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 Cornell University Library 
 DS 421.P12 1896 
 
 The Hindu at.hoine,bein,9,.pketche^^^ 
 
The original of tliis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924024114633 
 
o. 
 
 THE 
 
 HINDU AT HOME. 
 
THE 
 
 HINDU AT HOME 
 
 BEING 
 
 SKETCHES OP HINDU DAILY LIFE. 
 
 BY 
 
 The Rev. J. E. PADFIELD, B. D., 
 
 Missionary f C. M, S., Masulipatam. 
 
 Aneestor-worshlp, in some form or other, is the 
 
 beginning, the middle, and the end of what 
 
 is known as the Hindu religion, 
 
 (Professor Bhattcicharja, in Xagore Zaw lecture.) 
 
 MADRAS: 
 
 SOOIITT FOR PEOMOTING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDQE. 
 1896. 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 SIMPiCIN, MARSHALL, HAMILTON, KENT & Co., Ltd. 
 Frlce 3s. Gd. neff. 
 
\ % t) ^ 
 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTEE I. 
 
 The Hindu Home, 
 
 The Hindu's life regulated by rules prescribed by Pages, 
 Ms religion — ^Absence of comfort in Hindu Homes 
 — The Vastu Shastram or science of domestic archi- 
 tecture—The Vastu Shastri — Instances of his 
 skill —The site for a dwelling — A deserted village — 
 The position of the house as regards neighbouring 
 dwellings — What timber should be used — The time 
 of year to begin building — The aspect — Foundation 
 laying ceremony — The Purohita — Ceremonies ob- 
 served at various stages of the erection — Those at 
 the digging of the well ,.. ... ... ... 1—15 
 
 CHAPTEE II. 
 
 The Hindu Home. — {Gontinued.) 
 
 The architectural plan of a Hindu house — The 
 massive door-way — The various rooms of the house 
 —The kitchen — The arrangement of rooms must 
 be according to the shastram — Bible imagery ex- 
 emplified—The absence of furniture — Sleeping 
 accommodation— Newly married couples do not set 
 up a separate home — Hindu gardens — House- 
 warming ceremonies — A declaration and a prayer — 
 Ceremonial defilement of hoiises — Particularly by 
 death— Purificatory rites — A declaration and a 
 prayer — Minor purifications ... ... ... 16~33 
 
 CHAPTEE III. 
 
 The Hindu Daily Eound. 
 
 The motive for religious observances — Contrasted 
 with Christian , motives^Divisions of a Brahmin's 
 life— Early morning observances — Prayers from 
 the puranaa-^Teeth cleansing — The bath — Prayer 
 to the rivers — Sandyavandanam— Achamanam— 
 Sankalpam — Sun worship — Pitrutarpana^ — The 
 Gayatri — . Midday Sundyav?,ndanam — Devatar- 
 chana — The kitchen its uses and contents — House- 
 
hold images — Their worship — Nivedanam— Linga- Pages. 
 its — Taking meals — Precautions against interrup- 
 tions — Order of sitting — Grace before meat- 
 Drinking water must be ceremonially pure^ 
 Evening Sandyavandanam — Prayer to Varuna — If 
 on a journey — If too ill to bathe— Prayer on re- 
 tiring for the night — Women have no share in 
 ceremonies — Each house has its private chapel — 
 No public religioas teaching — Hopefulness produced 
 by the Hindus intensely religious nature ... 34—52 
 
 CHAPTBE IV. 
 
 The Hindu Woman's Eeligion. 
 
 Woman's low position in Hinduism — Quotations 
 from Manu on this subject — Definition of a wife in 
 Mahabharata — Sita and Kama in Bamayana — 
 Difficulty of arriving at a clear iden of womaq's 
 religious position — Woman has no religious status 
 apart from her husband — Illustrated by quotations 
 from Hindu writings — Woman's ordinary daily 
 round— Rise before_ day break — Melukolupu or 
 morning song — Gropika Glta — The tilakam — 
 Cooking — Woman's worship before the midday 
 meal — The woman's images not consecrated — 
 Lingam Worship — Lamp Worship — Mother ins- 
 tructing her children — Woman can only worship 
 with the consent of her husband — Good deeds of a 
 wife may benefit her husband, but his good deeds 
 confer no spiritual benefit upon her — This illustra- 
 4;ed from the code of Parasara — Hindu woman as a 
 widow — Sati — A widow's duties as laid down by 
 Manu— The religion of low caste women — Little 
 more than demonolatry or fetichism— At epidemics 
 — At festivals — Women go pilgrimages — Move- 
 ment towards bettering the status of women — The 
 Bible view of woman's status ... ... ... 53 70 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 The Hindu Saceed Thebad. 
 
 The Tajnopavitam a mark of being a dvija— 
 Quotation from Manu as to who may wear the 
 thread— Others besides the three higher castes 
 wear it— The goldsmith caste and its privileges- 
 Low caste men are not free to dress, or travel about 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 vn 
 
 as they may choose — An Orissa Bajah assumed Pages. 
 authority to invest with the thread — The Bengal 
 Vaidyas wear the thread — The material of which 
 the thread should be made— The Kshatriyas an 
 extinct caste — The number of threads and skeins in 
 the Tajnopavitam — The Brahman's knot — The 
 investiture, when it should be — Ceremonies con- 
 nected with the Upanayanam — Sacredness of deer 
 skin — The father teaches the novice the Gayatri — 
 When a new thread must be put on — Defilement 
 necessitating a new thread — Ceremonies connected 
 with replacing a defiled thread — Disposal of dis- 
 carded thread — Various ways of wearing the thread 
 — Importance of the thread ... ... ..o 71 — 81 
 
 CHAPTEE VI. 
 
 The Hindu Saceeb Maees. 
 
 Anglo-Indian lack of information on Hindu cus- 
 toms — The Pundrams not mentioned in the Vedas — 
 Sacred marks not now distinctive of caste — Hindus 
 divided into worshippers of Yishnu or Siva — 
 Brahma not worshipped — The three schools of 
 philosophy — TTrdva Pundrams and Tiryak pun- 
 drams — On what parts of the body daubed — 
 Vaishnava marks — The materials with which 
 made — ^Their colour and shape — Eamanujacharya— 
 Hostility of Eamanujas to Saivas — Vadagalais and 
 Tengalais — Distinguished by shape of forehead 
 mark — Mode of putting on pundrams and the 
 mantrams which should be repeated — Madhva- 
 charya and the Madhvas — Their peculiar marks— 
 The Siva marks, how put on and with what materials 
 •^Smarthas and Lingathdris — Jangams — The dress- 
 ing case — Absolute necessity of putting on 
 marks — Coloured marks changed to white as a sign 
 of mourning — Women's marks — The seal in the 
 forehead mentioned in the Kevelation 
 
 82—93 
 
 CHAPTER VII. \^ 
 
 The Hindu Tonsure. 
 
 Peculiar modes of wearing the hair — Hindus 
 themselves often unable to give a reason for their 
 customs— Cutting off hair symbolical of casting off \y 
 sin— The Sikha, Cudimi, Zuttu— The Koman 
 Catholic tonsure — A Brahmin not a Brahmin with- 
 
Viii CONTENTS. 
 
 out his Sikha— Only one notice in the Vedas— A. Pages. 
 father ~ should not shave during the six months 
 . / preceding the child's birth— First hair cutting— 
 In fulfilment of a vow the first hair cutting may be 
 at a place of pilgrimage— If the pilgrimage cannot 
 be made, a portion of the hair if preserved to be 
 taken to the shrine when opportunity offers— 
 Venkateshvara at Tirupati in North Arcot— Also at 
 Dvaraka Tirumala in the Godavery District— The 
 real tonsure is at Upanayanam— A description of 
 the ceremony— The whole ritual elaborated from an 
 obscure mantram — A further ceremony at a temple 
 — Kakapaksham or hair beauty patches— Hindus 
 do not wear beards — Yogis suffer all their hair to 
 grow— The Sanyaai gets rid of all his hair— Hindus 
 generally wear the moustache — Exceptions to this 
 rule; the Dasaris, Eamanujas, Vaidikis, Acharyas. 
 — A clean shaven face as a sign of mourning — The 
 Pushkaram festival ; Widows have the head clean 
 shaven — Pilgrims are shaved after a bath in a sacred 
 river— A woman sometimes allows a portion of her 
 hair to be out off to bring blessings upon her hus- 
 band — Vows at times of sickness — No one should 
 shave himself — The village barber — Days and sea- 
 sons when shaving should not be done — Whether 
 Christians may wear the sikha, ... ... ... 94 — 108 
 
 / CHAPTBE VIII. 
 
 Hindu Maeeiages. 
 
 This not an account of the institution, but a des- 
 cription of the ceremonies. — No " old bachelors," or 
 " old maids" — More freedom of choice in Vedic times 
 — European choice of a wife contrasted — Marriage 
 amongst Brahmins and Vaisyas cannot precede 
 Upanayanam — In certain sects, the choice is very 
 limited — Manu on the kind of wife to be chosen — ■ 
 Polyandry and Polygamy— Polygamy legislated for 
 by Manu — In these days a man cannot marry even 
 a second wife other than of his own caste — Under 
 what conditions a second wife is usually taken— 
 Unusual for a Hindu to have more than one wife— 
 The custom of Menarikam — Younger brother or 
 sister cannot marry until the elder ones are married ; 
 Mere infants are sometimes married — The horos- 
 cope — Money sometimes given to the father of a 
 young girl to persuade him to give his daughter in 
 marriage, especially if the would-be bridegroom is 
 an old man — Such gratuities are unlawful — Ins- 
 
CONTBNIS. IX 
 
 tances'of such cases — This unlawful custom otiiefly 
 amongst Brahmins — The Kistna District Association 
 on the sale of girls, and excessive expenditure at 
 marriages — A Pariah girl passed off as a Brahmin 
 gfrl — The Prathanam — This not necessarily a 
 binding ceremony ... ... ,., ... 1Q9— 120 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 Hindu Mabeiages.— (OonfinMeci)'. 
 
 Fondness of Hindus for marriage festivities— Time 
 chosen for actual marriage — Preliminary prepara- 
 tions — The bridegroom and his party arrive at the 
 bride's home — If a Brahmin, the bride's father 
 ceremoniously plants nine kinds of grain in five 
 vessels — The formal welcome— ^The actual hour for 
 marriage fixed — The Mangalasnanam— The Pnnya- 
 havaohanam ceremony — The Bride's parents invest 
 the bridegroom with the complement of his Tajno- 
 pavtam — A curtain is fixed up concealing the bride 
 i — Mathuparkam — Kanyadanam — ^The couple are 
 tied together by means of the Brahma knot — 
 Presents given to the bride— The bride's father 
 washes the bridegroom's feet — He then pours water 
 over the clasped hands of the couple, repeating man- 
 trams — The curtain is removed and the young couple 
 see each other — The ox yoke ceremony, — The Man- 
 galasiitram— This is fastened round the neck of the 
 bride by the bridegroom — This custom retained in 
 the marriages of native Christians — The Mangala- 
 shtakam— Throwing coloured rice — The Bhashikam 
 — Mutual placing of rice, steeped in milk, upon 
 each others heads by the couple — Did the modern 
 English custom of throwing rice at weddings origi- 
 nate from these customs — A homam sacrifice by the 
 bridegroom— -The Sa^tapaAi — This the most import- 
 ant ceremony, and really the binding one — Marriage 
 song by those present. The lamp hymn to Erama— 
 The Sthalipakam ceremony. Arundhati— The couple 
 take food together — ^The marriage feast — The second 
 day ; the couple go in procession, both morning and 
 evening— Husband and wife never mention each 
 other's name — Singing songs ; A Kistna Lullaby — 
 The third day, the couple again go in procession- 
 Fun and frolic— The fourth day ; passed much the 
 same as the previous day — The bridegroom pretends 
 sulks — Tricks played at the house whilst the proces- 
 sion goes on— The fifth day ; Shesha homam— In the 
 evening the Nakabali ceremony— Throwing upon 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 each other by the company of oolonred powder and 'Pages. 
 other fun and frolic — The Appaginta ceremony — ^The 
 couple depart to the bridegroom's home — After 
 three days the bride returns to her parents home 
 until of suitable age to finally join her husband- 
 Marriages sometimes performed at places of pilgri- 
 mage — The exorbitant expenditure at marriages a 
 fruitful source of debt and misery 121 — 140 
 
 \/ • CHAPTER X. 
 
 TJnoethodox Hindu Makeiages. 
 
 Numbers of nominal Hindus who are really not 
 followers of the Brahminical religion — This fact 
 appears in their marriage ceremonies. — The Malas 
 as representing a medium between the orthodox 
 and those who are entirely outside Hinduism — A 
 Mala betrothal— The marriage takes place at the 
 young man's home — The ceremony is performed by 
 night — If by day, a young bull must be set free as 
 a kind of forfeit — The Dasari, or Mala priest— The 
 Ariveni pots — The Panta bangaram — The pandal 
 and pendli arugu — The basikam— The nails of the 
 couple both of hands and feet pared— Coloured rice 
 applied to the forehead — The Brahma knot — The 
 temporary screen — A silver ring is placed on the 
 second toe of each foot of the bride by one of the 
 musicians — The cloth is held horizontally as a screen 
 and coloured rice poured into the hands of the couple 
 by the priest — &reen-leaf bracelets tied on— The 
 Mangalasutram is produced — Tied on to the neck 
 of the bride whilst the Dasari repeats a blessing — 
 The Dasari's blessing— This the binding ceremony 
 —The couple pour rice over each other's head- 
 Presents are given — The fathers of the both parties 
 walk round the pendli arugu each carrying an ariveni 
 pot— Arundhati— The couple join hands by holding 
 each other by the little finger— Song, unbolt the 
 closed door — The Ariveni song — By day light, now 
 when they go in procession through the village — 
 This followed by a feast— The Degata game— The 
 final ceremony and declaration — Marriage rites of 
 Madigas, Of the Teruklas— The Karakat Vellalans 
 
 —The Maravans.— The Kalians— The Tottiyans 
 
 The Poleiyaris— The Todas— The Kotas— The 
 Kurumbas— The Irulas— The Badagas ... 141—154 
 
CONTENTS. XI 
 
 OHAPTBE XI. 
 
 Hindu Diet. 
 
 In Vedio times more latitude allowed in diet— Pages, 
 The dietary of Manu much allied to that of Moses— 
 The wisdom of some of the restrictions— Instance tS 
 rigidity of brahmanioal rules of -diet — A Vegetable 
 diet suited to India — Hare considered "varmint" 
 by some English peasants — Economic wisdom of 
 abstaining from beef — The Hindu dietary not to be 
 despised for quality or variety — Details of dietary 
 ^Sudras though not vegetarians do not uniformly 
 eat flesh— Reasons for this — True Hindus are 
 water drinkers— It is only low-castes and outoastes 
 who drink intoxicants— rA • hint to temperance 
 orators — Hindus generally have not more than two 
 meals a day— An early morning light meal is taken 
 by low-castes and outoastes— Universal hospitality 
 to travellers — This enjoined by Manu— Choultries 
 — The broad division of things cooked in water and 
 those cooked dry, or in ghee— Dietary of the out- 
 castes — Carrion eaten by the Panohamas— These 
 welcome siich food through poverty — Carrion for- 
 bidden to Christians by the Missionaries — Eeasons 
 for Europeans and Christian converts not having the 
 same privileges as Muhammadans — The teaching of 
 Christ and the New Testament as regards defile- 
 ment 155—169 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Hindu Festivals. 
 
 Origin and uses of festivals— Number of Hindu 
 festivals^-In one sense festivals answer to the sab- 
 bath — Even natives do not often know the origin 
 of particular festivals^The native almanac- 
 Varieties of festivals — According to the Pnranas 
 there should be 400 festivals during the year; — 
 Different systems upon which almanacs are drawn 
 up- Twelve festivals are chosen as representative 
 — Sankraiiti; three days — ^Also called Pongul— 
 The way of celebrating this festival—The first day 
 called Bhogi — An oil bath— Origin of the word 
 pongul — Maha Sivaratri ; one day — Not observed by 
 strict Vaishnavas — Sivaratri pilgrimages and their 
 observances— The Budrapadam; Nandi! Hara! 
 Hara ! — Method of worshipping the Lingam— 
 Mara Sivaratri— Holi ; 15 days— The festival of the 
 
Xll CONTENTS, 
 
 god of beat— Not much observed in the Oircars ; — Pages, 
 Sriramajayanti ; one day— The Kamayanam read- 
 Worship of Kama very popular — Bhadrachalam as 
 a place of pilgrimage— The doings there— Naga- 
 saviti; one day — Chieiy celebrated by fenrales 
 worshipping the cobra— Method of such worship — 
 A story illustrative of serpent worship — Krishna- 
 jayanti ; two days— The Bkagavatam read— Popular 
 amusements illustrative of the doings of Krishna 
 — Vinayafcaohaturti ; one day^^Ganesa worshipped 
 in the form of little clay images — The method of 
 such worship— The Samautakam-'-A story of 
 Ganesa 170-185 
 
 CHAPTBE -XIII. 
 Hindu FESTivAtSh — {Continued) . 
 
 Dasara; ten days — Observed by all Saklas or 
 worshippers of the female principle — ^No image 
 used at this festival but a Kalasam — Native School- 
 masters perambulate with their pupils — Quarrels 
 between Hindus and Muhammadans at Bombay and 
 Poona — Reason given for this animosity — DeepS- 
 vali ; two days — In memory of Krishna's victory over 
 Narakasura — Chief features are fireworks and light- 
 ing up lamps — Kartikapiarnima ; one day — Oom- 
 memorative of Siva's victory over the three giants 
 Tripurasura — The gods taken in procession and the 
 reasons for such processions — The Jvalatoranam or 
 flame wreath — Smartha females worship the moon, 
 the method of such worship — Samvatsaradi ; one 
 day — Not a religious festival, but the new year's 
 day — Partaking of a particular dish' — Mahalaya 
 Amavasya ; one day— Prescribed ceremonies per- 
 formed for deceased ancestors— Sea bathing, at cer- 
 tain new moons — Beneficial to bathe at all new 
 moons — At other times it is not good to touch sea 
 water — A description of a sea bathing festival- 
 Local festivals — The Masulipatam Ambariutsavam- 
 A description of this festival — The observance of 
 these festivals merely outward mechanical ritual— A 
 quotation from Isaiah ... ... ,., .,, 186—198 
 
CHAPTBE XIV. 
 
 Hindu Mendicity. 
 
 True charity contrasted with Hindu mendicity — Pages. 
 The good resulting front Hindu alms-giving, and 
 the evils resulting from its abuse — Gifts to Brah- 
 mins held forth as the highest form of charity — 
 This seen in the laws of Manu — The student stage 
 of Brahmin life during which he must live by alms— 
 A relic of this Vedio custom — ^A quotation from the 
 Mahabharata on the duty of giving alms to stu- 
 dents— ^Hospitality to travellers a duty — This sup- 
 ported by various quotations — Professional mendi- 
 cants — In modern times all Brahmins do not live, 
 by alms, still the spirit of the old rule is not dead — 
 The Fanchangam Brahmin — A specimen of his 
 daily duties — A daily custom of many household to 
 set apart so much gi^in for mendicants — The 
 Jangam mendicant — His appearance and habits — 
 A song of despair. — A song of Meditation ... 199 — 212 
 
 CHAPTBE XV. 
 
 Hindu Mindicitt. — {Continued}. 
 
 The Satanis — These are to the Vaishnayas, what 
 the Jangams are to the Saivas — Ohaitanya— Ori- 
 ginally this sect was composed of all castes, but 
 now it is chiefly Sudras — The appearance and 
 habits of the Satana — ^The saviour of the elephant — 
 Song; a Meditation on Vishnu-;-MarIcha and 
 Sabahu — How Rama obtained Sita— The demon 
 Kakasara — Song; Praise to Eama — The Dasari or 
 Pariah priest 5 His duties and habits— His songs ; 
 Divine Meditation, and a Hymn to Vishnu — The 
 Dasari's blessing-^The Basari and the Panehangam 
 Brahmin as astrologers, and their method of 
 calculation — The Sanyasi as a mendicant. The 
 chief gurus of the three great Hindu sects — The 
 various strolling mendicants— Choultries, their 
 founding and their uses — The Mahabharaifcam on 
 choultries— The ordinary street beggar— Mendicity 
 in England — Difficulty of legislating on mendicity 
 in India — The large numbers who live upon charity 
 and the evils connected therewith— Alms giving as 
 spoken of in the New Testament ... ... ...213 — 226 
 
XIV CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTEE XVI. 
 
 Hindu Funeeais. 
 
 Modes of disposing of the dead an interesting Pages. 
 study — The morality of Brahmins as discussed in 
 Manu — Jivanamaskaram ; Panohagavyam ; Prayas- 
 ohittam — When death is near the dying person is 
 placed on the ground — How and when death in a 
 dwelling defiles it. — Lamenting the dead — The Kar- 
 makarta — premation or burial follows shortly aftfer 
 death — How the corp'se is prepared for removal— 
 The bier— The funeral procession — The untidy state 
 in which cemeteries are kept — The funeral pyre and 
 the Vetty man — Disposal of the corpse on the pyre 
 and Pradakshina ceremony — ^The Karta applies the 
 fire to the pyre — After the cremation the Karta^^ is 
 shaved — The Mtya karma ceremony — The Preta- 
 shila — Ceremonies on returning home — The San- 
 chanam ceremony — A few of the unconsumed por- 
 tions of the bones are sometimes sent to be cast into 
 the Ganges — The Pretaharam — Pinal Nitya karma 
 ceremony on the tenth day ; the Shiladhivasam^ 
 The Sijtrachohedam or widow degrading rite- 
 Miseries of Indian widowhood — The Ekavanam 
 ceremony on the eleventh day — A ceremony strongly 
 suggestive of the Jewish scape-goat rite — Hindu 
 ideas of mourning — What is entailed by ceremonial 
 defilement — In this description the highest castes 
 have been mostly kept in view ... ,., .,, 227—243 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 Hindu Funerals. — {Continued.) 
 
 Burying the dead and Shraddhas— Keasons for 
 burning and for burying— Under certain circum- 
 stances those who ordinarily burn their dead bury 
 them— Up to the time of the funeral procession 
 leaving the house the ceremonies are much the same 
 in both cases— The body is buried in a sitting 
 posture— The grave and its surroundings are purl- 
 fied by sprinkling with Yibuthi and water— The 
 Jangams lower the body into the grave gradually, 
 repeating a stanza of a certain poem at each move 
 — Chennamallu and his song— Handfuls of earth 
 are thrown into the grave by the Karta and friends 
 at the repeating of a mantram-Rough earthen 
 figures made on the newly filled up grave — For ten 
 
CONTENTS. XV 
 
 days a daily visit is paid to the grave by the Karta Pages, 
 and others when certain ceremonies are performed 
 there — Peculiar custom of burning a bit of stick 
 representing a deceased person— Pauper funerals — 
 Grodanam— Ancestral worship — Reasons given for 
 Mtyakarma rite — Sapindi karanam or mixing to- 
 gether of the lumps — The Bhoktas — The object of 
 the Sapindi karanam — The object of the Shraddhas 
 —No such rites for deceased Sanyasis — The Masika 
 Shraddha — Manu on Shraddhas— A description of 
 the ordinary Shraddha ceremony — It is for these 
 ceremonies that a Hindu so earnestly desires a son 
 —Shraddhas at certain holy places — I^aily observ- 
 ances for deceased ancestors — The wasteful cost of 
 these Shraddha rites and efEorts to mitigate the 
 evil— The Christian hope ... ... ...244—264 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 Unoethodox Hindu Punebals. 
 
 Origin of the Pariah — Their funeral rites based 
 on fear — The Malas— rNo death bed ceremonies beyond 
 taking a dying person out of the house — Death often 
 hastened — Cremation takes placeat once— The Malas 
 practically Pagans — ^Vaishnava rites — They perform 
 sacrifices unorthodox funeral rites must be at a 
 distance from caste funerals — A revolting ceremony 
 on the bier — Position of the pile with head to the 
 south — Subsequent purifications— The jackals — 
 Coffins not used — Eepulsive aspect of a Hindu bury- 
 ing ground — Day funerals and night funerals — Pood 
 and provisions for the departed spirit — Throwing 
 foodto the birdslbefore partaking— Ceremonies of the 
 fifteenth day — The night procession and three 
 storied oar — Declaration of widowhood— Removal of- 
 ornaments— Mala widows not shaved — Presents from 
 relatives towards the expenses — Pear of demons 
 and departed spirits — The Goundans— The Todas — 
 The toda viaticum— The Green funeral and the Dry 
 funeral — Badaga funerals more elaborate than their 
 marriages ,,. ... ... ... ... 266—283 
 
XVi CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTBE XIX. 
 
 Hindu Omens. 
 
 Belief in omens pervades all classes — Influence 
 of numbers — Influence of precious stones — Omens 
 originally connected with flight of bird, — Setting 
 out on a journey— Forty-three possible good auguries 
 and thirty-four possible evil ones — Distance beyond 
 which omens cease to have influence — A bad omen 
 would cause a pious Hindu to turn back and start 
 again — Influence of snakes — Serpent worship — The 
 cobra in the house — Lizards — The cry of the lizard — 
 The falling down of a lizard brings ill luck to the 
 person on whom it falls — ^What to do in such a case 
 The crow — Its character, an Ishmael among birds^ 
 Dogs — The pariah dog — Nearly always brings bad 
 luck — Cats — Jackals — Sneezing— Breathing — The 
 Blue Jay — The Brahminy Kite — the King Crow 
 — Throbbing of the limbs — Tawning ... ...284 — 303 
 
 CHAPTBE XX. 
 
 Hindu Oenameists. 
 
 Passion tor adornment— Universal — Locking upthe 
 precious metals — A.11 savings invested in jewellery 
 — Even a day labourer — I'orms a negotiable security 
 Cause of domestic bickeHng — unmarried persona 
 ought not to wear ornaments — Hebrew women and 
 the decoration of the Temple — Ornaments generally 
 , made to order, not stocked — No sham jewellery — No 
 change of fashions — Ornaments for the head twelve 
 different kinds — For the nose — The ear— The neck, 
 twenty-four — The arms and wrists — Glass bangles. — 
 The bangle man — Fitting them on the waist, legs, and 
 feet— Anklets — Toe rings — Great inducement to 
 crime — Especially jewellery worn by children — 
 Superstitions regarding jewels — ^The Ruby — Dia- 
 mond — Pearl — Emerald — Sapphire — Cat's — eye — 
 Topaz— Coral— Agate— Castes or classes of jewels. 304—322 
 
 CHAPTEE XXI. 
 
 Concluding Eemaeks. 
 
 323—330 
 
f 
 
 REPACE, 
 
 The Rev. J. E. Padfield, who has been for 
 the last twenty-seven years a Missionary in 
 the Godavery and Kistna Districts of the Madras 
 Presidency, has here brought together in book 
 form a series of articles, the majority of which 
 have been up to the present time, scattered among 
 the monthly issues of The Madras Christian 
 College Magazine. Ko class of European has a 
 greater opportunity of making a close study o£ 
 Native life than the Missionaries, the very nature 
 of whose life-work, whether among the hill 
 tribes or among the dwellers in the plains^ 
 necessitates a close communion with, the Native 
 population. Of these opportunities Mr. Padfield 
 has taken advantage to the full, producing, as 
 the result of his observations, an epitome of the 
 general life and ceremonial observances of the 
 orthodox Hindu together with some accounts 
 of the customs of the unorthodox. 
 
 For myself, engaged as I am almost single- 
 handed in ah anthropological survey of the 
 races, tribes and castes of Southern India, I 
 welcome this addition to the literature bearing 
 on what are commonly known as " manners and 
 customs." By our cold-weather visitors I am 
 repeatedly cross-questioned as to the signi- 
 ficance of sect-marks, caste, and other complex 
 matters relating to Hindu life, and for such the' 
 present book will prove an admirable traveller's 
 companion. Not, however, to the transient 
 visitor only, whose interest in Indian affairs 
 
XVUl PEBFACB. 
 
 is ephemeral, will it be of use, but also to the 
 European resident, whose ignijrance in connec- 
 tion with all matters relating to Native life is 
 proverbial. "Probably," as Mr. Padfield re- 
 marks with great truth, "few of the Europeans 
 domiciled in India could give any intelligent 
 account of. the reasqn wl^y the Hinflu ahave^ 
 his h^ad, leaving a toprinot. most, carefully 
 preserved; why he paints those marks, on 
 his fprehead[, or smeg^rs, his bef(iy witji thps^ 
 grey, agh-colpured marks ; or again, for such: 
 social customs as perpetual wi^O'w^hQod, or the, 
 so great desire for a ,son, that one must bei 
 adopted, if nature denie^ the precious boon." 
 To the maijprity o| Europ^ajps the, TV'ear^ng of a. 
 t^irpad is pi;ol),a1?iy accepted 3,8 a sign tjiat, tli© 
 wearer i^ a 'Brajxpian, a(n,d 1, confess, that it 
 is. no,i Y,^vj long sincei I diiscoyered tbal^ 
 the a,rtisaji claisse^. of Ma^rag (Kammiilans), the 
 weavers, tlie Ha|ifuv% ^pqt qf the !^a,dagas of the 
 N^lgirii,! and, operSj doio, Ijh?, qiA^-w[a,r4 symbol) 
 of th^, 8609^1,4 spiriti^al biptb. 
 
 Jn^ cojan^lfiipni wtbj the oeasusi 1891, the 
 greatest difficulty wa^, we are told byr Mr. 
 H, 4i ^tfl,art, the Cenaus. GonamissJQneri ex- 
 pj9rien,ced in classifying thei large; immber. oiE 
 entries foiin4 in the schedules, OAving to the 
 great dearth o^ pi^bUshed information regarding 
 the castes, of tljip, l^di?as, Presidencyi "The- 
 district manuals," he says, ''are particularly' 
 defective, i^ t^i^pai^ticularj and preseijit a mark-, 
 ed contrast to thei Gr^;5e.tt©ejES of the sister Presir 
 dpncy, of Bombay, i^n, esQeptipia masit, how-> 
 ever, h^,madpiu! favour oiMs^,. IS[elspn?s.Madura,i 
 Mr. Cox's North, Arootj and- Mr. Grrigg'ft 
 Nilgiris. Of the re&t, some contain, notices, of a 
 
PBBMCB. ±i& 
 
 few da^tiE!^, and others giVe lists of trying 
 degrees bf accuracy ; btit, in the Majdpifrf, th? 
 subject of caste i^ treated in th6 ti!i6st ifieSgifS 
 manii'erj ot is Crtnitted aitogether." Books thefe 
 are dealing with the Native inhaMtafitS' otl 
 Southern India, such as Breeks' 'Primitive 
 Tribes of the TTitgiris,' the Rev. S. Mateer's 
 'Native Life in Travancbre^' 'the Tribes of 
 the Mlgiris by the Missidnary Metz,' Coldnel 
 Marshall's amusing ' Anthropologist among the 
 Todas,' Colonel Ross King's ' Aboriginal-Tribes 
 of the Nilgiris,' and MuUaly's ' Criminal Classes 
 of the Madras Presidency.' Of these six books 
 no less than four relate to the tribes inhabiting 
 the NUgiris, of whom the Todas have always 
 attracted most attention. What opinion, 1 
 wonder, would the Todas have of European 
 litei;ature, did they know that a Toda mand has 
 recently appeared as "an ancient type of 
 dwellings discovered in the Himalayas" ? 
 
 For the purpose oi, travellers in foreign lands 
 a cheap, compact, and portable traveller's 
 anthrc^ometer is now manufactured by Aston 
 and Mander, 26, Old Compton Street, London. 
 Equipped with this apparatus, with a little book 
 entitled ' Notes and Queries on Anthropology,' 
 and with a photographic camera, the Missionary 
 who has the confidence of the Native com- 
 munity could do much to advance the cause of 
 anthropology in its relation to the inhabitants 
 of Southern India. There are, in every district, 
 races, tribes, and castes, concerning whose 
 institutions, history, tradition, religion, etc., 
 a wide field for enquiry lies open. Such an 
 enquiry, if combined with a record of anthro- 
 pometric data, w:ould be of invaluable assistg.nce 
 
PKEIACE. 
 
 in the cause of the anthropological survey, and 
 I would give a hearty greeting, and such 
 advice as my experiences may render possible, 
 to fellow-wort ers in a line of research, which 
 is to me full of attractions. 
 
 Edgae Thiteston. 
 Madeas, ) 
 
 September 8, 1895. j 
 
/ 
 
 UTHOE^s Preface. 
 
 The whole of these sketches — and it must 
 be borne in mind that they only profess to be 
 sketches — have appeared, with the exception of 
 two or three chapters, from time to time in the 
 pages of the Madras Christian College Magazine. . 
 It is , as far back as 1885 that the first paper 
 was written and often for long periods the whole 
 subject has been laid aside. However great the 
 desire for side studies may be in India, the 
 pressure of daily work in an exhausting climate 
 more often than not frustrates the best inten- 
 tions. I have often been advised by kind 
 friends to collect these papers and bring them 
 out ia a more permanent form than that of 
 Magazine articles, and when T was in England 
 in 1887-8 Sir Monier Williiams and Dr. Robert 
 Oust were both good enough to read some of 
 the earlier chapters and favour their being thus 
 collected. Though thus encouraged, however, 
 it is only recently that circumstances have com- 
 bined to favour the carrying into effect of this 
 design. I am aware that there are standard 
 works which contain a good deal of the infor- 
 mation here given, but there are also many 
 things here described which I trust will be 
 found interesting of which there is no mention 
 in any books to which I have had access. Fur-: 
 thermore, I am not without a hope that the 
 popular style in which I have endeavoured to 
 
ZXU FBEFACE. 
 
 present the subject may serve to attract the 
 ordinary reader. 
 
 A few words may be necessary with reference 
 to the Sanscrit quotations, of which there are 
 a good number in these pages. I must first of 
 all hasten to disclaim for myself any pretence 
 to Sanscrit learning. The quotations have been 
 provided for me, from time to time, by learned 
 pandit friends, and we have worked out the 
 translations laj-gely through the medium of 
 Telugu. In giving the English the*e is no 
 attempt at a metrical translaiaon, but it is put in 
 the form in which it will be found go as to give 
 the original and the translation as neatly aS 
 possible in, corresponding lines. I was strongly 
 advised to put the original as well as the trans- 
 lation, seeing that many of the quotations are 
 not to b& found in any published books^as far' aS 
 I know, but are taken from the private if)almi-leaf 
 manuscripts of PuroMtas who hand down theii? 
 gathered lore as a Jegaicy to thei*' Successors. 
 BesideSj-however, the possible readers in Europe 
 who may have a knowledge of Saaiscrit and 
 hence find the quotations ititerBsting and per- 
 haps useful, I am not without hope that this 
 book may be read by educated Hindua in India) 
 itself. This is an additional reason for my actionE 
 in this respect, seeing that Hindu Scholars 
 would naturally prefer to have the original. 
 
 I trust that my efforts to present in an Eng- 
 lish dress the various songs- 1 ha^e quoted, will 
 meet with that iadulgence which is craved for 
 them. It was a question of givitogthe songs- in 
 a crude form which although there might be a 
 more exact renderings of the original would not 
 be so l&ely to interest the ordinary reader, or 
 
FBEFACE. XXIU 
 
 to make an attempt to present the ideas express- 
 ed in a fashion more calculated to secure attention 
 and, perhaps, at the same time give a truer idea 
 of the whole circumstances under description. 
 How far this attempt has been a success I must 
 leave to the judgment of the reader. 
 
 It should be mentioned that when Manu is 
 quoted, it is from the English translation by Sir 
 William Jones— Haughton edition, 1825, 
 
 As the contents of the chapters are given so 
 fuUy it was felt that an alphabetical Index was 
 not necessary. 
 
 Masulipatam, \ J. E. P. 
 
 October 25th, 1895. 
 
THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 GHAPTEE I. 
 
 THE HIITDU HOME. 
 
 ^^. (Gpuham.) 
 
 Let him not cease to perform day by day, according to the 
 preceding rules the five great sacraments ; and having taken 
 a lawful consort, let him dwell in his house during the second 
 period of his life.— Manu v. 169. 
 
 In giving some account of matters connected with 
 the daily home life of the Hindu, it may be well to 
 introduce the subject by a description of the home 
 itself, and things referring thereto. At the outset it 
 must be borne in mind that in this, as in everything 
 else, the Hindu is guided by rules and regulations 
 prescribed by his religion. There is nothing that has 
 to do with the whole life of a Hindu, and every 
 possible detail thereof, from his cradle to his grave, 
 and even after that, which is not regulated by rules 
 prescribed by his religion. Doubtless many of these 
 directions were originally the outcome of circumstances 
 bearing upon the welfare of the individual or com- 
 munity, but such directions have gradually become 
 absorbed by the all-embracing religious administration, 
 and at length appear as sections of a divine code that 
 must be observed, on pain of severe physical and 
 spiritual penalties. , 
 
 I do not intend to say anything here of the homes 
 of the modern Europeanized Hindu ; for, in the first 
 place, such are comparatively very few in number, 
 and are chiefly confined to the large towns and cities ; 
 and on the other hand, they do not represent the 
 ordinary habits and customs of the people. The 
 orthodox Hindu looks with dislike upon the many 
 departures from custom that are beginning to manifest 
 themselves, particularly in the Tresidency cities, and 
 other seats of light and learning; and the hybrid 
 
THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 civilization we see presenting itself is certainly not so 
 interesting a study as that of the habits and customs 
 which, though hoary with antiquity, are still so 
 binding upon the masses and are so universally 
 observed, all around us, at the present day. 
 
 The subject of Hindu homes is, of course, a very 
 wide one, and may include many varieties, from the 
 miserable hut of the lowest outcgrste up to the lordly 
 dwelling of the Maharajah. The extreme poverty of 
 the very lowest classes, the complete absence of all 
 ideas of comfort, and the simple requirements of a 
 tropical climate, together serve to perpetuate the 
 primitive character, and. the miserable squalor of 
 the ordinary labourer's hut. A few jungle sticks an J 
 the leaves of any of the varieties of the palm, or a 
 few bundles of grass or reeds, suffice ; to make a 
 Covering into which the poor man and his family can 
 creep on cold nights, or during the heavy rains; 
 but such a place can scarcely be called a home. This 
 class of people live mostly out of doors, both night 
 iind day ; and the hut is simply a shelter from 
 inclement weather, and a place for the safe custody 
 of the few" simple pots, and cooking utensils that form 
 the family belongings. Of course there are infinite 
 gradations from this primitive dwelling to the palaces 
 of the great chiefs and kings, but, as far as I have 
 been able to judge, after a long and varied experience, 
 there is one thing in common about them all ; from an 
 Englishman's point of view, there seems to be an 
 absence of that comfort, that indescribable something 
 which is the charm of an English home, and which 
 causes us to use the word as a synonym for the 
 eternal happiness beyond. This may be only one's 
 insular prejudice and the association of ideas ; for, 
 after all, comfort and happiness are but comparative 
 terms ; still this is how it has always struck me from 
 my own point of view. Without, however, attem'pting 
 a description of either end of this long catalogue, we 
 will take an ordinary house of the fairly well-to- 
 do Hindu, and by giving a more or less detailed 
 representation of that, lead the reader to form a 
 judgment a& to the whole. 
 
THE HINDU HOME. 
 
 Before describing the house itself, it will be best 
 to mention some of the regulations connected with 
 the building of it — regulations as to its site, and 
 materials to be used ia its construction, and the time 
 for commencing the work. All these things are 
 minutely laid down in Hindu books of greater or less 
 antiquity. There is one book called Nirnayasindhu 
 (the ocean of ritual), which is a kind of encyclopedia 
 of all Hindu customs ; and a smaller work called 
 Kdldmruiam (the nectar of time), which contains the 
 sixteen rites or regulations concerning the sixteen 
 chief events in a man's life, from his birth to his 
 death. From these two books a smaller one has been 
 compiled called Vanfu SheLstram, (the science of 
 domestic architecture), which treats of all matters 
 connected with buildings, especially private dwellings, 
 and though many of the directions are not now 
 generally complied with, most of those that are her© 
 described are still- fellowed out, by the ordinary 
 orthodox Hindu. "There are regular professional 
 persons called Vastu Shastris (doctors of building), 
 generally of the goldsmith caste, whose business it is, 
 for a consideration, of course, to give all the correct 
 measurements and directions, in due accordance with 
 ritual, to those about to erect new dwellings. I heard 
 some time ago of a celebrated member of this profession, 
 and sent for him, as I wished to see his books, and 
 to generally make his acquaintance. At first the 
 old gentleman declined to come, as he feared 
 Europeans ; he thought he might be beaten, or other- 
 wise ill-treated! After some time, however, upon 
 being assured that be would meet with nothing but 
 kind treatment, he consented to come. I was pleased 
 to see my new friend, but I did not get much out of 
 him, as he had not brought his books. They were at 
 his village, some ten miles away ; but he promised to 
 get them, and to tell me about his profession. He 
 was a most respectable looking old man, and being 
 of the goldsmith cas'te, he wore the thread of the 
 dvija or twice born. He did' not, however, keep his 
 appointment to come by a certain day, the reason 
 being that he was hastily summoned to a village some 
 
THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 distance off, on the south of the Kistna river. It 
 appears that a certain man, who was building a new 
 house, had fallen ill, and he sent in haate for this 
 doctor ; not a doctor for his body, be it observed, but 
 a doctor for the house ! Something must have gone 
 wrong in the calculations, or in the dimensions, or 
 something or other'of the new building, and hence 
 this blow from the offended deity. Money was sent 
 to defray the expenses of this celebrated Shastri, but 
 he would not go until he was assured that his advicji 
 would be followed, even if it involved pulling down 
 portions of the building already erected. How he 
 fared in this expedition I have never heard ; but it 
 appears that sometime ago this same old gentleman , 
 was sent for to attend another case, the result of which 
 brought him great fame. A certain house owner had 
 recently entered a new house which he had built, but 
 within a month he fell very ill. It was thought that 
 something must be wrong with the building, and this 
 house-doctor was sent for. Having considered the 
 case, the doctor decided, by virtue of his science, that 
 there was a snake in a certain beam of the building. 
 The reptile had entered the hollow part of the beam, 
 which had- been plugged up by the carpenter, and 
 was there languishing, and hence the calamity. A 
 snake charmer was summoned, the beam was sawn 
 through, and a reptile which turned oiit to be a cobra, 
 was drawn out by the snake charmer and placed in an 
 earthen vessel. It was there fed with milk for some 
 ten days, until it had revived, and recovered its 
 strength, when it was taken away to a suitable place 
 and set free. The patient recovered his strength in 
 proportion as the cobra's strength revived, and within 
 a few days he was quite well. The wisdom and skill 
 displayed by our friend in this case was much praised, 
 and he was suitably rewarded. These simple stories 
 are here narrated for what they are worth. The 
 people fully believe in them, and they will serve to 
 show the superstitious notions that are still enter- 
 tained in connection with Hindu dwellings. 
 
 The first question that arises in connection with the 
 building of a house is as to the site, and many direc- 
 
THE HINDU HOME. 
 
 tions are given as to the colour, and taste, and smell 
 of the soil, together with the various means of 
 testing its being a lucky or unlucky spot or neighbour- 
 hood ; but much of this is, I fancy, considered 
 obsolete now. Builders are still, however, very parti- 
 cular as to the position of the house with reference 
 to a temple, and also as to the presence of human 
 bones in the soil. If, on digging for the foundations 
 of a new dwelling, any bit of human bone should be 
 turned up, the greatest care is tak6n to discover and 
 remove any particle that can be found j even if the 
 site is not altogether abandoned. Perhaps it is not 
 difficult to imagine how this idea may have originated 
 from sanitary considerations. If, again, the owner 
 should fall ill whilst the building is going on, and die 
 before it is finished, the whole thing is completely 
 abandoned, and no one would think of taking over 
 the work with a view to completing it. A house 
 must not be built in front of a Siva temple, as the eye 
 of that god has an evil influence; nor must it be built 
 behind one to Vishnu, but it may be built on either 
 side of any one of them. A most curious fact is the 
 apparently small thing that will cause a Hindu to 
 desert his home, either for a longer or shorter period, 
 and sometimes for good and all. Particulars will -be 
 given later on as to the causes for which a house may 
 be considered unclean or unlucky, but I will here 
 relate a peculiar case that came under my- own 
 observation, sometime ago, as it has to do with the 
 question of the site upon which a house may be built. 
 Several years ago I had occasion to pass through 
 a certain village which, I noticed, was completely 
 deserted, and many of the houses dismantled. It, was 
 a Sudra village of well-to-do farmers. , It was getting 
 late in the forenoon, and as I had not yet breakfasted, 
 this appeared-to be a good opportunity to make a halt. 
 The village munsifE (the village executive officer), 
 who came up, gave me permission to pass the heat 
 of the day in the sheltered courtyard of one of the 
 houses that was still left standing. My frugal 
 meal was soon despatched, and then I began to 
 explore and to seek for information. I was informed 
 
6 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 that, for certain religious reasons, tlie whole village 
 had been abandoned, and the farmers settled on 
 a site, which was poioted out to me, about half 
 a mile distant from their old homes. They had 
 pulled down their houses and utilized what they 
 coi;ild of the old materials for rebuilding. The reason 
 given for this wd,s as follows. It appears that for 
 some time there had been" a great deal of sickness in 
 the village, and many deaths, and it was decided by 
 the Brahmins that a curse rested upon the place. On 
 looking round for the probable cause of this, it was 
 discovered from certain signs, or pretended to have 
 been discovered, that there must have formerly been 
 a temple near the village tank which was close at 
 hand ; and as there was no vestige of the temple left, 
 it was concluded that it must have been destroyed I 
 For this or some other reason, the anger of the parti- 
 cular god had been aroused, and he had cjirsed the 
 village, hence the number of deaths. One can imagine 
 the consternation this decision would cause amongst 
 these poor superstitious people. They, however, do not 
 seem to have questioned the decision, but simply deci- 
 ded that it was the will of the gods that they should 
 remove. Accordingly, for a pecuniary consideration, 
 the Brahmins pointed out a new site, and the simple 
 folks began at once to remove their dwellings. At 
 the time of my visit most of the houses had been 
 completely dismantled, and nothing was left of them 
 but the substantial mud walls which presented the 
 appearance of a sad, but by no means picturesque, 
 ruin. A few of the old inhabitants, among whom . 
 were the barber and the potter, still lingered on, 
 probably because they had not the wherewithal to 
 meet the expense of removing. The site upon which 
 the old village was built was in every respect superior 
 from sanitary and other points of view, to the low 
 and ill drained place to which the removal had been 
 made, but no logic of facts can overcome the super- 
 stitious fears of these poor deluded people. Probably 
 the real cause of the unhealthinees of the place might 
 have been found in some of the back-yards or other 
 surroundmgs. Dame Nature had been outraged by a 
 
THE HINDU HOME. 
 
 systematic neglect of the attention due to her fair 
 daughter Hygeia, and punishment had resulted. Such 
 sim^ple matters as these, however, are beneath the 
 ken of the Hindu wise-man, and everything must be 
 decided in accordance with rules formulated by a 
 dense superstition. As I sat there, during the heat 
 of the day, in the shade of the old door way, I could 
 not but reflect upon the scene before me. How many 
 generations of industrious Hindu farmers had been 
 reared in that place ! Here were still the peepnl tree 
 {Ficus religiosa) and the neetn {Azadirachta Indica) 
 under whose shadow so many had sat in days gone by 
 for council or for gossip, now left standing amidst the 
 miserable ruins of once loved homes. Whilst I was 
 there, an old widow woman came up from' the new 
 village, to the house thus temporarily Occupied by me, 
 and she seemed by no means pleased at my presence. 
 I courteously explained that I had received permission, 
 and then it turned out that the house did not belong 
 to my friend the munsiff at all; and hence perhaps 
 his readiness to let me rest there ! However I was 
 not disturbed, and presently the old lady began to 
 sweep up the deserted rooms ; one could not see why ; 
 there seemed no need for it ; as nobody came there, 
 and the house was only waiting to be pulled down ; 
 but perhaps her old affection for the place brought, 
 her there, and made her treat it as a sacred shrine 
 that she could not bear to see neglected. Of course 
 I took the opportunity kindly to point out to my 
 village friend, the munsiff, the folly of all this expense 
 and trouble, this breaking up of comfortable homes, 
 all for a superstitious idea. With true native polite- 
 ness -he appeared to "agree with what I said, but he 
 finished off with the old Hindu excuse, " What could 
 we do ? The Brahmins said it must be done, and we 
 were obliged to go ! " We sometimes hear people 
 talk as though superstition were dead in India ; but, 
 alas ! it is not so j it is not even moribund. Except 
 within a narrow circle, happily widening by slow 
 degrees, still yet comparatively a very narrow one, 
 composed of those influenced by Western ideas, 
 superstition has just as strong, a hold upon the masses 
 
8 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 as ever. A.nd it cannot be expected to be otherwise. 
 If it took many many centuries to do away with old 
 heathen superstitions in the West, some of which 
 are not yet completely eradicated, it must not be 
 supposed that one or two generations, or very many 
 of them, indeed, will effect much change in the Bast, 
 where the growth is so dense and sq deeply rooted. 
 
