320 678 I [All Rights Reserved. NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE CONTINENT OF AFRICA. WITH AN JNIRODUCTION AND BIBLIOaRAPllY. COMPILED IN THE DEPARTMBXT OF THE GENERAL STAFF, WAR OFFICE, ALEKANDEK KNOX, B.A., Ma'p Curator. L ON DOM ; PRINTED FOR HLS MA.TTWTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE, BY HARRISON AND PONS, ST. MARTIN'S LANE, PKINTEBS IN ORDINARY TO HIS MAJESTY. Anil to be purchased, either cliTectlv or through any BookaeUer, from WYMAN AND SONS, Ltb., Fetter Lane, E.G. ; or OLIVij^R AND BOYD, Edinbueoh ; or E. PONSONBY, IIG, (Ihaeton Street, Dublin. 1905. Price Thrcii ShiHinijs. Qf2 »;.•( QfnrncU Imoerattg library Dtljara. Njtn ^ork BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF HENRY W. SAGE 1891 a\;:'k- ^■'■'H^ ■"•' APR 7 i^Q ■ APR 2 MAY 1 loOo 5 1950 i r^'?a 9 ■^'^r' OCT 3 1950 MAY 1 2 1953 H V 8J=^^f^ m\.^mi Cornell University Library QE 320.G78 Notes on the geology of the continent of 3 1924 004 611 673 Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924004611673 [All Mights Reserved, NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE CONTINENT OF AFRICA. WITH AN INTRODUCTION AND BIBLIOGRAPHY. COMPILED IN THE DEPARTMENT OF THE GENEEAL STAFF, WAR OFFICE, ET ALEXANDEE KNOX, B.A., Map Curator. LONDON : PRINTED FOR HTS MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE, BY HARRISON AND SONS, ST. MARTIN'S LANE, PEINIEES IN OEDINAKT TO HIS MAJESTY. And lo be purchased, either directly or through any Bookseller, from W YMAN AND SONS, Ltd., Fetter Lank, E.G. ; or OLIVKR AND BOYD, Edinbuegh; or E. PONSONBY, lie, Geapton Street, DgBLiu. 1905. Price Three Shillinqs. H -\5'j-%o:i% (Wt. 19528 500 11 I 05— H & S 1125) -^ a"- PEEF ACE, The chief value of these Notes lies in the large number of references to works where fuUer information may be obtained, it being only possible, within the limits of such a book as this, to give a general and brief outline of what may there be found. The Bibliography has been divided geographically into six sections— General ; North- West; North-East; Equatorial West; Equatorial East, and South— in order to facilitate reference. J. M. GEIEESON, Major-Gemral, Director of Military Operations. War Office, 1904. (1425) A 2 IV CONTENTS, Abbreviatioiio Pag V Introduction — I. Military Geology 7 11. Our Sources of Information — Age of Africa ... 10 III, Eastern Africa .... ... ... 13 IV. Northern Africa ... 20 V. Western Africa .... ... ... 28 VI. South-Central and Southern Africa .... ... .. 32 The Notes .... ... ... 37 Bibliography ... ll.'> (Jlos-sary .... ... ... 139 Index of Authorities ... ... 144 General Index ... 147 Keference Map and Plate of Sections in pocket. ABBREVIATIONS. A.F Bulletin du Comitfi de I'Afrique franjaise. Paris. A.G .... .... Annales de G^ogi'aphie. Paris. Ann Annales. Ball Kharga Oasis. Cairo. 1900. Barre .... .... .... La geographie militaire et les nouvelles methodea glographiques. Paris. 1899. Bartli .... .... .... Reiseu und Entdeckungen in Nord- iind Central- Afrika. Gotha. 1857. Barth (a) The English edition of the above. Baumann Durcli Massai-laud zur Nilquelle. Berlin. 1894. B.C Belgique Coloniale. Bruxelles. Beadnell (1) Dakhla Oasis. Cairo. 1901. Beadnell (2) Farafra Oasis. Cairo. 1901., Bruce Travels to discover the source of the Nile. 5 vols. 1790. Brunet .... .... Dahomey et Dependences. Paris. 1900. B.S.G. .... .... .... Bulletin de la Soci6t6 de Geographic. Paris. B.S.G.I. .... .... Bollettino della Societa geografica italiana. .Pome. B.S.K Bulletin de la Soci6te Khediviale de Geographic. Cairo. C. 6998, &c Parliamentary Paper No. 6998, &c. Cameron .... .... Across Africa. 2 vols. 1877. Cd. 1769, &c Parliamentary Paper (New Series) 1769, &c. Choisy.... .... .... Documents relatifs a la mission dirigee au Sud de rAlg^rie. Paris. 1890. Clapperton (1) .... Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central Africa. London. 1826. Clapperton (2) .... Journal of a Second Expedition into the Interior of Africa. London 1826. Cornet Congres national d'hygifene et de climatologie medicale de la Belgique et du Congo. Seconde partie. La constitution du Sol. Bruxelles. 189S. De Lapparent .... Trait6 de Geologie. Paris. 1893. D.K .... .... Deutches Kolonialblatt. Berlin. D.K.Z. .... .... Deutsche Kolonialzeitung. Berlin. Dreyfus .... .... Six mois dans I'Attie. Paris. 1900. Gibson The Geology of Africa in relation to its mineral wealth. Newcastle-on-Tyne. 1896. G.J. ... ... .... The Geographical Journal. London. J.A.S .... .... Journal of the African Society. London. J.B.G.S. .... .... Journal of the Royal Geographical Society. London. Junker Eeisen in Africa. 3 vols. Vienna. 1891. Junker (a) The English edition of the above by Keane. Lenz Timbuktu. Leipzig. 1884. Livingstone (1) .... Livingstone's last Journals. London. 1874. Livingstone (2) .... Nari-ative of an expedition to the Zambesi and its tributaries and of the discovery of Lakes Shirwa and Nyasa. London. 1865. Livingstone (3) .... Missionary travels and researches in South Africa. London. 1857. L.P.C .... La politique coloniale. Paris. Marno.... M.D.S M.G M.J Monteil M.P.G Nachtigal Peters P.G.A P.P. Col. Inst. P.R.G.S. Q.D Qr. J Quiroga Eambaud Eamsay R.r.E.C R.G E.G.S Eohlfs Rohlfs (a) .... Eolland Sacchi Scliirmer S.G S.G.M Stanley (1) .... Stanley (2) .... Stuhlmann .... T Thomson T.M V.(;.E Vogdes von Reichenbach Wauters Z.G.E Zittel Eeisen in der Egyptischen Aquatorial-Provinz una in Kordofan. Vienna. 1878. Mitteilungen aus den deutschen Schntzgebieten. Berlin. Mouvement Geographique. Bnixelles. Mining Journal. De Saint-Louis a Tripoli par de lac Tchad. Pari.s. 1895. Mitteilungen, Petermann's, Gotha. Sahara und Sudan. Berlin. 1879-89. Das Deutsch Ost-Afrikanischen Schutzgebiet. Leip- zig. 1895. Proceedings of the Geologists Association. London. Proceedings of the Royal Colonial Institute. London. Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society. London. Questions diplomatiques et coloniales. Paris. The Quarterly Joui-nal of the Geological Society. London. Observaciones hechas en al Sahara occid. Annales de la Soc. espan. de Hist. Nat. 1889. Une mission au Senegal. Paris. 1900. Physical Geology and Geogi-aphy of Great Britain. 1872. Revue fran9aise de I'^trauger et des colonies. Paris. Revue de G^ographie. Paris. Royal Geographical Society. Kufra. Leipzig. 1881. Meine Mission nach Abessinien. Leipzig. 1883. G6ologie du Sahara algerien et aper^ii gSologique sur le Sahara. Paris. 1890. L'Omo. Vannutelli and Citerni. Milan. 1899. (Chapter on Geology.) Le Sahara. Paris. 1893. Soci^te de Geographic (Compte Reiidu). Paris. Scottish Geographical Magazine. Edinburgh. Through the Dark Continent. 2 vols. London. 1878. In Darkest Africa. 2 vols. London. 1890. Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika. Berlin. 1894. " The Times." To the Central African Lakes and back. 2 vols. 1881. Tour du Monde. Paris. Verdhandlungen der Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde. (Supplement to Z.G.E.) Department of Applied Sciences of the U.S. Artillery School : Geology. Eort Monroe, Virginia. 1884. Die Geologic dei' Deutschen Schutzgebiete in Africa. Munich. 1896. L'Etat Independant du Congo. Brussels. 1899. Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde. Berlin. Tiber den geologischen Bau der libysohen Wuste. Munich. 1880. The remaining abbreviations need no explanation. NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY OE THE CONTINENT OF AFRICA. INTRODUCTION. I. — Military Geology. 1. It may appear to be a work of supererogation to insist once more on the very important bearing of the science of geology on the sister science of geography. It is universally acknowledged, though generally in a half-hearted manner, that the former is the basis upon which the latter is built, but in practice this dependence is not so strongly insisted upon as would seem to be desirable, yet to almost every fundamental geographical question geology supplies the unerring reply, and as these notes are in- tended mainly for the use of military men, a few words on some of the practical relations may not be out of place. 2. Geography has lately been concisely defined as " the Mill, G.J., science which deals with the forms of relief of the earth's crust, ^viii, 1901, and with the influences which these forms exercise on the distri- P- '*^*^- bution of all other phenomena," and few will be found to traverse the proposition of the propounder of this definition that the " glory of geography as a science, the fascination of geography as a study, and the value of geography in practical affairs, are all due to the recognition of this unifying influence of surface relief in controlling, though in the higher developments rather by suggestion than dictation, the incidence of every mobile distribu- tion on the earth's surface." 3. Now relief is governed mainly by geological considerations. Barr6, p.. 15. The exterior form of the surface of the earth depends on three elements, namely, the nature of the materials, their architectural disposition and the sculpture super-imposed on this architecture by external agents, the third being partially dependent on both the first and second, and thus the consideration of the relief cannot be separated from the geological history, the petrological constitu- tion and the atmospheric and biological influences which help to modify the form of the terrain. For instance, to take a practical example, if we have a region of medium elevation composed for S.G.M., ^ the most part of beds of sandstone, shale and limestone, dipping 1900, p. 139. in some determinate direction, any one with a fair knowledge of geology will have no difficulty in indicating what the dominant character of the surface will prove to be. If he knows the geological age of the strata and' has reason 'to believe that We * " Barre, p. 36. EamBay, p. 259. S.G.M., 1899, p. iq. Barre, p. Vogdes, p. 12. 301, 42. land has been I'or a long period subject to erosion and deuudation, he will expect it to be traversed by parallel ridgea and escarp- ments with intervening hollows, as in some parts of the Atlas region. So, again, should the beds be horizontal, as in portions of the Upper Karoo formation and in the Sahara, the valleys will probably be trench-like and the intervening heights will form either pyramidal or tabular hills and mountains. Once more, should the rocks be highly folded and contorted, and traversed by irregular masses of igneous origin, such complicated structures are sure to give rise to a highly diversified configuration, as in the Zwarteberg and Zuurberg of the Cape Colony. 4. The water system of a region depends on the geological conformation of the surface and the rain which falls on it, or, as the mathematicians say, hydrography is a function of two variables, relief and rainfall. But these two variables are not independent. The relief may and does exert a very powerful influence on the rainfall, the lofty mountain masses acting as condensers, bringing down the rain in their immediate neighbourhood and thereby depriving localities to leeward of the moisture, which would other- wise have reached them. The rainfall, again, has been one of the agents in the erosion and wearing away of the accidents of relief, and in reducing mountains to what are known as peneplains. This action, however, though incessantly carried on, is, so far as existing circumstances for any limited period are concerned, negligible ; and at any given time the relief may be said to be independent of the rainfall, which, on the other hand, is always to a large extent dependent on the relief. Thus the Atlas range exerts a very powerful influence on the rainfall, not only of Marocco and Algeria, but in regions to the south and south-east. The volcanic masses of Kilimanjaro and Kenia send down count- less streams to the plains below, while on the other hand the mountains of the North Guinea coast have been reduced, in what is now the forest zone, to a peneplain. 5. The action of rivers on the lands through which they flow is of a two-fold nature, mechanical and chemical, and though the former is, in the case of most rocks, the more important of the two, and its results certainly more evident, yet the latter is more powerful than is usually supposed. Some idea of the magnitude of the results of this chemical and invisible action may be gathered from the fact, deduced from the analysis of water taken from the Thames at Teddington, that nearly 400,000 tons of matter are annually carried in solution by that river to the sea. The result of this chemical action depends on the petrological formation of the basin of the river. The mechanical action is three-fold, and consists of erosion, transport and deposition, which are to a certain extent interdependent, the volume of the deposit corresponding with the eroded matter which gave it birth. In the upper course of a stream erosion is continually going on, and the bed is con- tinually being deepened. Even in the middle and lower courses the wearing action of the detritus transported is experienced in times of flood in the greater number of streams. This action of the detritus is called by American geologists abrasion. For a 9 given slope, the force of the action depends on the nature of the materials dragged over the bed, that is to say, the degree of hardness of the rocks determines the intensity of the erosion, so that here again the geological formation is of the first importance. This erosive action is most strikingly seen in mountain streams, dragging a quantity of loose rocky material. 6. Again, the amount of water absorbed by the soil, as a river system finds its way to the sea or some lake or fails in the attempt, varies according to the material of which the basin consists, that is, on the lithological character, arenaceous, calcareous and argillaceous beds affording very different results. Thus the geological constitution of the area becomes an important element in the discharge of a river. Further, on the system of architecture or orography depends the direction taken by the water after it has fallen on the surface, and, therefore, the direction of the river courses and the division into basins. The succession of the strata, Barre, p. 46. too, upheaved at an angle will exert a very powerful influence on the hydrographic system. Some strata will be harder than others and the softer will generally give way first, forming the beds of water courses, which will vary in character according as the structure is tabular or folded. Again, the conditions most favourable to the formation of waterfalls and rapids, which constitute so striking a feature in African rivers, are the difference in the degree of hardness of the rocks, the transition from one geological formation to another, and faults, and dykes running across the bed. A very interesting instance of the effect of the geological structure on the canalisation of a stream is afforded by our own Thames, where wittingly or unwittingly the authorities have placed a lock at every change of formation. 7. In the development of Africa there is, perhaps, no more important consideration than that of communications, and it would be difficult to exaggerate their importance from a military point of view. And if the natural communications, as supplied by the waterways, are limited and controlled by the geological formations, how much more are the artificial highways dependent in every particular on the same governing influences. Suppose, for instance, that the orographical structure favours a general plan for a road or a railway, then the selection of the actual route will depend on the succession of the strata. To take an example which lies close at hand and can, therefore, be easily verified-: At the foot of the chalk escarpment of the North Downs is a Geol. narrow outcrop of the upper greensand, in some places scarcely Survey, 100 yards wide, and this in turn is followed by a broader out- "^j,^"^^ -nJ^^Po crop of gault. A glance at the geological map will show how q g ' ' astutely the engineer has clung unswervingly to the narrow band of greensand as his railway comes from the west and sweeps past Dorking, until he is compelled to make for Eeigate, when he rushes slantingly across the gault. 8. The actual details of construction, too, and of maintenance of both roads and railways are dependent on the lithological constitution of the terrain. The main requisite for keeping a road or the platform of a railroad in sound and good condition, being lo A peiTect system of drainage, a different method of construction ^vill be employed according to the material — one for hard rock and clay, another for more permeable material and so on. The supply of ballast for a railway and of metal for repairing a road are also immediately dependent on the geological formation of the districts through which they pass. 9. The following, taken from the report on the administration of Ehodesia 1898-1900, seem particularly to the point : — " The road from Karonga to Fort Hill is impassable for wheeled traffic." " For the first 35 miles from Gwelo the Bulawayo-Salisbury road has been removed to the waterparting " (p. 264). " The devia- tion on the road over Christmas Pass will be completed shortly. The route laid out by X. was not adopted, but a different one taken by Y., with the result that the road has a solid foundation " (p. 290). " . . The road leading from Victoria to the Selukwe mines being particularly in better condition. It is difficult to keep this road in really good trim, owing to the absence in the neighbourhood of suitable material for repairs ; the Enkeldoorn road, running as it does over harder and higher ground, is com- paratively easy to keep up " (p. 293). 10. The Nile makes a great bend as it turns from a south-east — north-west to a north-east — south-west direction south of the 20th parallel. The Ubangi, too, makes a huge curve as it turns from an east to west to a north to south direction in the neigh- bourhood of the 5th parallel, but for vastly different reasons, and geology gives us the clue. The Stevenson road, which is now of mature age, remains in fairly good condition ; the railway near Mombasa needs constant repair, and geology tells us why. The Eangatan is a fruitful grazing land ; the Nyika a desolate waste, and geology again supplies the reason. The underground water supply depends entirely on the stratigraphical arrangement of the beds and the materials of which they are composed, and the practised eye of the geologist can with ease detect the localities where water will probably be found, and can with equal facility select suitable positions for temporary or permanent camps, choosing spots which will be free from marsh in the rainy season, but at the same time afford an ample water supply. 11. In conclusion, one of the highest authorities on the subject, Holdioh, in a paper on boundary delimitation, expresses himself thus : G.J., No. V, " The widest geographical knowledge will prove the best safe- 1899, p. 4G7. guard against misunderstanding . . .By geographical know- ledge I do not mean siuiply that knowledge of the earth's surface which v/e gain by surveying it. I mean also a knowledge of those ordinary laws of Nature which decide the configuration of moun- tains and the flow of rivers, where certain influences must inevitably lead to certain conditions." II. — Our Sources of Inforvuttion — Age of Africa. 12. In order that a precise geological survey of any area may be undertaken, the first requisite is a pre-existent topographical 11 survey, and as we are very far from possessing anything of the kind for A.frica, the former survey is out of tlie question, unless, indeed, the two be carried on simultaneously. Our knowledge, in fact, of the geology of Africa is in its first infancy. A regular geological survey is being carried on in the north of Algeria, the only portion of the continent of which there is a precise topo- graphical map ; a systematic survey has been undertaken for Lower Egypt, and a commission has been at work in the extreme south of the continent, while the first report of the geological survey of Natal and Zululand has lately appeared. With these exceptions our knowledge chiefly depends on more or less com- plete studies of isolated areas by various travellers with generalisa- tions based on them ; here and there a comparatively superficial reconnaissance survey, and scattered notes made by men with very varying scientific qualifications from the professional geologist to the lay hunter. But limited and disconnected as our informa- tion is, it is of the very greatest interest and value. 13. Such information, as is at our disposal, points to the fact, as Pomel has shown, that Africa, if not the oldest, is at least one of the oldest of the continents. The geological continent consists of two parts, namely, the geographical continent, that is the dry land portion which is depicted on the maps, and the submarine foundation or platform on which it stands, and there is a striking similarity in shape between the two, the projec- tions and indentations, such as exist, and the long even stretches of coast being carried far away down into the depths of the ocean, so that it is found that the 1,000 fathom line traces out a curve which bears a very close resemblance to the outline or contour Times Atlas, representing the water-mark of what I have called the geographical ^900, sheet 4. continent. This would appear, when taken in connection with other facts which will be dealt with later, to indicate a settled state, a prolonged existence without any such violent disturbance or recent great upheaval or subsidence as would tend to disturb the curve of sea-level. It is true, as we shall presently see, that there have been disturbances, especially in the east, but these have not been of such magnitude as to upset the general outline, but have rather been confined to a comparatively narrow meridional belt. Another fact which points to the extreme age of Africa is the lack (if we except the Congo mouth, &c.) of those irregularities in the coast line, those indentations and projections which form so marked a feature in the outline of Europe and Asia, the only real gulf being the southerly incision l^etween the highlands of Barka and the Atlas, known as the Gulfs of Sidra and Gabes, the Gulf of Guinea being rather a curve in the coast- line than a gulf. It is argued from this regularity of outline that the gulfs and the bays of past ages must have been gradually filled up by the action of running water, the rivers bearing down their " ceaseless burden " of detritus, and filling up these indenta- tions with the debris of the highlands of the interior. A glance at a map showing the mouth of the Mississippi will at once make clear the process by which such results are brought about. 14. Both these facts testify to the great age of the continent, DeLapparent, pp. 815-818. Gregory, G..J., iv, 1894, p. 239. Koettlitz, G..J., XV, 1900, p. 364. Livingstone (1), ii,p. 21,% and, if enquiry be made into more minute particulars, ample corroboration will be forthcoming. The greater part of the surface of Africa is composed of the older rocks, limestones, and sandstones and other formations of the Palteozoic age with granites, gneisses and crystalline schists. The precise position in the series of many of the strata is undetermined, for Africa is no paradise for the palfeontologist, the fossil-hunter finds his treasures few and far between, and, though lithological considerations afford some light, it will require further study to locate the position of, for instance, the Table Mountain sandstone and the Witwatersrand beds, though they are both certainly of Palaeozoic age. During the Devonian period large parts of the continent were under water in both the north and south. As the older portions of the continent gradually emerged from the waters, there were left great inland seas and lakes in the north, north-west, centre and south, studded, especially in the central portion, by islands. One of the first of these inland seas to disappear was the Karoo district, which, being of Permian origin, closes the Palaeozoic era. 15. The transition period — if the expression may be used — between the Palteozoic and Mesozoic ages, as well as the earliest portion of the latter, are represented by the great Congo basin, the strata occupying this area being classed as Permo-Triassic and Triassic. During this early Mesozoic period, therefore, the Congo area must still have been a lake, and so, too, great areas in the north must have been still under water, for here there are wide expanses of Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks, notably the Nubian sandstone and the Turonian and Senonian of Tripoli, &c. By the latter end of the Mesozoic period the west and ■ west-central regions appear to have assumed very much the configuration which they now present, and the larger part of the continent, with the exception of the Mediterranean slopes and portions of the west coast lying north and south of the Senegal, must have been dry land and had its axis running close along the eastern side, from south-west to north-east, in what is now known as the coast range, which extended, at that period, from tho Drakensberg of Natal and the Hoogeveld of the Transvaal to the Shoho Mountains of Eritrea and probably even to the Ababd Mountains of Egypt. 16. During the Mesozoic period — probably the later part — the eastern side of the continent was subjected to violent convulsion ; volcanic disturbance rent the whole surface throughout the entire ex- tent of a great meridional belt, upheaving what now constitutes the main axis. Subsequently there appear to have been two, if not three, periods of volcanic activity. In fact a line of weakness seems to have existed in the earth's crust, and resulted in a series of volcanic upheavals, subsidences and outpourings, from time to time, along this line of least resistance, extending from Lebanon in the north, through Abyssinia and Aden, past Lake Rudolf, and continued through tlie volcanic range whose principal peaks are Kenia and Kilimanjaro, down southwards, crossing the Zambesi at the falls, and traceable as far as Kuruman in Bechuanaland and Prieska. Such are the facts, but how this state of things was developed, in accordance with which of the various theories the continent itself and the primitive axis were brought into existence, does not lie within the scope of these notes, whether by Kelvin's nebulous segregations, or Darwin's primitive wrinkling, or the double folds of Lapworth and Lubbock, or the faulted crust-blocks of Suess. III. — Eastern Africri. 17. It appears from what has been said that the eastern and western sides of the continent have arrived at their present con- figuration by widely different developments, or rather, that the eastern development was continued long after the western was comparatively completed. As it has the more chequered geological history this eastern side will be dealt with first, leaving the west, north, south-central and south for subsequent consideration. And it will be well, at the outset, to bear in mind a fact which is of the utmost importance in arriving at a clear comprehension of the various problems which depend on the physical geology of Africa, Sea-level. namely, that the continent rises gradually by terraces from the sea-line towards the interior, and that each terrace has an outer rim higher than the terrace itself in that neighbourhood. 18. In those regious where it has its highest development Gregory, there are present nine distinct features in East Africa, proceeding *^-J- ■r v*j^»%^ 1-V\/^ /-\ t~i f-k r^ 4- 4'y^ ».».T n vt^ r^ J-1-*^ -...^J-^ 1 J__ _ 1 • 1 /^ ■ » T X Oy 41 * Meyc Primitive Mountain axis, the first Eangatan, the Volcanic Chain, ^g^'' from the coast towards the interior, to which Gregory gives the ^'^^^' P' names Temtorari or coast plain, the Foot plateau, the Nyika, the ^%%' the second Eangatan, the Rift valley and the third Eangatan. 293. 258. After Gregory. Thus before reaching the primitive axis there are three steps or terraces rising one above the other, and these, though varying in width, have a general direction parallel to one another, to the coast and to the primitive axis. " The coastal zone is formed chiefly of raised coral rocks and cemented coral sand, and is covered by sand dunes and raised beaches, and has red soil of windborne quartzose sand." The width of the Temborari, which extends more or less regularly to the Horn of Africa, and is continued round its northern side past Berbera, and also southwards along the coast of the German sphere and of Mozambique, varies very considerably. At Mombasa it is only 2 miles wide ; at Takaunga 1900, p. 364. it does not exist, being covered by the hills of red sand and Koettlitz, G.J., XV, 14 Sacchi, map. .Tenner, G.J., xiv, 1899, p. 637. Bricchetti- Eobecohi, B.S.G.I., 1893, p. 359. 1891, p. 269. Gregory, G.J., iv, 1894, p. 295. Peters, map. Jenner, G.J., xiv, 1899, p. 637. Sacchi, map. Bernhardt, map. Peters, map. Moore, G.J., x, 1897, p. 293. (J'NeUl, Maples, P.R.G.S., 1882, pp. 79,193; 1885, p. 437. Spilsbury, J.A.S., 1901, p. 1.36. Gibson, map. Dantz, M.D.S., 1900, p. 126. Gregory (above). Von Hohnel, M.P.G., Ergan, No. 99, 1890. Meyer, M.P.G., 1891, p. 258. Gregory (above). Carboniferous sandstone, which run right up to the coast and terminate in abrupt slopes ; between Meludi and Lamu the average width is 10 miles ; at the mouth of the Jub Eiver it reaches inland for 100 miles, but narrows down again between Mogdishu and Obbia, while still farther north it appears to consist more largely of sand dunes and pebbles overlying the calcareous formations, and still retains the character of a narrow band. 19. The foot plateau is not concinuously represented, but is, nevertheless, well marked for long distances, and where so present it has been found to consist of Jurassic beds in both the British and German spheres, consisting of shales and sandstones with some beds of limestone ; while with these last occur thick masses of red sand and sandstone. Further north these Jurassic beds have entirely disappeared, and the coast plain rises at ones to the Carboniferous sandstone hills, while at the Jub mouth and abreast of Obbia the Temborari is succeeded by Mesozoic limestone, with, on the right bank of the Jub, a narrow intermediate zone of clay and red sand, probably decomposed granite, as Sacchi represents it as granite, on the left bank ; while further south, in the German sphere, a great Carboniferous block separates two Tertiary coastal areas. 20. The Nyika plateau, which succeeds the foot plateau, is bounded on the east by a steep escarpment and consists of vast barren sandy steppes with red quartzose soil. This Carboniferous plateau is carried northwards, and extends also for a great distance and with broad expanse in a southerly direction, cropping out at Nyasa, where it is broken into by the lake and the alluvial deposits to the north of it. It seems probable also that the extensive desert regions in the Portuguese territory spoken of by O'Neill and Maples may form a southein extension of this forma- tion. Spilsbury argues that a coal belt extends, a little north of the 13th parallel at the coast and running north-north- west, from the north end of Madagascar into the interior of Africa. GUbson, on the other hand, gives these beds a much less extensive area and assigns them to the Nubian sandstone period, which belongs to the Cretaceous age. There seems, however, a possibility that tliey may belong to the Karoo period, which is also coal-bearing, and is of Permo-Triassic age. Gregory and Thomson appear to assign them to the Carboniferous group. 21. The primitive axis is less perfectly preserved in the centre than in the north and south, being frequently buried, in the area occupied by the British and German East African spheres, under such huge volcanic masses as Kenia and Kilimanjaro. This primitive axis consists chiefly of gneiss and schists, and is represented by the Ungweno and Para Mountains to the south of the Anglo-German boundary, by the gneiss mountains of Bura, Teita, and Ongalea or Kyulu, by numerous bare gneiss hills on the Kikumbuliu plain and to the west of Ndangi Eiver, and by Mbinzau. " Further north the line is continued by the gneissose and schistose dome of the Iveti Mountains, and the gneiss ranges of Ithamba, Voroni, and Changabubu on the south margin of 15 Kikuyu. Here the gneiss hills disappear below the lavas and agglomerates of Kikuyu and Kenia; but north of this the line appears again in the Doenyo lol Deika, the Loroghi Mountains, and General Matthew's chain and passes northward." Towards the south, as already mentioned, this old axis is continued in the Hoogeveld of the Transvaal and the Drakensberg of Natal. From the constant recurrence of the steep bare hogsback hills of gneiss, and from the constant recurrence of the north and south foliation, as well as from the character of the rocks, Gregory concludes that they must all form part of one common chain. This range, however, has been greatly lowered and broken by denudation and erosion, and all the rivers of the present Indian Ocean slope have forced their way through it at various times and at various points, subsequent to the raising of the new axis further inland. 22. To the west of the primitive axis comes the first of the Gregory three elevated plateaux, to which Gregory gives the name {above). Eangatan ; and following this again is a series of volcanic peaks, ^01 Hohnel which can scarcely be called a chain, being, as such peaks usually v^^ove). are, scattered sporadically, over a long and broad meridional belt, and succeeded in turn by the second Eangatan, which forms the eastern watershed, and the eastern slope of what once was the range marking the waterparting between the Indian and Atlantic Oceans, and, therefore, the axis of the continent. The Eangatans are covered with the lavas of the volcanic series, and are, therefore, of earlier date. And here one of the most marvellous phenomena has occurred. There existed, at one period, a great chain, extend- ing from the north of ISTyasa to the Afar Mountains of Abyssinia, in the form of an anticlinal or arch. There is a second range beginning with the Nyasa-Tanganyika plateau and continued by the great schist range on each side of the last-mentioned lake and of Kivu, Albert-Edward, and Albert, but whether this also was an anticlinal is still sub jiulice. In any case, enclosed by these two ranges lay the great area of internal drainage, the waters of which have since, in the case of Tanganyika, Kivu, the Albert Lakes, and Victoria, found their way to the Congo and the Nile and so to the sea. Now with regard to the more easterly of these two chains, a most remarkable subsidence has taken place. The whole of the central portion of the arch gave way and fell in. And the result is that there was formed a " valley of subsidence," with long steep parallel walls, which Gregory calls a rift valley, and likens to the great Yosemite Valley, and to which Suess gives the name "Graben." The summits of the walls of this eastern rift valley still form the continental parting, the rivers from the eastern summits flowing into the Indian Ocean and from the western to the Congo and Nile, and so to the Atlantic and Mediterranean. On the floor of the Graben, however, is a series of rivers and lakes, extending from Lake Eukwa, just north of Nyasa, to Lake Eudolf, and continued thence to the Eed Sea by a low-lying belt, in some places below sea-level. 23. Gregory appears to include Nyasa among the lakes of the Eastern Graben, but Moore contends that the changes in the Moore, G.J., level of the land which have enabled Nyasa to stand where it is ^> ^®^^' ' p. 289, IG Bornhardt, V.G.E., 1899, p. 437 Mar tonne, Z.G.E., 1897, p. 321. G..J., xix, 1902, p. 43. Sacehi, map. Kirk, J.E.G.S., 1844, p. 7. Rohlfs, p. 284. Koettlitz, G.J., XV, 1900, p. 264. now, 1,500 feet above the sea, had nothing to do with a rift. The Nyasa district, including the Shire highlands, is composed, speaking generally, of more or less lofty granitic masses, the axes of which run approximately north and south, but which spread out from each other, enclosing large areas of land, which are now covered with modern alluvium, and constitute extensive malarial flats, one of the most noticeable features of the country. The whole region, except for the narrow rocky eminences which occur in all directions, is composed of a succession of swampy plains at different levels, and of various areas, more or less covered with decomposed granite and gneiss, brought down by the tropical rains. It is true that in the vicinity of Nkata and Amelia Bays there is some indication, says Moore, of the existence of a state of things which might be construed into circumstances attending a rift, namely, a double succession of scarps, with intervening lower land. For in these two districts, on opposite sides of the lake, aire stratified masses lying between granitoid ranges, vnth the same faults and the same scarps ; but, unfortunately, it is contended, for the Graben theory, the anticlinal inclinations are wanting. ]\Ioreover, Moore points out that the sides of the lake have been raised ap, instead of the centre of the arch having fallen in, and that this elevation must have gone on long after Nyasa became a lake. Tanganyika, he says, appears to lie wholly in a series of valleys formed by faults running north and south along the interior plateau, and may be as old as, but cannot be older than, the date of formation of the valleys at the bottom of which it now exists. Whereas Nyasa, on the other hand, was evidently in existence as a lake at a time when similar faulting was going on. There is no geological evidence, he continues, to show that Nyasa is of very ancient origin, but it is at least older than Tanganyika. 24. Bornhardt, however, agreeing with Gregory's implication, has no hesitation, after a more recent study of the region, in ascribing the formation of Nyasa to a subsidence of the earth's crust, and he considers that the line of depression is prolonged north of the lake, where it forks into two branches, one passing north-west to Lake Eukwa, the other embracing the Euaha Valley. 25. To the west of the eastern rift valley, the third Eangatan, which forms the western watershed, slopes down gradually to Lake Victoria, which thus lies between the two Graben in a basin two-fifths of which is occupied by the lake itself. These Eangatans are composed chiefly of the older volcanic rocks, basalt, diorite, syenite, &c., which cover an immense area stretching over a great meridional belt and reaching from the south of Kilimanjaro, almost uninterruptedly, past Lake Eudolf, and forming the larger part of the Abyssinian highlands. The series of volcanic cones, lying mainly between the old and new axes, has strewn the Eangatans with volcanic ashes and lava, and these plateaux are, therefore, rich, and form a great contrast with the barren Nyika. The principal peaks of the chain which quite overshadow^ the real waterparting are Kilimanjaro, Theuka, Kyulu, Kenia, Teleki's volcano (south of Eudolf), and 17 the cratern described by Koettlitz to the south of Addis Abbaba, Wellbj-, if these last really belons; to the same series and not to a later Cr.J., xvi, disturbance. 1900- P- 29S- 26. From the presence of certain fauna forms in the eastern Gregory, Graben, which also occur in the Nile, Suess argues tliat there Gt.J., iv, must have been, at some period, a connection between the two. ^^^4, p. •. " If, in addition, we note the existence of the Wadelai-Gondokoro ^"'^'f ' . Gorge, where the Nile has forced its way through a lofty plateau ^^° -^jj^ having an average height of from 3,500 to 4,000 feet, the river wien, 1892, level itself falling from 2,200 feet at Wadelai to 1,600 feet above pp. 562, 579. Gondokoro, we may well ask what was the course of the river above "Wadelai before this plateau was breached." In this region is a series of mountains named after various travellers, Schwein- furth. Junker, Gessi, &c., and the waters from the west of these How to the Congo. It is only reasonable then, to suppose that those rising in the other slopes flowed to Lake Albert, the difference between the beginning of the gorge (2,200 feet) and Lake Albert (2,300 feet) being only 100 feet, and thus the direction of this portion of the river was reversed, the waters finding their way to the Lake Choga system, and thence to Lake Eudolf, by the valley of the Turkwell. There are instances in Moreno,^ the extreme south of South America, where, within the memory ,gng ^^' cf man, lakes which used to empty themselves into the Atlantic, 247,248." now send their waters to the Pacific and vice versa. We should then have the original Nile rising in the Latuka highlands and flowing noithward, subsequently capturing the waters of the great Bahr-el-Ghazal Lake further down. Then came another great period of volcanic activity. Elgon, Lekakisera, and Uabasien were uplifted, and the Wadelai-Gondokoro plateau was rent by a valley of subsidence, th'S waters of the Choga system were reversed, and turned into Lake Albert, which at the same time discharged its waters tlirough the gorge and created the existing Nile. Lake Victoria was probably in communication with the Choga system before the disturbance which created the eastern rift valley. On the other hand, Hobley thinks that there is strong reason I^ote 323. to believe that the Valley of the Turkwell has been recently eroded and entirely formed since the elevation of Mount Elgon, in the crater of which the present river rises ; and he is inclined to believe that the outlet of the Nyanza basin to the north was probably by way of the Iluzi A^alley, which joins the Sobat near Nasser. 