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RETURN TO
ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY
ITHACA, N. Y.
Cornell University Library
S 493.B87 1905
v.1
Agriculture.
3 1924 001 043 391
Cornell University
Library
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Agriculture
VOL. I
Soils, Formation
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL
CHARACTERISTICS AND
METHODS OF IMPROVE-
MENT 9 Including TILLAGE
DRAINAGE & IRRIGATION
. . By . .
WILLIAM P. BROOKS, Ph.D.
Professor of Agriculture, Massachusetts Agricultural College and
Agriculturist , Hatch Experiment Station.
THIRD EDITION
Published by
THE HOME CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL
Springfield, Massachusetts
Copyright, igoi,
HV
Thf. King-Richardson Company.
Copyright, 1903,
RY
The King-Richardson Company.
c opyright, 1905,
KY
The Home Correspondence School.
CONTENTS
VOLUME I
What Agriculture Is. Paragraph Page
Agriculture an Art T T
Agriculture a Business 2 1
Essential Definitions
Matter
An Element
Matter 3
4 2
A Compound 5 2
Classes of Compounds.
Organic and Inorganic Compounds 6 2
Elements Important in Agriculture 7 3
Acids 8 3
Bases 9 3
Salts 10 3
Plant Food 11 3
Assimilation 12 3
What the Plant Contains.
Importance of Knowledge as to this Point , 13 3
The Greater Part of the Plant is Water 14 4
The Organic Part of Plants 15 4
The Ash of Plants 16 4
Summary 17 5
The Necessary Elements iS 5
The Nature of the Elements Useful to Plants and the Sources
from Which Plants Derive Them.
Hydrogen 19 5
Oxygen 20 6
Carbon 21 6
Nitrogei 22 6
Phosphorus 23 7
Sulfur 24 8
Potassium 25 S
Calcium 26 8
Magnesium 27 9
Iron 28 9
CONTENTS.
SUMMARY. Paragraph Page
What a Plant Contains 29 10
Sources of Plant Food 30 10
Elements always Found in Plants but Not Known to be
Necessary.
Chlorin, Silicon, and Sodium 31 10
A Soil Element not Found in Plants.
Aluminum 52 11
The Soil.
Soil Denned 33 11
Kinds of Material Found in Soils 34 11
Inorganic Matter 35 12
The Organic Matter of Soils 36 12
Formation of Soils.
A Bit of the History of Our Globe 37 12
The Chief Steps in Soil Formation 3,8 14
The Agencies Active in Soil Formation 39 14
Mechanical Agencies.
Changes in Temperature 40 15
Gravity ". 41 16
Moving Water 42 16
The Wearing Action of Water 43 16
Water Carries Materials 44 17
Water Sorts Materials 45 iS
Moving Ice 46 iS
The Action of Wind 47 20
The Chemical Action of Air and Water.
The Air in its Relations to Soil Formation 48 21
The Chemical Action of Water 49 22
Air and Water Work Together 50 22
Weathering 51 23
Plants and Animals as Soil Formers and Improvers.
Living Plants 52 24
Organic Matter 53 24
Humus 54 24
Living Animals 55 25
CONTENTS.
Soils Classified According to Method of Formation 1 . Paragraph Page
Classes Named 56 26
Sedentary Soils 57 26
Transported Soils 58 27
Colluvial Soils 59 27
Alluvial Soils 60 27
yEolian Soils 61 28
Drift Soils 62 28
(a) The Nature of the Soil.
(b ) The Degree of Fineness.
(c) Depth.
The Components of Soils.
Classes of Soil Materials Named 63 29
Sand 64 29
Silt ' 65 30
Clay 66 30
Humus 67 31
Agricultural Classification of Soils.
The Commoner Kinds of Soils 68 32
The Less Common Soils 69 33
The Amount of Sand in Different Loams 70 33
Light and Heavy Soils.
Light Soils 7 T 34
Heavy Soils 7 2 34
The Terms Light and Heavy Have No Relation to Weight 73 34
Leading Characteristics of the Different Kinds of Soil.
Sandy Soils 74 34
Clay Soils ■ • • 75 35
Humus Soils 76 35
Heavy Clay Loam 77 3 6
Clay Loams 78 37
Loam 79 37
Sandy Loam 80 37
Light Sandy Loam 81 38
Marl S2 39
Calcareous Soils S3 39
Alkali Soils S4 39
Salt Marshes 85 40
Fresh Marshes 86 40
CONTENTS.
Physical Characteristics of Soils. Paragraph Page
Why These are Important 87 41
Important Physical Characteristics 88 41
Weight and Specific Gravity 89 42
Color 90 42
Structure 91 43
Relation of the Soil to Water.
The Amount of Water Required by Crops 92 45
The Kinds of Soil Water 93 46
The Water Capacity of Soils 94 47
The Percolation of Water 95 48
The Capillary Properties of Soil 96 49
Evaporation of Water 97 51
The Ability of Plants to Exhaust the Soil of Water 98 52
The Effect of Drying 99 53
Absorption of Vapor of Water by Soils 100 53
Relation of Soil to Heat.
Importance of a Suitable Temperature in the Soil 101 54
Sources of Heat in the Soil 102 55
Color as Affecting the Temperature of the Soil 103 57
The Specific Heat of the Soil 104 57
The Power of the Soil to Conduct Heat 105 58
The Angle at which the Sun's Rays Strike the Earth ". . . . 106 58
Vertical Walls Affect the Temperature of the Soil 107 59
Influence of Vegetation 10S 59
Influence of Water on the Temperature of the Soil 109 60
The Temperature of the Subsoil no 61
Comparative Temperature of Soil and Air in 61
The Soil Air 112 62
The Soil Electricity 113 62
The Capacity of Soils to Hold Dissolved Solids 114 63
Chemical Characteristics of Soils.
The Composition of Soils 115 64
Constituents of Soils Essential to Plants 116 64
Classes of Soil Constituents 117 65
Results of Chemical Analysis 118 65
Amounts of Important Plant Food Constituents Removed from
Soils in Crops 119 67
Fineness Affects the Solubility and Availability of Soil Constituents 1 20 69
Percentages of Food Elements in Soils of Different Grades of
Fertility 121 69
The Great Importance of Lime in Soils 122 70
CONTENT'S
Paragraph Page
The Forms in Which the Different Food Elements Kxist in Soils.. 123 71
(a) Nitrogen.
(, b ) Phosphoric Acid.
( ) Ponds and Lakes.
(c) Springs.
(d) Wells.
(e) Sewage.
Water from Cities or Towns
Irrigation Terms and Units
Crops for Which Irrigation is Desirable
Land Best Suited for Irrigation
Methods of Obtaining Water for Irrigation.
Leading out Water from Streams 267
Storing Storm Water
Under-Flow from Higher Lands, Springs, Under-Drains, etc. . . .
Water Wheels and Rams f« ir Raising Water
Raising Water by Wind Power
Lifting Water with Engines 272 [91
263
185
264
186
265
186
266
188
267
189
268
190
269
190
270
1 90
271
J 90
CONTENTS.
Methods of Application. Paragraph Page-
Distribution to Different Parts of the Field 273 192
The Various Methods of Application 274 193
(a) Sprinkling.
(/>) Flooding.
(Y) Percolation.
(d) Sub-irrigation.
The Amount of Water Needed in Irrigation 275 195
The Cost of Irrigation 276 196
When to Irrigate 277 196
Management of Irrigated Lands 27S 197
(a) Grass Lands.
(/>) Hoed Crops.
Loss of Water From Ditches and Reservoirs 279 198
Objections to Irrigation 2S0 199
CONTENTS
VOLUME II
Paragraph Page
Man ures 281 20:
Farm Manures.
The Different Kinds. . . .' 282 202
The Excrements of Our Larger Domestic Animals.
Barnyard Manure 2S4 202
Stable Manure 285 203
Conditions Affecting the Value of Manures 2.S6 203
Dung and Urine 287 203
Relative Amounts of Dung and Urine 288 21 .4
Two Classes of Conditions Affecting the Value 289 ' 2> 14
Factors Affecting the Value of Manures as Voided 290 204
(a) Food.
\d) The Age.
(c) Products.
(d) Condition.
Importance of Proper Methods of Handling and Saving 291 205
Stable Construction and Management , 292 205
Bedding or Litter 293 2u.S
Materials Commonly Employed 294 208
{a) Straw.
(b) Marsh Hay.
(r) Leaves.
(d) Corn Stover.
(e) Peat Moss.
(/) Dry Muck or Peat.
[g) Fine, Dry Sand or Earth.
(/1) Sawdust and Shavings.
Composition of Litter.
Chemical Absorbents 295 2 1 1
Storing and Keeping 296 2 1 2
The Rotting of Manure 297 213
Conditions Affecting Rotting or Fermentation of Manure 29.S 214
The Effects of Decomposition 299 2 1 4
How Should Manure Be Kept ? 301 1 215
The Composition and Value of Farmyard Manure 301 216
CONTENTS.
Paragraph Page
The Amount of Manure Made on the Farm 302 218
Estimation of the Plant Food in Manure 303 219
Dung, Urine, and Drainage Liquors Compared 304 225
Manure from Different Farm Animals 305 226
(a) Horse Manure.
(b ) Cow Manure.
(c) Hog Manure.
(d) Sheep Manure.
Mixture of Manure From Different Animals 306 227
The Application of Farmyard Manures.
Should Manures be Applied Fresh or Rotted ? 307 228
The Amount of Manure to be Used 308 230
Manner of Application 309 231
Poultry Manure.
Comparative Quality 310 232
Composition 311 233
Amount of Manure Made by Poultry 312 233
Characteristics and Availability of Poultry Manure 313 234
Means of Preventing Loss of Nitrogen 314 234
What Not to Mix with Poultry Manure 315 236
Composting with Muck or Peat 316 237
Methods of Using Poultry Manure 317 237
Miscellaneous Manurial Substances.
Night-soil 31S 237
Animal Carcasses 319 23S
Muck and Peat 320 23S
Composition 32 1 239
Benefits Following the Use of Muck 322 239
Method of Using 323 240
Composting Muck or Peat 324 240
Leaf Mould 325 240
Refuse Vegetable Substances 326 241
Composts 327 242
Directions for Making Composts 328 243
Sea Manures.
Composition of Sea Manures 330 244
Collection and Use as Manure 331 245
Fertilizers.
What is a Fertilizer ? 332 245
Classification 331 24b
Fertilizers Used Chiefly as Sources of Nitrogen 334 246
CONTENTS.
Paragraph Page
General Considerations Affecting the Value of Nitrogen Fertilizers. 335 246
(a) Animal and Vegetable Substances.
(6) The Natural Guanos.
(c) Chemical Substances.
The Important Nitrogen Fertilizers Named 336 249
(a) Derived from Animal Sources.
(b) Derived from Vegetable Materials.
(c) Modified Animal Excrements.
(d) Chemical Substances.
Dried Blood 337 249
Dried Meat Meal 33S 250
Tankage 339 250
Hoof Meal 340 25 1
Horn Meal 341 251
Wool and Hair Waste 342 251
Leather Meal 343 252
Dry Ground Fish or Fish Guanos 344 252
King Crab 345 253
Cottonseed Meal 346 253
Castor Pomace 347 253
Peruvian and Other Guanos 348 254
Bat Guano 349 254
Sulfate of Ammonia 350 254
Nitrate of Soda 351 255
Nitrate of Potash 352 257
Relative Availability and Value of the Nitrogen Fertilizers 353 25S
The Selection of Nitrogen Fertilizers 354 260
(a) Soil.
{/>) Crop.
Fertilizers Used Chiefly as Sources of Phosphoric Acid.
What is a Phosphate ? 355 261
Classes of Phosphates 356 262
The Different Compounds of Phosphoric Acid in the Various Phos-
phates 357 263
(a) In Bones and Their Natural Products.
(b ) In Basic Slag.
{c) In Manufactured Phosphates.
(d) Reverted Phosphoric Acid.
(e) Phosphoric Acid Retained by Soils.
The Nature and General Composition of the Different Phos-
phates.
Bone and Materials Derived From Bone 35S 265
(a) Raw Bone Meal or Ground Bone.
(b ) Steamed or Boiled Bone.
CONTENTS.
Paragraph Page
{c) Extracted Bone.
() The Farmer Should Make More Use of Experiment
Stations.
The Selection of Materials for Home Use 406 326
The Selection of Sources of Nitrogen 407 327
{a) ForCrops which make their Growth Earlyin the Season.
(b) For Crops which have a Long Period of Growth.
(<■) Avoid Using Sulfate of Ammonia With Materials Con-
taining Chlorin.
(d) Avoid Putting Organic Materials Furnishing Nitrogen
With Lime or Ashes.
(c) Top-dressing for Grass Lands.
Selection of Materials to be Used as the Source of Phosphoric Acid. 408 329
( (?) Crops Having a Short Period of Growth.
( />) Crops Having a Long Period of Growth.
Selection of Potash 409 330
(a) For Soil in Need of Alkalies.
(t>) For Light Soil Not Deficient in Lime.
(f) For Heavy Soil or Soil Poor in Lime.
() Relation of Green Manuring to the Nitrogen Supply of
the Soil.
2. Mechanical Effects of Green Manuring.
(a) Mellowing and Opening the Subsoil.
{!>) Clearing the Field From Weeds.
(c) Protection From Injury by Washing.
Conditions Under Which Green Manuring is Advisable 430 353
(ps 431 356
(a) Ability to Thrive Broadcast.
(b) Rapid Growth.
(c) A Deep and Vigorous Root System.
((/) Hardiness — Nitrogen Conservation.
(c) Legumes Best If They Possess the Other Important
Characteristics.
CONTENTS.
Paragraph Pagt;
Crops Valuable for Green Manuring Named 432 357
Winter Rye 433 357
Buckwheat 434 358
White Mustard 435 358
Rape 43 6 359
Spurry 437 359
Vetches 438 359
Peas 439 360
Lupines 440 360
Crimson Clover 441 361
Common Red and Mammoth Red Clovers 442 362
Sweet Clover 443 363
The Cow Pea and the Soy Bean 444 364
Conditions Must be Right or Green Manuring May not Prove Espe-
cially Beneficial 445 366
(a) Nitrogen Conservation.
(b) Nitrogen Gathering.
Plowing in Green Crops 446 370
Farm Crops.
Classification 448 373
Crop Rotation.
What Rotation is and its Objects 449 374
Reasons Why Crop Rotation is Beneficial 450 374
[a) Food Requirements.
{b) The Depth of the Root System.
(c) All Crops Belong to One of Two Classes.
(d) Liability to Disease, Insect Injury, and Weeds.
1st. Disease.
2d. Insects.
3d. Weeds.
Planning the Rotation 45 1 357
Systems of Rotation.
The Norfolk System 45 2 377
Modifications of the Norfolk System 453 37-8
(a) Suited to Farms with much Live Stock.
(b) Suited to Beet-sugar Districts.
(c) Mangels instead of Turnips.
Rotations followed in Corn-growing States 454 379
Terry's Rotation 455 379
A Dairy Farm Rotation 45 6 379
Rhode Island Rotations 457 3S0
(a) Potatoes, AVinter Rye, Clover.
(b) Corn, Potatoes, Rye, Clover.
(c) Corn, Potatoes, Rye, Grass, and Clover for two Years.
CONTENTS.
Methods of Propagating Plants. Paragraph Page
Different Methods named 458 380
Seed Propagation.
What a Seed is 459 381
Importance of good Seed 460 383
Changing Seed 461 3S4
The Characteristics of good Seed 462 386
(a) The Seed must be genuine, i. e., it must be of the Kind
or Variety which the Farmer wants.
(b) The Seed should be free from Foreign Material of any
Kind.
(c) Weight and Specific Gravity.
(d) The Seed should be plump.
() Oats.
(<-) Wheat.
{d) Barley.
( e ) Grains with Legumes.
(f) Manures for these Crops.
MilletS 535 447
(a) Foxtail Millets ( Chcetochloa Italica).
Common.
German or Golden millet.
Golden Wonder.
Siberian.
Hungarian.
Japanese Foxtail.
CONTENTS.
Paragraph Page
(b) Broom Corn Millets [Panicum miliaceum) .
French millet.
Hog millet.
Japanese Broom Corn Millet.
(c) Barnyard Millets {Panicum crus galli).
(d) Cat-tail Millets {Pennisetum spicatum).
Pearl Millet.
Maud's Wonder.
Brazilian Millet.
(e) Soils and Manures for Millets.
Indian Corn and Teosinte 526 455
(a) Indian Corn [Zea mays).
Varieties.
(b) Teosinte (Reana luxurians).
(c) Soil and Manures for Indian Corn and Teosinte.
(d) Manner of planting.
Sorghum and Sorghum-like Plants 527 45S
1st. Varieties of Sorghum iiulgare.
2d. Varieties of Andropogon sorghum.
(a) Sorghum (Sorghum vulgare var. saccharatum) .
(b) Kaffir Corn (Sorghum vulgare).
(c) Milo Maize (Sorghum vulgare).
(d) Dhourra (Andropogon sorghum).
(e) Jerusalem Corn (Andropogon sorghum).
(J) Soils and Manures for the Crops of this Class.
( g) Manner of planting.
Legumes 52S 461
(a) Crimson Clover (Trifolium incarnatum).
Soils and manures.
Time and manner of sowing.
(b) Field Pea (Pisuni arvense).
Soil and manures.
Time and manner of sowing.
(<-) Vetch.
Common vetch ( Vicia sativa).
Soils and manures.
Time and manner of sowing.
(d) Soy Bean (Glycine hispida).
Soil and manures.
Time and manner of planting.
(c) Cow Pea (I 'igna catjang).
Soils and manures.
(/) The Flat Pea (Lathyrus sylvestris),
(g) The Lupine.
CONTENTS.
Paragraph Page
Miscellaneous 5 2 9 <6?
(a) Rape (Brassica napus).
Soils and manures.
Time and manner of sowing.
(b) Cabbage (Brassica oleracea).
Soil, manures, etc.
(c) White Mustard (Sinapis a/da).
(d) Spurry (Spcrgula arvensis).
(e) Prickly Comfrey (Symphytum officinale).
Sub-Class III. Crops Cultivated for Their Seeds.
Characteristics 530 469
Cereal Grains 531 469
(a) Germination, Root Development, and Stooling.
(Wheat, rye, oats, and barley.)
(b) Wheat.
Hard wheats (Triticum durum).
Speltz ( Triticum spelta).
Varieties of common wheat.
Soil and manures.
Time and manner of sowing.
(c) Rye (Sccatc ccrealc).
Soil and manures.
Time and manner of sowing.
(d ) Oats.
Soil and manures.
Time and manner of sowing.
(c) Barley
Soil and manures.
Time and manner of sowing.
Intertillage of the small Grains 532 476
Harvesting the small Grains 533 477
Diseases of the small Grains 534 479
Indian Corn 535 4S0
(a) Soils and Manures for Corn.
(l>) Time and manner of planting.
(c) Cultivation of the Corn Crop.
(d) Harvesting the Corn Crop.
(c) Diseases.
Miscellaneous Grains 536 4S7
(«) Kaffir Corn.
(/)) Millets.
(c) Buckwheat (Fagopyrum csciiici/tnm).
Le S umes 557 49o
(a) Peas.
Soils and manures.
CONTENTS.
(*) B e ans - Paragraph Page
Soils and manures.
Time and manner of planting.
Cultivation.
Harvesting.
Sub-Class IV. Crops Cultivated for Underground Parts.
Root Crops 53 y 493
English Turnips 53g 493
Soils and manures.
Swedish Turnip or Ruta-baga {Brassica campestris) 540 494
Harvesting Turnips 541 494
Beets ( Beta vulgaris) 542 494
(a) The Mangel-wurzel or Mangel.
Soils and manures.
(6) Sugar Beets.
Soils and Manures.
Time and manner of planting.
Cultivation.
Harvesting and storing.
Carrots (Daucus carota) 543 497
[a) Soils and Manures.
(i) Time and manner of planting.
[c) Cultivation.
() Manures and Fertilizers.
(c) Time and manner of planting.
id) The Cabbage must be kept continuously and rapidly
growing.
(e) Harvesting and storing.
{/) Diseases and Insect Enemies.
Squashes [Cucurbita ma.viina) and Pumpkins 551 529
(Cucurbita pepd) .
(a) Soil and Manures.
(/>) Time and manner of planting.
(c) Cultivation.
(d ) Harvesting and storing.
(c) Insect Enemies.
Tobacco ( Nicotiana tabacum ) 552 531
(a) Soil.
(b) Manuring the Crop.
(c) Time and manner of planting.
(d) Cultivation.
(e ) Harvesting and curing.
(/') Diseases and Insects.
Broom Corn (Sorghum vulgare) eg? c^6
(<7) Soils and Manures.
(b) Time and manner of planting.
(<) Harvesting.
The Hop (Humulus lupulus) ec* cp-
(a) The Soil. .
(l>) Manuring.
(<) Cultivation.
( Milk.
The Cow must be Healthy 765 74;
(a) Air space and ventilation.
(b) Good light.
(c) The interior of the stable.
Means WHEREBY Milk is Contaminated after Leaving the Cow.
Chief Methods of Contamination 7^6 746
Contamination with Dirt, Manures, etc 767 746
(a) Tile stable should be clean.
(b) The cow should be clean.
(c) The milker should be neat.
(d) Milking should be done gently, quietly, and rapidly.
(e) Milk should be removed from the stable immediately
after it is drawn.
(f) Straining the milk.
Contamination by Odors 76S 749
Contamination by Means of Bacteria 769 750
Kinds of Bacteria in Milk 770 751
Relation of Bacteria Found in Milk to the Human System 771 752
Control of Fermentations in .Milk 772 752
Destruction of Germs in Milk 773 753
Disposal of Dairy Products.
General Considerations 774 754
Milk and Cream for Market.
The Kind of Milk Wanted 775 754
Cooling and Aeration 776 754
Mixing the Milk of the Herd 777 75&
The Separator as a Means of Purifying Milk 77'S 756
Cans or Bottles for Milk — which for Retail Trade ? 779 757
The Best Kind of Bottles 7S0 759
Milk Bottlers -■ ■ • 7S1 760
The Milk "Wagon should be as Good as Can be Bought 782 761
How to Keep Milk Accounts 7 S 3 762
Cream.
Kinds of Cream Demanded 7S4 765
Comparative Merits of Gravity and Separator Processes of Separat-
ing Cream 785 765
CONTENTS.
Paragraph Page
Gravity Systems 786 766
Centrifugal Separators 7S7 76S
Handling Separator Cream 7S8 772
Miscellaneous.
Pasteurization of Milk and Cream for Market 789 772
Modified Milk 790 776
Certified Milk 791 77S
Viscogen 792 778
Milk Preservatives 793 779
Butter Making.
General Considerations 794 779
Good Butter can be Made only from Good Milk and Cream 795 7S1
Care of Cream 796 7S3
Ripening Cream 797 783
Churning 798 785
Washing and Working 799 786
Preparing the Butter for Market Soo 7S7
Butter Color Sol 788
Poultry Farming.
Importance of Poultry Farming S02 789
Poultry Farming as a Business 803 7S9
Barnyard Fowls.
Terms Used in Describing Fowls S04 791
Classes of Barnyard Fowls S05 791
Terms Used in Describing Breeds 806 792
American Breeds.
Plymouth Rocks S07 793
Wyandottes 808 793
Javas S09 793
American Dominiques Sio 794
White Wonders 811 794
Rhode Island Reds 812 794
Asiatic Class.
Light Brahmas 813 794
Dark Brahmas S14 79s
Cochins S15 795
Langshans S16 795
Mediterranean Class.
Leghorns S17 795
Minorcas SiS 796
Other Mediterranean Breeds j T q -rg
CONTENTS.
French Fowls.
Paragraph Page
Houdans 820 7gfl
Other French Breeds 821
English Fowls.
Dorkings , 822
Orpingtons 823
Games.
Foreign and New Breeds 826
The Breed for the Average Farmer S27
797
797
797
Cornish and White Indian Games 824 79S
Exhibition and Pit Games 825 798
799
799
General Care of Fowls.
Location and Soils 828 799
Buildings for Poultry 829 Soo
Hen House with Scratching Shed 830 801
The Raising of Chickens.
General Considerations 831 ,803
The Natural Method of Hatching and Raising Chickens S32 S04
The Artificial Method of Hatching and Rearing S33 806
The Brooder 834 808
Coops for Large Chickens 835 81 1
Feeding Chickens 836 811
Special Care for Pullets 837 813
General Care of Laying Stock 83S S13
(a) Dust boxes and vermin.
(b) Water dishes and water.
(c) Grit.
(d) Oyster shells.
(e) Charcoal.
Feeding Laying Hens 839 816
Should the Mash be Given in the Morning or in the Evening? 840 817
Breeding for Eggs 841 818
Methods of Preventing Disease 842 819
(a) Good care
(b) Quarantine.
(c) Prevent outside flocks from coining in contact with
one's own flock.
(d) Promptly care for all indisposed fowls.
Turkeys.
General Considerations 843 819
Breeds of Turkeys S44 820
CONTENTS.
Paragraph Page
Selection of Location for Raising Turkeys 845 S20
General Care of Turkeys S46 820
Ducks.
General Considerations 847 82 1
Breeds of Ducks.
Pekin Ducks 848 S22
Aylesbury 849 822
Rouen ". . . . 850 822
Other Breeds S51 823
General Care and Management S52 824
Geese.
Leading Breeds 853 S25
General Care and Management S54 827
ILLUSTRATIONS
VOLUME I
*" Paragraph Page
i Plant without Nitrogen 22 7
2 Plant without Potash 2S q
3 Loam 68 ,,
4 Heavy Loam 77 , 6
5 Light Loam So ?8
6 Oats with and without Nitrogen £33(£) 78
7 Peas with and without Nitri >gen i33(£) 79
8 Nodules on Roots I33(<$) 80
9 Subsoil Plow r.50 96
10 Landside Plow jgi , ,
11 Steel Beam Plow 161 [02
12 Yankee Swivel Plow 162 102
13 Iron Beam Swivel Plow 162 103
14 Steel, with Beam-Wheel and Rolling Coulter 162 103
15 National Reversible Sulky Plow 163 104
16 "Walking Gang Plow 164 105
17 Solid Comfort Gang Plow 164 106
18 Steam Plow 1651 a) 107
19 Flat Furrow Slice 167 109
20 Lap Furn >w Slice 167 no
21 Rolling Furrow Slice 167 1 1 1
22 Clipper Smoothing Harrow 172 115
23 Shares Harrow 173 116
24 Acme ( 2-horse riding) Harrow 173 1 16
25 Keystone Disc Harrow 174 117
26 Spading Harrow 174 117
27 Meeker Harrow 174 118
2S Spring-tooth Harrow 175 119
29 Roller 179 !-'
30 Spike-tooth Cultivator I u itli runner cutter) 1S2 123
3r Shovel Cultivator 183 124
32 Sulky Disc Cultivator 184 1 24
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Fig, , Paragraph Page
33 Spring-tooth Cultivator 185 125
34 Riding Sulky Cultivator 186 125
35 Walking Sulky Cultivator 186 126
36 Weeder 188 12S
37 Expanding Weeder 18S 12S
38 Hand Cultivators, One and Two Wheel 190 129
39 Scuffle Hoes 191 130
40 Serrated Weeder 193 130
41 Plan for Drainage ; main, etc 216 139
42 Brush Drain 220 140
43 Pole Drain 221 141
44 Box Drain, triangular 222 142
45 Box Drain, square 222 142
46 Stone Drains 1 three) 223 143
47 Kinds of Tile 225 144
48 Branch Tiles (three ) 227! c) 147
49 Collar 228 148
50 Water Table 235(1!) 156
51 Filling the Ditch 243 170
52 Silt Basin 244 172
53 Plow for Loosening the Soil 2 54(" ) ! 77
54 Hand Tools 254(6) 17S
55 Bottom of Ditch 254(6 ) 179
ILLUSTRATIONS
VOLUME II
^'S- Paragraph Page
56 Proportion of plant food in animal excrements 2S7 203
57 Interior view of cow stable, Mass. Agricultural College 292 206
57a Manure pits, cow stable, modern way 292 2117
5S Manure under the caves, obsolete way 292 2 1 2
59 Manure spreader 309 232
60 Broom corn, limed and unlimed 350 255
61 Barley grown on unlimed soil 357 257
62 Barley grown on limed soil 353 258
63 Red clover grown on bone and sulfate of potash 358 266
64 Potatoes, showing results of different forms of phosphoric acid 363 276
65 Oats, showing results of different forms of phosphoric acid 363 277
66 Onions, grown on muriate of potash 370 286
67 Yield of corn on muriate of potash 370 2S7
68 Alsike clover grown on bone and muriate of potash 371 290
69 Alsike clover grown on bone and sulfate of potash 371 291
70 Yield of corn showing comparative results of barnyard manure and
chemical fertilizers 378 301
71 Potatoes showing effect of lime in causing scab 382 305
72 Yield of onions on nitrate of soda and muriate of potash 384 306
73 Grasses and weeds on unlimed soil 3S6 308
74 Grasses and weeds on limed soil 3S6 309
75 Diagram showing relative yield of early and late crops 407 328
76 Plan for farmers' experiments 4 T 4 335
77 Experimental plot of grass and clover 427 347
78 Diagram showing value of clover sod 430 355
79 A single plant of Dwarf Essex Rape I36 35S
80 Winter Vetch, grown with Winter Rye 43S 360
81 White Lupine. ( Lupinus a/bus ) 440 361
S2 Crimson Clover. ( Trifolium incarnatum) Ui 362
83 Sweet Clover 443 3^
84 Squash Seed 459 3§2
85 Castor Bean seed 460 383
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Fig. Paragraph Page
86 Germination of corn on sand 462 390
S7 Clover ; tap root 468 394
88 Wheat root 46S 394
89 Root hairs ; a, slightly magnified ; 6, much magnified 468 394
yo Soy Bean plants 469 395
91 Half of leaf, showing effect of light 471 395
92 Breathing pores (stomata) in leaves ; much magnified 471 396
93 Lily flower ; petal and sepal 472 396
94 Apricot pistil • 472 397
95 Wheat flower 472 397
96 Rose ; many pistils 472 39S
97 Stamen from onion flower 472 398
98 Pollen, germinating. Primrose 472 399
99 Oat flower 472 400
100 Potato flower 472 400
101 Melon ; male flower 472 401
102 Melon ; female flower 472 401
103 Hop ; female flowering shoot 472 402
104 Timothy grass ( Phleum pratense) 47S 403
105 Awnless Brome grass ( Bromus inennis 1 503 403
106 White Bent [Agrostis a Iba ) 4S0 404
107 Sedge {Eriophorum latifolium) 476 404
1 08 Redtop (Agrostis alba, var. vulgaris) 479 406
IU9 Orchard grass ( Daily/is glomerata ) 4S2 406
1 10 Tall Oat grass (Arrhenatherum elatius) 4S3 407
1 1 1 Reed Fescue ( Festuca arundinacea ) 486 409
1 1 2 Kentucky Blue grass ( Po a pratensis ) ^90 410
1 13 Meadow Foxtail (A/opecurus pratensis) 495 412
1 14 Perennial Rye grass ( Loliuni perenne ) 497 413
1 15 Blue Joint ( Calamagrostis canadensis) 500 415
1 16 Red Clover ( Trifolium pratense). Flowering plant ; sections of the
flower 505 417
117 Alsike Clover ( Trifolium hybridum ) 50S 41S
1 18 White Clover ( Trifolium repens) 509 41S
1 19 Alfalfa ( Medicago sativa ) 510 420
120 Mowing : the usual farmer's mixture of seeds 514 426
1 2 1 Results of seeding in corn 516 427
122 Grain fertilizer and grass seed drill 516 430
TLLUSTRA TJOA r S.