 Next after the site, the position of the neighbouring 
 dwellings must be taken into consideration, as if, for 
 instance, the water from a house flows towards a 
 neighbour's there will arise -evil and quarrels ; also 
 in order to secure the general welfare, the water from 
 one's own honse should be made to flow in a certain 
 direction (east, or north, or north-east) . How all these 
 conditions can be complied with, supposing a house 
 is to be built in a crowded neighbourhood, one must 
 leave an unsettled problem. The timber used must 
 also be well considered, for certain kinds are sure to 
 bring misfortune if one should be rash enough to use 
 any one of them. A list of unsuitable timbers is 
 given in the books on these matters. The well also 
 must not be dug on the south side of the honse, or 
 evil will be sure to follow, and if bones are found in 
 excavating for it, the fact will be taken as a sign of 
 the death of the owner. 
 
 The next question is as to tbe time of the year at 
 which building operations should be commenced. 
 On this point most careful directions are given, and 
 it may be interesting to give them here in detail. In 
 the list, given below, the flrst column gives the native 
 nanae of the month, and the next the corresponding 
 English time; while the third gives the consequences 
 that are liable to ensue to the householder from com- 
 mencing to build his dwelling at the particular time 
 named : — 
 
 1. Chaitram March, April Blessings generally. 
 
 2. Vaishakham April, May Wealth. 
 
 3. Jyeshtham May, June Deaths. 
 
 4. Ashadham Jniie,JnIy Eril to the cattle. 
 
 5. Shravanam July, August Iijcrease of cattle. 
 
 6. Bhadrapadara August, September Loss of sons, 
 
 7. Aswayujam September, October Poverty. 
 
THE HINDU HOME. 
 
 8. Karleekam October, November Complete happiness, 
 
 9. Margasiram November, December Good crops. 
 
 10. Pashyam , December, January Danger of fire. 
 
 11. Magbam January, February General suooesa. 
 
 12. Phalgunam February, March . Maoh happiness. 
 
 The proper time for commencing tlie work having 
 been decided upon, the difficulty as to the aspect has 
 to be settled, and this can only be. decided by the 
 following consideration. A deity called Vastupurusha 
 is said to preside over the science of building. This 
 being is said to migrate between the three worlds, 
 swavga (heaven), marthya (this world), and patala 
 (hell), and to be always in a reclining posture, but 
 changing his position at different times of the year ; 
 for instance, during certain months of the year his 
 head will be turned towards the north, and at other 
 times towards other points of the compass. A house 
 should not, when the building of it is commenced, face 
 towards the feet of Vastupurusha or where his eyes 
 may fall upon it, from which it follows that if a certain 
 aspect is desired, building operations must commence 
 at a period of the year when either of the above con- 
 tingencies may be avoided, owing to the position in 
 which the deity may be then reclining. 
 
 Another thing to be considered will depend upon 
 which side of the road or street the house site -may 
 be. According to the Vastu Shastram, it is good to 
 build towards the north, or east, but bad, to- 
 wards the south, or west. If, therefore, the house- 
 builder should have a site large enough to enable 
 him to comply with the Shastra he will not build his 
 house right up to the road, if it will face towards the 
 south or west; he will in that event build some 
 distance back from the road or street and have only 
 a blank wall with a door in it by the road side. In 
 towns or crowded localities where the area of sites 
 may be limited, this -point may not always be complied 
 with, through lack of space, but, where it is feasible, 
 and especially in country-places, where space is not 
 so valnable, I fancy this rule of the Shastram is 
 generally attended to. 
 
10 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 The aspect of the new house, and the proper time 
 for the commencement of operations- having been duly 
 fixed upon, the pext thing is the excavations for the 
 foundations, and the performing of a ceremony 
 somewhat analogous to that of laying the foundation 
 stone of a public building in Europe. A good time 
 of the day having been fixed upon by astrology, the 
 owner of the house, together with his wife, who must 
 be present, and the purohita or family priest, and any 
 othfers, assemble for the foundation-laying ceremony. 
 After worshipping Ganesha, without propitiating 
 whom nothing of importance can ever be undertaken, 
 a piece of stick called shankhu, about a foot long, 
 which has been cut into a certain prescribed sbape by 
 the carpenter, is planted in the north-east corner of 
 the foundation of the main building. Into the- place 
 where this is planted, various kinds of grain, and 
 metals, are thrown, together with flowers, and leaves, 
 and coloured rice, and the whole is then worshipped. 
 This coloured rice (akshata)- enters largely into all 
 religious ceremonies. In fact, no worship, other than 
 that at funerals, or that in any way, connected with 
 the dead can be performed without this coloured rice 
 being used. It is coloured red with a mixture of 
 turmeric and slaked lime in water. The idea appears 
 to be that the stick, by this ceremony {pratishta), 
 becomes animated with the spirit of the .god 
 Vastupurnsha, who is thereafter the good genius of 
 the house. At this ceremony the following slokams 
 among others are repeated : — 
 
THE HINDU HOME. 11 
 
 ^^^4 ^•^^ II 
 
 1. Thou Shanku god, we adore theCi 
 Thou art formed of har^ khadiri wood. 
 
 Thou art decorated with sandal, flower^, and coloured rice. 
 Thou art made according to the Yastu-Shastram. 
 
 2. Thou art the stay of the dwelling ; 
 
 Art by God appointed, and givest prosperity. 
 Without thee the building of a dwelling 
 Should not be done by those who desire happiness. 
 Do thou, being established in this Shanku. 
 The good of this house ever increase. 
 
 At the putfcme up of the main doorway, and again 
 when the ridge-piece is put up, religious ceremonies 
 are performed; as also at the digging of the well, 
 and when the family first take possession. These 
 ceremonies will now be described in due order. 
 
 The principal entrance to the house, the front door, 
 is called simhadwdram (the lion entrance); The 
 woodwork of this is always more or less carved, some- 
 times most elaborately so. There are two cross pieces 
 laid across the top corners of the door frame. These 
 pieces are not used in English buildings, therefore 
 there is no English name for them. They are called 
 the horse-stools, because upon them are laid the cross 
 pieces which support the wall above. This is instead 
 of an arch, and it must be borne in mind that, until 
 recent years, most of the walls were built with mud, 
 or with sun dried bricks. These two cross pieces are 
 always carved into some shape or other, to represent 
 lions, elephants, horses or parrots, according to the 
 fancy of the owner. The putting up of this entrance 
 door frame is always a serious business, and ne- 
 cessitates -a religious ceremony. The woodwork is 
 smeared with saffron, and adorned with red powder 
 
12 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 (kunhuma), and flowers, besides a kind of garland 
 made of leaves of the mango tree. As Kunhuma is 
 muoii used in worship, and in all kinds of Hindu cere- 
 monies, in which women are associated, it may be as 
 well to mention here that it is a red powder made oi 
 turmeric, alum, and lime juice. Worship is then 
 actually performed to the wood by repeating certain 
 prayers, and sprinkling it with sandal paste and 
 coloured rice. The following are specimens of slokams 
 or prayers on such occasions : 
 
 T^^^\^wi f^^^ 11 
 
 =^^^Ti5mT: 1 
 
 NO 
 
 31WT^r^qcTTf^5t 11 
 
 3. i^ e^qi^q s:RTf^ 
 
 QTTiT'sqRtnTHTPt 11 
 
 NO to 
 
 1. O door frame, with parts fitted tightly together, 
 According to Vastushastra rule. 
 Do thou, being fixed in this house, 
 Cause happiness to increase. 
 
THE HINDU HOME, 13 
 
 2. With saffron, turmeric, flowers, 
 And sandal being well adored. 
 Do thou for ever be happy 
 And be our support and stay. 
 
 3, Thus having fixed thfe door frame 
 
 With clasped bands and circumambulations. 
 Home happiness he (the householder) will receive, 
 With long life and good health. * 
 
 The next religious ceremony takes place when the 
 ridge-plate is put into position j this too being 
 worshipped in much the same way as the door frame. 
 Whilst lying upon the ground, across two pieces of 
 timber, it is adorned with safEron, and flowers, and 
 garlands, and worship is done to it, after which it is 
 put into position. The following "are specimens of 
 the prayers used ; — 
 
 1- g^THTRT: ^^m: 
 
 m ^■^cT ^^^ II 
 
 so NO 
 
 I 
 
 effft^ ^ ^m I 
 
 ridge-plate, support of the house, 
 Having been adored with flowers and sandal. 
 And fixed according to Taatu rule. 
 Do thou cause continued prosperity. 
 
14 . THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 2. Without thee the building of a dwelling, 
 With its roof, cannot prosper. 
 Do thou, being well fastened together, 
 Cause happiness ever to be. 
 
 As a well is a very necessary adjunct to a house, 
 and a very important one too, from a Hindu point of 
 view, it is not to be wondered at that when the well 
 is dug there shoul^i be a religious ceremony, both at 
 the commencement and also at the completion of the 
 undertaking. Before the digging is commenced, 
 prayers are repeated to the earth, which is considered 
 to be a 'goddess {bhudevi), and also to Varuna, the. 
 god of all kinds of water. At the complebion of the 
 work, and before the water can be used, a dedicatory 
 ceremony is performed much in the following manner. 
 The mouth of the well is adorned with saffron and the 
 coloured powder kunkuma ; a patch of ground near 
 the well is prepared and purified by smearing it with 
 cow-dung and adorning it with lines made of rice 
 powder. Upon this patch of earth is placed a lump 
 of saffron which is supposed to represent Ganesha, 
 under the name of Vinayaka, or the remover of 
 obstacles. Worship is then performed to this by the 
 master of the house, instructed by the attendant 
 family priest in the usual manner. A small lamp fed 
 with ghee is lighted, and incense is put upon some 
 live coals of fire; and while the lamp is burning and 
 the incense rising up, flowers and sandal paste and 
 coloured rice are dropped over the supposed god, 
 whose_ various names are repeated by the worshipper. 
 Tdmhulam (betel) is placed near the god, together 
 with one or two coins (dakshina) which become the 
 tee of the priest; and the worship is concluded by the 
 waving of burning camphor, and making obeisance 
 with closed hands (namaskdram) . Tamhulam, it may 
 be explained, is betel-leaf and areca nut made up 
 into a small parcel, ready to-put into the mouth. A 
 httle slaked hme is added before use. The masticating 
 ot this compound seems to be much enjoyed, but the 
 red colour it imparts to the mouth and lips is far from 
 pleasant from an European point of view. This little 
 
THE HINDU HOME. 15 
 
 luxury, however, is partaken of at tlie termination of 
 every meal, and no important transaction, or any 
 religions rite can be complete without it. The god 
 Varuna is then worshipped in much the same manner, 
 by dropping some of the above said things into the 
 well itself ; the tamhulam, however, with the coins, is 
 placed in the hands of the priest, and the whole is 
 concluded -with the usual obeisance. During the 
 dropping of the things into the well, the priest repeats 
 the following prayer — the householder following him 
 according to his ability : — 
 
 O Yaruna, thou ruler of the waters, 
 In this well grant thy presence. 
 By thy favour, O great being. 
 May we ever be prosperous. 
 
 Enough has been said to give a fairly clear idea of 
 the various ceremonies performed at the building of 
 a Hindu dwelling house. In the next chapter we shall 
 describe the principal architectural features, and 
 general arrangements of the house, as well as the 
 ceremonies necessary before a newly built dwelling 
 can be occupied. 
 
CHAPTER H. 
 THE HIl^DU B^OME.-iContinued.) 
 
 ^[f^. (Gj-uham.) 
 
 Try building a house; try making a marriage. 
 
 {Telugu proverb.) 
 
 In this chapter we shall attempt to give some general 
 idea of the architecture, and general arrangements of 
 a Hindu dwelling; but it must be understood that 
 we are speaking, particularly, of an ordinary Hindu 
 house, as it is in the Circars. The style of the building 
 may, and does, differ very much in the widely 
 distant parts of this vast country, and amongst 
 different races and religions, still there are some main 
 principles pervading all Hindu domestic architecture, 
 in parts however remote they may be ; hence some 
 general idea may be gathered from this description of 
 a Hindu home. The chief feature in the building is 
 that it must be in the form of a square, with an 
 opening to the sky in the centre. The roof slopes 
 outward and inward, and the inner sides all converge 
 around a rectangular open space, larger or smaller, 
 as the c^se may be. In large well built houses this 
 central open space will form a regular court-yard, 
 whilst in smaller buildings, it will be so small that 
 the vacant space, where the roof converges, is only a 
 few inches square, and the floor underneath it a mere 
 depression in the earth large enough to catch the 
 rainfall from the roof. In very large houses there 
 may be two of these courts, but in all of them the 
 principle IS the same. The origin of this is not very 
 clear, and different reasons are given for it Some 
 say It IS in order that the sun's rays may shine into 
 the house. As it was put by a Brahmin friend, iust 
 as it is necessary that there should be some gold if 
 even a speck, worn on the body, so it is necessary for 
 
THE HINDU HOME. 17 
 
 some few rays, at; least, of the sun to fall into the 
 dwelling. On the other hand, others say it is because 
 it is necessary for the rain to fall into the house, in 
 order to secure its happiness. However this may be, 
 there is no doubt that this arrangement is a source of 
 much discomfort if not of positive evil. The heavy 
 monsoon rain pouring in from the roof into the very 
 centre of the living place must make everything very 
 damp and uncomfortable. It is true there is a kind 
 of drain made for the water to pass through, under 
 the walls, to the outside, but it is certainly against 
 all one's notions of hygiene and cannot but be a source 
 of some of the many forms of fever and other diseases 
 to which natives are so liable. Here again we see the 
 ofEeets of custom hardened into a religious law. 
 Probably the origin of it was for protection from foes 
 and wild animals, when things must have been in a 
 very unsettled state. We know that the modern 
 seclusion of the females arose from some such cause, 
 particularly under early Muhammadan rule. Be all 
 this as it may, this is a most generally accepted tenet, 
 and all dwellings erected in accordance with the 
 Shastram must have this characteristic form. 
 
 In passing through the streets of an Indian town 
 or village, one notices at once that there are few 
 windows, if any at all, looking out upon the street, 
 and those that may be are often placed high up in 
 the wall, out of all reach of passers by. Often there 
 is nothing presented to the public road but a blank 
 wall with a more or less imposing doorway. This 
 door is generally of a massive character, and is per- 
 haps studded with bosses of iron ; whilst, together 
 ■with the door post, it is often ornamented with 
 elaborate carving. It strikes one as peculiar that this 
 front door should always be of so massive a character, 
 seeing .that the back and side walls, or doors, are 
 relatively so much slighter and weaker. An Indian 
 thief would never think of attempting to break 
 through the front door of a dwelling. His efforts are 
 directed to digging through the house or compound 
 wall, especially if it is made of mud, or to breaking in 
 through the back-yard door, which lacks the strength 
 
of the front one. One can only suppose that the 
 spending of time and money on this imposing front 
 entrance is simply in accord with the tendency of 
 human nature ever to put the best on the outside ! 
 The front wall next the street is sometimes not the 
 real wall of the house at all. Often, perhaps for 
 reasons already alluded to in speaking of the site, or 
 perhaps for the sate of space, and security, or privacy, 
 the front wall, with its elaborate doorway, is but the 
 side of the yard or enclosure inside which the house 
 itself is built. In this event, the ceremony alluded 
 to, in the previous chapter, relative to putting up the 
 chief door frame of a new house, is performed, not in 
 connection with this entrance, but in connection with 
 that of the dwelling proper. 
 
 On visiting a house, one may at once, on entering 
 the front door, step into the open space or court before 
 spoken of, or there may be a passage from the door 
 with rooms on either side, .leading into it. In good 
 houses the open space is always paved with brick, or 
 there is a polished plaster floor ; in other cases it is 
 plain mother earth. Around it is a kind of verandah 
 upon which open out the rooms of the dwelling. The 
 four points of the compass are strictly considered in 
 arranging the rooms. The kitchen should always be 
 on the south side, and it runs the whole width of the 
 building. This is the. most sacred part of the whole 
 house, and persons of a lower caste than the household 
 are never allowed to enter it. This rule is observed, 
 even in the case of the poorest and meanest dwelling, if it 
 should be that of a high caste man. The kitchen is partly 
 cooking place, partly chapel, and partly dining-room. 
 I have seen the inside of many native houses, but I 
 have never been allowed to cast even a glance into 
 this sacred room. It is but right that I should say 
 that I never made any attempt thus to outrage the 
 sacred feelings of my friends. If a house has an upper 
 storey, it is probably over the front portion, and ifc 
 is never built over the kitchen. But except in the 
 Presidency cities, and other large towns, houses have, 
 as a rule, no upper storey at all. In an ordinary 
 house, no part of the roof must be higher than that of 
 
THE HINDU HOME. 19 
 
 the kitchen, for to thus throw that sacred chamber 
 into the shade, as it were, would be decidedly irregular. 
 Where there is an upper storey to any portion of the 
 liouse, it must, of course, be liigher than th.e kitchen ; 
 and in that case the thing is allo'vyed. In this 
 connection a case may be mentioned that only 
 happened quite recently. A well-to- do native gentleman 
 of my acquaintance built a nice terraced entrance-hall 
 to his house, but the result is a room that is very low 
 in relation to its .size. The reason for this is that whilst 
 the owner wanted to make it higher, he was not 
 allowed to do so by his caste fellows, as it would then 
 be higher than his kitchen, and he had to submit to 
 rule. One would imagine that my friend might have 
 raised the roof of his kitchen to a corresponding 
 height, but perhaps that never occurred to him, or 
 there may have been other reasons to prevent it. 
 
 The rooins opening out on to the inner verandah 
 are the bedrooms, and other private rooms, as well as 
 the store-room, and any other necessary rooms and 
 offices. All the arrangement of roDms is regularly 
 fixed in the shdstr am, a.nd great blessings are promised 
 where these rules are complie'd with ; whilst misfor- 
 tunes are implied if the rules are wantonly infringed. 
 One portion of the verandah is apportioned ofE as a 
 kind of office, or study, in which writing work and the 
 like is done, and this portion is sometimes divided 
 from the rest by a low partition. The inner verandah 
 is also sometimes occupied by a few pet calves, or, it 
 may be, in poorer houses, and where outside space is 
 not available, a cow or two are stalled there for the 
 night. It is an amusing sight, in passing through 
 the streets of an evening, to see the droves of cattle 
 , coming home from the pasture. As they go along, 
 every here and there, one or two of the cows or 
 buffaloes will turn aside and go up the steps of a house, 
 passing through the doorway wTiioh has been left open 
 on purpose. The animal will proceed straight to its 
 accustomed place in the compound, a shed, perhaps, 
 or to be tied by the leg to a stake driven into the 
 ground out in the open, or sometimes, may be, to its 
 well-known corner in the inner verandah. Truly here 
 
20 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 in this country we see exemplified many an eastern 
 lisage set fortli in the imagery of the Bible ; for 
 instance : " The ox knoweth his owner and the ass his 
 master's crib i but Israel doth not know, my people 
 doth not consider." (Isaiah, i. 3.) 
 
 If we look at the furniture of a house we are at once 
 struck with its extreme simplicity. . Taste and wealth 
 are not manifested in grand furniture and costly 
 hangings, or any other of the things that go to make 
 up a luxurious home in Europe, or, if what one reads 
 is correct, in some other eastern lands. Good timber, 
 well-made wooden ceilings, and elaborate carvings are 
 here the things most looked to. The roof is, most fre- 
 quently, open to the tiles or thatch, and hence much 
 discomfort must arise from the falling of dust, or insects 
 and the like j but where it can be procured, simple mat- 
 ting or a wooden ceiling is put up. A wealthy man will 
 have ceiled rooms, and the beams, and posts, and all 
 other wood work most elaborately, and in some cases 
 very beautifully, carved. These are the signs of wealth. 
 The usual mud walls are here replaced by walls of brick 
 and plaster — perhaps the marble-like polished plaster 
 peculiar to the country. The flooring is brick and 
 polished plaster, and the rooms, and verandah, and 
 courts are spacious and lofty, instead of the usual dark 
 dingy and miserably small apartments, whilst the roof 
 is of good well wrought timber, with tiles instead of 
 bamboo, or jungle wood and thatch ; but the general 
 features of the whole are the same, in all cases, as 
 regards the architecture and arrangements. The 
 furniture of a Hindu house is very little indeed, as 
 regards quantity, and very primitive in its nature. In 
 the houses of a few of the modern and more advanced, 
 there are occasionally to be found a few chairs, and a 
 table or two ; and a chair is usually produced for a 
 European visitor; but as a rule, even amongst the better 
 classes, there is a complete absence of most of the 
 domestic conveniences which even the poorest Euro- 
 peans consider indispensable. In the kitchen-dining- 
 room there are no tables or chairs, no knives, forks, or 
 spoons, no plates, or dishes, nor are there any of the 
 numerous articles that compose the hatterie de cuisine 
 
THE HINDU HOME. 21 
 
 of a well-to-do European home. A few metal or 
 earthenware pots and pans, and a simple clay fire place 
 suffice for the culinary operations, and the large leaf of 
 the lotus or plantain, or a few smaller leaves cleverly 
 stitched together, form the dinner plate, nature 
 herself supplying most of the other requisites. One 
 needs to live amongst such people to learn how very 
 few, after all, are the real necessities of life, if we 
 only rid ourselves of notions formed by habit and 
 custom. In the office place, before mentioned, there 
 may be a low kind of table which serves as a seat by 
 day and a couch by night, there may also be a rug or 
 two spread on the floor with a few cushions to lean 
 against, whilst the walls may be adorned with a few 
 simple pictures- representing scenes in the life of 
 Krishna. These pictures are gorgeous and grotesque 
 native productions, being paintings on glass that can 
 be bought in almost every fairly large bazaar. Occa- 
 sionally a print or two may be seen, perhaps a cutting 
 from some English illustrated paper, but they appear 
 very much out of keeping with the surroundings; far 
 ' more suitable and at home are the glaring labels from, 
 the Manchester cotton goods that one sometimes se^s 
 adorning the walls or doors and shutters. 
 
 The bed-room furniture too, would not strike an 
 English lady as having that air of snugness and com- 
 fort which is the charm of the European bed-chamber. 
 There may be a native cot, and a box, or cupboard for 
 the, safe custody of the more expensive cloths and 
 jewels. Along dne side of the wall there may be a shelf, 
 and in the wall a few niches for the little native lamps. 
 Tbe lamp is usually a very primitive affair, being 
 composed of a cotton wick lying in a saucer of oil j 
 and is generally placed in some niche in the wall or 
 on a simple wooden stand. The only attempt at 
 adornment is usually a few native pictures on the 
 walls representing, perhaps, scenes from the Itamayana 
 or some other of the Indian Epics. AH the 
 paraphernalia of the toilet table and wash-stand are 
 simply absent ; a brass mug-shaped vessel serving for 
 all the purposes of the latter, and a few square inches 
 of looking glass sufficing for the finer touches of the 
 
22 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 toilet. The water from the brass vessel is poured 
 from the left hand into the right, or it may be, is 
 poured by an attendant, and this applied to the face 
 serves for ordinary ablutions. The complete bath, m 
 the absence of a river, or tank, or other means of 
 immersion, is taken by pquring water over the person 
 from the same brass vessel. This is the usual mode 
 of performing the toilet for both men and women, and 
 it is generally done in the back-yard or some such 
 suitable place, as may be convenient,, or may please 
 the whim or fancy. In passing along the streets m 
 the early morning, one often sees the ordinary citizen, 
 brass pot in hand, performing his morning ablutions, 
 seated on the edge of his front verandah and with his 
 bead hanging over the street gutter. 
 
 In nothing, perhaps, are the primitive habits of 
 the Hindu more conspicuous than in his ordinary 
 sleeping arrangements. There is no " going to bed," 
 in the sense understood by the European. Of course 
 the climate is the chief reason for this. The men, 
 especially, seem to lie down anywhere, in the inner 
 verandah or- along the narrow verandah seat that 
 usually runs along the front wall next to the street. 
 In the villages particularly, they seem to lie about 
 just wherever fancy dictates ; no place seems too hard, 
 or, to our ideas,-too uncomfortable. The long sheet- 
 like cloth is unwound from the body, or some sheet or 
 blanket which is kept for the purpose is used ; and 
 with this the person is covered, head and all. Then 
 stretched out like, something in its winding sheet, 
 that sweet slumber is wooed which never seems" to be 
 denied, no matter what may be the surroundings. 
 There is no doubt that this custom of lying down to 
 sleep anywhere and everywhere must be the reverse 
 of healthy, and probably it is the cause of much of 
 the rheumatism aud kindred affections of the muscles 
 and joints which are more or less prevalent. In the 
 case, perhaps, of the better off classes or the aged 
 and generally by the master' of the house, a cot is 
 used for sleeping upon, but it seems to be shifted 
 about from place to place to suit convenience. In 
 the hot weather it will be put where there is some 
 
THE HINDU HOME. 23 
 
 cool air, whilst in the cold or wet season it will stand 
 in the bed-room, which is perhaps shared by the 
 master of the house and some of his bigger sons. 
 The wife, perhaps, occupies her own room together 
 with the younger children. This seems to be the 
 usual arrangement in Hindu households, especially 
 when the married couple are verging on towards 
 middle life. 
 
 When a son of the family marries, he does not take 
 his bride and set up house for himself, but a room in 
 the paternal dwelling is set apart for his use, or 
 perhaps an annex is built to accommodate the young 
 couple, and they join the family as a part.of it. It is 
 easy to see how little difficulty there is in providing 
 for visitors ; there is no anxiety as to which suite 
 of apartments must be set aside for this or that 
 particular party ; there is always plenty of room for 
 the men to lie down for their siesta during the heat 
 of the day, or for their sleep at night, and the females 
 simply lie down with those of the household. 
 
 The Hindu does not usually attempt much by way 
 of a flower garden, nor is there generally much 
 attention, paid to the surroundings of a house to give 
 it that pretty appearance which tend so much, in our 
 eyes, to make a place look homelike and happy. If 
 there is a plot of ground around the house, it may be 
 that a few pumpkin plants straggle here and there, 
 and a few egg plants,-or a clump of plantain trees are 
 grown, but everything has an unkempt appearance as 
 though order and prettiness were unknown quantities 
 in the Hindu mind. If the house is a large one, there 
 may be an orchard attached to it, with some of the 
 principal Indian fruit trees growing in it, as the mango, 
 jack, cocoanut, betel, custard-apple, or wood-apple ; 
 -but here again the same slovenliness is painfully 
 conspicuous, though so much might be made of such 
 surroundings. Flowers.are grown to a certain extent, 
 such as the marigold, and oleander, and jasmine to be 
 used in worship, or to be worn in the hair by the 
 females for personal adornment, and there is always 
 a plant of the tulasi or sacred basil (Ocymum Sanctum} 
 occupying the place of honour in the masonry urn 
 
24 THE HINDU AT HOMK. 
 
 somewhere ia tlie inner court or in the yard at the 
 back of the house. There is, however, seldom any 
 flower garden proper; the few plants that are reared 
 seem to lead a very uncared for life in any out ot the 
 way corners of the surroundings. It is, as was, 
 previously said, the absence of comfort which seems 
 most conspicuous in a Hindu home. Of this the idea, 
 or sense, or whatever it may be called, does not seem 
 to exist in the Aryan inner consciousness, and hence 
 there can be no manifest development of it. 
 
 Having described the most conspicuous architectural 
 features of the ordinary Hindu dwelling, and its 
 general arrangements and surroundings, we Will 
 proceed tO describe the considerations necessary, from 
 a religious point of view, before the householder can 
 venture to occupy the house which he is supposed to 
 have built. The first ihing that has to be considered 
 is the proper time of year for taking up residence in 
 the new abode. Oa this point there is a little 
 difference of opinion amongst Hindu authorities.^ 
 According to some, if a house is newly occupied in 
 Vaishakham, the owner will be blessed with many 
 sons ; if in Jyeshtam, he will have abundance of joyous 
 festivities, such as marriages^ and the like ; if the 
 house is newly occupied in Phalgunam, the owner will 
 be blessed with wealth ; if in Magham he will have 
 good crops and much happiness. On the other hand 
 there are those who maintain that, although all the 
 other months in the vernal equinox [Uttardyanam) 
 during which the sun is north of the equator, are good 
 for newly entering into a house, Magham is not a 
 propitious month. This difference of opinion is chiefly 
 between the Tamils, who reckon on the solar system, 
 and the Telugus, who go according to the lunar. All, 
 however, are agreed that it is most unpropitious to 
 enter a new abode for the first time during any month 
 of the second half of the year. 
 
 A suitable day for entering having been duly fixed 
 upon, the house is adorned in various ways, chiefly by 
 smearing saffron and Jcunhuma on the lintels and door 
 posts of all the doors in the house, and tying over 
 them a garland of flowers and leaves of the mango or 
 
THE HINDU HOME. 25 
 
 of the Nereda tree {Eugenia jambos). A company 
 assembles consisting of the members of the family, 
 and relatives, and friends, and a number of Brahmin 
 pundits. A band of native musicians, and a group 
 of dancing girls may also be in attfendance, all of 
 course in proportion to the means of the householder, 
 A procession is formed from the house then inhabited 
 by the owner to his new abode. As the company 
 passes along, the band plays, and every now and then 
 the company will stop before the house of a friend or 
 that 6f some great person, when the dancing women 
 will go through their performance of dancing and 
 singing, to the sound of a kind of harp and cymbals, 
 and the gentle' beating of the tom-tom. The thing 
 is so arranged that the procession arrives at the house 
 at a propitious moment, before fixed upon, when they 
 all enter, walking over grain that has been spread in 
 the door way and all along to the western side of the 
 central portion of the house before spoken of. 
 Worship is then performed to Ganesha, Vastupurusha, 
 Venkateshvara, and other gods, after which the family 
 priest makes the following declaration in the name of 
 the house owner, concluding with a prayer. 
 The declaration :— 
 
 1. ^^ ^^^m 
 ^^2[T=^?rT^^ II 
 
26 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 NO 
 
 - ^tm ^l^f^^ i 
 
 1. On an auspicious day, under a lucky star. 
 At a fortunate moment of time, 
 
 (He must enter) his new and beautiful home, 
 
 (It being) decorated with flowers and tender leaves. 
 
 2. He must enter accompanied by relatives. 
 Brahmins and others, 
 
 (And worship) Vigneshvara and all other gods. 
 With hymns of praise. 
 
 3. Having worshipped according to the Shastras, 
 He, with a happy and ungrudging mind. 
 Must distribute food, and raiment. 
 
 And jewels according to his ability, 
 
 4. With the sound of great drums. 
 And the sound of guitars, and lutes, 
 He must enter with his happy 
 Family and to the supreme God 
 Must pray with a reverent mind. 
 And always meditate upon him. 
 
THE HINDU HOME, 27 
 
 The Prayer : — 
 
 aet^ m^i i 
 
 O God of gods ! O great God ! 
 
 Be gracious unto us, O supreme God ! 
 
 Preserve us, O preserve us, Lord of the universe ! 
 
 Tea evermore preserve us ! 
 
 Home, happiness, and domestic joys 
 
 Do thou ever increase unto us. 
 
 After this, presents are given of clotts and jewels, 
 according to the ability of the house-ov^ner, to the 
 chief workmen who have been engaged in the erection 
 of the building. It is quite a custom in this country 
 for chief workmen to be thus rewarded, and even 
 Europeans follow the ideas of the country so far as 
 to give a jewel or two to the chief workmen after any 
 important building work is finished. The ceremonies 
 of the day are concluded with a blessing after the 
 following manner. A metal dish with coloured rice 
 is produced, and some of the attendant Brahmins 
 take a handful of this, and having repeated msntrams, 
 cast it into the cloth of the house-owner, who 
 holds up a corner of his cloth for the purpose. This 
 blessing is a very long one, consisting of quotations 
 from the Vedas. The concluding portion is here 
 given so as to give some idea of the whole. It may 
 be mentioned that the translation, in this case, is, 
 necessarily, a rather free one. 
 
28 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 May thy life continue for a hundred years ; and may thy 
 mental and physical powers remain perfect for a hundred 
 years. 
 
 The family priest then takes the rice, by handfuls, 
 and pours it on the heads of the house-owner and his 
 wife and children, and any relatives who may be 
 present. On the following day there is a feast in the 
 new house, and if the guests are numerous, an awning 
 may be put up in the yard to accommodate them. In 
 the event of the owner being* other than a Brahmin, 
 his Brahmin guests will receive their portion of the 
 feast in an uncooked form, and this they will take 
 away with them to cook in their own houses. On an 
 occasion of this kind, all castes, even Brahmins, will 
 give food to all sorts of people, even the lowest, but 
 of course the principal guests are relatives and friends. 
 We may say that with this feasting the 'house- 
 warming' is concluded. 
 
 There are various things that cause a house to 
 become defiled, necessitating its pnrifica,tion. Some of 
 these are only trifling, such as bees settling in the 
 house, or an owl, or a certain kind of kite settling 
 upon it, or flying into it, or any fungus growing 
 anywhere inside. These necessitate a minor kind of 
 purification. The great defilement is caused by 
 death. If any other than one of the chief members 
 of the family is at the point of death, his relatives, 
 carry him out of the house, into the outer verandah, 
 or some such place. The reason for this may be seen 
 from the following. There are twenty-seven lunar 
 mansions (nahshatram) , of which fourteen, are dis- 
 astrous and thirteen auspicious. Should a person die 
 inside the house during any one of the fourteen 
 inauspicious periods, the house must be abandoned by 
 the whole family, and left vacant for two, three, or 
 six months, according to the particular star then in 
 the ascendant. If, however, the death takes place 
 outside the house, in the outer verandah for instance, 
 only that portion must be divided ofE and abandoned 
 for the set period. If the death takes place during 
 any of the auspicious periods, the house only has the 
 
THE filNDU HOME. 29 
 
 ordinary contamination of the family, and is, with 
 them, purified on the eleventh day after the death. 
 It will be thus -seen that it is a very risky thing for 
 anyone to die inside a house, as the good or bad 
 periods are only known to those learned iu such 
 matters (Jyotishka), and although in the case of the 
 heads, of the household, the risk is usually run, 
 sometimes the dying patient will ask to be taken 
 outsideto avoid possible trouble to the family. _ 
 
 After any defilement the house is purified in the 
 following manner, a portion only, or the whole 
 ceremony being performed, according to its relative 
 importance. Of course, the most important purificati on 
 is that upon again taking up residence, after temporary 
 abandonment. The house is thoroughly cleaned up, 
 and probably whitewashed. The family assemble, 
 with their family priest, and several other Brahmins 
 or friends. Ganesha, under the name of Vighnesha 
 is worshipped in the manner before described. Water 
 is poure4 into a vessel (kalasam), which is adorned 
 with flowers, and sandal, and the likfe, and this 
 having been worshipped," and all the gods having been 
 invoked, the water is sprinkled by the priest over the 
 various parts of the house and over the people present. 
 After- this food is cooked and partaken of by the 
 company. The slokas or verses repeated by the 
 priest in the worship of the halasam are as follows; 
 being a declaration and a prayer. 
 
 The Declaration : — 
 
 qf^^ qrqjTRiJTii: i 
 
 3Trcri^q«f ^sp^ 11 
 
 •o 
 
 mm ^T^^a; i 
 
30 
 
 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 
 ^i ^flRt H'M^^T 
 
 
 ^t Btq\ ^f^^^% 11 
 
 
 3. iTinfl?7'^qairsT!ffr 
 
 NO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t?;r^ m^ T^^^^\^ ii 
 
 
 4, JifciMi^qr^cT^^ 
 
 so 
 
 
 
 
 ^J^^m^mM 
 
 
 e-7!^S"T;^m 1! 
 
 
 6. S^fff^qft^RHT 
 
 5^ ri "^ 
 
 
 55^'?^T5ri^ 1 
 
 
 
 
 ^srqcf ^J^f^fld: 11 
 
 
 6. ••qRiJd, .fmer ^tprr 
 
 
 g^rfr^ qr^qqfi; i 
 
 
 ex 
 
 
 Ti^tJ.Hll^^I^Uf; 11 
 
 
 7. 3Trf|iq: qfcI5ITT«I 
 
 
 ^r^jfr ffi^^i 1 
 
THE HINDU HOME. 3! 
 
 
 1. This punyahavaohanam rite 
 Is holy and destroys sin. 
 
 It is for the purification of a house, the body, and 
 
 other things ; 
 And also for that of the mind. 
 
 2. For the purifying of the things of a house, 
 This rite must be observed. 
 
 To those who act in this manner, 
 ' Much good will happen. 
 
 3. The Ganges with all other holy rivers. 
 And all the gods, rishis, and ancients. 
 Also the Vedas and sacrifices. 
 
 Having been invoked into these Teasels (now before us), 
 
 4. Which having adorned and worshipped. 
 With sandal, flowers, and coloured rice. 
 
 He (the householder) must pray to the supreme God 
 That all his desires may be fulfilled. 
 
 5. For the removal of all evils. 
 And the increase of home joys. 
 
 This holy water, purified by the Vedas, 
 And by all the gods, 
 
 6. He, with a pure mind, must sprinkle 
 
 On his head and on the house and its effects. 
 Then having propitiated the Brahmins 
 With gifts of fruit and money and the like, 
 
 7. Also having received blessings 
 
 From the Brahmins which will ever continue 
 
 In this manner concluding the rite. 
 
 He must take food with his relatives and friends. 
 
32 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 The Prayer : — 
 
 qrqrwT qrTOvrsr: i 
 
 ^v^^m-^^^ II 
 
 2. ^^^: qRSRt Jir% 
 
 ^?e^ qT% 'fr'^eR: i 
 ^ qrfq[J=f irt ^srr fngr 
 
 q^=?S% cT^TT ^F;^ 11 
 
 1. I am a sinner ; all my deeds are sinful. 
 I am of a sinful mind ; I am born in sin, 
 God, in mercy save me ! 
 
 Thou who art merciful to those who flee to thee. 
 
 2. There is no sinner equal to me. 
 There is no deliverer like unto thee. 
 Ever knowing me to be a sinner. 
 As is thy pleasure, so do. 
 
 Much the same kind of purificatory ceremony is 
 gone througli in the event, for instance, of the well 
 getting ceremonially contaminated. A case occurred 
 quite recently, in which a well of good water became 
 impure through a non-caste servant of a European, 
 who had access to it, having ventured to draw water 
 from the well himself instead of getting some caste 
 man to draw for hina. Some stir was caused by this, 
 and the European master was petitioned to pay the 
 expenses of the purification rendered necessary by 
 the act of his servant. To this demand he gave a 
 firm refusal, his right to the use of the well not beine 
 disputed. It ended by the well being simply aban- 
 
THE HINDU HOME. 33 
 
 doned, as far as all caste people were concerned, and 
 left for the use of the non-castes only and Europeans, 
 as it is to this day. 
 
 There are various other occasions calling for 
 purificatipn; as, for instance, if a robber were to 
 break into a house and go into the kitchen, as he 
 might be a low caste man, the full purification 
 ceremony would be necessary ; if a dog or any other 
 unclean animal were to die in or near the house, the 
 place must be purified by sprinkling watei; mixed 
 with cow dung, or with cow's urine. This is a minor 
 purification which is often resorted to for lesser 
 defilements. Enough, however, has been said to 
 give a general idea of defilements and purifications 
 connected with the Hindu home, and to go further 
 into detail would exceed our limits; 
 
 What has been here attempted is to give some 
 general idea of the material home itself, rather than 
 the home life of the people. Doubtless home life, 
 true domestic happiness, is much influenced by the 
 immediate surroundings, ' but, after all, habit and 
 custom are much if not everything in such matters, 
 and certainly many an Indian home is happy in spite 
 of what may seem to us its dulness and monotony. 
 The old English proverb which says that " Home is 
 home be it ever so homely" expresses a truth that can 
 be applied in many ways ; it is the hearts that make 
 the home. What must be deplored, however^ is the 
 hard bondage to superstition that is so evident in 
 every page of this description — a thraldom emanci- 
 pation from which seems so remote, and, viewed by 
 itself, well nigh hopeless. It is but a mere truism 
 to say that real progress in a nation cannot be said 
 to have begun until it affects the home life ; and, as 
 regards India, it is the .home that seems the last 
 place to be affected by progress and enlightenment. 
 Superstitions and kindred evils that would seem to be 
 effete, if considered in the light of the platform and 
 the press, are seen in the home life, to be as deeply 
 rooted and as bindingly powerful as ever. 
 
CHAPTEB III. 
 
 THE HIl^DU DAILY EOUliTD. 
 
 H<^°h ^. (Nityakarma). 
 
 "Self-love is no laudable motive, yet an exemption from 
 self-love is not to be found in tbia world -. on self-love i^ ground- 
 ed tbe study of Scripture, and the practice of actions recom- 
 mended in it. 
 
 " Eager desire to act has its root in expectation of some 
 advantage ; and with such expectation are sacrifices performed; 
 the rules of religions austerity and abstinence from sins are 
 all known to arise from hope of remuneration. Not a single 
 act here below appears ever to bo done by a man free from 
 self-love ; whatever he performs, it is wrought from his desire 
 of reward." (Manu II. 2, 3, 4) 
 
 This quotation from the ancient law- giver might 
 serve well as a text upon which to found a homily, 
 showing the distinctive principle that underlies all 
 Hindu religion, and comparing it with that of the 
 religion of Christ. All Hiadu religious "observances, 
 and good works, proceed- from a desire to propitiate 
 a malevolent power, and thus ward off evil, or, from 
 an equally low and selfish motive, to obtain personal 
 advantage — to obtain some worldly good, or to lay up 
 a store of personal merit so as the sooner to have done 
 with the weary round of transmigration, and attain 
 the goal of each one's aspirations, absorption into 
 the divine essence. True the great sage does, in a 
 verse following on the above quotation, say that 
 should any one persist in discharging his duties with- 
 out any view to their fruits, he would attain hereafter 
 the state of the immortals ; but he says this with 
 what sounds like a saddened tone, and as though it 
 were a foregone conclusion that such disinterested 
 motives could never be found. One might point out 
 
THE HINDU DAILY ROUND. 35 
 
 how different all this is to the motive for love to God 
 and obedience to the Divine law, as laid down in the 
 Christian Vedas j how being constrained by the love 
 of Christ, loving God because He first loved us, love 
 springing from gratitude for infinite benefits already 
 conferred (2 Cor, v. 14 : 1 John iv. 19), how this is 
 the motive held out as the one that ought to actuate 
 the Christian, and which does, more or less, actuate 
 numberless followers of Jesus of Nazareth, however 
 it may be set aside by many mere professors. To 
 follow this thought further would form a most in- 
 structive theme, but it would be somewhat beside the 
 purpose in hand, which is to describe the daily life of 
 an orthodox Hindu of the present day ; that is, as far 
 as his religious rites and ceremonies are concerned. 
 In this series of chapters on Hindu life and ways, it 
 is not, perhaps, necessary to say much by way of 
 comment as we proceed j that is not needed, for there 
 is so much upon the surface that must, naturally, fur- 
 nish food for reflection without need of much such 
 prompting. 
 
 Before entering upon the subject before us it would 
 be well to mention that what we have in view is the 
 daily life of a Brahmin. Other castes and non- 
 castes are less particular in their religious observances, 
 in proportion as they descend in the social scale, but 
 all are more or less particular in their performance of 
 some parts of the Hindu ritual, and from a descrip- 
 tion of the life of the highest, a fair idea can be 
 gathered of the whole. 
 
 Theoretically the life of a Brahmin is divided into 
 four stages. The first, that of being a Brahmachdri 
 or unmarried student, is entered upon when he 
 undergoes the ceremony of Upanayanam, or institution 
 into the state of the twice born. Up to that time he 
 has not been a Brahmin at all, as will be seen in the 
 chapter on the Tagnopavitam, or sacred thread. The 
 next stage is that of being a Gruhastha or Married 
 househplder ; the third that of a - Vanaprastha or 
 anchorite; the fourth that of a Sanyasi or hermiti 
 The daily coarse of life laid down for each of these 
 stages is widely different, but without going into that 
 
36 THE HINDU AT HOMB. 
 
 of the other three, we shall attempt to give as clear 
 an idea as we can of the various rites and ceremonies 
 that should be gone through -every day by the strict 
 Hindu during the second period, that of the ordinary 
 married man. It is not to be supposed that every 
 Brahmin in these days goes through the whole of the 
 prescribed ritual; but there are some ceremonial 
 observances that must be gone through by all j and 
 any one who is anxious for the merit and good name 
 of being strictly religious, (and there are very many 
 such to be met with), does actually go through the 
 daily course of life here described. 
 
 The pious Brahmin rises before daybreak ; strictly 
 according to Dharma Shastra rule this should be two 
 hours before sun rise. Dharma Shastra is a written 
 code minutely regulating the daily life of a good 
 Hindu. His first thoughts on awaking from slumber, 
 are directed to the deity whom he particularly wor- 
 ships. He will sit quietly for some time in silent 
 contemplation, occasionally repeating a verse or two 
 in praise of Krishna, and Rama, or Siva, as the case 
 may be, and perhaps a prayer for divine help. He 
 does not repeat these verses, from the Vedas, as he 
 has not yet bathed, and no words from those sacred 
 writings must be taken within lips whilst thus un- 
 purified. They are from the Purdnas or sacred books 
 which occupy a lower position than the Vedas. The 
 following are specimens and it will be seen that the 
 first two of the three quoted, are addressed to Krishna 
 and Rama respectively, whilst the third is in praise of 
 Siva. Vaishnavas, o!r worshippers of Vishnu and his 
 various incarnations, would use the first two ; but they 
 would not use the third. Smarihas would use either 
 or all of the three, as whilst they chiefly worship 
 Siva they are at liberty to adore any other god of the 
 Hindu pantheon. 
 
THE HINDU DAILY BOUND. 37 
 
 thou infant, thou dark blue bodied one with tinkling 
 
 bells 
 In rows upon thy loins ; thou naked one, 
 ' Adorned with jewels set with tiger's claws, 
 Thou son of Nanda, thou stealer of butter, I adore thee ! 
 
 - jTqtwqt ^r«Tf 11 
 
 O thou deliverer from all evil. 
 
 Thou giver of all good things ! 
 
 O Bama thou admired of the whole world 
 
 Again and again I adore thee ! , 
 
 May he whose head is adorned with the moon, 
 Who wears as an ornament the serpent Vasukihi ; 
 May Siva be propitious. 
 He who is expert in dancing ! 
 
 After this divine contemplation, he will proceed 
 for a short walk to some secluded place outside the 
 town or village, and upon his return, before going in 
 doors, he will carefully wash his feet and legs and 
 rinse out his mouth many times with water ; all this is 
 necessary before, he can touch any thing or even 
 speak to any one. The next operation is to clean the 
 teeth. This is always a very important item of the 
 
38 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 toilet, and, if any one may ]udge by the evident 
 air of satisfaction with whicli it is done, it must be a 
 very enjoyable one. The Hindu does not use a brush 
 for this purpose, as he never can again put into 
 his mouth that which has once been so used; he 
 looks with abhorrence upon the European way of 
 again putting into the mouth that which has over and 
 over agaia been defiled by contact with the saliva. 
 He always uses a bit of green twig or the root 
 of some plant ; and when once a piece is used it is 
 thrown away. A favourite twig for this purpose is 
 a green bit of the margosa tree (Melia AzadiracMa), 
 or the root of a plant called Apamargam or Uttareni 
 yLchyranthes Aspera) ; preference being given to 
 that which is bitter and astringent. _ If a suitable 
 twig cannot be found, nature's brush, the finger, 
 is used, with powdered charcoal or ashes by way 
 of tooth powder. It is very odd, but women are 
 not allowed to use the twig or root for this part of 
 their ablutions ; they can only use the finger. This 
 is a bit of petty tyranny towards the fair sex that is 
 not easy to account for, but which is strictly in 
 accordance with the doctrine that the woman must in 
 every thing be inferior to the lords of creation. 
 
 Our friend next proceeds to perform his morning 
 ablutions and worship. If there should be a river 
 near, he will proceed thither, failing that, to a tank, 
 and failing either of these, he goes to some well, 
 probably the well in his own garden, or yard. He 
 then takes his bath ; i£ in the river, or tank, he goea 
 in until the water reaches his breast or neck ; if at 
 the well, he pours the water over himself. Should 
 he, through ill health, or old age, be unable to 
 actually bathe in the cold morning air, he will perhaps 
 rub himself over with a wet cloth. Before this 
 operation, he repeats the following prayer which is 
 an invocation to the sacred rivers : — 
 
 Oh Ganges ! oh Jumna ! 
 
 Oh Godavery ! oh Sarasvati ! 
 
 Oh NarmadS ! oh Indus ! oh Cavery ! 
 
 Be ye present in this water. 
 
THE HINDU DAILY BOUND. 39 
 
 If the bathing is in a tank or river, after repeating 
 this invocation, he dips right under three times,. if it 
 is at a well, he pours water over himself, shouting 
 out ''Hari^' — one of the names of Vishnu, or 
 " Hara" — one of the names of Siva, according as he 
 is a Vaishnava or a Saiva. Still standing in the 
 water or by the well, he turns to the rising sun, and 
 pours out to it three oblations of water, repeating the 
 Gayatri prayer each time. 
 
