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LIBRARY 
 
 NEW YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE 
 
 ITHACA, N. Y. 
 
Cornell University Library 
 TS 1975.W19 1896 
 
 A practical guide to meat inspection ... 
 
 3 1924 000 958 235 
 
 c7ma* 
 
 Osta 
 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000958235 
 
A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO 
 
 MEAT INSPECTION. 
 
Section of cost o- sternal muscles and fat, showing groups of supra-stornal 
 lymphatic glands, with tuberculosis — some three inches deep — below 
 pleura. 
 
 a. a. Muscle. 
 t>, 6. b. Fat. 
 
 c. Internal pectoral vein. 
 e. e. t. Tuberculous glandules. 
 
 /. Border attached to sternum. 
 
A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO 
 
 MEAT INSPECTION 
 
 THOMAS WALLEY, M.R.C.V.S., 
 
 FORMERLY PRINCIPAL OF THE EDINBURGH ROYAL (DICK) VETERINARY COLLEGE; 
 PROFESSOR OF VETERINARY MEDICINE AND SURGERY, ETC. 
 
 THIRD EDITION, THOROUGHLY REVISED. 
 
 WITH FORTY-FIVE COLOURED ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 WILLIAM R. JENKINS. 
 
 Edinburgh & London : YOUNG J. PENTLAND. 
 1896. 
 
 fiTAV VO(;K r'i/.'l'l' 
 
 vnTkRWAnr 001 (-re 
 
#y^s 7 -3 j 7 
 
 Edinburgh: printed by scot-t and ferguson and rurness and company. 
 
 T5 
 IT75 
 
PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION. 
 
 The lamented death of the Author of this work has made it 
 necessary for other hands to carry through the preparation of a 
 New Edition. In executing that task I have not thought it 
 desirable to make any material alterations in the text of the Second 
 Edition. A few paragraphs have been added, but as these have been 
 counterbalanced by the omission of some passages in the Second 
 Edition, the size of the book remains practically unaltered. 
 As is well known, opinions regarding many matters dealt with 
 under Meat Inspection are still far from unanimous ; but in this 
 work the reader will find recorded the opinions of one who was 
 generally regarded as the highest authority on the subject in this 
 country. 
 
 J. M'FADYEAN. 
 
 Royal Veterinary College, 
 London, March 1896. 
 
PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. 
 
 "In penning the following pages, the Author has undertaken 
 the task rather from a sense of duty than from any claim to 
 superior knowledge on the subject of Sanitation as applied to 
 the consumption of the flesh of animals as human food. 
 
 "An experience of over thirty years in his profession, and a 
 long official connection (some sixteen years) with the Edinburgh 
 Abattoirs, have enabled him to gather a large store of information 
 on the subject, which he has embodied in the following pages. 
 It must not be supposed that this is the first occasion on which 
 the Author has dealt with the Inspection of Meat. In 1879 he 
 added an Appendix on the subject to a work entitled The Four 
 Bovine Scourges, and long prior to that date he annually dealt 
 with it in his Lectures on Cattle Pathology. In 1884 he had the 
 privilege of moving certain resolutions bearing on the question 
 at a meeting of the National Veterinary Association held in 
 Birmingham; on numerous occasions, since 1879, he has directed 
 public attention to the subject, and in July of 1888 he read a 
 paper on the subject at the Annual Meeting of the Sanitary 
 Association of Scotland in Glasgow. 
 
 " It was, in fact, in a large measure due to numerous inquiries 
 
PREFACE. ix 
 
 for copies of the last -mentioned paper that the Author felt justified 
 in venturing on publishing his opinions on the subject, and he 
 wishes to observe in this place, that many of the statements 
 hereinafter made must be regarded rather in the light of personal 
 opinions than in that of dogmatic assertions or of scientifically 
 proved facts. 
 
 " If, however, the publication of this little work should lead to 
 a more active interest being taken in this subject by those who 
 are responsible for the health of the flesh-eating portion of the 
 community ; to the establishing of definite opinions as to what 
 meat is fit for human food and what unfit ; and to the adoption 
 of definite legislative measures in connection therewith, — the 
 purpose of the Author will have been served." 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Importance of Meat Inspection, . . i 
 
 Substitution of the Flesh of Animals not generally used for Human 
 
 Food for the Flesh of those so used, . . . 6 
 
 What Flesh may be regarded as Marketable, and what Unmarketable, 18 
 
 Rules to be observed in the Inspection of Meat, . . . 22 
 
 Examination of the Carcase for the purpose of detecting Abnormal 
 
 Conditions, . . . ... 28 
 
 Death by Violence, etc., 40 
 
 Effects of Disease of Organs and Tissues, . . 48 
 
 Constitutional and Blood Diseases, . 69 
 
 Cachectic Conditions, . . 77 
 
 Parasitic Diseases, . ..... 88 
 
 Diseases assumed (or proved) to be due to the Action of Microparasites, 103 
 
 Tuberculosis, . . 135 
 
 Refrigerated, P'rozen, Salted, Preserved, and Tinned Meats and Fish, . 160 
 
 Legislation in reference to the consumption of Animal Flesh, Fish, etc., . 172 
 
 Description of Figures on Plates, . 189 
 
 Index, . . 193 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Section of costo-sternal muscles and fat. — Frontispiece. 
 
 1. Bronchial (Mediastinal) Lymphatic Gland of Cow, transverse section. 
 
 2. Section of Lymphatic Gland in Swine Fever. 
 
 3. A piece of flesh from the Hind Quarters of a Cow killed during the act of 
 
 parturition. 
 
 4. Interior of Left Ventricle of Heart. 
 
 5. Section through Muscle of Pig (Swine Fever). 
 
 6. Section through a Hydatid (daughter and grand-daughter) Cyst in the 
 
 Liver of a Cow. 
 
 7. Cysticercus Cellulosse in the flesh of Pig. After Kuchenmeister. 
 
 8. Small Sections of Boiled Ham. 
 
 9. Muscles of Hind Quarter of Calf. After Cobbold. 
 
 10. Trichina Spiralis coiled up in its Capsule within the Muscle. After 
 
 Kuchenmeister. 
 
 1 1. Blood of a Guinea- Pig dead of Symptomatic Anthrax. 
 
 12. Heart's Blood of a Mouse dead of Anthrax. 
 
 13. Actinomycosis Organism. 
 
 14. From a Preparation of Caseous Matter from Pulmonary Deposits in Bovine 
 
 Tuberculosis. 
 
 15. Head of Hen, with Mouth open. 
 
 16. Coils of Intestines of a Hen. 
 
 17. External Surface of a Lobe of the Liver of a Hen. 
 
 18. Photograph of Abdominal and Thoracic Surface of the Carcase of a-Cow. 
 
 19. Section of Sternum of Ox. 
 
 20. Miliary Tubercle of Pleura. 
 
 21. Portion of Inferior Border of Lung of Cow. 
 
 22. Larynx of Cow (Tubercle) laid open. 
 
 23. Lymphatic Gland (Bronchial) of Cow. 
 
 24. Section of Lung of Ox. 
 
 25. Section of Liver (Cow). 
 
xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 26. Fore Quarter of Carcase of Cow. 
 
 27. Hind Quarter of Heifer. 
 
 28. Hind Quarter of Bullock. 
 
 29. Hind Quarter of Cow. 
 
 30. Small excavated ulcers (in group) of glanders — inner surface of anterior and 
 
 upper part of nostril. 
 
 31. Section of Lung of Young Pig. 
 
 32. Section of Liver of Pig three months old. 
 
 33. Surface of Section of the Liver of a Pig three months old. 
 
 34. Lamb — Infection from Udder of Ewe. Malignant Aphtha, vel Pustular 
 
 Fever. 
 
 35. Section of Tongue of Ox — Actinomycosis. 
 
 36. (1.) Section of a fold of third Stomach, Septic (malignant) Catarrh, from 
 
 exposure to foul air in the hold of a ship. 
 
 37. (2.) Section of fourth Stomach of Cow. 
 
 38. External surface of Ear of Pig. 
 
 39. Section of Small Intestine (laid open) of a Cow, the subject of acute Miliary 
 
 Pulmonary Tuberculosis, and Extensive Mesenteric Tuberculosis. 
 
 40. Teat of Ewe — Malignant Aphtha, vel Pustular Fever. 
 
 41. Septum Nasi Glanders (acute). 
 
 42. Lamb— Infection from Udder of Ewe. Malignant Aphtha, vel Pustular 
 
 Fever. 
 
 43. Ileo-csecal Valve of Young Pig. 
 
 44. Ulcers on mucous surface of large Intestine of Pig (Swine Fever). 
 
A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO 
 
 MEAT INSPECTION. 
 
THE IMPORTANCE OF MEAT INSPECTION. 
 
 THE question of Meat Inspection is one of paramount 
 importance to a community whose gastronomic taste is 
 so decidedly animal as is that of the population of Great 
 Britain. And seeing that the flesh of animals bulks so largely 
 in the daily bill of fare, it is only reasonable that some sort 
 of guarantee should be forthcoming that it is not only what it 
 professes to be — i.e., the flesh of the ox, sheep, or pig — but that 
 it is wholesome or nutritious, and that it is also harmless or 
 innocuous. 
 
 On no question of social economy is the general public more 
 
 ignorant than on that of the wholesomeness or otherwise of the 
 
 flesh they devour, and on that ground alone, low as it is, it is 
 
 • incumbent upon sanitary authorities to guard them against abuse 
 
 and injury. 
 
 A purchaser with a few pence in his pocket, and the cravings of 
 hunger gnawing at his stomach, is not likely to exercise great 
 discrimination in the purchase of the necessaries of life ; nor can 
 he afford to pay an expert to teach him what to choose, or what 
 to avoid. He, perforce, buys that which to his uneducated senses 
 is most likely to satisfy the predominant feeling of which he is 
 cognisant — hunger. 
 
 That sanitary legislation in this country is far behind that 
 of many Continental countries must be patent to all who 
 care to study the matter, and that notwithstanding the fact 
 that we are the greatest beef-eating country in the world. At 
 
2 THE IMPORTANCE OF MEAT INSPECTION. 
 
 whose door this dereliction of duty is to be placed I will not stop 
 to consider.* 
 
 It is evident that it is due largely to indifference and to apathy 
 on the part of those who are supposed to be the guardians of 
 the public health. 
 
 That the inspection of abattoirs, markets, and shops, carried 
 on even in an imperfect manner, is of great public utility, must 
 be apparent to those who are placed in a position in which 
 opportunities are afforded for forming a correct and reliable 
 .opinion. Thousands of pounds of flesh meat are by this means 
 annually withdrawn from our markets and shops, and consigned 
 to that fate which is most meet — destruction ; and, in addition to 
 this, a wholesome, though not absolutely efficient, check is placed 
 upon the nefarious traffic of the "carrion" or "cagmag" butcher. 
 
 If such characters confined their operations merely to the sale 
 of an inferior quality of meat — i.e., meat deficient in fat or wanting 
 in flesh — but little harm would accrue ; neither could any serious 
 objection be urged against their trade if they were honest enough 
 to label every piece of meat exposed by them for sale with 
 a description of its character and the source from whence it was 
 derived, or, as of second or third class quality. In that case the 
 purchaser could blame nobody but himself; and if he chose 
 to buy meat labelled " diseased," simply because he obtained it 
 at a low price, the fault would rest with him alone, and the sanitary 
 authorities could no more be held responsible for his act than 
 could the police authorities be held responsible if he elected to 
 commit suicide. 
 
 The members of that class of the community most largely 
 
 * As showing the difference in the way meat inspection is managed at Berlin, 
 it may be noted that the staff engaged in the duty at the Central Abattoir 
 comprises over 250 persons, including the director, 19 veterinary surgeons, 
 and 6 assistant veterinary surgeons ; while about 15 veterinary surgeons are 
 engaged in the inspection of carcases slaughtered elsewhere and brought into 
 the city (Journal of Comp. Path., June 1890). 
 
THE "CARRION BUTCHER" AND HIS TRAFFIC. 3 
 
 affected by the traffic under consideration, not only are not 
 possessed of marked reasoning faculties, but they are usually very 
 confiding (and honestly so), believing that that which seems a 
 spade is really a spade. But how are they to know a spade if it 
 is (metaphorically) reduced to atoms by the teeth of a mincing 
 machine, and further rendered attractive by admixture with a 
 modicum of decent fat and flesh and a large allowance of spice ? 
 
 Horse-flesh cannot be distinguished from that of the ox when 
 it is so treated, no more than the flesh of the cat' or the dog can 
 be distinguished from that of the calf. Nor can the nature of 
 flesh in which, under normal circumstances, the products of 
 disease would be readily detected, be always distinguished, even 
 by the expert, when subjected to similar processes. 
 
 The business of the " carrion butcher," like that of the " horse- 
 coper,'' can only be conducted by men possessed of a large share 
 of cunning, and of a profound belief in the gullibility of a large 
 proportion of their fellow-men. 
 
 For originality and fertility of resource in fighting against con- 
 stituted authority, and in devising means for carrying on his 
 nefarious traffic ; for the instantaneous coining and uttering of 
 unblushing falsehoods ; and for the absolute indifference with 
 which he contemplates the injury likely to be inflicted on his 
 victims, the "carrion butcher" is only equalled, certainly not 
 surpassed, by the " horse-coper," and as in the case of the latter, 
 the cast of his mind makes his work a congenial task. Like 
 Ishmael, his hand is against every man, and he runs the blockade 
 with as much daring and with more cunning than ever was shown 
 by the captain of a Confederate schooner. 
 
 A few trusses of hay or bundles of straw, a few useless but 
 innocent looking articles of furniture, serve to hide from the eye 
 of the watchful constable or inspector a sub-stratum of contraband 
 flesh. In some out of the way corner, in a retired part of the 
 country, perhaps in the hollow of a hill, or the gloomy recesses 
 
4 THE IMPORTANCE OF MEAT INSPECTION. 
 
 of a ravine, the horse or the ox is slaughtered by night and its 
 carcase dressed with commendable celerity, and quietly conveyed 
 into the town or city in the early morning, where it is quickly 
 subjected to the mincing and spicing process, or converted into 
 potted-head, saveloy, or polony in some quiet out-of-the-way vault 
 or cellar. The flesh of the unborn calf— the "Staggering Bob" 
 of some Scottish, or the " calf' that never heard the nine o'clock 
 bell ring " of some English town — serves admirably, with the aid 
 of parings of ham from the pork shop, and a few pigs' or sheep's 
 tongues, for the manufacture of potted ham, chicken, and veal. 
 The muscles of the horse (the "powed ox" of the Edinburgh 
 " carrion " butcher) give, with the aid of a little saltpetre, a rich 
 florid colour to the tempting saveloy. The blood of the horse, 
 and sometimes the small intestines of the same animal, are con- 
 venient and cheap substitutes for the blood and intestines of 
 the pig in the manufacture of " black-pudding." As in the case 
 of rancid or mouldy butter, so with returned or rejected (perhaps 
 putrid) polonies or saveloys, a little manipulation and purification 
 by heat or chemicals quickly convert them into a fresh looking 
 and apparently wholesome article of consumption, which, as it is 
 sold at a low price, is readily purchased by a needy and indis- 
 criminating public. 
 
 The pictures here presented are drawn from actual experience. 
 I have been present at the seizure of hundredweights of " returned " 
 polonies, and of salted (pickled) flesh, in a state of semi-putre- 
 faction. I have assisted in the seizure and condemnation of 
 large quantities of sapid horse-flesh, which had undergone the 
 process of "boning;" and of an olla podrida of every imaginable 
 organ and tissue of various animals, simmered out of the sem- 
 blance of recognition in a copper snugly built in the recess of a 
 wall in an underground cellar — which also served as a sleeping 
 apartment for the operator — over the floor of which a miscellane- 
 ous collection of stinking stockings and underclothes, with dirty 
 
THE "CARRION BUTCHER" AND HIS TRAFFIC. 5 
 
 bed-linen, was strewn, and access to which was only gained by 
 means of a cleverly contrived trap in the shop floor; and I have 
 watched the youth of the lower strata of the population of a large 
 town waiting in expectation at the knacker's yard with innocent 
 looking tin cans for the blood and entrails of the to-be-slaughtered 
 horse. 
 
 The traffic in diseased meat is pregnant with serious con- 
 sequences other than that of direct harm to the consumers. It is 
 one, and the most important, of the means by which the owners 
 of animals are enabled to dispose surreptitiously of their diseased 
 stock ; and if the trade of the " blockade runner " were suppressed, 
 the temptation to hide the existence of disease would be reduced 
 to a minimum. 
 
SUBSTITUTION OF THE FLESH OF ANIMALS NOT 
 GENERALLY USED FOR HUMAN FOOD FOR 
 THE FLESH OF THOSE SO USED. 
 
 IN this country the choice of the consumer of meat is a very 
 limited one, i.e., if compared with the flesh-eater of other 
 countries. 
 
 Amongst the mammalia, the flesh of the ox, the sheep, the 
 deer, the pig, the rabbit, and the hare, is alone prepared for 
 human food. With such delicacies as the bodies of dogs, cats, 
 and rats, there are few indeed who can claim any conscious 
 acquaintance, and, in a less degree only, the same may be said 
 of the horse. In Mr. Wylde's book a statement is made to 
 the effect that on one occasion a hamper of newly born lambs 
 had been sent to the Leadenhall Market as Ostend rabbits, 
 on another occasion a retriever dog had been sent as a lamb, 
 and on still another, a jackass had been sent for sale as home- 
 fed deer. 
 
 In reference to dogs, cats, and rats, I imagine there are few 
 meat consumers who would knowingly partake of their flesh, or 
 whose gustatory sense would not require to undergo a prolonged 
 course of training in order that such flesh might be rendered 
 palatable ; and while sympathising with them in their abhorrence 
 of the use of such flesh, I can scarcely join in the almost 
 universal objection entertained to the use of horse-flesh. There 
 can be little doubt that large quantities of horse-flesh are, in 
 cities and - large towns, substituted for ox beef — identification 
 
PREJUDICE AGAINST THE USE OF HORSE-FLESH. 7 
 
 being rendered less probable, or more difficult, by submitting it to 
 the process known as " boning," i.e., carefully removing the bone 
 from the flesh. Cases have been known in which army con- 
 tractors have substituted the flesh of the horse and the mule for 
 that of the ox ; and only recently it is within my own knowledge 
 that a horse was slaughtered in the public abattoir of a town 
 not a hundred miles from Edinburgh, and the flesh surreptitiously 
 sold for human food. In like manner, the hind and fore quarters 
 of horses slaughtered in licensed slaughter-houses are frequently 
 disposed of. Seeing that in point of nutritive value, and often in 
 flavour and texture, the flesh of the horse is superior to that of 
 the ox, it is difficult to understand why it has not long since been 
 recognised as a valuable addition to our food supply. 
 
 Against the use of horse-flesh, as an article of food, there is in 
 the minds of the populace of this country a deep-rooted aversion. 
 How far this aversion is justified or warranted may be a matter 
 for question, but as in the case of other likes and dislikes it 
 may be largely the outcome of an unreasoning and uninformed 
 prejudice, strengthened, perhaps, by the repeated and persistent 
 attempts of " carrion " butchers to palm it off on unsuspecting 
 purchasers as a substitute for ox beef. According to a statement 
 made by Mr. Knowles, M.P., the London Sausage Makers salt 
 the flesh of the horse, and subsequently wash it in order to 
 deprive it of its peculiar taste, and horse-flesh so treated is known 
 amongst the fraternity as " Jack." The same gentleman has 
 also stated that when horse-flesh is exposed for sale the fat is 
 removed, and masses of ox fat are skewered on to the parts 
 from which it has been taken. That the non-consumption of 
 horse-flesh in this country is largely due to prejudice is, I think, 
 proved by the ready sale with which it meets in certain Con- 
 tinental countries — particularly in epicurean France. Our 
 ignorance, too, as to the best methods of preparing it for 
 culinary purposes, may have something to do with our objections 
 
 I' ! , .1 !'. ! 'i / 'i I ■ 
 
 ' 1 , 1 1 1 1 ' ; 1 ' ( { > II I ( 
 
8 SUBSTITUTION OF UNCOMMON FOR COMMON FOOD. 
 
 to its use. Not only prejudice but sentiment also exercises a 
 large share in the national tabooing of horse-flesh as an article 
 of common consumption; and that this is so has been amply 
 proved by my personal experience, and by circumstances which 
 have been brought within my own knowledge. When acting 
 as a prosector in my student days I had occasion, in con- 
 junction with my fellow-prosectors, to dissect the fore limb of a 
 horse whose life had been abruptly terminated by a fracture 
 of one of his legs. After the subject had served the purpose 
 of the lecturer a discussion arose amongst my confreres and 
 myself as to the edible qualities of horse-flesh, and especially 
 as to the suitability of a section of the biceps of this particular 
 subject for gastronomic purposes. A steak was carefully cut 
 and conveyed by myself to my apartments, but I only succeeded 
 in persuading one of my fellows to sup with me, and when the 
 table was spread I halved the steak, and handed my friend B. 
 his share of it. After a critical survey of the dainty morsel 
 he succeeded in swallowing one mouthful, but he never swallowed 
 the second, and it ended in my eating his share in addition to 
 my own : it was only "the idea of the thing" that troubled him. 
 A year afterwards two veterinary students occupied the same 
 apartments, a horse-flesh supper was partaken of in the early part 
 of their occupation, and as they were liberally inclined, a tolerably 
 large modicum of the dainty morsel was left over and graciously 
 handed to the domestic for her own use, and it was not until 
 the last day of the session, and consequently the last day of their 
 stay in the house, that the hippophagi revealed the secret, and 
 that they became forcibly aware of the fact that the landlady 
 had shared the feast with the servant by the two performing, in 
 the back garden, a duet well known to those who essay for the 
 first time a voyage by sea. When engaged as a pupil, I one day 
 accompanied my preceptor to the stable of a boating contractor, 
 and there examined a grey horse whose years merged into the 
 
PREJUDICE AGAINST THE USE OF HORSE-FLESH. 9 
 
 thirties, and who was suffering from a fractured limb. The horse 
 was condemned to be shot, and he was purchased by a company of 
 "carrion" butchers, who conveyed him to the neighbouring 
 town, where his carcase was dressed and prepared in the same 
 manner as is usually practised in the case of the ox. Subsequently, 
 one or two members of the fraternity expressed, while carousing 
 with their mates in the bar parlour of an inn, a desire for 
 something substantial to eat. They were recommended by those 
 of their companions who were in the secret to go to the slaughter- 
 house and cut off some steaks from the hind quarters of O 's 
 
 " ox.'' This they did with alacrity, and after the same had been 
 cooked, with a liberal addition of onions, by an obliging land- 
 lady, they were devoured with great gusto ; but the tables were 
 turned when the gourmands were quietly informed, a short time 
 after their feast, that they had been eating steaks cut from 
 the body of " Steamer," the oldest horse on the tow-path. 
 
 In marked contrast to these comical .experiences are those 
 banquets which have from time to time been given to the more 
 intelligent portion of the community by gentlemen interested in 
 the horse and his uses ;* but even in the case of these men of 
 cultured taste their first effort to swallow the dishes prepared by 
 the " horsey " cook have been more remarkable for wry-facedness 
 than for gustatory appreciativeness or relish. Perhaps, after all, 
 the same argument as that which is applicable to diseased or 
 doubtful ox or other flesh may be employed here, viz., why 
 should that which is unpalatable be eaten, when that which is 
 agreeable to the taste can be had for the same, or nearly the same 
 price ? 
 
 That horse-flesh is largely sold in this country for the purposes 
 of human food is a well established fact, and personally I see no 
 
 * E.g., the banquet given a few years ago by Mr. B. Cartledge, F.R.C.V.S., 
 at Sheffield. 
 
io SUBSTITUTION OF UNCOMMON FOR COMMON FOOD. 
 
 reason why it should not be so sold, providing proper regulations 
 are enforced in regard to its exposure for sale, i.e., regulations 
 to guard against the use of the flesh of diseased animals, and 
 for informing intending purchasers that the article offered for sale 
 is horse-flesh. Since these lines were penned an Act of Parlia- 
 ment has been passed, initiated by Mr. Knowles, M.P., which 
 provides : — 
 
 "On and after the 29th September 1889, it will be unlawful for 
 any one to sell, offer, expose, or keep for sale any horse-flesh for 
 human food elsewhere than in a shop, stall, or place, over or upon 
 which there shall be at all times painted, posted, or placed, in 
 legible characters of not less than four inches in length, and in a 
 conspicuous position, and so as to be visible throughout the 
 whole time, whether by night or day, during which such horse- 
 flesh is being offered for sale, words indicating that horse-flesh is 
 sold there. 
 
 " And no one is to supply horse-flesh for human food, to any 
 purchaser who has asked to be supplied with some meat other 
 than horse-flesh, or with some compound article of food which 
 is not ordinarily made of horse-flesh. For the purposes of the 
 Act, the term 'horse-flesh' is to include the flesh of asses and 
 mules, and shall mean horse-flesh, cooked or uncooked, alone, or 
 accompanied by, or mixed with any other substance." 
 
 The provisions of this Act are, in my view, very inadequate, 
 inasmuch as it does not provide for the slaughtering of the 
 animals under proper supervision and inspection, and in suitable 
 slaughter-houses. The Bill, in fact, does little more than is 
 accomplished by an old regulation in force in Edinburgh in 
 reference to " bull beef." 
 
 In order that the substitution of the flesh of animals not 
 generally used for human food for the flesh of those which are 
 so used may be recognised, it is necessary that I should con- 
 sider : — 
 
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF ANIMAL FLESH. n 
 
 The Distinguishing Characteristics of the Flesh of each 
 Animal, and also of some of the more important 
 organs and parts that are used for human food. 
 
 The Muscular Tissue in the healthy Ox should be of a florid 
 hue in adult animals; being brighter in young animals up to 
 about eighteen months old, and darker in hue after six years of 
 age. In certain positions it should be free from intermixture 
 with fat, in others its connective tissue should be so infiltrated 
 or intermixed with that substance as to give it a distinctly mottled 
 or marbled appearance in section. It should be of a firm or 
 slightly elastic consistence, tolerably dry after being expqsed for 
 a short time to the atmosphere, and rigor mortis (death stiffening) 
 should be marked — in other words, the carcase should " set " or 
 " firm " ; it should possess a pleasant, sweet flavour, and should 
 exhale, when exposed to the action of heat, a savoury odour. The 
 Fat varies in colour from white to straw colour, and yellow ; being 
 whiter in colour usually in young bulls, and in animals fed on 
 corn or grass, than in bullocks or cows, or in animals fed on 
 rich cakes, in which it is sometimes of a tolerably deep yellow, as 
 it is in certain breeds of - cattle, e.g., the Jerseys and Guernseys. 
 In cooking, a loss of from 20 to 30 per cent, takes place in the 
 case of yellow fat, consequently (according to Capt. Stacpole) 
 officers charged with the duty of purchasing flesh meat for the 
 army are directed to avoid it when the flesh is markedly yellow. 
 It should be firm, have a suety taste, and a greasy feel ; be readily 
 combustible and capable of resisting putrefaction. 
 
 The Connective Tissue should glisten on exposure and be toler- 
 ably moist, but there should be no draining of water from its 
 mesh'es. It is most abundant in parts where the skin is loosely 
 attached, e.g., the flanks, under the shoulder, and the abdomen, 
 and at the breast or brisket. 
 
 The Blood contained in good ox beef should, when roasted, 
 
12 SUBSTITUTION OF UNCOMMON FOR COMMON FOOD. 
 
 form rich brown flakes, and— if not overdone— a bright-coloured 
 sanguinolent fluid (coagulating into a jelly when set at rest), 
 should flow out when a section is made through it in a hot state. 
 
 The Mustular Tissue of the Horse is much darker in colour than 
 is that of the ox, and it is coarser in texture ; in flavour it is, on 
 the whole, superior, but its odour is less pleasant. The Fat is 
 always of a yellowish colour, and softer than is that of the ox, 
 and it has a rather unpleasant, sickly taste ; due, probably, to the 
 fact that it contains a large proportion of margarine. After the 
 lapse of a few days — the length of time depending upon the 
 amount of watery vapour in the atmosphere and the condition 
 of the animal when slaughtered — horse-flesh contracts a peculiar 
 sickly odour and a soapy feel, which is familiar to all who have 
 been in the habit of dissecting. 
 
 Notwithstanding that the flesh of the horse is superior to that 
 of the ox in nutritive value, it is necessary, from a monetary 
 point of view and in a spirit of fair-trading, that some data 
 should be forthcoming whereby the one may be readily distin- 
 guished from the other. In those cases where the bones have 
 been removed the hints above given must be relied upon ; but 
 when the operation of "boning" has not been performed, there 
 should be little difficulty in distinguishing between a joint cut from 
 the carcase of an ox and one from that of the horse. The bones 
 of the horse are, relatively, much larger than are those of the 
 ox ; they contain more fatty matter, which is of a semi-fluid 
 consistence ; the processes usually situated at the extremities (the 
 epiphyses and the apophyses) are better developed, and more 
 numerous, and those bones which are indirectly connected with 
 the skeleton, the "floating bones," as the cap of the stifle 
 (patella), are much more pronounced in form and size. The 
 ulna (or elbow bone) of the ox is much larger than is that of the 
 horse— it articulates in fact with one of the bones of the knee 
 (the cuneiform) but the corresponding bones of the hind leg 
 
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF ANIMAL FLESH. 13 
 
 (the fibulas), as also the splint bones of both fore and hind 
 legs, are usually absent in the ox, or, if present, are rudimentary, 
 The ribs of the ox are fewer in number than in the horse (13 as 
 against 18), but they are much less arched, they are broader and 
 flatter, and their lower extremities form a distinct joint with 
 the cartilages of the ribs, instead of being immovably fixed thereto 
 as in the horse. 
 
 The Breast Bone (Sternum) of the Ox. — Between the two first 
 segments there is a distinct joint formed, the detached one being 
 termed the manubrium. In the ox it is flattened below and 
 above ; in the horse, from side to side, i.e., keel-shaped. Pro- 
 jecting from the first bone of the sternum of the horse there is 
 a flattened piece of cartilage (the cariniform), absent in the ox, 
 and the cartilage projecting in a backward direction from the 
 last bone (the ensiform) is also much better developed in the 
 former than the latter, in which it is somewhat separated from 
 the bone. 
 
 The organs of the horse most largely substituted for the edible 
 organs of the ox, are the tongue, the heart, the liver, and the 
 kidneys. 
 
 The Tongue of the Horse is broad at its free extremity, while that 
 of the ox is pointed, and in the latter its upper surface is rough 
 (bristly), and there is presented, at about half its length, a dis- 
 tinct prominence or projection. If, as frequently happens, the 
 bone of the tongue (the os hyoides) has been left in situ, it will 
 be found that while in the ox it is composed of nine segments 
 or parts, there are only five in the horse, that the body of the 
 bone is of an angular shape in the ox, and its spur process is 
 short and conical. The epiglottis (a cartilage frequently left on 
 the tongue) is, in the horse, thinner and more pointed than in 
 the ox. 
 
 The Heart of the Ox is more pointed (conical) than is that of 
 the horse, and the fat in the furrows on the external surface 
 
14 SUBSTITUTION OF UNCOMMON FOR COMMON FOOD. 
 
 is usually in greater quantity, whiter in colour, and firmer ir 
 texture ; moreover, in the base of the former there exists a bone 
 (the os cordis) which is seldom or never foun,d in the latter. 
 
 The Liver of the Ox and Sheep is made up of one continuous 
 mass or lobe, with one small lobe at its upper and posterior part, 
 while in the horse there are three distinct lobes — the right, left, 
 and middle — with a supernumerary lobe. In the former, a 
 gall bladder is attached to the posterior surface ; in the latter 
 it is wanting. The Liver of the Pig has five lobes, and the 
 lobules are distinctly mapped out on its surface, while in the 
 Dog it is made up of two lobes — right and left. 
 
 The Kidneys of the Ox and the Calf are lobulated— i.e., 
 separated into lobes or divisions — and elongated ; those of the 
 dog, pig, and sheep are simple and oblong in shape ; and while 
 the left kidney of the horse is oblong, the right is heart-shaped. 
 The Kidney of the Pig is flatter on its surfaces than is that of any 
 other animal. 
 
 The Flesh of the Calf is always pale in colour and not very 
 firm in consistence, and the same remark applies to the fat, which 
 resembles tallow. The colour of the flesh will depend largely 
 upon whether the animal has or has not been bled (a practice 
 happily now fallen into almost universal disuse) prior to 
 slaughter. In the newly i born or unborn calf the flesh has a 
 watery, unpleasant appearance, and the fat resembles tallow 
 which has been macerated for some time in water. It possesses 
 also a distinctive odour. While this flesh is, by some manu- 
 facturers, largely substituted for chicken in the manufacture of 
 ham, chicken, and tongue, other substitutions for veal are 
 rarely practised. It is as well, however, to note that the flesh of 
 a large dog has a close resemblance to that of the young calf, 
 and when the head, with the legs, as far up as the knees and 
 hocks, have been removed, the one carcase may be easily mistaken 
 for the other. In the calf, the joints are much larger than in the 
 
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF ANIMAL FLESH. 15 
 
 dog; and the carcase of the dog always exhales a distinctively 
 canine odour. 
 
 The Flesh of the Sheep is of a less florid hue than is that of the 
 ox, though in the old ram it is often of a tolerably pronounced 
 colour and very firm ; and even as between the flesh of the old 
 ewe or wether and that of the young animal there is a marked 
 contrast in this respect. The Fat is always very firm (suety) and 
 white in colour, and both flesh and fat exhale a more distinctive 
 odour than that given off from the carcase of the ox. The fat, 
 too, is more evenly distributed over the back and sides of the 
 carcase, and the muscular tissue is seldom found veined with fat. 
 
 Occasionally, the flesh of the sheep is tainted with the 
 flavour of wool. This, it has been variously explained, is due to 
 the skin being left on the back of the carcase for some time 
 after death ; to the carcase being enveloped in the skin ; and 
 to the intestines and stomach being allowed to remain for too 
 long a time in the abdomen. 
 
 The Flesh of the Goat is, in adult animals, much darker in 
 colour than is that of the sheep, and it is less abundant ; but 
 although the fat on the body is small in quantity, there may be 
 equally as much fat on the loins in the former as in the latter. 
 When newly dressed, and when subjected to the action of heat, 
 the flesh of the goat gives off a distinct " goaty " odour, as it has 
 also a " goaty " flavour. 
 
 The substitution of the flesh of the goat for that of the sheep, 
 or the kid for that of the lamb, is a matter of much less import- 
 ance than are some of the substitutions carried out as between 
 other animals. 
 
 The Flesh of the Pig is, in young animals, pale in colour, and 
 even in adults it is of a comparatively lighter hue than in either 
 the ox or in the sheep; it is also less firm to the touch, and 
 the Fat is more unctuous to the feel, and forms a deep, smooth 
 layer all round the kidneys and under the skin of the back 
 
16 SUBSTITUTION OF UNCOMMON FOR COMMON FOOD. 
 
 and sides— the latter constituting the "panniculus adiposus" 
 of the comparative anatomist. A slight odour is always detect- 
 able, and this becomes very pronounced in old boars, as does 
 also the " brawny taste " ; both the odour and taste are retained 
 — the former in fact is increased— on cooking. The flesh of the 
 pig is not substituted for that of other animals, but inasmuch as 
 large boars are frequently skinned, and the flesh is of a deep 
 red colour, the carcase, on a superficial view, is not at all 
 unlike that of an old ram. Even if the head is removed, the 
 shortness and thickness of the neck, as compared with that of 
 the sheep, will be sufficient for identification. 
 
 In a medico-legal, as well as in a trading point of view, it is 
 also necessary to distinguish between the carcase of a male 
 (whether castrated or entire) and a female animal. In the bull 
 the neck or crest is much more largely developed (bull-necked) ; 
 the textures of the sternum (brisket) are much coarser, harder, 
 and darker in colour than in the ox or the cow ; the contour of 
 the arm muscles is more perfect, and they are better developed : 
 but in the ox they become comparatively fine, if castration has 
 been performed for any length of time. In the bull and in the 
 ox the penis is usually left attached to the left flank, its greater 
 size in the former animal forming a marked contrast with its 
 smaller size in the latter. In some cases the penis of the bull 
 is removed, but the retractor muscles, which to the uninitiated 
 may be readily mistaken for it, and which are smaller, are not 
 removed. The erector muscles of the penis (i.e., those attached 
 to the ischium, and which assist in its erection) are much larger 
 in the bull than they are in the ox. The pelvis of the cow is of 
 large diameter as compared with that of the ox, and the pubic 
 bone is finer. 
 
 In the bull and ox there is always a mass of fat in either flank ; 
 its shape, in oxen, being regulated by the method of emasculation 
 which has been adopted. If the end of the scrotum has been 
 
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF ANIMAL FLESH. 17 
 
 cut off, the mass of fat will be much shorter and broader than 
 when a vertical incision has been made into either scrotal sac. 
 Those breeders who desire to see a "plump purse" always 
 remove the end of the scrotum in castration. 
 
 The masses of fat in the flanks of the cow, when the udder 
 has been removed, are always irregular and much smaller than 
 in the flanks of the bull or ox, and the large inguinal lymphatic 
 glands are frequently left in situ. In the heifer the udder 
 is but slightly developed; it is, in fact, enveloped in fatty 
 tissue, and forms a uniform thick wall on either side of the flank. 
 In order that the various points connected with the differentiation 
 of the sexes and also of the hindquarters of the heifer and the 
 cow may be better understood, sketches of the hindquarter of the 
 ox, the cow, and the heifer have been introduced. 
 
 These remarks apply equally to the two sexes in the sheep. 
 
 In old sows — more especially in those that have recently borne 
 young — the teats are drawn in between the finger and thumb of 
 the butcher until they become small and shrivelled. 
 
WHAT FLESH MAY BE REGARDED AS MARKETABLE, 
 AND WHAT UNMARKETABLE. 
 
 I suppose all authorities on the subject are agreed that meat 
 which shows no marked departure from the general char- 
 acteristics presented by the slaughtered carcases of the particular 
 species of animal to which it belongs, should be looked upon as 
 marketable. But there are numerous cases in which a carcase or 
 part of a carcase may show some departure from the healthy 
 standard, in the shape of excess or deficiency of colour, excessive 
 moisture, flaccidity, want of firmness, or deficiency in flesh or fat ; 
 or in having some unusual odour, such as may be contracted by 
 the administration of odorous volatile medicines during life, or 
 by the exposure of a carcase to an atmosphere charged with the 
 fumes of volatile agents ; and it is in reference to these cases that 
 doubts may be entertained. Unfortunately, a satisfactory solution 
 of this question is rendered more difficult by the fact that there 
 are probably no two individuals, lay or official, who will be found 
 to agree upon particular points; and one individual may look 
 upon an article as not only marketable, but fit for food also, 
 while another individual, having the same amount of knowledge 
 on the question, would unhesitatingly condemn it for both pur- 
 poses. A carcase, for instance, may present such a marked 
 departure from ordinary characters that, if exposed for sale, the 
 public would immediately cry out and charge the dealer with 
 attempting to sell unwholesome food, although all experience 
 may have shown that there would be positively no danger in its 
 
MARKETABLE AND UNMARKETABLE FLESH. 19 
 
 use. I cannot better illustrate this than by directing attention 
 to a very common, I may say an every-day occurrence, viz., that 
 all of us, without the least question or hesitation, enjoy the flesh 
 of certain animals that have met with a violent death, and from 
 whose bodies not a particle of blood has been withdrawn — e.g., 
 game, poultry, &c. But if the carcase of an ox or of a sheep 
 were exposed under similar circumstances, few persons would 
 be inclined to purchase it, and fewer still would care to eat it. 
 How can we reconcile this divergence in practice, seeing that 
 if the consumption of the flesh of one animal from whose body 
 the blood has not been withdrawn is harmless, and indeed is 
 nourishing, why should not the flesh of another animal of another 
 species be regarded in the same light ? Again, in some districts 
 the flesh of parturient animals is absolutely rejected, while in 
 others it is not only eaten, but sold in the market without a 
 second thought being given to its deleterious properties ; and the 
 same remark applies to the flesh of newly-born animals, especially 
 to that of calves, yet in neither of these cases can it be shown 
 that any direct harm has arisen from the use of such flesh. 
 Nevertheless, as a matter of sentiment or of taste, the idea of 
 knowingly using such flesh for dietetic purposes would be repul- 
 sive to most minds. Doubtless, as I have before pointed out, 
 thousands of pounds of veal from calves which have only lived 
 for a few hours, or have practically never existed at all outside 
 the womb of the mother, are devoured daily by an unsuspecting 
 public in the shape of some enticing commodity ; but, I suppose, 
 the old adage, that " what the eye does not see the heart does not 
 grieve," applies here. 
 
 It frequently happens that, owing to various physical circum- 
 stances, the flesh of an animal presents some marked departure 
 from the normal conditions which renders it repulsive to the 
 eye, but which does not interfere with its nutritious or its dietetic 
 value. Such flesh is not, however, marketable, though there can 
 
20 MARKETABLE AND UNMARKETABLE FLESH. 
 
 be no possible objection to allowing the consumption of the same 
 by private individuals if they so choose. 
 
 What Meat is Nocuous ? 
 
 As a general question, the above is the gravest of all with which 
 we have to deal in connection with the inspection of meat ; nor, 
 indeed, can a definite answer be given to it in all its aspects. 
 And it is in his inability to give such definite answers in 
 every case that the purveyor of meat so often finds his oppor- 
 tunity of tripping up the inspector or the sanitary officer. 
 The latter may have as a guide a vast amount of indirect 
 proof of the unwholesomeness of particular flesh, but there may 
 be wanting a link in the chain of evidence — viz., direct proof 
 of nocuity. 
 
 While I shall not attempt to generalise on this question, but 
 shall deal with each abnormal condition of flesh in detail, I 
 may here remark that the more certainly it can be shown that 
 any particular disease from which an animal has suffered is 
 capable of being transmitted from animals to man, or by 
 ingestion from animal to animal, the less hesitation should 
 there be in condemning its flesh for the purposes of human 
 food. 
 
 I suppose it will be admitted on all hands that where an animal 
 has been slaughtered while suffering from any of the under- 
 mentioned affections, its flesh is absolutely unfitted for human 
 food, as being either nocuous or innutritious. The affections to 
 which I allude are :— mortification of organs or parts, pyaemia, 
 septicaemia, uraemia, erysipelas, anthrax, variola, trichiniasis, 
 glanders or farcy, hydatid disease of the muscles, dropsy, the 
 advanced stages of rabies or swine fever, cattle plague, well- 
 marked cachectic conditions, whether these be cancerous, tuber- 
 culous, or otherwise ; and also where putrefaction has set in, and 
 
NOCUOUS MEAT. 21 
 
 when marked physical changes have taken place as the result of 
 inflammatory or febrile affections or important forms of blood 
 deterioration or degradation. It must be borne in mind that 
 although meat may not be directly nocuous, it may be indirectly 
 harmful by virtue of its being innutritious. 
 
RULES TO BE OBSERVED IN THE INSPECTION 
 OF MEAT. 
 
 IN all cases, where such a course is practicable, the internal 
 organs should be examined with the object of detecting the 
 existence of disease. In all public abattoirs there should be a 
 stringent rule established to the effect that the internal organs of 
 every animal, particularly the liver and the lungs, should be put 
 aside for inspection, as the condition of these organs is frequently 
 a valuable aid in arriving at a just estimate of the quality of the 
 flesh. 
 
 In those instances where the viscera are not forthcoming, great 
 attention should be paid to the condition of the lymphatic 
 glands, or "kernels" as they are commonly called, as in the 
 condition of these organs do we get the most reliable informa- 
 tion respecting the existence of the more important constitutional 
 or blood diseases. 
 
 In health, the lymphatic glands are, on section, of a pale greyish 
 yellow colour, tolerably firm, and somewhat moist ; in old animals 
 they frequently become indurated or hardened and at the outer 
 portions pigmented. If these glands are found to be universally 
 enlarged and softened, or if congested or inflamed, or the seat 
 of extravasation of blood, suspicion should be at once aroused 
 that the animal has, during life, suffered from some important 
 form of blood disease, and the inspector should make a more 
 than usually strict examination of the carcase. 
 
 The situation of the most accessible of these glands is shown 
 
LIMIT OF TIME BEFORE INSPECTION. 23 
 
 in our illustrations. They are the Sternal ; the Supra-sternal, 
 very small ; the Dorsal, alongside the bodies of the ninth and 
 tenth dorsal vertebrae; the Lumbar, scattered about the fat, 
 immediately behind the kidneys; the Sacro-lumbar, a few; the 
 Mammary, at the base or root of the udder of the cow; the 
 Deep Inguinal or Femoral, deep in the inside of the thigh ; and 
 the Pre-crural, on the outside of the flank. In young sheep 
 and pigs, a large number of small reddish-coloured glands are 
 scattered about amongst the connective tissue and fat between 
 the kidneys and pelvis; they are known as hamo-lymph glands, 
 and are practically of little importance for the purpose of meat 
 inspection. 
 
 The length of time that should be allowed to elapse between 
 the dressing of the carcase and the final inspection will be 
 regulated — 
 
 (a) By the condition of the animal when slaughtered. 
 
 (b) By the manner in which the slaughter has been . carried 
 
 out. 
 
 (c) By the state of the surrounding atmosphere. 
 
 (d) By the treatment of the carcase after dressing. 
 
 (a) If an animal has been fed on succulent food, such as grass 
 highly surcharged with water, or if it has been allowed large quan- 
 tities of water immediately prior to slaughter, the carcase will 
 require a much longer period for "firming" than it will if the 
 animal has been fed on solid nitrogenous food and has only 
 been supplied with a limited quantity of water. Again, if the 
 animals have been subjected to great excitement or exertion imme- 
 diately prior to slaughter (oestrum and parturition in cows produce 
 a similar effect), it will render the carcase more or less flaccid 
 and interfere with "firming." 
 
 (b) The more effectually an animal is bled, and the greater 
 care used in the drying of the carcase during the dressing process, 
 the more rapidly will it become " firm." On the contrary, if 
 
24 RULES FOR INSPECTION OF MEAT. 
 
 the bleeding has been imperfectly performed, and a large quantity 
 of greasy water has been employed during the dressing process, 
 the longer will be the time required for " firming." 
 
 (c) The condition of the atmosphere will frequently make, in 
 point of time, a difference of several hours in the drying process. 
 If the atmosphere is dry, cold, and sharp, the carcase will set 
 much more rapidly than if opposite conditions prevail, and a 
 murky damp atmosphere will frequently arrest the firming process 
 even in the best fed and best dressed carcases. The influence 
 of climate upon flesh is nowhere more strikingly illustrated than 
 in certain parts of Mexico and allied countries, where the carcase 
 becomes dry and firm in a very short space of time. 
 
 (d) If the carcase is suspended in a dry, lofty, and well ventilated 
 booth, it will quickly become firm ; on the contrary, if the atmos- 
 phere of the booth is damp and close, it remains flaccid for a 
 considerable period. Again, if, as frequently happens in the 
 case of animals slaughtered in the country, the carcase is 
 enveloped in sheets and sent long distances in close railway vans, 
 or in the holds of boats, it will be found on arrival at its destina- 
 tion in a very flaccid and moist state. This will be especially, the 
 case if thundery weather prevails. 
 
 The best situation on board ship for the conveyance of carcases 
 is either between decks, or in passages, such as the alley ways, 
 where there is a constant current of air. In such situations the 
 carcase quickly becomes dry and firm, and retains that condition 
 for a considerable period. 
 
 The Parts of the Carcase to which especial attention 
 should be directed, are : 
 
 Firstly, Those in which there is an abundance of connective 
 tissue, as the flanks, both inside and outside ; the breast, under- 
 neath the arms and shoulders, behind and above the fat of the 
 kidneys, along the central portions of the back, and under the 
 
PARTS REQUIRING SPECIAL ATTENTION. 25 
 
 diaphragm (or skirting), as it is in these situations that dropsical 
 lesions are usually located ; moreover, evidence of such disease as 
 tubercle is frequently to be found in some of these situations also. 
 
 Secondly, The chest should be carefully examined with the object 
 of detecting whether or not the operation of stripping of the pleura 
 has been performed. Stripping of the pleura, i.e., the lining 
 membrane of the chest, is practised for the purpose of removing 
 the traces of pleurisy and of tubercle ; it is also practised for the 
 purpose of removing the unsightly appearance produced by the 
 presence of blood in the chest from what is known as "over- 
 sticking" and by the accidental pouring into the chest of matter 
 from the stomachs and intestines. 
 
 If the operation has been practised for the latter purpose only, 
 the underlying tissues will be found firm and dry and of their 
 normal colour, except that the more ragged portions may be a 
 little stained with blood, or colouring matter of food : if the process 
 has been carried out with the object of doing away with traces of 
 disease, the muscles will be found more or less softened and moist, 
 and altered in colour, and the fat will present a somewhat tallowy 
 aspect. A tyro may be readily deceived by a, clever dresser, but 
 no person acquainted with the natural condition of the pleura 
 should be led astray by the operation of stripping. If, in addition 
 to the pleura having been stripped, the whole of the diaphragm 
 (midriff) has been removed, a suspicion may be fairly entertained 
 that it has been done for some special purpose. 
 
 Thirdly, The carcase should be quartered, and the condition of 
 the severed muscles carefully noted, not only at the moment of 
 section, but after a lapse of from half an hour to an hour. In no 
 case should the inspector satisfy himself by examining a section 
 of muscle which has been exposed to the air for some time, as 
 the colour always becomes brighter and the surface drier on 
 exposure. 
 
 If by the ordinary method of quartering the carcase the inspector 
 
26 RULES FOR INSPECTION OF MEAT. 
 
 cannot satisfy himself as to the condition of the muscles, he should 
 make one or more deep incisions into the fleshy parts of the 
 carcase, and he should especially note the condition of the tissues 
 in close proximity to bone. 
 
 The sense of touch, of sight, of smell and of taste, should be 
 particularly brought into play in the examination of meat intended • 
 for human food. 
 
 Microscopic examination can only be carried out by experts. In 
 this country, probably owing to the rarity of Trichinosis, it has 
 never been brought into requisition to any extent, but in some 
 parts of Germany, e.g., Berlin, it is carried out systematically, and 
 particularly so in the examination of pork ; the method of pro- 
 cedure adopted is, according to a correspondent in the British 
 Medical Journal iox August 23, 1890, as follows: — 
 
 " Small portions of the abdominal and laryngeal muscles, and 
 of the diaphragm and sub-pleural fascia, are removed from the 
 carcase and conveyed to a laboratory, where fine sections of the 
 tissues are cut off with scissors and placed on a piece of plate- 
 glass, about a quarter of an inch thick, 9 inches long, and 2 inches 
 broad. 
 
 " The piece of glass is divided by transverse lines into a dozen 
 spaces, in each one of which is placed the piece of flesh intended 
 for examination, and one exactly similar piece of glass is placed 
 over the whole and screwed down tightly, so as to flatten out 
 the tissue. A low power (half an inch) is first used, so as to 
 detect the grosser lesions of tuberculosis and trichinosis : a more 
 searching investigation is carried out in cases where it is thought 
 necessary." 
 