Fig.
^ Paragraph Page
123 Cahoon seed sower ^ t g .,
124 Wheelbarrow grass seeder 5I< 5 4 ,,
125 Experimental plot, result of nitrate of soda and dissolved boneblack 518 432
126 Experimental plot, result of dissolved boneblack and muriate of
P° tash 5i8 433
127 Experimental plot, result of nitrate of soda and muriate of potash. . 518 434
12S Mowing, first year ; seeded with Timothy, Redtop, and Clover 518 435
129 Mowing, first year; result of farmyard manure and muriate of potash 518 436
130 Mowing, first year, result of fertilizers only 318 437
131 Wood mower j T g 430
132 Hay tedder 5 ! 9 440
133 Sulky rake 5 i 9 440
134 Side-delivery rake at work 519 441
135 Hay loader at work ; beginning 519 443
136 Hay loader at work ; load nearly made 519 444
137 Grapple and double harpoon forks 319 445
13S Single plants of Foxtail, Barnyard, and Broom Corn Millet 525 447
T 39 Japanese Foxtail Millet 525 449
140 Japanese Broom Corn Millet 525 451
141 Japanese Barnyard Millet 525 452
142 Pearl Millet 525 454
143 Early Amber Sorghum 327 45S
144 Kaffir Corn 527 46c
145 Field Pea 328 462
146 Soy Bean 52S 464
147 Cow Pea 528 465
14.8 Wheat plant ; shows rooting and stooling habit 531 470
149 Common Oat 531 474
150 Closed Panicle Oat 531 475
151 Naked Oat 53 1 475
152 Two-rowed Barley 53 ' 4/6
153 Twine-binding reaper 533 477
154 Self-raking reaper 533 47§
155 Flint Corn, Longfellow 535 481
1 56 Eureka Dent Corn 535 482
157 Yield of corn on continuous use of dissolved boneblack and muriate
of potash 535 4&4
158 Corn harvester 535 4S6
ILL US TJiA TIONS.
Fig. Paragraph Page
159 Japanese Buckwheat 536 489
160 Roots in open air pits 545 500
161 Potatoes ; yield on muriate of potash and on high-grade sulfate of
potash 546 504
r62 Aspinwall potato planter 546 506
163 Prout's hoe 546 507
164 Hoover's potato digger 546 508
165 Potatoes as left by Hoover's digger 546 509
166 Formalin treatment for scab 546 510
167 Total yield of marketable potatoes from two rows sprayed 546 512
167a Total yield of marketable potatoes from two rows unsprayed 546 512
167A Potato field, showing the result of spraying 546 513
16S Applying Bordeaux mixture to potatoes 546 514
169 Leggett's Paris green gun 546 516
170 Onions, showing effect of muriate of potash in exhausting lime in
*e soil 549 519
171 Tobacco transplanter 552 534
ILLUSTRATIONS
VOLUME III
Fie
Paragraph Page
172 Diagram of Cow, Showing Points 562 546
173 Jersey Bull, Pedro 3187 566 552
174 Jersey Cow, Brown Bessie 74997 566 553
175 Guernsey Bull, Sheet Anchor 3934 567 555
176 Guernsey Cow, Fantine 2d 3730 567 556
177 Ayrshire Bull, Glencairn of Ridgeside 56S 55.8
17S Ayrshire Cow, Red Rose 5566 56S 561
179 Holstein-Friesian Bull, De Brave Hendrik 230 569 562
180 Holstein-Friesian Cow, Jamaica 1336, and calf 569 563
181 Belted Dutch Bull, Duke of Ralph 255 570 567
1S2 Belted Dutch Cow, Lady Aldine 124 570 56S
183 Brown Swiss Cow, Brienzi 16S 571 569
184 Aberdeen-Angus Cow, Waterside Matilda II 6312 571 570
185 Hereford Heifer, Primrose 574 572
t86 ( ialloway Heifer, Clara VI 10513 575 574
187 Aberdeen-Angus Bull, The Black Knight 1.809 576 575
iSS Sussex Ox 577 576
789 Longhorn Cow 57S 577
190 West Highland Heifer, Lady Flora 5S0 578
191 Shorthorn Bull, Baron Cruikshank, Beef Type 5S1 579
192 Shorthorn Heifer, Augusta IV. Beef Type 5S2 5S1
193 Shorthorn Cow, Kitty Clay IV. Dairy Type 582 5.82
194 Polled Durham Bull, Voung Hamilton 39 583 584
195 Polled Durham Cow, Daisy II. Dairy Type 583 5S5
196 Devon Bull, Fine Boy of Pound 61S5 584 5S6
197 Devon Cow, Miss T. 9605 5§4 5§7
19S Red Polled Bull, Dobin 5462 5S5 5SS
199 Red Polled Cow, Beauty A'. 2629 5S5 589
200 Simmenthal Cow 5§6 590
201 Normandy Cow 5§7 59 1
202 Horse, Showing Points 59 1 595
203 Standard Trotting Stallion, Gambonito 59 2 59 6
ILLUSTRA T/OJVS.
f'ig. Paragraph Page
204 Arabian Stallion, Hussin 594 600
205 Thoroughbred Mare, Black Maria 594 601
206 Justin Morgan 59 6 6o 4
207 Percheron Stallion, Brilliant 600 608
208 Shire Stallion, Staunton Hero 602 610
209 Clydesdale Stallion, McQueen 603 611
210 Suffolk Punch Stallion, Queen's Diadem 603 612
211 French Coach Stallion, Indre 607 615
212 Cleveland Bay Stallion, Highcliffe 60S 616
213 Hackney Mare, Ladybird ... 670 617
214 Jack, Antarjr 614 620
215 Shropshire Buck 617 623
216 Rambouillet Ram 61S 626
217 American Merino, Don Dudley 61S 627
21S Horned Dorset 619 628
219 Cheviot 620 629
220 Southdown 621 630
221 Hampshire Ram 623 631
222 Oxford 624 632
223 Leicester 625 633
224 Two-shear Cotswold Ram 626 634
225 Lincoln Ram 627 635
226 Hog, Showing Points 631 640
227 Berkshire Boar, King Lee 633 641
228 Poland China Boar 634 642
229 Duroc Jersey 635 643
230 Tamworth Boar 637 644
231 Chester White 63S 645
232 Middle Yorkshire 640 646
233 Small Yorkshire Sow 642 647
234 Hand Babcock Tester, Agos ... 761 737
235 Steam Turbine Babcock Tester 761 73S
236 Babcock Glassware 762(1;) 739
237 Pipette for Milk and Acid Measure 762(6) 740
23S Diagram, Portion of Tube, Babcock Test Bottle 762(c) 741
239 Barn and Cow Stable, Mass. Agricultural College 765! <0 745
240 Interior Cow Stable, Mass. Agricultural College 765(c) 746
241 Milkers ready for Work at Large Dairy Farm in New Jersey 767(1/) 748
ILLUSTRATJOKS.
Fig- Paragraph Page
242 Star Milk Cooler 776 755
243 Champion Cream Cooler 776 756
244 United States Cream Separator 778 757
245 Common Sense Milk Jar or Bottle 780 759
246 Childs' Bottle Filler 781 760
247 Cooling and Bottling Room 781 761
24S Cooley Creamer 786 767
249 Cooley Can, Exterior and Section 786 76S
250 1 )e Laval Hand Separati ir 787 770
251 De Laval Turbine Separator 787 771
252 Sectional View of De Laval Separator 1
789 773
253 Sectional View of United States Separator '
254 Lett's Combined Cream Ripener and Pasteurizer 789 774
255 Butter Making — The Old Way 794 780
256 Butter Making — The New Way 794 781
257 Room in Dairy School, Mass. Agricultural College 795 782
258 The Davis Swing Churn 797 785
259 Barrel Churn 798 786
260 Lever Butter Worker 799 787
261 Dairy Size, Rotary Butter Worker 799 787
262 Pair Barred Plymouth Rocks 805 792
263 Pair White Plymouth Rocks 805 792
264 Pair Silver Wyandottes 8u8 793
265 Pair White Wyandottes 811 794
266 Pair Rhode Island Reds 816 795
267 Pair Light Brahmas S19 796
26S Pair Buff Cochins 819 79 6
269 Pair Black Langshans 821 797
270 Pair White Leghorns, Single Comb 823 798
271 Pair Black Minorcas S23 798
272 Pair Houdans 827 799
273 Cornish Indian Game Cock 829 800
273( 1 The degree of fineness or the proportion of fine earth. The drift
soil which contains a fair amount of clay and other fine materials is likely
to be fairl)- productive, but if composed of coarse sand or sand)- gravel it
will usually be unproductive.
(r) Depth — Where the distance from the surface of the drift to the
bed rock is small the soil is generally comparatively unproductive. As a
rule the deeper the drift soil the more productive it will be.
XV — THE COMPONENTS OF SOILS.
63. Classes oj soil materials named — Practically all of our productive
soils contain the following kinds of material : sand, silt, clay, and humus.
The proportion of these in different soils varies widely and affects the value
of the soil for agricultural purposes in very marked degree. The best soil
is usually one which contains each of these kinds of material in fairly even
amounts.
64. Sand — Sand is composed of granular particles of rock which are
sufficiently large to be readily seen by the naked eye. As a rule these
particles consist chiefly of quartz, a mineral which is a compound of silica.
Quartz is the hardest of the minerals found in rocks. It is sufficiently
hard to scratch or cut glass and it is because it is so hard that it has not
been ground finer. It is only very slowly acted upon by the agencies
which cause weathering. It is very insoluble and contains exceedingly little
plant food. Sand is the heaviest of the different classes of material found
in soils. Sand is divided into different grades according to the size of the
particles. The grades now commonly distinguished are four in number,
3 o 'A GRICUL TURE ;
known respectively as coarse sand, medium sand, fine sand, and very fine
sand. The proportion in which sand of these different grades is found in
soil greatly affects its value, chief!}' because of its relation to the tempera-
ture of the soil, to the amount of water it will hold, and to its adaptation to
different crops.
65. Silt — Silt is that part of the soil which consists of particles inter-
mediate in size between the finest sand and clay. Several grades are dis-
tinguished, depending upon the size of the particles. The must usual
division is into two classes — silt and fine silt. Silt is composed of exceed-
ingly fine bits of rock of many different kinds. It will commonly be found
to contain a considerable proportion of the available plant food of the soil.
For this reason as well as because silt enables the soil to hold water and
allows water and air to move through it in such a way as to favor produc-
tiveness, silt must be regarded as one of the most valuable constituents of
soils.
66. Clay — Clay, in the sense in which the word is used in agriculture,
is made up of those particles of the soil which are so small as to be
separately invisible to the naked eye. Clay is entirely without grit. Even
when rubbed by the finger tips in the palm of the hand we feel simply the
mass of clay ; we cannot feel a single particle. Some authorities state that
all those particles of the soil which are below 0.0002 of an inch in diameter
are to be considered as clay. Clay may be derived from various kinds of
rock minerals which have been extremely finely pulverized. It is, however,
most usually composed largely of silicate of alumina. Clay is so fine that
its particles will remain suspended in water for a long time. They do not
settle until the water becomes still. Clay absorbs a large amount of water.
The particles are so small that they lie very close together. The spaces
between these exceedingly small particles are yerv minute. Fortius reason
clays are comparatively impervious both to air and water. If water be
poured upon the clay it remains upon the surface a long time, soaking into
the clay only with extreme slowness. When moist, clays are very adhesive
and if they are stirred, as with the plow, harrow, or hoe, they cannot be
made fine but turn over in sticky clods. When these clods dry they be-
SOILS A Alt HOW TO TREAT THEM. 3 !
come hard and rock-like and can be broken into powder only with con-
siderable difficulty. Soils in which clay is abundant, because of the pecul-
iarities which have been mentioned, are apt to be wet and hard to work.
They are also cold.
67. I [tonus — The vegetable matter which we find in soils is not all of
it true humus. We usually find entirely unrotted vegetable matter which
comes from the most recent crop or manure, and between such material and
the true black or brown humus we find matter in every intermediate stage
of decav. Taken as a whole, the organic matter which we find in soils is
more or less porous and sponge-like in character. It soaks up and holds
water somewhat as a sponge might do. The color, especially of that
portion of the vegetable matter which has been changed by partial decay
into humus, is dark, and the soils which contain most humus are, therefore,
as a rule darkest in color. It is well known that dark colors are more
favorable to the absorption of heat than light. It is equally true that
organic matter parts with heat quickly. We find, therefore, that thor-
oughly drained muck or peaty soils, or any soils which are very rich in
organic matter, may become very hot during sunshine because of their color,
but at night or in cloudy weather they quickly part with their heat and
become cold. This great variation in temperature is likely to be unfavor-
able to crops. The organic matter which we find in most soils has a more
or less fibrous character ; and these fibers, consisting in many cases of roots,
stems, and leayes mixed with soils composed largely of clay or silt, serve to
separate the particles of such soils and thus render them somewhat less
cohesive and difficult to work. When mixed with sandy soils, on the other
hand, organic matter, taking up water as does a sponge, helps to keep such
soils more moist and in better condition to produce a crop. The mixture
of organic matter, both with soils which hold too much water (clays) and
witli those holding too little ( sandy soils ), greatly improves them. Fur-
ther, the organic matter of the soil contains a large amount of food for
plants. It conies from plants, and contains everything which the plants
need, and when the organic matter rots these constituents become available
for the next crop. Still further, as organic matter rots it produces acids
3-
AGRICULTURE ,
(53) which, being- absorbed in the water of the soil, help dissolve rock and
soil materials, gradually rendering them more available.
XVI — AGRICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS.
68. The commoner kinds 0/ soils — To the farmer the method of forma-
tion of the soil is of less practical importance than the knowledge of those
properties of the different soils he meets which affect its value for the pro-
duction of crops. The agricultural classification of soils is chiefly based
upon these properties, and these properties in turn are dependent almost
wholly upon the relative proportions of sand, silt, clay, and humus which
Per Gent,, of Organic Matter, Gravel, Saiid, Silt, and Clay in 20 Gra
i^SB
FBi
km
Fir.. 3, Foam; will work nicely and produce crops of all kinds, because it contains
the different grades of sand and silt, as well as organic matter and clay in suitable
proportions.
the soil contains. The most useful agricultural classification of soils,
then, is based upon these proportions. We have then, first, sandy soils,
clayey soils, and humus soils. These are not necessarily composed respec-
tively entire!)' of sand, oi clav or of humus ; thev are simply soils in which
the constituent which gives the name predominates. We have, further, a
SO/LS .-LVD HOW TO TREAT THEM.
33
considerable number of soils in which these constituents are present in more
nearly equal quantity. To all of these the name loam, is given. We
understand by loam a soil which consists of a fairly even mixture of sand,
silt, clay, and humus. According as the one or the other of these constitu-
ents is present in larger or smaller amount we find a great variation in
loams. We have, in other words, many kinds of loam. The different
kinds of loam have received names which indicate their general character.
We ordinarily distinguish at least the following kinds : heavy clay loam,
clay loam, loam, sandy loam, and light sandy loam. In an)' of the different
kinds of loam the proportion of humus may vary quite widely. This may
easily be indicated by adding a few descriptive words such as "rich in
humus," "poor in humus," etc. Our soils in some cases contain more or
less stones of varying size, in which case they are apt to be somewhat
gravel-like in quality. This gravel in many cases has much the same effect
upon the character of the soil as sand. In sonic cases, however, the gravel
contains a considerable amount of clay.
69. The less common soils — Besides the soils above named, we occa-
sionally meet with soils which possess quite unusual constituents, or common
constituents in unusually large quantity. Such soils are commonly desig-
nated by the name of the unusually abundant constituent. Among such
soils some of the more common are marl, calcareous soils, alkali soils, salt
marsh soils, and fresh marsh soils.
70. The amount of sand in different loams — The proportion of sand
in an}- of the different classes of loams varies within certain limits. If the
sand be fine more must be present in order to throw a soil into an)' one of
the classes above heavy clay loam than if it be coarse. Nevertheless, most
authorities classify loams according to the approximate amount of sand con-
tained in them, and the following statement is generally accepted : —
Heavy clay loam contains from 10 to 25 per cent, of sand.
Clay loam contains from 25 to 40 per cent, of sand.
Loam contains from 40 to 60 per cent, of sand.
Sandy loam contains from 60 to 75 per cent, of sand.
Light sandy loam contains from 75 to 90 per cent, of sand.
34
A GKICL 'L TURK ,
If a soil contains less than about 10 per cent, of sand it is clay or clay-
like ; if more than 90 per cent, of sand is present then the soil is a sand or
is very sandy.
XVII LIGHT AND HEAVY SOILS.
71. Light soils — Light soils in the agricultural sense of the word are
those which have little cohesiveness, which readily break into a meal-like
mass on being worked. Such soils work easily ; the labor of cultivating
them is light, hence the name — light soils.
72. Heavy soils — Those soils which have great cohesiveness, those
which, particularly when moist, tend to cling together, are known as
heavy soils. When worked with a plow such soils tend to turn over in
clods, they adhere to the plow or to other tools used in them. The labor
of cultivation is difficult or heavy, and hence the name — heavy soils.
73. The terms light and heavy soils have no relation to weight — The
words light and heavy as applied to soils in the ordinary agricultural sense
have no relation whatever to the absolute weight of soils. Indeed, those
soils which weigh most (sands) are lightest, while clays which weigh far
less are the heaviest of soils.
XVIII LEADING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SOIL.
74. Sandy soils — Soils which contain 80 per cent, or more of sand are
generally designated sandy. As a class such soils have but little agricul-
tural value, but there is a wide variation in the degree of suitability to crops
with the size of the particles of sand. If nearly all the sand is of the finest
grade, a sandy soil may have considerable value. As a rule, however,
sandy soils hold but little water and crops growing on them suffer in hot,
dry seasons. Such soils are poor in plant food and have but little capacity
to retain the soluble portion of manures or fertilizers. Soluble compounds
are likely to leach through them with the water, and hence such soils are
often called hungry or leachy. If a sandy soil be enriched in organic
matter it is much improved, as the latter both helps to hold water and
supplies plant food. Such matter is best supplied bv the growth of such
SOILS AND HOW TO TREAT THEM.
35
crops as cow peas or clovers, which take a part of their food from the air.
Sandy soils are warm and in some cases contain large amounts (if lime,
potash, and phosphoric acid, as for example the green sands of New Jersey,
which are very fertile. Sandy soils as a class work easily. Soils of this
class are well suited for sewage irrigation (266), for where this is practiced
both water and plant food are supplied in very large amounts and soils are-
made exceedingly productive.
75. Clay soils — The soils which are called clays must, according
to some authorities, contain at least 60 per cent, of clay. The particles
of such soils are excessively fine. When wet such soils are very tenacious ;
when dry they become hard and rock-like and cannot easily be crumbled
or broken. In long continued hot, dry weather minute crevices and cracks
open in the clayey soils, letting in the air, which dries and injures the roots,
and sometimes breaking the roots. Clayey soils are comparatively imper-
meable to water and unless a more open soil, such as sand or gravel, is found
underneath at not too great a distance from the surface, a clayey soil is
likely to be very wet and cold. If the proportion of clay is not too much
above 60 per cent, the soil may be quite fertile and yield good crops,
especially of grass and wheat. If it amounts to So or 90 per cent, the soil
will be practically unfit for use in agriculture. The crops on clayey soils are
especially likely to suffer in both wet and dry seasons. Many soils which
appear clayey contain little real clay, being composed largely of silt. Such
soils are much more workable and of far greater value than the true clayey
soils.
76. Humus soils — The peats and mucks are the best examples of soils
of this class. The proportion of humus in such soils may vary between
about twenty-five and one hundred per cent. Peat is formed by the partial
decay and modification of vegetable matter under water. It is compact and
contains but little earth. Peat is intermediate between vegetable matter and
coal. In course of time it would become converted into coal. In a certain
sense it is young coal, and if the changes which will make it coal are well
advanced it has little agricultural value. If, on the other hand, these
changes are less advanced and especially if there is a considerable mixture of
36
A GRICUL TURE ;
earth, the peaty soil on being drained and rotted may become quite produc-
tive. Muck is formed where the vegetable matter is alternately under water
and exposed to the air as the water level falls. It is less compact than peat,
and is usually more admixed with earth. It is in a more advanced condition
i >f decay, and on being dried it can easily be pulverized. After drainage
mucky soils usually become highly fertile and productive.
Fig. 4. Heavy Loam; small proportion of sand, but organic matter and silt mure
abundant; holds water, usually cold, and will form crust and crack in dry seasons;
needs aeration.
77. Heavy clay loam — Heavy clay loams have the ability to hold a
large proportion of water and in dry weather water moves up through them
from the body of soil water below, much as oil moves up the wick of the
lamp. The crops on this soil, if it is properly worked, are not likely to
suffer from drouth. Soils of this class are compact and most of the parti-
cles fine. The air does not circulate through them freely because the spaces
are too small. Such soils, then, are poorly aerated and need careful work-
ing to promote aeration. The supply of plant food in soils of this class is
comparatively large, potash especially is likely to be relatively abundant.
Such soils, moreover, have good retentive capacity. Soluble plant foods
SOILS AMD HOW TO TREAT THEM. ,7
are less likely to be washed through them than in the ease of soils of
other classes. Heavy clay loams are cold, usually moist and heavy. They
are somewhat likely to form a crust at the surface in dry weather and to
crack. Careful cultivation will, however, generally prevent injury from
these causes. Tender crops are likely to winter kill on soils of this kind.
They are in general best suited to such crops as grass and wheat.
7S. Clay loams — Loams of this class have most of the characteristics
of the heavy clay loams but in somewhat lesser degree. Their capacity to
hold water and to conduct water from below upwards is still great. They
are rather compact and are not particularly well aerated. They are some-
what likely to form a crust or to crack and need careful working. The sup-
ply of plant food, especially of potash, is usually good. The ability to retain
soluble plant food compounds is good. The soils are cool and in general
safe soils to work because the danger of injury from drouth is small. They
are excellently suited to such crops as grass and wheat, and, if the drainage
is good, will give good results with oats, onions, and some of the fruits,
among which the apple is the most important.
79. Loam — In loam all the various qualities are in good balance.
Their ability to hold and conduct water is good, the supply of food is likely
to be good, and their ability to retain soluble food compounds is consider-
able. Loams allow the air to circulate more freely than the heavier soils,
and they can be worked much more easily. They have comparatively little
tendency to the formation of a crust or to cracking. They are well suited
to almost all crops. Grass, wheat, oats, onions, beets, corn, potatoes
squashes, and fruits will ail do well upon loams, as also will clovers and al-
falfa. Those crops having their origin in the tropics and especially liking
heat are the only ones which it is best to put upon lighter soils. When,
however, it is desirable to bring the crop to maturity as earl)- as possible it
is commonly best to select a soil containing more sand.
So. Sandy loam — Soils of this class have capacity to hold only a
moderate amount of water and they do not conduct water from below up-
wards as freely as do the heavier soils. They are well aerated, light, and
easy to work. They are not likely to form a crust or to crack. The
38
AGRICULTURE .
supply of plant food is generally only moderate and they hold soluble food
compounds less effectually than the heavier soils. On soils of this class
there is greater danger of injury to crops from drouth than on those con-
taining less sand. Such soils are warm and well suited for rye, potatoes,
■ r .. a ii
(in
vm
:%>
: ■■:■'.,
m
m.:
}W
Fig. 5. Light Loam ; contains ^o large a proportion of the coarser grades of sand
that it is very light and easy to work ; will not hold water nor soluble elements of
manures well, but is warm and will give early crops.
corn, most of the common garden crops, turnips, squashes, melons, and
tomatoes. They are also very well suited to clover and alfalfa. Such soils
are likely to bring crops to maturity early, and in cases where this is desir-
able they may be preferable to soils which contain less sand.
81. Light sandy loams — Loams of this class have but little capacity to
hold or conduct water. They are not, therefore, safe soils, since crops are
quite likely to suiter or fail in hot, dry seasons. Such soils are perfectly
aerated, they do not form a crust or crack, and are very easily worked.
The natural supply oi plant food is usually comparatively small and the
ability to hold soluble food compounds is also small. These soils are warm
and are especially suited to such crops as particularly need heat, among
SOILS AND HOW TO TREAT THEM. 3g
which maybe mentioned melons, tomatoes, beans, cow peas, and crimson
clover. Alfalfa when once started will do well upon these soils. They are
hi course suited especially to all early crops.
82. Marl — This is a kind of soil which is derived chiefly from shells
which have gradually been broken up and disintegrated. These shells are
composed i>f carbonate of lime, which is therefore always abundant in marls.
This carbonate of lime is always mixed witli sand, clay, or silt. The pro-
portion of such earthy materials varies widely. Marls are not fitted for
culture. They arc ol value as manure for soils which nerd lime, and if they
contain considerable clay they may lie particularly valuable for the lighter
soils, as the clay will give these soils capacity to hold more water. More-
over, such soils are generally comparatively poor in lime.
85. Calcareous soils — Soils of this class are derived from rocks which
contain lime, such for example as limestone and marble. The gradual dis-
integration of such rocks usually furnishes a soil rich in lime, although in
some cases much of the lime becomes gradually soluble and is washed
away. Soils in limestone regions, however, generally rank high in fer-
tility. (62(7.)
84. Alkali soils — In that part of the United States which lies between
the Missouri river and the Rocky Mountains and in a feu- other localities
there are wide areas which naturally produce only a very scanty growth of
vegetation. This district was formerly designated on the map "The Great
American Desert." It has been found that the soils in this region contain
abundance of food for plants. They are unproductive because they contain
very large amounts of alkali salts. The most abundant and the most in-
jurious of these salts in most places is carbonate of soda. Such land can-
not be profitably cultivated unless the carbonate of soda can be removed or
changed into other compounds. Abundant irrigation combined with
thorough drainage will wash the carbonate out of the soils since it is very
soluble ; and after such irrigation alkali lands often become exceedingly
productive. Hilgard has pointed out that if such land receives an appli-
cation of common land plaster to the amount of a few hundred pounds per
acre the acids and bases change places, with the result thai sulfate of soda
4 o AGRICULTURE;
and carbonate of lime are formed. The sulfate of soda is not injurious and
alkali lands are often rendered productive by this treatment.