 The bathing over, the next thing is to repeat the 
 morning prayer (SandhyavandanamJ , which is done, 
 sometimes near the tank, or river, and sometimes 
 after reaching home. In the event of his doing it at 
 home he will take some water in a vessel from the 
 place where he has bathed. Before, however, the 
 prayers can be said, the Pundrams, or marks must 
 be daubed on (see chapter on the Sacred Marks). If 
 the prayers are said at the water, the worshipper will 
 simply make the marks on his forehead with water, 
 or with earth from the river bed. The morning 
 prayer commences by the repeating of some mantrams 
 to drive away evil spirits from-the spot. The wor- 
 shipper takes three sips of water, repeating the names 
 Keshava, Narayana, Madhava, which are applied 
 both to Vishnu and Siva, according to his sect. 
 This sipping of water is called achamanam, and it is 
 done before every religious ceremony and immediate- 
 ly after meals. The next thing is the mentioning 
 of the time and place, &c. (sankalpam) , as will be 
 described in another chapter. Three oblations, or 
 pouring out of water, are again made to the sun, 
 during which the Gayatri is again repeated, three times. 
 Three more sips of water are taken, when, taking 
 hold of his sacred thread«the worshipper again repeats 
 the Gayatri, at least ten times — marking off the times 
 on the fingers or oh the joints of the fingers. After 
 this with clasped hands, he addresses a special prayer 
 to the sun commencing as follows : — 
 
40 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 The renown of the good Sarya, (the sun) who is the sup- 
 porter o£ mankind and who is worthy to be adored. It is im- 
 perishable and it gives health and prosperity to those who 
 hear and honour it. 
 
 This done, the worshipper turns to the four quarters 
 of the compass, in the order of east, s.outli, west, and 
 north, repeating at each quarter the following prayer. 
 In all ceremonies and processions of every kind, the 
 turning must always be to the right, and never to the 
 left; hence the order, east, south, &c. The prayer 
 is as follows : — 
 
 <^fIFq^ ^^^^: 11 
 
 Om. I bow to the east (or other quarter, as the case may 
 be); whatever gods are in this quarter I adore. 
 
 The prayers conclude by the worshipper mention- 
 ing his own name, tribe, family, &c. (pravara), when, 
 if he should be the head of the household, he pro- 
 ceeds to pour out oblations to the manes of his 
 ancestors, three each to his father, grandfather and 
 great-grandfather, mentioning their names and pre- 
 ceding the whole by sanJcalpam and pravara. This 
 ceremony is called pitrutarpanam. 
 
 The (3ayatri prayer has been before alluded to ; 
 and as it enters so largely into the daily ritual, it 
 may be well to describe, at more length, its great 
 importance. This prayer, as indeed is the case with 
 most mantrams, is always preceded by repeating the 
 mystical monosyllable M, or A U M, as it should 
 be written j this triliteral syllable typifying the 
 Trimurti, or Hindu Trinity, Brahma, Vishnu, and 
 Maheshvara or Siva. The sacredness in which this 
 word is held may be judged of from the following 
 quotations. 
 
 " Brahma milked out, as it were the three Vedas, the letter 
 A, the letter U, and the letter M, whicli form by their coalition 
 the triliteral monosyllalle.togebhev with three mysterious words, 
 hhur bhuvah, sever or earth, sky, heaven." 
 
THE HINDU DAILY BOUND. 41 
 
 " All rites ordained in the Veda, oblations to fire, and solemn 
 sacrificea pass away; but that which passes not away is 
 declared to be the syllable Om, thenoe called Achshara : since it 
 is a symbol of God the Lord of created beings." (Manu II. 
 76, 85). 
 
 Tlie Gayatri is the most sacred of all Hindu prayers, 
 and it must be repeated at least thirty times every 
 day ; that is, ten each for morning, noon, and evening 
 prayers, being preceded each time, it is said, by the 
 sacred word M, and the words hhur, buvaha, swaha. 
 Great advantage is supposed to accrue in proportion 
 to the number of times this prayer is repeated, and 
 many are the injunctions laid down with reference 
 to it. Its origin is thus described by Manu :— 
 
 " From the three Vedaa, also, the Lord of creatures, incom- 
 prehensibly exalted, successively milked out the three mea- 
 sures of that ineffable text, beginning with the word tad, and 
 entitled Savitri or Gayatri." (11. 7. 7). 
 
 Instructions for its repetition morning and evening 
 and the benefits obtained thereby are thus particular- 
 ized. 
 
 " At the morning twilight let him stand repeating the 
 Gayatri until he see the sun ; and at evening twilight, let him 
 rfepeat it sitting, until the stars distinctly appear !" 
 
 "He who stands repeating it at the morning twilight, 
 removes all unknown nocturnal sin ; and he who repeats it 
 sitting at evening twilight, disperses the taint that has 
 unknowingly been contracted in the day !" (II. 101", 102). 
 
 By continued repetition of the Gayatri at the twilights, the 
 holy sages acquire length of days, perfect knowledge, reputa- 
 tion during life, fame after death, and celestial glory, (IV. 94). 
 
 One more quotation may be given to show the 
 grea"t benefits suppose to be conferred by the use 
 of this prayer, and which will serve to account for 
 its constant use in the daily ritual. 
 
 " For as the dross and impurities of metallic ores are con- 
 sumed by fire thus are the sinful acts of the human organs 
 consumed b.y suppressions of the breath whilst tbe mystic 
 
42 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 words, and the measures of the Gayatri are revolved in the 
 mind." (Manu VI. 71). 
 
 Before dismissing this topic, it may be vrell to 
 quote this wonderful prayer, for it is very short, even 
 with the addition of the Om, &c., which are merely - 
 used as a kind of preface. So sacred is this mantram 
 held by Hindus, that a. pious Brahmin would close his 
 ears with horror if he heard it uttered by impure 
 lips. It is one of the most ancient x>i all Aryan 
 prayers and its interest is increased when we consi- 
 der that even now, after being in use since centuries 
 before the Christian era, it still daily rises up to 
 heaven aa the aspiration of untold multitudes of 
 pious Hindus. For these reasons, besides quoting 
 the original in the true Devapagari characters, trans- 
 literation, as well as the English translation, is 
 appended: — 
 
 3?f ¥r*Tg: ^cf: 
 
 w?F ^wj ^W| 
 
 Om, bhui- buvah suvab 
 Om, tat savitur varenyam 
 Bargo devasya dhlmahi 
 Dhiyo yonah praohodayat. 
 
 It must be noted that the first line is a kind of 
 introduction to the prayer proper, being an invoca- 
 tion to the gods dwelling in the three worlds, earth, 
 sky, heaven The prayer is again introduced by the 
 sacred word Om, which I am assured, by a Paidit 
 ir:s1;m,ws :1^"^ ''-'^ ^°^ - "- TheLnslation. 
 
 Om-earfch, sky, heaven ! 
 
 Om-that excellent vivifier 
 
 Tlie light divine, let us meditate upon. 
 
 Which (light) enlightens our understanding. 
 
THE HINDU DAILY BOUND. 43 
 
 That is : — Let us meditate upon that excellent 
 yivifier, the light divine, which enlightens our under- 
 standing. 
 
 Many who are careless will not perform morning 
 prayers ; they will perhapa say them together with 
 those for midday, or perhaps not at all. Any one, 
 however, who wishes to "be respected as a good 
 Hindu, will not fail to perform them as above describ- 
 ed. Be this as it may, the midday ceremonies, before 
 food, cannot be omitted by any one on pain of liability 
 to excommunication ; although it is doubtful whether 
 in these days of latitudinarianism, any one is ever 
 really excommunicated for such a cause. 
 
 It must be borne in mind that no food of any kind 
 can be taken by the Brahmin before the noontide bath 
 and ceremonies are over ; therefore, if occasion 
 should necessitate his setting out for business before 
 midday, things in the household would be hastened 
 to suit circumstances. 
 
 The first proceeding in these, as in every other 
 ceremony, is a bath. • On going indoors from the bath, 
 the wet cloth is laid aside, and a pure cloth is wound 
 round the waist. When the word pure is here used, it 
 means ceremonially pure. The cloth thus used is one 
 generally' kept for the purpose, and, even if it has 
 come home clean from the washerman, it must be at 
 least rinsed out by the person himself or some one of 
 his family. Sometimes a silk cloth is used, as that is 
 supposed to be less liable to pollution than cotton, and 
 this distinction is also conferred upon linen cloths. 
 After putting on the pure waist cloth, the next thing 
 is to put on the pundrams or sacred marks, after which 
 the miMay sandhydvandanam or noontide prayers are 
 said, which prayers are exactly the some as those 
 above described for the morning, except that the 
 special prayer to the sun is a different one ; this one 
 commencing thus : — 
 * 
 
44 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 The circling sun wlio has a luminous disc that shines every- 
 where with a true light, and who revives both men and the 
 immortals, is coming on his golden car viewing the world. 
 
 The oblations to the manes of ancestors are also 
 repeated, as in the morning, after which comes the 
 daily worship of the household gods. This, in the 
 case of Lingaits, is worshipping the lingam, and it is 
 gone through by each individual, both males and. 
 females, but in the case of the worshippers of Vishnu, 
 it is only performed by the head of the household. 
 Should, however, the head, of the house be unable, 
 through pressure of business, or from any other 
 cause, to go through this part of the daily observances, ' 
 he will appoint some other of the household or 
 perhaps, if a well-to-do person, the Purohita, to do it 
 for him by proxy. 
 
 This devatdrchana, or worship of the gods, is per- 
 formed in what may be called the kitchen. The 
 kitchen of a Brahmin house is a very sacred place, 
 and it answers in some respects also, to what may be 
 called, a private chapel. This matter however has 
 been described in the chapter on the Hindu Home; 
 it is not therefore necessary to do more than allude to 
 it here. This room is separated by a low partition 
 wall into two parts ; the smaller one is for the fire 
 places and cooking operations, and it also serves as a 
 pantry for the pickles and curry-stuffs all of which 
 must be kept free from ceremonial contamination. 
 The larger half of the kitchen serves for the dining 
 room, and also, in an alcove, there are kept the house- 
 hold gods and the various instruments used in their 
 worship. Amongst the followers of Vishnu, the one 
 who officiates at this daily worship of the gods, pro- 
 ceeds to the kitchen, and takes the images from their 
 receptacle, keep a small basket of wicker work, usually 
 covered with antelope skin. Amongst Sri Vaishna- 
 vas the images are only those that represent Vishnu ; 
 the Smiirtas, however, as they reverence both Vishnu 
 and Siva, have in addition to these a lingam ; whilst 
 the Madvas have, as their additional figure, an image 
 of Hanuma, the monkey god. The worshipper then 
 
THE HINDU DAILY KODND, 45 
 
 proceeds to bathe the images and rubs them with 
 sandalwood paste j he also puts on them the pundrams, 
 after which he places them on a low stool, Small 
 lights fed with ghee are then lit before them, and 
 they are worshipped by the leaves of the- tulasi plant 
 and certain kinds of flowers, if they can be obtained, 
 being sprinkled over them ; this is followed by the 
 waving before theyi of a small piece of burning 
 camphor, during which a small bell or gong is 
 sounded. "Whilst this is going on a mantram is 
 said, the first few words of which are as follows : — 
 
 e^r^: e^^qici i 
 
 3??TfaS^iI55 I! 
 
 The great supreme has countless heads 
 
 Countless eyes and feet. 
 
 He encircles the whole earth ; 
 
 He is larger than the earth by ten inches. 
 
 After this worship is over, there is nivedanam or 
 offering of the food to the gods. The food about to 
 be consumed is placed near ; the rice and dholl and 
 such like things and the water, all are sanctified by 
 being offered to the gods. The person officiating 
 waves his hands over these things towards the im- 
 ages, repeating the following mantram which is 
 merely a repetition of the names of the five vital airs 
 of which life is supposed to consist, requesting that 
 the food partaken of may benefit each respectively : — 
 
 Om, may this become food for prana ! 
 6m, may this become food for apana ! 
 Om, may this become food for vyana ! 
 Om, may this become food for udana ! 
 Om, may this become food for samana ! 
 
46 THE HINDU AT HOMIT. 
 
 After several minor ceremonies, the whole is con- 
 cluded by his taking three sips of the water in which 
 the images have been bathed, and giving the rest 
 of it to be drunk in like manner, by the family present. 
 Should there be more of this water than can be thus 
 consumed, it is disposed of by being sprinkled over 
 their bodies, or pouring on the sacred tulasi plant. 
 
 It has been already said that this part of the daily ' 
 ceremonies is different with the Lingaits. With themj 
 each individual takes his Lingam, and, holding it in 
 his left hand, bathes it and worships it in very much 
 in the same manner as has been above described. 
 The food is offered in the same way, except that this 
 is done after it is served out to each person, when 
 each one waves his right hand from his own mess 
 towards the Lingam, which is in his left. The chief 
 difference in the ceremony is that the mantram 
 repeated is different from the one quoted above, as 
 used by the followers of Vishnu. Instead of the 
 mantram commencing," The great supreme has count- 
 less heads," the Lingaits repeat one commencing as 
 follows : — 
 
 I adore thee (Siva) whose arms are wisdom and who art 
 commander of the hosts ; thou who art the lord of tlje ends of 
 the earth I adore thee. 
 
 ^^ After all this ceremony is over, the doors having 
 been securely barred to prevent any interruptions or 
 impure intrusions, the family sit down to food. 
 
 This precaution is necessary as, if any one were 
 for any cause to get up from his food, he could not 
 sit down to it again, and if any impure thing, a dog 
 for instance, were to stroll in whilst the meal was 
 going on, or if any lower caste person were to go 
 near them whilst thus engaged, (an event difficult to 
 imagibe), the whole meal would have to be at once 
 abandoned. The order of sitting at meals is this ; 
 all sit upon low stools or upon the ground, the place 
 of honour being the right end of the line, the rest 
 
THE HINDU DAILY BOUND. 47 
 
 sitting in a row towards the left in order of age, the 
 little boys and girls sitting somewhat apart. The 
 females, do not sit down to food with the males, but 
 it is oustoniary for the little girls together with the 
 little boys to join the family group. After the food 
 has been duly served out by the- females, and each 
 one has his mess before ■ him on his leaf, there is 
 another ceremony which each must perform before he 
 can proceed to eat ; of course by each must not be 
 understood the little boys who have not received the 
 Vpanayanam, or the little girls. Bach one has his 
 drinking vessel on his left hand and he pours from 
 this some water into his right hand. He sprinkles a 
 little of this over the food, and the rest he pours from 
 his hand in a circle round his ' plate', repeating the 
 Gdyatri. Some sects also put a little pinch of rice in 
 four places on the right side of the platter saying : — 
 
 ^'mf^.^w. II 
 
 Om. Oh ! Ohitra (a scribe of Tama) I adore thee. 
 Oh ! Ohitragupta (another scribe of Yama) I adore thee. 
 Oh ! Tama (god of death and hell), I adore thee. 
 Oh ! all living creatures, I adore you. 
 
 After this, the meal is duly proceeded with. The 
 ceremonial necessary before partaking of food seems 
 to us very tedious, and one would think it must be 
 very tantalizing to a hungry man. Use, however, is 
 every thing, and from long practice the ceremony 
 does not take so much time as might be supposed. 
 The food is eaten with the right hand, but the water 
 is always drunk from the lefJ, that is, the water vessel 
 must be taken up with the left hand and not the 
 right. This is probably because the right hand has 
 touched the mouth. The vessel from which the 
 
48 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 water is drunk must not touch the lips ; it is held a 
 little distance over the upturned mouthy and the 
 fluid poured into the mouth. Custom makes this an 
 easy feat for the Hindu, whereas it would probably 
 choke a European were he to attempt it. It is well 
 known by all, that the Hindu is very particular as to 
 the water he drinks. It must be ceremonially pure, 
 though not necessarily chemically pure. In order to 
 ensure its purity, it must be very carefully fetched, 
 and always kept in the kitchen where it cannot be 
 touched. If a man or woman, in carrying the pots 
 of drinking water from the river, or tank, or well, to 
 the house, were to come near an outcaste or to come 
 in contact with any impure person or thing, the water 
 would have to be thrown away and fresh fetched ; 
 not only so but the one carrying it would again have 
 to bathe him or herself, and again carefully wash out 
 the vessels. Indeed many Brahmins are so particular 
 in this respect, that if, on carrying the water, they 
 were even to see a Pariah, they would throw it away 
 and return for more. 
 
 The meal is concluded by each one taking a single 
 sip of water, saying : — 
 
 3WrrrfqHfRiife ii 
 3^^=jmqicrgcT ii 
 
 Oh ! water thou art become my protector. 
 
 In the hell called rourava, the abode of the wicked, 
 
 To those who for billions of years have suffered there, 
 
 And beg for water, it is given : 
 
 May it never be exhausted. 
 
 Evening prayer, which should be performed at 
 sunset, IS the same as that of the morning and noon 
 
THE HINDU DAILY EO0ND. 49 
 
 sandhyaoandanam, except that instead of the special 
 prayer to the sun there ia inserted one to Varuna the 
 Hindu Neptune,^ — the god of the waters. 
 
 NO 
 
 Varuna ! hear my cry : 
 Now fill me with happiness : 
 
 1 who am helpless come to thee. 
 
 The household gods are not again worshipped, as 
 at noon, except that at the evening meal the food to 
 be consumed is offered to them by what may be 
 called the ' wave offering', accompanied by the 
 ringing of the bell, or beating of the gong, and the 
 burning of the lights. The evening meal, or supper, 
 is conducted with much the same ceremonies as those 
 described for that at noon. It is usually taken late 
 in the evening, say about eight or nine o'clock, as 
 may be most convenient. 
 
 It may be mentioned that, if on a journey and 
 unable to reach the shelter of a suitable house or 
 choultry (public" rest-house), the Brahmin may cook 
 and partake of his food in a grove or under a single 
 tree, or in some other such place, although he cannot 
 secure the privacy desirable. Still all the ritual must 
 as far as possible, be followed just the same as if he 
 were in the sanctity of his own home. This way of 
 taking food is called Vanabhojanam, from vanam a 
 forest or grove or garden and hhojanam food. In the 
 event of no suitable place being found, or there being 
 no necessary privacy, then a meal cannot be taken at 
 all, and the traveller must fast. The Hindu, however, 
 is, from, habit and constitution, better able to endure 
 such personal privation, than would be possible with 
 a European. 
 
 Another kind of compromise that is made is in the 
 event of any one being too ill to bathe at all. In 
 
50 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 such an event, the invalid before partaking of food 
 is, if a Vaishnava, sprinkled with pure water by some 
 one, present, repeating three times the word pundanr 
 kahsha (The white lotus eyed one, — one of the names 
 of Vishnu) or, if the one so sprinkles is suflBciently 
 learned, he may repeat the following mantram. 
 
 e ^Mn=?tcl?::5lf^: 11 
 
 Man, whether pure or impure, 
 
 Or in whatsoever plight he may he. 
 
 If he but repeat the name Fnndarlkaksha 
 
 He obtains both'outward and inward purity. 
 
 If the sick person should, be a Saiva, instead of 
 the above, he is rubbed with vibhuti or white clay 
 with which the sacred marks are daubed on (see 
 chapter on Sacred Marks), and another kind of 
 mantram is said which is as follows : — 
 
 Siva the three eyed one we adore ; he is fragrant, and he 
 increases strength. May he deliver me from death as the 
 gourd is parted from its stem. 
 
 Before retiring for the night, the pious Hindu will 
 occupy himself in repeating a few prayers in very 
 much the same way as has been described on his 
 rising in the morning. A usual one for Smartas to 
 use on this occasion is as follows : — 
 
 
THE HINDU DAILY EODND. 51 
 
 Bad dreamB, evil omens, misfortune, evil thoughts. 
 
 Famine, evil desires, impatience, dishonour, 
 
 Accidents, grief, poisons, fears, evil stars. 
 
 Diseases from all these may the lord of the worlds protect 
 
 It will have been noticed in the course of this 
 sketch, that all the rites and ceremonies are performed 
 by males ; the female really has nothing to do with 
 rites and ceremonies. As an old shastri put it, her 
 vratam (religious observance) is pativratam ; pati 
 meaning husband or lord. Still the religious instinct 
 of women cannot be entirely suppressed, and they do, 
 as a matter of fact, perform worship of a kind as will 
 be seen in the succeeding chapter. 
 
 Seeing the number of temples there are on every 
 hand, it may surprise the ordinary observer to find 
 that there is no regular going to service as with 
 Christians. Bach house has its own private chapel, 
 (see page 44) and, the daily worship and such 
 like ceremonies as are performed there. The 
 priests in the temple bathe the god every day, and 
 duly worship it there; perhaps the idea being that 
 this is done vicariously for the followers of that 
 particular god. On pertain festivals and high-days, 
 of which there are many, the people, both males and 
 females, go to the temples to do puja to the god ; to 
 bow to the image and to make offerings of flowers or 
 fruit and the like, and perhaps a few coins of money, 
 but of church-going, in the ordinary sense of the 
 world, there is none. There is no public religious 
 teaching of any kind, and hence the dense ignorance 
 of the bulk of the people, even as regards the simplest 
 matters of their own religion. 
 
 From a perusal of this series of sketches it will be 
 seen what a valley of dry bones is the whole Hindu 
 ritual j how meaningless, and spiritless, are the forms 
 and words of the whole ceremonial ; forms and words 
 gone through, too often, as a mere matter of form, and 
 without any attempt to understand their meaning, so 
 that it is thus often little better than a mere fetichism. 
 There is, however, a bright side to the picture thus 
 
52 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 presented ; it will be noticed how intensely religious 
 the Hindu is naturally ; for nothing but an inherent 
 craving after the spiritual could cause a nation to 
 submit to so burdensome a ritual. Religion is with him 
 a thing of every day life, and it pervades every thing 
 from the cradle to the grave. Once let the holy faith 
 of Jehovahj the one true Deva, and Christ, the one 
 true Incarnation, once let this get a fair hold of the 
 Hindus as a people ; once let the Holy Wind blow 
 from the four corners of heaven, and there will be 
 heard a shaking amongst the dry bones, a shaking, 
 faint sounds of which can even now be heard, though 
 perhaps still as in the far distance, by the patient and 
 believing listener. There is more hope for the bigfoted 
 Pharisee, Saul of Tarsus, than for the Gallios who 
 care for none of these things. The religious instinct 
 of the Hindus is such as to give bright hopes of the 
 future to those who are willing to patiently toil on, 
 sowing the good seed of eternal life, and waiting 
 God's own good time for the harvest. Then 
 perhaps may be seen a nation born in a day and a 
 whole people turn from dead works to serve the 
 living God,. 
 
CHAPTEE IV. 
 
 THE HII^DU WOMAI^'S RELIGIOIJ^. 
 
 ;^f^:. (Stree Dharmah). 
 
 No sacrifice is allowed to women apart from their husbands, 
 no religious rite, nq fasting : as far only as a wife honours her 
 lord, so far she is exalted in heaven. — Manu v. 155, 
 
 It is pleaded by some, in defence of j^induism, 
 and especially of the low position occupied by Hindu 
 women, that this is the Kaliyuga, the iron age, or age 
 of universal degeneracy, and that in primitive times, 
 things were different generally, and the status of 
 woman much higher than it is now. There may 
 be, and doubtless there is, some truth in this, but 
 there is also evidence that, as in modern, so in early 
 dstys too, the woman was ever to.be kept in a state of 
 abject submission to the lords of creation. Even in a 
 much quoted text of Manu, though it is said that 
 in those times a man might perform religious rites 
 together with his wife, it will be seen that the woman 
 is nothing without the man. The verse runs as 
 follows :— 
 
 To be mothers were women created; and to be fathers, 
 men ; religious rites, therefore, are ordained in the Veda to be 
 performed hy the husband together with the wife. (ix. 96.) 
 
 The whole of the laws of Manu show, most un- 
 mistakably, that they were made by men and that 
 their whole aim was to keep the other sex in complete 
 submission ; and this not only in matters of general 
 behaviour but also in the sacred matter of religion 
 and the soul's need. The woman must never dare 
 have a will of her own or at any period of her life 
 decide for herself in any thing : — 
 
54 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 By a girl or by a young woman, or by a •vpoman advanced in 
 years, nothing must be done, even in her own dwelling place, 
 according to her mere pleasure, (v. 147.) 
 
 She must always be distrusted and looked upon 
 with suspicion as capable of doing any wrong, or as 
 perhaps it would be more right to say, as incapable 
 of doing anything right. A king is directed to let 
 his females be well tried and attentive, their dress 
 and ornaments having been examined, lest some 
 weapon should be concealed in them. They are to 
 do him humble service with fans, water^ and perfume, 
 (vii. 219.) 
 
 The husband is directed never to eat with his wife 
 nor look -at her eating (iv. 43) ; she must never even 
 mention his name, and she must be in such absolute 
 subjection that no amount of outrage upon her sense 
 of propriety or afEections is to be resented or cause 
 estrangement. 
 
 Though inobservant of approved usages, or enamoured of 
 another woman, or devoid of good qualities, yet a husband 
 must constantly be revered as a god by a virtuous wife, 
 (v. 164.) 
 
 A wife is to be considered as a mere maternal 
 machine and domestic drudge ; and this is, in brief, 
 the light in which she is depicted by the sacred Law- 
 giver. Doubtless as long as human nature is what it 
 is, there will be instances where man will be better 
 than his creed and where women will rise to higher 
 influence and status than those laid down for them; 
 but the fact remains that it is thus decreed : — 
 
 Let the husband keep his wife employed in the collection 
 and expenditure of wealth, in purification and female duty in 
 the preparation of daily food, and the superintendence of 
 household utensils. 
 
 The production of children, the nurture of them when 
 produced, and the daily superintendence of domestic affairs 
 are peculiar to the wife. (ix. 11, 27.) 
 
THE HINDU woman's EELIQION. ' 55 
 
 Thus is depicted the social status of woman in 
 .the former and better ages, as distinct from what 
 it actually is in this Kaliyuga or degenerate age ; and, 
 as if this, were not enough, her very soul is to be 
 in subjection too, and that religious instinct which 
 is a glory to womanhood is denied free expression, 
 but must be bound in the chains of a cruel servitude. 
 
 Women have no business with the texts of the'Feda; thus 
 is the law fully settled : having therefore no evidence of law, 
 and no knowledge of expiatory texts, sinful women must be as 
 foul as falsehood itself ; and this is a fixed rale. (ix. 18.) 
 
 We have said that cramped and confined though 
 it may be, the better side of human nature will some- 
 times show itself;, for no code devised of man can 
 entirely eradicate the better promptings of the human 
 heart. In Hindu story there are not wanting instances 
 of a better appreciation of woman's qualities than 
 the cast-iron codes would admit of. In his instructive 
 hook, Brahmanism and Hinduism, Sir Monier Williams 
 gives the following translation of the definition of 
 a wife as found in the Mahabheirata : — 
 
 A wife is half the man, his truest friend ; 
 
 A loving wife is a perpetual spring 
 
 Of virtue, pleasure, wealth ; a faithful wife 
 
 Is his best aid in seeking heavenly bliss ; 
 
 A sweetly- speaking wife is a companion 
 
 In solitude, a father in advice, 
 
 A rest in passing through life's wilderness. (p. 389) 
 
 There is also a most toilchingly beautiful piece in 
 the Bdmayana to be found translated into English in 
 Volume II. of Ward's book on the History of the . 
 Literature and Mythology of the Hindus. It purports 
 to be the address of Sita to her husband Rama. 
 Rama was banished by the king, his father Dasaratha, 
 at the instigation of his third wife Kaikeya, who 
 wished the succession for her own son. He was 
 doomed to perpetual exile in the forest, and his wife 
 expresses her determination to go with him. As a 
 
56 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 beautiful expression of tender affection I cannot 
 refrain from quoting the piece at length. It serves, 
 to show that the affectionate nature of a true woman 
 is ever the same, despite its surroundings. 
 
 Son of the venerable parent ! hear, 
 
 'Tis Seeta speaks. Say art not thou assur'd 
 
 That to each being his allotted time 
 
 And portion, as his merit, are assign'd 
 
 And that a wife her husband's portion shares ? 
 
 Therefore with thee this forest lot I claim. 
 
 A woman's bliss is found, not in the smile 
 
 Of father, mother, friend, nor in herself : 
 
 Her husband is her only portion here, 
 
 Her heaven hereafter. If thdu, indeed, 
 
 Depart this day into the forest drear, 
 
 I will precede, and smooth the thorny way. 
 
 O hero brave, as water we reject 
 
 In which our nutriment has been prepar'd, 
 
 So anger spurn, and every thought unkind, 
 
 Unworthy of thy spouse, and by thy side, 
 
 Unblam'd, and unforbidden, let her stay. 
 
 chide me not ; for where the husband is. 
 Within the palace, on the stately car. 
 
 Or wandering in the air, in every state 
 The shadow of his foot in her abode. 
 My mother and my father having left, 
 
 1 have no dwelling-place distinct from thee. 
 Forbid me not. For in the wilderness. 
 Hard of access, renounc'd by men, and flll'd 
 With animals and birds of various kind. 
 And savage tigers, I will surely dwell. 
 This horrid wilderness shall be to me 
 Sweet as my father's house and all the noise 
 Of the three worlds shall never interrupt 
 My duty to my lord. A gay recluse, 
 
 On thee attending, happy shall I feel 
 Within this honey-scented grove to roam. 
 For thou e'en here canst nourish and protect ; 
 And therefore other friend I cannot need. 
 To-day most surely with thee I will go. 
 And thus resolved, I must not be deny'd. 
 Roots and wild fruit shall be my constant food 
 Nor will I, near thee, add unto thy cares, 
 Nor lag behind, nor forest-food refuse ; 
 But fearless traverse ev'ry hill and dale. 
 Viewing the winding stream, the craggy rock, 
 And, stagnant at its base, the pool or lake. 
 In nature's deepest myst'ries thou art skill'd, 
 O hero— and I long with thee to view 
 
THE HINDU woman's RELIGION. 57 
 
 Those sheets of water, fill'd with nymphoeas, 
 
 Oover'd with ducks, and swans, and silvan fowl, 
 
 And studded with each wild and beauteous flow'r. 
 
 In these secluded pools I'll often bathe, 
 
 And share with thee, Eama, boundless joy. 
 
 Thus could I sweetly pass a thousand years ; 
 
 But without thee e'en heav'n would lose its charms. 
 
 A residence in heaven, Eaghuvu, 
 
 Without thy presence, would no joy aSord. 
 
 Therefore, though rough the path, I must, I will, 
 
 The forest penetrate, the wild abode 
 
 Of monkeys, elephants, and playful fawn. . 
 
 Pleas' d to embrace thy feet, I ■^ill reside 
 
 In the rough forest as my father's house. 
 
 Void of all other wish, empremely thine. 
 
 Permit me this request — I will not grieve 
 
 I will not burden thee — refuge me not. 
 
 But shouldst thou, Eaghuvu, this prayer deny. 
 
 Know, I resolve on death— if torn from thee. (p. 408.) 
 
 To come more directly to the subject of this chapter, 
 there is great difficulty in a,rriving at anything like a 
 clear knowledge of the Hinda woman's religion. 
 Books to which 1 have access do not help one much, 
 and the Hindus themselves have very confused and 
 conflicting ideas on the subject. I have consulted 
 with learned native friends and others likely to have 
 the best information, and that which is given here is 
 as clear as it seems to me possible in anything so 
 conflicting and confusing as Hinduism generally is. 
 
 The main question is, whether a woman can have 
 any worship at all apart from her husband ; and the 
 answer is that she may and she may not. Pi-om the 
 passage at the head of this chapter it will be seen that, 
 as a rule, the woman has no religious status apart 
 from her husband, and yet, as will be seen further on, 
 she has a daily worship of her own, of a kind. This 
 may be merely an unauthorized form of concession to 
 the religious instincts of woman — a sort of thing 
 allowed on sufferance as doing no harm to any one, 
 though it may perhaps be of little good ! This may 
 be the case, and perhaps it had its origin in some 
 such notion, but the fact remains that in the present 
 day the woman has a little divine service of her own. 
 
 8 ~ 
 
58 ' THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 At the time of her marriage, at the marriage of 
 her children, and at certain other periods and at 
 some festivals, the wife must sit with her husband 
 during the time he is engaged in the performance 
 of certain acts of worship, though she seems to be 
 there only as a kind of complement of her husband, 
 and takes no active part in the ceremonies. If a man 
 has lost his wife, he cannot perform any sacrifices by 
 fire {oupasana), which shows that the wife has some 
 indirect connection with the ceremony, and also in 
 p9.rt accounts for the anxiety of a widower to 
 remarry. The woman is a part of her husband and 
 so she worships through him ; what he does, she 
 does. The Yajur Veda says :— 
 
 ST^lcfr q;Ef QTIcR^Jjeq'it II 
 
 The wife is half the self of her husband. 
 
 Upon this there is a comment by Brihaspati, some- 
 what as follows :— 
 
 It has been said that the wife is half the self of her 
 husband, and in consequence she shares equally with him all 
 the good and evil done by him. 
 
 But the question still remains whether the woman 
 can ordinarily "join her husband in his prayers and 
 sacrifices ; and to this the answer must be in the 
 negative. At the midday service when the man per- 
 forms the ceremonies before taking food, as described 
 in the paper on Nitya Karma, the wife may attend 
 upon him and hand him the things used by him, but 
 she can take no real part with him. The woman 
 is not a twice born {dvija) ; nor does she wear the 
 sacred thread (yagndpavlta) which is the mark of the 
 second birth {upanayana) ; she cannot read the Vedas, 
 or even hear them read ; nor can she take part in her 
 husband's sacred services (devatarchana) ; she is 
 outside it all ; in reality she has no religious life in 
 common with her husband. 
 
 It may be well just to go through the ordinary day 
 with a woman and see what she really does, as far as 
 
THE HINDU woman's KELIQION. 59 
 
 it bears upon the subject. The women of the house- 
 hold are always the first to rise in the morning, and 
 this is usually long before daybreak. The early 
 morning duties, after the performance of personal 
 ablations, consist of cleaning up those parts of the 
 house that cannot be entered by people of lower 
 castes, and cleaning the drinking pots and the 
 numerous vessels that are used in a more or less 
 ceremonious manner in a Hindu household. Daring 
 the performance of these duties, which must be 
 entirely done by or shared in by'every good housewife, 
 she generally sings in a low tone some song which is 
 intended to rouse up the god Krishna or Siva, as the 
 case may be. Two specimens of the songs thus sung 
 are here given. The first is from the Telugu, and is 
 called melukolujpu, or the waking up : — 
 
 Awake ! Awake ! 
 
 1. Awake ! Awake ! Krishna divine, 
 Awake to save thine own. 
 
 Thou lord of all, thou perfect one, 
 Grant us each heavenly boon. 
 
 Awake ! Awake ! 
 
 2. Awake ! Awake ! for Kings have come, 
 And Queens to thee adore, 
 
 They come to wave their ruly hands, 
 Andpraise thee ever more ' 
 
 Awake ! Awake ! 
 
 3. Awake ! Awake ! thou loveliest one. 
 That earth or heaven e'er knew 
 Thy faithful with petitions come, 
 Full grace to them renew 
 
 Awake ! Awake ! 
 
 4. Awake ! Awake ! Hari divine. 
 Thou god adored by all. 
 
 Thou free'st thine own from every foe, 
 And lif cesb those who fall 
 
 Awake ! Awake ! 
 
 5. Awake! Awake ! both old and young 
 Their sorrows to remove. 
 
 Have sought thy holy- presence now 
 Oh grant them every good 
 
 Awake ! Awake ! 
 
60 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 6. Awake ! Awake ! with favour see 
 The faithful at thy feet. 
 Adored of Sanaka behold ! 
 With grace each suppliant meet, 
 
 Awake ! Awake ! 
 
 7. Awake ! Awake ! e'en Parvati 
 Doth worship at thy shrine. 
 Oh grant to us our every need 
 Thine heart to us incline 
 
 Awake ! Awake ! 
 
 8. Awake ! Awake ! I wait to bring, 
 Sweet Jasmine flowers to wave. 
 Thyself rouse quickly Madhava ! 
 Shrihari ! come and save. 
 
 Awake ! Awake ! 
 
 The second specimen of these songs is taken from 
 the Sanskrit. Many vs^omen of the upper classes 
 learn some of these songs, even in Sanskrit, although, 
 probably, they do not often understand much of the 
 meaning. This one is called GopiJca Gita or Song of 
 the Nymphs. 
 
 The Song op the Nymphs. 
 
 1. Oh Krishna! Brundavanam is 
 Made glorious by thy birth. 
 There Lakshmi sits for evermore, 
 As Queen of all the earth. 
 
 2. Thou cause of every good to men. 
 Our all, God ! is thine. 
 
 Come manifest thyself to us. 
 Thy heart to us incline. 
 
 3. Hari divine ! thy story sweet 
 As nectar fills with joy. 
 
 'Tis praised by poets, loved by all ; 
 And doeth each sin destroy. 
 
 4. To hear of thee, to know thy name. 
 Who fills the universe, 
 
 To sing thy praise, to learn of thee, 
 ^ Is to be ever blest. 
 
 It should be mentioned that after her ablutions, 
 the Woman places upon her forehead the universally 
 worn tilakam or mark with red powder made of saff- 
 ron and other ingredients. The shape of the mark 
 differs according to the deity worshipped by the 
 wearer. Those, for instance, who worship Lakshmi 
 
THB HINDU woman's EELIGION. 61 
 
 (the wife of Vishnu) have merely a circular spot in 
 the centre of the forehead ; whilst the followers of 
 Gauri (the wife of Siva) have a horizontal mark. 
 This mark is always worn except during days of 
 mourning and other times of ceremonial uncleanness, 
 as being without it is a sign of widowhood ; and thus, 
 whenever a woman washes her face, she must again 
 renew the mark. The greater part of the forenoon is 
 devoted to preparing the midday meal j and it may 
 be mentioned that no food can be partaken of until 
 after this cooking is done, as the partaking of food 
 renders any one ceremoniously unfit either for cook- 
 ing or for worship. 
 
 In a previous chapter we have described the 
 ceremonies performed by the Hindu man before 
 partaking of his first midday ineal, and we have 
 seen that much time is occupied in going through 
 all that is necessary. The woman, too, has a kind of 
 worship of her own before her midday meal, though 
 it is of a comparatively simple character and occupies 
 only a very short time. She has a metal box 
 containing several images of brass or copper, repre- 
 senting various goddesses, usually G-auri or Lakshmi, 
 or sometimes both of these, and perhaps an image of 
 Subrahman'yam the snake god, who is worshipped 
 only by women. None of these images are consecrat- 
 ed, for a woman must not even touch any image that 
 has been consecrated. . She may take the images out 
 and place them on a low stool underneath the sacred 
 canopy {vitanam) which is in the sacred room or 
 sanctuary of every house ; or perhaps • keep them in 
 the box and worship them there, still being under or 
 near the canopy. A little lamp of ghee and wick is 
 lit and placed near, and the worshipper says the 
 Sankalpam, which must always preface worship, and 
 which has been already described as consisting of 
 mentioning the time and repeating the name of the 
 place, and that of the family, and the tribe, as well as 
 the personal name of the worshipper. After this she 
 goes on to say some simple prayers asking iox aid in 
 any personal needs that may be pressing, or for 
 divine help generally, and also a few words of praise. 
 
62 
 
 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 all this accompanied by various bowings with clasped 
 hands. The worshipper then proceeds to offer a bit of 
 fruit, or sweetmeat, or betel, and to sprinkle the images 
 with pinches of sandal paste and coloured rice, and 
 perhaps a few flowers, sometimes also waving before 
 them a bit of lighted camphor, at the same time 
 ringing a little bell or striking a small gong. The 
 whole is concluded by three times walking round the 
 spot {pradakshanam) and by prostration {sasJdanga 
 namaskaram) . The whole ceremony, perhaps does 
 not occupy as long in the doing as in the telling, and 
 when it is over the things are replaced in the box, 
 which is then put away in its own proper niche. 
 Among certain sections of Hindus this midday 
 worship is somewhat different. The lingam wor- 
 shippers, for instance, merely light a little lamp, and 
 taking in the left hand the lingam from its silver or 
 copper box which is suspended from their neck, 
 perform to it some slight worship and wave towards 
 it from the food which is about to be consumed. Of 
 course all these things differ slightly amongst different 
 sections of the people, but for all intents and purposes 
 this description may be taken as sufliciently represent- 
 ative. It may also be said that this midday worship 
 is all the regular worship that the Hindu woman 
 ordinarily engages in from day to day. At night, 
 when she lights the family lamp, the good housewife 
 will make obeisance to the flame with closed ha^ds 
 repeating the following Sanskrit verse : — 
 
 frq sqtfcT: TOqot I 
 
 e^qrfrq- ^^%m^ ii 
 
 The flame of this lamp is the Supreme God. 
 
 The flame of this lamp is the abode of the Supreme. 
 
 By this flame sin is destroyed. 
 
 O thou light of the evening we praise thee. 
 
THE HINDU woman's EELIGION, 63 
 
 The woman does no worship at the time of the 
 evening meal as do the men ; she simply says, as a 
 kind of grace before meat, the words Govinda ! 
 Govinda ! (a name of Vishnu) or Mahadeva ! Maha- 
 deva ! (an appellation of Siva) as the case may be, 
 before putting the first morsel into her mouth. 
 
 As in Christian countries the good mother takes 
 her little ones and teaches them her holy faith accord- 
 ing to their capacity to understand, and also teaches 
 them to pray at her knee, so the Hindu mother tells her 
 children stories of the gods she has learned from the 
 Bdmayanam and the Mahahharatam and other religious 
 books, and at worship time, when the little bell is - 
 sounded, the children are taught to assemble, and, 
 solemnly placing their hands together, make obeisance 
 to the gods.. 
 
 It will be seen that practically a Hindu woman's 
 worship is ordinarily confined to the brief midday 
 service described above. Even this she is only sup- 
 posed to do on sufferance, after having obtained the 
 consent of her husband. A passage on this subject 
 is quoted from the Padma Furana : — 
 
 ^iTTf5:*qtsfq- e%: 1 
 H^fq^^JTi 1 
 
 The husband is the beloved o£ the wife. 
 
 He is more to her than all the gods. 
 
 Herself and her husband 
 
 Be it known are one person. 
 
 Without the consent of her husband 
 
 Any kind of worship she must not perform. 
 
 With the consent of her husband a wife may, and 
 perhaps does, go on a short pilgrimage without him 
 
64 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 when he is unable to accompany her ; but this is very 
 seldom. And also, strictly with his consent, she may 
 perform and keep vows, as for instance, to do without 
 salt in her food for a stated period' or to abstain from 
 milk or various kinds of eatables for a given time, 
 all with the object of obtaining something desired — 
 wealth, or children, or deliverance from disease, for 
 herself or any one dear to her. 
 
 We have seen that, apart from her husband, the 
 woman has no religions status whatever, and practi- 
 cally very little even with him. We now come to the 
 important question as to how all this affects her state 
 after death. Does the union and interdependence of 
 husband and wife continue after death, and how can 
 the one affect the other ? There is good authority for 
 the monstrous assertion, which however.is, in itself, _ 
 exactly in accordance with the whole of Hindu legis- 
 lation and custom, as far as can be clearly made out, 
 that whilst the good deeds of the wife can materially 
 benefit the husband, as to his eternal state, nothing 
 that he does, or can do, will have any effect upon her ; 
 she stands or falls by her own merits alone. If she 
 has been a bad woman, she must expiate her sins by 
 numerous transmigrations, and she may be cast into 
 the purgatorial hell. 
 
 I am aware that this matter is sometimes put in 
 another light by writers on the subject. Ward, for 
 instance, says : — " The merits and demerits of hus- 
 band and wife are transferable to either in a future 
 state : if a wife perform many meritorious works, and 
 the husband die first, he will enjoy heaven as the fruit 
 of his wife's virtuous deeds ; and if the wife be guilty 
 of many wicked actions, and the husband die first, he 
 will suffer for the sins of his wife. In the apprehen- 
 sions of a Hindu, therefore, marriage ought to be a 
 very serious business." (Vol. I. p. 184.) Though I 
 can find no authority for the first clause of this state- 
 ment, the quotation from Brihaspati already given, 
 shows that there may have been some such idea in 
 ancient Vedic days. Howbeit, a Pundit friend says 
 that whilst this quotation may express the state of 
 things in a former Yuga, it certainly does not apply 
 
THE HINDU woman's EELIGION. 65 
 
 to tbis degenerate period of the world's history ; and 
 the following, which is taken from the code of 
 Parasara, the most modern of the three great codes, 
 speaks to the contrary. The code of Parasara belongs 
 to the present age, or Kaliyuga, and is of very great 
 aathority. 
 
 ^^^^q^rqfr ii 
 
 ITT jfr^ ^m *i^fcT 
 fit 5^t: fq^^^ ^ ^q% 1 
 ^l^teT'visifcT jffqT^qr 
 3Treqt?^T fq^rmt ^i^ffi ii 
 
 We have here a question put by Parasara, and the 
 answer he himself gives. 
 
 Why, it may be asked, is the wife not benefited by the good 
 deeds of her husband just as the husband becomes hell-doomed 
 by the evil deeds of his wife? The idea that the wife can be 
 so benefited must not for a moment be entertained. 
 
 In support of this he gives a quotation from Yagna- 
 valkya, a celebrated Rishi, to the following effect :— 
 
 To her husbands world she will nob go. 
 Whatever brahmin woman drinks fermented liquor. 
 She will be born- again into the world a dog ; 
 And after that she will born a pig. 
 
 9 
 
66 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 Upon this Parasara makes the following comment :— • 
 
 Whatever Brahmin woman becomes bad, slie will by the 
 gods be kept out of the ancestral heaven. Such a woman, 
 being without merit, will be born again on this earth as a 
 demon with a mouth emitting flames of fire. 
 
 The Pundits of tlie present day appear to take these 
 quotations as a proof that a bad woman cannot be 
 benefited by the good deeds of her husband, and this 
 seems to be their belief on the subject. If the woman 
 is a dutiful wife she may obtain a share of the 
 celestial bliss of her husband and also her good deeds 
 may be reckoned to his account even though he is 
 not a good man ; but if she be a bad woman, nothing 
 that her husband, or any one else can do will be for 
 her of any avail. 
 
 We now come to deal with" the Hindu woman as a 
 widow, for her condition as regards religion becomes 
 materially changed after the death of her husband. 
 Although the widow is precluded from taking any 
 part whatever in the ordinary family rites and cere- 
 monies, and although she may be reckoned as dead to 
 all social life, still she can, according to Hinduism, 
 materially assist her husband afterhis death and by 
 her prayers and good deeds hasten his final beatitude. 
 It is laid down that the chief way in which she can do 
 this is by ascending his funeral pile and burning 
 herself alive with his dead body. Happily the 
 Government will no longer allow these religious 
 murders and suicides, but there is no doubt whatever 
 that they were formerly carried out to an enormous 
 extent, and, if the strong hand of British law were 
 removed, it is most probable that these monstrous 
 cruelties would be again perpetrated. A quotation on 
 this subject is here taken from Ward's book on the 
 Mythology of the Hindus ; he takes it from the 
 writings of Angira, a saint of the first and most holy 
 age (Krutayugam), Other passages from Hindu 
 authors of authority might be quoted, but this one is 
 enough to show what the Hindu religion says on this 
 point as to the sacred duty of women. 
 
THE HINDU woman's EELIQION, 67 
 
 "There are," it is stated, "35,000,000 of hairs on the 
 human body. The woman who ascends the pile with her 
 husband, will r«mai» so many years in heaven. — As the snake- 
 catcher draws the serpent from its hole, so she rescuing her 
 husband (from hell), rejoices with- him.^ — The woman who ex- 
 pires on the funeral pile with her husband purifies the family 
 of her mother, her father, and her husband. — If the husband 
 be a Brahminieide, an ungrateful person, or a murderer of 
 his friend, the wife by burning with him purges away his 
 sins.— There is no virtue greater than a virtuous woman's 
 burning herself with her husband. — No other effectual duty 
 is known for virtuous women, at any time after xhe death of 
 their lords, except casting themselves into the same fire.— 
 As long as a woman, in her successive transmigrations, shall 
 decline burning herself, like a faithful wife, on the same fire 
 witih her deceased lord, so long shall she not be exempted 
 from springing again to life in the body of some female 
 animal." (Yol. III., p. 308).. 
 
 The same writer also quotes as follows from the 
 Brahma Purana : — 
 
 If the husband be out of the country when he dies, let the 
 virtuous wife take his slippers (or any thing else which 
 belongs to his dress), and binding them {or it) on her breast, 
 after purification, enter a separate fire. (Vol. III. p. 309.) 
 