 Where the question of age arises, the inspector should pay 
 attention to the condition of the bones and joints. The younger 
 the animal, the softer and .more vascular the bones, and the 
 more pronounced will be the ends of bones entering into the 
 formation of joints ; vice versa, the older the animal, the harder 
 
Fio. 26.— Pore Quarter of Carcase of Cow, showing position of Lymphatic Glands 
 
 a. Internal pectoral or sternal group. 
 
 b. Posterior thoracic or dorso-costaf group. 
 
 c. c. Site of chain of small glands (stemo-costal) deep below the sterno 
 costal muscle. See Frontispiece. 
 
Fig. 27.— Hind Quarter of Heifer. 
 
 a. Udder, very small, surrounded by fat. 
 
 b. Section through pelvic bone. 
 
 c. c. Sacro-lumbar (or kidney) fat, — kidney removed. 
 d. Section through muscles of haunch. 
 
Fio. 28.— Hind Quarter of Bullock. 
 
 o. Scrotal fat. 
 
 b. Penis. _,_ . 
 
 c. Retractor muscle of Penis. 
 
 d. Pelvic bone. 
 
Fig. 29.— Hind Quarter of Cow. 
 
 a. a. Site of udder,— removed. 
 
 h. b. Deep inguinal or mammary lymphatic glands. 
 
 c. Site of sacro-lumbar group of glands. 
 
 d. Site of lumbar (kidney) group of glands. 
 
 e. Spot opposite to which (on the outside of the flank) the superficial flank 
 
 group of glands are situated. 
 
PARTS REQUIRING SPECIAL ATTENTION. 27 
 
 and the more compact will be the skeleton, and the firmer 
 will be the ends of the bones entering into the structure of 
 joints. Moreover, the quantity of cartilage (gristle) is always 
 greatest in young animals, and the same is true of the con- 
 nective tissue. 
 
EXAMINATION OF THE CARCASE FOR THE PURPOSE 
 OF DETECTING ABNORMAL CONDITIONS. 
 
 IN the consideration of this part of the subject, I shall deal 
 mainly with departures from natural conditions in the matter 
 of colour, odour, and flavour, and with the presence of foreign 
 elements in the flesh. 
 
 The Colour. — In this, as in the consideration of all the other 
 characteristics, we must determine whether the alterations we may 
 detect are general or local — i.e., whether due to a cause which 
 equally affects the whole body and thus renders the flesh all 
 bad alike ; or which confines its influence to certain well-marked 
 boundaries, and only destroys the part in which it is actually 
 located. The colour of animal flesh varies from the pale hue 
 of the flesh of the unborn calf, the Jamb, and other young 
 animals, to the dark red of the horse, the old boar, working ox, 
 or ram. The muscles in different parts of the body also vary 
 in colour; the psoas muscles (undercut of the sirloin) and 
 the muscles in the inside of the thigh, being paler than 
 elsewhere. 
 
 The flesh of many foreign animals is very pallid and the fat 
 white ; the latter characteristic is also sometimes seen in home-fed 
 animals, and is often due to the character of the food. But pallor 
 of muscle is seen in all dropsical conditions ; in excess of water 
 in the blood (hydrsemia), in so-called grass staggers (indiges- 
 tion of cattle), sometimes in exhaustion, as from over-exertion, 
 and very notably in death from choking — i.e., the impaction of a 
 
COLOUR OF FLESH IN ITS RELATION TO DISEASE. 29 
 
 foreign body in the oesophagus — in which case the muscles have 
 also a parboiled or macerated appearance. 
 
 The pallor of dropsical flesh is due to deficiency in red cells 
 and red-colouring matter in the blood (anasmia), and probably 
 also to the solution of the colouring matter of the muscles, 
 brought about by the excess of water in the inter-muscular con- 
 nective tissue ; but it is impossible to explain the rapid decolorisa- 
 tion of the flesh in indigestion and choking. That the colouring 
 matter of the muscle is rapidly removed is evident, but in what 
 way it is removed is, in the present state of physiological know- 
 ledge, a mystery. In both conditions mentioned, serous fluid 
 (often tinged with blood colouring matter) is found in the 
 deeper interspaces of the muscle. 
 
 I have seen the muscular parts of the carcase of an ox, which, 
 during life, was the picture of health, almost entirely decolorised, 
 and the fibres so friable as to be easily broken up with the thumb 
 nail, or scraped into a pulp with the back of a knife, and yet the 
 internal organs have been perfectly healthy ; but I have always 
 found in such cases that there has been a considerable amount 
 of effusion of serous fluid (sometimes blood-tinged) into the 
 deeper parts of the muscles, especially in close proximity to the 
 bone. And seeing that such conditions can only result from 
 grave changes in the blood itself, I have never hesitated to advise 
 condemnation of the flesh. 
 
 The most remarkable form of white flesh is that which is due 
 to fatty transformation of the muscular elements. When con- 
 fined to particular areas or to individual muscles or sets of 
 muscles, it may be due to the effects of strain, inducing acute 
 inflammation (myositis) ; but when affecting large areas, as the 
 whole of the muscles of the loins or back, it can only be referred 
 to some important constitutional condition, or to organic disease 
 of one lung or large parts of both lungs, and, as a consequence 
 thereof, to diminished oxidation. 
 
3 o DETECTION OF ABNORMAL CONDITIONS. 
 
 I have only seen one well-marked example of this change, and 
 that in the carcase of an ox which was slaughtered in London, 
 and in reference to which the opinion of Mr. Edward Coleman, 
 M.R.C.V.S., was sought. 
 
 Mr. Hedley, veterinary adviser to the Irish Privy Council, has 
 placed on record a similar instance as occurring in the pig. 
 
 In addition to fatty transformation or fatty infiltration, we have 
 fibroid transformation, inducing a pale colour of muscle. This 
 change is always local in distribution, and is due to interstitial 
 changes as the result of such chronic inflammatory processes 
 as rheumatism, diseases of joints, and injuries. 
 
 Localised changes of this kind should never be accepted as 
 sufficient evidence for the condemnation of the whole carcase, 
 though, unquestionably, the affected parts should be removed 
 and destroyed. 
 
 A yellow colour, or tinge, in the fat and tissues is in many 
 animals natural, and is not infrequently due to the food con- 
 taining a large proportion of margarine and oleine (predominance 
 of stearine gives a white appearance) ; in other instances it can 
 be traced to certain breeds, and the whole of the progeny of 
 one particular sire may present the peculiarity : otherwise, systemic 
 icterus — even of a moderate degree — is the result of functional or 
 organic disease of the liver, while circumscribed yellowness is due 
 to contact, for several hours, with the gall bladder, or to the 
 effusion of gall from rupture of that organ. 
 
 In judging of the importance to be attached to yellowness, 
 we should observe, if possible, whether the colour is con- 
 fined to one or is common to several animals of the same lot, 
 and an authoritative opinion should never be given from an 
 examination by artificial light, as it is very misleading. 
 
 Yellowness, unless very pronounced and associated with other 
 changes in colour, or with important physical changes, or with 
 some grave disease of one or other of the internal organs, scarcely 
 
COLOUR OF FLESH IN ITS RELATION TO DISEASE. 31 
 
 warrants the condemnation of flesh, as it is due only to the 
 absorption and retention in the system of the colouring matter 
 of the bile, which is in itself comparatively, if not absolutely, 
 innocuous. 
 
 A magenta hue is characteristic of general albuminous effusion 
 as the result of the action of a zymotic poison or ferment in the 
 blood, and indicates the existence, in the acute stage, of some 
 zymotic or specific affection, as Zy. p. p., Ec. ep., rinderpest, or ■ 
 tuberculosis. It is most observable in making a fresh section 
 and exposing it for a short time to the action of the atmosphere, 
 and is accompanied by the glaze of albuminous effusion. 
 
 A scarlet hue is but seldom seen, and is indicative of carbonic 
 oxide, and sometimes of arsenical poisoning. 
 
 Both the foregoing are usually accompanied by textural and 
 other changes sufficiently marked to render the carcase at least 
 unmarketable. 
 
 A dark reddish brown or black results from imperfect aeration 
 of the blood, and is seen in carbonic acid poisoning, in disease 
 of the lungs, where the area involved is so large as to prevent 
 the access of air, or where mechanical obstruction exists 
 in the air-passages. It is also seen in poisoning by narcotic 
 agents, and particularly by those which, in addition to their 
 action upon the brain, arrest the process of oxidation in the 
 tissues — as alcohols, chloroform, asthers, and turpentine. Modi- 
 fications of this colour are also seen in inflammatory affections, 
 in high fevers, in apoplexy, in drowning, in suffocation, and in 
 animals which have been imperfectly bled. The latter condition 
 is easily distinguished by the marked infiltration of blood into 
 the most dependent parts, by the back of the carcase being 
 streaked with streams of blood which has escaped from the cut 
 ends of veins, and by the veins and capillaries, especially of the 
 internal organs, being surcharged with blood. Circumscribed 
 darkness in colour may be due to hypostatic congestion, from the 
 
32 DETECTION OF ABNORMAL CONDITIONS. 
 
 carcase having lain on its side or back for some time after 
 slaughter; it may be also the result of post-mortem staining, of 
 congestion, inflammation, or extravasation of blood. Diffused 
 redness (dyeing) is seen where meat has been subjected to the 
 action of extreme cold and moisture, as in freezing; in blood- 
 poisoning, and as a result of decomposition, and is caused by 
 solution and diffusion of the hsemoglobin or colouring matter 
 of the blood.* 
 
 A mahogany hue is a blending of red and yellow, and is 
 due to imperfect decarbonisation of the blood, combined with 
 icterus from absorption of bile pigment ; it is characteristic of 
 organic disease of the lungs and liver, and is most frequently 
 seen in advanced pleuro-pneumonia and consumption. The 
 flesh in this case is usually dry, though the connective tissue of 
 the flanks may be moist, but notwithstanding this, such flesh is 
 not unwholesome. 
 
 Iridescence "Peacock Feather Glint" {i.e., an appearance 
 similar to that produced by reflected light on the scales of a fish, 
 or like that frequently seen on the newly exposed surface of a 
 slice of boiled salt beef, or on decomposing fish), on section is 
 seen under a variety of circumstances, as in blood diseases, pro- 
 longed fevers, inflammatory affections, and difficult parturition. 
 
 * A uniformly dark colour of the flesh, even though the carcase may on the 
 whole be firm and dry, must be looked upon with grave suspicion, seeing that 
 it is always due to interference with, or arrest of, oxidation of the blood, and, 
 consequently, is associated with the retention of deleterious matter in the blood 
 and tissues ; it is of still greater importance if, as is very largely the case, the 
 flesh on section is soapy to the touch, or pits or yields on the application of 
 pressure. 
 
 Circumscribed darkness is not sufficient to necessitate the condemnation of 
 the whole carcase. 
 
 Diffused redness, if due to refrigeration, is of no sanitary significance, but 
 care should be taken to determine that the change is due to this cause, as if 
 it results from disease of organs, or from blood depravation, the flesh is, in the 
 fullest sense of the word, unwholesome. 
 
COLOUR OF FLESH IN ITS RELATION TO DISEASE. 33 
 
 In October last a remarkable case of iridescence was brought 
 under my notice by Dr. G. Wilson, of Warwick. The case came 
 under the official cognisance of Dr. J. H. Grahamshaw, of Graves- 
 end, who, on inspecting a carcase, found that in the dark or by 
 candle light it was distinctly luminous or phosphorescent, but 
 the phosphorescence was irregularly distributed, the flesh present- 
 ing an appearance as if dotted over with innumerable glow-worms. 
 This condition of things can, in my opinion, be only accounted 
 for on the supposition that the animal had received large doses of 
 phosphorus prior to death. 
 
 A green hue is indicative of decomposition or gangrene, and is 
 seen in the abdominal parietes when the viscera have been 
 allowed to remain in the abdomen for some time after death. In 
 this situation it may also be due to diffusion of the colouring 
 matter of vegetables, or of medicinal agents, through the coats 
 of the stomach and intestines. In the operation of disembowel- 
 ling, the intestines and the stomach are sometimes cut, and the 
 contents allowed to flow out over the inner surface of the abdo- 
 men, not only discolouring the tissues, but imparting thereto the 
 particular odour of the ingesta. 
 
 A yellowish-green hue of the inner surface of the abdomen is 
 often produced by bile which has escaped from the gall bladder, 
 as the result of wounding in the process of removing the liver. 
 
 Black discoloration (pigmentation) is usually local, and is the 
 result either of previous inflammation, extravasation of blood, or 
 melanosis. Pigmentation is natural in certain structures, as in the 
 mucous membrane of the tongue in black and blue-gray coloured 
 cattle, and occasionally in sheep ; in the coverings of the brain 
 and of the spinal cord. It is, in itself, harmless. 
 
 In judging of colour, age, sex, class of animal, mode of feeding 
 and of treatment prior to slaughter, the kind of weather, and 
 the quantity of water used in dressing the carcase, must be taken 
 into consideration. Many medicinal agents — as Epsom salts, 
 
 c 
 
34 DETECTION OF ABNORMAL CONDITIONS. 
 
 treacle, aethers, turpentine, camphor, &c. — produce a material 
 difference in colour. 
 
 Odour. — Varies in healthy meat from the vile stink of the old 
 boar or male goat to the scarcely perceptible odour of the young 
 calf or lamb — though that of the first two mentioned animals is 
 modified by castration a few months prior to slaughter, and by 
 partial starvation for a few days. 
 
 Abnormal odours are due — Firstly, To animals having been 
 fed on vegetables possessing volatile odorous principles — as 
 turnips, alliacious plants, and odoriferous plants in general. The 
 odour of turnips is most striking when an animal has been choked 
 by a piece of the root. 
 
 Secondly, To animals having been dosed, prior to slaughter, 
 with volatile medicinal agents, as prussic or carbolic acid, turpen- 
 tine, tar, creasote, aethers, camphor, chloroform, methyl-alcohol, 
 sulphur, phosphorus, or essential oils. 
 
 Thirdly, To putrefaction or mortification, or to contact with 
 decomposing fluids, as pus, blood, urine, &c. 
 
 Fourthly, To exposure, immediately after slaughter, to an atmo- 
 sphere charged with the odour of tobacco, tar, carbolic acid, or 
 paint ; in this case the odour is superficial. 
 
 Fifthly, To uraemia, to infiltration of urine from the bladder, to 
 escape of medicine from the intestines or stomach, or to ferment- 
 ing ingesta from the latter; in the first case the odour is general, 
 in the three last localised. 
 
 Sixthly, To prepared meats undergoing acid fermentation, or to 
 their having been mixed with aromatic substances or cured with 
 pyroligneous acid or wood smoke. 
 
 Odours, as a rule, are most readily distinguished when the 
 animal has been recently slaughtered, and when the flesh is 
 newly incised and breathed upon or artificially heated— with 
 or without moisture ; slight odours often disappear as the carcase 
 dries. 
 
ABNORMAL MOISTURE. 35 
 
 Moisture. — As has been already indicated, the amount of 
 natural moisture is altered by the condition of the atmosphere — '- 
 i.e., whether murky and damp, or dry and desiccative ; by thorough 
 or careless abstraction of blood, by the condition of the animal 
 prior to slaughter — i.e., as to whether it has been subjected to 
 exertion or not ; and by the quantity of water used in the dress- 
 ing, &c. The moisture of young, especially the unborn, exceeds 
 that of old, and of good-conditioned that of lean animals ; while 
 the neck and flanks always contain the greatest amount of moisture, 
 the former from the gravitation of serum from the blood and of 
 water from the carcase. 
 
 Abnormal moisture is due — Firstly, To albuminous effusion, 
 which is general, and results from the action of enzymes, or of 
 saline or other deleterious matter in the blood ; it is temporary, 
 and in some diseases gives place to serous effusion ; it varnishes 
 the skin of the hand and produces an albuminous glaze on exposed 
 sections of muscle. The best examples of this condition are seen 
 in turnip braxy in sheep. 
 
 Secondly, To effusions of lymph, which may be either localised or 
 diffused, the latter resulting from blood depravation or deteriora- 
 tion, the former to inflammatory action, or specific disease — as 
 rheumatism, synovitis, &c. — or to the irritation of blisters, or of 
 skin diseases, or to bruising. 
 
 Lymph, in blood-changes, is thrown out between the muscles, 
 sometimes into the muscles themselves, and into cavities, as the 
 chest or abdomen. It may coagulate and form firm glistening 
 layers of membrane-like structure, of a white or pale straw colour, 
 and produce adhesion of organs to each other or to the walls 
 of the cavity in which they are contained ; on the other hand, 
 the lymph may be of such poor quality as to be incapable of 
 coagulating, and in this case it lies on the surface of organs or 
 between the tissues in the form of soft masses. Whenever 
 such effusion is extensive, or is found in various parts of the 
 
36 DETECTION OF ABNORMAL CONDITIONS. 
 
 body, it is certain evidence of the existence during life of some 
 important form of disease, and the carcase should be unhesitatingly 
 condemned. 
 
 Thirdly, To effusions of serous liquid — sanguineous or simple — 
 and resulting from blood depravation or deterioration, from the 
 action of ferments, salines, or other agents in the blood, from 
 debilitating diseases, hydremia (water braxy in sheep), disease 
 of important organs, especially the kidneys; cachexia, thawing 
 after freezing, &c. Effusion of serous fluid may be general or 
 local, the latter frequently being an accompaniment of inflamma- 
 tion, disease of the skin, as scab, and disease of the vessels ; while 
 either local or general effusion may be the result of the irritation 
 produced by parasites, and by the lodgment of the bladder-worm 
 (hydatids) in the intermuscular connective tissue. 
 
 Pure serous fluid never coagulates ; if, however, it is mixed 
 with small quantities of blood an imperfect, jelly-like, coagulum 
 of a pinkish colour may be formed. When due to general or 
 constitutional causes, it is thrown out into the deep as well as 
 into the superficial parts of the body, and is more or less univer- 
 sally distributed. The same thing holds good, too, when there 
 is sufficient organic disease of such important organs as the 
 liver, lungs, or kidneys, to bring about a deteriorated condition 
 of the vital fluid ; but in some forms of obstructive heart disease 
 the fluid is mainly or entirely effused into the chest or into the 
 tissues at the lower part of the throat, neck, and breast, and 
 sometimes between the jaws, constituting in the last mentioned 
 situation jaw-pocking, Scot. — Wattles, Eng. 
 
 In liver and kidney disease the fluid is more largely thrown out 
 into the abdomen, and into the tissues of the hind extremities 
 and under the belly. Effusion of serous fluid constitutes dropsy, 
 than which there is— if it is at all marked— no more important 
 condition, and no flesh presenting distinct evidence of this state 
 should be passed for human food, more especially if the flesh 
 
ABNORMAL MOISTURE. 37 
 
 is pale, flaccid, and slimy to the touch, and if the blood contained 
 in the veins is watery and pale, and remains fluid. 
 
 No amount of exposure will thoroughly dry such flesh, but it 
 does not necessarily undergo decomposition more quickly than 
 does other flesh, and, in fact, it sometimes offers a tolerable 
 resistance to the process of putrefaction. 
 
 Flesh which has been subjected to extreme refrigeration has an 
 abnormally damp appearance and a damp and cold feel, and the 
 fat also has a somewhat tallowy appearance ; it, however, dries 
 fairly well in good weather, but it frequently undergoes decom- 
 position with much greater rapidity than dropsical flesh. Fluid 
 does not collect in bladders in the connective tissue in the 
 former as it does in the latter condition. 
 
 Fourthly, To effusion of blood, which may also be local or 
 general ; the former being produced, as a rule, by violence prior 
 to death ; by the ravages of migratory parasites, as strongyles ; 
 by the violent throe's of parturition ; or by local disease of the 
 coats of one or more blood-vessels. General effusion is indica- 
 tive of blood depravation or deterioration with or without disease 
 of the vessels.* Local extravasations (except those into the chest 
 from the knife having penetrated too deeply, or those produced 
 by parasites) are usually superficial and are unaccompanied by any 
 
 * There is no graver condition met with in the carcase of an animal than 
 universal or deep blood extravasation. While localised extravasation, due to 
 bruising, affects only the tissues in its immediate vicinity, the flesh in the other 
 part of the carcase being perfectly normal, general extravasation is usually 
 associated with important physical changes more or less over the whole of the 
 body. In anthrax and swine fever, if the animal has been killed early, these 
 associated changes may not be so marked, but in blood-poisoning (septicaemia) 
 the flesh and the connective tissue nearly always 1 present evidence of marked 
 interference with nutrition, and in all cases, and more especially if the lym- 
 phatic glands are involved, a careful microscopical examination of the blood 
 should be made, and the tissues cut into deeply in various parts of the body. 
 
 In the case of localised extravasation from injury, the damaged parts may be 
 carefully removed, and the remainder of the carcase passed ; but if there is 
 evidence of general blood change the whole should be destroyed. 
 
38 DETECTION OF ABNORMAL CONDITIONS. 
 
 detectable alteration in the blood; while .general extravasations 
 are always accompanied by physical or chemical blood changes, 
 are more deeply seated — even in the interior of the bones, 
 under the periosteum, under the membranes in the structure of 
 organs, into the muscular tissue, into the glands, and into the 
 cranial and spinal cavities — and when subjected to the action of 
 fire frequently evolve an unpleasant odour, and do not form the 
 brown savoury flakes seen in roasted healthy blood. The blood, 
 in either case, may be of much the same colour, and may undergo 
 the same changes- on exposure to the atmosphere, although in 
 anthrax and blood-poisoning it stains everything with which it 
 comes in contact, is frequently of a crimson or purple hue, or 
 is very black, and forms an imperfect or jelly-like coagulum. 
 
 Fifthly, To effusion of urine, which must necessarily be localised 
 in the tissues at the extreme posterior part of the abdomen, 
 around the sheath, and between the thighs, and is due to obstruc- 
 tion at the end of the sheath of the male, to obstruction in the 
 urethral canal, or to wounds in the urethra. It is easily detected 
 by the urinous odour which it imparts to the infiltrated tissues, 
 and unless very circumscribed, the whole of the carcase is unfit 
 for human food. 
 
 Healthy Firmness, is dependent, to a great extent, upon 
 the same influences as those which regulate moisture. Abnormal 
 flaccidity is the result of debility, effusions, exhaustion, lightning, 
 electricity, nervous influences, fevers, inflammatory affections, 
 vegetable poisoning, decomposition, and blood alterations. 
 Flaccid flesh has frequently an adhesive and sometimes a 
 soapy feel, and pits on pressure (doughy) ; it may be of any 
 colour or odour, fat or lean. 
 
 Texture. — Abnormal texture varies from the catgut flesh of 
 the patriarchal and hard-worked ox to the tender and easily 
 masticated muscle of the unborn calf. Muscle is frequently very 
 friable, especially where much struggling has taken place prior to 
 
FLA VO UK— EMPHYSEMA . 39 
 
 death, where pain has been severe, and in cases of choking. The 
 flesh of the sirloin (undercut of the butcher) is always of finer 
 texture than that of any other part of the body, as are also the 
 muscles inside the thigh. 
 
 Flavour. — Abnormal flavour is regulated by the same influ- 
 ences and results from the same set of causes as do abnormal 
 odours. 
 
 Emphysema — i.e., the presence of air or gas in the cellular 
 tissue, — may be general or local, the former resulting from blood 
 putrefaction, infiltration of gas from the alimentary canal, or rup- 
 ture or injury to the lungs, or from blowing by the butcher; 
 the latter from wounds or mortification. The gas in emphysema 
 resulting from mortification and blood putrefaction, or to absorp- 
 tion from the intestines, has an unpleasant odour. In emphy- 
 sema resulting from infiltration of air, the tissues are dry and 
 of a whitish colour, and there is an absence of any abnormal 
 odour, neither does it exercise any deleterious influence upon 
 the flesh ; but emphysema resulting from mortification or 
 putrefaction renders the flesh not only unmarketable but in a 
 high degree deleterious, as it is associated with infiltration of 
 bloody serum and staining (red, green, purple, or black) of the 
 tissues. 
 
DEATH BY VIOLENCE, &c. 
 Dislocations, Fractures, Wounds, and Bruises. 
 
 IN all severe accidents death may be produced instantaneously 
 by shock, or subsequently, and unexpectedly, from inability to' 
 rally from the effects of shock. It may be produced instantane- 
 ously, or after the lapse of a few minutes to several hours, by 
 hemorrhage, or subsequently, from the debility resulting therefrom. 
 
 If from shock, and the operation of bleeding has not been 
 adopted sufficiently early, the condition of the carcase will be the 
 same as in death from shooting or drowning ; if from haemorrhage, 
 the tissues, being drained of their blood, will present no departure 
 from the normal. 
 
 The only forms of dislocation likely to produce immediate 
 death are cervical, dorsal, and lumbar dislocations, and these only 
 when the displaced bones exert sufficient pressure on the spinal 
 cord to absolutely annihilate its function, in which case death 
 results ; when the pressure is exerted anteriorly to the fourth 
 cervical vertebra, from paralysis of the diaphragm ; or, in any 
 case, from arrest of all the functions by withdrawal of nerve 
 force, or from shock. If the pressure is not sufficient to produce 
 absolute compression of the spine, the animal becomes partially 
 or totally paralysed, and may live for a few days or for many 
 months, and die ultimately from exhaustion or from some inter- 
 current disease. 
 
 In most cases, when animals lie in a recumbent position for 
 a considerable period, the nutrition of the tissues becomes largely 
 
Fig. 1.— Bronchial (Mediastinal) Lymphatic Gland of 
 Cow, transverse section, showing Acute Inflammation as 
 the result of contagions Pleuro-pneuraonia. 
 
 a. a. Softened Structure of Gland. 
 
 b. b. Inflamed Connective Tissue. 
 
 c. c. Dark lines showing pigmentation. 
 
 Fig. 2. — Section of Lymphatic 
 Gland in Swine Fever, showing its 
 congested state in the earlier stages. 
 
 'ig. 4.— Interior of Left Ventricle of Heart, showing blood 
 ravasation in Swine Fever. 
 
 Fig. 3. — A piece of flesh from the Hind Quarters 
 of a Cow killed during the act of parturition, show- 
 ing the dark colour and iridescent appearance so 
 frequently seen in congestive blood diseases, 
 inflammation, and fever. 
 
* 
 
 % 
 
 \ 
 
 % 
 
 % 
 
 \ * * 
 
 • f 
 
 I 
 
 Fig. 5. — Section through Muscle of Pig (Swine Fever), showing 
 extravasation of blood into the Muscle, Connective Tissue, and 
 Fat, 
 
 Fig. 7. — Cystieercus Cellu- 
 lose in the flesh of Pig— after 
 Kiichenmeister. 
 
 Fio. 8.— Small Sections of Boiled Ham, showing 
 calcareous transformation of Cysticerci. 
 
DISLOCATION, FRACTURES, WOUNDS, &>c. 41 
 
 interfered with, or fever becomes marked, or there is considerable 
 bruising of the superficial parts of the body and of the joints, 
 leading to effusion of serum and extravasation of blood into the 
 tissues, and sometimes to the formation of abscesses. 
 
 Vertebral Fracture leads to the same results as dislocations. 
 
 Dislocation of Joints may render animals helpless, and thus pro- 
 duce the same conditions as those which result from paralysis. 
 
 Fracture of the Skull may kill immediately by paralysis of the 
 brain if the blow which has produced it has been of sufficient 
 force ; it may kill, secondly, by compression of the brain, induc- 
 ing coma, or by setting up inflammation of the brain, or of its 
 coverings. In the former case, and if blood is not abstracted, the 
 conditions of the carcase are identical with those produced by 
 sudden death from any cause ; in the latter, the conditions 
 already referred to in speaking of inflammation of the brain will 
 be noticed. 
 
 Severe Fractures of the Ribs, or of the Pelvis, or of the Bones of 
 the Limbs may also cause death by shock, or in the case of a rib 
 immediate death may result from penetration of the heart, the 
 lungs, the diaphragm, or one of the large blood vessels; but in 
 most cases, death — if the animal is not slaughtered — is produced 
 secondarily by its becoming helpless, by the exhaustion of fever, 
 or by blood-poisoning. 
 
 Wounds, if very severe and extensive, may produce death 
 primarily, by shock, or by haemorrhage and its effects ; second- 
 arily, by exhaustion from pain or excessive suppuration, by 
 absorption of toxic materials from , the wound, by mortification, 
 or by tetanus. 
 
 In all cases of severe injury the tissues around the seat of the 
 injury are more or less infiltrated with blood or serum, or both 
 blood and serum, and, when an external opening exists, with air ; 
 and when the nature of the injury has been such as to render 
 slaughter necessary, the attendant circumstances, so far as they 
 
42 DEATH BY VIOLENCE. 
 
 can be ascertained, must be allowed their due weight in arriving 
 at a decision as to the condemnation or otherwise of the 
 carcase. 
 
 The rule usually followed, and the one which I myself 
 adopt, is to remove the injured parts, and, if they present no 
 departure from the normal, pass the remaining portions of the 
 carcase. 
 
 Trampling. — In the conveyance of animals by rail or sea, 
 especially if not secured, or if improperly penned, large numbers 
 are yearly lost by their being thrown down and trampled upon 
 by the feet of their companions ; the effects of the bruising so 
 induced being so important as to render them unable to rise, 
 and in being slaughtered extensive sub-cutaneous extravasation 
 is shown. The actual injury is often aggravated by the animals 
 being deprived of air — smothered, as it is usually expressed — and 
 on the carcase being dressed, the combined effects of suffocation 
 and bruising are evidenced. In the holds of improperly venti- 
 lated ships there is a large accumulation of foul gases, which not 
 only materially affect the blood and flesh of animals exposed to 
 their influence, but which frequently originate a malignant fever 
 of a catarrhal type. 
 
 Strangulation. — This is usually effected by cattle becoming 
 cast in the stalls, or by the head becoming accidentally entangled 
 in ropes or wires, as fences, &c, and if blood is not withdrawn 
 immediately after death, the carcase presents the same appear- 
 ance as in death by suffocation from any cause, and the flesh is 
 rendered unmarketable, though it is probably no more injurious 
 than is the carcase of a rabbit which has been strangulated by 
 a "gin." 
 
 The condition of the carcase will be largely determined by the 
 prolongation, or otherwise, of the strangulating process and the 
 amount of struggling through which the animal has passed with 
 the object of gaining its freedom ; and it is obvious that in those 
 
DROWNING— LIGHTNING. 43 
 
 cases where struggling has been severe and the dying process 
 prolonged, there will be a large accumulation of carbonic acid 
 and other deleterious matter in the blood, and the carcase will be 
 rendered nocuous in a greater or lesser degree. 
 
 Drowning. — This is an accident to which animals are frequently 
 subjected, and more especially when a cattle ship becomes stranded 
 or wrecked, and the throwing overboard alive of the animals 
 (sheep or cattle) is necessitated. If the animals have succeeded 
 in swimming ashore, but in an exhausted state, and have been at 
 once despatched and the carcases properly dressed, no objection 
 can be urged against the use of the flesh on the score of nocuity. 
 But if death has been caused by drowning, and the body immersed 
 for some considerable time before it is washed ashore, the carcase 
 is not fit to be exposed for sale for human food, as it presents all 
 the characteristics noticed in death by strangulation, and rapidly 
 undergoes decomposition. 
 
 Lightning. — The effects of lightning upon animals are identical 
 with those produced by electricity, but in the vast majority of 
 instances the victims are not discovered until a considerable period 
 has elapsed after death has taken place ; and inasmuch as rigor 
 mortis is usually imperfect or absent, and as the blood remains 
 more or less fluid and of a black colour, the physical conditions 
 of the carcase are somewhat similar to those produced by strangu- 
 lation. In addition, there will sometimes be found in the tissues 
 under the skin, and in and upon the skin itself, arborescent lines 
 or markings produced by the solution of the colouring matter of 
 the blood. 
 
 Seeing that electricity has been successfully employed for the 
 purpose af despatching animals, there need be no hesitation in 
 passing the flesh of those killed by lightning, provided depletion 
 of blood is had recourse to sufficiently early. 
 
 It must, however, be borne in mind that gases are quickly dis- 
 engaged from the carcase when bleeding has not been had re- 
 
4 4 DEATH BY VIOLENCE. 
 
 course to, and that these gases permeate the tissues, and produce 
 a false rigor mortis or apparent stiffening of the limbs and body 
 generally. 
 
 Whenever a doubt arises as to the truth of a statement that 
 an animal has been " struck by lightning," the skin or hide should 
 be carefully inspected with the view of detecting the existence or 
 non-existence of scorching of the wool or hair. 
 
 Fire. — In death by actual burning the extinction of life is 
 usually accompanied by circumstances of such an appalling nature 
 as to exclude the adoption of the necessary measures for dealing 
 with a dead body when it is intended for consumption as food, 
 and frequently the effects of the fire are such as to exclude 
 the idea of using the carcase for this purpose. In cases of 
 moderate burning only, when it is thought advisable to destroy 
 the injured animal, there is nothing to prevent the use of the 
 flesh for food, providing the usual method of procedure is adopted 
 in the preparation of the carcase, and providing life has not been 
 sufficiently prolonged to allow of the production of febrile condi- 
 tions, or of extensive suppuration. In many cases of death 
 resulting from fire, life is destroyed either by suffocation with 
 carbonic acid, or by the inhalation of carbonic oxide. 
 
 Carbonic Acid and Carbonic Oxide Poisoning. — In the former 
 case the conditions existing in the carcase will be identical with 
 those produced by strangulation, and the remarks made there- 
 anent will equally apply here ; in the latter case the alterations 
 in the blood are of such a grave nature as to render the flesh 
 quite unfit for food. The exact nature of the changes produced 
 by carbonic oxide has not yet been determined, but the com- 
 binations of this gas with the oxy-hsemoglobin of the blood are of 
 a permanent nature, and are not influenced by exposure to air, 
 or even by exposure to the direct effects of oxygen, the flesh in 
 every case being of a bright red colour, and the blood presenting 
 a waxy character. Decomposition of the carcase is much less 
 
POISONING. 45 
 
 rapid in carbonic oxide poisoning than it is in poisoning by 
 carbonic acid, in fact the former gas preserves meat (if kept in 
 hermetically closed vessels) for an indefinite period ; but it must 
 be remembered that when it is used for this purpose the 
 animals are slaughtered and the carcase prepared in the ordinary 
 way. 
 
 Poisoning. — The effects of poisoning, as ordinarily understood, 
 upon the carcases of animals, will be largely regulated by the 
 nature of the poison, i.e., as to whether it is of an inorganic or 
 organic nature. 
 
 Inorganic poisons, as a rule, produce local effects only, e.g., 
 inflammation of the mucous membrane of the alimentary canal ; 
 consequently, the remarks made in considering the effects of 
 localised inflammation hold good here also. 
 
 It is questionable whether any inorganic poison — not even 
 excepting arsenic — is ever absorbed in sufficient quantity to render 
 the flesh of the poisoned animal nocuous, and in all cases where 
 the toxic action has been extreme or prolonged, the changes in 
 the tissues will be sufficiently pronounced to warrant the con- 
 demnation of the flesh, without reference to their cause. Of all 
 the inorganic poisons, the effects of phosphorus are the most 
 important, as, owing to the rapid fatty changes it produces in the 
 coats of the vessels, there is universal blood extravasation, and 
 marked changes of a destructive character are produced in the 
 blood itself, which becomes grumous, and the flesh and tissues 
 are found, after death, luminous in the dark, — the luminosity 
 being most pronounced if heat is applied, when also the alliaceous 
 odour of phosphorus is given off. 
 
 Organic poisons, acting only as irritants, produce effects exactly 
 analogous to those produced by inorganic poisons ; but those of 
 the narcotic class, by virtue of their interfering with brain, spinal, 
 and nerve functions, give rise to conditions identical with those 
 produced by suffocation, and very frequently death is so sudden 
 
4 6 DEATH BY VIOLENCE. 
 
 that the animal's body is not discovered until the lapse of several 
 hours after life is extinct. 
 
 It is a remarkable, but none the less an established fact, that 
 the effect on the body of organic poisons is much more pro- 
 nounced when the poisonous agent has been ingested in the plant 
 form, than when it has been taken as a preparation, e.g., as a 
 tincture or an infusion ; and in the former case, putrefaction of 
 the carcase sets in with much greater rapidity than in the latter. 
 Organic poisons are no more likely to be absorbed in sufficient 
 quantity to produce deleterious effects by ingestion of the flesh 
 than are inorganic, and that this remark has a special appli- 
 cation here is shown by the fact that such a deadly agent 
 as curara, when used for the purpose of killing animals for 
 food — as it is by, the Indians — is absolutely innocuous to the 
 consumer. 
 
 Animal Poisons so rarely gain access to the bodies of animals ' 
 in this country in sufficient quantity to cause death, that it is 
 scarcely necessary to discuss the matter, especially seeing that such 
 poisons are not reproduced in the blood of those animals that are 
 exposed to their deleterious effects. 
 
 Enforced Unnatural Positions. — Ruminants, of all animals, are 
 most susceptible to the injurious effects of unnatural positions, 
 and this is doubtless due to the voluminosity and generally 
 replete condition of the gastric apparatus. While the horse can 
 lie on his back for a considerable period without suffering from 
 material gastric disturbance, a very short time suffices to bring 
 about grave functional derangement in the ox or sheep when 
 either animal is, perforce, placed on its back, and retained for a 
 lengthened period in that position, as so frequently happens in 
 sheep depastured in fields where shallow depressions are numerous. 
 In the majority of instances a sheep rolling on its back {Rolling, 
 Awald, Scot.) into a hollow is doomed if rescue is not quickly 
 forthcoming. Death in these cases is produced by suffocation as 
 
DEATH BY SUFFOCATION. 47 
 
 the result of tympany, brought about by fermentation of the 
 contents of the rumen. 
 
 The condition of the carcase in these cases will depend upon 
 the length of time the animal has been in the dorsal position, and 
 upon the abstraction or non-abstraction of blood ; usually it pre- 
 sents all the characteristics of the carcase of an animal dying 
 from the effects of tympany, the flesh of the back being particu- 
 larly discoloured, owing to the gravitation of the blood to this part 
 — hypostatic congestion. 
 
 Death by Suffocation (Asphyxia) is induced in a great variety of 
 ways, e.g., by mechanical obstruction to the passage of air into 
 the lungs, by pressure exerted on the lungs or the diaphragm, by 
 the deprivation of oxygen, as in carbonic acid poisoning, or in 
 poisoning by any kind of gas ; by the introduction of foreign 
 matter, as fluids, medicines, or food, into the bronchial tubes, and 
 by the action of such germs as those of anthrax. In all cases the 
 flesh is very dark in colour, soft, and more or less soapy to the 
 touch ; the veins are engorgetl with dark-coloured, semi-coagulated 
 blood, as are also the vessels of the lungs ; and the right heart is 
 usually filled with dark-coloured blood, which forms a soft clot in 
 the ventricle and in the auricle. The flesh rapidly undergoes 
 decomposition, and is, in all cases, unfit for human food. 
 
EFFECTS OF DISEASE OF ORGANS AND TISSUES. 
 
 Diseases of Organs. — Brain, Spinal, and 
 Nervous Diseases. 
 
 OF the acute diseases of the brain, congestion, inflammation, 
 and apoplexy are the most important; but it cannot be 
 said that any of them — apart from the conditions produced by 
 perverted nerve control, or in the case of inflammation by the 
 attendant fever — lead to the production of changes of a deleterious 
 nature in the flesh of animals suffering from them. 
 
 If coma is established and life is prolonged for any length of 
 time, oxidation is materially interfered with, and the changes 
 noted under the head of suffocation, &c, are produced. 
 
 In delirium the muscles may become pale in colour and friable 
 in texture ; they may, however, be dark in colour. 
 
 Of the less acute affections, dropsy (hydrocephalus), staggers, 
 and epilepsy may be briefly noticed. The former is seldom seen 
 as an independent condition in animals whose flesh is used for 
 human food. It may, however, be associated with rickets or 
 other diseases in which there is mal-nutrition of the blood, and 
 it may result from inflammation of the coverings of the brain. In 
 any case it does not of itself lead to changes of any importance in 
 the tissues, except such as result from interference with nutrition ; 
 and seeing that inspectors rarely, if ever, examine the brain, its 
 existence is not likely to be detected, consequently if the tissues 
 of such an animal had undergone any marked change the carcase 
 would require to be dealt with according to the conditions presented. 
 
EPILEPSY— LOUPING-ILL— TETANUS. 49 
 
 Epilepsy is seen most largely in young pigs, and the remarks 
 made in reference to hydrocephalus apply equally to it. As there 
 is no appreciable brain lesion to be detected on post-mortem 
 examination, the existence of epilepsy during life could not even 
 be guessed at after death ; and even if oral evidence of its ante- 
 mortem existence were forthcoming, it would not in itself justify 
 an inspector in condemning the flesh if it was normal in character. 
 
 Of spinal diseases it may also be said that, unless indirectly, 
 no important changes are by them produced. Acute inflammation 
 or congestion of the spine is rarely seen, except in connection 
 with the disease known as louping-ill in sheep, and in young 
 lambs subjected to the influences of improper nourishment and 
 inclement weather. In very bad seasons, and in certain districts, 
 particularly in Scotland, hundreds of lambs become the subjects 
 of louping-ill and paralysis, or swung-back, as it is commonly 
 designated. In the neighbourhood of Aberdeen, as I am informed 
 by Dr. Hamilton, the term supple -back is applied to cases of 
 caries of the vertebra in lambs. 
 
 Louping-ill in some cases runs a comparatively rapid course, 
 and is associated with great excitement, some fever, and marked 
 interference with all the normal functions. In such cases, the 
 inspector will find evidence of important nutritive changes in the 
 tissues, sufficient in themselves to warrant the condemnation of 
 the flesh. 
 
 In the sequential stages of louping-ill, paralysis becomes the 
 most important condition, and, as in paralysis from any cause, so 
 here, if the animal is allowed to linger in life for any length of 
 time, nutrition becomes materially interfered with, and the body 
 in consequence thereof becomes emaciated; frequently, too, 
 suppurating sores are formed in the skin, over the most prominent 
 parts of the skeleton, and these aggravate the other conditions. 
 
 Tetanus or lock-jaw is seen most frequently in sheep, as a 
 result of castration and docking. The disease, it is now shown, 
 
SO DISEASES OF ORGANS AND TISSUES. 
 
 is due to the action of a bacillus, and when it is very acute it 
 brings "about changes similar to those produced by excitement 
 and fever from any cause, but to these there is superadded the 
 effects of imperfect oxidation. In sub -acute or chronic cases 
 the resulting changes are mainly those produced by deficient 
 nutrition. 
 
 In either case, the inspector — unless he has a fbreknowledge 
 of the nature of the malady from which the animal has suffered 
 — must decide as to the fitness or otherwise of the flesh for 
 human food by the conditions presented by the carcase itself. 
 
 Thoracic Organs. 
 
 The Heart and Pericardium. — The heart is less frequently 
 affected with disease of an idiopathic character than is any other 
 important organ, and the same may be said of specific disease, 
 such as tuberculosis or cancer. It is frequently found enlarged 
 (hypertrophied) and dilated, and occasionally wasted {atrophied), 
 but in these conditions there is seldom any accompanying disease, 
 or at any rate, disease that can be detected with the unaided eye. 
 
 Both under its external and under its internal membranes 
 {epicardium and endocardium) extravasation of blood is of frequent, 
 indeed almost of constant, occurrence in such diseases as anthrax, 
 swine fever, and blood-poisoning, but such extravasations are only 
 occasionally seen in the structure of the heart itself. Owing to 
 the penetration of foreign bodies— pins, needles, wire, &c— from 
 the first or second stomachs through the diaphragm, traumatic 
 inflammation of the pericardium and of the epicardium, as also 
 of the heart muscle, is of very common occurrence in cattle, 
 and as a result of this, inflammation may be of limited extent, 
 or it may be very much diffused and of a putrefactive 
 character; these differences depending upon the aseptic or 
 septic condition of the penetrating body. In the former case, 
 
THE LUNGS AND PLEURsE. 51 
 
 the flesh is not materially affected unless a high degree of fever 
 has existed, but in the latter it is frequently of a dark colour, 
 soft and soapy to the touch ; moreover, the connective and 
 muscular tissues about the breast and the under surface of the 
 neck are frequently dropsical. In the worst cases the pericardium 
 is found full of putrid pus (pyo-pericardii), the heart covered 
 with granulations, the epicardium enormously thickened, and 
 the heart itself enlarged; but notwithstanding these important 
 conditions the flesh is frequently normal — though its condemna- 
 tion is more than justified when putrefactive processes have been 
 established in the pericardial contents. 
 
 A low form of inflammation of the pericardium and epicardium 
 leading to the throwing out of liquid, or to the formation of lymph, 
 and, as a result, to adhesion, is a very frequent complication 
 in such diseases as swine fever, malignant catarrh, pustular 
 fever, braxy, and septicaemia. 
 
 Occasionally the inflammation assumes a more severe form in 
 these cases (as it does also in malignant foot and mouth disease), 
 and pus is quickly formed. If such conditions are found the flesh 
 should be condemned, and especially so if they are associated 
 with similar lesions in other organs or parts of the body. 
 
 The Lungs and Pleura. — It would be impossible in a work of 
 this kind to notice in detail the various diseases to which the lungs 
 are liable; the most important are extensive emphysema, collapse, 
 congestion, various forms of inflammation, parasitical diseases 
 (as hoose and hydatid disease), abscesses, and tuberculosis. 
 
 Neither emphysema nor collapse produces in itself any im- 
 portant change in the tissues of the body, unless large areas of 
 lung tissue are involved and fluid is thrown out into the bronchial 
 tubes, in which cases oxidation is so much interfered with as to 
 establish conditions identical with those described in speaking of 
 suffocation; and the same remark applies equally to congestion, 
 if it is at all extensive. Inflammation (pneumonia) varies in 
 
52 DISEASES OF ORGANS AND TISSUES. 
 
 character and extent, and while a limited pneumonia of idiopathic 
 origin produces no appreciable change in the tissues of the body, 
 and does not render the flesh in any sense nocuous, an extensive 
 pneumonia, even of the simplest type, produces important tissue 
 changes, not only by virtue of the effects of the accompanying 
 fever, but by the grave interference with oxidation which it brings 
 about — the changes being a combination of those produced by 
 fever, inflammation, and imperfect oxidation. The most import- 
 ant form of inflammation, from a sanitary point of view, is septic 
 pneumonia, which is of very frequent occurrence amongst recently 
 calved cows in the Edinburgh dairies, and it usually arises as a 
 secondary result of septic inflammation of the womb. The extent 
 and the destructive character of the lesions are in many of these 
 cases astounding, and seem — in contemplation — to be utterly 
 incompatible with the maintenance of life. The effects on the 
 tissues are similar to those of septicaemia, and in every case where 
 a putrefactive condition of the lungs exists the carcase should be 
 condemned. 
 
 In hoose, the inflammation set up by the parasites {Strongylus 
 filaria in the sheep, Strongylus micrurus in cattle, and Strongylus 
 paradoxus in the pig) may be of a very limited extent, and con- 
 fined to a part of one lung only ; or it may be very diffused and 
 complicated with congestion or collapse, and with effusion of 
 liquid (which becomes whipped into foam by the passing to and 
 fro of the air) into the bronchial tubes. 
 
 . In hydatid disease of the lungs, the interference with the organ 
 is mainly physical in its character, as the cysts are of slow growth, 
 and in their growth give rise only to a limited inflammation of a 
 very chronic nature. Moreover, owing to the density of the cyst- 
 wall, there is not, nor can there be, any absorption of hydatid 
 fluid, or of inflammatory products. The lungs may be invaded to 
 an enormous extent, and two-thirds or more of the respiratory 
 area functionally annihilated, and yet the carcase be laden with 
 
PLEURISY. 53 
 
 fat; indeed, this partial annihilation of the respiratory function 
 favours the deposition of fat by diminishing oxidation. Very 
 exceptionally, hydatid cysts soften and originate abscesses, but 
 such are not usually extensive nor are their contents of a septic 
 character. 
 
 Pulmonary abscesses may arise independently of similar lesions 
 in any other organ or part of the body ; they may, however, have 
 a metastatic or pyaemic origin. In the former case they are pro- 
 duced by inflammation, by death of part of a lung — as in con- 
 tagious pleuro-pneumonia — with its subsequent encystment and 
 liquefaction or degeneration ; by the passage of foreign bodies into 
 the trachea, or through the diaphragm from the stomach; by wounds 
 inflicted from without ; by degeneration of extravasated blood, or 
 by degeneration of hydatid cysts ; and, much less frequently, by 
 the degeneration of fluke cysts. Metastatic abscesses arise as the 
 result of a general pyaemia, and when there is undoubted evidence 
 of their having so originated, the carcase should not be used for 
 human food ; but if of local origin and aseptic in character, their 
 presence does not warrant the condemnation of the carcase unless 
 the flesh itself is unhealthy. 
 
 Pleurisy is of very common occurrence in all animals ; it 
 frequently assumes an epizootic character amongst pigs and sheep, 
 and is a common complication of specific fevers and of blood 
 disorders. 
 
 If it is very acute, no matter what its origin, it is associated 
 with so much fever and suffering as to produce changes in the 
 tissues similar to those produced by inflammation of any other 
 structure. In circumscribed and in chronic pleurisy the effects on 
 the tissues are so unimportant as to be scarcely if at all discernible 
 on post-mortem, and when the pleura has been stripped off the 
 ribs, an ordinary observer would not be able to say that any 
 disease had existed during life. 
 
 If the pleuritic disease is associated with peritonitis or peri- 
 
54 DISEASES OF ORGANS AND TISSUES. 
 
 carditis it points to a septic origin, and such a condition warrants 
 the condemnation of the carcase ; the same holds good if the 
 inflammation is of a purulent type. 
 
 The effects of tuberculosis on the lungs and pleurae are dealt 
 with in the chapter on that disease. 
 
 Tonsillitis. — " Quinsy." 
 
 Inflammation of the Tonsils is most frequently seen in the pig, 
 in which animals these structures are much more perfectly 
 developed than in ruminants. 
 
 The disease may occur independently of any other throat 
 affection, but, more largely, it is associated with, and is an exten- 
 sion of, sore-throat. Malignant disease — such as cancer and 
 actinomycosis — is occasionally localised in these structures. 
 
 The general effects of the disease on the system do not differ 
 from those produced by acute inflammation in any other organ. 
 
 Digestive and Accessory Digestive Organs. 
 
 Choking, or the Impaction of Foreign Matter in the (Esophagus. 
 — This accident is of frequent occurrence in cattle, very rare in 
 sheep, is occasionally seen in pigs, and, both directly and indirectly, 
 leads to important tissue changes. 
 
 If relief is not afforded for some hours, and nervous excitement 
 is great, the muscular tissue is found after death to present a 
 somewhat parboiled appearance, to be very friable, and to present 
 effusions — often sero-sanguineous in character — into the deeper 
 parts of the carcase ; the blood vessels are only half filled with 
 blood, and if the obstructing body has been a piece of turnip, the 
 characteristic odour of the root pervades the whole carcase. It is 
 difficult to assign a reason for the production of these important 
 changes, nor can it be shown that such flesh is nocuous ; it is, 
 however, decidedly unmarketable, and should never be exposed 
 
INTESTINAL DERANGEMENT. 55 
 
 for sale. If, as frequently happens, the accident has led to and 
 been associated with tympany, the changes produced by that 
 condition will be distinctly manifested in the flesh. 
 