27. Anterior to these wonderful evolutions, however, there was Stanley (2), a time when the great Euenzori range did not exist, the country "; P- ^08. was probably a grassy upland extending from Unyoro, Ankole, and liuanda, on the east, to the Balegga plateaux. Then came a period of violent convulsion ; the Euenzori range was raised to the skies and a huge yawning gulf was left, 350 miles in length and 30 miles in width. For ages and ages the tropical rains fell and converted the abyss into a lake, whose waters, supplemented by the tributary streams alluded to above (section 26), flowed into the Choga system. Meanwhile the bottom of the gulf silted up (1425)' B 18 Moore, G.J., xviii, 1901, p. 1, sqq. Stanley {above). Moore {ahove). Martonne, Z.G.E., 1897, p. 315. Scott-Elliot and Gregory, Qr. J., 1895, p. 676. G.J., xix, 1902, p. 43, with the sediment- and debris of Kuenzori and the surrounding high ground "with the remains of unaccountable generations o| fish, with unnumbered centuries of dead vegetation," until gradually clusters of islets appeared, which in turn caught the soil and rocks brought down by the glaciers. Moraines connected rock with rock, and eventually three lakes were formed, Kivu, Albert-Edward, and Albert, for at that period Kivu belonged to the Choga system and not to the Congo. Tlien followed the period of volcanic activity which breached the Wadelai-Gondokoro plateau, and from that remote date the enlarged and perfect Nile has existed. "The outflowing waters washed the earth away along its course down to the bed rock, and, for countless ages, through every second of time, it lias been scouring away atom by atom, to form Lower Egypt and fill the Mediterranean." A final- upheaving, the upraising of the giant Virunga, bereft the Nile system of Lake Kivu, and turned its waters, through the Eusisi, a rushing violent stream, into Tanganyika, and so to the Congo. Stanley draws the following picture of the geological changes as they are taking place to-day : " On each side of the forest there are plains . . . and on these lake borders you will see yet an intermediate stage in the daily increasing mud, and animal and vegetable life add to the height of it, and presently it will be dry ground. Now dip a punting pole into the shallows at the south end of Lake Albert, and the pole drops through 5 feet of ooze. It is sediment brought down from the slopes of Euenzori by tributaries into the Semliki, and thence by the Semliki into the still waters of the lake. And if we sound the depths of Lake Albert-Edward, the pole drops through 4 or 5 feet of grey mud, and to it a.re attached thousands of mica flakes and comminuted scales and pulverised bones of fish. And atom by atom, the bed rock between the forest of Awamba and the Lake Albert-Edward is being eroded and scoured away, until, by and by, the lake will have become dry land, and through the centre of it will meander the Semliki, having gathered the tributaries from Euenzori, the Ankole, and Euanda uplands to itself; and, in course of time, when the nitrous and acrid properties have been well scoured off the plain, and the humus has thickened, the forest of Awamba will advance by degrees, and its trees will exude oil and gum, and bear goodly fruit for the uses of man." 28. The Jurassic and Carboniferous rocks which occur in the area have already been alluded to. With the exception of the Karagwe beds and the basin of the Malagarasi the whole of the remainder is composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks. In the whole of the Upper Nile basin there is not a vestige of any of the newer formations, nor further south are there any traces, except the alluvium of the valleys and marshes. The gneisses and schists have an enormous extension throughout the whole of Equatorial Africa, and form the main plateau on which all the sedimentary and volcanic rocks have been deposited. Granite appears along the major axis of La.ke Victoria, both on the north and south, while the gneisses and schists are found the extension of the minor axis. The collection made hj along 19 Johnston, Wilson, Eacey, Grant, Hobley, Isaac, and others, shows that the main mass of the Uganda plateau is made up of the Archajan gneisses, schists, and granites, specimens coming from Busoga, Bukedi, Elgon, Unyoro, Ruenzori, and the Nile province. The Karagwe series of Palseozoic rocks extends from the north of Tanganyika, curving round the east of Kivu to the east of Lake Albert-Edward, and occurs again on the eastern shores of Lake Albert, and also at Ujiji on Tanganyika. This series consists of granular quartzites, coarse schistose sandstone, red and brown sandstones containing beds of hfemitite, and a series of argillaceous beds, which range from shales to a well cleaved killas. Further south the prevalence of the schists led Baumainr to name the range in which Tanganyika lies the Central African " schist range " (Schiefergebirgej. All the region west of the Tana, and a great part of German East Africa, as well as the Pbuvuma basin are made up of gneisses a.nd schists. Erom such knowledge as we possess of the Horn of Africa from the .Tub River northwards is a region of Mesozoic and Tertiary limestone overlying granites, gneisses, and schists. How far south this limestone extends is at present unknown. On the right bank of the Jub, Jenner records that it begins (going north) near Saloli, a little south of 1° 30' N. ; and is the prevailing rock of the country to the north. The second Bottego expedition found, in going up the left bank of the river and crossing from above Lugh to Lakes Stefanie and Rudolf, massive granites, diorites and syenites, and gneiss and schists, oveilain by calcareous Mesozoic rocks, probably of the Jurassic ago, and gypsiferous sandstones and Bunter Sandstone. In the neigbourhood of the lakes were found basalt, andesite, trachyte, liparite, and volcanic taff Similarly Bricchetti-Robecchi, on his way inland from Obbia to Bari and thence northward to the coast, speaks of the ever-recurring limestone. The thickness of this formation reaches 250 feet in some places in ISTorthern SomaUland ; and a band some 200 feet in thickness appears very generally over that part of the country, and is eaten into caves at its outcrop, where it overlies unfossiliferous sandstone of an average thickness of 800 feet. British Somaliland is divided into two sections by the water parting which crosses the boundary nearly due south of Zeila, and trends in an easterly direction through Hargeisa, Upper Sheikh, and Negegr, approxinrately parallel with the Gulf of Aden coast- line. This ridge forms the northern boundary of Ogo, the great plateau of Somaliland, and also of that limestone and sandstone formation, which exists in most of the southern, and by far the larger portion of British Somaliland. This series lies nearly horizontally on the Archaean granite, gneiss, and gabbro, the sandstone and limestone beds dipping slightly in broad undula- tion to the south. The maximum dip is probably found at Upper Sheikh, where it varies from 6 to 10 degrees. Com- paratively recent deposits of gypsum and alluvium cover this series in the va^t plains to the south. The limestone, which has now been pronounced to be of Eocene age, lies conformably on the sandstone, and the passage beds consist of sandy limestone con- (1425) B 2 Baumann, p. 133. eds of Egypt is an Upper Cretaceous limestone escarpment occupying portions of the oases of Farafra, Dakhla and Ivharga, being broadest at the first named, and narrowing southward from the last, and then making a southern semi-circular curve through Dungul, and continued northwards to Esna. On the east side of the Nile this narrow band is continued eastwards ; the escarpment also extends west- wards from Farafra. 'ol. It appears then, from what has been said, that, at the end of the primary eia, a large part of AVestern and Central Sahara was above water, and that, by the beginning of the Tertiary age the greater part of the Libyan Desert, Tripolitan Sahara, and the plateaux of the Algerian Sahara had become dry land. Before the end of that epjoch the huge open gulf extending from Tripoli to the crystalline mountains, wdiich fringe the Eed Sea, had been filled up, and Messura Gulf had changed into the "Wad of that name. In fact, by the end of the Miocene period, the whole of North Africa, nearly all the Atlas region, and the whole of Sahara, from the Atlantic to the Eed Sea, formed part of the continent, the Pliocene and Pleistocene periods being accountable for no sensible change in the west ; wdiile in the east the definite con- tours of the Egyptian coast, though altered, are due rather to an invasion of the sea. The expedition, of which Zittel was a member, failed entirely to find any traces of more recent date than the Miocene. Tliis explorer also adds that in the whole configuration of the terrain there is no single characteristic which points to the Sahara being a recently dried-up sea. The non-marine represen- tatives of the Pliocene and Pleistocene periods are, however, met with in the alluvial co\'erings of the lower parts of the Algerian Sahara and >Y'Zzan, forming the great plains from which the cretaceous ])('aks peep out, being those portions, already alluded to, v/here the Cretaceous formations are covered. All the Egyptian region was raised from the sea at the close of the Eocene period, there being no Miocene strata present in this area, except in the * Alluded to above, p. 21, by Holland, as Cretaceous. It should be noted that a great part of the Nile valley, in Egypt, is a fault valley. 23 coast zone on either side of the Nile delta. And during this lattef period elevation and disturbance of strata and denudation were taking place to a great extent, the erosion by old river action being most noticeable. Subsequently, in later Pliocene times, there were great inundations extending into the Pleistocene period, and Lower Egypt was submerged to a depth of 200 feet, the sea extending up the Nile Valley for several hundred miles. It was during the Miocene period that the Lower Nile wore its way deep down into the tableland, through the *Eocene limestone to a depth of from 800 to 1,000 feet, forming a valley with an average breadth of some 10 miles. In this connection it is interesting to note that at present, as stated by Hull, the erosion in the Lower Nile has ceased ; that, in fact, the bed of the river is rising, because, if this were not so, the water of the river could not reach the cultivated area on its banks, for these latter are undoubtedly rising above the sea-level in consequence of the continual laying down of the matter brought down by the stream. 33. Coming now to the consideration of the extreme sou.th of the Sahara, of the Sudan, and of the country occupied by the various colonies and spheres of influence on what is generally known as the " West Coast," we find that an enormous zone of granite, gneiss, and crystalline schists extends almost from the coast on the west to beyond the Upper Nile regions on the east. This huge mass of the oldest rocks does not, however, as might have been expected, had there been only the experience of our own continent to judge by, form a core of a huge mountain range, or system of ranges, on whose flanks lie the deposits of succeeding ages, but on the contrary, is of small elevation, having been re- duced through endless ages by erosion and denudation. On por- tions of this mass lie the marine deposits, horizontally as a rule, Marno, p. 198. or nearly so. In Kordofan the soil is granite sand mixed with clay, the plateau being crowned with granite blocks, and Jebel Linck, V.G.E., Kordofan itself consists of granite, flanked by mica-schist and ^^^^i P- 217. gneiss, so, too, does Jebel Habila. West of Delen is a small granite range, Wodda consists of low granite hills. Golf an is com- posed of granite and crystalline schists, and the same rocks are found in the Tagoi hills, which rise from 200 to 300 metres above the surrounding plain, though Jebel Tagoi itself is of gneiss, while southward from Kadero to Kawalib is sand with low granite hills. Junker, ii, p. 145. Further south, in the Bahr-el-Ghazal region, is gneiss detritus with granite-crowned hills, and from below Lake Albert to the confines Cornet in Wauters of the Sanga River extends a band of granite and crystalline P- 115. schists. The A-Zande plateaux, again, have a gneiss subsoil, rela- Cureau, M.O-., tively friable, levelled by the action of water, and covered with 1897, p. 600. ferruginous conglomerates and clay, and reaching from the Upper B.S.G., iv, 1901 Sue liiver and Iba liiver to iJarfur and Wadai. The whole p- 268. Ghazal region is of laterite overlying gneiss and granite. Jebel Junker (a), ii, pp. Mangayat and the adjacent heights are of granite, so also are the 79, 116, 120, 321 ; valleys of the Sue and of the tributaries of the Bahr-el-Arab. i"' PP' ]\^\'^^' J ebel Marrah', in Darf ur, is a series of volcanic peaks, but these, Magon^ M P G — — 1880, p. 377.' * See note on p. 22. 1^4 Prills, B.SAi,, lU.JO, pp. 179, S(ji]. C'lapperton (2), Pt. ii, pp. 70-72. Pernz, K.G., ii, 1901, p. 400. ]>'Albec;i, B.S.d., lSy.">, p. 19i. Tdutce, AX\., l'^;)7, p. 136. Wolf, M.D.S., 1888, p. 101. C'lianoine, B.S.G. Comm., 1897,p.7o2. Trotter, (i.J., x, 1897, p. 246. Earth, iv, p. 271. Lngard, G.J., vi, 1895, p. 214. Salesses, B.S.(i., 1899, p. 384. Tliomasset, A. P., 1900, p. 166. Weissgeiber, B.S.U., iv, 1901, p. 235. l)ereim=!, A.(;., 1900, p. 458. Piambavd, p. :?2.'. again, rise from a granite plain. Ouing laiLher west, it is iuund tiiat Dar Ihmga, and llio whole country in the vieinity is com- poseil oT grauite rouks, with argillaceous sands in some places, and the mountains are generally capped witli rounded giunite. In the Xiellim conntry, near Gail, where tlie Shari lliver makes a great lieud, it is encumhered by huge granite blocks, and Togbao Mountain and other hills in the neigldiourh I have granite summits. To the west of Lake Chad, Clapierton tells of the granite hills to the west of Zangaia, and (if the schists west of Kandania, of the granite ridges and huge blocks of granite at Geoza, at Eeta and at Birshi, and of the red ferruginous clay and djcomposed granite everywhere. While in the north, as reported by I'eroz, the grauite appears at Zinder. In the hinterland of the west coast we have the mountains of Nupo and Upper Dahome, of Togo and the eastern portion of the Gold Coast, of Gurunsi, of I5aule, and of Koranko, as well as the Karabe district, all of which arc composed of the oldest rocks, gneiss, and crystalline schists, w.'th grauite. Lugard also bears witness to tlie fact that Borgu is principally made up of grey granite and the copper coloured ironstone wliicli i'orms the prevailing feature in "\Vest Africa. In I'rench Guinea the district of the upper coast streams, and the water parting between this district and the Niger, as well as the whole of tins part of the Xiger basin, is granitic, while Futa Jallon is surrounded by a rampart of granite mountains. Finally, behind the coast hills of the I\-ory coast, the inland portion of this French Colony is made up chiefly of gneiss and mica schists, overlying which is a thin layer of vegetable humus, but the wdiole of the middle and lower Sassandra region is of granite. 34. The coast belt north of St. Louis, at least as far as Marsa, is a great plain sloping gently to the sea, probably Pliocene, some- times with shell marl, sometimes with aypseous crystals. These crystals have on earlier occasions 1 een erroneously described as mica. This country is not of the Saliara type, but, says De:eims, is a northern prolongation of Senegal country. If this were the case it would be a laterite country, which d(.)es not feem to agree with the above. Xumerous dunes appear with a general north- north-east direction, covere 1 with ^■egetation, and this type of country extends for 200 kilometres from the coast. Eastwards of Twizikt the soil is composed c f sand and ferruginous quartzites, with traces of Cjuartz and manganct-e. Xunierous faultings run noith and south, and the beds lia\e a \\eiterly inclination. The entire surface has here been le\elled by erosion. Tliis kind of formation extends o\er 100 kilometres as far as Tabringut, and then occurs the crystallophylline plateau, which extends from the Sebkha of Ijil on the north, to Lakel on the Senegal Liver, and is terminated by an abrupt cliff 175 meties high, and extending for the same distance. Here the quaitzites and sandstones are per- fectly horizontal. The jilateau of j\drar forms a portion of this district. The upper valleys of tlie Niger and Senegal traverse great be Is nf sandstone, folded at the base, but horizontal at the summit. Here also are found siliceous and crystalline limestones. All these beds lie on the primary schists, sometimes micaceous, and frequently accompanied by granite and quartz. The sand- stone mentioned above is likened by Eambaud to Karoo beds, but Scott-Elliot tells us that the plateaux of Talla and Falaba, which appear to have a similar crystalline base, are partly covered by horizontal beds of sandstone, which resemble the Nubian forma- tion. In Senegal an examination of the Kayor and Baol district.s shows that the country consists of various rocks, which were folded and faulted by the violent earth movements which accom- panied the upheaval of the volcanic mass of Cape Verde, the whole covered by a great thickness of sand and laterite. Kinsam ilountain region is also overLdn by the same formation, and so, too, is the Diagissa plateau. In our colony of the Gambia, on either side of the river, there is, for the most part, a fertile but light sandy soil ; here and there are small hills of laterite, which, from Ballanghar on tlie North bank, and all that portion of the South bank from close to where the Vintang Creek joins the river to the boundary east of Yarbutenda, take the form of a low ridge varying in height and situated at different distances from the river, though following, as a general rule, its course. Laterite is the only kind of rock noticed in the Gambia Territory, and it is probable that no other exists. In Sierra Leone there is generally a covering of laterite over all ground, excepting the narrow alluvial coast belt, up to an altitude of 1,000 feet. Farther inland, also, the same formation appears in the neighbourhood of Bassikunu, and westwards from Bachuinet are laterite and clay-slate (Thonschiefer), while south- vestwards from Nioro lies wooded country, followed in the same direction by laterite. Our knowledge of the "West Coast is very meagre, (nving, no doubt, to the inaccessibility of the country in consequence of the existence of the great equatorial forest belt. "\\'e know, however, of the existence of alluvio-laterite terraces on the ]3enin coast in the neighbourhood of Porto Novo, and also near Aborae, as well as on the coast of Togo, and we know also that these terraces alternate with beds of sandstone and clay. Again, on the Lagos coast the soil is a strong red clay, the country rising gradually to Chocho, while further inland is a range of grey granite hills running west-north-west to east-south-east, followed by soft crumbling granite. From tlie geographical distribution of rock -specimens examined, Geikie concludes that our Colony of Lagos is built up essentially of gneiss — that rock appearing to occur almost everywhere througiiout the region. Associated witli it in some places (as at Aro, Ibadan, Ondo, Jehu, &c.) are mica-schists. This schist appears to be much decomposed, and it may thus often lie concealed under tlie product of its own decay. The relative absence of amphibolites is noteworthy. In keeping with this is the great development of granite and its varieties, and the rarity of diorite and syenite. Briefly the geology of Lagos presents a complex of dominant granitoid gneiss, with important zones of quartzite, and subordinate developments of granulite and amphi- Scott-EUiut, 0. G998. EamLauJ {above). Madaud, L.P.C, 18/8/99. Note 317. Soott-Elliot(«ioiv). Lenz, map. D'Albeca, B.S.G., 1895, p. 187. Toutee, A.G., 1897, vi, p. 136. Clapperton (2), p. 56. Earth (a) vol. iv, p. 104, map. Note 320. 26 Note 321. Mouteil, p. 150. Thomasset, A.G., 1900, p. 159. Dreyfus, p. 288. N(.tei3 318, 319. liolite. Piercing the gneisses and apparently in some places passing into them are masses of granite, along with veins and dykes of haplite and pegmatite. Tlie moi'e basic plutonic rocks play an unimportant rule — syenite appearing only in one place, while the diorites are of rare occurrence and are hardly typical of their kind, most of them containing a high percentage of quartz. The whole complex is thus markedly acidic. Some upheaving force seems to have affected portions of the Niger delta, lieeause, in places, land '20 feet or more above sea-level is found close to the mouths of the rivers, although surrounded for some miles inland by mangrove swamps (e.g., Oron, at the mouth of the Cross liiver). lieports, as yet, however, unautheuticated, appear to show that the country between Degema and Owerri possesses characteristics inconsistent with a simple delta forma- tion (c.(/., a ridge, said to be of rock, traverses the creek near Nsokpo). The West Coast sedimentary deposits, where they cover the ancient crystalline rocks, consist chiefly of red sandstone and ferruginous conglomerates, which are largely represented in the north, notably in the JMossi and Say regions. All these rocks have been subjected to long-continued denudation, and are con- sequently worn down and the country rendered comparatively level. As a matter of fact, the whole of the region lying behind the coastal belt, as far as the northern limit of the forests, has become what is usually termed a peneplain, that is, a land surface which has been reduced to a condition of low relief by erosion. And if a great part of this area were not now so covered with forest, the rocky sub-soil would doubtless everywhere be laid bare, and the alluvium would find its way to the lagoons which fringe the coast. The Gold Coast Colony and Ashanti consist of two main areas, separated by a lesser, which forms the chief waterparting of the country, a comparati^'ely narrow belt of regional meta- morphism defined by the Akropong, Akim, Begoro, Kwahu, and Mampon Hills, and the sandstone plateaux of Nkoranza. The rucks of this parting consist of sandstones, basalt, and coarse gneiss; the last-named of which has by decomposition formed the allu\'iuiii of the valleys, where fchick veins of quartz are frequent. The open plains of the A'olta Eiver basin, forming, with the undulating forest country, the abo\e-mentioned areas, comprises a country in v^fhich the horizontal strata of sandstone and shales predominate, yielding a fairly rich alluvial soil. The immediate neighbourhood of the Black Volta liiver consists of volcanic aggloiuorates from Tintaukru to Akrosu ; thence to Nkami, where toweling peaks occur, are indurated slates and shales; thence to Mem are the same formations with quarLzites ; between iMein and Senki is quartz, while gi anite, gneiss, and schists occur between Senki and Kpung. The southern area is one of (1) contact metamorphism, and consists of crystalline rocks, gneisses, and schists, associated with granite, c.fj., in the valley of the Pra, and at Insuaini and Animaboe, and {'2) sedimentary rocks, such as sandstones and variegated shales about Elmina, Akra, and Animaboe, slate and beds of conglomerate around Tarkwa. 2? 35: The history of the Niger has not entered prominently into any description of this part of the continent, so far as ihe compiler is aware. The North African section of this introduction will, therefore, be concluded with a few words on this most interesting feature. As it at present exists, the Niger consists practically of three different rivers, two of which are tropical, the intermediate section being a desert stream. The tropical rains of Futa Jallon feed the streams which form the Upper Niger, and during the rainy season, from Bamako downwards, the river expands and covers the plains and feeds the innumerable lakes, and if the evaporation were not so great in this region there would probably be enough water to carry the river to the sea. This first river ends at Timbuktu. The second or desert river flows through sand dunes without rain and without affluent, the few water channels ■which cross the country being lost in the sand. The stream is even meagre at Tosaye and thenceforward has a struggle for existence, but at Say it re-enters the tropical region, and the rains commence afresh ; feeders join the stream, and the third Niger begins. As a general rule rivers have less and less slope as they near the ocean, unless they happen to cross a range of mountains as the Congo does near its mouth, but with the Niger it is different. From its source to Bamako, a distance of about 375 miles, it falls from 2,800 to 860 feet, this last figure being derived from the latest survey. But between Bamako and Timbuktu the fall is only 1 foot in between 9 and 10 miles, the altitude of Timbuktu being 810 feet, and the distance between the two places between 450 and 500 miles. The fall here, therefore, is practi- cally inappreciable. Finally from Timbuktu to the mouth is about 1,250 miles, and therefore the fall, though still very small, being about a foot in every mile and a-half, is nearly seven times as great as between Bamako and Timbuktu, where we have the basins of the Joliba and the Bani or Bagoe, occupying, so to speak, a dead level, the rivers receiving tributary streams from the heights north of Bamako, from the Kenedugu uplands, and from the plateau of Hombori. Further, a very large portion of this basin (extending over an area from 15° N. to Timbuktu and from Bassikunu on the west to the Bambara Mande on the east) is to-day occupied by almost innumerable lakes, several of which are of considerable size, such as Debo and Fagibini. Now a glance at the map shows that this basin is occupied by Pliocene and Pleistocene beds, surrounded Ijy Palaeozoic rocks on the west and south, and Ijy the Kenedugu and Homboii Mountains on the east, and tins fact, taken in conjunction with the existence of the gorge at Tosaye, leads ahnost inevitably to tlie conclusion that this basin was once the site of an enormous lake. The Pliocene and I'leistocene deposits brought down from tlie neighbouring liigher land gradually, through ages, filled up the bottom of the lake, which at the same time grew fuller and fuller until at length, the precipitation being greater than the evaporation, the lake burst its way through the gorge, leaving the outflowing waters to find a path for themselves. The gorge was gradually deepened and the waters continued their flow, until to-day we have the last 28 vtsLiges oi' the inland sea in ilie lakes already nieuUoned, and the Joliba has pushed its way gradually through the sandy desert, increasing day by day in length, until at last captured Ijy the Upper Niger or Tatassasset on its way from the Ahaggar plateau on the north to the Gulf of rruiuea on the south. And tlic Tafassasset now loses itself iu tlie sand and the Niger has its head waters on the slopes of Futa Jallon instead of tlie plateau of Ahaggar, and is preserved as a perennial stream by the lakes of Timbuktu, jnst as the Nile is by the influence of the Nyanzas. V. — Wi:dcrn Africa. Coi'iiet iu Wauters, p. 115. M.G., 1900, p. 3. 36. Of the Great Congo quadrilateral with diameters suddenly contracts width of 1° or 2° almost entirely of De Mezieres, B.S.G., ii, 1900, p. 307. Jiilieii, B.S.G., iii, liOOl, p. 112. Herr, A.G., 1895/6, p. 318. Baumann, Pt. ii, pp. 133-260. basin, which is iu the form of a of from 15° to 20° but which between Stanley Pool and the Atlantic to a or even less, the peripheral regions consist mountains or more or less elevated lands of Archfean and Palaeozoic origin ; the lacustrine horizontal forma- tions on the other hand occupy the central portions ; but this general plan is not limited to the Congo basin, being also the prevailing architecture in most, if not all, of the neighbouring basins, in fact of the whole of Central and South Africa. In the south of the Congo basin tlie Archffian rocks cover only small areas, notably such mountain regions as are occupied by the Bia and Hakansson Mountains. Granite, passing irot unfrequently into gneiss, is also found in the Nzilo Mountains, and at certain places along the courses of the Elvers Kamolondo, Lubudi, Loinami, Luvoi, Kilubilui, Luembe and Sankuru, as well as in the Congo-Zambezi parting and in tire extreme south-east of the basin. In certain localities, notably in the valleys between the Upper Sankuru and the Kwango, the upper surface of soft sandstone has been worn entirely away, and the underlying granite or gneiss is exposed. In the extreme west the peripheral region is entirely crystalline, but it is here ditKcult to distinguish the Archaean rocks from those of later metamorphic age. In the north are large areas of granites and crystalline schists, as is shown by the constant recurrence of such rocks at nearly all the falls of the great rivers, the Ubangi, the Welle, the Bomu or M'Bomu and their various tributaries. The whole basin of the last-named is underlain by gneiss and schists. On the north bank of the Ubangi and in the basin of the Kota Piver, that is between Wango on the M'Bomu and Mobaye, the substratum is covered by clay and sand, the most frequent rocks being granite and schists. The crystalline rocks in the neighbourhood of the Congo-Chad parting, and stretching from Albert Lake to the Sanga, have already been alluded to (section 33), and in the neighbourhood of the Wom these crystalline rocks frequently emerge from under the sedimentary covering and form chains of mountains. In the east granite and the crystalline schists are largely represented in the districts adjacent to the western "graben" as well as Lakes Mweru and Bangweulu, and also along the upper courses of the 29 eastern aftluents of the Lualaba, Aruwimi, Lowa, &c. In the Katanga region Cornet found, especially in the neighbonrhood of the Upper Lnalaba, important series of sedimentary formations of pre-Cambrian, Cambrian and Silurian origin. In the same locality, as well as in the basin of the Lntila and the Upper Luapula, he found extenpive beds of schists, sandstone and cal- careous rocks of, probably, the I)evonian age, and similar forma- tions along the Lou(;r Congo and from Matadi to Leopokh'ille. Tliere are also represcntntives of this i)eriod to be found between the Congo and the "Welle and on the Itimbiri-Eabi. At some period, prior to the Carlionifcrous age, one immense lake seems to have covered the entire " lake region," including the whole valley of the Congo aud Tanganyika, and extending to the west ccast ranges, with a small continent or group of islands in and about Katanga, for, from three separate periods of earth folding, which he was able to recognise. Cornet concludes that, in this region, there were at the beginning of the pre-Cambrian age such out- standing areas of Archaean rocks, and that large districts were subject to meteorological influences during the Devonian period. AViien the main body of the waters was drained off only great sheets weie left in the deeper hollows, and in tliese were deposited the later formations of West Africa. 37. The Monts de Cristal range, says Dupont, was proljably upheaved at the end of the Triassic period, and the whole of this part of the continent has since that date been sub-aerial. In 11 separate depressions were collected the remains of the pre-Car- boniferous sea. Tiie Congo, if such a liver existed, must have been a mountain torrent rushing down from the Monts de Cristal and carving out its short course to the sea. In time the vast central lake which occupied the region nearest to the coast range, and the last remains of which are found in Stanley Pool and other expanses fed by the Inkissi, Alima, Panga, Mongalla, Eubi, Aruwimi, Euki and such streams as are now represented by the Lower Ubangi, Lomami and Lualaba, began to swell. The pre- cipitation was greater than the evaporation, the water gradually mounted, laying down sedimentary deposits along the eastern slopes of the coast range, similar to those laid down further inland in the 10 remaining depressions. As soon as the waters reached a sufficient level, they forced their way through a gorge and began the descent to the ocean by what are now known as Livingstone Falls. The force of the torrent and the weight of the mass of water behind it gradually enlarged the gorge and deepened it, thus permitting the outflow from, and causing the depression in level of the lake, until nothing now remains of it but Stanley Pool and Lake Leopold and Lake Tumba. Meanwhile a lake was occupying the low-lying portions of the basin of the Welle terrace above the Zongo gorge, another tlie bas-fond of the Kassai terrace above Kwamouth, and a similar lake the Kamolondo terrace above Hinde Falls, where there is still left a series of sheets of water to testify to the former existence of this inland sea. The terraces of the upper zone were in like manner the sites, as they most of them still are, of lakes of varying size and shape. Of the seven Stanley (2), i, p. 207. Cornet in Wauters, pp. 120, sqq. Thomson, ii, p. 84. Cameron, ii, pp. 308, .312. Cornet (ahore). Dupont, M.G., 1888, p. 22. Wauters, p. 138. M.G., 1899, p. IC 30 rergussdi), ury schist (ibid.). 22. Zwarteberg, quartzite and schist {ibid.). 23. The dunes of W. Erg abut on a Cretaceous escarpment at EI Golea. (Flamand, A.G., 1899, p. 231.) 24. W. Erg is composed of sand dunes (ibid.). 25. The district from Wargla to Tuggurt consists of Quaternary alluvium. (S.G.M., 1899, p. 373.) 26. Sandstone and red sand. (V.G.E., 1899, p. 189.) 27. The bed of the Gofka, near Brava, is of dark grey alluvium. (S.G.M., 1899, p. 378.) 28. Hetween Tadent and Asia wells is gravel, with large blocks of granite here and there. (S.G., 1899, p. 219.) 29. Archaic crystalline, micaceous quartzites and mica schist. (Cornet, p. 406.) 30. Schists and gneiss (ibid.). 31. Calcareous schist (ibid.). 32. Hard felspathic sandstone (ibid.). 33. Soft sandstone (ibid.). 34. Hakansson, Bia and ISTzilo Mountains consist of granite and gneiss. (Cornet in Wauters, p. 115.) 35. From the Upper Sanga Eiver to the Nile, below Lake Albert, granite and crystalline schists (ibid.). (For Bangi River portion, see also Julien, B.S.G., iv, 1901, p. 130.) 3>6. Hard felspathic sandstone overlying granite and gneiss (ibid.). 37. The districts of Katanga, of the upper courses of the Lualaba, Lufila and Luapula, are pre-Cambrian, Cambrian and Silurian with Devonian (ibid.) At Juo Falls, in Lufila Eiver, are horizontal beds of sand- stone. (Delcommune, M.G., 1900, p. 181.) 38. Old non-crystalline rocks occur between the Ubangi and the Congo. (Cornet in Wauters, see No. 34 above.) 39. Kundelungu and Manika Plateau.x, the Lower Luemba Eiver distrfct, both sides of Tanganyika, the Malagarasi basin and the district from Stanley Falls to Nyangwe are hard felspathic sandstone. The same formation is also found on the Ubangi, the Upper Kwango, the upper western tributaries of the Kassai, on the Upper Ogowe and Benue, and the lower Niger (ibid.). * The Malmesbiiry beds consist of non-fossiliferous slates, phyllites, mica schists and quartzites, with intrusive granite, quartz-porphyiy and diabare (S.G.M., 1899, p. 432). 40 40. The soft sandstone of Lnbilashe forms the soil of all the central part of the Congo basin (frequently covered by- alluvial deposits) and of tlie Sankuru. South of 5 30 t-.. it is found mixed with clays and hard sandstones (;ihid.). 41. North of Mount Elgon are granites and schists, and further north sandstone and Kemkis lime. (T., 21/6/99, p. 4.) 42. Tiie north-east of Cape Colony above 32= S., and to the east of 24° E., and the western part of the Orange Free State are the Karoo formation (Trias). Ilasutoland and the adjoining part of the Orange Free State, with the western portion of Natal, belong to the coal- bearing series. The northern part of the Orange Free State, and the extreme East of the Transvaal are formed of various sedimentary rocks, dolomites, sandstones, &c. The eastern part of Natal — diorite and old red sandstones alternating towards the coast, with crystalline schists. The central and northern parts of the Transvaal are very complex — old red sandstone, diorite, gneiss, &c. Matabeleland is also complex — crystalline schists, granites, diorites, sandstone, &c. (M.P.G., 1884, p. 441, map.) 43. In German East Africa the coast region consists of the newer formations, coral rock and sandstone, with alluvial accumulations. (For the coral and alluvium in the neighbourhood of Dar-es-Salam, see also Worth's map in Z.G.E., 1901, p. 152.) Unyamwezi and the district south to the Euaha Paver is granite. On both sides of the middle of Tanganyika (see Nos. 36, 39) red sandstones are found. In German South-West Africa, in Hereroland, is an extensive crystalline district, which in the interior is covered by Table Mountain and Kalahari sandstone. Nama strata and sandstone extend south into Namaland. In Kamerun are extensive basalt mountains (Kamerun Mountains, and northwards). This formation is also found on the Upper Benue and in Adamavva. Note. — The Benue sandstone contains no fossils. (" Die Geologie der Deutschen Schutzgebiete in Afrika," E. S. von Eeichenbacli, Munich, 1896, with 3 maps.) 44. Kikuyu is a gneiss district. (Gregory, G.J., 1894, vol. iv, p. 289.) 45. Kenia and Kilimanjaro, lavas and agglomerates (ihid.). 46. The coast region of British East Africa is made up of coral rock and cemented coral sand, covered by sand dunes, raised beaches, and a red soil of wind-borne quartzose sand (ibid.). 41 47. The foot-plain, inland from the coast region, is composed of Jurassic shales and sandstones, with some beds of lime- stone (ibid.). 48. The Nyika, or second plateau from the coast, consists of sandy steppes with red quartzose sand (ibid.). The boundary between the metamorphic and sedimentary rocks runs a little west of Kilibasi. The Taro Steppe is of sandstone. (Hobley, G.J., 1895, vol. v, p. 556.) 49. Burra (Bura) and Teita Mountains, the hills on the Kikumbulu Plain and to the west of Ndangi Eiver, also the Iveti Mountains, Ithamba, Voroni and Changabubu Eanges, on the south margin of Kikuyu, with Lorogi Mountains and General Matthew's Eange are gneiss. (Gregory, G.J., 1894, vol. iv, p. 289.) 50. The volcanic mountain zone containing Kilimanjaro, Theuka, Kyulu and Kenia, and reaching north as far as Kulali Mountain, on the east of Lake Rudolf, is eruptive (ibid.). 51. The Eangatan or high inland plateau, including the Kapte Plains, and a tract running north from Kilimanjaro, includ- ing the Athi Plains and ending in the hill land to the east of Kikuyu, consist of rich lava soil ; so, too, do the eastern slopes of Lake Victoria (ibid.). 52. The Graben or great Eift Valley consists of alluvial and pleistocene sandy plains with volcanic craters and lava (ibid.). 53. The plateau of Porto Novo, Alada and Dobo are composed of argillaceous and arenaceous stratified beds resting on rock whose nature is as yet unknown. (D'Albeca, B.S.G., 1895, p. 183.) Lower Dahome, i.e., the portion south of 9"^ IST., is divided into two zones. The first is covered with sand to a depth of 2 metres, over which is vegetable humus. On tlie banks of the lagoons and streams the sand is mixed with alluvium. In the second or more northerly division the sand is re- placed by clay to a depth of 5 or 6 metres. ISTot a pebble within 100 kiloms. of coast. (Brunei, p. 27.) 54. The Mahi region and the Save district consist of granites surmounted by ferruginous conglomerates. (UAlbeca, B.S.G., 1895, p. 183.) 55. Further north the mountains are quartz and red sandstone, with intercalations of trap rocks, diorites and porphyries. (D'Albeca, B.S.G., 1895, p. 183.) In Upper Dahome, north of 9° N., the soil is vegetable humus, below which are sand and calcareous rock and argillaceous sedimentary rocks, with traces of porphyries, quartz, &c. (Brunet, p. 27.) 56. North-east of Mossi is a plateau surmounted by table mountains of sandstone and shales. (Monteil, A.G., 1895-96, p. 212 (Bibliog.).) 42 57. Uli Plateaux are fcri-uginoiis, and the Sandugu and Kalou- kadugu Steppes are formed of compact clay. West of Kontor lie wooded laterite hills. (Eancon, " Dans la Haute Gambia," Paris, 1894, pp. 50, 60, 10:?, 147, 1(;7, 186, 206, 220, 260, 290, 312, 351, 372, 419, 4;!.5, 480, 534.) 58. In French Congo the coast Ijelt consists of a plain of sand and laterite with calcareous traces. Then a hand of older schists, Silurian and Devonian. Then horizontal beds of red sandstone surmounted by white sandstone (? trias) which seem to correspond with the red and white sandstones of Katanga. (See No. 61.) (Barrat, " Sur la geologie du Congo francais," Ann. Mines, vii, 1895, p. 487.) 59. ]]etween the bend of the Ogowe Eiver at Lastourville and Samba, on tlie Ngunie, are the older schists of the Monts de Cristal. (Bertou, B.S.G., 1895, p. 211.) 60. Between Sesheke and Lialui the country is composed of sand belts and large open vleis. (Harding, Report on Administration of Ehodesia, 1898-1900, p. 99.) 61. First a coast zone, then the Monts de Cristal, whose folds are generally parallel with the coast, and then the horizontal formation of red and grey sandstone. (See Nos. 29 to 32 and 58.) (Bertrand, " La geologic du bassin du Niari," Eevue g^n&ale des Sciences pures et appliquees, v, 1894, p. 792.) 02. Angola is made up of four geological regions — (1) The region of soft sandstone similar to the great Congo basin. (See No. 40.) (2) The region of hard sandstone. (See No. 39.) (3) The schist region of the Monts de Cristal. (See Nos. 31, 58 and 60.) (4) A coast belt. (Choffat, Eevista de Sciencias Naturaes, 1895, iv, No. 1.) 0;]. From the Tana Eiver westwards is a medley of metaniorphic rocks of all kinds. (C.J., 1894, vol iv, p. 122.) 64. In the south-east of Sierra Leone the Mandi Mountain district is quartz, but further on the Bandi country consists of dark grey granite. (Alldridge, CI.J., vol. iv, 1894, p. 129.) 05. Between Chimoio and Cliristmas Pass Eange is gneiss and granite, but the formation changes on reaching the mountains, which are composed of metamorphic rocks superimposed on a granite base. The soil of the Umtali-Salisbury Plateau is decomposed granite. Along the railway route the structure is very uniform almost entirely granite, with occasional dykes of "i-een- stonc. 43 Salisbury Kopje is of magnetic ironstone shale. A belt of metamorphic gold-bearing rocks extends east and west from Umtali. (Eckersley, G.J., 1895, vol. v, p. 34.) 