 Ih tHe event of eati or self immolation not being 
 performed, the widow may effect her husband's final 
 good by a strict following out of the rules and regula- 
 tions laid down by authority for such cases. I can 
 find no authoritative statement on this point, but it 
 is a generally -entertained opinion amongst Hindus. 
 They say that the general drift of the following 
 quotations from Manu, and similar declarations by 
 other authors, is to that effect. • The tendency of all 
 the legislation on the subject appears to be towards 
 influencing or terrorising the woman into complete 
 and abject submission to her husband ; this is her 
 religion, and only by following out these injunctions 
 can she hope for merit here or for happiness here- 
 after. Not only for life is this , submission to be 
 
68 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 manifested, but even death does not dissolve the 
 bonds, as far as she is concerned; all her hopes for 
 the future lie in her continually manifesting by a 
 life of the most intense misery her faithfulness to the 
 memory of her lord and master. 
 
 A faithful wife who wishes to attain in heaven the mansion 
 of her husband, must do nothing unkind to him be he living - 
 or dead. 
 
 Let her emaciate her body, by living voluntarily on pure 
 flowers, roots, and fruits ; but let her not, when her lord is 
 deceased, even pronounce the name of another man. 
 
 Let her continue till death forgiving all injuries, performing 
 hard-duties, avoiding every sensual pleasure, and cheerfully 
 practising the incomparable rules of virtue which have been 
 followed by such women as were devoted to one husband. 
 
 A virtuous wife ascends to heaven, though she have no 
 child, if, after the decease of her lord, she devote herself to 
 pious austerity, (v. 166-158, 160.) 
 
 This of the woman. A little further on the law is 
 thus laid down for the man :— 
 
 Having thus kindled sacred fires and performed funeral 
 rites to his wife, who died before him, he may marry acain 
 and again light the nuptial fire, (v, 168.) 
 
 It is not necessary here to dwell upon the miseries 
 of Hindu widowhood, this is touched upon in the 
 paper on Hindu Funerals and also it is a subject of 
 which much is generally known. Our task here has 
 been_ to give some notion of what the religion and 
 religious life of a Hindu woman really consist, and it 
 is hpped that a fair general idea may be gathered on 
 the subject from what has been said. It is perhaps 
 hardly necessary to mention that all here brought 
 forward, has to do with the females of the upper 
 castes. As .for the lower castes and the outcastes, 
 there is very little to be said ; their religion, as a rule, 
 IS little more than demonolatry or fetichism, and that 
 very often, of the lowest kind. The women are very 
 particular to put upon their foreheads the red mark 
 before spoken of, but of ordinary worship throughout 
 
THE HINDU woman's EEtlQION. 69 
 
 the day there ia practically none at all, and this may 
 be said of the men as well as of the women. They 
 are all intensely superstitious, and those of them who 
 may be Vaishnavas (worshippers of Vishnu) and who 
 wearupon the forehead the mark of that deity, do, when 
 they put on the marks in the earlymorning, both men 
 and women, make obeisance to the, rising sun, but that 
 seems to be the sum total of the ordinary daily wor- 
 ship. It is a universal custom at night, when the 
 family lamp is lit, for the women to make obeisance 
 to the flame, but there does not appear to be anything 
 else in the shape of evening worship. In any time of 
 trouble or sickness, especially during the prevalence 
 of any epidemic like cholera or small-pox, or at 
 marriages and other festal seasons, and on the occasion 
 of any family event, worship of various kinds is per- 
 formed, chi/'fly by the women. The Sadras and those of 
 the like class, will go to the village temple with offer- 
 ings of fruit and flowers and coloured powder for the 
 temple deity, which, after being presented, are distri- 
 buted to the neighbours who may be present. The 
 non-caste women, who may not go to the village temple 
 at such seasons adorn a bit of the inner wall of the 
 house with cowdttng or saffron, upon which are drawn 
 white or red horizontal lines, and to this obeisance is 
 made and simple offerings of cooked food and fruit or 
 flowers are presented. Besides this there is the sacred 
 tree, and the simple village idol, often a mere group 
 of shapeless stones, and to these worship will be made 
 at certain times, by the village women. Sometimes 
 also they will go to festivals or on a pilgrimage to 
 some shrine that may be within their reach ; but of 
 ordinary worship, in the usual acceptation of the wordj 
 there is very little, if any at all, amongst these lower 
 castes and non-castes. They are strong believers in 
 transmigration, and they think that their future birth 
 will be affected by their good or evil deeds, but, practi- 
 cally, they may be said to have very little religion at 
 all, as distinct from intense superstition and belief in 
 demonolatry of the most degrading kind. 
 
 It will have been gathered, from what has been said, 
 how low a position is assigned to women in Hindu 
 
70 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 theology, and one can only wonder that long ere this 
 she has not broken the shackles that would bind her 
 very soul, and asserted her equality in the eyes of 
 God. There is, however, hope that a change for the 
 better in this respect is really being effected. India 
 is gradually waking up from her long lethargy, and 
 ' the women of India also are being affected. It may be 
 true that, of the vast mass, comparatively few women, 
 as yet, are reached by the rays of light that are begin- 
 ning to penetrate even into the inner recesses of 
 Indian homes; but enough has been done, and suffi- 
 cient evidence is manifest to prove that the new life 
 has begun. Almost imperceptible though it may be 
 to those who are accustomed to look only upon the 
 surface, signs are manifest enough to those who are in 
 a position to judge, of the setting in of the tide 
 which is to bring brightness into the life, and hope 
 for after death to the gentle suffering women of India. 
 This movement may appear but feeble at present, but 
 it is going on, and it cannot now be stayed j the hand 
 of God is here, and His handiwork is irresistible as the 
 inflowing tide. The whole future of India's greatness 
 is bound up in the emancipation of her women ; and 
 this, we believe, , can only be done effectually by the 
 spread of that Divine faith which alone, of all the 
 creeds of the earth, gives woman her true status as 
 the equal with and true complement of man, and 
 which thus makes declaration on this matter :— 
 
 The woman is th* glory of the man. For the man is not of 
 the woman ; but the woman of the man. Neither was the man 
 
 created for the woman ; but the woman for the man 
 
 Neither is the man without the woman ; neither the woman 
 without the man, in the Lord. For as the woman is of the 
 man, even so is the man also by the woman ; but all things of 
 God. (1 Oor. xi. 7-9, 11, 12.) 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE HIKDU SACEED THREAD. 
 
 l^tT^. (Yajnopavltam). 
 
 In the eighth year from the conception o£ a Brahman, in the 
 eleventh from that of a Kshatriya, and in the twelfth from 
 that of a Vaisya, let the father invest the child with the mark 
 of his class. (Manu II. 36.) 
 
 One of the many peculiarities ttat strike a stranger 
 in India is that many HindnSj and those evidently of 
 the tipper classes, have a cord or skein of thread over 
 the left shoulder, and hanging down under the right 
 arm, vy^orn as a sash would be. Probably few, except 
 the Hindus themselves, could tell why this cord is 
 worn ; why certain have it whilst others have it not ; 
 or even how, or of what it is made. This article of 
 dress or adornment forms, however, a very important 
 factor in the Hindu cult. It may not be uninteresting, 
 therefore, and perhaps it may be instructive, to give 
 a few particulars connected with this mark or badge 
 of religions and social rank. 
 
 The Tajnopavitam, as it is called, or the sacred 
 thread of the Hindu, is the outward and visible mark 
 of the wearer being a Bvija, or twice born ; and it is 
 a much prized, and very sacred badge that commands 
 respect, and even adoration. 
 
 It may be well, perhaps, first to enquire as to who 
 are privileged to assume this distinction j and here 
 we find the matter very clearly defined, by the ancient 
 Hindu law-giver. In the quotation at the head of 
 this chapter, it is clear that the Brahmans, Kshatriyas, 
 and Vaisyas must be thus invested; and in another 
 place it is distinctly stated that none but the three 
 twice-born classes are entitled to the distinction : — 
 
 The three twice-born classes are the sacerdotal, the military, 
 and the commercial ; but the fourth, or servile, is once-born, 
 that is, has no second hirthfrom the gayatri, and wears nu thread. 
 Nor is there a fifth pure class. (X. 4.) 
 
72 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 This is the law as clearly l&id down; but, as a 
 matter of fact, others besides these three privileged 
 classes assume the distinction. It is not safe, 
 therefore, to conclude that every wearer of the sacred 
 thread must, necessarily, be a Brahmin or one of the 
 other two highest castes. The Goldsmitlis, for in- 
 stance, and the "Weavers, besides certain classes of 
 fishermen, and others wear it. Here then is a point 
 that needs some explanation. The Goldsmith caste, 
 many of whom are carpenters, and workers in brass and 
 copper, are themselves a class of Brahmins ; at least 
 they assume the distinction. As a matter of fact they 
 have their own prescribed share in the Vedas and 
 their own ritual. They have an upanayanam or 
 second-birth ceremony, and are considered dvijas, or 
 twice born ; hence this privilege in the matter of the 
 thread, as well as in many others that are peculiar to 
 Brahmins. The Goldsmith caste are said to be the 
 descendants of Brahmin women and Kshatriya men ; 
 and this fact, together with the rights above mentioned, 
 appears to be acknowledged by the Brahmins them- 
 selves ; yet, strange to say, perhaps as a result of 
 their mixed origin, they do not appear to command 
 much respect as a caste ; or to command that esteem 
 which, judging from their privileges, one would 
 expect. Until recent years, for instance, they were 
 not allowed to celebrate their marriages with public 
 processions; or to use a palanquin ; or ride a horse. 
 It is said that about thirty years ago there was much 
 disturbance in Masulipatam when, through the 
 freedom resulting from the British raj, this caste first 
 began to have marriage processions, and, in other 
 ways, to assert themselves. Now it is an acknowledged 
 thing ; it has become mamul (custom), and no one 
 interferes. They are not, as a rule, even now, allowed 
 to enter temples ; and when they are permitted to do 
 so, it is only to that part in which Sudras are allowed, 
 A case recently came before the law courts in 
 Masulipatam, arising out of the attempt of a Goldsmith 
 to enter a Siva Temple for worship. I believe it -was 
 eventually decided that a member of this caste could 
 not enter a temple, except by permission of the 
 
THE HINDU SACKED THEEAD. 73 
 
 Brahmin priest in charge. I do not pretend to give 
 any opinion on the moot point of the social and 
 religious status of the Goldsmith caste ; it is a most 
 vexed question, and one that gives rise to much 
 controversy ; the point is merely alluded to here to 
 show that not all wearers of the thread or cord are 
 considered of equal rank. 
 
 It may not be uninteresting to mate a slight 
 digression here, and say a little as to this denial of 
 the liberty of the subject to dress or go as he pleases. 
 There are very binding rules and regulations on these 
 points ; the outcome of caste customs, that, whatever 
 may be the real rigbts of the matter, from a legal 
 point of view, are very real and strict in actual life. 
 Theoretically., for example, any one British subject has 
 the right to use the public road in the way and 
 manner of others, whatever may be his degree ; but, 
 practically, tbis is not so. A low caste man, in going 
 through a respectable public street, that is a street 
 inhabited by high-caste people, must take off his shoes 
 and turban and shut up his umbrella, if he be well-to- 
 do enough to possess these articles, and, if he should 
 be riding, he must descend from his horse and humbly 
 walk through on foot. Even if a Sudra should be 
 riding and happen to pass a superior person, as a 
 Pandit, or high official, or any other like personage, 
 he must descend and walk past on foot until he is well 
 past the dignitary, when he may remount and go on 
 his way. A case quite recently came before the law 
 court in this neighbourhood where a native pastor of 
 one of the Christian bodies was severely beaten because 
 he dared to ride through a, so called, respectable 
 public thoroughfare where, as a man of low caste 
 origin, he should have acknowledged his servile status, 
 and humbly descended, and gone through on foot. 
 Such is the power of custom ; especially when the 
 custom is so agreeable to the inner consciousness of the 
 powers that be — those who have the ability, as well 
 as the desire, to see it carried into effect. _ 
 
 To return, however, to the subject more immediately 
 in hand, the others as the weavers and fishermen 
 appear unlawfully to assume the privilege of wearing 
 
 10 
 
74 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 thesaored thread ; but, although their custom is not 
 interfered with, no value is set upon it by orthodox 
 Hindus. They cannot, for example, read the Vedas, 
 or even hear them read. Authority to do this, m the 
 case of lawfal thread wearers, is conveyed by the 
 ceremony of Upanayanam, or second spiritual birth, 
 of which the thread is the outward symbol. In these 
 modern days, some other classes of Sudras have also 
 adopted the yajnopavitam merely to add to their own 
 importance ; but, in all such cases, it is of no true 
 religious value and is merely aping at a condition to 
 which the wearers have no true title. I have heard 
 of a case in the Orissa country where a certain Eaja 
 of the Sudra caste, some time ago made himself 
 important by assuming authority to invest people of his 
 own caste with the thread. Some of them, to please 
 him, appear to have submitted to the investiture, and 
 adopt the thread — thus adding to the number of the 
 unlawful wearers of this coveted mark of distinction. 
 It is said that one unlucky wight who, on a visit to 
 that country, was presented with this badge of honour, 
 was, on his return home, deprived of the same, and 
 well beaten for his presumption by his indignant 
 neighbours — thus meeting with something like the 
 fate of the ass in the fable who was dressed in the 
 skin of a lion. I am given to understand that, in 
 other parts of India, there are other castes . who, 
 though neither Brahmins nor Vaisyas, have some title 
 to the thread and its accompanying privileges, as in 
 the case of the Goldsmith caste above alluded to. 
 For instance, the Vaidyas, the native doctor caste of 
 Bengal, appear to enjoy this honour. They are said 
 to have sprung from the union of a Brahmin with a 
 female Vaisya and hence this privilege. It must 
 however be borne in mind that, in these sketches, 
 we are looking at things chiefly from the point of 
 view of South India in general and the Circars in 
 particular. 
 
 Having thus seen who are entitled to wear the 
 sacred thread, it may be well to mention some 
 particulars of the thing itself and also of the mode of 
 investiture. Originally there appears to have been 
 
THE HINDU SACEED THREAD. 75 
 
 some difference in the kind of thread worn, according 
 to the class of the wearer. 
 
 The sacrificial thread o£ a Brahman must be made of cotton, 
 so as to be put on over his head, in three strings ; that of a 
 Kshatriya, of sana thread only ; that of a Vaisya of woollen 
 thread. (Manu II. 44.) 
 
 This is the law ; and probably in ancient times the 
 material of which the. thread was made did thus differ, 
 according to the caste of the wearer ; but, certainly, 
 in the present day no such difference is seen. The 
 corc| is universally made of cotton. A peculiar kind 
 of very fine cotton is what ought to be employed ; but, 
 ordinarily, the common cotton is used. The threads 
 are supposed to be prepared by Brahmins. Perhaps 
 other than the Brahmins, and Vaisyas are not so 
 particular as to the manufacture ; but these two 
 castes, certainly, are very careful in this respect. 
 They are generally to be obtained in any ordinary 
 bazar ; but the very orthodox will frequently procure 
 their supply from the house of the Brahmins who 
 may happen to be engaged in the manufacture, and 
 thus ensure purity. We say the Brahmins and 
 Vaisyas or merchant caste, are thus particular ; as for 
 the Kshatriyas, unless we allow the claim of the 
 Eajputs to be of this ancient warrior caste, they are 
 prac^cally extinct. Parasurama, one of the incar- 
 nations of Vishnu, is said to have annihilated the 
 Kshatriyas. The cost of a thread is very insignificant 
 a few pice sufficing to purchase a complete one. 
 
 The yajnopavitam consists of several skeins of cotton 
 thread; each thread consists of three strands, each 
 skein has three threads, and a married man's cord 
 must consist of not less than three skeins. Thus it 
 will be seen that the number three enters very largely 
 into the structure of the cord itself, and the ceremony 
 of investiture. This is said to represent the three 
 gods, Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva ; the three sacrificial 
 fires ; three divisions of time — morn, noon, and night ; 
 and the three worlds — heaven, earth and hell. Bach 
 skein is tied with, a peculiar knot called Brahma's 
 
76 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 knot. lb is made by making three turns with the 
 threads and so tying the knot that the ends do not 
 appear on the outside. In making each knot the 
 following incantation is repeated by the maker :— 
 
 Pronouncing the word Otn, the Brahma 
 Sutram must be tied, and afterwards worn 
 (The wearer) will receive purity in all his rites. 
 It being the personification of all the gods. 
 
 The youth when first invested with the cord being 
 only a bachelor, receives only a single skein, and he 
 cannot wear more than a single skein until he is 
 married, when he must wear at least, three skeins, 
 although he may wear five. Usually, young married 
 men wear three skeins, and the elders five. It is not 
 lawful to wear more than five ; at least it is not 
 customary. The Brahmin youth as we have seen, must 
 be invested with his cord at about seven or eight years 
 of age ; he cannot be married until thus invested, but 
 he may, and in fact often does, marry within a day 
 or two, of the ceremony. Amongst some of the 
 Banians or Vaisyas, it is customary to defer the 
 Upanayanam until immediately before marriage ; so 
 that if a yonng man does not marry until he is twenty 
 or thirty years of age, he is not invested with the 
 cord until that time. 
 
 The ceremony of investiture may be briefly 
 described as follows. On the appointed day a fire is 
 lighted, round which are seated the relatives and 
 friends of the novice. This fire is a very important 
 feature of the Upanayanam ; indeed the whole ceremony 
 is called the Agni Earyam or fire worship. It is 
 kept alight during the whole four days during which 
 the ceremony lasts ; and it is the proper thing to feed 
 
THB HIND0 SACRED THEEAD. 77 
 
 it, as far as possible, with the twigs of certain kinds 
 of trees — principally those of the Indian fig tribe. 
 At the repeating of the various mantrams which form 
 part of the ritual, ghee is poured on to the fire as an 
 offering. The father of the youth to he- invested takes 
 a thread of nine strands, and puts it upon his son. 
 This is not the true Yajnopavitam nor has it the 
 Brahma knot, neither are mantrams said over it. 
 After some time, during which various rites are 
 performed, and the ears of the boy are bored for ear 
 rings, the ears being then adorned with thin rings of 
 gold, the true cord is produced — a single skein of 
 three threads. To this is attached a bit of the skin 
 of a male deer ; or if procurable, a long strip of this 
 skin ia used to be worn as a sash, together with the 
 cord. Deer skin is considered to be very pure and 
 also to be capable of imparting purity j for this reason 
 untanned deer skin is much employed for covering 
 the boxes, and other receptacles, in which are kept 
 the household gods, and things pertaining therets. 
 It is also much used as a mat to sit upon when 
 performing the (Jaily rites, and at other like periods. 
 Mention is made in the smritis (the teaching of the 
 Sages) of the purity acquired by wearing deer skin ; 
 and there are several injunctions on the matter in the 
 laws of Manu for instance. For example : — 
 
 Let the student in theology wear for their mantles, the 
 hides of black antelopes, of common deer or of goats, with 
 lower vests of woven sana of oshuma and of wool, in the direct 
 order of their classes. (II. 41.) 
 
 It may be here mentioned that the bit of deer skin 
 ia kept attached to and worn with the thread for 
 several months, when it is taken off, with some short 
 ceremony, at a temple. 
 
 On the father putting on the true cord, he repeats 
 the Yajnopavitam mantram — the novice saying it 
 after him. This mantram ia aa foUowa : — 
 
78 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 This most hallowed yajaopavltam, 
 
 lu former times with Brahma born, 
 
 Author of longevity ; wear it, it is pure, 
 
 May this yajaopavltam become my strength and glory. 
 
 As the new and true cord is put on, the imitation 
 one,, which was first used is taken ofE. This completes 
 the investiture ; and the father, at once, proceeds to 
 teach the novice the Gayatri prayer. This is done 
 with great care and secrecy. A cloth is thrown over 
 the heads of both father and son, and, thus covered 
 up, the sacred words are whispered into the ears, in 
 as low a whisper as possible, so that the holy words 
 may not fall upon the ears of any uninitiated one, 
 who might possibly be within hearing distance. The 
 Upanayanam is now complete ; and the newly received 
 is a true dvija, duly entitled to read the Vedas, and 
 to perform any of the religious rites of his caste. 
 
 Immediately following this, investiture the youth 
 proceeds to ask alms of those present, beginning with 
 his mother, and then his father, and afterwards the 
 other relatives or friends ; this act is supposed to 
 intimate a readiness, on the part of the supplicant, to 
 provide for himself and his religious preceptor. All 
 this takes place on the first day, and the true religious 
 act is by this completed j but for three more days the 
 festival is kept up, during which the novice is 
 instructed in the morning, midday, and evening 
 prayers, and other ceremonials; and also various 
 sacrifices are performed at stated times. There is 
 always much feasting and rejoicing upon these 
 occasions — musicians are hired to enliven the com- 
 pany ; and friends and relatives are entertained 
 according to the ability of the host. 
 
 A new cord must be put on every year on the 
 occasion of a certain festival. This festival is called 
 .Srdvanalapaurnavami — the full moon in the month of 
 Sravana (July-August). Should the cord be broken 
 
THE HINDU SACEID THREAD. 79 
 
 during the year, a new one must at once be put on. 
 If a man has a cord of five skeinsj a broken thread 
 or two does not matter ; but a bachelor must have his 
 one skein perfect, without even a single thread being 
 broken, and a married person must have at least three 
 perfect skeins every thread of which must be perfect. 
 There are also certain kinds of defilement, as for 
 instance touching a Pariah, that necessitate putting 
 on a new thread and pasting away the old one. In 
 these days, perhaps even the orthodox are not so 
 very particular as this ; but still, this is as it should 
 be, according to rule. Any replacing of the old 
 thread by a new one miist be done with certain 
 ceremonies. Should the cord become broken, or any 
 defilement contracted, no food can be taken until the 
 old one is replaced by a new. 
 
 Suppose a strict orthodox Brahmin, in passing 
 through the bazaar, accidentally comes in contact 
 witjji a Pariah, for instance, or in any other way 
 becomes ceremonially defiled, he must get a new cork. 
 He will proceed home, and a cord is sent for; but he 
 cannot touch the new cord himself until he has bathed, 
 and thus purified himself from the defilement. After 
 bathing he takes the new cord, and dipping it into 
 water, spreads it out on two brass or copper vessels. 
 He then touches it with some of the pigment he uses 
 ■for putting the sacred mark on his forehead. After 
 that he walks rouiid the vessels three times, from 
 right to left, repeating the Gayatri prayer (vide page 
 42) . Then he takes the cord, skein by skein, and 
 puts it on saying the mantram or consecration prayer, 
 used at the first investiture, repeating the same for 
 each skein. 
 
 When he has thus put on the whole of the skeins, he 
 takes off the old cord, repeating a mantram which is 
 the same exactly as the above except the last line 
 which says :— 
 
 May this old yajaopavltam become my strength and 
 glory. 
 
 The old thread is disposed of by throwing it into 
 
80 THE HINDU AT HOME, 
 
 a river or some other water^ if there should be any at 
 hand. For what says the ancient lawgiver :— 
 
 His girdle, his leather mantle, his staff, his sacrificial cord, 
 and his ewer, he must throw into the water, when they are 
 worn out or broken, and receive others hallowed by mystical 
 texts. (Manu II. 64). 
 
 Should no river, or other suitable water, as a large 
 tank, be conveniently near, the old thread is rolled 
 up and thrown on to the top of the house ; this is to 
 prevent its being trodden under foot, on in any other 
 such way defiled. This completes the rein vestiture ; 
 the defiled one is now ceremonially pure, and he can 
 proceed to perform the daily rites which must be gone 
 through before he can partake of food. 
 
 It was mentioned at the beginning of this chapter 
 that the thread is usually worn over the left shoulder, 
 hanging down across the body under the ■ right 
 arm, and, as the orthodox Hindu is not encumbered 
 with much by way of covering for the upper part of 
 his person, it forms a very noticeable object. On 
 certain occasions, however, the position of the thread 
 is changed ; at the time of performing the annual 
 ceremony for deceased ancestors, the position is exactly 
 reversed. It is then placed over the right shoulder 
 and hangs down on the left side. On certain other 
 occasions, it is worn as a garland round the neck ; 
 whilst at others it is placed up over the ears to 
 prevent its being defiled. Usually when saying the 
 Gayatri prayer, the thread is taken hold of by the 
 thumb ; and on reciting various mantrams it is used 
 somewhat as a rosary — the worshipper winding it 
 round the fingers to keep count of the number of times 
 the mantram is repeated. The ancient law-giver Mann, 
 makes various allusions to the sacred thread other than 
 those quoted above. He speaks of the sinfulness of 
 omitting the sacred investiture (xi. 63.) j and he lays 
 down the rule that no one must use a sacerdotal string 
 that has been before used by another (iv. 66). He 
 also legislates upon the respect due to the one who 
 invests with this mark of sanctity j classing him with 
 father, and mother as worthy of honour. 
 
THE HINDU SACEED THREAD. 81 
 
 Him by whom he was invested with the sacrificial thread, 
 him who explained the Veda or even a part of it, his mother, 
 and his father, natural or spiritual, let him never oppose ; nor 
 priests, nor cows, nor persons truly devout, (iv. 162). 
 
 It will be thus seen how very important is the 
 Yajnopavitam is to the Hindu. It is, in fact, an all 
 important thing, being the sign of the second or 
 spiritual birth. Without his cord the Brahmin is not 
 a Brahmin ; he is nothing better than an outoaste ; he 
 cannot perform any ceremony or partake of any food, 
 nay, he must not even swallow his own spittle ; he 
 may breathe, and that is about all he can do until the 
 lost or defiled cord is duly repla.ced with all proper 
 ceremony. 
 
 It may be mentioned in conclusion, that in the case 
 of a Sanyasi, as he has entered the fourth or last stage 
 of the Brahmin's life, the cord is not worn. 
 
 11 
 
CHAPTEB VI. 
 
 THE HmDU SAOEEB MAEKS. 
 
 ^TT. (Pundram). 
 
 He who ha3 no right to distinguishing marks, yet gains 
 a subsistence by wearing false mark of distinction, takes 
 to himself the sin committed by those who are entitled to 
 such marks, and shall again be born from the womb of a brute 
 animal (Manu iv. 200). 
 
 It is not our intention in this chapter to attempt 
 anything like an explanation or description of the 
 many and diverse Hindu Sects, with their divisions 
 and sub-divisions, for that would require volumes rather 
 than pages. Our purpose is rather to give a more or 
 less popular account of the various sacred marks 
 which the Hindus smear upon their faces, and other 
 parts of their person. Anything further than this 
 will only be so much as may appear necessary to illus- 
 trate the main subject, and present as clear a view 
 of the same as these complicated matters will admit. 
 
 . The proverbial lack of information amongst Anglo- , 
 Indians on these and kiudred subjects, is not perhaps 
 so much to be wondered at when one knows the 
 ignorance on their own ritual that exists amongst the 
 Hindus themselves. The bulk of the people follow 
 the customs of their fathers, and of those around 
 them, without caring to enquire the reason why or 
 wherefore of this or that ; it is mamwl (custom), and 
 that is enough to enforce obedience to laws and* 
 regulations so very varied and peculiar. It is a treat, 
 in one sense of the word, though perha|ps trying to 
 the patience, to get hold of a regular om fashioned 
 orthodox Brahmin, and draw out from him any 
 information required upon any point of every day 
 Hinduism. The trouble is well repaid in such cases, 
 for, though every thing elicited may not agree with 
 
.THE HINDU SACEED MARKS. 83 
 
 ancient theory as described in text books on Hinduism, 
 it is the best way of getting a practical knowledge of 
 the ordinary things of religious life and ritual. 
 
 No mention is made in the Vedas of the Pundrams 
 or sacred marks, but the Smrities and Purdnams take 
 particular notice of them. Since, however, the 
 Smrities are based upon the Vedas, it is inferred that 
 some parts of the Vedas are now lost, and that those 
 lost portions probably contain the injunctions on this 
 point. 
 
 It is said that these sacred marks were originally 
 intended to distinguish the four castes ; but however 
 that may be, it is clear that in the present day they 
 are used to distinguish the members of the various 
 religious sects or divisions. 
 
 All Hindus may roughly be divided into the 
 worshippers of Vishnu and the worshippers of Siva. 
 These however much they may differ in general, 
 agree pretty much in some main points, and they are 
 all good Hindus ; indeed a man may leave the one 
 pect and join the other, if he so desires it, and can at 
 the same time bear the cost of the necessary 
 ceremonies. Brahma, the first person in the Hindu 
 Triad (Trimurti) , is not, as a matter of fact, worshipped 
 at all. Vishnu and Siva, in their various forms and 
 incarnations, are the real objects of Hindu worship. 
 
 Perhaps a more important point, even, than the gods 
 worshipped, is the three chief schools of philosophy, 
 of some one of which all Hindus may be said to be 
 followers. The first is that of Advaita or non-dualism. 
 "The Universe exists, but merely as a form of the 
 one eternal Essence. All animate and inanimate 
 things are but parts of the. deity, and have no real 
 existence of their own." Then comes the Bvaita 
 doctrine, or dualism, which holds that "God is 
 supreme, yet essentially different from the human 
 soul, and from the material world, both of which 
 have a real and eternally distinct existence." A 
 third and important section hold the doctrine of 
 Visishtddvaita, or doctrine of unity with attributes, 
 ' This doctrine is like that of Advaita, holding that the 
 Deity and the universe are one, but it goes further in 
 
84 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 holding that the deity is not void of form or quality ; 
 it regards him as "being endowed with all good 
 qualities and a two-fold form; the supreme spirit 
 Paramatma, or cause, and the gross one, the effect, 
 the Universe or matter." {Wilson.) 
 
 It will be seen further on that it was necessary to 
 make this digression on Hindu doctrines, as a pre- 
 liminary to the main topic upon which we must now 
 enter. 
 
 The sacred marks that most intrude themselves 
 upon one's notice, are those worn upon the forehead, 
 and these are ordinarily of two kinds; the trident 
 shaped mark called Urdhva pimdram or upright pun- 
 dram, which is universally worn by the votaries of 
 Vishnu, . and the three horizontal lines drawn across 
 the forehead which are called Tiryak pundram or 
 horizontal pundram, worn by the worshippers of Siva. 
 
 Besides these marks on the forehead some are also 
 worn on various parts of the body, the number differ- 
 ing according to caste ; the Brahmins having no less 
 than twelve, viz. one on each arm and shoulder, one on 
 the front and one on the back of the neck, one on the 
 breast, and one on the middle of the back, three on 
 different parts of the stomach, and the one on the 
 forehead ; a thirteenth is sometimes worn on the crown 
 of the head. Others than Brahmins should not, 
 theoretically, have so many marks, it being laid down 
 that the Kshatriyas should have only four ; the 
 Yaisyas twoy and the Sudras one, the one on the 
 forehead; but practically many others besides 
 Brahmins, if they wish to be very religions, wear 
 these marks on most of the parts mentioned; but this 
 is said, by the powers that be in such matters, to have 
 no religious effect or value. 
 
 The forehead mark is, however, the chief and most 
 prominent one. That of the worshippers of Vishnu is most 
 unmistakable, and when put on by the very orthodox in 
 extra broad stripes, has a most ferocious effect. The 
 ordinary Vaishnava uses a white clay called tirumani 
 which is found in various parts of the country and is 
 sold, made up into sticks or lumps, at a very cheap 
 rate in the ordinary bazaars. In the case of the 
 
THE HINDU SACEED MARKS. 85 
 
 Madhvas,, however, of whom particular mention will 
 be made farther on, the clay used in making the 
 marks is of a yellowish colour, and is called Gdpi- 
 chandanam, which, to be of the purest kind, should be 
 brought from Dwaraka in Guzerat. Practically, how- 
 ever, it is obtained wherever it can be found. The 
 marks are put on by the ordinary Vaishnavas in this 
 manner ; the clay is rubbed in the palm of the left 
 hand with a little water, and then with a finger of the 
 right hand, or with a strip of metal kept for the pur- 
 pose, the moistened clay is taken and a broad line 
 drawn across from the centre of one eyebrow to that 
 of the other ; then from the centre, or the outer end 
 of each eyebrow, a perpendioulai" streak is drawn 
 right up the forehead. This mark is said to represent 
 the foot of Vishnu {Vishnu Pddam). In the centre 
 of the two perpendicular lines, and in a line with the 
 nose, a third, but narrower, perpendicular streak is 
 drawn, of a red or yellow colour ; the colour is chosen" 
 red or yellow according to fancy, but yellow is said 
 to be the most orthodox. This central mark is in 
 honour of Lakshmi the wife of Vishnu, and is cfalled 
 Srichurnam, the whole forming a trident. The marks 
 on the other parts of the body are also made with 
 three perpendicular streaks, two white and one red 
 or yellow, but they are not so carefully made as those 
 on the forehead, which are often drawn in quite an 
 artistic manner, and evidently done with great care. 
 As a rule these body marks are merely a broad smear 
 of white with a coloured dab in the middle, though 
 the one on the chest is perhaps sometimes seen to be 
 more carefully made. 
 
 All the wearers of this trident mark are worship- 
 pers of Vishnu, but they may be either worshippers 
 of that~deity alone, as the Eamanujas, or they may be 
 votaries of Vishnu and at the same time pay honour 
 to Siva. The followers of Bamanuja are called 
 amongst the Telugus Aeharyas and amongst the 
 Tamils they are called Iyengar^. Some of the Smar- 
 tha sect, that is those who professedly worship Siva 
 in particular, and yet pay reverence to Vishnu, also 
 wear the trident marks of Vishnu, instead of the Siva 
 
86 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 marks which is usually worn by the Smarthas. The 
 Eamanujas, which sect was fouDded in the 12th 
 century by Eamanujachai-ya, hold the Viaishtadvaita 
 doctrine, and they are very hostile to the worshippers 
 of Siva, who are of the Advaita School. They carry 
 their love for their sacred mark to an extraordinary 
 length. They imprint their trident on the portals of 
 their doors, on the walls of their houses, nay, on their 
 very household utensils, and on their carts and boats 
 and books, &c. In the same way they allo^w their 
 dislike for the Saivas to run to extremes. If they 
 come across a stone in a mouthful of rice, a very un; 
 pleasant thing, as can be easily imagined, they call it 
 the Lingam (the emblem of Siva) and say '' Let us 
 bite well, we have at least killed one wretched 
 Lingam." It is also a saying that, even if pursued 
 by a tiger, a Ramanuja would not, even to save 
 himself, enter into a Siva temple ! 
 
 It may be interesting to mention here that the 
 Vaishnavas are divided into two great sects, the 
 Vadagalais and the Tengalais, the doctrines of which 
 differ very materially from each other. The members 
 of these sects may be distinguished by the shape of 
 the mark worn. The Tengalais carry the white mark 
 some way down the nose, whilst the Vadagalais have 
 it without this central prolongation. 
 
 Whilst preparing the clay to daub on the marks, 
 the devout are supposed to recite several mantrams 
 which it may be interesting to quote at length. 
 
 ^^^\ ^^ fief I 
 
 O Earth ! do thou destroy my sin, 
 Whatever sin has been committed by me. 
 O Barth ! thou gift of Brahma, 
 Thou hast been purified with mantrams by Kasyapa 
 (a certain Sage.) 
 
THE HINDU SACKED MAKKS. 87 
 
 3fq- ^^ viMm I 
 ^qr ^^T qrqJT 
 Trarfq qwt iifcf II 
 
 Earth ! bestow on me physical strength, 
 In thee are all things comprised. 
 
 When my sin is driven out by thee 
 
 1 attain unto heaven. 
 
 ^Rqr^frH^^ 11 
 
 Oh white clay goddess ! destroyer of sin, 
 Sprung from the body of Yishnu, 
 And symbolized by the Ohakratp, I adore thee, 
 Through my wearing thee do thou bestow heaven. 
 
 These three mantrams should be said by all v7or- 
 shippers of Yishnu, that is by all those who, wear the 
 trident; but only the very devout do say them. Many 
 content themselves with saying only the first, others 
 again will repeat only tte first line of the first man- 
 tram : — 
 
 Oh Earth ; do thou destroy my sin. 
 
 Probably a very large number say nothing at all. 
 These simply put on the marks for appearance sake, 
 as a matter of form j or perhaps with the idea that the 
 mere marks themselves will have some religious 
 effect upon their soul, for the Hindu is extremely 
 superstitious. 
 
 The white marks having been daubed on the 
 various parts of the body before indicated, the red 
 
88 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 or yellow pigment {Srichumam) is taken and pat 
 on whilst the following mantram is repeated ; — 
 
 ^^ 5^^ f^54 
 
 f^rw^rajl^ 1 
 
 HfT^ qt^rr«?M^: II 
 
 Sriohurnam is wealth giving, is excellent, 
 Generated from the body of Lakshmi ; 
 And between the two pundrams 
 Should be worn by those who desire heaven. 
 
 Besides the wearers of this trident, there are other 
 worshippers of Vishnu who wear a different mark. 
 They are called Madhvas, and they hold the Dvaita 
 doctrine (the dual order of things) ; indeed they are 
 the true Dvaitas, and they take their origin from the 
 sage Madhvacharya who taught in the 13bh century. 
 These worship Vishnu, but they also hold Siva in 
 honour. Their forehead mark is a straight black line 
 drawn from the nose to the roots of the hair, and 
 passing through a red round mark made with a mixture 
 of turmeric and lime. The black line is made with 
 charcoal, which, to be pure, should be taken from 
 the fire before the god Vishnu. This black line is 
 called Angaram, from the charcoal with which it is 
 made. In some parts there are those who also put 
 on the two upright white facial marks with Gopi- 
 chandanam, only somewhat narrow ; others again are 
 said to make these lines in red. Usaally however the 
 forehead is only adorned with the upright black line 
 and red spot. 
 
 The Madhvas also impress on the various parts of 
 the body, and on the forehead and temples, symbols 
 of Vishnu, made with copper stamps, dipped in 
 moistened Gopichandanam, to more clearly represent 
 what the ordinary marks are supposed to signify. 
 These are of five kinds, the conch {sankha), the wheel 
 
THE HINDU SACEED MAEKS. 89 
 
 (chakra), the club {gada), and the sword {khadgam), 
 which are the things in the four hands of VishAu, and 
 the lotus (padma). 
 
 Th^/SadhiVaSj in putting on their marks, are sup- 
 to repeat the mantrams as above, except that 
 For the fourth they substitute the following : — 
 
 ^\^^^vWl. 1 
 
 - Be he a murderer of a brahmin, or of a cow, 
 A cruel tyrant, guilty of all manner of sins, 
 By contact with this gopichandanam 
 He immediately becomes an heir of heaven. 
 
 The Siva mark is three horizontal lines made with 
 vibhuti, or ashes of burnt cow dung. This, to be of 
 the purest kind, should be obtained from the fire of 
 a sacrificing Brahmin, These ashes are made up into 
 balls or tablets and sold in the bazaar, but if from 
 poverty or from any other cause these cannot be 
 procured, a little ash will be taken from the ordinary 
 household fire-place and used for the purpose. It 
 must be borne in mind that the ordinary fuel is dried 
 cowdupg. All the worshippers of Siva wear. these 
 three horizontal marks on various parts of the body, 
 as the Vaishnavas do tlieirs, except that the shape is 
 different. They are always in horizontal lines and 
 there are no coloured marks except on the forehead. 
 It should be noted also that all the worshippers of 
 Siva are Advaitas as regards doctrine. The marks 
 are made thus ; a little of the ashes is rubbed in the 
 left hand with some water, and the mixture is applied 
 with three fingers of the right hand. Those on the 
 various parts of the body are, perhaps, done some- 
 what carelessly ; but the marks on the forehead are 
 drawn' with. more care." The Saivas are divided into 
 two main divisions, the Smdrthas, those who also 
 honour Vishnu, and Lingadharis, or wearers of the 
 
 12 ~~ ' 
 
90 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 Lingum, who adhere solely to the worship of Siva. 
 The latter of these may be distinguished by having 
 the vibhuti marks drawn across the eyes and by the 
 side of the ears. A round spot is made in the centre 
 of the forehead which is usually red, and which is 
 called Akshatam. Theoretically this spot should be 
 a few grains of rice stuck on with sandalwood paste. 
 A division of the Lingadharis, howeverj who are Sudras, 
 and who are called Jangams, always have this mark 
 ■white, made with the 'vibhuti. Sometimes, however, 
 they make it with sandalwood paste; but thisis against 
 rule, and is iiot done by the very strict. Speaking of 
 sandalwood, it may be wall to mention here that all 
 Hindus, both the worshippers of Vishnu and those 
 who adore Siva, use sandalwood paste for the sake of 
 its sweet smell. It is not perhaps a necessity ; but 
 practically it is used by all. It is put on after all the 
 daily ceremony is over, just before sitting down to 
 food. 
 
 In putting on the marks, the Smartha Saiva should 
 say the three first mantrams above quoted ; this is 
 because he holds Vishnu in honour. He also should 
 say this fourth mantram. The Lingadhari, however, 
 who holds no allegiance to Vishnu at all, simply 
 repeats this one alone :— 
 
 ^5^ ^vlp]^ II 
 
 We worship that (the vibhuti) which appertains to the 
 
 three eyed one (Siva) ; 
 It is fragrant and increases physical strength. 
 As a cucumber is separated from its stalk (when ripe) 
 May this separate (or deliver) me from ever present 
 
 death. 
 
 There are perhaps seen at times, some varieties of 
 these marks. For instance, some of the modern 
 Saivas wear, in public, only one horizontal mark of 
 
THE HINDU SACEED MARKS. 91 
 
 sandalwood paste — drawn through the centre spot 
 across the forehead. This is sometimes made with 
 the help of the yajnopavitam {sacred cord), but even 
 this is supposed to be three, and at any rate, the three 
 lines made with vibhuti ought to be worn when taking 
 meals. Those Saivas who worship PArvati, the wife 
 of Siva, wear a small mark of vermilion under the 
 central spot between the eyebrows. 
 
 All the marks are supposed to be put on at least 
 twice a day ; in the morning on rising, and at midday 
 after bathing before food. Many in these modern 
 days do not; however, put on the marks in the early 
 morning ; it is only the real orthodox Hindu who does 
 this. Before taking food, however, it is imperative, 
 and no one omits it then, even the most careless and 
 irreligious. No ceremony and no act of worship can 
 be performed without these marks, The rules and 
 custom are most rigid on this point, and all must and 
 do submit, willingly or unwillingly. In every Hindu 
 house there is a receptacle of some kind, a basket or 
 box, in which are kept the ingredients for putting on 
 the marks, with any stamps or instruments that may 
 bemused, and perhaps a little bit of looking glass to 
 assist in the operation. This receptacle is usually for 
 the general use of the household, and perhaps a guest 
 or visitor who may be staying in the house will have, 
 access to the same if he should not have brought his 
 own "dressing case" with him. It must be borne in 
 mind that, as with Europeans, it is necessary for a 
 guest to comply with the usages of society as regards 
 various details of dress and manners, so it is incumbent 
 on the Hindu guest to conform to the habits of his 
 fellows in the matter of general get up. Indeed it is 
 not only a matter of conforming to the laws of good 
 breeding, it is a vital matter of religion, and a Hindu 
 dare not, absolutely dare not, at the peril of his soul, 
 sit down to food without having first adorned himself 
 with the marks of his religion. If it were possible 
 for any ill advised person so to forget himself, a thing 
 difficult even to imagine, he would have to dine alone, 
 for no one would dare to consort with so bold an 
 Iconoclast. 
 
92 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 As a mark of mourning for the death of any 
 relations, the red or yellow line in the centre of the 
 Vishnu mark, (srichurnam), and the red spot in the 
 centre of the. forehead of the Smdrfcha Saivas {akshata) 
 is changed to white for ten or more days.- The 
 M^dhvas simply omit the red spot, wearing only ihe 
 black streak. The Smdrtha Saivas and M^dhvas also 
 follow this custom on fast days. 
 
 It may be asked what are the marks worn by women? 
 No woman, who has a husband, has need of sacred 
 marks, as she has no ceremonies to perform requiring 
 them. Her husband does all her religious ceremonies 
 for her, and he is her god. The wife does, however, 
 perhaps for ornament, wear a mark in the centre of the 
 forehead. It is usually made with vermilion, but some- 
 times it is black. Ifc varies sometimes a little in shape, 
 being either somewhat horizontal or perpendicular 
 according as her husband is a Saiva or a Vaishnava, 
 but it is generally merely a round spot. This spot is 
 omitted altogether during mourning, and also during a 
 certain period. Widows, however, have to perform cer- 
 tain ceremonies for themselves, and they wear the same 
 marks as their husbands wore j only they must be those 
 that exhibit mourning, that is to say without the 
 coloured marks. The Vaishnava widows do not wear 
 the full white mark on the face, only a line between 
 the eyes and part way down the nose. Some Vaish- 
 nava widows, in the present day, do wear the 
 Srichurnam or coloured central line, only in that case 
 they do not put on the side white lines. Probably, 
 however, those who do thus are comparatively few in 
 number. Married women are in the habit of rubbing 
 their faces and feet with water in which safEron 
 has been mixed. This is perhaps only done for 
 beauty's sake, to appear fair ! At any rate a widow, 
 to whom all enjoyable and pleasant things are denied, 
 must not thus addrn herself. 
 
 In going over these various details one cannot but 
 be reminded of the Christian mark, the mark of the 
 cross made upon the forehead at baptism, or of that 
 seal mentioned in "the book of the Revelation wbere 
 the angel "Sealed the servants of our God in the 
 
THE HINDU SACEID MARKS. 93 
 
 forehead" (vii. 3). And the servant of Ohristj the 
 true Incarnation of the Living God, cannot but rejoice 
 thatj though but slowly still none the less surely, the 
 Trident is giving way to the Cross, the marks of 
 Vishnu and Siva to the marks of the Lord Jesus : — 
 
 " Who will have all men to be saved and to come to the 
 knowledge of the truth. For there is one God and one 
 Mediator between God and man, the Man Christ Jesus." 
 (1 Tim. ii. 4, 5.) 
 
CHAPTEE VII. 
 
 THE HI]N"DU TOS"SUEE. 
 
 nn^. (Sikha). 
 
 By the command of the Veda, the ceremony of tonsure 
 should be legally performed by the three first classes in the 
 first or third year after birth. (Manu II. 35.) 
 
 Perhaps nothing impresses a stranger in India so 
 much as the peculiar manner in which the Hindu 
 treats his hair. He sees some with a clean shaven 
 head, except a top knot of greater or less size and 
 length whilst others have portions only of the scalp 
 shaven, leaving most fantastic locks of varying size 
 and shape. On the other hand some few are to be seen 
 with the head covered with long, thick, tangled hair 
 that seems as though it had not been interfered with, 
 in any way, either from the tonsorial, or the toilet 
 point of view, since the hour of birth. The absence 
 of any head covering in so large a number of cases of 
 those to be met with in the streets and thoroughfares, 
 gives ample opportunity to observe the peculiar modes 
 of dealing with the hair to which allusion is here 
 made. 
 
 It is by no means easy, for the uninitiated, to arrive 
 at the true reason for this varying coifEure; and 
 personal enquiry of a chance acquaintance, would, 
 probably, result in but little true information. If the 
 ordinary Hindu were accosted and questioned on 
 his own tonsorial peculiarity, he would probably have 
 no reason whatever to give for it, except the universal 
 answer to such questions, of its being the custom of 
 his caste. Indeed very few of the Hindus know the 
 reason why of any of the habits and customs that 
 strike a foreigner as so peculiar; and they would 
 perhaps treat as ridiculous any catechising on such 
 matters — the custom exists and therefore it is followed, 
 
THE HINDU TONStTEB. 95 
 
 that is quite enough for themj and if they are 
 satisfied why should others trouble about it. 
 
 It is intended in this chapter to give some account 
 of the Hindu manner of wearing the hair, and of the 
 reasons why for the same. It must be premised, 
 however, that nothing is here intended by way of an 
 elaborate or learned disquisition. In this, as in other 
 chapters, our chief efforts will be directed to giving a 
 more or less popular account of things that lie on the 
 surface of Hindu life, and concerning which so little 
 is really know, even amongst the natives themselves 
 in general, not to mention ordinary Anglo-Indians in 
 particular. 
 
 Under the title of " The Hindu Tonsure" it will be 
 necessary to allude somewhat to the moustaches and 
 other hair of the sacred person of the twice born ; 
 for the hair, as almost everything else, enters into the 
 complex religious ritual of the Brahminica] religion ; 
 indeed, as will be seen further on, the hair is thought 
 to be a symbol of sin, -and the catting it off a 
 symbolical way of casting off sin ; still, as the sacred 
 top-knot is of prime importance, that will be the chief 
 subject upon which we shall enlarge. The Sanskrit 
 name of this top-knot is sikha, and by that name it is 
 known amongst the upper classes of all Hindus 
 whatever their vernacular. In Tamil it is called 
 cvdimi, in Telugu zuttu. 
 
 It is curious circumstance, and one suggestive of 
 further study, that whilst the tonsure of the Roman 
 Catholic Priest — the first ceremony in dedicating a 
 person to the priesthood — consists of shaving a circle 
 on the crown of the "head, the Hindu tonsure — one 
 of the chief ceremonies in the TJpanayanam, or 
 investiture with sacred powers — consists of removing 
 all the hair except a circular portion situated on the 
 same part of the head. 
 