 Functional Gastric Derangement. — In no animal is the gastric 
 function so easily and so frequently disturbed as it is in the ox, 
 but the changes wrought in the tissues of the body are largely 
 regulated by the complications arising out of such derangement. 
 In those cases in which, owing to indigestion, the first and second 
 stomachs have been impacted with dry solid matter, the changes 
 in the tissues are of much less importance than they are when the 
 indigestion has been associated with fermentation or decom- 
 position of the ingesta, and, as a result thereof, tympany has been 
 produced. In impaction by solid matter, the brain and spinal 
 cord are frequently affected in a reflex manner, and symptoms 6f 
 brain and spinal derangement are marked, causing the animal to 
 lose control over the voluntary muscles ; in other words, to 
 become the subject of stomach staggers, and the great nervous 
 excitement accompanying this leads to tissue changes of so marked 
 a character as to render the flesh unmarketable. If, as frequently 
 happens, the excitement has been followed by coma, the flesh is 
 rendered dangerous, if not actually nocuous. If tympany has been 
 produced, and is allowed to continue for some hours before the 
 animal is slaughtered, the mechanical interference with the diaph- 
 ragm is such as to produce asphyxia, and the flesh presents the 
 characteristic changes produced bysuffocation from any other cause, 
 and is equally as unwholesome. 
 
 In those cases where functional derangement has been prolonged 
 and gastritis has been induced, the effects of fever are added to 
 those of indigestion, and the abnormal conditions presented in the 
 flesh are more pronounced. 
 
 Intestinal Derangement. — All domestic animals suffer different 
 forms of intestinal derangement, — the ox and the pig more 
 frequently, however, than others. Constipation, mechanical 
 
56 DISEASES OF ORGANS AND TISSUES. 
 
 obstruction, and inflammation, are each in turn met with, and 
 although the two former do not for a time produce much systemic 
 disturbance, and consequently do not lead to the production of 
 material changes in the character of the flesh, they in the long run 
 produce fever, and become complicated with inflammation. 
 Primarily, these disturbances cause interference with the 
 assimilative and nutritive functions ; secondarily, disturbance of 
 the function of the liver, and in consequence thereof jaundice and 
 its associated conditions ; and owing to chemical changes in the 
 contents of the bowels putrefactive gases are liberated, and 
 probably become absorbed, and exert a very deleterious influence 
 upon the blood. If the animal is slaughtered in the earlier stages 
 of such affections, no important changes are found in the flesh, 
 which is quite wholesome ; but if the animal has been allowed to 
 live on, and much medicine has been administered, changes 
 similar to those seen in fever and inflammation are produced in 
 the flesh, and it is rendered unfit for human food. 
 
 Inflammation of the Peritoneum. — Peritonitis is produced most 
 frequently in cattle by the penetration of foreign bodies from one or 
 other of the stomachs, usually the first or second. In all female 
 animals it may result from extension of inflammation from the 
 womb after parturition, or from the removal of the ovaries in 
 the operation of spaying. This operation is more frequently per- 
 formed upon young pigs and sows than upon any other female 
 animal. In male animals peritonitis very frequently follows 
 castration, and in any animal it may be produced by the contents 
 of the stomach or bowels finding their way into the abdomen, 
 owing to rupture, or perforation by ulcers ; in like manner it is 
 sometimes produced by rupture of the bladder, or perforation of 
 its walls by ulceration, or by worms, thus allowing of the escape 
 of urine. As the inflammatory action set up by the causes 
 mentioned is usually of a septic character, the conditions revealed 
 on post-mortem are sufficiently important to enable the inspector 
 
THE LIVER. 57 
 
 to condemn the carcase as being totally unfit for consumption. 
 In the worst cases of septic peritonitis the odour evolved from the 
 abdomen, when that cavity is opened, is unbearable, the peritoneum 
 is of a green hue, and the cavity contains a large quantity of 
 serum, or serum and pus. If the contents of the stomach, the 
 bowels, or the bladder, have passed into the abdomen, their 
 presence is easily detected. 
 
 As both the stomachs and bowels are largely used for dietetic 
 purposes, they should be as carefully inspected as any other part 
 of the animal, and if traces of organic disease are found, they 
 should be unhesitatingly rejected as articles of consumption. The 
 stomachs, when undergoing preparation as tripe, are found to set 
 very imperfectly if disease has existed ; and when cleaned, 
 discoloration or thickening usually attracts the attention of the 
 cleaner to their condition, as they do also to alterations in the 
 intestinal walls. 
 
 Tke Liver. — Functional disorder of thjs organ usually produces 
 jaundice, but unless it is very pronounced, or is associated with 
 important complications, it does not, as has already been explained, 
 render the flesh nocuous. Organic disease, especially if extensive 
 and of long continuance, generally leads to important tissue 
 changes, such as wasting, discoloration, or dropsy — conditions 
 sufficient in themselves to warrant the condemnation of the flesh — 
 but in the ox and the sheep a large extent of liver structure may 
 be destroyed without interfering in any way with the health of the 
 animal, and consequently without producing any observable 
 change in the flesh." It is, in fact, sometimes astounding to see 
 the splendid condition of the carcase in an animal whose liver has 
 been destroyed by bladder worms, or by the effects of fluke worms 
 (rot) to the extent of three-fourths or four-fifths of its entire area. 
 So long as there is sufficient liver structure left to secrete the 
 necessary quantity of bile to carry on the process of digestion, so 
 long will an animal thrive and fatten, and particularly is this true 
 
58 DISEASES OF ORGANS AND TISSUES. 
 
 in the case of the ox. If any marked organic change is dis- 
 cerned in this organ, it should be condemned for the purpose of 
 consumption. 
 
 The Pancreas. — This organ, usually known as the kernel 
 or sweetbread, is freer from disease than any other organ 
 of the body ; and I include with this other glands of a similar 
 nature, as the thymus (the chest sweetbread) and the salivary 
 glands. 
 
 In the event of the pancreas becoming the subject of 
 extensive organic disease, the interference with digestion and 
 assimilation would be so great as to lead to general emaciation 
 and probably to dropsy. 
 
 The Spleen or Melt is as little liable to disease as are the fore- 
 going organs, if we except tuberculosis in the pig and the horse, 
 and neither physiologically nor dietetically is it of so much 
 importance ; but inasmuch as it is materially affected in such 
 diseases as anthrax and septicaemia, the detection of any departure 
 from a normal condition should lead to a more careful examina- 
 tion of the carcase being made. The abnormal conditions usually 
 observed are enlargement of the organ itself from increase in the 
 quantity of blood contained in its meshes, and a damson or tarry 
 colour of the pulp. 
 
 The Kidneys. — Seeing that these organs are so essential to the 
 perfect depuration of the blood, it is of the utmost importance 
 that a careful examination of them should be made in all cases 
 where the flesh presents marked changes in colour, or where 
 effusion into the tissues is extensive, and especially does this apply 
 to the condition known as water braxy in sheep, in which the 
 kidneys are often found reduced to a mere pulp, and frequently 
 saturated, as it were, with altered blood. In swine fever, in 
 anthrax, and in septicaemia, these organs are sometimes the seat of 
 extravasation of blood, and thus afford confirmatory evidence 
 of the existence of that disease. In the ox, tuberculosis 
 
THE BLADDER AND UTERUS. 59 
 
 of the kidneys is not uncommon, and is easily detected on 
 section. 
 
 Extensive disease of these organs is almost certain to lead to 
 the production of uramia or to dropsy — conditions noticed else- 
 where ; but if the disease is confined to a comparatively limited 
 area, there is not usually any important change produced in the 
 nutritive or general character of the flesh. 
 
 The Bladder. — In comparison with other organs this viscus is 
 not, primarily, often the seat of disease — most frequently it becomes 
 so as the result of the irritation of calculi and obstruction to 
 the outward flow of urine, and of the irritation of drugs, and 
 occasionally, in the cow, from extension of disease from the 
 vagina. 
 
 These influences give rise to inflammation (cystitis), and as a 
 result of that process, suppuration, ulceration, and even perfora- 
 tion are established. Occasionally malignant disease (sarcoma or 
 cancer) attacks the bladder, but if the urethra is patent — thus 
 allowing of the outflow of fluids — and if the peritoneum is not 
 involved, diseases of this organ do not produce any systemic 
 contamination. Of course, in cases of acute disease the changes 
 resulting from fever and inflammation generally may be established 
 in the tissues. As elsewhere indicated, absorption of deleterious 
 matter may take place from the bladder where urine or purulent 
 fluids are retained therein. If the bladder has been the seat of 
 extensive disease, the surrounding pelvic tissues will probably be 
 infiltrated with the products of inflammation, and if the disease 
 has been of a malignant character, its effects (as a cachexia) may 
 be observed in the tissues after death. 
 
 The Uterus. — The diseases of the womb which are likely to 
 lead to alterations in the flesh are — tuberculosis, inflammation, 
 dropsy, and abscess. Tuberculosis usually occurs in the cow as a 
 secondary, seldom as a primary condition. It may arise as an 
 extension from the abdomen, or the reverse may take place, and 
 
66 DISEASES OF ORGANS AND TISSUES. 
 
 whenever it is found to exist it affords powerful support to the 
 inspector in the condemnation of tuberculous carcases. Acute 
 inflammation is usually seen as a result of parturition, conse- 
 quently the effects of that process are added to those ordinarily 
 resulting from acute inflammation in any other organ. The most 
 important inflammatory condition is septic metritis. It is fre- 
 quently seen in cows and ewes, and often results from retained 
 clots of blood and decomposing placenta in the former, and from 
 improper management and exposure to adverse influences in the 
 latter. The conditions produced by this form of inflammation are 
 septiccemia and septic inflammation of the lungs. Dropsy is often 
 secondary to organic disease in other organs, as the kidneys, the 
 liver, lungs, or heart ; or it is a part only of a systemic dropsy, 
 consequently the conditions observed in the carcase are those 
 common to dropsy from any cause. 
 
 Abscess may be confined to the uterine walls, or may involve 
 the whole organ, i.e., its cavity may, from purulent inflammation, 
 become a huge abscess, containing, in the cow, more than 20 
 gallons of pus. If the abscess is of limited extent, its effects on 
 the carcase are only trifling, but wherever pus accumulates in large 
 quantities, and especially if it undergoes decomposition, it gives 
 rise to tissue changes of so pronounced a character as to warrant 
 condemnation of the flesh without reference to the source of such 
 changes. 
 
 The Mammary Gland. — Inasmuch as the udder is not engaged 
 in the performance of any function essential to life, slight or cir- 
 cumscribed changes in this organ do not produce any material 
 effects on the general system, neither indeed does very extensive 
 tissue change, providing it is not due to any acute or malignant 
 disease. Owing to chronic inflammation, the udder frequently 
 attains to enormous proportions in the cow and in the ewe, but 
 there is not, as a rule, any interference with the nutrition of the 
 tissues of the body, except such as would be induced by any 
 
THE TESTICLES. 61 
 
 other form of parasitical growth, i.e., if its nutritive demands 
 exceed the available supply the body suffers proportionately, and 
 becomes emaciated. 
 
 In very extensive and acute inflammation of the udder, the 
 fever and suffering are frequently so great as to lead to the pro- 
 duction of the changes already noted as resulting from acute 
 inflammation in any organ, and they will be materially aggravated 
 if the inflammation has been of an erysipelatous type, or if it has 
 produced mortification. 
 
 Tubercular inflammation of this organ is usually of a chronic 
 nature ; exceptionally, however, the morbid processes assume an 
 acute character, and terminate in extensive softening and destruc- 
 tion, and inasmuch as tubercular mammitis is usually a secondary 
 process, it affords a certain guide as to the general distribution of 
 the lesions of this disease. The udder of the cow is frequently 
 sold to the proprietors of cook shops, and is by them boiled and 
 retailed to the poorer classes in slices ; consequently this organ 
 should be carefully examined in every instance, and unhesitatingly 
 destroyed if the slightest departure from the normal is observed, 
 and more particularly so seeing that its monetary value is small. 
 
 The Testicles. — The most important diseases from which these 
 organs suffer are inflammation, in all animals ; and in the ox and 
 pig, tuberculosis : the remarks previously made in reference to 
 disease of the mammary gland are equally applicable here. 
 
 It is in connection with the operation of castration that the 
 gravest conditions arise, as not only is septic peritonitis a frequent 
 sequel thereof in lambs, but also, owing to imprisonment and 
 decomposition of blood, septic inflammation of the scrotum is 
 induced. Local traces of the existence of this condition are 
 usually to be found in the dark colour of the connective tissue of 
 the surrounding parts, into which there is also extensive infiltra- 
 tion of serum, and from which there is sometimes a septic odour 
 given off. 
 
62 DISEASES OF ORGANS AND TISSUES. 
 
 Bone Diseases. 
 
 In connection with the Inspection of Meat the only diseases of 
 bone which require to be considered are — inflammation, rickets, 
 and softening of bone. 
 
 Inflammation of bone (Ostitis, affecting the hard structure, 
 Osteo-myelitis, affecting the hard and the soft structures) is only 
 of importance when it is extreme, or when associated with the 
 formation of pus, or with acute destructive processes. Owing to 
 the extreme fever and pain it would, if very acute or prolonged, 
 give rise to changes in the tissues such as are produced by inflam- 
 mation and fever generally, and if localised in the bones of the 
 limbs, there would probably be added to this the effects of bruising 
 from continued recubation — few people, especially in the country, 
 having sufficient knowledge to prevent this by adopting the neces- 
 sary precautions against it in the way of proper bedding and of 
 frequently altering the position of the animal — moreover, the 
 tissues around the inflamed bone are usually so much infiltrated 
 with lymph and serum, or so altered by the inflammatory pro- 
 cesses as to render their condemnation necessary. In acute 
 inflammation, especially of the softer structures of bone, abscess 
 or diffuse suppuration is frequently produced, and it is one of the 
 most important sources of septicaemia and even pysemia. In 
 chronic disease of bone the body frequently becomes emaciated, 
 ansemic, and dropsical, and in this case the flesh should be dealt 
 with in accordance with the directions already laid down. 
 
 Rickets is seldom seen as a disease of adult life in animals ; it 
 affects mainly young pigs, lambs, and calves; is due largely to 
 bad hygienic conditions, and to mal-nutrition from faults existing 
 in the milk of the mother, from innutritious or improper food, 
 from impure water, or from deprivation of light and air; or to 
 mal-assimilation in the bone tissues or cells themselves— it may 
 arise from rheumatism. It is almost invariably associated with 
 
DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 63 
 
 mal-nutrition of the blood, and consequently of the tissues, 
 hence the sufferers become more or less emaciated, and the flesh 
 innutritious, pale, and flaccid (doughy) ; the carcases of young 
 pigs frequently contracting a peculiar dusky hue. The ribs are 
 sometimes distinctly nodulated or "beaded" in the pig as in the 
 human subject, and occasionally they are fractured ; the bones 
 are soft and sometimes deformed, and the ends of the long bones 
 are enlarged and usually redder in colour than normal. While it 
 cannot be shown that there is anything absolutely deleterious in 
 the flesh of such animals, it is innutritious, and consequently 
 unfit for human food. 
 
 Softening of Bone — Osteo-Mollities — is a totally different process 
 to the foregoing, and, so far as my experience goes, is due primarily 
 to blood disease rather than to any inherent defects of a nutritive 
 character in the bone tissue. It is seen most largely in young 
 cattle up to two years old, the bones being enlarged, softened, 
 and dark in colour, and there is an enormous increase in the 
 medullary fat, with proportionate decrease in the compact tissue. 
 In one bone I found the proportion of fat to bone tissue was 
 nearly as 2 to 1. Unless the process is very acute, or is associated 
 with marked blood lesions, the muscular tissue is not materially 
 altered in character, nevertheless the carcase of such an animal 
 should certainly not be considered marketable, and even though 
 no proof could be offered of its nocuity it should not be classed 
 as wholesome. 
 
 Diseases of the Skin. 
 
 There are few diseases of a sporadic nature affecting the skin 
 of those animals whose flesh is used for human food except those 
 having a parasitic origin — as mange in the horse, the ox, and the 
 pig ; and scab in the sheep and the goat ; and those having a 
 dietetic origin — as eczema. 
 
64 DISEASES OF ORGANS AND TISSUES. 
 
 In addition to mange, the pig and the ox sometimes suffer from 
 the effects of innumerable colonies of lice, those in the former 
 animal being of great size and giving rise to deep inflammation of 
 the skin and of the subcutaneous tissue, while the skin of the 
 sheep is sometimes infested by ticks and keds in very large numbers. 
 The subcutaneous tissues of the ox are the home of parasitic 
 larvse (warbles), and the skin, and sometimes the subcutaneous 
 tissues of the sheep, is infested in the summer months with the 
 larvse (maggots) of the blow fly. 
 
 Vegetable parasitism (ringworm) is seen in the ox and in the 
 horse only. 
 
 No matter what the parasite, inflammation of the skin, either 
 circumscribed or diffused, is set up, and this may extend to the 
 underlying tissues, maggots frequently destroying both the skin 
 and the subcutaneous tissues in the sheep ; but in no case is any 
 constitutional disease directly set up unless, as sometimes happens 
 with the tick and with flies, the proboscis of- blood suckers has 
 become contaminated with the virus of such diseases as anthrax 
 or glanders. When parasitic invasion is extensive, the withdrawal 
 of nutrition and the persistent irritation induced by the parasites 
 may interfere with the growth of an animal, and induce anaemia 
 and emaciation, and even dropsy ; and if the inflammation of the 
 skin has extended to the deep tissues, the superficial parts of the 
 carcase may present the same conditions as those which are seen 
 after the application of a blister, viz., redness, with effusion of 
 serum ; but if the animal is otherwise healthy, and the flesh has 
 not been rendered innutritious by debility, condemnation of the 
 carcase is not warranted, though in all cases the damaged tissues 
 should be carefully removed. 
 
 Skin diseases of dietetic origin occur most largely in the cow and 
 in the pig. In the former they are usually seen in the spring and 
 summer as the result of feeding on luxuriant vegetable matter, 
 such as vetches and alsike clover ; and in the latter, as the result 
 
FOOT DISEASES. 65 
 
 of feeding on unlimited quantities of cabbage, or on impure food. 
 In cattle these skin affections are mostly of an eczematous type, 
 the lesions being localised in the limbs, and in hot summer 
 weather they are aggravated by the irritation of flies. Slaughter- 
 ing of animals so affected is only practised when the inflammation 
 assumes an unhealthy character, or when pyaemia is established, 
 and in the event of either one or other of these contingencies 
 arising, the effects on the tissues are so pronounced as to con- 
 stitute in themselves sufficient warrant for the condemnation of 
 the flesh. 
 
 Sheep frequently suffer in wet and cold weather from eczema 
 {wet scald), but this is purely local in its effects, and is confined to 
 the tissues of the skin itself : in like manner they suffer from 
 eczema of the lips, which, though of local origin, may produce 
 (secondarily) pyaemia. 
 
 Foot Diseases. 
 
 The most common diseases of the feet to which those domestic 
 animals whose flesh is used for human food are subject, are — 
 in the ox, fouls, rheumatic inflammation of the laminae, and 
 inflammation of the coronet ; in the sheep, foot rot, foot sore, and 
 dew scald. The structural alterations produced by these various 
 diseases are the result of inflammatory action, are purely local, and 
 do not affect the constitution ; of course there will be fever in 
 acute laminitis, but cattle, as a rule, are not slaughtered during 
 the inflammatory stage of the disease, consequently no alteration 
 in the nutrition of the tissues can be detected after death. In 
 bad cases of foot rot in sheep, especially in hot weather, and 
 when they have travelled long distances on hard roads, a certain 
 degree of fever exists, but unless the inflammatory action extends 
 to the deeper structures, or purulent fluids are formed, and pro- 
 duce pyaemia or septicaemia, no deleterious effects on the tissues 
 are produced. 
 
66 DISEASES OF ORGANS AND TISSUES. 
 
 Actinomycocis and tuberculosis are sometimes localised in the 
 tissues around the coronet in cattle, and the remarks made in 
 reference to those diseases generally apply equally here. 
 
 In the skin of the coronet and leg of the sheep, a very intract- 
 able form of disease, known in Scotland as carbuncle of the 
 coronary band and "Orf," is met with, and, owing to its 
 irritating effects, emaciation to an extreme degree is often 
 produced. 
 
 In the pig a form of disease somewhat resembling canker in 
 the foot of the horse is sometimes developed, and the victims 
 become more or less emaciated and anaemic. 
 
 Parturition and Diseases connected with it. 
 
 It frequently happens in breeding districts that from various 
 causes an animal is unable to give birth, and if its body is in 
 good condition it is slaughtered and its flesh exposed for sale. 
 As already mentioned the question of the consumption of 
 parturient flesh is one about which there is room for difference 
 of opinion, and where -the animal has not been allowed to 
 become exhausted, or has been killed at an early stage, it is almost 
 or quite impossible to detect any evidence of the fact that it is a 
 parturient animal, more especially when all the generative organs 
 and the mammae have been removed. The most suspicious 
 circumstance in connection with these carcases is the extensive 
 removal of all the tissues around the outlet of the pelvis, and in 
 the case of the sow the entire removal of the mammary glands. 
 If the latter are in situ, even though the teats may have been 
 removed, some milk may be obtained by pressure, or it may flow 
 over the cut surface on section. 
 
 In all cases of difficult or prolonged parturition, and especially 
 where sustained and violent efforts have been made to extract the 
 foetus, the changes in the flesh resemble to a large extent those 
 
ABORTION. 67 
 
 produced by fever, and these changes in themselves warrant the 
 condemnation of the flesh, particularly if the muscles of the 
 haunch and thighs present evidence of extravasation or effusion. 
 
 Of the diseases incidental to parturition the most important are 
 — milk fever, retention of the placenta, and abortion. 
 
 In milk fever, as in parturition, the changes produced in the 
 flesh will depend upon the length of time allowed to elapse 
 between the advent of the disease and slaughter. If the disease 
 has reached the comatose stage, the conditions produced by that 
 state will be established, and in this case there should be no hesi- 
 tation in condemning the flesh ; but if the animal has been 
 slaughtered immediately on the advent of the symptoms, and it is 
 in good condition, the flesh presents no departure from the normal, 
 nor can existence of the disease, during life, be determined by 
 any means after the carcase is dressed. Milk fever is not in any 
 sense of the word a specific or toxic affection, but is, so far as at 
 present known, purely nervous in its origin, consequently it would 
 be impossible to establish the nocuity of such flesh. Custom 
 regulates to a large extent the method of dealing with this flesh, 
 as in some districts it is universally sold for consumption, while 
 in others it is universally condemned. No matter what the 
 custom in any particular district may be, such flesh should not be 
 used for human food if it presents distinct evidence of nutritive 
 change or of imperfect oxidation. 
 
 Retention of the Placenta. — -Very few animals are killed solely 
 on account of this accident, and if the membranes have not 
 undergone decomposition, their retention does not produce 
 any important effect on the system ; but if putrefaction is estab- 
 lished, absorption of septic matter may take place, and lead to 
 the same important conditions as those seen in septicaemia or to 
 emaciation. 
 
 Abortion. — Abortion as the result of accident does not inter- 
 fere with the system any more or even as much as does natural 
 
68 DISEASES OF ORGANS AND TISSUES. 
 
 parturition, and practically the remarks already made under that 
 head will apply equally here. If, however, the abortion has been 
 due to a specific cause or to disease of important organs, or is 
 associated with retention of the placenta and putrefaction of the 
 same, septic metritis will result, and the evidence of its deleterious 
 influence on the tissues will usually be sufficiently marked to 
 warrant the condemnation of the flesh. 
 
CONSTITUTIONAL AND BLOOD DISEASES. 
 Fever. 
 
 FEVER, no matter of what type, if it is at all prolonged, 
 produces important changes, not only in the muscular 
 tissues of the body,' but also in the tissues of the heart, liver, 
 spleen, and kidneys. The flesh may contract a dark hue, and 
 become very flaccid and even watery, or it may be much paler 
 than normal and very friable. The above changes will be more 
 marked if the fever has been associated with pain and with bodily 
 suffering, or if it is of a low type. As a rule the carcase does not 
 become properly drained of its blood, consequently the small 
 vessels may be very much injected, and the large may contain 
 imperfect and dark-coloured clots. The heart, on section, is 
 usually pale in colour and remarkably friable ; it has also, in many 
 instances, an iridescent appearance. The liver and spleen are 
 more or less enlarged or charged with blood, and the structure of 
 the former is unnaturally friable and may be considerably softened. 
 The kidneys, owing to their compact structure, do not usually show 
 any enlargement ; they may, however, be very friable in structure, 
 and either dark or pale in colour. The lymphatic glands may, in 
 simple fevers, show no change except that they may be a little 
 enlarged and softened; but in all fevers due to the action of 
 micro-organisms they present marked evidence of inflammation, 
 congestion, or blood extravasation. 
 Inflammation. — This process is always localised, either in one of 
 
7 o CONSTITUTIONAL AND BLOOD DISEASES. 
 
 the internal organs or in the lining membranes of cavities or 
 organs. If the inflammation is of a non-specific character, is of 
 limited extent, or confined to an unimportant organ, it does not 
 interfere with the nutrition of the body, nor does it produce any 
 marked change in the tissues, consequently the carcase should not 
 be condemned ; but if it is very acute, or involves an important 
 organ, or" is diffused extensively over the serous or mucous mem- 
 branes, is of a specific character, and leads to important changes 
 such as those already noted, the flesh is rendered unwholesome 
 and should be destroyed. Chronic (interstitial) inflammation 
 neither produces pain nor fever in any marked degree, conse- 
 quently it is only by its indirect effects, as by interfering with 
 or annihilating the functions of organs that it produces any 
 deleterious effects on the system. All organs the seat of chronic 
 interstitial inflammation become hard, grate against the knife in 
 section, resist the cooking process, and have a sweetish insipid 
 taste. 
 
 Suppuration. — Localised and circumscribed suppuration, as the 
 result of a wound or other injury, or as in the formation of limited 
 abscess, either internal or external, does not usually render the 
 flesh unwholesome, and if the whole of the involved organ or 
 part is removed no objection can be urged against the consump- 
 tion of such flesh. If, however, the suppuration is very extensive, 
 as in large, open wounds, or in the formation of diffuse or un- 
 limited abscesses, or in diffuse suppuration of the serous or 
 mucous membranes, the nutrition of the body is usually so much 
 interfered with as to render the flesh unfit for human food. 
 
 Mortification is not only a result of inflammation, it is fre- 
 quently produced by interference with the circulation of an organ 
 or part, by severe crushing or bruising, and by the action of 
 chemical agents. It is also seen in the extremities in certain 
 blood diseases, as black quarter, and especially as a result of septic 
 and erysipelatous inflammation. Two forms are recognised, viz., 
 
PYEMIA. 71 
 
 the dry and the moist, and in arriving at a decision as to the 
 effects of mortification this fact must be borne prominently in 
 mind. 
 
 In dry mortification (mumification), if the patient rallies from 
 the immediate effects of the process which gives rise to it, there is 
 but slight interference with the nutrition of the flesh, but in the 
 moist form the septic products of the process may become 
 absorbed and produce a veritable septicaemia ; moreover, the 
 process diffuses itself in tissues contiguous to or in continuity 
 with the organ or tissues in which it originates. 
 
 In dry mortification the dead structures are dry, hard, of a 
 reddish brown colour, and leathery in appearance and texture. 
 In moist mortification they are of a black or purple colour, and 
 when decomposition is perfected, green. Bubbles of foetid gas 
 (sulphuretted hydrogen, &c.) are evolved from the destroyed 
 tissues, which are swamped with fluid of a red colour. The 
 colour is due to the solution and diffusion of the colouring matter 
 of the blood. All the surrounding tissues are infiltrated with 
 serum and lymph, and the small vessels are charged with blood. 
 The blood-vessels of the involved tissue are plugged with dark 
 coloured clots of blood, and the whole area swarms with septic 
 organisms. 
 
 Pyemia. — The strict meaning of this term is pus in the blood, 
 but it is not now usually so applied, but is rather used to indicate 
 that multiple abscesses have formed in different parts of the body. 
 
 Pyasmia occurs in all animals, domesticated, semi-domesticated, 
 or wild, but of the first class the sheep is most largely the victim 
 of the process. In these animals it frequently originates from 
 malignant aphtha, from eczema of the lips, and from malignant 
 catarrh ; in each case it effects, at the outset, the face, and 
 travels thence to the tissues and lymphatic glands of the throat 
 and neck, finally locating itself in the lungs and in the lym- 
 phatic glands of the thorax. In young animals it most largely 
 
72 CONSTITUTIONAL AND BLOOD DISEASES. 
 
 originates from disease of the umbilical tissues and from joint 
 disease, and most frequently gains an internal localisation in 
 the liver. 
 
 In cases of pyaemia, the flesh should be condemned even 
 though it may to outward appearance be healthy. 
 
 Evidence of systemic derangement should always be sought for 
 in the shape of effusions and extravasations, especially into the 
 deeper tissues of the body. 
 
 Rheumatism is most largely seen in the pig and the ox, and 
 may occur in animals at any age, though, with the exception of 
 stall-fed cows, which are deprived, during a long period, of 
 exercise, it is more frequently seen in young than in adults or 
 aged animals. 
 
 If it affects the joints, as it frequently does in young cattle, and 
 the arthritic disease is associated with degenerative processes, 
 material systemic changes may be produced, and even septicaemia ; 
 and though no degenerative processes may be established, there 
 may be systemic effusions and even extravasation in the more 
 acute forms. 
 
 In very acute rheumatism, while no deleterious influence can 
 by any possibility be demonstrated as resulting from the use of 
 the flesh, as rheumatic flesh, the effects of fever, and, in some 
 cases, of inflammation, will be observed in the muscular tissues, 
 and the bones may be enlarged and softened. In chronic rheu- 
 matism the animal is frequently so emaciated as to render its 
 flesh absolutely innutritious, and sometimes dropsical. In animals 
 in good muscular condition, but suffering from localised joint 
 disease, the tissues all round the joint or joints may become 
 extensively altered by inflammatory changes, rendering the 
 destruction of a leg or part of the leg of a carcase necessary. 
 
 Septicemia (toxicaemia) or a septic condition of the blood (blood 
 poisoning) is of very common occurrence in all the domestic 
 animals. 
 
SEPTICEMIA. 73 
 
 Two forms are recognised, viz. : — 
 
 (a) Where the products only of bacteria, growing somewhere in 
 the body, are absorbed into the blood, producing septic intoxi- 
 cation ; and 
 
 (b) Where the organisms which induce septic processes also 
 gain access to the general circulation and multiply there, produc- 
 ing septic infection. 
 
 One or both of these conditions are associated with and are 
 produced by putrefactive wounds, either of the muscular or cellu- 
 lar tissues, or of the internal organs ; with mortification of tissues 
 (sphacelus), with retention of the placenta, with septic metritis, 
 with navel ill, with septic diseases of the joints and bones, with 
 septic inflammation of the lungs arid of the udder, and with septic 
 abscesses. 
 
 In sheep, and more particularly in parturient ewes, there are 
 good grounds for believing that a general septicaemia is frequently 
 produced by feeding the animals on improper and decaying or 
 decomposing food, or allowing access to foul water, and that some 
 of the cases of red braxy are of this nature. 
 
 Septicaemia, by virtue of the depraved condition of the blood 
 which it induces, leads to alterations in the tissues of as grave, 
 and frequently of a more grave, character than does even anthrax. 
 The blood seldom coagulates firmly, it is dark in colour, some- 
 times being tar-like, at others resembling damson pulp, and the 
 walls of the cells becoming disintegrated, allow of the diffusion of 
 its colouring matter, consequently it stains any tissue with which 
 it lies in contact for any considerable time ; in the worst cases 
 it is effervescent almost as soon as dissolution takes place, and 
 evolves a sickly or semi-putrid odour; the small blood vessels 
 (capillaries) are charged with blood, and the muscular and cellu- 
 lar tissues are often uniformly stained of a deep red colour — this 
 is particularly marked in the worst forms of so-called red braxy 
 in sheep. The carcase and the blood quickly putrefy, and the 
 
74 CONSTITUTIONAL AND BLOOD DISEASES. 
 
 body rapidly becomes tympanitic after death. The lining mem- 
 brane of the right side of the heart and of the veins is usually 
 stained of a deep red colour, and there is more or less marked, 
 and generally diffused, effusion of .serum and extravasation of 
 blood, the serum being tinged with the colouring matter of the 
 blood. The blood, in septic infection, swarms with micro- 
 organisms, and it is extremely virulent, so that a few drops injected 
 into the cellular tissue of a small animal produces death in a 
 comparatively short space of time. 
 
 Of the internal organs, all those of a vascular character, 
 especially the liver, spleen, and kidneys, are usually engorged with 
 blood. The heart is flaccid, and contains imperfect coagula of 
 blood of the same character as those found in the systemic veins. 
 The mucous membrane of the stomach (fourth numerically) and 
 of the small bowels is usually found of a dark colour (congested), 
 and there may be extravasation into the structure of the bowels. 
 The lymphatic and mesenteric glands are enlarged, softened, and 
 infiltrated with blood, as in anthrax and swine fever. Every part 
 of the carcase is nocuous, and should not be allowed to be used 
 as food either for man or animals. 
 
 Urcemia. — (i) This term signifies the absorption of various 
 products from the bladder owing to the retention of the urine 
 therein ; this may occur as the result of paralysis of the bladder 
 or spasm of its neck, occlusion of the urethra by thickening as 
 the result of disease of its structure in some parts of its course, by 
 obstruction in the lodgment of urinary calculi, clots of blood, or 
 coagula of lymph; in the ox by the formation of carbonate of 
 lime concretions on the hair of the prepuce, and in shee,p and 
 cattle fed under cover in dirty houses (as is frequently done on 
 the continent) from ulceration of the prepuce and constriction in 
 the healing process thereof, producing phymosis. Concretions on 
 the hair of the prepuce are usually formed when sheep and cattle 
 are feeding on turnips grown with lime salts, and occasionally in 
 
URsEMIA. 75 
 
 summer when lime or bone manure has been used as a top 
 dressing. In cattle, too, fed on unlimited quantities of wheat 
 straw grown on limestone land, calculi form in the bladder, and 
 become arrested in the urethra in their passage out with the urine, 
 and small concretions are frequently arrested in the vermiform 
 appendage of the penis of the sheep, the canal of which is of very 
 small diameter. 
 
 No matter what may be the cause of retention, the consti- 
 tutional results are the same, viz., resorption into the blood of the 
 principles formed in the retained urine by the chemical changes it 
 undergoes, and, as a consequence of this absorption, urmmic 
 poisoning. • 
 
 In obstruction arising in the prepuce, another important con- 
 dition is super-added to the retention, viz., intense inflammation 
 of the sheath (balanitis) from the constant reflux of urine, which 
 undergoes decomposition, consequently the inflammation is of a 
 septic or putrefactive character, and diffuses itself extensively into 
 the connective tissue at the postero-inferior part of the abdomen 
 and the inside of the thighs, producing septic changes, which of 
 themselves render the carcase totally unfit for food. The changes 
 produced in the tissues by the infiltration of urine bear a striking 
 resemblance to erysipelatous lesions, and the parts have a power- 
 fully urinous and ammoniacal odour. 
 
 When resorption of urinary products takes place from the 
 bladder, a condition of the tissues of the body closely allied to 
 that resulting from septicaemia is produced, and the flesh is 
 rendered highly nocuous and absolutely unfit for food. 
 
 (2), Uraemia results from non-elimination from the blood of 
 urea and other products of combustion, owing to the non-secretion . 
 or suppression of urine {ischuria nothd) as the result of acute or 
 chronic organic disease of the kidneys. Uraemia as a result of 
 acute disease of the kidneys is of rare occurrence in the domestic 
 animals whose flesh is ordinarily used for human food, but as a 
 
76 CONSTITUTIONAL AND BLOOD DISEASES. 
 
 consequence of chronic disease of those organs it is very common 
 in the sheep in one of the forms of so-called water braxy, under 
 which head it is noticed. In uraemia resulting from acute disease 
 of the kidneys, the general or systemic conditions produced are 
 closely allied to those seen in septicaemia, and the effects on the 
 tissues are much the same. 
 
 In uraemia resulting from chronic disease of the kidneys, the 
 body becomes lean, anaemic, and dropsical, and the flesh is 
 absolutely innutritious and unfit for food. 
 
CACHECTIC CONDITIONS. 
 
 Anamia. 
 
 THIS term practically signifies deprivation of blood, but 
 manifestly such a condition would be incompatible with 
 the maintenance of life. It is used to indicate that the volume 
 of the blood is materially diminished, but not necessarily altered 
 in quality. The term oligamia, signifying as it does " little 
 blood," would be more appropriate. If the blood is of poor 
 quality, the term spanamia is applicable. 
 
 Anaemia is met with in all animals as a result of" acute fevers, 
 which primarily exercise a deleterious influence on the nutrition 
 of the blood ; in consequence of prolonged and debilitating 
 organic disease, especially of such organs as the liver, pancreas, 
 mesenteric glands, stomach, and bowels, in which digestion and 
 assimilation is materially interfered with ; as a result of disease 
 of the lips, mouth, teeth, tongue, and oesophagus, interfering 
 with prehension, mastication, and ingestion ; as a result of the 
 ravages of parasites, and in consequence of deficiency of nutritive 
 elements in the food, or the withdrawal of nutrition through the 
 medium of some form of drain on the system, such as an excessive 
 discharge — e.g., diarrhoea or diabetes — or excessive secretion, as 
 in over-suckling. It must not be assumed that in all cases the 
 condition is associated with deficiency in flesh or fat. Ewes, 
 when feeding on swede turnips alone, sometimes die in large 
 numbers in full muscular condition, and the carcases may be 
 
7 g CACHECTIC CONDITIONS. 
 
 laden with fat ; yet the veins may be half empty of blood, and 
 that which is found is of a very poor quality. In these cases life is 
 not sufficiently prolonged to allow of the establishing of a cachexia. 
 
 Though anaemia is a cause of dropsy, the two conditions do not 
 necessarily co-exist ; very frequently, in fact, the tissues are quite 
 dry after the carcase has been exposed for a short time. Though 
 they may be very pale,, soft, and bloodless, the question of the 
 consumption of the flesh of such carcases is to be considered, in 
 the absence of evidence of important disease, rather in the light 
 of the probability of indirect harm accruing from its innutritious 
 quality than in that of nocuity, but under all circumstances it is 
 unmarketable. 
 
 Braxy. — This term is applied to certain forms of blood disease 
 in sheep, and is made use of mainly in Scotland or in the counties 
 bordering thereon. It is used in a very indefinite and loose 
 manner, equally as much, in fact, as is the frequently synonymous 
 term inflammation. 
 
 Three form's of braxy are recognised by shepherds — (a.) turnip; 
 (b.) wet ; (c.) red. 
 
 (a) Turnip Braxy is seen when sheep are feeding on an un 
 limited supply of roots, particularly of swedes. It is essentially a 
 form of mal-nutrition of the blood, and as a consequence, of the 
 walls of the blood vessels, resulting in rapid effusion of serum, 
 charged usually with excess of albumen, into the connective tissue 
 of the body. Its attack is sudden, it is very fatal, and its duration 
 is short — a few hours only. On post-mortem, the condition of the 
 tissues is at once detected, and an adhesive feel may be imparted 
 to the skin of the hand when it is passed over it, while the surface 
 of a section rapidly glazes. The effusion is deep-seated and the 
 fluid may be tinged with blood, there may be effusion into 
 cavities, and even extensive congestion of important organs. The 
 muscular tissue and the fat do not present any marked departure 
 from the normal. 
 
BRAXY. 79 
 
 From a sanitary point of view, such flesh may not, and probably 
 is not, productive of harm — and in various parts of Scotland 
 thousands of pounds weight are annually consumed after curing 
 and smoking — but though it may be innocuous, it is decidedly 
 unmarketable. 
 
 (b) Wet Braxy. — This term is used in a very extended sense, 
 and practically it includes all dropsical conditions, whether these 
 result from blood disease, as anaemia, from uraemic poisoning, or 
 from organic disease of organs. As in the case of turnip braxy, so 
 here, the flesh of such animals is largely consumed, after being 
 salted and smoked, as " braxy mutton," but the remarks made as 
 to the nutritive and deleterious properties of dropsical flesh apply 
 equally here. 
 
 (<r) Red Braxy. — This term is even more indefinite than the 
 preceding, and practically all conditions of the carcase and of the 
 internal organs in which there is marked discoloration are (in 
 Scotland) classified as red braxy. The importance of this fact 
 cannot be over-estimated, as conditions of an entirely harmless 
 nature are confounded with those possessing the gravest attributes. 
 Thus, congestive conditions resulting from a deterioration of the 
 blood simply are classified with lesions produced by that most 
 deadly of all diseases, anthrax, and with those resulting from 
 septicaemia, and not infrequently with parturient lesions and with 
 the discoloration resulting from fever, inflammation, and imperfect 
 bleeding. 
 
 In all parts of Great Britain — more frequently in England and 
 Scotland, perhaps, than in Ireland or Wales — sheep die in large 
 numbers as the result of a blood crasis induced by grave faults in 
 dieting, and on post-mortem the blood is found to be very dark in 
 colour and imperfectly coagulated, while there is extravasation and 
 effusion (often sero-sanguineous) into the various tissues of the 
 body ; and neither by microscopical examination nor by feeding 
 experiments can it be shown that any deleterious element exists in 
 
8o CACHECTIC CONDITIONS. 
 
 such flesh, and it is largely consumed as " braxy mutton " ; but 
 under no circumstances should it be allowed to pass as market- 
 able food, nor, if the slightest evidence exists of its being from 
 anthrax animals, or from those suffering from septicaemia, should 
 there be any hesitation shown in condemning it as unwholesome 
 and dangerous. 
 
 Under circumstances similar to those described as leading to 
 the production of malignant parturient fever, grave and universal 
 changes often take place in »he whole mass of blood and in the 
 tissues generally of the sheep, the carcase being universally dis- 
 coloured, and extravasation and effusion extensive ; the body, too, 
 undergoes rapid putrefaction. This is undoubtedly a form of 
 septicaemia — the hamatozymosis of Simons — and the flesh should 
 be treated as such. 
 
 Dysentery — " Bloody Flux '' — is a specific inflammation of the 
 large bowels, and is most frequently seen in cattle, sheep, and 
 pigs, rarely in the horse. It is produced by the action of organic 
 irritants, such as decomposing or diseased flesh and fish, in the 
 pig ; by contamination (especially by sewage) of pastures or of 
 water, or by the excreta of diseased animals (fouling) ; by decom- 
 posing or fermenting vegetable matter, and by stagnant water. 
 It is sometimes a symptom of a depraved condition of the blood. 
 Dysentery is characterised by extreme fever, and by intestinal 
 symptoms, with profuse diarrhoea at the outset followed 
 rapidly by discharge of bloody faeces, and ultimately by blood. 
 Emaciation proceeds at a very rapid pace. In some cases it 
 merges into a chronic affection, the bowels becoming ulcerated, 
 and the nutrition of the body being so much interfered 
 with as to produce extreme emaciation and debility. On 
 post-mortem examination the bowels present all the charac- 
 teristics of an acute inflammation of the mucous membrane, 
 and frequently the lesion is observed to extend throughout 
 the whole length of the intestinal canal, and especially is 
 
ENTERIC FEVER— TYPHOID FEVER. 81 
 
 this the case when the disease has been produced by 
 sewage. 
 
 In the human subject it has been thought that, in India at 
 least, the malady is due to a specific germ, but there is no 
 evidence of such an influence being exerted in the production of 
 dysentery in animals. Unless animals affected by the disease are 
 killed in the earliest stages, the condition of the tissues is such as 
 to render the flesh unfit for food. It should be unhesitatingly 
 condemned whenever the disease ha« been marked. 
 
 Enteric Fever {Muco Enteritis), Typhoid Fever. — This affec- 
 tion is seen most largely in the ox and in the pig, it is rare in 
 sheep, but it is occasionally seen in the horse. Its causes are on 
 the whole identical with those which produce dysentery, though 
 in the horse it occurs as an occasional complication of influenza, 
 and in calves and pigs it is induced by the filthy and ill-ventilated 
 condition of the calf-house or the pig-stye. As in the case of 
 dysentery, it may be produced in young animals by grave altera- 
 tions in the quality of the mother's milk, as also by exposure to 
 cold. It is very fatal, and often kills its victim in a few hours 
 after symptoms of its existence become apparent ; frequently, in 
 fact, animals that have been left over-night to all appearance 
 healthy, are found dead the following morning, with all the patho- 
 gnomonic lesions in the alimentary canal well developed. In 
 some cases it merges into a chronic form of disease, and skin 
 lesions, as papula? and bulla?, are developed; emaciation is also 
 marked. 
 
 This affection has no relation whatever to typhoid fever in 
 man. Its symptoms, when observed, are those of extreme fever, 
 with evidence of gastro-intestinal pain, and foetid diarrhoea — the 
 discharges being frequently stained with blood. The character- 
 istic post-mortem lesions are those peculiar to other low forms of 
 blood disease and of fever, with intense congestion of the mucous 
 membrane of the stomach (the fourth in ruminants), and of the 
 
82 CACHECTIC CONDITIONS. 
 
 small bowels : the colour of the membrane frequently resembles 
 that of mahogany. The essential lesion is destruction of the 
 mucous membrane in irregular patches, varying in extent from 
 the dimensions of a hemp seed to many inches in length; the 
 sloughing membrane is thickened, of a peculiar brownish-red 
 colour (resembles badly tanned leather), and is separated from 
 the surrounding tissue by a segregating chasm ; the intestinal 
 glands and Peyer's patches are enlarged, congested, and softened ; 
 there is sometimes effusion into the peritoneal cavity, with con- 
 gestion of the peritoneum, the liver, the kidneys, and the 
 lymphatic and mesenteric glands, the latter organs being soft 
 and pulpy in texture and at times engorged with blood. The 
 condition of the flesh is similar to that produced by septic disease, 
 and it is totally unfit for human food. 
 
 Joint-Ill. — The term "joint-ill" or "joint-felon" is applied to 
 two very different forms of disease : (i) To septic arthritis, resulting 
 from septic inflammation of the navel ; (2) To an acute exudative 
 arthritis, in which large quantities of plastic lymph are thrown 
 into the cavity of the joint, leading to permanent stiffening 
 (anchylosis) and deformity; or, being followed by rapid softening 
 processes, and producing abscess within, and destruction of, the 
 joint. Both forms occur in young animals deriving their nourish- 
 ment direct from the mother, are undoubtedly due, in the main, 
 to nutritive defects in the milk, and are frequently associated, 
 especially in the lamb, with some form of blood disease in the 
 dam, such as malignant parturient fever. 
 
 In septic joint disease resulting from inflammation of the navel 
 — the co-existence of the latter can be easily shown, as stated 
 in the section on navel-ill — the affection arises within a period of 
 a week or ten days after birth, and runs its course very rapidly, the 
 joint disease being the result of absorption of pyogenic germs 
 from the structures of the navel. In exudative arthritis the 
 symptoms are more largely evidenced at a later period (seven to 
 
NA VEL-ILL. 83 
 
 twenty-one days) after birth, and are not necessarily, nor indeed 
 commonly, associated with umbilical lesions. In either case, 
 systemic effusions and exudations may be discovered on post- 
 mortem, and the flesh is absolutely unfit for dietetic purposes. 
 
 Navel-Ill. — This condition, naturally, is seen in recently-born 
 animals only, and more largely in the lamb than in the calf. Its 
 lesions may be confined to the structures of the navel only, con- 
 stituting omphalitis, or may involve the umbilical vein, constituting 
 omphalophlebitis ; in the latter case the lesions may, by continuity, 
 extend to the liver also. The disease has its origin in a depraved 
 state of the mother's blood, or in insanitary surroundings, and 
 prevails extensively in some districts in unfavourable seasons. In 
 healthy animals the umbilical vein becomes plugged with a clot 
 of blood, which, after acting the part of a haemostatic, is removed 
 by absorption, and the navel aperture becomes rapidly closed by 
 new tissue, and effectually sealed ; but if the blood of the dam is 
 depraved, or the surrounding conditions are insanitary, the clot of 
 blood and the lacerated umbilical tissues present splendid media 
 for the development of micro-organisms, and a septic inflamma- 
 tion, or, in some cases, an erysipelatous inflammation is estab- 
 lished. This process may be localised in the cellular tissue of 
 the navel, it may extend anteriorly to the fore extremities, or 
 posteriorly to the thighs ; or, in the male, to the scrotum ; or it 
 may extend along the umbilical vein in a forward direction to the 
 liver, or along the urachus (the tube conveying the urine to the 
 allantoid sac) in a backward direction, to the bladders, and even 
 to the peritoneum. It may kill the sufferer in a period varying 
 from thirty-six hours to several days, or it may induce various 
 forms (usually of a septic character) of joint disease. On post- 
 mortem examination systemic effusions and exudations are dis- 
 covered, and, not infrequently, hepatic multiple abscesses exist. 
 
 Apart from the comparatively small value of young animals, the 
 existence of such lesions emphatically warrants the condemnation 
 
84 CACHECTIC CONDITIONS. 
 
 of the flesh, and such carcases should be especially sought after 
 by those responsible for the proper conduct of establishments in 
 which potted delicacies are prepared. 
 
 Malignant Parturient Fever is a disease which occurs in the 
 ewe only, is a result of a depraVed condition of the blood in- 
 duced by improper management, e.g., feeding on unlimited 
 quantities of turnips grown with an excess of artificial manures, 
 or upon roots in a state of decay and decomposition, or upon the 
 grass of fouled pastures ; it is also produced by allowing access 
 to foul water, the gustatory function of parturient animals being 
 frequently depraved. It is the cause of great loss in parturient 
 ewes, at times attacking large numbers in individual flocks ; and 
 it is frequently associated with disease of the navel or of the joints 
 in the offspring of affected animals. It occurs within a few hours 
 after parturition, is very fatal, and runs its course very rapidly, 
 usually in a few hours. It is in some cases accompanied by 
 septic inflammation of the udder or of the womb, and on post- 
 mortem the conditions described as resulting from septicaemia 
 are discovered. Inasmuch as local blood lesions are most largely 
 confined to the pelvic tissues, and to the hind quarters, the 
 butcher frequently endeavours to disguise the pre-existence of 
 the disease by removing the former with the knife, or if the 
 muscles of the hind quarters only are the seat of extravasation or 
 effusion, he will expose the fore quarters alone for sale. The 
 remarks as to the unwholesome character of septicaemic flesh 
 apply equally in these cases. 
 
 Purpura Hemorrhagica. — This disease is marked, primarily, 
 by the pouring out of serum, or of blood, or of both, from the 
 vessels into the different structures of the body, mainly into the 
 muscular and intermuscular tissue, and under and into the skin 
 and the mucous membranes ; secondarily, by shifting (metastasis) 
 of the lesions to such internal organs as the lungs and the bowels, 
 and occasionally to the throat. The affection is most largely seen 
 
RED OR BLACK WATER. 85 
 
 in the horse, but it sometimes also affects sheep, cattle, and pigs. 
 It is to all intents and purposes a blood crasis, due, in most 
 instances, to the effects of other diseases, such as fever of a low 
 type ; to debility, to impure food, air, or water. On post-mortem 
 examination the lesions may be readily confounded with those 
 of anthrax, swine fever, and septicaemia, as the blood infiltrates 
 the tissues of the organs involved, but it is not usual to find the 
 lymphatic glands affected, nor are the specific lesions of swine 
 fever present in the intestines, and no bacilli or other micro- 
 organisms are found on microscopical examination in the blood. 
 The flesh of such animals is not only unmarketable but unwhole- 
 some, and should always be condemned. 
 