66. In Adamawa, from Garua northwards to Marua and the Mandara Eange, is an undulating gneiss region, above which rise massive granite ridges. The Mandara Eange is a northern continuation of the volcanic line through Fernando Po and Kamerun Mountains. Xgaundere lies at the foot of a granite range. (Passarge, G.J., 1895, vol. v, p. 50.) GT. The Ait Eobaa district of the Atlas is composed of grey and black shales with beds of quartzite. The Atlas, east of Marocco, are quartzite overlying grey and black shales. Between the Atlas and the anti- Atlas is gravel with stone- strewn sand. The southern slopes of the Atlas are of limestone. The anti- Atlas are volcanic. (Harris, G.J., 1895, vol. v, p. 321.) 68. To the north-east of Nyasa the Livingstone or Ivinga Eange is of ancient crystalline rocks — quartzite, horneblende, magnetite. The crater lake region is volcanic. (Kerr-Cross, G.J., 1895, vol. v, p. 114.) Bornhardt says that north of the Euhuhu River, i.e., Living- stone Eange, is gneiss, and south granite. (G.J., XV, 1900, p. 421.) 69. The shores of Lake Kivu consist of lava. (Yon Gotzen, G.J., 1895, p. 359.) 70. Between Shoa and Kaffa the geological constitution of the country is decidedly volcanic, with iron here and there, especially near Fin-Finni and Gera. (Cecchi, M.P.G., 1886, p. 309.) 71. South-west of Abu Eoash is upper Cretaceous ; the Pyramid district and Whitehouse Hills are upper Eocene strata. (Schweinfurth, M.P.G., 1889, p. 1.) 72. The ISTyika Steppe is continued south of the Umba Eiver. (See iS^o. 48.) (Baumann, M.P.G., 1889, p. 41.) 73. The Usambara Mountains are crystalline schists (ibiJ.). 74. Between 8° 30' N. and 10° N., and 37° E. and 39° 15' E., the portions of the country which are higher than about 2,400 metres are chiefly porphyry. These overlie red standstone, whilst the lowest parts are red sandstone and shales. (A. Steckers, M.P.G., 1891, p. 233.) 75. In Zaghuan the upper beds are Tithonian, the lower Oxford, and under this is a calcareous formation ; further south- west is upper Cretaceous, and thence north-west to Suk and Jemaa is an Eocene tract. Zanfur, Massuge, Mahiza, &c., are upper Cretaceous, and Cape Bon Peninsula, Pliocene Miocene and Quaternary. (Le Mesle, " ISTote sur la Geologie de la Tunisie,'' B.S. G(^olog. de France, 1890, pp. 209-219.) 44 76. The mountains running parallel with the Eed Sea, between the coast plain and Keren, Asmara and Adua, are of the old crystalline group ; the boundary between the plain and the mountains eruptive, and a great part of the plateau much older eruptive. (Baldacci, " Osservazioni fatte nella Colonia Eritrea, Memorie della Carta geologica d' Italia," vol. vi, Kome, 1891.) 77. The whole region comprised between about 1° E. and 14 E., and the 27th and 35th parallels consists of a huge crust of calcareous formation (middle and upper chalk age and green sand). (Choisy, " Documents relatifs a la mission dirigee au sud do I'Algerie," 2 vols., Paris, 181)0, and De Lapparent, p. 1201.) 78. The commonest formation in British Central Africa is a mixture of metamorphic rocks, clay-slates, gneiss and schists, cjj., over much of the country between ISTyasa and Luapula Eiver, in parts of the Shire Highlands, and north of Zambezi Eiver. The valleys of the Shire, Chambezi, Luaugwa and other large rivers have an upper alluvial stratum. The principal mountain ranges are mostly granite or its product, red ferruginous clay (much of Shire Highlands). There is a sandstone outcrop north-west and north-east of Nyasa (Mount Waller and the hills of Amelia Bay) ; also a little way back from the north end of the lake, in German territory ; to the west of the Shire, near the Portuguese boundary ; at the south end of Tanganyika ; all round Lake Mweru; and in the countries adjoining the Luapula Eiver. Volcanic lavas and tuffs appear on the Upper Mlanje Plateau and at the north end of Nyasa. Quartz is plentiful in the mountains west of Nyasa and in parts of the Shire Highlands. The low flat hills of the Upper Sliire district are marble. (Johnston, " British Central Africa," 1897, p. 47.) North of Nkata Bay and on the opposite side of the lake at Amelia Bay are masses of red sandstone cliffs wedged between and lying upon granite and gneiss. (Moore, G.J., 1897, vol. x, p. 292.) 79. Chiefly mica schist, with old granitic eruptive rocks. (Stuhlmann, M.P.G., 1892, p. 144.) 80. From Konakri to Frigiabe the formation is sandstone, Avith vast collections of eroded humus in the valleys. Kinsam Mountain region is granite overlaid by standstoue and laterite. The Diagissa Plateau is laterite. The noithern abrupt range is granite. (Maclaud, La Politique Coloniale, 18/8/99.) 81. In Sierra Leone there is a small alluvial coast zone, followed by hills and the plateaux of Talla and Falaba, with 45 crystalline base partly covered by horizontal beds of sand- stone, whicli greatly resembles the Nubian formation, or by dolerite (on the Talla Plateau). There is a covering of laterite up to the altitude of 1,000 feet. (Scott-Elliot, Eeport on the Geology of Sierra Leone, Parliamentary Paper, C. 6998.) 82. In French Congo there is granite on the surface at Lambarene, 200 kiloms. from mouth of Ogowe Eiver. Granite, too, forms the mass of the Monts de Cristal, north of Njole. The Ogowe also passes two other granite masses in Okanda district, and granite appears again at Lastourville. Above the granite is a series of palaeozoic rocks, many of them metamorphic. (Barrat, " Sur la geologie du Congo franc^ais." Comptes rendus de I'Acad^mie des Sciences, 1894, vol. cxix.) 83. Fossils found at Mtaru (on the Pangani Itiver) and in Tanga and Saadani districts, show that the formation is Jurassic, and resembles that of Kutch in India. (Futterer, " Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Jura in Osta- frika," Zeitschr. Geolog. Gesellschaft, 1893, xlvi.) 84. Between the Elvers Mambere and Wom is a succession of sandstone plateaux, without fossils, with substratum of crystalline rocks, generally folded. The horizontal beds of sandstone, often ferruginous, friable on the surface, and reduced to sand, appear at all altitudes from 500 to 750 metres. The crystalline substratum sometimes emerges and forms chains of mountains, especially towards the Wom, near which are also schists, like those of the Ogowe. (Herr, of the Clozel Mission, A.G, 1895-96, p. 318.) 85. That portion of Baule north of 6° 30', between the Bandama Eiver on the west, and Tumodi and Kodiokofi on the east, has a vegetable soil, covering ferruginous conglomerates. (Eysseric, E.G., 1889, p. 198.) 86. Behind the sandy coast belt, which is from 15 to 30 kiloms. broad, extends a plateau of gneiss. (Hawser, Q.D., 1899, p. 76.) 87. In German East Africa, behind the Tertiary and Cretaceous coast belt, lies a series of crystalline mountain masses extending from Kilimanjaro to Pangani, followed further inland by the zone of dislocation and volcanic action (the E. Graben, or Great Eift zone). (See No. 52.) Crystalline schists form the backbone of the mountains enclosing the Western Graben. (Baumann, " Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle." Berlin, 1894, Part II, pp. 133-260.) 88. In South Shashi the prevailing rock is a reddish granite or gneiss ; further north are ferruginous schists ; east of Ntussu are similar schists with quartz and diabase, forming continuous ranges ; west of Lake Eyassi is an unbroken zone of gneiss. (Dr. Dentz, D.K.Z., 1/6/99.) 46 89. The coast belt to the east of Jub River, extending as far inland ns Derausale, is composed of <;)iKiternary and recent formations; so, too, is the district of the Lower Omo Eiver. The Upper Omo region and the district around Lake Pagade (i;cgina Marglierita) is of recent volcanic formation (basalt, andesite, trachite and liparite). Of the same formation is the tract lying to the east of Lake Stefanie, called Tertale. Between the northern parts of Lakes Eudolf and Stefanie is gneiss ; and also a district extending from Burgi as far south as 4° IST. The regions to the south of Lugh, and both east and west of Sankurar, are of marine calcareous formation. To the north and west of Lugh is a large area of gypseous formation. Succeeding the coast belt to the east of the Jub Eiver, and reaching north as far as Dusta are older rocks, diorite, syenite and granite ; there is a similar tract to the west of Salole on the Daua. (Sacchi in " L'Omo," by Vannutelli and Citerni. Milan, 1899.) 90. A large triangular shaped tract, with base extending along the south-eastern shores of Lake Victoria, and with apex about 100 Idioms, north of Nyasa, is granite. This is entirely surrounded by gneiss and schists, extending to the north of Lake Victoria, on Ijoth sides, and including the Western Graben. Behind the coast belt, which is composed of recent deposits, coral, alluvium, sandstone, &e., is carboniferous formation, which between lat. 7° S. and 10° S. projects in a south- westerly direction towards Nyasa. In Uganda there is a narrow belt of conglomerate extending along the north shores of Lake Victoria from Katouga ilouth to JMurchison Bay (and including the Sesse Islands), followed further north by granite, reaching to Lake Ohoga (Chioga). (Peters, " Das Deutsch-Ostafrikanische Schutzgebiets," map.) After crossing the Nandi Kange, one enters the Nyanza region, which consist of gneiss or granite, usually in small lumpy hills. This region embraces Kavirondo, Usoga and Uganda, as well as a large part of Ankole, and appears to reach right to the base of Euonzori. North- West Ankole and most of Karagwe consist of a series of schists, folded over and over, at a very steep dip and with an average strike of N.N.W. These overlie the gneiss of the Uganda Plateau. (Scott-Elliot, G.J., 1805, vol, vi, p. ;_;0l^.) 91. South of the Umvoti Eiver, the Noodsberg form the lono'est stretch of Silurian sandstone in South Africa. (Ingram, "The Colony of Natal," 1895, p 8 ) 47 92. This whole region is made up of limestone and sandstone. South from Gatron is a stony waste, with limestones and sandstones intermingled. Afafi is of limestone with blackish sand overlying it in places. South of Gurna is sandstone, and then sand and gravel. The region of the ToUubu is lime. Tusidde, tlie highest of the Tibesti Mountain mass, is of lime ; and so also is the backbone of the whole system. The mass of Merda Sodoing is sandstone overlying limestone, from which basalt frequently protrudes. The Kinsuing Hills are of limestone and clay. North-east of the Dommado are blocks of basalt and sandstone, overlying a porous formation (dolomite), which is here the prevailing formation, with (further north-east) a thick over- lying stratum of limestone. (Nachtigal, M.P.G., 1870, pp. 25, 47.) 93. The Shebka of Mzab is a plateau of dolomite bounded on the north by Wads Besbaier and Settat'e and a line through Haniet and Lekaz. On the south it extends as far as El Hadadra and Wad Zirara, and on the west to Wad Lua; while on the east it penetrates between the Wads Zejur, Xena ^Izab and Mettitli. This plateau passes insensibly into the Quaternary sand on the north, east and south. The plateau of El Golea is of chalky calcareous rocks and passes insensibly into the above. Between the Shebka of Mzab and Wargla is a lofty chalk plateau. (Vine and Jacobs in Huguet, " Dans le Sud Algerien " ; E.S.G., 1899, p. 285.) 94. On both sides of the Orange Eiver, from Anghialjiss Falls to the mouth, is a gneiss formation, with granite here and (T. Eehbock, D.K.Z,, 1899, p. 395.) 95. The coast belt from Casablanca to Wad Tensift is tertiary shell sand. South of the Tensift, including Jebel Hadad, consists of cretaceous limestones and shales. Shiedma Plain is covered with a hard crust formed by the cementing of the cretaceous particles. Bled Hummel, as far east as Lake Zima, is of red and purple cretaceous shales. Bled Hummel, to the east of Lake Zima, and the district of Eahamma, consists of friable clay slates. From Demnat south-west to Wad Mils, a dyke of basalt pro- trudes from the limestone and shales, at the merging uf the mountains in the plain. The mass of the lower ranges is composed of limestones and shales. Above Iminifiri the anticlines are cretaceous limestone rock, and the synclines, or hollows, of shales and sandstones. Limestone peaks and parallel ridges, with red and purple shales in the hollows, form the central mass of the Atlas. 48 Further west in the district of Gundafi, on the east of Wad Amsmiz, the outer terraces are metamorphic slates, broken by intrusive arms of porphyries. On the west of Wad Amsmiz is a capping of compact hme- stone and sandstone. In the western tail of the Atlas, cretaceous sandstones are thrown up on the flanks. (J. Thomson, RR.G.S., 1889, p. 1.) The lofty plain on which Marrakesli stands, 300 kiloms. hv 30 or 40 kiloms., consists of glacial diluvium. (Fischer: V.G.E., 1899, p. 204-208; M.l'.G., 1899, p. 151-152.) Thomson, however, though he passed over this plain, did not notice any glaciation till lie reached Titula. (J. Thomson, " Travels in the Atlas and South Marocco," 1889, p. 210.) 96. Coral rock extends over the whole Lower Jub Plain. The Mibungo-Kigungo district (0° .52' IST. about) is clay with red sand. Limestone first appears near Saloli, a little south of 1^ 30' K, and is the principal rock of the country further north. Basalt and lava also occur, with the limestone, between Seranli and Lugh. (Jenner, G..J., vol, xiv, 1899, p. 6.37.) 97. The Bago Eiver district is ch'.efly gneiss, with granite peaks, and traces of later volcanic rocks. South-west from above is Kaboland, which is also gneiss ; Still further south-west Basosiland is basalt. (Coureau, M.D.S., 1899, pp. 201, 211.) 98. The neighbourhood of Kubes is granite, whence sand and water-worn material extend south-west through Kanbisand Ennies. The mountains at the intersection of 24° :jO' S. with 16° E. are sandstone. (Fleck, M.r.G., 1899, p. 281.) 99. The valleys of the streams in this region (Lungwebungu Piiver, Kwito Kiver, Upper Kwando Eiver, &c.) are bounded by undulations of white sand which diminish in height in the direction of the Zambezi. (Gibbons, G.J., xv, 1900, p. 64.) The head waters of the Okovango and Chobe or Kwando drain a country of sandhills, which rest on an extensive bed of clay. (F. S. Arnot, G..T., 1900, xv, p. 291.) 100. In French Guinea the district of the upper coast streams, the water parting between this district and the Niger, and the whole of this part of the Niger basin, are granitic. Large areas of this are covered with either a vegetable humus or laterite. Where not so covered the granite underlies narrow bands of crystalline schists, over which are found white and grey sandstone, probably Triassic, and forming plateau.v like the Abyssinian " Ambas," with precipitous sides. 49 Futa Jallou is surrounded by a granite rampart of mountains. (Salesses, B.S.G., 1899, p. 384.) 101. In the south-west and south of Cape Colony the mountains of the Bokkeveld and the Zwarteberge consist of sandstone and shales, overlying granite and the older schists. The Karoo formation, consisting of shales, and sandstone and such eruptive rocks as Diabase, extends not only over the Karoo proper, but also over the east and north of Cape Colony, Griqualand West, almost the whole of the Orange Free State, the Southern portion of the Transvaal, Basuto- land, Kaffraria with portions of Natal and Zululand. The Lebompo Eange running north to south between 24° and 28° S., between Portuguese territory and the Transvaal, is of porphyry ; while the country west of the I'ange is some- times granite, sometimes the older schists and quartzites. (Schenck, V.G.E., 1900, p. 60.) 102. North of Mount Waller (W. Nyasa), the Chitimba, Hara and Fulirwa Plains all give indications of the presence of lime, and, in the last-named, workable limestone has been found at the head of the Hungerawi stream in beds 8 and 10 feet thick, overlying a soft pinkish sandstone. In the northern section of Tumbuka I'lateau the sub-soil is mostly bright red clay, very sparsely intermingled with sand and pebbles. (J. Henderson, S.G.M., 1900, p. 82.) 103. The hills around Beni Uled are limestone, capped with granite, lava, &c. The Niffud Hills are the same, and also those of Wadi Bonjem (Bu Njem), with chalk hills and gypsum (p. XV, note). Jebel Assud Range (J. es Soda) and the plains between Sokna and Murzuk are basalt everlying limestone (p. xxviii, sq.). West of Murzuk is a plain of sand, strewn with fragments of calcareous crust, the hills being of sandstone interstratified with blue and white clay (p. xliii, sq.). Still further west are sand hills with gravelly valleys and calcareous crust. To the west of Wadi Elfu the hills are of sandstone and clay- stone, and so are the Ludinat Mountains and as far as Ghraat (Ghat). South of Murzuk is sand covered with salt. In Gatron neighbourhood are sand hills, and the plains are strewn with fragments of sandstone. Near Meshru are low conical rugged hills to the east, the summits of which are a dark sandstone, overlying clay-iron- stone, under which is white sandstone (p. 8). The country extending from El Garha to El Wahr has a sandy surface, but there are hills with cones and peaks of sand- stone, which resembles basalt in appearance. South of this is sand and gravel. South of Mafras Wells is limestone. At Tigrinduma is sandstone, and at Ametraduma sand and gravel (map), (1425) P 50 In Bilma region is red sandstone ^'p. 24). South of Zo (Sail) Wells is loose sand (map). The desert of Tintuma is fine sand. South of Chad Lake the whole country is covered with alluvial soil, which has a dark' clayey appearance (p. 108). At Delo the country is made up of decompo,sed granite. In Moira (Mandara) region the mountains are granite with quartzose and horneblende (pp. 131, 144). The neighbourhood of Kuka is alluvial and flat (p. 150). To the west of Chad Lake, the Katagum hill country (in Yakoba), is limestone (Part II, p. 28), though the immediate neighbourhood of the lake is soft alluvial clay (Part II, p. 35). West of Zangeia are granite hills, the general soil being a strong red clay, with large blocks of granite (Part II, p. 36, sq.). In the Kano district the soil is tough clay mixed with gravel, the stones of which are clay-ironstone (Part II, p. 40). North of Kano is argillaceous limestone mixed with pebbles and soft marl (Part II, p. 50). West of Kano the country is thickly wooded, with ridges of white quartz running north to south (Part II, p. 68). West of Kandania are red and white clays mixed with gravel and traversed by ridges of schist (Part II, p. 69). In the neighbourhood of Geoza, Eeta, Birshi and Kagaria are granite ridges and huge blocks of granite (Part II, iip 70-72). West of Kagaria the soil is clay and gra\'el, with granite and mica-schist in the hollows (Part II, p. 72). Near Lake Gondami the soil is gravelly, the pebbles being clay-ironstone (Part II, p. 79). West of this are gravel ridges with clay on the surface (Part II, p. 80). Near Sokoto the soil is red clay and gravel. ("Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central Africa," by Major D. Denham and Captain H. Clapperton, London, 1826.) Borgu is formed of grey granite, alternating or appearing simultaneously with the copper-coloured, honeycombed lava (Oor ironstone, which forms the prevailing feature of West Africa. (Lugard, G.J., 1895, vol vi, p. 214.) 104. In Southern PJiodesia, between Nyamandldovo and the Ucka Pdver is deep sand. (A. Lawley, Eeports of the Administration of Rhodesia 1897-98, p. 365.) 105. In Northern Ehodesia, the Mashikolumbwe country, from the soutli-weat border to the Kafukwe Eiver, is mainly com- posed of red sandstone, covered with loose red and wh,>o sand (see Note 200). "'^^ CJrossing at Pickering's Mission, and going north of the Kafukwe Eiver, the country rapidly rises with 51 granite as far as Sakariatorubwe and eastward t<5 Myama. (W. Lewis, iUd., p. 375.) The low veldt of the Western Umtali (Manika) district has few mountains, but is dotted with granite kopjes ; other- wise the soil is sandy. (T B. Hulley, p. 379, Reports of the Administration of Ehodesia, 1897-98.) 106. In the Tuli district the country between the Umzingwani and Imgwezi Eivers is chiefly sandstone, with shales here and there. (E. K. Southwood, ibid., p. 198, map.) 107. In Ehodesia, the northern portion of Bulawayo district con- sists of micaceous slates, talcose, chloritic and dioritic crystalline schists. The south-east portion of strongly defined micaceous slates. On the north-west portion is found Silurian and Devonian limestone. Bubi district consists of metamorphic slates and talcose schists. Wankie district is carboniferous and in the north-west are intrusive dykes of basalt. Bulalima district : granite with small belts of ferruginous schists and slates, Mangwe district ; micaceous slates, granite and gneiss. Gwanda district : talcose slate and layers of soft potstone and steatite. Belingwe district : talcose and chloritic schists and meta- morphic slates. Filabusi district : metamorphic slates, crystalline and talcose schists. Insiza district : chloritic, talcose and dioritic schists with greenstone dykes. (N. MacGlashan, British South Africa Company's Eeport, 1896-97, p. 82.) 108. The great bulk of Matabeleland and JMashonaland is granite, the remainder being mainly metamorphic schists. It is possible that this vast area of granite rock was at 'one time wlioUy or partially covered by sedimenlar}' deposits, but, if so, these, with few exceptions, have been subsequently removed by erosion. Sandstone deposits, with workable beds of coal, are said to occur near the Zambezi Eiver. The metamorphic schists constitute the gold belt of the country. They occur as broad bands and patches in the granite. There is little doviht that these schists have been derived from igneous rocks, by mechanical metamorphism, produced by earth- movements. It is chiefly in this region of intense meta- morphism that the quartz veins occur, the rock of the veins beino- in the majority of cases a highly foliated chloritic schist. (J H Hammond, British South Africa Company's Eeport, 1892-94, p. 72.) (1425) '^ V 2 52 109. From tho sea coast to Choclio the country rises by gradual ascent ; the soil is a strong red clay and mould (p. 56). From C'hocho to Kusu is a range of grey granite hills running west-north-\ye.st to east-south-east, while the soil is a thin black mould. From Kusu to Katunga (Eyo) the hills are of soft crumbling granite (p. 56). In the neighbourhood of Mussa Eiver and Kiama is quartz and sandstone (p. 65). From Kiama to Wawa the hills are of sandstone and clay- ironstone, the general soil being red clay and gravel (p. 78j. Nurth-east of Wawa are hills of puddingstone, the pebbles of which are white quartz, angular and not water-worn. Further north-east is dark grey slate, and the soil a strong blue clay (p. 97). So also at Bussa is the same slate, forming the rapids (p. 104). Near .Songa, on the left bank of the Niger, is red and grey granite ; just to the south are porphyry hills on both banks, and still further south on the west bank are ridges of clay- slate (p. 109). North-east of Tabra the soil is a deep red clay, covered with a thin layer of sand (p. 145). Further on, near Bullabulla, are clay and sand with large blocks of sandstone, in which are nodules of iron, and veins of clay-ironstone (p. 146). In the neighbourhood of Womba the hills are of granite (p. 150). And in the Gwari (Gbari) and Zaria districts and northwards, the soil is a deep red clay, with rocks of slaty sandstone Cpp. 156, 157, 167). Near Damoi and Namalik is granite (pp. 290, sqq.). (Clapperton, " Journal of a Second Expedition into the Interior of Africa," London, 1829.) 110. Crystalline schists and primary rocks ; the upper stratified being Triassic. (Cornet, M.G., 1892, p. 126 ; and 1893, p. 41.) 111. For 12 to 20 miles south-west from Berbora is a belt of marine- formed sand, which gradually rises inland. Much of this sand is com.posed of disintegrated coral. Here and there are marble-limestone bosses upheaved by granite. Further west the ground becomes more rocky ; gneiss, granites, syenites, and quartzites are the exposed rocks ; these are intersected by veins and dykes of biotite, quartz, &c. There are flat-topped hills to north of this, capped with basalt. Near Jig-Jigga clialky limestone frequently appears. West of the Abyssinian frontier is chiefly basalt with the older schists, and older volcanic rocks underlying it, Hawash Plain, Fantalle Hills, and Kassam Valley are of later volcanic origin, with masses of lavas, trachite, rhyolite andesite, &c., and tuffs. ' At Addis Abbaba there is very little basalt, but a whitish- yellow tuff-like rock. The Mecha, Sobu, and Kwunchi Mountains form the south- east boundary of the basalt, thougli basalt covers the country to the south, but only in small quantity. Between Chellia (Chellahal) and Bilo is black sandy loam. West of Soddo Eange, which is of recent volcanic origin, are rounded basalt-covered, knoll-like downs. The Sarti and Gumbi Mountains are both basalt on the surface and, underlying this thin layer, are schistose, slaty, granitoid and gneissic rocks several thousands of feet thick. Similar down-like country succeeds, as far as the Dabus Eivcr. The Beni Shangul are similar to the Sarti and Gumbi Eanges. (Koettlitz, Dr. E., G.J., 1900, vol. xv, p. 264.) South of Addis Abbaba the Lakes Zwai and Hora are con- nected by a river which flows between banks of chalk 100 feet high. (Wellby, G.J., xvi, 1900, p. 296.) 112.- The Nun district is made up of old crystalline rocks (granite). (Douls, " Voyage d' exploration a travers le Sahara occidental," B.S.G., 1888, p. 456.) 113. The Tiris region is granitic. (Quiroga, " Observaciones geologicas hechas en al Sahara occid.," Anales de la Soc. Espan. de Hist. Nat., 1889, pp. 337, sqq) 114. The plateau of Tummo to the south of Fezzan consists of the dark sandstones of the Devonian period, being the prolongation to the south-east of the Tassili of the Azjer, which is of the same formation. (Eolland, " G&logie du Sahara Algurieu et aperqu g^o- logique sur le Sahara," Paris, 1890, p. 238.) 115. Air is encircled on the north by a plateau of dark Devonian sandstone. (E. von Bary, Tagebuch des verstorbenen, Z.G.E., 1880, pp. 345, sqq.) 116. The Tassili Plateau, north of Ahaggar, is also of dark Devonian sandstone. (Eoche, " Documents relatifs a la mission Flatters." — ■ Ministere des Travaux publics, Paris, 1884, p. 341.) 117. In the Sus neighbourhood the an ti- Atlas are formed of Palaeozoic schists. (Lenz, " Timbuktu," Leipzig, 1884, p. 290.) 118. South-east of Tenduf is limestone as far as 26° N. ; then follow sand dunes to 25° N. ; then, keeping the same direction, comes a granite district and quartzites to as far as 24° N., followed by schists (Schiefer). The Areg-el- Shesh is a sand plain, and just north of 22° the limestone reappears. Eound Tandeni are red sandstone hills. Due south of this are sand hills and stony plains, and in the neighbourhood of 20° N". are quartz blocks. 54 Fiirtlier south l)utween 20° and Timbuktu is a sand plain and hills. To west of Timbuktu, on the Niger bank, are sand dunes. Near Bassikunu and then south is latorite. AVest from Sokolo and on approaching Eachuinit is sand, followed to the west of the latter by latorite and clay-slate (Thonschiefer.) South-west from Nioro lies wooded country followed by laterite and mountains of clay-slate (Thonschiefer), and sandstone. (Lenz, " Timbuktu," Leipzig, 1884.) 119. The country between Ngaundere and Sukunga is of recent volcanic origin. (Mizon, B.S.G., 1895, p. 354.) 120. An immense deposit of middle or earlier Cretaceous sand, without fossils, covers Nubia and the Libyan Desert from Kordofan to the confines of Kufra and Dekhel. (Zittel, " XJeber den geologischen Bau der libyschen Wuste," Munich, 1880, map.) 121. The Dekhel and Kharga (Khargeh) are upper and middle chalk (ibid.). To north and north-east of Kharga (Khargeh) is lower Eocene limestone, at the base of which is a narrow band of Esna shales followed by the Danian series (white chalk and ash grey clays, and the Exogyra Overwegi series) ; upper Danian also lies to north-west. The bed of oasis is formed of Nubian sandstones and clays, with a strip of blown sand running north to south, and interrupted towards the north. (Ball, " Kharga Oasis," Cairo, 1900, map.) To north of Dakhla is white chalk and chalky limestone ; to south is Nubian sandstone, with a band of blown sand running south from Dakhla. The oases consist of patches of cultivable loam and sand ; and between oases and north plateau is a narrow band of lower Danian clays, &c. (Beadnell, "Dakhla Oasis," Cairo, 1900, and maps.) 122. Tlie massif of Air, a complex system of ancient and eruptive rocks, rises to a height of 1,800 metres with its walls of basalt and columns of trachyte. (Earth, " Eeisen nnd Entdeckungen in Nord- nnd Central-Afrika," Gotha, 1857, 1, pp. 421, 567, 587.) 123. The mountains of Anahef are of granite. (Ibid., I, p. 29L) Foureau gives quartz and granite. (B.S.G., 1900, vol. ii, p. 436.) 124. The Haruj-es-Sod is a mass of calcareous rocks and sandstones. (Eohlfs's " Kufra," p. 180.) 12.'">. The Utangule Mountain mass consists of basalt, rhyolite, and trachyte. (Dantz.M.D.S., 1900, p. 41.) 126. On the Ivorv coast there is a narrow coast belt — sometimes very narrow, sometimes extending 40 kiloms. inland 55 consisting of quartzose marine sands mixed with -^hell debris and clayey alluvium broiight down by the rivers. The inland portion is composed chiefly of gneiss and. mica- schist, overlying which is a thin layer of vegetable matter. (Thomasset, of the Houdaille Mission, A.F., 1900, p. 166.) 127. Near Gail, in Niellim country, the Shari makes a great bend, and is cut by huge granite blocks. (Prins, B.S.a., 1900, p. 179.) Higher up, the banks of the river are of sand and sandstone, which crumbles at the least touch, and conglomerates {ibid.). Togbao Mountain and other hills are crowned with granite. (Ibid^, p. 182.) The banks of the Shari, up to its confluence with the Gribingi, are formed of siliceous and argillaceous conglomerates. {Ibid., -p. 184:.) ^ Futther north the banks are of sand (Mainfa neighbourhood). (Jbid., p. 187.) The banks of the Logon are of similar conglomerates. (Ibid., p. 189.) ' The Dar Eunga neighbourhood is chiefly composed of granite rocks, with argillaceous sands in some places, and the mountains are covered with granite worn round. (Ibid., p. 194.) Near Gribingi post, Kaga Bandero and some other hills are of a soft sandstone. (Ibid., p. 194.) Iron is largely present in all the above. (Ibid., p. 194.) 128. The highlands of Asgar, north of 24° N., are of black sandstone ; Mount Idinen consists of a huge mass of rock formed of marl and limestone strata resting on black sandstone with serrated crests and turreted pinnacles of sandstone. (Earth (a), vol. i, p. 171, map.) To the south-west of Asgar is an extensive waterless plain with granite (ibid.). Almost half way between Ghat and Air, north and south of Mararraba, are gravelly plains with isolated granite peaks. (Earth (a), vol. i, p. 241, map.) ^ South of Asiu (near In-Azawa) are red and green slate- sandstones succeeded farther south by a low granite range and gravelly plains (ibid.). North of Mount Kadamellet are dark gneiss and fine-grained marble (ibid.). ■ (See Note 188.) 129. In about l7° 20', going south from Air, the granite begins to disappear and to be replaced by sandstone formations. (Earth (a), vol. i,. p. 297, map.) South of 17° are sand hills and sandy plains, and then follow the pasture lands (ibid.). 130. In the neighbourhood of Say are sandstone and calcareous rocks. (Earth (a), vol. iv, p. 104, map.) 131. Between Say and Bundore we have first hills of rod sand- stone with granite, then near Sirha Eiver gneiss and mica- schist and marble. West of Bundore are gneiss, granite and sandstone. _ At Sel.ba is red clay, and west of it granite and gneiss, and at Tumpeiit;a large granite boulders. On the Bugdma are granite and gneiss, followed on west by gneiss and mica-slate. South-east of Tondi are sandy downs and at Tondi are granite peaks (ibid.). At the south foot of the Hombori Plateau is the Seno sandy tree-clad region, which is reached from the heights by crossing three parallel dunes. The winter rains from the heights disappear in the sands, cross the dune belt, and reappear 100 kiloms. further south, forming reservoirs which are the sources of the Voltas. (Chanoine, B.S.G., 1899, p. 224.) 132. On left bank of Niger, between Gao and Tosaye, are sandy downs and sand hills, and at the latter sandstone cliffs. (Barth (a), vol. iv, p. 250, map.) 133. Above the fine yellow clay-schist of Manyema, the banks of Tanganyika reveal 50 feet of shingle mixed with red earth ; above this at some points great boulders lie ; after this 60 feet of fine clay-schist, then five strata of gravel under- neath, with a foot stratum of schist between them. The first seam of gravel is about 2 feet, the second 4 feet, and the lowest of all about 30 feet thick. The fine schist was formed in still water, but the shingle must have been produced in stormy troubled seas, if not carried thither by ice and at various epochs. (Livingstone (1), vol. ii, p. 60.) 134. A great band, 150 miles wide, consisting of volcanic rocks, in which are embedded sandstones altered to schists, extends from the Vaal to a distance of 60 miles north of Victoria Falls. To the north of Kuruman is *basalt, of which also the Amban Mountain, to west-north-west, is composed. There are black *basaltic mountains on the east of the Baniangwato. {Ihicl, pp. 215, 216, 217.) 135. Above the Kebrabassa Eapids, the Zambezi flows through a great bed of shingle and gravel of well-rounded stones, the pebbles being of hard crystalline rock. The Loangwa Valley is the bed of the ancient lake M-ith banks 60 feet thick of the same formation. {Ibid., pp. 219, sqq.) * It must be borne in miiirl, as pointed out by Hlibner in his " Geognostische Skizze aus Sud-Ost-Afrika," M.P.(t., 1872, xi, that the igni-'ous rocks, which Livingstone calls trap and basalt, and which he found in the great central plain, are, in reality, greenstones, and consist mostly of a compact conglomerate of oligoclase and hornblende. 57 136. Near Shamoara, which is close to the Zanibezi-Shire junction, are quartz hills. (Livingstone (2), p. .3.3.) The Kehrabassa Range is formed chiefly of syenite ; blocks of granite also abound, and these with metamoiphic rocks contorted and twisted into every conceivable position. At Tete are sandstones, and also at Lupata. {lUd., pp. 54, 184) 137. A range of metamorphic rocks extends from Senna to Mount Makanga and bounds the Shire Yalley on the west. {Ibid., p. 89.) 138. The mountains near Kalibe Island and the surrounding district are generally of igneous or metamorphic rocks, clay-slate or *trap ; the principal rock of the central part of the country, where no syenite or gneiss has been upheaved, is a grey coarse sandstone, similar to that found at Tete. {Hid., p. 222.) 139. On each side of the Euvuma are plateaux of masses of grey sandstone capped with masses of ferruginous conglomerate. About 60 miles up from the sea, the plateau is succeeded by more level country, with, detached granitic masses. The sandstone of the plateau has first been hardened, then quite metamorphosed into a chocolate-coloured schist. Going farther west, there are long tracts of gneiss, often striated. From these striated rocks have shot up great rounded masses of granite or syenite. The elevated plains among the mountain masses show great patches of ferru- ginous conglomerate. About 40 miles from the Lake Nyasa is a good deal of quartz. Near the lake and on the eastern shore are mica-schist and gneiss foliated, with a great deal of hornblende, the rocks being all tilted on edge or slightly inclined to the lake. On the east side of the lower part of the lake are two ranges of mountains, evidently granitic. (Livingstone's " Last Journals," vol. i, p. 83.) Makonde district north of the Euvuma is of sandstone. The whole of this Euvuma Plain is made up of granite and gneiss and metamorphic rocks. But between Itule and Kwamakanja, for a length of nearly 20 miles, and nowhere more than a third of that in breadth, is a hollow or pocket of bituminous shnle. (Thomson, P.R.G.S., 1882, p. 70.) 140. The Bakaa Mountains are formed of *basalt. (Livingstone's " Missionary Travels and Eesearches in South Africa," 1857, p. 10.) The soil of the Kalahari Desert is a light soft sand, nearly pure silica, but the beds of the ancient rivers contain much alluvial soil. {Hid., p. 47.) * See Note on p. 56. 141. The rocks on the Zambezi above Sesheke are reddish liardened variegated sandstone, which, with the broad horizontal strata of *trap, sometimes 100 miles in extent, and each havinp; an inch or so of silicious matter on it, form a great part of tbe linttom of the central valley. (//r(V/., p. 214.) Attlie eonflnence of the Njoko (Nyoko), the soil is of rich alluvium and sand. The iSTjoko Valley is skirted on either bank liy forest on white sandy undulations, unbroken for many hundred miles, save by similar valleys. (Gibbons, G.J., 1897, vol. ix, p. 124.) 142. Below the Kabompo junction is marly sandstone. (Livingstone's " Missionary Travels and Kesearches in South Africa," 1857, p. 260.) Tb.e elevations in the Liba or Leamba-Zambezi meadows are of soft sandy soil, and the meadows themselves of black rich alluvial loam. {lUd., p. 265.) 14.'3. Near Lake Kisale are horizontal beds of sandstone. (Delcommune, M.G., 1900, p. 146.) 144. The neighbourhood of Lake Dilolo is formed, on the surface, of ferruginous conglomerates; underlying these is red shale with banks of gravel. (Livingstone (3), p. 569, section.) 145. The lower Nile has cut its way down through the fEocene sandstone, ia which bands of clay are not uncommon. At Assuan are granite and schists ; these are covered, at some distance from the cataract, by white freestone over, which lies grey and purple sandy shale, followed by coarse' brown grit. (Hull, Qr. J. of Geology, Hi, 1896, p. 308.) 146. The plateau contained between Lakes A^ictoria, Albert and Albert- Edward is composed of quartzite clay, clay-shales and slates, the quartzite being uppermost. (Hermann, M.D.S., Bd. xii. Heft. 3, 18.99, p. 168.) 147. Along the course of the Congo, from the Pool to the mouth, we have from the Pool to Katuba red sand ; thence to Issangila shales, thence to Boma crystalline schists, thence to mouth a narrow strip of alluvium, followed both north and south liy lateiite, which extends up and down the coast in a narrow belt as far north as Nyanga and south as far as Ambriz. (Tappenbeck, M.G., 1886, p! 87.)' 148. Between tbe Jur and Wau, between Dem Zebehr and N'Doruma, in fact in the whole pf this region, the goil is of red laterite overlying granite and gneiss, which in places crop out. South of tlie Bomokandi Eiver it is the same. The Ghasa Plateau is gneiss, and in the valley of the Bomokandi, north of Liwanga, the laterite gives place to grey sandy cday. * See Note on ]i. 5G, + RoUaud makes this Cretaceous, see jj. 21. S9 In A-Madi land the laterite is yellow instead of red, and there are also beds of hard red sandstone. (Keane's Translation of Junker's Travels in Africa, vol. ii, pp. 79, 116, 120, 321 ; vol. iii, pp. 16, 34 72.) 149. The Tertiary series (Oligocene and Pleistocene) is largely developed in the neighbourhood of Shott Merwan, and in the valley of Wad Ehir, between Biskra and a point a little south of Tuggurt. The region of Hamada, extending from Wad Kheshabe to Inifel, and reaching from Grand Erg on the east to El Golea on the west, is formed of puddingstones and cal- careous travertine of PUocene age. (Elamand, A.G., 1900, p. 233.) 150. Uhehe and Usagara regions : here gneiss is the prevailing rock. In Khutu are also found districts of the older Karoo formation (sandstone and shale). (Dantz, M.D.S., 1900, p. 126.) All round the Uchungwe Mountains (in Uhehe) is good alluvial soil. (von Bruchausen, D.K., 1/10/97.) 151. The Congo-Zambezi parting between the Lufila and the Loenge (Lenge), and between the latter and the Kafubu (affluent of the Luapula), consists of grey schists. (Voss, of Lemaire's Mission, B.C., 1900, p. 317.) Between 12° 11' S., 25° 38' E., and 11° 50' S., 25° 53' 58" the neighbourhood of the parting is calcareous. (Questiaux, B.C., 1900, p. 437.) 152. Both branches of the Luao, which joins the Kassai north of Lake Dilolo, flow in granite beds, and south of this is quartz porphery under sand. (Lemaire, B.C., 1900, pp. 318, 330.) To south of Naivasha Lake are volcanic peaks and ridges, whose slopes are covered with volcanic dust, obsidian and (Grogan, G.J., vol. xvi, 1900, p. 78.) 153. Between Ankober and Balji on theeast,and the mountain chains of Toke, Dendi and Botor on the west, are calcareous beds. In the region of these chains, and that of the Eoge and Leka Mountains, as far as the valley of the Didessa Eiver, are tracts of red ochre clay. The Western Abyssinian Plateau, from the valley of the Didessa to the Nile Plain, is covered with a deep fertile humus. The bed of the Birbir is less basaltic than the surrounding regions and quartz is frequently met with. The Baro flows between clayey banks. (Michel, La Geographic (B.S.G.), 1900, vol. ii, p. 25.) . 154. Tagama is a great undulating plateau, covered with thickets, the soil being sand everywhere, except at the bottoms of the dry pools, where clay is found. (Foureau, La Gfographie (B.S.G.), vol. ii, 1900, p. 49.) 60 155. The geological formation of Swaziland varies Ic ngitudinally ; micaceous schists (Swazi-schists) lie on north-west border, but are cut off by a granite belt, some 50 miles in width, only ending on the extreme fruige of the middle terrace of the country. There the formation changes to sandstone, which on the cast rim is cut by freipent intrusive dykes of gneiss. Then rise the Lebompo Mountains, a regular^ alignment of the metamorphic rocks, which divides the Swazi sand- stones from those of Tongaland. (A. M. Miller, I'.r.. Colonial Institute, xxxi, 1899- 1900, p. 280.) 156. The region of the Congo-Zambezi water parting, in the neigh- bourhood of 11° 30' iS., is composed of schistose sandstones and quartzites ; (Lemaire-Questiaux, B.C., 1900, p. 365.) And near Sakabinda (12° 14' 26' lat, 25° 16' 20" long.) of clayey shales in great vertical masses, with a general east- west direction, with viens of quartz. {lUd., p. 388.) 157. The Saida region is composed of Jurassic limestone. (B.S.G. et Arched., Oran, xix, 1899, pp. 429-484.) 