so lazy, he might have achieved distinction. 9. If he should be elected, he will do his best to promote your interests. 10. If misfortune should come, I shall be prepared for it. 11. I should have liked to have climbed the mountain, but the weather was too cold. 12. Miss Young will be happy to accept Mrs. Howard's kind invitation. 13. I was just going out of the house, when down falls a chimney across the street. I thinks to myself, "It must be an earth- quake"; and so it was. 14. I have never explained to them that Russia was a monarchy. 15. If I had have known that I could have gone with them, I should have been glad to have postponed my bridge-party. 16. They did not believe that the earth was round. 3. SHALL AND WILL 1. Some distinction should be made between shall and will. Although the speech of educated people shows a tendency to disregard minute differences in the use of shall and will, written discourse still demands a careful preservation of the simpler distinctions. 2. When simple futurity is expressed, shall is used in the first person and uxill in the second and third persons. "Simple futm-ity" means a prediction of what is likely to occur, — an assertion that a particular event is Ukely to take place; in this sense it includes intention in which no real effort of wiU is implied. I shaU write a letter; we shall write a letter; you will write a letter; he wiU write a letter. 3. When determination, command, threat, or promise is ■expressed, will is used in the first person, and shall in the second and third persons. (a) Will used with 7 or we (the first person singular and plural) expresses determination, usually in the face of opposi- SHALL AND WILL 59 tion; hence it implies an effort of will not manifested in the quiet prediction of shall. "We wiU do it, regardless of your opinion" is a strong expression of determination. (6) Sometimes, however, will used with the first person expresses promise, as in the sentence, "I will be there at two o'clock." The context usually supplies information as to the meaning intended. (c) Shall used with the second or third person implies com- mand, threat, or promise on the part of the speaker; in each case a distinct effort of decision is involved. You shall pay for this; you shall do as I request; he shall pay forthis; she shall go if I tell her to; they shall suffer for this; they shall obey orders. The use of shall and mil is shown below: — lat person 2d person 3d person shall futurity determination command promise determination threat promise will determination promise futurity futurity Futurity Determination, command, threat, or promise Singular Plural Singular Plural I shall you will he will we shall you will they will I will you shall he shall we will you shall they shall 4. In asking questions (a) shall is almost invariably used with the first person; * (6) shall or mil is used with the ' An exception to this rule is the case in which the speaker repeats a question that has been put to him. "Will I vote for you? Most assur- edly.". 60 GRAMMATICAL REQUIREMENTS second and third persons, according to the form expected in the answer. Shall you buy an automobile? If the speaker is requesting a mere prediction, or expression of intention, shall is correct in this situation. Presumably the answer will be "I shall" [or shall not]. Will you buy an automobile? Here the situation is different. The speaker implies in the form of his question that he expects the person with whom he is talking to go through some effort of decision before replying. The answer will be, "I will — I promise to " [or the negative]. Shall I give you some tea? [First person used in asking question.] Shall you be at home to-morrow? [Prediction requested.) Will he be at home to-morrow? [Prediction requested.] Shall he put on the storm windows? [Command requested.] Will you give me a dollar? [Promise or decision requested.] 5. For practical purposes, should and woidd follow the same rules as those followed by shall and ivill. (a) I thought that I should be there by this time. (6) I told him that I positively would not go. (c) If you had come eariier, you would have found me at home. (d) I told them that they should suffer for it. ' Note 1 : Should is used in the subjunctive to express con- tingency, or some conditional situation. (o) If he should come, we could go at once. (6) If they should molest us, we could not defend ourselves, (c) If you should consent to it, you would be doing a gi-eat wrong. Note 2 : Should is used to express obligation, (a) You should write to yoin mother every weeko (6) He should never lose his temper. (c) They should always do as they are tola. VOICE 61 EXERCISE As the situation may demand, insert either shall or vnll into the blank spaces below. 1. I be glad to see you when you come. 2. If you do this for me, I give you a hundred dollars. 