 Red or Black Water. — This term is applied to a blood disease 
 affecting cattle and sheep, solely from the fact that the urine is, 
 in cattle, of a red or blood colour, and that in sheep there is 
 effusion of bloody serum into the abdominal cavity, a condition, 
 it may be remarked, sometimes spoken of as braxy. Both in 
 sheep and cattle it occurs as a sporadic disease, though in the 
 case of the former a large proportion of an individual flock may 
 die in the space of a few days. It is generally believed that it is 
 due to dietetic causes, e.g., excess of water in the food, and 
 as a result thereof a superabundance of water in the blood 
 (hydrmmid) ; it may be due to excess of saline matter in the food, 
 notably, in my opinion, the saline phosphates. It makes its 
 appearance most largely when animals are feeding on turnips or 
 grass, the growth of which has been unduly stimulated by artificial 
 manures or by excess of water. In some districts (especially the 
 eastern counties of England), it occurs very largely shortly after 
 parturition, hence it is frequently attributed to the effects of this 
 natural process. Parturition, however, is only a predisposing 
 cause to its development. On the Continent it is seen in malarial 
 districts and on marshy lands, and is by some attributed to the 
 effects of a miasm, and by others to the influence of micro- 
 
86 CACHECTIC CONDITIONS. 
 
 organisms. In this country there is not as yet any positive 
 evidence to show that it is a micro-parasitic disease, nor indeed 
 do its etiological, pathological, or clinical characters warrant such 
 an assumption. The discoloration of the urine in cattle, and of 
 the ascitic fluid in sheep, is due to solution and separation of the 
 colouring matter from the red blood cells, and in cattle the urine 
 also contains albumen, hence the disease is known technically as 
 htznioglobinuria. Exceptionally this condition is established by 
 the action of such poisons as phosphorus, and by the gases 
 liberated in the process of combustion in the burning of cow 
 sheds or other places in which animals are housed. The effects 
 exerted on the tissues and organs in red water depend largely on 
 the length of time the animals live ; mainly, it may be said, it 
 produces a condition of ansemia, though, owing to the rapidity with 
 which many animals succumb to its effects, the tissues do not 
 contract the marked pallor seen in prolonged anaemia. They are, 
 however, more or less pallid and flaccid, and if the animal has 
 been feeding upon turnips the odour thereof is distinguishable 
 in the flesh. Effusion of serum, sometimes blood-tinged, is in 
 many cases detected in the deeper parts of the flesh, which 
 may be jaundiced. The kidneys are sometimes large, pale, and 
 flabby, at other times congested; and the liver is frequently 
 enlarged and congested. The blood is more fluid and paler in 
 colour than normal, aud diminished in quantity. If an animal is 
 so ill as to render its slaughter advisable, its flesh is certainly unfit 
 for human food. 
 
 Urticaria (Nettle Rash) is most frequently seen in the pig, and 
 may attack a large number of swine simultaneously. In the ox, 
 urticaria is not seen. Blain, however, bears a close analogy to it 
 in its causation and course. It is a benign and comparatively 
 transient malady, recovery usually being complete in a few days ; 
 it is associated with some fever and general malaise, and may 
 readily be mistaken for swine fever. Its manifestations are mainly 
 
URTICARIA. 87 
 
 the formation of purpuric lesions in the skin, of a circular shape, 
 and circumscribed in extent, diffused more or less over the surface 
 of the body, and due to extravasation of blood into the cutaneous 
 tissues. These symptoms pass off, as a rule, without producing 
 any breach of surface, but there may be secondary eruptions 
 before convalescence is established, and even the formation of 
 pustules ; occasionally a little blood is seen at the inner canthus 
 of the eye. The disease is due to mal-nutrition of the blood as 
 the result of faults in dieting, and in many of the cases which 
 have come under my immediate observation, it has been dis- 
 tinctly traceable to the ingestion of a too liberal allowance of 
 cabbage or some similar vegetable matter, or to impure or decom- 
 posing animal food. There is no change to be observed in the 
 nutrition of the tissues, and, as a rule, the lesions are superficial ; 
 the internal organs are healthy but there may be effusion of small 
 quantities of serum into the chest, the abdomen, or the peri- 
 cardium. Unless there is distinct evidence of mal-nutrition of 
 the tissues, or extensive local lesions, it is a question whether the 
 flesh of animals affected with this malady should be condemned. 
 Practically, however, the question is scarcely likely to arise, as 
 slaughtering, unless under the influence of panic, is seldom 
 resorted to by the owners of swine ; if it is, the inspector of meat 
 is hardly justified in passing the carcase of an animal, in which 
 purpuric lesions are pronounced, as marketable or innocuous, not- 
 withstanding the fact that the flesh may be firm and dry. 
 
 Another eruptive affection is sometimes met with in the pig> 
 viz., Measles. Here, however, there are no purpuric lesions, but 
 in their place numerous small papulae, of a red colour, form on the 
 skin, and fade away again in the course of a few days ; secondary 
 and even tertiary, symptoms sometimes occur. The eruption of 
 the papula? is not accompanied by any marked febrile condition, 
 neither are the normal functions interfered with nor the nutrition 
 of the tissues disturbed. 
 
I 
 
 PARASITIC DISEASES. 
 
 N considering these, it is as well that I should point out that 
 internal animal parasites are arranged in four classes, viz.— 
 
 A. Protozoa. — The lowest forms of animal lik—psorosperms. 
 
 B. Cestodes. — Cystic or bladder worms. 
 
 C. Tremalode. — Flat worms — flukes. 
 
 D. Nematode. — Round worms. 
 
 The relative positions occupied by the different classes of these 
 organisms in the scale of creation is in accordance with the fore- 
 going arrangement. For the purposes of this work it will only be 
 necessary to notice those parasites which are of importance to the 
 sanitarian, and particularly those that are intertransmissible be- 
 tween man and animals. Attention will also be directed to the 
 effect produced by parasites on the tissues of their dumb hosts, 
 and through them, where ill effects follow the ingestion of such 
 tissues, upon man. 
 
 It is, so far, a fortunate circumstance that but few of the parasites 
 of animals, whose flesh is used for food, and those of man are 
 intertransmissible ; equally, it is an unfortunate circumstance that 
 of those which possess such attributes their effects render them 
 exceedingly unpleasant companions, .and, in one case at least, 
 highly dangerous to health and happiness. 
 
 A. Protozoa. — (a) Coccidium Oviforme (Leuckart). — In the first 
 edition of Davaine's work (i860) on Parasites, these Protozoa are 
 termed " Corps Oviformes," a designation applied to them on 
 
COCCIDIUM OVIFORME. 89 
 
 account of their resemblance, morphologically, to the eggs of a 
 worm. This resemblance has been noticed by other observers 
 also, but they are now universally recognised as Coccidia. 
 
 The following description of these bodies is given in Dr. 
 Hoyle's translation of Leuckart's work on Parasites : — 
 
 "Egg-shaped bodies, 0-033 to 0-037 mm. long and 0-015 to 
 0-002 mm. broad, with thick smooth shells, which have a micro- 
 pylar opening at one end, usually the narrower. The granular 
 contents are sometimes uniformly distributed throughout the 
 whole interior space, or sometimes, as in the globose forms, 
 collected into a spherical mass (0-017 mm.). In this state the 
 parasites pass from the liver and intestine which they inhabit to 
 the exterior, there to undergo a further development in the moist 
 surroundings. The contents thereupon segregate into four oval 
 spores, which become surrounded with a but slightly firm coat, 
 and form each a single C-shaped curved hyaline rod, the concavity 
 of which is occupied by closely-packed granules." 
 
 Speaking of their embryonic condition, Leuckart says — " In 
 their youth these parasites are naked inhabitants of epithelial cells, 
 but afterwards envelop themselves with a firm shell at the close 
 of their period of growth. In this condition, in which they present 
 a puzzling resemblance to the eggs of certain Entozoa, they quit 
 their former resting-place, and generally the former host also, and 
 transform their substance into a larger or smaller number of 
 spores, each having a granular ball and rod within. The spores 
 themselves have a rather thin wall, and are of a round or elliptical 
 shape." 
 
 These organisms are found in many warm-blooded animals 
 (including man), their habitat being, mainly, the intestines, the 
 liver, and the bile-ducts. A species of Coccidia is also found in 
 various organs and partsof the body of the fowl ; indeed Leuckart 
 quotes an instance of an epizootic occurring at Pisa in 1872, in 
 which the lesions were localised in the pharynx, larynx, nose, con- 
 
9 o PARASITIC DISEASES. 
 
 junctiva, intestine, and comb, and which was attributed by 
 Silvestrina and Rivolta to the action of the Coccidia. 
 
 In this country, however, such lesions are usually attributed to 
 the action of tubercle bacilli. 
 
 In the first edition of this work, p. 142, I described certain small 
 bodies, which I have frequently found located in the inter-muscular 
 connective tissue of fowls affected with tuberculosis, and which 
 I thought were of a tubercular nature. I confess I have never 
 taken measures for testing the accuracy of my belief, and it is 
 possible that these bodies are of a coccidian rather than of a 
 tuberculous origin. In any case one could scarcely recommend 
 that the bodies of fowls in which these bodies exist should be used 
 for human food. Coccidian disease occurs most largely in the 
 rabbit, and its lesions are usually observed in the liver of this 
 animal ; they resemble, in a marked manner, the nodular lesions 
 of tuberculosis, and their existence gives rise to emaciation and 
 anaemia, the abdomen becoming enlarged owing to the increase 
 in the size of the liver. 
 
 If, as is generally held, these psorosperms require to escape 
 from the body by way of the intestinal canal in order to pass 
 through certain transitional stages in development, it is obvious 
 that the ingestion of the organs of affected animals by man can 
 be a matter of no importance ; nevertheless, as before indicated 
 in speaking of poultry, it would not be a wise procedure to allow 
 the organs or even the bodies of animals so affected to be used 
 for the purpose of human food. 
 
 (b) Miescher' s vel Rainey's Tubes. — These psorosperms were 
 discovered by Miescher in 1843 and by Rainey in 1857. They 
 are found in the muscular fibres of various animals, — according 
 to Leuckart, in the pig, ox, sheep, and deer; and according 
 to Davaine, in the rat, the horse, and the goat. In addition, 
 Miescher, it is stated in Dr. Hoyle's translation of Leuckart, 
 first discovered them in the mouse, but according to Davaine, 
 
CYSTIC WORMS. 91 
 
 they were first noticed by Miescher in the rat. Davaine also 
 states that Rivolta and Silvestrini found them in the pharynx, 
 larynx, and oesophagus of a fowl ; but I think it is more than 
 likely that the remarks of these two observers, to which he refers, 
 applied to the coccidia oviformes, not to Miescher's tubes. 
 
 As described by Leuckart, the boundary wall of these bodies 
 consists of a somewhat thick and firm cuticle, perforated by 
 numerous pores ; inside this capsule are found, embedded in a 
 tough somewhat homogeneous matrix, a number of kidney-shaped 
 bodies (o - oi m.), and in the younger tubes between these bodies 
 are numerous round transparent balls. " Probably," says 
 Leuckart, "these balls are immature stages of the kidney-shaped 
 bodies." 
 
 While Leuckart states his belief that he, on one occasion, suc- 
 ceeded in infecting a pig by means of -ingestion, he points out 
 that according to Manz these bodies are always destroyed by the 
 digestive juice, and further, that while according to Davaine, 
 Leising, and von Neiderhausern, they cause in animals difficult 
 respiration, and symptoms allied to paraplegia, they have never yet 
 been found in man. 
 
 Their importance to the sanitarian lies in the fact that the 
 lesions they give rise to may be readily confounded with other 
 and more important forms of parasitism. 
 
 B. Cystic worms, i.e., Tape Worms and their respective Hydatids. 
 — Of these we have (a) the Taenia Echinococcus of the dog, and 
 its hydatid (E. Veterinorum), found in all animals, and in man; 
 
 (b) the T. Coenurus of the dog and its hydatid (Ccenurus Cere- 
 bralis), found in the sheep and the ox, and occasionally in man ; 
 
 (c) the T. Marginata of the dog and its hydatid (Cysticercus 
 Tenuicollis), found in the sheep, the ox, and occasionally in other 
 animals also ; (d) the T. Serrata of the dog and its hydatid 
 (Cysticercus Pisiformis), found in the rabbit ; (e) the Taenia 
 Solium of man and its hydatid (Cysticercus Cellulosae), found 
 
92 PARASITIC DISEASES. 
 
 in the pig; (/) the T. Mediocanellata of man and its hydatid 
 (Cysticercus Bovis), found in the ox. 
 
 (a) The Echinococcus Veterinorum is derived from the T. 
 Echinococcus of the dog, and probably from other carnivora 
 also. While the tape worm itself is the smallest and most 
 insignificant of the species, its hydatid is the most universally 
 distributed of all the hydatids, and, from a sanitary point of view 
 at least, it is the most important, though fortunately this remark 
 does not apply to the consumption of flesh. 
 
 The hydatid is found mainly in the liver and in the lungs of 
 cattle, more frequently in adults and in the aged than in young 
 animals ; and while it is a fact that certain foreign cattle, notably 
 Danish and Icelandic, are more liable to the affection than are 
 our own home breeds, it is equally a fact that the latter are affected 
 in very much greater numbers than is generally supposed. Thus, 
 in the course of my inspections, I frequently find the lungs of 
 from 20 to 30 per cent, of cattle affected; but it must be 
 observed, this applies to aged dairy cows mainly. Horses, sheep, 
 pigs, and other small animals, suffer in a much smaller degree 
 than do cattle. The hydatids may be in the form of simple cysts, 
 containing (apparently) a clear serum : they may assume the form 
 of multiple cysts, i.e., numerous cysts formed in the interior of 
 a primary cyst {endogenous cysts), the hydatids being of various 
 sizes ; or there may be several cysts developed from the exterior 
 of a primary one (exogenous cysts). In the early stages of their 
 formation they contain a limpid fluid, which, if set at rest in a 
 glass vessel, sometimes deposits a fine sediment resembling grains 
 of fine white sand, each one of which will be found on micro- 
 scopical examination to represent an embryonic tape worm. In 
 the advanced stages of their growth these cysts undergo degenera- 
 tion and become of a yellow colour and opaque, a large portion 
 of their contents becoming absorbed. In this state they may 
 . readily be mistaken for tuberculosis, and it is in order that the 
 
CCENURUS CEREBRALIS. 93 
 
 reader may be able to distinguish between the two conditions, 
 that a representation of a section through a mass of degenerated 
 cysts in the liver of the ox has been introduced into this work. 
 
 The existence of these hydatids in any organ warrants its con- 
 demnation as an article of human food, as, although no direct 
 harm could possibly accrue from its consumption by man, the 
 idea of eating such organs is repulsive ; and a vast amount of 
 indirect harm may be produced by allowing such organs to be 
 used for feeding dogs, as the tape worm is thereby perpetuated in 
 the intestines of these animals, and the segments of the worms, 
 passing out with the faces, may contaminate drinking water and 
 also such uncooked food as salad. While the presence of these 
 hydatids in the structures of important organs does not necessarily 
 produce any deleterious effect on the flesh, their existence in large 
 numbers may — by pressure, and by setting up chronic inflamma- 
 tion — so far interfere with (or even annihilate) the functions of 
 organs, as to bring about marked changes in the flesh ; thus, if 
 the liver is largely invaded, jaundice, emaciation, and dropsy 
 (either of the abdomen or the hind legs) may be present ; if the 
 lungs, oxidation is interfered with, and the flesh becomes dark 
 and soapy ; if the kidneys, unemia, dropsy, &c, may result. 
 
 (6) The Cxnurus Cerebralis or many - headed (polycephalous) 
 hydatid is found mainly in the brain and in the spinal canal of 
 the ox and sheep (mostly in young animals), producing "gid," 
 "sturdy," or "staggers'' in the former situation, and "thorter ill" 
 in the latter. It is occasionally found in the muscles of animals, 
 and has been discovered in those of man. Its progenitor is the 
 Taenia Ccenurus of the dog. Its effects upon its hosts are not, in 
 the early stage, of sufficient importance to produce material 
 changes in their flesh, but if it is allowed to increase in size and 
 to cause absorption of the brain structure, the host rapidly 
 emaciates, becomes ansemic, exhibits symptoms of brain derange- 
 ment, and in the end dies from inanition or exhaustion. The 
 
94 
 
 PARASITIC DISEASES. 
 
 sanitary aspect of sturdy is not an important one, as no deleterious 
 effect is directly produced on the flesh; indirectly harm results 
 in advanced cases from the innutritious quality of the flesh. As 
 in the case of the Echinococcus, much might be done to diminish 
 the prevalence of sturdy by adopting the precaution of destroying 
 the bladder worm (bleb) when it is removed from the brain of 
 its host, instead of throwing it, as is now so often done, to dogs, 
 or allowing them to lie about for these animals to pick up and 
 devour, thus perpetuating the tape worm in their own intestines. 
 
 (c) The Cysticercus Tenuicollis — slender or long-necked hydatid 
 — is found in the abdominal and pelvic cavity of the sheep, the 
 pig, the ox, and the fowl. Its progenitor is the Taenia Marginata 
 of the dog. It is usually found suspended, sometimes in large 
 numbers, in an adventitious (nutrient) membrane to the outside 
 of the abdominal organs, most largely to the omentum and mesen- 
 tery, presenting the appearance of bladders varying in size from a 
 horse bean to a hen's egg, and containing a transparent fluid. 
 Viewed in situ, little can be seen of the hydatid proper, but if the 
 cyst is closely looked at, a white spot or body, about the size of a 
 vetch seed (the head), is seen floating in the fluid contents of the 
 vesicle. If the adventitious cyst is cut through, the hydatid is 
 liberated, and falls by virtue of the weight of its contained fluid 
 to the ground. These hydatids are of less importance than are 
 others that are found in the bodies of animals, and being situated 
 on the outside of organs, they do not interfere with them either 
 mechanically or functionally, and even when existing in large 
 numbers, the carcase of the host may be, and usually is, in splen- 
 did condition. If emaciation exists, it is due to some other cause. 
 As in the case of the foregoing, so here, all such bladders should 
 be carefully removed and effectually destroyed. 
 
 (d) The Cysticercus Pisifortnis is found mainly in the abdominal 
 cavity of the rabbit and of the hare, and, in its immature state, in 
 the liver of these animals. It varies in size from a vetch seed to 
 
CYSTICERCUS CELLULOSE. 95 
 
 a small filbert nut, is flask-shaped, and shows a greater advance 
 towards the formation of the tape worm than does the hydatid of 
 any other of the Tseniae. Its progenitor is the Tsenia Serrata of 
 the dog. It sometimes exists in such large numbers as to cause 
 emaciation, exhaustion, and death of its host. It is of no sanitary 
 consequence, as it is not likely that the carcase of the rabbit is 
 ever eaten without the abdominal contents being first carefully 
 removed, and, further, the tape worm is developed only in the 
 intestines of the dog or other carnivora. 
 
 (?) The Cysticercus Cellulosce is found inhabiting the inter- 
 muscular connective tissue of the pig, producing the condition 
 known as "meas/es." It varies in size from a vetch seed to a 
 small horse bean, and exists in enormous numbers in the body of 
 its host. Its progenitor is the Ttenia Solium, or solitary tape 
 worm of man. In addition to its being found in the muscles, it 
 is sometimes located in very large numbers in the liver and the 
 spleen, giving that organ, on section, a peculiar mottled and 
 pitted appearance, and rendering it of a more solid consistence 
 than normal. A careful examination of the peculiar greyish spots 
 reveals their cystic character, and when the cysts are removed by 
 the aid of a pin or a needle, a loculus or space is left behind. 
 The condition of the liver is well shown in our illustration, which 
 represents a section of that organ removed from the body of a pig 
 by Mr. A. E. Paley, M.R.C.V.S., Walsall. 
 
 While it is a fact that the hydatid is found mainly in the body 
 of the pig, it sometimes finds a habitation in that of other animals, 
 and has even been found to co-exist with the tape worm in man. 
 During life there are but few indications of the existence of this 
 worm in the tissues of its host ; the body has a bloated appear- 
 ance and a soft flabby feel, and if steady but firm pressure is 
 applied, a crackling sensation, produced by bursting of the cysts, 
 is imparted to the fingers of the manipulator. In some cases 
 which came under the notice of Mr. Paley there was cyanotic 
 
96 PARASITIC DISEASE. 
 
 discoloration of the skin — not unlike that seen in swine fever — 
 with marked difficulty in respiration. The only positive sign to 
 be obtained is in the mouth, in which cavity a row of translucent 
 bead-like tumours may be detected on the inferior and lateral 
 aspect of either side of the tongue, or between it and the lower 
 jaw. 
 
 When the flesh of the- affected pig is cut up, the section presents 
 a pale flabby appearance, and imparts a slimy feel to the fingers ; 
 it is soft and apparently dropsical. The bladder can be readily 
 distinguished on close inspection of the muscles. If the hydatids 
 have been in existence for a considerable period, their coats will 
 have undergone calcareous degeneration, and in this case a grat- 
 ing sensation is imparted to the knife on section. Measly flesh 
 does not resist putrefaction, nor does it take on salt, and it remains 
 more or less pale and flabby after prolonged curing and cooking, 
 but if calcareous degeneration of the cysts has taken place, the 
 flesh is usually quite firm, and section reveals the altered cysts as 
 chalky-like masses, which, on section, impart a grating sensation to 
 the hand as the edge of the knife passes through the flesh. These 
 chalky masses are represented, though somewhat imperfectly, in 
 our illustrations, and are frequently met with in hams, both of 
 home and foreign production. While the devouring of such flesh 
 in a raw or semi-cooked condition by man would inevitably pro- 
 duce the solitary tape worm in his intestine, such a result could 
 not possibly take place if the flesh were subjected to the effects 
 of proper cooking, as a temperature of 140° or 150° F. is sufficient 
 to devitalize all forms of hydatids. When calcareous degeneration 
 has taken place no harm can possibly accrue from the consump- 
 tion of the flesh, nevertheless, it is not pleasant to sit down to 
 breakfast or luncheon with a measly ham as the piece de resistance 
 of the meal. That tape worm infection of man from measly pork 
 is of tolerably frequent occurrence is proved by the fact that the 
 Taenia Solium is so often found infesting the human intestines, 
 
Fig. 6. — Section through a Hydatid (daughter and grand- 
 daughter) Cyst in the Liver of a Cow, showing endogenous 
 development of Hydatid Cysts. 
 
 s. 
 
 • 
 
 Fio. 11.— Blood of a Guinea-Pig dead of 
 Symptomatic Anthrax. 
 
 Blood -corpuscles, and between them 
 several bacilli. 
 
 Fio. 12.— Heart's Blood of a Mouse dead 
 of Anthrax. 
 
 1. Blood discs. 
 
 2. White blood -corpuscle. 
 
 3. Bacilli anthracis. 
 
FLUKE WORMS. 97 
 
 and this fact is sufficient to warrant the condemnation of all 
 measly flesh. 
 
 (f) The Cysticercus Bovis (Beef Measle) has its habitat in the 
 muscles of the ox (mostly in the calf), in the same situation . as 
 that occupied by the C. Cellulosa in the pig. It is, however, 
 found to the greatest extent in the muscles of the haunch, and 
 the muscular parieties of the heart. As in the pig, so in the calf, 
 the hydatids are sometimes developed in the mouth. Its pro- 
 genitor is the Taenia Mediocanellata of man, and it is — owing to 
 the dirty habits of some of the natives — met with much more 
 frequently in India than elsewhere. The remarks already made 
 in reference to the Cysticercus Cellulosse of the pig apply; in a 
 sanitary sense, to the beef measle. 
 
 Cysticercus Ovis {Mutton. Measle) is, so far as I know, never 
 met with in Great Britain, nor has it yet been satisfactorily shown 
 from what tape worm it originates. 
 
 Tape Worms, by virtue of their inhabiting the intestinal canal 
 only, are of no consequence from a sanitary point of view, inas- 
 much as in all cases in which gut is used for edible purposes, its 
 loose contents are carefully removed by washing ; and even if this 
 were not the case, no harm could accrue if the ova of the worms 
 were ingested by man, seeing that, with the exception of the Taenia 
 Echinococcus of the dog, hydatids rarely find a habitat in his 
 system. 
 
 C. Trematode Worms, i.e., Flukes. — Practically, of the Entozoa 
 belonging to this class there is only one of any importance in a 
 sanitary sense, viz., the Disioma, vel Fasciola, Hepaticum or Liver 
 Fluke. This worm inhabits the bile ducts of the liver of the sheep 
 and the ox, and occasionally the bile ducts of the horse, and gives 
 rise, in sheep, to the well-known disease "Liver Rot." Inasmuch 
 as the Entozoon is universally distributed, rot is found to exist 
 more or less in all parts of the kingdom, but to a much greater 
 extent in damp and swampy districts (except salt marshes) than in 
 
9 8 PARASITIC DISEASES. 
 
 others. In wet seasons the disease prevails extensively, and is the 
 cause of a greater monetary loss than any other parasitic disease 
 to which animals are subject. 
 
 Rot is, directly, of absolutely no consequence to man, seeing 
 that if portions pf a fluke-infected liver were devoured by him, no 
 parasitic infection could possibly occur. Indirectly, the disease 
 is of vast importance, not only on account of the great monetary 
 loss which it annually entails upon the nation, but also from the 
 immense and incalculable diminution of our food supply which 
 results from its ravages. 
 
 The most important effect produced in the liver by the fluke 
 worm is the initiation of extensive organic disease, which, by 
 annihilating the function of the organ, leads to emaciation and 
 exhaustion of the host, whose tissues become dropsical and 
 innutritious. If no important tissue changes exist, the flesh is 
 absolutely innocuous, otherwise the rules already laid down in 
 reference to jaundice, leanness, and dropsy, apply, without direct 
 reference to the condition of the liver itself. In all cases the 
 liver and the contents of the intestines should be destroyed, not 
 only on account of the structural alterations which may exist in 
 the former, but in order that the ova of the worm shall be 
 destroyed also. 
 
 D. Nematode or Round Worms. — With the exception of the 
 Trichina Spiralis, none of the worms in this class are of any 
 importance from a sanitary point of view, nor are they as a rule 
 met with in any of the structures or organs of animals. In large 
 numbers, however, they may so far interfere with digestion and 
 nutrition as to bring about emaciation and dropsy in the host, 
 and thus render the flesh unfit for food. Round worms, or 
 their embryos, are seldom met with in the tissues of those 
 mammalia whose flesh is ordinarily used for human food, but 
 while this is so, such worms are occasionally met with in the 
 tissue of fishes : and seeing that the life history of many of the 
 
FLUKE WORMS. 99 
 
 parasites in this class is at present a sealed book, it is possible 
 that this fact may be of much greater sanitary importance than 
 is a consideration of the general question. The vast majority 
 of the worms of this species inhabit the alimentary canal of their 
 hosts, and in those cases where the intestines are used in the 
 manufacture of sausages, polonies, &c, the processes to which 
 the gut is subjected are usually sufficient to ensure the removal or 
 destruction of the parasites, their ova, or embryos; nevertheless 
 it occasionally happens that, owing to sufficient care in this direc- 
 tion not having been observed, entozoa may be left adhering 
 to the mucous membrane of the gut, and it certainly is not 
 a pleasant thing to find a specimen of a strongylus or of a 
 whip worm (Trichocephalus) clinging to the inner surface of 
 the skin of a sausage which one is intent upon devouring for 
 breakfast. 
 
 The Trichina Spiralis, notwithstanding its minute size, is the 
 entozoon that is most dreaded by sanitarians, and in certain con- 
 tinental countries, e.g., Germany — and in some of the States of 
 North America — it is the one most eagerly sought after by 
 meat inspectors. The fact that it has its habitat in the flesh 
 of swine alone materially limits the area over which inspectors 
 have to make their search; but inasmuch as its presence can- 
 not be detected by the naked eye alone, it follows that the 
 examination of such flesh, to be effectual, can only be under- 
 taken by experts. 
 
 The Trichina Spiralis is a minute round worm of hair-like 
 dimensions, and is found lodged within the muscular fasciculi, in 
 lemon-shaped cysts, in which it lies coiled upon itself in a spiral 
 manner. When fully developed its extreme length does not 
 exceed one-eighth of an inch, and for its detection a very strong 
 lens or a low power of the microscope is required. As already 
 observed, the trichinae find their habitat in the structure of the 
 muscle of the pig, and it is calculated by Dr. Sutton that a cubic 
 
ioo PARASITIC DISEASES. 
 
 inch of flesh may contain 100,000 parasites. The cyst wall is 
 composed partly of organic (membranous) and partly of inorganic 
 (calcareous) matter ; the presence of the latter protects the para- 
 site against the effects of such destructive agents as salt, and to 
 a limited extent against heat, cold, smoke, and similar influences. 
 In reference to the effects of salt on this parasite, it may be useful 
 to quote the results of experiments carried on by M. Fourment. 
 In April 1881, this observer took a piece of trichinised American 
 pork, and after embedding it in fine salt placed it in a flask which 
 he sealed hermetically ; in April 1882 the pork was well washed 
 and administered to mice, and living trichinae were subsequently 
 discovered oxipost mortem examination in their intestines. 
 
 M. Fourment believes that the cyst-wall of the trichinae does 
 not become sufficiently calcified to protect the parasites from the 
 effects of salt until a period of twelve months has elapsed after 
 encystment. The trichinae are found to the greatest extent in the 
 voluntary muscles, and, up to a comparatively recent date, most 
 observers were of opinion that the adipose tissue was free from 
 them. In 1882, Chatin {Lancet, 23rd September 1882) demon- 
 strated the presence of trichinae in the fat of the body of the pig 
 in large numbers ; but he further demonstrated a most important 
 fact in connection therewith, viz., that when animals were fed 
 on such fat they did not, as a rule, become trichinised If a 
 portion of trichinised flesh is ingested by man, the trichina?, 
 by the action of the gastric juice, become liberated, and in the 
 course of a few days they originate a new brood, the members 
 of which pass through the wall of the intestines and find their 
 way into the voluntary muscles, penetrating even as far as the 
 tips of the fingers. The condition produced by the parasites 
 is known technically as trichinosis or trichiniasis. Each female 
 trichina gives birth to a brood varying in number from several 
 hundreds to a thousand or more, and it is calculated that the 
 parasite may retain its vitality in the encysted state for a period 
 
Pio. 32.—! 
 
 Section of Liver of Pig three months old, showing characteristic appear- 
 ance of the lesions of Cysticercus Celluloste. 
 
 Fia. 
 
 33.— Surface of Section of the Liver of a Pig three months old, showing 
 lesions produced by Cysticercus Cellulosse. 
 
 a. a. a. Hemorrhagic and yascular nodules on the surface of the liver. 
 &. 6. 6. Cavities of evacuated cysts, 
 c. c. Cysts before evacuation. 
 
Pro. 9.— Muscles of Hind Quarter of n.i* v • 
 
 of Cysticercus&la^^bte^ BUdderS 
 
 -Jf 1 ? - 10 -— Trichina SDiralia 
 
FLUKE WORMS. 101 
 
 of fifteen or twenty years. Looking at the vast importance of this 
 question, it is necessary that the sanitary inspector should be ever 
 on the alert for such flesh, and submit it, if its true condition is 
 suspected, to examination by an expert. The parasites may be 
 detected by means of a very simple process ; but I think I cannot 
 do better than introduce in this place extracts from an article by 
 Mr. George W. Morehouse on the examination of trichinised flesh, 
 which appeared in the Veterinarian of July 1879. 
 
 In microscopical research Mr. Morehouse says, "that it is 
 undeniable that microscopists waste a good deal of valuable time 
 by the use of higher powers than are necessary, and by imperfect 
 preparation of objects for examination. In nothing is this more 
 forcibly illustrated than in the examination of pork for trichinae. 
 For this purpose it is customary to use powers of 75 diameters 
 and upwards (seldom as low as 50), and the meat is not always 
 made sufficiently transparent for ready detection of parasites. A 
 power of 25 diameters, obtained with a good 2 inch objective and 
 2 inch ocular, is amply sufficient. With the 2 inch we have 
 greater depth of focus, the object is still shown with great clear- 
 ness, and most important of all, we are able to do as much search- 
 ing in one hour, as it would take about nine hours to accomplish 
 with a § inch objective." 
 
 As to preparing pork for present, rapid, and accurate observa- 
 tion, he has found the following method to work well : " Cut 
 thin longitudinal sections from the extremities of muscles, and 
 from other favourite localities where the worms, in migrating, stop 
 in great abundance, and place the sections in a watch glass, cover- 
 ing them with acetic acid. In a few minutes the tissues will be 
 transparent enough to enable one to see the letters through the 
 specimen when the watch glass is placed on a printed page. 
 Drain off the acid, add water, and examine ; or wash and transfer 
 to a glass slip (large, with large cover for a number of sections at 
 once) either in water or glycerine, and cover. For permanent 
 
102 PARASITIC DISEASES. 
 
 preservation, while the sections are still in glycerine, press them 
 for several days between plates of glass, and mount at leisure in 
 pure glycerine. When thus prepared the parasites remain coloured 
 more highly than the surrounding muscular fibres, and readily 
 attract the eye. They are so plain, that none, when brought into 
 the field of view, can escape instant detection. The process is 
 simple, takes but little time, and is inexpensive." 
 
DISEASES ASSUMED (OR PROVED) TO BE DUE TO 
 THE ACTION OF MICRO-PARASITES. 
 
 BLACK Quarter. — Striking, Blood Striking, Black Spauld 
 (Scot.). — This malady is seen in the ox and in the sheep, 
 and usually in young animals only ; occasionally, however, adults 
 fall victims to its destructive influence. Formerly it was attributed 
 to dietetic influences ; but its only cause is a bacillus, which is 
 found abundantly in the fluids of the local lesions, but has only 
 rarely been demonstrated in the blood, though an indirect proof 
 that it does reside in that fluid is afforded in the fact that if some 
 of the fluid from the diseased tissues is injected into the circula- 
 tion of a healthy animal, and an injury sufficiently severe to 
 produce extravasation of blood into the tissues in any part of the 
 body is inflicted, the characteristic local lesions quickly develop at 
 the seat of the injury. In cattle the lesions are usually localised 
 in the limbs, — hence the terms " Black Quarter" " Quarter III" 
 " Black Leg,'' " Leg III" — occasionally in the neck and on the 
 sides or back, but in sheep they are frequently more diffused. 
 Death results in a very few hours after the appearance of the 
 symptoms, and if the animal lives for a sufficient length of time, 
 mortification of the affected parts ensue, and gases are liberated 
 which produce marked emphysema. On post-mortem examina- 
 tion the tissues of the affected part present to the eye the 
 characteristics of sphacelus, infiltration of blood, or of bloody 
 serum, being very extensive and very deep. The blood itself is 
 dark in colour, but its condition will depend upon the length of 
 
104 THE ACTION OF MICRO-PARASITES. 
 
 time the animal has lived and upon the method of death ; if it 
 has been slaughtered in the early stages, the blood does not show 
 any marked departure from the normal ; but if it has been allowed 
 to live for some hours, and if no blood has been abstracted from 
 the veins, it is -very dark in colour, and of a tarry consistence. 
 The local lesions of this disease must be carefully distinguished 
 from those which result from a blow or other injury — vide 
 extravasation. In marked cases there is systemic effusion and 
 discoloration of tissue, with congestion, or even extravasation, 
 into the tissues of the more vascular internal organs. In those 
 cases in which the animal has been in good condition, and has 
 been properly slaughtered and bled before the disease is far 
 advanced, the unaffected parts of the carcase are usually healthy 
 in colour, and dry and firm ; and if separated from the diseased 
 parts, even an expert could not possibly affirm that the animal of 
 whose body they had formed a part had been the subject of such 
 a grave disease. 
 
 The sanitary aspect of this question is very important, as the 
 lesions of the disease may be confounded with those of anthrax. 
 To my personal knowledge, the unaffected parts of the carcase are 
 largely consumed as human food, and so far as I have seen are 
 never productive of harm to the consumer ; neither am I aware 
 that there are any instances on record of transmission of the 
 disease to man ; nevertheless, an inspector of meat would scarcely 
 be justified in passing such a carcase as marketable or wholesome, 
 if he had undoubted evidence of the nature of the disease from 
 which the animal had suffered, and more especially if there had 
 existed important lesions in the internal organs, or if the blood 
 presented evidence of marked nutritive changes. 
 
 Anthrax. — Charbon (Fr.), Milzbrand (Ger.), Cumberland 
 Disease (Australia), " Loodianah" Disease (India). — The term 
 " Anthrax " is derived from the Greek, and signifies " a live coal." 
 Its synonyms are Splenic Apoplexy and Anthrax Fever. Malignant 
 
ANTHRAX. 105 
 
 Pustule, and Wool Sorter? Disease in man owe their origin to 
 accidental infection with the virus of this malady. The affection 
 is most largely seen in cattle and sheep, sometimes in the pig, the 
 dog, and the horse, but few animals are proof against inoculative 
 contagion. It is one of the most deadly diseases to which the 
 animal body is heir, and it runs its course with greater rapidity 
 than does any other disease with which we are acquainted, death 
 frequently resulting, in cattle, within the space of one or two hours 
 after animals have been observed to be, to all outward appearance, 
 in a perfect state of health. 
 
 Anthrax owes its origin to the influence of a micro-organism, 
 known as the bacillus anthracis. This fungus is found mainly in 
 the blood ; but it is a remarkable fact, and one of great import- 
 ance in a sanitary sense, that it never arrives at maturity in the 
 system (blood) of animals, or, in other words, that it never in 
 this situation forms spores ; consequently, the flesh (and its con- 
 tained blood) is less virulent than it would otherwise be, as the 
 spores resist the effects of destructive agents to a much greater 
 degree than do the bacilli themselves, a temperature of 212° F. 
 devitalising the latter in the space of a few seconds, while steam 
 at 100° C. only kills the spores after exposure for five minutes 
 (Koch). In view of the fact that spores are not formed in the 
 blood of animals, we do not require to consider them in relation 
 .to the consumption of anthrax flesh as an article of human food ; 
 but we must not overlook the influence of Ptomaines, which are 
 probably produced in greater abundance in this than they are in 
 any other disease. 
 
 The post-mortem lesions are of a less pronounced character, 
 as a rule, in the sheep, although instances not unfrequently 
 occur in which the lesions are universally distributed over the 
 body, giving the muscular tissue a dark red colour, and con- 
 stituting one form of Red Braxy. While the affection is much 
 more certainly transmitted by inoculative contagion than by any 
 
106 THE ACTION OF MICRO-PARASITES. 
 
 other means, it is frequently transmitted by ingestion ; thus, 
 pigs, dogs, and even ducks, frequently contract anthrax by devour- 
 ing the offal, flesh, and blood of animals that have succumbed 
 to the effects of the malady. On the other hand, it has been 
 shown that some of the secretions of infected animals are 
 innocuous — lambs sucking upon anthrax-stricken ewes with 
 impunity, but succumbing to the malady when such milk is in- 
 jected under the skin — and according to Koch, sheep may be fed 
 on unlimited quantities of bacilli with impunity ; not so, however, 
 with spores. 
 
 The lesions of anthrax are universally distributed in the 
 tissues and organs of affected animals. The blood is viscid 
 in consistence, but it coagulates only imperfectly. It is of 
 a peculiar damson-like hue, and sometimes tarry in character; 
 it distinctly stains white linen or the skin of the hand, owing 
 to the breaking up of the red cells, and to solution of their 
 colouring matter. Bacilli are usually found in it in greater or 
 less abundance by microscopical examination, though instances 
 are sometimes met with in which they cannot be so demon- 
 strated. The blood stains the lining membrane of the veins, 
 and it rapidly undergoes decomposition. The muscular system 
 may not, in the early stages, present any marked change 
 if the body has been drained of its blood, but in the advanced 
 stages of the disease it is dark in colour, more or less flaccid, 
 and often of a soapy feel. There is usually some extravasation 
 of blood into the muscles and into the inter-muscular connective 
 tissue, or effusion of bloody serum, the latter being frequently 
 found in close proximity to the bones ; and effusion of serum 
 into the various cavities of the body may be detected. The 
 more vascular organs— as the liver, kidneys, and spleen — are 
 all more or less engorged, though in some cases this fact is 
 not patent to the unaided vision. In many instances the spleen 
 is greatly increased in size, and its pulp is soft and dark in colour, 
 
ANTHRAX. L07 
 
 and when removed by scraping has a grumous appearance ; 
 while in the most extreme cases its capsule may be found ruptured, 
 thus allowing of the outflow of blood into the abdominal cavity. 
 Sub-endocardial extravasation is common, as is also intestinal con- 
 gestion and extravasation, the bowels sometimes containing large 
 quantities of altered blood which bears a strong resemblance to 
 semi-fluid black currant jelly. The lungs are often congested and 
 sometimes apoplectic. In the horse and in the pig, the lesions 
 are more frequently localised in the region of the throat than they 
 are in other animals. The most important naked eye lesion is 
 that which is very largely and very commonly found in the lym- 
 phatic and mesenteric glands, these organs presenting conditions 
 allied to those seen in septicaemia and in swine fever, and between 
 which it is sometimes difficult to differentiate without the aid of 
 the microscope, or without having recourse to experiment. 
 
 In considering the question of the use of anthrax flesh as an 
 article of human food, the extreme virulence of the disease, the 
 great number of bacilli usually present in the blood, and the readi- 
 ness with which it is transmitted from animals to man, must be 
 borne in mind. In ordinary circumstances the bacilli would retain 
 their vitality in the blood and tissues for many days, in fact until 
 decomposition has been established, and it has been shown that 
 even when putrid decomposition is going on they may retain 
 vitality for a period of from five to eight days. Absolute drying 
 quickly kills the bacilli, but such a condition is never attained in 
 the flesh of animals prepared for human food. It has been 
 shown that a temperature of 212° effectually destroys the bacilli ; 
 but here, again, parts may escape, as in the cooking of a large 
 joint, either by boiling or roasting, the deeper parts of the- tissues 
 are frequently never exposed to the influence of such a tempera- 
 ture. Salt is very deadly to all fungi, but no person can ensure 
 that every joint of meat shall be effectually salted, and as bearing 
 upon this point, an observation recorded by Peuch may be quoted. 
 
io8 THE ACTION OF MICRO-PARASITES. 
 
 Peuch states that the juice from the muscle of a ham which had 
 been salted (but imperfectly covered) for fourteen days, but in 
 which there was no putrefactive odour, was virulent when intro- 
 duced into the tissues of rabbits and guinea pigs, as was also a 
 cultivation obtained from the juice of the muscle. The ingestion 
 of the flesh of animals affected with anthrax by man is, to say the 
 least of it, highly dangerous ; and various instances are on record 
 in which large numbers of persons have lost their lives by the 
 use of such flesh, either as the result of a general or systemic 
 infection, or as the result of an intestinal mycosis. Some 
 authorities hold that infection could not take place through 
 the medium of ingestion in these cases unless some breach 
 of surface exists in the mucous membrane of the alimentary 
 canal, but allowing that this is so, is it right to expose any human 
 being to the risk of contracting a deadly malady for a mere 
 monetary consideration ? No matter what condition the carcase 
 of an animal may present, or however firm and good it may 
 appear, it should be unhesitatingly condemned and destroyed if 
 indubitable evidence of the existence of anthrax is forthcoming ; 
 and not only the carcase but every organ and tissue of the body 
 should be effectually destroyed, as should also the skin or the 
 hide. Fortunately the legislature has decreed that such destruc- 
 tion shall be carried out, so that it is not left an open question 
 to be decided as the opinion of individual inspectors or sanitary 
 officers may dictate. 
 
 Blain or Stinge. — This affection is considered here simply 
 because little is known as to its true nature, and because its 
 lesions are in some respects similar to those of anthrax. Blain is 
 peculiar to the ox, and is marked by sudden swelling of the head, 
 neck, and throat, and by the development of several large vesicles 
 on the tongue, which organ is also swollen. In the cow the 
 lesions are also developed in the vulva and vagina. The 
 symptoms of the disease make their appearance very suddenly, 
 
DIPHTHERIA AND CROUP. 109 
 
 and as a rule, pass off again in the course of a few hours with- 
 out producing permanent damage or endangering life ; inasmuch, 
 however, as the symptoms are sometimes very alarming, the 
 owners of cattle in good condition prefer to slaughter the animals 
 rather than run the risk of a total loss. 
 
 As already indicated, the nature of the affection is not well 
 understood, further than that it is undoubtedly due to derange- 
 ment of the blood, brought on probably by faults in dieting, 
 especially by the allowance of large quantities of succulent 
 vegetable matter, by the imbibition of an inordinate quantity of 
 cold water when the body is heated, and by exposure to cold, 
 particularly east and north-east winds. On post-mortem examina- 
 tion, effusion of serum and lymph is found in the tissues of the 
 affected parts, and in the worst cases extravasation of blood also. 
 While there is no evidence that the flesh of animals suffering from 
 the malady is nocuous, it is distinctly unmarketable, and unless 
 the blood has been freely drawn, dark in colour. 
 
 Diphtheria and Croup. — While these affections are by some 
 pathologists looked upon as distinct from each other, there are 
 other pathologists who hold that the lesions are practically 
 identical in nature, and that the differences in manifestation are 
 due to differences in the histological character of the tissues in 
 which they are developed. In man, the lesions of croup are 
 usually developed in the mucous membrane of the larynx, in 
 the upper part of the trachea, and contiguous parts ; while 
 those of diphtheria are localised in the mucous membrane 
 of the pharynx and the fauces. This distinction, however, 
 does not hold good in cattle, at any rate in adults, as in every 
 case in which I have seen diphtheritic lesions in these animals 
 they have been confined mainly to the larynx and the trachea. 
 
 Since it has become fashionable to charge the cow with being 
 the progenitor of many of the ills to which man is heir, there 
 has been added to her other delinquencies that of being the 
 
no THE ACTION OF MICRO-PARASITES. 
 
 disseminator of diphtheria, and that too through the medium of 
 her milk. So far as my experience extends — now upwards of 
 thirty-five years — I have never seen a case of diphtheria, 
 either in cattle or in any other domestic animal, in which 
 it has had a spontaneous or primary origin in the system of 
 the victim ; and instead of the cow, the pig, or the fowl acting 
 as sources of infection in outbursts of this malady, I have 
 always had fairly conclusive evidence that the infection had 
 been derived from a human source. Thus, a few years ago, 
 when diphtheria was rife in the Stewarty, two examples of infec- 
 tion of cows and pigs from affected persons came under the 
 observation of Mr. Campbell, F.R.C.V.S., of Kirkcudbright, the 
 pigs having contracted the disease by the ingestion of materials 
 which had been used for the purpose of poulticing the throats 
 of the affected persons. • 
 
 I have said that according to some medical practitioners the 
 lesions of the disease are sometimes developed in the udder 
 of the cow. If a person in attendance upon cows during the 
 prevalence of the malady required to introduce a syphon or other 
 instrument into the teats of the cow, and that instrument had 
 been contaminated with diphtheritic matter, one can understand 
 that the infection might readily be conveyed to the udder, other- 
 wise the conveyance of the infection — in the face of the perfect 
 closure of the teats by their sphincters — to the mucous membrane 
 of the galactopherous channels is, to say the least of it, a very 
 improbable contingency. It would be just as reasonable to say 
 that the infection of gonorrhoea could be conveyed to the urethral 
 passages of man without the intervention of contaminated catheters 
 or similar instruments. Personally, I have yet to see my first 
 case of diphtheritic mammitis in any domestic animal, though 
 I do not deny that it may occur. In the same way medical 
 writers have endeavoured to prove that diphtheria frequently has 
 its origin in poultry, and have cited as proof thereof the lesions of 
 
INFLUENZA. in 
 
 tuberculosis which are so commonly developed in the mouth and 
 throat ; but I have often said, and I have no hesitation in repeat- 
 ing it here, that I have never seen spontaneous diphtheria in 
 poultry, and I question very much if it ever so arises. Sometimes 
 croupous and diphtheritic products are met with in the air passages 
 or in the alimentary canal of the pig in swine fever, in the ox in 
 cattle plague, and in the sheep in variola; and independent 
 croupous inflammation occurs in these situations in young cattle, 
 and in the throat of the pig and of the horse. 
 
 The effects of diphtheria on the general system are too pro- 
 nounced, and its virulent properties too intense, to allow of any 
 question being raised as to the wisdom, or even the absolute 
 necessity, of condemning the flesh of any animal which has been 
 the subject of the disease ; but these remarks scarcely apply in so 
 high a degree to croup, in which form of inflammation the accom- 
 panying fever is much less in degree, and the effects on the 
 general system are not so pronounced. 
 
 Influenza. — As in man, so in animals, there are several dis- 
 tinctive forms of continued fevers, though with many it is a 
 common practice to group them under the one term — influenza. 
 The primary types of influenza fever are : — (a) the Catarrhal ; (&) 
 the Bilious or Yellow Fever ; (c) the Effusive — " Pink Eye '' — and 
 while each type is frequently seen in its distinctive form, it is a 
 matter of every-day experience to find the various characteristics 
 of each type intermixed. Influenza is peculiar to the horse. I 
 have only seen one instance of transmission to cattle, and that in 
 the case of the effusive form. We have no absolutely positive 
 evidence of transmission of any of the forms of the disease to 
 man, but I have on several occasions been strongly under the 
 impression that I have contracted the malady from affected 
 horses. In the first form, the symptoms and cause are identical 
 with that of catarrhal fever (already described), with a great 
 tendency to lung complications ; in the second, there is in the 
 
112 THE ACTION OF MICRO-PARASITES. 
 
 majority of cases absence of catarrhal symptoms, but marked 
 evidence of jaundice with extreme fever, and a tendency to 
 derangement of the bowels and to serious lung complications, e.g., 
 pneumonia and pleurisy ; in the third form, the prominent lesion 
 is rapid effusion into the connective tissue of the limbs, into the 
 eyelids, and frequently into the cornea — these parts becoming 
 infiltrated with serum to an enormous degree — and, under adverse 
 influences, metastasis of the lesions to the bowels, the lungs, and 
 the throat. 
 
 The systemic effects produced by influenza are, on the whole, 
 similar to those of other excessively febrile conditions — with 
 universal jaundice in the case of the bilious form, and infiltration 
 (more or less general) of the connective tissue of the body, and 
 effusion into internal cavities. The small vessels (capillaries) of 
 the tissues, too, are markedly engorged with blood. 
 
 Two subsidiary or secondary forms of influenza are occasionally 
 met with, viz., Muco Enteritis {Typhoid Influenza), and Cerebro- 
 spinal Meningitis. The former gives rise to enteric lesions and 
 to alterations in the tissues similar to those produced by the muco- 
 enteritis produced by other causes, coupled with the changes 
 produced by fever ; in the latter, the tissue changes are not so 
 marked. The flesh of an animal which has been the subject of 
 any form of influenza of a sufficiently severe type to necessitate 
 slaughter, presents such marked departures from normal condi- 
 tions as to at once attract notice, and in themselves these afford 
 ample warrant for the condemnation of the flesh. 
 