85. Salt marshes — The soil of the salt marshes found along our sea-
board exhibits wide variation. The constituents abundantly found in these
soils are clay, silt, and humus. Near the larger streams flowing through
such marshes the soil generally contains considerable clay and silt. At a
distance from these streams the proportion of clay and silt becomes small
and that of humus greater. In many places where the soil is chiefly humus
the handle of an ordinary hand rake can easily be driven down into the soft
and wet soil to its full length. All salt marshes are subject to occasional
overflow by salt water ; and these soils contain large amounts of common
salt as well as other salts which are left in them by the sea water. The
vegetation found on these marshes is entirely different from that usually
found on uplands. The soils of these marshes contain the various elements
of plant food in large amounts; and they can be made very productive by
thorough drainage and careful working', if steps are taken through the con-
struction of dikes or embankments to prevent overflow by salt water.
Those parts of the marsh where silt and clay are more abundant in the soil
become more valuable for general purposes than those portions where these
constituents are present only in small amounts. When reclaimed the salt
marshes become valuable for the production of grass and onions on the
portions containing more earthy matter, and for cranberries on the more
mucky portions.
86. Firs// marshes — The soil of our fresh marshes is composed largely
of muck and peat. The proportion and nature of these constituents vary
widely in different marshes or in different parts of the same marsh. These
soils are sometimes almost wholly organic in origin, but oftentimes consid-
erable clay and silt are mixed with the organic portion. The soils of these
marshes are usually deep and contain a large amount of the elements of
plant food. If the proportion of silt is fairly large, such soils after drainage
become very valuable for man)- of the farm crops, especially grass and
celery. With partial drainage those portions of these soils which consist
more largely of muck or peat become very valuable for cranberries, after
being covered with sand
SOILS AND HOW TO TREAT THEM. 4 1
XIX — PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS.
87. Why these are important — Under the subject Physical Character-
istics are to be considered those peculiarities of soils which affect their weight
and structure and their relations to heat, water, air, other gases, and elec-
tricity. A knowledge of those peculiarities of soils which influence their
temperature and moisture must clearly be of great importance, because
the temperature and the moisture greatly affect the growth of crops. The
physical characteristics of a soil are determined chiefly by its natural char-
acter. They can be somewhat improved and modified by man, but are
not to any very great extent under his control. It is highly necessary in
selecting a farm or soil for a particular crop to secure the right physical
characteristics. The productive capacity of soils is undoubtedly more often
determined by their physical peculiarities, in so far as these affect tempera-
ture, water supply, and the amount of air contained, than by their chem-
ical composition. The deterioration of soils, according to Snyder, is not
usually due in so great a degree to a loss of plant food as to a change in
physical conditions. Thus, for example, as a result of cultivation a soil
may gradually become closer and more retentive until at last it holds too
much water and contains too little air, and as a result bears smaller
crops. Or, it may be that under a certain system of management it will
gradually lose its ability to hold water and plant food and will become less
productive for these reasons. Soils invariably give better crops when in a
mellow, crumbly condition than when either excessively fine or lumpy. It
must be evident that a knowledge of the conditions in soils which are most
favorable to plant growth is essential to produce the best results.
88. Important physical characteristics — The more important of the
peculiarities of soils which need study in order to throw light upon their
value are the following :
1st. Weight and specific gravity.
2d. Structure and color.
3d. Relation of the soil to water.
4th. Relation of the soil to heat.
42
A GRJCUL TURK
5th. Relation of the soil to air and other gases.
6th. Relation of the soil to electricity.
yth. Capacity to hold dissolved solids.
■89. Weight and specific gravity — Soils vary greatly in weight, and
as a general rule the coarser the particles the heavier the soil. The
average weight of surface soil is usually about 75 to 80 pounds per cubic
foot. Pure sand may weigh 1 10 pounds and peat only 35 to 50 pounds
per cubic foot, and between these extremes we have every possible varia-
tion. The richer the soil in organic matter, other things being equal, the
lighter it will be. Subsoils are as a rule heavier than surface soils because
they contain less humus. The specific gravity of soils also varies widely.
The average for surface soils is about 1.2 and for subsoils about 2.0. This
means, since specific gravity indicates weight as compared with the weight
of an equal volume of water, that surface soil is about 1.2 times as heavy as
water and subsoils about twice as heavy. The specific gravity of soils is less
in proportion, as they contain more air. The presence of porous materials
for this reason decreases the specific gravity. Organic matter is the most
porous of the common constituents of soils. If, therefore, it is found that
the specific gravity of a soil is low we may usually safely conclude that the
soil is rich in humus; but if the specific gravity is high we conclude that the
soil is poor in humus.
90. Color — The color of a soil depends upon its composition and is
therefore a valuable indication as to the nature of the soil. Humus, which
is dark brown or black, causes soils to be dark-colored when moist, dark
grey when dry. Iron oxid is the chief coloring matter in all reddish soils,
while in the blue clay soils the color is due to the presence of a compound
of iron and sulfur. The color of the soil is of importance only as it influ-
ences the absorption of heat. Materials of dark color absorb a much larger
proportion of the heat from the sun than those which are light in color.
The light-colored soils reflect much of the heat instead of absorbing it. It
should be remembered in this connection that it is the color of the surface
soil only that affects the absorption of heat. A soil naturally light-colored
can lie made to absorb heat by scattering any dark-colored powder over the
SOILS AND BO W TO TREAT THEM. 43
surface. Other things being equal, a soil with a dark surface will be found
to be about S° warmer than one with a light-colored surface during the hours
of sunshine. Such a difference may affect the germination and growth of a
crop in a marked degree. All other tilings being equal, seeds germinate
more quickly and crops come forward more rapidly on soils of a dark color
than on those which are light in color.
91. Structure — The structure of a soil is of the greatest agricultural
importance because it influences the movement of air and water in the soil
and the results of cultivation. The structure of a soil depends upon the
size and shape of the soil particles, both of which influence the way in which
these particles pack. Where the particles are large and uniform in size the
interspaces ( i. e. , spaces between the particles) are large and constitute a
considerable portion of the bulk of the soil. If the particles are smaller the
interspaces are smaller. With particles of uneven size the soil packs more
closely because the smaller fragments fill in the spaces between the larger
particles. If the soil particles are angular or flattened they pack more
closely than if rounded. A good road cannot be made from round cobble-
stones. These will not pack. Broken stone will pack closely and makes a
firm and permanent road. Although most of the particles in the soil are
comparatively fine, the principle is the same. A soil composed of rounded
particles does not pack and form a crust. Both too open a structure and
too great compactness are undesirable. The structure of the soil should be
such as to allow water from rains to pass downward through it with mod-
erate rapidity. It should, however, be sufficiently compact to prevent too
rapid downward movement of such water. The structure of the soil has an
intimate relation to the total amount of surface of its particles. The finer
the particles the greater is this surface. It has been found by calculation
that the total surface of all the particles in a cubic foot of fine soil may
amount to two and one-half to three acres. The total surface of all the
particles in the soil of one acre of land to the depth of one foot may there-
fore amount to more than 100,000 acres. In coarse sands and gravels the
total surface is much less. The agencies which dissolve plant food act mainly
on the surface of the particles of the soil, and therefore the greater the total
44
A GRJCUL TURE ;
amount of surface exposed to the action of air and water and the acid in
the roots of the plants, the greater the amount of food which is rendered
available. The fact that solubility is affected by the amount of surface ex-
posed to the action of the solvent has been made very evident by the
results of an experiment with a glass bottle. This bottle was filled with
water and was boiled for a week, at the end of which time it was found that
only two grams of the glass (about one-fifteenth of an ounce) had been
dissolved. The bottle was then ground into a fine powder and this powder
was boiled for a week, when it was found that one-third of the total weight
had been dissolved. Within ordinary limits the greater the proportion of
soluble constituents the more productive the soil. It therefore follows, other
things being equal, the finer the soil the more productive it will be. There
is, however, such a thing as excessive fineness. Soil holds water, as a rule,
in proportion to the amount of surface of all its particles, and when the par-
ticles are excessively fine, as in clay, so much water is held in the soil as to
render it unfit for plant growth. Investigations have shown that no crop
will flourish in a soil which contains less than about 1,700,000,000 particles
to the gram (about one-thirtieth of an ounce). Grass and wheat are found
to do best in soil containing as many as 14,000,000,000 particles to the
gram. The number of particles in a given bulk of soil indicates in a general
way its suitability for different crops. Good corn land should be sufhcientlv
fine to contain from 6,000,000,000 to 7,000,000,000 particles to the gram.
The arrangement of the particles in the soil also has a close connection with
its agricultural value because it affects the degree of compactness and the
relation to water. No satisfactory method of determining the arrangement
has yet been discovered. Warrington says that it is not best that the soil
consist entirely of separate solid particles, and points out that where some
of the particles cling more or less closely together, making what he calls
compound particles, conditions are more favorable to the production of good
crops than when each solid particle is separate.
SOILS AMD HOW TO TREAT THEM. 45
XX — RELATION OF THE SOIL To WATER.
92. The amount of water required by crops — All plants are dependent
for their existence and development upon the continuous and sufficient
supply of water throughout their entire period of growth, and the total
quantity of water required is very large (14). For each pound of dry
matter in the crop it is estimated that from 250 to 400 pounds of water
must be furnished to the plant. In an experiment in New York in produc-
ing a pound of dry matter in oats 522 pounds of water were used. For a
pound of dry matter in corn, 234 pounds of water ; for a pound of dry
matter in potatoes, 423 pounds of water ; and it was calculated that to pro-
duce a crop of 450 bushels of potatoes to the acre 1,310 tons of water were
required. Throughout growth, water is continually passing through the
plant, being taken into the roots and thrown off chiefly through the leaves.
This process of throwing off water through the leaves is known as trans-
piration. The quantity of water used by large crops of different kinds
varies quite widely. It has been calculated that : —
One acre of wheat exhales an amount of water equal to a layer over the
entire surface 1.8 inches deep.
One acre of clover, 4.5 inches.
One acre of cabbages, 21.6 inches.
One acre of corn, 6 inches.
In addition to the water which is exhaled by the crop there is a constant
loss of water by direct evaporation from the soil, a loss which becomes very
great in hot, dry weather, especially if such weather be accompanied by
drying winds. The soil then has to meet both the demand of the crop and
this loss by direct evaporation. An attempt was made a few years ago in
the Iowa Experiment Station to determine the total of water removed from
the soil through these two agencies. The results were as follows : Per ton
of clover hay the loss of water amounted to 1,560 tons. If spread over one
acre this would amount to a layer 13.7 inches deep. Per ton of air-dry
corn fodder, the loss was 570 tons ; for one acre a layer 5 inches deep.
Per ton of oats and straw, the loss was 1,200 tons ; for one acre a layer 11
46 AGRICULTURE ;
inches deep. For 450 bushels of potatoes the loss was 1,310 tons ; for one
acre a layer 12 inches deep. For one acre of pasture 3,223 tons, a layer 28
inches deep. The average rainfall during the season occupied by the growth
of some of these crops is often less in many parts of our country than the
loss of water which these experiments indicate ; and even where the average
is not less we frequently have seasons during which it is less. The average
rainfall in Amherst, Mass., during the five months, May to September inclu-
sive, for the past sixty years has been about 20. 25 inches. This would be
sufficient to cover the total loss of water indicated for most of the crops
above named, but in 1870 the rainfall during these months amounted to only
1 1.5 inches ; in 188 1 it was less than 15 inches ; in 1888 it was 13.5 inches ;
in 1893 it was 17.25 inches ; in 1894, 13.5 inches ; and in 1895, 17.0 inches.
As a rule the rainfall decreases as we go west from the Atlantic seaboard.
It is considerably less at Albany than at Amherst, much less at Buffalo than
at Albany, less in Chicago than in Buffalo, while at the Missouri river the
total annual rainfall is only about 20 inches, and at the foot of the Rocky
Mountains it is often not more than 7 or 8 inches. These figures, then,
emphasize the great importance of securing soils having capacity to retain
and conduct water.
93. Kinds of soil water — The water contained in soil may be con-
sidered to be of three kinds, for which the names hydrostatic water, capillary
water, and hygroscopic water are generally given.
Hydrostatic water is spoken of by some authors as ground water or
standing water, and Whitney speaks of it as gravitation water. Hydrostatic
water is that portion of the soil water which stands between its particles, that
would drain away if given an opportunity to escape. Below a certain level,
which may be at a greater or lesser distance from the surface, in all soils we
find the spaces between the particles entirely filled with water. This water
which stands between the particles is hydrostatic water. The height to
which it rises in the soil is indicated by the level which water reaches in sur-
face wells or holes which are sunk in the field. The upper surface of the
body of hydrostatic water is designated the water table.
Capillary water is that part of the soil water which would be retained in
SOILS AND HOW TO TREAT THEM.
47
the interspaces of the soil under existing' conditions and which would move
through the soil from a more moist to a less moist portion, even in opposi-
tion to gravitation, which tends to cause it to move downward. Capillary
water is often drawn from the hydrostatic water in the lower portion of the
soil, climbing up through that portion of the soil between the water table
and the surface as oil climbs up through the wick of a lamp. It is the cap-
illary water of the soil from which the roots of plants mainly derive the
needed supply.
The hygroscopic water of the soil is that portion of the water found on
the surfaces of the particles which is not capable of movement through the
action either of gravitation or capillary force. According- to some authori-
ties hygroscopic water is that part of the soil water which is absorbed out of
the air. Hygroscopic water does not change the appearance of the soil, it
does not cause it either to look or feel moist. The amount present is usually
small and of no direct importance to vegetation as a source of supply.
Hilgard points out, however, that in very hot weather hygroscopic water
undoubtedly helps to prevent the soil from becoming excessively hot.
94. The water capacity of soils — The capacity of a soil to hold water
is always exactly proportional to the total space between all its particles.
This varies quite widely in different soils. In coarse sands it amounts to
about one-third of the space occupied by the soil ; while in soils rich in
vegetable matter it may amount to about two-thirds of the whole. When a
soil is full\ r saturated with water all its interspaces are filled, and accordingly
it is found that soils will hold from about one-third to about two-thirds of
their volume of water. The plant, however, cannot grow in a soil where
the spaces are entirely filled with water. For healthy root development the
soil must contain air as well as water. Of greater importance, then, than a
knowledge of how much water a soil would hold with its spaces entirely
filled, is a knowledge of how much water it retains when there is free oppor-
tunity for water to escape by drainage. In other words, it is important to
know how much capillary water soils of different kinds contain. The differ-
ent soils vary widely. The coarsest sands retain but little capillary water,
sometimes not more than 15 per cent. ; while the heavy clay loams and soils
48 A GRICUL TURE ;
containing a large amount of humus retain much more, often amounting to
as much as 50 or 60 per cent. Ordinary loams are usually able to hold
about 40 per cent, of capillary water. A good loam with a subsoil also of
such structure as to favor the retention of water often holds within a depth
of five feet from the surface such an amount of water as to equal a layer
over the entire field of from 1 1 to 20 inches in depth. It is chiefly upon this
great store of water and that which rises from below to replace it, when
taken up by plants or lost by evaporation, that the growing crop depends
for its supplv.
95. Percolation of water — The passage of water downward through
the soil in obedience to gravity is known as percolation. Percolation is
always greatest where the capacity to retain water is least. The character-
istics in soil which produce little retention are favorable to large percolation,
and the opposite is equally true. As a rule water percolates the more rap-
idly in proportion as the particles making up the soil are coarser. Experi-
ments have shown that only about one-eighth as much water will percolate
in a given time through a sand with grains of the average diameter of 1-100
of an inch as will pass in the same time through a sand whose grains have
an average diameter of about 2-100 of an inch. The quantity which will
pass through a clayey loam is only about one-twentieth as great as the
quantity which will pass through the finest sand. If clay be puddled, i. e.,
worked in any way until it has been reduced to a mass of single particles,
practically no water can percolate through it, and, even in the condition in
which we ordinarily find clay in the field, the resistance to the passage of
water is so great that it percolates only with extreme slowness. The slow
percolation through the finer soils is due mainly to the fact that the spaces
between the particles are so small that the resistance to the downward move-
ment of the water is very great. If the soil contains a large amount of clay
the passage of water is further hindered, because clay often contains consid-
erable jelly-like substance which occupies the interspaces, absorbs consider-
able water and holds it most retentively. Under conditions existing in fertile
loams percolation is much facilitated by the presence of the channels opened
by earthworms or by the roots of plants, as well as by the minute crevices
SOUS AND HOW TO TREAT THEM. 49
and cracks which form in time of drouth. It is in the case of the clay soils
that the last named effect is most important. Both too rapid and too great
percolation on the one hand, and, on the other hand, too slow or too little
percolation are undesirable : the first, because the water passes too rapidly
below the reach of the roots of plants and because soluble plant food is
likely to be washed into the subsoil ; and the second, because the soil is
likely to become too cold and wet and to be imperfectly aerated.
96. The capillary properties of soils — Those properties of the soil
which affect the amount and the movement of the capillary water are of the
utmost importance. The)' undoubtedly affect its value more than any other
characteristic. The word capillar)' comes from the Latin word which means
hair. The movement of liquids upward in obedience to the laws of capil-
lary attraction was first noticed in excessively fine glass tubes open at both
ends and standing in water or other fluids, and hence, since the opening of
these tubes was hair-like, the name "capillary attraction" was selected.
The rise of liquid in the fine tube is not as a matter of fact due to the
action of any special force peculiar to the tube. The surface of any solid
when plunged into water is wet when withdrawn because the water adheres
to the solid. Water rises in a glass tube or in the small spaces existing in a
mass of earth simply because of the attraction of the surface particles of
the glass or sand for the water. This attraction is at first greater than the
attraction of gravitation and the water will continue to rise until it reaches
such a height that gravitation balances the attraction of the surfaces. The
height tn which the water is raised is greater the narrower the tube or the
finer the spaces in the soil. In soils we haye not, it is true, any system of
unbroken tubes, but the various particles rest one upon the other and the
spaces between are at many points very narrow and so the water moves in
obedience to the same force as in the fine tube. There is in addition
another force at work. This is known as surface tension. The film of
water which surrounds the particles of soil may be likened to a thin mem-
brane or skin surrounding the particle and exerting a considerable pressure
upon it. Surface tension causes this thin film of water to adhere closely to
the particle. It should be remembered that every particle of soil under
so AGRICULTURE ;
ordinary conditions is surrounded by such a film of water. Under varying
conditions of weather and drainage these films of water which surround t'^e
particles come to vary in thickness in different parts of the soil, but whenever
two particles holding unequal amounts of water lie in contact with each
other there is a tendency to equalization. The particle which holds more
water gives up a portion to the particle which holds less. Capillary water
in soils, then, is held in part in the small spaces as the water is held in a fine
tube, in part as a thin film on the surfaces of all the particles, and there is a
constant tendency for this water to move in obedience to the laws of capil-
lar)' attraction and surface tension until the supply is equal in all parts of
the soil. Absolute equality, however, is practically never reached. Gravi-
tation helps to prevent. There is more capillar)' water near the water table
than at a greater distance. As a rule the proportion of capillary water de-
creases from the part of the soil immediately above the water table, which
contains most, toward the surface, which, except soon after or during storms,
usually contains least. It should be remembered, however, that water may
move downward or sidewise in obedience to the laws of capillary attraction
and surface tension as freely as upward ; indeed, more freely, because gravi-
tation does not resist such movement to the same extent. It is, however,
the movement of the water from below — from the great reservoir of
hydrostatic water found in practically all soils — which is of most impor-
tance. All soils possess more or less capillarity. The coarser soils such as
sands have least of this property. Water will rise rapidly through sand for
a time but the; spaces are so large that it is not raised to any considerable
distance. In finer soils the water rises more slowly but it continues to rise
for a long time and will rise to a considerable distance. The presence of
silt and of a moderate proportion of clay is highly favorable to capillary
action ; so, too, is the presence of humus, while on the other hand the pres-
ence of large proportions of coarse sand and gravel is highly unfavorable.
The rise of capillary water from below during the growing season plays an
important part in supplying our crops with needed moisture. When the
water table is far below the surface, capillary action may nut bring it to the
very surface, but in almost all cases the- movement upward will bring the
SOILS AND HOW TO TREAT THEM. 5I
water sufficiently near the surface so that the roots of ordinary plants can
feed upon it. When a soil contains about one-half of the total capillary
water it is capable of retaining, the conditions are usually best for the
growth of the crop.
97. Evaporation of water — Under ordinal'}' conditions water is steadily
evaporating from the surface. The conditions which favor rapid evapora-
tion are high temperature, dry air, and drying winds. The rate at which
water is lost as the result of evaporation is affected by the following soil
conditions : —
1st. The coarser the soil the more easily it parts with water.
2d. Humus increases the capacity of the soil to hold water.
Sanely soils as a class dry rapidly. Clays and heavy loams hold water
very retentively. The amount of water which will evaporate from a given
field depends, further, upon the amount of surface exposed to sun and air.
A roughly plowed field dries more rapidly than a field which has been har-
rowed and rolled. The escape of water into the air by evaporation is, from
the farmer's point of view, a loss, because his crop is likely to need more
water than it finds Whatever can be done, then, to decrease the loss of
water by evaporation is in many cases desirable. The escape of water into
the air, from another point of view, must lie looked upon as more serious than
a simple loss of possibly needed moisture. It is more serious because the
evaporation of water cools the soil, and, other things being equal, the soil
from which a large quantity of water is evaporating must be considerably
cooler than one from which evaporation is small. In the case of observations
in mam" different places it has been found that a wet soil from which water is
rapidly evaporating is often as much as 8° or 10° cooler than a drier soil of
the same characteristics. The evaporation of water from a soil is naturally
greater during summer than winter, but even during" the latter season when
the ground is bare there is sometimes a kiss amounting to from I to 1^ inches
per month. In summer when the weather is very hot and dry and with vio-
lent drying winds, the loss of water by evaporation is sometimes as great as
5 inches per month. The total loss of water from the surface of cultivated
land as a direct consequence of evaporation seems to amount in some parts
5 2 A GRIC UL TURE ;
of New England and the Middle States to a layer about 20 inches deep per
year. The loss of water by evaporation may to some extent be lessened by
frequent shallow cultivation, by wind-breaks, and by mulches. The frequent
shallow cultivation of fields and gardens is one of the most effective of the
means whereby evaporation can be lessened. A shallow layer of mellow
and light soil at the surface prevents in a measure the movement of capillary
water to the surface, where, being exposed to the air and the heat of the
sun, it is likely to evaporate. This effect appears to be due to the fact that
in the mellow soil the spaces between the particles are so large that water
cannot move through it freely. Water will rise from below in obedience to
the laws of capillary attraction until it reaches this loose and mellow earth.
Here it is in a measure stopped. The soil below this layer will remain per-
manently moist, while the layer itself may be dry. Frequent shallow culti-
vation in time of drouth is one of the most effective of the means whereby
injury from drouth can be prevented. A covering of straw, seaweed, or hay,
known as a mulch, acts in someu'hat the same wav. The soil below the mulch
is kept moist, while the mulch itself may be dry. The use of certain fertil-
izers will sometimes give soil added power to hold water. Among such
substances may be mentioned muriate of potash, nitrate of soda, and
common salt. An increase in the quantity of humus in the soil is another
effective means of helping it to hold water and thus of lessening the loss by
evaporation.
98. The ability of plants to exhaust the soil of water — Xo plant is
capable of using all the water which the soil contains. When the amount
of water falls below a certain limit the plant wilts, although there may still
be a considerable amount of water in the soil. This is because the soil holds
a small quantity of water so firmly that the root cannot take it. It has
been pointed out (94) that some soils hold water in much greater amount
than others. Plants will wilt on these soils when they contain a larger pro-
portion of water than suffices for the needs of the plant on a more sandy
soil. Sands usually retain only from 15 to 20 per cent, of capillary water.
The plant continues to grow until the amount of water is reduced to 5 or 6
per cent. Loams are capable of retaining from 40 to 50 per cent, of capil-
SOILS AND HOW TO TREAT THEM. g,
lary water, but plants growing cm loams will wither when their water content
is reduced as low as i 2 or 15 per cent. As a general rule plants begin to wilt
as soon as the water content of the soil in which they are growing becomes
less than one-third of the total quantity they are capable of holding. On
the other hand, few crops thrive when the soil in which the)' are growing con-
tains much over 60 per cent, of the total quantity a soil can hold.
99. The effect of drying — The most noticeable effect produced on
soils by drying- is a decrease in bulk. The results of this decrease are often
seen in the case of clayey soils, which contract to such an extent that narrow
cracks open in the soil. Just as the board or plank sometimes cracks or
checks on drying, so does the clayey soil crack. This cracking of heavy
soils in dry weather is highly injurious to the crops growing upon such soils
(75) and the careful cultivator seeks to prevent injury by frequent shallow
cultivation. If the surface can be kept loose and mellow by frequent stir-
ring, injury from this cause is prevented. Soils which consist largely of
peat or muck, which in their natural condition are usually very wet, shrink
a great deal after drainage. This is partly the direct consequence of the
loss of water, but is in part due to the decrease caused by the rotting of the
vegetable matter which sets in after the water is removed. After thorough
drainage the level of marshes falls, and tiles which were originally suffi-
ciently deep are brought too near the surface. In planning for drainage of
such soils this point should be kept in mind.
100. Absorption of vapor of water by soils — It was formerly believed
that under some conditions soils are capable of absorbing a considerable
amount of water from moisture-laden air, and that the water so absorbed
would prove useful to the growing crop. It is without doubt true that soils
sometimes absorb moisture from the air. They do this in obedience to the
same laws as those which cause the wood in a chest of drawers to absorb
moisture and to swell so that the drawers cannot be moved. The quantity
of water, however, which can be thus absorbed by soils appears never to be
sufficient to serve as a direct source of moisture to the crop. Long before
the soil is sufficientlv dry to absorb moisture from the air, the crop must
have withered and died. There is, however, air in the soil occupying the
54 AGRICULTURE ;
spaces between the particles. These particles are generally inoist and the
air in contact with these moist particles takes up large amounts of moisture.
Under some conditions this moist air rises through the soil and as it comes
into contact with drier soil nearer the surface this soil may take up a part of
the moisture which the air carries. Hilgard believes that moisture so taken
up plays an important part in tempering the heat of the surface soil. He
believes that without it soil near the surface might often become far too hot
for the best growth of the crop. The absorption of moisture from the air
and the evaporation of this moisture from the surface soil helps to prevent
this over-heating. The conditions favorable to the absorption of vapor of
water from the air are the same as those which give the soil good capillary
qualities, viz., fineness, as in soils containing fair amounts of clay and silt,
and a large proportion of humus.
XXI RELATION OF SOIL TO HEAT.
ioi. Importance of a suitable temperature in tin: soil — The relation of
the soil to heat greatly affects its value, and as a rule in the climate of New
England and the Middle States the conditions which favor warmth in the
soil are to lie looked upon as desirable, for the reason that the seasons in
this part of the country are comparatively short. Many of our crops are
liable to injur) - from frosts, and anything which increases the heat of the soil,
especially in spring or fall, is desirable. Plant life is possible only within
certain limits of temperature. Below a certain degree of heat, which is dif-
ferent for different plants, seeds fail to germinate ami the plant fails to grow.
Wheat, rye, peas, clovers, and turnips will germinate when the soil has a
temperature of from 32 to 40 F. ; corn, sorghum, carrots, when it has a
temperature of from 40 to 51 ° F. ; tomatoes, tobacco, and pumpkins, when
the soil temperature is from 51 to 6o° F. ; while cucumbers and melons will
not germinate when the temperature is under 6o° F. The best temperature
for the germination of some of our most common seeds is as follows: —
For barley, 6i°-77° F.
For oats, 77 F.
SOILS AND HOW TO TREAT THEM. 55
For turnips, 77°-,SS° F.
For clover, yj°-ioo"-' F.
For cucumbers, 88° F.
For corn and melons, 88°-ioo° F.
For pumpkins, ioo u F.
The influence of temperature is not confined to germination. It is
equally as great on the later growth of the crop. As a rule those crops
whose seeds germinate at a comparatively low temperature will grow and
mature in comparatively cool soils. A crop of barley has been grown with
the temperature of the soil as low as 50 F. but it was imperfectly matured.
Growth was far better at 68° F. Rye will mature at a lower temperature
than barley; wheat recpiires a somewhat higher temperature; and corn
higher still. The temperature of the soil, besides directly influencing- the
germination, growth, and ripening of the crop, influences the supply of
available food in the soil. A high temperature is favorable to the decompo-
sition of vegetable matter and humus and helps to convert the nitrogen of
such materials into nitrates, which, it will be remembered, are the best ni-
trogen food constituents ( 22).
102. Sources of heat in the soil — The temperature of the soil is
affected to some slight extent by the internal heat of the earth and by
chemical changes, especially the rotting of organic matter, but its tempera-
ture depends almost entirely upon heat received from the sun.
(a) There is no doubt that the interior of our earth is still enormously
hot. The excavation of deep mines and wells has shown that when we get
below the surface soil the average temperature usually increases about 1° F,
in each 50 or 60 feet of depth. To how great an extent the interior heat
is conducted to the surface soil has not been determined, but that this heat
does affect the temperature near the surface is evident from observations
which have been made, as well as from some facts which have come to the
attention of almost all. A set of observations made in Pekin are of the
greatest interest in this connection. These show the temperature of the soil
at different distances below the surface on a number of different dates. The
most important results are shown in the table : —
larch 8.
March 15.
3- 2 4
4-23
4.17
4-93
S-S3
6.30
56 AGRICULTURE;
Soil Temperature. Pekin.