 Although the sikha is so important that without it a 
 Brahmin is not a Brahmin, — the tonsure and the 
 investiture with the Yagnopavitam being the chief 
 elements in the Upanayanam or spiritual birth of the 
 twice born,-:-there seems to be but very slight founda- 
 tion for so complicated a superstructure. Learned 
 
96 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 Sh^stris seem to be unable to give anything on the 
 point from the Vedas except the mantram that will 
 be quoted by and bye, and the allusions to the same 
 in Manava Dharma Saatra. The ceremonies, as is 
 the case with so many others, appear to have 
 gradually grown with the growth of the rest of the 
 Hindu rituals. The first notice of it that appears in 
 the Laws of Manu ia where, probably in allusion to 
 the Vedio mantram, the thing itself is taken for 
 granted in the following notice :— 
 
 " By oblations to fire during the mother's pregnancy, by 
 holy rites on the birth of the child, by the tonsure of his 
 head with a lock of hair left on it, by the ligation of the 
 sacrificial cord are the birth taints of the three classes wholly 
 removed." {U. 27.) 
 
 Hair ceremonies may be said to commence before 
 the birth of a child at all, as, for some six months 
 before that event, the father abstains altogether from 
 shaving until the eleventh day of the child's birth. 
 Doubtless this ceremony is set aside in many instances 
 in the present day of compromises, especially in the 
 case of Government and other ofi&cials who would not 
 think it respectful to appear before their superiors 
 with a beard of such a growth. By orthodox Hindus, 
 however, and especially those in rural parts who have 
 not yet learned to accommodate themselves to 
 circumstances, this custom is still strictly followed. 
 
 In the laws of Manu it is thus written :— 
 
 " By the command of the Veda, the ceremony of tonsure 
 should be legally performed by the three first classes in the 
 first or third year after the birth," (II. 35). 
 
 This command is still strictly carried into effect ; 
 but it is now usually done at about the third year 
 instead of the first. There are instances where the 
 hair of a boy may not be cut at all until the TJpa- 
 nayanam ceremony. This would be in the event of 
 either of the parents making a vow to that effect. 
 Suppose the infant were taken ill, or any like 
 misfortune were to happen to him, a vow might be" 
 made to a certain god, that the first, hair- cutting of 
 
THE HINDU TONSTJEE. 97 
 
 the child should take place at the shrine of the god 
 invoked. For instance, at Tirupati in North Arcofc, 
 the chief shrine of the god Venkateshvara (a local 
 name under which Vishnu is worshipped). 
 
 The ceremony of first performance of the tonsure 
 (chaulam) is somewhat as follows. Hitherto the boy's 
 hair has been allowed to grow like that of a girl, and 
 the fond mother has been wont to cherish it, and 
 ornament it, in the same way, with plaitings and 
 jewels ; but now the heretofore uncut locks must be 
 sacrificed to the inexhorable laws of the Hindu 
 religion. On a propitious day, previously fixed upon 
 by the Purohita, musicians are called, and a feast is 
 prepared for friends and relatives ; it is not, however, 
 considered so important an occasion as to call for very 
 great expense or trouble. The first three cuts with 
 the scissors must be^ made by the mother's brother, 
 or failing such a relative, by the next nearest of kin 
 on the mother's side. After these first three cuts have 
 been made, the boy is handed over to the family 
 barber, who clips off all the hair except a small spot 
 on the top of the head. Some time after this clipping, 
 perhaps a month after, the head is shaved for the first 
 time, and doubtless many ^ gash has been inflicted, 
 and many a tear shed on such occasions. It must be 
 borne in mind that the Hindu barber does not make 
 a nice lather with soap or any like substance j water, 
 pure and simple, is rubbed over the parts to be 
 operated upon, and then all is left to the cutting 
 powers of the clumsy-looking razor. When the head 
 is thus shaved, various fashions are adopted, according 
 to varying ideas of beauty I Sometimes separate 
 locks are left over the temples and at the back of the 
 ears ; these are called kakapaksham or crow's wings. 
 Sometimes, again, the hair is allowed to grow all 
 round the head, whilst the whole of the top is clean 
 shaven. These varying forms of beauty may be seen 
 any day, as one passes our juvenile Aryan brethren, 
 with their little heads bared to the scorching sun. 
 The head is shaven, as a rule, about once a month. 
 
 One interesting fact, already alluded to as connect- 
 ed with thi^ first cutting of the hair, may here be 
 __ 
 
98 THE HINDU AT HOME, 
 
 more fully explained. If for any cause whatever, the 
 boy's mother has made a vow to a certain god, as 
 above explained, it is the rule for this cutting of the 
 congenital hair to be made at the shrine of the god 
 invoked. A pilgrimage is arranged to the place, and 
 there the ceremony is performed. Sometimes, how- 
 ever, it may not, for financial or other reasons, be 
 convenient for such a pilgrimage, at the time when it 
 is imperative to perform the ceremony. In such a 
 case the shaving takes place at homej but a small 
 tuft is left near the sikha, to be removed at the shrine 
 when opportunity for a pilgrimage occurs. Some- 
 times the hair that has been clipped off is preserved, 
 and tied up in a cloth to the rafters of the house until 
 a pilgrimage can be arranged. This is the only 
 occasion upon which the hair is allowed to remain in 
 the house; cut hair is always considered as impure. 
 When opportunity offers the hair is then taken to the 
 shrine, and thrown into the sacred tank of the temple, 
 or delivered to the officiating priest for "disposal. The 
 god Venkateshvara at Tirupati is a favourite one in 
 South India for such vows. This god also has a 
 shrine at Dvaraka Tirumala, near Ellore in the Goda- 
 very District, which is perhaps for all practical pur- 
 poses held as holy as Tirupati. 
 
 The real sacred tonsure is however not performed 
 until what may be called the religious coming of age. 
 This varies according to caste. The following is the 
 law laid down on the subject : — ■ 
 
 " In the eighth year from the conception oE a Brahmin, in 
 the eleventh from that of a Kshatriya, and in the twelfth 
 from that of a Vaisya, let the father invest the child with the 
 marks of his class.'' (Manu II. 36.). 
 
 These marks of the class consist of the Tagnopa- 
 vitam, the mark on the forehead, and the Sikha or 
 sacred top-knot. At this important ceremony the 
 head is shaven in the presence of the family, whilst 
 the family priest chants mantrams, and musicians 
 play on their instruments without. The top-knot, 
 and four small spots surrounding it, are left unshaven ; 
 
THE HINDU TONSDKE. 99 
 
 the five places being called pancha sikha. It is said 
 the top-knot itself must be the size of the foot-print 
 of a cow {gopadam) ; but, as there are cows and cows, 
 this is rather an uncertain measurement. It may be 
 that this is the reason why one sees such various sizes 
 in the Sikhas j some being comparatively very small, 
 whilst others are sufficiently large to cover a great 
 part of the head, and, when untied, to flow down in a 
 sweeping tail to below the waist. 
 
 This may be a suitable place to mention, for the 
 information of those not acquainted with India, that 
 the top-knot is usually twisted up and tied in a knot 
 or coil, and is carefully stowed away under the turban, 
 or cap when the head is covered. It is amusing to 
 see the dexterity with which a Hindu will twist up 
 his hair and knot it up, when it may have become 
 disarranged ; and one may sometimes see an old gentle- 
 man carefully stroking out the few grey .hairs age has 
 left him in his beloved sikha, and watch him tie it 
 into a tiny knot close up to his bald scalp. 
 
 The whole of this shaving ceremony is so interesting 
 that it may be well to give it somewhat in detail. 
 Each family priest has a kind of rubric telling him 
 exactly what to do on such occasions. These rubrics 
 were originally drawn up by Rishis or Sages, and 
 their directions are strictly carried out. The shaving 
 rite is administered just before the young man is in- 
 vested with the sacred thread. The priest acts for 
 the father who may be ignorant of the mantrams and 
 ritual. The theory seems to be that the father ad- 
 ministers these rites in the god's stead, and the priest 
 acts for the father. The priest goes through the cere- 
 mony, the father following him, where he is able to 
 repeat the words at all. As a kind of introductory 
 sentence to the shaving rite the following sentence is 
 repeated :— 
 
 ^mf?:fr[ =^ ^vr: 1 
 
 ufrww afa^ I 
 
 ^fm JI^'Tfcf II 
 
100 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 The meaning of this is very difficult to make out, 
 bub it may be taken to mean some thing as follows; — 
 
 He (Jagatjanakaha — the progenitor of the world) shaves, 
 repeating the four mantrams commencing with the one that 
 begins with the words yena vapat — uttering one at each 
 of the four cardinal points, and making oircumambulation 
 (pradakshinam). 
 
 The priest then instructs the father of the youth 
 who is being- invested, to take stalks of the sacred 
 grass {darbha) and put one on each of the four sides 
 of the youth^s head, indicating the four cardinal 
 points of the compass, and cut each stalk with 
 a razor, thus showing the barber where to leave the 
 four patches in shaving the head. The priest also 
 directs the youth to turn to the four cardinal points, 
 commencing from the east, and at each he repeats 
 the following mantram : — 
 
 The all wise progenitor of all things, with what razor 
 he shaved the Moon and Yaruna with the same he shaved 
 Brahma. He also shaves the head of this youth. May he 
 have long life and may his ignorance perish. 
 
 The whole of this ritual seems to be elaborated 
 from this mantram. It is explained that Jagat- 
 janakaha — the progenitor of the world — aforetime 
 shaved the heads of his sons, the Moon, Varuna, and 
 Brahma, that their lives might be prolonged, and 
 that fame and prosperity might attend their career. 
 This mantram is said to include the very words the 
 god used when he performed the operation, and the 
 .priest simply repeats them word for word. 
 
 A short time after the Upanayanam, another cere- 
 mony is performed with reference to the hair ; this 
 time in a temple ; the former one being in the house. 
 At this second ceremony, the four spots that had 
 
THE HINDU TONSUEE. 101 
 
 been left unshorn around the siJcha are shaven clean 
 ofEj and no hair is left on the head but the top-knot 
 itself. The Sikha is held to be very sacred and it 
 must never be removed for any cause whatever; 
 without it the man is no true Hindu, nor can he per- 
 form any religious ceremonies whatever. I have 
 enquired of learned Pandits as to what would happen 
 if, through baldness, or by the effects of any disease 
 or accident, a man were to lose his Sikha, and it 
 appears that in such a case, the absence of the hair 
 would not necessarily disqualify him from performing 
 the sacred offices. This, perhaps, is an interesting 
 point, as it seems to be one of the very few bits of 
 elasticity found in the rigid Brahminical law. 
 
 A custom has grown up that appears to be generally 
 followed, though it is said to be against the strict 
 letter of the law, for boys to allow the side patches, 
 (Kakapaksham), to grow again after they have been 
 shaved off as above. This is done to follow out the 
 native idea of beauty ! These beauty patches, how- 
 ever, can only be worn during the life time of the 
 boy's parents ; upon the death of either parent he 
 must remove all except the Sikha. If a young man is 
 so fortunate as to have his parents living until he 
 himself advances in age, say something between 
 twenty and thirty, and arrives at a period when he 
 adopts for himself strict religious observances, he 
 removes all these side-locks. He then, for his own 
 soul's benefit, adopts religious observances, such as 
 prayers and sacrifices to fire and the sun fhomam and 
 suryanamaskaramj , for performing which he must be 
 clean shaven except the Sikha. 
 
 There is a passage in Mann which seems to allude 
 to a custom that appears now to have become extinct. 
 I can find no trace of the ceremony here alluded to, 
 though it may possibly be in vogue in some other 
 parts of India. The passage in question is as 
 follows : — 
 
 " The ceremony of Cesanta, or cutting ofE the hair.is ordained 
 for the priest in the sixteenth year from conception; for the 
 soldier, in the twenty-second; for a merchant, two years later 
 than that." (II. 65.) 
 
102 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 The Hindu, in South India at least, does not wear 
 a beard at all, though from pictures one sometimes 
 sees of Brahmins in the North, it appears as if it is 
 worn by some up in those parts. Customs may differ 
 in such widely distant places in this as in other 
 respects. It appears also that the Kulin, and some 
 other Brahmins of the north, do not even wear the 
 Sikhaj but crop their hair something after the 
 European fashion, but these must, by this fact alone, 
 be disqualified from performing sacrificial and other 
 rites and ceremonies. 
 
 When it is said that the Hindu does not wear a 
 beard, we must except the Yogis or hermits who do 
 not shave at all, either the head or the face. In the 
 chapter on Devotion, Manu lays down the law as 
 follows on this point :— > 
 
 " When the father of a family perceives his nmscles become 
 flaccid and his hair grey, and sees the child of his child, let 
 him then seek refnge in a forest, 
 
 " Let him wear a black antelope's hide, or a vesture of bark ; 
 let him bathe evening and morning ; let him suffer the hairs 
 of his beard, and his nails to grow continually." (VI. 2, 6. ) 
 
 When a Hindu,, however, becomes a Sanyasi, that 
 is, enters the fourth, and last stage of the Hindu 
 spiritual life, he, being supposed to have done with 
 all sublunary affairs, even religious rites and cere- 
 monies, cuts off his sikha and indeed all hair from his 
 face and head, and henceforth goes quite bare. 
 
 Having thus performed religious acts in a forest during 
 the third portion of his life, let him become a Sanyasi for the 
 fourth portion of it, abandoning all sensual affections, and 
 wholly reposing in the Supreme Spirit. 
 
 His hair, nails, and beard being clipped, bearing with him 
 a dish, a staff, and a water pot, his whole mind being fixed on 
 god, let him wander about continually, without giving pain to 
 animal or vegetable beings. (Manu VI. 33, 52.) 
 
 The moustache is, as a rule, worn by Hindus of 
 every caste and nation except the priestly classes. 
 
THE HINDU TONB0BE. 103 
 
 The priest, of whatever caste he may be, even the 
 Dasari or pariah priest, must have his face clean 
 shaven (see chapter on Mendicity) , In the chapter 
 on the sacred marks, mention was made of the three 
 great schools of philosophy into which Hindus are 
 divided. There are those who belong to the Visish- 
 tadvaita school and who, as followers of Eamanuja, 
 are strict worshippers of Vishnu only. This sect 
 never wear the moustache, but are always clean shaven. 
 It may also be mentioned in passing, that they also 
 abstain from smoking, although they may console 
 themselves with snuff ! The Smarthas who hold the 
 Advaita doctrine, and who worship Siva in particular 
 but reverence Yishnu, and the Madhvas who follow 
 the Dvaita system, and who worship Vishnu in 
 particular, but reverence Siva are both divided into 
 two divisions of secular and priestly brahmins. The 
 Sma.rthas are Niyogis and Vaidikis ; and the Madhvas 
 are Vyaparis and Acharyas. The Vaidikis and the 
 Acharyas are the priestly classes, and as such they 
 should always have a face quite clean shaven. They 
 also, as with the Bamanujas, should abstain from 
 smoking. In these latter days, however, the Vaidikis 
 are far from strict in these matters j and many of 
 them wear the facial hirsute ornament, as do their 
 secular brethren. They also, in very many cases, 
 have abandoned the priestly office, and follow the 
 profession of the bar, or go into any of the various 
 branches of the public service; they may also be found 
 in numbers following educational and other like 
 pursuits ; for all of these occupations their hereditary 
 connection with vedio learning and general culture 
 seems to particularly fit them. Therefore if a Hindu 
 is seen to have a clean shaven face, it may, as a rule, 
 be set down that he is either a priest or a member 
 of one of the priestly classes. 
 
 There is, we should observe, an exception to this, 
 which may be mentioned here. Amongst Europeans 
 the- sign of mourning for deceased relatives is to wear 
 black clothing ; but amongst the Hindus, besides the 
 absence of colour in the face mark, as already 
 mentioned in the previous chapter, the sign of 
 
104 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 mourning is to shave ofi the moustache. A new comer 
 to the country may, some fine morning, be surprised 
 to see his Hindu munshi, or clerk, or servant come 
 before him with a clean shaven face, and the change 
 this makes in the appearance of the hitherto 
 moustached individual, is so great as to cause him for 
 the moment to be taken for a stranger. Enquiry will 
 discover that the poor man has lost his father, or 
 mother, or son, or brother, or some other relative for 
 whom it falls to his lot to perform the funeral 
 . ceremonies ; upon such an occasion it is imperative 
 that a clean shave be made. 
 
 Another custom that is worthy of notice is the feast 
 pushJcaram or twelfth year festival. Certain h'oly 
 rivers have a festival every twelve years. At these 
 festivals those Hindus who have lost their father make 
 a pilgrimage to the particular river, in order to 
 perform ceremonies for their deceased ancestors. 
 There are said to be twelve rivers in India that are 
 thus honoured. The Narbada holds its festival in the 
 current year of 1895. Next year it will be the 
 Godaveri; and in the following year, the Krishna. 
 At a time of the year fixed upon by the astrologers, 
 the particular river will have its festival, and crowds 
 of pilgrims will resort to the various holy localities 
 of the river indicated. The number of pilgrims, of 
 course, depending upon the distance to be travelled to 
 reach the particular river, and the piety or ability of 
 the people. The initial act in this ceretnony is to 
 have the head and face quite clean shaven, except the 
 Sikha ; and it is this fact that brings the matter within 
 the scope of this chapter. On the occurrence of this 
 festival anywhere within a reasonable distance of 
 one's own neighbourhood, it is curious to see so many 
 men with clean shaven faces. It is difficult to 
 recognize one's acquaintances, the change made in 
 the appearance is so great. Besides the sons of 
 deceased fathers, widows also go to these Pushkaram 
 festivals. Indeed it is highly incumbent upon a 
 widow to attend, and to undergo the ordeal of shaving, 
 and bathing for the benefit of the soul of her departed 
 husband. The pilgrim is shaved, and then proceeds to 
 
THE HINDU TONSUEE. 105 
 
 bathe in the holy water; the merit acquired being for 
 the souls of the departed forefathers, or husband as the 
 case may be. At the time of shaving, the attendant 
 priest repeats the following words of purification ; the 
 pilgrim irepeating after him if able to do so : — 
 
 Sins as huge as mounts Meru or Mandara, 
 Sins of various kinds, 
 These sins adhere to the hair of the head. 
 For these sins I undergo this shaving. 
 
 Sacred bathing in holy rivers, accompanied by 
 religious shaving, as above, is also sometimes resorted 
 to by a conscience stricken sinner who seeks by 
 prayaschittam, or expiatory rites, to be freed from 
 the burden or penalty of his offences. Suppose any 
 one has been unfortunate enough to kill a cow, even 
 accidentally, or has upon hi? conscience some equally 
 heavy burden, he may seek the advice of his spiritual 
 director who may recommend a pilgrimage to some 
 holy river. The distance may be very long, and the 
 consequent trouble and inconvenience very great, 
 still, under such circumstances, the penitent would 
 probably attempt the task. On arriving at the place 
 indicated, he would seek the services of the local 
 barber, and, after submitting himself to his tender 
 mercies, plunge into the cleansing stream to come 
 forth, as he hopes, and believes, with all his guilt 
 cleansed away. At this religious shaving, the above 
 quoted incantation must be repeated as m the case ot 
 thePuskharam pilgrim. We may here note m passing 
 the analogy there is between these purificatory rites ot 
 shaving and bathing, and those prescribed in the 
 Old Testament for the purifying of the leper and also 
 
 14 
 
106 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 in the case of the purifying of the Levites. (Vide 
 Lev. xiv. 9 ; Num. viii. 7.) 
 
 We must also not omit to mention the vows that 
 are sometimes made by men, and women too, that 
 necessitate the loss of the hair. As a rule, a woman 
 never parts with her hair ; for a woman to be shorn is 
 a sign of widowhood, amongst the Hindus. There are 
 times when an exceedingly religious or loving woman 
 may, in order to bring blessings upon her husband, 
 part with a little of her cherished hair ; but this would 
 be an extreme mark of being a loving and virtuous 
 wife. When this is done it should be at the confluence 
 of certain rivers ; and there, with appropriate rites 
 and ceremony, the wife may submit to her husband 
 cutting off a short length from her long hair, the 
 severed portion being then offered to the river deity. 
 At times of sickness, however, both men and women 
 may make a vow to a certain god that, in the event of 
 recovery, they will make a pilgrimage to its shrine 
 and offer up their hair. When such a vow is upon a 
 man, he will not shave at all, but allow all his hair to 
 grow until he may be able to make the pilgrimage, 
 and carry into effect his vow. In fulfilment of such 
 a vow the man, or woman, as the case may be, will go 
 to the, shrine of the god invoked and, there, with 
 certain ceremony, will be clean shaven. Even the 
 woman will have her head clean shaven and the man 
 also his Sikha taken off, the hair being offered to the 
 god. The favourite place for such pilgrimages from 
 this neighbourhood, is Tirupati and there the shorn 
 hair is thrown into the large tank connected with the 
 temple. 
 
 The rules connected with the act of shaving are also 
 strict and somewhat complicated. First of all it is 
 not right that any one should shave himself. The 
 law is thus laid down by Mann in the chapter on 
 Economics and private morals :— ^ 
 
 The sun in the sign of Canya, the smoke of a burning corpse, 
 and a broken seat, must be shunned ; he must never cut his 
 own hair and nails, nor ever tear his nails with his teeth. 
 (IV. 69.) 
 
THE HINDU TONSUEE. ,107 
 
 It is easy to see how tbis restriction arose. Young 
 boys cannot shave themselves, and even if they could, 
 it wiQuld be a very clever boy indeed that could shave 
 his own head, especially the back part of it. Here 
 Hinduism steps in and stereotypes a custom, making 
 it a religious observance. The shaving too as well as 
 the pairing of the nails should not be carried on in a 
 room of a dwelling house, as hair and nail pairings 
 both are considered to cause pollution. These opera- 
 tions are always carried on in some opeft place, as a 
 verandah or shed, but more often in the open street. 
 It is a very common sight to see the barber and his 
 victim seated under a tree, or on the shady side of a 
 wall, or house, whilst" the tonsorial performance is 
 being carried on. This is not done, oftener, perhaps, 
 than once or twice a month in the case of the commoner 
 people ; whilst once a week is perhaps the rule amongst 
 the better off classes. In the towns, however, amongst 
 the higher ranks of society, the face is shaved even 
 oftener than this, as distinct, perhaps, from the 
 shaving of the head. In the Hindu village divisions 
 there is a regular grant of land {Inam) for 'the village 
 barber ; and any infringement of this grant leads to 
 law-suits by the injured party. Curious to say there 
 have been suits instituted by village barbers to res- 
 train the inhabitants of his village from being shaved 
 by any other than himself. This, as a Hindu friend 
 observed, is bordering very closely on slavery ; but 
 such is custom and such are the hard and fast lines 
 drawn by Hinduism. As to the time of shaving, a 
 man cannot have this pperation performed every day 
 even if he were so inclined, as there are certain holy 
 days and. unlucky days upon which such a thing 
 should not take place. For instance, on the day of 
 the new moon {Amdvasya) and on the eleventh day 
 from that; and on the day of full moon {Pournami) 
 and on the eleventh day from that, these being holy 
 days, also on Tuesdays and Saturdays, these being 
 unlucky days, shaving cannof; be done. The operation 
 also must be undergone fasting and hence it is 
 generally done in the morning. 
 
 There are many other little things connected with 
 
108 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 the hair that need not be mentioned here ; enough 
 has been said to give some insight into the peculiarities 
 of the Hindu Tonsure. One cannot however avoid 
 the reflection how much the Hindu is tied and bound 
 with the fetters of custom and religious observances, 
 and utterance must be given to the hope that the day 
 is drawing near when the people will be delivered from 
 all this bondage into the glorious liberty of the faith of 
 Christ Jesus. 
 
 The vexed question as to the retaining of the Sikha 
 by Christian converts has been carefully avoided, as 
 these pages are scarcely the place to enter into a 
 discussion that has occupied the attention of two well 
 known Indian Bishops and found them ranged upon 
 different sides. Suffice it to say that whilst- some 
 hold it is merely a national custom that is no more 
 connected With religion than everything else Hindu, 
 and hence its retention or not is merely a matter of 
 taste, others maintain that it is so intimately connected 
 with pagan rites and ceremonies as to be distinctly 
 heathen and demand its complete removal. Others 
 there are again who take a more moderate view, and, 
 whilst they deprecate its retention by Christians as 
 being to some extent a badge of Hinduism, they 
 would not imperatively demand its removal, trusting 
 that as Christianity spreads, this, together with many 
 other objectionable customs, will gradually die out. 
 
CHAPTER "VTII. 
 
 HINDU MAEEIAGES. 
 
 f^^. (Vivaha.) 
 
 The nuptial ceremony is considered as the complete insti- 
 tution of women, ordained for them in the Veda, together with 
 reverence to their husbands. (Manu II. 67). 
 
 In giving a description of Hindu marriages, ifc is 
 not intended to do more than merely allude, by way 
 of introduction, to the institution itself, as such.; nor 
 to give a disquisition on the custom of infant marriages 
 and the consequent evil of early widowbood, witb all 
 its attendant miseries. That were somewhat beside 
 the object in view in this chapter, which is rather to 
 furnish some information as to the various customs 
 and ceremonies connected with the marriage rite 
 itself. This is, perhaps, a more homely subject and 
 one that does not call for such profound treatment; 
 nevertheless it may present a somewhat interesting 
 insight into ordinary Hindu life and ways. 
 
 All Hindu laws and regulations on the marriage 
 question take it for granted that all men and women 
 must marry. It is only those who may be suffering 
 from disqualifications of mind, or body that do not 
 marry. There are no " old bachelors" or " old maids" 
 amongst the Hindus. The regulations and directions 
 are all confined to the matter of how to choose, and 
 how and when the marriage is to be performed. 
 
 It appears quite clear that in Vedio time there was 
 some liberty of choice amongst both men and women, 
 as to their partners ; for it is thus written :^ 
 
 Three years let a damsel wait, though she be marriageable ; 
 but, after that term, let her choose for herself a bridegroom 
 x)f equal rank : 
 
110 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 If, not being given in marriage, she choose her bridegroom, 
 neither she, nor the youth chosen commit any offence. 
 
 But a damsel, thus electing her husband, shall not carry 
 with her the ornaments which she received from her father, 
 nor those given by her mother or brethren : if she carry them 
 away, she commits theft. (Manu IX. 90-92.) 
 
 But whatever liberty may have existed in this res- 
 pect in ancient times, it is very certain that such 
 is not the case now. The institution of child marriage 
 has entirely destroyed that liberty. Of course there 
 is much to say on both sides of the question as to 
 liberty of choice in this matter, aiid opinions widely 
 difEer, even amongst Europeans; for, whilst amongst 
 English speaking nations, very great liberty is given 
 and, except in certain cases, and under certain con- 
 ditions, the matter is left pretty much to the young 
 people themselves, with most other European nations 
 it is very diSerent, and, to a large extent, the choice 
 and arrangements are settled by the parents of the 
 parties. 
 
 Amongst Brahmins, and Vaisyas (the Merchant caste) 
 whilst a boy cannot be married until he has been in- 
 vested with the marks of the twice born (upanayanam) , 
 though they are often married immediately after that 
 event, it is imperative for girls to be married before 
 puberty, and usually it is done whilst they are quite 
 young. Other castes and non-castes may marry later 
 on in life, still, even amongst them, the vows of 
 matrimony are taken at a very early age when 
 compared with the European custom. This necessity 
 for marriage is often a great burden, as the choice is, 
 more or less, limited. Marriages can only take place 
 between those of the same caste, and the same sect, 
 whilst there are also prohibitive degrees of tribe and 
 family, within which marriages are not allowed. 
 Amongst the larger sects this does not act so much as 
 an obstacle, but amongst the smaller ones it often 
 causes great difficulty. There are also natural likes 
 and dislikes, some of which are thus alluded to by 
 the great law-giver Manu, and which evidently point 
 to a period when marriages were settled at a more 
 
HINDU MABBIAOES. Ill 
 
 natural age, and, in what we consider, a more natural 
 manner : — ■ 
 
 " Let him not marry a girl with reddish hair, nor with any 
 deformed limb ; nor one troubled with habitual sickness ; nor 
 one either with no hair or with too much ; nor one immoder- 
 ately talkative ; nor one with inflamed eyes." 
 
 Let him choose for his wife a girl whose form has no 
 defect ; who has an agreeable name ; who walks gracefully 
 like a phenioopteros, or like a young elephant ; whose hair 
 and teeth are moderate respectively in quality and in size ; 
 whose body has exquisite softness. (Manu 111. 8, 80). 
 
 Ifc may be well here to allude to the two insti- 
 tutions of Polyandry and Polygamy, as they do 
 both exist in India. The former, however, cannot be 
 said to be a Hiiida institution;' indeed it is utterly 
 opposed and abhorrent to the very spirit of Hinduism. 
 It is practised by such non-Hindus, or unorthodox 
 Hindus, as the Todas of the Neilgherries, and the 
 Nairs of the Western Coast, but it is only a local, and 
 in no sense a universal custom. Polygamy, however, 
 is a true Hindu institution, and it is duly legislated 
 upon in the various codes. Maau lays down the law 
 as follows : — 
 
 For the first marriage of the twice born classes, a woman 
 of the same class is recommended ; but for such as are impel- 
 led by inclination to marry again, women in the direct order of 
 the classes are to be preferred. 
 
 A Sudra woman only must be the wife of a Sudra; she and 
 a Vaisya of a Vaisya ; they two and a Cshatriya of a Cshatriya ; 
 those two and a Brahmam of a Brahman. (III. 13, 14.) 
 
 This however only alludes to a state of things in 
 tbose early Vedic days ; in this Kali Yuga or degener- 
 ate age, though a man may have, and in some cases 
 should have, more wives than one at the same time, it 
 can only be within strictly recognised caste limits. 
 One of the stories in the' Vickramarkacharitra turns 
 upon the fact of a Brahmin being allowed to take to 
 wife a woman from each of the four castes ; although, 
 
112 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 as it will be observed, the law-giver in the above 
 quoted texts, only allows the Brahmin three wives ; 
 that is, one each from the two next castes besides one 
 from his own. Now, however none, and especially a 
 Brahmin, dare to marry outside of his own caste ; 
 but, within these limits, there are circumstances 
 under which it is rather incumbent upon him than 
 otherwise, for a Hindu to take a second wife. Should 
 his wife prove barren, or should- all the male issue 
 that might be given die, then, very often, the hus- 
 band will be pressed by the wife herself to re-marry, 
 so that there may be surviving male issue, and thus 
 the reproach of the family wiped aw;ay, and the 
 future salvation of those concerned fully assured. 
 This concession is, however, guarded round with 
 conditions, some of which are thus stated by Manu : — 
 
 A barren wife may be superseded by another in the eighth 
 year; she whose children are all dead in the tenth; she who 
 brings forth only daughters in the eleventh ; she who speaks 
 unkindly, without delay. (IX. 81.) 
 
 Another condition that is not perhaps an absolutely 
 binding one in all cases, is that the first wife should 
 consent to the re-marriage. It is not difficult to 
 understand how reluctant a woman would naturally 
 be thus to have a sharer in her husband's affection ; 
 and perhaps it is impossible for EuropeAus to under- 
 stand her ever consenting to, much less wishing for, 
 such a state of things. The desire, however, for 
 male issue, indeed the absolute necessity for a son, 
 either born or adopted, is so overpowering, that it is 
 not so unusual a thing as might at first be supposed, 
 for a woman, at all and any risk to her own personal 
 happiness or position in the family, even to strongly 
 desire her husband to seek out another suitable 
 spouse and bring her to his home. Still notwith- 
 standing all this, it is comparatively an unusual thing 
 for a Hindu to have more wives than one; and this 
 may perhaps be especially said of the higher castes. 
 Amongst- the non-caste people we do now and then 
 meet with cases where a man is living with more than 
 
HINDU MABBIAOES. 113 
 
 one wife ; I am bound to say, however, that m one of 
 such cases I have met with, the domestic peace and 
 happiness were not all that could be desired. It may 
 be that one important deterrent to polygamy is the 
 very great expense connected with an orthodox Hindu 
 marriage. The attendant cost is such that once in a 
 life time is, very often, enough to hang a load of debt 
 around the poor man's neck, for the greater part of 
 his natural existence. 
 
 Amongst nearly all Hindus J}here is a peculiar idea 
 in the matter of degrees of relationships within 
 which marria;ge is desirable ; and this, amongst the 
 Vaisyas, has become .^.n imperative necessity ; whilst 
 most other castes think it so desirable as to be worth 
 great effort to carry it into effect. I allude to what 
 is called, amongst the Telugu people, Menarikam, by 
 which a youth should marry his mother's brother's 
 daughter, and a girl should marry her father's sister's 
 son. Failing such i'elationships> the choice is left 
 free ; that is, of course, free within the proper limits 
 of caste and sect. Much trouble is sometimes caused 
 even in the Christian Church, by the hold this idea 
 has upon the -minds of the people ; seeing that some- 
 times one of the parties thus eligible may be a Christian, 
 and the other outside the pale of the church. There 
 are, however, some sects of Brahmins who are opposed 
 to this Menarikam rule, thinking the blood-relationr 
 ship too close for marriage. 
 
 There is another bar to marriages amongst Hindus 
 that does not exist amongst Europeans, and that is, 
 that a younger brother cannot marry until the elder 
 one is married. Neither can a younger sister marry 
 before the elder one is disposed of. This is not a 
 mere custom, it is according to what is strictly laid 
 down in the code. 
 
 " He who makes a marriage contract with the connubial 
 fire, whilst his elder brother continues unmarried, is called a 
 parivetru; and the elder brotihsr apariviUi. The Parivetru^ 
 the parvaitti, the damsel thus wedded, the giver of her in wed- 
 lock and fifthly, the performer of the nuptial sacrifice, all sink 
 to a region of torment." (Manu III. 171, 172.) 
 , -_- . 
 
114 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 It may be well to mention that in this sketch we 
 have most in mind the Brahmins, who are, of course, 
 more particular in ceremonies than other castes 
 except, perhaps, the Vaisyas ; but at the same time, 
 though the inferior castes may leave out various items 
 of the ritual, the mode of procedure may be said to be 
 pretty much the same amongst all orthodox Hindus. 
 
 Many marriages are arranged, particularly between 
 near relatives, when the boy and girl are mere infants, 
 perhaps within a few months of birth ; but when that 
 is not done, the parents begin to look around for a 
 suitable parti when the proper time for marriage 
 is drawing near. In such a case, if the father of 
 a marriageable boy hears or knows of a suitable 
 match, he will select a fortunate day and then proceed 
 to visit the parents of the girl with a view to preli- 
 minaries and to talk the matter over. He is always 
 careful to take with him his son's horoscope, as the 
 girl's friends will want to see whether the youth was 
 born under such a combination of the planets as to 
 augur well for the future of the proposed pair. The 
 horoscope is a document drawn up by the family priest 
 {Purohita) at the birth of every boy, and sometimes 
 of a girl, shewing the date and even the moment of 
 the birth, and the state of the planetary system at the 
 time. This document is always carefully preserved 
 for future reference. If the horoscope is favourable, 
 preliminaries are talked over and, perhaps, financial 
 arrangements made. Sometimes, particularly if the 
 expectant bridegroom should be unpromising or old 
 and a comparative stranger, the friends of the girl, on 
 his sending a go-between, may try to drive a bargain 
 and squeeze money out of him. No well-to-do father 
 would care to give his daughter to such a man with, 
 perhaps, the certainty of her soon being a widow, but 
 a poor man may be tempted to do it for the sake of 
 gain, aa will be seen further on. Sometimes, when a 
 rich old man loses his wife, the parents of a young 
 girl will take means of intimating to him their willing- 
 ness to give him their daughter for a consideration. 
 This however is considered very improper, and is 
 indeed against the letter of the law. 
 
HINDn MABKIAGES. 115 
 
 " Let no father who knows the law, receive a gratuity, 
 however small, for giving his daughter to marriage; since 
 the man, who, through avarice, takes a gratuity for that pur- 
 pose, is a seller of his offspring." (Manu III. 51.) 
 
 Notwithstanding, it is by no means uncommon for 
 the bride's parents to demand a sum of money, some- 
 times comparatively very large, from the boy's 
 friends before they will consent to a match. This is, 
 of course, very like selling the girl, and is the very 
 thing guarded against in the above quotation ; but 
 seeing that it is not a dowry given to be settled upon 
 the bride, and that it is pocketed by her parents, it is 
 difficult to regard it in any other light. The dowry 
 given by the friends of the bridegroom to the bride, 
 in the shape of jewels, and which goes with the bride 
 when she goes to her new home, is besides and over 
 and above the money in question. The name given 
 to the arrangements for this money gift to the girl's 
 parent, is one which means bargaining ; and, when 
 there are several applicants for her hand, it often 
 becomes very much like an auction holding out for 
 the highest bid. To quote a case that is said to have 
 recently happened in this neighbourhood, and it is 
 I am informed only one of many that are of more or 
 less frequent occurrence in one part or another : — A 
 certain poor Brahmin agreed to give his daughter, who 
 was nine years of age, to the son of one of his own 
 caste. The sum of money agreed upon in this case 
 was Rs. 700 which was handed over to the girl's father, 
 and the Prathanam, or betrothal ceremony, actually 
 took place. Within a couple of months, a more 
 wealthy suitor appeared on the scene, and offered Rs. 
 1,000, which sum was duly paid over, and a second 
 Prathanam was performed. The matter came to the 
 ears of the first party and he took legal steps to stay 
 all proceedings, and obtained an " injunction" from 
 the court, pending the hearing of a suit. The case 
 duly came before the court, and it resulted in the girl's 
 father having to refund the Rs. 700 to the first suitor 
 for his daughter, besides paying the, costs of the pro- 
 ceeding.-- After this the girl was finally married to 
 the son of the one who gave the larger sum. 
 
It was said above that young people have no voice 
 whatever in their marriage arrangements, at least as 
 far as the choice is concerned, but there do now and 
 then happen solitary cases where a vigorous protest 
 is effectual, if tbe party happens to be old enough 
 and determined enough to make a stand. Quite 
 recently, a very wealthy Brahmin widower of no less 
 than eighty years of age, some six months after the 
 death of his wife, made advances to the father of a 
 certain girl who happened to have reached the age of 
 twelve still unmarried. The aged suitor is said to 
 have promised Rs. 1,000 down to the father, and also 
 to give Rs. 20,000 worth of jewels to the girl, as her 
 personal dowry j the girl it is true had the certain 
 prospect before her of early widowhood but then she 
 would have her share of the old man's weajth ! The 
 prospect pleased the maiden's father and he consented 
 to the marriage. The girl, however, had to be reck- 
 oned with here, and she not only positively refused 
 to be married to the old man, but firmly expressed 
 her determination to drown herself if the matter were 
 proceeded with. Her attitude had the desired effect 
 and the proposed match was abandoned. 
 
 It should be mentioned that this unlawful custom 
 of a father receiving money in return for giving his 
 daughter appears to prevail mostly amongst Brahmins. 
 Ordinarily, amongst Hindus, there is an interchange 
 of gifts by way of dowry from the bride's father to 
 the bridegroom, and from his father to the bride. 
 These dowries usually take the shape of jewels, and 
 clothes, and brass and copper household vessels, and 
 the like. The nature and value of these mutual gifts is 
 all settled at the interview between the parents, and 
 friends before the Prathanam. Of course the value 
 will depend on the wealth, and position, or other 
 circumstances of the parties concerned. Jewels are 
 also given to the bride by her father to be her sole 
 property j and in some cases, if a young wife dies 
 without issue, these jewels are returned to him. 
 There appears to be no definite rule on this latter 
 points ; but it is a custom that is often complied with, 
 and there is sometimes much bad feeling aroused 
 
HINDU MABBIAGES. 117 
 
 when it is not done. The law as to the separate 
 property of a married woman is thus laid down by 
 Manu :'— 
 
 What was given before the nuptial fire, what was given on 
 the bridal prooesaion, what was given in token of love, and 
 what was received from a brother, a mother, or a father, are 
 considered as the six-fold separate property of a married 
 woman. 
 
 What she received after marriage from the family of her 
 husband, and what her affectionate lord may have given her 
 shall be inherited, even if she die in his life time, by her 
 children. (IX. 194, 195.) 
 
 It may perhaps serve a good purpose if we here 
 insert a quotation, going to show how wide spread is 
 this evil of selling girls as brides ; and also the 
 healthy feeling that is being aroused with reference 
 to it. The Kistna District Association, which is the 
 local expression of the Indian National Congress, and 
 which is also in some way connected with that hody, 
 held its third Conference at Bezwada on the 7th June 
 1894 and following days. About a hundred visitors 
 and two hundred delegates attended from different 
 parts of the District. The President was the Hon. 
 Mr. N. Subbg^rao Pantuln, B.i., b.l.. Member of the 
 Legislative Council of the Government of Madras ; and 
 the delegates included Lawyers, Landholders, Hon. 
 Magistrates, Merchants, Members of Local Boards, 
 Municipal Councillors and others all representing the 
 light and learning of the District. On the third day 
 of the Conference, the following resolution was pro- 
 posed by Mr. R. Venkataratnam Naidu, m.a. and 
 seconded by Mr. S. Sanumantarao b.a., b.l. and 
 Mr. K. Venkatappaiah, b.a., b.l. and carried with 
 acclamation. I quote from the printed report issued 
 by the Association : — 
 
 XX. That this Conference instructs the Secretaries of the 
 Kistna District Association to issue pamphlets pointing out 
 the evils accruing from the sale .of girls and excessive 
 expenditure on marriage occasions. 
 
118 THE HINDU AT HOME, 
 
 The proposer of the resolution, in bringing forward 
 the motion, spoke as follows :— 
 
 " Gentlemen ! The monstrous custom of selling girls needs 
 no words of mine to make you try to root it out from our 
 Society. I will give you one particular case which will show 
 you the advisability of taking proper steps to remove the 
 evil. A certain gentleman, in a certain village, married his 
 daughter, 10 years old, to an old man of 81 and received. 
 Es. 2,000 for the bargain. In due course, the girl matured, 
 and the nuptial ceremony was performed. The girl was sent 
 to her hated husband, much against her will. She escaped 
 from the room in the dead of night and threw herself into a 
 well. When the old man awoke in the morning, he missed his 
 young wife, and, on search being made, her dead body was 
 found floating in a well. There are several instances of this 
 sort. In some cases, if the ill assorted pair be seen together the 
 bride will appear as a daughter, or even a grand-daughter. 
 The young brides become widows even in a week after their 
 marriages. These evils are too apparent to me and I think 
 you will enthusiastically carry this resolution." 
 
 That such cases as these are not only possible, but 
 of comparative frequent occurrence, is a fact that 
 calls for serious attention on tlie part of those who 
 wish well to this country, and it is a most hopeful sign 
 when such a body as the one above alluded to begins 
 to take serious notice of the matter. If there are 
 such cases that, perhaps, from some untoward 
 circumstance, come to the light, one cannot but 
 reflect upon the great number there must be that are 
 never heard of, and of the consequent unrecorded, and 
 unknown misery endured by our Indian sisters, even 
 in the present day. 
 
 A case happened several years ago which will 
 serve further to illustrate the crooked ways that are 
 sometimes resorted to, for the sake of gain, in the 
 matter of marriages. This was told me by a friend, 
 who happened at the time, to be the Joint- Magistrate 
 of Ongole in the Nellore district and before whom 
 the case was tried. A certain Brahmin brought a 
 charge of defamation against some of his fellow-caste- 
 men because they had excommunicated him, and had 
 
HINDU MAEEIAGES. 119 
 
 widely published the fact throughout the country. 
 The accused parties admitted the fact, but pleaded 
 justification. The story told in court was as follows : 
 This Brahmin had espied a certain Pariah girl^ who 
 could, he thought, be made useful to him ; he concoct- 
 ed, therefore, and carried into effect the following 
 plan. He purchased the girl from her father for a 
 certain sum of money, and then took her across the 
 border into the Nizam's country. There be dressed 
 her up as a Brahmin girl, and taught her how to act 
 the part of one. After this he took her to Hyderabad 
 city, and palmed her off upon a wealthy Brahmin 
 there, who married the girl, and paid a sum of money 
 to the crafty knave. All went well for a time ; but 
 by and by the husbapd discovered the truth about 
 his wife, and thereupon took her back to her father 
 somewhere near Ongole. He, naturally, was very 
 indignant at the trick that had been played upon 
 him, and took pains to inform the Brahmins of the 
 neighbourhood of what had been done. So gross a 
 case as this could not be passed over, and therefore, 
 after due enquiry, the delinquent was formally 
 excommunicated. Not only had he associated him- 
 self with Pariahs, but he had caused a fellow- 
 casteman to, unwittingly, render himself grossly 
 impure. It was decided by the court that the facts 
 justified the action taken by the accused and the case 
 was dismissed. The wretched cheat could nob be 
 punished by the court for his villainy, as his offence 
 was committed across the border, in Hyderabad 
 territory, and so out of the jurisdiction of British 
 courts of justice. 
 
 To return, however, to the more immediate subject 
 of this chapter. In the event of a marriage being 
 arranged between a young couple, and all preliminaries 
 settled to the satisfaction'of the parties concerned, a 
 suitable day is fixed upon for the Prathanam, the 
 formal 'engagement,' or betrothal. The day fixed 
 upon must be a lucky one, and it is not settled 
 without consulting an Astrologer or the Purohita. 
 At the pre-arranged time, the father of the boy with 
 a friend or two, not the boy himself, proceeds to the 
 
120 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 house of the girl's father, who calls together a few 
 friends, and his Piirohita. It is also the proper thing 
 to have musicians at this entertainment. The boy's 
 father then produces certain presents he has brought 
 for the girl, such as jewels, and cloths, and a ring. 
 These things are handed over to the girl in the pre- 
 sence of them all, and she is arrayed in all the finery. 
 The ring, which is of a peculiar shape, and which is 
 carefully kepi all through life, is put on the third or 
 ring finger, and the elders present are called upon 
 to bless the girl which they do saying, " may 
 you like Lakshmi be happy and prosperous." During 
 the giving of the present, the Parohita gays 
 several mantrams of which the following specimen is 
 given : — 
 
 ^TTiiqji^q eesrt ^rrsTRcf f^qX^^ ii 
 
 Draw near and behold this damsel, may she become a 
 happy wife. 
 
 Having bestowed upon her prosperity, depart and cherish 
 her in your heart. 
 
 At the close of the ceremony, betel (tambulam) is 
 distributed to the guests, and rose water is sprinkled 
 over them ; after this, when with the aid of the astro- 
 loger, a suitable day for the marriage has been fixed, 
 the friends depart and the betrothal is complete. It 
 will have been gathered from the above quoted in- 
 stances, that like an 'engagement' amongst Europeans, 
 this Prathanam is not necessarily a binding ceremony; 
 that is, it is possible, in the event of any obstacle, 
 arising, for this betrothal to be broken. Having thus 
 dilated at some length upon the necessary prelimi- 
 naries, we shall reserve the details of the marriage 
 ceremonies, and things connected therewith, for 
 another chapter. 
 
CHAPTER IX, 
 
 HII:^DU MA'R'RlAG'ES.-(OonHnu^.) 
 
 f^|. (Vivaha.) 
 
 In whatever family the husband is contented with his wife, 
 and the wife with her husband, in that house wili fortune be 
 assuredly permanent, (Mann III, 60). 
 
 In this chapter we purpose giving some idea of tlie 
 complicated and prolonged ceremonial connected with 
 the actual performance of a marriage. It astonishes 
 a stranger, who may not know how fond the oriental 
 mind is of such things, to observe how entirely, at 
 such seasons, the Hindus give themselves up to the 
 occasion. No thought of penalties, or any possible 
 consequences seem strong enough to keep any one 
 back, if there should happen to be a marriage going 
 on in which he may directly or indirectly have a part, 
 even if only that of an invited guest. There seems 
 a positive fascination in the prospect of all these 
 festivities ; and, thereiore, with or without leave, and 
 at any risk, the ordinary Hindu will make it a 
 point of duty or pleasure and inclination, as the case 
 may be, to be present at a wedding. 
 
 The time chosen for the actual performance of the 
 aiarriage should be in one of the five months beginning 
 from February. It is not that marriages cannot be 
 performed at other times during the year, but this is 
 considered the most propitious. It is probable that 
 this idea took its rise from convenience, seeing that 
 during the period in question there is little agricultural 
 labour to be done; and also, the" crops having been 
 harvested, > money is in hand for the expenses that 
 must be incurred. At the time fixed upon, the bride's , 
 father has his house cleaned up and decorated, and 
 a pandal or large open booth is erected in front and 
 at the back of the house to accommodate the guests 
 
122 THE HIKDU AT HOME. 
 
 and friends. In municipalities, advantage has been 
 taken" of this custom to raise funds. Permission 
 must be obtained from the authorities to erect these 
 Pandals, and a tax is levied for the permission. The 
 bridegroom's father sets out from his abode to go to 
 that of the bride ; sometimes the places are at a 
 distance. He takes with him the bridegroomj and a 
 great part of his household ; also his own Purohita 
 and other friends. It is made a great holiday, and 
 these visitors always have a band of musicians 
 with them to cheer them on the journey; thus a 
 marriage party is always known to be such by those 
 who see them en route. On arrival, say, at the village 
 of the bride, the party array themselves in their best 
 finery, the band strikes up, and all await the coming 
 out to meet them of the bride's parents and friends. 
 Before going out to meet the party, the bride's father, 
 if the parties are Brahmins, proceeds to the North- 
 east of the village in search of some earth from the 
 hillocks of white ants. This he takes home, and 
 having prepared a space in the room where the chief 
 marriage ceremony is to be performed, he fills five 
 earthen or metal vessels with it, and places them in 
 a row. In these vessels he plants nine different kinds 
 of grain, and sprinkles them with milk and water, 
 repeating a mantram. The grain thus treated, 
 quickly sprouts during the days of the ceremonies. 
 Five of the gods are invoked and requested to be 
 present as witnesses at the ceremony ; namely- Indra 
 (the god of storms), Varuna (the god of the waters), 
 Chandra (the moon), Yama (the god of death), and 
 Brahma. This ceremony is confined to Brahmins. 
 The Mantram above alluded to is :— 
 
 ^Tm^wp\\ ^^Fiwrf^'^ 
 
 The earth like the cow bears all things and supplies all 
 things.' 
 