158. The southern portion of the country to the east of Lake Rudolf is a succession of igneous rocks reaching down to the water's edge. From the south end of Lake Rudolf north-west to 4° ]^. the high peaks are topped with white and pink sandstone dropping perpendicularly, the hillsides green with bush, with rocks of basalt here and there. The bed of the Turkwell is sandy. The valleys generally fertile with rich alluvial and black cotton soil. From the Ruzi source northwards the country is much the same, but sometimes displays a gravel soil. (Wellby, G.J., xvi, 1900, pp. 298, sqq.) 159. The soil of Portuguese Guinea, which is almost entirely a plain, is argillaceous (laterite). (Vasconcellos, " As Colonias Pcrtuguezas," p. 38.) 160. The "Fez Plateau is of chalk-marl and conglomerate. (Lenz's "Timbuktu," vol. i, p. 126.) 161. Prom Iii-Azawa southward to Air, Foureau's route lay along granite chains. (B.S.G., 1900, p. 245.) 162. The mountains of the Upper Wad Nefis and the Gundafi district to the south of Marocco city are schistose. (Segonzac, B.S.G., 1900, p. 292.) 163. The whole M'Bomu basin and also the outer rim of the Congo basin is composed of rocks, older than the carbon- iferous on a bed of gneiss and mica-schist. (Bonnel de M6zi(ires, B.S.G., 1900, vol ii, p. 307.) 164. East of Klugu River and north of Karaga (10° N.) the soil is argillaceous, covered with ferruginous agglomerations, and is quite impermeable. South of Karaga are ferruginous and friable sands. (Binger, "Du Niger au Golfe de Guinde," 1887-89 Paris, 1892, pp. 62, 69.) 61 165. The whole region of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, extending from about 27° 20' E. to 30° 50' E. and from 4° 30' N. to 9° IST. is a vast ferruginous plateau, with here and there a granite peak of some 300 feet in height, with a gentle slope from south to north. (Eoulet, B.8.G., 1900, ii, p. 306.) 166. At Pointe-Noir, near Loango, and in the neighbourhood of Libreville, are found fossiliferous niiocene calcareous deposits, similar to those on the coast near the Congo mouth. (Le Chatelier, B.S.G., 1900, II, p. 161.) 167. The upper valleys of the Niger and Senegal traverse great beds of sandstone, folded at the base, but horizontal at the summit, similar to the Permo-Triassic beds of the Karoo. Here also are found siliceous and crystalline limestone. All these beds lie on the primary schists, sometimes micaceous, frequently accompanid by granite, quartz, &c. Eelow the region of the rapids the valley of the Senegal lies between the sand formations of Maures, Futa and Ferlo. The regions of Kayor and Bayol, in Senegal, consist of various rocks, folded and faulted by the violent movements which accompanied the raising of the volcanic mass of Cape Verde, the whole covered by a great thickness of sand and laterite. The following is the result arrived at from evidence procured on digging wells at (1) Thies and (2) Mbambe, both in Baol :— 1. 12 metres sands and ferruginous gravels. 4 „ flaky marls. 6 „ gravels (conglomerated). 2 „ sandy limestone. 3 „ limestones (with bivalves). 8 „ fissured sandstone. 5 „ clayey sandstone. 5 ,, chalky limestone. 3-5 2 3 10 3 2 2 sands. ferruginous gravels, calcareous gravel. marly limestone, compact limestone, flaky clay, limestone. „ (with ostrea). Between Capes Eouge and Naze an examination of the cliffs showed a series of limestone strata, sometimes dolomitic, plunging at an angles of 10° towards south-west, with a thickness of 45 metres. South-cast of Popengine these are replaced by strata of 25 to 30 meti'es of soft argillaceous sands, reposing on grey marls and blue clays — probably all Tertiary. 62 All the formations which have been mentioned are covered with laterite of variable thickness. (Rambaud, " Une mission au Senegal," Paris, 1900, p. 325.) 168. The Omurambo and other tributaries of the Okovango_ River have cut deep troughs iu the plateau which consists of clays and sands. (v. Franrois: M.D.S., iv, 1891, p. 207.) 169 From the Omurambo junction for 100 kiloms. the valley of the Okovango River is enclosed by wooded sandhills. (Eggers,M.D.S., 1900, p. 187.) 170. A section on 27° 30' N. : On the coast of the Red Sea are Pliocene followed by Miocene deposits. The crystalline rocks of the coast hills then protrude, followed by a small ]\Iiocene area. Then, always going westwards, occur sand- stone, chalk and Miocene deposits in quick succession, the latter subsequently covered by Pliocene. Then follows an area of plains covered with water-worn detritus. Here the crystalline range, which runs parallel with the coast, forces its way through the sandstone, which appears on both flanks. This is again followed by a plain of detritic material, once interrupted by the upheaved strata of chalk, and Eocene deposits which lie over the sandstone. To this succeeds the crystalline rock of Jebel Om Mangul. (Schwcinfurth, " Aufnahmen in der Ostlichen Wiiste von Agypten," Berlin, 1900.) 171. At the entrance to LakeDebo (Niger) are lofty red sandstone rocks. (Lenfant, R.G., November, 1900, p. 364.) There is an outcrop of quartz and schists at Tundiforma. {Ibid., p. 365.) 172. Tlie western portion of Wad Shaid lies between bluffs of sanri stone. The sands of Wad Sibrit rest on a bed of impervious crystalline rock. In ^^^ad Shaid, these rocks crop up near Jebel Sufra. Pj31ow the sands of Abu Had is granite rock. Thence to Sikait are crystalline rocks and schists. Cleological section of Jebel Sikait. (]\IacAlister, G.J., xvi, 1900, p. 537.) 173. jjutween 2.3° and 27° N. the mountains occurring in the region between the Nile and the Ked Sea are formed of crystalline rocks, principally granite, but passing in places into gneiss and mica-schist, traversed by dykes and intrusions of greenstone, felsite and porphyry. It is in these rocks that most of the auriferous quartz veins occur. This central core is flanked on either side by conglomerate, Nubian sandstone, crystalline limestone, and Tertiary lime- stone in the order indicated. (Alford, G.J., xvi, 1900, p. 557.) 174. From Inhimbane to the Limpopo the coast belt is of sand overlying limestone ; the valley of the Inyanombi has a red sandy soil. Eshigibi stream has arenaceous limestone in its bed, and to the south-west of this is an outcrop of the same stone. 63 The immediate Limpopo Plain is ricli alluvium, the area being ^closed by limestone plains. A sandy ridge encloses the fertile plain of Inhimbane. A limestone country extends northwards with large outcrops of the marble-like rock, here and there, up to the Sabi Eiver, whose valley is bordered on each side by limestone bluffs. The Murgis flows directly into the Bosi over a bed of trap, with eruptive dykes of a serpentine character. This black trap dyke is the only one visible in the district. Just to the north of this begins a lofty (1,500 to 1,800 feet) stony ridge of porphyry and- serpentine. The Bosi Eiver in this locality is bordered by deep precipices of sandstone and volcanic rock, the formation along Erskine's route being red clay-slate with eruptive porphy- ritic rocks. South of Unswelizi Eiver is porphyritie clinkstone, followed (going south) by red sandstone until the Sabi is reached. In the angle formed by the Olifant's and Limpopo are lime- stone hills, while here on the south bank of the former are ridges of pebbles and cretaceous limestone. Opposite the junction of the Terue Eiver with the Olifant's are porphyritie hills. To the west of the Tali are volcanic rocks, whilst higher up on the right bank of Olifant's are mica and gneiss. (See Note 24.3.) (Erskine, J.K.G.S., 1875, p. 45.) 175. EromTati to the Sabi Eiver the character of the formation is essentially metamorphic, the range of low hills lying between the rivers is trappsean in character, and the isolated kopjes are composed of granite rocks (p. 4). Twenty miles above the junction of the Tuli with the Shasha and on its right bank are granite, slate and quartz (map). At Tolo Azime cataracts the granite rises perpendicularly from the gorge and is overtopped by basalt. Granite and hornblendic rocks lie scattered broadcast all over the right bank as far as a low line of hills in the distance (p. 15). Between the Zoutpansberg and the Limpopo great hornblendic rocks encumber the whole valley (p. 18). The Bubye Eiver runs through a chain of basaltic hills (p. 20). Below the junction of this river there are sandstone hills on the right bank of the Limpopo (p. 22]. Between the junction of the Nuanetzi and Lipaluli or Olifant's Eiver, a distance of about 100 miles, the rising ground in the neighbourhood of the Limpopo is of coarse conglomerate intermixed with greyish sandstone (p. 27). (E. Elton, J.E.O.S., 1872.) 176. The Campbell and Kuruman Eanges to the north of the Orange Eiver are limestone. Slate and shale form the beds of the Elvers Snake and Mooi, west of Base Kop in N"amaqualand, while on the Knaas Eiver is a conglomerate of limestone, greenstone and garnets. In this region are jnany miles of limestone flats, some extending 10 miles in 64 length, bounded by sand dunes and isolated kopjes, with their pointed summits covered with bush. The most peculiar feature in this region are the sand dunes, which extend for many miles in every direction. They run due west and east and range from 50 to 200 feet in height. Their base is a dark limestone covered with sand which varies in thickness from 4 to 10 feet. There are also many isolated granite hills. Tlie Brinus Mountains are granite, and so too is the district between the Higap and great Fish Ilivers lying south of the Back Eiver. The region of the Great Fish Eiver is of granite, gneiss, trap and amygdaloid. The coast country south of 20° S. to the Orange Eiver is a sandy desert, the sand forming steep ridges extending 70 miles inland until they join the moun- tain slopes. South of the Chinamba Hills, as far as the Zuga, tlie country is deep sand. (Anderson, P.E.G.S., 1884, p. 18.) 177. The gold seam which runs through the provinces of Dadiase and Inkanta is a continuation of that which starts near Kibbi, Eastern Akim, and proceeds in a westerly direction through Western Akim, entering Ashanti near Amantia. This seam then passes through Dadiase and proceeding through a portion of Adansi country, near Fomena, strikes south and thence through Ikanta and so on into the Tarkwa country. Kintampo is built in the midst of a large sandy plain. (Kirby, P.E.G.S., 1884, p. 447.) _ 178. The peaks and ridges of the Namuli Mountains are granitic and metamorphic. (O'Neill, P.E.G.S., 1884, p. 642.) 179. The northern slope of the Witwatersrand Plateau is formed of rocks belonging to the Silurian period and metamorphic series. The Magalies Berg is of white quartzite, which changes from compact to granular. The strike of the prin- cipal strata is i'rom east to v/est, with a considerable dip to north. Li the hill ranges east of Eustenberg Flat is a porphyritic formation and diorite intersected with felspar and leek- green hornblende. In the Highveld are sandstone layers. On the eastern heads of the Limpopo are the primitive rocks, granite and gneiss, joined from north by steep raised, reddish, shining mica-schists, capped with clay-slate, but principally quartzite and greywacke; and then lower Silurian rocks may be followed as far west as the Mariko district, but there the clay-slates are much thicker. Above the greywacke is a layer of bluish siliceous limestone of vast extent and considerable thickness, and horizontal throughout. Devonian limestone extends from the sources of the Mooi 65 Eiver as far as the higher Mariko district and beyond the Harts Eiver. (Mauch, M.P.G., Ergan, No. 37, 1874.) The geological structure of the country between Potchefstroom and Tati is summed up thus : round a granite core, the periphery of which does not appear to be a simple ellipse, but a many-limbed curve, lies a mantle of metamorphic rocks, which have been frequently fractured and intersected by greenstone; older sedimentary formations appear in one plaice in the south and again under lat. 20° S. The long rugged mountain ridges near Potchefstroom and Rus- tenberg are quartzite. On the Limpopo the sandstone lies immediately on the granite. Perruginous mica-slate shows itself at Tati, overlying chlorite slate. A considerable portion of the country between Potchefstroom and the Inyati, notably the Shoshong Mountains, is of greenstone. The Pilandsberg is also of this formation. Sedimentary rocks appear in lat. 23° 30' S. and 26° 40' E. long. ; these are upheaved sandstones, lying between the Serorume and the Limpopo, of Karoo age. (Hiibner, M.P.G., 1872, No. xi.) 180. Eastward of Pretoria, after passing Potgieter's Eust (Makapans Poort), a region of an immense system of metamorphic slate is entered. The dip and strike change a good deal, as must be expected in "contorted and' fiexured strata, but on the whole a strike from east to west can be observed. The strata are very steep, the dip, principally to the north, varying between 35° and 39° The separate layers are mostly very thin. The slates are discordantly overlapped by a very hard and compact sandstone, frequently taken for quartzite. In the south-east of this, the Marabas Stadt district, follows hard siliceous limestone. Eegion between Lydenburg and Delagoa Bay : — This may be divided into three plateaux — 1. The high mountain country between Lydenburg and the steep ridge east of Spitzkop, about 26 miles broad. It contains an immense formation of shales with stratified sandstone ledges, capped here and there by . dolomite. 2. The mountain country between the first plateau and the ■ eastern slopes of the Lebompo Mountains. Almost all the rocks found here are crystalline, chiefly granite ; and, on the eastern slope, melaphyre and quartz- porphyry. _ 3. The coast lands between the Lebompo Mountains and the ocean : In the west are low hills of porphyry and melaphyre ; the rest is flat and covered with black marshy soil, in some parts covered with recent sea- sand. (Cohen, Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie, Geologic und Palffiontologie, 1873.) (1425) E 66 At Morolvweng granite is visible, in tlie bed and round the borders of its fine vlei ; but it soon disappears, overlaid by a shallow silico-calcareous formation. The pans are almost always of limestone, and where pits exist in this part, they are dug out of limestone. North of this is loose sand. (Wilkinson, G.J., 1893, vol. 1, p. 326.) In the Kalahari the formations in ascending order are : — 1. Granite, the bed-rock of the whole coimtry, which comes to the surface about the head of the Molopo or Molapo (Molopo) Eiver at Mosita, at Morokweng, and along the Mashowing Eiver near Madebing. 2. A series of hard crystalline silico-calcareous beds, occurring in great force near Kuruman, but thinning away northwards. 3. A series of highly altered shales, very ferruginous and highly magnetic. Their outcrop forms a distinct escarpment which can he readily followed for hundreds of miles, hard and in thin beds and much broken up. This outcrop forms the range of hills near Madebing, through Honing Valley to near Sekeleke, and may be considered as the proper physical boundary of the desert, for the deep sand begins immediately behind them. 4. A series whose outcrop is everywhere hidden by the sand, probably sandstones, shale and quartzites. 5. A large series of hard impervious quartzites, forming the Maubelle, Tsebun, Mararalen Eanges, and also the westerly dip of the Great Molapo bend, near Mokopon. (Penning, G.J., 1893, vol. i, p. 336.) 181. The Murchison Hills, lying between two districts of granite and gneiss to north and south, are formed of the eroded remains of clay shales, schists and mudstones, resting on granite and plentifully intercalated with quartz. (Alford, G.J., 1893, vol. ii, p. 226.) 182. At Edea (Idia) Falls are gneiss rocks. (Grenfell, P.E.G.S., 1882, p. 586.) Below Edea, on the western bank of the stream connecting Lake Lungasi with the Sanaga Eiver, is laterite. (von Stein, M.D.S., 1897, p. 155.) 183. (a) In the north of Tunis, between the sea and Wad Mejerda, in Bizerta neighbourhood, the formation is calcareous, Jebel Ahmar in the north-east part is composed of red sandstone of the upper Eocene and Oligocene periods. A small miocene synclinal separates the range from the mountain masses of Mogodo and Ai'n Draham, which are entirely of Numidian sandstone. To the south- west of these mountains are small calcareous chains. {h) In the zone between Sbeitla and t!ie Shotts ; Jebels Sehib and Eosfa and Jebel Berda are of Cretaceous rocks flanked by lower Eocene ; Jebel el Ayasha is calcareous, with marls, the whole of the southern half 67 sinking under the plain. Jebels Serragla, Jellabia and (Seltai-. and tlie eliain totlic north-Vv'est of Gafsa, are the continuation of the Algerian Mountains, and, with the exception of a Quaternary interruption at "Wad Sidi Aish (or Baiesh), are entirely Cretaceous. (c) In the zone between the above : In north-east are hard dark calcareous rocks (Lias), in the centre these rocks are often dolomitic. (Pervinquiere, A.G., 1900, p. 434.) 184. The coast belt north of St. Louis, as far as Marsa (at least), is a great plain sloping gently to the sea, probably Pliccane, sometimes with shell marl, sometimes with gypseous crystal (described as mica by previous travellers). The country is not of the Sahara type, but is a northern prolongation of Senegal country ; numerous dunes appear, not higher than 10 meters, with a general north-north-east direction. These are clothed with vegetation. Along the coast itself, too, is a line of dunes (reaching a heiglit of 200 meters). This kind of country extends for 200 kiloms. from the coast. East- wards of tliis (i.e., of Twizekt) the soil is composed of sand and ferruginous quartzites, with traces of quartz and manga- nese. ISTumerous faultings run north and south, the beds having a westerly inclination and a dip varying from 80'' to 35°, the entire surface having been levelled by erosion. This formation extends over a belt of 100 kiloms. as far as Tabringut (which ought to be 80 kiloms. east-south- east of its position on French staff map). Then occurs a crystallophylline plateau, extending from the Sebkha of Ijil on the north to Bakel on the Senegal Eiver, which is terminated by an abrupt cliff', 175 metres high, and extending for the same distance. Here the quartzites and sandstone are perfectly horizontal. The plateau of Adrar forms portions of this abrupt rise, and has north to south faultings similar to those in the country farther west, but inclining more to the east as one proceeds northwards. In Adrar are ferruginous sandstones. (Dereims, of the Blanchet :\lis,sion, A.G., 1900, p. 458.) 185. The soil in the valley of the Likuala-aux-herbes is siliceous sand and granite alternating with limonite. (Jobit, B.S.G., 1900, vol. ii, p. 349.) 186. South-west from the AYebi Shebeli, near Hilowen, is a granite plateau with iron ore, reaching to Gohule. Between El Dere and Le are many limestone mountains. (D. Smith, G.J., xvi, 1900, pp. 601, 602.) 187. In the Northern Territories of the Gold Coast, i.e., roughly from 8° to 11° N., the basis of the soil is sandstone, covered in the low levels by a thin layer of allu\'ium. In the hills granite and quartz are found. (Northcott, G.J., xvi, 1900, p. 083.) 188j. Between Tadent and Tajenut are schists and granite. South of Tadent to In-Azawa is a sea of rocks ; consisting of a quartz-gravel plain with blocks of granite. (1425) E 2 68 The Iferuane region is of quartz, granite and gneiss. Azawakh is an arid desert region with small mountains ot red sandstone. At Zinder are great hlncks of granite. On the east of Lake Chad are low sand hills. (See No. 12«.) (Foureau, 1!.S.(I., 1900, p. 436.) 188. An escarpment of limestone (n]iper Cretaceous) extends through the oases of Farafra, Dakhla, and Kharga, being broadest at the first-named, and narrowing from the last, and making a southern semi-circular curve through Dungul, and north to Kurkur oasis, and continued northwards to Esna. On the east side of the Nile this narrow band is continued eastwards ; the escarpment also extends west- wards from Farafra. The oasis of Baharia is also lime- stone. South pf this limestone the Nubian sandstone comes to the surface on both sides of the river, extending at least as far south as Selima oasis. North of the limestone escarpment lie Eocene beds (limestone with clays and sandstones) on both sides of the river, and extending to a little north of 30° N. South ot Wadi Natron, and west of Fayum, is a circular area of sandstone (J. Ahmar sandstone). Bounded on the east by a Cairo-Alexandria line, and north of the Eocene areas, are Miocene beds (limestone and cal- careous sandstone, with marls and clays of marine origin). These extend south-west to Siwa and further south. On the east side of the Delta region (Alexandria-Cairo^Port Said) the formation is the same as the above. The Delta region is made up of alluvial deposits. South from Wadi Araba is a coast belt of alluvial deposits, followed by a belt of crystalline rocks (Archaean), to which succeeds a third belt of limestone, the last-named . only extending as far as 26"^ N. (Lyons, Qr. J. of Geology, with map, November, 1894, vol. i; see also De Lapparent,p. 1202.) 189. Bound the south shores of Tanganyika are horizontal beds of Old Bed sandstone, and between Tanganyika and Bukwa is a series of high ridges of granitoid rocks. On the west, too, are enormous deposits of reddish sandstone, conglomerates and quartzites. Near the S(juth end these stratified masses are exposed to a depth of 2,000 feet. These deposits extend to an unknown distance west, and appear to fringe a part at least of the circular cavity of the Congo basin. They are also continuous with the beds which extend into the northern portion ot the Nyasa district, and at Mount Waller form a narrow sedimentary neck among the sur- rounding granitoid hills, and pass thence to an unde- termined distance east. These deposits have no fossils, and are the oldest deposits in this part of the interior. In. places they are unoonformably overlaid by newer beds of lacustrine origin, notably between Nyasa and Tanganyika, 69 and also about Maswa on Tanganyika, and again between Ujiji and the north end of that lake. The bar of the Lukuga outlet consists of a number of ridges of exposed conglomerates, evidently formed at the bottom of tlie lake. The river finds its way over these, and crosses a flat sandy plain to the low sand hills, which here bound Tanganyika on the west, and once formed a portion of the old lake bed, continuous with the sandy plain. The north end of Tanganyika basin, beyond the lake, is a flat mass of lacustrine and alluvial deposits, extending 30 miles beyond the lake. The ridges cutting the Eusisi Valley are eruptive, and the shores of Lake Kivu are a continuation of the Tanganyika trough, the plateaux on either side being eruptive granitoid, extending east and west of the valley as far as Albert Nyanza. To the north of Kivu is the great Kirunga (Virunga) volcanic area. On the north, Albert-Edward Lake is bounded by a succes- sion of low cliffs and profound swamps, the cliffs being composed in some places of old lake deposit, and in others of volcanic ash overlying this deposit. The Semliki Valley is composed entirely of these modern deposits, covered with forest and marshy growths. (J. E. S. Jloore, G.J., xvii, p. 1, 1901.) 190. North of Hoste's Camp, near the Loangwa Eiver, are granite kopjes. "West of Chewala, on the Matizi branch of the Kafue, are granite hills. (Chesnaye, G.J., xvii, 1901, p. 42.) 191. The massif of IsTaba, which reaches an altitude of 2,170 metres near N'zo, is composed of granite and sandstone. (Woelffel, B.S.U., iii, 1901, p. 37.) The soil of the whole region traversed by the Woelfel-Mangin Mission, i.e., between 9° and 6° 41' K, and 6° 40' and 9° 40' W., consists of sandstone, granite and ferruginous blocks. The subsoil is a mixture of gravels (nodules of sulphate of iron) and ferruginous clays. In the forest country there is an upper layer of vegetable humus, over- lying clay (ihicL). 192. The upper part of Hakim (south of Harar) is Jurassic lime- stone, and thence to Ennia-Gallaland is hard grey Jurassic limestone with yellow sandstone. There are also Jurassic rocks down to the Web Eiver and south of Sheikh Hussein. Xorth-east of Abunas are Cretaceous beds. On the Upper Hawash are young eruptive rocks, and the Didda Plateau is of the same. (Neumann, V.G.E., 1900, p. 479.) 193. 1st Zonr. — From Wesso to the confluence of the N'Jadie and the Ivindo, consists of sandstone, and white and greyish sand. All the right affluents of the Sanga Eiver above Wesso, the rivers and streams forming the Mossaka, and the numerous tributaries (left) of the N'Jadie, flow through 70 ll)is formali.iD, soniotiincs cuvcred by puddingstone (ferru- oinous) of recent origin. 2i„J Zonc.—Vmm aljove the confluence to the M'Vung la\-er, i.e., all the ri26 Between Kio Inhoiido and Mopeia are clayey and sandy alluvial deposits; thence, parallel with the Zambezi, to Eio Mekumbo, are soft sands, followed onwards to the Shire Eiver (along proposed railway route from Kilimane) by quartzose granite and basalt. (Sarmento, " Carta do Delta do Zambeze," 1/500,000, Lisbon, 1891.) 227. East of Giraul the perpendicular faces of the high masses are covered with an efflorescence of almost pure sulphate of magnesia. This formation is succeeded by massive basalt. The narrow slip of basalt is followed by quartzose rock. This changes to quartzose granite and in some places to a fine-srained porphyry. After tlie ascent from Giraul, is a lar^e" second plateau covered with granite boulders. Pedra Grande is of granite. The country between the Serra Chelia and the Kakula Eiver is sandy. (Mayo, P.E.G.S., 188.3, pp. 460,464.) 228. At Kella the cliffs are of granite. (Bruce, vol. iii, p. 113.) Near Adowa, in Tigre, the soil is white clay mixed with sand {Ihid., p. 124.) The soil of the wooded and cultivated country to the north of Gondar is red earth, and the bottoms of all the rivers are , soft and earthy. {lUd., vol. iv, p. 289.) In Western Abyssinia, between 13° N. and 16° IST., at least until the Atbara Deserts are reached, the soil is composed of black earth. {Ihid., vol. iv, p. 326.) Godem district is granite and gneiss, with great beds of lava. (Eholfs, " Meine mission nach Abessininen," p. 97.) The Ambas, or elevated mountain plateaux, are of sand and sandstone in the north, though in the south they are of volcanic rocks, e.g., Magdala. {lUd., p. 166.) To the east of Debra Tabor is a plain of humus. {Ihid., p. 196.) North from Lamalmon run colossal basalt offshoots. {Ihid., p. 284.) 229. A plateau of Cape formation — diabase and dolomite — occupies the south of Bechuanaland, and gives rise to the peculiar flatness of the region ; this is bounded on the south by Campbell Eange running south-west and north-east. On the west this plateau merges into the S(rath Kalahari. On the north and east it has no precise limits, ending where the gneiss and granite appear north of Mafeking. The middle and north of Bechuanaland form part of the accidented area of the Limpopo, bounded on the west by the Kalahari and on the north by the massif of granite and gneiss of the Matabele country. This boundary follows the Lotsani Valley and the Limpopo depression, i.<>., the great valley lying between the Limpopo and Zoutpansberg on the 77 one side, and the Matabele massif on the other. The Limpopo Plateau borders on the accidented (folded) country on the east. The Kalahari, the above-mentioned faulted and folded district, and the Lunpopo Plateau are formed of fragments of the older formations, up to the Cape formation. In the first two regions there are gneiss, granite and sedi- mentary rocks, which resemble the Cape "formation. The Limpopo Plateau is of Swazi and Cape formation. It is argued that the Kalahari and Limpopo Plateaux once formed a single region inclining from east to west. This primitive mass was split up either by volcanic action or erosion so as to form a number of mountains separated by valleys, now occupied by the courses of the Notwane, Mariko and Limpopo. (Laloy, B.S.G-., iv, 1901, p. 27.0.) 2oO. The Didessa rolls down great blocks of basalt, but, to the west of it, quartz, porphyry and serpentine are the prevail- ing rocks, and, on the east, the quartz and granite begin to appear to the west of the Guder Eiver. (Le Eoux, B.S.G., iv, 1901, p. 226.) 231. South from Casablanca for 25 kiloms., are calcareous rocks ; south of this, for 30 kiloms., is the tirs or fruitful country, covered with a black vegetable soil, reaching as far us Mzamza Hills. The desert of Beni Meskin immediately north of Um-er-Ebia is calcareous. (Weissgerber, B.S.G., iv, 1901, p. 235.) 232. The whole of the middle and lower Sassandra region is granite. (Thomann, A.F., 1901, Supt., No. 6, p. 113.) 233. Between Tawa and Jibale the soil is sandy throughout, with sandstone in the valleys and old river beds ; and at Zinder the granite appears. (Peroz, E.G., ii, 1901, p. 469.) 234. On the plateau leading from Inyauga to the Zambezi-Pungwe parting the geological formation is similar to that of the country round Masikesse. Granite is visible only occasion- ally, the hills between the Gairedzi and Katandiga's being for the most part composed of talcose schist interspersed with quartz veins. Purther north the kopjes and visible rocks consist almost without exception of banded quartzite with quartz reefs, and this extensive formation seems to be the matrix whence comes the alluvial gold found in the lower reaches of the streams running into the Zambezi. From where the Muira leaves the hills the country for sonae miles is composed of deep rich vegetable soil. (Arnold, G..T., xviii, 1901, p. 515.) 235. On the Zombo Plateau, east of San Salvador, the soil is very sandy and the country is well drained. (Lewis, S.G.M., 1901, p. 578.) 236. The raised beaches at Par-es-Salam consist of coral rock and consolidated fragments, overlaid by brick-red sands and- clays, derived from the metamorphic rocks of the coast 78 range ; in the upheaval of the coast tliere has besn a pause, and two, if not three, beaclies result (vol. i, pp. 75, 94, l;U ; ii, 300). Mount Johnston is of lava intercalated between beds of sand- stone (i, p. 14:(S). In Ukhutu are intrusions of basalt among the sandstone beds (i, p. 167). From the Uchungwe Mountains (Uhehe) to Mkubwasanya, the underlying rooks are compact granite with occasional areas of volcanic rocks. After leaving the last-named place the granite becomes niore felspathic and extremely decom- posable, so that i'or a great depth it has V)een transformed into a sandy clay with huge blocks of rock, and this clay is cut into gullies 50 to 60 feet deep (i, p. 227). The Nyasa Tanganyika Plateau consists of clay, slates, and other metamorphic rocks, except around north end of Nyasa, where the rocks are volcanic (see ISTote No. 2) (i, pp. 253, 315). Eound Tambete (South Tanganyika) are precipices of red jointed sandstone (ii, p. 2), and the same formation thence to Pamlilo (ii, p. 23). In the neighbourhood of the Lukuga outlet are very soft and friable sandstones, and consequently the hills and surround- ing countrv are very low compared with the rest of the lake region (ii, p. 67) ; and the Kitinga and Kichanja Hills consist of soft sandstones and shales, witli coarser strata containing water-worn pebbles (ii, p. 107). On Tanganyika, wlierever the shores are low, they are found to consist of this soft sandstone ; this is the case from Mpala to Mtowa, ar\d from Kaboga to north of Ujiji, also in a small tract north of Ivungwe and in the country about Manda and lendwe. The Pavers Kuche, Malagarasi, Lofu, Lofuku and Lugumbu flow through sandstone areas. The Uguha region is of soft sandstone (ii, p. 85). From Kungwe to Mpimbwe the rocks are metamorphic, grey- wackes, schists and gneiss. The red calciferous sandstones, shalss, pebbled beds, occasional limestone strata, and even coal deposits, stretch from near the Equator to south of the Iluvuma, and probably even to the Cape, in a narrow but unbroken band, and may be regarded as carboniferous (ii, p. 301). (Thomson, " To the Central African Lakes and Back," 1881, and map.) 237. Tlie carboniferous area, extends along south of Zambezi from Shangani liiver to Sanyati Eiver, while, at the junction of the Umfuli with the last-named, there is granite. Coal also appears to the east of Tuli. (British South Africa Company's Eeport, 1899-1900, map.) 238. Between Duruma and Teita is a sandy reddish soil, due to the change from the shales farther east to coarse gritty sandstone (p, 68). 79 The above carboniferous rocks give place at Teita to meta- morphic rocks, schists, gneiss, greywacke and hornblende (p. 72). The Kilimanjaro lavas begin at the Lumi River (p. 115). At Xjiri is an outcrop of gneiss with a northerly strike and an almost vertical dip, and here the area of volcanic eruption, with Kilimanjaro as centre, ceases (p. 280). Douyo Erok and ISTdapduk are of graphic granite, gneiss and schists (p. 281). At the Turuku nullah the metamorphic rocks disappear at a very high angle beneath the lava (p. 293). At Gwaso Kedong begins the area of the later volcanic energy (p. 328). A ridge of trachyte rock runs across the trough of Gwaso Giligli suggesting a lava flow from Buru (p. 347). Tlie trachyte rocks over which the Kekupe runs have been altered into a white soft I'ock resembling chalk in colour, weight and hardness (p. 349). At the falls of the Ururu the rock is a very compact lava with a tendency to columnar arrangement (p. 376). The lava of the mass of Kapte and Likipia are of older date thau those of Kilimanjaro, Longonot, La-jSTyuki and Buru, except on the east side of Likipia, where they are of the same date (p. 382). Kamasia, forming an offshoot from the Mau escarpment, consists of a metamorphic rock composed of white striated felspar, a little quartz, and black mica in minute scales (p. 462). Elgon is volcanic and rises out of the metamorphic rocks (p. 509). (Thomson, " Through Masai Land," 1885.) 239. The centre of the Congo basin, through a whole stretch of the thousand miles of the navigable river and triliutaries, is an alluvial plain rimmed in on all sides by rocky ridges, (Hinde, G.J., v, 1895, p. 301.) 240. At Nyangi Eapids, south of the Makalli junction with the Lualaba, is quartz. (Hinde, G.J., v, 1895, p. 439.) 241. Southward from Lusambo-Gandu extend the soft Lubilashi sandstones to the junction of the Lubudi with the Lualaba, and as far as Kabulubulu Falls. Tiie Museya district is of the same formation. Above the Kabulubulu Falls the Lualaba flows through a Palaeozoic region. Kundelungu hard sandstone lies between Mwera and the Lufili, tapering southwards to 11° S. Manika Plateau is of the same. A band of granite extends from west of the south bend of the Luapula, after its exit from Bangweulu, in a westerly and north-west direction up to 12° S. (Cornet, M.P.G., 1894, p. 121, and map.) 80 242. Immediately south of Omdurman id sand, and south of Khartoum sand dunes. (Schuver, M.P.G., 1884, p. 53, map.) 243. On each side of the Lower Limpopo alluvial patches form the beginning of those bush-covered and worthless limestone plains that fill up 90,000 square miles of this port of South-East Africa (p. 76). The whole coast, from Natal upwards, is bordered by a ridge corresponding to the Berea at Durban. In places, portions of this ridge lie detached from the mainland and form islands. In Natal and throughout the Zulu country this ridge is backed by hills, rising step by step, to the interior ; but from St. Lucia Bay northward towards the Zambezi, the whole country is a sandy (red sand chiefly, pp. 105, 107) flat, covered with bush, the mountainous country lying further away towards the interior, until the Limpopo is reached, when it is distant 200 miles from the coast. This coast ridge is formed of blown sand, and encircles the fertile soil of Inhimbane ; but as a rule the vast plain may be characterised as a " mitigated desert." This great limestone plain of South-East Africa is hemmed in by mountains on the west, and is somewhat curtailed towards the north by an extensive spur thrown out by them towards the coast, and called Gorongosi, to the north of Sofala and near the Zambezi. It appears to extend north along the coast even to Abyssinia, being more or less broad in different localities (p. 85). The Murgis flows directly into the Bosi over a bed of trap and serpentine (p. 96). The Umswelizi flows over a bed of porphyry and basalt (p. 97). South of the Sabi to the Limpopo is red sandy soil (pp. 105, 107). (See Note 174.) (Erskine, J.E.G.S., 1875.) The arenaceous limestone overlies a bright red sandstone in places. The remarkable deposits of lime become even more strikingly marked along the channel of the Sabi, where - bluffs of pure lime and pebbles, 100 feet high, rapidly succeed each other for from 150 to 200 miles. (Erskine, J.E.G.S., 1878, p. 27.) Monjo country has a hard sub-soil with outcrops of limestone. {lUcl, p. 78.) 244. The soil of Akim between 6° and 7° N. in about 1° W. is heavy tenacious red clay, quartz veins and sandstone cropping up in all directions. (Hay, J.E.G.S., 1876, p. 301.) 245. For the greater part of the way from Suakin to Berber are ranges of hills of volcanic origin and level tracts, which have evidently been 'the craters of long-extinct volcanoes with heaps of lava and scorife and trap dykes. (Watson, J.E.G.S., 1876, p. 413.) 246. In Wassaw (Gold Coast), in some alluvial districts, the whole of the sandy gravel below the surface soil is auriferous. 81 At Tarkwa the dip of the reefs is about 45°, the head and foot walls being composed of S3'euite as hard as flint. (Skertchley, J.E.G.S., 1878, p. 278.) Most of the Wassaw ranges of hills are quartzose, especially towards the north, those to the south being more iDasaltic. {lUcl, p. 281.) 247. From Tati Eiver to Bulawayo (38 miles) are stony lulls with blocks of granite (p. 292). Between Molopolole and Machudi the soil is a yellow sand (p. 292). From Barkley to Taungs are sandy ridges with limestone (p. 288). (Baillie, J.E.G.S., 1878.) 248. Mtuwa (near Mavuji Eiver) peaks are metamorphic masses. The strata dip 40° towards the sea and strike north and south. The neighbourhood is a rolling country with outcrops of metamorphic rock. There are also metamorphic rocks at Nakiu. Matu is a quartz mass. Kitanda and neighbourhood are metamorphic. (Smith, E.G.S. Suppt. Papers, vol. ii, pp. 109-113.) 249. On the Tomi Eiver, in about 5° 45', the soil is clay. (Gentil, T.M., 1901, p. 541.) 250. The country between Bari, on the Webi Shebeli, and the Jub Eiver is a sandy plain. (D. Smith, G.J., viii, 1896, p. 131.) 251. Near Wurnu (Sokoto), and north of a Gandu-Wurnu line, is nothing but sandy soil with hard black volcanic rocks. (Wallace, G.J., viii, 1896, pp. 216, 218.) 252. Along the Daua the strata are, generally, horizontal, and appear to represent old sea or lake bottom. (Bottego, G.J., viii, 1896, p. 516.) 253. Going west from the parting between Nyasa and the Elvers Loangwe and Zambezi the granite ceases and gives place to shale and schist. (Money, G.J., x, 1897, p. 158.) 254. Between the Chobe and the Okovango the country consists of dreary sand hills. (Schultz, G.J., X, 1897, p. 175.) 255. At Obbia and northwards the coast belt consists of sand dunes with pebbles, rising gradually by terraces, on which the underlying rock is sometimes exposed. The pre- dominating rocks of the neighbourhood are compact and calcareous, slightly crystalline, with calcareous sands in the depressions (p. 269). The plateaux on either side of the Kalule Eiver are traversed by small calcareous ranges (p. 271). North from Wadi ISTogal the country is the same — rocky, cal- careous, and argillaceous (p. 273). (Bricchetti-Eobecchi, B.S.G.I., 1891.) 256. The Berbera coast belt is sandy, but the volcanic rocks lippin to appear a few miles south at Mount Guban. (Di A'esmes, B.S G.L, 1893.) (1425) F ti2 257. From IMooclisliu northwards to Obbia is a narrow sandy coast belt (p. 359). -, .-, i i vi Inland from Elliur and Obbia is described as sandy with ar-Mllaccous earth and salt pans here and there (p. o62), wTid L)'jh)v showing exposed the usual reddish cavernous calcareous rocks (]>. 723). Banmok Hills are of argillo-calcareous formation. Between Hablei and Ellahelai stretches a desert of clayey sandstone reaching away both north and south (p. 819). WeslAvards from Budir is a great plain composed of stiff red clay, called Dibir Plain (p. 822). West" of Elgut the soil begins to have an alluvial appearance (p. S25). West of Warandi the soil is argillaceous and arenaceous (p. 826). Beraharago Plain is of red calcareous rock (p. 82G). West of "this at B.idhovwein the rock is still calcareous (p. 827), and is continued westwards as the prevailing rock (p. 832), and is in places very stony (p. 835), in others clayey with calcareous detritus (p. 836). This calcareous formation is continued to Gurel, where it changes, and onwards to the west is compact argillaceous couffiomerate (pp. 836, 837, 839) overlying red calcareous rocks (p. 841). Near Darerto, near the Webi Sheheli, are alluvial mellows (p. 962), and also alluvium along the river (p. 967-8). North of Barri the mountains and plateau arc of the accus- tomed calcareous type (pp. 973, 974). Godajarre (CJnd-la-yare) Plain is entirely alluvial (p. 978). See Nos. 17, 18. The soil in the valley north of Habale (south of Hargeisa) is argillo-calcareous mixed v.'ith sand, and formed cf the detritus of the calcareous rocks of the plateau (p. 987). (Bricchetti-Eobecchi, B.S.G.I., 1893.) 258. About 12 miles west by south of H(.)roabdullah (Somali), and just south of 8° N., is a volcanic crater. (Pease, G.J., xi, 1898, p. 138.) 250. South and south-west of Ngamiare two principal formations: the Maseganite (Palasozoic quartzite) strata strike in a cur^'ed line from west to east-north-east and north-east, and a volcanic line of hills (quartz and porphyry and greenstone) runs in a parallel direction. Near Picitfontein the strike is from north-north-west to south - south-east, and corresponds with the direction of the terraced scarp of the Damara highlands. The Maseganite occupies a wide area. There are no horizontal strata, but there is a recent surface formation of limestone. This area is being rapidly conve rted into a sandy waste. (Passarge, G.