 Malignant Catarrh and Malignant Catarrhal Fever. The 
 
 first of these terms is applied to that condition in which an 
 ordinary attack of catarrh (owing to the action of pyogenic 
 organisms) assumes malignant characters, and tends to destroy 
 life. It is seen most largely in the sheep and the pig, and 
 occasionally in cattle, and its virulence is traceable to the exist- 
 ence of bad sanitary conditions, and to exposure to cold and wet 
 
MALIGNANT CATARRHAL FEVER. 113 
 
 when an animal is labouring under an attack of common cold. 
 In this way, many hill sheep become the victims of the malady. 
 In addition to the ordinary phenomena of cold, there is, fre- 
 quently, ulceration of the mucous membrane of the nasal cavities, 
 and of the skin of the nostrils, and also sore throat and laryngitis, 
 followed by ulceration of the involved parts. Unless fever is 
 extreme or the blood becomes poisoned, recovery is the rule, but 
 a localised pyamia, involving the face, the head, and the throaty 
 and extending to the lungs, frequently arises as a sequel. To such 
 cases the remarks made under the head of pyamia apply. If the 
 acute lesions become so aggravated as to necessitate slaughter, the 
 systemic conditions presented on autopsy will be similar to those 
 seen in acute inflammatory affections generally, associated with 
 those of blood depravation. 
 
 Malignant Catarrhal Fever is most largely seen in cattle and 
 sheep that have been subjected to the prolonged influence of a 
 foul atmosphere, e.g., in transit by sea in the holds of ships, when 
 the raging of a storm has necessitated the battening down of the 
 hatches ; or where sewage gas is allowed to escape into the 
 houses in which animals are confined. The symptoms do not 
 usually make their appearance until a space of about forty-eight 
 hours after the exposure has elapsed. There is marked fever 
 with catarrhal symptoms, followed by great prostration ; the 
 mucous membrane of the nostrils becomes ulcerated, the mouth 
 foetid, and even the breath exhales a sickly odour, profuse 
 diarrhoea sets in, the discharges having a sickly foetid odour. In 
 addition, there is often a cough, and the lungs frequently become 
 emphysematous or congested. The animal may die in a 
 comatose state. If the animal is killed in the early stages of the 
 malady, there may not be any evidence of the existence of a grave 
 disorder, and condemnation of the flesh is scarcely justified ; but 
 if the disease has been advanced, the usual evidence of the 
 existence of an important form of fever will be found in the blood 
 
n 4 THE ACTION OF MICRO-PARASITES. 
 
 and tissues on post-mortem examination, and the carcase should 
 be unhesitatingly condemned. Stomach and bowel lesions, in the 
 form of patchy congestion, inflammation, and ulceration, may exist. 
 
 Pleuro-Pneumonia. — This disease, which is peculiar to the ox, 
 is a contagious inflammation of the lungs and pleurae, due to a 
 specific organism which has not yet been satisfactorily isolated or 
 demonstrated, though certain pathologists claim that this has 
 been accomplished. In considering the disease in relation to 
 public health, it is of the highest importance to remember that 
 it has never been transmitted, either spontaneously or experi- 
 mentally, to any other than bovine animals, nor indeed has the 
 disease been propagated between individuals of the latter species 
 by any experimental methods yet devised. True typical lesions 
 are readily produced by the inoculation of lymph from the lungs 
 into the subcutaneous connective tissue in any part of the body, 
 and the lesions so produced are identical in their general 
 character with the lung lesions of the disease, but in no case has 
 it been transmitted by inoculation, or even by intra-venous in- 
 jection, as a pulmonary affection. That the malady possesses 
 the attributes of, and in some respects comports itself as, a 
 specific fever, is a fact that cannot be gainsaid, but notwith- 
 standing this, it is equally a truth that in its course and in its 
 effects it presents differences of a very marked character from 
 any of the usual attributes of such diseases. 
 
 Statements have been made by some pathologists to the effect 
 that in certain forms of pneumonia in man, organisms identical 
 with those present in the tissues of the lung in pleuro-pneumonia 
 exist ; but these statements in no way prove the identity of the 
 latter with any similar affection of the lungs of man, and all the 
 clinical evidence at our disposal negatives the transmission of the 
 disease from the ox to man as a pulmonary affection, though 
 isolated instances have occurred in which a local lesion, identical 
 with that seen in the tissues of the former after inoculation, 
 
PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 115 
 
 has been produced by accidental inoculation with the pleuro- 
 pneumonia lymph in the tissues of the latter. 
 
 Though pleuro-pneumonia is a specific fever, it is a remark- 
 able fact that the effects exerted on the nutrition of the flesh 
 are, in most cases, infinitesimal as compared with those pro- 
 duced by other fevers of a similar type, or even by marked 
 febrile conditions of a non-specific origin ; and it is still more 
 remarkable that the effects of the disease are localised in 
 the lungs alone, and even in these organs the lesion is a 
 limiting one. In the early stages, and frequently in the advanced 
 stages, no changes can be detected in the carcase to indicate the 
 ante-mortem existence of such an important affection — the carcase 
 sets firmly, the flesh is normal in colour, resistance, and taste, 
 there is no abnormal odour, and even the most experienced 
 expert would be puzzled, either by a macroscopic or a micro- 
 scopic examination, to detect any marked change in its characters ; 
 but when a large area of lung tissue is destroyed, and when 
 pleurisy has been extensive and is associated with effusion into 
 the chest, the post-mortem changes are important and pronounced. 
 In the former case the flesh is of a very dark colour, more or less 
 soapy to the feel, and moist, and — the connective tissue being 
 icteric — the carcase is of a distinctly mahogany hue ; in the latter 
 case the carcase is more or less dropsical, and if the animal is 
 killed (or dies) early, a section of flesh presents a bright reddish 
 magenta colour, and has an albuminous glaze, both these con- 
 ditions being most observable in the muscles of the chest and in 
 the diaphragm. In very advanced cases, and in those in which 
 there is a great amount of thoracic effusion {kydrothorax), there 
 is frequently systemic dropsy which is most marked about the 
 inferior part of the chest and the neck ; and the knowledge of 
 this fact led to the application of the term " wet goat " in such 
 cases by the fleshers of Edinburgh. 
 
 In reference to the method of dealing with the carcases of 
 
n6 THE ACTION OF MICRO-PARASITES. 
 
 animals affected with pleuropneumonia, the universal rule is to 
 pass them as marketable and innocuous if they present no de- 
 parture from natural conditions — the affected portions of the 
 pleurse being removed by stripping, and in bad cases, the portion 
 of the fore quarter contiguous to the pleuritic lesion, or even the 
 whole of the quarter, being retained. That such a procedure is 
 at first sight indefensible, few sanitarians will deny ; but it would 
 be impossible to bring forward evidence, either as the result of 
 actual experience or as the result of analogy or induction, to show 
 that the flesh in these cases is in any way injurious to the health 
 of man, and the wholesale condemnation of such flesh would 
 involve the country in a very heavy pecuniary loss. If, however, 
 the flesh is physically altered, the existence of such lesions in the 
 lungs and pleurae as those which characterise this malady would 
 be of value to the inspector in determining in favour of its con- 
 demnation. Another point to be dealt with in connection with 
 the sanitary aspect of this question, is the effect of inoculation 
 on the carcase. This question is only of importance in those 
 cases in which the inoculative lesion — by extension from the tail 
 — involves the tissues of the haunch, of the pelvis, or of the 
 sub-lumbar region, and in consequence of which it is deemed 
 necessary to slaughter the animal. As in the natural form of 
 the malady, so also in the local inoculative lesions, fever exists, 
 but to a much less degree in the latter than in the former — the 
 temperature seldom exceeding 104° F. — and even in the worst 
 cases, the flesh in the uninvolved parts of the body presents no 
 departure from the normal. If the lesion involves the tissues 
 about the root of the tail only, the flesh may be passed for human 
 food, but if it has extended to the pelvic tissues or to the muscles 
 of the haunch, or if, as the result of bruising, lesions are developed 
 in other parts of the body, the carcase should unhesitatingly be 
 condemned. The inoculative lesion, it may be observed, is identi- 
 cal in its general characters with the lung lesion — the connective 
 
CATTLE PLAGUE— RINDERPEST. 117 
 
 tissue being charged with serum and lymph, the blood vessels 
 plugged' with thrombi, and the interstitial tissue infiltrated with 
 lymph. 
 
 Rabies. — Like anthrax, this disease is transmissible to man and 
 to all domestic animals by inoculation with the saliva, and, accord- 
 ing to some authorities, by the blood and juices of affected ani- 
 mals. Although no definite organism has as yet been isolated 
 from the blood or from any of the tissues of the body of a rabid 
 animal, there can be no doubt in the minds of scientific men that 
 a specific organism exists, and is the cause of the malady. Its 
 method of propagation, its clinical character, its pathological 
 lesions, all go to prove that this is the case. 
 
 If an animal is killed in the early stages of the disease, no 
 physical change can be detected in the blood or in the flesh, and 
 in the absence of any proof as to the cause of death, such flesh 
 would be unquestionably passed for consumption, nor, so far as 
 I know, could any proof be adduced that it possessed noxious 
 properties. But notwithstanding this fact, I am emphatically of 
 the opinion that the flesh of an animal that has suffered from 
 rabies should not, knowingly, be passed as fit for human food. 
 In the advanced stages of the disease, the flesh and blood be- 
 come materially altered in their nutrition, and the changes so 
 produced are in themselves sufficient to demand that the former 
 should be condemned. The flesh presents the characteristics 
 common to the flesh of all fever stricken animals, and the blood 
 has often a peculiar grumous appearance, and coagulates im- 
 perfectly. 
 
 Cattle Plague — Rinderpest. — Although it may be confidently 
 hoped that the herds of this country will never again, under 
 ordinary circumstances, be subjected to the ravages of this fell 
 malady, it is as well to glance briefly at its sanitary aspect. 
 Rinderpest belongs to the class of specific eruptive fevers, and 
 it is undoubtedly due to a specific organism. The organism of 
 
n8 THE ACTION OF MICRO-PARASITES. 
 
 Rinderpest is, according to Klebs and Semmer, a micrococcus, 
 found abundantly in the blood and lymphatic glands of infected 
 animals, and with cultivations of which the disease has been 
 induced, by inoculation, both in the calf and in the sheep. 
 
 Rinderpest is essentially a bovine malady, and though trans- 
 missible to ovines, its virulence is in them materially diminished. 
 Not the slightest particle of evidence of its transmissibility to man 
 has ever been obtained, but the effects produced by the malady 
 on the systems of its victims are so pronounced as to render the 
 carcase unfit for human food. The characteristic lesions of cattle 
 plague are essentially of an aphthous type, and are localised in 
 the skin and in the mucous membrane of the alimentary canal — 
 their existence in the latter structure being constant and patho- 
 gnomonic. The constitution is gravely affected, fever running very 
 high ; the bowels become markedly relaxed in the advanced 
 stages, the discharges sometimes being dysenteric, and always 
 emitting a peculiarly distinctive odour of a sickly nature. The 
 blood, if withdrawn in the acute stage, coagulates imperfectly or 
 not at all ; the lungs become emphysematous, and thus oxidation 
 is checked ; non-assimilation of nutrient matter leads rapidly to 
 mal-nutrition and consumption of the tissues, and, prior to death, 
 an odour characteristic of the disease is exhaled from the skin, 
 and is given off with the expired air from the lungs. After death 
 the blood in the veins is found materially altered in its physical 
 characters. It is of a peculiar purplish colour, the red corpuscles 
 more or less shrivelled or crenated, and their colouring matter 
 is frequently dissolved out, and is held in solution in the blood 
 plasma. The blood may or may not coagulate, this phenomenon 
 being regulated by the length of time that the malady has been 
 in existence, and by its virulence. The flesh in the advanced 
 stages presents either a magenta hue, and has an albuminous 
 glaze, or it is of a reddish-yellow (mahogany) colour, or is very 
 dark. It is more or less flaccid and moist. In the earliest stages 
 
Fio. 36. — (1.) Section of a fold of third stomach, Septic (malignant) Catarrh, from 
 exposure to foul air in the hold of a ship, snowing universal or 
 diffuse extravasation into the struetiirciof the fold. 
 
 Fiu. 37.— XI.) Section of fourth Stomach of Cow, showing congestion and ulceration 
 
 of 
 
 ~, v .. v . 1'i.Mii "imuwu hi uiiw, snowing congestion an 
 iiicons membrane an result of Septic Catarrhal Fever. 
 
ECZEMA EPIZOOTICA. 119 
 
 no material change is observable in the carcase, but notwithstand- 
 ing this, the majority of experts are unanimous in condemning 
 such flesh as an article of human food ; and here again, as in the 
 case of rabies and anthrax, the legislature has, fortunately and 
 rightly, decreed its absolute destruction. 
 
 Eczema Epizootica — Foot and Mouth Disease.^-This disease, 
 while it is generally looked upon as indigenous in the ox, affects 
 more or less all the domesticated animals whose flesh is ordinarily 
 used for human food, and occasionally the horse also. That it 
 is due to a micro-organism is proved by its nature and its course, 
 and by its clinical and pathological characters ; but this organism 
 has not yet been satisfactorily demonstrated, although Klein has 
 described the existence of a micrococcus in the fluid taken from 
 the vesicular lesions of sheep. That the virus pervades the whole 
 system is shown by the fact that the characteristic lesions develop 
 more or less over the cutaneous surface (particularly in the pig), 
 and in the mucous membrane of the alimentary canal, on that of 
 the sheath, the vagina, the udder, and, occasionally, the bronchial 
 tubes. 
 
 The virulence of the disease varies materially in different 
 epizootics in different animals, and in different seasons ; thus, in 
 some outbreaks, a large percentage of animals die either from the 
 effects of the fever, or from the effects of the local lesions. In 
 the vast proportion of cases the fever which accompanies its 
 evolution is of so benign a character as to interfere but very 
 slightly with the nutrition of the blood or of the flesh. But every 
 now and again — especially when the sufferers are exposed to such 
 adverse influences as cold, or cold and wet, to exhaustion, 
 or to bad sanitary conditions — it assumes malignant characters, 
 and its lesions partake of the nature of those produced by 
 septic infection ; there is induced, in fact, a veritable septicaemia. 
 During the prevalence of an epizootic of this disease thousands 
 of animals, while labouring under its effects, are slaughtered, 
 
120 THE ACTION OF MICRO-PARASITES. 
 
 and their flesh used for human food; and this perforce, for 
 so rapidly does it spread, and so short is its incubative 
 period, that animals purchased in an apparently healthy state 
 one day, may be affected with the malady in the course of two 
 or three days subsequently; and if the consumption of the 
 flesh of all animals which had suffered from the malady were 
 prohibited, fasting — so far as fresh meat is concerned — would 
 become compulsory. 
 
 So far as I am aware there is no instance on record of the 
 transmission of the disease to man through the medium of the 
 flesh of affected animals, and there are comparatively few instances 
 of such transmission through the medium of the milk. While 
 the virus of foot and mouth disease is capable of retaining its 
 vitality under favourable conditions for comparatively long periods, 
 it is readily rendered impotent by antiseptics, and by such 
 influences as heat, even in a moderate degree. In ordinary cases 
 the general physical condition of the carcase of an animal which 
 has suffered from foot and mouth disease, differs in no respect 
 from that of one which has been slaughtered in perfect health ; 
 the muscular tissue is firm, of a normally florid hue, sweet and 
 dry ; nor is there any noticeable change in the blood, the fat, or 
 the connective tissue. 
 
 In cases of a malignant type the conditions presented are allied 
 to those described as existing in the carcases of animals which, 
 during life, have suffered from the effects of septicaemia ; and in 
 such cases the flesh should be unhesitatingly condemned as an 
 article of human food, as it should when, from severe foot lesions, 
 fever runs high, and the muscles, in consequence thereof, present 
 the characteristics of the flesh of animals which have been 
 subjected to its influence. 
 
 In reference to the use of the affected parts as articles of human 
 food, no difference of opinion need exist ; if the feet, the tongue, 
 or the udder, are the seat of local lesions, they should be destroyed, 
 
' PUSTULAR FEVER. 121 
 
 and the same applies to the tripe ; but I cannot agree with those 
 who condemn in toto the head, the heart, and similar organs. 
 Granted that there are about the head numerous secretory glands, 
 whose products become more or less contaminated with the virus, 
 the situation of these glands is well known, and their removal is 
 easy, and if the tissues of such organs as the heart are nocuous, 
 then also is the flesh of the body generally. 
 
 Pustular Fever in Cows and Ewes. — I have adopted this term 
 to designate a form of disease in cows and ewes which has been 
 variously described — in the cow, as cow pox and Hendon disease 
 — and which I myself, until recently, have described as varioloid. 
 In ewes, the term Malignant Aphtha has been universally applied 
 to a malady analogous in many particulars to that which occurs in 
 cows, and I have coupled these affections in the two animals 
 simply because of the close analogy which, in certain important 
 points, they present to each other. In milch cows — young and 
 middle-aged alike — an eruptive disease makes its appearance, 
 usually within a short time after parturition. The lesions of the 
 malady are localised in the skin of the udder and the teats, and in 
 many respects closely resemble those of variola, the important 
 divergencies in character lying in the absence of the characteristic 
 vesicle and scab of variola in the former affection, and also in the 
 fact that the fluids taken from the local lesions do not produce 
 variola when inoculated in calves, but on the contrary, give rise 
 to a locally destructive process of an ulcerative type, and to a 
 septic inflammatory process in the mucous membrane of the nasal 
 chambers, as also to certain lesions, such as congestion, in 
 important internal organs. 
 
 These facts were abundantly brought out in the experiments 
 carried out in the college during the summer of 1889 by Professor 
 M'Fadyean, and the course of which I had the opportunity of 
 observing. In one or two of the cows some febrile excitement 
 existed, and pulmonary and cardiac derangement ensued, though 
 
122 THE ACTION OF MICRO-PARASITES. 
 
 not to an extent sufficient to produce fatal results. I embraced 
 the first opportunity of satisfying myself of the innocuous nature 
 of the disease so far as cohabitation and the imbibition of the 
 milk from the patient, directly or indirectly, by calves, was con- 
 cerned, and further, that the milk produced no ill effects when 
 ingested in an uncooked state by pigs. Its innocuous nature was 
 also abundantly proved in reference to the consumption of the 
 milk by man. While it is not a probable contingency, it is just 
 within the range of possibility that owners of fat cows suffering 
 from the effects of this malady, may occasionally be tempted to 
 slaughter them rather than run the risk of suffering an absolute 
 loss. In the event of such a contingency arising, an inspector, 
 even though he were aware that the animal had suffered from the 
 disease, would scarcely, in the present state of our knowledge, 
 be justified in condemning the carcase, unless evidence of 
 organic disease in important organs existed, or unless the tissues 
 presented evidence of the existence in the system of a high degree 
 of fever. 
 
 As affecting ewes, this disease is much more virulent and 
 destructive, not only to the ewes themselves, but also to their 
 offspring. The lesions of the disease are first observed in the 
 skin of the udder, and, at the outset, do not differ materially from 
 those of foot and mouth disease in the cow ; but as the disease 
 progresses the malignant nature of the malady is made apparent 
 by the ulcerative processes which are set up, and by the fact that 
 wherever the ulcers come in contact with the skin of contiguous 
 parts, as the thigh and the abdomen, a similar condition is estab- 
 lished ; and by the further fact that the udder, or parts of it, 
 is very apt to become gangrenous. The constitutional conditions 
 are also graver, fever running very high, wasting of the body 
 going on rapidly, and the bowels becoming materially deranged, 
 as evidenced by diarrhoea, the discharges of which have a foetid 
 odour. On post-mortem examination effusion of serum into the 
 
STRANGLES. 123 
 
 different serous cavities is marked, and the more important 
 internal organs are either congested, or are the seat of acute 
 inflammation of a suppurative type, and suppurative pleurisy is 
 also sometimes observed ; the blood is of a dark colour, and the 
 flesh presents the changes characteristic of such maladies. The 
 disease is highly contagious as between individual ewes, and it is 
 infective to the lambs, these little animals contracting it by sucking 
 the affected mothers. In lambs, the lesions are localised primarily 
 in the mucous membrane of the lips, from which the destructive 
 process extends, both by continuity and contiguity, to the skin of 
 the lips and of the nostrils, with the result that in due course the 
 little victims become unable to graze or to suck, and an unhealthy 
 diarrhoea is established. Fever runs high, and, unless the disease 
 is checked in its inception, death invariably results. On post- 
 mortem, lesions identical with those seen in the body of the ewes 
 are revealed. Inoculation with the discharges of the sores from 
 the udders of the ewes, and the lips and nostrils of the lambs, 
 reproduces the malady in all its virulence in other (male or female) 
 sheep and lambs. 
 
 Looking at the malignant nature of the malady, the important 
 character of its lesions, and its marked systemic effects, no 
 hesitation as to the necessity of condemning the flesh of such 
 animals as an article of consumption need be entertained by an 
 inspector. 
 
 Strangles (Pyogenic Fever). — -This affection is peculiar to horses, 
 and although it has been transmitted to cattle, there is only one 
 instance with which I am acquainted of its supposed transmission 
 to man, and that was in a case which came under the observation 
 of Mr. Constable, M.R.C.V.S., of Inchture. The disease is 
 characterised by fever, more or less marked, but in benign or 
 ordinary cases, seldom excessive : by a catarrhal discharge from 
 the nostrils ; and (essentially) by the formation of one or more 
 abscesses, containing pus, in the intermaxillary space or in the 
 
124 THE ACTION OF MICRO-PARASITES. 
 
 region of the throat. If it runs an irregular course, or if the 
 animals affected by it are subjected to adverse influences, the 
 fever becomes exaggerated, abscesses form in various parts of the 
 body or in the internal organs — principally in the lungs — and a 
 veritable pyaemia, and sometimes a septicaemia, becomes estab- 
 lished. The disease has been shown by Schiitz to be pro- 
 duced by a streptococcus. In the regular form of the disease 
 death seldom takes place, nor is there even threatened 
 death except in those cases in which abscesses form in close 
 proximity to the larynx, and, by pressure, produce suffocation ; 
 or in which an abscess bursts into the fauces or pharynx 
 and the pus finds its way into the trachea and asphyxiates the 
 patient. The post-mortem lesions are those of fever, with those of 
 pyaemia or septicaemia. If these conditions have been established, 
 and if evidence of their existence is forthcoming, the flesh should 
 be condemned. 
 
 Variolous Diseases. — Without stopping to discuss the question 
 as to the unity or otherwise of variolous disease in the different 
 domestic animals, it may be here stated simply that each species 
 suffers from variola or pox — thus we have Variola Equina in the 
 horse ; V. Vaccinia in the cow ; V. Ovina in the sheep ; and V. 
 Suilla in the pig ; while, very exceptionally in this country, 
 poultry are attacked by it. In all animals there are, up to a 
 certain point, common clinical phenomena ; constitutionally, there 
 is fever, more or less marked, but always highest in the sheep and 
 lowest in the ox, though, with the exception of the sheep, it is 
 benign in character ; in this animal it is excessive in the papular 
 and pustular, and sometimes in the ulcerative, stage — in the two 
 latter it is even of a putrefactive type. Locally, the skin of the 
 affected parts is at first red, thickened, and hot— roseolous stage ; 
 this is followed by the formation of round, red, and comparatively 
 circumscribed elevations or tumours — papular stage ; this again, 
 by the formation of bladders or vesicles containing a limpid fluid 
 
SWINE FEVER. 125 
 
 — vesicular stage ; next to this, pus is formed on the site of the 
 vesicles — pustular stage ; and this is succeeded by the formation 
 of a sore, upon which is again formed a scab or crust, constituting 
 the ulcerative and crustaceous stage of some authors ; finally the 
 crust falls off, and with dessiccation and exuviation, convalescence 
 is established. 
 
 In the horse, the lesions are localised on the lips, on the 
 mucous membrane of the mouth, on the skin of the coronets 
 and lower parts of the legs, and occasionally on the skin over the 
 surface of the body ; in the cow, they are mainly localised on 
 the skin of the udder and teats, sometimes on the skin of the 
 lower parts of the legs ; in the ox, on the skin of the scrotum ; 
 and in the sheep they are usually localised, at the outset, on 
 the skin covering the inside of the thighs and the arms, but 
 they may subsequently extend more or less over the whole surface 
 of the body ; while in the pig they are localised on the snout and 
 the skin of the udder. 
 
 The disease, as already indicated, is in all animals, except 
 the sheep, of a benign character. In the sheep it is malignant, 
 and destroys large numbers of animals ; and practically it is in 
 reference to this animal only that the question of consumption 
 of flesh arises. As in the cow death seldom or never ensues 
 in uncomplicated cases, and as it generally confines its attacks 
 to milch animals, there is nothing to be gained by slaughtering 
 them for the purpose of food. In the sheep the constitutional 
 changes are of such a grave character as to render the flesh 
 totally unfit for edible purposes : the blood, the organs, the 
 tissues, and the lymph glands, except in the mildest cases, 
 present all the changes peculiar to septicaemia, and even if these 
 changes did not render the flesh nocuous, it would be decidedly 
 unmarketable. 
 
 Swine Fever. — This malady — unfortunately so prevalent in 
 this country at the present time — occupies a prominent place 
 
126 THE ACTION OF MICRO-PARASITES. 
 
 from a sanitary point of view. As an eruptive fever it produces 
 a marked effect upon the constitution, and in the advanced 
 stages these changes are so pronounced as to attract the attention 
 even of ordinary persons. During life the disease is frequently 
 marked by the formation of patches of congestion in the skin, 
 particularly of the ears, lower parts of the limbs, and under- 
 neath surface of the abdomen, giving to the parts a dark blue 
 or livid colour; in other cases red or dark red patches are 
 formed, as the result of extravasation of blood, and if the animal 
 survives for a sufficient length of time, or recovers, the skin 
 covering the hemorrhagic areas may die, and be cast off as a 
 slough. 
 
 Independently of these lesions, papula?, pustulae, and even 
 vesicles, may form on the skin over the surface of the body; 
 but there are numerous cases in which no lesions of any kind 
 exist. The internal lesions are numerous and diversified in 
 character. In the early stages, neither the systemic nor the local 
 lesions are, as a rule, of importance ; the blood, the flesh, and 
 the tissues of the organs present no departures from the normal ; 
 the carcase sets firmly, and of the natural colour, neither does it 
 evolve any unnatural odour ; but in the advanced stages, the 
 flesh usually becomes flaccid in consistence, of a pale hue, and 
 sometimes dropsical ; while in some cases it possesses a distinctive 
 and sickly odour, which is, however, always most pronounced in 
 the bowels and their contents. 
 
 Haemorrhagic lesions may be found in the skin, in the sub- 
 cutaneous tissue, in the intermuscular Connective tissue, and 
 even in the tissue of the muscles themselves. The cutaneous 
 hsemorrhages are always most observable after the skin has 
 been scalded and scraped, and they can be distinguished from 
 those resulting from bruises and blows, by the shape of the 
 patches, and by the depth of the lesion. In many cases in 
 which no haemorrhagic lesions are detected in the skin, or in the 
 
SWINE FEVER. 127 
 
 parts of the carcase exposed to view, they will be found to exist 
 in the tissues underneath the shoulder blade, and this should 
 always be detached from the trunk if a suspicion is entertained 
 that the disease has existed. Blood extravasations are also found 
 on the inner lining of the heart — endocardium — under the capsule 
 of the kidneys, or into the structure of these organs, and, more 
 importantly, in the lymphatic glands. In the early stages, the 
 lymph glands may appear to be simply congested, but as the 
 malady advances, they become more or less infiltrated with blood ; 
 in most cases the distribution of the haemorrhage is partial, and 
 when a section is made of the gland, it presents a mottled appear- 
 ance, not much unlike that seen on section of a " Queen " 
 strawberry. Exceptionally, the glands become so much infiltrated 
 with blood as to render them absolutely black, and the same 
 • remark applies to the kidneys. This condition of the lymph glands, 
 with the endocardial extravasation, often serves as evidence of the 
 existence of the disease when none other is forthcoming, but it must 
 be borne in mind that in young pigs a large number of hsemo-lymph 
 glands are found distributed amongst the sub-lumbar tissues and 
 fat. The blood is not, in ordinary cases, materially altered in its 
 character, but whenever the disease has been in existence for some 
 time, or the lungs are extensively involved, it contracts a dark hue, 
 and is sometimes even tarry ; while, in the more asthenic cases, 
 and in those in which convalescence is imperfect, or the bowel 
 lesions are extensive, it is of a pale hue, and watery in consistence. 
 Effusion into the abdominal and thoracic cavities, and even into 
 the pericardial sac, is most largely seen in animals in poor condi- 
 tion, or when the disease has been prolonged, and the same 
 remark applies to the exudation of lymph. 
 
 Diffuse inflammation of the mucous membrane of thd bowels 
 — more particularly the small — is most largely seen in young 
 pigs, and not infrequently it assumes a diphtheritic character. 
 The characteristic bowel lesions are found mainly in the large 
 
128 THE ACTION OF MICRO-PARASITES. 
 
 intestines, and almost always around the ileo-coecal valve. In 
 the lungs, specific lesions in the majority of cases — but not in all, 
 as is affirmed by some authorities — exist ; these lesions in the 
 earliest stages are of an effusive type, but in the latter, distinctly 
 inflammatory, and in some cases the lesions resemble, to a large 
 extent, those characteristic of pleuro-pneumonia in the ox. 
 
 From this brief description of the pathognomonic lesions of 
 swine fever, it must be obvious to all that in the advanced 
 stages the flesh of animals suffering from it is unfit for human 
 food ; but inasmuch as the disease is not transmissible to man, 
 and as the nutrition of the blood and of the flesh is not interfered 
 with in the early stages, it may be a question as to whether 
 it should be condemned or not ; if, however, any material change 
 in the blood or in the flesh is discernible, or if muscular 
 or cellular extravasation exists, or if the lymphatic glands are 
 hsemorrhagic, no scientific man should be found ready to 
 defend the practice of using the flesh for human food. The 
 bowels of pigs suffering from swine fever are often used as 
 skins for sausages and similar delicacies, and on one occasion 
 I had placed before me for breakfast some sausages in which 
 the odour of swine fever was so palpable to my olfactory nerves 
 as not only to disgust me, from a gastronomic point of view, but 
 also to partially act as an emetic. It should be noted here, 
 that very frequently a miliary rash of a red colour is observed 
 to exist on the skin of the carcases of pigs after dressing. It is 
 commonly known as measles, and is not associated with any 
 of those grave lesions mentioned above as being characteristic 
 of Swine Fever. 
 
 Actinomycosis.— -This is a pathological condition produced by the 
 irritation of the ray fungus {Actinomyces), which, up to a compara- 
 tively recent date was thought to belong to the Hyphomycetes or 
 Mould Fungi. Recently, however, doubts have arisen. as to the 
 correctness of this view, and my colleague, Professor M'Fadyean, 
 

 Acute ulceration of 
 gum with excavation. 
 
 Fia. 34. — Lamb— Infection from Udder of Ewe. Malignant Aphtha, vel 
 Pustular Fever. Acute ulceration of gum with excavation. 
 
 Fia. 40.— Teat of Ewe—Malignant Aphtha, vel Pustular Fever, 
 c. Crust. a. Papule, b. Pustule. 
 
Fin. 41.— Septum Nasi Glanders (acute). 
 
 1. Small ulcer. 
 
 2. Large ulcer, 
 
 3. Opening of lachrymal duct. 
 
ACTINOMYCOSIS. 129 
 
 has satisfactorily demonstrated the fact that it really belongs to the 
 fission fungi (as shown in our illustrations). Although this disease 
 has existed for a considerable period in certain animals in this 
 country, it is only a few years since its true nature was under- 
 stood. The animal most largely affected by it is the ox, in which 
 it is primarily (in the majority of cases) localised in the tongue ; 
 and in castrated oxen, occasionally in the spermatic cord, pro- 
 ducing here one form of scirrhous cord. Owing to the fact that 
 the disease sometimes extends from the tongue to adjacent or 
 contiguous structures — even to the bones of the jaw and face — it 
 has always been looked upon as of a malignant nature, by some as 
 cancerous, by others as sarcomatous ; hence the terms cancer of 
 the tongue and osteo-sarcoma by which it was, until recently, 
 designated ; and further, owing to the fact that the structure of 
 the tongue became very hard, it has been long known to the 
 Germans as wooden tongue, and, on account of the enlargement of 
 the jaw, it is in America termed " lumpy jaw." While the affec- 
 tion has been recognised most frequently in the ox, there can be 
 little doubt that many of the diseases marked by new formations 
 in the tissues and organs of the body of the horse and of the 
 pig, owe their origin to the pathogenic action of this fungus, and 
 the same remarks apply probably to the sheep. 
 
 The malady affects man, and is in him known as Actinomycosis 
 Hominis, and while it has been transmitted by inoculation from man 
 to the calf (Crookshank), so far as I am aware, there is no direct 
 evidence of the transmission of the disease from animals to man. 
 Nor indeed is such a contingency ever likely to arise, seeing that 
 the vitality of the spores of the hyphomycetes is much inferior to 
 those of other pathogenetic fiingi, and that the changes produced 
 by it in the organs attacked are so marked as to attract the 
 immediate attention of even ordinary persons ; and what is of 
 more importance, the lesions of the disease are seldom localised, 
 except in the pig, in the muscular tissue of the body. There may, 
 
i 3 o THE ACTION OF MICRO-PARASITES. 
 
 however, be lesions in the muscles immediately contiguous to, or 
 connected with, affected organs. The spores of the disease are 
 supposed to gain access to the structure of the tongue and other 
 organs by the medium of a break of surface, such as a wound, 
 an abrasion, or a crack, and after so gaining access rapid 
 development of the fungus goes on, while multiplication and 
 dissemination of the spores take place. The irritation set up by 
 the fungus leads to the production of a condition analogous to 
 that seen in tuberculosis, viz., to a diffuse and chronic interstitial 
 inflammation of the organ, with the formation of nodules or 
 granulations almost identical in morphological characters with 
 those of tuberculosis. They are, however, larger than the miliary 
 nodules of the latter disease, and do not, like them, tend to aggre- 
 gate or coalesce, and consequently do not lead to the formation 
 of such extensive lesions ; and while calcification goes on in the 
 centre of the nodule (constituting its core), caseation is much less 
 pronounced. During life, the lesions are best observed in the 
 tongue, which becomes enlarged and excessively hard, and loses 
 its tactile and gustatory functions. 
 
 The disease usually commences on the free surface (dorsum) of 
 the organ, and after a time flattened nodules, about one-fifth of an 
 inch in length and one eighth in width, are formed under and within 
 the mucous membrane. The epithelial covering of the mem- 
 brane softens and gives way, and is removed by friction in eating, 
 leaving raw or abraded patches. Dribbling of saliva is very marked, 
 too, at this stage. As has already been indicated, the glossal 
 disease may invade the lips, the cheeks, and even the muscles and 
 bones of the jaws and face, producing material changes in these 
 parts, such as destruction of the cancellated portion of the bone, 
 and opening up (rarefaction) of the compact tissue; softening of 
 the new growth goes on, with the formation of imperfect abscesses, 
 the contents of which may be evacuated through cloacae in the 
 bone, and finally, by sinuses, through the soft tissues and the 
 

 -External surface of Ear of Pig, showing characteristic passive stasis and 
 extravasation in Swine Fever. 
 
 1 
 
 Fio. 43.— Ileo-cfecal Valve of Young Pig, showing several plugged follicles, 
 a. a. a., and one discrete superficial iilcer at base, b. 
 
 l. A detached plug. 
 
GLANDERS AND FARCY. 131 
 
 skin. The evacuation of this softened matter is followed by 
 healing and the formation of a cicatrix, hence the scars so 
 frequently seen on the face and cheeks of affected animals. The 
 internal organs may become invaded, primarily, through the 
 medium of the various mucous membranes ; but the theory has 
 been promulgated that a localised lesion may become, by virtue 
 of the infectivity of the disease, systemically disseminated. 
 Whether this is so or not is a matter of very little importance so 
 far as our present purpose is concerned. In pigs, according to 
 Johne, the actinomyces is frequently found in the tonsilar cavities, 
 which may or may not have become the seat of any pathological 
 change. Although certain organs, such as the tongue, may be 
 largely involved, there is not much accompanying fever or inter- 
 ference with the normal functions, or with the nutrition of the 
 blood, and any systemic changes that arise are due mainly to 
 annihilation of the functions of the tongue, or of the particular 
 organ involved, and as a result of this a state of poverty is 
 induced. Seeing that the disease is rarely of a systemic nature, 
 and that there is an absence of fever, the nutritive changes 
 induced in the muscles are so slight as to do away, in the great 
 majority of cases, with the question of nocuity of the flesh ; but 
 notwithstanding this, if there is any evidence of mal-nutrition of 
 the blood or of the flesh, the carcase should be condemned for 
 human food, and in every instance the affected organ or organs 
 should be effectually destroyed. In the United States destruction 
 of the whole carcase is carried out if the disease is at all extensive. 
 
 Glanders and Farcy. — If it were not for the fact that horse 
 flesh is sometimes used as an article of consumption, or rather, is 
 largely sold as such under the guise of ox beef, the question of 
 glanders need not have claimed attention in connection with the 
 subject at present under consideration. 
 
 Essentially an equine affection, this fearful and intractable 
 malady — equalled in this respect by syphilis alone — is readily 
 
132 THE ACTION OF MICRO-PARASITES. 
 
 propagated by inoculative contagion (and, according to some 
 authorities, by infection) to the human subject, though there is no 
 case on record in this country, so far as I am aware, in which it 
 has been' so conveyed by ingestion of the flesh of diseased 
 animals. This may be probably due to the fact that horse-flesh 
 is so seldom used as an article of food, and, consequently, if such 
 transmission had at any time occurred, it might easily have been 
 overlooked. For a very long period proprietors of menageries 
 have entertained an overwhelming dread of the effects of horse- 
 flesh on the carnivora in their establishments, and that, too, on 
 account of their belief that glanders is transmitted by the 
 uncooked flesh of infected animals to such of their beasts as may 
 be fed on it ; and they invariably make a searching inquiry into 
 the antecedents of the animal whose carcase they may purchase 
 for feeding purposes. 
 
 Fortunately, glanders does not arise as an indigenous affection 
 in cattle, neither can it be transmitted to bovines, though a state- 
 ment has recently been made to the effect that sheep do not 
 possess immunity from the disease. 
 
 Personally, I have never met with a single instance of disease 
 in cattle that I could in any way identify as of glanderous origin, 
 and I am quite satisfied that the cases which have from time to 
 time been placed on record were cases either of pyaemia, or, more 
 probably, of malignant catarrh. 
 
 In Guadaloupe, the term farcy is applied to a disease affecting 
 cattle; but M. Nocard, of the Alford Veterinary School, has 
 shown that the malady so styled has no pathogenic relationship 
 with glanders of the horse. 
 
 Glanders and farcy are one and the same disease, the local 
 manifestations of their existence in the system alone presenting 
 distinctive characters; the former having its lesions mainly 
 localised in the respiratory tract, the latter mainly in the 
 cutaneous and sub-cutaneous structures and in the superficial 
 

 
 -V 
 
 
 FiQ. 42.— Lamb— Infection from Udder of Ewe. Malignant Aphtha, vet 
 Pustular Fever. 
 
 a. Large crust on skin of nostrils. 
 
 b. Ulceration of gums, with mass of fibrinous exudation. 
 
 Pio. 44. — Ulcers on mucous surface of large 
 Intestine of Tig (Swine Fever). 
 
GLANDERS AND FARCY. 133 
 
 lymphatics. It is due to a specific organism — a bacillus — which 
 seems to find- a favourable pabulum for its development mainly 
 in the tissues and juices of the equine species. It is to the 
 pathogenic effects of this organism that the local lesions of 
 glanders and farcy are due. In the acute form of the disease 
 febrile conditions are pronounced, there is usually a profuse 
 catarrhal discharge from the nostrils, diffluent ulceration of the 
 lining membrane of the nasal chambers — the ulcers, as shown 
 in the illustrations, having a very angry appearance — enlarge- 
 ment of the sub-maxillary lymphatic glands, and, occasionally, 
 specific inflammation and rapid degeneration of the glands of the 
 groin (inguinal) with the adjacent muscular tissues, constituting 
 glanders tumour. In the internal organs, the lesions are localised 
 in the lungs, and consist of consolidation, congestion, effusion, 
 and the formation of the characteristic miliary tubercles, and 
 abscesses, distributed mainly in a racemose manner. 
 
 In' chronic glanders, the characteristic symptoms are an 
 agglutinous discharge from one nostril, with slight enlargement 
 and hardening of the sub-maxillary lymphatic gland on the same 
 side ; a pale (anaemic) or bluish (cyanotic) colour of the mucous 
 membrane of the nose, with the development of glanders ulcers 
 thereon ; the latter being most largely found on that part of the 
 membrane covering the septum of the nose. The affected animal 
 may be in splendid condition, and, if there is no fever, the 
 muscular tissue may present after death no appreciable departure 
 from the normal ; on the contrary, the animal may be more or 
 less emaciated, and the carcase, as a result, deficient in flesh, 
 which may be pale in colour, or even dropsical. The lungs, in 
 the large majority of cases, are studded with the miliary nodules 
 of the disease; but they are not always distinguishable from other 
 nodular formations by naked-eye examination, even by experts. 
 
 Farcy may be acute or chronic. The former is characterised 
 by a markedly febrile condition of the system, and by rapid 
 
134 THE ACTION OF MICRO-PARASITES. 
 
 swelling of one or more limbs, which may be only the forerunner 
 of the pathognomonic lesions of the disease, viz., the so-called 
 farcy buds — nodular swellings about the size of a cherry formed 
 along the course of the lymphatics, which burst and discharge a 
 yellowish-coloured, synovia-like fluid, the eruption being followed 
 by an angry-looking sore, the fluid discharge from which possesses 
 specific characters. Chronic farcy is usually afebrile, and here 
 also there is swelling of one or more limbs, but the tumefaction 
 is much less inflammatory than it is in the acute form. The 
 lymphatic vessels too become swollen, and nodular swellings 
 {farcy buttons) form at intervals along their course, which, like 
 those of acute farcy, undergo softening, discharge a glairy fluid, 
 and form a specific sore. These lesions may be distributed, more 
 or less, over the surface of the body, particularly on the sides of 
 the neck, the withers, and the back. 
 
 As in glanders, so in farcy, the animal may be in splendid 
 condition ; on the other hand, it may be anaemic and emaciated, 
 and its tissues may be dropsical. The local lesions of farcy may 
 be readily mistaken for those of pyaemia, or vice vSrsa. 
 
 Scheduled as a contagious disease, legislative provision is made 
 by the Privy Council for the effectual destruction of the carcase, 
 hide, &c, of all horses suffering from glanders or Tarcy ; but in 
 the large cities many cases undoubtedly occur of which the 
 authorities have no cognisance, and large numbers of animals 
 are yearly smuggled away and slaughtered surreptitiously and 
 the flesh used for the food of cats and dogs, and there is nothing 
 to prevent its being used for human food also. Energetic inspec- 
 tion of all stables, in places where the disease is known to exist, 
 should be carried out, and the law strictly enforced, in order that 
 there may not be the slightest possibility of such a repulsive and 
 intractable malady being conveyed to the human subject, either 
 by contagion from the live animal, or by ingestion of its flesh. 
 
E S 
 
 is 
 
 U C 
 bop 
 
 <D ffi * > 
 
 p-i p-i t^; 
 
TUBERCULOSIS,* 
 
 THE question of the consumption of, not only the flesh of 
 animals, but the milk of cows suffering from this disease, 
 is of the gravest importance, especially seeing that it does not 
 confine its attacks to animals, but affects the human subject 
 also ; and in order that some estimate of the possible effects of 
 the flesh and milk of such animals upon the human frame "may 
 be formed, it is necessary that a few words should be devoted 
 to the consideration of the nature and progress of the disease 
 itself. 
 
 The term tuberculosis applies only to a diseased condition, 
 in which growths resembling little knots or kernels are formed 
 within, or upon, the different organs of the body. These little 
 knots are technically termed " tubercles." At one time it was 
 thought that they were the products of ordinary inflammatory 
 action in the organs of those persons or animals who had 
 inherited a scrofulous or consumptive tendency from their 
 parents; but while it is a fact, and a very important one too, 
 that such hereditary tendency is a powerful factor in its pro- 
 duction, the healthiest man or animal may become the victim 
 of the malady. 
 
 Of the domestic animals in this country, cattle, pigs, and 
 poultry are pre-eminently the hosts of this disease ; but it has 
 
 * The greater part of the matter referring to this subject is from papers read 
 by the Author at Meetings of the Medico-Chirurgical Society of Edinburgh, 
 and the Sanitary Association of Scotland. 
 
136 TUBERCULOSIS. 
 
 now been definitely shown, by Professor M'Fadyean, that the 
 malady occurs also, with tolerable frequency, in the horse. Sheep 
 and goats are rarely, if ever, spontaneously affected, though the 
 disease can be readily transmitted to every living creature (and 
 it has been stated by Villemin to plants also) by inoculation with 
 particles of the so-called tubercles. 
 
 Up to the time of Koch's discovery of the bacillus, the actual 
 nature of the disease was unknown, but many of those who had 
 studied the question had long before that date arrived at the con- 
 clusion that it was due to a germ or virus. In 1872 I publicly 
 expressed (at a veterinary meeting held in Glasgow) the conviction 
 that the disease was of a specific nature, and was capable of being 
 propagated from animals to man. 
 
 The first evidence of its true nature was obtained by the carry- 
 ing out of a large number of experiments by the well-known 
 pathologist Villemin, and during the last fifteen years hundreds of 
 animals of various species have been sacrificed by experimentalists, 
 with the object of determining the actual nature of the malady. 
 Not only the tubercular products themselves, but various 
 secretions — such as milk, urine, and saliva, the blood, and the 
 juice of the flesh — have been introduced into the system of 
 animals by inoculation, by injection into the veins, and by intro- 
 ducing matter into the stomach by the process of feeding. 
 Further, it has been found that the inhalation (or taking in by 
 the breath) of dried particles of tuberculous matter, or of dried 
 discharges from the lungs of consumptive animals or of man, is 
 sufficient to propagate the disease. 
 
 As has already been observed, it was not until the date of 
 Koch's memorable discovery of the bacillus that the true nature 
 of this disease was known. Koch, a German pathologist, after a 
 very patient examination, discovered in tuberculous matter a 
 microscopic organism of a vegetable nature. This fungus belongs 
 to the class of fission fimgi — i.e., it has the power of multiplying 
 
DISCOVERY OF THE BACILLUS. 137 
 
 by division, — and from its elongated staff-like shape, it is known 
 technically as a bacillus. Some idea of its minute size may be 
 gained from the fact that it requires a magnifying power of 600 
 degrees to render it visible to the eye. Moreover, a careful pro- 
 cess of staining by aniline dyes has to be carried out, in order to 
 distinguish it from other organisms of a similar character. 
 
 This minute fungus not only multiplies by fission, but by spores 
 also, and these spores are of infinitely greater importance than are 
 the bacilli themselves, inasmuch as, like the seeds of a plant as 
 compared with the plant itself, they withstand the effects of a far 
 greater amount of adverse influences. 
 
 It is necessary that this fact should be kept in mind in reference 
 to the question as to the harmlessness or otherwise of tuberculous 
 meat and milk. 
 
 The spores of this fungus resist the action of long drying and 
 of freezing, and also of strong solutions of salt ; and it is believed 
 that they are capable of retaining their vitality and their power of 
 propagation and reproduction for a very long period outside the 
 living body. Thus it is believed, and in fact distinctly proved, 
 that the dried spittle of a consumptive man, and the discharges 
 from the nose of a consumptive cow, adhering to woodwork and 
 similar substances, may be the means of contaminating healthy 
 persons or animals, respectively, long after they have been so 
 deposited. 
 
 " Experimental Researches on the Virulence of Tubercular Matter 
 {Lancet, 30th June 1888). — In inquiring into the origin of epi^ 
 demies, it is felt how necessary it is to recognise the channels 
 of diffusion, and the vital resistance of the infectious microbes. 
 The germ of glanders possesses but little vitality ; dessication kills 
 it ; putrefaction shortens its life ; and the chances of infection, 
 when not immediate, diminish and rapidly disappear as time 
 proceeds. The germ of tuberculosis, on the contrary, realises a 
 collection of conditions eminently favourable for more remote 
 
I3 8 TUBERCULOSIS. 
 
 infection, for it survives the majority of microbes usually associated 
 with it. Neither drying nor putrefying appear to destroy it, whilst 
 both processes often allow of its being distributed through air or 
 water. 
 
 "MM. Cadeac and Malet {Lyons Medicate, No. 25) have sought 
 to discover the time required to destroy the germs of tuberculosis 
 in dessicated, putrefied, or frozen matter. The experiments prove 
 that tubercular matter dried and pulverised may preserve its viru- 
 lence, since 102 days after its preparation it was capable of trans- 
 mitting tuberculosis. Schill and Fischer maintain that tubercular 
 matter only loses its virulence after six months. Pietro asserts 
 that well dried sputa may remain infective for nine or ten months, 
 if maintained at a mean temperature of 25° C; but it appears 
 probable to MM. Cadeac and Malet that the virulence does 
 not persist after thirty or forty days, unless special care is taken 
 to preserve it. M. Galtier has found tubercular matter to be 
 virulent after fifteen days, one month, and thirty-eight days of 
 dessication. 
 
 "These somewhat conflicting results are sufficient, however, to 
 show the desirability of completely destroying all the tubercular 
 matter ejected from patients, and also furnish an argument in 
 favour of cremation. MM. Cadeac and Malet find that the 
 virulence is maintained for 150 days in pieces of tubercular lung, 
 exposed during winter and spring to the atmosphere. When 
 dried pieces have a considerable volume, the virulence lasts 
 longer than when the matter exists as fine dust. It is probable 
 that the rapid disappearance of virulence in the fine dust is due 
 to the action of the oxygen of the atmosphere, which is enabled 
 to come into direct contact with all the tubercular molecules. As 
 to the influence of putrefaction, 167 days appeared to be the limit 
 of tubercular virulence in tubercle allowed to putrefy by itself. 
 About 120 days was the duration of virulence when the tubercle 
 was allowed to decompose in water. Tubercular liquids exposed 
 
FiQ. 30. — Small excavated ulcers (in group) of glanders — inner surface of anterior 
 and upper part of nostril — with congestion of tliemucous membrane. 
 
VITALITY OF THE BACILLI AND THEIR SPORES. 139 
 
 to the air, and to various external conditions, more rapidly lose 
 their virulence than tubercular solids. In other words, putrefac- 
 tion exercises its destroying effects much more rapidly when the 
 putrescible mass is of but little .volume. The duration of the 
 preservation of virulence in hard and compact tissues, like the 
 tubercular lungs of ruminants, is also proportional to the size of 
 the organ submitted to putrefaction. It is the same to a certain 
 degree for tubercular matter submitted to the process of dessica- 
 tion. In the numerous experiments from which the above con- 
 clusions were arrived at, the pieces of tubercular lung were kept 
 at a temperature from one degree to eight degrees below zero, 
 in such a fashion that the matters remained frozen sometimes 
 for more than a week. Yet virulence was maintained for 76 and 
 120 days." 
 
 At an International Congress on Tuberculosis, held at Paris, 
 the following statements were made on the subject : — 
 
 MM. Chantemesse and Vidal — " That bacilli and spores 
 retained vitality in Seine water (sterilised) for 50 days, at a 
 temperature of 8° to 12° C, and for 70 days if kept in perfect 
 repose." 
 
 M. Galtier — "That tubercle fragments, placed in running water, 
 retained vitality for 15 days, at a temperature of 6° to 15° C." 
 
 M. Cadeac — " That bacilli and spores retained vitality for six 
 or seven weeks in running water, and for 120 days in water in a 
 state of repose." 
 