Depth. Indies. March 1.
18.7 1.43
40.O 3.34
63.O 5.54
It will be noticed that, as would be the case here at the same season, the
temperature of the soil at each of the given depths was increasing as the
season advanced. It will be further noticed that the temperature of the soil
at the middle depth is higher than at the surface at all three dates. The
temperature of the earth at this depth therefore could not have been raised
by contact with the earth above it. The increase in the temperature of the
middle layer, as well as of the lowest laver, must be due to heat rising from
below. Nearly every one must have noticed that, especially in seasons when
the snow is deep, the frost comes out of the ground from below. It would
seem that this also must be due to the interior heat of the earth.
( b ) Chemical changes as a source of heat — Many chemical reactions
are accompanied with heat, but the only chemical changes which result in
the production of sufficient heat to be of any particular importance in the
soil are those connected with the decay of vegetable matter. As much heat
will be generated by the slow rotting of a log in the open air as would be
produced should the log be burned in a fire. It is equally true that as much
heat is produced by the rotting of strawy manure or vegetable matter of any
kind as would be produced should these materials be burned. When the
soil receives a heavy application of manure which rots rapidly, as, for
example, horse manure, its temperature is sometimes appreciably raised.
Georgeson found that the average temperature of soil during the first twenty
days after manuring was raised about 2.25 F. by the application of 40 tons
of manure to the acre. By the application of 80 tons to the acre the average
temperature was raised from 3 to 4 F. Wollny observed that an appli-
cation of 20 tons of manure appreciably raised the temperature of the soil
for a period of time varying from four to twelve weeks. The average in-
crease of the temperature of the soil was i° F. The influence of a heavy
application of manure in raising the temperature is sufficiently great to be
measured for only a comparatively short time ; nevertheless, since seeds
SOILS AND //Oil' TO TREAT THEM. 57
are often put into the ground immediately after manure is applied, this in-
crease in temperature may push the crop forward to such an extent as to be
of practical value. The mixture of any kind of vegetable matter with the
sou may also result in an increase in its temperature. The plowing in of
green crops may have this result ; but such crops rot so much more slowly
than stable manures that the increase is much smaller. These crops rot
fastest in warm weather ; in the ear])- spring they would not rot with suffi-
cient rapidity to appreciably raise the temperature of the soil. Tillage
operations, which loosen the soil and let the air into it more freely, cause a
more rapid decay of organic matter and may therefore help to make the soil
warmer.
(c) The heat of the sun — Heat derived from the sun is, of course, the
chief means whereby the soil is warmed. It, alone, suffices under favorable
conditions to raise the soil to such a temperature that germination of seeds
and the growth of crops are possible. In some northern latitudes which are
occupied by man the subsoil is always frozen, the crops coming to maturity
in the portion of the soil at the surface thawed and warmed by the heat of
the sun. The extent to which solar heat warms the soil is modified by
numerous conditions.
103. Color as affecting the temperature of the soil — That a soil, the
surface of which is dark or black, under otherwise equal conditions, is
always much warmer during the hours of sunshine than one with a light-
colored surface has been pointed out ( 90 ).
104. The specific heat of the so/7 — As specific gravity is an indication
of weight as compared with water taken as a standard, so the specific heat
of soils indicates the amount of heat required to raise their temperature to
the same amount as water taken as a standard. The specific heat of water,
then, is considered 1, that of ordinary soils is . 20 or. 25. This means that to
raise the temperature of the soil to the same amount as the temperature of
water would be reused requires only from 1-5 to 1-4 as much heat. In other
words, if both soil and water receive the same supply of heat, 4 or 5 pounds
of soil will be raised in temperature to the same degree as 1 pound of water.
It therefore follows that the soil which contains much water warms slowly.
5 £ AGRICULTURE :
Wet soils are cold soils (66). An actual difference of temperature amount-
ing to from io° to 18° F. has been noticed between soils of the same
character, one wet and the other dry. The variation in specific heat of dif-
ferent dry soils is not very wide. Those whose specific heat is least are
warmed most by exposure to the sunshine, provided the color is the
same. The difference in the specific heat of ' equal volumes of soils of
different kinds, provided they are all dry, is not sufficiently great to mate-
rially affect the rate at which they warm. It is the amount of water which
the soil holds, chiefly, which has an influence on the rate of warming. Soils
which retain least water warm most quickly. Sands, therefore, warm more
quickly than silts and clays. A soil containing much humus warms com-
paratively slowly on account of the large amount of water retained. The
dark color of the humus, on the other hand, favors absorption of heat.
Tillage, which usually makes the soil at the very surface drier, facilitates the
warming of the surface soil.
105. The power of the so/7 to conduct heat — The temperature of the
soil depends in part on its power to conduct heat. It is the surface soil
which is warmed first by the heat of the sun. This heat is gradually con-
ducted downward. The rate at which it is conducted differs widely in the
different soils. As a rule the coarser the soil particles the better its con-
ducting power. Gravels and coarse sands, when not disturbed by tillage
operations, conduct heat downward best and therefore warm most deeply.
Tillage, widening the spaces between the particles of the soil, hinders the
passage of heat downward, while rolling helps in that direction. The
amount of water in the soil influences the conduction of heat. 'Water, it is
true, is a poor conductor, but poor as it is it is better than air. The more
air in the interspaces of the soil the more slowly it warms downward.
When water is present in large amount, replacing the air, the soil warms
downward more rapidly. A fine, dry, and loose soil conducts heat the worst
of all kinds. The gravelly and sand)' loams, which not only conduct heat
freely but hold it retentively, average warmer than other soils and are there-
fore always selected for early crops.
106. The angle at which the sun's rays strike the earth — The angle at
SOILS AND HOW TO TREAT THEM.
59
which the rays of the sun strike the soil influences its temperature in a
marked degree. The more nearly perpendicular they are the more they
warm the soil. In the latitude of the northern portion of the United States
the sun is always in the south, the height in the heavens varying, as is well
known, with the season. It follows from this fact that when the surface of
a field or garden slopes moderately to the south the rays of the sun are
more nearly perpendicular to the surface and the soil becomes warmer.
The precise angle which would insure the greatest possible absorption of
heat must of course differ with the height of the sun, or, in other words,
with the season. It is of course most important that conditions be made as
favorable as possible for absorption of heat in spring and fall, and for this
reason a slope with an angle of from about 25 to 30 from the horizontal is
usually considered best. A slope slightly to the east of south is generally
warmer during that part of the year when the extra warmth insured by the
slope is most important, but some crops, especially fruits grown on the
southeastern slopes, are particularly liable to injury from strong sunshine in
the early morning while still frozen. The selection of a southern or south-
eastern slope is particularly important for vineyards and for earl)- garden
crops.
107. Vertical walls affect the temperature of the soil — It is a fact of
everyday knowledge that it is warmer on the south side of a vertical wall
of any kind than in the open air, and very much warmer than on the north
side. In some observations which have been made the soil on the south
side of a wall at the surface was found to be 32 higher than on the north
side, while at a depth of four inches the soil on the south side was 1S the
warmer. These observations were made in the month of March. It is in
part to secure the advantage of this increase in temperature that lines of
board fence are usually put up on the north side of hot beds and early seed
beds, and it is because of the superior warmth on the south side of reflect-
ing walls that certain fruits will ripen in some localities in latitudes so far to
the north or in so cold a climate that they would not come to maturity
without this advantage.
108. Influence of vegetation — When a soil is covered by a thick
60 AGRICULTURE;
growth of plants of any kind it is colder in summer and warmer in winter
than if bare. A thick growth of grass keeps the soil beneath much cooler
than similar soils without such a covering. This result is in part a conse-
quence of the shade afforded by a thick growth of plants of any kind, but is
also partly due to the fact that the soil if thickly filled with grass roots
is a much poorer conductor than it would be if not so filled.
109. Influence of water on the temperature of the soil — A number of
important influences which water exerts on the soil have been pointed out
(95, 97, 104). The influence of the water in some directions is favorable to
warmth, but in other directions its influence is very unfavorable. The final
effect of the presence of large amounts of water is to greatly lower the
summer temperature of the soil. It has this effect, first, because of the high
specific heat of the water, which causes it to warm relatively little in the sun;
second, because when it evaporates it renders a large amount of heat latent.
King has calculated that the evaporation of one pound of water from a cubic
foot of clay will lower the temperature of the clay about io°. Third, wet
soil is a better conductor of heat than dry, and so the heat absorbed by the
surface soil is conducted downward to the subsoil to a greater extent in wet
than in dry soils. The consequence is that the surface soil is cooled. Water
exercises so great an influence on the temperature of the soils that it over-
balances all other conditions which are favorable to warmth. A drv soil of
a light color is consequently warmer than a moist soil of a dark color. The
coldness of soils during the summer season will generally be found almost
exactly proportional to the amount of water present. The wetter the soil
the colder it usually is. It is only during the winter that the wet soil may
be warmer than a dry one. Whenever the subsoil is saturated with water
the rise of this water due to capillary attraction tends to keep the surface
soil cold.
It sometimes happens that in early spring we have rainfalls which bring
water considerably warmer than the soil. When this is the case, if the soil
is of such character that the warm rain can soak freely through it, it is some-
times quite rapidly warmed. It is, practically, only under such conditions
that the effect of water is favorable to a rise in the temperature of the soil.
SO/LS AND //Oil' TO TREAT THEM. 61
no. The temperature of the subsoil — In the latitude of the northern
part of the United States the temperature of the soil at the surface,
especially during the summer, varies widely from day to night, but this daily
variation is seldom felt below the depth of about three feet. The variation
in temperature due to a change in season is of course felt to a considerably
greater depth, but observations show that at the depth of only twenty feet
the difference in temperature of the soil from summer to winter usually
amounts to only i° or 2°, while below the depth of seventy-five feet the
temperature of the soil is practically unvarying. In temperate climates the
temperature of the subsoil at moderate depths is somewhat cooler than the
temperature of the surface soil from about the first of April to the first of
September, while during the balance of the year the subsoil is somewhat
warmer than the surface soil. The temperature of the subsoil at moderate
depths is of course affected by the varying temperature of the soil above,
and to some extent by the less varying temperature of the soil below. The
extent to which the temperature of the subsoil at moderate depths varies de-
pends largely upon the power of the soil to conduct heat.
111. Comparative temperature of soil and air — The average tempera-
ture of the soil throughout the year is not far from that of the air in the
same locality. The surface soil, however, during the hours of bright sun-
shine not infrequently becomes much warmer than the air, and at night it
ma}' sometimes become cooler, although extensive observations by Stock-
bridge appear to indicate that in most cases the temperature of the soil at
the surface even at night is higher than that of the air. In explanation of
the fall of dew, soils and plants are often compared to an ice pitcher upon
the cold surface of which some of the moisture of the air condenses, and
the conclusion is therefore sometimes drawn that soils and plants ma)- gain
water during the night in the form of dew. Stockbridge's observations
make it evident that the cold air at night must usually play the part of the
ice pitcher, and that the moisture contained in the warm air rising from the
soil, or being thrown off in the form of vapor from the leaves of plants, is
condensed as soon as it reaches the cold open air, and deposited as dew on
the surface of the ground or on the leaves of the plant. It would not seem,
62 A GRICUL TUki; ;
therefore, that soils and plants gain water as a rule by condensing moisture
from the air in the shape of dew.
112. The soil air — The spaces between the particles of soil when not
filled with water or when but partly filled with water contain air. This air,
however, differs in its composition from the free air above. It generally
contains less oxygen, more carbonic acid, and more also of ammonia and
vapor of water. The larger quantities of carbonic acid and ammonia are
clue to the fact that practically all soils contain organic matter or humus and
as these materials decay carbonic acid and ammonia are formed. Both of
these compounds are gases at ordinary temperatures, but the soil water
absorbs them freely and, after being absorbed, they may serve a useful pur-
pose in the nutrition of plants. The carbonic acid absorbed by the water
helps it to dissolve plant food (49), while ammonia, absorbed by water and
taken in by the roots of plants, is itself a plant food. All soils have a cer-
tain amount of ability to absorb and condense gases which may exist in the
air, whether it be in the open air which circulates above them or in the soil
air. Among gases which may be thus absorbed and condensed the most
important, from the standpoint of the farmer, is ammonia or carbonate of
ammonia. Observations which have been made in various parts of the
world have established the fact that soils absorb a considerable quantity of
these compounds — so much, indeed, that it is of distinct benefit to crops.
Those soils which contain considerable amounts of silt or organic matter
have the greatest capacity to absorb and to hold these compounds.
The oxygen of the soil air is not without importance, for seeds cannot ger-
minate nor roots grow in a healthy manner in the absence of this element.
In soils which contain insufficient air seeds rot, and first the root and then
the whole plant becomes diseased. The oxygen of the soil air, moreover, is
one of the most active of the agents which gradually render constituents of
the soil available as plant food (48).
1 13. The soil and electricity — Modern investigation indicates that there
are frequently weak currents of electricity passing through soil. This elec-
tricity is for the most part of frictional origin; the movement of particles of
the soil one over the other and the contact of the moving air in the shape
SOILS AND 110 W TO TREAT THEM.
63
of wind with the surface of the ground generating weak electric currents. So
far as is known the electricity of the soil is not of great importance. It has
been determined, however, that the passage of electricity through the soil
may have a slight effect in making some of its useful constituents more
soluble, and it is furthur known that ozone is largely produced by the pas-
sage of electrical currents through the air. Ozone is simply what may be
termed a condensed and more active form of oxygen, whose action upon the
soil may be important in increasing the availability of some of its constitu-
ents. It seems quite certain, however, that the amount of electricity in
soils under natural conditions is not sufficient to be of any considerable
importance. There is some evidence to show that passing moderate elec-
trical currents through the soil may have a sufficient effect upon plant
growth to be of practical value. The electricity for such currents has in
some cases been collected from the air, and in others has been artificially
produced.
114. Capacity of soils to hold dissolved solids — All soils have
ability to hold larger or smaller amounts of compounds which are brought
into contact with them dissolved in water. Thus, for example, if a strong
brine or sea water be made to soak through a layer of sand, a considerable
part of the salt is taken out and retained by the sand. Still another ex-
ample is afforded by what takes place in sewage irrigation. The sewage
contains a considerable quantity of dissolved impurities, but the water which
flows from under drains in fields irrigated with sewage is comparatively
pure, the soil having retained a large part of the compounds which were
dissolved in the sewage water. This capacity of soils is one of much im-
portance, for without it there must necessarily be great waste of the more
soluble and valuable constituents of manures and fertilizers and of those
soil constituents which are rendered soluble by the action of natural
agencies. This fixation of dissolved substances is due to the action of both
physical and chemical forces, and the subject is not to be considered in full
in this place (124). The characteristics which are most favorable to the
action of the purely physical forces which enable soils to hold dissolved
substances are fineness and the presence of large quantities of clay, silt, and
64 --i GRICUL TURK ;
humus. The coarse sands and gravels have comparatively little power to
retain soluble compounds.
XXII CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS.
115. The composition of soils — Physically considered, soils are com-
posed of finer or coarser particles of rock and organic matter. It has been
pointed out that the proportion of the different constituents and their state
of pulverization greatly affects the value of soil because of the relation to
water and heat as well as to other agencies. We have now to study the
chemical composition of soils. In other words, we have to consider the
kinds and amounts of the various chemical compounds found in soils and
their influence upon fertility. Whatever the source of a soil may be, the
most abundant compound found in it is silica. This is doubtless due to the
fact that silica is the most indestructible of the common constituents of
rocks. Those constituents which are more soluble have in main' cases been
largely dissolved and washed away. In some cases it is estimated that rocks
to the depth of 100 feet have left behind not more than a foot of soil. Be-
sides silica, soils contain a large amount of alumina ; and, in practically
all cases, also smaller amounts of oxid of iron, lime, magnesia, potash, and
soda, with relatively small quantities of phosphoric and other acids. The
agricultural value of the soil is of course dependent upon its capacity to
produce crops, and this capacity, since plants take their mineral food from
the soil, is of course influenced by the composition of the soil. It might be
supposed from this statement that one could determine by chemical analysis
whether or not a soil would be productive. This, however, is not bv any
means always the case. Fertilitv depends not simply upon what is present
but upon the form in which it is present, as well as upon physical conditions.
Methods of chemical analysis are not even yet sufficientlv well understood
to make it possible, even for the chemist after analyzing a soil, to say in all
cases whether or not the soil will be fertile. There are, however, a few
general facts bearing upon this subject, a knowledge of which is important.
110. Constituents of soils essential to plants — It is now generally ad-
mitted that of all the constituents found in soils, water excepted, only the
SOILS AXD HOW TO TREAT THEM.
65
nitrogen, potash, lime, magnesia, phosphoric acid, iron, and sulfuric acid are
absolutely essential. Of these the magnesia, sulfuric acid, and iron are
almost always present in sufficient quantities. Lime also is sufficiently
abundant in many cases. In considering the composition of soils, then, it
is of chief importance to take into account the proportions only of those
elements which arc likely to be deficient. These are nitrogen, phosphoric
acid, potash, and lime.
117. Classes of soil constituents — We may divide the constituents of
soils into three classes : active, dormant, and mechanical. Of the various
compounds which are found in soils, some are soluble in water or in the
acid of the roots of the plant, and these constitute the active constituents of
the soil, or, in other words, the available constituents. The percentage of
such constituents even in the richest soils is small. The dormant constitu-
ents of the soil are those which are soluble neither in water nor in the acid
of the roots. These are of much less immediate importance than the active
constituents, but they are not altogether unimportant because natural agen-
cies will in course of time render them available. Such constituents make
up but a relatively small proportion of soils. Chemists in analyzing soils
sometimes attempt to distinguish between the active and dormant constitu-
ents, but to separate the two accurately in the present state of chemical
knowledge is practically impossible.
The mechanical constituents of the soil serve mainly as a means of
mechanical support for the plant, and not to any g'reat extent as a source of
important food, elements either dormant or active. Such constituents make
up the bulk of all soils, usually amounting to from 90 to 95 per cent, of the
whole. The quartz of sand and the alumina of clay make up the bulk of
the mechanical constituents of soils.
118. Results of chemical analysis — To illustrate what chemical analy-
sis discloses as to the composition of soils, the results obtained in the
laboratory of the Experiment Station at Amherst by the analysis of a few
different types of soil are given in the table.
66
A GRICUL TURE ;
Composition of Soils.
Coarse materials above .01S5 mm.
Fine earth
Analysis of Fine Earth . —
Insoluble Matter
Soluble Silica
Potash
Soda
. Lime
Magnesia
Manganese Oxid
Iron Oxid
Alumina
Phosphoric Acid
Sulfuric Acid
Carbonic Acid, Water and Or-
ganic Matter
Total
Humus
Nitrogen
Ash
Ash contains : —
Soluble Phosphoric Acid
Silica
Gneiss Soil,
Sluitesbury.-
Per cent.
Hatch Ex-
periment
Station,
Per cent.
I.42
Alluvial,
Hadley,
Per cent.
Limestone
Soil,
Pittsfield,
Per cent.
Diked Salt
Marsh,
Marshfield,
Per cent.
26.26
.05
18.03
6.13
73-74
9S.58
99-95
81.97
93-87
82. 68
S0.3S
82.42
Si. 05
72-45
1.20
2.41
1.7s
.78
1. 15
•13
■33
.22
■ 2 5
.24
■38
.29
.21
.96
19
■9-
■ 70
.99
1.5S
68
.19
.26
■93
•34
72
.06
.06
■07
■°7
OS
3-79
3-76
5.09
5-39
4
47
3. or
6.22
3-15
4.32
5
37
.20
•31
•3-
.29
24
•°3
•IS
■ -7
.08
64
6.S9
9. So
99.S0
99.2S
4.92
14.42
99.48
100. 01
100.62
1. So
1.72
•■ 97
.87
6.56
.1S0
.200
.110
.1S0
.500
■275
.400
.64
•23
■443
.036
.079
■M5
.029
.093
.124
■'79
.320
.12
.2
28
In explanation of the significance of these figures, attention is called to
the fact that the insoluble portion of the soil is composed mainly of silica.
The mechanical constituents of the soil are comprised in this portion. The
figure indicating the insoluble portion it will be noted is much greater than
any other in the column showing the percentages of the different chemical
compounds. The figures indicating respectively the percentages of potash,
lime, and phosphoric acid are, as will be noted, exceedingly small. There
is, as a rule, at best only a fraction of one per cent, of either of these
constituents present in soluble form, but, although these figures scent so
small, it will be found on calculation thai tin- soil of an acre contains as a
rule quite large amounts of these compounds. It will be noticed, further,
that the percentages of humus in different soils vary quite widely, being
SOILS AND BOW TO TREAT THEM.
6 7
far greater, as would be expected, in the soil of the diked salt marsh than in
any of the others. It will he remembered that the amount of humus in a
soil greatly affects its value. In proof of the statement that although the
figures showing percentages of the important elements seem small the
a g'g re gate amount of these elements in the soil is considerable, the results
obtained by calculation are given in the table below. This calculation is
based upon the supposition that a cubic foot of average earth will weigh
about eighty pounds in the case of all the soils which are included, except
the Marshfield soil, which is estimated at seventy pounds, this doubtless
being considerably lighter on account of the larger proportion of humus
(89).
The table shows the amounts of the different most important constitu-
ents in the soil of one acre to the depth of one foot.
Amounts of Important Constituents in the Soil of One Acre to the Depth
of One Foot.
Gneiss soil, Shutesbury
Hatch Experiment Station.. . .
Alluvial, Hadley
Limestone soil, Pittsfield
Diked salt marsh, Marshheld.,
N itn 'gen.
Potash.
Phosphoric
Acid.
Lime.
4.543-35 I 4.53°- 2 4 6,969.60
6,820.29 [I i 499-§4 10, 802. 88
3,845.53 j 7,666.56 11,161.24
6,202.24 I S, 712. 00 10,105.92
32,060.161 62,726.40
=4,393-6o 59.938-56
34,499-5 2 68,751.56
55,059.84 30,317.76
15,179.221 7,318.00! 7,318.00110,938.56 228,602.8s
119. Amounts of important plant food constituents removed from soils in
crops — In order to make more evident the significance of the presence in
soils of such amounts of the important plant food elements as are shown in
the table (118), some figures will now be given showing the amounts of
these constituents which are carried away in some of our more important
crops. The amount of the crop, shown in the table on which this estima-
tion is based, in every case is much above the average obtained by farmers,
but it is not greater than good farmers often obtain.
68 AGRICULTURE ;
The Amounts of the Important Plant Food Elements Removed in Crops.
Corn.
Nitrogen 73-97
Phosphoric acid 29. 9S
Potash 24.78
Lime ' .95
Stover 3
tons.
^ Timothy
Potatoes 300 Hav
bu - 2.5 tons.
62.88
17.28
52-74
13.68
82.50 ! 91. So
37.32 2.70
62.00
17. to
73.00
■ji .00
Cabbages 20 Onions Soo
tons. bu.
92.OO
S.00
I36.OO
8.00
112.36
54.08
104.00
66.56
Oat Fodder
Green
12 tons.
117.36
3I.2O
9 T -44
36.96
Comparison of these figures with the amounts contained in the soils to
the depth of a foot shows that the soil contains quantities very much greater
than the quantity taken by the largest crops within one foot of the surface.
Plants, however, send their roots under favorable conditions to a much
greater depth than one foot, and the excess of the food constituents in the
soil must therefore be vastly larger than a comparison of the two tables
indicates, although of course the percentage of food constituents in the
subsoil is generally lower than in the surface portion. The question natu-
rally arises, if the food elements are present in the soil in quantities so very
much larger than the crop takes, whether it is necessary and, if so, why it is
necessary to use manures and fertilizers on such soils in order to secure
good crops. Experiment has shown that with the possible exception of the
Marshfield soil the application of manure or fertilizer is essential. The soil
at the Hatch Experiment Station without manure or fertilizer produced
twelve years ago (about the time the analysis was made") about thirty
bushels of corn to the acre without manure or fertilizer. At the present
time those plots which have been continuously cropped without manure or
fertilizer yield only about seven or eight bushels of corn to the acre without
manure ; while those plots to which moderate applications of manure or
fertilizer have been made yield corn at the rate of about seventy-five bushels
of shelled grain to the acre. The answer to the first part of our question,
then, is evident. The application of manure or fertilizer on such soils is
essential to the production of a good crop. The answer to the second part
of the question is not so easily given. Why, with plenty of nitrogen,
phosphoric acid, and potash in the soil within reach of the roots, a good
SOILS AND HOW TO TREAT THEM
6 9
crop is not produced without manure may not at first be evident. We
ma}-, however, readily see two reasons why this is the case. First, the
large amounts of food elements present are scattered throughout the entire
mass of the soil, while the roots of the crop come into contact with only a
small proportion of the soil particles. They cannot be expected, therefore,
to find all the plant food. Second, though the amounts of food elements
shown in our table were dissolved by the reagents used In - the chemist, it is
by no means probable that the entire amounts are present in such forms as
to be available to the crop.
120. Fineness affects the solubility and availability of soil constitu-
ents — Although we cannot understand as yet all the conditions which affect
the availability of the different elements of plant food in soils, it is thoroughly
established that these constituents are more available in the finer than in the
coarse soil particles. In one experiment the finer portion of the soil was
divided into five distinct grades : clay, finest silt, fine silt, medium silt,
and coarse silt, and the percentage of some of the important elements of
plant food in each which was soluble was determined. The results were as
follows : —
Percentage ok Plant Food Soluble in Soil Particles ok Different Sizes.
Potash
Phosphoric Acid
Total soluble constituents.
c
ay,
Per
cent.
1
47
O
18
75
iS
Finest
Silt,
Per cent.
o-53
o. 1 1
20.52
Fine
Silt,
Per cent.
O.29
0.03
IO.32
.Medium
Silt,
Per cent.
O. I 2
0.02
5.l6
Coarse
Silt,
Per cent.
3-48
These figures make it very apparent why, from a chemical point of view
as well as from a physical, the presence of a large proportion of fine
particles in the soil is desirable.
121. Percentages of food elements in soils of different grades of fer-
tility — In order to make it possible the more intelligently to judge from the
results of chemical analysis whether a soil is to be regarded as rich or poor
in the different elements of plant food, the conclusions of distinguished
German authorities will be given.
7 o AGHICUL TURE ;
German authorities agree that if the soil contains less than 0.05 per
cent, of either nitrogen or phosphoric acid it may be regarded as poor in
these constituents ; if it contains from 0.05 per cent, to o. 10 per cent, it is
moderately rich ; if it contains o. 10 per cent, it is average or normal ; if
from o. 10 to o. 15 per cent, it is good, and above o. 15 per cent, it is rich in ■
these constituents. The conclusions of the same authorities concerning
potash are that a soil with less than 0.05 per cent, of potash is poor in that
element ; with from 0.05 to o. 15 per cent, it is moderately rich ; from o. 15 to
•0,25 per cent, it is average or normal ; if it contains over 0.25 per cent it is
rich in potash. The amount of lime needed to make a soil productive
varies with the nature of the soil. Loams and clay soils must contain more
lime than sandy soils. German authorities regard a sandy soil with less
than 0.05 per cent, of lime as poor in that element ; with from 0.05 to o. 10
per cent, it is moderately rich : with from o. 10 to 0.20 per cent, it is
average or normal ; and they state that over o. 20 per cent, of lime is not
often found in sand}- soils. In loams those which have less than o. 10 per
cent, of lime are poor ; with from o. 10 to 0.25 they are moderately rich ;
with from 0.25 to 0.50 they are average or normal ; with from o. 5 to 1.00
per cent they are good, and with over r. 00 per cent, thev are rich in lime.
122. The great importance of lime in soils — Hilgard, who is one of
our best American authorities on soils, points out that, aside from its influ-
ence on the physical conditions of the soil, which is often important, lime is
also of the very greatest importance in controlling the fertility of the soil.
If the amount of lime is adequate, proportionally much smaller percentages
of the other food constituents will suffice than would otherwise be the case.
It follows, therefore, that, other things being equal, a limestone country is
generally a rich country ( 62
ft 7 1%\ *S9 /
A hk\
JL «.
Mb
I-
w& Xp '"
K
Tl
$\ IQi K :
.01
'' \
Frc 8. Sweet Clover. These two plants grew in the same
field ; one is without, the other has root nodules. The latter was
able to take nitrogen from the air, while the first could nut.