-T., xi, 1898, p. 181.) 260. The Nyasa shore (in Angoniland) slopes gently for from 15 to 20 miles to the foot hills of the Kirk Kange, where the land rises abruptly from 1,600 feet to a plateau 4,000 83 feet abo\-e sea level, studded with granite peaks risiu" to 6,000 and 7,000 feet. (Codrington, G.J, xi, 1898, p. 509.) 261. In the Choma district (Mweru) the ground looks like clay- half burned into red brick, and there is, in places, what looks like iron slag. The south cliffs of Kilwa Island are the same. All this country seems to speak of great heat and upheavals of nature. (Croad, G.J., xi, 1898, p. 620.) 262. Mchinga Eange (west of Loangwa Pdver) is composed of granite. From Chilenga's to the Chizimba Eiver the country is all granite ; after crossing this, it suddenly changes to schist. Katiso is a granite kopje. (Hostc, G.J., xi, 1898, p. 62,3.) 263. The first 15 miles of coast is a bed of sandstone {i.e., inland from Pemba Bay), which reappears inland at the lower end {sic) of the Lujenda, at the north end of ISTyasa and on its north-west shores ; this is the coal-bearing stratum. It is argued from this that a coal belt runs a little north of 13" at the coast, and runs north-north-west from the north of Madagascar to the interior of Africa. After these 15 miles the whole formation varies, and gneiss and granite run uninterruptedly right away to the moun- tains on 15° Lat. Near Medo, and again on the Luambala, are intersecting veins of a very compact and heavy carbonate of lime. (Spilsburv, Journal of the African Society, K'o. 1, 1901, p. 13'6.) 261:. Gabbro appears near Monrovia. Near Akra is coarse-grained intensely red and somewhat argillaceous sandstone, with intercalated layers of quartz pebbles. Further inland are gneisses and granites, while in jVshanti and along the Volta are fine black amphibolite schists. (Lenz, Geolog. Mag., 1879, p. 172.) Sixty miles inland up to the Ogowe Eiver, the Okande district is composed of iron mica schists {ibid.). 265. The horizontal tertiaries of the Loango coast are overlaid by loam {ibid.). 266. Going north from Grootfontein (in about 19° 30' S.) the limestone formation ceases just to the north of Tsebib and gives place to the red sand. (Volkmann, D.K., 1901, p. 866.) 207. The Lebompo Chain is eruptive. (Molengraaff, A.G., 1901, p. 450.) 268. The rock specimens collected by Johnston, Wilson, Eacey, Grant, Hobley, Isaac and others include Archasan gneisses, schists and granites, which constitute tire main mass of the Uganda Plateau ; specimens of these rocks come from Busoga, Bukedi, Elgon and Unyoro districts, from Euenzori and the Nile province. Besides these basement rocks there are specimens of ferruginous, schistose and slaty rocks from Unyoro, possibly belonging to the Palffio/.oic (1425) F 2 84 Karagwe series ; coarse ferruginous sandstones and quart- zites from the shores of Victoria Nyanza and Lake Naivasha and from Ankole, and volcanic rocks (chiefly phonohtes) from Kavirondo, ]\Iount Elgon, Baringo district, Kamasia Hills, Lake Nakuro and the Nandi district. (G.J., xix, 1902, p. 43.) 269. A band of the Karagwe (Palaeozoic) beds extends from the north of Tanganyika northwards, expanding as it goes north, and, curving round the volcanic mass of Virunga, reaches almost to the shores of Lake Albert Edward on the west, while its eastern limit runs parallel with Lake Victoria up to the Kagera Mouth. North and south of Lake Albert Edward is alluvium, and from the north corner of the lake a volcanic band runs north (Kuenzori). (Gregory, (,,)r. .J., 1895, p. 669.) 270. Nearly the whole of the interior of Spanish Guinea and the neighbouring parts of Erench Congo are covered by a thick layer of fairly soft impermeable red clay. It is certainly over 2 metres thick, and all the banks of the rivers are of the same material. Mixed with the clay is found quartz, especially towards the sea in the Monts de Cristal Eegion. (De Mezieres, A.F., 1902, p. 23.) 271. Western Gurara, the depression of the Twat oases and the northern and western portions of the Muidir Plateau are all Devonian. (Flamand, A.E., Supt. No. 1, 1901, p. 32.) 272. In Dahome, behind the littoral zone, is laterite, derived from various rocks and at different periods. At Zegnanado the laterite rests on a bed of granitoid gneiss. Almost all the Dahome Mountains are composed of gneiss, and the plateau of Paraku is of the same formation. (Brousseau, B.S.G., 1902, p. 67.) 273. In the immediate neighbourhood of Kilimanjaro and Meru the rocks are of the younger eruptive class, but on either side of the Graben they are older. (Shoeller, "Aequatorial Ost-Afrika und Uganda," Berlin, 1901, with map.) 274. In Natal, from the coast inland for 13 miles, we have first Dwyka conglomerates for 5 miles, between two dykes of this being Ecca shales ; west of the second dyke are con- glomerates again, overlying Table Mountain sandstone,which crops out further on. After passing the Umzimkuluana- Umzimkulu Junction there is marble, followed by granite and ddbris. (Draper, Qr. J., 1895, p. 51.) 275. Badattino district, between Addis Abbaba and the Blue Nile, is basalt (p. 15). Tlie lake region (Zwai, Hora, &c., to Abbaya) was a great diluvial basin. The prevailing rock of the hills is Obsidian with other volcanic rocks. 85 The district between Harar and the Webi Eiver is middle Jurassic. There are Jurassic strata at the foot of Abdul- kassim ou the Dolol-Ja (Upper Webi) and also traversing the Badattino basalt beds. In Gillet Mountains (Upper Webi) and between Abunas and the Webi are Cenomanian and Turonian (Cretaceous} deposits, both overlain and underlain by eruptive rocks. Abulkassim, the Hawash Valley, and thence up to the Blue Nile are younger eruptive, and all the country west of the Graben as far as Gurafarda Mountains (Gelo liiver). There are gneisses and quartzites in places on the Blue Nile and Omo. In portions of Ennia Gallaland (between Harar and the Webi) young freshwater fossils were found, and also in the Graben (p. 31). (Neumann, Z.G.E., 1902, p. 7.) 276. Limestone extends in a narrow band from Tembue Bay (Tanganyika) in 6° 30' southwards, almost in a direct line into Marungu, immediately to the west of 29^ 30', and reaching almost as far as 7° 30'. (White Fathers, M.P.G., 1902, p. 13, map.) 277. Between Cape Delgado and Kilwa Kisiwani extends a band of Tertiaries and alluvium. On 10° S. are Cretaceous (? early Eocene) beds. South of this the Tertiaries fine off towards the west and terminate in 36° 35' (about). A similar block of Tertiaries extends inland from the coast, between Kilwa, Kisiwani and Bagamoyo, reaching as far west as 37° 25' (about). There is a band of Jurassic age near the coast, cropping out from among the Tertiaries somewhat north of 9°. Karoo formation appears near the intersection of 8° S. and 38° E., and again to the east of Nyasa, eastwards of 35°, and about midway between 10° and 11° S. (Bornhardt, " Zur Oberflachen-Gestaltung und Geologic, Deutsch-Ostafrika," Berlin, 1900, map.) 278. The mass of the Great Atlas of Marocco consists mainly of the primitive rocks and Palaeozoic formations, together with Triassic, and, around these, on tlie west, north and east, are the later Secondary rocks. (Eolland, " Geologic du Sahara algerien et apergu G(5o- logique sur le Sahara," Paris, 1890, p. 255.) 279. In the Nile province of the Uganda Protectorate, Chua, Lira and Kiteng, north of Aswa Eiver, are granite chains. A singular feature of the province is the occurrence of isolated granite hills. (Delme-Ptadcliffe, verbal information.) 280. At Msuwa (German East Africa) the country begins to rise, and outcrops of granite and quartz show through the soft red sandstone. The Kungwa Hills and Duthumi Hills are a mass of mountainous granite and quartz elevations (p. 286). The Us(';4ara ]\Iouiitains are a mass of granite peaks (p. 287) and quartz, overlain in some places liy red sandstone (p. 289.) Mukoudokwa Valley is bordered by lofty hills, surmounted by peaks and blocks of granite and gneiss (p. 290). From Lake Ugombo to the Mukondokwa-Liifiji parting the soil is barren sand and gravel of quartz and granite over- lying clay, with granite boulders cropping out (p. 291). The Mpwapwa Hills are almost entirely of granite (p. 292). The hills of the Marcnga M'Kali Plain are granitic (p. 292).^ Ugogo has a dried-up aspect, and consists of sandstone, in scime places overlaid wilh a stratum of clay, with occiasional huge masses of granite (pp. 292, 293). Between Kanyenye and Useke is a chain of hills of masses and boulders of granite (p. 294). The soil of Mdabmu Valley is a rich red loam (p. 295). "West of this, sheets of granite appear in the hill sides (p. 29G). At Marwa numerous boulders and granite hills stand out from the plain (p. 297). South-west from IJnyanyembe the rocky liills cease, giving place to a broad alluvial plain (p. 299). Ivawendi Mountains, on west of Ugara, are principally of granite, but patches of sandstone and immature clay-slate are also seen (p. 300). Has Mpimbwe (Tanganyika) consists of blocks of granite. The land in the neighbourhood is a soft light red sand- stone, with masses of granite and hard sandstone embedded in it, the whole country at one time having apparently been a great lake (p. 307). The mountains and hills between Tanganyika and the Lualaba aic composed of granite, gneiss and quartz, with here and there patches of porphyry, the country presenting the appear- ance of having been the bottom of a great sea. The plains consist of rich red sandy loam, and in the watercourses are grey shaly sandstones. Near the Lualaba the country is composed of sand and water-worn pebbles (p. 312). Jjeyond the Lualaba, and all along near the Lomami, the country is level, and consists of light yellow sandstone resting on granite. Kilimachio Hills form the west ex- tremity of a system of granite and gneiss mountains, ex- tending to Mweru (p. 313). From Kileuga (Kilemba) to Lunga Mandi are flat-topped table- lands of sand. Usambi country is the same. Light sandy plains stretch from Ulunda right across Lovale (p. 316). Bihe is formed of wooded hills of red sandstone (p. 317). In the west of Bailunda are needles and cones of granite (p. 318). (Cameron, " Across Africa," vol. ii.) 281, The neighbourhood of Lake Busumchwe, 25 miles south- east of Kumassi, consists chiefly of talcose and quartz schists, with intrusive bosses of granite, and shows no signs of volcanic action. (Fergusson, G.J., xix, 1902, p. 372.) 87 2.S2. Badinga and the neighbouring mountains, lying to the cast of the Shaii region, are of granite, rising out of an alluvial plain. (Lamothe, B.S.G., v, 1902, p. IGl.) 283. The whole region of the Upper Shari is Archaaan, consisting of granites, with gneiss, micaceous schists and quartzites, the soil being ferruginous clay. (Bruel, B.S.G., v, 1902, pp. 165, 166.) 284. Going south from Zeila to Bia Woraba there is first a coast belt of coral banks, mixed with sand. Then a belt 24 kiloms. broad of metamorphic rocks, then trachyte, basalt, and younger volcanic rocks for ] 80 kiloms., from Dadab to Gildessa. This is followed by crystalline schists and red granite, while to the east is Jurassic limestone. (Paulitschke, " Geologische Eoutenkarte flir die Strecke von Zejla bis Bia Woraba, 1/1,000,000, mit begleitvorten " ; Mitteil. Geogr. Gesells., "Wien, 1887, XXX, p. 212.) 285. Prom Gule, southwards to Keili, the country between the Blue and White Nile is of recent imeous formation, some of the hills being true volcanic craters. The far greater number are granite upheavals, and between these hills the plains are covered with soil to a great thickness. (Digby Jones, I, 3(c), No. 88.) The great plain extending southwards of Khartoum to Lat. 9°, is of Nubian sandstone of a tabular formation, the strata being horizontal. South of 9° to 6° is red Bunter sand- stone, with blocks of granite. Here and there the sand- stone is covered by limestone. (Pruyssenaere, M.P.G., Ergan, No. 50, 1877, p. 12.) 286. The east and north-east of Darfur are granites, except between Foja and El Fasher, where there is sandstone in the neigh- bourhood of the water. The mountains in the neighboui- hood of Wadi Millet are gneiss, and, north-east of this, granite is the prevailing rock. Jebel Tagabo is sandstone. Jebel Medob and neighbourhood are of volcanic origin. Bir-el-Malha, in the south-west of the mountains, is a volcanic crater. South of Massah is a rich alluvial plain, and south of 12"^ there is not a stone to be seen. There is an island of sand dunes between Darra and Sekka. (See Note 8.) (Mason, M.P.G., 1880, p. 378.) 287. In Lagos the first stones met with going north from the coast are some 8 miles north of Agbabu, which lies in 6° 34' 55" N., 4° 50' 37" K, and are red granite. Between Iseru and Ajue is rough sand with gravelly subsoil. The Idanre Mountains are of granite and gneiss, with intrusive dykes. (MacGregor, Copip 26,701, 1901-2.) 288. In Senega], in the Bambuk district, the massive crystalline rocks appear as islands with a general north-north-west to south-south-east direction ; amphibolite schists near 88 Kenieba, shales covered by sandstone in the central part of Bambuk (left bank of Faleme Eiver), talc-schists and quartzites on left bank of Faleme and Senegal Elvers, south of Bakel ; a vast deposit of laterite from 52 to 20 inches thick. (Boiidariat, Comptes Kendus Ac. Sci., 1902, p. 495.) In the Kita district, comprising the country between the Bafing and Baule Elvers (Upper Senegal), the mountains are of sandstone, granite and ironstone ; tlie soil of the plain being composed of clays and sands. Kaarta is flat and sandy. (Tellier, " Autour de Kita," Paris, 1902, p. 20.) 289. In the lower Congo region, the coast district nearly up to Boma stands 100 metres above sea level, and displays in the following order, from the surface downwards, sand and clay, limestone, sandstone. From Boma to Mussuk, granite and crystalline schists. From Vivi to Ngoma, crystalline schists, quartzites and amphibolite, with veins of quartz. Lying unconformably on these, and extending as far as Long Eeach, conglomerates, schists (Griinglanzende Schiefer), quartzites, grey schists (Graue Schiefer), with diabase faulting at Isangila. From Long Eeach to Chambon Falls is a limestone and schist region (Kalk-und Schieferzonen). Then follows the horizontal sandstone of the interior, fine grained as far as Leopoldville, and coar.ser farther east. In the neighbourhood of the Pool and eastwards is a series of conglomerates, with brown and white sandstone and brown quartzite. (Dupont, "Lettres sur le Congo," Paris, 1889; M.P.G., 1890, Litteraturbericht No. 407, p. 32.) 290. The country from Ferrad towards Harar is stre^vn with obsidian, silex and sandstone. (Du Bourg de Bozas, E.F.E.C, xxvii, 1902, p. 244.) 291. In the littoral mountains of Eastern Algeria the Archsean rocks occupy an important place, and the eruptive rocks also, as well as the Eocene sandstone (Numidian). South of the old rocks is a secondary chain, with islands, as it were, of calcareous Lias, which forms the tops of the heights. The Kabyle of Jurjura consists of gneiss and mica-schist, while islands separated by Tertiary belts extend westward. The Kabyle of Babors is a prolongation of Jurjura, and is separated from the Cretaceous chain of Biban by a Senonian depression, the heights as before Ijeing crowned with calcareous Lias. The Kabyle of Kollo, extending between the meridians of Jijelli and Bone, is cut up by transversal Eocene zones ; the western portion of this region is ISTumidian sandstone overlying Archsean rocks ; in the east, JSTumidian sandstone lies to the north-west of the Archaean rocks ; Cape Fer is eruptive. To the west of Algiers there are only traces of the Archasan rocks, such as the Buzarea and Senwa peaks. There is, a line of Lias-capped eminences of shales extendino' 89 from the Maroccan frontier to Blida. Between Figalo and Oran arerhyolite andandesite ; Murjajo massif is composed of schists and quartzites, almost perpendicular and very- folded, but the summit is of dolomitic Lias ; on the north slopes is lower Miocene (sandstones and marls), overlaid by the Pliocene plateau ; on the south slope is upper Miocene (calcareous). East of Oran is Pliocene. The plateau zone north of Shelif is Miocene and Pliocene. Cretaceous chains extend north of Zakk'ar, the dome of which is a mass of schists and conglomerates (Permian). This formation of old schists with calcareous rocks is also found in Arib and Jebel Dwi. The Blida region is folded and contorted, the schists sometimes even overlyiug the Miocene. Between the coastal mountains on the north and the chains of Tessala and Beni Shugran, Mounts Teniet and Boghar, &c., on the south, is a great Tertiary depression. (Ficheur (A B and E), AG., 1902, p. 221.) 292. In Algeria the Archaean and eruptive coastal mountains are surrounded, in the extreme east, by Eocene and Oligocene beds ; then south-east of Algiers by Miocene, which also extends in a belt from the neighbourhood of Batna generally parallel with the coast westwards to Tlemsen, and continued in a great curve thence along the Sbu Valley and north- wards almost to Tangier. This belt surrounds the Cretaceous of the Warsenis m^assif, that of the Biban chain which extends westwards, passing south of Blida and reaching the coast between Shershel and Tenez. Almost the whole of the Saharan Altas is lower Cretaceous, changing to middle and upper (chalk) in the north-east. South of the j\liocene belt extends a band of Jurassic rocks, reaching from about 2° 30" E. to the Mulwia on the west, and expanding to a width of 100 kilometres in the centre. West of Melilla are crystalline schists. (Blanckenhorn, M.P.G., Ergan 90, 1888.) 293. Between El Fasher and Khartoum are outcrops of granite or gneiss. There is also limestone in the neighbourhood of Khartoum. (Talbot Pasha, verbal information.) 294. The soil in the neigbourhood of the Ajibur Eiver (tributary of Akobo E.) is of a gravelly nature (b° 43' K 34° 30' E.). Further south on the spurs of the Boma Hills it is red loamy clay. The Sacchi Piiver has worn great ravines from 30 to 50 feet deep in the soft clayey soil. The Turkwell Eiver flows through a sandy desert. (Austin, S.G.M., 1902, pp. 286, sqq.) 295. The plateau on which San Salvador is situated is composed largely of ironstone, but limestone is plentiful a few miles from the town. (Lewis, G.J., xix, 1902, p. 545.) 296. Near Likabula in Awemba country (near Chambezi Eiver) is slate (schist). (McKinnon, G.J., xix, 1902, p. 604.) 90 297. A ricli limestone underlies the whole country in the neigh- In mrhood of Ivapopo Station on the Kafiie liiver. Xeai- Sitanda the soil liecomes sandy. (Sclby, CKJ., xix, 1902, p. COO.) ■298. Goal and copper have lieen found on the Cheredzi and Sahi Pavers, the former in the sandstone. (Hyatt, (!..T., xix, 1902, p. 0:37.) 2'JO. In Shoa, Auliry and Douville (B.S. Gi'olog. de France, xiv, p. 201) found a grey marly calcareous formation, probably r.ajocian (lower oolitic), overlain by yellowish crystalline calcareous rocks, probably Eathonian ; and Blandford (Geolofjij of Alii/ss'inia, 1870) found a similar formation 400 kiloms. further north at Antalo (De Lapparent, p. 1020). 300. Immediately after leaving the hills of Dar Nuba and thence to the Bahr-el-Arab and Kir Eiver, in a south-south-west direction, is a vast level plain with Ijlack cotton soil, with sand and gravel here and there. Merekeb, 18 miles south-west of El Obeid, is crowned with limestone. (Wilkinson, I. 3. c/111.) .'101. In Lilicria, within 35 miles of Monrovia, large deposits of graphite, iron, and gold-bearing quartz occur, while coal is found within 4 miles of a navigable river, about 25 miles from the port. (S.G..AI., 1902, p. 323.) 302. The valley of the Luama (Gongo tributary) is granite, with clay and sand. The country east of Nyangwe-Kasongo is chiefly clay. (Borms, B.G., 1902, p. 256.) 303. In the Tarkwa Gold-field the following formations occur in stratigraphical order : — B. Glay-slate formation — Sandstone, fine-grained, green and white, not thick. Glay-slate, over 1,000 feet thick. Sandstone, fine-grained, green and white, very thin. A. Banket formation — Gonsisting principally of sandstone, more or less coarse, qiiartzite, conglomerate, more or less auriferous, slate, not more than a few inches thick, and some calcareous beds. Immediately north and west of Tarkwa and Atanash occurs the clay-slate formation, and, north-west of this, green sand- stone. Along the Ankobra Eiver, north of Awudwa, is sandstone and c|uartzite with numerous thin white quartz- veins, and parallel with this and further south-east is a dyke of hornblende, diabase, with a few beds of red slate, reach- ing from the Ankobra to Anakasa. ISToi'th of Bonsa are micaceous and quartzitic and other sandstones, and veins of chlorite. (Sawyer, Trans. Federated Inst. Min. Eng. 1901-02, xxiii.) 304. The Eritrean coast zone consists of a coral fringe backed, at a distance of a few metres, l>y low sand dunes of recent 01 formation. This zone is only 27 kiloms. broad between Massaua and Saati, and even less towards Zula, but expands to a considerable breadth in Danakil. North of Massaua it is between 30 and 40 kiloms. broad. On this coastal plain (Samhar) are, here and there, knolls of volcanic origin rising to heights varying from 20 to 100 metres. (Saint-Yves, RS.G., vi, 1902, p. 475.) The coast at Massaua is limestone and madripore formation, but soon begin the gneiss and crystalline schists (p. 127) At ^lagdala is volcanic rock (p. 168). Guna Mountain district is basalt (p. 200). Lamalmon and neighbourhood are huge basalt masses (p. 284). (EohJfs (a) .) 305. The Gundafi (^Vuntaffi) region of the Maroccan Atlas is composed of friable blue Silurian schists. (Doutt(5, B.S.G., V, 1902, p. 496.) 306. In Dar Banda, between 21== and 22° E., and 8° and 9° N., the Bere Bere massif overlooks a vast tract of sand. (Pierre in j\Iontrozier, p. 210.) 307. The whole of the M'Bomu region, including Dar Banda, and the sultanates of Bangasso, Eafai and Semio, consist of mica-schists and gneiss, with clay in the valleys. (Montrozier, p. 264.) 303. The lower Eocene limestones and clays begin at a line drawn roughly north-east to south-west through El Borga. From El Borga a narrow band of marls and clays (? Danian) extends southwards, skirting, on the east, the upper Cretaceous limestone (? Danian), which extends northwards to the Eocene beds. In the oasis of Kurkur are patches of calcareous tufa and conglomerates, surrounded by the Cretaceous limestone. Between the band of marls, &c., and the Nile is Nubian sandstone, and also on the further bank. At Assuaii and southwards to Dabrok is a district of granite and gneiss, and a similar though smaller patch occurs at Kalabsha. (Ball, " Reconnaissance Survey of Jebel Garra and the Oasis of Kurkur," Cairo, 1902.) 309. The rocks forming the first cataract (Assuan) are eruptive, syenite, granite and porphyry, all being manganesiferous. At the second cataract (Wadi Haifa) the rocks are ferru- ginous sandstone, also highly manganesiferous. It is this manganese which gives the black appearance to the rocks. (Lortet and Hugounenq, M.G., 1902, p. 413.) 310. The country south of Gwikora (on the Wam Eiver) is granitic. (Lofler, A.F., Supt. No. 6, 1902, p. 122.) The Tari Mountain region, north of Gwikora, is also granitic (ibid.). The Baria or Ba, between 7° and 8° N., is encumbered with blocks of granite. (7&id,p. 123.) 311. The soil of Jubaland is mostly sandy, interspersed occasionally 92 with patches of what looks like black cotton soil. At Ghulime the sand changes to disintegrated quartz. (Cook, I. 3 c, No. 160.) 312. Near the Zambezi, between the Muira and Tete, is Trias. (Peters, p. 58.) The whole Senlanp-ombe district is f^runite. {Ibid., p. 141.) Katerere neighbourhood is also granite. {Ibid., p. 149.) 313. In Sierra Leone, to the west of Surunumia, between Karima and Kaballa are granite hills 500 feet high, and also on the route between Koinadugu and Kruto. (Kemball, I. 3 c.. No. 123.) 314. Grootfontein is situated on a limestone plateau. (Jodka, D.K., 1902, p. 524.) 315. Near Cape Town are found granite and dolerite, probably of pre-Siliirian age, and thence right away to the tropics Plutonic masses, dykes and lava flows interrupt the con- tinuity of the sedimentary deposits with astonishing frequency. Sandstones of (?) Tertiary age rest unconform- ably on the Bulawayo schists, and the marginal portions of the Matoppo granite mass, which forms the backbone of Southern Matabeleland. (Mennell, Geolog. Mag., No. 458, August, 1902, p. 356.) 316. In the Karoo formation the strata are horizontal (slightly inclined on their southern verge), and are traversed and overlain, but not much distorted, by frequent trap dykes. The Karoo formation consists mainly of alternations of shales and sandstones, of lacustrine origin, as pointed out by Bain and others. There were wide-spread terrestrial conditions during the Permo-Triassic age. In Cape Colony, on the Sunday, Zwartkops and Gamtoos Elvers, there are Jurassic strata, and traces of similar rocks are found higher up the coast near the Zambezi, and far down on the south and west in the George district. (Jones, P.G.A., iv, No. 8, 1876.) 317. Gambia. What is said with regard to Senegal in para.. 34 may be taken to apply, to some extent, to Gambia. On either side of the Gambia Eiver there is for the most part a fertile but light sandy soil ; here and there are small hills of laterite which, from Ballanghar on the north bank, and along all that portion of the south bank from close to where the Vintang Creek joins the river to the boundary east of Yarbutenda, take the form of a low ridge varying in height and situated at different distances from the river though following, as a general direction, its course. Laterite is the only kind of rock noticed in the Gambia territory and it is probable that no other exists. (Communicated by Governor Denton). 318. Gold Coast. Sandstone is the principal rock of the Gold Coast hinterland; eruptive rocks are abundant, chiefly Note.— Nos. 317 to 329 were noted or communicated subsequent to or in reply to the circulation of the proofa. 93 lava and scoriee, but metamorphic rocks are rare. The rocks brought down by the Volta, from its course north of Daboya, indicate that in some parts of the district there are to be found clay, slate, quartzite, obsidian and gabbro. Eock-salt is said to be found in Pampamba country. Nitre occurs at Bole and also at Massina. Gold is abundant west of the Volta, and Lobi district is especially rich. East of the Volta clay-ironstone is frequently observed, the outcrops being detached. Iron is smelted in Dagomba, Pampamba, Buem, Kotokori, Gurma and Mossi. In these countries the prevailing rocks are sandstone and shale. Between Adere Eiver and Boniape, near the Volta, is sandstone (with a little mica in it), with a strike of 250°. At Boakipe is yellow sandstone and at Bambusa and Fingbo, or Pumbo, grit and sandstone. Here the geological formation changes and decomposed granite, white mica, and red felspar occur. At Yakomba is an auriferous vein. Between Kabalima and Gaepe volcanic scoriaj and lava were observed. At Grupe is granite. In Gonja, at Kananto, in 9° 15' N, is micaceous sandstone, with heaps of quartz pebbles. The Loru or Moli Eiver has sandy banks. At Kossu, in 9° 12' N, 0° 53' W, is sandstone, with inter- calations of clay, furnishing springs, and many places are covered with scorife. In Dagomba, on the Daka near Yendi, are unaltered sand- stones. The undulations run east and west. At Ghana is sandstone. In Atabubu, near Prang, the Pru Eiver has sandy banks but a rocky bottom. (Ferguson). At Pong (Kpong), near Akure, there is limestone. Between Wa and the Lobi mountains are granites and gneisses. (Verbal information). 319. Gold Coast. — Geologically the Gold Coast Colony and Ashanti consist of two main areas, separated by a lesser, which forms the chief watershed of the country. The latter, a comparatively narrow belt of regional meta- morphism, is defined by the Akropong, A kirn, Begoro, Kwahu and Mampon hills and the sandstone plateaux of Nkoranza, and terminates in Gaman. This belt has an average height of 1,200 feet, and in its centre, in Kwahu, reaches some 2,000 feet above the sea. Its rocks comprise sandstone, basalt, coarse gneiss, and granite, the latter two of which have by decomposition formed the alluvium of the valleys, where thick veins of quartz are frequent. The two main areas consist of the open plains of the Volta basin on the north and east, and of the undulating forest country, an area of some 12,000 square miles, drained by the Tano, Ankobra, Pra, Birrim, Narkwa, Ainsu and Densu Eivers on the south. '.)4 ;jl9 Q:vnhl.) . , . , , . , , The lii-,st(.r Ur'SC areas comprises a coujihy 111 which horizontal strata of sandstone and shales predominate, as m Kwahu. A^'ith this formation is found,throngh Atalnibu and Nl^oranza (the former slightly undulating and featureless), a fairly rich alluvial soil. The immediate neighbourhood of the Black Volta consists of — (ft) A'olcanic agglomerate, forming gentle undulations— in places .stee]> and rocky — from Tintankru to Akrosu ; (&) Indurated slate and shales from .Akrosu to Nkami, where towering peaks occur ; (c) The same Ibrmatiou with quartzite from Nkami to ilem; ((/) (j)uartz from Mem to S(niki, where precipitous hills arc obstacles not only to mad construetion, but also to the navigation of the river ; and (c) (lianite, gneiss and schist from Senki to Kpong. The V(jlta basin has an average height of 450 feet, and falls between the Afram and Sene Pavers to some 380 feet above the sea. The southern area of volcanic activity and contact meta- morphism consists of — {('() Crystalline rocks, in which mica and other schists and gneiss are associated witli granite and other massive rocks, as in the valley of the Pra, and at Insuaim, and Animabne ; and (6) Of sedimentary rocks, such as sandstone and variegated shales about Elmiua, pebbly sandstone at Animaboc, slate beneath conglomerate beds around Tarkwa, sand- stone and shales at Akra. The shining mica and scorire of Animaboe and Agenna, and the broken masses of lava in the argillaceous covering of the Cape Coast hillocks testify to the former ^-olcanic activity of this area. The valleys vary from 300 to 700 feet in height above the sea, and are divided by numerous hills and ridges, some 300 feet higher. The soil, consisting of red and yellow clay (the result of disintegrated granite and of ferruginous red ore and non- ferruginous or yellow sandstone) and of black mould (the produce of vegetable decomposition), is generally very fertile, particularly in the forest zone ; but the country 1 letween the Afram and Sene Pavers, and the plains between Akra and the Volta are sandy and unproductive. It is believed that the whole of the Gold Coast is slowly rising, a ^■iew which is supported by the form of the cliffs along the shore ; by the non-encroachment of the sea on a coast constantly beaten by the heavy Atlantic surf; by the variations in the course of the Pra, and by the rapids in it and the Volta, which indicate that these rivers cannot excavate a channel as fast as the ground rises ; by the presence of marshes on elevated ground; and liy the occasional occurrence of earthquakes. 320. Lagos (Colony and Protectorate). — The following is a general summary of the results deduced from an exaniina- 9r, 320 (contd.) tion of a collection of 205 rock specimens, consisting- prin- cipally of schistose and plutonic rocks. The most abundantly represented rock was gneiss, of which there were several varieties. The majority were coarse- grained, with a fair proportion of medium and fine-grained types. The leading variety was hiotite-gneiss (a foliated aggregate of quartz, felspar, and biotite). Muscovite \vas sometimes associated with the biotite, and in some specimens, hornblende replaced the biotite. A common feature of the coarser gneisses was the presence of large plincoids of felspar. In a few specimens garnets were common. Of upwards of t^venty specimens of quartz-rock or quartzite — some were white, others more or less discoloured with ferruginous and other impurities, Most of them showed distinct evidence of " shear," and were more or less foliated, showing scales and crystals of such minerals as muscovite, diallage, tourmaline, &c. Next to gneiss, granite was the most abundantly repre- sented rock in the collection. Some of the trranites arc O medium grained, but the large majority are coarse, and not infrequently show graphic structure = graphic granite. The most common type is biotite-granite (quartz felspar biotite), but muscovite and hornblende are not infre- quently present — a few of the specimens, indeed, might be correctly described as hornblende granite. Large phenocysts of orthoclase are often present, especially in the coarser granites. Some of the specimens show a rude banded structure, the rock having the appearance of gneiss- granite. There were also specimens of pegmatite, a \ery coarsely crystalline aggregate of quartz-felspai' and biotite or muscovite (one or both micas). It is probable that many of the specimens of quartz included in the collection are simply fragments of coarse pegmatite — flakes of mica and pieces of felspar being frequently adherent to the quartz. The inference, therefore, is that pegmatite is really more abundant in Lagos than the collection would seem to indicate. There were also specimens of mica-schist, granulite, amphi- bolite, haplite, diorite, syenite, grit, pipe-clay, kaolin, and laterite. The only minerals occurring separately in the collection are quartz and felspar. While much of the quartz is probably from ^-eins, many of the specimens have apparently been derived from disintegrated pegmatite. The felspar is also probably of the same origin. jSTone of the stream-washings seems to call for any special reference. Unfortunately, none has yielded any trace of metals or ores of valuable metals. From the geographical distribution of the rocks referred to in preceding paragraphs, it may be concluded that Lagos is '.16 320 (conid.) built up essentially of gneiss— tliis rock appearing to occur almost everywhere throughout the region. Associated with it in some places (as at Aro, Ibadan, Ondo, Jebu, &c.) are mica-schists. Probably this schist has a wider distri- bution than the collection would seem to indicate. It appears to be much decomposed, and it may thus often lie concealed under the product of its own decay. The relative absence of amphibolites is noteworthy. In keeping with this is the great development of granite and its varieties, and the rarity of diorite and syenite. Put into few words, the geology of Lagos presents a complex of dominant granitoid gneiss, with important zones of qiiartzite, and subordinate developments of granulite and amphibolite. Piercing the gneisses, and, apparently, in some cases, passing into them are masses of granite, along with dykes and veins of haplite and pegmatite. The more basic plutonic rocks play an unimportant role — syenite appearing only in one place, while the diorites are of rare occurrence, and are hardly typical of their kind, most of them containing a high percentage of quartz. The whole " complex " is thus markedly acidic. None of the rock-specimens gives any indication of the presence of valuable ores. Some of the finer-grained gneisses would probably make good building-stone ; while the products of the decomposition of the richly felspathic rocks, if occurring in sufficient abundance, might be utilised, viz., kaolin (China clay) and pipe-clay. The general character of the samples of stream-wash bears out that of the solid rocks — they are, apparently, devoid of any appreciable amount of valuable metal or metal- liferous mineral. (From a Pieport by Professor James Giekie.) 321. Nigeria and. Lagos.— Between Abeokuta and Ilorin the prevailing rock is gneiss. (I., 3, C, 222.) In North-west Bauchi, from the plains rise masses of irregular hills, composed entirely of granite, with large masses of felspar. The hill slopes are strewn with immense boulders. (I., 3, 0., 233.) To the west of Jebba, and north and north-west of Ilorin, are frequent outcrops of granite, and, near Jebba, quartz. (M.Pi. material, Nigeria/86.) Prom above Garua to the point where the Benne Eiver enters British territory, the vallpy has sandstone plateaux on the right. (D.K., 1903, p. 131.) At Yellwa, on the Niger, are granite blocks. Above Bumba, on west of the Niger, are horizontal granitoids and rose- coloured sandstones. Above Yellogure are granite rocks. (Lenfant: " Le Niger," Paris, 1903, pp. 148, 167, 171.) The most ancient formations will probably be found north- east of Old Calabar ; some upheaving force seems to have affected portions of the delta, because, in places, land 20 feet or more above sea-level is found close to the 97 321 {contcl). mouths of the rivers, although surrounded for miles inland by mangrove swamp {e.g., Oron, at the mouth of the Cross Eiver). Eeports, which are as yet unauthenticated, tend to show that the country between Degema and Owerri may be found to possess characteristics inconsistent with a simple delta formation {e.g., a ridge, said to be of rock, traverses the creek near Nsokpo). (Acting High Commissioner Probyn.) 322. British Somaliland.— For geological consideration, British Somaliland may be divided into two sections, the dividing line being the great watershed which crosses the British-Abyssinian boundary nearly due south of Zeila, and trends eastward through Hargeisa, Upper Sheikh, and Negegr, approxiaiately parallel to the Gulf of Aden coast line. This ridge or backbone of the country forms the northern boundary of Ogo, the great plateau of Somaliland, and also of that lime and sandstone formation which exists in most of the southern and by far the larger portion of British Somaliland. This series may be called the Golis Scricx, as it is in tlie steep cliffs of the northern slope of the Ciolis range that the different strata are best exposed. Lying nearly horizontally on top of Arch;ean granite, gneiss, and gabbro, the sandstone and limestone beds dip slightly in Inroad undulations to the south. The maximum dip is probably found at Upper Sheikh where it varies from 6 to 10 degrees. Comparatively recent deposits of gypsum and alluvium cover the Golis series in the vast plains to the south. An ideal section in descending order is shown below. RECENT. /^- r- - :.■ . , - •-■ o. c -. r 1 ^TT- — S -^ n'-.0^^&3. tS^^s^dzal -' - SANO, SANOY CLAY & CYPSUM LIMESTONE.. LIME CONCLOMCRATE. SHALE. VARIE.CATED SANDSTONE BEDS WITH LAYERS OF IMPURE H/EMATITE AND SOME NODULES OE H/BMATITE. AND PSILOMELANE ARCH/EAN GRANITE, GNEISS, SYENITZ.GABBRO, DIABASE ANO PORPHYRY DIORITE. AND PEGMATITE DYKES 2!, ant.— At Aik, 43 miles south-west of Burao, several wells have been dug to a depth of 35 feet. The first few feet consist of a red calcareous sand carrying some small grams of magnetite. As depth is attained it becomes more of a clay containing less silica and iron sand; 10 to 15 feet below the surface streaks of gypsum appear m the form of selenite, and this gypsum gradually increases m quantity until digoing with a pick becomes slow and tedious. It is reported that further south in the Haud large deposits of much purer gypsum exist in the form of a compact rock. (1425) ^ 98 322 {contcl). . , ^ ^ , . At Burao, wells sunk at one side of the river bed to a depth of 60 feet show alternate layers of red sand and clay, as described above, gravel and boulders of rounded limestone. At neither Aik nor Buiao was bedrock reached. Golis Scries.— The upper portion of this series consists of a bed of highly fo.ssiliferous limestone. The numerous fossils collected by us have not yet been properly classified, but from them the age of the bed should be closely determined.* The bottom of this bed, immediately above the sandstone, is composed of a sandy limestone con- glomerate carrying mostly fossil shells in which respect it differs from the top. The fossils of the upper or more compact portion of the bed are various marine remains, although many shells are also found. The maximum thickness of the limestone, as far as I have observed, is 250 feet. In other parts of the country it may exceed these figures. Many caves are formed by the weathering of the lime conglomerate just above the sandstone. The sandstone upon which the limestone rests conformably is mostly of a yellow colour, but is alternated by red and white layers. In places the colouring is brilliant. Nowhere have I seen the sandstone beds more than 800 feet in thickness, which, I think, is aljout the maximum. Certain light-coloured sandstone strata contain nodules of hydrated manganese oxide, psilomelane, but no workable deposits have been found. Some of the yellow and red strata contain nodules of limonite and red hematite, the latter often with a large percentage of manganese. At the foot of the sandstone bluffs I have picked up limonite pseudomorphs having the form of large pyrite crystals. The general structure of the sandstone is coarse grained and somewhat porous. Archarm. — Where I have closely examined the Archaean rocks at Bun Yero, Sheikh, and "Wager, along the northern edge of the great plateau, the following characteristics are noticeable : — ■ Near Bun Yero, about 20 miles west of Upper Sheikh, the Archiean rocks are mostly gneiss or a schistose gra,nite. Many wide pegmatite dykes containing very large crystals of orthoclase and muscovite cut through the schists with a general north and south trend. The mica in many places furnishes sheets large enough to be of commei'cial value, particularly at Upper and Lower Ower Fur. Some diabase is seen, but the gnessoid rocks greatly predominate. Going eastward to Upper Sheikh the pegmatite dykes are not so large. The muscovite is practically absent and more diabase appears. Porphyry dykes are common, running nearly east and west. The gneiss is largely replaced by unaltered granite and syenite. * Since pronounced to be Eocene. 