 The methods by which bacilli or their spores are most likely to 
 gain access to the living body are — (1) by inhalation (breathing) of 
 contaminated air ; and (2) by ingestion (swallowing of any fluid or 
 solid matter containing tubercular products), and it has been 
 shown distinctly that these products need not contain a single 
 bacillus in order to render them infective. And this is easily 
 accounted for by the fact, that though no matured bacilli may 
 be present, there may be thousands of spores which, when sown 
 
140 TUBERCULOSIS. 
 
 on favourable ground, develop in the course of time into matured 
 bacilli. 
 
 When bacilli or their spores are taken into the interior of the 
 body, they adhere to the inner lining (the mucous membrane) of 
 the different organs, and may there undergo further development 
 and multiplication. As a proof of this, it may be mentioned that 
 when calves are fed on milk from cows suffering from tubercular 
 disease of the udder, or milk with which is mixed tuberculous 
 matter, the disease is found developed along the membrane of 
 the mouth, throat, and bowels.* At the same time there can be 
 no doubt that millions of these bacilli are rendered harmless by 
 the juices of the stomach, or are swept out of the bowels before 
 they can gain lodgment. 
 
 Strauss and Wurtz, assert that exposure for a period of six hours 
 to gastric juice is required in order to destroy the bacilli. 
 
 Many of these organisms pass from the mucous surface, or 
 inner lining of the bowels and lungs, into the surrounding 
 tissues, and are carried thence by the lymphatic vessels to the 
 different groups of lymphatic glands which are found scattered 
 here and there along the course of the lymphatic vessels, and 
 through which the vessels pass. That this process goes on to 
 a very large extent, is shown by the fact that the glands situated 
 in the abdomen and the chest are often found to be exten- 
 sively affected, without there being any trace of the disease in any 
 of the organs of the body ; and it is highly probable that, so long 
 as these glands retain the bacilli and their spores, so long does 
 the general system remain unaffected. This, however, is mere 
 speculation, and in any case there comes a time — in most 
 instances at least — when the bacilli and their spores escape from 
 
 * Cornil states that a single drop of a liquid culture of bacilli placed in the 
 pharynx of a guinea-pig, produces, in fifteen days, distinct macroscopical 
 tuberculous lesions in the mucous membrane, along the whole length of the 
 alimentary canal. 
 
EFFECTS OF BACILLI ON THE TISSUES. 141 
 
 the meshes of these glands, and are conveyed by the outgoing 
 lymphatic vessels into the blood stream, thereby contaminating 
 the whole system. 
 
 Next to the lymphatic glands, the delicate lining (serous 
 membrane) of the abdomen and the chest is most largely 
 affected. 
 
 Of the internal organs, the lungs, the liver, the kidneys, and 
 the brain, are most frequently found to be the seat of tuber- 
 culosis ; and it is a curious fact that the substance of the heart 
 and the sweetbreads are rarely, if ever, affected primarily, and 
 only very exceptionally are they involved in secondary tubercular 
 lesions. The melt (spleen) in cattle seems to enjoy a far greater 
 immunity from the disease than does the same organ in man, in 
 the pig, and in the horse ; but as in children, so in young 
 animals, the covering of the brain is frequently affected. The 
 generative organs, both male and female, are very often found 
 diseased ; and this accounts, to a large extent, for the hereditary 
 transmission of tubercle. 
 
 The udder of the cow, unfortunately, is also frequently affected 
 with the disease, and many of the so-called cases of "garget" or 
 " weed " (mammitis) in that organ, are nothing more nor less than 
 cases of tuberculous inflammation. 
 
 The bacilli produce their effects on the tissues by acting like any 
 other irritant matter — i.e., by setting up a circumscribed inflam- 
 matory process, which results in the formation of minute centres 
 of new tissue. This new tissue, however, owing to the want of 
 permanent blood-vessels, does not become organised; and, 
 indeed, in place of going on to form a permanent tissue, it goes 
 through a backward or retrograde process, and becomes converted 
 into a material resembling cheese (caseous matter) of a very 
 soft consistence, and into a gritty substance known as calcareous 
 matter. 
 
 The primary tubercular centres are no larger than millet seeds, 
 
i 4 2 TUBERCULOSIS. 
 
 and from this fact they are termed miliary tubercles. But owing 
 to the amount of inflammation of the tissue in which they are 
 produced, they become aggregated together and form immense 
 masses or tumours, and' these masses may either remain hard and 
 firm or may undergo a general softening, and produce tubercular 
 abscesses or "gatherings." 
 
 From the peculiar arrangement of the small tubercles, and of 
 the growths resulting from their aggregation, various terms have 
 been used to designate the different forms of tubercular growths. 
 Thus, from their fancied resemblance to that fruit, they are 
 termed in many parts of the United Kingdom "grapes,'' and 
 in other parts (from the supposition that they resemble those 
 berries) they are called "angle berries'' Not only in this 
 country, but in Continental countries also, are they designated 
 according to their resemblance to different well-known objects. 
 Thus the Germans speak of this disease as "duck-weed disease," 
 and as "pearl disease'' (Perlsucht), while the French speak 
 of it as "potato disease" (Pommeliere) the latter term more 
 particularly applying to the larger tubercular masses. In this 
 country, the enlarged glands are spoken of as "dyers" or 
 " kernels." 
 
 It is of the highest importance to note that not only the little 
 millet seed-like bodies, but also every other form of tubercular 
 product, contain either bacilli or their spores, or both bacilli and 
 spores ; but while this is so, it is equally important to note that it 
 is from the softer products that the great danger of a general 
 contamination of the system arises. 
 
 In reference to the flesh of infected cattle, actual tubercular 
 growths are seldom found in the structure of muscle (or at least 
 are not sufficiently large to be visible to the naked eye) un- 
 associated with disease of some adjacent organ, such as a 
 joint or a bone ; but, notwithstanding this fact, there is abundant 
 evidence to show that the juice of the flesh of tuberculous 
 
EFFECTS OF BACILLI ON THE TISSUES. 143 
 
 animals contains the germs of the disease, and amongst those 
 who first pointed out this was Toussaint, a veterinary teacher at 
 Lyons, who reproduced the disease by inoculation with juice 
 pressed out of the centre of an underdone steak from the body 
 of a tuberculous animal ; and, in like manner, the late Professor 
 Bouley transmitted tubercle to a pig by inoculation with meat 
 juice from one of the thigh muscles of a cow. 
 
 The course run by tuberculosis in birds, and the character 
 of its macroscopical lesions differs, in some respects at least, very 
 widely from that just described in mammals. It is a curious fact 
 that the Palmipedes are rarely, if ever, affected with the disease, 
 and it is equally as curious that turkeys and guinea fowl are 
 seldom its victims. 
 
 The poultry yard, the pigeon loft, the pheasantry, and the aviary 
 (so far as canaries, at least, are concerned), are decimated of their 
 occupants to an enormous extent by this fell malady throughout 
 the whole of the country ; and Dr. Bland Sutton has shown that 
 while grain-eating birds are the most frequently attacked — 
 probably, he thinks, from the contamination of the grain by the 
 faces and other products of infected birds, — birds of prey also 
 occasionally fall victims to the malady. 
 
 The affection in poultry is commonly known as "croup" or 
 " roup," and, scientifically, it has both in this country and on the 
 Continent been described as " gregarinosis" and as "diphtheria." 
 In my first lectures on the subject in 187 1-2, I described it as 
 "diphtheritic aphtha" and during the past few years, human and 
 veterinary pathologists have variously described it as a diphtheritic 
 and as an aphthous affection. 
 
 The discovery of the bacilli of tuberculosis has served to 
 dissipate these contradictory theories, and to establish the fact 
 that, with few exceptions, these variously designated affections . 
 are one, and that tuberculosis. 
 
 The process, in the majority of cases, commences in the mucous 
 
144 TUBERCULOSIS. 
 
 membrane of the mouth, the nostrils, or the eye, and extends 
 from the mouth to the throat and the crop, thence to the proven- 
 triculus, and after that the bowels, the mesentery, and the liver, — 
 the gizzard is rarely affected ; from the nostrils it extends to the 
 throat and lungs — the windpipe usually escaping the infection. 
 In some cases the comb, the wattles, the ball of the foot, and the 
 skin of the breast, are affected, localisation in the breast being 
 probably due to the irritation of the perch, and in the feet to dirt 
 or to wounds inflicted by pieces of glass or other sharp objects. 
 The spleen — unlike that of the ox — is frequently affected, the 
 kidneys and the testicles occasionally, the heart never. The con- 
 junctival lesion sometimes extends to and destroys the eyeball, 
 and, very exceptionally, it extends through the foramina of the 
 skull to the brain. In the mouth, nostrils, and conjunctivae, the 
 lesions have a croupous, and sometimes a diphtheritic, character ; 
 yellow-coloured strata of a lymphoid exudate being deposited on 
 the surface of the membrane, forming a tolerably firm mass which 
 clings to the superficial mucosa, and when forcibly removed, 
 leaves a bleeding surface. In the lungs, the lesion is of the 
 character of a croupous exudate, and in some cases the whole of 
 the lung structure in one lobe becomes replaced by such exudate, 
 which forms a beautiful cast of the lobe. In the walls of the 
 crop, of the proventriculus, and of the intestines, the lesion is 
 nodular, the nodules varying in size from a small pin's head to 
 two ounces or more in weight, and the intestinal surface is 
 frequently ulcerated; sometimes a stratified exudate is thrown 
 out on the surface of the intestinal mucous membrane, forming 
 a cylindrical cast of its lumen, which is occasionally occluded 
 thereby. In the mesentery, the lesions are always nodular, as 
 they are in the liver and in the spleen; these organs are frequently 
 so much invaded by the new growths, as to suffer annihilation as 
 functional organs, and the tubercles can be washed out of the 
 liver, which becomes soft, with ease. The condition of the liver 
 
EFFECTS OF TUBERCLE ON ITS HOST. 145 
 
 is shown in our illustrations. In the comb, wattles, and feet, and 
 under the skin of the breast, the lesion is stratified. 
 
 Tuberculosis in the Rabbit* — The lesions in this animal are con- 
 fined mainly to the liver, but are also seen in other organs. The 
 liver, as in poultry, becomes of an enormous size, soft and friable, 
 and studded thickly throughout its structure with miliary tubercles. 
 As a rule, the victims are emaciated and " pot-bellied," and there 
 is little fat about the interior of the carcase ; consequently, in the 
 great majority of cases, it is not exposed for sale as for human 
 food. I have never seen ,the lesions of tuberculosis in the 
 muscles of the rabbit, though the cysts of the Coccidia may be 
 readily mistaken therefor. 
 
 The effects of tubercle on the systems of its hosts depends — 1. 
 Upon the rapidity with which the disease runs its course ; 2. 
 Upon the extent of the disease ; 3. Upon the importance of the 
 organs involved; 4. Upon the localisation of the lesions — i.e., 
 whether in the interior of the organs or on their exterior ; 5. 
 Upon the amount of the inflammatory action accompanying the 
 formation of the tubercles ; 6. Upon the subsequent changes — i.e., 
 as to whether the tuberculous masses become hard or soft ; and 
 7. Upon the constitution of individual animals — i.e., as to their 
 capability or otherwise of withstanding the effects of disease. If 
 the disease runs its course slowly, there may be no injurious effect 
 exercised upon the body, nor will there be any visible sign of its 
 existence, so far as the general aspect of the animal is concerned ; 
 but if the disease runs its course quickly, fever, often very high, 
 is established, and the body rapidly wastes. In like manner, the 
 localisation of the disease on the external surface of organs is 
 never associated with so much general disturbance as that pro- 
 duced by its localisation in the interior of organs ; and enormous 
 
 * There is no authentic case on record of tuberculosis in the wild rabbit, and 
 even among domesticated rabbits the disease is exceedingly rare, except as a 
 result of intentional or experimental infection. 
 
 K 
 
I4 6 TUBERCULOSIS. 
 
 masses of so-called "grapes" or "angle berries" (from a half cwt. 
 to one cwt.) may be found in connection with the lining of the 
 abdomen, or of the chest, without the animal evincing any external 
 evidence of their existence. Again, if the tuberculous products 
 undergo rapid softening, the disease is spread more readily through 
 the system, and the whole body becomes rapidly contaminated. 
 
 The effects of these growths, so long as they remain hard, may 
 be likened to the effects of a parasite— i.e., they demand a supply 
 of nutrition, and so long as the animal is capable of supplying this 
 in excess of its own wants, so long will it not only preserve its 
 condition, but will actually thrive. The same remark holds good 
 when the tuberculous formations become hard and gritty, or, 
 in technical language, obsolete. 
 
 In the case of such organs as the lungs, liver, kidneys, and 
 brain, the disturbance produced by the pressure of large masses 
 of tubercle is sufficient to interfere with their function, and thus 
 lead to important interference with such normal processes of life 
 as digestion, the purification of the blood, and the generating of 
 nerve force. 
 
 From these remarks it will be seen that, under certain circum- 
 stances, animals may become extensively diseased, and yet no 
 suspicion of the fact may be aroused in the minds of the owners of, 
 or the attendants upon, such animals. On the contrary, a very 
 limited amount of disease may give rise to such marked disturb- 
 ance, as to at once show that there is something materially wrong. 
 
 A photograph of the abdominal and thoracic surface of the 
 carcase of one of the fattest cows I have ever seen is introduced 
 in our illustrations, as are also drawings (coloured and uncoloured) 
 of sections of different organs affected with the disease. 
 
 The question of the use of the flesh and of the milk of tuberculous 
 animals for human food must now be considered. It must not 
 for a moment be assumed that the present is the first period in 
 the history of this disease in which this question has received 
 
Fio. 18. — Photograph of Abdominal and Thoracic surface of the Carcase of a Cow, 
 showing diffuse Nodular Tuberculosis of the Pleura and Peritoneum. 
 
 a. a. Section through Dorsal Vertebrae. 
 
 b. b. Thoracic Pleune. The dark spots representing the Tuberculous Nodules. 
 
 c. c. Peritoneum with Tubercular Nodules. 
 
 d. d. Kidney Fat. 
 e. Flank. 
 
Fin. 21.— Portion of Inferior Border of 
 Lung of Cow, showing — 
 
 a. a. a. Sessile Masses on the surface of the 
 
 Pleura. 
 h. b. b. Pedunculated Masses growing from 
 The Pleura at the extreme bor- 
 der — Dr. Crichton's festoons. 
 
 Fia. 22.— Larynx of Cow (Tubercle) laid open, showing— 
 
 a. Elevation of Mucous Membrane by subjacent Tuberculous 
 Nodules. 
 b. b. b. Masses of Yellow Tubercle exposed by ulceration- and absorption 
 of the Mucous Membrane. . 
 c. Edge of Ulcer after irruption of Tubercle — intensely Hyper- 
 seinic. 
 
Fio. 23.— Lymphatic Gland (Bronchial) of Cow, laid 
 open to show the deposition of caseous and calcareous 
 Tubercle in its interior— mainly at its hilum— with 
 detached smaller masses. 
 
 Fio. 24. — Section of Lung of Ox, with tubercle in various stages. 
 
 a. a. a. Small masses of Tubercle. 
 
 6. 6. 6. Large masses of yellow Tuhercle, caseation. 
 
 c A large mass commencing to liquefyand break down iu 
 the centre, with the condensed areolar tissue form- 
 ing the so-called cyst or wall, d. 
 
 The light-blue portion at e represents condensed and hyper- 
 plastic connective tissue, and the lines /, interlobular connective 
 tissue; g g, parenchyma, or lung-substance. 
 
Fio. 25.— Section of Liver (Cow), with circumscribed and diffused 
 Tubercle. 
 
 a. a. Liver substance of an orange-yellow colour,— frequently 
 characteristic of tuberculous liver in the ox. 
 
 h. b. Two spots Of a red colour, as the result of recent Tuber- 
 cular Inflammation. 
 c. A mass of d iff used Tubercle deposited on the coats of the 
 portal vein, e; with masses of circumscribed caseous 
 Tubercle, d. 
 
Fig. 31.— Section of Lung of Young Pig. Tuberculosis, 
 with intense congestion. 
 
- 1 ^ £ ¥ 
 
 5 J £ « » 
 
 p^"i 
 
 I'Ss'i-s 
 - Hg |j 
 
 8f«-9 
 
 = ■3 
 
 
FLESH AND MILK OF TUBERCULOUS ANIMALS. 147 
 
 attention ; we have it on the authority of Lydtin, Fleming, and 
 Van Hertsen, that there existed in the Mosaic laws strict legis- 
 lative rules as to the condemnation of the flesh of an animal, or 
 any portion of an animal, affected with this disease, at least at 
 certain stages of the disease ; and there can be no question that 
 the laws embodied in the "Mischna" (the oldest part of the 
 Talmud), distinctly referred to the prohibition of the use of such 
 flesh. From this time onwards, various ordinances have been 
 instituted with the object of checking the use of consumptive 
 flesh, especially in France and the German States, and even in 
 such countries as Spain, Italy, and Switzerland ; and severe punish- 
 ment has at different times been inflicted on butchers and others 
 who have wilfully sold such flesh for consumption. 
 
 It is curious to observe how, during the past centuries, as now, 
 there have been men of note ready to come forward and prove, by 
 themselves devouring the flesh of tainted animals, that such flesh 
 is necessarily harmless ; forgetting that what may be meat to one 
 is to another rank poison. Thus, in the 1 7th century, a doctor 
 of medicine and philosophy not only consumed a large quantity 
 of flesh, but also drank a quantity of broth made from tuberculous 
 nodules, and publicly drank the broth in the market place of the 
 town in which he resided, in order to show the people the harm- 
 lessness of such matter. 
 
 Some time ago a most striking example of the effects of con- 
 suming the flesh of a tuberculous animal was brought to light by 
 a French physician in the case of a young woman who rapidly 
 became consumptive as the result of devouring the imperfectly 
 cooked bodies of tuberculous fowls. 
 
 That a certain amount of relation exists between the death- 
 rate of man and animals respectively from consumption, and that 
 this relation is materially affected by the use of tuberculous flesh 
 for human food, is afforded in a chart issued by the authorities 
 of the Grand Duchy of Baden, in the year 1881, and published 
 
I4 8 TUBERCULOSIS. 
 
 in Lydtin, Fleming, and Van Hertsen's paper. The chart applies 
 to no less than 52 towns, and shows that where tuberculosis is 
 prevalent among cattle, it is equally prevalent amongst the human 
 population, and is particularly prevalent in those towns in which 
 the number of low-class butchers is greatest. One remarkable 
 exemption to this is found in the town of Wertheim, but it is 
 significantly pointed out that from this town large quantities of 
 sausages, made from flesh of inferior quality, are annually 
 exported. 
 
 That the flesh of tuberculous animals, and even the tuberculous 
 organs of animals, may be consumed with impunity when properly 
 cooked, cannot be denied, but in how many instances, it may be 
 asked, is such flesh eaten without being properly cooked ? 
 
 When the facts already stated as to the power of resistance 
 to heat of the spores of the tubercle bacilli are borne in mind, 
 it will be plain to all observant persons that, in the ordinary 
 process of cooking, especially in the cooking of large joints, there 
 may be ounces of flesh devoured by human beings that are never 
 subjected to a sufficient amount of heat to destroy these spores. 
 Take, for example, the cooking of a beef-steak, or of a large 
 roast of beef. How many people are there who prefer that it 
 shall be under-done 2 and consequently, in how many instances 
 must the flesh and internal organs of animals be eaten in the 
 interior of which numbers of bacilli and their spores retain their 
 vitality ? 
 
 It is well known that many people have a great partiality for ox 
 kidneys and for liver — especially the livers of poultry — and that 
 ignorant persons are not always particular in reference to the 
 existence or non-existence of such apparently harmless things as 
 small yellow spots or blebs (tubercular nodules) ; and I have on 
 several occasions had such organs submitted to me for examina- 
 tion that had been sold for human food. But the amount of 
 danger arising from this source is very small indeed as compared 
 
FLESH AND MILK OF TUBERCULOUS ANIMALS. 149 
 
 with that which exists in the consumption of sausages and such 
 like delicacies prepared from the flesh of tuberculous animals ; 
 and as a proof that such flesh is used for this purpose, I have only 
 to direct attention to some of the prosecutions that have been 
 instituted against the manufacturers of such articles, and in which 
 I, as well as others, have detected tubercle nodules in large 
 numbers in the material prepared for this purpose. 
 
 It is all very well to assert that sausages are cooked before they 
 are eaten • but, again, it may be asked, in how many instances is 
 the centre of a sausage devoured in a comparatively raw state ? 
 The poorer classes, too, have doled out to them in slices the 
 livers of cattle and the cooked udders of cows, and who shall say 
 that any steps are taken by the vendors of such edibles for the 
 purpose of ascertaining whether they are or are not the subjects 
 of tuberculosis. Of even more importance than the foregoing is 
 the fact that lymphatic glands are more often affected by the 
 disease than any other organs of the body, and that large numbers 
 of these glands, or " kernels," as they are called, are situated in 
 the deep portions of the flesh, and are by many looked upon as 
 a delicacy. 
 
 As an example of the way in which tubercular lymphatic glands 
 are sometimes overlooked in the examination of carcases, I may 
 direct attention to a case which occurred in Edinburgh some 
 time ago. A carcase had been seized by the inspectors in one of 
 the meat markets and removed to the sanatorium at the abattoir. 
 The owner of the carcase, which was in prime condition, disputed 
 the action of the inspectors, and called in several experts to 
 examine the carcase on his behalf. After the conclusion of their 
 examination I myself made a second inspection, for the purpose of 
 obtaining other evidence of the existence of the disease than that 
 which I had gathered on the occasion of my first examination, 
 and, on cutting through the stemo-costal muscles, I came across 
 a chain of tubercular glands at a depth of about 2| inches 
 
, S o TUBERCULOSIS. 
 
 from the surface. This section has been represented in one of 
 the illustrations to this work, and a glance at the situation of the 
 affected glands will show the improbability of their being sub- 
 jected, during the ordinary process of cooking, to a degree of heat 
 sufficient to destroy the contained bacilli or their spores. 
 
 The last question to be considered in reference to tuberculous flesh 
 is, as to how far it may be safe or expedient to use such flesh or 
 organs for human food? While there may be some difference of 
 opinion as to the flesh, none can exist in reference to the organs, 
 which should be unhesitatingly condemned ; and particularly in 
 view of the fact that, in whatever way the disease may be con- 
 tracted, or through whatever channel the bacilli may gain access 
 to the system, they must necessarily find a lodgment in the lungs, 
 the stomach, the intestines, or the liver: and assuming for a 
 moment that they gain access to the blood, they are bound in the 
 ordinary course of circulation to pass through the vessels of the 
 organs mentioned, and in doing so may be arrested in the 
 capillaries of these organs. 
 
 The point which has received most consideration in connection 
 with the consumption of flesh is, as to where the line (if any) 
 shall be drawn — i.e., whether the carcase of an animal which only 
 shows evidence of the existence of tubercles of the serous lining 
 of the abdomen and chest, may be with safety passed after the 
 lining has been removed by "stripping?" 
 
 If it could be shown beyond the possibility of a doubt that, 
 under these circumstances, no contamination of the muscle itself 
 or of the lymphatic glands had taken place, and if every particle of 
 the tuberculous lining were removed, such carcases might be used 
 as human food with impunity. But evidence as to the non- 
 existence of bacilli in the flesh could only be gained by careful 
 and prolonged microscopic examination, and in some instances 
 the examiner would fail to find them, seeing that the microbes 
 might be present only in the form of spores ; and inasmuch as the 
 
Flo. 13.— Actinomycosis organism. 
 See Professor M'Eadyean's Description, p. 190, 
 
 
 V 
 
 4 
 
 V& 
 
 * 
 
 *ti 
 
 » 
 
 Fio. 14.— Prom a Preparation of 
 Caseous Matter from Pulmonary 
 Deposits in Bovine Tuberculosis, 
 showing Tuberculosis. 
 
 Fio. 15. — Head of Hen, with mouth open, showing — 
 
 u. u. Tubercular deposit on palate and 1 dorsal surface at base of 
 tongue. 
 b. Acute tubercular nicer of palate. 
 
Fig. 16.— Coils of Intestines of a Hen, showing— 
 
 „ „ a. a. Sessile tubercular nodules in the Intestinal Walls. 
 6. A large pendunculated Tubercular Nodule, 
 c. c. c. Intestines. 
 d. d. d. Mesentery and Mesenteric Fat. 
 
Fig. 17. — External Surface of a Lobe of the Liver of a Hen, 
 showing (yellow masses) universal Tuberculosis. 
 
 a. Distended and enlarged Capillaries of its Capsule. 
 
NOCUITY OF THE FLESH. 151 
 
 process of staining required to render the bacilli visible is a deli- 
 cate and elaborate one, it is evident that the adoption of such a 
 system of examination in all cases is impracticable. Nor can the 
 test of inoculation of animals with the juice of the flesh — seeing 
 that the disease requires a considerable time to develop — be 
 brought into requisition ; and even if this were not the case such 
 a test would be prohibited by the provisions of the Vivisection 
 Act. In like manner, the carrying out of feeding experiments 
 with the object of deciding as to the nocuity or otherwise of 
 tubercular flesh would be impracticable as a sanitary measure, on 
 account of the time required for the development of the lesions. 
 
 It may be argued that there is no direct proof of the transmis- 
 sion of tubercle from animals to man by the consumption of 
 flesh ; such proof, it need scarcely be said, cannot for manifest 
 reasons be obtained, but the mass of indirect proof in favour of 
 such supposition is enormous, and if our arguments against the 
 use of such flesh are based only upon analogies and deductions, 
 they are sufficient to warrant us, in view of the great gravity of the 
 question, in prohibiting the sale of tuberculous flesh for human 
 consumption. As bearing upon the nocuity of such flesh, the • 
 following extracts from a paper read by M. Arloing, Director of 
 the Lyons Veterinary College, at the late International Congress 
 held in Paris, and translated by Professor M'Fadyean in the 
 Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics, are of 
 extreme interest : — 
 
 " Nocuity of Tuberculous flesh. — Let us at the outset prove 
 very dearly the nocuity of the flesh coming from tuberculous 
 animals. That has been demonstrated by two varieties of experi- 
 ment — (1) The ingestion of the flesh of tuberculous animals, 
 having all the appearances of healthy flesh ; (2) The inoculation 
 of the juice extracted from such flesh. 
 
 " Of the first kind we shall content ourselves with citing a few. 
 Those of Gerlach and of Johne are the most important. Out of 
 
152 TUBERCULOSIS. 
 
 35 animals fed by Johne with the raw flesh from animals attacked 
 with tuberculosis, 8, or 22-5 per cent., became tuberculous; and 
 of 46 subjects fed in the same manner by Gerlach, 13-1 per cent, 
 contracted the disease. 
 
 " M. Peuch caused two young pigs to consume 5 kilogrammes 
 of raw flesh, without bone, in ten days. At the end of two and three 
 months these animals presented discrete glandular tuberculosis. 
 
 " M. Nocard caused eleven cats to be fed for from two to 
 four days with a certain quantity of flesh from tuberculous animals 
 without result ; but these negative experiments cannot destroy the 
 preceding. 
 
 "Thus the passage of suspected flesh into the digestive tube 
 can communicate tuberculosis. Moreover MM. Straus and A. 
 Wurtz have shown in some experiments, in vitro, that the 
 virulence of Koch's bacilli is with difficulty destroyed by the 
 gastric juice. 
 
 "The cooking to which food is submitted can diminish the 
 danger, but it is impossible to rely on that for the destruction 
 of the virulence. In fact, to obtain this result all the virulent 
 particles would require to be heated to over 70° C. for half an 
 hour. But in practice this temperature is not always uniformly 
 attained and maintained throughout the whole thickness of the 
 masses of flesh submitted to the cooking. Let us add, to 
 complete the information on the role that may be attributed to 
 cooking, that in 62 experiments in which Johne administered 
 notoriously tuberculous flesh, after having submitted it to cooking 
 in boiling water for ten to fifteen minutes, 35-5 per cent, of the 
 animals were infected. 
 
 " Experiments by inoculation of the juice of meat, in which one, 
 so to speak, compels the virus to enter the organism, may appear 
 to some persons a little artificial. 
 
 "The results, however, which they furnish are less alarming 
 than those of the experiments in which the suspected flesh has 
 
NOCUITY OF THE FLESH, 153 
 
 been introduced naturally into the digestive passages. Some- 
 times, indeed, the results are most reassuririg. Thus M. Nocard 
 has obtained only a single example of infection in 2 1 series of 
 inoculations made with the juice of the flesh of 2 1 cows seized 
 in the abattoirs. But it must not be forgotten that the virulent 
 bacilli are distributed with great irregularity in the muscular 
 mass, that they are rare there, and that consequently they 
 may pretty often be absent from the small volume of juice 
 which serves for the inoculation of an animal.* To appreciate 
 the virulence of the juice of the flesh by inoculation, it is there- 
 fore necessary, as in statistics, to examine as many experiments as 
 possible. 
 
 "At the late Congress for the study of Tuberculosis, the 
 experiments of MM. Nocard, Chauveau, and Arloing, Galtier, 
 Peuch, and Vessiere, were cited. These experiments give a total 
 of 47 attempts, 9 of which were followed by tuberculisation. 
 
 " For these 47 attempts there were employed 137 animals, 13 of 
 which became tuberculous, giving a proportion of 9-4 per cent, for 
 infection by inoculation ; while by taking the mean of the experi- 
 ments by Gerlach and Johne by natural ingestion, one arrives at 
 the ratio of 17 "8 per cent. 
 
 "The two series of experiments converge, then, towards the 
 same demonstration — the nocuity of the flesh of tuberculous 
 animals ; and they indicate, further, the fact, especially serious 
 from our point of view, that contagion by the digestive passages 
 operates with an alarming frequency. 
 
 " Calculation gives us an idea of the number of bacilli contained 
 in the mass of muscle of a tuberculous ox. 
 
 * Woodhead produced tuberculosis by injecting into the peritoneal cavity 
 of two rabbits the raw juice expressed from the intercostal muscles of a. 
 tuberculous cow, after all tuberculous pleura had been carefully "stripped;" 
 but he found that the juice taken from the muscle of the thigh, and injected into 
 two other rabbits, produced no results. 
 
i S4 TUBERCULOSIS. 
 
 "Let us start from the experiments mentioned above, and 
 
 suppose that the bacilli are uniformly distributed in the muscles 
 
 of a tuberculous animal. Let us admit also that the 137 
 
 animals inoculated may have each 1 centimetre cube of juice. 
 
 In the 137 centimetre cubes there were at least 13 bacilli, or for 
 
 1 centimetre cube— = 0-094. We have assured ourselves that 
 137 ^^ 
 
 100 grammes of flesh give under the press 30 centimetre cubes 
 of juice. Consequently 100 grammes of flesh will include 
 0-094 x 30 = 2 bacilli "820. A kilogramme will contain 28 bacilli. 
 If an ox of medium size furnishes 280 kilogrammes of flesh net, 
 its carcase will contain 28 x 280 = 7840 bacilli. This number is 
 not insignificant. 
 
 " M. Nocard has endeavoured to discover how long the bacilli 
 wandering in the muscular tissue may conserve their virulence. 
 Having inoculated six rabbits, two and a half months old, with 
 1 centimetre cube of a culture of tubercle bacilli (non-sporu- 
 lating), he killed the first at the end of two days, and the others 
 at intervals of twenty-four hours. From each rabbit he removed 
 the mass of the longissimus dorsi muscle, divided it finely, 
 and submitted it to the action of the press in order to express 
 the juice. A centimetre cube of this juice was inoculated 
 into the auricular vein of a parallel series of test rabbits. The 
 rabbits inoculated with the juice of the flesh of the three first 
 rabbits died tuberculous ; the three others were never affected. 
 
 " M. Nocard concludes that the flesh of a tuberculous animal 
 can offer some danger during the four or five days after death, but 
 that after that interval— that is to say, before the sixth day— the 
 bacilli are destroyed in the muscular tissue. 
 
 " This research, interesting from the scientific point of view, is 
 hardly reassuring from the point of view of practice. In the first 
 place, it is generally within five days after slaughter that the 
 flesh is retailed among the consumers, and within even a shorter 
 period in summer. Again, the muscular tissue may very well 
 
NOCUITY OF THE FLESH. 155 
 
 destroy non-sporulating bacilli, but does it destroy also the 
 spores, such as are often present in the bacilli of tubercular 
 organs? The question may be put and almost answered nega- 
 tively, for otherwise one could not comprehend the development of 
 some examples of tuberculosis of the muscles which science has 
 recorded. 
 
 "Several persons have inquired whether the flesh of animals 
 that present some tubercular lesions, and at the same time are in 
 a thriving condition as regards fatness, are really dangerous. Our 
 friend, M. Baillet of Bordeaux, has. insisted that these animals 
 enjoy a sanitary immunity. 
 
 "M. Van Hertsen believes that such a tolerance would be 
 followed by fatal consequences, for it is not in subjects of good 
 appearance that the lesions are most discrete ; he has seen in 
 these animals the co-existence of pulmonary phthisis and mesen- 
 teric phthisis of a very advanced degree. 
 
 " MM. Veyssiere and Humbert are not content with theoretical 
 considerations ; they inoculated two rabbits with 1 centimetre cube 
 of juice of flesh from a cow in very good condition; both animals 
 became tuberculous. Consequently the bacilli of fat subjects 
 would be no less dangerous than those of lean subjects. 
 
 "It may be added that the flesh of fat subjects would have 
 less chance of being sterilised by cooking, for that is what the 
 consumer eats underdone (saignantes) in preference to the lean 
 meat. 
 
 " To sum up, the flesh of all tuberculous cattle, lean or fat, may 
 conceal the germ of phthisis." 
 
 I have frequently examined the carcases of cattle that have 
 been subjected to the "stripping" process — and with which no 
 fault could be found so far as the appearance of the carcase was 
 concerned — and discovered masses of tubercles in situations that 
 would usually have escaped detection in such superficial examina- 
 tions as that to which meat is subjected by the ordinary inspector. 
 
is6 TUBERCULOSIS. 
 
 Thus I have found tubercle in the deep lymphatic glands of car- 
 cases after they had been passed as being fit for human food, and 
 I have seen advanced and extensive tubercular lesions in the 
 bones of apparently perfectly healthy joints of meat, when these 
 have been cut- through for sale or for cooking purposes, and such 
 an instance is depicted in the breast bone (sternum) of a young 
 ox in our illustrations ; and in reference to the flesh in those cases, 
 we usually find that the muscles of the hind quarters, and also of 
 the back (as exposed when the carcase is " ribbed ") are dark in 
 colour, soft in consistence, and soapy to the feel, while those of 
 the hind quarters frequently present an iridescent appearance on 
 section. 
 
 If those who advocate the sale of such carcases were prepared 
 to place on every piece of beef sold, a ticket declaring that it was 
 part of a consumptive animal, then those who chose to purchase it 
 would have no ground for complaint, as they would be personally 
 responsible for any ill effects arising from it. But it is only a 
 reasonable question to ask, Is it fair to the public to expose such 
 meat for sale without giving any indication of its character, and to 
 charge the same price as that which is obtained for sound flesh ? 
 
 I am quite well aware that a great hardship is inflicted upon 
 butchers by the condemnation of the carcases of tuberculous 
 animals which have been purchased at a fair market price on the 
 faith that they were sound, but this question is for the considera- 
 tion of the purchaser and seller only ; it has nothing to do with 
 the general public. In very many instances the seller is in the 
 position of middleman, and he may suffer a large indirect loss ; 
 but here, again, the question is one between him and the con- 
 signee. Further, the consignor may be only the feeder of the 
 animal, and the disease may have been in existence at the time 
 of the purchase from the breeder, and rearer; and it is to the 
 breeder, in the first place, that we must largely look for protection 
 against the dangers arising from this repulsive and fearful malady. 
 
NOCUITY OF THE FLESH. 157 
 
 For several years past I have been in the habit of pointing out 
 to butchers who have complained to me of the losses they have 
 suffered in connection with the condemnation of the carcases of 
 animals bought by them in a condition of apparent health, that 
 they had the remedy in their own hands, and I have tendered 
 the advice that they should decline to purchase any animal except 
 with a proviso to the effect that the carcase (after slaughter) passes 
 the inspector of meat. This advice was at one time acted upon 
 by the butchers of Paisley; and the Aberdeen Association of 
 butchers decided in April 1890 to hold the salesmen responsible 
 for the loss in the event of the carcase of an animal purchased 
 from them being condemned on account of tuberculosis, while 
 only recently a scheme of insurance has been drawn up by the 
 Edinburgh Butchers' Association of a very simple character. By 
 this agreement the three parties interested bear each a proportion 
 of the loss, the seller paying 3d., the auctioneer id., and the pur- 
 chaser 3d., for each bullock sold, and in the event of the carcase 
 being condemned, the purchaser receives three-fourths of its value. 
 The question of compensation can scarcely be considered here. 
 Personally I am in favour of such being given, but only under 
 certain conditions, and after careful consideration of the circum- 
 stances of each individual case. 
 
 In the Four Bovine Scourges, a book published by myself in 
 1879, the following remarks may be found under the head 
 Jurisprudence : — " It should be borne in mind that if an animal 
 is sold 'healthy,' 'all right,' or 'correct,' and tuberculous 
 symptoms show themselves subsequently, the vendor is liable to 
 the vendee for all contingent loss if it can be distinctly demon- 
 strated that the tuberculous lesions were in existence at the time 
 of sale." Here it may be noted that according to several recent 
 decisions it is necessary to prove that the seller of a warranted 
 animal possessed a knowledge of the existence of disease prior 
 to its sale. 
 
I5 g TUBERCULOSIS. 
 
 At the Paris Congress of 1888 a resolution was passed (there 
 being only three dissentients) in favour of the total seizure and 
 destruction of all flesh derived from tuberculous animals, what- 
 ever the extent of the specific lesions found in such animals. 
 
 Since the holding of the Paris Congress of 1888, the following 
 decree has been promulgated in France : — 
 
 " The flesh of tubercular animals shall be excluded from con- 
 sumption — (1.) If the lesions are generalised — that is to say, not 
 confined exclusively to the visceral organs and their lymphatic 
 glands ; (2.) If the lesions, although localised, have invaded the 
 greater part of an organ, or are manifested by an eruption on the 
 walls of the chest or abdominal cavity." 
 
 Again, the Departmental Committee appointed by the Lord 
 President of the Council in April 1888 to inquire into the subject 
 of tuberculosis, expressed the opinion "that although bacilli may 
 be found but rarely in the flesh, still the chance of their being 
 present either there or in the blood is too probable to ever allow 
 the flesh of a tubercular animal being used for food under any 
 circumstances either for man or the lower animals.'' 
 
 On the occasion of the second sitting of the International 
 Congress held at Paris on the 2nd September 1889, the following 
 important resolution was (with four dissentients only) adopted : — 
 
 "There is reason to prevent the consumption, by men or 
 animals, of the flesh of tubercular animals — mammals or birds 
 — whatever the degree of tuberculosis, or whatever the apparent 
 quality of the meat." 
 
 The following resolutions regarding the flesh of tuberculous 
 animals were carried by large majorities by the Sixth Inter- 
 national Veterinary Congress, which met at Berne in September 
 i895 :— 
 
 " 1. Seizure ought to take place whenever, from the extent and 
 character of the tuberculous lesions, there is reason to suspect 
 that the flesh might be injurious to health. 
 
NOCUITY OF THE FLESH. 159 
 
 " 2. The carcase ought to be condemned — 
 
 " a. When the animal is emaciated. 
 
 " b. When the flesh has a bad appearance. 
 
 " c. When lesions are present in the muscular system. 
 
 " d. When important lesions are present in several viscera." 
 
 The Royal Commission on Tuberculosis, which was appointed 
 
 in 1890, and which issued its report in April 1895, thus sums up 
 
 its conclusions regarding the danger connected with the use of 
 
 flesh from tuberculous animals : — 
 
 " Tuberculous disease is observed most frequently in cattle and 
 in swine. It is found far more frequently in cattle (full grown) 
 than in calves, and with much greater frequency in cows kept in 
 town cow-houses than in cattle bred for the express purpose of 
 slaughter. Tuberculous matter is but seldom found in the meat 
 substance of the carcase, it is principally found in the organs, 
 membranes, and glands. There is reason to believe that tuber- 
 culous matter, when present in meat sold to the public, is more 
 commonly due to the contamination of the surface of the meat 
 with material derived from other diseased parts, than to disease 
 of the meat itself. 
 
 " Provided every part that is the seat of tuberculous matter be 
 avoided and destroyed, and provided care be taken to save from 
 contamination by such matter the actual meat substance of a 
 tuberculous animal, a great deal of meat from animals affected by 
 tuberculosis may be eaten without risk to the consumer." 
 
REFRIGERATED, FROZEN, SALTED, PRESERVED, AND 
 TINNED MEATS AND FISH. 
 
 REFRIGERATED MEAT is brought to this country 
 mainly from the United States of America, the heat being 
 extracted from the carcase immediately after slaughter, and the 
 flesh being subsequently kept at a temperature of from 36 to 
 40° F. Owing to the diffusion of the colouring matter of the 
 blood through the tissues, refrigerated meat has usually a pink 
 colour ; the flesh is somewhat insipid in flavour, and the fat has a 
 tallowy taste. It undergoes decomposition with tolerable rapidity, 
 and the tissues of the flank are, as a rule, very moist. 
 
 In Frozen Meat — which is most largely brought from New 
 Zealand and Australia — the preliminary process of extracting the 
 heat is not usually put in practice ; it is very hard, requires many 
 hours to thaw, and when thawed becomes of a darker colour (again 
 owing to the diffusion of the blo'od colouring matter through the 
 tissues) and moist. 
 
 Salted or Pickled Meat. — The process of salting meat is so well 
 known that a description of it is scarcely required here. It is, 
 however, necessary to observe that, while in the main it is carried 
 out by subjecting flesh to the action of salt — -with or without 
 saltpetre — in its ordinary condition, or by macerating it in a strong 
 (often a saturated) solution {brine) of these ingredients, it is 
 sometimes effected in a much more rapid manner by means of 
 irrigation, i.e., by forcing or injecting brine into the flesh by the 
 aid of a syringe constructed for the purpose. 
 
SALTED OR PICKLED MEATS. 161 
 
 In some districts "Sweet Pickling" is more largely practised, 
 i.e., molasses or common sugar, or an admixture of these, is mixed 
 with the saline materials, while in other cases spice is added to the 
 substances used for pickling — the last process is carried out more 
 largely in the preparation of pressed beef than in the preservation 
 of corned beef or other flesh. 
 
 Flesh or Fish intended for preservation by either of the above 
 mentioned methods should be carefully dressed, perfectly healthy, 
 and quite fresh, and where practicable, should be subjected to 
 the operation of " boning," or if not boned means should be taken 
 to ensure that the preservative material is brought into contact 
 with the bones. The flesh of diseased animals, or the flesh of 
 animals that have been subjected to great excitement or to over- 
 exertion, is not fit for preservation. The flesh of pigs affected 
 with measles will not absorb salt or any other preservative 
 material. 
 
 Evidence of imperfect preservation can, in some cases, be 
 obtained by a superficial examination only, but in others it is 
 necessary to make deep incisions, especially into parts contiguous 
 to bone, before such evidence is obtainable. Thus it will 
 frequently be found that imperfectly preserved materials, par- 
 ticularly pig's feet, bacon, &c, have a slimy aspect and are slimy 
 to the touch, and while in this condition they are not so danger- 
 ous to health as when putrefaction has set in, they are, neverthe- 
 less, totally unfit for human food. In cases where there is evolved 
 from the cut surface a putrefactive or sulphurous odour, the flesh 
 should unhesitatingly be condemned. 
 
 Looking at the immense trade carried on in such preparations 
 as preserved and tinned meats, it is, in my opinion, of the utmost 
 importance that a stricter watch than is now exercised should be 
 kept on such edibles, and I do not think it is going too far to 
 insist that those responsible for the health of the community 
 should be empowered, nay, instructed, to examine samples of 
 
l62 PTOMAINES. 
 
 every consignment of such articles before they are admitted to our 
 food markets; and further, I am of opinion that equally strict 
 watch should be kept on home-made articles of this class. 
 
 As I have before indicated, prepared meats offer a ready means 
 of using up animal flesh of doubtful character, but more than 
 this, owing to imperfect preparation and preservation, chemical 
 products of a poisonous nature are frequently developed in them. 
 This fact has been known to chemists for a considerable period, 
 Liebig having described these poisons in sausages more than 
 thirty years ago as being of the nature of acids; they have been 
 largely looked upon as of a fungoid (mould) nature, and while 
 certain mould fungi (penicillium and aspergillus) undoubtedly 
 possess pathogenic properties, poisoning by such is not very 
 likely to occur in face of the palpable presence of mould in the 
 articles to be consumed. In 1880 a case of wholesale poisoning 
 by beef and ham sandwiches occurred at Welbeck, and the pro- 
 minent symptoms were those of a grave intestinal lesion, in fact 
 they were of a distinctly choleraic type. Again, in 1881, a some- 
 what similar occurrence took place at Nottingham, the medium in 
 this case being baked pork. In both these instances Klein found 
 a spore-bearing bacillus, which has been figured in his " Micro- 
 organisms and Diseases," and by the aid of feeding experiments, 
 and by inoculation in dogs, cats, and other animals, positive proof 
 was obtained that those organisms were the active agents in the 
 production of the malady from which the consumers of the edibles 
 in question suffered. But while the nature of these outbreaks was 
 so satisfactorily demonstrated, numbers of similar instances occur 
 in which no such organisms have been discovered, and in these 
 poisoning is attributed to the presence of a series of poisons 
 identical in character with the alkaloids obtained from plants, and 
 known as Ptomaines. 
 
 Ptomaines are produced during the process of putrefaction in 
 vegetable and animal matters, and possess different properties 
 
Fia. 10.— Section of Sternum of Ox, showing Tubercular Masses in the 
 Structure of the Bone. 
 
 a, a, a. Tubercular Masses, 
 ft. b. Bone. 
 r. c. Cartijage. 
 
 d. Section through a Costal Cartilage. 
 
 e. Muscle. 
 
 '■' v > 
 B 7 •'J? 
 
 "War II ,.;• 
 f- iff/ * 
 
 
 
 Fio. 20.— Miliary Tubercle of Pleura. 
 Piece of long— external view— with the grape-like masses of Miliary Tubercle 
 connected together by fibrinous bands. 
 
DR. LAUDER BRUNTON ON PTOMAINES. 163 
 
 according to the source from which they are derived ; thus, in 
 some cases, tetanic symptoms are produced by them, in others 
 conditions allied to scarlatina, and in others again, choleraic 
 symptoms. It is now recognised that these principles are the 
 products of micro-organisms. 
 
 Seeing that the subject of Ptomaines is one of such great 
 importance, I have felt myself justified in transcribing the follow- 
 ing extracts from lectures (The Croonian) recently delivered by 
 Dr. Lauder Brunton, and published in the British Medical 
 Journal Tor June 15th and 22nd 1889 : — 
 
 " Ptomaines, &>c. — For a good while the microbes were looked 
 upon as directly causing disease by affecting the tissues of the 
 patient, but now, since chemical investigation has been applied to 
 the processes of disease and the products of putrefaction and 
 fermentation, we are beginning to look upon many of the symptoms 
 which occur in consequence of the action of microbes as being 
 due not to their direct action upon the tissues, but to their indirect 
 action in forming poisons : to regard, in fact, the symptoms they 
 produce as bearing a similar relation to the microbes as the symp- 
 toms of intoxication do to the yeast plant. This plant, when 
 introduced into the body, does not produce intoxication. It is 
 the alcoholic products of its action upon saccharine fluids which 
 make a man drunk. 
 
 "Panum's Researches. — In 1856, Panum demonstrated that the 
 poison which occurs in putrefying meat is a chemical substance 
 and not a living organism, although it may be formed by 
 organisms, for he was able to boil it for eleven hours, and then 
 to dry it completely at boiling heat without destroying its poison- 
 ous properties. He showed that the symptoms produced by the 
 putrid poison were different from those produced by various 
 ammoniacal salts — leucine and tyrosine — which he administered 
 to the animals for the purpose of comparison. He was uncertain 
 whether the poison acted like an alkaloid, such as strychnine, 
 
164 PTOMAINES. 
 
 directly upon the nervous system, or whether it acted upon the 
 blood, causing decomposition in it, and leading to the production 
 of substances which poison the nerve centres. At all events, he 
 felt sure that it did not act like an ordinary ferment, such as 
 pepsin or ptyalin, for it was not destroyed like them by prolonged 
 boiling. 
 
 " Selmis Researches. — In 1870, Selmi brought prominently for- 
 ward the chemical nature of the poisonous products which resulted 
 from the decomposition of albuminous matters by microbes. He 
 concluded that their actions might resemble those of the vegetable 
 alkaloids, but he did not separate or identify any individual sub- 
 stance although he gave the whole class the name of ptomaines. 
 
 "Cholera and Muscarine Poisoning. — In 1873 I read a paper 
 before the British Association at Bradford, in which I pointed out 
 the striking resemblance which exists between the symptoms of 
 cholera and those of poisoning by muscarine ; and I suggested 
 atropine as a possible remedy in cases of cholera, on account of 
 its remarkable power to antagonise muscarine ; I came to no con- 
 clusion regarding the exact nature of the cholera poison, nor did 
 I distinguish between microbes or actual alkaloids which might 
 be present in it. 
 
 " Bacteriology and Chemistry. — Since that time the researches 
 of Koch, and the methods he has introduced, have given an 
 enormous impetus to the study of bacteriology; and the isolation 
 by Nencke of a definite ptomaine, and the discovery of many 
 more by Brieger, has put the chemistry of putrefaction on an 
 entirely new basis. 
 
 " The Relation of Microbes to Disease. — In discussing the rela- 
 tion of microbes to disease, we may consider, first, the microbes 
 themselves outside the body, and the poisons they may produce ; 
 secondly, the microbes themselves, and the poisons they may 
 form in the intestinal canal ; and, thirdly, the action of microbes 
 or their products when actually circulating in the blood or present 
 
DR. LAUDER BRUNTON ON PTOMAINES. 165 
 
 in the tissues. It is, of course, a question not only of great 
 theoretical interest, but one likely to be of great practical import- 
 ance — Do the microbes break up the albuminous substances or 
 hydro-carbons which they attack by means of their actual proto- 
 plasmic structure, or do they, like the higher animals, secrete 
 organic ferments or enzymes, by means of which the disintegra- 
 tion is actually carried on ? 
 
 "Mode in which Microbes attack Protoplasm. — It is evident 
 that if the decomposition of albumen, starch, or fat, for example, 
 is due to the actual protoplasm of the living microbes, it will at 
 once cease if these microbes be killed, but if it is dependent on 
 a ferment which is secreted by the microbes, it may continue to a 
 certain, though limited, extent after they have been destroyed, just 
 as the pepsin which is secreted by the stomach of a pig may carry 
 on digestion after the pig itself has been killed. This question 
 was investigated by Kiihne in 1877. He came to the conclusion 
 that the fermentative action of bacteria was not the same as that 
 of the pancreas, and he did not succeed in isolating any ferment 
 by extracting bacteria with water or glycerine, as he would have 
 done on treating a pancreas. 
 