SOILS AND HOW TO TREAT THEM. Si
as truly as does a crop of corn or potatoes or clover, and unless the seed of
the right kind of bacteria is present in the soil or is added to the soil when
the legume is sown the roots of the legume will remain smooth, no nod-
ules are formed, no bacteria are developed, and the legume must take all the
nitrogen it needs from the soil. It is no better as a means of enriching the
soil in nitrogen than a crop of any other family. Fortunately, however,
bacteria are so minute that the spores or germs (in one sense the seed ) from
which they come are distributed in countless ways. They are wafted
through the air by the lightest breeze, they are likely to be present in the
dust adhering to the seed of the legume upon which a given bacterium has
grown ; the)' remain in the soil from year to year. When we first begin to
cultivate a legume in a given locality, let us suppose it is a new crop like
the cow pea or the soy bean, we may find but few of the nodules upon the
roots because the right kind of bacterium is not abundant ; but this bacte-
rium multiplies rapidly and after a few years is likely to become so abundant
that the new crop will thrive much better than at first. In some cases,
however, it may become necessary to obtain some of the right sort of bac-
teria for a new crop, by securing soil from the field where the crop has long
been cultivated, or the seed may be obtained in the form of a special prepa-
ration or culture. Two quite distinct kinds of cultures have been introduced,
viz. : nttragin, which is a jelly-like substance produced in European labora-
tories, and nitroculture, first developed in the United States Department of
Agriculture, but now offered also by private companies. Nitroculture is sent
out in packages on prepared cotton, accompanied with packages of chemical
nutrients to be employed in preparing for use. Full directions accompany
every package either of nitragin or nitroculture. In ordering, the crop for
which desired and the area must lie specified. Trials of both nitragin and
nitroculture have often resulted in failures, and it is apparent that further
improvements are necessary. In cases where inoculation appears desirable,
it will at present be found best to depend upon soil from a field where the
crop has been successfully grown. About five hundred pounds per acre will
be sufficient. This should lie harrowed or drilled in and should not be
much dried nor exposed to light, as such treatment will kill the bacteria.
As a rule, however, it appears to be the case that some of the right sort of
bacteria will be found in the dust adhering to the seed of the new crop, and
accordingly we have as a rule to wait only a few years before the right bacteria
become sufficiently abundant to enable the new legume to derive needed
nitrogen from the air. It appears to be true that in the case of all the better
known plants of this family, like the common clovers, peas, and beans, the
right kinds of bacteria are sufficiently abundant and the farmer needs not to
take any special steps to secure them. As is the case with other seeds, so
the spores or germs of the bacteria which live in partnership with legumes
require certain conditions for their development. 2d. The soil must be
well drained, mellow so that the air can circulate through it, and warm.
82 AGRICULTURE:
3d. The soil must also he free from uncombined acids. It is best that there
should be a moderate excess of some alkali such as lime.
4th. It is necessary also to call attention to the fact that if legumes can
find the nitrogen they need in the soil in the form of such compounds as nitric
acid, they will take it from the soil and will not apparently take the trouble
to use the nitrogen which may be placed within their reach by their little
partners. If, then, nitrogen is to be drawn from the air by the cultivation
of legumes, these plants must be sown upon soils which contain only small
amounts of nitrogen in combined form, such as ammonia and nitrates. If
clover be grown as a green manure upon soil where there is a large amount
of assimilable nitrogen compounds, that soil will not be materially enriched
as a result. The clover will take out of the soil the nitrogen which it needs
and will leave behind, therefore, only what it first found there. In order to
derive the utmost benefit from the cultivation of a legume as a green
manure it must be planted upon soil poor in nitrogen. It is then forced to
live upon the nitrogen brought within its reach by the bacteria living in the
nodules on its roots.
5th. It is further important to point out that legumes make use of nitro-
gen brought within their reach by their little partners chiefly in the later
stages of their growth. If one of these crops be turned in before the period
of blossoming, it "will not have drawn much nitrogen from the air.
134. Tlw natural strength of soils — The term natural strength of soils
is used to indicate the permanent capacity of the soil to produce crops. It
is in proportion to the power which the soil possesses of gradually forming
active and available compounds of plant food. Soils differ widely in natural
strength, this difference being dee largely to the nature of the rock materials
comprising them. Experiments at the celebrated Experiment Station at
Rothamstead, England, which have been continued for nearly sixty years,
during all of which time certain plots have been kept permanently in wheat
without the addition of an)- manure or fertilizer, indicate that the natural
strength of that soil is sufficient to render available sufficient plant food to
produce an average crop of about 12 bushels of wheat per acre. The soil
at Rothamstead must be regarded as one of great natural strength. The
SOUS AX J) HOW TO TREAT THEM. 83
average wheat crop of the United States is not usually any greater than
the average yearly product of this Rothamstead soil which has been culti-
vated nearly sixty years without manure, and it must be remembered that
many of our wheat growers use manures and that others have the advantage
of soils which are comparatively new and rich. The natural strength of
most soils must fall considerably below that of the Rothamstead soil. It
should be pointed out, however, that the natural or average productive
capacity, whether without or with manures, is influenced by climate and by
tillage, as well as by the nature of the constituents which make up the soil,
and the climate of Rothamstead is naturally more favorable for the produc-
tion of wheat than is the climate in most parts of the United States, while
the tillage upon these experimental plots has been very thorough ; whereas
among our farmers it is often quite the reverse. Another illustration giving
an indication of what is probably about the natural strength of the soil is
afforded by certain plots on the grounds of the Massachusetts Experiment
Station at Amherst, where, after twelve years without manure or fertilizer, the
average product of corn amounts to about 7 bushels per acre. Experiments
on the light sandy soils near the seashore have given crops of not more
than from 3 to 5 bushels per acre even the first year without manure or
fertilizers, and the natural strength of these soils is doubtless far below that
of the Amherst soil. It must be evident that a soil of great natural
strength is likely to give far more profitable results in agriculture than one
of the opposite characteristics. The moderately heavy or clayey soils, es-
pecially in regions where limestone has contributed a portion of the mate-
rials of the soil, are likely to possess a high degree of natural strength, while
quartz sands possess these characteristics in very low degree.
135. Soil exhaustion — Soil is commonly spoken of as exhausted when
it no longer produces profitable crops. There is practically no such thing
as absolute exhaustion. Even our most worthless soil with a favoring sea-
son will produce something. Soil exhaustion is due to the gradual deple-
tion of the store of available food. This depletion may affect all the ele-
ments of food which plants commonly take from the soil, in which case
exhaustion may be said to be complete, or it may affect only one or a few
8_j. AGRICULTURE ;
of these elements, in which case exhaustion is said to be partial or one-sided;
as, for example, if a soil is very deficient in nitrogen, potash, phosphoric
acid, and all the other mineral elements, it must be called completely ex-
hausted. If it should be deficient, on the other hand, only in potash its
exhaustion is one-sided. One-sided exhaustion can evidently be corrected
by supplying the one or the few plant food constituents which are deficient,
while complete exhaustion, requiring the supply of all the plant food ele-
ments, would render restoration to fertility more difficult and expensive.
136. Movements of salts in the soil — The water in the soil always con-
tains salts in solution. Their percentages may be small, but their impor-
tance is great because it is these salts which under ordinary conditions com-
prise the most available portion of the plant food of the soil. The amount
of salts in solution in the soil water is variable. The growth of crops and
leaching tend to reduce it. Rain brings to the soil a small amount of cer-
tain salts, and the decay of vegetable matters and the gradual solution of
some of the finer constituents of the soil supply still other salts. The move-
ments of these salts throughout the soil are of much interest and importance
in their relations to the nutrition of plants. These movements are due to
two causes : —
First, the salts, a part of which remain in solution permanently, move
through the soil with the water. When the movement of the water is down-
ward they go with it; when the water moves upward by capillary attraction
salts tend to come back with it. Heavy rains furnishing a large amount of
water within a short time carry relatively large quantities into the subsoil ;
and if the nature of the subsoil is such as to promote the escape of this
water, or if there are open drains, there may be a considerable loss of
soluble salts. If, however, the water which has moved towards the subsoil
does not escape, it tends to move back toward the surface when the weather
clears and evaporation becomes abundant. The salts which are most likely
to be formed and to be moved with the soil water in the manner indicated
are. carbonate of lime and nitrate of lime. The first will be formed even at
a considerable distance from the surface, but the latter is formed almost ex-
clusively in the surface soil. It sometimes happens when the quantity of
SO/LS AND HOW TO TREAT THEM.
85
salts in the soil is large that after long-continued hot, dry weather we find
the partieles of the soil at the surface covered with a deposit which looks
not unlike hoarfrost. This will be found to consist of salts which have
been brought to the surface by the water and which have been left behind
as the- water has evaporated into the air.
The second agency whereby salts are moved throughout the soil is by dif-
fusion. Diffusion is that property in obedience to which a gas or a salt in solu-
tion tends to spread until it becomes equally distributed throughout the air,
in the case of a gas ; or throughout the fluid in which it is dissolved, in the
case of a salt. If, for example, the stopper be removed from a bottle con-
taining ammonia gas, that gas immediately begins to diffuse. Its odor can
soon be recognized in any part of a room. In the course of a little time no
more of the gas will remain in the bottle than in the air of the room, and in
the course of still further time the gas will have found its way out through
the cracks around windows and doors into the outer air. It is now no more
abundant in the air of the room than outside. The gas has become so
widely diffused that its odor can no longer be recognized. In a similar way
a dissolved substance diffuses throughout the fluid in which it is dissolved.
We may have, for instance, a strong brine in tin 1 bottom of a vessel ;
we may add water with great care not to disturb the fluid and we shall
have at the start a strong brine at the bottom and pure water above. The
salt, however, although heavier than water will not remain at the bottom, it
will be't-
f ul whether it will be-
ci 'ine important.
186. Sulky cultiva-
tors — There is very
wide variation in the
details of construction in this class of cultivators. All, however, are pro-
vided with moderately high wheels. The working part of the implement
may be either of the
scratching", coulter,
spring-tooth, or disc
type ; but is most often
of the coulter or shovel
pattern. .Any one of
these styles may be
either of the riding or
walking" type.
Pig. 34 s h o w s a
sulky cultivator of the
riding' tvpe. It will be
noticed that the work-
ing parts or shovels are
in two gangs adapted
to working" on both
sides of a row. It will
be further noticed that there is a special adjustment to prevent the throw-
ing of earth on the plants while they are small. These parts are readily
Fig.
Sulky Cultivator.
126
A GKICUL TURE ;
removable and are not needed after the plants have reached a height of five
or six inches. The driver guides the shovels by the use of his legs, his
feet resting in stirrups provided for the purpose. With most implements
of this pattern extra shovels are provided and on being added to the inside
of either gang the cultivator will completely cover the soil for the full width
between its wheels. It is often used in this form as a harrow before the
planting of the crop.
Fig. 35 shows a sulky
cultivator of the walking
type. It will be noticed
that the two sides of the
implement are show n to
be different. It is not
expected, however, that
the implement will be
used in this way. The
two sides are so shown
to indicate the extent to
which the implement can
be varied. The pur-
chaser would be able to
buy either or both sets of shovels. Cultivators of the sulky pattern' are
almost the only kinds used on the large farms of the corn-growing sections
of the United States and they should be more generally used in the East
than is the case. Main - <>f those who have had large experience in the use
of the two types, the riding and walking, prefer the latter, finding that the
workman when on font is more likely to guide the implement carefully,
thus avoiding damage to the crop. It is evident, also, that the draft of the
implements of the walking type must be considerably less than that of the
riding implements.
187. Cultivating — The various types of cultivators are used almost
exclusively for interculture, the objects in view being the killing of weeds,
the pulverization of the soil, and the conservation of moisture. Frequent
Fin. ",5. Sulky Cultivator.
SOILS AXD HOW TO TREAT THEM. 127
shallow cultivation is the watchword in modern agriculture. It is now-
believed that the deep tillage of former years has been harmful ; first, be-
cause bringing moist soil from a considerable depth to the surface and leav-
ing the surface rough there has caused a great loss of soil moisture, and,
second, because the roots of the growing crop have been torn and broken.
Level culture, under almost all circumstances, is best. Hilling or ridging
increases the amount of surface exposed to the air and is apt to lead to the
destruction of a portion of the growing roots. It should not, therefore,
be practiced unless to accomplish some specially desired object as, for in-
stance, to cover potatoes which tend to grow exposed to the air, or sugar
beets to secure the better quality which is obtained when the roots grow
wholly under ground. In this case on ordinary soils the ridges should be-
broad and not higher than is essential to accomplish the object in view.
18S. Weeders — The weeder is an implement chiefly used in the inter-
culture of crops. It is adapted to stir a wide section of the soil to small
depth and leaves the surface smooth and level. All the various forms of
weeders are provided with rows of long, flexible steel teeth which act on
the ground in much the same manner as would the teeth of a common
spring-tooth rake. The teeth of the weeders, however, are not curved
forward at the lower end as are those of the rake, and they do not therefore
run as deep nor tear up the ground to as great an extent as would the rake.
Weeders are very useful in keeping the soil mulch in proper condition.
They will pass over young crops such as corn and potatoes, while these are
small, without much injury to the crop. They are very effective in the
destruction of weeds if used just as the latter are vegetating, but not nearly
as effective if the weeds be allowed to get thoroughly rooted. Weeders
may be used with corn until it is two feet in height and some use no other
implement. In the majority of instances, however, a cultivator which works
somewhat more deeply will be preferred for the later cultivation of this
crop. Weeders are made with straight, curved, rounded, and flat teeth.
Fig. 36 shows a type of weeder with curved, round teeth, which is much
used in the eastern United States. These are sometimes made on the one
hand much wider, or on the other hand narrow enough to go between the
128
AGRICULTURE ;
rows of such crops as corn. The broad weeders are the more useful in large
fields, and there appears to be little demand for the narrow form.
Fig. 37 shows an adjustable weeder. This works upon essentially the
same principles as the one shown in Fig. 36, but the working width can be
varied from about 30 inches to ~]A feet. This type of weeder seems likely
to prove very useful on farms on which a variety of crops and soils is found.
All types of weeders, while used chiefly in interculture of crops, may some-
times with advantage be used in covering small grains and grass seeds sown
broadcast.
Fig. 37. Expanding Weeder.
SOILS AXD HOW TO TREAT THEM.
129
XXXIII — HAND IMPLEMENTS.
189. Classes — The various hand implements which are used in tillage
operations are for the most part exclusively employed in the inter-tillage of
crops which are planted so close as to make the use of implements drawn by
horses impossible. They are also used in stirring the soil and destroying
weeds at points not reached by the horse-drawn implements. There are
several quite distinct classes, and in each a wide variety. The most impor-
tant may be included under the following heads : cultivators, scuffle or
shove and wheel-hoes, hand hoes, rakes, and wceders.
190. Hand cultivators — These exhibit similar varieties to those found
among horse cultivators as regards number, size, and shape of teeth
employed. The best hand cultivators are provided with a number of inter-
changeable teeth, fitting a single implement for different uses. There is
Fig. 3S,;. Single-Wheel
Hand Cultivator.
Fig. 38/). Two-Wheel
Hand Cultivator.
wide variation in the wheels of these implements ; some are provided with
two, others with a single wheel. Those with a single wheel are adapted to
working between the rows, those with two wheels usually work astride the
row. Implements with large wheels and broad tires run more easily than
those with small wheels. Implements of this class may be quite effective in
pulverizing the soil and maintaining a surface mulch. Figs. 38(7 and 38^
show a single and a two-wheel hand cultivator.
191. Scuffle or shove and ivheel-hoes — Figs. 39^ and 39^ show the two
leading types of implements coming under this class. The working part is,
13°
AGRICULTURE ;
a flat blade which in operation cuts just beneath the surface. These imple-
ments are useful in the destruction of weeds, but do not mellow the soil to
an}' considerable extent. The scuffle hoe, or wheeilcss type, is much em-
ployed in some sections by onion growers, but the wheel form, it is believed,
should generally be preferred, except when the tops are large, after which
the form without wheels is preferable.
Fig. 39«. Scuffle Hoe. Fig. 393. Scuffle Hoe.
192. Ordinary hoes and rakes — The ordinary garden or field hoe and
rake are too well known to require extended notice. These implements were
formerly far more used than at present. While they will be needed on
every farm, and must be employed in certain kinds of work, the intelligent
farmer restricts their use to as great a degree as possible.
Fig. 40. The Serrated Weeder.
193. Weeders — Small hand tools for use in weeding and thinning
such crops as onions, carrots, etc., are of much use, enabling the workman
to do the work both better and more rapidly than with the unaided hand.
These tools are made in many forms
XXXIV DRAINAGE.
194. Importance — Among the various operations whereby land which
is naturally unfit for cultivation can- be improved, there is none which
exceeds in importance artificial drainage. In nearly all parts of our country
are to be found considerable areas either naturally entirely unfit for cultiva-
tion on account oi the large amount of water present, or producing inferior
SOILS AND HOW TO TREAT THEM.
131
crops, because during some part of almost every year they are too wet for
the best results. Healthy growth and development of most crops is depend-
ent upon the presence of a considerable depth of soil containing capillary
water only. Roots require air as well as water. They cannot find air in
sufficient quantity in soils which are too wet. In the climate of the entire
eastern portion of the United States drainage of some sort, either natural or
artificial, is an absolute necessity. This necessity is explained by the fact
that the total amount of water which comes from the clouds in the shape of
rains and snow is greater than the total water removed from the soil as a
result of evaporation and the demands of growing vegetation. A large
proportion of this part of the United States is sufficiently well drained
naturally, either because the subsoil is sufficientlv open to allow the percola-
tion of the water through natural channels to such depth that it is not inju-
rious, and thence, still through natural channels, into streams and rivers
through which it flows to the sea ; or it may be that much of the surplus is
carried off over the surface where the slopes make this possible. In many
cases, however, either because the subsoil is too compact to allow free perco-
lation of water, or because the land lies at a low level, artificial drainage is
needed. Low lands often, need artificial drainage because they ma)- be
flooded : 1, by wash from neighboring higher land ; 2, by floods in rivers or
streams ; or 3 (near the seashore), by the tides. Hillsides and slopes,
especially those with compact subsoils, are often too wet: 1, because of
springs, or, 2, because of the tendency of the water soaking downward
through the soil to work toward the surface as it moves down the slope.
Wetness from this cause may be said to be clue to ooze water, which must
be distinguished from water from actual springs, because the methods
needed to effect satisfactory relief should be quite different in the two cases.
195. The portion of the soil water affected by drainage — It has been
pointed out that the water found in soils may be divided into three classes :
hydrostatic or ground water, capillary water, and hygroscopic water. We
may, of course, also have surface water. One of the first and sometimes
the onlv object of drainage is to carry off this surface water. Of the three
kinds of soil water, artificial drainage affects directly only the hydrostatic
I 3 2 AGRICULTURE .
or ground water, which, it will be remembered, is that portion of the water
of the soil which stands in the spaces between the particles and which is not
held by the attraction of those particles (93). By artificial drainage the
water-table is reduced to the level of the drains, provided these are suffi-
ciently near together. It must be evident, therefore, that drainage will in-
directly affect the amount of capillary water in the surface soil, because such
water is always present in largest amounts in the soil just above the water-
table, decreasing in quantity as the distance above the water-table in-
creases.
196. Benefits resulting from drainage — Among the principal benefits
which follow drainage of soils needing it may be mentioned the following :
it deepens the soil, promotes aeration, makes manures more effective,
warms the soil, lengthens the season both for plant growth and for work,
makes all tillage operations easier and improves the tilth, reduces the
liability to injury of crops from drouth, promotes the better germination of
seeds, results in the production of larger crops of better quality and de-
creases the risk of failure of crops, reduces the amount of surface wash,
makes it possible to haul heavy loads over the fields, produces better
sanitary conditions, and decreases the number of mosquitoes and malarial
diseases. Thorough drainage and thorough tillage are the main points in
land improvement.
197. Depth of soil — The roots of most of our farm crops, being re-
stricted to that part of the soil which is above the water-table (94, 98),
must develop mainly close to the surface provided the soil is inadequately
drained. Wherever the roots go they feed, and it is self-evident that the
larger the volume of the mass of soil in which they develop the larger
must be the amount of food extracted by rout action from the soil particles
with which the roots come in contact. As a result of the lowering of the
water-table due to drainage the farm is practically enlarged — enlarged
downward instead of in surface, for previous to drainage the farmer has
not really owned that part of the soil which lay below the usual level of the
water-table.
SOILS AND HO IF TO TREAT THEM. r,,
19S. Better aeration — It must be evident that, so long as water fills
the spaces between the particles of soil, air can find its way into it only to
a limited extent. As the water-table is lowered the depth to which the air
penetrates increases, and the beneficial action of the air in increasing the
availability of the natural constituents of the soil is well known ( 112).
199. Manure is more effective — The plant fond which is contained in
many manures and fertilizers is not in available form when these are ap-
plied to the soil. Before it becomes available these manures and fertilizers
must, like the soil itself, be exposed to natural agencies, important among
which is the oxygen of the air. Moreover, in soils which are well drained
the useful micro-organisms, i. e. t the microscopic plants which help make
the nitrogen of manures available, find conditions favorable fur their devel-
opment ; while, if the soil is insufficiently drained, denitrifying organisms,
which cause a loss of plant food, multiply ( 125 )
200. The so/7 is warmed — As the amount of water in surface soil is
lessened by drainage it warms more quickly, and, since the evaporation is
lessened, maintains a higher temperature throughout the growing season
than before drainage ( 109).
201. The season is lengthened — Insufficiently drained soil is not fit to
work until much later in the season than that which is drained, and as the
days become short and the rains more abundant in autumn, the ill-drained
soil becomes unfit to work comparatively early. The length of time dur-
ing which soil can be worked, therefore, is lengthened by drainage, and it
is equally true that the length of time during which soil conditions are
favorable for plant growth is lengthened.
202. Tillage — The soil, when over-wet, cannot be brought into good
tilth since neither the plow", the harrow, nor indeed any of the tillage im-
plements will do good work. The preparation of the soil is easier after
drainage than before. It crumbles more readily and natural agencies favor
the bringing the soil into a mellow and crumbly condition.
203. Drouth — At first thought it may seem a paradox to assert that
drainage, the process whereby water is removed, lessens the liability of in-
jur) - to crops from drouth, but no fact connected with the effects of drain-
134
. / GRICUL TURE ,
age is better established. No doubt one of the chief reasons why plants on
well-drained soil suffer less in drouth than before drainage is because they
are so much more deeply rooted. In soils inadequately drained, the water-
table is likely to be comparatively near the surface in the early part of the
season. The roots develop accordingly for the most part close to the sur-
face. Later, when rains become infrequent and the weather hot, the water-
table falls, the surface soil becomes excessively dry, and the plant whose
roots have developed near the surface suffers far more than the one which
has sent its roots down deep into the soil. The soil a little distance below
the surface will remain comparatively moist and cool ( provided a surface
mulch is maintained ) even in very protracted drouth, and a plant which has
its roots in such soil suffers little. Further, the capillary qualities of soils
are in general improved by drainage. Especially is this true of the soils
containing much clay. A soil with good capillary qualities conducts water
from below so that the crop is adequately supplied with water.
204. Germination of seeds — Seeds frequently rot in ill-drained soils.
For perfect germination a fair amount of moisture, air, and a suitable tem-
perature are essential. These conditions are best met in a well-drained soil
containing a fair amount of capillary water. In soil which is over-wet
there is not sufficient oxygen and the temperature is likely to be too low
for the best germination of seeds.
205. Crops arc larger and of better quality The greater depth,
more perfect aeration, better tillage, and higher temperature of adequately
drained soils, as well as other effects of drainage, make it sufficiently clear
why the crops should be larger. The)- are also of better quality. The
proportion of valuable constituents of the different crops, such as starch,
sugar, and albuminoids, is greater when the crops have grown upon well-
drained soil. Especially is this noticeable in the case of meadows. The
superior nutritive value of the grass or hay from well-drained pastures and
mowings is well known. In this case the superiority is in part due to the
fact that with good drainage the better species of grasses and clovers thrive,
while with imperfect drainage those species are apt to be displaced by in-
ferior grasses, sedges, and rushes.
SOILS AND IIOW TO TREAT THEM.
135
206. Surface wash — In the case of fields having considerable slope,
when rain falls and finds the surface nearly saturated with water, it flows in
large quantities over the surface. With perfect drainage it will more largely
soak into the ground, and the amount of wash over the surface with frequent
injury through the carrying away of the finer and better particles of the soil
and the soluble constituents of manures is lessened.
207. Sanitary conditions — The fact that the proximity of ill-drained
areas, swamps, and marshes is apt to produce conditions under which
malarial diseases prevail is well known. The only perfect remed)' for this
condition of affairs is the drainage of such areas. This will at the same time-
greatly reduce the number of mosquitoes, which are now well known to be
carriers of certain diseases, among which chills and fever is perhaps one.
208. Indications of the necessity 0/ drainage — An)' land will be benefited
bv drainage when an) - of the following conditions exist : —
1st. If, at an\ - season, water stands for any length of time upon the
surface, or comes into the furrow when plowing.
2d. All land in which the water-table during any part of the growing
season stands for any considerable length of time within less than three and
one-half to four and one-half feet of the surface. Whether this is the case
can be determined by digging holes and noticing the height at which the
water stands in them.
3d. Any soil which, when left so that natural vegetation can come in
(mowings), produces water-loving plants in abundance ; such, for example,
as sedges, rushes, and mosses.
4th. Fields having a very compact, clayey subsoil, especially if the
surface of the stratum of clay is concave. In such cases there is not a suffi-
ciently free outlet at the bottom for the water which percolates into the soil.
Waring says concerning land of this kind ; that the surface soil is more or
less in the condition of standing in a great water-tight box, with openings to
let water in, but with no means for its escape except by evaporation at the
surface. Under such conditions the soil invariably soon becomes water-
logged.
209. Kinds of drains — The methods which have been in use in drain-
136 AGRICULTURE;
ing land exhibit considerable variety, but all may be included under two
classes, viz., open ditches and under-drains.
XXXV OPEN DRAINS.
210. Uses of open drains — The open ditch is an effective means of
carrying away surface water, and in some situations is useful. It is not,
however, adapted to the thorough drainage of land, especiallv of land which
is to be tilled. Some of the chief objections to open ditches as a means of
thorough drainage are as follows : —
1st. They take up toov. -«.- / '
N
■ \
.*... 1
v /^ s
:
x xV; N N
V,
i
1 "-
1
i. 1
\^ / N
\
:
1
\
>aa'
! I 40'-
|
Fig. 41. Plan for Drainage : a, the main ; b, the submain ; c, the outlet. The unlettered lines
indicate the laterals.
The submain will be located, if used at all, which is not always the
case, in the secondary hollows, which it will approximate!)' follow. Its chief
function is to convey water brought into it by the laterals to the main drain,
but it, like the main, may draw water direct from the soil provided it is not
already full.
Laterals should generally run approximately at right angles to the main
or submain into which they carry their water. They take water directly
from the soil and conduct it into the submain or main.
21S. How water enters under-drains — An under-drain properly con-
structed will not carry water unless the water-table is above its level. Water
does not run directly down through the soil nor percolate through the soil
directly into under-drains. Water finding its way downward through the
soil, if in excess of what the soil can hold by capillary attraction, will con-
tinue to percolate even if it passes below the level of the drains until it
reaches the water-table or the great body of hydrostatic water. As per-
140
A GRICUL TURE ;
eolation continues the water-table rises, and when it reaches the level of the
drains they will begin to run, but not before.
219. Ki?ids of under-drains — The principal kinds of under-drains
which have been employed are the following : Brush, pole, box, stone, and
tile drains. Not all of these are of importance at the present time. In-
deed, under most conditions, the tile drain is the only kind of under-drain
which is worth consideration. Under exceptional circumstances either of
the other kinds named may be useful, and therefore each of these kinds
will be briefly described. In rare cases land has been drained by means of
open passages under ground. Of this type are mole drains made by the
use of a special plow. Such drains prove useful only in grass lands with
soil of the most compact character and regular grade, for only in such soils
could the passage opened by the plow be expected to remain open for any
considerable length of time. Such drains have been known to do good
work for a number of years in soils of that character, and their cheapness
formerly recommended them. Similar unsupported passages through
clayey soils were sometimes molded by the far
more expensive method of hand labor. Plug
drains and wedge and shoulder drains, which
\\ ere fully described by some earlier writers upon
drainage, were of this type. Such drains can-
not possibly be recommended at the present
time, for when a ditch has been once opened
the chief item in the expense of drainage has
been met, and to run the risk of the compara-
tively early failure of the drain in order to save
- the usually moderate additional cost of putting
„ ,. . rj , „ . in something which will be permanent, would be
Fig. 42. Section of Brush Drain : to 1
a, straw covering! /', brush. ■ ■
most unwise.
220. Brush drains — Fig. 42 shows a cross-section of a brush drain
and the cut needs little explanation. In this drain there is no clear passage
for water. It finds its way through the interstices between the brush. The
latter is packed in, after tin- ditch is opened, as closely as may be, covered
SOILS AND HOW TO TREAT THEM.
I 4 I
'"V-^M"*^
with some material such as straw, shavings, seaweed, or sods, which will
prevent earth from washing in from above, and then filled and rounded up
as shown in the cut in order to provide for settling. Such drains are liable
to become obstructed by means of silt or sand which is held by the brush,
and, second, the brush will rot within comparatively few years, when the
drain becomes entirely useless. Such drains are most serviceable in clay
soils because, first, there will be little silt to clog the passages, and, second,
the air is largely excluded and the brush will decay less rapidly than in
more open soils. Under the best conditions the life of such drains is not
likely to be more than about eight or ten years.