99 322 {contd.). Immediately east of Upper Sheikh is a large circular area, several miles in extent, over which very basic rocks occur carrying a great deal of magnetic iron in the form of small grains distributed through the mass, and someiimes in small leases of pure magnetite. The principal rock is essentially a gabbro, but it is traversed by many diabase dykes, and in some places by syenite and pegmatites. Towards Wager Mountain, 20 miles ea,-t of Sheikh, the basic rocks gradually disappear, Wager itself being mostly a flesh-coloured granite with small basic and pegmatite dykes. Some of the basic dykes are typical porphyry. On the top of Wager Mountain numerous quartz veins are found, in some cases 10 or 12 feet wide. They are very persistent, but none of them, however, were found to contain sulphides, and are probably barren as far as the precious metals are concerned. Geology of the Gtibnn. — North of the Somaliland watershed the formation is much broken by a series of faults through which the country has subsided in successive steps to the coast, eventually forming the Gulf of Aden. Along the coast a recent coral formation is found. Going inland from Berbera over a gradually rising plain of coral sand, small hills of coralline limestone are seen having a slight northern dip. About 9 miles from the shore is the Mai'itime range of mountains, the lower portion of which is variegated sandstone and conglomerates. These are overlaid conformably by limestones. The beds have a dip to the south of about 15 degrees. The formation bears a striking resemblance to the Golis series, but I had deferred a close examination until my return to the coast, so cannot say yet if they are the same age. Fourteen miles south from Berbera hornblendic schists and granities are met with, intersected by pegmatite and diabase dykes. This Archeean formation is covered, 17 miles out, by the Bihendthola limestones which dip south at an angle of 20 degrees. These limestones, as well as those of the Maritime range, are said to be fossililerous, and I hope to make a collection of fossils on my return. The recurrence of bedded formation would indicate faults north of t,he ilaritime range and just north of Bihendthola. Another fault between Bihendthola and Gerlokhr (about 29 miles from Berbera) brings the Archa-an rocks to the surface again. Here they are rather more acidic than they are near'^Bihendthola, more granite and less hornblendic schists. n , 1 . The Owerado, outlying hills from the base of the plateau mountains, are isolated sections of the Gohs series m the Guban,and indicate a great fault between them and Shpikh. I have 'not, up to the present, been east or west of the Berbera-Sheikh line in the Guban, but from reports and judo-ing from a distant view of the general topography, the san?e c'onditions maintain as are found on that line. (1425) ^ ^ 100 322 {contd.). Basalt and recent \-olcanic rocks generally are reported _ as occurring along the extreme western boundary of British Somalilalid, show in;.; a line of eruption in a north-east and south-west direction. I hope to be able to examine this district in a very short time. (From a preliminary report by Jlajor E. G. Edwards Leckie.) 323. Uganda Protectorate : Sketch of the Geology of the Nyanza basin. — With regard to the theory of the course of the Nile before the Wadelai-Gnndokoro plateau was breached by the river, with the present scanty information it is very premature to assume that the Nile and Lake Eudolph were once coupled by means of the valley of the Turkwell liiver. There is strong reason to believe that this is a recently eroded valley, entirely formed since the elevation of Mount Elgon, in the crater of which the present river rises. 1 am inclined t00 gi-ains sodium cldoride, 32 grains potassium chloride, 15 grains calcium sulphate, traces of magnesium sulphate, magnesium chloride and carbonate. Doubtless there must be a large deposit of salt to be found in the neitrhbourhood. The slate formation referred to above passes alono- the escarpment close to Kibero, to the south-west. . (African Standard, August 29, 1903.) 16fi >2~). East Africa Protectorate. — Between MombaKa and Jonil)0 shaleK of Jiirapsic age containing many fossils, chietiy ammonites, are to lie seen almost tlie whole way. These shales also contain in great abundance ironstone nodnles of varying composition. If an analysis of tlie nodules proved favourable, there would be here a valuable sonrt'C of iron ore. The rock of the escarpment of the Shimba Hills is a very eoaise sandstone, split up by jointing into large rectangular blocks. The whole plateau is made up of this rock, and is in consequence a rather barren tract of country. On the north side of Jombo Hill the rock, as far as can be determined from a microscopical examination, is a typical nepheliue syenite, with basic modifications. No trace of gold occurs in the rock itself. The soil is of a deep red colour, and is exceedingly fertile. Mrima Hill consists of a deep red earth, with blocks of vesi- cular lava and micaceous sandstone intermingled. Sandstone is found all the way from Jombo to Tiwi, where the recent coral-sand formation is met with. The Jurassic shales are not developed. The Taru Hills, 9 miles from Samburu, consist of coarse and tine sandstones containing felspar, black and white mica, graphite, and garnet, the two last minerals only developed in small quantity. These sandstones have evidently been derived from the metamorphosed rocks which occupy the great stretch of desert country to the west and north-west. Maungu Hill is composed entirely of gneiss with quartz felspar, and black mica developed. The last mineral often occurs in bands, so that the whole rock takes on a banded structure and may be described as a banded gneiss. Coarse veins with the same minerals — pegmatites — are very common, but no mineral of any value is found in them. The Ndara and Ndi Hills, close to Yoi, consist largely of the same gneiss rock very well bedded. The bedding planes have a constant dip almost due north, so that characteristic topographic forms are developed and the course of the river is also influenced. Leaving Voi I camped close to the Yoi River on the Taveta Road. For 2 miles or so on each side of the liver a lime- stone with angular grains of quartz, &c., is found. This brecciated limestone is often found in patches in the gneiss rocks. I have since come to the couclusion that it does not form part of the gneiss rocks, but is much later in date. It may generally be found along the river courses. A coarsely crystalline limestone, with minute graphite scales developed, is also seen ; this latter mineral occurs in too small a quan- tity to render the rock of any value. The hmestone furnishes any lime that may be required in tlie distiict. On the flanks of the Voi liiver the hills consist of highly metamorphosed rocks, such as mica gneiss, mica schist, and garnet mica cyanite schist, with coarsely crystalline limestone, which occur in regular succession. 167 325 (conid.). In the Mwatati Valley and beneath the peak of Makora, close to Wateita villages of Davuni Mulunguni and Goshi, similar rocks to those uieiitioued aljuve occur. Water sinks through the gneiss rock and very often comes out as a spring along the bedding planes. An instance may be seen in the stream beneath Makora Peak and close to the villages.^ The same metamorphosed rocks make up the Mwatati and Bura Mountains. Patches of limestone occur here and there between Bura and Taveta. Taveta itself is on volcanic rock. This dies out a mile or so east of Taveta, a patch of lava, however, being found 4 miles further east. The volcanic rocks consist of lavas and ashes, and may be well seen in the river. The lavas are Ijasic rocks chiefly olivine basalts. The hills south of Taveta all consist of gneiss rocks, garnet being plentifully developed. As examples, Mokinni, G-ulunga, Kamalenza, and Keata Hills may be instanced. At Mokinni Hill, coarse pegmatetic veins are plentiful, but no other minerals occur in them besides quartz, felspar, garnet, mica, and magnetite. North of Taveta all the hills are of volcanic origin, such as Chalahakurta, Warombo, &c. The two types may be distingu.ished roughly near Taveta by the fact that the gneissic hills are forest-covered, whereas grass only occurs on the volcanic hills. On the lower slopes of Kilimanjaro the typical specimens of the lavas consist of compact and vesicular black basalts with olivine. I found no coal, and feel sure that none occurs in the district. Some reputed coal turned out to be merely charred wood. It is quite possible that the presence of a little black limestone on the road near the Voi Eiver, and also of abundant black mica, with the appearance of fine coaldust, in the minute stream courses, has led people to infer that coal occurred in the Voi Taveta district. The limestone is the only rock likely to be of any commer- cial value, and it is to be found only in patches. I visited the Mtoto Andei district, and penetrated to the foot of the Kyulu Mountains. From the railway south- west along the liver, almost to the railway reservoir, gneiss is the only rock developed. Coarse pegmatite veins, con- taining quartz, felspar, and magnetite, are not uncommonly found in it. Further south-west the gneiss is covered by basic vesicular lavas, which form plains, rising by steps to the foot of the Kyulu Mountains. These lavas are typical olivine basalts, the olivine being generally developed in large crystals. At the base of the hills the lavas are more fine-textured, and show excellent flow structure and ropy surfaces. At many places along the river and its principal tributary, a reddish or yellowish-white conglomeratic limestone is 108 325 (cuntcL). met witli. This coimists of quarU and felspar grains, and occasionally garnet fragments, embedded in a matrix of calcium carbonate. The limestone contains no fossils, \\ith perhaps the exception of Snrcinra (?). Blocks of gneiss and lava are often found inclosed, and tlie rock usually lies in horizontal or easterly dipping layers on highly-inclined gneiss and mica schist, dipping west or west-south-west. The limestone is obviously of later formation than tlie lava, and has without doubt been formed by the river itself. It is very well exposed in the excavations for the railway water-pipe ; here it is purest and would afford the best lime. There are thus in this district three quite different kinds of rock — gneiss, basic lava, and limestone — in close proximity to one another, so that it would be possible to make almost any desired kind of soil. The rock of the Mbinzau Hills, and other hills to the north, is a pink granulitic gneiss, with many coarse pegmatetic veins, containing quartz, felspar, white mica, and either magnetite or ilmenite. I also examined the river deposits, and, as far as my investigations went, I should conclude that no alluvial gold occuis there. The deposits are either a blackish-grey carbonaceous mud, or grains of calcium carbonate in which small shells of a freshwater gasteropod are occaaicnally found. Limestone, similar to that of Mtoto Andei, occurs along the course of the river, filling up entirely old flood plains. Deposits of salt also occur close to the river. The Kemali and Kiu Hills are both of gneiss, with pegmatite veins containing the usual minerals. These hills rise out of a lava plain which stretches as far as mile 220. The Muani Hills, close to the railway, consist of olivine basalt, and a similar rock may be seen in horizontal beds in the river, whence it is continuous to the foot of the hills to the north-east. Pro- ceeding over the pass towards Nzaui (N"zoi) Peak and the Ndange Valley, lava blocks are again seen half-way down the slope. A compact olivine basalt is exposed in a small stream close to the path, and probably marks the site of the volcanic vent from which the lava blocks were erupted and strewn around. The neighbouring hills all consist of gneiss. Nzani Peak also shows a compact gneiss dipping to the north-east, and this rock is continuous up the valley to Kilungu Peak. The hill to the south of the Machakos Fort consists of a good biotite gneiss. A similar rock is developed all the way along the path to the Athi Eiver, that at the Thwaki (Towaki) liiver containing numerous garnets. At Kibaoni Hill the dip of the gneiss is towards the west-south-west, and remains the same up to the Tiwa Eiver. The north- w-est-south-east course of the Athi Eiver is, to a great extent determined by this constant feature, for the direction of flow is generally along the strike of the beds. 109 325 {contd). The hills of Dumoni, Tlimamiwi, and Mwavani and the Tiwa Eiver take the same direction for the same reason. The Kitui district consists entirely of gneiss. A cellular ironstone, produced by the decomposition of an iron- bearing gneiss, is seen on all the roads leading from the fort. I proceeded to the Mumoni Mountains, passing by the Mtongoni Eange and Nzaoni Hill. At a spot three hours' march from the pool at Kibui (three days from the fort) a small hill is seen to consist wholly of limestone. The purest rock is a white crystalline limestone, containing small blue crystals not unlike blue sapphires, but their octahedral form proves them to be a blue spinel. The next variety contains light brown flakes of phlogopite mica and yellow crystals of what is probably chondrodite. The most impure variety is a dark green rock containing abundant green pyroxene and quartz, and red garnet also come in. We have almost every gradation between a pure white limestone and a garnet pyroxene rock. Where the path enters the Pia Eiver, a cliff of river-formed limestone is seen. The rock is impure, containing patches of milk opal and veins of quartz. The surrounding plain is also composed of the same rock. The Mumoni Mountains consist of two parallel ranges separated by a tributary of the Thika Thika. The rock is gneiss, but a coarse pegmatite containing magnetite is exceedingly common. The octahedral crystals of magnetite are often 1^ to 2 inches in width. From the top of Zombeni, the peak of the easterly range, and at an altitude of about 4,300 feet, a great stretch of very diverse and peaky gneiss country may be seen. The pyramidal hill of Masikeakindu to the north-north-east, the peaks of Zungusu and JSTgomeni to the east-south-east, Giani to the south-east, and Ithumbi to the south-south- east. To the south-west and south-south-west we have the bi" dome-shaped mass of Chambe and the more distant Kibwe ]\Iountains, while to the west lies the Valley of the Tana. It seems exceedingly probable that all this gneiss country is quite barren as regards valuable minerals. I found nothing in the rock all the way from Maungu to the Mumoni Kange. Here and there patches of limestone occur, those at Bura containing graphite scales, and the limestone hfll on the Mumoni road with spinels and other minerals. Between the Chano and Athi Pavers occurs a great plateau composed entirely of lava. On the Kitui road the lava is from 3 to 4 miles wide, and its average thickness is 30 or 40 feet. I followed it for 25 miles to the south-east down tlie left bank of the river, andit probably extends beyond Yatta Hill, near Kibwezi. To tlie north-west it appears to be continuous round the bend of the Athi with the lavas of the Nairobi district. To the north-west it 110 325 {contcl). occasionally increases greatly in thickness, so that in all probability it was poured out on an uneven surface of o-neiss. In composition and texture it is remarkably constant over long distances, being characterised by long well-shaped felspars, and either liexagonal or rounded crystals of el;i3olite (nepheliiie) in a greyish-black ground mass. Longonot is an old volcanic vent. The mountain consists cWetiy of a very fine ash ; Idocks of atrachytic lava are very common ; the?e are usually vesicular, and have a glassy exterior, in which large clear sanidine felspars are conspicuous. Between Nakuru and Eldoma Ravine, along the Uganda road, volcanic breccia and fine ash are met with almost the whole way. Crystals of sanidine felspar and fragments of the acid lava-obsidian occur plentifully. Larger blocks of obsidian with porphyritic i'olspars and a dark compact, fine-grained lava are also seen. Tlie latter becomes more common nearer the ravine, and alternates with the ash and breccia. The hill on which tlie station stands is formed of a similai compact lava, very liable to decay, producing a greenish white or pure white kaolin-like rock. For the first 10 or 1-5 miles of the road, from Eldoma towards Baringo, lava, breccia, and fine ash are all represented. In the bed of a small stream two hours' march from the Eiver Tigrish some very hard compact breccias are seen. These have the streaky appearance which is very characteristic of a similar class of rocks found in Cumber- land and Westmoreland. The rocks were originally loose fragmeutal deposits, which have since become compacted by the infiltration of heated waters — silicification and chlorilisation having taken place ; iron pyrites has also been introduced. This process of solfataric action must have gone on almost contemporaneously with the formation of the beds, for blocks of the flinty rock are found in the partially compacted breccias above. Irregular polygonal jointing is well shown here : the polygonal areas of rock are sometimes separated liy cracks, but generally the cracks liave been infilled either with quartz, red jasper, or with ironstone. This kind of jointing is characteristic of the Kamasia and Likipia rocks. Fi'om the streain to the River Tigrish, the path crosses an extensive lava plateau. The lava varies in texture, but lath-shaped porphyritic felsi)ars are usually developed. Dropping down to the level of the river we again come to fine ash and breccia, very well seen in section in a bend of the rivei\ Opals and agates occur in abundance on the west side of the river, but there was not one good opal among those collected. The rocks on the west side of the river are chiefly lavas. Close to the river a fine basalt occurs covered by a mass of streaky breccia. Further west, towards the scarp, we get compact and vesicular Ill 325 (conid.). lavas, all containing long porphyrifcic felspars. The coarse- textured lavas approach very nearly anepheline syenite. Stretching eastward from the river is aa extensive lava plateau, over which the path runs. The lava is probably of no great thickness, for, in the stream valleys, a breccia is found underneath. Lavas of varying texture and composi- tion persist almost to the Molo River. Here the low cliffs jutting into the sandy lake deposits are all coarse breccias. On the path at the base of the Likipia scarp, among the thorn scrub, blocks of cellular limestone may be seen associated with scattered blocks of lava. The limestone is doubtless of lake formation. Not having followed the shore of the lake, I do not know whether a similar lime- stone is found elsewhere ; its occurrence here may be accounted for by the fact that the rocks on the scarp just above are exceedingly rich in calcite. The Likipia escarpment at this point may be considered to consist of a thick lower scarp of lava — a roughly level plain of coarse breccia, on which the hill boma stands, and a second steep lava scarp. The lower lava is chiefly a very basic augite porphyrite, occa- sionally containing lath-shaped felspars. When decomposed, it forms a purplish mass, plentifully veined with calcite, doubtless derived from the rock itself. The plain on which the boma stands is plentifully strewn with lava blocks. It is interrupted to the north by high ground, among which stands an isolated peak, having a basic rock below and a phonolite above. These Likipia lavas show a great tendency to spheroidal weathering, and the ground is often covered with the ball-shaped kernels of the spheroids. North of the peak stretches a great plain, in which the River Mogodeni runs. In some of the dry stream courses of the plain, excellent sections of a coarse breccia are seen, containing huge blocks of lava, similar to that found above and below. The upper scarp of Likipia consists almost entirely of lava ; occasionally, on the top of the successive steps, vesicular modifications are seen. The base of the scarp consists chiefly of compact fine-grained phonolitic rocks, showing beautiful flow structure. These lavas are continuous over long distances, and form a horizontal line of wooded cliffs on the face of the scarp. The Molo River runs in a deep gorge for the greater part of its course, flanked on the east by a prominent scarp of compact and vesicular lavas. Breccias are rarely seen. Further north, typical vesicular lavas crop out, and then sanidine and obsidian-bearing ashes occur continuously to tiie Uganda road. Eldalat is a good example of a volcanic cone, but is interest- ing in the fact that it is dissected by a stream running east and west, which has cut a ravine in the east flank of the cone almost down to its base. 112 (foniJ.). Munengai Hill itself, and the surrounding country, consist of a coarse sanidine-bcaring ash. Similar ashes, as men- tioned above, are found along the Uganda road, and also round Nakuru Lake. Menengai was obviously the cone from which all this fragmental material was thrown out. Coarse breccias persist until Lake Hannington is reached. Here an excellent lava, with porphyritic felspars, occurs on the fault scarp to the west of the lake plain. The fact of depression in the neiglrbourhood of the lake is well shown by the lava beds at the top of the Likipia scarp. They are seen to dip north at a small angle, whereas usually they are horizontal. From the lake to the river in tlie north, nothing but fine ash occurs. The river takes its rise on Likipia, flowing west and north-west. It then enters a steep-sided and thickly- wooded gorge, turning north, and finally north-west, emerging on to the Njempsian plain, ^long its course are the same types of lava met with further north, basic augite porphyrites being especially common. In the dry stream beds the loose blocks and pebbles are seen to be coated, and often cemented together, with a deposit of carbonate of lime. This phenomenon is very common in the gneiss country, round Makindu and iltoto Andei, but I had not hitherto seen it among the lavas. The limestone is derived from the rocks, and is never in great quantity. I'ractically the whole scarp of the Kamasia Eange is of lava formation, and the lava is very constant in composition. These massive lavas are well seen in a dry ravine cut by a tributary of the Tigrish Eiver at the point where the Tigrish leaves its gorge and emerges on to the Njemps plain ; a massive lava over 100 feet thick is seen lying on a bed of ash, which it has indurated and burnt to the depth of 5 inches, the resulting rock greatly resembling glassy obsidian. On the summit of Kamasia the lava becomes porphyritic, nepheline being developed in rounded crystals. The Ndo valley, separating Kamasia and Elgeyo, is mostly formed of alluvium, derived from the adjoining slopes. The Elgeyo scarp consists, at its base, of rocks of the gneissic series, quartz, felspar rocks, and above, garnet granulites and eclogites ; a porphyritic phonolite lava caps this gneissic series, but is irregularly distributed over it. Patches of lava occur below the level of the gneiss rocks, thus proving that the lava was poured out over a very uneven surface. This thin strip of gneiss probably runs for some dis*-ance along the base of the scarp. From the ridge a great grass plain extends westwards for miles, consisting entirely of lava. Occasionally, along the river, patches of a banded garnet gneiss appear, giving evidence of an approach to the limit of the lava, which finally ceases a few miles to the east of the liiver Nollosegelli. 113 From here to Slumia's tlio rock is all a granite gneiss of the simplest composition : Yekupe is a typical example of a granite hill. The same rock persists throughout the Surangai Hills, where veins of a fine-grained granite or even of a garnet granulite are found in it. The rocky ridge to the south-east of the Nzoia River in Ketosh consists also of granite, but augite occurs instead of brolite, and a brown mineral, possibly axinite, comes in as an accessory mineral. Across the river we have the typical granite knolls of Sangalo. The station at Mumia's is situated on lava which occurs in patches in the surrounding neighbourhood. From Mumia's to Samia, travelling down the south-east bank of the Nzoia, is typical granite country as far as Legos. Here a curious compact and highly flinty breccia becomes prominent. It is probably of volcanic origin. The Wanyara Hills consist of beautifully banded ironstone halleflinta. This iron ore often occurs in thick seams. The whole of the Samia district is exceeding rich in iron, but there is very little wood. Here it is easy to see the mode of formation of the ironstone breccia so common in North and South Kavirondo, forming often a large flat surface over considerable stretches of country. Water percolating through iron-bearing rocks carries away some of the iron in solution. It runs through the detritus of loose stones on the slope or at the foot of the hill, and, becoming evaporated, deposits the iron among the rubble. This in time becomes a hard cemented mass. I returned to Mumia's through the Washeshi Hills to the Uganda road. Granite again occurs some 15 miles from the river. Small patches of lava occur along the road from Mumia's to Kisumu, via Kakamega, Tiriki, and Maragoli. Compact flinty rocks are found in the Sioko Eiver, near the American Mission Station : the gneissic series is represented by outcrops of true slate and a coarse felspathic sandstone ; towards Nandi, however, a porphyritic granite is seen. This persists throughout the Maragoli Hills. Before the Kisumu plain is reached a small lava plateau is crossed ; the lava is a ncpheline rock, sometimes showing good flow structure. The plateau is not continuous, the granite occasionally jutting through ; it may, however, be traced as far as the Semia district to the west, and up to the Kebosh Eiver on the east. (E. E. Walker, " Eeports on the Geology of the East Africa Protectorate." Cd. 1769. Africa No. 11, 1903). 326. East Africa Protectorate. — Mount Sheba, on the Gwaso Nyiro, is a gneiss mass, and all the surrounding country is strewn with huge blocks of lava. North of the Gwaso Nyiro, reaching to the East Eendili (1425) H 114 (■(juntiy, the plains are strewn with lava, the dry water- conrses and ridges being covered with broken quartz and boulders of gneiss. Tlie Haldaiyan liills are volcanic. (I., 3, C, 315.) .■'.27. East Africa Protectorate. — A large part of the East Africa Protectorate is covered by a cap of lava and volcanic rock. This probably does not extend over the northern portions. Iron occurs in abundance in most districts. Mica and graphite are found in Ukamba, the former in a considerable belt. Limestone has been dis- covered in several places, particularly near Kitui and Lake Victoria. In the southern part of Ukamba, near the German frontier, is a lai'ge deposit of carbonate of soda. Fine marble has been found nortli of Mount Elgon. (Cd. 1626, 1903.) From Lake Natron north^^•ards, past Lake Xaivasha, to the south end of Lake Eudolf, the whole area is lava, except a few mountains of schist. (M.L. material, British East Africa/92.) 328. British Central Africa.— Specimens from British Central Africa show that this portion of Africa and "Peninsular" India are geologically of the same struc- ture, having in pre-Tertiary times formed one Continent. The specimens may be gi'ouped as follows : — 1. Granitoid gneiss. 2. Upper group of complex schists and gneisses containing limestones and iron ores. 3. Transition, azoic shales, and sandstones. 4. Intrusive gabbro and decomposed peridotites. 5. Gondwana rocks. 6. Trap-flows and diabase (dolerite) dykes. (Dunstan and Holland : British Central Africa Garxitc, 1903, No. 3, p. 46, No. 4, p. 61.) 329. North-eastern Rhodesia.— A gold-bearing deposit is being developed at Sasare, about 90 miles west of Fort Jameson. It consists of two quartz reefs, striking about east and west, and lying between beds of crystalline .schists. These reefs, which vary very much in width, and in many places carry visible gold, have been proved to a depth of nearly 300 feet. Near the same spot there has been recently discovered an extensive reef of copper ore, carrying both gold and silver. Mining operations are being carried on at Kansanshi, at the head-waters of the Kafue, and also at Kambove, in Congo territory. Copper and lead deposits have been discovered near the Kafue, and also between the Loangwa and Kafue. At Broken Hill the ore consists of carbonate of lead, and of galena, the latter carrying silver. Two low kopjes, both practically masses of ore, are being v.-orked. (" Official Handbook of North-eastern Ehodesia," April, 1903.) Hi ADDENDA TO BIBLIOGllAPHY. Africa. Passarge. A characteristic form of surface in Africa. (G.J., xxiv, p. 590, 1904.) (See Naturwissenschaftliche Wocheiischrift, 17.7.04.) Algeria. Lartigue. Notice geologique siir la region de I'Aures (in ' Mono- graphie de I'Ames.' Constantine, 1904). Aug-ola. Cunninghame. See G.J., xxiv, p. 158, 1904. British Central Africa. Rocks and minerals from. (B.T.J., Supt., vol. 2, pp. 69, 73, 1904.) Dunstan. Extracts from a report on a series of rocks and minerals from the British Central Africa Protectorate. (Brit. Cent. Africa Gazette, 31.3.1905.) Congo Free State. Hudleston. See under German East Africa. Egypt. Beadnell. The oases and geology of Egypt (in ' The Nile in 1904.' By Sir W. Willcocks, London, 1904). The topography and geology of Fayuu Province. Cairo. 1905. Maps 1/50,000, 1/100,000, 1/250,000. Pourtau. La cataracte d'Assouau. Map. (B.S.K., Serie VI", p. 325, 1905.) German East Africa. Hudleston. The Tanganyika Problem. (J. of Trans, of Victoria Institute, vol. xxxvi, 1904, and G.J., XXV, p. 91, 1905.) Grermau South-West Africa. Die Kupferzlager Deutsch-SUdwestatrikas. (D.K.Z., p. 24, 1905.) Kamerun. Bauer. Deutsche Niger-Benue-Tsadsee Expedition. Berlin. 1904. Esch-Solger-Oppenheim-Jaekel. Beitrage zur geologie von Kamerun. Berlin. 1904. Marocco. Den Djebel Hadid im SUclwestlichen Atlasvorland von Marokko. (M.P.G., p. 90, 1905.) Nigeria, N. EUiot-Burdon-Newton. The Anglo-French Niger-Chad Boundary. (G.J., xxiv, p. 505, 1904.) Rhodesia, N.E. Minerals from. (B.T.J., Supt., vol. 2, p. 73, 1904.) Rhodesia, S. Mennell. The geology of Southern Rhodesia. Map 1/253,440. 1904. Molyneiix. The physical history of the Victoria Falls. (G.J., XXV, p. 40, 1905.) Sahara and W. Sudan. Gautier. Le Mouidir-Ahnet. (B.S.G., X, p. 1, 1904.) Pas.sarge. Geology of Kanem. (M.P.G., p. 210, 1904.) Elliot-Burdon-Newton. The Anglo-French Niger-Chad Expedition. (G.J., xxiv, p. 505, 1904.) De Lapparent. Sur de nouvelles trouvailles geologiques au Soudan. (B.S.G., xi, p. 1, 1905 ; Comptes Rendus hebd. des Sciences de I'Ac. Sci, cxxxix. No. 26, 26.12.04.) Gautiei'. Rapport sur une mission geologique et geographique dans le region de Figuig. Map 1/500,000. (A.G., p. 144, 1905.) Lacroix. Resultats mineralogiques et geologiques de recentes explora- tions dans lAfrique Occidentale frau^aise et dans la region du Tchad. (R. Col., vol. iv, pp. 129, 205, 1905.) South Africa. Mellor. Former glaciation in South Africa. (Trans. Geol. Soc. S. Africa, vii, Pt. 1, 1904, and G.J., xxiv., p. 679, 1904.) Sokoep. Le Haut Plateau de I'Afiique du Sud. (M.G., p. 151, 1905.) (1425) H 2 116 South Africa. Hatch-Corstorphine. The geology of South Africa. London. 1905. Maps 1/1,250,000, 1/5,000,000. . Spanish Guinea. Roche. Au pays dea Pahouius. Paris and Limoges. 1904. pp. 182 -184. Transvaal. Voit-Frames. 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(Association frang. pour I'avancement des sciences, Alger., 1881, 10 session, p. 584.) Eecherches lithologiques sur la formation a bois silicifies de Tunisie et d' Algerie. (Comptes Eendus Ac. Sci., 1888, cvii, p. 572.) Boudariat. Carte Gfiologique du Bambuk. (Comptes Eendus Ac. Sci., cxxxiv, No. 8, 24 Feb., 1902, p. 495.) Bourguignat. " Malacologie de FAlgerie." 1864. Brives. Terrains miocenes de la region de Carnot (Algerie). (B.S. G6olog., xxii, 1894, p. 17.) " Les terraines tertiaires du bassin du Clielif et du Dalu'a." Alger. 1897. With Maps 1/200,000. Sur la constitution geologique du Marco occidental. (Comptes Eendus Ac. Sci., cxxxiv, 1902, p. 922.) Le Grand Atlas marocain. (M.G., 1904, p. 195.) Brossard. Essai sur la constitution pliysique et geologique des regions meridionales de la subdivision de Setif, avec Carte geol. de la partie merid. des Cercles de Bordj-Bou-Areridj et de Sclif et Carte g6ol. du Cercle Bou Saada. (M^moires Soc. Geol. de France, 1868, viii, p. 177.) 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(Association franc;, pour I'avancement des sciences, 10 session, 1881. Alger, p. 583.) Goniatites carbonifcres dans le Sahara {between Igli and Figig). (Comptes Eendus Ac. Sci., 1901, p. 349.) Coquand. " Geologie et Pateontologie de la province de Constantine." 1862. Geologie et Palajontologie de la region sud de la province Constantine. (Menioires de la Soc. d'omulation de la Provence, Marseille, 1862, p. 131.) Sur la convenanee d'etablir un uouvel etage dans le groupe de la craye moyenne, &c. (B.S. G6olog. de France 2= Serie, 1863, xx, p. 48.) 119 Coquand. Sur I'existenoe de la craie blanche de Meiidon et de la craie tuffeau de Maestrioht dans le S.— O. de la France et de I'Alg^rie. (B.S. G6olog. de France, 2= Serie, 1863, xx, p. 79.) Sur Vtge des gisements de sel gemme (Djebel-Melah), sur I'origine dea ruisseaux sales (Oued Melah), et les lacs sales (Chotts et Sebkha de I'Alg^rie). ' (B.S. G6olog. de France, 1868, xxv, p. 431.) Note sur la Craie superieure de la Crim6e et sur son aynchronisme avec I'ctage campanien de 1' Aquitaine, des Pyr6n6es et de I'Algfirie. (B.S. Geolog. de France, 3= Serie, 1877, v, p. 86.)_ Cotteau. Note sur les Echinides du terrain jurassique sup6rieur en AIg6rie. (B.S. G6olog. de France, 2» Serie, 1869, xxvi, p. 531.) Courtet. " Etude sur le S6n6gal.'" Paris. 1903. Curie, see uiider Pomel. D'Albeca. Le Daliomey en 1894. (B.S.G., 1895, p. 183.) Delage. " Carte gfiologique du massif dAlger, 1/20,000." 1885. De Lapparent. Sur un formation marine d';xge tertiaire au Soudan fran9ais. (B.S.G., vii, 1903, p. 417.) De Larmruat. Etude sur les formes du terrain dans le Sud de la Tunisie. (AG., V, 1895-96, p. 386.) De Margerie. Une carte geologique de la Tunisie. (Nouvelles Geographiques, 1894, p. 151. Xote on the map hy Auhert, q.v.) De Montrozier. " Deux ans chez les Antliropophages." Paris. 1902. Desor. "Aus Sahara und Atlas. Vier Briefe an J. Liebig." Wiesbaden. 1865. Douls. Voyage d'exploration a travera le Sahara occidental et le Sud Marooain. (B.S.G., 1888, p. 437.) Dreyfus. " Six mois dans I'Attie." Paris. 1900. Errington de la Croix. La geologie du Cherichira, Tunisie centrale. (Comptes Eendus Ac. Sci., 1887.) Eysseric. Eapport sur une mission Scientiflque a la Cote d'lvoire. (Nouv. Archives Miss. Sci., 1899, p. 157, -with Map.) Ficheur. " Sur I'^ge miocfene dea depots de transport du versant sud du Djurjura." Paris. 1888. " Esquisse geologique de la chalne du Djurjura." Paris. 1888. " Description geologique de la Kabylie du Djurjura. Etude speciale des terrains tertiaires." Alger, 1890. With Maps. "La Kabylie du Djurjura." 2" Serie: Stratigraphie ; Descriptions regionales. No. 1. Maps. Alger, 1891. " Notice geographique et geologique sur la Kabylie.'' Paris. 1892. Sur les terrains cretaces du massif du Bou Thaleb, Constantine. Map, 1/200,000. (B.S. Geolog. de France, 1892, vol. xx, p. 393.) Le bassin lacuslre de Constantine et les formations oligoct;nes en Algorie. (Comptes Eendus Ac. Sci. cxviii, 1894, p. 1066.) Apergu sommaire sur les terrains nSogfenes du Sahel d'Alger ; Les plissements du massif de Blida ; Le bassin tertiau-e de Med 6a ; Note sur la structure du Djurjura. (B.S. Geolog., 1896, p. 917.) Programme explicalif des excursions dans le massif de Blida, en Kabylie et dans la province de Constantine. (Comptes Eendus Soc. Geol., 1896, p. 127.) Les plissements de TAurfiS et les formations oligocenes dans le Sud de la province de Constantine. (Comptes Eendus Ac. Sci., 1898, p. 1826.) Le massif du Chettaba et les ilots triassiques de la region de Constantine. (B.S. Geolog. de France, 1899, xxvii, p. 85.) Le Cretace inferieur dans le massif des Matmatas (Alger). With Map, 1/200,000. (B.S. Geolog. de France, xxviii, 1900, p. 559.) La carte geologique de I'Algerie Aper§u historique et esquisse sommaire. (B.S.G., viii, 1903, p. 110.) (Bernard and F.) Lea regions natureUes de I'Algerie. (A.G., 1902, p. 221, 339.) see Pomel ; Pouyanne ; Jacob. Fieux. Note geologique sur le bassin de la Fal^me et une partie du Haut- S&iegal. (S.G., 1883, p. 174.) •120 Fischer. Kustenatudien aus Nordafrika. (M.P.G., 1887, pp. 1, 33.) Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse einer Eeise im Atlas-Vorlande vom Marokko. ' (M.P.G. Ergan. Nr. 133, 1900.) Marokko. Eine landerkundliohe skizze. (G.Z., 1903, p. 65.) Zur Eutwicklung unaerer Kentnis dea Atlas-Vorlandes von Marokko. (M.P.G., 1903, p. 155.) EJamand. Note sur la Geologie du Sahara Nord-Ocoidental (Hammada Grand Erg., Meguiden, Tin-Erkouk). (B.S. G6olog,, 3« Serie, xxiv, 1896, p. 891.) La Fronti^re marocaine. Extrait des " Documents pour servir a I'titude du Nord-Ouest africain." Algiera, 1896. Apergu general sur la geologie et les productions mineralea da baasin de I'oued Saoura. Extrait des " Documenta pour servir a I'etude du Nord-Oueat africain." Algiers. 1897. Notions 616mentaires de lithologie et de geologie appliquees aux grandes zones culturales de lAlgerie et de la Tunisie. (Extrait du Manuel pratique de Fagrieulture algerien.) Paris. 1898. Une mission d'exploration scientifique an Tidikelt. (A.G., 1900, p. 233.) Sur la presence du terrain carboniferien dans le Tidikelt (Archipel. touatien), Sahara. (Gomptes Eendus Ac. Sci., 1902, p. 1533.) Sur la presence du Devonien a Calceola sandalina dans le Sahara occidental. (Gomptes Kendua Ac. Sci., 1901, p. 62 ; 1902, p. 1322.) Note sur les obaervationa geologiques de M. Besset. (A.F. Supt. No. 2, p. 67, 1904.) Echantillons de roches recueillis par M. Guillo-Lohan. (A.F. Supt. No. 10, p. 267, 1903.) See also under Pomel. Flicher. Sur les bois silicifi6s de la Tunisie et de I'Alg^rie. (Comptes Eendus Ac. Sci., 1888, cvii, p. 569.) Forstner. Die Feldspate von Pautellaria. (Zeitschr. flii- Kryst., 1883, viii.p. 155.) Foureau. Mission au Tademayt, Jan., fev., mars, 1890. (B.S.G., 1891, p. 5.) Contains remarks on the development and formation of the sand dunes. "Au Sahara. Mes deux missions de 1892 et 1893." Paris. 1897 (pp. 24, 26, 28, 29, 34, 36, 38, 110-121). Fritsch. "Eeisebilder aus den Atlasgebirge.'' Berlin. 1879. Die geologischen Verhaltnisse von Marokko. (Zeitschr. fur die Gesellsch. Naturw. Halle, 1881, p. 201.) Fuchs. Sur lea gites de fer et de cuivre gria de la Petite Kabylie. (Extrait. Asaooiation fran§. pour I'Avancement dea Sciences. 1881. 10 session, Alger, p. 567;. Gaudry. Sur un hippopotame fossile d^couvert pri^s de B&ne. (B.S. Geolog. de France, 1878, vi, p. 389.) Gautier. Lettre sur le Sahara algerien. (A.G., 1903, p. 81.) Sahara oranais. With Map. (A.G., 1903, p. 235.) Gentil. Sur les volcans 6tients des environs dAin-Temouchent. (B.S. G6og. (it archfeol. Gran, 1896, p. 364.) Note sui' l'6xistence du trias gypseux dans la province d'Oran (Algerie). (B.S. G6ol., Paris, 1898, xxvi, p. 457) Map, 1/200,000. Le volcan andesitique de Titarouine. (Oomptes Eendus Ac. Sci., cxxx, 1900, p. 796.) Carte g6ologique d6taill6e (de lAlgerie) : Feuille Beni-Saf. 1/50,000. Paris. 1900. "Eaquisse stratigraphique et petiographique du baasin de la Tafna (Algerie)." Alger. 1902. ■ See Blayac. Grad. Conaidfiratious sur la geologie et le regime des eaux du Sahara Alg6rien £l propos d'une exploration de M. Ville et de quelques r^cents voyages. (B.S. Geolog. de Paris, 1872, p. 571.) Griffiths. Carte miniere de la Cote d'lvoire. 1/500,000. Gumbel. Beitriige zur Geologie der Goldkliste in Afrika. (K. Bayr. Akad. d. Wissensch., 1882, xii, p. 170.) 121 Giirich. " Beitriige zur Geologie von AVestafrika.'' Breslau. 1887. Beitrage zur Geologie von Westafrika. (Zeitsch. Deutsch. Geolog. Gesellschaft, 1887, p. 96, with Map.) Halse. Some Banket Deposits of the Gold Coast, "West Africa. (Trans. Federated Inst. Min., Eng., ii, p. 69 Hardouin. Sur la Geologie de la sub-division de Constaniiine (with Map) (B.S. Geolog. de France, 1868, xxv, p. 328.) Haug. Sur quelques points thSoriques relatifs a la geologie de la Tunisie (Ass. Frarig. pour I'Avancement des Sci. Comptes Eendus, 26 sess. St. Etienne, 1897. Paris, 1898, ii Partie, p. 366.) With Maps. Jacob-Ficheur. Carte geologique ditaillee (de rAlg6rie). Feuille Constantine. 1/50,000. Paris. 1901. Joleaud. Le terrain carbonif6rieu dans le .sud de I'AIgerie (Extr. Mem. A. de Vavicluse). Avignon. 1901. Jourdy. La mer saharienne. (La Philosophie positive, 1875-6.) Excursion g6ologique a la lisiere septentrionale du Sahara algerien. (B.S. G6olog. de France, 1892, p. 214.) Lamothe. Note sur les anciennes plages et terraces du basin d'Isser (dfipartementd' Alger) etde quelques autres bassins de la cote Algerienne. With Map, 1/50,000. (B.S. Geolog. de France, iii S6rie, xxvii, 1899, p. 257.) L' Apparent. La trouvaille d'un oursin fossile dans le Sahara. (B.S.G., iii, 1901, p. 257.) L'Arminat. Etude sur les formes du terrain dans le Sud de la Tunisie. (A.G., 1895-6, p. 386, with Map.) 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Description de quelques nouvelles e.speces de Coqnilles fossiies piovenant des marnes pleistocenes d'estuaire des environs d'Oran. (Rev. Sci. nat,, 1874, iii, p, 399.) Pallary. Notes Geologiques sur le Dehra oranais. (Comptes Rendus Assoc, franc; pour I'avanoement des Sciences, 1896.) Papier. D6couverte de debris d'un mammifere fossile pr^s de Bone. (B.S. G6olog. de Prance, 1876, p. 500.) Parran. Carte gcologique du departement de Constantine, parTissot. (B.S. Ciuolog., 1882, 3« Serie, x, p. 299.) Sur les terrains de Gneiss des environs de Bone. (B.S. (ieolog. de France, 1883, 3' Serie, ii, p. 503.) Pai'ran. Observations sur les dunes littorales de I'^poque actuelle et de I'epoque pliocene en Alg^rie et en Tunisie. (B.S. G6olog. de France, 1890, p. 245.) Paty de Clam. Les Phosphates tunisiens. (B.S. Geog. commerc, 1896, p. 118.) Pelatan. " Les richesses minfirales des colonies frangaise. Afrique frangaise," Paris, 1900 (with Maps). Pcron. 