 " Microbes and Ferments. — The probability that microbes formed 
 ferments seemed so great, however, that I thought it worth while 
 to take up the question again. The difficulty of such a research, 
 and the time required to make the necessary experiments, com- 
 pletely prevented me from attempting to do it alone, but I have 
 been so fortunate as to secure the co-operation of Dr. Alan 
 Macfadyen, whose skill in experimenting has enabled us to get 
 some positive and interesting results. 
 
 "The object of the inquiry was to ascertain whether (1) 
 microbes act upon the soil upon which they grow by means of 
 a ferment ; and (2) whether such a ferment can be isolated and 
 its action shown apart from the microbes which produce it, in 
 the same way that the ferments of the stomach and pancreas 
 
j66 PTOMAINES. 
 
 can be separated from the cells by which they are originally 
 secreted. The results of the inquiry show that bacteria liquefy 
 gelatine by means of an enzyme which can be isolated, and which 
 will continue to act after the microbes have been destroyed. Like 
 the ferments of the pancreas, this enzyme acts most readily in 
 alkaline solutions. Bacteria seem to have the power of adapting 
 themselves to the soil on which they grow, and of manufacturing 
 a ferment suitable to their needs, for the same bacilli, when grown 
 in starch paste instead of on gelatine or in beef-tea, produced a 
 different ferment, which would convert starch into sugar, but 
 would not act upon gelatine. 
 
 "After we had been occupied with this research for several 
 months we learned that similar results had been obtained by 
 Bitter, who has found that Koch's cholera bacillus produces in 
 meat peptone a peptonising ferment which is quite distinct from 
 the bacillus itself, and continues active after the bacillus itself is 
 destroyed, and similar results have also been obtained by Stem- 
 berg. This ferment resembled pancreatin rather than pepsin by 
 acting more vigorously in alkaline than in acid solutions. We 
 have not seen the original work of Bitter and Sternberg, and know 
 it only from a brief abstract.* The difficulty of such investigation 
 is so great that, however carefully the experiments may have been 
 made, there is always a natural hesitation to accept the results of 
 any observers till they have been confirmed by others. At the 
 same time I believe that the results are substantially correct ; and 
 one point that comes out in the experiments is that the microbes 
 themselves may be destroyed by a temperature which does not 
 destroy the activity of the ferment which they have formed. 
 
 "Relation of the Ferments formed by Microbes to poisoning by 
 Meat. — The practical application of these results in regard to the 
 prevention of disease is that they seem to show that meat which 
 
 * Ptomaines and Leucomaines. By Victor C. Vaughan and Frederick G. 
 Novy. Philadelphia : Leay Bros, and Co. 1888. P. 96. 
 
DR. LAUDER BRUNTON ON PTOMAINES. 167 
 
 has become tainted by the presence of putrefactive microbes may 
 possibly be cooked sufficiently to destroy the microbes themselves, 
 while the ferments they have formed continued to decompose the 
 meat, and gave rise to poisonous substances. We can thus see 
 how a cold beefsteak pie, or other cold meat, may become 
 poisonous and produce serious symptoms, although the same 
 food may have been eaten with impunity immediately after being 
 cooked; for during the process of slowly cooling, poisons may 
 have been formed in the meat, although there may have been 
 none in it immediately after it had been removed from the oven, 
 and any microbes present were likely to have been killed by the 
 cooking. The frequency with which meat very slightly tainted 
 must be eaten in summer, and the common rule of not eating 
 game at all until it is somewhat 'high,' as it is termed, makes 
 one rather wonder why poisoning by ptomaines formed in such 
 meat and game does not occur more frequently, although I 
 believe that it occurs, in a slight degree, more frequently than 
 people are generally willing to allow. 
 
 " Explanation of the Danger of Diseased Meat. — Some very 
 interesting experiments by Bocklisch may perhaps explain this 
 rarity of ptomaine poisoning. In experimenting with pure 
 cultivations of the vibrio proteus, better known as ' Finkler's 
 bacillus,' he found that it did not seem to produce any poisonous 
 substances, although it occurs in the dejecta of patients who have 
 been suffering from sporadic cholera, and is supposed to cause 
 the disease. It occurred to him, however, that it is never 
 present in the human intestine as a pure cultivation, and that 
 possibly the presence of another bacillus along with it might cause 
 the formation of the poisonous products in sporadic cholera. He 
 therefore mixed some other putrefactive bacteria with it, and found 
 that the mixed bacilli formed the highly poisonous substance 
 methyl-guanidine. 
 
 '" In the same way, it seemed not unlikely that cases of acute 
 
168 PTOMAINES. 
 
 poisoning by meat or game may be due to the accidental presence 
 of more than one kind of bacillus, leading to the formation of 
 specially poisonous products. More especially is this likely to 
 be the case if one of them is a pathogenic microbe, which has 
 already produced disease in the beast or bird yielding the meat, 
 and a certain amount of decomposition of its tissues before its 
 death. 
 
 " Practical Bearings of our knowledge of Ptomaines. 
 
 " High Game. — The practical outcome of the facts I have just 
 brought before you is, that there may be very great danger indeed 
 of poisoning by alkaloidal substances formed in meat by its 
 decomposition. Yet we know that while tainted beef is strongly 
 objected to, high venison is looked upon as a delicacy, and 
 the experiments of Bocklisch indicate that very probably the 
 presence of two kinds of bacteria may be the cause of poisons 
 being formed. 
 
 " Tainted Meat. — Tracing the question a step further, we ask : 
 How are the two kinds of microbes likely to be present ? And 
 the simplest explanation is that the dangerous meat may have 
 been got from a diseased animal, and the microbes present in its 
 tissues may, by combining their action with that of ordinary putre- 
 factive bacilli, have caused the formation of the deadly poisons. 
 If this should be found to be the fact, it will clearly explain the 
 necessity of avoiding, as unfit for use, the flesh of animals suffering 
 even from the very earliest stage of acute disease. 
 
 " Action of Microbes in the Intestine. — Having considered the 
 relation between disease and microbes living outside the body, we 
 now come to discuss their action when they are taken into the 
 intestinal canal, or applied to some absorbing surface such as that 
 of a wound. 
 
 " Microbes in the Intestine. — Bacteria abound in the intestine 
 
DR. LAUDER BRUNTON ON PTOMAINES. 169 
 
 even in health, and some have thought that they might even aid 
 the digestive juices in breaking up the food. It is quite likely 
 that they aid in breaking up the food, but whether they do so with 
 any advantage to the organism may be somewhat questionable. 
 They tend to split up the products of pancreatic digestion further 
 than the pancreatic ferment would, and one of the substances to 
 which they give rise is indol. This body has an antiseptic action, 
 and belongs to the aromatic series, members of which, as I shall 
 afterwards have to show, have a very marked action upon the 
 liver. In the intestine it becomes converted into indican, which 
 is absorbed and excreted in the urine. 
 
 " Poisons formed during Digestion. — The presence of bacteria 
 is not necessary for the production of poisonous alkaloids in the 
 intestine, for fibrin digested with pepsin yields a substance to 
 which its discoverer, Brieger, has given the name of peptotoxine. 
 This substance belongs to the aromatic series, and I shall have 
 again to refer to it when speaking of the action of drugs upon the 
 liver. It causes drowsiness and feebleness, and may possibly be 
 the cause of these symptoms in some cases of indigestion, but it 
 causes no diarrhoea. 
 
 " Diarrhoea is, however, one of the most prominent symptoms 
 produced by neurine, choline, and muscarine. Two other alkaloids 
 — mydaleine, and another not yet named — which Brieger 
 isolated from putrefying livers and spleens, have a still more 
 powerful purgative action, producing almost continuous and fatal 
 diarrhoea. 
 
 " In all probability much of the diarrhoea which occurs, 
 especially in children, after the use of milk, is due to the 
 formation of tyrotoxicon, or other more or less poisonous 
 products, by decomposition of the milk in the intestine itself. 
 One of the most fruitful sources of diarrhoea in children is 
 certainly the use of feeding bottles with long tubes, which are 
 generally imperfectly cleaned, so that even when the milk is 
 
i 7 o PTOMAINES. 
 
 put quite fresh into the bottle, it becomes inoculated with bacteria 
 before it reaches the child's stomach, where the temperature 
 is just right for their rapid multiplication and the decomposition 
 of the milk. The difference between the chances of a child 
 fed at the breast and in this way is enormous, for in the 
 former case the milk flows free from germs directly into the 
 child's mouth, and the risk of bacterial inoculation is greatly 
 diminished. 
 
 "Indeed, Andeer finds that in cows there is an antiseptic 
 substance, resorcin, present in the udder, as if for the purpose of 
 rendering the milk not only aseptic but antiseptic. 
 
 " The possibility of contamination in the child's mouth itself 
 suggests the advisability for careful supervision in regard to the 
 cleanliness of things put into it, even though it only be the 
 mother's fingers or a teething ring. 
 
 " There can be, I think, little doubt that choleraic diarrhoea, 
 Asiatic cholera, and typhoid fever, are all due to microbes, 
 although bacteriologists may not have definitely settled the nature 
 of the microbe in each case. In choleraic diarrhoea and cholera 
 it is probable that the microbe acts to a great extent indirectly 
 upon the organism, by simply producing poisons in the 
 intestine." 
 
 It must be borne in mind that in some cases poisonous 
 properties are imparted to tinned meats by the action of their 
 juices upon the metals in which they are encased, and further, 
 that the poison of sausages, black puddings, saveloys, and similar 
 delicacies may reside, not in their substance, but in their envelopes, 
 and I am given to understand that a mineral poison is sometimes 
 used in the preparation of the latter. In the case of black 
 puddings, another and a greater danger may arise — viz., the possi- 
 bility that the animal from which the blood has been obtained has 
 been the subject of anthrax or septicaemia. 
 
 Obviously, the most reasonable advice to give in reference to 
 
SALTED OR PICKLED MEATS. 171 
 
 such foods is that they should be carefully examined before they 
 are eaten, and that they should, so far as is practicable, be sub- 
 jected to a thorough process of cooking. According to Captain 
 Stacpole, much may be learned as to the condition of the con- 
 tents of a tin by the state of the tin itself. "If the meat has 
 been improperly tinned, or if the slightest aperture exists in the 
 tin or the solder, the contents will almost certainly be in a state 
 of putrefaction, and as a result of this process gas will be dis- 
 engaged, and this will give rise to a hollow or drum-like sound 
 when the tin is struck with a solid body, in place of its being 
 non-resonant.'' 
 
 "A hollow sound will also be produced if the tin has been 
 imperfectly filled, but in this case the lid is generally depressed 
 in the centre owing to the pressure of the atmosphere." 
 
 In reference to fish, I have been long acquainted with the fact, 
 and have been in the habit for many years of impressing it on the 
 members of my class, that in dogs, especially at seaside resorts, 
 septic forms of poisoning and choleraic conditions were more fre- 
 quently produced by the devouring of partially putrefied fish than 
 by any other kind of animal matter. I am strongly and distinctly 
 of opinion that all fish in which evidence of putrefactive change 
 exists should be unhesitatingly condemned for the purposes of 
 human food. 
 
LEGISLATION IN REFERENCE TO THE 
 CONSUMPTION OF ANIMAL FLESH, FISH, &c. 
 
 IN dealing with this part of my subject I shall, in the first place, 
 make a few remarks in reference to the officials appointed 
 to carry out the duties of inspectors. 
 
 In the Four Bovine Scourges, 1879, P- 2 ° 2 > * as]i tne question 
 — "Is the inspection of meat in proper hands?" and in answer 
 thereto I say : — " In the great majority of instances, inspectors of 
 meat are chosen from butchers, farmers, or those employed 
 officially, in some other capacity, about slaughter-houses, any * 
 doubt that may exist as to the sanitary or insanitary condition of 
 meat being usually referred to the medical officer of health for 
 solution ; and while I am free to confess that many inspectors 
 (who know nothing whatever of disease) attain, in the course of 
 time, to a vast amount of practical knowledge and sound tact, 
 there are very many who are absolutely ignorant of the rules 
 necessary to guide them in their work, or of the evil effects of 
 unhealthy flesh. Medical men, too — some of whom, be it said 
 to their honour, do not dabble in matters which they do not 
 comprehend — are ill qualified to judge of the fitness or unfitness 
 of animal flesh for human consumption, as they are, in the very 
 great majority of instances, totally unacquainted with the char- 
 acters of animal diseases and the effects of any particular malady 
 upon the tissues of the body. Veterinary surgeons, as they are 
 trained, or should be trained, at the present day, are, in my 
 opinion, the proper consulters as to the condition of flesh from 
 
VETERINARY OFFICERS FOR SANITARY BOARDS. 173 
 
 animals that hafte suffered from any pronounced form of disease." 
 I have frequently, since that time, directed public attention to 
 the anomalous conditions under which the inspection of meat is 
 carried out in this country. Thus, at a meeting of the Royal 
 Scottish Veterinary Society, held in Edinburgh in March 1888, 
 I said, in the course of my inaugural address as President of the 
 Society, and again in a paper on the Inspection of Meat, read 
 before the members of the Sanitary Association of Scotland, held 
 in Glasgow, in June 1888, that, " In the vast majority of instances, 
 the system of inspection and condemnation of meat, and of milk 
 too, for that matter, is a bad one, inasmuch as it is largely entrusted 
 to individuals who have had no special training to fit them for the 
 office they have to perform, and who have no knowledge of the 
 nature of disease or of its effects upon animals, or through them 
 upon man. Lay inspectors are of the greatest possible use, and 
 their services cannot be dispensed with, but their functions should 
 be more those of detectives than of experts ; and I am quite satis- 
 fied that a greater measure of justice would be meted out to all 
 parties concerned if lay inspectors of abattoirs and markets were 
 instructed to seize and retain the carcases and organs of all 
 diseased animals that may come under their notice, and submit 
 them to the inspection of a competent Sanitary Board, whose 
 decision as to the disposal thereof should be final. The composi- 
 tion of this Sanitary Board should, in all equity and reasonable- 
 ness, be the medical officer of health, the veterinary officer, and 
 the senior inspector of markets or slaughter-houses." 
 
 The opinions expressed in the above quotations are those I still 
 hold. Medical officers of health exercise an important function 
 in relation to the physical well-being of the community, but I am 
 afraid some of them entertain too high an opinion of their fitness 
 to carry out, unaided, duties, the fulfilment of which appertains 
 as strongly, and in some senses more strongly, to veterinary 
 practitioners, and that not only in reference to flesh, but also in 
 
i 74 LEGISLATION. 
 
 reference to live animals. A striking proof of this was afforded a 
 few years ago by the action of the medical officer of health in one 
 of our northern cities. This gentleman not only considered that 
 he was the proper person to carry out the ordinary duties of his 
 office, but that he was alone fitted to act as an inspector of dairies 
 and of the markets and the abattoir, and he even went so far as 
 to publicly declare that veterinary surgeons knew nothing of such 
 matters. Happily, there are few members of the sister profession 
 to be found who are ready to endorse such opinions. I am quite 
 prepared to acknowledge that cases every now and again arise in 
 which the medical man is right, the veterinary surgeon wrong, and 
 it is always a source of great pain to me when such antagonisms 
 arise. Seeing that the primary aim of the members of both pro- 
 fessions is to conserve the health of the animal and of the human 
 population, it is surely not too much to ask that they should 
 work in unison in order to accomplish the desired end, hence the 
 proposal made above in reference to the appointment of Sanitary 
 Boards so far as the condemnation or otherwise of animal flesh is 
 concerned. 
 
 In an " Act to amend the Nuisances Removal Act for England 
 with respect to the seizure of Diseased and Unwholesome Meat," 
 which Act was subsequently extended to Ireland, is the following 
 clause : — " The medical officer of health or inspector of nuisances 
 may at all reasonable times inspect and examine any animal . . . 
 exposed for sale, or deposited in any place for the purpose of 
 sale, or of preparation for sale, and intended for the food of 
 man .... and in case any such animal .... appear 
 to him to be diseased, or unsound, or unwholesome, or unfit 
 for the food of man, it shall be lawful for such medical officer 
 of health, or .... in order to have the same dealt with by 
 a Justice, inspector of nuisances, to seize, take, and carry away 
 the same; and if it shall appear to the Justice that any such 
 animal .... is diseased, or unsound, or unwholesome, or 
 
INSPECTION OF LIVE ANIMALS. 175 
 
 unfit for the food of man, he shall order the same to be destroyed," 
 &c. &c. A suggestion was recently made by the medical officer 
 of health to the city of Edinburgh (Dr. Littlejohn) that the provi- 
 sions of the above Act should be extended to Scotland, and 
 when my opinion was asked as to the advisability or otherwise of 
 adopting this suggestion, I made enquiries in reference to the 
 working of this clause in three of the largest cities in England, 
 viz., Liverpool, Birmingham, and Newcastle-on-Tyne, and I found 
 that the power so given was never exercised, and that, too, for the 
 obvious reason that the officers in question did not feel themselves 
 competent, nor was it a part of their duty to exercise such a func- 
 tion ; and it must be further obvious to all unbiassed minds that 
 such a procedure would lead to no end of litigation and conten- 
 tion. A striking commentary on the absurdity of this proposition 
 was afforded at the meeting of the British Medical Association 
 held in Glasgow in July of last year, when in the course of a 
 discussion carried on in the section of Public Health, on " The 
 Communicable Diseases of Man and Animals and their relation- 
 ships," I ventured to ask from those present if they considered 
 that medical officers of health and inspectors of nuisances were 
 the proper persons to exercise such a function ; the answer was 
 an emphatic "no" from nearly all those present, the President, 
 Dr. Littlejohn, being more emphatic than any other member of 
 the section. In many of the large towns and cities of England 
 and Scotland the ordinary inspectors of markets and abattoirs, 
 and sanitary inspectors, are instructed by the Municipal Authorities 
 to submit all questions as to the unwholesomeness or otherwise of 
 flesh, &c, to the veterinary officer for inspection, and if it is 
 thought necessary, to the medical officer of health, and with this 
 proceeding I cordially concur. In a very few instances veterinary 
 surgeons are appointed as superintendents of slaughter-houses, 
 and recently the Edinburgh authorities have appointed two 
 veterinary surgeons as sub-inspectors of markets, and I hope this 
 
i 7 6 LEGISLATION. 
 
 enlightened and progressive action on their part will be followed 
 in due course by the adoption of still more decided steps in the 
 same direction all over the country. It is gratifying, too, to find 
 that some of the leading medical journals have recently advocated 
 the adoption of similar measures. 
 
 The Inspection of Live Animals exposed for sale for the purposes 
 of human food is on a very unsatisfactory footing in this country. 
 I have persistently directed attention to this matter for years 
 past, but hitherto my efforts have not been rewarded. Every 
 year thousands of animals — cattle, sheep, and pigs — obviously 
 diseased, are exposed in public marts and markets for sale for 
 human food, and no person possesses the power (in Scotland, at 
 least) to prevent them being sold for this purpose; and, as has 
 already been shown, the powers possessed by medical officers of 
 health and inspectors of nuisances in England are not exercised. 
 The Contagious Diseases (Animals) Act gives veterinary inspectors 
 power to seize all animals which they have reason to believe are 
 affected with contagious disease, but in such cases the local 
 authorities are bound to give compensation if on post-mortem 
 examination no such disease is found to exist. In the same way, 
 no animal can be removed from a byre except under similar con- 
 ditions ; and, as shown in the article on Tuberculosis, this is the 
 gravest blot on our legislative efforts in reference to the trans- 
 mission of disease from animals to man. Veterinary inspectors 
 should be invested with the power of seizing all live animals that 
 are obviously unfit for human food, whether as the result of 
 disease or poverty, and in the absence of the veterinary inspector, 
 other officials, as market inspectors or police officers, should be 
 empowered to take charge of, and detain such animals, pending 
 his arrival. By the Rules and Regulations of the Edinburgh 
 Slaughter-houses, the superintendent is charged with the duty of 
 isolating any animal which is brought in apparently diseased, until 
 it can be inspected by competent judges. Such a rule is of 
 
SEIZURE AND CONDEMNATION OF CARCASES. 177 
 
 greater importance as applying to markets and fairs, than to 
 slaughter-houses, as in the latter case, animals are seldom allowed 
 to leave the premises alive, and, consequently, an opportunity is 
 afforded the officials of detecting disease on post-mortem examina- 
 tion ; but in the former case, no person can ever prophesy what 
 may be the ultimate destination of such animals when bought, as 
 they usually are, by unscrupulous dealers or butchers. 
 
 It may be urged, and it has been so urged, that in the event of 
 such power as is above indicated being exercised, the consignors 
 or exposers of such animals should receive compensation therefor, 
 seeing that compensation is given for animals suffering from con- 
 tagious disease; but there is no force in this argument, as the 
 suppression of contagious diseases is a national question, and the 
 sufferer is, as a rule, in no way responsible for their introduction 
 into his flocks or herds. But sporadic diseases are frequently the 
 result of mismanagement and neglect, and in any case, when the 
 owner of an animal, the carcase of which may be reasonably con- 
 sidered fit for food, allows that animal — as is done in thousands of 
 instances — to linger on for weeks and months until, either as the 
 result of the processes of disease, or as the result of wasting, 
 its flesh becomes absolutely unfit for all edible purposes, he 
 deserves to suffer any loss that may accrue from his reprehensible 
 conduct. 
 
 Not only should power be given to inspectors to seize animals 
 exposed in markets and other places, they should have full power 
 to seize all cows that may be found obviously affected with disease 
 in byres, or to effectually isolate them until health is restored. 
 There are many forms of disease in which lactation is not 
 arrested, but in which the quality of the milk is impaired, or in 
 which it becomes absolutely nocuous, especially when consumed, 
 as is largely the case, in an uncooked state ; and from my own 
 knowledge, I am prepared to state that milk from sick animals is 
 not always thrown away by the dairyman, unless it has undergone 
 
I7 8 LEGISLATION. 
 
 such important changes as to manifestly contaminate any other 
 milk with which it may be mixed. 
 
 The Seizure and Condemnation of Diseased Carcases or Diseased 
 Meat in Markets or Shops or in Slaughter-houses is a wide question, 
 and one demanding the fullest consideration ; and in order that 
 any steps that may be taken in this direction may be effectual in 
 protecting the public against the injurious influences of such flesh, 
 certain preliminary steps are necessary in reference to the reporting 
 of case's of disease, and the abolition of all private slaughter- 
 houses. I have for years urged, and have been successful in 
 several instances in getting public bodies to pass a resolution to 
 the effect that all private slaughter-houses, except those that are 
 licensed in country districts, should be abolished; and that a 
 properly qualified inspector should be attached to all abattoirs, or 
 be appointed to every rural district in the kingdom. In London 
 an attempt is now being made by the authorities to effect the 
 changes above recommended. 
 
 I have also expressed the opinion, and have here to reiterate it 
 more strongly than ever before, that all owners of cattle should be 
 compelled to report every case of disease or of death to properly 
 constituted authorities. The same rule could scarcely be applied 
 to sheep, seeing that the deaths in these animals are sometimes 
 very numerous ; but in all cases where the owners of slaughtered 
 animals intend that the carcases thereof shall be consumed by 
 the members of their own families, or shall be disposed of to their 
 neighbours for consumption, inspection by some competent person 
 should be carried out; and in the event of the owners of such 
 carcases not being desirous of so disposing of them, but rather to 
 forward them to some neighbouring city or town for sale, they 
 should be compelled to consign them to the public abattoir, or to 
 a receiving house established for the purpose, there to be submitted 
 to inspection ; and failing compliance with such a regulation, they 
 should be prosecuted with the utmost rigour of the law. It may 
 
SEIZURE AND CONDEMNATION OF CARCASES. 179 
 
 be said that such a procedure would involve municipalities in 
 heavy expenses ; but it is questionable whether the fat, bones, 
 and manure, if the matter were properly managed, would not only 
 cover any expenses that, might be incurred in so dealing with 
 carcases, but also leave a tolerable margin for profit ; and even 
 if this were not the case, a small fee could be demanded for every 
 carcase so consigned. Amongst the rules in force at the Mussel- 
 burgh slaughter-house there is one which provides for the inspec- 
 tion of any doubtful animal or carcase of an animal (in reference 
 to which a declaration is made that it is intended for human food) 
 by a veterinary surgeon, to be employed at the instance of the 
 party who claims the animal or carcase ; or in case the owner 
 refuses to employ a veterinary surgeon the superintendent is 
 empowered to do so. In the former event a fee of five shillings 
 to the veterinary surgeon is fixed, which fee is paid by the owner 
 if the carcase is condemned, and by the authorities if it is passed ; 
 but in the latter event, a prosecution follows the condemnation of 
 the animal or the carcase, as being unfit for human food. 
 
 If the veterinary surgeons were officially connected with all 
 slaughter-houses — whether as superintendents or as inspectors — 
 such a rule as that just quoted would not be required. 
 
 In reference to the legislative powers conferred upon sanitary 
 authorities and others for the purpose of enabling them to deal 
 with the matter of Meat Inspection, I find that while there are 
 general legislative powers applicable to England and Ireland and 
 to Scotland, separately and respectively, individual municipalities 
 have succeeded, at different times, in obtaining the insertion of 
 special clauses bearing on the subject in Local Acts. 
 
 Thus Clauses 116, 117, 1 18 of the Public Health (England) 
 Act, 1875, run as follows : — 
 
 "116. Any medical officer or inspector of nuisances, may, at all 
 reasonable times, inspect and examine any animal, carcase, meat, 
 poultry, game, flesh, fish, fruit, vegetables, corn, bread, flour, or 
 
i8o LEGISLATION. 
 
 milk, exposed for sale, or deposited in any place for the purpose 
 of sale, or of preparation for sale, and intended for the food of 
 man, the proof that the same was not exposed or deposited for any 
 such purpose, or was not intended for. the food of man, resting 
 with the party charged ; and if any such animal, carcase, meat, 
 poultry, game, flesh, fish, fruit, vegetables, corn, bread, flour, or 
 milk, appears to such medical officer or inspector to be diseased, 
 or unsound, or unwholesome, or unfit for the food of man, he may 
 seize and carry away the same himself, or by an assistant, in order 
 to have the same dealt with by Justice. 
 
 "117. If it appears to the Justice that any animal, carcase, meat, 
 poultry, game, flesh, fish, fruit, vegetables, corn, bread, flour, or 
 milk, so seized is diseased, or unsound, or unwholesome, or unfit 
 for the food of man, he shall condemn the same, and order it to 
 be destroyed, or so disposed of as to prevent it from being exposed 
 for sale or used for the food of man ; and the person to whom the 
 same belongs, or did belong at the time of exposure for sale, or in 
 whose possession, or on whose premises the same was found, shall 
 be liable to a penalty not exceeding ^20 for every animal, carcase, 
 or fish, or piece of meat, flesh, or fish, or any poultry or game, or 
 for the parcel of fruit, vegetables, corn, bread, or flour, or for the 
 milk so condemned, or, at the discretion of the Justice, without 
 the infliction of a fine, to imprisonment for a term of not more 
 than three months. 
 
 " The Justice who, under this section, is empowered to convict 
 the offender, may be either the Justice who may have ordered the 
 article to be disposed of or destroyed, or any other Justice having 
 jurisdiction in the place. 
 
 "118. Any person who in any manner prevents any medical 
 officer of health or inspector of nuisances from entering any 
 premises and inspecting any animal, carcase, meat, poultry, game, 
 flesh, fish, fruit, vegetables, corn, bread, flour, or milk, exposed or 
 deposited for the purpose of sale, or of preparation for sale, and 
 
SEIZURE AND CONDEMNATION OF CARCASES. 181 
 
 intended for the food of man, or who obstructs or impedes any 
 such medical officer or inspector, or his assistant, when carrying 
 into execution the provisions of this Act, shall be liable to a 
 penalty not exceeding £$." 
 
 But seeing that this Act does not enable the authorities to deal 
 with articles after sale, the Newcastle-upon-Tyne Municipal 
 Authorities — as I am informed by Dr. Henry Armstrong, medical 
 officer of health — obtained the insertion of the following clause, 
 as a remedy to this defect, in the Newcastle-upon-Tyne Improve- 
 ment Act, 1882 : — 
 
 " Section 35. Section 117 (Power of Justice to order destruc- 
 tion of unsound meat, &c.) of 'The Public Health Act, 1875,' 
 shall extend and apply to every diseased, unsound, or unwhole- 
 some article of food, sold or exposed for sale, or deposited in any 
 place for the purpose of sale, or of preparation for sale, whether 
 such article be or be not seized and carried away, to be dealt 
 with by any Justice, or ordered by any Justice to be destroyed or 
 disposed of, as mentioned in such section : Provided that the 
 Justice before whom any complaint with respect to such article 
 of food is made be satisfied, on the evidence laid before him, that 
 such article of food was diseased, or unsound, or unwholesome, 
 or unfit for the food of man." 
 
 In Scotland the question of unsound meat is dealt with under 
 the Police and Improvement (Scotland) Act, 1862, 25 and 26 Vict., 
 cap. roi, sect. 272 ; but in Edinburgh it is most largely dealt 
 with, so far as markets, shops, and other similar places in which 
 meat is exposed for sale, under " The Edinburgh Municipal and 
 Police Act, 1879," the following clauses of which refer to the 
 subject : — 
 
 4. Diseased Meat. 
 
 "Clause 259. Every keeper, owner, or occupier of any 
 market, shop, stall, or other place for the sale of butcher meat, 
 
I g 2 LEGISLATION. 
 
 fish, or other provisions, and every cowfeeder who shall not, 
 at all hours during the day and night, allow the inspector of 
 markets or any constable access to such places for the due per- 
 formance of his duties, shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding 
 forty shillings. 
 
 " 260. The inspector of markets, or any constable, shall be 
 entitled to search any place in which there is reason to believe 
 that the carcase of any animal which shall have been smothered, 
 or shall have died of disease, is concealed, and if found, to 
 seize the same; and the person guilty of such concealment 
 shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding five pounds, or imprison- 
 ment for a period not exceeding twenty days, and the judge of 
 police shall order such carcase to be destroyed or otherwise 
 disposed of. 
 
 "261. Every person who shall sell, or expose to sale, or have 
 in his possession, as or for human food, the carcase or any 
 part of the carcase of any animal which shall appear to have 
 died of or been killed in consequence of disease, or any 
 butcher meat, fish, poultry, or other article of provision, of an 
 unsound or unwholesome description, or in a state unfit or 
 unsuitable for human food, shall be liable to a penalty not 
 exceeding twenty pounds, and the articles shall be forfeited and 
 disposed of as the judge of police shall direct ; and every person 
 who shall sell, or expose to sale, or have in his possession for 
 the purpose of sale, as or for human food, any blown, stuffed, or 
 pricked veal, lamb, or butcher meat, and every person who shall 
 sell or expose to sale any bull beef without having the words 
 'bull beef exhibited on a board in Roman letters of at least 
 three inches in length and of a proportionate breadth, over 
 the stall or place in which it shall be exposed to sale,, shall 
 be liable to a penalty not exceeding five pounds, and the articles 
 shall be forfeited and disposed of as the judge of police shall 
 direct." 
 
SEIZURE AND CONDEMNATION OF CARCASES. 183 
 
 It will be observed that in clause 261 a regulation exists as to 
 the sale of "bull beef" similar to that which is now in existence 
 in reference to the sale of horse flesh. 
 
 In reference to blown veal, I may observe that in March 1890 
 the carcases of about thirty Dutch calves were landed at Leith, and 
 they were subsequently conveyed to the Edinburgh city abattoir ; 
 the authorities, acting on the regulation referring to blown veal, 
 declined to allow the carcases to be sold within the precincts ot 
 the city, but permitted the consignee to send them elsewhere for 
 sale. That harm could arise from the consumption of such 
 carcases is very improbable, but the regulation is salutary and 
 necessary, as it is not pleasant (to say the least of it) to have the 
 breath of the slaughterers permeating the tissues of a carcase 
 intended for human food. 
 
 In 1882, the Dundee authorities obtained powers to enable 
 them to deal with the original sellers of unsound meat, drt. 
 
 Copy of Section 260 of the Dundee Police and 
 Improvement Consolidation Act, 1882. 
 
 " 260. Where any person is convicted by any Magistrate of 
 the offence of selling or exposing for sale, or of having or keeping 
 in any premises used for sale, any unsound or diseased animal 
 or diseased meat, or any animal or meat unfit for the food of 
 man, and intended for such food, it shall also be lawful for the 
 Procurator-Fiscal to proceed against the original seller of such 
 animal or meat as if he were an offender, art and part, with th e 
 convicted person, and as if he had committed such offence 
 within the burgh ; provided that such animal or meat were 
 unsound, or diseased, or unfit for the food of man at the time 
 of the sale thereof by such original seller to the convicted 
 person, and the purchase by the convicted person, or by anyone 
 on his behalf, from such original seller wheresoever made 
 
i8 4 LEGISLATION. 
 
 or carried out, shall be taken and held to be a sale by such 
 original seller of the animal or meat in question within the 
 burgh, in premises kept and used for the sale of animals or meat ; 
 and the penalty and punishment provided by this Act against 
 the person convicted shall also be applicable to, and be leviable 
 and recoverable from, such original seller ; and all the powers, 
 authorities, jurisdictions, and forms of procedure given and pro- 
 vided by this Act against the convicted person shall be applicable 
 to the prosecution, trial, and punishment of such original seller." 
 The above-quoted regulation is an admirable one, but it would 
 be enhanced in value if consignors were dealt with as well as 
 sellers. 
 
 For the purposes of dealing with unsound or unwholesome meat 
 in the slaughter-houses in Edinburgh, the following form a part of 
 the Rules and Regulations in force thereat : — 
 
 " Section 8. And be it enacted, That if any person shall have 
 in his booth or in his possession, in any place within the said 
 slaughter-houses, the carcase, or any part of the carcase, of any 
 animal which, in the opinion of two competent judges, shall have 
 died of disease, or which, in the opinion of two competent judges, 
 shall be unwholesome, unsound, or unmarketable, such person 
 shall be liable in a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds ; and 
 if any person shall have in his booth, or in his possession in 
 any place within the said slaughter-houses, any blown * or stuffed t 
 veal, lamb, or other butchers' meat, such person shall be liable in 
 a penalty not exceeding five pounds, and all such carcases and 
 others shall be forfeited and disposed of as the Magistrates shall 
 direct. 
 
 * i.e.. Blown up with air in order to give it a white colour and to hide 
 defects in condition. 
 
 t i.e., Any veal or lamb upon which or to which masses of fat from other 
 animals has been affixed for the purpose of giving lean flesh the appearance of 
 being in good condition. 
 
SEIZURE AND CONDEMNATION OF CARCASES. 185 
 
 " Section 9. And be it enacted, That it shall be the duty of 
 the superintendent of the said slaughter-houses, to be appointed 
 by the Magistrates and Council, to see that the regulations for 
 the said slaughter-houses are duly observed, and to search for 
 and seize all carcases, or parts of carcases, or any animals which 
 shall have died, or appear to have died of disease, or to be of an 
 unwholesome, unsound, or unmarketable description ; as also all 
 veal, lamb, or other butchers' meat, blown or stuffed, or apparently 
 blown or stuffed, wherever the same can be found within said 
 slaughter-houses, and to convey the same before the said 
 Magistrates, to be disposed of as they shall direct, for which 
 seizure this Act shall be his warrant ; and for this purpose it shall 
 be lawful to the said superintendent at all times, with or without 
 assistants, to enter into and inspect the booths and other places 
 within said slaughter-houses.'' 
 
 It will be observed that in all cases in the foregoing regula- 
 tions the round-about process of appealing to Magistrates, 
 Justices, or other administrators of the law, for the purpose of 
 securing the condemnation and destruction of the articles 
 seized, has to be gone through, and in order to obviate the 
 delay, trouble, and expense connected with such proceedings, a 
 very simple rule is in existence in Edinburgh, and is usually 
 adhered to by all the parties concerned, by which the owner of 
 a condemned carcase, or part of a carcase, consents to the same 
 being forfeited, and signs a formal declaration to that effect ; if, 
 however (which seldom happens), he refuses to do so, the 
 ordinary course of bringing the matter before the constituted 
 judges for settlement is followed, and it is always open to the 
 owner of such carcase, or part of a carcase, to challenge the 
 competency of the two competent judges referred to in Section 8, 
 
 as above quoted. 
 
 In some slaughter-houses there exists a rule to the effect 
 "That public jobbers— i.e., those employed and licensed by 
 
1 86 LEGISLA TION. 
 
 the authorities — are bound to report every case of disease to the 
 superintendent." This rule, however, does not apply in the case 
 of private jobbers (slaughter men) — i.e., those employed by 
 butchers themselves. I need scarcely observe that this is an 
 invidious distinction, and one pregnant of wrong-doing in the 
 way of concealment. 
 
 In the matter of the general management of slaughter-houses, 
 I have only to point out here that the strictest cleanliness in 
 the dressing of carcases should be enforced, and especially in 
 reference to the hands, clothes, and instruments and appliances 
 used by the operators, and that the system of emptying the 
 contents of the digestive organs on the floor of the houses, and 
 allowing the material to lie there for some time in close proximity 
 to the still warm carcases, should be entirely abolished. Further- 
 more, the strictest cleanliness in the matter of the hands and 
 clothes of those who have the conveyance of carcases from 
 place to place, and of the wrappers, baskets, hampers, 
 boxes, or vehicles in which they are so conveyed, should be 
 observed. 
 
 The following sections in the Edinburgh Municipal and Police 
 (Amendment) Act, 1891, dealing with diseased cows in byres are 
 of great importance, and no apology is needed for giving them a 
 place here : — ■ 
 
 " 26. Every person who, in any manner, prevents any inspector, 
 officer, or other person duly authorised or appointed by the 
 magistrates and council, or any constable from entering any 
 market, shop, stall, depot, or other premises, at all hours during 
 the day and night, and inspecting any carcase, meat, poultry, game, 
 flesh, fish, fruit, vegetables, corn, bread, flour, milk, butter, eggs, 
 or other article exposed or deposited for the purpose of sale, or of 
 preparation for sale, and intended for human consumption, or 
 who obstructs or impedes such inspector, officer or person or 
 
SEIZURE AND CONDEMNATION OF CARCASES. 187 
 
 constable in the due performance of his duties, shall be liable to 
 a penalty not exceeding five pounds. 
 
 "27. The medical officer of health, or any duly qualified 
 veterinary surgeon who may be appointed for that purpose by the 
 magistrates and council, may, from time to time, within reason- 
 able hours, enter any byre or cowshed within the city or wherever 
 situated, if the milk produced therein is being sent for sale within 
 the city, and may inspect and examine any cow kept therein for 
 the supply of milk, in order to determine whether such cow suffers 
 from any disease which might render the use of the said milk 
 dangerous or injurious to health. 
 
 " 28. Every owner of any cow kept within the city for the supply 
 of milk, or wherever kept if the milk is being sent for sale within 
 the city, and every person in charge of the same, shall render such 
 reasonable assistance to the medical officer of health, or to any 
 such veterinary surgeon who may be appointed as aforesaid, for 
 the purpose of inspection and examination, as may be required by 
 them, and any person refusing such assistance or obstructing the 
 inspection shall be liable in a penalty not exceeding five pounds, 
 and such penalty may be sued for and recovered by the prosecutor 
 before the sheriff of the county in which such person is domiciled. 
 " 29. Every dairyman or keeper of a byre or cowshed, whose 
 milk is sold within the city, who after intimation has been made 
 to him by the magistrates and council, or by the medical 
 officer of health, or by any person on behalf of the magistrates 
 and council, that any cow in his possession kept for the 
 supply of milk for human consumption suffers from tuber- 
 culosis, or any disease which might render the use of such milk 
 for human consumption dangerous or injurious to health, 
 shall retain such cow in his possession, shall, unless the 
 contrary be proved, be presumed to have sold the milk produced 
 by such cow for human consumption, and shall be liable in a 
 penalty not exceeding five pounds, and such penalty may be sued 
 
188 LEGISLATION. 
 
 for and recovered before the sheriff of the county in which such 
 person is domiciled, at the instance of the prosecutor. 
 
 " 30. Every person who knowingly sells, or suffers to be sold or 
 used for human consumption within the city, the milk of any cow 
 which is suffering from tuberculosis, or any disease which might 
 render the use of such milk dangerous or injurious to health, shall 
 be liable to a penalty not exceeding ten pounds for each offence, 
 and in any case where the person liable to a penalty under this 
 section is not resident within the city such penalty may be sued 
 for and recovered before the sheriff of the county at the instance 
 of the prosecutor.'' 
 
DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES ON PLATES. 
 
 Fig. ii. — The Bacillus Anthracis. — The bacillus of anthrax, 
 as it occurs in the blood, presents itself as a straight immobile rod 
 or cylinder with square cut ends. The dimensions of the single 
 rods are not uniform, but their average length may be stated 
 as about 3 to 6/1 (the diameter of a red blood corpuscle of the 
 ox is about 8 /*) and their breadth is about 1 /t. The rods are 
 frequently joined end to end to form chains. In the circulating 
 blood these chains seldom number more than three or four 
 elements, but in the capillaries of some organs, such as the lung 
 and kidney, the bacilli are frequently united to form long inter- 
 woven threads. The bacillary form is the only one under which 
 the anthrax organism presents itself in the blood during life, or 
 within the intact blood vessels of an animal recently dead. In 
 appropriate nutritive media freely exposed to the air (oxygen), 
 and maintained at a suitable temperature, the bacilli grow out 
 into long wavy filaments, in which at intervals clear refractile 
 spores subsequently make their appearance. By the dissolution 
 of such a filament the spores are set free, and these, under suitable 
 conditions of medium and temperature, give rise to a new genera- 
 tion of bacilli. 
 
 For purposes of diagnosis a droplet of blood (from the fresh 
 spleen if that is available) should be spread in a thin layer on a 
 cover-glass. If the spleen is not available, the droplet should be 
 taken from one of the systemic veins. In many cases the 
 immediate examination of the cover-glass preparation, without 
 
190 
 
 THE BACILLI. 
 
 previous staining, suffices, to bring into view the characteristic 
 bacilli, which appear as short hyaline cylinders between the blood 
 corpuscles. Any modern microscope magnifying 300 times will 
 suffice for this examination. To stain the bacilli the cover-glass 
 preparation ought to be allowed to dry in the air, and then passed 
 (film upwards) slowly through the flame of a spirit lamp or Bunsen 
 gas burner three times. The film is then to be treated with a few 
 drops of an aqueous solution of methyl blue. 
 
 After staining for half a minute the cover-glass must be washed 
 in water, dried, and mounted in Canada balsam dissolved in xylol 
 or benzol. By this method the bacilli are stained deep blue, while 
 the nuclei of white blood corpuscles and other animal cells are 
 stained light blue.' 
 
 Fig. 12. — The Bacillus of Black Quarter. — The organism of 
 black quarter, like that of anthrax, has a rod-like form, but it 
 differs from the latter in several notable respects. In the first 
 place its habitat is the muscular fibres and connective tissue of 
 the well-known emphysematous swellings. The bacilli are either 
 absent from the blood during life, or present so sparingly as to 
 escape microscopic observation. The individual rods are mobile, 
 more slender than those of anthrax, and rounded at the ends. 
 One of the extremities frequently contains a refractile spore and 
 is somewhat thicker than the other, thus giving to the entire 
 organism a club-like outline. For practical purposes of meat 
 inspection the characters of the bacillus are of little or no import- 
 ance, but where search is made for them an incision ought to be 
 made into the centre of the " tumour," and a cover-glass should 
 be rubbed on the freshly cut surface of the muscle. This ought 
 then to be treated with aqueous solution of methyl blue in the 
 manner above described in speaking of the anthrax bacillus. 
 
 Fig. 13. — The Actinomyces.— -The actinomyces, as it is most 
 commonly found in the lesions in cattle, is aggregated to form 
 minute granules distinctly visible to the naked eye. Each of 
 
ANTHRAX AND BLACK QUARTER. 191 
 
 these granules is composed in the main of club-shaped elements, 
 which are radially disposed with their narrow ends towards the 
 centre of the granule, and their broad ends outwards. The 
 surface of the intact granules has thus, when magnified, an appear- 
 ance comparable to that of a mulberry or the heart of a daisy. 
 Frequently no other formed elements than these clubs can be 
 made out in the granules, but sometimes the centre of the mass 
 is composed of intricately interwoven delicate filaments, some of 
 which are continuous with the narrow end of a club. Other 
 elements like cocci are sometimes dispersed through this 
 mycelium. 
 
 For purposes of diagnosis, a scraping from the cut surface of 
 the suspected tumour, or a small quantity of"pus, ought to be 
 spread in the usual way on a cover-glass. When dry it may be 
 stained with a drop or two of picro-carmine, the superfluous stain 
 being removed by means of blotting-paper. The cover-glass 
 ought then to be mounted with a drop of Farrant's solution or 
 glycerine, and examined in the first place with a low power 
 (x 60). The actinomyces granules, if present, will be seen 
 distinctly from their canary-yellow colour, the nuclei of the pus 
 or other animal cells being stained pink (carmine). The in- 
 dividual granules vary greatly in size and outline, and even with 
 this power the granular character of their surface and edges (caused 
 by the free ends of the club-like elements) may be discernible. 
 A single colony will show this very distinctly when examined 
 under a power of 300 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 14.— The Bacillus Tuberculosis.— -The germ of tubercle is 
 a slender rod from 2 to 5 /* long. The single rods are frequently 
 slightly curved, and when stained and highly magnified many of 
 them are distinctly granular in appearance, and have a finely 
 sinuous or beaded edge. Sometimes the stained bacilli exhibit 
 in their substance clear unstained points, which are considered to 
 be spores. The commonest mode of grouping of the bacilli is in 
 
192 THE BACILLI. 
 
 small bundles like a faggot of sticks, and more than two rods are 
 seldom or never found joined end to end. 
 
 For diagnostic purposes the suspected material (scraping, pus, 
 mucus, &c.) ought to be spread in a thin layer on a cover-glass in 
 the usual manner. When dry, pass the cover-glass three times 
 (film upwards) through the flame of a spirit lamp or Bunsen gas 
 burner. Pour a little of the following stain (Ziehl-Neelsen) into 
 a watch glass and warm it slightly over a flame : — 
 
 Fuchsin, i part (by weight) : 
 
 Absolute alcohol, 10 parts ; 
 
 5 per cent, solution of carbolic acid, in water, ioo parts. 
 Float the cover-glass, face downwards, on the stain for ten 
 minutes. At the end of that time remove the cover-glass with 
 forceps, and then immerse it, moving it about, for half a minute 
 in a 25 per cent, watery solution of sulphuric acid. Wash 
 thoroughly in water, dry, mount in Canada balsam, and examine 
 with a power of 400 diameters. The tubercle bacilli will be seen 
 deeply stained red, while all other organisms that may be present 
 in the film will be unstained and invisible. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Abnormal conditions of carcase, 28 
 „ texture of flesh, 38 
 
 Abortion, . . . . .67 
 Abscesses in the lungs, . 51, 53 
 Actinomycosis, . . . 66, 128 
 Act, Public Health (England), . 179 
 
 „ (Dundee), Police, 1882, . 183 
 
 „ (Edinburgh) Municipal and 
 
 Police, 1879, . . .184 
 
 „ (Edinburgh) Municipal and 
 Police, Amendment, 1891, 
 
 „ (Newcastle-on-Tyne Im- 
 provement), 1882, . 
 
 „ Sale of Horse Flesh, 
 Age, 
 
 Albuminous effusion, 
 Ansemia, 
 Angleberries, 
 Animal poisons, . 
 Anthrax in black puddings, 
 Anthrax, ..... 
 Arloing's paper on Tuberculosis, 
 Arthritis, rheumatic, . 
 
 „ septic, 
 Aspergillus, 
 
 186 
 
 181 
 10 
 26 
 35 
 77 
 
 142 
 46 
 
 171 
 104 
 
 151 
 72 
 
 52 
 . 162 
 
 47,55 
 
 Asphyxia, 
 
 Bacillus of anthrax, . 104 
 
 „ black quarter, . 103 
 
 „ diphtheria, 109 
 
 „ glanders, • 131 
 
 „ tubercle, . 137 
 
 Bacteriology and Chemistry, 164 
 
 Balanitis, . • 75 
 
 Beefmeasle, . ■ -97 
 
 Bilious influenza, . . .112 
 
 Bill relating to sale of horse flesh, 10 
 
 Birds, Tubercle in, . . ■ 143 
 
 Black discolouration of flesh, . 33 
 
 Black pudding, poisoning by, . 170 
 
 Black quarter or "blood striking," 103 
 
 " Black " or •" red " water, 85 
 
 Bladder, Disease of, . 59 
 
 „ Worms, . .91 
 
 Blain or " Stinge," . 108 
 
 Blood diseases, . . 69 
 
 „ effusion into tissues, . 37 
 
 „ poisoning, 73 
 
 ,, striking, . .103 
 
 Bloody flux, . . . 80 
 
 Blown flesh, ' . . 39, 182, 184 
 
 Bones, Disease of, . . 62 
 
 „ of horse and ox, . .12 
 
 Boned meat, . 161 
 
 Bowel lesions, Swine fever, 127 
 
 Brain, Diseases of, . 48 
 
 Braxy, . 58, 78 
 
 Bruises, Death from, 40 
 
 Bull beef, Sale of, 184 
 
 Cachectic conditions, 77 
 
 Calf, Flesh of the, ... 14 
 Calcareous matter (Tuberculosis), 142 
 Cancer of the tongue, . . .129 
 Carbonic acid and carbonic oxide 
 
 poisoning, . . .44 
 
 Carbuncle of the coronary band 
 
 in sheep, . . .66 
 
 Carcase, Examination for abnor- 
 mal conditions, . 28 
 ,, parts requiring special 
 
 attention, . . 24 
 
 Carrion butcher and his traffic, . 2-4 
 Caseation, Tuberculosis, . . 141 
 Castration, Septic peritonitis as 
 
 result of, . . 61 
 
 Catarrhal fever (malignant), . 112 
 
 „ influenza, . .ill 
 
 Cattle plague, . . . 117 
 
 Cerebro-spinal meningitis, 112 
 
 Cestodes, . . . 88 
 
 Charbon, . . 99 
 
 Chatin's experiments with trichi- 
 
 nosed flesh 100 
 
194 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 i 
 
 Chemistry of putrefaction, . 
 
 166 
 
 Diseases of organs and tissues, 
 
 Choking, .... 
 
 54 
 
 Effects of, 
 
 Cholera and muscarine poisoning 
 
 , 164 
 
 ,, of bladder, 
 
 Chronic glanders, 
 
 133 
 
 , , brain, spinal and nervous 
 
 Clyers, . . . . . 
 
 142 
 
 system, 
 
 Coccidium oviforme, . 
 
 88 
 
 ,, digestive and accessory 
 
 Ccenurus cerebralis, . 
 
 93 
 
 organs, 
 
 Collapse of lungs, 
 
 Si 
 
 „ of foot. 
 
 Colour of flesh, 
 
 28 
 
 ,, of kidney, . 
 
 „ of diseased flesh, 
 
 29 
 
 ,, of liver, 
 
 Coma, .... 
 
 48 
 
 ,, of lungs, &c, 
 
 Condemnation of diseased carcases 
 
 , 180 
 
 , , of mammary gland, 
 
 Congestion, Hypostatic, 
 
 47 
 
 ,, of pancreas, 
 
 , , of lungs, 
 
 51 
 
 ,, of skin, 
 
 Connective tissue. 
 
 11 
 
 ,, of testicles, . 
 
 Constitutional and blood diseases 
 
 , 69 
 
 ,, of uterus, 
 
 Corned beef, . 
 