3. Do you think that we meet again? 4 I bring you a glass of water? 5 you go to Philadelphia to-morrow, as you planned? 6. The train arrive at one o'clock. 7. Poetry always tend to elevate the drama. 8. I fear that I never recover. 9. He fears that he never recover. 10. I do it, in spite of what you say. 11 you do me a favor? 12. I am sure that they conduct themselves with great discretion. 13. I call on an old friend of mine this afternoon. 14. I meet you at any place you choose. 15. They go, whether they wish to or not. 16 you buy me one of those little red balloons? 17 she believe such a doubtful story? 18 I teU the gardener to spade up the flower-beds? 19 the gardener spade up the flower-beds? 20. You pay dearly for your part in this outrageous affair. 21. I never teU the facts that you have revealed to me. 22. We probably call upon you at some time during the day. 23. They not stay in this house another day. 24. We be pleased to meet your friend. 25. You , in time, become a successful writer. 4. VOICE I . The passive voice should not be used indiscriminately. A very clumsy effect is produced by a strained and illogical use of the passive. Awkward: That easy task was speedily performed by me. Better: I speedUy performed that easy task. 62 GRAMMATICAL REQUIREMENTS In using the passive, one should stop to think whether it is the only suitable form for the idea to be expressed. Other things being equal, the active is likely to be more definite and more forcible than the passive. Bed: Of course this fact was kept away from the family by Amanda. Better: Of course Amanda kept this fact away from the family. Awkwardly inverted: The three letters were found by him when he returned. Direct: He found the three letters when he returned. 2. The passive that leaves unexpressed the agent of an action is particularly to be avoided. Vague: A plan for a school at Haworth was devised. Clear: The Bronte sisters devised a plan for a school at Haworth. Vague: The promise was never thought of again. Char: He never thought of his promise again. EXERCISE Improve the construction in the following sentences: — 1. The days we spent in Paris will never be forgotten. 2. Your letter was received by us, and the matter of which you speak has received our careful attention. 3. A bright red cape was worn by the girl, and a small traveling bag was held in her right hand. 4. The piece of Chinese embroidery hanging upon the wall was I closely examined by the visitor. 5. While I was traveling in the Far East, many peculiar native customs were noted by me in preparation for my book on Oriental superstitions. 6. The little yellow songster had been noticed by the cat, who now began to creep stealthily nearer and nearer to the obhv- ious bird. IRREGULAR VERBS 63 S. IRREGULAR VERBS Below are given for reference the principal parts of irregular verbs in common use: — Present Past Past Participle abide abode abode arise arose arisen awake awoke (awaked) * awoke (awaked) be was been bear bore, bare borne [active], born [passive] beat beat beaten begin began begun bend bent bent bereave bereft bereft beseech besought (beseeched) besought (beseeched) bet bet (betted) bet (betted) bid bade, bid bidden, bid bind bound boimd, bounden bite bit bitten, bit bleed bled bled blow blew blown brea,k broke, brake broken breed bred bred bring brought brought buUd built (builded) built (builded) bum burnt (bxirned) burnt (burned) burst burst burst buy bought could cast bought can cast cast catch caught caught chide chid chidden, chid choose chose chosen cleave clave cleaved cleave clove, cleft (cleaved) cloven, cleft (cleaved) cling clung clung clothe clad (clothed) clad (clothed) come came come cost cost cost • When the regular form is in good use, it is given in parentheses. 64 GRAMMATICAL REQUIREMENTS Present creep crow cut dare deal dig do draw dream dress drink drive dwell eat fall feed feel fight find flee fling fly forbear forbid forget freeze get give go grind grow hang have hear heave hide hit hold hurt keep Past Past Participle crept crept crew (crowed) crowed cut cut durst (dared) dared dealt dealt dug (digged) dug (digged) did done drew drawn dreamt (dreamed) dreamt (dreamed] drest (dressed) drest (dressed) drank drunk, drunken drove driven dwelt (dwelled) dwelt (dwelled) ate eaten fell fallen fed fed felt felt fought fought found found fled fled flung flung flew flown forbore forborne forbade forbidden, forbid forgot forgotten, forgot froze frozen got gotten, got gave given went gone ground ground grew grown hung (hanged) hung (hanged) had had heard heard hove (heaved) hove (heaved) hid hidden, hid hit hit held held hurt hurt kept kept IRREGULAE VERBS 65 Present Past Past Partieipl kneel knelt (kneelftd) knelt (kneeled know knew known lay laid laid lead led led lean leant (leaned) leant (leaned) leap leapt (leaped) leapt (leaped) learn leamt (learned) leamt (learnfir leave left left lend lent ient let let let lie [recline] lay !aia lose lost iost make made made may mean might meant mea.nt meet met met miiR^ UUUol/ ought pay paid paid put put put quit quit (quitted) quoth quit (quitted) read readfrSdJ read rend rent rent rid rid rid ride rode ridden ring rang rung rise rose risen run ran run say said said see saw seen seek sought sought seU sold sold send sent sent set set set shake shook shaken Rhnll should shed shed shed shine shone shone shoe shod shod 66 GRAMMATICAL REQUIREMENTS Present Past Past Participle shoot shot shot show showed shown shrink shrank shrunk shut shut shut sing sang sung sink sank sunk, sunken sit sat sat slay slew slain sleep slept slept slide slid slid, slidden sling slung slung slink slunk slunk slit slit slit smite smote smitten sow sowed sown speak spoke spoken speed sped sped spend spent spent spin spun, span spun spit spat, spit spit split split spUt spread spread spread spring sprang sprung stand stood stood steal stole stolen j stick stuck stuck sting stung stung stink stank, stunk stunk stride strode stridden strike struck struck, stricken string strung strung strive strove striven swear swore sworn sweat sweat (sweated) sweat (sweated) sweep swept swept swell swelled swollen swim. swam swum swing swung swung take took taken teach taught taught SENTENCE STRUCTURE 67 Present Past Past Participle tear tore torn tell told told think thought thought thrive throve (thrived) thriven (thrived) throw threw thrown thrust thrust thrust tread trod trodden, trod wake woke (waked) woke (waked) wear wore worn weave wove woven weep wiU wept would wept win won won wind wound wound work wrought (worked) wrought (worked) wring wrung wrung write wrote written 6. SENTENCE STRUCTURE [Note to Teacher: Exercises to accompany the rules fot sentence structure are given on page 348, Appendix I. They fol' low the order of the rules which begin on this page.] Unity I. Unrelated ideas should not be combined in one sen- tence. The following sentence lacks unity because it is composed of disconnected ideas: — This man Uved in Illinois and his theories of government were peculiar. Such a sentence can be improved only by the simamary process of division. This man lived in Illinois. His theories of government were peculiar. Bad: Milton was one of a large family and was sent to Oxford to study law. Better: Milton was one of a large family. He was sent to Oxford to study law. 68 GRAMMATICAL REQUIREMENTS 2. Related ideas should be combined in such a way that their connection is immediately clear. It sometimes happens that ideas very closely associated appear not to be related, when they are loosely put together. Bad: I did not know the man's name, and I went at once to his employer. Better: Not knowing the name of the man, I went at once to his employer. 3. Long rambling sentences in which no definite thought predominates are especially to be avoided. "Stringy" sentences can be unproved in two ways: (a) By separation into shorter sentences; (6) by reconstruction so that the less important elements are subordinated to the more important. Bad: King Arthur is a very admirable man, and he excels Launcelot in nobiUty of character and in devotion to an ideal, but he lacks human interest, and often we are inclined to prefer the faulty subject to the perfect king. Better: King Arthur is an admirable man, excelling Launce- lot in nobility of character and in devotion to an ideal. Nevertheless, he lacks human interest to such an extent that we axe incUned to prefer the faulty subject to the perfect king. Note: A sentence may be long and yet be unimpeachable in its unity; witness the long but perfectly constructed sentences that appear in the works of Johnson and Macaulay. Shift of Construction Change of general construction (or shift of point of view) vithin the sentence should be avoided. ' Bad: He accosts the intruder, but instead of receiving a comleous reply, the creature gives a horrible grin. Here the subject of the first clause is he, and the construc- tion of the sentence is such that we expect he to be the subject of the clause that follows, instead of receiving. To our surprise, the subject is creature. The construction has been shifted so SENTENCE STRUCTURE 69 that the relations of the various parts of the sentence are grotesquely confused. A consistent structure should be pre- served throughout. Better: He accosts the intruder, but, instead of a courteous reply, he receives from the creature only a horrible grin. Bad: He was not depressed by his physical suffering any more than his poverty gave him concern. In this sentence the attention is first centered on the word he: it is then shifted to the word poverty, so that the person under consideration is made to occupy a subordinate position, in the objective him. The construction that appears in the first part should be carried out in the second. Better: He was not depressed by his physical suffering, any more than he was concerned for his poverty. Caution: In general, avoid mixLag the active and the pas- sive voice in one sentence. Bad: He uses those tools often, and they are made by him to serve many excellent purposes. Better: He uses those tools often, and makes them serve many excellent purposes. EXERCISE Reconstruct the following sentences, and give reasons for all changes: — 1. It is just a year since the foundation was laid, and the cost of ' the whole building and its equipment is six hundred thousand dollars. 