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Explication de la deuxieme Edition de la carte provisoire de TAlgfirie. 1/800,000. Alser. 1890. 6 / > and Fioheur. Les formations eocenes de I'Algerie. (Comptes Eendus Ac. Sci., cxiii, 1891, p. 26.) Pomel. Apergus r6trospectifs sur la G6ologie de la Tunisia. (B.S. G6olog. de France, 1892, vol. xx, p. 101.) Carte g^ologique de I'Algerie. Paleontologie. Les Equidfe, Alger, 1897, Postel, "Le Sahara, sol, productions et habitants." Paris, 188.3. Pouyanne-Ficheur. Caite g6ologique de I'Algerie, troisitoie edition, 1/800,000. Paris, 1900. Pouyanne. See Pomel. (^uiroga. Estructura y formacion del Sdhara occidental. (Eev. G6ogr. commerc. Madrid, 1866, Nos. 25-30, p. 63.) Apuntes de un viaje por el Sahara occidental. (Anal. Soc. espan. de hist, uat., 1886, xv.) Observaoiones geologicas heohas en al Sahara oocid. (with Map.) (Annales Soc. espan. de Hist. Nat, xviii. Madrict, 1889.) Eambaud. " Une mission au Senegal." Paris, 1900. Eenou. " Geolog. de I'Algerie." Paris, 1848. Eepelin. 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Vclain. Sur Icxistence de Diabases andesitiques & structure ophiliques dans le Lias moyen de la province d'Oran. (E.S., Geolog. de France, 1885, xiii, p. 576.) Verhandlungeu des Deutschen Kolonialkongresses. 1902. Villn. Notice sur les Gites d'emeraudes de la haute valine de I'Harrach. (B.S., Geolog. de France, 1856, 2° Sorie, xiii, p. 30.) Notice geologique sur les salines de Zahi-ez et les Gites de .set gemme du Pang et Mulah et d'Ain Hadjora. (Ann. des Mines, xv, 1859.) 125 Ville. "Voyage d'exploi'ation dans les bassius du Hodna et dii Sahara," 1865. " Exploration geologique du Mzab, du Sahara et de la region des Steppes de la province d'Alger." 1867. Notice miu6ralogique sur les environs de Dellys. (B.S., Geolog. de France. 2o Serie, xxv, p. 644, 1868.) Walther. Die Denudation in der Wiiste uud ihre Geologische Bedeutiing. (Abhandl. der math.-phys. Klasse der Kgl. sachs, Gesellsch., der Wissensch., vol. xvi, No. 3, p. 347. Leipzig, 1891.) Welsch. Note sur les terrains jurassir|ues des environ.? de Tiaret, departe- nient d'Oran. (Comptes Rendus Ac. Sci., 1889, cviii, p. 581.) Les terrains cretaces des environs de Tiaret et de Fi'enda. (Comptes Eendus Ac. Sci., 1889, cviii, p. 760.) Le terrain pliocene de la vallee de I'oued Nador. (B.S., Geolog. de France, 1889, vol. xvi, p. 881.) Sur les differents ctages pliocenes des environs d'Alger. (B.S., Geolog. de France, 1889, vol. xvii, p. 125.) Terrains jurassiques dans les environs de Tiaret, Frenda et Suida. (B.S., Geolog. de France, 1900, xviii, p. 428.) Les terrains cretaces du Seressou occidental et de Lehou. (B.S., G6olog. de France, 1890, xviii, p. 492.) Le miocene des environs de Tiaret (departement d'Oran). (B.S., Geolog. de France, 3= Serie, 1891, xix, p. 414.) Sur les terrains quaternaires des environs de Tiaret. (B.S., Geolog. de France, 3i= Serie, 1891, xix, p. 766.) Note sur les etages miocenes de 1' Algerie occidentale. (Comptes Eendus Ac. Sci., 1892, p. 566.) Zittel. &e under North-East. NORTH-EAST. Andrews. Notes on an expedition to the Fayum. (Geolog. Mag , 1903, p. 337.) Aubry. Observations geologiques sur le royaume de Choa et les pays Gallas. (Comptes Rendus Ac. Sci., vol. ci, 1885, No. 23.) Observations geologiques sur les pays Danakils, Somali?, le Royaume de Choa et les pays Gallas. (B.S., Geolog. de France, 1885-86, p. 201, with maps and profiles.) Une mission an Royaume de Choa et dans les pays Gallas. (Ar^jhiv. miss, scientif., Paris, 1888, xiv, p. 457.) Baldacci. Osservazioni fatte nella colonia Eritrea. "With map 1/400,000. (Mem. descrittive della carta geologica d'ltalia, vol. vi, Rome, 1891.) Ball. " Kharga oasis." Cairo, 1900. "With maps. " On the Topographical and Geological results of a reconnaissance survey of Jebel Garra and the oasis of Kurkur." Cairo, 1902. "With maps 1/25,000, 1/250,000. and Beadnell. " Baharia Oasis : its Topography and Geology." "With Maps. Cairo, 1903. Barron and Hume. Notes sur la geologie au desert oriental de I'Egypte (Congres geol. international, Comptes Rendus de la viii« session, en France, Paris, 1901, 2= fasc, p. 867), with ma]j 1/750,000. Notes on the Geology of the Eastern Desert of Egy]]t. (Geolog. Mag., 1901, p. 154.) " The Geology and Topography of the Eastern Desert of Egypt." Survey Department, Clairo, 1903. Barth. " Reisen und Entdeckungen in Nord- und Central- Afrika." Gotha, 1857. English version of above. Beadnell. "Recent Geological Discoveries iu the Nile "Valley and Libyan Desert," 1900. The Cretaceous region of Abu Roash near the Pyramids of Giza. (Geological Survey Report, 1900, Part IL) 126 Beadnell. D^cou vertes geologiques rScentes dans la vallee du Nil et le desert Libyeii (Congres geol. international, Comptea Eendus de la viii= session, en France, Paris, 1901, 2" fasc, p. 830), with map 1/6,000,000. " Dakhla Oasis." Cairo, 1901. With maps. " Farafra Oasis : its Topograpliy and Geology." Cairo, 1901. "With maps. The Fayum Depression. A preliminary notice of the Geology of a district in Egypt containing a new Paloeogone Vei'tebrate Fauna. (Geolog. Mag., 1901, p. 540.) See under Ball. Beyrich. Bericht libei' die von Overweg auf d. PLt-ise von Tripoli nach Murzuk, iind von Murzuk nach Ghat gefund.Versteinerungen. (Zeitscb. d. Deutschen Geolog. Gesell., 1852.) Blanckeuhoi'n. Die Geschichte des Nil-Stroms in der Teitiair- und Quartar- periode, sowie des j^ateolitiachen Menschen in Agypten, with map 1/10,000,000,. (Z.G.E., 1902, p. 694.) . •" Geologic Agyptens." With maps. Leipzig, 1901. Blanford (W. T.). "Observations on the Geology and Zoology of Abyssinia.'' London, 1870. Bonard. See Gennes. Bonney. The Structure of the Rocks of Assouan. (Geolog. Mag., 1886, iii, p. 103.) Bruce. " Travels to discover the source of the Nile." 5 vols. 1790. Bucca. Contribuzione alio studio geologica dell' Abissinia. (Atti Ace. Gioenia di Scienze Natural! di Catania, vol. iv, Catania, 1892.) ^ Colston. Kapport geologique sur la region situee entre Berenice et Berber. (B.S.K., 1887, p. 573.) Cook. Notes on the Climate and Geology of Abyssinia. (P.E.G.S., vol. xiv, p. 34.3.) Crick. Fragment of Belemnites from Somaliland. (Geolog. Mag., 1896, p. 296.) Dawson. Notes on the Geology of Egypt. (Geolog. Mag., October, 1884.) The Geological Relations of Rocks from Assouan and its Neighbour- hood. (Geolog. Mag., 1886, iii, p. 101.) Depcret and Fourteau. Sur les terrains neogenes de la Basse-Egypte et d'isthme de Suez. (Comptes Eendus Ac. Sci., 1900, p. 401.) D'Ossat and Millosevich. C'euni iutorno alle raccolte geologiche. (Seconda Spedizione Bottego.) (" L'Omo," by Vannutelli and Citerni. Milan, 1899, p. 575, with map 1/3,000,000.) Douville. Examen des fossiles rapport6s du Choa par M. Aubry. (B.S., Geolog. de France, 1885-86, vol. xiv, p. 223.) Du Bourg de Bozas. D' Addis Abbaba au Nil par le lac Rudolphe. (B.S.G., 1903, vii, p. 107.) Egypt. A Report on the Phosphate Deposits of Egypt, by the Geological Survey, Cairo, 1900, with maps. Faurot. Sur les sediments quarternaires de File de Kamarane et du golfe de Tadjoura. (B.S., Geolog. de Fraiice, 1888, xvi, p. 528.; Ferret and Galinier. Voyage en Abyssinie. Description g6ologique du Tigr6 et du Samen. Vol. iii. 1847. Floyer. " Etude sur le Nord Etbai entre le Nil et la Mer Rouge." Caii'O, — Soudages geologiques ex^cut^s en Egypte. (Bull. Institut 6gyptien, 3= Serie, 1896, Cairo, 1897, p. 219.) Fourteau. Note sur I'dge des forets petriiifies des deserts d'Egypte. (B.S.K., 1898, p. 123.) Les environs des Pyramides de Ghizeh. (B.S.K., 1899, No. 4.) Sur un nouveau gisement de poissons fossiles aux environs des Pyramides de Ghizeh. (B.S., G6olog. de France, xxvii, 1899, p. 2.37.) Sur la constitution geologique des environs d' Alexandre (Egypt). (Comptes Reudus Ac. Soi., 1902, p. 596.) 127 Pourteau. Surlegres nubieu. (Comptes Eendns Ac. Sci., 1902, p. 803.) See Deperet. Fraas. Geognostisches Profil voni Nil zum Eoten Meer, mit Karte. (Zeitscli. d. Deutsch. Geol. Gesellsch., 1900, lii, p. 569.) Fuchs. Die geologische Beschaffenlieit der Landenge von Suez, with map. (Denlischr. der K.K. Akad. Math.-Naturw. 01., vol. xxxviii, p. 25.) Futterer. Beitrage zur Kenntnis des Jura in Ostafrika. IV. Der Jura von Sohoa (Siid-Abessinien). (Zeitsch. d. Deutsch. Geolog. Gesellsch., 1897, p. 568.) Gennea and Bonard. Les roches volcaniques du Protectorat des Somalis. (Comptes Eendus Ac. Sci., 1900, p. 196.) Hull. On the physical conditions of the Mediterranean Basin, which have resulted in a Oommunity of some species of Freshwater Fishes in the Nile and the Jordan waters. (Qr. J. GooL, 1895, p. 93.) Observations on the Geology of the Nile Valley. (Qr. J. Geol., 1896, p. 308.) Hume. See Barron. Issel. Morfologia e genesi del Mar Rosso. Seggio di paleogeografia, vjith map. (Atti III Congresso g. ital., Firenze, 1898.) Itier. " Des forSts petrifiees de I'Egypte et de la Lybie et du role qu'ont joue les eaux min6rales dans les formations geologiques posterieures au.x depots des terrains tertiaires." Montpellier, 1874. Judd. Report on the deposits of the Nile Delta. (Proceedings of Royal Society, Ixi, 1897.) Junker. " Reisen in Afrika.'' 3 vols. Vienna, 1891. English translation by Keane. Lyons. On the Stratigraphy and Physiography of the Libyan Desert of Egypt. (Qr. J. Geol, 1894, 1, p. 531.) and Raisin. Notes on a portion of the Nubian Desert. I. Field Geology. II. Petrology. (Qr. J. Geol, 1897, p. 360, with map 1/1,012,760.) Marno. Reisen in der egyptischen Aquatorial-Provinz und in Kordofan. Vienna, 1878. Martini. Nei Cunama. (B.S.G.I., 1903, p. 683.) Medina. See under North-West. Millosevich. See D'Ossat. Mitchell. " Report on the Geology and Petroleum of Ras Gemseh and Jebel Zeit." Cairo, 1887. Nachtigal. See under North- West. Neumayr. Pliocane Meereskonchylien aus Agypten. (Verhandl. Geolog. Reich sanstalt. Vienna, 1887, p. 350.) Newton. Occurrence of an Indian Jurassic shell in Somaliland. (Geolog. Mag., 1896, p. 294.) Overweg. See under North-West. Panatelli. Note geolog. sullo Scioa. (Soc. Tosc. Sci. Nat., Florence, 1889.) Paulitschke. Geologische Routenkarte flir die Strecke von Zejla bis Bia Woraba, 1/1,000,000, mit Begleitworten. (Mitteil. Geogr. Gesellsch., Wien, 1887, xxx, p. 212.) Pruyssenaere. See Zoppritz. Raisin. Some Rock Specimens from Somali Land. (Geolog. Mag., 1888, v, p. 414.) See Lyons. Revoil. " Faune et flora des pays Comalis." Paris, 1882. Rohlfs. " Kufra." Leipzig, 1881. ' ■ " Meine mission nach Abessinien." Leipzig, 1883. Rolland. See under North-West. Russeger. Map of Palestine and Egypt, 1842. Schimper. Geognostiche Skizze der Umgegend von Axum und Adoa in igre, v-ith profile. _ (Z.G.E., 1869, p. 347.) Schimper. Die geologischen und physikalischen Verhaltnisse des Distr. Arrho und der Salzhandel in Abessinien. (Z.G.E., 1877, No. 68, p. 109.) 128 ScUirmer. /"^ec under North- West. Sclioeller. "Keise in tier Colonia Eritrea," 1895. SrliAveinfurtli. V'bei' die geologische Schichteiiglioderung aes Mokattam bei Kairo. (Z.G.E., 1883, xxxv, p. 709.) Sur la ducouverte d'une fauiie palcozoique dans le gres d'Egypte. (Bull. Inst. Egypt., 1885.) Sur nne recente exploration geologique de I'Ouadi Arabaii. (Bull. Inst. Egypt, 1887.) . I'ber die Kriederegion bei den r\ramiden von Gizeh. With map 1/G0,000. ' (M.P.G., 1889, p. 1.) Am westlichen Eande des Niltliala zwisclien Farsohflt und Kom Ombo. .. M.P.G., 1901, p. 1.) " Aufnalimen in der ostlichen WUste von Bgypten." Berlin, 1901, with maps. Steckers. Eeisen in den Galla-Landern, with profile. (M.P.G., 1891, p. 233.) Stuhlmann. Ueber .seine Eei.se mit Dr. Emin Pascba. (V.G.E., 1892, p. 487.) — — "Mit Emin Pascba ins Herz von Afrika." Berlin, 1894. Tate. The age of the Nvibian Sandstone. (Qr. J. of Geology, 1871, vol. xxvii, p. 404.) Walther. L'apparition de la craie aux environs des Pyramides, ^oith map and profile. (Bull. Inst, egyptien, 1887, Septr.) Uber eiue Kohlenkalkfauna aus der Agyptisch-nubischen WUste. (Zeitschr. Deutsch. Geolog. Gesellsch, 1890, xlii, p. 419.) Zittel. " Uber den' geologisclien Bau der Libyschen Wuste." Munich, 1880. . Beitrage zur Geologie und PaliBontologie der Libyschen Wuste. (PaliBontographica, 1883, vol. xxx, pt. 2.) (Expedition zur Erfor- schung der Libyschen Wuste von G. Eohlfs, vol. iii, pt. 1. Cassel, 1883.) " Die Sahara ihre physische und geologische Beschaffenenheit," 1883. Zuppritz. Pruyssenaere's Eeisen und Forschungen in Gebiete des Weisaen nnd Blavien Nil. Zur Geologie und Bodenkunde des Weissen Nil Gebietes. (M.P.G., Ergan 50, 1877, p. 11.) EQUATOEIAL WEST. Anchieta. Tragos geologicos da Africa occidental Portugueza. (B.S., Geogr. Lisboa, 1885, v, p. 525.) Aragao. See Cordero. Barrat. Trois coupes geologique du Congo frangais. (Comptes Eendua Ac. Sci., cxix, 1894, p. 703.) Sur la geologie du Congo frangais. (Comptes Eendua Ac. Sci., cxix, 1894, p. 758.) Sur la geologie du Congo frangais. (Ann. des Mines, 1895, vii, p. 487.) Note sur les echantillons geologiques recueillis par M. le Dr. Herr au cours de la mission Clozel. (A.G., 1896, p. 309.) Baumann. Beitrage zur physischen Geographic des Kongo, with map. (Mitteil. Geogr. Gesellsch., Wien., 1887, xxx, p. 5113.) Bentley. Geology of the Congo. (Nature, 1883, No. 715, p. 243.) Bertrand. La geologie du bassin du Niari. .< (Rev. g6n6rale des Sciences, v, 1894, p. 792.) Bouysson. Eenseignements sur la r<;gion cotiere au nord de Libreville et sur le bas Oguou6. (S.G., 1898, p. ,355.) Brousseau. Note sur la geologie du Gabon et des monts de Cristal. (B.S.G., iii, 1901, p. 524.) Cameron. See under Equatorial East. Capello and Iveus. " From Benguela to the Territory of Jacca . A description of a Journey into Central West Africa." London, 1882. Chaper. Con.statation de I'existence du terrain glaciaire dans I'Afrique equatoriale. (Comptes Eendus Ac. Sci., 1886, p. 126.) 129 C'havanne. Eeisen im Gebiete der Musch-congo im portugiesisohen Wesv- afrika. (M.P.G., 1886, p. 97.) Clioffat. Dos terrenes sedenientares da Africa portugueza e considera^Hea sobre a geologia d'este eoutinente. (B.S., Geogr. Lisboa, 1887, p. 522.) Loriol. " Mat6riaux pour I'^tude stratigrapliique et palcontologique de la province d'Angola." Basel, 1888. " Comninnica9oes da Commissao dos trabalhos geologicns de Portugal,'' vol. ii, pt. 1, 1888-89. Lisbon, 1889. Coup d'oeil sur la geologie de la province d'Angola. (Portugal em Africa, 1895.) Nouvelles etudes sur la geologie du bassin du Congo. (Revista de Sciencias Naturaes, 1895, vol. iv. No. 1.) Amostras de rocLas do distrioto do Mossamedes. (Portugal em Africa, vii, 1900, No. 83, p. 529.) The rooks of tbe Mossamedes district. (Coinmunicagoes da Direcgao dos servijos geologicos, iv, pt. ii, Lisbon, 1901, p. 190.) [Choifat]. A edate da petra uo Congo por Xavier Stainer. (The Congo Stone age), with map 1/1,000,000. (Communicagoes da Direcgao dos servijos geologicos, iv, part ii, p. 202, 1901.) Cordero. " Viagens exploragoes e conquistas dos Portuguezas : C'ullec(;ao de documentos, 1593 to 1631 Terras e niinas africanas segundo B. R. de Ai-agao." Lisbon, 1881. Cornet. Les Formations post-primaires du Bassin du Congo, with map. (Ann. de la Soc. Geolog. de Belg., xxi, p. 193. Liege, 1894.) Les Gisements metalliferes du Katanga (Memoires de la Soc. des Sciences, &c., du Hainaut). Mons, 1894. Die geologische Ergebnisse der Katanga-Expedition. (M.P.G., 1894, p. 121, with map 1/2,000,000.) — — Les mines de cuivre du Katanga. (M.G., 1895, p. 3.) - — — Les depots superficiels et I'^rosion continentale dans le bassin du Congo. (B.S., Beige GeoLjg., x, 1896, p. 44.) Obsei"vations sur la geologie du Congo occidental (Extrait du B.S., Beige de Geologie &c.), 1896. Le Tanganyika est il un Relicten — See ? (M.G., 1896, pp. 301, 313.) L'S.ge de la pierre dans le Congo oocidental. Extract from "B.S., Anthropologie de Bruxelles, xv, 1896-97." Brussels, 1897. Observations sur les terrains auciens d\\ Katanga faites au couis de Fexpedition Bia-Francqui. Liege, 1897. (Annalesde la Soc. G6ol. de Belg., xxiv, 1897, p. 26.) La geologie du bassin du Congo d'apres les connaissances actuelles. (M.G., 1897, pp. 397, 421, 433, 471, 505. B.S., Beige de Geologie, xii, 1898, p. 31.) Etudes sur la Geologie du Congo occidental entre la cote et le confluent du Eubi. (B.S., Beige Geolog. PalKont Hydrog., xi, 1897, with sections.) Les travaux de M. J. Cornet sur le Congo. (M.G., 1898, p. 130.) Congrls national d'hygidne et de climatologie m^dicale de la Belgique et du Congo. Seconde partie : Congo, La Constitution du Sol. Brussels, 1898. Cornet. Notes sur des roches du Mont Bandupoi et du Haut TJelle. (B.S., Beige de Geologie, xii, 1898, p. 26.) Danzanvilliers. Les reconnaissances geologiques de M. E. Thollon dans les valines de Djone et du Niari. (B.S.G., 1897, p. 252.) [Delgado]. Notes on the specimens collected by Antunes in the province of Angola. (Communica§oes da Direogao dos servigos geologicos, iv, part ii, p. 195, 1901, Lisbon.) Demars. Le plateau central du Congo frangais. (B.S.G., iv, 1901, p. 89.) De Montrozier. See under North-West. 130 Dupont. L'explorationgeoloyiqnc ilu Congo. (M.G., 1888, No. 6, p. 23.) Communiriition sur la geologie du Congo. (B.S., Beige geolog., 1888, p. 44.) "Lettres sur le Congo. B6oit d'nn voyage scientifique entre I'embouchure du flcuve et le confluent du Kassai." Paris, 1889, -with map 1/2,000,000. Dusen. Om nordvastra Kamerunonir§,dets geologi, with map. (Geolog. foren forhandl., 1894, vol, xvi, p. 29.) Esch. Bericht der Geologen Dr. Esch liber eine Ileiae in das Nkossiland. (D.K., 1899, p. 196.) Der Vullian Etinde in Kanierun und seine Gesteine. (Sitzungsbericht Akad. Wissenschaft. Berlin, 1901, pp. 277, 400.) Farreil. Au Katanga. (M.G., 1903, p. 278, sqq.) GofFart. "Trait6 mSthodique de geograpliie du Congo. Geologie, &c." (Club Afracain d'Anvera.) Antwerp, 1897. Gomes. Echantillons de roebes recueillis entre Benguella et Catoco. (Communicajoes Direc. trab. geol., 1898, p. 239.) Gurich. See under North-West. Herr. Note sur les ochantillons geologiques recueillis au cours de la mission Clozel. (A.G., 1895-96, p. 318.) Junker. See under North-East. Knockenhauer. Geologische Untersuchungen in 'Kamerungebiete. (M.D.S., 1895, p. 87, with map 1/500,000.) Koszmat. See under Equatorial East. Le Chatelier. Le Bassin Minier du Niari. (B.S.G., 1900, ii, p. 161.) Lenz. See under North- West. Livingstone. See under Equatorial East. Loesche. See Pecliuel-Loeache. Lohest. Notions sommaires de Geologie a I'usage de I'esplorateur au Congo (Extrait du " Manuel du voyageur et du resident au Congo "), Brussels, 1897. Loriol. Note sur la geologie de la province d' Angola. (Arch, des sciences phys. et natur., 1888, xix, No. 1.) See C!hoffat. Mallieiro. Exploragoes geol. e mineras nas colonias Portuguezas. (Lissabon, Soc. da Geogr., 1881.) Meunier. Apergu sur la constitution geologique des r6gions situ6es entre Bembe et le pic Crampel (Congo) d'apres les Echantillons recueillis par M. J. Dybowski. (Comptes Eendus Ac. Sci., 11/7/92, p. 144.) Nascimento. " Exploracjelo geographica e mineralogica no districto de Mossa- medes em 1894-95." Lisbon, 1898. Passarge. Bericht liber die Expedition des deutschen Kamerun Komitees, 1893-94. (V.G.E., 1894, p. 369.) Pechuel-Locsche. Westafrikanische Laterite. (Ausland, 1884, Ivii, No. 21.) Zur Geologie des westlichen Kongogebiets. (Devitsche Eundschau f. Geogr. u. Statistik, 1886, p. 289, with map 1/3,000,000.) ■ " Kougoland." Jena, 1887. Pelatan. See under North- West. Pinto. " Serpa Pinto's Wanderung quer durch Afrika vom Atlantischen zum Indischen Ocean." Leipzig, 1881. English Edition, by Elwes. Spire. Rapport geologique sur les contrees comprises entre le Sangha et I'Atlantique (Mission Fourneau-Fonddre au Congo frangais). (Eev. Col., vi, 1900, p. 1382.) Stuhlmann. See under North-East. Tausch. See under Equatorial East. Verhandlungen des Deutschen Kolonialkongresses. 1902. Von Eeichenbach. See under Equatorial East. Wauters. L'ancienne mer int6rieure du Kassai. (M.G., 1898, p. 165, with map 1/2,000,000.) Weissenborn. Bericht liber die geologischen Ergebnisse der Batanga Expedition. (M.D.S., 1888, p. 52.) 131 EQUATOEIAL EAST. Aragao. See Cordero. Baumami. "Diircli Massai-laiid zur Nelquelle." Beilin, 1894, -with man 1/4,000,000. ' . 1 Beyrich. Ueber jurassisclie Ammoniten von Mombassa. (Moiiatsbericht d. Berliner Akad. d. Wissenscb., 1877, p. 90.) Ueber Hildebrands geologiscbe Sammlungen von Mombassa. (Monatsbericht d. Berbner Akad. d. Wissenscli., 1878, p. 767.) Bernhardt. Uber die bergmannischen und geologischen Ergebnisse seiner Beisen in Deutsch-Ost-Afrika. (Zeitsch. Deutsch. Geol. Ges., Berlin, 1898, 1, p. 59.) Geographisclie und geologische Mitteilungen liber das deiitscheNyassa- Gebiet auf Grund eigener Eeisen. (V.G.E., 1899, p. 437.) " Zur Oberfliichengestaltung und Geologie Deutaoh-Ostafrikas." BerHn, 1900, with map 1/500,000. Cameron. "Across Africa," 2 vols., 1877. Chanler. " Through Jungle and Desert. Travels in Eastern Africa." New York, 1896, with map. Chaper. See under Equatorial West. Choifat. Sur le Cretacique superieur a Mogambique. (Comptes Eendus Ac. Sei., cxxxi, 1900, p. 1258.) Cordero. See under Equatorial West. Cornet. See under Ecjuatorial West. Dantz. Ergebnisse der geologischen Expedition des Bergassessors Dantz. (M.US., 1900, p. 39.) Vorlaufiger Bericlit Uber seine Eeisen in Deutsch-Ostafrika. (Zeitsch. der deutschen Geolog.Gesellschaft, 1900, Bd. lii, Protokolle, p. 41.) Die Eeisen des Bergassessors Dr. Dantz in Deutsch-Ostafrika in den Jahren, 1898-1900, with map, 1/2,000,000. (M.D.S., 1902, pp. 34, 139 ; 1903, pp. 108, 183.) Dunn. East African Jurassic Ammonites. (Eeport Imp. Geol. Inst., Vienna, 30/9/77.) Dunstan-Holland. Eeport on tlie chemical examination of a collection of minerals from British Central Africa. (Brit. Cent. Af. Gazette, vol. x, 1903, No. 3, p. 46 ; No. 4, p. 61.) Eliot. " Eeport on the East Africa Protectorate." (Cd. No. 16-26, 1903.) Elliot, Scott-, and Gregory. See Gregory. Ferguson. Geological notes from Tanganyika Northwards (Moore Expedi- tion), with maps. (Geolog. Mag, 1901, p. 362.) Fraas. Jurassisches Vorkommen auf der Ostkliste von Afrika. (Jahreshefte des Vereins fur vaterlandische Naturkunde in Wurt- tembei'g Funfzehnter Jahrgang, p. 356. Stuttgart, 1859.) Fuchs. East African Ammonites. (Geolog. Mag., 1878, p. 311.) Futterer. Beitrage zur Kentniss des Jura in Ost- Afrika. (Zeitsch. d. Deutschen Geolog. Gesellsch., 1893, xlvi, p. 1.) Gregory. The glacial geology of Mount Kenia. (Qr. J. Geol., 1894, p. 515.) Contributions to the Physical Geography of British East Africa. (G.J., 1894, iv, pp. 289, 408, 505.) and Scott-Elliot. The geology of Mount Euwenzori and some ad- joining regions of Equatorial Africa. (Qr. J. Geol., 1895, p. 069, with map 1/4,000,000.) " The Great Eift Valley." London, 1896. The Geology of Mount Kenia. (Qr. J. Geol., 1900, p. 205, with map and section.) Henderson. The Nyaaa coal bed, with sketch, map, and section. (S.G.M., 1903, p. 311.) Herrmann. Der geologische Aufbau des deutschen Westufers des Victoria Nyansa. (M.D.S., 1899, p. 168.) (1425) I 132 JTylaiul I'bcr die Gesteiiif des Kilinia Ndseliaro und dcsscii Umgebung. Miiu'i.al. u. i.Htro^i. Mitteil., Wien, 1888, x, p. 203.) r.Johnston]. Notes on the Gc.)lo?v and Mineralo'jiv of the Uganda Pro- tectorate. ' ((;.J., xix, 1902, p. 43.) Kr.szmat. Die Geoh^cfie drs diiitsehen Sohntzgeliiete in Afrika. (G.Z., 1897, p. 585.) Kiinzli. Die petrogra|ihi,selie Au:-;beiite dev Hchilllei'.sehen Expedition in Aequatorial-Ostafiika (Massailand). (Vierteljahi-H. Naturforscli. 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J., xxxi, p. 106, 1875.) Pinto. See under Equatorial West. Eauce. Cieology of Natal and Zululand. (Nature, 1879, No. 490.) Eedmayue. The Geologj and Coal Deposits of Natal. .'Trans. N. of "Kngland Inst, of M. and M. Engineers, 1893, vol. xlii, p. 221.) Eeiter. Die Kalahara. (Zeitschr. fhr Wissensch. Geographic, Vienna, 1884-85, vol. v, pp. 103, 230, 316.)^ Eenevier. Eenseignements Geographiques tt G6ologiques sur le Sud de I'Afrique, extraits des lettres d« missionaire P. Berthoud. (B.S., Vaud. des sciences natur., xiii, p. 384, 1873.) Eeunert. " Diamonds and Gold in South Africa." London, 1893. Rogers and Schwartz. The Orange Eiver Ground Moraine. (Trans. S. African Phil. Soc, 1900, p. 11.3.) The Transkei Gap. (Trans. S. African Philos. Soc, vol. xiv. Part I, 1903.) Eubidge. On the occurrence of Ciold in the Trap-Dykes intersecting the Dicynodon Strata of South Africa. (Qr. J., xi, p. 1, 1855.) ■ Notes on the Geology of some part? of South Africa. (Qr. J., xii, p. 237, 1856.) •- — On the Copper ]\lines of Namaqualand. (Qr. J., xiii, p. 233, 1857.) ■ On some points in the Cleology of South Africa. (Qr. J. of GeoL, 1859, vol. xv, p. 195.) On the changes rendered necessary in the Geological Map of South Africa by recent discoveries of fossils. (Qr. J., xxi, p. 437, 1865.) On the Denudation of South Africa. (Geolog. IMag., iii, p. 88, 1865.) Eiigg. " New Map of Matabele Gold-fields and Portuguese Territory.'' London, 1803-94. Sawyer. The Witwatersrand Gold-field. (Trans. North Staffs. Inst. M. and M, Engineers, 1889-90, vol. ix, p. 31.) Mining at Kimberley. (Trans. North Staifs. Inst. M. and M. Engineers, 1889-90, vol. x, p. 74.) Eemarks on the Banket formation at Johannesberg, Transvaal. (Trans. Federated Inst. Min. Eng., ix, p. 360.) The South African Coal-field. (Trans. North Staflfs. Inst. M. and M. Engineers, 1889-90, vol. x, p. 161.) The Northern extension of the Witwatersrand Gold-field. (Trans. North Staffs. Inst. M. and M. Engineers, 1889-90, vol. x, p. 124.) " The Gold-lields of IMashonaland." London, 1892. " Keiiurt on the ( ieology and Mineral Eesources of tlie Division of Princa Albert and surrounding districts." Cape Town, 1893. ■ The Portugiiese Manica Gold-field. (Trana. Federated Inst. Min. Eng., xix, p. 265.) 139 Sawyer. The South Rand Gold-field and ita connection with the Witwatera. rand Banket Formation. (Trans. Federated Inst, of Min Eng.,1898, xiv.) Soheibe. Der Blaugrund in Deutsch-Sudwestafrika. (D.E.Z., 1903, p. 211.) Sohenck. Uber Transvaal und die dortigen Gold-felder. (V.G.E., 1888.) Schenck. DieGeologischeEntwickelungSiidafrikas, with map 1/10,000,000. (M.P.G., 1888, p. 225.) Uber Glazialer.scheinungen in SUdafrika. (Veshandl. viii Deutsoher Geographentag, 1889, pp. 14.5, xvi.) Vorkommen des Goldes in Transvaal. (Zeitschr. Deutsch. Geolog. Gesellsoh,, 1889, vol, xli, p. 573.) On glacial phenomena in South Africa. (Trans. Geolog. Soc, South Africa, 1896, p. 129.) Transvaal und Umgebungen. (V.T.E., xxvii, p. 60.) Schmeisser. " Uber Vorkommen und Gewinnung der nutzbaren Mineralien in der Slidafrikanischen Republik, unter besonderer BerUcksicbtigung des Goldbergbaus." Maps. Berlin, 1894. Schwartz. See Rogers. Seward. On the Association of SigiUaria and Glossopteris in South Africa. (Qr. J. of GeoL, 1897, p. 315.) Note on plant remains from Vereeniging, Transvaal. (Qr. J., 1898, liv, p. 92.) Shaw (F. G.). Auriferous Conglomerates of the Witwatersrand. (Trans. Federated Inst. Min. Eng., v, p. 169.) The Gold-fields of Matabel eland. (Trans. Federated Inst. Min. Eng., xi, p. 29.) (J.). On the Geology of the Diamond Fields of South Africa. (Qr. J. of Geo!., 1872, vol. xxviii, p. 21.) Skinner. A sketch of the Medical Geology of South Africa. (Journal Royal Army Medical Corps, 1904, Nos. 3, 4.) Stippf. Karte desunteru Khuisebthales, 1/225,000. ^ (M.P.G., 1887, p. 202.) "Das 'glaziale' Dwyka Konglomerat SUdafrikas." Berlin, 1889. Stephen. An attempt to synchronise the Australian, South African and Indian Coal measures. (Proc. Linn. Soc, New South Wales, 1889, p. 331.) Story-Maskelyne-Flight. On the character of the Diamantiferous Rock of South Africa. (Qr. J., xxx, p. 406, 1871.) Stow. On some fossils from Soutli Africa. (Qr. J., xv, p. 193, 18.J9.) On some points in South African Geology. (Qr. J., xxvii, p. 52, 1871.) On some points in South African Geology. (Qr. J. of GeoL, 1871, vol. xxvii, p. 497.) On some points in South African Geology : On the Dioynodon or Karoo formation, with notes by Prof. T. R. Jones. (Qr. J., xxvii, p. 523, 1871.) On the Diamond-gravels of the Vaal River, South Africa. (Qr. J. of Geol., 1872, vol. xxviii, p. 3.) Geological notes upon Griqualand West. (Qr. J. of GeoL, 1874, vol. xxx, p. 581.) Struben. " A geological map of Africa, South of the Zambezi, 1/2,534,000." London, 1896. Sutherland. Notes on the Geology of Natal. (Qr. J. of GeoL, 1855, vol. xi, p. 465 ; 1856, vol. xii, p. 107.) On the Geology of Natal. (Nat. Hist. Assoc, of Natal, 1868.) Note on the Auriferous Rocks of South-Eastern Africa. (Qr. J. of GeoL, 1869, vol. xxv, p. 169 ; Geolog. Mag., vi, p. 134, 1869.) Notes on an ancient Boulder-clay of Natal. (Qr. J. of GeoL, 1870, vol. xxvi, p. 514.) Tate. On the Jurassic Fauna and Flora of South Africa. (Geolog-. Mag. 1867, vol. iv, p. 128.) 140 Tate. On some secondary fossils from South Africa. (Qr. J. of Geol., 1867, vol. xxiii, p. 139.) Teiiuant. Soutli Afiican Diamonds. (Geolog. Mug., viii, p. 35, 1871. Thornton. On the Coal found by Dr. Livingstone at Tete on the Zambezi. (Qr. J., XV, p. 556, 1859.) Tower. The Physical Aspects of Zululand and Natal. (Brit. Assoc. Report, 1879, p. 442.) Verhandlungen des Deutschen Kolonialkongresses. 1902. Von Eeichenbach. See under Equatorial East. Wendeborn. Storungen der Schichten zwisclien Pretoria und Vereeniging in Transvaal una die daraus resultierenden Sohliisse iiber den Verbleib der Goldlialtigen Konglomerate. (Zeitsch. f. prakt. Geol., 1897, p. 305.) Wilkinson. Rhodesia and its mines. (J. Soc. of Arts., 1899, p. 209, with map and sections.) Wilmer. " Sketch map of the Damaraland Gold-fields, with the geological formation and mineral deposits, 1/320,000." Cape Town, 1889. Woodward. Focsil Fish from the Molteno Beds of Natal. (Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist., vol. xii, 1893, Series 6, p. 397.) Wlilting. Untersuchung eiues Nephelinsyenits aus dem mittleren Trans- vaal in Siid-Afriko. (Neues Jahrb. fur Mineralogie, 1888, ii, p. 16.) Zeiller. Etude sur quelques jilantes fossiles, en particulier Vertebraria et Glossopteris des environs de Johannesburg (Transvaal). (B.S., Geolog., France, xxvi, 1896, p. 349.) 141 EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS AND GLOSSAEY. The terms used in Great Britain and on the Continent for the various divisions of the Tertiary age are practically identical, and those for the Paleozoic age differ but Uttle. The following table shows the order in which the chief sub-divisions of the Secondary or Mesozoic appear : — Eiicylopedia Britannica. Britain. Continent. f Upper ■■■< Cretaceous ... Lower T - jooiitic.iypp^'' Jurassic -i • L -Lower L Liassic. . . r Upper Triassic ... ...i I Lower Senonian — Craic blanche et tvffeaii, UpjKr Q uadersandstcin Turonian — Planei'kalk Ceuomanian — Gres vert Gault Neocomian Upper or White Jui'a (Malm) Middle or Brown Jura (Dogger) Lower or Black Jura (Lias) Ehjetic beds, Keuper Musclielkalk Bmiter The terms employed in describing igneous rocks are given in Menuell, the following simple form by Mennell : — Geolog. Mag., Eruptive (=: Lava Flows). Intrusive (= Dyke Bocks). Plutonic (= Bock Consolidated at Great Depths). Acid* Sub-acid Sub-basic Basic§ Bhyolite Trachyte Andesite Basalt Granophyret FelsophyreJ Porphyrite Dolerite Granite Syenite Diorite Gabbro cent. August, 1902. * In the Acid group the percentage of silica ranges from 60 to 75 per + Quartz-felsite. % Sometimes called felsite. § In the Basic group the percentage of silica is only about 50 per cent. 142 GLOSSAEY. Acid, see Quartz. Agslomerate is the term used fen- any heterogeneous admixture of igneous fragments consolidated into a rocky mass, c.f. Conglomerate. Araphibolite is a term used by some for hornblende rock {q.v.), and by others for diabase {q.v.). Amygdaloid is a soft, earthy variety of trap rock. Andesite is a tricliuic mineral {see Felspar) consisting of plagioclase and hornblende or augite, and is often, if not always, altered oligoclase. Archtean is the term applied to the masses of gneiss and other crystalline schistose rooks belonging probably to widely different geological periods, and underlying the unaltered stratified formations which themselves are derived partly from them. Augite is of practically the same composition as hornblende, but the crystals are generally more stumpy. It is common in basic crystalline rocks and is not often associated with quartz. Axinite is a. triclinic mineral with glassy lustre and varying colour, clove brown, plain blue and pearl-grey, according to the direction in which it is viewed. It is composed of silica, alumina, lime and sesquioxides of iron and manganese. Bajocian corresponds with the lower oolite, and holds a position immediately below the Cornbrash of the Bathonian series. Basalt is a close-grained, black, heavy, volcanic rock, consisting of triclinic felspar, augite, olivine, magnetic iron, with apatite and sometimes sanidine. Basic, see Quartz. Biotite is a black, basic, magnesium mica, which was formerly called magnesia mica. Breccia is a coarse rock made of sharp-edged or angular pieces of stone, which have been simply Iji-oken from some other rock and cemented together \>y a paste of tine mud or sand, or by a deposit of carbonate of lime or some other chemical substance. Cenomanian corresponds with tlie upper greensand. Chert is an impure flint, containing more clay or lime than silica, and occurs in concretions^, nodules and rock masses. Chloi'ite schist is a schistose aggregate of green chlorite, often combined with quartz, felspar, mica or talc. Clay-slate is a compact, close-grained, very hard fissile argillaceous rock. Conglomerate is the name applied to any rock which is formed of consoli- dated shingle or gravel, c.f. Agglomerate. Danian corresponds with the upper chalk. Diabase is a term applied to certain dark green or almost black eruptive rocks usually associated with the older formations ; it is a fine-grained compound of hornblende and labradorite (a plagioclase mineral). Diallage is a non-aluminous variety of pyroxene, of greyish green oi grass- green colour, and is common especially in serpentine rocks. Diorite, sometimes called (Ireenstone, is a cry5,talline mixture of oligoclase and hornblende with magnetic iron. Dolerite is a coarsely crystalline variety of basalt. Dolomite is a massive formation, from dull granular to finely crystalline in texture, of the carbonates of lime and magnesia usually associated with gypsum, rock salt, &c. This is sometimes called magnesian limestone. Fclsite is composed of orthoclasc and quartz bo mixed that the eye cannot distinguish them. 143 Felspar is a mineral composed chiefly of silica, alumina and potash or soda, and has a' straight, glassy cleavage. The felspars are grouped into two series,_ the monoclinic or orthoclase, -with a preponderance of silica, and the triclinic or plagioclase. Gabbro, or Diallage rock, is a coarsely crystalline compound of a triclinic felspar and diallage, often with olivine. (See table on p. 114.) Garnet is a red or green composite silicate of lime, alumina, iron, &c. Gault is the lowest or clay series of the upper Cretaceous group. Gneiss is a crystalline schistose aggregate of the same materials as granite, namely, quartz, felspar and mica. Granite is a tlioroughly crystalline mixture of quartz, felspar and mica. Gvanulite is made up of irregular crystalline grains (not complete crystals) of approximately even size interlocking together, and is produced generally from gneiss-rocks by regional metamorpliism. It is sometimes called Semi-granite. Graphite is cai'bon, either pure or with a slight admi.xtureof iron or occasion- ally silica, alumina and lime. It has a metallic silvery lustre and varies from iron-black to steel-grey in colour. It is met with in the meta- morphic rocks and is probably metamorphosed coal. It is commonly called Black-lead. It is usually found in compact laminated masses, but sometimes crystallized in six-sided plates. Greenstone, see Diorite. Greywacke is a compact aggregate of rounded or sub-angular grains of quartz, slate, felspar or other minerals or rocks cemented by a matrix which may be argillaceous, felspathic or calcareous, but is usually siliceous. This term was originally applied to all pre-Devonian rocks. Gypsum is sulphate of lime, and occurs either massive, granular or fibrous ; when crystallised it is known as selenite. Hicmatite is peroxide of iron, and is found crystallised in veins through crystalline rocks, and also occurs massive and earthy in beds. Halleflinta is a compact flinty quartz rock ribboned with hjeraatite bands. Haplite is a crystalline-granular admixture of felspar and quartz, sometimes called Semi-granite. Graphic-granite, called also Pegmatite, is a variety. Hornblende is a dark green or black mineral, with horny, glistening fracture, and is found in granites and greenstones. It is a normal silicate of lime, iron and magnesia. Kaolin, or China-clay, is hydrated silicate of alumina formed from the dis- integration of the felspar of granites, &c. Killas is a clay-slate in which the ores of copper and tin are found in Cornwall. It is a coarse, argillaceous schist, with granite veins, which, at the junction, convert it into hornblende schist. Laterite is defined by LyeU as a red, jaspery rock compound of silicate of alumina and iron. Kutley defines it as a red, earthy rock occurring between basalt and other lava flows, and resulting from their decompo- sition. It is, he says, strongly impregnated with sesquioxide of iron, and sometimes also contains Iitematite and beauxite. It should be noticed that in these notes the authorities, in some cases, appear to use the term loosely for any old rock decomposed and impregnated with iron. Leptynite, or Granulite, is a crystalline schistose aggregate of orthoclase and quartz. Limonite is a yellow or red oxide of iron combined with water, having a more or less fibrous structure ; more frequently earthy ; it often foims the colouring matter of rocks. It includes bog-ore, and some clay- ironstones. Liparite, Ehyolite or Quartz Trachyte, is an orthoclase rock, with an excess of silica, the latter in distinct grains. Madrepore is a term applied loosely to any coral distinguished by super- ficial star-shaped cavities. Magnesian limestone, see Dolomite. Magnetite, which is an oxide of ii-on, appears in minute grains through crystalline rocks. In basalt it is a chief constituent. It also occurs in veins and beds in many metamorphic rocks. Marl is a term loosely applied to all friable compounds of lime and clay, Melaphyre is a petrological group of species akin both to basalt and 144 diubase, and quite iinlistiiiguisliable in external appearance from the former, but, as a rule, not so heavy, dark or compact, and does net contain so much olivine. Mica is a soft, sectile, glistening mineral, which readily splits into thin, transparent plates, and is composed mainly of silica, potash and magnesia. Mica scliist is a .schistose ,iggi-egate of quartz and mica. Mulybdcnite is a soft mineral occurring mostly in foliated masses or as aggregates of minute scales. It has a metallic lustre, and is lead-grey in colour, and is found distiibuted among the crystalline rocks. In composition it is sulphide of molybdenum. Muscovite is a white mica composed of silicate of alamina with potash, not infrequently met with coloured by impurities. Neocomian corresponds with the Weald clay and Hastings beds. Obsidian is a volcanic glass, resembling bottle glass, which breaks into sharp splinters, semi-ti-ansparent or translucent at the edges. Olivine is a basic silicate of magnesia with some iron, crystallizing on the trimetric system ; it has no cleavage and a glassy lustre. At first sight it looks very much like quartz, but is distinguished by its beautiful olive-green colour and hardness. Orthoclase rocks are those which have orthoolase {sea under Felspar) as their chief silicate, and correspond generally with the acid grouj>. Pegmatite is a very coarsely grained aggregate of quartz, felspar and biotite or muscovite. By some geologists all coarsely grained granites are called Pegmatite. Phonolite, or Clinkstone, is a volcanic rock of late geological date, and is frequently found filling volcanic orifices, sometimes as sheets. It consists of a mixture of sanidine felspar and nepteline with hornblende. Phyllite is a term applied both to a mineral occurring in small, shiny scales in clay-slate, and to some slaty rocks apparently intermediate between mica schist and ordinary clay-slate. Plagioclase rocks are those in which the chief silicate is some species of triclinic felspar {q.v.), and corresponds with the basic group. Porphyry is a term originally applied to a rock having a purple-coloured base, with enclosed individual crystals of a felspar, and is still used by some as a generic name for all rocks consisting of a felsitic base, with felspar crystals. Most English writers now, however, use it only in its adjectival form, and apply it to any rock in which crystals of felspar are individually developed, irrespective of the mineralogical composition of the whole. Potstone is a sectile steatite {q.v.) rock with great power of resisting heat. Psylomelane is hydrated manganese oxide. Puddingstone, see Conglomerate. Pyroxene is a name used for a group of minerals of very variable com- position and origin, consisting generally of a large percentage of lime, with magnesia, the protoxides of iron and manganese, and sometimes soda and potash. The crystals are monoclinic with conchoidal fracture. The colour varies greatly, including shades of green, and from white to black. The lighter are found in metamorphic rocks, the darker in eruptive. The variety characterising serpentine and gabbro is Diallage {q.v.). Quartz is pure silica, and forms the basis of the division of igneous rocka into acid, containing from 60 to 75 per cent, of silica, and basic with only 50 per cent. Quartzite, see Quartz rock. Quartz rock (Quartzite) is a close-grained, granular aggregate of quartz, cemented by a highly silicious matrix. Bhyolite, see Liparite. Sanidine is a very pure variety of Orthoclase {q.v.) occurring in clear glassy crystals of a tabular habit in certain volcanic rooka. Selenite, see Gypsum. Senonian corresponds with the upper and lower chalk. Serpentine is a hydrated silicate of magnesia, usually amorphous, and green, yellow or red, formed from the decomposition of ordinary silicates, and common in crystalline rocks, especially the more ancient ones. 145 Sliale is a clay -rock of thinly stratified or fissile structure, in consequence of the clay hai'ing' been deposited intermittently. Steatite is a species of talc, with a greasy or soapy feel. Syenite is a mixture of orthoolase and hornblende, sometimes with quartz, mica or plagioclase. Formerly this term was used for a granite in which hornblende took the place of mica. Talc is a whitish-green magnesian miceral, resembling mica. It is trans- parent when in thin plates, but is generally massive, sectile, soft and non-elastic. Talc schist is a schistose aggregate of whitish-green or yellowish talc, often combined with felspar or cjuartz. Tithonian is a term applied to a series of rocks occurring between the Neocomian and the Oolite, and probably of the same age as a part of the Wealden series. Trachyte is a modern rough volcanic rock consisting of sanidine with triclinic felspar, hornblende, &c. Trap is a term which includes a great variety of igneous rocks, such as basalt, greenstone, &c., which give a peculiar step-like (trappa, a stair) appearance to the hills composed of them. Travertine (Calcareous tufa) is the material deposited by calcareous springs. Tuff is a term used to include all the finer kinds of volcanic detritus, and is .sub-divided, according to the nature of the lava of which it is a deriva- tive, into felsite-tvrff, trachyte-tuflf, &c. Turoniau beds, which consist of chalk marl and chlorate marl, hold a position between the Greensand and the Lower chalk. 