221. Pole drains — These, like brush drains, may appropriately be called
pioneer drains, i. e. , drains which may be very useful in a new country
where better materials are unavailable. The construction will be under-
stood from the figure. The poles for the
construction of drains of this kind should
be smooth and as nearly as possible of even
size from butt to tip. Chestnut and cedar
are among the most durable kinds of
lumber available. If the bottom of the
ditch on which the poles must be laid is
soft, as in mucky soils, or of a treacherous
or shifting character, as in quicksands, it
will be necessary to lay a slab or board un-
der the poles. Pole drains afford a clear
passage for the water, are much less liable
to obstruction than brush drains, and are covering"! t, poles.
more durable. Under the most favorable conditions such drains might last
from twelve to fifteen years.
222. Box drains — In the box drain the passage for water is furnished
by a continuous box or trough which is made of boards or plank. These
boxes may be made in various forms, two of which are shown in the figure.
Whatever the form of the box, provision should be made in its construc-
tion for the entrance of water. The most convenient system is to make the
Fig. 43. Section of Pole Drain : a, gravel
142
AGRICULTURE ;
joints at the bottom or lower corners somewhat open by setting short sec-
tions of laths between the edges which come together. The box drain with
a corner down is more likely to remain free from obstruction than with a flat
side down, because w hen carrying but a small quantity of water this will have
sufficient depth to render the lodgment of silt, etc., less likely to take place
than would be the case if the same amount of water were spread in a shallow
Fig. 44. Section of Box Drain : a, gravel
covering ; b, triangular box.
Fig. 45. Section of Box Ilrain :
a, gravel covering; b, square box
set up on a corner.
sheet over abroad, flat bottom. Box drains are less liable to obstruction
through entrance of sand or silt than are either brush or pole drains. They
are inferior to stone or tile drains, simply because perishable. In most
localities they will be found to cost quite as much and often more than tiles
of the same capacity.
223. Stone drams — Where stones of suitable size and shape are-
abundant, excellent drains may be made from them, and stone being prac-
tically imperishable, these drains, if otherwise equal, are much superior to
either pole or box drains. Owing to the irregularity in form of the stones
which must usually be used, it is difficult to make a stone drain in such a
manner as effectively to keep ovit the fine earth, which, especially when the
drain is new, is likely to wash in. The idea appears lobe common that
stout- (.trains arc cheaper than tile drains. This will not usually be Found to
be the case. The amount of labor required to make a good stone drain is
SOILS AND HOW TO TREAT THEM.
H3
much greater than the labor of laying- tiles, and labor being taken into
account, stone drains can seldom prove cheaper than tile. It, however,
sometimes happens that the field needing drainage contains stones which
the farmer desires to get rid of. Under these circumstances, in localities
where, owing to the cost of transportation, tiles are costly, it may pay to put
the stones into drains. It is believed, however, that in most cases they
would be found much more useful in the foundation of farm roadways.
Stone drains may assume numerous different forms according to the nature
Fir,. 46. Stone Drains: 1. a, Cobblestone covering ; /', conduit,
medium stone. 3. a, Cobblestone covering; 6, triangular conduit.
3
) Enlarging tiles — The enlarging tile is one which tapers. At one
end, for example, it may be three, four, or five inches in diameter, at the
other end, one inch less. Such pieces are useful in changing from a smaller
to a larger size, on any line of drain. Thus, for example, at the upper end
a two-inch tile may be sufficiently large. Farther down, as more water
must be carried, a three-inch tile may be none too large. Under such cir-
cumstances the work is more secure if an enlarging tile be used.
(c) Junction pieces or branch tiles — These are tiles of the ordinary
construction (and may be of any size) with a short arm or branch, and
Fig. 4 S.
they are useful where one line of tiles is to be carried into another. These
tiles are made in two styles known respectively as Y's and T's. The Y is
generally preferred to the T, because it is better where one drain discharges
into another that the water enter the latter with approximately the same
direction as the current in the main. If the branch comes in at a right angle
a violent eddy is produced at the point of junction which is favorable to the
deposit of silt at that point. By the use of the Y the union between a lat-
eral and a main can be made as secure as any part of the drainage system,
whereas without Y's deposits of silt, and displacement of tiles at junctions,
are common. The size of the short arm varies for tiles of the same size.
Thus, for example, we may have a six-inch tile with a short arm or branch
either five, four, three, or two inches. To designate the kind wanted in
.1
i 4 8 AGRICULTURE;
ordering, use two figures connected by the sign of multiplication, the first
figure indicating the size of the tile itself, the second the size of the branch.
Thus, Y, 5 x 3, designates a five-inch tile with a three-inch branch ; Y,
6 x 4, a six-inch tile with a four-inch branch. The branch in the case of
Y's or T's should be either the same size as the lateral which is to be con-
nected or large enough to receive the end of the lateral, ft is believed
that the latter is usually to be preferred, although when the branch and
lateral are of the same size the work is easily made secure if a collar is
used where the two come together.
228. Collars — Manufacturers of round tiles usually offer for sale short
sections for use at the junctions, under the name of collars. Fig. 49. The
collar is usually about two to three inches long, and collars are made for
each of the smaller sizes "of tiles. In
ordering, the size of the tile with which
they are to be used should be desig-
Fig. 49. natecl. The collar should be of such
size as to make rather of a loose fit, since even in the best grades of
tile there will be slight irregularities in size and form which would make
placing the collars in position altogether too troublesome if the fit should
be too close, ft is not to be expected that the collar will very materially
protect the joint from the entrance of silt. Its use is mainly to preserve
the alignment. Collars should be employed only in those cases where
there is unusual danger of displacement. They greatly increase the cost
of a drain, generally being sold at about two-thirds of the price of the size
of tiles with which they are to be used. There is also the added labor of
laying, which is considerable.
229. General conditions affecting the value of tiles — The quality of
the clay, workmanship, the burn, and the presence or absence of glaze
very materially affect the value of tiles, and between the product of differ-
ent manufacturers we find wide variations, as might be expected. Where
the clay is imperfectly pugged or molded when too soft, there are sure to
be imperfections in the tiles. The product of some manufacturers will be
found to contain a considerable number of tiles that are not true in form,
SOILS AND HOW TO TREAT THEM. i 4lJ
tiles that are flattened, bent, or warped, or tiles with rough ends. It is
self-evident that the best drains cannot be made from tiles with these charac-
teristics. The burn is of importance chiefly as affecting the durability.
Tiles which are under-burned are soft and likely to crumble. Such tiles
when struck with a trowel or hammer give a dull sound, while those which
are properly burned give a sharp, ringing sound. On the other hand tiles
are sometimes over-burned. Such tiles will be durable but they are com-
monly under-sized and therefore undesirable. In arranging for the pur-
chase of any considerable quantity of tiles it should be carefully stipulated
that all the tiles furnished shall be perfect, and the right to throw out such
as are not up to the standard should be reserved. One poor tile in a drain
may render the whole drain useless. When drain tiles first came into use
it was regarded as essential that the tiles should be porous in order that
water might find its way through them. It is now known that this is un-
important. Practically all the water enters at the joints. Some makers of
recent years are turning out tiles which are glazed, sometimes inside only,
sometimes inside and out. Glazed tiles must be regarded as distinctly
superior to those which are not glazed. The inside glazing gives a
smoother and harder surface. There is less friction, the water flows with
greater velocity and there is consequently less liability to obstruction, while
the capacity is increased. Tiles glazed both inside and out must be much
more durable than those which are not glazed, as they will be less affected
by the agencies which tend to cause disintegration.
XXXVII POINTS TO BE SETTLED BEFORE THE DRAINS ARE PUT IN.
230. \] 'hat these points arc — Whatever the kind of under-drain which
is to be put in, there are certain points which should be carefully and defi-
nitely settled before the actual work of putting in the drains begins. These
points must be so settled in order that the general system may be carefully
planned. Unless careful plans are made, the work cannot be done to the
best advantage. The points requiring especial attention in planning the
drainage of a field are : first, the selection of the outlet or outlets ; second,
the exact location of each drain which is to be put in. To determine this
150
A GRICtTL TURE
the direction which each drain is to take, the distance between the different
drains, and the grade of each drain must be definitely planned. It is evi-
dent that in order to arrive at a wise decision upon all these points, the con-
ditions must first be carefully studied, and in all cases where the field or any
part of the field is comparatively flat or the area to be improved extensive, a
survey with instruments in the hands of an engineer will be necessary.
231. The survey and study of the conditions — In New England, where
the fields to be drained are often small and with considerable slopes, the
survey with instruments may be unnecessary. The drains can be located
with sufficient accuracy by the eye, and the grades are sure to be sufficient.
In all cases, however, where there is any doubt, an engineer should be
called in and a careful survey made. In an improvement involving so
great an expense as drainage, it is most unwise to run the risk of unsatis-
factory results through hesitation to incur the expense involved in the mak-
ing of such a survey. Whether such a survey is made or not, a careful
study of the conditions extending over a considerable period of time will be
of much use in rightly deciding upon the points under consideration. In
this study an attempt should be made to determine the underlying cause
for the presence of excessive amounts of water. It should be determined
whether the water which must be carried away by the drains comes from
overflow, from well-defined springs, or from the coming to the surface of ooze
working its way through the soil down the slope, or whether the excess of
water is clue simply to the fact that rainfall exceeds combined percolation,
evaporation, and the use of water by the plants in the field itself. Only
when the source of the water is known can the drains be most intelligently
planned. The study of the conditions, moreover, should embrace observa-
tions upon the apparent amount of water to be carried off, and espeeiallv
the peculiarities of the stream into which the system of drains must dis-
charge. It is highly important to know about the average level of water in
this stream as well as the probable frequency and duration of periods when
the water is above the average. These points are important for reasons
which will be evident from what is said under the next topic.
232. Outlets — The outlet is the point where an under-drain discharges
SOILS AND HO IV TO TREAT THEM.
151
into an open channel ; and the very first thing which will need decision in
planning' a system of drainage is the position of the outlet. Such channel
may be either natural or artificial. It is desirable that at the point where
the under-drain discharges it shall be free from obstructions, and that it
shall have sufficient depth and grade so that the water in it will not stand
above the outlet of the drain. A free discharge from an under-drain is
evidently impossible when the water in the channel rises above the mouth of
the drain. Should temporal')' stoppage of the outlet be the only consequence
following a rise of water in the channel above the mouth of the drain, the
matter might not be serious. It would do no great harm if the water should
accumulate in a drain for a few hours or for a da)' or two to be discharged
when the water in the open channel should fall again, if the mischief went
no farther. In many cases, however, the water in open channels in time of
flood holds suspended large quantities of fine earthy matter, which is likely
to settle while the water remains comparatively motionless, thus partially
obstructing the drain. Moreover, drains not infrequently carry larger or
smaller amounts of silt and, provided the outflow of the water moving
through a drain is checked, this drain water stagnates and the silt is likely
to settle in the drain. It must be evident, therefore, that if possible the
stream into which an under-drain discharges should be such that the water
in it will not rise above the mouth of the drain. It will often pa) - to incur
considerable expense in deepening, straightening, and freeing from ob-
structions in order to lessen the probability that the outflow of water from
under-drains will be even temporarily obstructed. For safety, the mouth
of the under-drain should be some little distance above the average water
level in the open channel. What distance will be necessary is dependent
upon the peculiarities of the stream.
233. Number of outlets — Most authorities agree that, since the drain
is peculiarly liable to accident at the outlet, it is best to so plan the drains as
to reduce the number of outlets as much as possible without too greatly in-
creasing the cost. Most drainage engineers, therefore, recommend the use
of main drains and perhaps of submains, finally gathering the water col-
j ^2 AGR1CUL TURE ;
lected by many drains, from a large area it may be, into one drain and hav-
ing only a single outlet into an open channel. Roberts dissents decidedly
from this view, holding that it is better to have each collecting drain dis-
charge directly into an open water course. His chief reason appears to be
that this system saves cost. It cannot be denied that cost is increased by
the use of mains and submains, for the larger sizes of tile are far more ex-
pensive than the smaller sizes which answer for the collecting drains. It
is not believed that either plan will always be best. Under some circum-
stances the one, under other circumstances the other, system will give the
most satisfactory results. To illustrate the matter, let us suppose that we
have a field in which the general lay of the surface is similar to that pre-
sented by the open pages of a book opened near the middle so as to be
nearly flat and with the bottom of the book slightly lower than the top.
Many fields which need drainage have a surface in general similar to these
pages, though usually with minor irregularities. There is a low run usually
more or less sinuous ( in case of the book, straight) running through the
middle of the field. In this run there ma)' be a natural stream or, per-
haps, an open ditch. Now such a field might be drained in either of the
following quite distinct methods : —
ist. The stream or ditch, if there be one, ma)- be improved, some of
the sharper turns being made more gradual and the channel deepened and
cleared of all obstructions ; or if there be no natural stream, then one may
be opened. If it be judged that the water level in the course thus im-
proved or opened will be sufficiently below the surface of the land in its
immediate vicinity to give each under-drain a free outlet, well above any
probable level of the water in the open course, then the cheapest possible
method of drainage will be to give each drain, all being run approximately
at right angles to the open course, an independent outlet. By this means
considerable cost is saved and a moment's examination will enable one to
determine whether any given drain is doing its work.
Or, 2<1, il it be judged that the water level in any possible course which
can be opened through this hollow is likely at times to be so high as to pre-
vent the free discharge of the water by any under-drain, and if, moreover,
SOILS A. YD HOW TO TREAT TI/EM.
'53
the quantity of water which is to be carried is not excessively large, it will
be found most satisfactory to put a main drain through this hollow, con-
necting the laterals which come down from either side with it, thus having
but one outlet. This plan has further the important advantage that the
obstruction due to an open ditch is avoided.
Or, 3d, it may be that there is a large amount of water sluggishly
moving through an open ditch or stream along this hollow, and the level
of this water is nearly as high as that of the land on its banks. It may be
found that to deepen and straighten this water course sufficiently to carry
the water down below the under-drains would be very costly. In such
cases it will generally be found best to use two main drains, one' on either
side of the open water course and a few feet back from it, perhaps [5 or 20,
and running nearly parallel with it. These main-, can lie put down to any
desired depth. The)' may draw some water from the open water course but
this will do no harm, although the rule should be to put them sufficiently far
back so that not much water will percolate from the stream into them. With
these mains, laterals running down the slope should be connected. Each
main would have an independent outlet, the field thus requiring two outlets.
In other cases the lowest part of the field may be at one side. We may,
for example, have a slope too wet because of the presence of ooze water in
the soil. In such a case whether we shall use an under-drain or an open
channel at the foot of the slope will be determined by similar considerations
to those which have just been presented. Not infrequently a field border-
ing on a pond or lake requires drainage. In such cases, if the general
slope of the field is towards the body of water and fairly uniform, each
drain running down the slope may either be given an independent outlet in-
to the pond, or a main drain may be put in running approximately parallel
with the margin of the pond and some feet back fri mi it, and into such a main
drain the drains coming down the slope may carry their water. Whether
the one or the other plan will be preferable will be determined chiefly by
the level of the water in the pond or lake. If it is sufficiently low to afford
a free outlet for the drains coming down the slope and is not subject to con-
siderable or long continued rise, then each drain should lie given an inde-
1 5 ^ A GRICUL TURE ;
pendent outlet ; but if the level of the water is permanently or periodically
for considerable intervals of time too high, then the other plan will be pref-
erable. It will be evident that, in those cases where the main is put in
parallel with the banks of a stream or ditch, or with the shores of a pond in
which the water level is high, there will be a strip of imperfectly drained
land between the main and the open water course or pond. This, however,
is inevitable, whatever the system adopted, unless the water level can be
lowered, which would generally involve heavier expenditure than would
ordinarily be profitable.
234. Direction of the drains — The direction which drains shall take is
generally determined by the lay of the land. Main drains, if used, should
follow the natural water course, making sweeping and not too abrupt
curves. The same is true of submains, which should in general follow the
secondary water courses. Laterals should in general run about at right
angles with the main or submain with which the)' are connected. They
should, however, be given a little curve just before uniting with the main in
order that the water may be carried in obliquely with, and not directly
across, the stream in the main. In the majority of instances where land
needs drainage the laterals must be given such direction as to secure the
greatest possible grade, but in the case of springy hillsides or slopes suffer-
ing from ooze water there is opportunity for choice. It is held by some
that on these slopes it is better that the laterals run nearly across the slope
rather than in any other direction. The reason advanced is that, if they
have this direction, they more effectually cut off the water which in general
tends to work from springs down the slope. This being the case, it is be-
lieved that if the drains run straight down the slope there may be areas be-
tween the drains which are not satisfactorily drained. There is considera-
ble foundation for this view. It is, however, believed that in the majority
of instances most satisfactory results will be secured by giving the drains an
oblique direction down the slope. With this arrangement springs and
ooze water are cut off, while at the same time the drain may be given suf-
ficient grade to rapidly carry off the water it collects. The degree of ob-
liquity must be determined with reference to the steepness of the slope. It
SOILS AND HOW TO TREAT THEM. r ee
should be remembered that it is possible to have too steep a grade in an
under-drain (237).
235. The proper distance between drains — It is of importance to con-
sider the question of the proper distance between drains with reference
almost wholly to the laterals in the system, i. e. , with reference to those
drains which are depended upon to take the water directly from the soil,
and not to carry water which is brought into them by other drains. Thor-
ough examination of the field needing improvement is the first requisite in
order to determine what the conditions will demand. There are of course
frequent instances in which only portions of a field are too wet. Such ine-
qualities may be due to differences in level, the presence of springs, or the
percolation of water at certain points from higher levels. In such instances
all that is usually required to put the held in thoroughly satisfactory condi-
tion is to put in drains of suitable capacity to take the water from these wet
places. This svstem of arranging drains irregularly, aiming simply to tap
those points which are too wet, is sometimes spoken of as the natural sys-
tem, and in this svstem a consideration of the question as to the proper
distance between the various drains is of no importance, for their location is
controlled by unusual conditions, and must be determined by the circum-
stances in each individual case. In the natural drainage system less drains
are required than in the alternative or thorough drainage system, as it is
called, in which the laterals are placed at uniform distances. The condi-
tions under which the natural system is most likely to prove satisfactory are
more often met with in the Eastern than in the Central and Western states.
In the latter states, as well as in many fields in the Eastern states, the thor-
ough drainage system is the only satisfactory one. Where this system is
the one used, the question of the proper distance between drains demands
careful consideration. The factors chief!)' affecting distance are the quantity
of water to be carried, depending in considerable measure upon the climate,
the depth of the drain, and the nature of the soil. The last two points
demand especial attention.
(a) The depth of the drain — The deeper the drain, within reasonable
limits, the greater the distance on either side to which it will lower the water
156
AGRICULTURE;
to a sufficient extent. While the tendency after under-drains are put in is
to carry the water-table down to the horizontal level of the drains, it does not,
as a matter of fact, usually reach that level because the soil resists the
movement of the water. In the immediate vicinity of the drains the water
is reduced to their level ; but with increased distance from the drains the
level of the water becomes higher. The water-table in a soil provided with
under-drains is a series of curved surfaces highest midway between the
drains. This will be clear from the figure which shows a section of soil
which is under-drained. Since the line representing the water-table is al-
ways a curve, it is nearest the surface midway between the drains. It fol-
Fig. 50. Section showing water-table in drained soil : d, .
under varying conditions.
drains ; a, b, c, lines showing water-table
lows then that the lower down the drains are, the farther apart they may
be without running the risk that the highest point in the water-table midway
between the drains will come too near the surface. In this connection it is
important to point out that the level of the water-table, under average con-
ditions, must be almost continually subject to fluctuation ; rising during
storms and falling during the continuance of fair weather.
(b) The nature of the soil — Soils of an open or porous character allow
water to pass through them freely and rapidly, In such soils the curve of
the water-table within a short time after storms becomes Aery flat and the
water midway between under-drains can never stand for any great length of
time at a level much higher than the level of the drains ; according!}', in
soils of this class drains may be placed comparatively wide apart. On
the other hand, in compact soils the movement of the water is exceed-
SOILS AND HOW TO TREAT THEM.
157
ingly slow and the curve of the water-table has a sharp pitch. After
storms it may stand midway between the drains at a considerable distance
above their level and it falls very slowly. In such soils, therefore, in order
to secure relief from surface water within a reasonable length of time the
drains must be comparatively near together. The ordinary range of varia-
tion in distance in soils of uniform character is from about 20 feet in the case
of the most compact clays to 60 or 70 feet in the case of the more open soils.
Under average soil conditions prevailing in the Eastern and Middle states
a distance of 40 feet, provided the depth is not less than about 3^ or 4
feet, is commonly regarded as most satisfactory. In the Western states,
where the rainfall is somewhat less, the practice is to pu t the lines at some-
what wider distances than are advised in the East. A distance of as much
as 70 or 80 feet with a depth of 3 feet is not uncommon in some of the prairie
states. In the compact clays, so common in the subsoils of many of the
Eastern states, such distances would be much too great. Waring, one of
our best authorities on draining, says in his book on the subject : "In the
lighter loams there are many instances of successful application of Profes-
sor Mapes' rule that 3-foot drains should be placed 20 feet apart and for
each additional foot in depth the distance may be doubled. For instance,
4-foot drains should be 40 feet apart and 5-foot drains 80 feet apart. With
reference to the greater distance — 80 feet — this is not to be recommended
in stiff clays for any depth of drain." Waring in draining Central Park,
New York, put in drains at a nearly uniform distance of 40 feet. The
drains averaged about 4 feet in depth and he states that the results are
satisfactory. The ordinary range of distance in the Eastern states will com-
monly lie between about two and three rods where a depth of from 3^ to
4 feet is possible.
236. Depth of drains — The depth of drains is in many cases con-
trolled by the peculiarities of the location. The height of the surface of the
land to be drained above the level of the water in the final outlet is not in-
frequently so little that it is impossible or too expensive to obtain what is
regarded as the best depth. In such cases one must often be content with
a less depth than is known to be essential for the best results. Drains
158 AGRICULTURE;
should in all cases, however, be laid below the range of tillage implements,
frosts, and the roots of ordinary crops. The depth reached by tillage imple-
ments does not commonly exceed a foot and is often less, though, if subsoiling
is contemplated, considerably greater depth is required. The roots of many
of our crops penetrate soil which contains capillary water only, to very con-
siderable depths, if it is not too compact. The roots of clover have not
infrequently been found at a depth of 6 or 7 feet; those of cabbages have
been found even deeper; while parsnips and carrots, in mellow soils free from
stagnant water, have been known to send roots to the depth of a dozen
feet or more, and alfalfa sometimes goes lower yet. It is clearly practically
impossible to place drains deep enough to be beyond the reach of the roots
of such crops as these, but the smaller roots, which alone, as a rule, reach
these lower levels, will not commonly be found to do an)- harm. All these
crops, except alfalfa, are comparatively short lived; rotation is the rule, and
the roots therefi ire which ma}- grow into the tiles are not likelv to become
sufficiently numerous to constitute any serious obstruction. The roots of
water-loving perennial plants, however, not infrequently penetrate and ob-
struct drains. Especially is this true of the roots of some of the water-lov-
ing trees such as willows, red maples, elm, and ash. The roots of such
trees often grow into under-drains and multiply there to such an extent as
to completely choke the drain and render it useless. In some cases the
growth of the roots has been known to split tiles. There is no practicable
method of avoiding injury from such roots and at the same time leaving
open joints which are necessary for the entrance of water. If trees which
stand nearer a line of drain than a distance equal to the height of the tree
cannot be removed, then the best plan is to use sewer pipe in that part of
the drain which comes within less than the above named distance of the
tree, and to carefully cement the joints. The part of the drain so treated,
however, serves simply to carry water which has come into it from above.
It cannot take water from the soil. The depth to which frosts will pene-
trate of course varies widely with the locality as well as with the soil.
There is danger that if the frost reaches the drain it will be damaged either
by displacement or by the breaking and crumbling of the tiles. Chamber-
SOILS A ND HOW TO TREAT THEM. r rg
lain says, " In the deep, black, porous soils of Iowa with the deep freezing
common, 4 feet is none too deep for laterals, and \Y 2 feet for mains."
There are man)- instances in the Eastern states where drains have continued
to do good work for man)- years and without injury from frosts where the
depth is considerably less than that recommended by Chamberlain. It is
not believed that in ordinal-)- tillage or grass lands frost is liable to seriously
affect drains that are even as near the surface as from 2y 2 to 3 feet. To some
slight extent the depth to which it will be best to drain the land may be
affected by the crop. Some crops thrive in soils much cooler and more
moist than those which best suit others. Thus, for example, grass will do
well in soils in which the water-table is comparatively near the surface.
On the other hand, such crops as require high temperatures for their best
development do best in more deeply drained soils. Among such crops In-
dian corn, squashes, and potatoes are prominent. The question of cost also
may somewhat affect the decision as to depth of drains. The labor cost
increases rapidly with increasing depth. In many soils to cut a ditch 4
feet in depth would cost twice as much as to cut one 3 feet. As has been
pointed out, shallow drains comparatively near together may reduce the
water-table to a sufficiently low level. If then labor is unusually high,
while tiles or other materials for drains are cheap, the expense of drainage
may be less for 3-foot drains at, let us say, 25 feet apart, than it would be
for one-half the number of 4-foot drains at 50 feet apart. Taking into con-
sideration the prevailing local conditions and the climate of most parts of
the New England and the Middle states, it is concluded that under average
conditions a depth of from 3^2 to 4 feet will be found most satisfactory,
although in the case of meadows which it is expected will be kept perma-
nently in grass a depth of 2}/ 2 to 3 feet might give fairly good results. In
draining soils containing much peaty matter it must not be forgotten that
such soils shrink and settle greatly after drainage and that therefore allow-
ance must be made for this in placing the drains lest, after the soil has settled,
they be too near the surface (99). In our Western states the practice is
somewhat different, drains being commonly placed nearer the surface than
has been recommended. Chamberlain states that in the compact clayey
1 60 AGKJCI TL TORE ;
soils of Ohio 30 inches is as deep as the best economy will warrant. In this
opinion, however, he is at variance with the best English authorities, who
advise placing drains even in clayey soils at from 3^ to 4^ feet, pointing
out that while at first the escape of water may be rather slow on account of
the impervious nature of the clay, it soon becomes sufficiently porous to
permit the water to escape with the necessary rapidity. Waring quotes
extensively from a number of English writers all of whom agree that drains,
if possible, should be 4 feet deep.
237. Grade — The amount of vertical fall in a drain in a given distance
is spoken of as the grade or fall. The distance which is most often used in
connection with ordinary drainage operations is 100 feet. For example, the
statement, " The grade of a field is 5 inches in 100 feet," means that taking
any continuous portion of a drain 100 feet in length, the lower end of such
a portion is 5 inches below the level of the other end. One thousand feet is
sometimes the unit in extensive works. The meaning of such an expression
as "30 inches in 1,000 feet'' will be readily understood. A drain may
be said to have an even grade when the rate of fall is uniform from the upper
to the lower end. The grade of drains is in most cases fixed within narrow
limits by existing conditions, most important among which are the relative
level of water at the outlet and the surface of the field at the farthest point
to be drained, and the lay of the surface along the lines which the drains
must take. Land needing drainage is often comparatively flat, and but
little above the water level at the outlet. The question, then, of chief
importance in connection with the grade is usuallv, " With how little grade
will it lie safe to lava drain ? " Within ordinary limits, the greater the grade
the better. The chief reasons why this is the case are : first, the capacity
of a drain of any given size increases as the grade increases, i. c, the drain
will carry more water, fur the self-evident reason that the water moves
through it more rapidly ; and, second, because obstruction of the drain is
less likely to take place. Any foreign material such as silt is of course less
likely to lodge and remain in the drain in proportion as the current of water
is more rapid. It is, however, possible that the grade may be too great in
any of those kinds of soil which are not of a verv compact character. In
SOILS A. YD HOW TO TREAT THEM.
161
the case of a drain having a very steep grade in soil which is liable to wash,
tiles are not infrequently displaced. At times when tiles are flowing full,
under pressure of a large amount of water above which is seeking an outlet,
a portion of the water may be forced out at the joints, and this water, espe-
cially when the work is new, tends to wash along the line of the tiles, carry-
ing some earth with it. When this once begins the tendency is to wash
more and more, and in the course of time so much earth is carried off that
tiles are free to move, under which circumstances the violent flow of water
through them often pushes them out of place. Within less than a year after
tile drains have been placed on a steep grade in a soil consisting largely of
silt or very fine sand, they have been known to move to such an extent that
a portion of them have been found standing on end. Of course movement
to a degree even much less than this would mean the complete destruction
of the drain. This tendency to washing away the earth about the tiles of
course differs very widely witli the nature of the soil. It is most serious in
quicksands. The danger may be in part avoided by the use of gravel or
coarse sand for the first few inches of filling, and in very bad cases by the
further precaution either to place coarse sand on the bottom of the ditch
before putting in the tiles, or by the use of slabs or boards on which the
tiles are laid (241, 242). In all such cases, however, it will Lie safe to give
a drain a more moderate grade. The least grade on which farmers can be
advised to undertake putting in drains appears to be about 3 inches in 100
feet. With this grade the work must be very accurately executed. With
carelessness it may very well happen that tire drains in places will be abso-
lutely flat, or perhaps even will slant slightly in the wrong direction. Skilled
engineers find it possible to put in drains with much flatter grades. There
are examples of successful work with a grade of 2 or 3 inches in 1,000 feet.