2. We only hope that the money resulting from the sale of the property may be used in buying the large field opposite the chemistry building, and with dormitories erected do not doubt that a very great increase of students will be noticed next year. 3. Small of buUd and red-haired, with a large nose and thin lips, she had been twenty years in Madame Duparque's service, and was accustomed to speak her mind. 4. The games were very interesting, and I was greatly absorbed, and when I started home, I found that I had torn a large hole in my best blue silk gown. 70 GRAMMATICAL REQUIREMENTS 5. The character of his work is unrestrained, and it lacks a cer- tain amount of delicacy, and very often he is called the "bourgeois novelist." 6. Her intellect is remarkable, and it is quite appalling to think that few of our college women have the mental strength and broad education of this young woman who spent so many years keeping house for her father in an obscure village. 7. The strength of her convictions enabled her to defy conven- tion and apply her own standard of right and wrong when the world seemed mistaken, but she was blinded to the result of the influence her example might have on others of less moral strength by the strength of her affection, her absolute need of human sympathy. 8. Six high school boys who have already won medals wiU com- pete in this contest, taking their subjects from the great events of American and English history, and the price of admission will be ten cents. 9. Mrs. Julia Peebles returned on Friday from a six months' visit with her daughter in Arizona, where she went for the benefit of her health, the climate being very dry and invigor- ating, and we are glad to say that she is much improved and expects to remain in Bear Creek for the rest of the year, or the summer at least. 10. We are now living in a rented apartment, until we can build a new house which is to be designed by my wife's brother, an architect who lives in Dayton, Ohio, where the disastrous flood occurred last year. 11. Any one who desires to learn the Chinese language must begin young, for you cannot master it readily after you are twenty-five. 12. Give the gun a thorough cleaning before you put it away, and one ought to oil it also. 13. They did the work rapidly, and soon the bridge was built. 14. Put the nuts in the oven to brown them, and one can easily tell when they are done, for they will have assumed a rich brown color. 15. It has never been done badly by him, and sometimes he does it with extraordinary skill. 16. The men who did this work were considered public bene- factors, and the success of the plan was so great that the people gave them a demonstration which must have been much appreciated by them. SENTENCE STRUCTURE 71 17. Ethel did not get along well with her small playmates, and anyway they were not much admired by her. 18. Far down the river there was a lovely vista to be seen, and from my window I could look out upon a very extensive and beautiful park. 19. While a tiny speck could be discerned upon the horizon, I did not wish to assume that the boat was his, nor was it a wise policy to excite the others before there was some definite probabiUty of the craft's being the one which we were all so anxious to see. 20. She wrote me a very incoherent letter, and in it there were many persons mentioned of whom I had not thought for years, by which fact it could easily be discerned that her mind was reverting to the scenes of our childhood, which was spent by us in a very lovely httle town in France. Agreement 1. Every construction in a sentence should be in har- mony with every other construction. Great care must be exercised in order that a construction once begun may be completed in a logical and harmonious way. Illogical: The material used is much more elegant than her mother's dress. Logical: The material used is much more elegant than that in her mother's dress. Obscure: I did not like the new waitress any better than Eleanor. Clear: I did not like the new waitress any better than Eleanor did. Incorrect: She is the wealthiest of any woman here. Correct: She is the wealthiest of all the women here. Incorrect: Napoleon was the greatest of aU other generals. Correct: Napoleon was the