 The bride's father and friends, with the family 
 priest, go out in a body to meet the bridegroom and 
 
HINDU MAEEIAGES. 123 
 
 his party. These will have been waiting in some 
 convenient spot, outside the town or village, in order 
 to be ceremoniously received and welcomed. On 
 meeting, there will be a mutual exchange of civilittes, 
 and gifts of betel, sprinkling with rose water, and 
 rubbiug upon the hands, and neck, and chest of each 
 other of sandal wood paste. Finally, the guests are 
 conducted to a lodging, previously prepared for them. 
 This lodging must not be in the bride's house ; that 
 would be considered very improper. The marriage 
 ceremony may commence on the evening of the arrival, 
 and the whole affair lasts for five days. ' 
 
 The hour for the ceremony of the actual marriage 
 has to be carefully fixed so as to be at the most 
 propitious time, and it may fall during the day, or the 
 night time. Be that as it may, a little before the 
 time fixed upon, the party assembles in the apartment 
 near the place with the sprouting grain before 
 spoken of. The bridegroom is then duly bathed; 
 this bathing is called Mangalasnanam (Blessed or 
 fortunate bathing). After this, seated in a slightly 
 raised platform previously prepared for the occasion, 
 dressed in his ceremonially pure clothes and facing 
 the east, he prays to Ganesha (the god of obstacles) 
 to be propitious. An image of Ganesha is placed 
 there, if one can be procured ; otherwise they place 
 a lump of saffron made into a paste, to represent him. 
 After this he performs a ceremony of purification 
 called punyahavachanam. In the meanwhile the 
 bride, in another part of the house, has been going 
 through much the same kind of thing. She has been 
 bathing, and worshipping Ganesha,- and also Gauri, 
 the wife of Siva, or Lahshmi, the wife of Vishnu, or 
 both, as the case may be ; this depending on the 
 religious sect of the parties. 
 
 The bride's parents now come forward and, with 
 necessary ceremonies, invest the bridegroom with the 
 two skeins necessary to form the full sacred thread of 
 a married man. (Vide Chapter on Yagnopavitam) . A 
 curtain then being fixed up across the platform, the 
 bride is brought out, seated in a kind of wicker basket, 
 and is placed behind the curtain which separates the 
 
124 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 young couple, so that they cannot actually see each 
 other until later on in affairs. After this, the bride's 
 father or inother proceeds ta give to the bridegroom 
 what is called Mathuparkam. This is a mixture of 
 curdSj milk, ghee, sugar, cummin, honey and other 
 ingredients. A portion of this being placed in his 
 hand he proceeds to eat it. This is repeated three 
 times, and is supposed to be a kind of refresher after 
 the fatigue already gone through and to prepare for 
 the further ceremonies. The bride's parents then 
 proceed to present the bridegroom with a beautiful 
 cloth and other like things, including a kind of 
 Yagnopavitam made of one golden and two silver 
 threads. The youth thereupon proceeds to array 
 himself in the gorgeous presents. 
 
 The important ceremony called Kanyaddnam 
 (giving of the damsel) now takes place. This is done 
 somewhat as follows. The bridegroom first makes 
 the following declaration : — 
 
 " I of such and such a name, family and tribe, &e., perform 
 this taking of hands for the remission of my sins and for the 
 satisfaction of the supreme God." 
 
 The bride's family priest then asks the bridegroom 
 if he is willing to take so and so to wife. On his 
 answering in the affirmative, the ends of the upper 
 garments of the pair are tied together in what is called 
 the Brahma knot. This is a peculiar knot already 
 described in the chapter on the sacred thread. The 
 priest, in tying this knot, says " Vishveth tratet," that 
 is, " You both must trust and be a prop to each other." 
 They sit thus tied together until it may be necessary 
 for them to move away from where they are sitting, 
 when the knot is loosed. This tying of the cloths, 
 which is an important part of the marriage ceremony, 
 is repeated at various stages of the proceedings. 
 Certain presents of jewels, and cloths, one of which 
 should be of silk, are now given to the bride by the 
 bridegroom's father. The bridegroom then again 
 makes a declaration of his willingness to accept the 
 bride, and her father makes a 'declaration of bis 
 
HINDU MAEEIAQES. 125 
 
 willingness to giye her. The bride's mother then 
 brings in a vessel of water with which her father 
 proceeds to wash the bridegroom's feet, sprinkling 
 some of the water on his own head. He then takes 
 the right hand of the bride and placing it, under- 
 neath the curtain, in the right hand of the bride- 
 groom, pours over the clasped hands some water from 
 the vessel. Whilst this is being done, the father 
 with the help of his Purohitaj repeats certain man- 
 trams such as the following : — 
 
 ^ii^^fsrrfrqqr 11 
 
 This damsel laden with gold, 
 
 And adorned with jewels of gold, 
 
 I give to thee who art like unto Vishnu, 
 
 In the hope that I may attain the heaven of Brahma. 
 
 er%^: et^^r: I 
 fqcTOTt ^w\]^ ^ H 
 
 Vishnumurti, and all the elements, 
 And all the gods are witnesses," 
 That I give this damsel 
 For the salvation of my ancestors. 
 
 This pouring of water over the clasped hands is 
 one of the most important ceremonies of the whole pro- 
 ceedings. After this is done, the curtain, which has 
 hitherto separated the bride and bridegroom, is 
 removed, and they see each other, possibly for the 
 
126 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 first time in their lives. It must be borne in mind 
 that tlie parties will probably be very young; the 
 bride must be young, and may possibly be a mere 
 infant of three or four years of age. 
 
 A very curious ceremony is gone through at this 
 stage of the proceedings. An ox-yoke is brought in, 
 and a cord made of darbha grass is tied round the 
 waist of the bride by the bridegroom. This cord is 
 supposed to represent" one of those used to place 
 round the neck of the ox when it is yoked, and it is 
 easy to see the origin and significance - of the act. 
 The yoke is now held over the bride in such a manner 
 that one. of the holes in it shall come right over her 
 head. The Mangalasutram, which will be described 
 further on, is now taken and held under the hole 
 through which water is poured by the bridegroom. 
 The water trickles down the Mangalasutram on to 
 the bride's head. During this the young couple are 
 made to say to each other, nati charamani — I will 
 never leave thee. 
 
 The next ceremony is the important one of tying 
 on the Mangalasutram, This is a saffron coloured 
 thread or cord to which is attached a small gold 
 ornament ; it is fastened round the neck, and bangs 
 down in front, like a locket. This is always worn 
 by married women, as is the wedding ring among 
 Europeans, and it is never parted with, for any con- 
 sideration whatever, until the death of either party. 
 Thus, a woman not having on the Mangalasutram 
 is a sign of widowhood. 
 
 A beautiful cloth is now given to the bride by her 
 father, and she departs for a little in order to array 
 herself in itj on. her return she is accompanied by her 
 female relatives. The bridegroom now takes the 
 Mangalasutram; and, with an appropriate declara- 
 tion, ties it round the neck of the bride. Whilst 
 this operation is being performed, a loud noise is 
 Pilways made by the musicians, with their instru- 
 ments, and others present by clapping their hands 
 and the like. This is to prevent any sneezing from 
 being heard. Sneezing is considered a very bad 
 omen ; and for fear any one might be seized with an 
 
HINDU MAEKIA.GES. 127 
 
 attack during this important operation, the loud 
 noise is made to drown so unlucky a sound, in the 
 event of such an accident. The declaration which 
 the bridegroom, prompted by the priest, gives 
 utterance to on tying the cord is as follows : — 
 
 so 
 
 NO 
 
 . ^ ^m\i^ ^fiq; II 
 
 This Mangalasiitram, 
 For the lengthening of my life, 
 Oh damsel ! I tie to thy neck 
 Do thou live for a hundred years. 
 
 It may interest some to know that in the marriages 
 of Native Christians, this custom of tying the Manga- 
 lasutram round the neck is retained. It is used 
 instead of the marriage ring; and in the Christian 
 marriage service when, according to the English 
 rule, the bridegroom places the ring on the finger 
 of the bride saying, " With this ring I thee wed", &c. 
 amongst Native Christians, he holds the cord round 
 her neck saying, " With this Mangalasiitram I thee 
 wed", &o. and then, tying the cord in a firm knot, he 
 leaves it there, never to be removed until the death 
 of either party. If she becomes a widow, it is 
 customary to leave off wearing tlie Mangalasutram, 
 as amongst the rest of the Hindus. 
 
 Whilst the Mangalasutram is being tied on, the 
 Purohitas and those present who may be able to join 
 in, chant, what is called, the Mangalashtaham or 
 eight marriage blessings. When the chanting is 
 concluded, some of those present throw coloured rice 
 {akshata) upon the couple, by way of blessing them. 
 One of the eight marriage blessings is as follows :— 
 
128 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 ^ VO V3 
 
 The pearls in the lotus like hands of Sita whigh shone like rubies; 
 
 When poured on the head of Rama appeared white like jessamine 
 flowers, 
 
 And falling over his dark blue body shone like sapphires. 
 
 May those pearls thus used at the marriage of Kama, give happi. 
 ness unto you. 
 
 An ornament called BTiashikam is also worn by the 
 bride and bridegroom when they may be seated 
 together at any time dnring the five days during 
 which the ceremony lasts. This ornament is usually 
 made of twigs and coloured thread j it is worn tied 
 on to the forehead by a string passing round the 
 head. 
 
 At some stage or other of the proceedings there is 
 a peculiar ceremony, which is one of various minor 
 ones we have not described. Soma rice, which has 
 been steeped in milk, is brought, and the bridegroom 
 places a portion of this into the hand of the bride. 
 Over this he sprinkles some drops of ghee, with a 
 betel leaf, saying :— 
 
 ^^ ^a ^ticT^^cT II 
 May righteousness increased ! peace be unto you ! 
 
 He then takes some of the rice from her hand and 
 puts it on hei" head. She then takes some of it and 
 puts it upon his head. This is done several times, 
 after which they both do it at the same time, putting 
 some of the rice upon each other's head. 
 
 In ancient days it was customary for the bride's 
 father to present to the bridegroom a fatted calf, to 
 be used for food at the marriage feast. In these days, 
 however, this custom has' given way to presenting 
 cloths and such like things. 
 
 After the tying of the Mangalasutram, the priest 
 places a few grains of coloured rice {akshata) into 
 
HINDU MABBIAQES. 129 
 
 the hands of those present, who in company chant 
 some verses from the Vedas, as a blessing. After 
 this, all present throw the rice on to the heads of the 
 married pair. May it not be that the modern 
 English custom of throwing rice after a newly 
 married couple, arose from this Indian rite ? There 
 are many similar ways in which English customs 
 have originated from our connection with India. The 
 following is a specimen of the verses chanted on this 
 occasion ;— 
 
 ^r^M ^ra: ^f^fT^R^t 11. 
 
 NO 
 
 O Indra ! grant to these wealth and prosperity. 
 Grant wisdom, strength, beauty and vigour. 
 Increase of riches and bodily health. 
 Add also eloquence of speech and happy days. 
 
 At this stage of the proceedings the bridegrpom, 
 duly prompted by the family priest, proceeds to per- 
 form a homam or sacrifice of fire. This is done in 
 the sacred fire which is made and kept up in the 
 centre of the prepared place before spoken of, during, 
 the whole of the marriage festival days. The homam 
 is performed by dropping into the fire certain kinds 
 of. twigs, and also rice and ghee, at the same time 
 repeating mantrams, a specimen of which will be 
 given further on. 
 
 The next ceremony is called Saptapadi or seven 
 steps. This is the most important ceremony in the 
 whole marriage rite, and in a court of justice this 
 is the test ceremony by which is decided whether 
 a disputed marriage was completely performed or 
 not. Manualso makes this the complete and irrevo- 
 cable iact, upon which the rite is complete : — 
 
 The nuptial texts are a certain rule in regard to wedlock, 
 and the bridal contract is known by the learned to be com- 
 
130 THE HINDU AT HOME, 
 
 plefce and , irrevocable on the seventh step of the married 
 pair, hand in hand, after those texts have been pronounced, 
 /VIII. 227.) 
 
 The ceremony is performed as follows. The couple 
 holding each other by the hand, walk three times 
 round the sacred fire, each circle being supposed 
 to be done in seven steps. Whilst they are thus 
 marching round, the Purohita repeats a certain 
 mantram, the bridegroom joining in with him if he 
 able to do so. The mantram is supposed to be said 
 by the bridegroom to the bride and is as follows : — 
 
 m^^ fir qtq I 
 
 ^W^^ ^^i^raf II 
 
 -y By taking seven steps with me do thou become my 
 friend. 
 By taking seven steps together we become friends. 
 I shall become thy friend. 
 I shall never give up thy friendship. 
 Do thou never give up my friendship. 
 Let us live together and take counsel one of another. 
 
 With this rite the marriage may be said to be 
 indissolubly completed, and upon this, betel and fruit 
 are distributed to those present, after which those 
 who, through religious differences, cannot eat together 
 with the household take their leave. The women 
 present then sing marriage songs, which are taken 
 from the marriage songs of Eama and Sita. Whilst 
 singing, they hold in their hands small lamps, fed 
 with ghee. The following is a specimen of these 
 songs taken from the Telugu — some attempt has been 
 
HINDU MAEEIAGES. 131 
 
 made to present the ideas expressed in an English 
 form : — 
 
 THE LAMP [hymn TO RAMA, 
 
 Be/rain.— Worship and blessing. 
 Be unto thee Bama. 
 Own spouse to sweet Sita, 
 And giver of joy, 
 
 1. Thou lov'd one of Vasava, 
 Whose beauty is known. 
 Thou son of Kamsalya, 
 Who guardest thine own. 
 
 Worship and blessing, &o. 
 
 2. Made fragrant with sandal, 
 Eouged bright to behold, 
 Resplendent with garlands 
 And bracelets of gold. 
 
 Worship and blessing, &c. 
 
 3. With necklace of tulasi, 
 And ears set with gems. 
 With person in beauty, 
 To rival the heavens. 
 
 Worship and blessing, &o. 
 
 4. Born unto Deviki, 
 Great in the skies, 
 Own guru to Cupid, 
 To thee our love flies. 
 
 Worship and blessing, &c. 
 
 5. With eyes like the lotus. 
 And face like the moon. 
 Thine eagle drawn car. 
 Is to thee for a throne. 
 
 Worship and blessing, &c. 
 
 6. Most glorious thy Beauty, 
 In Vedas we sing. 
 
 By faithful and pure. 
 Thou are served as a king. 
 
 Worship and blessing, &o. 
 
132 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 7. Thou lord of mount Bhadra, 
 Whose praise is made known. 
 By singers like Kamdas, 
 The lotus souled one. 
 
 Worship and blessing, &o. 
 
 Sometime after darkness has set in, the ceremony 
 called Sthallpakam is performed. This is done as 
 follows. The company being assembled, a little rice 
 is cooked in a small vessel on the sacred fire, when, 
 after several suppressions of the breath, and repeating 
 Om bhuh, Om. bhuvaha, Om suvaha (the names of the 
 three worlds of the Hindus), the bridegroom mentions 
 the exact time that then is, naming the age, year, 
 day, and hour, and also the place where they are 
 at the time, &c. (Sankalpam.) He then makes this 
 declaration. "I make this Sthalipakam, on behalf 
 of this damsel, in order to please the supreme God." 
 After which he .sprinkles ghee over some of the 
 cooked rice, and taking pinches of it up in his two 
 fingers and thumb, performs a homam by casting it 
 upon the fire, doing this several times and repeating 
 the following mantram :— 
 
 STfiq^ ^r^T 3TfriT ^ ?r fR 3TJT^ f^g^ ^FfT 
 
 May this become a sacrifice to Agni (the god of fire). To 
 him this is given ; it is not mine. May this become a sacrifice 
 to Mm who fulfils our desires. This belongs to him ; it is 
 not mine. 
 
 The last ceremony of this first day, before taking 
 food, is the Parohita taking the bride and bride- 
 groom outside the house, and pointing out to them a 
 very small star called Arundhati, bidding them pay 
 homage to it. This star is near the middle one 
 in the tail of Ursa Major and is named after 
 Arundhati, the wife of Vasishtuh, one of the seven 
 Bishis. It is not clear what is meant by this cere- 
 mony, but doubtless it had some meaning in olden 
 
HINDIT ]&IABBIAa|)S. 133 
 
 time. This Arundhati is said to have been a pattern 
 wife, and probably what is here meant is to draw the 
 attention of the bride to that fact, and bid her follow 
 so good an example. 
 
 After this the bride and bridegroom are made to 
 take food together, eating from the same leaf. This 
 is rather a noteworthy act, as the only time daring 
 their life when the husband and wife eat together is 
 at this marriage feast. The duty of the wife is to 
 serve her husband whilst he eats, and when he has 
 done, to partake of what is left of the food, using as 
 a plate the leaf from which her husband has just 
 breakfasted, or dined, as the case may be. This 
 unsocial, and, to Europeans, most forbidding custom, 
 in universal amongst Hindus of every rank, and caste. 
 At the same time as the bride and bridegroom are 
 partaking of their "love feast," the family and. guests 
 sit down — the males and females apart — all duly 
 bathed and prepared for food, and partake of the 
 marriage feast. Generally a very large number come 
 together for this. The parents of the bride, however, 
 do not sit down with their guests, but wait for their 
 meal until all the feasting is over. • 
 
 On the morning of the second day the bride is 
 duly decorated and loaded with jewels, partly marri- 
 age gifts, but some probably borrowed for the occa- 
 sion. Then seated in a marriage palanquin, and 
 accompanied by dancing women, and a band of 
 music, she is taken in procession to th6 house where 
 the bridegroom's father and friends lodge. The 
 bridegroom then, all gorgeously arrayed, joins her, 
 and is seated opposite to her in the palanquin, and 
 they are carried round in a grand procession back to 
 the bride's house. On their return home from this 
 procession, and also when they return from any of 
 the processions, as they alight from the palanquin, 
 their feet are washed by some attendants, and they 
 are made to speak each other's name. This also 
 is noteworthy, as it is not customary for husband 
 and wife ever to mention each other's name, and it is 
 amusing to see the various shifts that are resorted to 
 in order to avoid doing so. Even in the case of a 
 
134 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 poor woman, if asked by one strange to the customs 
 of the country, what is her husband's name, instead 
 of replying, she will, with a titter, ask some one 
 standing by, perhaps her own child, to mention it. 
 Sometimes for fun, romping girls will tease a little 
 wife to make her say her husband's name; perhaps 
 they will shut her up in a room, or in some other way 
 imprison her, and not let her out until she has 
 mentioned what is usually so sacred and unmention- 
 able. It must not be thoaght that Hindu lads and 
 lasses are leas capable of fun and frolic than their 
 Aryan brothers and sisters of colder climes. .These 
 things serve to show how ingrained are national 
 customs and prejudices. 
 
 The day is passed in singing marriage songs, and 
 feasting, with a few minor ceremonies. In the 
 evening there is again a grand procession, much like 
 that of the morning, except that they make a longer 
 round, and fireworks are let ofE at various places on 
 the way. On arriving at home, a homam is performed, 
 and the second day's affairs close . with the usual 
 feastings. The following is a specipien of the songs 
 sung on such an occasion. It is taken from the 
 Telugu, and is a lullaby to Krishna. It may be well 
 to explain that Kari means an elephant, and Makari 
 a crocodile ; and the allusion is to where Krishna is 
 said to have rescued an elephant from a crocodile 
 that would else have destroyed it ; Kamsa was a 
 demon King of Mathura, destroyed by Krishna ; and 
 Nanda was a herdsman, the foster father of Krishna. 
 We have again ventured the attempt to present the 
 song in an English dress : — 
 
 A KRISHNA LULLABY. 
 
 Refrain, — Oome let us sing sweet lullaby. 
 
 1. Come ye with eyes that twinkle bright, 
 And sing your sweetest lullaby. 
 The cradle swings with jewels set, 
 And there our baby Krishna lies. 
 
 Come let us sing sweet lullaby. 
 
HINDU MAEEIAGES. 135 
 
 2. To him who did in mercy save 
 Lost Kari from fierce Makari. ' 
 To him who ever happy is, 
 
 And rescues those who do believe, 
 
 . Come let us sing sweet lullaby. 
 
 3. To him who slew king Kamsa vile,' 
 Who joy dispenses to the good. 
 
 To him who saved from evils great, 
 The parents whom he ever loved. 
 
 Come let us sing sweet lullaby. 
 
 4. To Cupid's father, beauteous one, 
 Who stole the butter, Nanda's son, 
 To him who bears mount Mandara, 
 Loved Krishna, king of Keshava 
 
 Come let us sing sweet lullaby. 
 
 On the morning, of the third day there is the usual 
 procession, after which there is a more or less elaborate 
 ceremony called Sadasyam or meeting of the elders. 
 During this ceremony presents are made of cloths 
 and money, to various people, and the forenoon closes 
 with a grand feast as usual. In the evening a very 
 elaborate procession is made. They first go to the 
 bank of some tank or river, or some other nice shady 
 plajce, where carpets are spread, and all being seated, 
 betel is served out and rose-water sprinkled, after 
 which various games are indulged in, and fun is 
 made. This being over, the procession again forms, 
 and with much blazing of torches and. burning of 
 coloured lights, braying of horns and beating of 
 drums, singing of dancing girls, and letting off of 
 fireworks, they slowly make a grand progress through 
 the streets home again. It is by no means a pleasant 
 thing to meet one of these marriage processions in 
 the narrow streets of a village, or the crowded parts 
 of a bazaar, when returning home after dark from an 
 evening ride. The blare of the trumpets, the din of 
 the drums, the swishing rush and pistol-like report of 
 the rockets, together with the glare of the torches 
 and coloured lights, all combined form a scene that 
 is enough to make any animal nervous that has not 
 received the education of a trained charger. For my 
 
136 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 own part, I know I bave often been thankful to get 
 clear of such processions without accident to myself, 
 or without any harm being done, by the timid horse, 
 to any. one of the surging, shouting, particoloured 
 crowd that goes to make a Hindu holiday. 
 
 The fourth day is passed in much the same way, 
 except that one of the proper things to be done is for 
 the bridegroom to pretend to be angry and sulky. 
 He even goes so far as to start off iu his palanquin to 
 run away. The father of the bride then goes out to 
 find him, and tries to appease his anger, promising 
 to give him presents of various kinds. He is supposed 
 to take advantage of this to ask for various things 
 as presents, a house for instance, or cattle, or money, 
 or lands. The father-in-law then promises to give so 
 and so, upon which the youth shakes off his pretended 
 sulks and returns to the festivities. This amusing 
 and somewhat ridiculous farce, seems to be a pecu- 
 liar custom kept up as an opportunity for demanding, 
 and giving, additional presents, by way of dowry to 
 the bride. In the evening, after the usual feast, the 
 most elaborate and prolonged of the various festal 
 parades take place, with its .accompaniments of torchesj 
 lime-lights, and fireworks, and singing of dancing 
 girls, with other marks of festivity so dear to the 
 heart of a Hindu. Whilst the bride's home is partly 
 deserted, through the inmates being out with the 
 procession, the friends of the bridegroom have some 
 fun by going to the house and removing any useful 
 thing they can lay their hands on j such as the ropes 
 for drawing water, necessary culinary vessels and the 
 like, and the consternation at the loss on the return 
 of the procession is a source of much amusement. 
 
 Very early^ in the morning of the fifth day, say 
 about three o'clock, the last homam is perfornjed 
 {Shesha homam) upon which the gods, who have been 
 invoked to be present at the proceedings, are solemnly 
 dismissed to their several worlds. The verses and 
 mantrams said upon this occasion are as follows :— - 
 
 JT^cT ^^V. W^W4 II 
 O ye gods depart in peace. 
 
HINDU MAKKIAGES. 137 
 
 The gods have done sacrifice unto the supreme god, 
 By rites instituted at the beginning. 
 These gods depart hence and reach their glorious abode, 
 May they depart to the world wheiioe they came. 
 
 May ye arrive there in peace ! 
 
 In the evening of tbis fifth and last Say, a final 
 ceremony is performed called Nalcabali, or sacrifice to 
 the inhabitants of heaven. The previously mentioned 
 prepared place is again adorned and smeared with 
 oowdangj as usual, and a number of small lights, 
 fed with gbee, are placed in a square formed of 
 coloured pots. Around these pots is wound a kind 
 of fence, formed of nine strands of cotton thread. 
 -Several mantrams are repeated by the Purohita, ia 
 the presence of the assembled company, invoking 
 the presence of the whole thirty-three crores of gods 
 (330 millions) of the Hindu pantheon. These are duly- 
 honoured and worshipped, by prayers and offerings 
 of cooked rice. The bride and bridegroom are then 
 tied together with the Brahma knot, before spoken 
 of, and marched three times round the burning lights, 
 by the priest, who meanwhile repeats certain man- 
 trams. 
 
 Sometime after the Nakabali, there is more singing 
 and music, and betel is again distributed. Various 
 bits of romping and fun are then indulged in. The 
 bride and bridegroom are each seized upon by any 
 two present, and carried about at a, run ; during this, 
 white and coloured powders, and coloured water are 
 freely thrown about upon each other, and there is a 
 good deal of frolic and amusement. 
 __ 
 
138 THE HINDJ AT HOME. 
 
 After this, wliat is called in Telugu, the Appaginta, 
 or final delivering over, takes place. This is always 
 a most sorrowful proceeding, and the bride's mother, 
 and brothers, and sisters, and other relatives weep 
 much, and in various ways express their grief as 
 they give up their dear one into other hands. The 
 ceremony is somewhat as follows. A dish of milk is 
 brought in, and the bride places her right hand in 
 the milk ; over her hand the bridegroomls father, and 
 mother, and sister place their right hands, when the 
 priest repeats some verses of which the following 
 is one : — 
 
 sexiT ^t?T qr^qfirec ii 
 
 This damsel has attained her eighth year. 
 She has been fostered by me like a son. 
 She is now given to thy son ; 
 Protect her in love. 
 
 When this has proceeded far enough, a bundle of 
 rice is tied to the waist of the bride, and she is once 
 more seated in the palanquin opposite her husband ; 
 they then set out to go to the village of the bride- 
 groom, thus bringing the -prolonged and intricate 
 ceremonial to a close. 
 
 The bride is supposed to stay for three days in her 
 husband's house, when she is taken back to her own 
 home, there to remain until she has attained a fit age 
 to discharge the duties of a wife. 
 
 When the young wife has arrived at a suitable age, 
 notification of the fact is sent to the husband's parents, 
 and the occasion is celebrated by various feastings and 
 festivities. The parents and friends on both sides 
 consult as to a propitious time for, what may be called, 
 the taking home of the bride. At the time fixed 
 upon, the husband and his friends proceed to the 
 
HINDU MAEEIAQES. 139 
 
 bride's home, and there certain ceremonies and 
 feastings take place, and there is also much distributing 
 of cloths, fruit, betel and other presents. After a few 
 days thus spent, the bride is taken away by her hus- 
 band to hia own home, which she henceforth shares 
 with him. 
 
 It may be well just to mention that, sometimes, in 
 fulfilment of a vow, the marriage takes place at some 
 more or less celebrated place of pilgrimage. In that 
 event, a pilgrimage is made by all concerned to the 
 favoured shrine, and the marriage takes place there. 
 In such cases, all the ceremonies are crowded into one 
 day, and some, of lesser importance, are omitted 
 altogether. 
 
 In this description of the mode of procedure followed 
 in the marriages of Hindus, many customary rites and 
 ceremonies, of lesser importance, are not mentioned, 
 but a fair idea has been given of the chief of them, 
 and enough has been said to convey a tolerably clear 
 notion of what a Hindu marriage means. It must 
 also be borne in mind, as was before mentioned, that 
 whilst the chief acts of ritual are the same amongst all 
 Hiudus, many minor ceremonies may differ much in 
 different parts of this vast country, and amongst the 
 differentraees and nations whoprofess the Brahminical 
 religion. Some account of unorthodox marriages will 
 be given in the next chapter. 
 
 It will easily be seen what an expensive affair such 
 marriages are, and what, comparatively, large sums 
 of money are thus squandered. There is no more 
 fruitful source of debt, that curse of India, than 
 these marriage customs, and the wasteful expenditure 
 incurred at funeral ceremonies, of which mention 
 will be made in a subsequent chapter. The presents 
 of cloths, and jewels, and money, the feasting and 
 feeling, the elaborate processions, and the necessary 
 hiring of bearers and musicians and nautoh girls, 
 together with the fireworks and lights, all these things 
 swallow up large sums of money, and often the chief 
 supply comes from the bags of the money-lenders. No 
 matter if the parties concerned are poor, the laws of 
 custom are so inexorable that their demands must be 
 
140 THE HINDU A.T HOME. 
 
 complied with, even though by so doing a millstone of 
 debt is hung around the neck to be a drag and a burden 
 all through life. As we have already seen, many of 
 the better minded of Ihe people groan under these alid 
 similar bonds, and occasionally one hears a feeble 
 voice raised up in protest, but the Hindu is too con- 
 servative and too wanting in firmness of mind, to lead 
 one to entertain much hope of a radical change in 
 such matters for many long years to come. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 UNOETHODOX HINDU 
 -MARRIAGES. 
 
 ^^nri^^rrf. (Adharmavivaham). 
 
 From the blameless nuptial rites of men spring a blameless 
 progeny; from the reprehensible, a reprehensible offspring; 
 let mankind, therefore studiously avoid the culpable forms of 
 Marriage. (Manu III. 42,) ^ 
 
 In the two preceding chapters, the marriage rites 
 and customs of the ordinary orthodox Hindus, and 
 especially of the Brahmins, have been described, 
 with some detail. The Brahmanical rites may, to a 
 certain extent, be taken as representing those of most 
 orthodox Hindus, for, though the details differ in 
 different castes, and especially amongst the various 
 and multifarious divisions of what are included under 
 the name of Sudras, there is a, more or less, general 
 resemblance in the main points of importance. There 
 are, however, a vast number of people who, though 
 nominally Hindus, do not strictly follow the rules and 
 regulations of the Brahmanical religion, and this 
 fact is manifest, perhaps in more than any other way, 
 in the rites and ceremonies connected with marriage. 
 To some extent those here intended have, in the 
 course of centuries, become absorbed into the elastic 
 fold of Hinduism, using that word in its widest 
 meaning; but, strictly speaking, in a large number 
 of cases, whilst nominal Hindus, they are really mere 
 demon worshippers, or something very akin thereto. 
 In giving some description of these unorthodox 
 marriages, it may be well to take something that 
 stands, as it where, midway between the Brahmanical, 
 or orthodox ceremonies, and those which are almost, 
 if not entirely foreign to them. As representing 
 those that stand midway between the two we may 
 take the Mala weddings as fairly representative. 
 
142 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 The name Mala is a Telagu one for Pariahs; but 
 the Malas of the Telugu country do not appear to be 
 so low in the scale of actual society as the Pariahs of 
 the more southern parts of the Peninsula, and they 
 moreover form a large percentage of the people. It 
 is true they are outcastes who cannot, strictly speak- 
 ing, take a place in the caste system at all; but they wor- 
 ship, after their own fashion, Hindu deities, and seem, 
 by degrees, to adopt Hindu prejudices more and more, 
 as they rise in the world through that industry for 
 which they are noted. Most of this class are connected 
 with agriculture, either as farm labourers or small 
 farmers ; and mauy of them, especially in the irrigated 
 section of the country, own fairly large farms and are 
 tolerably well-to-do. It will be seen in the following 
 details as to their marriage rites and ceremonies, 
 how many things there are which are evidently in 
 imitation of the true Brahmanioal rites, and also 
 wherein they essentially difEer. 
 
 When a desirable alliance has been fixed upon 
 amongst the Malas, and agreed to by both sides, the 
 father ol the youth, accompanied by several of the 
 head men of the village, proceeds to the maiden's 
 abode. This may be in the same hamlet, or in one 
 at some greater or less distance. A consultation is 
 then held, between the friends of both parties, as to 
 the value of mutual presents and the like details, and, 
 if all is agreed upon, the youth's father produces a 
 liupee, to which the maiden's father adds half a 
 Rupee. This money is at once expended in paying 
 for drinks for the friends at a neighbouring drinking, 
 shop, after which a feast is given by the bride's 
 people. -At this time, the girl's people fix a day upon 
 which they will visit the young man's home ; and at 
 the time agreed upon, the young lady's father and 
 friends proceed to the youth's home, where there is 
 more drinking and feasting. Upon this occasion, a 
 fortunate period having been beforehand fixed upon, 
 the day for the wedding is definitely settled. 
 
 The next thing is the Prathanam, or formal 
 betrothal; this often takes place on the same day as the 
 wedding proper, especially if the parties all belong to 
 
UNOETHODOX HINDU MARRIAGES. 143 
 
 the same village. The youth does not appear upon 
 this occasionj and the maiden sits quietly in the house ; 
 the Prathanam takes place at the bride's house. The 
 elders and friends of both sides sit in opposite groups, 
 ■when the young man's fatter hands over the jewels, 
 and cloths, and various other things he has promised 
 as presents to ,the bride, and to her people. The 
 friends on both sides then formally express their wil- 
 lingness to give and receive the bride or bridegroom, 
 as the case may be. When this has been done, a skein 
 of thread, adorned with saffron to represent the Man- 
 galasutram cord, is produced, and round it is entwined 
 a cloth brought by the bridegroom's people, or failing 
 that, the turban or head-cloth of the head man of the 
 youth*s village. This is then taken hold of by elders 
 from both sides and is» carried to where the maiden is 
 seated in the house, when it is carefully placed over 
 her head round her neck. This constitutes the Pra- 
 thanam. There is afterwards a feast given by the 
 girl's parents to the village, and the betel and other 
 like things, brought by the youth's father for the 
 occasion, are distributed all round. 
 
 The_marriage itself takes place at the young man's 
 house. As a rule, the ceremony is performed at night j 
 should it take place in the day-time, a young bull 
 must be given by the youth's people, Which, after being 
 branded, is set free to wander about at its own sweet 
 will, and to be ever after, considered as a divine being. 
 This, however, is only done by comparatively wealthy 
 people, as a bit of ostentatious display. The Dasari, 
 or Mala priest mustbe-present on this occasion, and also 
 a band of musicians ; and there will always be, besides, 
 a large concourse of friends and relatives. Probably 
 in imitation of the Brahmanical ceremony described 
 in the previous chapter, a place is prepared in the 
 house on thewestern side near the wall, upon whichare 
 placed a number of earthen pots duly adorned with 
 various colours, and called in Telugu Ariv'eni or Aireni. 
 These usually number eleven or thirteen, twoof which 
 should be very large ; in some cases there is even a 
 larger number. Brahmins do not use the Ariveni; 
 but they are always used at the marriages of Sudras 
 
144. THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 and in some cases of Vaisyas and so called Kshatriyas. 
 Wound round the mouth or opening of the pots is a 
 skein of yellow thread. In front of these va,rious 
 lamps are put, which must be kept aliglit for five 
 days. Before the lighted lamps is scattered earth 
 whicli has been fetched from the tank, and in which 
 have been mixed nine kinds of grain. This earth is 
 called in Telugu Panta bangaram, or golden produce, 
 and it is brought from the tank, with much ceremony, 
 by five women, accompanied by a band of music, and 
 having a cloth held up over them as a kind of canopy. 
 In front of the house door, a Pandal or temporary 
 shed is erected, underneath which a small star shaped 
 mound of earth is prepared, and adorned with coloured 
 pigments. This is called, in Telugu, Tendli arugu, or 
 the marriage mound. This is kept adorned for some 
 time until it may have been washed away by the rains, 
 or in some other way caused to disappear. By the 
 side of this'iare placed four low stools, and the bride, 
 and bridegroom are brought forward and seated upon 
 two of them, the other two being occupied by a female 
 relative of the bride, and a boy relative of the youth ; 
 all sit facing towards the east. The priest then pro- 
 ceeds to tie on to the forehead of each of the pair the 
 ornament called Basikam, already mentioned in the 
 previous chapter as being made of sticks and coloured 
 thread. That on the youth is triangular in shape 
 whilst that on the maiden is oblong. These are worn 
 during the whole of the marriage ceremony at any 
 time when the rites ai-e being performed. The nails 
 of the pair, both hands and feet, are then paired by a 
 barber, or one of the Musicians ; the operator duly 
 receiving a fee ; after which coloured rice is applied 
 to the forehead of the couple by some of those pre- 
 sent. The pair are now bathed and adorned with 
 gay clothing, and return to the Pandal when.they are 
 tied together with the Brahma knot, which has already 
 been described. They are then made to stand in 
 front of the prepared place {pendli arugu), when the 
 Brahma knot is untied, and a cloth is held up between 
 them as a temporary curtain so as to hide them from 
 each other. A silver ring is now placed, by one of 
 
UNORTHODOX HINDU MAEEIAGES. 145 
 
 the musicians, on the second toe of each foot of the 
 bride, aad a small vessel containing rice is tied up in 
 her cloth round her waist ; after which the couple are 
 caused to plAce the right foot of each upon that of the 
 other. The cloth screen is now held horizontally be- 
 tween the pair, and over this they place their hands 
 into which the priest pours rice made yellow with 
 saffron. The priest now ties a rolled up green leaf 
 (hankanam) to the wrist of the bridegroom as a kind 
 of temporary bracelet. The bridegroom then, pouring 
 the rice from his hands into the cloth, proceeds to tie 
 a similar leaf to the wrist of the bride. These mock 
 bracelets must stay on for several days. The Manga' 
 lasutram is now brought forward with much ceremony, 
 including performing by the attendant Musicians, and 
 the bridegroom ties it to the neck of the bride. During 
 this operation the priest says a Sanscrit blessing to 
 the following effect. lb may be noted that the Dasdri 
 or priest who told us this, was unable to give the 
 meaning of the Sanskrit words used — he simply said 
 them off without knowing their meaning :— 
 
 THE dASARI'S blessing. 
 
 We adore Brahma, the eternal-inviaible, immaculate, in 
 whom are all perfections, and who is the support of all the 
 worlds. 
 
 They alone are Pandits (learned iaeA) who know him who 
 is the eternal light to the three worlds, who is the creator, 
 preserver and destroyer, the Omniscient God. 
 
 "Worship Ramachendra who, born of the dynasty of the sun, 
 is associated with Sita and Lakshmanna ; who is served by 
 Hanuman and others, whose whole nature is love, yea who is 
 the very personification of love. 
 
 We adore Eama who sits on the golden throne, who is wor- 
 shipped . by Brahma and others, and who is the giver of all 
 good things. - ^ 
 
 O supreme God ! at what time any worship thy lotus like 
 feet, that, to them, is an auspicious time, that is a propitious 
 star, that is a favourable lunar day, that is a lucky conjunction 
 of planets. 
 
 19 
 
146 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 (The priest) must repeat the eight nuptial blessings. He 
 must repeat the proper mantrams at the feet washing cere- 
 mony, and when the Mangalasutram is tied on ; also when the 
 hands are clasped, and when the rice is poured on each others 
 heads. When the Brahma knot is tied, then we must visit 
 Arundathi. 
 
 Ye having worshipped the gods near the Ariveni, and hav- 
 ing made obeisance unto them, peace be unto you. 
 
 This tying of the Mangalasutram constitutes the 
 binding rite of the whole ceremony. After tying 
 this the youth again takes up into his hands the rice 
 which he had poured into the cloth^ — the bride holds 
 hers in her hands all this time. He now pours his 
 rice upon her head and she pours hers upon his. This 
 rice is supposed to represent pearls. The screen cloth 
 is now taken quite away and the cloths of the couple 
 are again tied together in the Brahma knot, upon which 
 the friends who are present scatter rice upon the heads 
 of the pair. The bride's father then brings forward 
 a ring and a new loin cloth, which the priest takes, 
 proclaiming in a loud voice that the father has given 
 these things to the bridegroom ; the latter then puts 
 the ring on his finger. The friends on either side 
 now present to the pair the wedding presents they 
 may have brought — money, or cloths, or ornaments, or 
 brass and copper vessels, and such like things. It is 
 considered the proper thing for presents of equal 
 value to those thus received to be given by the 
 recipients at any marriages in connection with those 
 who thus present them, and much ill feeling arises 
 when this may not be done. After this the fathers of 
 both parties walk round the sacred place -{^endli 
 arugu) three times, each carrying one of the ariveni 
 pots. When this is all over the priest takes the 
 couple and shows to them arundathi, as before 
 described, and they make obeisance to it. The young 
 couple now join hands by the bridegroom hooking his 
 left little finger into that of her right hand and thus 
 joined they go to the house and stand in the doorway 
 of the room in which are the lights and coloured pots 
 before spoken of. Inside the room are some female 
 
friends who sing for sometime, upon which the newly 
 married pair give the singers some present of money. 
 Th&y are then allowed to enter and stand before the 
 Ariveai pots and lights to which they do obeisance. 
 A specimen is given of the songs thus sing. It will 
 be observed how very simple these songs are, but it 
 must be borne in mind what class of people the singers 
 are, and that folk-songs are always of a very simple 
 nature. These specimens are taken from the Telugu, 
 and an attempt has been made to put them into 
 English dress, whilst keeping, as near as possible, the 
 ideas and intentions of the original. It should be 
 premised that itis a common custom at these marriages, 
 for the bridegroom's sister to ask in marriage for her 
 son, the hand of the bride's future daughter. This 
 is in accordance with the Menarikam custom spoken 
 of in a former chapter. The song we are about to 
 quote is supposed to be a dialogue between the 
 bridegroom, who is standing outside the house with 
 his bri4e, and his sister who is inside. He wishes to 
 enter the house and she refuse admittance in order to 
 extract from him the promise he at length gives. 
 The song is sang antiphonally by two groups of the 
 women. It will be at once seen that the shower of 
 pearls and diamonds spoken of is in allusion to the 
 couple pouring rice over each other head after the 
 tying of the Mangalasutram, as a conclusion to that 
 binding rite of the ceremony : — 
 
 UNBOLT THE CLOSED DOOR. 
 
 1. The white pearly shower has now fallen ; 
 Your sister is drenched to the skin. 
 Dear sister unbolt the closed door, 
 Why tarry now please let us in. 
 
 2. The white pearly shower has not fallen ; 
 Our sister's not drenched to the skin. 
 How can we unbolt the closed door ? 
 'Tis now that our dispute begins. 
 
 3. The shower of great diamonds has fallen, 
 Your sister is drenched to the skin, 
 Dear sister unbolt the closed door, 
 Why tarry now please let us in. 
 
148 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 4. No shower of great diamonds has fallen. 
 Our sister's not drenched to the skin. 
 How can we unbolt the closed door P 
 'Tis now that our dispute begins. 
 
 5. The shower of rich gems has now fallen ; 
 Your sister is drenched to the skin. 
 Dear sister unbolt the closed door ; 
 Why tarry now please let us in. 
 
 6. No shower of rich gems has now fallen, 
 Our sister's not drenched to the skiii. 
 How can we unbolt the closed door P 
 'Tis now that our dispute begins. 
 
 7. I'll give you a sheet and young heifer ; 
 My daughter I'll give to your son. 
 
 So sister unbolt the closed door ; 
 Why tarry now please let us in. 
 
 The bridal pair are now admitted into the house, 
 as already mentioned, and take up a position 
 before the Ariveni, when all the women in concert 
 sing some such song as the following :— 
 
 THE ARIVENI SONG. 
 
 1. Oh Potter ; Oh Potter ! go make Ariveni, 
 We'll have a fine wedding at home, 
 
 Make clay Ariveni and small ones of silver, 
 The time for the marriage has come. 
 
 2. The potter has kneaded the clay all so deftly, 
 With legs all so crooked they tell 
 
 On Tuesday he chose it ; on Friday he shaped it, 
 On Sunday he finished it well. 
 
 3. The potter's wife smiling to see Arivoni, 
 In honour of Lahshmi thus made. 
 
 She took them and placed them with joy and with 
 
 laughter, 
 To stand in the house in the shade. 
 
UNORTHODOX HINDU MABEIAGBS. 149 
 
 4. The priest he is witness that all is done rightly, 
 The Brahma knot sacred is tied ; 
 And Cupid who clasped the two bracelets is witness,^ 
 That all is done well for the bride. 
 
 6, Why do we this worship to our Ariveni ? 
 I"or sons to be born to this pair. 
 All these will be granted with wealth and content- 
 ment, 
 And joy with which none can compare. 
 
 By this time it is daylight and the company all separ- 
 ate for some time, after which there is a procession 
 through the village of the newly married couple, and 
 their friends, accompanied by the usual musicians. 
 A white cloth is held over the couple as a kind of 
 canopy ; and there is also a supply of betel to dis- 
 tribute to friends on the way. If the couple are farm 
 labourers, they will, perhaps, go to the house of their 
 master, and receive "something by way of wedding 
 presents. The procession is usually on foot, but 
 sometimes the bridegroom will be on horseback with 
 the bride sitting in front of him, if she happens to be 
 a little girl; otherwise, if the people are well-to-do, 
 she may be seated in a palanquin, or she may walk 
 by the side of the horse. The procession finishes by 
 the couple worshipping the village goddess, which is 
 usually represented by a rough stone image, placed 
 under a tree, or on the bank of the tank, or some 
 such place. 
 
 This procession is followed by a great feast given 
 by the father of the bridegroom, and for which a pig 
 is often slaughtered to form the wedding dish. After 
 the feast, there is sometimes a game, similar to that 
 already described, in which the young couple are 
 hoisted up on men's shoulders and throw coloured 
 powder at each other as they are danced around. 
 This is called degata, or the hawking game. On 
 the fifth day the temporary bracelets, before spoken 
 of, are taken ofE, with some few ceremonies, and 
 the bride goes on a visit to her mother's house. One 
 of the ceremonies, on the taking off of the bracelets, is 
 
150 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 for the head man of the village to place some boiled 
 rice into the bride's hands, when she, standing before 
 her husbaad, says " In trouble and in joy I will 
 always cleave to thee and will never leave thee." 
 She then places the rice into his hands and he says 
 similar words. 
 
 The marriages of the Mddigas or skinners and 
 tanners, are performed in much the same way, only 
 there is usually more spirit drinking than is the case 
 with the Malas, and consequently there is more 
 brawling and noise. 
 
 For the nuptial ceremonies of the non-orthodox 
 tribes, which will now be described, I am indebted 
 to the Grovernment Manuals of the Nellore, Madura, 
 and Nilgiri Districts, reference to which will afford 
 much interesting information concerning the various 
 tribes in question. 
 
 The marriage rite of the Yeruhlas is gaid to be 
 of a very simple character. These are a tribe of 
 wandering gypsy kind of people, whose temporary 
 huts may be seen on the outskirts of villages through- 
 out the country. They are said to practise polygamy, 
 and the marriage ceremony usually takes place on a 
 Sunday. Various kinds of worship are performed 
 on the previous day, but on the Sunday fixed upon, 
 rice mixed with turmeric is poured on the heads of 
 the couple and the Mangalasutram is tied rounjd the 
 neck of the bride. This simple ceremony completes 
 the marriage. 
 
 Amongst the Yanadies, another migratory aborig- 
 inal tribe, who gain their livelihood ■ chiefly by 
 hunting, and making and selling mats and leaf- 
 plates, and gathering and selling firewood, and other 
 jungle produce, the marriage seems to be based on 
 the consent of the parties themselves. The man a:^d 
 woman arrange the matter between themselves, and 
 afterwards, at a gathering of friends, betel is dis- 
 tributed, the Mangalasutram is tied on, and the 
 woman is taken to her husband's house. 
 
 Hitherto we have been speaking of things as they 
 are in the Telugu country. If we go further south, 
 into the Tamil speaking parts, we find much variety 
 
UNORTHODOX HINDU MABEIAaBS. 151 
 
 amongst tlie various aboriginal tribes as to the 
 marriage rite. 
 