 161 
 
 ,, due to action of micro- 
 
 Cow pox, .... 
 
 124 
 
 parasites, 
 
 Croup, . . . 109, 114 
 
 - 143 
 
 ,, rendering flesh unfit for 
 
 Cumberland disease, . 
 
 104 
 
 food, 
 
 Cystic diseases, . 
 
 9i 
 
 Dislocation of joints, 
 
 Cysticercus cellulosse, 
 
 95 
 
 Distinguishing characteristics of 
 
 ,, bovis, 
 
 97 
 
 the flesh of different animals 
 
 ,, ovis, 
 
 97 
 
 and of their internal organs, . 
 
 „ tenuicollis, 
 
 94 
 
 Distinguishing differences be- 
 
 ,, pisiformis, 
 
 ' 94 
 
 tween male and female carcases, 
 
 Cystitis, .... 
 
 59 
 
 Distoma hepaticum, . 
 Dog resembling carcase of calf, . 
 „ septic poisoning from eating 
 
 Danger of diseased meat, Expla 
 
 
 putrid flesh, 
 
 nation of, 
 
 167 
 
 Dropsical flesh, 
 
 Death by carbonic acid and car 
 
 
 Dropsy, .... 36 
 
 bonic oxide, 
 
 44 
 
 , , of brain, 
 
 ,, by drowning, 
 
 43 
 
 Drowning, Death from, 
 
 ,, from enforced unnatura 
 
 
 Drying of carcases, conditions 
 
 positions, 
 
 46 
 
 which affect it, 
 
 „ by fire, . 
 
 44 
 
 Duck weed disease, 
 
 ,, from haemorrhage, . 
 
 40 
 
 Dundee Police Act, 1882, . 
 
 ,, by poisoning, 
 
 45 
 
 Dysentery, . . . . 
 
 from shock, 
 
 40 
 
 
 ,, by strangulation, 
 
 42 
 
 Echinococcus veterinorum, 
 
 Delirium, 
 
 48 
 
 Eczema, . 
 
 Description of figures on plates, 
 
 189 
 
 „ epizootica, 
 
 Dietetic skin diseases, 
 
 . 64 
 
 Edinburgh Municipal and Police 
 
 Different colours of flesh ir 
 
 1 
 
 Act (1879) 
 
 disease, 
 
 28-33 
 
 Edinburgh Municipal and Police 
 
 ,, odours of flesh ir 
 
 t 
 
 (Amendment) Act, 1891, 
 
 disease, 
 
 • 34 
 
 Effusion of blood, 
 
 Diffused redness of flesh, . 
 
 • 32 
 
 „ lymph, 
 
 Digestive organs, 
 
 ■ 54 
 
 ,, serum, 
 
 Diphtheria, 
 
 . 109 
 
 „ urine, 
 
 „ in poultry (diph 
 
 
 Effusions, . . . . . 
 
 theritic aphtha), 
 
 • 143 
 
 Effusive influenza, " pink eye," . 
 
 48 
 
 59 
 
 48. 
 
 54 
 65 
 58 
 57 
 5i 
 60 
 
 58 
 63 
 61 
 
 59 
 108 
 
 20 
 40 
 
 16 
 97 
 14 
 
 173 
 29 
 
 ,48 
 48 
 43 
 
 23 
 
 142 
 
 183 
 80 
 
 9i 
 
 63 
 
 119 
 
 181 
 
 186 
 37 
 35 
 36 
 38 
 35 
 
 112 
 
INDEX. 
 
 195 
 
 Electricity, Death by, 
 
 Emphysema, General, 
 , , of lungs, . 
 
 Enteric Fever, .... 
 
 Epilepsy, 
 
 Evidence of imperfect preserva- 
 tion, 
 
 Experiments with trichinosed 
 American pork, . . 99, 
 
 Experiments with tubercular pro- 
 ducts, milk, &c, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 43 
 39 
 51 
 81 
 
 49 
 161 
 
 Farcy 
 
 „ buds. 
 „ buttons, . 
 Fasciola hepaticum, 
 Fat of ox, . 
 
 „ horse, 
 Ferments of microbes, 
 Fever, 
 
 „ Malignant catarrhal, 
 
 „ „ parturient. 
 
 „ Swine, 
 
 „ Typhoid, . 
 Fibroid transformation, 
 Figures on plates, Description of, 
 Fire, Death by, . 
 Firmness of meat and firming, 
 Fish (preserved), 
 
 „ putrid, its action on dogs. 
 Flaccidity of meat, 
 Flavour of meat, 
 Flesh for preservation, 
 
 , , of the calf, 
 
 ,, ,, horse, 
 , , , , ox, . 
 
 » pig. 
 
 „ sheep, . . 
 ,, marketable and unmarket 
 
 able, 
 ,, Nocuous, ... 
 ,, Use of Tuberculous, . 146 
 Fluke worms, 
 Foot diseases, 
 
 ,, and mouth disease, 
 Foreign bodies in thorax, . 
 Fourment's experiments with 
 
 trichinosed flesh, 
 Fractures, .... 
 French legislation regarding car 
 
 cases, .... 
 Frozen meat, 
 
 136 
 
 131 
 
 134 
 
 134 
 
 97 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 166 
 
 69 
 
 112 
 
 S 4 
 
 125 
 
 81 
 
 3° 
 189 
 
 44 
 
 23-38 
 
 161 
 
 173 
 38 
 39 
 
 161 
 
 14 
 15 
 12 
 11 
 15 
 15 
 
 20 
 .150 
 
 97 
 
 65 
 
 119 
 
 50 
 
 100 
 41 
 
 158 
 160 
 
 Garget, 
 
 141 
 
 Gastric derangement (functional), 
 
 55 
 
 Gastritis, ..... 
 
 55 
 
 Generative organs, Tubercle in, . 
 
 141 
 
 " Gid " in ox and sheep, 
 
 93 
 
 Glands, Lymphatic, . 
 Glanders, . ' . 
 
 22 
 131 
 
 ,, Germ of, . 
 
 132 
 
 ,, Tumours, 
 
 133 
 
 "Grapes," .... 142 
 
 146 
 
 Green hue of flesh, 
 
 33 
 
 Gregarinosis 
 
 H3 
 
 HEMOGLOBINURIA, . 
 
 86 
 
 Hsemolymph glands, . . 23, 
 
 127 
 
 Hemorrhagic skin lesions and 
 
 
 swine fever, .... 
 
 126 
 
 Heart of the ox and horse, . 
 
 13 
 
 ,, the diseases of, . 
 
 5° 
 
 High game (Brunton), 
 
 168 
 
 Hoose, . . . . . 
 
 52 
 
 Horse flesh, . . . ( 
 
 , 10 
 
 Hydatid Disease, 
 
 5i 
 
 Hydraemia, 
 
 85 
 
 Hydrocephalus, . 
 
 48 
 
 Hydrops pericardii, 
 
 5i 
 
 Hydrothorax, . . . . 
 
 "5 
 
 Hypostatic congestion, 
 
 47 
 
 Inflammation, 
 
 69 
 
 ,, of bones, . 
 
 62 
 
 „ heart, 
 
 50 
 
 ,, intestines, 
 
 56 
 
 lungs, . 
 
 51 
 
 ,, pericardium, . 
 
 5° 
 
 , , peritoneum, . 
 
 56 
 
 ,, pleura, . 
 
 53 
 
 ,, skin, 
 
 64 
 
 ,, stomach, 
 
 55 
 
 ,, tonsils, . 
 
 54 
 
 udder, . 
 
 60 
 
 ,, womb, . 
 
 59 
 
 Influenza 
 
 112 
 
 Inoculative lesions of pleuro- 
 
 
 pneumonia, . . . . 
 
 114 
 
 Inspection of meat in Berlin, 
 
 2 
 
 ,, ,, rules to be 
 
 
 observed,- . 
 
 22 
 
 ,, ,, live animals, . 
 
 170 
 
 Internal organs, Examination of, 
 
 22 
 
 Iridescent flesh, . 
 
 32 
 
 Ischuria, . . . . . 
 
 75 
 
196 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Jaundice, . . . 30 
 
 Jaw pocking, . . . . 36 
 "Joint-ill" or "joint felon," 82 
 
 Joints, Dislocation of, . . 41 
 
 „ Septic inflammation of, 82 
 Jurisprudence and Tuberculosis,. 157 
 
 " Kernels " or " knots," . 22,142 
 
 Kidneys of calf, ox, and pig, . 14 
 
 „ Disease of, . . . 58 
 
 Larvae of blow fly, . . . 64 
 Lauder - Brunton, Dr., on 
 
 ptomaines, . . . .163 
 Legislation (French) regarding 
 
 carcases, . .158 
 ,, in reference to con- 
 
 sumption of flesh , 
 fish, &c, . 172 
 
 Lice on the skin, 64 
 
 Lightning, Death by, . . . 43 
 Liver of dog, ox, pig, and sheep, 14 
 " Liver fluke," . . . -97 
 Lock-jaw, . . . 49 
 
 " Louping-ill," . 49 
 
 Loodianha disease, . . 104 
 
 " Lumpy -jaw," . . .129 
 
 Lungs, Diseases of, . • 51 
 
 „ Abscess of, . . 53 
 
 Lymphatic glands, . . .22 
 
 Maggots, 64 
 
 Malignant aphtha, . 121 
 
 ,, catarrh, . .112 
 
 „ catarrhal fever, . 112 
 
 ,, parturient fever, . 84 
 
 „ pustule, . . . 104 
 
 Mammary glands, Diseases of, 60 
 
 Mange, . . -63 
 
 Marketable flesh, 18 
 
 Measles, beef, . . 97 
 
 „ mutton, 97 
 
 „ pork, . . 95 
 
 „ swine, ... 87 
 
 Medicines, Effects on flesh of, . 33 
 
 Melt, The (spleen), ... 58 
 
 Metritis 60 
 
 Microbes and ferments, . . 167 
 Microscopic examination of meat, 26 
 Microparasitic disease, . . 103 
 Miescher's tubes, . . .90 
 
 Miliary tubercles, . . . 142 
 Milk fever,. . . 67 
 
 Milk, tuberculous, 
 Milzbrand, .... 
 Morehouse, Examination of flesh 
 
 for trichina, 
 Mortification, 
 
 Muco-enteritis, 81 
 
 Mummification, . 
 Muscle, fatty degeneration of, 
 „ fibrous transformation of, 
 „ tuberculosis in, 
 Muscular tissue of calf, 
 goat, 
 „ horse, 
 
 „ ox, 
 
 Mutton measle, 
 
 P'g. 
 
 S8 
 
 " Navel III,'' . 
 
 Nematodes, 
 
 Nettle rash (swine), . 
 
 Newcastle-on-Tyne Improvement 
 
 Act, 1882, 
 Newly-born animals, . 
 Nocuity of tuberculous flesh, 
 Nocuous flesh, . 
 
 Odour of flesh, . 
 
 CEsophagus, impaction of the, 
 
 Omphalitis, 
 
 "Orf," .... 
 
 Organs, Diseases of, . 
 
 „ digestive, 
 
 ,, generative, 
 
 ,, thoracic, 
 
 ., urinary, 
 
 Os cordis, . 
 
 Osteomollities, 
 
 Osteomyelitis, 
 
 Osteosarcoma, 
 
 Ostitis, 
 
 " Oversticking," 
 
 Pancreas, Diseases of the, 
 Paralysis, .... 
 Parasitic diseases, 
 
 ,, of the lungs, 
 
 Parasites of the skin, . 
 Parturient flesh, Use of, 
 
 „ fever, Malignant, 
 
 Parturition and diseases con 
 
 nected with it, 
 Peacock Feather tint, . 
 Pearl Disease, . 
 
 1 59 
 104 
 
 101 
 
 70 
 
 112 
 
 71 
 
 29 
 
 3° 
 
 I42 
 
 H 
 
 iS 
 
 12 
 II 
 
 IS 
 97 
 
 83 
 
 ,98 
 
 86 
 
 181 
 14 
 
 15' 
 20 
 
 34 
 54 
 83 
 66 
 
 48 
 54 
 59 
 5° 
 58 
 H 
 63 
 62 
 129 
 62 
 25 
 
 58 
 49 
 88 
 
 Si 
 63 
 66 
 
 84 
 
 66 
 
 32 
 
 142 
 
INDEX. 
 
 197 
 
 Penetration of the heart by 
 
 foreign bodies, . . 50 
 
 Pericardium, diseases of, . . 50 
 Peritoneum, inflammation of, 56 
 
 Peritonitis, Septic, . . .61 
 Perlsucht, . . . .142 
 
 Phosphorescent flesh, . . 33 
 
 Phymosis 74 
 
 Pickled meat, .... 160 
 Pigmentation of flesh, . 33 
 
 "Pink eye," . . .in 
 
 Placenta, Retention of, . . 67 
 Plates, Description of Figures on, 189 
 Pleura, diseases of, . . 53 
 
 Pleuro-pneumonia, . . .114 
 Pneumonia, . . . .51 
 
 Poisoning, Inorganic, organic, 
 
 and mineral, . . 45 
 „ by tinned meats, sau- 
 
 sages, saveloys, and 
 black puddings, . 170 
 Pommeliere (potato disease), . 142 
 Polycephalus hydatid, 93 
 
 Poultry, Tubercle in, . . . 143 
 Pox — horse, cow, sheep and pig, 124 
 Preparation of pork for detection 
 
 of trichina, .... 101 
 Preputial concretion in ox, . . 74 
 Preserved meat and fish, . 161 
 
 Pressed meat, . .161 
 
 Pricked veal, 184 
 
 Protozoa in flesh, . 88 
 
 Psorosperms in flesh, . 88 
 
 Ptomaines, . . . 105, l6g 
 
 Public Health (England) Act, 
 
 1875, ... 181 
 
 Pulmonary abscess, . . -53 
 Purpura hemorrhagica, . 84 
 
 Pustule, Malignant, . . 104 
 
 Pustular fever in cow and ewes, . 121 
 Pyemia, . ... 71 
 
 Pyogenic fever, . 123 
 
 Pyopericardii, 5 1 
 
 "Quarter ill" or "evil," . . 103 
 " Quinsy," 54 
 
 Rabbits, Tubercle in, . . 14S 
 
 Rabies, . ■ "7 
 
 Rainey's tubes, . . . -9° 
 
 Receiving houses, . . .178 
 
 Red braxy, ■ • ■ 73 
 
 Redness (diffused) of flesh. . . 32 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Reddish-brown colour of flesh, . 31 
 " Red water," . . . .85 
 Refrigerated meat, . . .160 
 Relation of ferments of microbes 
 
 to poisoning by meat, . . 166 
 Relation of microbes to disease, . 164 
 Retention of placenta, . . 67 
 
 Rheumatism, . . . .72 
 Rickets, . . 62 
 
 Rinderpest, . . . 117 
 
 Ringworm, . . . .64 
 
 "Rot," . . .97 
 
 Round worms 98 
 
 Roup in poultry, . . 143 
 
 Rules to be observed in the in- 
 spection of meat, . . 22 
 
 Sale of horse-flesh, . . 10 
 
 „ tuberculous carcases, 
 Salivary glands, .... 
 
 Salted meat 
 
 Scarlet flesh, .... 
 Seizure of carcases in shops and 
 
 slaughter houses, 
 Selmi's researches in Ptomaines, 
 Septicemia, .... 
 Septic poisoning in dog from eat- 
 ing putrid fish, 
 
 „ black pudding, 
 Setting of meat or firming, . 
 Sheep scab, .... 
 
 Shops, seizure of meat in, 
 Skin diseases, 
 Slaughter-houses, 
 "Smothering," . 
 Spinal diseases, . 
 Spleen, The, 
 Splenic apoplexy, 
 Sternum of ox and horse, . 
 " Stinge," .... 
 Stomach, Inflammation of the, 
 Staggers, .... 
 
 Strangles 
 
 Strangulation, death from, . 
 " Striking," death from, 
 Stripping pleura, 
 Strongylus filaria, 
 
 157 
 
 58 
 
 160 
 
 31 
 
 179 
 
 164 
 73 
 
 „ micrurus, . 
 
 „ paradoxus, 
 
 Stuffed veal or lamb, . 
 Sturdy or Staggers, . 
 Substitution of other flesh for 
 that generally used for food, . 
 
 171 
 170 
 
 ■ 23 
 
 ■ 63 
 178, 187 
 
 • 63 
 . 178 
 . 42 
 
 ■ 48 
 
 ■ 58 
 . 164 
 
 ■ 13 
 . 108 
 
 55 
 55 
 
 123 
 42 
 
 103 
 
 155 
 52 
 52 
 52 
 
 184 
 
 93 
 
1 9 8 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Suppuration, 
 "Sweetbread," The, 
 Swine fever, 
 Swungback, 
 
 70 
 
 58 
 
 125 
 
 49 
 
 T/ENIA (tape worms), 
 
 Tainted meat (Brunton), 
 
 Testicles, Diseases of, 
 
 Tetanus, .... 
 
 Texture of flesh, abnormal, 
 
 Thoracic organs, 
 
 Thorax, foreign bodies in the 
 
 " Thorter ill," 
 
 Thymus gland, . 
 
 Tinned meats and fish, . 162. 
 
 Tongue of horse and ox, 
 
 Tonsillitis, . 
 
 Traffic in diseased meat, 
 
 Trampling, death from, 
 
 Trematodes, 
 
 Trichina spiralis, 
 
 Trichocephalus (whip worm) 
 
 Tuberculosis, 
 
 Arloing's paper on, 
 Bacillus of, . 
 
 Cooking of flesh, . 148, 
 
 Departmental committee on, 
 Different forms of tubercle, . 
 Domestic animals affected by, 
 Effects on system of host, . 
 Experiment(Villemin's) with 
 tubercular products and 
 milk, .... 
 Experimental feeding with 
 
 flesh affected with, 
 Experimental researches on 
 
 virulence of, . 
 Flesh of infected cattle, 
 ,, Use of, 
 ., Nocuity of, 
 French legislation regarding 
 
 carcases affected with, 
 General contamination of 
 
 system by, 141 
 
 ,, in birds, .143 
 
 ,, in fat animals, 155 
 
 Insurance from loss of meat, 157 
 
 Is it safe to use flesh affected 
 
 with, . . . . IS o 
 Jurisprudence, . . .157 
 Lungs of, . . . .51 
 Lymphatic glands, . . 141 
 Mammary gland, 60, 141 
 
 91 
 168 
 61 
 49 
 38 
 So 
 5° 
 93 
 58 
 172 
 
 13 
 
 54 
 
 5 
 
 42 
 
 97 
 
 99 
 
 99 
 
 '35 
 
 151 
 
 136 
 
 152 
 
 158 
 
 142 
 
 141 
 
 145 
 
 136 
 152 
 
 137 
 142 
 146 
 151 
 
 : i 5 8 
 
 Tuberculosis — continued. 
 
 Miliary, . . .142 
 
 Milk, use of tubercular, . 146 
 Obsolete, . . . .146 
 Paris Congress on, . .158 
 Parts most largely affected 
 
 with, . . . .134 
 Poultry, in, ... 143 
 
 Prevention of, . . .158 
 „ loss from, . 157 
 
 Rabbits, in, ... 145 
 
 Resolution of Paris Con 
 
 gress, &c, . . .158 
 
 Royal Commission on, . 159 
 
 Sale of, carcases, . 157 
 
 Turnip Braxy, . . . .78 
 
 Tympany, . . . .55 
 
 Typhoid fever, . .81 
 
 ,, influenza, 
 
 Udder, Diseases of, . 
 Unmarketable flesh, . 
 Unnatural positions, enforced, 
 Uraemia, . . 59. 
 
 Urine, effusion into tissues, 
 
 Urticaria 
 
 Use of tuberculous flesh and 
 
 milk, .... 
 Uterus, Disease of, 
 
 Variolous diseases of cow, horse, 
 
 pig, and sheep, 
 Veal, 
 
 „ Blown and stuffed. 
 Veterinary surgeons as inspectors 
 
 and superintendents. 
 Violence, Death from, 
 
 Warbles, 
 
 Water braxy, ... 58. 
 
 Wattles, 
 
 Weed, 
 
 Wet braxy, 
 
 Wet scald, 
 
 White flesh, 
 
 Womb, Diseases of the, 
 
 Wooden tongue, 
 
 Woolsorter's disease, 
 
 Worms; Fluke, . 
 
 ,, Round, 
 
 , , Tape, . 
 Wounds, Death from 
 
 Yellow flesh, . 
 Yellowish-green hue of flesh, 
 
 60 
 18 
 46 
 74 
 38 
 86 
 
 146 
 59 
 
 124 
 14 
 49 
 
 176 
 40 
 
 64 
 76 
 36 
 141 
 79 
 65 
 29 
 
 59 
 129 
 104 
 
 97 
 98 
 
 97 
 41 
 
 3° 
 33 
 
WILLIAM R. JENKINS' 
 
 Veterinary Books. 
 
 1896. 
 
 (*) Single asterisk designates New Books. 
 (**) Double asterisk designates Recent Publications. 
 
 ANDERSON". "Vice in the Horse" and other papers 
 on Hotses'and Riding. By E. L. Anderson. Demy, 
 8vo, cloth 2 00 
 
 ANDERSON. " How to Ride and School a Horse." 
 
 With a System of Horse Gymnastics. By Edward 
 L. Anderson. Cr. 8vo 1 00 
 
 (**)BA CJET. "How to Judge a Horse." A concise treatise 
 as to its Qualities and Soundness ; Including Bits and 
 Bitting — Saddles and Saddling, Stable Drainage, Driv- 
 ing One Horse, a Pair, Four-in-hand, or Tandem, etc. 
 By Captain F. W. Bach. 12mo, cloth, fully illustrated 
 $1 00; paper 50 
 
 BANHAM. "Tables of Veterinary Posology and 
 Therapeutics," with weights, measures, etc. By 
 George A. Banham, F.R.C.V.S. 12mo, cloth 75 
 
 BAUCHER. "Method of Horsemanship" Including 
 the Breaking and Training of Horses 1 00 
 
2 Veterinary Catalogue of- William R. Jenkins 
 
 BELL. "The Veterinarians Call Book (Perpetual)." 
 
 By Roscoe E. Bell, D V.S., Profsssor of Materia 
 Medica, Therapeutics and Hygiene in tbe American 
 Veterinary College, New York ; President of the Long 
 Island Veterinary Society; late XJ. S. Goverment 
 Veterinary Inspector, etc. 
 
 A visiting list, that can be commenced at any time 
 and used until full, containing much useful informa- 
 tion for the student and the busy practitioner. 
 Among contents are items concerning: Veterinary 
 Drugs ; Poisons ; Solubility of Drugs ; Composition of 
 Milk, Bile, Blood, Gastric Juice, Urine, Saliva; Respi- 
 ration; Dentition; Temperature, etc., etc. Bound in 
 leather 1 25 
 
 (*)BHADL11Y. "Outlines of Veterinary Anatomy." 
 
 Part I. : The Anterior and Posterior Limbs. By O. 
 Charnock Bradley, Member of the Royal College of 
 Veterinary Surgeons ; Professor of Anatomy in the 
 New Veterinary College, Edinburgh. 
 
 The author presents the most important facts of 
 veterinaay anatomy in as condensed a form as possible, 
 consistent with lucidity. 12mo, cloth, 189 pages . . 1 25 
 
 CLEMENT. " Veterinary Post Mortem Examina- 
 tions." By A. W. Clement, V.S. Records of 
 autopsies, ( to be of any value, should accurately 
 represent the appearances of the tissues and organs 
 so that a diagnosis might be made by the reader were 
 not the examiners conclusions stated. To make the 
 pathological conditions clear to the reader, some 
 definite system of dissection is necessary. The 
 absence in the English language, of any guide in 
 making autopsies upon the lower animals, induced 
 Dr. Clement to write this book, trusting that it 
 would prove of practical value to the profession. 
 12mo, cloth, illustrated 75 
 
851-853 Sixth Avenue (cor. iBth St.), New York. 3 
 
 (")CADIOT. "Roaring in Horses." Its Pathology 
 and Treatment. This work represents the latest 
 development in operative methods for the alleviation 
 of roaring. Each step is most clearly defined by 
 excellent full-page llustrations. By P. J. Cadiot, 
 Professor at the Veterinary School, Alfort. Trans. 
 Thos. J. Watt Dollar, M.K.C.V.S., etc. Cloth 75 
 
 CHAUVEAU. "The Comparative Anatomy of the 
 Domesticated Animals." By A. Chauveau. New 
 edition, translated, enlarged and entirely revised by 
 George Fleming, F.K.C.V.S. 8vo. cloth with 583 
 Illustrations 5 75 
 
 CLARKE. "Horses' Teeth." A Treatise on their 
 Anatomy, Pathology, Dentistry, etc. Revised and 
 enlarged. By W. H. Clarke. 12mo, cloth 2 50 
 
 CLARKE. "Chart of the Feet and Teeth of 
 Fossil Horses." 25 
 
 CLEAVELAND. "Pronouncing Medical Lexicon." 
 
 Pocket edition. Cloth .75 
 
 COURTNEY. "Manual of Veterinary Medicine and 
 
 Surgery." By Edward Courtney, V. S. Crown, 8vo, 
 cloth 2 75 
 
 (•*) COX. " Horses : In Accident and Disease." The 
 
 sketches introduced embrace various attitudes which 
 have been observed, such as in choking ; the disorders 
 and accidents occurring to the stomach and intestines'; 
 affection of the brain ; and some special forms of lame- 
 ness, etc. By J. Koalfe Cox, F.K.C.V.S. 8vo, cloth, 
 fully illustrated 1 50 
 
4 * Veterinary Catalogue of William B. Jenkins 
 
 CURTIS. "Horses, Cattle, Sheep and Swine." The 
 
 origin, history improvement, description, characteris- 
 tics, merits, objections, etc. By Geo. W. Curtis, 
 M.S.A. Superbly illustrated. Cloth, $2 00; half 
 sheep, $2.75 ; half morocco 3 5U 
 
 DALZIEL. "British Dogs." Describing the History 
 Characteristics, Points, and Club Standards, etc., etc. 
 With numerous colored plates and wood engravings. 
 By Hugh Dalziel. Vol. I., $4 00. Vol. II., 8vo.4 to 
 
 DALZIEL. "The Fox Terrier." Illustrated. (Mono- 
 graphs on British Dogs) 1 00 
 
 DALZIEL. "Fox Terrier Stud Book." Edited by 
 Hugh Dalziel. 
 
 Vol. I. Containing Pedigrees of oyer 1,400 of the best- 
 known Dogs, traced to their most remote known an- 
 cestors 1 00 
 
 Vol. II. Pedigrees of 1,544 Dogs, Show Kecord, &e.l 00 
 Vol. III. Pedigrees of 1,214 Dogs.Shdw Record,&c.l 00 
 Vol. IV. Pedigrees of 1,168 Dogs.Show Record,&c.l 00 
 Vol. V. Pedigrees of 1,662 Dogs, Show Kecord, &c.l 00 
 
 DALZIEL. " The St. Bernard." Illustrated. . . .1 00 
 
 DALZIEL. "St. Bernard Stud Book." Edited by 
 Hugh Dalziel. 
 
 Vol. I. Pedigrees of 1,278 of the best-known Dogs, 
 traced to their most remote known ancestors, Show 
 Kecord, &c 1 00 
 
 Vol. II. Pedigrees of 564 Dogs, Show Record, &0..1 00 
 
851-853 Sixth Avenue (cor. 48th St.), New York. 5 
 
 DALZIEL. 'The Diseases of Dogs." Their Pathology, 
 Diagnosis and Treatment, with a dictionary of Canine 
 Materia-Mediea. By Hugh Dalziel 12mo, paper, 
 60c; cloth 80 
 
 DALZIEL. "Diseases of Horses." 12mo, cloth.. 1 00 
 
 DALZIEL. " Breaking and Training Dogs." Being 
 concise directions for the proper education of dogs, 
 both for the field and for companions. Second edi- 
 tion, revised and enlarged. Part I, by Pathfinder: 
 Part II, by Hugh Dalziel. 12mo, cloth, illus .... 2 . 60 
 
 DALZIEL. " The Collie." Its History, Points, and 
 Breeding. By Hugh Dalziel. Illustrated, 8vo, paper, 
 50c, cloth 1 00 
 
 DALZIEL. "The Greyhound." 8vo, cloth, illus.. 1 00 
 
 DANCE. " Veterinary Tablet." Folded in cloth case. 
 The tablet of A. A. Dance is a synopsis of the diseases 
 of horses, cattle and dogs with th causes, symptoms 
 and cures 75 
 
 DANA. "Tables in Comparative Physiology." By 
 
 Prof. C. L.Dana, M.D 25 
 
 DAY. "The Race-horse in Training." By Wm. Day, 
 8vo 3 50 
 
 (**)DUN. " Veterinary Medicines, Their Actions and 
 
 Uses." By Finlay Dud, V.S. Bevised edition (almost 
 entirely re- written) 8vo, cloth 3 50 
 
 DWTEB. ''Seats and Saddles." Bits and Bitting, 
 Draught and Harness and the Prevention and Cure of 
 Kestiveness in Horses. By Francis Dwyer. Illus- 
 trated. 1 vol., 12mo, cloth, gilt 1 50 
 
6 Veterinary Catalogue of William R. Jenkins 
 
 FLEMING. "A Treatiseon Practical Horseshoeing." 
 
 By George Fleming, M.B.C.V.S. Cloth 75 
 
 (")FLEMING. "Veterinary Obstetrics." Including the 
 Accidents and Diseases incidentto Pregnancy, Parturi- 
 tion, and the early Age in Domesticated Animals. 
 By Geo. Fleming, F. R.C.V.S. With 212 illustrations. 
 New edition revised, 226 illustrations, 758 pages. ..6 25 
 773 pages,8vo, cloth (old edition) 3 50 
 
 FLEMING. "Babies and Hydrophobia." History. 
 Natural Causes, Symptoms and Prevention. By Geo. 
 Fleming, M. K.C.V.S. 8vo, cloth 3 75 
 
 FLEMING. "Propagation of Tuberculosis." Stating 
 Injurious Effects from the consumption of the Flesh 
 and Milk of Tuberculous Animals. By Geo. Fleming, 
 M.D., M.R.C.V.S., and others. 8vo, cloth 1 50 
 
 FLEMING. "Tuberculosis." From a Sanitary and 
 Pathological Point of View. 25 
 
 XLEMING. "The Contagions Diseases of Animals." 
 
 Their influence on the wealth and health of nations. 
 12mo, paper 25 
 
 FLEMING. "Operative Veterinary Surgery." Part 
 I, by Dr. Geo. Fleming, M.R.C.V.S. This valuable 
 work, the most practical treatise yet issued on the 
 subject in the English language, is devoted to the 
 common operations of Veterinary Surgery; and the 
 concise descriptions and directions of the text are illus- 
 trated with numerous wood engravings. 8vo,cloth.2 75 
 
 Orders are now received for the second volume, which 
 is expected by December. 
 
851-853 Sixth Avenue (cor. ±Sth St.), New York. 7 
 
 FLEMING. "Human and Animal Variolas." A 
 
 Study in Comparative Pathology. Paper 25 
 
 FLEMING. "Animal Plagues." Their History, 
 Nature, and Prevention. By George Fleming, F.B.C. 
 V.S., etc. First Series. 8vo, cloth, $6.00; Second 
 Series. 8vo, cloth 3 00 
 
 FLEMING. "Roaring in Horses." By Dr. George 
 Fleming, F.B C.V.S. A treatise on this peculiar dis- 
 order of the Horse, indicating its method of treat- 
 ment and curability. 8vo, cloth, with col. plates. 1 50 
 
 (")FLEMING-NE UMANN. ' 'Parasites and Para- 
 sitic Diseases of the Domesticated Animals." A 
 
 work which the students of human or veterinary medi- 
 ' cine, the sanitarian, agriculturist or breeder or rearer 
 of animals, may refer for full information regarding 
 the external and internal Parasites — vegetable and 
 animal — which attack various species of Domestic 
 Animals. A Treatise by L. G. Neumann, Professor 
 at the National Veterinary School, of Toulouse. 
 Translated and edited by Gedrge Fleming, 0. B., L.L. 
 D..F.B.C.V.S. 873 pages, 365 illustrations, cloth. 7 50 
 
 (**)FRIEDBER GER - FR OBNER. ' ' Pathology 
 and Therapeutics of the Domesticated Animals." 
 
 By Dr. Friedberger. Translated by Prof. W. L. Zuill, 
 M.D., D.V.S. 2 vol 12 00 
 
 GUESS WELL. "The Diseases and Disorders of the 
 
 Ox." By George Gresswell, B.A. With Notes by 
 James B. Gresswell. Crown, 8vo, cloth, illus. ...3 50 • 
 
 GRESSWELL. " Diseases and Disorders of the 
 Horse." By Albert, James B., and George Gresswell. 
 Crown, 8vo, illustrated, cloth 1 75 
 
8 Veterinary Catalogue bf William B. Jenkins 
 
 GRESS WELL. Manual of "The Theory and Practice 
 of Equine Medicine." By J. B. Gresswell, F.B.C.V.S., 
 and Albert Gresswell, M.R.C.V.S., second edition, 
 enlarged, 8vo, cloth 2 75 
 
 GRESSWELL. "Veterinary Pharmacology and 
 
 Therapeutics." By James B. Gresswell, F.R.C.V.S. 
 16mo, cloth 1 50 
 
 GRESSWELL. "The Bovine Prescriber." For the 
 
 • use of Veterinarians and Veterinary Students. By 
 James B. and Albert Gresswell, M.E.C.V.S Cloth. 75 
 
 GRESSWELL. "The Equine Hospital Prescriber." 
 
 drawn up for the use of Veterinary Practitioners and 
 Students. By Drs. James B. and Albert Gresswell, 
 M.R.C.V.S. Cloth 75 
 
 GRESSWELL. "Veterinary Pharmacopoeia, Materia 
 Medica and Therapeutics . " By George and Charles 
 Gresswell, with desoriptions-and physiological actions 
 of medicines. By Albert Gresswell. Crown, 8vo,cl. 2 75 
 
 **)GOTTHEIL. "A Manual of General Histology." 
 
 By Wra. S. Gottheil, M D , Professor of Pathology in 
 the American Veterinary College, New York ; etc., etc. 
 Histology is the basis of the physician's art, as 
 Anatomy is the foundation of the surgeon's science. 
 Only by knowing the processes of life can we under- 
 stand the changes of disease and the action of remedies; 
 as the architect must know his building materials, so 
 must the practitioner of medicine know the intimate 
 structure of the body. To present this knowledge in 
 an accessible and simple form has Ween the author's 
 task. 8vo., cloth, 148 pages, fully illustrated. . . 1 00 
 
851-853 Sixth Avenue {cor. ASth St.), New York. 9 
 
 OHASSLOCH. " A Coinpend of Veterinary Materia 
 Medica and Therapeutics." By Dr. A. 0. Hassloch, 
 V.S., Lecturer on Materia Medica and Therapeutics, 
 and Professor o£ Veterinary Dentistry at the NewYork 
 College of Veterinary Surgeons and School of Compa- 
 rative Medicine, N. Y. 12mo, cloth, 125 pages . .1 50 
 
 HATES, " Veterinary Notes for Horse-Owners." An 
 
 every day Horse Book. Illustrated. By M. H. Hayes. 
 12mo, clotli 5 00 
 
 HAYES. "Riding." On the Flat and Across Country. 
 A Guide to Practical Horsemanship. By Captain M. 
 H. Hayes. Second edition, 16mo, cloth 4 25 
 
 HATES. "Illustrated Horse Breaking." By Captain 
 M. H. Hayes. 12mo, cloth, illustrated 8 40 
 
 HATES. "The Horsewoman." By Captain M. H. 
 Hayes and Mrs. Hayes. 12mo, cloth, illustrated. 4 25 
 
 HEATLET. "The Horse Owner's Safeguard." A 
 
 handy Medical Guide for every Horse Owner. 12mo, 
 cloth 1 B0 
 
 HEATLET. "Practical Veterinary Remedies." 
 
 12mo, cloth ! 00 
 
 (**)HEATLET. "The Stock Owner's Guide." A 
 handy Medical Treatise for every man who owns an 
 oxorcow. By George S. Heatley, M.K.C.V. 12mo, 
 cloth X 25 
 
 FTTLL " The Principles and Practice of Bovine Med- 
 icine and Surgery." By J. Woodroffe Hill, F.E.C. V.S. 
 Cloth. (Temporarily out of print). 
 
10 Veterinary Catalogue of William R. Jenkins 
 
 H1LJL. " The Management and Diseases of the Dog" 
 
 Containing full instructions for Breeding, Rearing and 
 Kenneling Dogs. Their Different Diseases. How to 
 detect and how to cure them. Their Medicines, and 
 the doses in which they can be, safely administered. 
 By J. Woodroffe Hill, F.R.C.V.S. 12mo, cloth, extra 
 fully illustrated 2 00 
 
 HINEBA.UCH. "Veterinary Dental Surgery." For 
 
 the use of Students, Practitioners and Stockmen. 
 
 12mo, cloth, illustrated 2 00 
 
 Sheep • 2 75 
 
 (**)HOABE. "A Manual of Veterinary Therapeutics 
 and Pharmacology." By E. Wallis Hoare, F.K.C.V.S. 
 12mo, ploth, 560 pages 2 75 
 
 "Deserves a good place in the libraries of all veterina- 
 rians. * * * Cannot help but be of the greatest assist- 
 ance to the younfe veterinarian and the every day busy 
 practitioner."— American Veterinary Review. 
 
 (*)KOBEBT. "Practical Toxicology for Physicians 
 
 and Students." By Prof. Dr. Rudolph Kobert, 
 Director of the Pharmacological Institute, Dorpat, 
 Russia. Translated and edited by L. H. Friedburg, 
 Ph.D., of Dept. of Chemistry, College of City of New 
 York, Prof, of Chemistry and Toxicology at the Ame- 
 rican Veterinary College, New York, and New York 
 Homoepathie Medical College and Hospital. Author- 
 ized edition. (In Press.) 
 
 KOCH. "Etiology of Tuberculosis." By Dr. R. 
 
 Koch. Translated by T, Saure, 8vo, cloth . . ..100 
 
851-853 Sixth Avenue (cor. 4Bth St.), New York. 11 
 
 KEATING. "A New Unabridged Pronouncing 
 Dictionary of Medicine." By John M. Keating, M.D., 
 LL.D., Hemy Hamilton and others. A voluminous 
 and exhaustive hand-book of Medical and scientific 
 terminology with Phonetic Pronunciation, Accentu- 
 ation, Etymology, etc. With an appendix containing 
 , important tables of Bacilli, Micrpcci Leucomaines, 
 Ptomaines ; Drugs and Materials used in Antiseptic 
 Surgery ; Poisons and their antidotes ; Weights and 
 Measures ; Themometer Scales ; New Officinal and 
 Unoffieinal Drugs, etc., etc. 8 vo, 818 pages 5 00 
 
 LAMBERT. "The Germ Theory of Disease." 
 
 Bearing upon the^health and welfare of man and the 
 domesticated animals. By James Lambert, F.R.C.V.S. 
 8vo. paper 25 
 
 LAW. "Farmers' Veterinary Adviser." A Guide to 
 the' Prevention and Treatment of Disease in Domestic 
 Animals. By Professor James Law.lllustrated. 8vo, 
 cloth -. 3 00 
 
 LIAUTAMD. "Animal Castration." A concise and 
 practical Treatise on the Castration of the Domestic 
 Animals. The only work on the subject in the English 
 language. Illustrated with forty-four cuts. 12mo, 
 cloth •. 2 00 
 
 LIA UTAED. " Median Neurotomy in the Trealment 
 Chronic Tendinitis and Periostosis of the Fetlock." 
 
 By C. Pellerin, late Repetitorof Clinic and Surgery to 
 the Alfort Veterinary School. Translated with addi- 
 tional facts relating to it, by Prof. A. Liautard, M.D., 
 V.M. 
 
 Having rendered good results when performed by 
 himself, the author believes the operation, which 
 consists in dividing the cubito-plantar nerve and in 
 excising a portion of the peripherical end) the means 
 of improving the conditions, and consequently the 
 values of many apparently doomed animals. Agricul- 
 ture in particular will be benefited, 
 
 The work is divided into two parts. The first covers 
 the study of Median Neurotomy itself ; the second, 
 the exact relations of the facts as observed by the 
 author. 8vo., boards 1 00 
 
12 Veterinary Catalogue of William B. Jenkins 
 
 LI A UTARD. " Tade Mecum of Equine Anatomy." 
 
 By A. Liautard, M.D.V.S. Pean of the American Vet- 
 erinary College. 12mo. cloth 2 00 
 
 LIAUTARD. "Translation of Znndel on the 
 Horse's Foot." Cloth 2 00 
 
 LIA UTARD. "How to Tell the Age of the Domestic 
 Animal." By Dr. A. Liautard, M.D., V.S. Profusely 
 illustrated. 12mo, cloth 50 
 
 LIAUTARD. "On the Lameness of Horses." By 
 
 A. Liautard, M.D..V.S 2 50 
 
 {'*)1LIA UTARD. ' Manual of Operative Veterinary 
 Surgery " By A. Liautard, M.D., V.M., Principal 
 and Professor of Anatomy, Surgery, Sanitary Medicine 
 an 1 Jurisprudence in the American Veterinary College ; 
 Chevalier du Merite Agricole de France, Honorary 
 Fallow of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons 
 (London), etc., etc. 8vo, cloth,- 786 pa,ges and nearly 
 600 illustrations 6 00 
 
 LONG. "Book of the Pig." Its selection, Breeding, 
 Feeding and Management. 8vo, cloth i 25 
 
 (**)Z UPTON. " Horses : Sound and Unsound," with 
 Law relating to Sales and Warranty. By J. Irvine 
 Lupton, F. R. C. V.S . 8vo, cloth, illustrated 1 25 
 
 L UPTON. " The Horse." As he Was-, as he Is, and 
 as'he Ought to Be. By J. I. Lupton, F.K.C.V.S. Illus- 
 trated. Crown, 8vo 1 40 
 
 MAGNER. "Facts for Horse Owners." By D. 
 
 Magner. Upwards of 1,000 pages, illustrated with 900 
 engravings. 8vo, cloth, $5.00; sheep, $6.00; full 
 morocco 7 5U 
 
851-853 Sixth Avenue (cor. 48th St.), New York. 13 
 
 MAONEM. "Veterinary Diagrams." (1) The Struc- 
 ture of Horses Feet (in colors). The Structure of 
 Horses Feet (Effects of Bad Treatment of the Feet). 
 
 Mounted and Varnished 2 00 
 
 (2) The Shoeing of the Horse. The Education of the 
 Horse. Mounted and Varnished 2 00 
 
 MAYHEW. "The Illustrated Horse Doctor." An 
 
 accurate and detailed account of the Various Diseases 
 to which the Equine Race is subject ; together with the 
 latest mode of Treatment, and all the Eequisite Pre- 
 scriptions writteD in plain English. By E. Edward 
 Maynew, M.R.C.V.S. Illustrated. Entirely new 
 edition, 8vo, cloth 2 75 
 
 McBJRIDE. "Anatomical Outlines of the Horse." 
 
 12mo, cloth 2 50 
 
 McCOMBIE. "Cattle and Cattle Breeders." Cloth.l 00 
 
 M'FADYEAN. "Anatomy of the Horse." A Dis- 
 section Guide. By J. M. M'Fadyean, M.R.C.V.S. 
 This book is intended for Veterinary students, and 
 offers to them in its 48 full-page colored plates numer- 
 ous other engravings and excellent text, the most 
 valuable and practical aid in the study of Veterinary 
 Anatomy, especially in the dissecting room. 8vo, 
 cloth 5 50 
 
 M'FADYEAN. " Comparative Anatomy of the 
 Domesticated Animals." By J. M'Fadyean. Pro- 
 fusely illustrated, and to be issued in two parts. Ptrt 
 I_Osteology, ready. Paper, $2 50; cloth i 75 
 
 (Part II. in preparation.) 
 
14 Veterinary Catalogue of William R. Jenkins 
 
 MILLS. "How to Keep a Dog in the City." By 
 
 Wesley Mills, M.D., V.S. It tells how to choose 
 
 1 manage, house, feed, educate the pup, how to keep him 
 
 clean and teach him cleanliness. Paper 25 
 
 (*)MOLLEB. "Operative Veterinary Surgery." By 
 Professor Dr. H. Moller, Berlin. Translated and 
 edited from the 2d edition, enlarged and improved, 
 by John A. W. Dollar, M.K.C.S. 
 
 Prof. Moller's work presents the most recent and 
 complete exposition of the Principles and Practice of 
 Veterinary Surgery, and is the standard text-book on the 
 subject throughout Germany. 
 
 Many subjects ignored in previous treatises on 
 Veterinary Surgery here receive full consideration, 
 while the better known are presented under new and 
 suggestive aspects. 
 
 As Prof. Moller's work represents not only his 
 own opinions and practice, but those of the best 
 Veterinary Surgeons of various countries, the trans- 
 lation cannot fail to be of signal service to American 
 and British Veterinarians and to Students of Veter- 
 inary and Comparative Surgery. 
 
 1 vol., 8vo. 722 pages, 142 illustrations 5 25 
 
 MQBETON. " On Horse-breaking." 12mo, cl . . . 50 
 
 MOSSELMAN-LIENA UX. "Veterinary Microbio- 
 logy." By Professors Mosselman and Lienaux, Nat- 
 ional Veterinary College, Cureghem, Belgium. Trans- 
 lated and edited by B. K. Dinwiddie, Professor of 
 Veterinary Science, College of Agriculture, Arkansas 
 State University. 12mo, cloth, 342 pages ■ . .2 50 
 
851-853 Sixth Avenue (cor. 48th St.), New York. 15 
 
 CWOCARD. "The Animal Tuberculoses, and their 
 Relation to Human Tuberculosis." By Ed. Nocard, 
 Professor of the Alfort Veterinary College. Trans- 
 lated by H. Scurfleld, M.D. Ed., Ph. Camb. 
 
 Perhaps the chief interest to doctors of human 
 medicine in Professor Nocard's book lies in the 
 demonstration of the small part played by heredity, 
 and the great part played by contagion in the propa- 
 gation of bovine tubereulosis. It seems not unreason- 
 able to suppose that the same is the case for human 
 tuberculosis, and that, if the children of tuberculosis 
 parents were protected from infection by cohabitation 
 or ingestion, the importance of heredity as a cause of 
 the disease, or even of the predisposition to it, would 
 dwindle away into insignificance. 12mo, cloth 143 
 pages .1 00 
 
 PEGLER. "The Book of the Goat." 12mo, cloth. 1 75 
 
 PELLERIN. "Median Neurotomy in the Treatment 
 of Chronic Tendinitis and Periostosis of the Fetlock." 
 
 By C. Pellerin, late repetitor of Clinic and Surgery to 
 the Alfort Veterinary School. Translated, with Addi- 
 tional Facts Eelaling to It, by Prof. A. Liautard, M.D., 
 V.M. 8vo, boards, illustrated 1 00 
 
 See Liautard. 
 
 PROCTOR. " The Management and Treatment of 
 the Horse " in the Stable, Field and on the Eoad. 
 By William Proctor. 8vo 2 40 
 
 PETERS. "A Tuberculous Herd— Test with Tuber- 
 culin." By Austin Peters, M. E. C. V. S., Chief 
 Inspector of Cattle for the New York State Board of 
 Health during the winter of 1892-93. Pamphlet 25 
 
16 Veterinary Catalogue of William B, Jenkins 
 
 REYNOLD. ' 'Breeding and Management of Draught 
 Horses.'' 8vo, cloth 1 10 
 
 JB OBERTS ON. ' 'The Practice of Equine Medicine. " 
 
 A text-book especially adapted for the use of Veter- 
 inary students and Veterinarians. By W. Robertson, 
 Principal and Professor of Hippopathology in' the 
 Royal Veterinary College, London. 8vo. cloth, 806 
 pages, revised edition 6 25 
 
 (**)ROBERGE. "The Foot of the Horse," or Lame- 
 ness and all Diseases of the Feet traced to an Unbal- 
 anced Foot Bone, prevented or cured by balancing the 
 foot. By David Roberge. 8 vo, cloth 5 00 
 
 {*) SMITH. "A. Manual of Veterinary Physiology." 
 
 By Veterinary Captain F. Smith, M.R.C.V.S. Author 
 of " A Manual of Veterinary Hygiene.'' 
 
 Throughout this manual the object has been to con- 
 dense the information as much as possible. The 
 broad facts of the sciences are stated so as to render 
 them of use to the student and practitioner. In this 
 seeond edition— rewritten — the whole of the Nervous 
 System has been revised, a new chapter dealing with 
 the Development of the Ovum has been added together 
 with many additional facts and illustrations. About 
 one hundred additional pages are given. Second 
 edition, revised and enlarged, with additional illus- 
 trations 3 75 
 
 (") SMITH. " Manual of Veterinary Hygiene." 2nd 
 
 edition, revised. Crown, 8vo, cloth 3 25 
 
851-853 Sixth Avenue (cor.,i8th St.), New York. 17 
 
 8TORNMOUTH. "Manual of Scientific Terms." 
 
 Especially referring to those in Botany, Natural 
 History, Medical and Veterinary Science. By Rev. 
 James Stornmouth ; , 3 '00 
 
 (**)STRANGEWAY. 'Veterinary Anatomy." New 
 
 edition, revised and edited by I. Vaughn, F.L.S , 
 M.K.C.V.S., with several hundred illustrations. 8vo. 
 cloth .5 00 
 
 (*) S USSD ORF. Colored Plates specially for Lectures. 
 
 Size 40x27. By Professor Sussdorf, M.D. Translated 
 by Prof. W. Owen Williams, of the New Veterinary 
 College, Edinburgh. Plate 1. — Diagram of the Horse 
 (left or near side view). Plate 2. — Diagram of the • 
 Mare (right side view). Showing the position of the 
 viscera in the large cavities of the body. 
 
 Price, unmounted 1 75 each 
 
 " mounted on linen, with roller.. .1 75 extra " 
 "Anatomy of the Cow" (in preparation). 
 
 VETERINARY DIAGRAMS in Tabular Porm. 
 Size, 28J in. x 22 inches. Price per set of five 4 75 
 
 No. 1. "The External Form and Elementary Ana- 
 tomy of the Horse." Eight coloured illustrations — 
 1. External regions ; 2. Skeleton; 3. Muscles (Superior 
 Layer) ; 4. Muscles (Deep Layer) ; 5. Respiratory Ap- 
 paratus ; 6. Digestive Apparatus ; 7. Circulatory Ap- 
 paratus ; 8. Nerve Apparatus ; with letter-press descrip- 
 tion ■ 1 25 
 
 No. 2. "The Age of Domestic Animals." Forty-two 
 figures illustrating the structure of the teeth, indicat- 
 ing the Age of the Horse, Ox, Sheep, and Dog, with 
 full description 75 
 
18 Veterinary Catalogue of William R. Jenkins ■ 
 
 No. 3. "The Unsoundness and Defects of the Horse." 
 
 Fifty figures illustrating— 1. The Defects of Confor- 
 mation ; 2. Defects of Position ; 3. Infirmities or Signs 
 of Disease ; 4. Unsoundnesses ; 5. Defects of the Foot ; 
 with full description 75 
 
 No. 4. "The Shoeing of the Horse, Mule and Ox." 
 
 Fifty figures descriptive of the Anatomy and Physio- 
 logy of the Foot and of Horse-shoeing .* 75 
 
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