greatest of all generals. Incorrect: Her drawing is the best of all the girls. Correct: Her drawing is better than any other girl's. 2. A clause introduced by when or where should not be used for a predicate noun. 72 GRAMMATICAL KEQUIREMENTS When and where clauses are sometimes crudely used in defining an idea. Incorrect: Astounded is when you are overwhelmed by sur- prise. Correct: Astounded is overwhelmed by surprise. [Orj Astounded means overwhelmed by surprise. Incorrect: Plutocracy is where we are governed by the wealthy. Correct: Plutocracy is government by the wealthy. EXERCISE 1. My brother's efiorts were as imavailing as the chauffeur had been. 2. The subject that interested me is where the author gives an account of his travels. 3. The last that I saw of him was his unexpected appearance at the Ambassador's dinner-party. 4. The home of the artist is much more beautiful than the mil.- lionaire. 5. The size of the country is no greater than Greece. 6. This ring is the most valuable of all other jewels here. 7. I never supposed the income of a stone mason to be larger than a preacher. 8. Anne was the most beautiful of all her cousins. 9. The entrance on the east side proved to be as marvellously carved as the west side. 10., This church is the largest of any other church in America. 11. Bryan has addressed the general public more extensively than the Wisconsin senator. 12. Parsimony is when you are stingy. Parallelism I. Ideas which are equal in value and which are intended to serve similar purposes in the sentence should usually be put into similar form. Such an expression of ideas is called parallelism. It is an invaluable method of arranging material in compact form, and of showing relationships in thought. SENTENCE STRUCTURE 73 I drowsed, and wondered whether the telegraph was a blessing, and whether this dying man or struggling people might be aware of the inconvenience the delay was causing. Kipling: The Man Who Would be King. Here, there are several cases of parallelism: Drowsed and wondered ; whether the telegraph was a blessing, and whether this dying man, etc. ; dying man and struggling people. The soUdity and the effectiveness of the sentence are greatly increased by the use of parallel constructions. Parallelism: He remembered how the old servants used to simle as they opened the door to him; how the familiar butler would say, when he had been absent a few hours longer than usual, "A sight of you, Mr. Harding, is good for sore eyes"; how the fussy housekeeper would swear that he could n't have dined, or could n't have break- fasted, or couldn't have lunched. Teollope: Bar- chester Towers. 2. Partial parallelism should be avoided. Incorrect: The room was small, dark, and it was very scantily furnished. In this sentence, we expect that and will be followed by an adjective to complete the parallelism begun by small and dark: but we find that the series is left incomplete. Correct: The room was small, dark, and scantily furnished. Incorrect: His psychology is very crude, unscientific, and does not go to the heart of the matter. Correct: His psychology is crude and unscientific; it does not go to the heart of the matter. Incorrect: Then came the wind, roaring, shrieking, and trees were torn up by it as it passed. Correct: Then came the wind, roaring, shrieking, and tear- ing up trees as it passed. 3. Ideas not similar in quality and value should not be paralleled, except for humorous effect. Inharmonious: He sacrificed the money that his mother had left him, and the sense of honor that he had derived from his father. 74 GRAMMATICAL REQUIREMENTS Here money is the name of something tangible and con- crete; sense of honor is the name of something intangible and abstract. The two expressions cannot properly be yoked to- gether. The sentence ought to be entirely reconstructed, in accordance with the ideas brought out in the context. Permissible: Sir, I will take my belongings and my departure. Here, belongings and departure, though dissimilar nouns, are used together to produce a whimsical and half humorous effect. Bad: Dickens's cockney characters and delicious humor appealed to the better class and the poor man alike. Better: Dickens's use of cockney characters and his delight- ful humor appealed to the higher class as well as to the lower. 4. Ideas should not be put into similar form unless they are intended to be parallel. Confusing: Her keen insight and sympathy with the village people with her wonderful perceptive powers give us the humor that we find in Adam Bede and The Mill on the Floss. Here the close juxtaposition of two prepositional phrases introduced by mth is awkward and obscure, since the phrases, though similar, are not parallel. Better: Her wonderful perceptive powers and her intense sympathy with the village people give us the humor that we find in Adam Bede and The Mitt