 The Karahat Vellalans, for instance, who live on 
 and near the Palni Mountains in South India, have 
 very peculiar marriage customs. The ceremony is 
 performed in a booth, erected for the purpose before 
 the house door of the bride. The bride and bride- 
 groom are seated on the floor with their faces towards 
 the east. A lamp is kept burning on a stool near 
 where thiey sit, whilst a measure of grain, and a rude 
 image of Ganesha, made of cow dung, is placed near 
 them. After both of them have prostrated them- 
 selves before the symbol, the bridegroom receives the 
 Mangalasutram, from some of the relatives present, 
 which he proceeds to tie round the bride's neck. At 
 the same time, a bowl of milk is brought in which 
 have been steeped a few leaves of the Peepul tree 
 (Ficus Religiosa) . The relatives on both sides then 
 -sprinkle some of this milk upon the heads of the 
 pair. The newly married couple then prostrate 
 themselves before their several relatives, and the 
 da.y's ceremony is concluded with a feast and a formal 
 distribution of betel. This concludes the marriage 
 ceremony. On the following day the bridegroom 
 gives a grand feast, when various marriage presents 
 are distributed to the bride and her relatives. 
 
 Amongst the Maravans, a people mostly in the 
 extreme South East of the peninsula, the marriage 
 ceremonies are very strange and unusual. After a 
 marriage has been agreed upon by the principal 
 members of two families, a few of the relatives of the 
 intended bridegroom go to the house of the bride, 
 and then, with or without her consent, and even 
 perhaps without having sought the consent of the 
 bridegroom, they tie upon her neck the Mangalasutram 
 whilst conch shells are blown loudly outside. They 
 then escort the bride to the house of her husband. 
 A feast is given which lasts for several days. Proces- 
 sions are formed through the streets, and a cocoanut 
 is broken before an image of Ganesha. These and a 
 few other\ ceremonies conclude the marriage rites. 
 The most curious custom connected with marriages 
 
152 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 amoBgst these people, however, is in the event of the 
 parties not having the means at the time, to afford the 
 feast, and other expenses. In such an event, they 
 simply tie on the Mangalasutram, upon which the 
 parties live together as man and wife. The other 
 ceremonies, however, must be gone through at some- 
 time or other, when means admits, -as it is not con- 
 sidered right that they should be omitted altogether. 
 Should the husband happen to die before the defect has 
 been supplied, the friends and relatives at once borrow 
 money, if they have none by them, and proceed to 
 complete the marriage ceremonies in the presence 
 and on behalf of the corpse. The dead body is placed 
 on a seat with the woman by it, and it is supposed to 
 be the bridegroom. After this gruesome ceremony, 
 the Mangalasutram is taken off the woman, and she 
 is free, as a widow, to remarry. 
 
 Amongst the Kalians, an important caste in the 
 South, a marriage alliance depends upon con- 
 sanguinity, much the same as the MenariJcam already 
 spoken of, and it is entirely irrespective of the wishes 
 of either parties to the contract, or even of their 
 parents. When a wedding has been fixed upon, the 
 sister of the bridegroom, with a present in her hand, 
 goes to the house of the parents of the bride, and 
 ties some horse hair round the bride's neck. She 
 then takes her, accompanied by some of her relatives, 
 to the house of the bridegroom, where a feast is 
 prepared. After the feast the' pair are conducted to 
 the house of the bridegroom, where a solemn exchange 
 is made of Vallari Thadis, or boomerangs. Another 
 feast is then given in the bride's house, and the bride 
 is presented by her parents with some rice and a hen. 
 The bride and bridegroom, now husband and wife, 
 then repair to his home and the marriage ceremony is 
 compete. 
 
 There is a caste of cultivators in the South called 
 Tottiyans, who perform their weddings as follows. 
 Two booths are erected, outside the limits of the 
 village, and in each of them is placed a bullock- 
 saddle, and upon these are seated the bride and 
 bridegroom, whilst the relatives and friends congregate 
 
UNOETHODOX HINDU MAEEIAGES. 153 
 
 around. The attendant priest addcssses the assembly 
 after which the price of the bride, usually so much 
 grain, is carried under a canopy of white cloth to the 
 house of the bride's father. This procession, which 
 is heralded by music and dancing, is met by the friends 
 of the bride, who receive the grain, and they all go 
 together into the house, ^ere betel is distributed 
 and mutual congratulations exchanged, after which 
 the whole party is led to the bride's, booth by the 
 ■ priest. Arrived there, the priest receives, at the hand 
 of the bridegroom, a small chaia of black beads, and 
 a tiny circlet of gold. The priest then proceeds to 
 tie the chain round the bride's neck and attaches the 
 circlet of gold to her forehead, with which ceremony 
 the marriage is complete. Of course this is succeeded 
 by the usual feasting, without which it does not seem 
 possible for a marriage to take place anywhere. 
 
 There are people of a very low status like the Polei- 
 yans, for instatioe, whose marriage ceremony merely 
 consists of a declaration of consent, made by both 
 parties, at a feast to which all the relatives are invited. 
 
 The nuptial rites of the hill tribes of Southern 
 India seem to be of the most simple and primitive 
 character, as may be seen by referring to the Nilgiri 
 Manual by the late Mr. Grigg. The following par- 
 ticulars are culled from that volume. 
 
 Amongst the Todas, we are told, early betrothals 
 are common, and the agreement is ratified by an 
 interchange of buffaloes. When the time comes for 
 the rjiarriage to be consummated there is another 
 exchange of buffaloes. There is no ceremony further 
 than the woman bowing down before the man and he 
 .placing his foot upon her head. This humiliating 
 acknowledgment of submission on the part of the 
 woman, is notwhat one would have expected in a tribe 
 where polyandry is practised. The wife is installed 
 in her position by her proceeding to perforin some 
 household duties, such as cooking and drawing water. 
 
 The Soto, a tribe, on the slopes of the Nilgiris, 
 
 perform their marriages' in the following manner. 
 
 It is usual for the couple to be betrothed when they 
 
 are quite young, and when the girl becomes of a 
 
 __ 
 
154 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 marriageable age. she is sent for to the house of her 
 future father-in-law. The usual marriage feast is 
 given, followed by music and dancing, and the 
 ceremony is concluded by the bridegroom's mother 
 tying the Mangalasutram round the bride's neck. 
 
 Amongst the Kuramhas, who are also dwellers on 
 the Nilgiri slopes, there seem to be, properly speaking, 
 no marriage rites whatever. When a couple decide to 
 come together, or even, in some cases, after they 
 have been living together for some time, a feast is 
 given to their friends and the marriage is complete. 
 
 With the Irulas, also, another Nilgiri tribe, there 
 is no marriage ceremony, neither is there any pre- 
 vious betrothal. When a youth comes of age to 
 choose a wife, he finds one for himself and the matter 
 is ended. 
 
 The Badagas, who are dwellers on the Nilgiri 
 plateau, are said to be descendants of Oanarese 
 colonists. Amongst this people, marriages are con- 
 tracted without any special rites, and the marriage 
 tie is held by them very loosely. After a couple have 
 agreed to come together, there seems to be a time of 
 probation allowed, during which either of the parties 
 may change their mind, and decline to go on further 
 with the connection. A man may perhaps make several 
 of these temporary alliances before he definitely 
 decides upon a partner for life. There seems to be 
 some feasting when a definite alliance has been agreed 
 to, and that is all by way of rites and ceremonies. 
 
 Nothing has been said in- this chapter of the 
 Polyandry and Polygamy which exist as institutions 
 atnongst some tribes and nations of India; nor have 
 we touched upon the question of divorce which, though 
 unknown amongst orthodox Hindus, is as freely 
 practised amongst some castes and tribes as it is 
 amongst some of their pale faced brethren of more 
 advanced countries. These are matters somewhat 
 beside the object we have had in hand, which is 
 rather to describe the marriage rites and customs 
 prevalent amongst orthodox Hindus, and those who, 
 though nominally, perhaps, are called Hindus, are 
 really outside the pale of the Brahmanical religion. 
 
CHAPTEB XI. 
 
 HIS^DU DIET. 
 
 3TT^. (Ahara). 
 
 " For the sustenance of the vital spirit, Brahma created all 
 this animal and vegetable system ; and all that is moveable 
 and immoveable, that spirit devours." (Manu V. 28.) 
 
 In the chapter onNitya Karma — The Hindu Daily 
 Round — a brief description was given of a Brahmin 
 family at dinner, but nothing was said about the com- 
 position of the various dishes which usually form the 
 bill of fare. It may therefore not be uninteresting to 
 give a little information on this head, and, at the same 
 time, make a few brief" remarks on the dietary of the 
 Hindus generally. There is no doubt that in ancient 
 times far mOre latitude was allowed, in the matter of 
 food, than is the case in modern days. The institutes 
 of Manu, which are supposed to have been compiled 
 about the fifth century before the Christian era, 
 clearly show that, with various restrictions, most of 
 which commend themselves to one's judgment, there 
 was, practically, as much freedom in the choice of 
 food to the good Hindu of those days as there is to 
 most civilized nations in these modern times. In the 
 fifth chapter of the Institutes, the ancient law-giver 
 mentions various kin^s of vegetables and animals that 
 may not lawfully be eaten ; but these dietary rules 
 are very much on a line with those laid down for the 
 Jewish nation in the book of Leviticus, and the 
 wisdom of many of them, from a sanitary and econo- 
 mic point of view, is very apparent to the dweller in 
 Eastern lands. One can at once see why, for instance, 
 " mushrooms and all vegetables raised in dung" are 
 excluded from the dietary j and one can also well 
 imagine why, in a hot reeking climate " garlic, onions, 
 and leeks" are not recommended. Again, to the 
 Eastern traveller there is no question as to the positive 
 wisdom of the rule forbidding the eating of the flesh 
 
156 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 of birds and beasts of prey, and of such vile feeders 
 as the village hog. Of course some of the restrictions 
 do not so commend themselves to one's ideas of the 
 fitness of things ; but doubtless there were good and 
 sensible reasons for most of them, if we .only knew. 
 Even, however, in the laws of Manu, the permissions 
 and restrictions are of a somewhat conflicting nature ; 
 and, as is the case with so much that is conneeted with 
 Hinduism, they present, to the eye of the uninitiated, 
 manifest contradictions. Nothing can be more free 
 and general than the passage quoted at the head of 
 this chapter. It seems to cover everything, in its 
 general language ; and besides this, there is much of 
 a specific nature of the same free character. We 
 find, for instance, the following general statement : — 
 
 " Things fixed are eaten by creatures with locomotion ; 
 toothless animals, by animals with teeth ; those without bands, 
 by those to whom hands were given ; and the timid by the 
 bold." (V. 29.) 
 
 After giving utterance to this philosophical obser- 
 vation, embodying a truth evident to the most casual 
 observer of the things of creation, the law-giver goes 
 on to say : — 
 
 " He who eats according to law commits no sin, even though 
 every day he tastes the flesh of such animals as may lawfully 
 be tasted ; since both animals who may be eaten and those 
 who eat them are created by Brahma." 
 
 " No sin is committed by him who, having honoured the 
 deities and the manes, eats> flesh-meat which he has bought, 
 or which he has himself acquired, or which has been given 
 him by another." (V. 30, 32.) 
 
 In all this there is no more restriction than is the case 
 with ordinary Muhammadan customs, for instance ; 
 but, further on, we find enactments which seem 
 entirely to do away with this freedom. A general' 
 principle is laid down, and a hard and fast deduction 
 drawn from it as follows : — 
 
 " He who injures no animated creature shall attain, without 
 hardship whatever he thinks of, whatever he strives for, 
 whatever he fixes his mind on, 
 
HIlfDU DIET. 157 
 
 Flesh-meat cannot be procured without injury to animals, 
 arid the slaughter of animals obstructs the path to beatitude ; 
 from flesh-meat therefore let man abstain." (V. 47, 48.) 
 
 On the whole, however, whilst there appears to 
 have been great freedom in the matter in those far off 
 times, even the Institutes themselves show a decided 
 leaning to the merit, if not to the absolute necessity, 
 of abstaining from animal food ; and, as is well-known, 
 in course of time, ideas have become so crystallized 
 as to make it an absolute matter of religion to 
 rigorously abstain from the slightest approach to 
 eating anything even containing the germ of .animal 
 life. I remember a simple thing that occurred many 
 years ago, soon after my arrival in this country, which 
 very much impressed this upon my mind. A Brahmin 
 visitor, in taking that cursory look round upon things 
 in general, that was, perhaps, in those days, more 
 customary than is the case with our visitors now, 
 was struck with the nice appearance of some salt in 
 the salt-cellar on the table. He had 6nly known salt 
 in its dark dirty appearance, as it is seen exposed for 
 sale in the bazaar. He seemed much interested when 
 told that our table salt was nothing but the ordinary 
 native salt clarified, and he expressed a great desire 
 to know the process. When, however, he was told 
 that the white of' egg was an ingredient in the , 
 clarifying operation, his countenance fell; nothing so 
 closely allied to animal life as that which had to do 
 with a fowl's egg could enter into the inner man of a 
 twice-born! and so, alas! for the sake of personal 
 ceremonial purity he must be content with his salt in 
 its chemically impure condition. At the present day, 
 all the higher classes abstain from animal food in 
 every form and are rigid vegetarians. The lower 
 classes, as will be seen hereafter, are not so restricted 
 in their diet; indeed, as we go lower down in the 
 scale of caste we find the restrictions lessen, and the 
 dietary scale expand, until it comes to include things 
 considered, by even the least fastidious of Europeans, 
 as altogether abominable. 
 
 In a country like India, there is no doubt that a 
 vegetarian diet has much in its favour ; indeed, it 
 
158 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 is a question whether animal food, particularly in its 
 plain form, is absolutely necessary, even for the health 
 of Europeans, in such a climate. Without, however 
 entering upon what might prove a vexed question, it 
 may, I think, be fairly stated as an opinion widely 
 entertained by those who ought to know, that for 
 natives of the country there is no absolute necessity 
 whatever for animal food. It is largely consumed by 
 the lowest classes, when they can get it, in any shape 
 or form, even the most repulsive, but even in their 
 case, it is a question whether without it they might 
 not equally well endure the physical strain of labour 
 which does not, certainly, fall upon their vegetarian 
 fellow-countrymen ; that is, if they could procure the 
 good food of their betters which is denied them by 
 their great poverty. It is, perhaps, hardly possible 
 for the average European to at all understand the 
 loathing and disgust with which a high caste Hindu 
 looks upon the eating of animal food. We know how 
 Englishmen, for instance, abhor the thought of eating 
 the flesh of certain animals which is even relished by 
 natives of some countries ; and in England, especially 
 amongst the peasantry, there are strange ideas as to 
 what may be eaten that come as a surprise to those 
 who meet with them for the first time. Some years 
 ago a friend of mine, in Gloucestershire, was very 
 kind to a poor sick cottager. One day she sent, as a 
 delicacy, to the sick woman, a plate of hare from 
 her own table. On asking the invalid afterwards if 
 she had enjoyed the food, my friend was astonished to 
 hear her say she could not possibly eat it, as she could 
 not eat ' varmint' ! Added to this state of feeling, in 
 an intensified form, there is, in the case of the Hindu, 
 the religious element, which makes it a crime of the 
 deepest dye, in some cases an unpardonable sin, to 
 partake of such food. Habit, religion, national train- 
 ing which has become an instinct, together with 
 climatic requirements, all point to the wisdom of the 
 vegetarian diet of the Hindu ; and anything ought to 
 be looked upon with disfavour which tends to alter 
 the same for what may perhaps be a necessity, in 
 colder climes. There are, however, it is said, even 
 
HINDU DIET. 159 
 
 tribes of Brahmins who may eat fish, and we know 
 that many of the manifold divisions of the fourth 
 caste eat fish and mutton, or goat's flesh freely, to say 
 nothing of the Panchamas or outcastes, of whose 
 habits mention will be made later on. There is, 
 however, amongst all classes, the lowest outcastes 
 excepted, the greatest repugnance to eating the flesh 
 of cows or oxen. There is no doubt that what is now 
 a deeply rooted idea was originally a merely economic 
 one, arising out of the exigencies of the people ; but 
 in true accordance with Hindu things generally, what 
 first arose as a necessary, custom petrified into a 
 religious law — a law, the wisdom of which it is not 
 diflBcult to see, and for the breach of which there 
 seems, in this country at least, no necessity. Sir 
 Monier Williams in his book on Hinduism says in a 
 foot-note : — 
 
 "Happily for the Hindus, the cow •which supplies them 
 with their only animal food — milk and butter — and the ox 
 which helps to till their ground, were declared sacred at an 
 early period. Had it not been so, this useful animal might 
 have been exterminated in times of famine. What is now a 
 superstition had its origin, like some other superstitions, in a 
 wise fore-thought." (p. 156, Note 1.) 
 
 At first sight it may seem to the stranger that the 
 dinner table of the high caste Hindu is dreadfully 
 lacking in variety and quality : — no steaming joints, 
 or any of the infinite variety of roast and boiled, and 
 stewed and fried, that go to make up the daily fare 
 of the well-to-do European, Perhaps one may even 
 be inclined to pity those whose appetite must be 
 appeased with the eternal round of ' cnrry and rice.' 
 To those, however, who have some intimate knowledge 
 of the daily life of the Hindu gen^tleman, there seems 
 little room for pity : indeed, the sentiment may 
 rather be in an opposite direction. There is an infinite 
 variety of pickles, and chatneys, and sauces— the 
 sweet, the sour, the bitter, and the pungent — which 
 go to form the chief variety of a by no means 
 to be despised list of appetizers. The preparation 
 
160 THE HINDIJ AT HOME. 
 
 of these is done by the females, who set as much 
 store on their receipts and who take as much 
 personal interest in the actual preparation of them, 
 as did our grandmothers in England before the days 
 of general providers. The secrets of the stillroom 
 enter largely into the education, of the Hindu 
 girl, as they did, in the olden days with our own 
 progenitors. When, females meet for a chat, the 
 conversation is largely taken up with this all-important 
 subject; and this is but natural, seeing that the good 
 opinion of the master of the household can be influenc- 
 ed by the dinner table as much in India as in other 
 countries. In this we find a touch of nature which 
 shows that all the world's akin. 
 
 There are various kinds of dhal and also different 
 modes of preparing it. This dish is a kind of pease- 
 pudding, made of various pulses, and it is used very 
 much, as is the rice, to form the medium for par- 
 taking of the different delicacies. We are here speaking 
 of parts of India where rice is the staple food. In 
 other parts, wheat and other kinds of grain are used 
 instead of rice, as the foundation article ; and, perhaps, 
 there things may be somewhat different. In a large 
 country like India, with its differing nationalities, it 
 cannot be expected that the dietary system will be 
 the same throughout ; but it may be said that in most 
 parts, these sauces and pickles form a large element 
 in the food of the people. Of course vegetables, of 
 many kinds, including the numerous gourds, go 
 largely to form the ' curry' ; and above all and with- 
 out which everything else is as nothing, there is the 
 never-to-be-too-highly prized ' ghee ' or clarified 
 butter. This universally valued article enters, more 
 or less, into the preparation of almost every dish ; 
 and is, of course, employed more or less freely accord- 
 ing to the means of the family. It is also used, 
 when it can be had, for pouring over the rice by the 
 diner at his discretion. This may not seem very nice 
 to tbe uninitiated, but to those who have given it a 
 good trial it is most appetizing. After the meal, and 
 somewhat as we take pudding or sweets, curds are 
 taken, poured over the rice, and eaten with suitable 
 
HINDU DIET. 161 
 
 pickles, or ohatneys. Tliis disk is always the last one 
 of the meal, and when cakes are eaten, of which 
 there are a great variety, it is done just before the 
 dish of curds is introduced. In the preparation of 
 these cakes and sweets of many kinds, the females, 
 very much like the European housewife, pride them- 
 selves on their proficiency ; and at festive seasons 
 such things are largely in request. It will thus be 
 seen that Hindu diet is by no means lacking in 
 variety, or quality, to whet the appetite or to form a 
 good substantial meal. Our Aryan cousins may not, 
 perhaps, have the stalwart frame of the European, but 
 the well-formed limbs and well-nourished body of the 
 average Hindu gentleman show that the Hindu 
 dietary, albeit wanting in what we may consider 
 substantial dishes, is well suited for all those purposes 
 for which food is a necessity. The Hindu law-giver, 
 having in view the proneness of man's animal nature 
 to over-indulgence, and also, jperhaps, being personally 
 acquainted with the highly spiced, appetizing dishes 
 of the East, is careful to "warn against evils, that 
 might result from a conjunction of these temptations. 
 He says : — 
 
 " Excessive eating is prejudicial to health, to fame, and to 
 future bliss in heaven ; it is injurious to virtue and odious 
 among men ; he must for these reasons, by all means avoid it." 
 (Manu II. 57.) 
 
 What has been said hitherto applies, in the first 
 place, to the higher castes and well-to-do Hindus ; 
 but, with a few changes, this description applies to all 
 respectable classes. The chief difference lies in the 
 number and variety of the pickles and chatneys, 
 &o., and the manner in which they are prepared : and 
 also in the fact, as before stated, that the Siidras 
 partake of animal food. Even by these, however, 
 . particularly in the villages, animal food is not regu- 
 larly eaten ; the main reason being, perhaps, as far as 
 country folks are conoerned> that it is not often 
 procurable. There are no butchers' shops in the 
 villages, and it is only occasionally, as at some festive 
 season, that a sheep or goat is slaughjiered for food. 
 
 21 ~~~ 
 
162 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 Pishj however, is more used, when procurable. Fowls 
 and eggs are eaten offcener than 'butcher's meat'j 
 but even this is chiefly at the entertainment of friends 
 or visitors, and on such like occasions. It may also 
 be mentioned that the Brahmins are noted for their 
 good cooking ; and this, as a rule, is done by the 
 females of the household — not servants. On important 
 festive occasions, as at marriage feasts, when the 
 labour involved may be too heavy for the regular 
 household, male cooks, friends or relatives, give their 
 help ; or even professional cooks are employed — care 
 always being taken that the rules of caste are not in- 
 fringed. Of course, in all cases, the number, variety, 
 and quality of the dishes must depend very largely 
 upon the means of the household ; but this is a fact 
 that goes without sayiug. It may also be mentioned 
 that fruit is sometimes taken, after meals, as a kind of 
 dessert; but this is not so commonly done as might 
 be supposed. Betel {tdmhulam) is, however, commonly 
 taken, after every meal, as a digester. 
 
 In the matter of beverage, it may broadly be stated 
 that true Hindus are water drinkers. Milk and 
 buttermilk are also freely drunk when procurable, 
 especially buttermilk in the hot season. A simple 
 drink is also made of water, sweetened with jaggery- 
 (sugar in its unrefined state) and flavoured with 
 pepper ; but this is more of a sacred drink and is not 
 ordinarily used. The Panchamas or outcastes, and 
 also some of the lower of the numerous classes of 
 Sudras, do largely drink intoxicants, chiefly toddy 
 and country arrack. Amongst respectable Hindus, 
 however, the drinking of intoxicants of any kind is 
 considered most degrading j and although there are 
 a few — comparatively very few — and these chiefly the 
 so called enlightened ! dwellers in towns and other 
 larger centres, who are becoming addicted to drinking 
 habits, it may still be said, as a broad fact, that real 
 Hindus are a nation of water drinkers. This fact is 
 one that should be noted by the advocates of temper- 
 ance and it would, perhaps, as an argument, have 
 more effect than many of those used by orators who 
 are endowed with more zeal than discretion. Here is 
 
HINDU DIET. 
 
 163 
 
 a nation composed of men who have proved them- 
 selves capable of enduring enormous physical fatigue, 
 as clever, hard-working mechanics and laborious 
 cultivators of the soil, and numbers of whom rank in 
 the first class as learned pundits, brave warriors, and 
 clever statesmen, and yet who for ages have been a 
 nation of water drinkers j and this also in a climate 
 that is certainly conducive to thirst, a fact often used 
 as an excuse for indulging iii stimulating alcoholic 
 beverages. 
 
 The higher classes of Hindus generally have but 
 two meals a day — the midday meal, which may be 
 taken earlier if circumstances necessitate it, as in the 
 case of business men and officials who have to go to 
 office, and the evening meal, or supper. The supper 
 is usually taken very late in the evening, shortly 
 before retiring for the night. This practice, which 
 might be productive of uncomfortable nights to 
 Europeans, with their heavier and more indigestible 
 diet, does not seem to interfere with the rest of the 
 Hindus j probably on account of the lighter quality 
 of the food, as distinct from the quantity taken. A 
 good ortbodox Hindu should take no food or drink of 
 any kind before the midday meal ; but, as a matter 
 of fact, it is getting a custom, where circumstances 
 may seem to call for it, for a light breakfast, perhaps 
 coffee and certain kinds of cakes, to be taken, earlier 
 in the day. This is not, perhaps, strictly speaking, 
 in accordance with the Shastras, but it is nevertheless 
 a custom that has arisen and which is tolerated. 
 With. the Sudras, however, and the Panohamas, it is 
 an invariable rule to have a light breakfast in the 
 early morning, when poverty does not prevent it. 
 This meal usually consists, of cold rice which has been 
 purposely left over from the supper of the previous 
 evening. It is eaten just as it is, simply flavoured, 
 perhaps, by a little salt ; but when it can be had, a 
 morsel of broiled salt fish, or a broiled chilly, or an 
 onion, or bit of cocoanut, may be taken by way of 
 relish. This cold rice is mixed up with a little butter- 
 milk, or the cold congee of the night before, that is, 
 the water in which the rice has been boiled, and 
 
164 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 vrhicli forms a kind of thin gruel. This custom is a 
 very wise onej as can easily be seen, in the case of 
 tliose who have to rise early and do a hard morning's 
 work in the fields before the midday meal; whilst 
 the fasting until midday is not so detrimental to those, 
 who, like the Brahmins, perform little manual labour, 
 or suffer little from exposure. 
 
 When on a journey, or otherwise away frpm home, 
 the high caste Hindu has to undergo many in- 
 conveniences, and miist often suffer much from the 
 pangs of hunger; but even travellers have various 
 ways and means of obtaining food. Hospitality is 
 universal, and the traveller is always sure of ungrudg- 
 ing entertainment from those of his own caste, whose 
 hospitality he may lawfully accept. This duty of 
 entertaining guests is laid down by the ancient law- 
 giver Mana, as of prime importance. -In treating of 
 the duties and obligations of house-keepers he says : — 
 
 " No guest must be dismissed in the evening by the house- 
 keeper ; he is sent by the retiring sun ; and whether he come 
 in fit season, or unseasonably, he must not sojourn in the 
 house without entertainment. 
 
 Let not himself eat any delicate food, without asking his 
 guest to partake of it ; the satisfaction of a guest will assuredly 
 bring the house-keeper wealth, reputation, long life, and a 
 place in heaven," (iii. 105, 106.) 
 
 Connected with many of the choultries, or public 
 lodging places, are, also, means for providing meals 
 for travellers of different castes ; and towns and most 
 large villages have as well, houses of entertainment 
 for different classes where food is given on payment, 
 which is usually at so much per meal. There are 
 also certain kinds of food that may be taken without 
 undergoing the usual ceremonies. A broad division 
 is made of things cooked in water, and those cooked 
 dry, or with ghee or oil. "It is the water that makes 
 the mischief," as a Brahmin friend said to me when 
 taking on the subject. Sweetmeats, and certain kinds 
 of cakes, and parched grain and rice broiled and 
 cooked in ghee, these and fruit may be eaten at any 
 
time and in company with, other castes, without 
 changing the dress, or bathing, or undergoing any 
 other of the various ceremonies that have been already 
 described in these pages. Thus is the wind tempered 
 to the shorn lamb, and a loophole left for escape from 
 a difficulty that must otherwise often prove intolerable. 
 
 A somewhat detailed description has already been 
 given, in the chapter on Nityaharma, as to the eti- 
 quette of the dinner table amongst the respectable 
 classes; and reference can be made there by any 
 one wishing to recall to mind the many and varied 
 ceremonies that must be performed on these occasions, 
 — ceremonies and customs which have been handed 
 down by geiierations untold ; and which are, to a large 
 extent, as rigidly followed at this day as they were in 
 the long past ages of antiquity. In this chapter, 
 however, the intention has been rather to give some 
 description of the food partaken of ttan the mode of 
 partaking of it. 
 
 It remains now but to make a few remarks on the 
 food of the lowest classes, the putcastes, who are not 
 troubled .by any of the dietary rules which are so rigid 
 in the case of their betters. It has been shown that 
 members of the Sudra caste partake of animal food. 
 Indeed, some of the lowest classes of that infinitely 
 divided and sub-divided caste eat almost anything and 
 everything that comes in their way. The Yerukalas, 
 lEor instance, a kind of gipsy tribe, who live by making 
 wicker baskets and the like, will eat rats, and cats, and 
 the village pig, and almost anything they can get ; 
 and yet, strange to say, these and the like, are not 
 looked upon as unclean in the same way as the Pan- 
 chamas. They are even allowed to draw water from 
 the caste wells, a privilege that is denied the outcaste, 
 who must not even go near or look into a well that is 
 used by caste people. The broad line of division that 
 marks ofE the despised and hated Panchamas (Pariahs 
 and Ohuoklers) from others, is the fact that they eat 
 carrion'. Others may eat animal food, and yet not be 
 prevented from using caste wells, because they do not 
 eat it in a state of carrion ; but the very touch of these 
 is pollution. The carcases and skins of all the cattle 
 
166 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 and other animals tbat die of disease or old age are 
 the perquisite of the Panchamas, who consume the 
 flesh and tan the skins into leathei", or otherwise dis- 
 pose of them. Anything more disgusting than this 
 practice it is impossible to conceive j and it is small 
 wonder that those who indulge in it are hated 
 and despised as unclean. The hamlets of these people 
 are surrounded with bones and other signs of this 
 habit ; and one may often see the carcase of some 
 buffalo or bullock that has died, perhaps^ of disease, 
 or worn out with extreme old age, lying in some 
 wet ditch, or otherwise awaiting the usual disgusting 
 operation. Anything more revolting it is impossible 
 to imagine than a group of these people squatting 
 round some such object, watching the skinning and 
 cutting up process and waiting for the dividing of 
 the sickening flesh. The picture is generally rendered 
 all the more horrible by the sight of crows and 
 vultures and village dogs waiting for their turn at 
 the remains, and by the suspicion of the neighbouring 
 bushes sheltering a jackal or two, drawn thither by 
 the hope of a congenial repast. True, the lot of 
 these people is hard ; they often suffer from hunger 
 and are glad to get anything to satisfy their appetite j 
 but such feeding seems to bring them down to the 
 level of the birds and beasts of prey ; and it must 
 tend to brutalize and degrade. It may be said tbat 
 these despised people have, as a rule, extreme poverty 
 as some excuse for this custom; and perhaps, to their 
 way of thinking, such food is a welcome addition to 
 the miserable meals of pulses or rice, eked out with 
 a few chillies or other cheap condiments, with, 
 perhaps, now and then a morsel of half putrid dried 
 fish, ;by way of relish. Amongst the very poor also 
 even such meals as these are by no means always 
 plentiful and regular ; often but once a day can the 
 pangs of hunger be appeased. Perhaps it would not 
 be wrong to say that a large number are in a chronic 
 state of hunger. These things cause it to be a kind 
 of festive time to many when a carcase falls to their 
 share ; and they cannot understand our abhorrence 
 of such habits. Such also is the power of custom 
 
HINDU DIET. * 167 
 
 that many of these classes who have risen by har4 
 work and thrift, and are able to afford better foodj 
 still indulge in these horrid feasts, when opportunity 
 occurs. The missionaries have wisely made it a hard 
 and fast rule amongst their converts that the eating 
 of dead cattle shall be absolutely giveri up ; and it 
 has become a distinction between Christians and 
 heathen of these classes, that the former do not 
 indulge in this debasing habit. In this way, also, 
 has Christianity an elevating influence, raising men 
 and women from habits disgusting and degrading, 
 and placing them dn a higher level of manhood. 
 
 It may be asked why Englishmen should not be 
 allowed to use caste wells, when flesh-eating Hindus 
 and Muhammadans are allowed this privilege. The 
 answer is that, though they do not eat carrion them- 
 selves, they employ servants of the class who do, and 
 also have their food cooked by them. When the 
 Muhammadans came to India they were wise enough 
 only to employ caste men as servants and cooks, hence 
 they themselves have always been treated as caste 
 people. The English, on the contrary, from the flrst, 
 employed Pariah servants, and hence they, too, are 
 treated as outcaste; food cooked by_ such men being 
 of itself unclean and defiling. One cannot but look 
 back with regret and wish it had been otherwise. 
 There may have been reasons why the first English 
 settlers did not follow the example of the Muham- 
 madans in this matter j perhaps necessity compelled 
 them to adopt the course they didj or it may have 
 been merely a result of that cynical indifference to 
 the fancies and superstitions of others which is ■ but 
 too often a characteristic of the average Englishman. 
 Any way it would certainly have been a great gain if 
 the ilnglish had been regarded as caste men, in the 
 same way as are the Muhammadans, seeing that those 
 of the natives who embraced their religion would 
 possibly be elevated to the same privilege, as is the 
 case with the followers of Islam, even to the present 
 day. It is not, for a moment, that we would encour- 
 age caste, as such, or wish for anything approaching 
 to so dire a system amongst Christians, but we do 
 
168 ' THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 think it a most lamentable thing, whatever may have 
 given rise to it, that although a Muhammadan may, 
 for instance, draw water from any well and in various 
 other respects is treated as on an equal footing, 
 socially, with respectable Hindus, an Englishman is 
 not allowed the same privilege. The lowest Panchama, 
 also, on becoming a convert to Islam, is, by the very 
 fact, at oace allowed all the privileges of his co- 
 religionists. Not only, however, is the Englishman 
 treated as on the same religious level as the Panchama, 
 but in the event of a high caste Brahmin becoming 
 a Christian, even though he may llot depart one whit 
 from his former habits, as regards diet, he, by the 
 very fact of his change of religion, is made at once to 
 descend to the lowest level, in the estimation of his 
 countrymen, and ia treated as an outcaste. These 
 remarks may, at first sight, seem out of place here ; 
 but seeing, that, after all, the question hangs very 
 largely upon food, and what goes into a man, it may 
 not, really, be so alien a consideration with which to 
 conclude these somewhat discursive remarks on 
 Hindu diet. 
 
 In going over this subject it is impossible not to 
 have been struck with the difference, in this respect, 
 between Hinduism, with its rigid rules and regula- 
 tions, and the religion of Christ, with its broad holy 
 freedom, and yet, withal, its care for the weakness of 
 others. The Prophet of Nazareth, in contradistinc- 
 tion to the laws of Mann, teaches : — 
 
 "Hear, and understand: Not that which goeth into the 
 mouth defileth a man ; but that which cometh out of the 
 mouth, this defileth a man. 
 
 Those things which proceed out of the mouth come forth 
 from the heart ; and they defile the man." ( Matt. xv. 11, 18.) 
 
 And St. Paul, whilst upholding the broad freedom 
 of the laws of his Master, also, in the same spirit of 
 charity and carefulness for others which Christ so 
 eminently taught and practised, is careful to admonish 
 that this same freedom is not to be employed to 
 domineeringly override all the prejudices and .weak- 
 
HINDU DIET. 169 
 
 nesses of others but rather to be used for others 
 good : — 
 
 " I know and am persuaded by the Lord Jesus, that there 
 is nothing unclean of itself : but to him that esteemeth any 
 thing to be unclean, to him it i^ un(;lea,fl. 
 
 But if thy brother bo grieved with thy meat, now walkest 
 thou not charitably. Destroy not him with thy meat for 
 whom Christ died." 
 
 " All things indeed "arefpnrs ; but it is evil for thajt man who 
 eateth with ofEenc^. ' >~y?' i:-.- 
 
 It is good neither to eat flesh, nor to drink wine, nor any- 
 thing whereby thy brother stumbleth, or is offended, or is 
 made weak." 
 
 " If meat make my brother to oSend, I will eat no flesh 
 while the world standeth, lest, I make my brotheir to 
 offend." 
 
 (Rom. xiv. 14, 15, 20, 21;. 1 Cor. viii. 13.) 
 
 22 
 
CHAPTEE XH. 
 HIITDU FESTITALS. 
 
 rv 
 
 qsift^. (Papvani.) 
 
 The birthdays of the gods, and the coronation days of the 
 Manus (legislators and saints), must be punctually observed, 
 with worship and fastings. By this purity of mind and 
 happiness will accrue, and sin will, to a large extent, be 
 destroyed. (Bha/rma pannam.) 
 
 As far back as history or tradition takes us, we 
 find that communities were accustomed to set apart 
 periodically recurring days and seasons, to be com- 
 memorative of events of national, or racial importance. 
 These seasons were usually marked by more or less 
 complete rest from all ordinary labour, and they 
 seem, from the very earliest times, to have been 
 observed with religious solemnities. In the absence 
 of written history, great events would be best 
 kept in remembrance by such constantly recurring 
 observances, the character of which would be joyous 
 or mournful in correspondence with the events 
 commeanorated. Outside the history of other ancient 
 nations, the written annals of the Jewish nation afford 
 us abundantly sufficient examples of these festive 
 occasions, and the kind of events they were instituted 
 to keep in remembrance. Christianity, too, is not 
 without its solemn seasons, which serve to emphasize 
 those events of most conspicuous importance in 
 connection with our Holy Faith. 
 
 It does not need a very lengthened residence in 
 India to find out how particularly devoted are its 
 people to keeping up the numerous, and varied 
 festivals, prescribed by custom or religion. It some- 
 times requires a large exercise of that quality for 
 which the Englishman, in India at least, is not 
 conspicuous, to quietly submit to the inconveniences to 
 which one is, at times, put by demands for leave of 
 absence to celebrate this or that feast. And yet, if 
 
HINDU FESTIVALS. 171 
 
 one will only calmly think of it, these festivals are not 
 without their bright side. They are periods of rest 
 and enjoyment in the lives of many who have not 
 over much brightness in their existence ; and in this 
 respect, at least, they serve one of the purposes for 
 which it pleased the Almighty to appoint the Sabbath. 
 It is pleasant to think of the dull plodding round of 
 toil being broken, now and then, in the life of our 
 Hindu brethren, by a little rest and enjoyment; 
 albeit one could wish that the events commemorated 
 were often other than they are, both in origin, and in 
 manner of commemoration. 
 
 Allusion has been made to the general ignorance of 
 the Englishman in India of things connected with the 
 daily life of the Hindu, and of much that is 
 constantly taking place before his very eyes. The same 
 observation might be made, too, as regards these 
 festive seasons. Ask an ordinary Englishman what is 
 the meaning of any particular Hindu feast that may 
 be in course of observance, why it is kept up, and 
 why in such and such a particular form j and in nine 
 cases out of ten the answer will convey very little 
 information, and that even by those long resident in 
 the country. Indeed the natives themselves are often 
 unable to give a very clear answer to such questions, 
 even when they join in the observances. It is 
 intended, in this and the following chapters, to 
 throw some little light on this subject, though, owing 
 to the variations occasioned by difference of caste and 
 sect, the task is not at all an easy one. The infor- 
 mation conveyed can at best be but fragmentary, and 
 may not answer in detail for every part of the 
 country. 
 
 As may be seen in the Native Almanac, there are 
 some 125 festivals, of -greater or less importance, 
 marked for observance during the current year. Some 
 of these have to do with all classes of Hindus as 
 Samvatsaradi (New Year's day), and some with 
 certain classes only, as Sivaratri (the birth night of 
 Siva), which, as the name itself indicates, is not 
 observed by the worshippers of Vishnu. Some of 
 them, again, are only observed by men, as Krishna- 
 
172 THE HINDU AX HOME. 
 
 jayanti (the birth day of Krishna); whilst others are 
 observed only by women, as Varalakshmiuratain (the 
 festival of Lakshmi, the wife of Vishnu). According 
 to the Puranas, there are some 400 festivals to be 
 observed throughout the year, but mostlBf these have 
 fallen into disuse. 
 
 According to the Hindu Almanacs it may be said 
 that, as a rule, the festivals are fixed as to date j but 
 since the Hindu and the European Almanacs are 
 drawn up on different systems, the festivals do not 
 occur upon fixed dates according to our reckoning. 
 Indeed, . the Hindu Almanacs themselves differ in 
 their systems, the Telugu being lunar, for instance, 
 whilst the Tamil is solar. 
 
 It would be a hopeless task to attempt a description 
 of all the Hindu festivals ; indeed it would far exceed 
 our limits to enter upon anything like a mere allusion, 
 even, to all those marked to be observed in the native 
 Almanac. It may be well, therefore, merely to take 
 a dozen of the chief regular feasts and try to give 
 some idea of their origin, and the mode in which they 
 are observed. 
 
 It must be understood that what is here described 
 is chiefly as things are in the Circars. With reference, 
 however, to these chief festivals, it may almost be 
 taken for granted that, whilst details may vary in 
 different parts, the main principles are very much the 
 same all over the country. The festivals will be given 
 in the order in which they occur during the year, and 
 no attempt will be made to give them in the order of 
 relative importance. 
 
 (1) Sankeanti, or the commencement of the sun's 
 northern course in the heavens. This occurs in the 
 month Pushy a (December — January) or' about the 
 middle of January, according to Qur reckoning, some 
 time after the 10th. It is observed by all classes, and 
 lasts for three days. This feast is called Pongal in 
 the South, and is the commencement of the Tamil 
 year. It is a special period, of universal rejoicing, 
 being a kind of harvest festival. All work is stopped, 
 and even the passenger boats on the canals do not 
 ply, particularly on the first two days ; the cattle are 
 
HINDU TESTIVALS. 173 
 
 specially made much of and given a rest, as well as 
 bfing supplied with extra foad. There is also a good 
 deal of cock-fighting — a pastime to which many of 
 the middle and lower classes are particularly addicted. 
 Alms are alSb freely distributed, and presents given 
 to dependants; it is also one of the three great 
 festivals when it is the custom to put on new clothes 
 —the other two being the Basara and Samvatsaradi. 
 Daring this season, also it is customary for a wife, 
 together with her husband, to visit her own people, 
 when they are feasted, and have presents of new 
 clothes, and perhaps jewels given, to tnem. 
 
 Of the three days during which the festival lasts 
 the first is called Bhogi (rejoicing) and is a kind of 
 eve to the festival proper. On this day oil baths are 
 universally taken. This does not mean that a bath is 
 taken in a tub of oil, but a very favourite kind of bath, 
 in which rubbing the body with oil forms a con- 
 spicuous part. The houses are cleaned and decorated, 
 and a particular dish js partaken of made of new rice 
 and dhal cooked together in milk. The name Pongal 
 for this feast is said to have arisen from this custom. 
 If the pot boils well it is thought to be a good 
 omen j therefore when friends meet they ask each 
 other. ' Has it boiled (Pongal) ?' hence t!he name 
 Pongal. On this and the next day also, those classes 
 who usually consume animal food, scrupulously 
 abstain from it. The second day is the chief ione, 
 when there is special worship and the gods;are carried 
 in procession, with much beating of drums, and blaring 
 of trumpets, and other barbarous accompaniments of 
 such processions. The third day is devoted to very 
 much the same kind of things as the second. 
 
 (2) Maha Sivaeatei, or the great night of Siva. 
 Every^month has a Sivaratri {Masa Sifi^'i^tri — monthly 
 Siva's night) on the eve of the new moon, when 
 worshippers of Siva fast all day, arid* perform special 
 rites to their god. This annual rfestival, however, is 
 called the great {Maha) night of Siva ; and it is held 
 on the* eve of the mew moon^ in -.Magha (January — 
 February), and commemorjiteg. the birth of Siva. The 
 festival lasts one day, arid is observed by all classes 
 
174 
 
 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 except those who strictly adhere to the worship of 
 Vishnu. The whole day is kept as a strict fast until 
 midnight, and the Lingam (the emblem of Siva), is 
 particularly worshipped. Pilgrimages are also made 
 to certain rivers, and to temples of Siva that may be 
 particularly sacred. 
 
 It may be interesting to describe what is done on 
 these occasions. On arriving at the place of pilgrim- 
 age, the devout will bathe in the adjacent river or 
 tank and then proceed to the temple and perform 
 what is called pradakshinam. This consists of 
 solemnly walking round the temple a greater or less 
 number of times, according to the devoutness of the 
 worshippers ; the hands are held together in the 
 attitude of prayer {namashdram) , the right shoulder 
 being towards the temple. During this circumambu- 
 lation the worshippers confess their sins and ask for 
 pardon by repeating various verses {sloJcams). These 
 verses, or prayers, are quotations from the Purdnas, 
 and so Siidras as well as Brahmins are allowed to 
 repeat them. Of course many repeat them like 
 parrots without knowing the meaning of the words at 
 all, whilst some cannot even do this. In this latter 
 case, a small fee will procure the assistance of an 
 sittendantt priest, who will walk round with the 
 worshippers repeating the verses, the poor illiterate 
 people joining in here and there according to their 
 ability. The following are specimens of the verses 
 thus repeated : — 
 
 3R?tc?lfrfrffT ^ I 
 
 Whatever sins (I may have committed) 
 
 In my former births. 
 
 Those very sins are destroyed 
 
 By each circumambulation, 
 
HINDU FESTIVALS. 
 
 qniftrr qrq^wsi: i 
 ^^qrncigfB5! ii 
 
 I am a sinner ; a man of sinful deeds, 
 
 I am of a corrupt mind ; a man born in sin. 
 
 Save me of thy mercy O God '. 
 
 Thou that art merciful to those that flee to thee for refuge. 
 
 ^RSf WJA 11 1 
 
 I have no other refuge ; 
 Thou alone at my refuge ; 
 Therefore of thy mercy 
 O Siva ! save me, save me. 
 
 After the worshippers have performed as many 
 circumambulationB as they think fit, they go into the 
 temple and present ofierings of such things as fruit, 
 flowers, and camphor, according to their ability, giving 
 at the same time an ofEering of money. The oflBciating 
 priest takes the offering and waves it before the 
 . Lingam, with burning incense, repeating various 
 slokams. A part of the offering is then returned to 
 the worshipper, and a part retained by the priest ; in 
 the case, for instance, of a cocoanut, it is broken into 
 two halves by the priest, and a portion is returned 
 whilst a portion retained. The water in the cocoanut 
 is collected in a vessel and poured over the Lingam. 
 The worshippers then stoop to receive the priestly 
 blessing, which is given in the following manner : — 
 The priest takes a bell-shaped kind of vessel, usually 
 
176 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 made of brass or copper [Rudrapadam — the foot of 
 Siva), and placing it on the head of each worshipper, 
 repeats the following prayer, the priest repeating it 
 as the representative of the worshipper : — 
 
 f^i^r^irecqr^g^JFH 
 
 so 
 
 O Siva ! bless my head with thy feet, 
 Which are like unto the Jotus, 
 Adorned with jewels from the crowns of 
 Brahma, and other gods and demi-gods. 
 
 After this, those who have thus been blessed, turn 
 to the stone bull {Nandi — the vehicle of Siva) which 
 is in each Siva temple, and. repeat several times into 
 its ear the word Rara ! Hara ! (O destroyer !). This 
 is one of the names of Siva, and here means destroyer 
 of sin. After this the worshippers are at liberty to 
 go away. The same ceremony is, in some cases, 
 repeated in the evening. In the meantime, the people 
 join in the various festivities of the fair, and in the 
 case of those who may, from age or ill-health, be 
 unable to keep a longer fast, food is taken. After the 
 people have all finished their worship, the attendant 
 priests and Pandits (learned Brahmins) proceed to 
 bathe the Lingam with milk and water, and cocoanut 
 water, and sometimes with oil, repeating the while vari- 
 oas mantrams (verses from the Vedas) , After the bath, 
 theidol is clothed and is adorned with the sacred thread 
 {yagnopavitam) ,aniaa.ceed marks {pundramsjiOi which 
 accounts have been given in former chapters. The 
 image is then worshipped by the repetition of the 
 thousand names of Siva, a certain leaf and a flower 
 being dropped over the image at each name. Usually 
 the leaves of the Bael tree {^gle Marmelos) or those 
 of the sacred Basil {Ooymum Sanctum), and jasmine 
 
HINDU FESTIVALS. 177 
 
 or else marigold flowers are employed. Then incense 
 is burned, while Mantrams are repeated, and camphor 
 is lit and waved before the image. Pood is then 
 placed before it, such as curry and rice, and fruit, and 
 milk and curds, and such like things ; this is placed 
 and then removed to be consumed by the priests. 
 The food is followed by pansupari (betel) as is the 
 usual native custom" after meals. This is followed by 
 more waving of burning camphor, and the performance 
 of various other acts of worship, such as the placing 
 of flowers and the repetition of Mantrams. 
 
 This concludes the worship proper. The Pandits 
 and other Brahmins who may be present — women 
 also being admitted,T— then stand and in a loud voice 
 repeat praises to Siva. The Budrapddam blessing is 
 then given as before, and the assembly disperses. 
 Some of the flowers and leaves are usually given to 
 the men and women worshippers, who adorn them- 
 selves with them. It is usually very late by this 
 time, and the devout may then go and break their 
 fast, the first time since the preceding evening ! 
 