146 INDEX OF AUTHOEITIES. The figures in ordinani type refer to the Notes the hlocl type figures to the paragraphs of the Introduction. Abbate, 211 Alford, 173, 181 Alldridge, 64 Anderson, 176 Angus, 11 Arnold, 234 Arnot, 99 Aiibry, 299 Austin, 294 Bailie, 247 Bain, 44, 316 Baldacci, 76 Ball, 31, 308 Barrat, 39, 82 Barr6, 3, 5, 6 Barth, 30, 33, 34, 122, 123, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 206 Baumann, 28, 36, 72, 73, 87 Beadnell, 31, 121, 201 Beke, 222 Bent, 213 Berton, 59 Bertrand, 61 Binger, 164 Blanckenhorn, 292 Blandford, 299 Boileau, 2 Borms, 302 Bernhardt, 24, 277 Bottego, 252 Boudariat, 288 Bramley, see Jennings- Bramley Briart, 37 Bricehetti-Eobecchi, 18, 28, 255, 257 Brousseau, 272 Bruce, 228 Bruel, 233 Brunei, 53, 54 Cameron, 36, 37, 280 Cecchi, 70 Chanoine, 33, 200 Chesnaye, 190 Chevalier, 197 Choffat, 45, 62, 205 Choisy, 31, 77 Clapperton, 33, 34, 103, 109 Cligny, 197 Clozel, 84 Codrington, 260 Cohen, 180 Cook, 311 Cornet, 33, 36, 38, 39, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 110, 241 Croad, 261 Cross, see Kerr-Crosa Cureaii, 33, 6, 7, 97 DAlbeca, 33, 34, 53, 54, 206 Dantz, 16, 28, 125, 150 Jja Sika, 45, 205 De Lapparent, 14, 40, 77, 188, 299 Delcominune, 37, 143 Delme-Eadcliffe, 279 De Meziere, 36, 163, 270 De Montrozier, 306, 307 Dentz, 88 Denton, 34, 317 Dereims, 34, 184 Digby -Jones, see Jones Di Vesmes, 256 Douls, 30, 112 Doutte, 305 Douville, 299 Draper, 274 Dreyfus, 34 Da Bourg de Bozas, 290 Dunn, 44 Dunstan, 328 Dupont, 37, 39, 289 Eckersley, 65 Eggers, 169 Elliot, see Scott Elton, 175 Erskine, 174, 223, 243 Eysseric, 85 Ferguson, 34, 318 Fergusson, 37, 281 Ficheur, 291 Fischer, 29, 1, 95 Flamand, 30, 149, 271 Flatters, 116 Fleck, 98 Fondere, 193 Foureau, 154, 188i Foui'neau, 193 Futterer, 83 Gaden, 28 Geikie, 34, 320 Gentil, 249 Gibbons, 12, 99, 141, 196 Gibson, 20, 43, 44 Grant, 28, 268 Gregory, 15, 18, 19, 21, 22, 26, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 269 Grenfell, 182 Grey, 200 147 Grogan, 152 Gurich, 206 Hammond, 108 Harris, 29, 67 Harrison, 203 Hauser, 86 Hay, 244 Henderson, 102 Hermann, 146 Herr, 36, 84 Hinde, 240 Hobley, 28, 48, 268, 323 Holdioh, 11 Holland, 328 Hoste, 262 Hiibner, 138, 139, 179 Huguet, 93 Hugounenq, 309 HuD, 32, 145 Hulley, 105 Hyatt, 298 Ingram, 91 Isaac, 28, 268 Jacobs, 93 Jenner, 18, 19, 28, 96 Jennings-Bramley, 215 Jobit, 185 Jodka, 314 Johnston, 28, 78, 268 Jones, Digby, 285 Jones, Rupert, 44, 45, 31G Julien, 36, 194 Junker, 33, 5, 141 Kemball, 313 Kerr-Cross, 68 Kirby, 177 Kirk, 25, 221 . Knockenhauer, 39, 208 Koettlitz, 16, 18, 25, 111 Laloy, 45, 229 Lamothe, 282 Lawley, 104 Le Chatelier, 32, 39, 166 Leckie, 322 Lemaire, 37, 151, 152, 156 Le Mesle, 75 Lenfant, 321 Lenz, 29, 30, 34, 117, 118, 160, 264 Le Roux, 230 Lewis, 105, 235, 295 Lieder, 219 Linck, 33, 202 Livingstone, 16, 28, 41, 42, 43, 45, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 144 Lofler, 310 Lorlet, 309 Lugard, 33, 103 Lyons, 31, 188 (1425) MacAlister, 172 MacGlashan, 107 MacGregor, 287 Maclaud, 34, 80 Man gin, 191 Maples, 20, 225 Marcel-Monnier, 206 Marno, 33, 10 Martonne, 25, 28 Mason, 33, 8, 286 Mauch, 179 Mayo, 227 McKinnon, 296 Mennell, 315 Michel, 153 Mill, 2 Miller, 155 Mijon, 119 Molengraaf, 42, 43, 44, 267 Money, 253 Monnier, see Marcel Monteil, 34, 56 Moore, 20, 23, 27, 37, 2, 78, 189, 217, 218 Nachtigal, 30, 92 Neumann, 192, 275 Northcott, 187 O'Neill, 20, 178, 225 Parkinson, 28, 151, 156 Passarge, 41, 66, 108, 209, 259 Paulitschke, 284 Pease, 258 Penning, 180 Peroz, 33, 233 Pervinquiere, 183 Peters, 19, 20, 28, 90, 312 Pierre, 306 Poulet, 165 Pourcher, 204 Prins, 33, 127 Probyn, 321 Pruyssenaere, 285 Questiaux, 151, 156 QuickC, 196 Quiroga, 30, 113 Raoey, 28, 268 Bambaud, 34, 167 Ramsay, 5 Ran(;on, 57 Rehbok, 94 Roche, 116 Rohlfs, 25, 124, 228 Rolland, 29, 30, 31, 32, 114, 278 Roux (Ch.), 199 Sacchi, 18, 19, 25, 89 Saint- Yves, 304 Salesses, 33, 100 Savmento, 226 14S Sawder, 303 Schenck, 42, 43, 44, 101 Sdiirmer, 30, 31, 32 Schoeller, 273 Schultz, 254 Schuver, 242 Sclnveinfurtb, 71, 170, 171 Scott-Elliot, 28, 34, 81, 90 Segonzac, 162 Selby, 297 Skertchley, 246 Slatin, 210 Smith, 248 Smith, D., 28, 186, 204, 250 South wood, 106 Spilsbury, SO, 263 Spire, 193 Stanley, 27, 36, 37 Stecker, 74 Stuhlmann, 4, 79 Suess, 22, S6 Talbot, 293 Tappenbeck, 39, 147 Tellier, 288 Thomann, 232 Thomasset, 33, 34, 126 Thomson, 29, 31, 36, 95, 139, 225, 236, 238 Toutee, 33, 34, 206 Trotter, 33, 206, 216 Vancleleur, 212 Vasconoellos, 159 Vine, 93 Vogdes, 5 Volkmann, 266 Von Bary, 30, 115 Von rtruchausen, 150 Von Francois, 168 Von Gotzen, 69 Von Hohnel, 21, 22 Von Keichenbach, 39, 43 Von Stein, 182 Von Zech, 207 Voss, 151 Walker, 325 Wallace, 252 Watson, 245 Wauters, 33, 36, 37, 39 Weissgerber, 33, 231 Wellby, 25, 111, 158 Werth, 43 White Fathers, 276 AVilkinson, 180, 300 Wilson, 28, 268 Woelffel, 191 Wolf, 33, 206 Zittel, 31, 32, 120, 121 149 GENEEAL INDEX. The figures in ordinary type refer to the Notes., the block type figures to the paragraphs of the IvAroduction. Ababd mts., 15 Abbaya, 275 Abdulkassim, 275 Abeokuta, 321 Abome, 34 Absorption, by soil, 6 Abu Had, 172 Abunas, 192, 275 Abu Eoash, 71 Abyssinia, 243, 275 volcanic action, 16, 35 ■ Afar mts., 22 frontier, 111 plateau, 153, 210 Western, 228 Achate (Atyuti), 207 Adamawa, 43, 66 Adansi, 177 Addis Abbaba, 35, 111, 275 Adele, 207 Aden, 16, 28, 322 Adere, 318 Adowa, 228 Adrar, 34, 184 Adua, 76 Adumre, 209 Afafi, 92 Afar mts.. 23 Afo, 92 Afram B., 319 Africa, age of, 13, sqq. ■ axis, present, 20, 35 primitive, 15, 18, 20, 25 British Central, 78 East, 19, 20, 46 Coast line, 13 Eastern, 17, sqq. foot-plateau, 18 German East, 18, 19, 20, 38, 43, 87, 280 South-West, 39, 43; gradual growth, 14, 15, 16 horn, 18, 28 Ice age, 40 • inland sea-s and lakes, 14 ■ North, 29, sqq. dry land, 32 West Coast, 33 . South-Central and South, 40, sqq. ■ terrace formation, 17 Western, 36, sqq. tropical coast, 38 Agadir, 31 Agbabu, 287 (1425) Agenna, 319 Agglomerates, 45, 323 Agaumidei-, 222 Ahaggar, 30, 116 Aik, 322 Ain Draham, 183 Ainsu, 319 Air, 30, 115, 122, 128, 129, 161 Ait Eabaa, 39, 67 Ajibur E., 294 Ajue, 287 Akim, 177, 244, 319 Akobo E., 294 Akra, 319 Akropong, 319 Alada, 53 Albert L., 23, 36, 37, 28, 33, 36, 37, 35, 146, 189, 324 Edward L., 33, 37, 38, 146, 189, 269 Alexandria, 188 Algeria, 4, 291, 292 Geological Survey, 12 Algerian Atlas, 39, 31 Algiers, 291, 292 Alima E., 37 Alluvium, 2, 8, 25, 27, 40, 43, 52, 53, 78, 81, 90, 103, 126, 140, 141, 142, 147, 150, 158, 174, 187, 188, 189, 196, 206, 208, 217, 221, 224, 239, '' 243, 246, 257, 269, 277, 280, 281, im A-Madi, 148 Amantia, 177 Amban mts., 134 Ambriz, 147 Ambukol, 211 Amelia Bay, 33, 78 America, South, volcanic action, 36 Amphibolite, 34, 14, 17, 18, 209, 211, 264, 288, 289, 320 Amygdaloid, 176 Anahef, 123 Anakasa, 303 Andesite, 28, 111, 291 Angola, 62 Angoniland, 11, 218, 219, 260 Animaboe, 319 Ankober, 153 Ankobra E., 303, 319 Ankole, 27, 00, 268, 323 Anti- Atlas, 39, 67, 117 Apai, 207 Archa;au, 38, 36, 38, 17, 18, 188, 206, 268, 278, 283, 291, 292, 322 ; seeabo under Granite, Gneiss, Schist, &c. K 2 150 Areg-el-Shesh, 118 Arenaceous, 53, 174, 176, 223, 243, 257 ; see under Sandstone Argillaceous, see Clay Argillites, 38 Aiib, 291 Arc, 34, 320 Artalla mts., 17, 18 Aruwimi E,, 36, 37 Asgar, 128 Ashauti, 177, 264, 319 Asiu, 28, 1 28 Asmara, 76 Assoa, 222 Assuan, 145, 308, 309 Aswa E., 279 Atabubu, 318, 319 Atanash, 303 Atbara IDesert, 228 Athi Plains, 51 Athi E., 325 Atlantic, 30, 31, 36 slope, 22, 26 Atlas mts., 3, 13, 29, 30, 67, 95, 278, 292 eifect oil rainfall, 4 region dry land, 32 tableland, 1 ; see under Alge- rian, Maroccan, Tripolitan Atmospheric influence, 3 Aughrabies Falls, 45, 94 Australian Ice age, 44 Awamba Forest, 27 Aweniba, 218, 296 Awudwa, 303 Axis, pi'imitive, 15, 18 A-Zande Plateaux, 33, 6 Azawakh, 188, BaE., 310 Babors, 291 Bachuinit, 34, 118 Back E., 176 Badattino, 275 Badhovwein, 257 Badinga, 282 Badmok, 257; Bafing E., 288 Bagamoyo, 277 Bago E., 97 Bagoe R, 35 Baharia, 188, 201 Bahr-el-Arab, 33, 7, 300 Bahr-el-Ghazal, 33, 165 • Lake, 26 see Ghazal Bahr-el-Zaraf, 224 Bailunda, 280 Bajocian, 299 Bakaa mts., 140 Bakel, 34, 184, 288 Balegga, 27 Balji, 153 Ballanghar, 34, 317 Bamako, 35 Bamangwato E., 134 Barabara Mande, 35 Bambuk, 288 Bambusa, 318 Bandama, 85 Bandi, 64 Bangasso, 307 Bangweulu L., 36, 241 terrace, 37 L., level of, 37 drying up, 37 Bani E., 35 Banket formation, 42, 43, 44, 303 Baol, 28, 34, 167 Bari, 28, 250, 257 Baria E., 310 Baringo L., 268, 325 Bark a, 13 Barkly, 247 Baro E., 153 Barotse Lake, 45 Basalt, 25, 28, 12, 43, 92, 95, 96, 97, 103, 107, 111, 122, 125, 153, 158, 175, 196, 208, 209, 211, 221, 226, 227, 228, 230, 236, 243, 246, 275, 284, 304, 324, 325 Base Kop, 176 Basosiland, 97 Bassikunu, 34, 35, 118 Basutuland, 42, 101 Bathonian, 17, 18, 299 Batna, 292 Bauchi, 321 Baule, 33, 85, 206 E., 288 Beaufort beds, 44 Bechuanaland, 229 Begoro, 319 Belingwe, 107 Benin Coast, 34 Beni Meskin, 231 Shangul, 111 Shugran, 291 Uled, 103 Benue E., 39, 43, 321 Beraharago, 257 Berber, 245 Berbera, 18, 111, 220, 256, 322 Berea, 243 Bere-Bere, 306 Biamts., 36, 34 Bia Woraba, 284 Biban mts., 292 Bihe, 280 Bihen, 17, 18 Bihendthola, 322 Bilma, 28, 103 Bilo, 111 Biological influence, 3 Biotite, 111, 320 Birbir E. Bir el Malha, 28G 151 Birrem, 319 Birshi, 33, 103 Biskra, 149 Bizerta, 183 Bled Hummel, 95 Blida, 291, 292 Blue Nile, see Nile Boakipi, 318 Boghai- mts., 291 Bohotle, 220 Bokkeveld, 44 formation, 43, 101 Bokue E., 193 Bole, 318 Boma, 289 Hills, 294 Bomokandi K., 148 Bomu, see M'Bomu Bone, 291 Boniape, 318 Bonsa, 303 Borgu, 33, 103 Borku, 30 Bosch Veld, 43 Bosi E., 174, 243 Botor mts., 153 Boundary delimitation, 11 Brava, 27 Brinus mts., 176 British Central Africa, 2, 13, 7S, 102, 137, 217, 218, 260, 328 Broken Hill, 329 Bubi, 107 Budir, 257 Buem, 318 Bugoma, 131 Bukedi, 268 Bulalima, 107 Bulawayo, 107, 247, 315 Bulawayo-Salisbnry road, 9 BullabuUa, 109 Bumba, 321 Bumban Hills, 216 Bandore, 131 Banter sandstone, 28 Bun Yero, 322 Bura mt, 21, 49, 325 Burao, 17, 18, 322 Bur Dap, 17, 18 Burgi, 89 Buru, 238 Busoga, 28, 268 Bussa, 109 Busumchwe, 281 Buzarea Peak, 291 Cairo, 188 Calcareous, 6, 9, 29, 31, 58, 75, 77, 89, 103, 130, 149, 151, 166, 180, 183, 188, 196, 204, 231, 255, 257, 291, 299, 303, 308 Cambrian, 36, 37 Campbell Eange, 176, 229 Cape Blanco, 31 Cape Bon, 75 Colony, 3, 44, 42, 101, 236, 316 Geological Commission, 13 Delgado, 277 Fer, 291 formation, 42, 43, 44, 229 Juby, 31 Naze, 167 Eouge, 167 Town, 315 ■ ■ Verde, 34, 167 Carboniferous, 18, 19, 30, 28, 30, 43, 16, 42, 90, 107, 236, 237, 238, 263 Casablanca, 95, 231 Casamance, 197 Cenomanian, 31, 275 Central African schist range, 38 Chad L., 33, 103, 188i Chafuguma Hills, 200 Chalahakurta Hill, 325 Chalk, 31, 77, 93, 103, 111, 121, 160, 170, 174, 201, 238, 292 Chamba mts., 209 Chambezi E., 78 Chambon Falls, 289 Changabubu mts., 21, 49 Chano E., 325 Chellia, 111 Chemical action, 5, 38 Cheredzi E., 298 Cherts, 38 Cliewala, 190 Chiga Hills, 225 Chilenga, 262 Chimoio, 65 Chinamba Hills, 176 Chitimba, 102 Chizomba E., 262 Chlorite, 303 Chobe E., 99, 254 Chocho, 34, 109 Choga L. system, 36, 90 Choma, 261 Christmas Pass, 65 — road, 9 Chua, 279 Clay, 34, 36, 1, 4, 6, 10, 40, 53, 57, 78, 92, 96, 99, 102, 103, 109, 121, 131, 146, 153, 154, 164, 167, 168, 188, 191, 196, 197, 201, 204, 210, 211, 222, 2.36, 244, 249, 255, 257, 261, 270, 280, 283, 288, 289, 294, 302, 307, 308, 322 . schistose, 193 Clay-ironstone, 109, 207 318 ; see Ferruginous, Limonite Clay-slate, 34, 43, 43, 78, 95, 118, 138, 174, 179, 180, 213, 280, 303 Coal-bearing strata, 44, 108, 236, 237, 298 ; see under Carboniferous, Karoo, Stormberg Coal vegetation, 43, 44 Communications, 7, 8, 10 Conglomerates, 39, 34, 40, 42, 1, 6, 152 :.4, Sr., 00, \-27, 139, 144, 160, 173, 175, 17G, 189, 200, 206, 207, 218, 221, 257, 274, 2t Ennies, 98 Entebbe, 3-24 Eocene, 31, 71, 75, 121, 145, 17(i, 183, 188, 199, 277, 291, 292, 308 Equatorial forest, 34 Erba mt., 213 Erg, 23, 24, 149 Eritrea, 204 Erosion, 5, 21, 32, 34, 38, 39, 108, 184, 229 Eshigibi, 174 Esna, 31, 188 shale, 121, 201 Evaporation, 35 Exogyra Overwegi, 121 Eyassi L., 88 Eyo, 109 Fagao, 324 Fagibini L., 35 Ealaba, 34, 81 Faleme E., 288 Fangano I., 323 Fantalle Hills, 111 Faradairo, 17, 18 Farafra oasis, 31, 188, 201 Faro E,, 209 Fayum, 188 Felsite, 173 Felspar, 38, 179, 211, 236, 238, 318, 320, 321, 325 Ferlo, 167 Fernando Po, 66 Ferrad, 290 Ferruginous, 54, 70, 78, 85, 88, 103, 109, 127, 139, 144, 164, 165, 179, 180, 184, 186, 191, 193, 200, 206, 207, 261, 268, 283, 288, 295, 309, 319, 320, 322, 324, 325, 327, 328 ; see Clay-ironstone, Limonite Fez, 160 Fezzan, 30, 32, 114 Figalo, 291 Filabusi, 107 Fin-Finni, 70 Fingbo, 318 Fisa mts., 3 Fish K., 44 Foja, 286 Fo'mena, 177. Forest belt, 34 Fort Jameson, 329 Fort Ternan, 323 French Congo, 58, 82, 270 French Guinea, 33, 100 Frieiabe, 80 Fudi mt., 222 Fulirwa, 102 Purabo, 318 Futa Jiillon, 33, 35, 100, 1G7 Gabbro, 28, 14, 205, 264, 322, 328 Gabes, (iulf, 13 (-iabon E., mouth, 39 Gadem, 228 Gaepe, 318 Gafsa, 183 Gail, 33, 127 Gairedzi E., 234 Gallaland, 192 Gaman, 319 Gambia, 34, 317 Gambos country, 205 Gamtoos E., 316 Gandu, 241, 251 Gangade Plain, 221 Gao, 132 Garnets, 176, 320, 325 Garua, 66, 321 Gatron, 92, 103 Gault, 7 Gelo E., 275 General Matthew's range, 21, Geograpliy, definition, 2 Geological survey, 12 Geology, bearing on Geograpli}-, 1 historical, 3 influences communications, 7 . ■ discharge of rivers, 6 water action, 5 petrological, 3, 8, 14 secrets of, 10 George district, 316 Geoza, 33, 103 Gera, 70 Gessi mt., 26 Ghasa Plateau, 148 Ghat, 128 Ghazal region, 5 Ghraat (Ghat), 103 Ghulime, 311 Giani, 325 Gildessa, 284 Gillet mts., 275 Giraul, 227 Ginea, 28, 214 Gneiss, 14, 20, 23, 28, 33, 36, 38, 39, 41, 42, 2, 5, 6, 14, 17, 18, 30, 34, 36, 42, 44, 49, 65, 66, 68, 78, 86, 88, 89, 90, 94, 96, 107, 111, 126, 128, 131, 139, 148, 150, 155, 163, 173, 174, 176, 179, 181, 182, 188), 193, 202, 206, 208, 209, 219, 220, 225, 228, 229, 236, 238, 263, 264, 268, 272, 275, 280, 283, 286, 287, 291, 293, 304, 307, 308, 319, 320, 321, 322, 325, 326, 328 Gobad Plain, 221 God-la- Yare (Godajarre), 17, 18, 257 Gofka, 27 154 Golmle, 184 Gold, sources of, 42, 65, 108, 173, 177. 24(j, 301, 303, 318, 329 • (_!oast, 33, 34, 187, 206, 244, 246, 264, 281, 303, 318, 319 hinterland, 206, 318, 319 Golf an, 33, 202 Golis series, 322 Gondami, 103 Gondar, 228 Gondokoro, 26 Gondokoro - Wadelai Gorge and Plateau, 26 Gonja, 318 Gorgongosi, 243 Goshi, 325 Graben, 22, 23, 25, 27, 52, 275, 323 E., connection with Nile and Rudolf L., 26, 323 W., district, 36, 87, 90 Granite, 14, 19, 23, 28, 29, 33, 34, 36, 38, 39, 41, 42, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14, 28, 34, 35, 36, 41, 42, 43, 54, 64, 65, 66, 68, 78, 79, 80, 82, 89, 90, 94, 96, 98, 100, 101, 103, 105, 107, 108, 109, 111, 112, 113, 118, 123, 127, 128, 129, 131, 136, 139, 145, 148, 152, 155, 161, 165, 167, 173, 175, 176, 178, 179, 180, 181, 185, 186, 187, 188,, 189, 190, 191, 193, 194, 200, 202, 206, 208, 209, 211, 212, 213, 216, 217, 219, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 232, 233, 234, 236, 237, 238, 241, 247, 253, 260, 262, 263, 264, 268, 274, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 293, 302, 308, 309, 310, 312, 313, 315, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 325 grey, 64, 109 red, 43, 88, 284, 287 Graphite, 325 Gravel, 67, 92, 103, 109, 133, 135, 158, 188,, 191, 196, 246, 280, 287, 294, 300 Great Fish R., 176 Greensand, 7 Greenstone, 41, 65, 107, 134, 138, 140, 141, 173, 176, 179, 223, 259 Grey-wacke, 43, 179, 221, 236, 238 Gribingi R., 127 Griqualand West, 43, 44, 101 Grootfontein, 266, 314 Grupe, 318 Guai R., 196 Quasangishu, 323 Guban, 17, 18, 220, 256, 322 Gubat-el-Kherab, 221 Guder R,, 230 Gudera, 222 Guinea Coast, North, 4 Gulf, 13 Portuguese, 159 Spanish, 270 Gule, 285 Gulungu Hill, 325 Gulwana, 196 (iumbi mts.. Ill Gumna, 209 Gundafi, 95, 162, 305 Gurafarda, 275 Gurara, 30, 271 Gurel, 257 Gurma, 318 Gurna, 92 Gurunsi, 33, 206 Gwanda, 107 Gwari (Gbari), 109 Gwasi mt., 323 Gwaso Giligli, 238 Kedong, 238 Nyiro, 326 Gwelo road, 9 Gwikora, 310 Gypsum, 28, 89, 103, 184, 322 Habale, 257 Hablei, 257 Habrje, 17, 18, 220 Hsematite, 28, 325 Hakansson mts., 36, 34 Hakim, 192 Halakdigi Plain, 221 Haldaiyan, 326 Haniet, 93 Hanninston L., 325 Haplite^34, 320 Hara, 102 Harar, 192, 275 Hargeisa, 28, 257, 322 Haruj-es-Sod, 124 Hau, 221 Hand, 322 Hawash R., plain. 111 . . Valley, 275 Upper, 192 Hebawa Hills, 225 Hensa, 203 Hereroland, 43 Higap, R., 176 Hilowen, 186 Hinde Palls, 37 Hoima, 324 Homa mt., 323 Hombori mts., 35, 131 Honing Valley, 180 Hoogeveld (Transvaal), 15, 21, 179 Hora, 111, 275 Horn of Africa, 18, 28 Hornblende, 68, 139, 175, 179, 193, 238, 303, 320, 322 HoroabduUa, 258 Hoste's camp, 190 Huib Plateau, 43 Huilla, 205 Hungerawi R., 102 Hydrography, 4 155 Iba E., 33 Ibadan, 320 Ice action, 95 Ice age, 40, 44 Idalia, 201 Idanre mts., 287 Idia, 182 Idinen, 128 lendwe, 236 Iferuane, 188, Igharghar, 16 Igidi, 30 Ijil, 34, 184 Ilorin, 321 Imgwezi R, 106 Imiuiflri, 95 Inagu mts., 225 In-Azawa, 128, 161, 188, Indian Ocean slope, 21, 2S Inhimbane, 174, 243 Inifel, 149 Inkanta, 177 Inkisi beds, 38 Insiza, 107 Insuain, 319 Inyanga, 234 Inyanombi, 174 Inyati, 179 Iron, see Ferruginous Iseru, 287 Issangila, 147, 289 Ithamba mts., 21, 49 Itimbiri E., 36 Itule, 139 Iveti mts., 21, 49 Ivindo E., 193 Ivory Coast, 33, 126 Jebba, 321 Jebel Ahmar, 183, 188 Anebet, 199 Assud (es Soda), 103 Ataka, 199 Berda, 183 Dwi, 291 Jebel-el-Ayasha, 183 Jebel Emoa, 213 Genef, 199 Gettar, 183 Gudah, 221 Habila, 33, 202 Hadal, 31, 95 Jillabia, 183 Kordofau, 33, 202 Maneht, 213 Mangayat, 33, 7 Marrah, 33, 8, 286 ■ Medob, 286 Om Mangul, 170 Eosfa, 183 Sehib, 183 Serragia, 183 Shindeb, 213 Sufra, 172 Jebel Tagabo, 286 — Tagoi, 33, 202 Jebu, 34, 320 Jemaa, 75 Jezira, 210 Jibale, 233 Jigjigga, 111 Jijelli, 291 Johnston Falls, 37 Mount, 236 Joliba, see Niger Jombo, 325 Jub E., 28, 89, 250 — — mouth, 18, 19 — — plain, 96 Jubaland, 311 Junker mt., 26 Juo Falls, 37 Jur E., 148 Jurassic, 15, 19, 28, 29, 31, 47, 83, 157, 192, 275, 277, 284, 292, 316, 325 Sea, 37 Jurjura, 291 Kabalima, 318 Kaboga, 236 Kaboland, 97 Kabompo E., 142 Kabulubulu Falls, 241 Kadamellet mt., 128 Kadero, 33, 202 Kaffa, 70 Kafu E., 324 Kafubu E., 151 Kafue, see Kafukwe Kafukwe E., 105, 190, 196, 297, 329 Kaga Bandero, 127 Kagaria, 103 Kagera E., 269 Kakula E., 227 Kalabsha, 308 Kalahari, 45, 140, 180, 229 sandstone, 39, 43, 180 Kalibe I., 138 Kalonkadugu, 57 Kalule E., 255 Kamasia, 238, 268, 325 Kambove, 329 Kamelenza, 325 Kamerun, 43 mts., 66 E, mouth, 39, 208 Kamolondo E., 36 terrace, 37 Kanke Falls, 37 Kandania, 33, 103 Kano, 103 Kansanshi, 329 Kanyenye, 280 Kapopo, 297 Kapte mts., 238 Plains, 51 Karabe, 33, 206 156 Karaga, 164 Karagwc, 90 bods, 28, -208, iv,'.) Kai'iba Gorge, 1 9G Kaiinia, 313 Kama, 209 Kair.nga, 2 Fnvt Hill road, 9 Karoo age, 44, 45 — — formation, 3, 20, 34, 40, 43, 43, 44, 20, 42, 101, 150, 1U7, 179, 277, 310 • upper and lower, 44 Lake, 14 Kasaguuga mt., 323 Kasoka, 212 Kassai R., 152 terrace, 37 tributaries, 39 Kassani Valley, 111 Katagum Hill, 1 03 Katandiga, 234 Katanga, 36, 38, 41, 37, 58 Katerere, 312 Katonga, 90 Katuba, 147 Katunga, 109 ]N:aviroiido, 90, 268, 323, 325 Kawalib, 33, 202 Kawar, 30 Kawende mte., 280 Kayor, 34, 167 Keata Hill, 325 Kebrabassa Eapids, 45, 135 ■ Range, 136 Keili, 285 Kekupe R., 238 Kella, 228 Kelvin's theory, 16 Kemali Hill, 325 Kemkis lime, 41 Kenedugu, 35 Kenia, 4, 16, 21, 45, 50, 323 Kenieba, 288 Keren, 76 Ketosli, 325 Kharga oasis, 31, 121, 188 Khartoum, 242, 285, 293 Khutu, 150 Kiama, 109 Kibaoni Hill, 325 Kibos R., 323 Kibui, 325 Kibusi, 212 Kibwezi, 325 Kichauja Hills, 236 Kifinga Hills, 236 Kigoma, 323 Kihita, 206 Kikumbuliu Plain, 21, 49 Kikuyn, 44, 49, 51 mts., SI Kilenga (Kilemba), 2S0 KilibaMi, 48 Kilimachio Hills, 280 Kilimane, 226 Kilimanjaro, 4, 16, 25, 45, 50, 51, 87, 238, 273, 325 Killa.i, 28 Kilubilui R., 36 Kilungu Peak, 325 Kilwa 1., 261 Kiwiwani, 277 Kimberley diamond pipes, 44 Kinga Range, OS Kinsani, 34, 80 Kinsuing, 92 Kintampo, 177 Kir R., 300 Kirk Range, 260 Kirunga, see Virnnga Kisale L., 37, 143 Kisumu, 323 Kita, 288 Kitanda, 248 Kiteng, 279 Kitui, 325, 327 Kiu Hill, 325 Kiabo Gorge, 37 Kivele, see Kiwele Kivu L., 22, 28, 69, 189 level of, 37 ■ teriuoe, 37 Kiwele Gorge, 37 Klugii R., 164 Knaas R, 176 Kobul Hills, 203 Kodiokofe, 85 Koinadiigu, 313 KoUo, 291 Konakri, 80 Kontor, 57 Koranko, 33, 206 Kordofan, 31, 33, 10, 120, 210 Jebel, 202 Korosko, 14 Kossova, 323 Kossu, 318 Kota R., see Kotto Kotokori, 318 Kotto R, 36, 194 Kpong, 319 Krachi (Kratye), 207 Kribi R., 208 Kruto, 313 Kubangi E., 196 Kubes, 98 Kufra, 31, 120 Kuka, 103 Kulall, 50 Kumassi, 281 Kumodali, 221 Kundelimgu, 39 beds, 38, 241 Kungwe, 236, 280 Kurkur, 188, 308 Kurri Valley, 221 Kuruman, 134, 180 157 Kiiruman fiaiige, 17G Kusu, 109 Kwalui, 319 Kwamakanja, 139 Kwamoiitli, 37 Kwando R., 99 Kubangi junction, 196 Kwango E., 36, 39 Kwito E., 99 Kwiinclii, 111 Kj'ulu rats., 21, 25, 50, 325 Lagos, 34, 109, 287, 320, 321 L:ii, see Le Lakes, ancient, 35, 36 Lamalmon, 228, 304 Lambarene, 82 Lamu, 18 La-Nyuki, 238 Lapworth's theory, 16 Lasman, 203 Lastourville, 59, 82 Laterite, 34, 39, 5, 6, 57, 58, 80, 81, 100, 118, 147, 148, 159, 167, 182, 197, 206, 208, 219, 272, 288, 317, 320 Latuka mts., 4 Latuka highlands, original source of Nile, 26 Lava, 45, 51, 52, G9, 78, 96, 103, 152, 221, 228, 236, 238, 245, 323, 325, 326, 327 Le, 186 Leambai E., 142 Lebompo mts., 101, 155, 180, 267 Legos, 325 Leka mts., 153 Lekakisera mt., 26 Lekaz, 93 Lenge E., 212 Leopold L., 37 Leopoldville, 36, 289 Leptynite, 193 Lialui, 60 Lias, 183, 291 Liberia, 301 Libreville, 39, 166 Libyan Desert, 31, 32, 120 Likabula, 296 Likipia, 238, 325 Likuala aux herbes, 185 Limestone, 3, 14, 19, 28, 29, 32, 34, 43, 45, 1, 16, 17, 18, 41, 47, 67, 92, 95, 96, 102, 103, 107, HI, 118, 121, 128, 153, 157, 167, 173, 174, 176, 179, 180, 186, 188, 192, 196, 200, 201, 220, 221, 236, 243, 247, 257, 259, 263, 266, 276, 284, 285, 289, 293, 295, 297, 304, 308, 313, 322, 323, 325, 327, 328 arenaceous, 174, 223, 243 siliceous, 34, 167 Limewater, 45 Limonite, 185, 194, 322 Limpopo E., 41, 174, 175, 179, 229, 243 depression, 229 Lower, 243 Plateau, 45, 229 Linyati R., 99, 254 Liparite, 28 Lira, 279 Livingstone Falls, 37 mts., 68 Liwanga, 148 Loango, 39, 166, 265 Loangwa R., 45, 78, 135, 190, 253, 262, 329 Lobi, 318 Luenge (Lenge) E., 151 Lofu E., 236 Lofuku E., 236 Logon E., 127 Lomami E., 36, 280 ■ Lower, 37 Longonelli's, 223 Longonot, 238, 325 Long Eeach, 289 Lorogi mts., 21, 49 Lorn E., 318 Lotsani Valley, 229 Lovale, 280 Lowa R., 36 Lualaba R., 37, 2S0 affluents, 36 Lower, 37 Lubudi Junction, 241 Makalli junction, 240 Upper, 36 Luama E., 302 Luambala, 263 Luangwa E., see Loangwa Luao E., 152 Luapula E., 37, 78, 241 Luasi mts., 225 Lubbock's theory, 16 Lubilashi beds, 38, 40, 241 Lubudi E., 36, 241 Ludinat mts., 103 Luembe R., 36, 39 Luena R., 196 Lufila E., 36, 37, 37, 151, 241 Lugh, 28, 89, 96 Lugumbu, 236 Lujenda R., 263 Lukenye R., mouth, 39, 208 Lukuga R., 37, 189, 236 Lukuleshi R., terrace, 37 Lumi R., 238 Lunga Mandi, 280 Lungasi L., 182, 208 Lungwebungu R., 99, 196 Lupata, 136 Lusambo, 241 Lusinga I., 323 Luvoi R., 36 Lydenburg, 180 158 Machakos, 326 Machudi, 247 Madagascar, 20 Madebing, 180 Mafeking, 198, 229 Mafras, 103 Magaliesberg, 43, 179 Magdala, 228, 304 Maghera, see Moghara Magnesia, sulphate of, 227 Magnetite, 68, 322, 325 , Mahi, 54 Mahiza, 75 Mainfa, 127 Makalli R., 240 Makanga mt., 137 Makapans Poort, 180 Makonde, 139 Makora, 325 Malagarasi basin, 28, 39, 236 Malmesbury beds, 42, 21 Mambere E , 84 Mampon Hills, 319 Manda, 236 Maudara mts., 66 Mangamba, 208 Manganese, 34, 184, 309, 324 Mangwe, 107 Manika Plateau, 39, 105, 241 Manyema, 133 Mao Kebi, 209 Marabas Stadt, 180 Maragolia, 323, 325 Mararaleu mts., 180 Mararraba mts., 128 Marba, 221 Marble, 29, 38, 78, 128, 131, 174, 214, 274, 327 Marenga Mkali Plain, 280 Margherita L., 89 Mari Eange, 209, 221 Mariko mts., 43, 179 R., 229 Marl, 103, 142, 167, 184, 188, 193, 291, 308 Maroccan Atlas, 29, 30, 31, 67, 95, 162, 305 Marooco, 4 City, 29, 95, 162 frontier, 291 Marrah, see Jebel Marrah Marrakesh, see Marocco Marsa, 34, 184 Marua, 66 Marungu, 276 Marwa, 280 Maseganite, 41, 259 Mashikolumbwe district, 105 Mashonaland, 41, 108 Mashowing E., 180 Masikeakindu, 325 Masikessi, 234 Massaua, 304 Massina, 318 Massuge, 75 Maswa, 189 Matabeleland, 41, 42, 108, 229, 315 Matadi, 36 Matizi E., 190 Matoka Plateau, 200 Matoppo, 315 Matu, 248 Mau escarpment, 238, 323 Maungu Hill, 325 Maubelle mts., 180 Maures, 167 Mavuji E., 248 Mbambe, 167 Mbinzau mt., 21, 325 M'Bomu E., 36, 163, 194 Mchinga Range, 262 Mdaburu Valley, 280 Meche mts.. Ill Mediterranean, 31 slope, 15, 22, 27 Medo, 263 Mekonga mt., 193 Melaphyre, 180 Melilla, 292 Meludi, 18 Mem, 319 Mendi, 64 Menengi, 325 Merda Sodoing, 92 Meru, 273 Meshru, 103 Mesozoic, 15, 16, 19, 28, 29, 31, 278 ; see under the various periods Messura, 32 Metamorphic, 14, 20, 23, 28, 33, 36, 38, 39, 41, 42, 43, 48, 63, 65, 78, 82, 95, 107, 108, 134, 136, 137, 138, 139, 155, 175, 178, 179, 180, 213, 236, 238, 248, 284, 307, 319, 325 ; see under Gneiss, &c. Mibungo-Kisungo, 96 Mica, 238, 283, 303, 318, 322, 325, 327 schist ; see Schist Miocene, 32, 39, 75, 166, 170, 183, 188, 199, 291, 292 Miriya, 220 Mitwanzi Gorge, 37 Mitumba mts., 37 Mkubwasanya, 236 Mlanje, 78 Mohaye, 36, 194 Mogador, 31 Mogdishu, 18, 257 Moghara, 215 Mogodeni R., 325 Mogodo, 183 Mohesi, 219 Moira, 103 Moisha, 37 Mokinni Hill, 325 Mokopon, 180 Moli R, 318 159 Molopo (Molapo), 180 Molopolole, 247 Molybdenite, 324 Mombasa, 18, 325 Mongalla R, 37 Monjo, 243 Monrovia, 264, 301 Monts de Cristal, 37, 59, 61, 62, 82, 193, 270 Mooi R., 176 Mopeia, 226 Morokweng, 180 Mosita, 180 Mossaka R., 193 Mossaraedes, 39, 45, 205 Mossi, 34, 56, 206, 318 Mount Waller, 102, 189 Mozambique, 18, 20 Mpala, 236 Mpamba Bay, 219 Mpimbwe, 236, 280 Mpioka beds, 38 Mpwapwa, 280 Mrima Hill, 325 Mrupa Hills, 225 Msuwa, 280 Mtarii, 83 Mtongoni mts., 325 Mtoto Andei, 325 Mtowa, 236 Mtuwa, 248 ]\Iuani Hills, 325 Muidir, 30, 271 Muira R., 234, 312 Mukondok-wa, 280 Mullu Plain, 221 Mulwia, 292 Mumbeshe, 196 Mumia's, 325 Mumoni mts., 325 Mungo R., 16 Murchison Bay, 90 Hills, 181 Murgis R., 174, 243 Muri, 209, 221 Murjajo, 291 Mui-zuk, 103 Muscovite, 320, 322 Museya, 241 Mussa R., 109 Mussuk, 289 M'Vung R, 193 Mwembezi E., 200 Mwatati, 325 Mweru L., 36, 78, 241, 261, 280 drying up, 37 terrace, 37 Myama, 105 Mzab, 93 Mzamza Hills, 231 Naba, 191 Narirobi, 325 Naivashe L,, 152, 268, 325, 327 Nakiu, 248 Nakuro L., 268, 325 Namalik, 109 Namaqua beds, 42, 43 Namaqualand, 43 Great, 43 copper mines, 42 mts., 43 Little, copper mines, 42 Namtitari, 225 Namuli mts., 178. 225 Nandi, 90, 268, 323, 325 Farkwa, 319 Nasser, 323 Natal, 15, 81, 43, 44, 42, 101, 243, 274 Natari, 225 Natron L., 327 Natron, Wadi, 188 Ndangi R., 21, 49, 325 Ndapduk, 238 Ndara, 325 Ndi, 325 N'Doruma, 148 Negegr Plateau, 28, 17, 18, 322 Neooomian, 17, 18 Ngami L., 41, 259 Ngaundere, 66, 119 Ngoma, 289 Ngomeni, 325 Ngunie E., 59 Niellim country, 33, 127 Nifi'ud Hills, 103 Niger R., fall, 35 history, 35 lakes, 35, 37 Lower, 39, 321 Upper, 33, 34, 35, 100, 118, 132, 167 or Joliba, 35 or Tafassasset, 35 Nigeria, 33, 34, 35, 39, 103, 109, 131, 188,, 195, 206, 233, 251, 320, 321 Nikoohe Hills, 225 Nile E., bend, 10 Blue, 224, 275, 285 connection with E. Graben and Rudolf L., 26, 323 delta, 32, 188 history, 27, 323 ■ Lower, 32, 145, 188 original course, 26, 323 Plain, 153 Province, 28, 268, 279 upper basin, 28, 33, 224, 285 Victoria, 212 Nioro, 34, 118 N'Jadie R., 193 Njemps, 325 Njerewe mt., 323 Njiri, 238 Njoko R., 141 Njole, 82 Njong R. mouth, 39, 208 160 Nkata Bay, 23, 78 Nkami, 3i9 Nkoranza, 319 Noodsberg, 91 North Downs, 7 Notwane E., 229 Nsim, 29 Nsokpo, 321 Nuanetzi, 175 Nuba, see Dar Nuba Nubia, 120 Nubian sandstone 15, 20, 31, 34, 81, 121, 173, 188, 285, 308 cretaceous, 31 Numidian, 291 Nun, 30, 112 Nupe, 33, 206 Nyamandhlovo, 104 Nyando, 323 E., 323 Nyauna, 147 Nyangi Eapids, 240 Nyangwe, 39, 302 Nyanza system, 22 basin, 323 Nyasa, 20, 22, 23, 24, 13, 6R, 7.S, 00, 139, 180, 217, 218, 23G, 253, 260, 263, 277 Tanganyika Elateau, 22, 2, 236 Nyika, 10, 18, 20, 25, 48, 72 Nzani, 325 Nzilo Goi'ge, 37 nits., 36, 34 1!., 37 teriace, 37 N'Zo, 191 Nzoi, 325 ( )bbia, 18, 19, 28, 255, 257 Obsidian, 152, 275, 290, 325 Ogowe E., 39, 59, 82, 84, 193, 264 Okanda, 82, 264 Okano E., 193 Okovango E., 99, 168, 169, 196, 254 Olifants E., 174, 175 Oligooene, 149, 183, 292 Olivine, 325 Omdurman, 242 Omo E,, 89, 275 Omuranibo E., 168, 169 (3ndo, 320 Ongalea mts., 21 Oolitic, 17, 18 Gran, 291 Oraij;;c Lake, 45 R., 94, 176 Colony, 43, 44, 42, 101 mts., 42, 176 (.)ron, 321 Oxford beds, 75 Owerri, 321 Pacific slope, 26 Pagade L., 89 Palseozoic, 14, 15, 28, 29, 30, 32, 35, 36, 38, 42, 82, 117, 241, 259, 268, 269, 278 ; see also under the various periods Palapye, 198 Pamlaete, 236 Pamlilo, 236 Pamparaba, 318 Panga E., 37 Pangani E., 83, 87 Para mts., 21 Paraku, 272 Pedra Grande, 227 Pegmatite, 34, 320, 322, 325 Pemba Bay, 263 Falls, 37 Peneplain, 4, 34 Permian, 14, 15, 20, 40, 44, 291 Permo-triassic, 29, 30, 38, 167, 316 Phonolites, 268, 325 Phyliites, 193, 209 Pia E., 325 Pickering's, 105 Pilandsberg, 179 Pleistocene, 32, 35, 52, 14!) Pliocene, 32, 34, 35, 75, 149, 170, 184, 291 Pointe-Noire, 39, 166 Popengine, 167 Porphyry, 29, 55, 74, 95, 101, 173, 174, 170, 180, 209, 221, 223, 227, 230, 243, 259, 280, 309, 322, 325 Porto Novo, 34, 53 Port Said, 188 Portuguese Guinea, 159 Potchefstroom, 170 Potgieter's Eust, 180 Pot-stone, 107 Pra E, 318, 310 Prang, 318 Pre-Cambrian, 36, 37 Pre-Carboniferous sea, 36, 37 Pre-Silurian, 315 Pretoria, 180 Priesks- 16 Puddingstone, 38, 109, 149, 193j Primary, definition, 48 see Palseozoic Pyramid district, 71 guartz, 29, 34, 38, 11, 55, 64, 78, 8S, 103, 109, 111, 118, 123, 136, 139, 153, 156, 167, 171, 175, 181, 184, 187, 188,, 207, 213, 214, 223, 227, 230, 238, 246, 248, 264, 270, 280, 311, 319, 320, 321, 322, 324, 325, 326, 329 porphyry, 41, 14, 152, 180 ■ veins, 42, 108, 173, 234, 244, 289, 303 Quartzites, 28, 29, 34, 39, 42, 43, 4, 22, 29, 67, 68, 101, 111, 146, 156, 179, 180, 184, 189, 193, 200, 161 234, 259, 268, 275, 283, 288, 289, 291, 303, 319, 320 Quaternary, 25, 75, 89, 93, 183 Eafai, 307 Bahamme, 95 Railway construction, 7, 8, 10 Eaiufall, factor of relief, 4 dependent on relief, 4 Kangatan, 10, 18, 23, 25, 51 Eapids, formation, 6 Kas Mpimbwe, see Mpimbwe. Ked sandstone, 29 Sea, 2S, 31 32, 76, 170, 213 Eeigate, 7 Reitfontein, 259 Relief, elements of, 3 effect of raiafall on, 4 Eendili, 326 Eest Camp, 324 Eeta, 33, 103 Ehodesia, 107 . North, 2, 12, 37, 60, 78, 102, 105, 134, 135, 141, 189, 190, 196, 200, 218, 253, 262, 297, 329 South, 12, 42, 65, 104, 106, 107, 108, 134, 141, 176, 179, 196, 237, 247, 298, 315 Ehyolite, 111, 125, 291 Eift Valley, 18, 22 ; see Grabeu Rio Inhondo, 226 Mekumbo, 226 Rivers, action of, 5, 13, 27 Eoad construction, 7, 8, 10 Eoge nits., 153 Eoseires, 224 Euaha E., 43 Euanda, 27 Eubi E , 36, 37 Euchc E., 23(i Eudolf L., 22, 26, 50, 89, 158, 323, 327 volcanic action, 16, 25, 28, 158 Euenzori, 27, 28, 90, 268, 269 Eufiji R, 219 Ruhuhu R., 68 Euki E., 37 Eukwa L., 22, 34, 188 Euri mt., 323 Rusisi R., 189 Eustenberg, 179 Euvuma E. basin, 28, 139, 219, 236 Euzi E., 158 Saadani, 83 Saati, 304 Saberraa, 195 Sabi E, 174, 175, 223, 243, 298 Sacchi E, 294 Sahara, 3, 30, 31, 32, 34 dry land, 32 recent sea, 33 South, 33 Said a, 157 St. John's E., 44 St. Louis, 34, 184 St. Lucia Bay, 243 St. Paul de Loando, 39 Sakabinda, 156 Sakariatorubwe, 105 Salisbury, 65 Saloli, 28, 89, 96 Samba, 59 Samburu, 325 Samliar, 304 Samia, 325 Samne, 211 Sanaga E., 182 Sand, 4, 9, 26, 46, 52, 53, 55, 60, 84, 86, 92, 95, 96, 99, 102, 103, 104, 105, 111, 118, 121, 127, 129, 131, 132, 140, 141, 142, 147, 152, 158, 164, 167, 168, 169, 174, 176, 177, 180, 184, 188,, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 201, 210, 223, 226, 227, 228, 233, 235, 238, 242, 243, 246, 247, 250, 251, 255, 256, 257, 259, 266, 280, 284, 287, 288, 289, 297, 300, 302,306, 311 dunes, 24, 46 118, 131, 132, 176, 181, 242, 254, 286, 304 Sandstone, 3, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20, 28, 29, 30, 31, 34, 36, 38, 39, 43, 44, 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 19, 24, 26, 31, 33, 37, 40, 41, 42, 43, 47, 55, 58, 61, 74, 78, 80, 81, 84, 90, 91, 92, 95, 96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 108, 109, 114, 118, 120, 124, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 138, 139, 141, 142, 143, 145, 147, 152, 154, 155, 156, 15S, 164, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 174, 175, 17(i, 177, 179, ISO, 183, 184, 185, ISy, 188,, ISS, 1S9, 191, 1!)2, 193, 194, 195, 196, 200, 201, 206, 207, 209, 210, 211, 215, 218, 219, 220, 221, 223, 226, 227, 228, 233, 236, 238, 243, 244, 247, 250, 251, 254, 255, 256, 257, 263, 264, 266, 268, 280, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 294, 303, 308, 309, 315, 316, 318, 319, 321, 322, 325, 328 Sandstone, argillaceous, 264 calcareous, 39, 255, 322 felspathic, 32, 36, 39 Inkisi, 38 Kalahari, 39 Kundelungu, 38, 241 Lubilashi, !38, 40, 62 Mpioka, 38 old red, 42, 189 quartzo.se, 42, 46, 48, 126, 303 shaly, 280 Table Mountain, 14, 39, 43, 19, 43, 56 /Vf'j also under Nubian. Sandugu, 57 Sanga E., 33, 36, 35 affluents, 193 162 Sangalo, 325 Sankurar, 89 Sankuru R., 36, 40 San Salvador, 235, 295 Sasare, 329 Sassandra R., 33 Sari mts., 209 Sarti mts., Ill Sassandra R. region, 232 Save, 54 Say, 34, 130, 131, 206 Sbeitla, 183 Sbu, 292 Scenery, 3 Schists, 14, 21, 28, 29, 30, 33, 34, 36, 38, 39, 41, 44, 22, 29, 30, 35, -11, 42, 58, 59, 60, 62, 73, 78, 79, 84, 87, 90, 100, 101, 107, 108, 110, 111, 117, 118, 126, 131, 139, 145, 147, 155, 171, 173, 179, 188i 194, 200, 2(12, 206, 208, 211, 236, 238, 262, 264, 268, 283, 284, 289, 291, 304, 305, 307, 315, 319, 320, 322, 325, 327, 328, 329 amphibolite, 264, 288 calcareous, 31 chloritic, 107, 108, 179 cyanite, 325 dioritic, 107 marl, 44 talcose, 107, 234, 281, 288 Schist Range, Central African, 28 Western, 39, 208 Schweinfurth mt., 26 Sebba, 131 Secondary, see Mesozoic Sekeleke, 180 Sekka, 286 Selenite, 322 Selima, 188 Semio, 307 Semliki E., 27 Valley, 189 Sene R., 319 Senegal, 15, 34, 184, 288 B., Upper, 34, 167 Senki, 319 Senlangombe, 312 Senna, 137 Seno, 131 Senonian, 15, 31, 291 Senwa Peak, 291 Seranli, 96 Serorume R., 179 Serpentine, 42, 174, 230, 243 Serra Chelia, 227 Sesheke, 60, 141, 196 Sesse Is., 90 Shalawe, 225 Shale, 3, 19, 28, 44, 47, 56, 65, 67, 74, 95, 101, 106, 121, 133, 139, 144, 145, 146, 150, 156, 174, 176, 180, 181, 193, 201, 213, 220, 236, 238, 253, 274, 288, 316, 318, 31!), 325, 328 Shamoara, 136 Shangani R., 237 Shari R., 33, 127, 282 Upper, 283 Shashi, 88, 175 Sheba mt., 326 Sheikh Hussein, 192 Sheikh, Upper, 28, 322 Shelif, 291 Plain, 204 Shershel, 292 Shiedma, 95 Shimba Hills, 325 Shire highlands, 78 E., 226 Shirwa Plain, 217 Shoa, 70 E., 200 Shoho mts., 15 Shoshong mts., 179 Shott Merwan, 149 Sidra, Gulf, 13 Sierra Leone, 34, 64, 81, 206, 216, 313 Sikait, 172 Siliceous, 140, 167, 179, 180, 185, 204, 205, 290, 322 Silurian, 30, 36, 42, 43, 37, 58, 91, 107, 179, 305, 315 Sioko E., 325 Sirba E., 131, 206 Sitanda, 297 Siwa, 188, 215 Slate, 107, 109, 128, 131, 146, 175, 176, 179, 180, 225, 236, 268, 296, 303, 319, 324 Snake E., 176 Sobat E., 323 Sobu mts., Ill Soddo Range, 111 Sofala, 243" Sokna, 103 Sokolo, 118 Sokoto, 103, 251 Somaliland, 28, 17, 18, 111, 203, 220, 256, 284, 290, 322 Sondo E., 323 Songa, 109 Spanish Guinea, 270 Spitzkop, 180 Stanley Falls, 39 ■ Pool, 36, 37, 289 Steatite, 107 Stefanie L., 28, 89 , Stevenson road, 10 Stormberg beds, 44 Suakin, 245 Sudan, 33 Egyptian, 210 Sue R., 33, 7 Suez Canal, 199 Gulf, 199 Suk, 75 Suka Hill.?, 200 163 Sukunga, 119 Sulphate of magnesia, 227 Sunday E., 316 Surangai Hills, 325 Suruuuinia, 313 Survey, geol. and topog., 13 Sus, 117 Swivzi beds, 42, 229 Swaziland, 42, 155 Svenite, 25, 28, 89, 111, 136, 139, ■ 246, 309, 320, 322, 323, 32.-) Table Mountain samlstoue, 14, 39, 43, 19, 43, 56 Tabra, 109 Tabriugut, 184 Tabular Hills, 3 Tadeut, 28, 188, Tafassasset, 35 Tafilet, 30 ■ Tagauia, 154 Tagoi Hills, 33, 202 Tajenut, 188; Tajura, 221 Takauuga, 18 Talla, 34, 81 Tana E., 28, 63, 325 Tanga, 83 Tanganyika, 22, 23, 28, 3!), 43, 78. 133, 188, 218- 236, 269, 276, 280, 323 connection with sea, 37 level of, 37 teiiace, 37 Tangier, 292 Tano E., 319 Tappa, 207 Tari, 310 Taro Hill, 325 Tarkwa, 177, 246, 303, 319 Tassaut, 29 Tassili (Azjer), 114 Tati, 174, 175, 179 E., 247 Taudeni, 118 Taungs, 247 Taveta, 325 Tawa, 233 Teddington, Tliames at, 5 Teita, 21, 49, 23H, 323 Teleki's Volcano, 25 Temborari, 18, 19 Tembue Bay, 2"6 Tenduf, 118 Teuez, 292 Teniet ret., 291 Tensift, 29, 31, 9a Terrace formation, 17 Tertale, 89 Tertiarv, 28, 29, 32, 39, ], ^7, •.>:,, 149, "167, 173,265, 277, 291, 315; see under the varion j )>prio(ls Terue E., 174 Tessala nits., 291 (1425) Tete, 136, 138, 312 Thames water, 5 Thies, 167 Theuka, 25, 50 Thwaki (Towaki) R., 325 Tibesti, 30, 92 Tigre, 228 Tignnduma, 103 Tigrish, 325 Timbuktu, 35, 11 S Tinderet mt., 32:! Tintankru, 3 1 9 Tiutuma, 103 Tiris, 30, 113 Tithouian, 75 Titula, 95 Tiwi, 325 Tlemsen, 292 Togbao mts., 33, 127 Togo, 33, 34, 206 Toke mts., 153 ToUobu, 92 Tolo Azime, 175 Tomi E., 249 Tondi, 131 Tongaland, 155 Tosaye Gorge, 35, 132 Tourmaline, 320 Trachyte, 28, HI, 122, 125, 221, 238 284 Transvaal, 15, 21, 42, 43, 44, 42 101, 107, 155, 174, 175, 179, 180 181, 229 Trap rocks, 55, 138, 174, 175, 176, 243, 245, 316, 324, 32S : see under Basalt, tVc. Travertine, 149 Triassic, 15, 31, 37, 2, 58, 110, 278, 312 Tripoli, 33 Tripolitan Plateau, 30 Sahara, 32 Tsana L., 222 Tsebib, 266 Tseboa, 209 Tsebun mts., 180 Tuff, 28, 78, 111 Tuggurt, 25, 149 Tulbagh, 21 Tuli, 106, 175, 23 Tumba L., 37 Tumbuka, 102 Tummaha, 222 Tummo, 30, 114 Tumo'Ji, 85 Tiimpenga, 131 Tundiforma, 171 Tunisian Altas, 29, 31 Turkwell 1!. Valley, 26, 294, 323 Turonian, 15, 31, 17, !«, 275 Turuku, 23K Tusidde, 92 Twat, 30, 27 i Twizikt, 34, 184 164 Ubangi R, 36, 38, 39, 194 bend, 10 Lower, 37 Ucliungwe mts., 150, 236 Uganda, 4, 41, 87, 90, 146, 158, 238, 268, 269, 279, 323, 324 Uganda Plateau, 28, 268 Railway, 10 (Jgara, 280 Ugoii-o, 280 Ugo'iubo L., 280 Uguha, 230 Uhebe, 150, 236 Uitenhage, 43 Ujiji, 28, 189, 230 Ukamba, 323, 327 Ukhutu, 236 Uli, 57 Ulunda, 280 Umba E., 72 Um er-Hbia, 29, 231 Umfuli R, 237 Umswelizi E,., 174, 243 Ilmtali, 105 Umtali-Salisbury Plateau, (J5 Umtonto, 223 Umvoti E., 91 Umzimkulo, 274 Umzimkuluana, 274 Umzingwani E., 106 Ungweno mts., 21, 323 Unyamwezi, 43 Unyanyembe, 280 Uyoma, 323 Unyoro, 27, 28, 208 Urm-u Falls, 238 Usagara, 150, 28(i Usambara, 73 Usambi, 280 Useke, 280 Usoga, 90, 323 Utangule mts., 125 Vaal E., 41, 43, 134 Victoria Falls, 16, 41, 45, 134 L., 22, 25, 28, 51, 90, 146, 268, 269, 323, 324, 327 Victoria-Selukwe road, 9 Virunga, 27, 37, 189, 269 Vivi, 289 Voi, 325 Volcanic action, 16, 23, 24, 25, 26, 33, 34, 41, 43, 44, 45, 108, 167, 22!l, 238, 261, 319, 323, 324 area, 70, 76, 87, 89, 111, 119, 122, 134, 174, 189, 192, 203, 205, 221, 222, 223, 228, 236, 245, 251, 256, 25!», 267, 269, 273, 275, 304, 319, 323 peak, 8, 50, 67, 152, 213, 258, 285, 286, 323, 326 rocks, 268, 275, 284, 319, 324, 327 luff, 28 Volta R, 34, 264, 318, 319 Voromi mts., 21, 49 Wadai, 33 Wad Amsniiz, 95 Baiesh, 183 Besbaier, 93 Wadelai, 26 Gondokoro Gorge and Plateau, 26, 323 Wad Ghir, 30, 149 ; see Wad Ehir Wadi Araba, 188 Bonjem (Bu Njem), 103 Elfu, 103 Gabeit, 213 Haifa, 211 Millet, 286 Nogal, 255 Wad Keshaba, 149 ■ Lua, 93 Mejerda, 183 Mettitli, 93 Nena Mzab, 93 . Nifis, 95, 162 Oglov, 257 • Ehir or Ghir, 30, 149 ■ Saura, 30 Settafe, 93 Shaid, 172 Sebrit, 172 Sidi Alsh, 183 Tafassasset, 35 Tensift, 29, 31 Zejur, 93 Zirara, 93 Wager, 322 Warn E., see Wom Wango, 36, 194 Wangoni, see Angoni Wankie, 107 Wanyaru Hills, 325 Wardelihan, 221 Wargle, 25, 93 Warombo Hill, 325 Warsenis, 292 Washeshi Hills, 325 Wassaw, 246 Wateita, 325 Waterfalls, formation, 6 Wan R., 148 Wawa, 109 Web E., 28, 192, 214, 275 Webi Shebeli, 186, 250 Welle R, 36 terrace, 37 Wesso, 193 West Coast, 33 Whitehouse Hills, 71 Witwatersrand beds, 14, 4S, 179 Wodda, 33, 202 Wom R, 36, 84, 310 Womba, 109 Worcester, 21 Wuntafi, see Gundafi 165 Wurnu, 251 Yakoba, 103 Yarbutenda, 34, 317 yatta Hill, 325 Yekupe Hill, 325 Yellogure, 321 Yellwa, 321 Yendi, 318 Zaberma, 195 Zaghuan, 75 Zakkar, 291 Zakwala mt., 203 Zambezi R, 78, 108, 135, 141, 196, 226, 237, 243, 250, 312, 316 Palls, 16, 41, 45, 12 ■ gold, 234 Leambai, 142 Plateau N". of, 200 Pungwe parting, 234 Shire junction, 136 Zanfur, 75 Zangeia, 33, 103 Zaria, 109 Zegnanado, 272 Zeila, 203, 284, 322 Zima L., 95 Zinder, 28, 33, 188;, 233 Zingini R, 222 Zo, 103 Zombeni, 325 Zombo Plateau, 235 Zongo Gorge, 37 Zoutpansberg, 175, 229 Zuga E., 176 Zula, 304 Zululand, 43, 101, 243 Zungusu, 325 Zuurberg, 3 beds, 43, 44 Zwai L., Ill, 203, 275 Zwameiong, 193 Zwarteberg, 3, 22 beds, 43, 44, 101 Zwartkops, 316 '^..-