Such work is possible, however, only when the surveyor's level in the hands
of a person accustomed to its use can be employed. The best average
grade is believed to range between about 5 and S inches in 100 feet. With
grades having such an amount of fall a careful workman will have no diffi-
culty in laying drains with sufficient accuracy to do good work. The great
est grade which is desirable (although this point has but seldom to be con-
sidered) is probably about 10 to 12 inches in 100 feet.
1 6 2 AGRICUL TURE ;
238. Capacity of tiles or sizes needed — The amount of water carried
by tile of any given size varies with the grade and is of course greater the
greater the grade. Tables are often published showing the number of gal-
lons carried by tiles of different sizes at different grades, but such tables can
be of no practical use to the farmer, because he does not know the number
of gallons of water which must be carried in order to drain any given field
and there is no method whereby he can determine this point. It is im-
portant, however, to know something concerning the relative capacity of
tiles of different sizes, supposing each to be laid on the same grade. In
considering this point tiles with round bore only are to be taken up. In
the case of tiles with round bore the area of the circle which measures the
bore varies with the square of the diameter. It might appear, therefore,
that this would be an index to the relative capacity to carry water ; that, for
example, the 3-inch tile would carry 2% times as much water as the 2-inch
tile because the square of 3 is 9 and 9 is 2% times 4, which is the square
of 2. As a matter of fact, however, the 3-inch tile will carry more than
2^ times as much water as the 2-inch. This is because the amount of
friction between the moving water and the tile is relatively greater in the
smaller sizes. Taking friction into account, according to Wheeler, tiles of
different sizes have about the following relative capacity to carry water, as
compared with the 2-inch tile taken as a basis of comparison : —
2j^-inch tile carry 1.5 times the water carried by 2-inch tile.
3-inch tile carry 2.5 times the water carried by 2-inch tile.
4-inch tile carry 5 times the water carried by 2-inch tile.
5-inch tile carry 7.5 times the water carried by 2-inch tile.
6-inch tile carry 12.5 times the water carried by 2-inch tile.
8-inch tile carry 25 times the water carried by 2-inch tile.
(a) Size for laterals — It is the general practice throughout the East-
ern states, when land is thoroughly drained by means of drains placed at
equal distances apart, to use 2-inch tiles for all laterals. In the Middle and
Western states larger tile are, as a rule, employed. Speaking of the
size required in laterals, Chamberlain says : " The tendency toward larger
size, especially in the rather level prairies in the West, is manifest and wise.
SO/LS AY/) BOW TO TREAT THEM. 163
The soil is more porous, and hence laterals may be much farther apart and
wisely laid deeper (even 4 or 4J2 feet) than in our more compact, clayey
soils in Ohio. Also, as the grades there are less, the sizes must be larger.
The manufacture of 1 and 1 1 ' 2 inch tiles has long been discontinued, even
in Ohio, and few 2-inch tiles are now made in some sections though they
are large enough for an outlet for one acre with good grade. But in
Illinois 3 and 4 inch tiles are now the smallest sizes found at most tile kilns.
The material is not expensive and the tendency toward large sizes is wise,
except where freights or long hauling make the weight important.''
{b) Size needed for mains — Wheeler, who is good authority on drain-
age practice in the Eastern states, says that on soils of open character with
grades not flatter than 3 or 4 inches, the 2-inch main will carryall the water
collected by the drains necessary in an acre of such land about as fast as it
can find its way into them, and he considers this size of main sufficient for
an acre of such land. For compact clays he considers a 2-inch main suffi-
ciently large for two acres, since in soils of this character a smaller propor-
tion of the water percolates through the soil to the drains, and that which
finds its way to them reaches them much more slowly than in case of more
open soils. If the fall be 6 inches in 100 feet, the 2-inch main will carry
water from 1 J< times the above named areas, and, with a fall of 12 inches in
100 feet, it will carry the water of double the above named areas. The
same authority savs that for the more open soils a 4-inch main would carry
the water from 5 acres, a 6-inch main the water from 12 acres, and an 8-inch
main the water from 2j acres, provided the fall is from 3 to 4 inches. If
the fall is 6 inches, the different sizes will carry the water from 1 y 2 times
the above named areas. In clay soils the number of acres for the different
sizes at different grades will lie double those above named.
Waring gives the following rules for the size of mains when the fall is 3
inches in 100 feet : —
1 j^ -inch tile, 2 acres.
2j/(-inch tile, 8 acres.
3 j4 -inch tile, 20 acres.
Two 3^ -inch tile, 40 acres.
164
AGRICULTURE ,
O-inch tile, 50 acres.
8-inch tile, 100 acres.
In commenting upon this statement as to sizes needed, Waring says :
" It is not pretended that these drains will immediately remove all the water
of the heaviest storms, but they will always remove it fast enough for all
practical purposes, and if the pipes are securely laid the drains will only be
benefited by the occasional cleaning the)' will receive when running ' more
than full.' ' All authorities agree that it is a mistake, whether for laterals
or for mains, to use tiles larger than are really necessary. Not only does
this involve greater expenditure, for the prices of tiles increase rapidly with
the size, but it makes a drain more liable to obstruction than a smaller one,
since silt is much more likely to settle in large tiles in which the quantity of
water ordinarily flowing would be sufficient to give a stream of but little
depth. The flushing of a drain under pressure of a great volume of water
which is endeavoring to force its way into it is very beneficial. Chamber-
lain has given rules for the size of mains in tile drainage which appear to be
worth stating. According to his rule, in order to determine the number of
acres that can be drained by means of different sizes, the diameter of the
tile should be squared, and the result divided by 4 when the grade is not
more than 3 inches in 100 feet. On this basis it will be found that : —
A 3-inch main will drain 2]'+ acres.
A 4-inch main will drain 4 acres.
A 5-inch main will drain 6^ acres.
A 6-inch main will drain 9 acres.
When the grade exceeds 3 inches in 100 feet, the diameter should be
squared, and the result divided by 3. On this basis the number of acres
provided for by means of different sizes would be : —
3-inch, 3 acres.
4-inch, 5 1 3 acres.
5-inch, 8'3 acres.
6-inch, 1 2 acres.
8-inch, 21J.3 acres.
It will be seen that the results of the application of Chamberlain's rule
SO/LS AND HOW TO TREAT THEM.
I6 5
for grades slightly exceeding 3 inches agree closely with Wheeler's estimate
as to the capacity of the different sizes. It is believed that the use of such
sizes as are recommended by Wheeler and Chamberlain will be found safer
than the selection of such sizes as are recommended by Waring.
XXXVIII — PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS.
239. Planning the work — In those cases where an engineer is not
employed and the farmer must plan the drains and see that the}' are put in
right, the following suggestions may be of value: The first thing to be
clone is to make a careful examination and find the best outlet for each
drain or for the single outlet of the main, if a main is to be used. Second,
if a main is to be used, find the highest point which will be reached by it
and determine the difference in level between the outlet and this point.
Third, find the highest point which is to lie reached by any of the laterals
and the difference in level between this point and the point where trie-
lateral either unites with the main or discharges into an open water course.
Fourth, drive stakes at distances of 100 feet apart along each line where
there is to be a drain. Having carefully determined the li nation and the grade
of each of the drains which are to be used, preparations must be made which
will enable the workmen to open the ditches to exactly the right depth and
to give an even grade with the rate of fall determined upon. The system
followed may be the same for each line of drains and this part of the work
should be most carefully done, because the efficiency of the drains depends
so largely upon an even and accurate grade.
240. Method to bo followed in securing the proper grade — The depth
of the drain at the mouth is always determined by the natural conditions,
and in preparation for grading the best system for the farmer to follow
appears to be to drive straight stakes on either side of the proposed ditch
at the mouth, the tops of which after being driven enough to be firm should
be a little more than six feet above the level of the drain at the lower end.
When these sticks are in place take a narrow strip of light board and nail it
firmly to the stakes (being careful to have the upper edge horizontal) at
such a height on the stakes that the measurement from the upper edge of
r66 AGRICULTURE ;
this horizontal batter board to the bottom of the ditch when it is at the
right depth will be exactly six feet. Next, go to the upper end of the drain
and set a similar pair of stakes with batter board. The height of this batter
board also should be exactly six feet above the bottom of the ditch when
it is at the right depth, and the depth at this point will be determined by the
grade which the drain is to have. Thus, for example, if the line of drain
is 500 feet long and the calculated grade is 5 inches in 100 feet, then the
batter board at the upper end should be 25 inches higher than that at the
lower. A measurement of six feet from the upper edge of this batter board
will give the proper level at the upper end of the drain. Having in this
way established points, by measuring from which the right depth at the
lower and upper ends can be determined, similar pairs of stakes of sufficient
length and size so that they may be firmly driven should be set, one on
either side, at intervals of about fifty or sixty feet along the line of the
drain. Two men then, working together, can place batter boards on each
pair of stakes One man should stand either at the upper or lower batter
board and, sighting to the other, should determine the point at which the
batter board should be set on each of the pairs of stakes. When this has
been done a light stout cord resting on the tops of the batter boards directly
over what is to be the center of the drain should be stretched perfectly taut.
Since it will not answer to pull upon the batter boards to any considerable
extent, it will be best to drive a single stake firmly into the ground behind
both the upper and the lower batter boards, to which the cord can be
fastened. These stakes should be firmly braced. The cord having been
accurately stretched and the batter boards carefully set, it will be under-
stood that we have thus established a line directly over the middle of the
drain which has the exact grade the drain should have. It then only
remains for the workmen in finishing the ditch to be sure that the)' dig
throughout the entire length to a point exactly six feet below the cord
above. This work of finally grading the ditch should be done by the
farmer himself or by some intelligent and very careful workman. To
facilitate the work, whoever does the grading should be provided with a
measuring rod, and in testing the depth of the ditch he should be careful to
SOILS AA'D HOW TO TREAT THEM.
167
hold this rod vertical. It is evident that accurate work depends upon hav-
ing the cord taut and on a true grade. Too much care, therefore, cannot
be used in putting up the batter boards and stretching the cord; and it
should be remembered that exposure to varying weather causes the cord to
shrink in damp and to relax in dry weather as does a clothesline. This
will make it necessary to restretch the cord whenever measurements are to
be taken. For this reason, and also because there may be some danger
that stakes may be disturbed during the progress of the work, it will usually
be best to open the ditch nearly down to the grade before setting the batter
boards and stretching the cord. The ordinary workmen of the farm may
be allowed to do this work but great care should be taken that they do not
dig too deep at any point, for it is highly necessary that tiles be laid on an
undisturbed bottom as firm as possible. Each line of drain may be graded
in the same manner, but wherever the slope is considerable it may be
unnecessary to follow this system. In many fields in the Eastern and Mid-
dle states a careful workman can grade a ditch with sufficient accuracy by
the eye and by watching the flow of water which comes into the ditch as it
is opened. It must further be pointed out that if the grade changes on any
single line it will be necessary in setting the batter boards to make proper
provision fur such change. Numerous other methods of testing the accuracy
of grades in drainage operations are in use. In many of these, devices
which can be easily homemade are employed. Among these the walking
level, the T level, and various combinations employing the spirit-level are
common.
241. Digging tin' ditches — This is the most expensive item in con-
nection with under-drainage and the cost of the operation will be very
largely determined by the manner in which this work is done. In case the
soil is fairly uniform in character, not too compact, and free from large
stones, the use of a plow is attended with considerable advantages. A
deep, wide furrow is turned out by the ordinary plow, then a second fur-
row by means of a trench plow. It may not be possible to throw out all
the earth loosened by these plows, but even if that is the case the break-
ing up and mellowing of the soil will enable the workmen to make more
1 68 AGRICULTURE;
rapid progress. Chamberlain makes the statement that he, with two men
to help him, in one clay laid fifty rods of tile drains, opening the ditch
(which had first been plowed as above), putting the tile in place and fill-
ing, thus entirely completing the work, the depth being three feet. At this
rate of progress the cost of tile draining would be very moderate. So
rapid work would not as a rule be possible in the commonly compact and
often more or less stony soils of the Eastern states. It will in many cases
be cheapest to have the ditches opened nearly down to the grade by con-
tract ; the grading, however, should not as a rule be left to contract labor.
When the work is to be done by day labor the following suggestions will, it
is believed, be found helpful : —
ist. Find men for the work, if possible, who are accustomed to it.
2d. Have them open narrow ditches. About 20 inches in width at the
top and 5 at the bottom will be suitable for laterals of average depth.
3d. Teach the men to place the earth on the edge of the ditch and to
get the shovel back to the bottom as soon as possible. Do not allow them
to throw the earth.
4th. Cut with a corner of the shovel, not with the whole width of the
blade.
5th. In most cases allow the workmen to use the tools to which they
are accustomed in preference to those which may be theoretically better but
to which the workmen are not accustomed.
6th. In whatever manner the work of opening the ditches maybe done
it is generally best to begin to work at the outlet in order that water as it
enters may have opportunity to escape.
242. How tiles should be laid — In laying tiles it is generally best to
begin at the lower end, because closer joints are likely to be made than
when the}' are laid beginning at the upper end. If, however, there is any
great amount of water flowing through the ditch it may be best to begin at
the upper end, using great care to crowd the tiles as close together as pos-
sible. Should tiles be laid from the lower end, there is danger, in case
much water is flowing in the ditch, that it will carry earth with it into the
tiles, and if the grade be comparatively flat it is likely that the earth will
SOILS AND I/Oir TO TREAT THEM. i(,g
settle in the tiles, thus partially obstructing them. Before beginning to
place the tiles in the ditch it is best to string them along on the bank
within reach of the man standing in the ditch, taking care to discard all
imperfect tiles. In putting the tiles in position in the ditch make as close
joints as possible. Joints cannot be made close enough to exclude water.
The danger is that cracks will be left of such size that silt or fine sand will
be carried into the drain. The joints should be covered with muslin, tarred
paper, sod, or clean, coarse sand. This covering is necessary in order, so
far as possible, to prevent fine earth washing into the drain while it is new.
Neither the cloth, paper, nor sod will last many years, but after the work is
settled there is comparatively little danger that silt will enter the tiles. If
it be found that there is quicksand in the bottom of the ditch, or that the
bottom is soft and insecure, it is best to lay the tiles on a board, in which
case they may be kept from rolling sideways by means of laths. Tiles
should be laid almost immediately after the ditch is graded. It is unsafe to
wait, because water naturally flowing through the open ditch or a storm may
lead to such an amount of washing as to destroy the grade. It should be
remembered that the efficiency and durability of the drain depend almost
entirely upon careful laying and true grade. Careless laying may mean the
entire loss of the work. If it be necessary from any cause to lay tiles upon
a curve, either the special forms designed for use on curves should be em-
ployed (227, a) or the inner side of the tiles should be chipped off with a
trowel or hatchet in order that close joints may be made. It will not an-
swer to lay square-ended tiles on curves, for the open joints on the outer
side of the curve will permit the entrance of too much earth. When the
system includes both mains and laterals it will be necessary to put in the
branch tiles for the lateral as the work on the main progresses, and to pre-
vent the washing in of earth the short arm of the Y should be closed by
use of a wisp of straw, a brick, or flat stone. In placing the Y's in position
use care that the short arm of the Y is raised a little above the center of
the main. If this is not done there may be danger of water backing from
the main into the lower end of the lateral.
243. Filling the ditch — A workman should closely follow the man who
170
AGRICULTURE ,
lays the tile, and as each joint is covered with muslin, paper, or other mate-
rial, this workman should carefully throw down a shovelful of earth, which
the man laying the tile should crowd firmly about the joint in order to hold
all in place. In addition to doing this work, the man on the bank should
continue the rilling as far as possible, taking care in throwing in the earth
not to disturb the tiles, and being careful further
not to throw in large stones which might break
the tiles. In the course of filling it is desirable
that the earth be packed down as solid as may
be one or more times during the operation.
Even if this be done it will be found that the earth
removed from the ditch, cm being put back,
makes it more than full. It should, nevertheless,
all be placed above the ditch, this being consider-
ably rounded up when the work is left. This
rounding up of the work as shown in the cut is
necessary in order to provide for the settling
which always follows. Should the line above the
tiles become lower than the adjacent land, there would be great danger
that water washing into this hollow would find crevices in the freshly filled
earth through which it would begin to run down directly into the tiles.
Should this happen, earth is sure to be carried into them, and the obstruc-
tion of the tiles, and perhaps serious displacement, follow. The work of
filling is sometimes entirely done by hand, shovels as well as heavy hooks
and hoes being employed according to the taste of the workman. In many
cases, provided the field undergoing improvement has a soil sufficientlv
firm to allow it, considerable saving maybe made by employing implements
drawn by horses or oxen. Both common and special filling plows, ordinary
scrapers and road scrapers have been employed. In some cases a wide
scraper specially made for the purpose in form of a letter V, with the sharp
end cut off, has been found to do good work. Such a scraper may be made
of two planks about 12 feet in length, firmly^ fastened together, with the
forward ends about 6 feet apart and tin; rear ends 2 feet or less apart. Such
Fir.. 51. The completed drain, show
ing the rounded top.
SOILS AND HOW TO TREAT THEM. l « 1
a scraper drawn by a pair of horses with wide hitch, one walking on either
side of the ditch, may do excellent work, if the earth which is to be filled
into the ditch has not become too compact, and if it has been thrown out
in about equal quantities on the two sides. Some writers on drainage rec-
ommend that in digging ditches for under-drains, surface soil should be
thrown on one side and subsoil on the other. It is not believed that it is at
all essential to take these precautions, for it is found that even during the
first few years after under-drains are put in the crops immediately above the
drain are quite as good as on either side, even although in filling the sur-
face soil may have been largely put in at the bottom. If, however, in the
course of digging, earth of different grades of fineness should be found, it
will pay to keep the coarsest grade of earth by itself, because if such earth
can be filled in immediately above and about the tiles, the danger from wash-
ing in of silt is greatly reduced. Recognizing the fact that obstruction
of tiles through washing in of silt, especially where the grades are flat, not
infrequently occurs during the first few years after drains are put in, it is
recommended that, in soils which are of the nature of quicksand, or which
consist chiefly of silt and excessively fine sand, coarse sand or gravel be
used in filling the first few inches above the bottom of the ditch. The use
of sand or gravel in this way must always considerably increase the cost of
putting in drains, and it should accordingly be resorted to only when cir-
cumstances seem to render it absolutely essential.
244. Silt-basins and peep-holes — Silt-basins and peep-holes are prac-
tically wells, the bottoms of which extend a little below the level of the tile
or other under-drain. Such wells may serve two useful purposes : first,
they make it possible for the farmer to determine whether the drains are
working properly ; second, they serve as a trap for the collection of silt.
The term silt-basin is commonly applied to such wells as are of consider-
able size. The term peep-hole is generally used to designate wells of small
diameter put in chiefly with the object of making it possible to determine
whether drains are working properly. The peep-hole is not large enough
to prove of much use in retaining silt. The cut shows a silt-basin of ap-
proved construction, brick being employed in the bottom, and tile above.
172
AGRICULTURE ,
All joints should be carefully cemented, and it is believed, although this is
not always done, that it will be expedient in all except soils of the most
compact character to use a flat stone at the bottom and to cement the joint
between the bottom and the first course of bricks. It has been found that
earth not infrequently washes into silt-wells, finding its way with water
through the joints or under the bottom of the wall. Joints must be close
to prevent this. In some cases silt-
wells are brought to the surface, where
they are provided with a stout cover.
Wells coming to the surface are
very liable to breakage through acci-
dent, especially in fields which are
plowed, and it is believed to be best
to carry the well to a point not
nearer the surface than about 20
inches. A stout cover, which should
be either of stone or cast iron, should
be employed, the earth being filled in
above the well as shown in the cut.
The bottom of the well should be
several inches lower than the outgoing
tile, and the latter in turn should be
about two inches lower than the tile or tiles which bring water into the well.
The diameter of the well may vary according to the amount of water com-
ing into it. In most cases a well of about a foot to fifteen inches in diameter
will be large enough. The water which is brought by the drains into such
a well comes to partial rest, and silt or fine sand which it carries will largely
settle and remain in the well, from which it must from time to time be re-
moved. Peep-holes are commonly made by setting Akron tile or iron pipe
on end. If these, for convenience of inspection without the trouble of dig-
ging, are to be brought to the surface, they should extend far enough above
the ground to be easily seen. Care should be taken, as in the case of
silt-wells, to make tight joints both at the bottom and between tiles, in
Fig. 52. Silt-Basin. Arrows Indicate the course
of the water through the drain, with the well below
and the opening at the top of the shaft.
SOILS AND HOW TO TREAT THEM. !-,,
order to prevent the washing in of earth. There is considerable differ-
ence of opinion as to the number of silt-wells and peep-holes which
should be put in. It is, however, evident that their use must increase
the cost of drainage and it is not believed that they should be much
employed. They will be needed, if at all, at such points as the follow-
ing :—
(a) On an important drain at a point where the grade becomes more
flat.
(b) At the junction of important lines of drains.
In the case of small drainage operations where each drain is given an in-
dependent outlet into an open water-course, silt-basins and peep-holes are
unnecessary. ,
XXXIX OBSTRUCTIONS IN DRAINS.
245. Chief causes of obstructions — The chief causes which lead to the
obstruction of under-drains, several of which have been alluded to in telling
how drains should be put in, are : filling with earth, choking with roots,
the displacement of tiles, the formation of a coat of insoluble oxid of iron
inside the tiles, and the entrance of animals.
246. lulling with earth — The chief causes of filling with earth are
defective grading and laying. If the grades are even, if good, smooth tiles
are employed, and the joints close and carefully covered with muslin or
paper ( 242 ), there will be comparatively little danger of filling. When,
however, grades are comparatively flat, and in soils consisting largely of
silt, there is considerable danger of obstruction from this cause, especially
during the first year or two. After the earth has become fairly settled about
the tiles there is little danger of obstruction from this cause.
247. Filling by roots — In discussing the proper depth of tiles ( 236 J
this danger has been fully considered and the remedies pointed out. These,
it will be remembered, consist either, first, in the removal of the tree, or,
second, using glazed tile and cementing the joints within any distance from
the tree less than its height.
248. The displacement of tiles — Tiles if too near the surface may be dis-
1 74 A GRICUL TURF. :
placed by frosts. This is more apt to occur it by reason of the nature of
the strata, the grade, or any other condition, one end of the tile is in soil of
a different character from that about the other. The action of frost under
these conditions may easily throw the tiles out of line, and will in time per-
haps stand them on end. Among other causes of displacement are
difference in degree of hardness of the bed on which the tile is laid (allow-
ing the tile perhaps to settle at one end or allowing a part of the tiles to
settle), carelessness in filling, and occasionally the burrowing of animals.
249. Formation of a coat of iron-rust — Iron is found in most soils and
often in considerable quantity. Where drains have flat grades a coat of
iron-rust may gradually form on the inside of tiles. This iron-rust forms
a rough coat, which decreases the capacity of the tile to carry water and in-
creases the danger that silt or any other foreign matter carried along by the
water will lodge and thus gradually block the flow.
250. Animals sometimes enter drains — Small water animals such as
rats, muskrats and frogs, sometimes enter drains at their outlets at times
when comparatively little water is being discharged, and such animals have
been known to work up through the drains to points from which they have
found it impossible to return and their dead bodies have sometimes been
found blocking a drain. Obstruction from this cause can easily be pre-
vented by covering the tile at the mouth with a grating. Such gratings in
most cases become gradually obstructed through accumulation of fibers of
roots, iron-rust, etc., and must sometimes be removed and cleaned.
251. Signs of obstructions — The most obvious sign that a drain is
obstructed is the gradual return of the land to its original condition. In the
neighborhood of an obstruction and above it the soil will gradually become
wet and soft, while below the obstruction it will still be well drained. Hav-
ing found the apparent place, take a crowbar or spade and make several
holes along the line of the tile. The comparative level of the water in
these holes will indicate very nearly the place of the obstruction.
252. Removal of obstructions — When a drain is but partially obstructed
such obstruction may sometimes be removed by flushing. To flush a drain
through which some water is still flowing it is only necessary to stop the
drain at the outlet for a considerable length of time. Under these circum-
SOILS AND HOW TO TREAT Til KM. I je
stances the drain and the soil about and above it are soon entirely filled with
water, and on opening at the mouth the rapid outflow of this water under con-
siderable head will often thoroughly cleanse the tiles. If the tile is wholly
closed it will be necessary to dig- down to it and remove the obstruction in
such manner as circumstances may render necessary. If the obstruction
extends but a short distance and there is considerable water it can some-
times be started by the use of a pole, when the water will carry the foreign
material out. If the obstruction is complete and extends for a considerable
length the only way in which it can be removed is by taking up the tiles.
This also would be the only way in case tiles were obstructed by living
roots.
253. Cost of itndcr-drainagc — As with other farm operations, condi-
tions are so variable in different fields and in different localities that no one
price can be given which will apply to all conditions. On the College farm
at Amherst, Mass., it has been found that to thoroughly drain fields of
medium, compact soil with laterals from 35 to 40 feet apart, and about 3^2
feet deep, costs about $50 per acre. It is impossible to do work as cheaply
in a State institution as it can be done under private management. There
are, however, very few recorded facts pertaining to the cost of drainage in
the Eastern states. Chamberlain gives the actual cost of draining fifteen
acres at $21.57 an acre. English writers estimate the cost of thorough
drainage at about $25.00 an acre. The important items making up the cost
are : opening the ditches, cost of tile, and cost of labor in laying and filling.
(«) Opening the ditches — The cost of opening ditches will vary greatly
with the nature of the soil and the depth (236). It is also affected in
marked degree by the experience and skill of the workmen. If the work
be done by contract in the Eastern states the price for digging ditches
averaging about 3 V 2 to 4 feet may vary between twenty-five and seventy
cents per rod.
(b) Cost of tile — The cost of the tile wall vary widely in different
localities, being chiefly affected by the distance from the point of manufac-
ture. It will require about one thousand pieces of 2-inch tile, according to
the system of under-drainage generally followed in the Eastern states, to lay
1 76 A GR/CUL TURE ;
the laterals considered necessary in an acre, and these in most localities will
cost about $10. The cost of tiles increases rapidly with the diameter, as
illustrated by the following price-list sent out by a large manufacturer. The
prices are for round tile, but as a rule the prices for six and eight sided tiles
are about the same : —
2-inch tile, per thousand, $15.00
2 J/2 inch tile, per thousand, 20.00
3-inch tile, per thousand, 25.00
4-inch tile, per thousand, 45. 00
5-inch tile, per thousand, 75-QO
6-inch tile, per thousand, 100.00
8-inch tile, per thousand, 150.00
12-inch tile, per thousand, 350.00.
Prices as published in lists similar to the above are always subject to
large discounts, in most cases in the neighborhood of forty per cent.
(e) Laving and filling — The cost of laying and filling will not, it is
believed, generally exceed about ten cents per rod, provided the best means
for doing the work are employed, although of course the cost of these
operations as well as of others is subject to some variation. With a large
amount of water flowing through the ditches it costs more to la}- tiles well
than in ditches where there is little or no water, and to fill is more costly in
proportion as the ditch is deep and the soil compact and adhesive.
254. Drainage implements — (a) Machines. A number of different
styles of steam or horse power ditchers are manufactured for use in under-
drainage, and there is one machine by use of which it is proposed both to
open the ditch and to lay the tiles. It is not believed that the latter
machine is a success, but under some circumstances machines may lie used
with advantage in opening the ditches. All necessarily require great power,
and their use is not practicable except in large fields with even surface and
in soils free from stones. In addition to machines designed to open the
ditch there is another type which aims simply to loosen the earth, somewhat
as a pick might do. One of these machines is shown in Fig. 53. It is not
believed that the use of machinery will, as a rule, be found profitable under
the conditions prevailing in the Eastern states.
SO /IS AND HOW TO TREAT THEM.
177
(b) Hand-tools — There is some diversity of opinion in regard to the
selection of tools for use in ditching, some preferring special ditching tools
while others advocate the use of ordinary picks, shovels, and spades. The
special ditching spades and tools shown in Fig. 54 arc designed for use in
Fig. 53.
Ditching Plow.
opening very narrow trenches, — the width at the bottom only slightly exceeds
the diameter of the tiles to be used. The wider spades are of course to be
used at the top, the narrower in the bottom, of the trench. It is not possi-
ble for workmen using these tools to stand in the bottom of the ditch. The
last spade is used in removing a cut below the level on which the workman
stands and the bottom of the ditch must be finished by the use of the long-
handled crummer, also shown in the cut. When the ditch is opened only
the width of these very narrow implements, it is eyident that the work-
man cannot stand in the ditch to lay the tiles, and a special pipe-
layer is employed in putting' them in place. Skilled workmen accus-
tomed to these tools are able to put in drains very rapidly and cheaply
by their use, but it is not believed that the comparatively inexperienced
workmen (as a rule the only kind that can be employed in this country)
should attempt to do the work in this way. There is grave risk that per-
fect joints between tiles would not be made, and the workmen, being unac-
customed to the constrained and somewhat unnatural position which the
use' of these implements requires, would probably not open as great a length
i 7 8
A GRICUL TURE ,
of ditch in a day as with ordinary spades and shovels; and, in case of hard
soils, the pick with which the earth is first loosened. With inexperienced
workmen, ditches of just sufficient width to stand in comfortably should be
the rule. In grading the bottom of the ditch for the reception of round
tiles it will, however, be found expedient to cut a half round groove, as
shown in the cut Fig. 55, by the use of the special implement designed for
the purpose, which is also shown in Fig. 54, No. 6.
No. 9.
No. 8.
No. 1.
No. 7.
Fig. 54, Hand Tools for vse in Making Drains. Nos. 3, 4 and 5 are used in digging the ditch; Nos.
6 7, :s and o, for cleaning and making groove at bottom of ditch for round tile ;' No. 1, for cleaning and leveling
bottom of ditch for sole tile; No. 2, for shoveling out loose dirt and leveling bottom of ditch.
255. Make a plan of the field drained — A plan showing the location
of all under-drains put in is almost sure to prove useful. It is surprising in
how short a time all surface indications that a drain is working below dis-
appear. Almost every one, when putting in under-drains, believes that he
SOILS AND HO W TO TREAT THEM.
179
will always remember just where each is put, but this can seldom be de-
pended upon, and even were the individual memory reliable, later owners
or occupants will need the guidance of a plan. In any system it may some-
times be necessary to dig up drains for the removal of obstructions or re-
pairs, and when this is the case the plan will save much labor in finding the
drains. A sketch plan, provided a few distances from some fixed and
permanent natural object are given and distances between drains indicated,
will answer, though a plan drawn to scale is somewhat more satisfactory.
XL — IRRIGATION.
256. Definition — Irrigation is the practice of artificially supplying
water to land for the purpose of furnishing moisture and plant food. In
some cases one, and in others the other, of these two objects is more im-
portant.
257. A bit of history — The first definite record concerning irrigation
gives an account of the construction of the pools of Bethlehem-Etam by
Solomon. The water was conducted to the
eastern slope of Mount Zion by a 10-inch
earthen pipe and the system was reported as
working in 1SS4. Storage basins were built
of masonry and lined with cement. These
basins had a capacity of 78,000,000 gallons.
The Moors introduced irrigation into Spain
and the system which they established is re-
tained in all its essential features. The first
extensive irrigation works in the United States
were constructed by the Mormons in Utah, in
which state irrigation is an absolute necessity
to successful agriculture.
25S. Present importance and distribution — Extensive systems are now
in use in India, Egypt, Italy, Germany, England, Scotland, some parts of
South America, and in the United States, as well as in some other countries.
Fig. 55 Section of ditch, showing a
groove at the bottom.
iSo AGRICULTURE ;
The amount of land under irrigation in some of the principal countries was
reported by Wilson in 1893 to be as follows : —
India, 25,000,000 acres.
Egypt, 6,000,000 "
Italy, 3,700,000 "
Spain, 500,000 "
France, 400,000 "
According to the report of the eleventh census the number of acres under
irrigation in the United States at the time it was taken was 3,600,000.
At the time of that census, canals and ditches had been constructed with
capacity to provide water for a much larger area. The irrigated farm lands
of the United States are for the most part west of the Mississippi river, in
which portion of our country the rainfall is comparatively small and uncer-
tain. Some of the largest irrigation works are in California. As an example
may be mentioned the so-called Bear Ditch, which is 170 miles long and cost
$2,500,000. This canal carries 3,888,000 cubic feet of water a day, sufficient
to furnish some of our smaller cities such as Northampton, Burlington, or
Bangor with water for an entire year. Bear Ditch irrigates about 293,000
acres. In India, where also the rainfall in many sections is insufficient to
make farming without irrigation safe, many of the systems are of enormous
capacity, canals being used for navigation as well as for irrigation. The
Ganges canal is 900 miles long, 170 feet wide, and 10 feet deep and irrigates
1,500,000 acres. In Italy all the streams are controlled by government in
the interests of irrigation, and in the case of the Humboldt river the entire
volume of water has been diverted and used.
259. Reasons for irrigation — The large proportion of water found in
growing plants, and the relatively enormous quantities needed to produce a
pound of dry matter in a plant, have been pointed out ( 14, 19. 92). It has
also been pointed out that during the growing season the rainfall is often
insufficient, even in the Atlantic states, to furnish the amount of water
needed for the best growth of our crops (92). The rainfall in the United
States in any given latitude decreases with considerable regularity from the
Atlantic seaboard westward to the Rock)' Mountains, and farther west than
SOILS AND HOW TO TREAT THEM. I( Si
longitude 97 from Greenwich, the annual rainfall is seldom sufficiently great
to produce maximum crops, while during several years in every decade
unusual drouths cause enormous damage to crops. With a plentiful supply
of water, plants have been grown even in sand and in coal ashes, while with
an insufficient supply of water the best loam cannot support plant growth.
The soil of a large proportion of the territory lying between the Mississippi
and the Rocky Mountains is well stored with the elements of fertility, but
without irrigation crops are small and uncertain. In the production of a
bushel of potatoes it has been estimated that the plants will consume no less
than 630 gallons of water, or about 16 barrels. If this amount is not avail-
able the crop suffers, and if it is irregularly supplied there is lessened yield.
Thefirst indication of the need of water afforded by the plant is wilting, but
the plant does not wilt until it loses a large proportion of its moisture, at
which time it is likely to have been considerably checked in its growth.
The chief reason, then, for irrigating in most localities where the practice is
extensive, is to furnish an adequate supply of water which shall be ready for
use on demand. Under irrigation risk from untimely drouths is avoided,
and the crop is assured so far as water is concerned. Irrigation greatly
increases the value of farm lands, because the products are larger than with-
out it, and more certain. In some localities west of the Mississippi, land,
which without irrigation is almost valueless, readily sells for from $30 to $50
per acre when water is brought to it. The water used for irrigation, as
implied in the definition of that word (256), may be the means of carrying
large amounts of plant food to the soil. The water of rivers and streams is
likely to prove the most valuable in this direction, although even spring and
well water may contain elements of plant food in appreciable amounts. The
water from the sewerage systems in our cities is of course far richer than
any natural source of supply.
260. Irrigation profitable in the North Atlantic states — Irrigation can-
not be looked upon as an absolute necessity for profitable agriculture in the
New England and the Middle states, for these states are favored with fairly
abundant and well distributed rainfall, but that irrigation in this section of
the United States is often exceedingly profitable is abundantly demonstrated
1 82 A GRICUL TURE ;
by the experience of many practical men. This portion of the United
States, though suffering less seriously than portions of the country farther
west, is nevertheless subject to drouth, and crops often suffer severely.
There is seldom a season with rainfall so abundant and so well distributed
that crops of many kinds might not be increased by the judicious use of
water in irrigation. It must constantly be kept in mind that the fertility
carried to the field by the water, as well as the water itself, contributes to
increased yield. Owing to the comparatively dense population of the north-
eastern portion of the United States, a considerable proportion of the land
used in the production of garden crops has a very high average value per
acre ; and, because of the density of the population, markets are good
and the value of the possible crops from a given area is comparatively high.
For these reasons also it may be profitable for the farmers and gardeners
in this part of the United States to go to much greater expense to procure
water than could safely be incurred by farmers in other sections of the United
States. As a matter of fact, however, water which may be used for irriga-
tion can be very readily and cheaply obtained in many localities. This sec-
tion of the country has innumerable lakes and ponds, streams and rivers,
and springs, from which water can in many cases be readily taken, and the
broken and rolling nature of the country offers great advantages in the dis-
tribution of water. It must be apparent, therefore, that while agriculture
without irrigation is possible and may be profitable, there is perhaps no
section of our country where irrigation promises greater profit.
261. The fertilizing value of irrigation ivatcrs — That the water used
for irrigation contributes to the fertility of the fields in which it is used has
been pointed out (256, 259). How large the supply of plant food from
this source may be will be made more clear by a statement of the results
obtained by calculations based on the reported analvses of the water of a
few of our rivers. The application of water from the Delaware river to the
depth of 24 inches, which is an amount no greater than is frequently used
in irrigation, would supply to the acre of land no less than 741 pounds of
solids containing very considerable amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid,
and potash, as well as lime, magnesia, and other minerals which enter
SOILS AND HOW TO TREAT THEM.
1 33
plants. The application of the same amount of water, having- the same
composition as the average of twelve rivers of New Jersey, would supply to
an acre of land no less than 80 pounds of nitrogen in the form of ammonia
and 770 pounds of nitrates. All of these streams are regarded as compara-
tively pure and the water is in some cases used as the source of domestic
supply for cities. If the water of such rivers carries such enormous amounts
of plant food it must be apparent that river water in general will furnish
sufficient plant food to be of great value. Further evidence of the great
fertilizer value of water used in irrigation is afforded by the water meadows
of England, some of which have been producing enormous crops of grass
yearly for perhaps 300 or even 500 years and all this time without the
application of manure or fertilizer of any kind. The amount of water
applied to these meadows is very large. Their value is naturally very high.
Water can be applied to them more cheaply than manure, even if the latter
could be had for the hauling. Crops are absolutely certain and by feeding
the product of these meadows and carefully saving the manure, the unirri-
gated portion of the farms having water meadows is maintained in a very
high state of fertility.
262. Kinds of wafer available for irrigation — Among the different
sources of water which may be available for irrigation in different parts of
the Northeastern states are rivers and streams, ponds and lakes, springs,
wells, and sewage. As a general rule that water is best for irrigation which
contains a large amount of suspended and dissolved materials, provided
these are not of a kind to be injurious to plant life. It is further important
that water which is to be used for irrigation should have a high temperature,
for the application in large quantities of very cold water will seriously check
the growth <>f most crops for a time.
(a) Rivers and streams — Facts have been stated which make it evi-
dent that rivers and streams often carry large amounts of plant food.
Those whose waters are turbid, carrying considerable quantities of fine
earth, are among the best for use in irrigation. Where these turbid waters
can be so spread over the surface of fields as to come to partial rest, the
fine earth settles and serves to greatly enrich the soil. Such water is
1 84 A GRICUL TUR E ;
especially useful when applied to soils of a sandy or gravelly character,
for the fine silt deposited from the water will greatly improve the phys-
ical characteristics of such soils. The water from rivers and streams
may in many cases have a sufficiently high temperature for immediate
application, but in some cases it is so cold that it is greatly improved if
it can be first led into a shallow reservoir where it may be warmed by
the sun before it is finally distributed in the field. This point is particu-
larly important in the case of garden and field crops. If the water is
to be used for grass it may safely be taken directly from the rivers and
streams.
(£) Ponds a?id lakes — The water from ponds and lakes is likely to be
of the same general character as that of the rivers and streams in the same
section of country. It will, however, in many cases be somewhat richer in
plant food, owing to the evaporation of a portion of the water originally
brought into the pond or lake. The temperature of course varies widely
with the depth and with the source from which the pond or lake is fed, but
as a rule it will be sufficiently high so that the water is fit for immediate
use.
(V) Springs — The water from springs, though varying widely, is in
many cases comparatively pure and cold. In most instances it should be
led into a shallow reservoir that it may be warmed by the sun before being
used.
(d) Wells — Water in surface wells is of the same general character
with spring water, comparative!)' pure and cold. It is by no means equal to
river water for use in irrigation but there are many instances of its profitable
use. It must first be pumped into a tank, or better into a shallow reservoir,
that its temperature may be raised before it is applied. Artesian wells,
which are so important in some parts of the West, are not of much impor-
tance in the North Atlantic states. Water from such artesian wells as
have been made in this section is generally highly pure and cold.
(e) Sewage — Sewage must be regarded as the best water for irriga-
tion. It contains a larger proportion of plant food than any of the other
kinds considered, and its temperature is higher than that of other kinds of
SOILS AND HOW TO TREAT THEM. 1 85
water which can be obtained. The proportion of plant food in sewage
varies widely, depending to a great extent upon the system of sewerage
employed in the city or town from which it comes. Sewage, the popular
impression to the contrary notwithstanding, is not sufficiently rich in plant
food to make it possible for farmers and gardeners who might use it to pay
any very considerable sums for this material. True, the aggregate value of
the sewage from our large cities is enormous. Thus, for example, it is
estimated that at the same price per pound for the potash, phosphoric acid,
and nitrogen, at which these materials can be purchased in fertilizers, the
sewage of the city of Boston would be worth $2,000,000 ; that of the city
of New York, $9,000,000 ; but the dilution is so great that it does not pay
to use sewage except under the most favorable circumstances. It has been
calculated that a ton of London sewage contains not more than 5 ounces of
the elements of plant food. The question as to the disposal of sewage is in
this country still almost exclusively a sanitary question. Our sewers, it is
true, carry into rivers, lakes, and the sea, enormous quantities of plant food ;
but if, as in many cases is true, it costs more than one hundred cents to re-
cover one dollar's worth of this plant food, it would be poor economy to un-
dertake its recovery, provided the sewage can be safely disposed of in some
other way. There are some instances of successful sewage irrigation in this
country, and a very considerable number in England and on the continent
of Europe, but in very few of these instances is such irrigation attended with
results which can fairly be considered profitable. The impression is doubt-
less quite general that sewage irrigation is attended by disagreeable features,
but when it is rightly carried on this is not the case ; and, moreover, there
appears to be no method whereby sewage can be so efficiently purified as
by its use in suitable amounts in the irrigation of soils of an open, porous
character.
263. Water from cities or towns — Cities and towns, or private com-
panies supplying cities and towns, are sometimes ready to sell water for
irrigation at rates which allow its profitable use. This they can easily do
whenever their supply is in excess of the requirements of the communities
supplied, for whether their water comes through their pipes under pressure
1 86 . AGRICULTURE;
of a natural head, or whether they must pump, their works are generally on
a large scale and the actual cost of the water which the}' deliver low.
There is no doubt that, with modern machinery, water is often pumped to a
considerable elevation' at an actual cost of less than five cents per 1,000
gallons. Such water is usually metered to those using it for irrigation, and
prices as low as twenty cents per 1,000 gallons are not uncommon. It is
the market gardeners and small fruit growers near cities and large towns,
chiefly, who find it profitable to avail themselves of this source of supply.
Such water is taken as a rule from a natural stream, river, pond, or lake,
and its qualities are similar to those of the purer natural bodies of water of
this class. There are many instances in Massachusetts of the successful use
of city or town water in irrigation.
264. Irrigation terms and units — The term miner's inch, much em-
ployed in connection with irrigation in the West, designates the quantity
of water which will flow through an opening one inch square under a head of
6 inches from the upper side of the opening. The miner's inch equals about
12 gallons per minute, and 37 )i miner's inches furnish about 1 cubic foot
of water per second. The acre-inch is an expression indicating sufficient
water to cover one acre of land 1 inch deep, or 6,272,640 cubic inches, and
an acre-foot designates sufficient water to cover an acre 1 foot deep, or 43,-
560 cubic feet. A gallon equals 231 cubic inches. An acre-inch is equivalent
to a little more than 27,000 gallons. A cubic foot is equal to about 7^
gallons. A stream of water, the cross section of which is 1 square inch,
flowing at the rate of 4 miles per hour, will furnish 6,082,560 cubic inches
of water in 24 hours, which is therefore sufficient to furnish almost an acre-
inch, or, in other words, to cover one acre of land almost 1 inch deep.
265. Crops for which irrigation is desirable — In humid climates
market gardens are undoubtedly more often irrigated at large profit than
any other class of farm lands. Among the reasons why this is so are the
following : —
1st. The land employed in market gardening usually has a very high
value and must therefore be made very productive in order that any profit
may be obtained in its cultivation.
SOILS AND HOW TO TREAT THEM.
I8 7
2d. The style of cultivation adopted in market gardening is very in-
tensive. Heavy applications of manures and fertilizers are made and labori-
ous methods of culture adopted. The cost per acre is therefore heavy and
there must be large returns, or operations will be carried on at a loss. Injury
to crops from drouth under these conditions is especially disastrous. Ordi-
nary farm crops in the Northeastern states may not be worth more than
from $25 to $50 per acre, but the crops of the market garden are often
worth from $250 to $300 per acre. It is perfectly evident from this state-
ment of facts that the market gardener can afford to pay much more for
water than the ordinary farmer. A decrease in his crops, amounting to a
loss of half an average product, as a result of drouth is not uncommon. The
cost of water for irrigation will in many cases be trifling in comparison with
the money loss resulting from such a decrease in crops.
Small fruits also are greatly benefited by irrigation. Among these
the most important are the strawberry, raspberry, and the blackberry.
Especially does irrigation benefit the first of these. The late Marshall P.
Wilder, being asked what were the requisites for successful culture of
strawberries, is said to have replied: "First, plenty of water; second,
plenty of water; third, plenty of water." A sufficient water supply enables
the vines to carry out their fruit and to produce berries of good size
throughout the entire season. The crop possibilities under judicious
irrigation are enormous. The writer, on a small piece of land, once had a
crop at the rate of 21,000 quarts to the acre.
The cranberry is a crop for which irrigation is absolutely essential.
True, the culture of this crop is sometimes attempted where a sufficient
supply of water for flooding is not available, but the degree of success
possible under such conditions is very small. The crop is greatly benefited
by flooding in winter as a protection from injury from cold. Flooding both
in spring and in autumn to avoid frosts is a great safeguard against loss;
while, further, for protection against certain insects, flooding is the best
method which is known.
Grass. The amount of water required by the grasses is very large,
hence irrigation of meadows is advisable wherever it can be given without
1 8 8 AGklCUL TURE ;
too great expense. Grass, filling the soil entirely with a mass of fine feed-
ing roots, utilizes the elements of fertility in water employed for irrigation
more perfectly than any other crop. Covering the ground fully, grass
protects the soil from washing; and occupying' the field permanently, the
ditches and channels used for distributing- the water are more permanent
than in the case of fields occupied by hoed crops. The cost of distributing
water for the irrigation of grass lands is less than in the case of most other
crops. Among the grasses which are best suited to irrigation are blue
joint, Italian rye grass, perennial rye grass, fowl meadow, rough-stalked
meadow, tall oat grass, and orchard grass. Timothy and clovers do not
thrive well under heavy irrigation. On the ordinary farm, if the water
available for irrigation is sufficient only for a portion of the improved area,
then it will generally be best to use that water on the grass lands rather
than for hoed crops.
Corn, on warm and porous soil which is perfectly drained, thrives under
very abundant irrigation and in some localities it has been found especially
well suited for culture under sewage irrigation. Enormous crops of ensilage
corn are grown at many of the State institutions in Massachusetts under
sewage irrigation, while the city of Brockton in Massachusetts has had great
success in the production of sweet corn on its filter beds under very heavy
applications of sewage.
The Japanese barnyard millet is also adapted to culture under liberal irri-
gation with sewage.
Orchards. The tree fruits grown in humid climates send their roots to
such depth that irrigation is perhaps less necessary than for many other
crops, yet it is well known that the size of the fruit, and therefore the yield
and the price at which it can be sold, is affected in very marked degree by
the water supply. Protracted drouth frequently causes our apples, peaches,
and pears to be small. Judicious application of water will prevent this
injury to these crops.
266. Land best suited for irrigation — That land can be most profitably
irrigated, of course, which is nearest the source of supply and which lies at
such a level that water will flow to it by gravity. The surface should not
SOILS AMD HOW TO TREAT TUEM.
189
be, on the one hand so flat as to render distribution difficult, nor on the
other hand so steep that washing is likely to occur to a serious extent.
Steep slopes may indeed be successfully irrigated if kept in grass, but they
are not so easily irrigated when in hoed crops. The lighter soils are more
benefited by irrigation than the heavier. Their capacity to hold water is
small (74), the}- have little capillary power (94). Crops on them accord-
ingly suffer quickly in dry weather. Such soils are especially adapted for
sewage irrigation. Heavy soils can be successfully irrigated, provided they
are well drained or can be drained. Whether the soil be heavy or light, the
water-table should be low in all cases where large quantities of water are to
be employed. Especially is this essential in the case of sewage irrigation.
The cities and towns from which sewage is taken generally stand upon com-
paratively low land. It is accordingly expensive to take the sewage to the
land, as pumping is, in the majority of instances, a necessity. In order to
reduce the cost of distribution as much as possible, the tendency is to use
enormous amounts of sewage upon comparatively small areas. This would
render the soil unproductive unless it be of a very open and porous charac-
ter, thoroughly drained, and the water-table a considerable number of feet
below the surface. A further reason why the lighter soils are best adapted
for irrigation is because they are less liable to injury to tilth by abundant
use of water. The heavier soils, if used for hoed crops, must be irrigated
with care lest the surface soil become puddled. Such soils, if water is to be
used abundantly, are generally most profitably kept in grass.
XLI METHODS OF OBTAINING WATER FOR IRRIGATION.
267. Leading out water from streams — This is the simplest and one of
the commonest methods of obtaining water for irrigation. It is only neces-
sary to cut a ditch or canal of suitable size, starting at a point on the stream
at the head of the tract to be irrigated. This ditch is given a very slight
grade, and, leaving the stream, it is made to follow along the upper edge of
the valley lying between it and the stream. Where the fall in the valley is
considerable, very wide areas may sometimes be irrigated from such a ditch.
In some instances the level of the water in the stream from which it is to be
1 90 A GRICUL TURE ;
taken may easily be somewhat raised by the construction of a dam at the
point where the ditch leads out. This will increase the area which may be
irrigated.
26S. Storing storm water — Dams can sometimes be constructed at the
mouth of narrow ravines or valleys which will make it possible to retain and
hold for use in irrigation large quantities of storm water. In this way such
water may be made useful in irrigation instead of, as is so often the case at
present, pouring into the streams and causing floods which leave destruction
in their wake. The farmer cannot be advised, however, to attempt the
construction of a dam of considerable size without the assistance of an en-
gineer.
269. Under-flow from higher lands, springs, under-drains, etc. In
the hilly districts of the Northeastern states, as has been pointed out under
drainage ( 194), there are many localities where there are large amounts of
ooze or spring water which might easily be collected and stored in reser-
voirs. In some cases the water which flows through under-drains may
similarly be collected and made to contribute to the productiveness of other
farm lands.
270. Water wheels and rams for raising water — The water in streams
not infrequently is at so low a level that it must be raised by some means
before it can be used in irrigation. Among the Japanese and Chinese a
water wheel worked by man power is much employed, but with our more
expensive labor this is impracticable. In case a stream from which water is
to be taken is large, it can be made to lift a portion of its water to a
moderate height' by means of an ordinary under-shot wheel with buckets on
one or both sides. In a bulletin on irrigation in humid climates, King
mentions having seen such a wheel 16 feet in diameter, making' four revolu-
tions per minute, and raising more than 300 gallons of water per minute to
the height of 12 feet. The hydraulic ram is generally too well known to
need description. Under suitable conditions it may be a very effective
means of raising water.
271. Raising water by wind power — Windmills furnish a satisfactorv
means of pumping water in some localities. Especially is this true near the
SOILS A AW HOW TO TREAT THEM.
191
seashore and in the prairie states. Such mills are less likely to prove satis-
factory in hilly and broken districts. King has made accurate observations
upon the use of windmills for raising water for irrigation and he gives the
followina; table : —
Number of acres a first-class windmill will irrigate two and four inches deep every ten days
when working eighl hours per day, and lifting the water ten, fifteen, and
twenty-five feet respectively.
Diameter of
Lift of
10 Feet.
Lift of
15 Feet.
Lift of
25 Feet.
Wheel.
2 Inch.
4 Inch.
2 Inch.
4 Inch.
2 Inch.
4 I n c h .
Feet.
Acres.
Acres.
Acres.
Acres.
Acres.
Acres.
8-5
■•35
0.67
0.9
0.45
0.55
0.27
10
4.27
2.13
2.S5
1.42
1.70
0.85
12
7.66
3.S3
5. 11
2 -55
3.00
1.50
14
9.S7
4-93
6.58
3- 2 9
3-99
1.99
l6
13.79
6.S9
9.19
4-59
5-7i
2.85
l8
22.09
1 1.04
14.14
7.07
S.64
4-3 2
20
2 7-3 6
13.68
18.35.
9. 12
11.04
5-5 2
25
47.06
2 3-53
3I-33
15.69
18.77
9-38
3°
95.46
47-73
64.42
32.21
38.08
19.04
Where windmills are depended upon as a source of power it is desirable
to have considerable storage capacity, in order that there may be a sufficient
supply of water to last through periods of calm.
272. Lifting water with engines — The modern heat or steam engine
is a fairly efficient machine, doing a large amount of work in proportion to
the amount of fuel consumed. A statement has been made concerning the
cost of pumping water in case of the large plants of water companies (263).
Some experiments have been carried out at the Wisconsin experiment sta-
tion to determine the cost of pumping with an ordinary farm engine. It
was found that with a rated 8-horse-power engine, water could be drawn
through no feet of 6-inch pipe and raised 20 feet at the rate of 22V3 acre-
inches a day with one ton of coal. At $4.00 per ton the fuel-cost for 4 acre-
inches lifted 26 feet was $0.72, or for 6 such irrigations, $4.32; or upon the
basis of the 20-foot lift the cost for 6 irrigations was $3.03. The centrifugal
pump was used in these experiments. Such pumps should always be
192
AGRICULTURE
selected when the height to which the water is to be raised does not exceed
about 25 feet. The)' are simple in construction, not liable to get out of
order, durable and cheap. If the lift exceeds 25 feet a plunger pump
should be used, in which case both the suction and discharge pipes should
have a diameter about equal to that of the plunger. If this is not the case
the pump does not work to the best advantage.
XI. II METHODS OF APPLICATION.
273. Distribution to different parts of the field — Whatever the manner
in which water is finally directly applied to the field to be irrigated, there are
several different systems employed for taking it from the source of supply
to the field and there distributing it to different parts of the field. Among
these, simple open ditches, troughs, and pipes are the most common. The
open ditch has the advantage of being cheap, but the very great disadvan-
tage that the water is subject to loss both by seepage into the soil and by
evaporation. Moreover, when water flows through open channels the line
of its progress must be a continually descending one. To secure a satisfac-
tory grade is sometimes difficult, and when water is taken from an elevated
reservoir or tank the loss of head due to leading it through graded ditches
is often a serious matter, in many cases greatly reducing the area which can
be watered.
The trough has the advantage over the ditch that loss by seepage is
prevented. Troughs, however, are perishable, and they allow evaporation,
and must follow a steadily descending line, thus involving the loss of head.
It will be seen, therefore, that troughs ( far more expensive than open
ditches) have nearly all their disadvantages. The loss of head, it is true,
can be in a measure prevented by supporting the trough on benches or
otherwise above the surface of the ground, where so doing is an advantage.
Everything considered, the iron water pipe appears to be, for the North-
eastern states, at least, the most satisfactory means of conveying water from
the place of storage to the field, and of distributing to different parts of the
field. In some cases these pipes are permanently laid under ground, but
in the majority of instances the)- are placed on the surface, and are taken
SOILS AND HOW TO TREAT THEM. I93
up whenever plowing or any other operation in the field renders it desir-
able. If laid under ground, such pipes must either be so graded that they
can be emptied of water or put below the reach of frost. The first of these
methods is usually preferable, on account of the lesser cost. When laid on
the surface, such pipes must of course be emptied during the winter. In
whatever way pipes are laid, suitable gates and connections must be put in
to facilitate taking water to the different parts of the field as required, and
for drawing it wherever it is desirable.
274. The various methods of application — Water may be applied for
the different crops in many different ways, the more important among which
are sprinkling, flooding, percolation, and sub-irrigation.
(a) Sprinkling — Wherever water is extensively applied by sprinkling,
the work is commonly clone by means of hose with suitable distributing
nozzle or rose at the sprinkling end. It is not convenient to employ hose
of more than about -'4 inch diameter, and lengths of 100 feet are as great
as can be easilv handled without injury to the growing crops. The applica-
tion of water in this way is usually limited to comparatively small areas
such as market gardens or lawns. In some instances the different forms
of lawn sprinklers may be used with satisfaction, although the expense and
trouble of frequently moving them will common!}- preclude their extensive
use.
(b ) Flooding — Under this system the water is spread over the ground
to be irrigated in as even a sheet as possible. There are several different
systems by which this result is obtained : First, by flooding directly from
the ditch ; second, by sloping the field into benches divided by means of
low sod banks ; and, third, by the check system, in which the field is laid off
into checks surrounded by low sod banks. Under either of these systems
the farmer holds the water at one level as long as he desires, then allows it
to flow to the next lower, and thus in turn he floods the different sections
into which the field is divided. This system is especially adapted for the
irrigation of grass lands.
( c) Percolation — Under this system the water is allowed to flow slowly
through small furrows out of which it soaks into the adjoining soil. The
i 9 4
AGRICULTURE ,
distance between these furrows must vary with the nature of the soil and
with the crop. They must be closer together in the more open and porous
soils than in those which contain considerable silt or clay. It is essential
that these furrows have only slight grades. If the grade be steep it is
difficult to distribute the water evenly and there is danger of washing.
This system is fairly well adapted to the irrigation of vineyards and orchard
trees, as well as for that of the various field and garden crops grown in rows,
such as corn, potatoes, grain in drills, etc. It is also well suited for the
irrigation of strawberries and other small fruits where the fields are fairly,
level. In all these cases the furrows are opened between the rows at such
distances apart as experience shows to be necessary to secure a fairly even
distribution of moisture to all parts of the field. Distribution of water under
this system requires considerable attention.
(