 This has been described somewhat at length, 
 because it represents the usual mode of worship on 
 such occasions — Hindu temple divine worship on 
 special occasions. Every day some worship is gone 
 through on a small scale, and every month, at the 
 Masa Sivaratri, more than ordinary is performed ; 
 but the full ritual, as thus briefly described, is only 
 employed at the annual festival of Sivaratrif when 
 large numbers come from surrounding places to the 
 particularly sacred temples. Indeed the movement 
 of population is so great during the Maha Sivaratri 
 festival, that care has to be taken in arranging census 
 operations, that neither the preliminary nor the final 
 enumeration occurs about that time. 
 
 (3) HoLi is a festival that is held in honour of the 
 god Manmadha or Kama (the Hindu Cupid). It is 
 observed in the month of Phalguna (February — 
 March), and lasts for about fifteen days, of which the 
 last three are the most important. This may be called 
 the festival of the god of lust ; and the parading of 
 dancing girls, and the singing of lewd songs form some 
 
 23 
 
178 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 of the items in it. The mere mention of these 
 facts gives an indication of the whole tone of the 
 thing ; and indeed the very word Kama ia used to 
 describe lust and lechery of every kind. The time is 
 observed as a kind of carnival ; the crowds play 
 practical jokes and throw coloured powder over eacL. 
 other, and coloured water is squirted over those within 
 reach. There is no temple worship connected with 
 this festival, as there are no temples to this god. 
 Siva is supposed to have slain this deity by a glance 
 "of his third eye (that in the centre of the forehead), 
 and in commemoration of this, the festival ends with a 
 bonfire, in which is burned an image of the god Kama. 
 This burning, is done at midnight, and is accompanied 
 by all sorts of frolic and horse-play, and rubbing on 
 the body of the ashes of the fire. Altogether it is a 
 disgraceful time, and staid sober-minded people do 
 not join in it at all. It is not observed very much in 
 the Circars, though in some parts of the country it is 
 said to be very popular ; and it is more or less popular 
 all over India. 
 
 (4) Seieamajayanti oe Sei Ramanavami (the ninth 
 day of Rama, the seventh incarnation of Vishnu), a 
 feast observed in honour of the birth of Rama, which 
 is said to have taken place on the 9th day of the first 
 half of the month Chaitra (March — April), and which 
 lasts for one day. This festival is observed by all 
 classes, except the wearers of the Lingam, who are 
 strict Saivites. On this day the Eamayana (the sacred 
 epic poem of the Hindus, recording the adventures 
 of Rama) is particularly read in private houses and 
 in the temples. In the bazaars also, and in public 
 places, Pandits read and explain this favourite poem 
 to surrounding crowds. Even in small villages some 
 one will be found, if possible, capable of reading 
 aloud the sacred text, as much merit is supposed to 
 be derived even from the hearing of it. It is said 
 that whoever studies this book is thereby liberated 
 from all his sins and is exalted to the highest heaven. 
 There is an image of Rama in almost every village, 
 whilst there is a greater or less number in the towns, 
 according to their size — for there is no god in India 
 
HINDU FESTIVALS. 179 
 
 SO universally worshipped as this. The image is 
 adorned and taken in procession through the streets 
 on this day, to the accompaniment of music and 
 the singing of hymns in praise of that god. One 
 great feature of the festival is a pilgrimage, by those 
 who are able, to some celebrated teinpleof Eama. Of 
 such temples there appear to be very few. There is 
 a famous one at Bhadrachalam on the Upper Godavari, 
 which is a very celebrated place of pilgrimage, and 
 great numbers come, some from very long distances, to 
 be present during the festival at this temple. Crowds 
 may be seen painfully wending their way along the 
 roads ; some who can afford it, riding in the bullock 
 cart of the country, whilst the majority trudge it on 
 foot, carrying their bundle of rice or other food on 
 their heads. Every now and then a group of these 
 pilgrims, as they journey on, will set up a shout of 
 Govinda ! Govinda ! (a name of Vishnu), which has a 
 strange effect, especially when heard for the first time. 
 Of course in these days advantage is taken of the 
 railway by those who can afford itp comfort ; but still 
 there must always be much inconvenience and suffer- 
 ing attending these pilgrimages, especially in the case 
 of older people and delicate females and children. 
 The time of setting forth depends upon the distance 
 to be travelled, and it is necessary for Dhe pilgrims to 
 arrive at the temple before the day of the festival. 
 The details of the temple worship on this occasion are 
 very much like those already described under Maha 
 Sivaratri ; only, of course, in a case of this kind, 
 everything would be upon a very large scale. At 
 Bhadrachalam, large quantities of food are distributed 
 to the poorer pilgrims, both from the temple stores 
 and also by wealthy pilgrims, who thus acquire much 
 merit (punyam) . Sometimes an epidemic, like cholera, 
 will break out at these annual gatherings, when 
 numbers die, and the disease is also carried far and 
 wide by the returning pilgrims. But much merit is 
 gained from the pilgrimage and from seeing the face 
 of the god ; and hence, even in these enlightened 
 days, sanitary considerations are made to give way 
 to superstition. 
 
180 THE HINDU AT HOME, 
 
 (5) Nagasaviti, a festival in honour of the Nagas. 
 This occurs on the 4th day of the first part of the 
 month Kartika (October — November). The Nagas 
 are a race of serpents supposed to be half human — 
 the head and body, to the waist, being human and 
 the rest serpent ; and they are said to inhabit the 
 regions under the earth {nagalokum). This race of 
 demi-gods is supposed to be malevolent, and therefore 
 much of the worship is for the purpose of deprecating 
 their wrath. The Nagasaviti festival is observed by 
 all classes and lasts for one day. In these days the 
 real object sought by the masses is to be preserved 
 from being bitten by snakes ; but there is also some 
 idea of these monsters being able to cure certain 
 diseases, chiefly those of the skin. 
 
 The chief object of worship on this day is the cobra, 
 which is considered to be the chief of the snakes. 
 The worship is mainly done by the women, and the 
 process is somewhat as follows. The females, accom- 
 panied by a family priest {purohita) if possible, go to 
 the nearest white ant heap — which is a favourite 
 abode of the cobra — taking with them milk and 
 flowers, and a dish prepared with ground rice, jaggery, 
 and camphor, called in Telugu chalimidi. The 
 worshippers, having previously bathed, and with their 
 hair hanging down, perform a kind of service at tlie 
 ant-hill, by repeating the name of the god and the 
 like, pouring milk down the hole, and scattering 
 flowers over the hillock. If a Purohita is present, he 
 repeats the form called Sankalpam, which as has been 
 before explained, consists chiefly of mentioning the 
 names of the place, day, month, and year and the 
 names of the worshippers. The above mentioned 
 dish is then offered by the waving of the hand from 
 it towards the supposed abode of the snake, certain 
 words being repeated the while. The worship is 
 concluded by placing burning incense by the hole, and 
 the women, who are perhaps accompanied by their 
 children, boys and girls, then return home, where the 
 Chalimidi together with water sweetened with jaggery 
 (a coarse sugar) is partaken of as a festive meal. 
 This serpent worship is universal throughout India. 
 
HINDU FESTIVALS. 181 
 
 Of course there is a certain amount of danger neces- 
 sarily incurred in thus trifling with such deadly- 
 creatures ; and I remember, many years ago, when in 
 the town of EUore, in the Grodavari District, hearing 
 of a poor woman who met her death through engaging 
 in this method of worship. She was pouring milk 
 down a snake hole, when a cobra darted out and bit 
 her so that she died. 
 
 A very characteristic story was told me recently by 
 a doctor of the Indian Medical Service, that may 
 serve to illustrate native ideas on such subjects. Some 
 time ago a Brahmin was taken to the hospital of my 
 friend, in a complete state of collapse, from the sup- 
 posed effects of cobra bite. Under treatment he soon 
 revived, and within a few hours was permitted to go 
 home. A few days after he paid a visit to the doctor, 
 doubtless, as the latter perhaps' thought, to express 
 his gratitude, may be in some substantiarmanner, for 
 he appears to have been fairly well-to-do. Instead of 
 acting in this way, however, the ungrateful fellow 
 coolly demanded a large present — a hundred rupees 
 or so, if I remember rightly, by way of compensation, 
 for, said he, " I did not ask you to interfere with me 
 and bring me back to life. I should certainly have died 
 if you had not interfered, and as it was the sacred 
 cobra that had bitten me, I should as certainly have 
 gone to heaven, whilst now I may, by my sins, miss 
 that state after all." This story is given as it was 
 narrated and for what it is worth, but most probably 
 the Brahmin was exercising his native canning for 
 the sake of what he might get, seeing that death 
 from snake-bite, even from the bite of the sacred 
 cobra, is generally considered to be on a par with 
 death by fire, or drowning, or suicide, which are 
 thought to be- cursed deaths, and the result of 
 grievous sin in a previous life. It is perhaps only in 
 India, however, that such a story could be possible. 
 
 (6) Kkishnajatanti, or the birth day of Krishna. 
 This event is commemorated in Southern India on 
 the 8th day of the dark half of the- month Sravana 
 (August — September). Krishna is said to have been 
 born during the night of the 8th. It is observed 
 
182 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 by all classes except the Lingaits, and the festival 
 lasts for two days. 
 
 This is one of the most popular of the annual 
 festivalsj and is a time of fun and rejoicing. The . 
 usual temple festival worship is performed, but 
 generally not on a very large scale, and there are no 
 pilgrimages to shrines. As is the case with the 
 Bamdyanam at Srirdmajayanti, so at this festival, 
 the Bkdgavatam is read. This is a celebrated Hindu 
 poem describing the life of Krishna. During the 
 birth night much worship is performed to this god 
 in the temples and also in private houses. The 
 Bhagavatam is read and hymns are sung in praise 
 of the god, to the accompaniment of music and 
 cymbals and drums, and some sections of the Hindus 
 fast from the evening of the seventh to the morning of 
 the ninth. The real fun is on the ninth. On this day 
 there are the usual processions of the images accom- 
 panied by dancing girls and the singing of hymns to 
 the praise of Krishna, and repetitions of Mantrams by 
 attendant Pandits. Much amusement is afforded by 
 things got up in memory of Krishna stealing the 
 curds and butter. Two upright poles are fixed in 
 the earth in public places, usually across the street, 
 and a cross pole is attached to the top which is 
 adotned with leaves, and flowers and banners. A 
 pulley is attached to the centre of this cross bar, 
 through which a string is rove, suspending an earthen 
 pot containing milk and a few coins ; and the pot is 
 covered over with a cocoanut. A person holds the 
 other end of the string and pulls the pot up and down. 
 Youths, usually of the golla or milkmen caste — Krishna 
 was reared in a golla house— leap and try to touch 
 the pot, which is dexterously jerked out of' reach by 
 the person holding the string. Whoever succeeds 
 in touching the pot gets its contents as a prize. All 
 this affords much fun, and the competitors are 
 drenched with coloured water {vasantam) , which is 
 squirted or thrown over them by the revellers as they 
 leap about. Greasy poles are also set up, or posts 
 smeared with tar : the contents of a pot fixed at the 
 top being the prize of the successful climber. Alto- 
 
HINDU FESTIVALS. 183 
 
 gether it is a day of fun and rejoicing which, however, 
 is all of a very innocent nature compared with the 
 abominations of the Holi festival. 
 
 (7) ViNAYAKACHATUKTHi or the birth day of Vinayaka 
 or Ganesa. This deity is said to have been the son of 
 Siva and Durga or Kali. He is supposed to ward ofE 
 obstacles and difficulties, and is therefore worshipped 
 at the commencement of all important undertakings to 
 avert the interference of evil demons. The worship 
 of Ganesa is very popular, hence this festivals is 
 observed by all classes, except strict Vaishnavas. 
 His image is that of a man's body with an elephant's 
 head, and a very protuberant stomach to denote his 
 gluttony. The feast is held on the fourth day of the 
 light half of the month Bhadrapada (August — 
 September) and is observed for one day. There is 
 no particular worship in the temples, nor are there 
 any processions, all the worship being done in private 
 houses. In that portion of the house where worship 
 is wont to be performed, a small clay platform is 
 erected and adorned with a powder made of ground 
 rice mixed with colouring matter ; and upon this is 
 placed a clay image of Ganesa. These images are 
 made by the potters in immense numbers at this 
 season, as each house, however poor, must have one. 
 They are simply cl'ay stuck off in a mould, and cost 
 about one pie (about half a farthing) each. "When 
 the image is placed on the platform, several lights 
 composed of wick in cow-ghee, are placed before it, 
 and a Man tram of consecration is said {pratishta), 
 upon which the spirit of the god is said to enter into 
 it. Worship is performed to this image by repeating 
 certain prayers and after that dropping upon it, one 
 by one, twenty-one different kinds of certain leaves 
 and the same number of certain flowers ; during this 
 operation the thousand names of the god are repeated. 
 Food is also placed before the image, especially a 
 kind of hard balls made of ground rice with pounded 
 
184 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 Bengal gram and coooanut {undmllu) . Of the prayers 
 that are said the following is a specimen : — 
 
 NO X3 
 
 5i%g"j1 '^m I 
 
 so O 
 
 Meditate upon the white robed omnipresent one, 
 In colour like unto the moon, and having four arms, 
 The Elephant-faced one (Ganesh), 
 For the removal of all obstacles. 
 
 This worship takes place about mid-day and is 
 repeated in the evening after sunset, up to which time, 
 the lights must be kept barning before the image. 
 Cow-ghee is a comparatively expensive thing, but it 
 is necessary, and however poor the people may be, 
 they will have, at least, one small light bjiming. I£ 
 in a house there are only one or two people^ and they 
 very poor, they will join with others for this worship. 
 
 It is at this feast that the artisans worship their 
 tools and the students their ' books, which is done by 
 placing them before the image, and, when the worship 
 is finished, sprinkling them with rice which has been 
 coloured red, and with sandalwood paste, the cere- 
 mony being concluded by circumambulating the 
 whole, repeating prayers {pradakshinam). Some of 
 the flowers and leaves which have been used in the 
 worship are taken by the worshippers to adorn their 
 own person. On the third ,day, the little image is 
 taken and thrown into running water, as a river or 
 stream, or into a well or tank ; anywhere where it 
 cannot be trodden upon or otherwise defiled. The 
 same is done with the flowers and leaves that have 
 been used in the worship. 
 
 The rowdy element of the people have much fun 
 during the darkness of tbe night, throwing stones on 
 bouses, or putting down thorny seeds in front of 
 
HINDU FISTIVALS. 185 
 
 houses, which -when trodden upon by the bare foot, 
 pierce it and cause pain. The idea is that the blame 
 and curses evoked by this will be turned into blessings 
 upon the perpetrators of the mischief ! 
 
 There is one important part of this feast that must 
 not be forgotten. It is customary, sometime during 
 the evening before dark, for groups of people to 
 assemble in a neighbour's house to hear narrated a 
 certain story called Samantakam. In this story it is 
 related how the sun, being pleased with a certain 
 king named Satrajitt, took from his own necklace and 
 gave to him a mythological jewel called Samantakam. 
 It is supposed that those who do not hear this story 
 before seeing the moon, will run the risk of having 
 some false charge or other made against them, or in 
 some way be subject to slander or calumny. This is 
 a curious idea, but it seems to bo a very universal one. 
 Its origin seems to be a story which is briefly as 
 follows ; — Granesa with his characteristic protuberance 
 being very much distended after a heavy meal of his 
 ' favourite undralhi, was on his way to the temple to 
 worship his father Siva, when the moon cast a look 
 upon him so malevolent as to have the effect of burst- 
 ing open the so prominent member of his anatomy. 
 Upon this Ganesa, being naturally somewhat irritated, 
 cursed the moon, saying that whoever looked upon it 
 would be subject to slander, and calumny, and like 
 evils. The moon thereupon craved pardon for having 
 80 disturbed the equanimity of the son of Siva ; but 
 the curse was only removed on condition that, before 
 looking upon the moon, everybody should hear the 
 story of Samantakam. After this little episode 
 Ganesa proceeded on his way to the temple, where 
 his father, by a stroke of his hand, healed his suffering 
 offspring. 
 
 The continuation of the subject of Hindu Festivals 
 will form the substance of the next chapter. 
 
 24 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 ■ HIK"DU FESTIY A'LS-—Gontinved. 
 
 qefxf^. (Parvani.) 
 
 He who observes not approved customs and he who regards 
 
 not prescribed duties is to be avoided with great care. 
 
 (Manu III. 165, 166.) 
 
 In continuation of the subject of Hindu festivals 
 tte next that may be considered is : — 
 
 (8) Dasaea OR Dqegapuja. This is observed during 
 the first half of the month Ashvayuja (September — 
 October) and lasts for ten days. The tenth day is 
 called Fi/ai/afiasatni (the victorious tenth day). This 
 festival is observed by all Sdhtass or worshippers of 
 the female principle, and is held in especial honour 
 of Darga, the wife of Siva. Her image, or what 
 represents her image, is worshipped for nine days, 
 and on the tenth it is cast into water. In the Oircars 
 no image is used, but the goddess is represented by 
 a new brass drinking vessel, or earthen pot, contain- 
 ing nine kinds of grain, and turmeric roots, and coins ; 
 the mouth of the vessel being covered with a oocoanut 
 and a folded piece of cloth, the whole, called halasam, 
 being adorned with leaves of the mango tree. 
 
 During this feast alms are freely distributed. 
 Musicians go about playing on their instruments, 
 demanding presents. Native schoolmasters take their 
 pupils, all dressed in their best, to the houses of those 
 who are likely to give them anything, and ask for 
 presents. This is a regular harvest time for the 
 schoolmaster, who often gets a good deal, as his 
 requests for presents are liberally responded to. 
 During these perambulations, the pupils carry bows 
 and arrows, the arrows having a cup-like termination 
 into which sweet smelling powder is placed and shot 
 out upon those whom they visit. The pupils also 
 
HINDU FESTIVALS. 187 
 
 recite various things they have learnt ; which recita- 
 tions always begin with a verse in praise of Ganesa. 
 The pupils get presents of fruit and sweets, whilst 
 the pedagogue gets money or cloths. In this way 
 indigenous learning is encouraged and fostered. 
 
 Of late years this feast has been rendered notorious 
 by indirectly giving rise to grievous riots between 
 Hindus and Muhammadans. Last year, as all readers 
 of the newspapers know, there were serious riots in 
 Poona, whilst the terrible rioting and fearful blood- 
 shed that happened in Bombay in 1893 must still be 
 fresh in the memory. 
 
 A friend, well versed in such matters, has been 
 kind enough to furnish the following account of the 
 supposed origin of this bad feeling. It may not be 
 out of place here to give these particulars, seeing 
 that the subject must be oae of more or less general 
 interest. In 1884 there was a Hindu revival which 
 to a certain extent, took the form of an imitation of 
 the Salvation Army. The worship of Rama is, as 
 noted above, most popular. A Eamabhajana party, 
 carrying a kalasam, such as is described as the repre- 
 sentation of Durga, went in procession from their 
 village to two adjoining villages, having a common 
 boundary, and being joined by another party from 
 each of the latter, called, itself Rama Dandu or 
 Rama's army. The triple party then went in turn to 
 each of the three villages adjoining two of the original 
 triplet. From each of these, a new triplet branched 
 out and repeated the process ; so that the movement, 
 believed to have started from somewhere in Mysore, 
 spread in all directions. As Rama's army is said to 
 have consisted of monkeys, it was considered the 
 proper thing for its antitype to engage in all kinds 
 of mischievous pranks; and so its members broke 
 branches off trees, pulled tiles and thatch off roofs, 
 knocked the turbans off people they met in the way 
 and insisted on their shouting " Govinda !" and dis- 
 turbed Muhammadans at worship by singing uproari- 
 ously before mosques, for long periods. This pro- 
 duced ill-feeling and riots between Hindus and 
 Muhammadans. Unfortunately, before the animus 
 
188 THE HINDD AT HOME. 
 
 could subside^ the Muharram and Dasara partly 
 coincided for three years. During that time, the 
 Hindus, in the places were the riots occurred, did not 
 take any part in the Muharram, although the carnival 
 portion of that commemoration of the martyrdom of 
 Muhammad's grandson Hussain used in former years 
 to be kept up principally by the Hindus. Having 
 deprived themselves of this fun, the Hindus appear 
 to have attempted to compensate themselves by get- 
 ting up during the next Dasara a caricature of the 
 Muharram. Had the details been purely Hindu 
 adaptations, they would, probably as they have in 
 other instances, have passed unnoticed. But they were 
 considered by the Mussalmans, rightly or wrongly, 
 to be gross caricatures, intentionally offensive. The 
 Muhammadans objected especially to the introduction 
 into the Dasara of the tiger disguise. The reason for 
 this appears to be that this disguise has, in Southern 
 India, come to be looked upon as the most distinctive 
 feature of the Muharram, and it is, as a matter of fact, 
 never seen at any other time. The way in which this 
 commemoration of a mournful event became con- 
 verted into a carnival is alleged to be this. The 
 Mogul Emperors, and even the Mussalman kings of 
 the Deocan, sometimes chose Hindu consorts. One 
 of these is believed, when in trouble, to have 
 endeavoured to add to the efficacy of her invocation of 
 Hussain for his intercession, by vowing that if her 
 prayer were answered she would exhibit some mem- 
 bers of her family in a humiliating disguise during 
 the Muharram. The object of her prayer being 
 accomplished, she kept her vow. Her example was 
 followed by other devout and anxious parents and 
 others. The fame of the success of such vows induced 
 Hindus also to make vows to the Muhammadan pir 
 whose Astme happened to be in their neighbourhood, 
 or in the efficacy of whose intercession they had the 
 greatest faith. To the original humiliating disguises, 
 was afterwards added that of the tiger. In this case 
 the object was not humiliation, but an indication of 
 readiness to fight for Islam like a tiger, a smile in- 
 variably employed to describe the fighting of the 
 
HINDU FESTIVALS. 189 
 
 Seventy-two faithful followers of Hussain on the 
 occasion which is commemorated by the Muharram. 
 This Hisguise, more than any other, caught the fancy 
 of the Hindus, who did not trouble to become acquainted 
 with its significance. These disputes gave rise to 
 others in connection with other Hindu festivals, at 
 which also caricatures of the Muhammadan obser- 
 vances were introduced, and it is in connection w'lth 
 these that the most serious riots have occurred. 
 
 (9) Dbepavali, or the feast of lamps. This festival 
 is observed on the last two days of the dark fortnight 
 of the month Ashvayuja (September — October), and 
 is taken part in by all classes of Hindus. It is held 
 in memory of Krishna's victory over Narakasura, the 
 wicked giant {Rakshasa). Its chief features are the 
 lighting up of the houses with numerous little lamps 
 and the letting ofE of fire-works. There are no special 
 temple services or processions at this season j it is 
 merely a time of popujar rejoicing. The streets 
 present a very gay appearance at night on account of 
 the numerous lights that are placed in front of the 
 houses, and the letting ofE of fire-works in public 
 places is not unattended with danger. Mimic com- 
 bats take place in the streets between parties who 
 hurl lighted fire-works at each other ; and these 
 battles sometimes become very real, ending in a 
 good deal of rioting. Altogether the streets are 
 not a very safe or pleasant place for quietly disposed 
 people, particularly on the second night of the fes- 
 tival. Staid and quiet people hurry home before 
 dark to escape the rowdy crowds, and they are care- 
 ful not to move out of doors during the dark, if they 
 can possibly avoid doing so. 
 
 (10) Kabtikapuenima, or the full moon of the month 
 of Eartika (October — November). This festival is 
 observed in commemoration of Siva's victory over the 
 three giants Tripurasurav These giants are said to 
 have inhabited three celestial cities made respectively 
 of gold, silver, and iron, which, were adjacent to 
 each other, and were capable of being moved about in 
 company at tbe will of the giants. These'malevolent 
 beings were a constant source of trouble to gods and 
 
190 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 men, who, at length, unable to bear it any longer, 
 prayed to Siva for deliverance from the evil. This 
 god, in the usual wonderful way adopted by such 
 beings, slew the troublesome Tripurasura and utterly 
 destroyed their cities. This festival is observed on 
 the full moon of Kartika, as above, and is kept by all 
 classes except strict Vaishnavas. It lasts only for 
 on*e day and one night. 
 
 The day preceding the full moon is observed by the 
 devout as a strict fast. In the early morning it is 
 necessary to bathe in the sea, where possible, or fail- 
 ing that, in a river or tank or some other water. 
 After moonrise, i.e., at sunset, special worship is per- 
 formed in the temples of Siva, after which the image 
 is taken in procession through the streets with the 
 usual musical and other accompaniments. It may be 
 well to observe here that in all these processions of 
 the gods, it is not the chief idol of the temple that is 
 taken out, as may be supposed, for the chief idol is 
 never removed from its position for any purpose what- 
 ever, after it has once been placed and consecrated 
 (pratisMa). What is used upon such occasions is a 
 kind of representative or rather two representatives, 
 which are kept for the purpose ; one to represent the 
 god and the other his wife. It should also be men- 
 tioned that when the gods are taken in procession, it 
 is not to give the gods an airing, as is popularly sup- 
 posed, but the idea ia that those who are unable to go 
 to the temple and look apon the image there, should 
 have a chance of seeing its face in this way. The 
 passage of the gods through the streets is also sup- 
 posed to purify and bless the streets and houses. As 
 the procession moves along, the devout may be seen 
 placing their hands together, and making obeisance to 
 the god {Namaskdram) . Some bring offerings of 
 various kinds which are placed in a receptacle under the 
 car upon which the idol sits ; and the priest blesses 
 the giver by placing on his or her head the vessel before 
 mentioned {Budrapddum) , repeating the appropriate 
 words. A peculiar custom is followed upon this 
 occasion, oh the return of the procession to the temple. 
 Two high poles are erected in front of the temple to 
 
HINDU FESTIVALS. 191 
 
 which is attached a thick wreath of straw, stretching 
 across the road. This is set on fire and the whole 
 procession must pass under the burning wreath {jvald- 
 toranam — flame-wreath) . This in some way refers to 
 the triumph of Siva over the Triptirasura. 
 
 It is at this festival that women of the Smartha 
 sect especially worship the moon, with a view to such 
 blessings as male ofEspring, long life, and prosperity. 
 This worship is performed in somewhat the following 
 manner. After the temple worship, women, in various 
 groups, take a small thin silver medal, which is 
 stamped with the shape of the moon, and place it 
 upon some large leaf like the plantain or lotus, which 
 is laid upon the ground in the courtyard of the 
 temple, under the full rays of the moon. Upon the 
 leaf is placed a little heap of rice upon which is put a 
 betel leaf, and upon this again is placed a little 
 sandalwood paste, and on the top of that, the little 
 silver medal. Bach separate group will have one of 
 these temporary altars. Worship is then performed 
 to this in the usual way by placing before it little 
 lights of ghee and wick in brass saucers, and drop- 
 ping upon it coloured rice and leaves and flowers, at 
 the same time mentioniirg some of the names of the 
 moon. An attendant priest, in the case of well-to-do 
 people their own family priest, repeats a prayer in the 
 name of the worshippers, and thepujaia concluded 
 by the women waving lighted camphor before the 
 object of worship, saying at the same tiine some kind 
 of prayer, probably an expression of their particular 
 need or required boon. The little heap of things on 
 the leaf, the medal included, is given to the priest as 
 a fee, and perhaps a little money at the same time. 
 
 The woman who engage in this worship do not 
 include young unmarried woman, or widows, or the 
 aged. The prayer repeated by the priest, in the 
 name-of those for whom he is officiating, will serve to 
 show the object with which the worship is done. It 
 is as follows : — 
 
 afcT^Riwr ^^ 1 
 
192 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 ^f| ^ Tw^q?: II 
 
 so 
 
 O thou Omniscient husband of Rohini, 
 Who art worshipped in this image, 
 Grant me long life, health, prosperity. 
 And male progeny. 
 
 Kohini is supposed to be the wife of Chandra the 
 moon. 
 
 (11) Samvatsaeadi, or the beginning of the year. 
 This is the festival of the new year. The Tamil and 
 the Telugu new year days are not on the same date, 
 owing to the different modes of computation to which 
 reference has already been made. The Telugu new 
 year's day is the first day of the month Chaitra 
 (March — April) ; and is observed by all classes. It 
 lasts for one day only. This is not, strictly speaking, 
 a religious festival Ivratam), and therefore there are 
 no special temple service or processions. The chief 
 features of the day are the reading of the new Alma- 
 nac and hearing the forecast of the events of the new 
 year. New clothes also are worn, when procurable, 
 and the food partaken of during the day is, as far as 
 possible, composed of new materials, i.e., new grain, 
 and pulses, and such like, this being a kind of feast of 
 ingathering. One dish, which must be partaken of 
 by all who wish for good luck during the year, is a 
 kind of conserve composed of sugar, tamarind, and 
 the flowers of the neem or margosa tree {Melia Azadi- 
 rachta), which is then in full flower. The bitter taste 
 of this is not much relished, as a rule, but it is 
 necessary that at least a small portion of the dish 
 should be eaten. This seems to be analogous to the 
 idea in England of the necessity of eating mince pie 
 at Christmas or the New Year ! 
 
 (12) Mahalaya Amavasta (the new moon of the 
 great destruction.) This is observed as a day for offer- 
 ings to the manes of the dead, who, through dying 
 other than a natural death, may not have received 
 the usual death rites. It occurs on the new moon of 
 
HINDU FESTIVALS. 193 
 
 the month Bhadrapada (September — October), and is 
 observed by all classes ; it only lasts for one day. It 
 is absolutely incambent upon the head of a family on 
 this day to perform prescribed ceremonies, for the 
 preceding three generations. Even in the event of 
 there being no knowledge of any ancestors having 
 died other than a natural death, in the full odour of 
 sanctity, it is still necessa.ry that the rites should be 
 perforpied, lest there may have actually been some 
 such accident. The ceremonies are very similar to 
 the usual annual ceremonies for the dead (Shraddhas), 
 for which see the chapters on Hindu funerals. 
 
 Sea Bathing. In addition to the occasions, men- 
 tioned above, there are four seasons in the year that 
 are considered very important, when it is necessary, 
 if possible, to bathe in the sea. These seasons are 
 the day of the full moon of Magha (February), Vaisd- 
 kam (April — May), Ashadha {June — July) ,a,ndKdrtika 
 (October — November). At these seasons, those with- 
 in reach of the sea will make an efEort to go there, so 
 as to take this holy bath. At all new moons, it is 
 beneficial to bathe in the. sea, whilst at other times, it 
 is highly improper even to touch sea water. At these 
 four special full moons, however, it is extremely 
 meritorious to take the sea bath. All rivers flow into 
 the sea, therefore at these seasons to bathe in its 
 waters is equal to bathing in all the sacred rivers in 
 the world. By this all sins, even of the most heinous 
 kind, are completely washed away. Failing the sea, 
 a bath must be taken in a river or a tank or even at a 
 well, but above all, to bathe in the sea, is, at these 
 seasons, considered most beneficial. ■ Long before 
 daylight crowds of people may be seen wending their 
 way to the sea shore, some on foot and others in 
 vehicles of various kinds, or in palanquins. It is of 
 more benefit to go on foot,- since it ig a kind of pilgri- 
 mage, and it is considered most meritorious for any 
 pilgrimage to be done on foot. Before actually setting 
 out for the sea shore, it is incumbent upon the devout 
 to bathe at home, and also again upon their return. The 
 bathing must also be done fasting. The sea shore 
 presents a very lively appearance on these mornings ; 
 
 25 
 
194 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 thousands of people, of both sexes, and all ages, castes, 
 and conditions may be seen hurrying to the sea or 
 returning after the bath, which is not taken, by the 
 bye, until the sun has actually risen. The bathing is 
 done as follows: — The bather walks into the water 
 accompanied by a Brahmin, who repeats the Sanhal- 
 pam (the name of the place, time, &c.) When the bather 
 dips under the water three times. After this he makes 
 three oblations to the sun by throwing up water 
 towards it and saying Surydya namaha (hail to the 
 San), after which he again dips under three times. 
 He then comes ashore when he makes a little heap 
 of sand which he proceeds to worship as though it 
 were his particular deity. The worship is done in the 
 usual way by dropping over the object flowers and 
 coloured powder &c. as has already been described. 
 After this worship is over, the worshipper takes up the 
 little heap of sand and casts it into the sea. He then 
 gives a fee to the Brahmin, who blesses him and it is 
 all over. Those who are in a position to do so, bring 
 their own family priest to perform this ceremony for 
 them ; bnt there are plenty of Brahmins at hand ready 
 to make hay whilst the sun shines, and take advantage 
 of the piety of the faithful. It is not all the bathers 
 who go through the full performance ; some merely 
 bathe and make an oblation to the sun, without much 
 further attempt at worship. Beggars in every stage 
 of dirt and disease may be seen and heard ; the road 
 being lined with them. Here may be seen a leper, 
 lying on the sand, with a cloth spread in front of him 
 to receive alms ; and there a miserable cripple, holding 
 up his withered stump of an arm, or leg to appeal to 
 the compassion of the passers by. Maharaja, Maharaja, 
 dharmamejayam, dharmame jay am, (my lord, my lord 
 charity is prosperity) — these and similar cries are 
 shouted out, and the passers by throw a handful of 
 rice, or a few cowrie shells, or perhaps a coin on the 
 cloth as they go to or return from the sea. There are 
 stalls of the sweetmeat seller and the toy vendors, and 
 the various surroundings of an Indian fair ; the whole 
 presenting a scene at once lively and gay. 
 
 Besides the general festivals, of which the above 
 
HINDU FESTIVALS, 195 
 
 are specimens, there are, what may be called, local 
 festivals, some of which are only observed at some 
 one particular locality, whilst others are kept up at 
 places where a temple or shrine may have been put 
 up in honour of some particular god or demigod. It 
 may be interesting if some description is given of a 
 local festival of which I saw something at its last 
 celebration. 
 
 Near to Masulipatam there is a temple dedicated 
 to the wife of Siva under her title of Mahishasura 
 Mardhani, or the destroyer of the demon buffalo. 
 This buffalo monster {Bakshasa) did much evil, and 
 was at length destroyed by Gauri or Durga — so the 
 tradition says. The temple in question is in her 
 honour, under the above name. The chief festival of 
 this temple is held once a year in the month Chaitra 
 (March — April) and it lasts altogether for sixteen 
 days. On the evening of the last day, which is the 
 day after the full moon, there is a great procession, 
 called Ambariutsavam, or the elephant procession. 
 This procession passes through the town, and for 
 about a mile beyond, to a place where there formerly 
 grew a Zammi tree (Mimosa suma) ; this tree is an 
 emblem of victory. The great temple car is also 
 dragged out. In former days the car is said to have 
 been taken all along the route with the procession ; 
 but since the Kistna canal has been dug it presents 
 an impassable barrier to so cumbrous a Machine. 
 There is an iron girder bridge over the canal ; but it 
 is not considered strong enough to be safe for the car 
 to attempt to cross. Even the elephants have to ford 
 the canal, as their stupendous weight might be too 
 much for the bridge, Now-a-days the car is only 
 brought up as far as the canal, a comparatively short 
 distance, and is then taken back to the temple. The 
 procession, in former days, was much grander than it 
 is now J but even as it is, it presents a very imposing 
 spectacle. The principal feature in it is the huge 
 elephant, bearing in a howdah the procession gods of 
 the temple, and having upon its neck the Dharma- 
 harta, or temple patron, who is a local Eajah of some 
 considerable position. It is said that a former Bajah 
 
196 THE HINDD AT HOME. 
 
 of, this house endowed the temple with lands which 
 bring in Rs. 12,000 per annum ; how far this amount 
 may represent the real revenue I cannot say. The 
 procession is supposed to represent a hunt — Pdru Veta 
 or running prey — and is probably in some way con- 
 nected with the legend upon which the festival is 
 founded. 
 
 It was late at night when I heard the din of the 
 approaching multitude, and I went and took up a 
 position near to where the procession would arrive at 
 its extreme limits. It was a weird sight. The huge 
 elephant, most gaily caparisoned, came solemnly along, 
 bearing its imposing burden. The Eajah, upon this 
 occasion, was represented by his son, as he himself 
 was absent in Madras, or some other distant place. 
 There were horses, and bullock carts, the latter being 
 for the Musicians with their barbarous instruments 
 which made a terrible din. A troup of dancing girls 
 marched along with their attendants, and there was 
 an immense crowd of people crushing along on either 
 side of the procession, though there was nothing of 
 that rough horse-play one sometimes sees in an English 
 crowd. The torches and line-lights lit up the whole 
 throng, and, together with the bright moon, made it 
 as light as day. When a, halt was made, near, I 
 suppose, to the imaginary Zammi tree, I made my way 
 to the centre of the throng to see what was to be seen. 
 Of course, I did not intrude myself so near as to cause 
 any hindrance or possible defilement. I met with 
 much courtesy, and was permitted to see what took 
 place. A kind of circle was formed, in the midst of 
 which, squatted down on the ground, were several 
 Brahmin priests who performed the ceremony. A 
 naked sword was held up by one, the hilt resting on 
 the ground and pointing upwards. I was told that this 
 sword was kept in the temple as being the one, or 
 representing the one, with which Durga slew the 
 demon. Worship was performed to this sword as it 
 was thus held up. One of the priests sprinkled it 
 with water, and pinches of hunkama powder, and other 
 things, taken from a tray upon which the various 
 articles were set out in little pots or receptacles. 
 
HINDU FESTIVALS. 197 
 
 During this operation the celebrant -repeated verses 
 or mantrams as fast as ever he could. The noise all 
 around made his voice almost inaudible, and certainly, 
 I should fancy, quite unintelligible to any one present. 
 Indeed no one seemed to pay much attention to vyhat 
 he said. The dancing girls then began their usual 
 monotonous singing, and contortions, and I took my de- 
 parture. It is not easy to describe the effect the whole 
 scene had upon one's mind — the only European in the 
 whole vast crowd — the crushing shouting crowds, with 
 theirdark eagerfaces and bright-shining eyes, the glare 
 of the torches and lights, the huge solemn Elephant 
 with its gaudy trappings, the blare of the trumpets 
 and the rattle of the drums, and, high above all, the 
 clear moon shining in all its beauty, all combining to 
 form a scene not sobn to be forgotten. And this, 
 one could not but reflect with much sadness, even in 
 the midst of it all, and this is religion ! this is worship! 
 this is supposed to be an acceptable service to God ! 
 Truly they worship they know not what. "They 
 have no knowledge that set up the wood of their 
 graven image, and pray unto a god that cannot save.'' 
 (Isa. xlv. 20.) 
 
 The following are the words enjoined by the 
 Purdnas to be said by the priest at the conclusion of 
 the household worship performed at Hindu festive 
 seasons. They will perhaps serve to indicate the 
 motive which actuates those who observe the various 
 festivals, and so may fitly conclude this paper. 
 
 ^ e^qRfMrTJT: 1 
 
 qRjffa qKRtntcT i 
 
 ^^^m SI^RcT: 1! 
 
 Whosoever observes this rite 
 With care and with a 3evout mind, 
 
198 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 Will be freed from all his sins, 
 And will inherit heaven. 
 He will realize all his desires 
 By the favour of the great God. 
 
 It will be ■ observed that in all these observances 
 there is nothing as to the state of heart and soul of 
 the observer, nor is there anything showing the 
 necessity of a holy life ; everything points to the 
 merit of mere outward observance of stated ritual. 
 It seems, to a certain extent, to correspond with that 
 mere outward observance of ritual which is so 
 strongly condemned by God, through the prophet 
 Isaiah. The Jews appear, as a nation, to have sunk 
 into a state of mechanical observance of the outward 
 forms of devotion, without any corresponding holiness 
 or virtue in life and thought, and it is this state of 
 things against which the prophet, in the name of 
 the Almighty, most vehemently protests. 
 
 " Bring no more vain oblations ; incense is an abomination 
 unto me ; the new moons and sabbaths, the calling of 
 assemblies, I cannot away with; it is iniquity even the 
 solemn meeting. 
 
 Tour new moons and your appointed feasts my soul hateth ; 
 they are a trouble unto me ; I am weary to bear them. 
 
 Wash you, make yon clean ; put away the evil of your 
 doings from before mine eyes ; cease to do evil ; 
 
 Learn to do well; seek judgment, relieve the oppressed 
 judge the fatherless, plead for the widow." (Isaiah i. 13, 14, 
 16, 17.) 
 
CHAPTEE XIV. 
 
 HIK"DU MEITDIOITY. 
 
 ?|if^;T. (Yachana.) 
 
 By open confession, by repentance, by devotion and by 
 reading the Scripture, a sinner may be released from his 
 guilt; or by' almsgiving, in case of his inability to 'perform 
 the other acts of religion, (Manu XI. 228.) • 
 
 The virtue of almsgiving, of relieving the vrants 
 of our fellow-beings in a world where sufEering and 
 sorrow abound, is most fitly enjoined, more or less, 
 upoQ the adherents of most religious systems ; but 
 there are many and very radical differences in the 
 motives that underlie the exercise of this grace. 
 That the mere indiscriminate giving of our substance 
 is not true charity, is a fundamental truth which finds 
 expression in the old Jewish proverb quoted by St. 
 Paul in one of his Epistles: — "If any would not 
 work neither should he eat." (2 Thess. iii. 10.) 
 There is no doubt that this principle has often been 
 set aside, yet it is, to a very large extent, that upon 
 which Christians act in their deeds of charity. The 
 sturdy mendicant is still to be met with, it is true, 
 even inEuropean countries, but public opinion decided- 
 ly protests against such impositions. In the East, 
 however, and especially in India, the principles 
 regulating almsgiving are widely different from those 
 of the West, and so, too, the motives that lead men 
 to dispense charity. If a man happen to belong to 
 a certain section of the community, or if, indeed, he 
 chooses to abandon all honest toil, and set himself up 
 as a mendicant, then, according to the Hindu theory, 
 it is a duty to part with one's substance in his behalf, 
 quite irrespective of other and more righteous con- 
 siderations. Maharaja ! Maharaja ! Dharmame jayam ! 
 Dharmame jayam ! (My lord ! My lord ! Charity is 
 
200 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 success I Charity is success !) — the everlasting cry 
 of the road-side beggar — exactly expresses this idea ; 
 the mere giving is meritoriouSj quite apart from the 
 worthiness of the recipient, and without any thought 
 as to indiscriminate giving being demoralizing and 
 rather productive of evil than good. The sleek, well 
 fed mendicant goes his wonted round, and he must not 
 be denied under pain of possible evils, contingent or 
 remote, temporal or spiritual. 
 
 No one will deny that this spirit of almsgiving has 
 its good side, and a very good side too. It provides, 
 at least, an existence for the poor, the halt, the blind, 
 and the helpless, who might otherwise be left to 
 perish where there is no public system of relief, as 
 provided by poor law boards and similar institutions 
 in other lands. Many and great are the blessings 
 resulting to the miserable and the destitute from this 
 universal exercise of almsgiving ; but carried to 
 excess, as it is in this country, and unregulated by 
 wholesome restrictions, as it seems to be, it not only 
 tends to rob the industrious for the sake of the in- 
 dolent, but, from the point of view of the political 
 economist, it is a tax upon the resources of the 
 country that creates and fosters an unproductive 
 section to the detriment of the whole community. 
 If any will not work, will not add his quota to the 
 general weal though perfectly capable of so doing, 
 neither should he eat. 
 
 It was but natural that, when the various rules regu- 
 lating th6 life of the community were drawn up by 
 Brahmins, they should have followed the universal 
 law of human nature and taken care of number one. 
 Much is said about alms in the sacred books of the 
 Bast, but, to a very large extent, these books deal with 
 the necessity of alms and gifts to Brahmins. This is 
 particularly manifest in the Institutes of Manu. It 
 is there stated that an oblation in the mouth or hand 
 of a Brahmin is far better than offerings to holy fire ; 
 it never drops ; it never dries ; it is never consumed. 
 A gift to one not a Brahmin produces fruit of a 
 middle standard ; to one who calls himself a Brahmin, 
 double ; to a well-read Brahmin, a hundred thousand 
 
HINDU MENDICITY. 201 
 
 fold ; to one who has read all the Vedas, infinite, 
 (vii. 84-85.) Manu also says : — Let every man, accord- 
 ing to his ability, give wealth to Brahmins, detached 
 from th« world and learned in Scripture ; such a giver 
 shall attain heaven after this life. (xi. 6.) Very 
 early in the statutes, a universal law is proclaimed, 
 the spirit of which pervades the whole code. This 
 law calmly lays down that whatever exists in the 
 universe is all, in efiect, though not in form, the 
 wealth of the Brahmins ; since the Brahmin is entitled 
 to it all by his primogeniture and eminence of birth. 
 The Brahmin eats but his own food ; wears but his 
 own apparel ; and bestows but his own in alms ; through 
 the benevolence of the Brahmin indeed other mortals 
 enjoy life. (i. 100-101.) This is a pretty broad 
 principle to enunciate, so it is easy to see how there 
 is nothing derogatory in a Brahmin receiving alms, 
 since he takes but what is his own, besides leaving 
 a blessing to the giver. 
 
 According to religious enactment, a Brahmin's life 
 is divided into four great stages, the first of which is 
 that of a student. After being invested with the 
 sacred thread and initiated into the Brahminical order 
 {vide chapter on Tagnopavitam), he is supposed to 
 leave his father's house and reside for some years 
 with a religious teacher, as an unmarried student. 
 This is in order that he may acquire a knowledge of 
 the Vedas. During this period the student should 
 live by alms, begged for by himself j and although 
 this state of things is perhaps nowhere carried out in 
 its entirety in these modern days, still even now, at 
 the investiture, the^ neophyte must ask for alms from 
 those present as a part of the ceremony. 
 
 Bach day must a Brahmin student receive his food by 
 begging, with due care, from the houses of persons renowned 
 for discharging their duties, and not deficient in performing 
 the sacrifices which the Veda ordains. (Manu II. 183.) 
 
 There is a vestige of this old Vedic custom still 
 remaining, though it has changed somewhat in form 
 to suit modern requirements. This is a system of 
 
 26 ~ ~ ' 
 
202 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 assisting poor Brahmin boys in their education, by 
 the charitably disposed, in turn, providing meals for 
 them. Besides the assistance that is given to such 
 students by helping to pay the necessary school fees, 
 and providing books, many students in oar schools 
 and colleges get their daily food by alms. One family, 
 say, will agree to give one or two meals a day to a 
 certain student, for a certain day in the week, and 
 others will do the same until the whole week is provid- 
 ed for throughout the year. There is nothing 
 lowering to the student in thus subsisting by charity ; 
 it is taken as a natural sort of thing and adds merit 
 to the donors. It is not usual, I believe, to provide 
 in this way for any other than Brahmin students. In 
 the Northern Circars a poor student will sometimes 
 tell you that he lives 'by weeks' j meaning that he 
 gets his food in the manner stated above ; that is, each 
 day of the week he gets his food at a difEerent'house. 
 The odd phrase ' living by weeks' has its origin in the 
 Telugu word that is used in this connection. This is 
 a far easier method than that adopted by many a poor 
 scholar in western lands, who has to work hard for 
 one portion of the year, in order to scrape together 
 the wherewithal to pursue his beloved studies at the 
 university during the other half. Each method is, 
 perhaps, suited to the character of the people who 
 adopt it ; but certainly the Indian system would not 
 be very congenial to the sturdy independence of 
 spirit more manifest in the West. 
 
 The following are extracts from the Mahabhdrata, 
 showing the duty of aiding in the support of students, 
 and the personal benefits to be derived from so 
 doing : — 
 
 ^m^ fpcf^ II 
 
 (1) Imparting knowledge is conferring a great boon. 
 Giving of food is most meritorious. 
 
HINDtr MENDICITY. 203 
 
 He who acts thus obtains great merit, 
 And will be freed from all sin. 
 
 2. f^?I[f^q^^r^ 
 
 (2) Those who to the humble scholar. 
 Give food every day 
 Regularly and ungrudgingly, 
 With desire for heaven, (will obtain it). 
 
 To the poor traveller, the laws and customs of India 
 are very kind, and many who have occasion to move 
 about from one place to another, thotigh utterly devoid 
 of means, are able to do so with comparative comfort. 
 The necessitous traveller is always sure of a meal, at 
 least, when he arrives at a village, if he waits until 
 the midday or evening meal is served. The laws of 
 hospitality are very real laws here ; and it is imper- 
 atively binding upon those who can do so, to give 
 some food, at least, to necessitous travellers, regard- 
 less of caste or condition. Of course a Brahmin must 
 go to Brahmins, for caste reasons, and a Sudra, or 
 Fanchama will go, in the first place, to his own people 
 by preference, but if his own people cannot help him, 
 he is sure of something, even from the Brahmin. To 
 send a hungry suppliant empty away is not only unkind, 
 it is a positive sin. There are many enactments on 
 this point, scattered up and down the various sacred 
 books, and these are all held binding upon the hearts 
 and consciences of the people. The following are a 
 few specimens culled from the Mahabharata : 
 
 551^ ^^^^ I 
 
204 THE HINDU AT HOME, 
 
 From whosesoever house 
 The stranger goes empty away, 
 His ancestors will perish 
 For fifteen generations. 
 
 cT^ cT Mi|-^% 11 
 
 The stranger who unsatisfied 
 
 Prom any house goes away, 
 
 From that householder he takes all merit. 
 
 And leaves his sins behind. 
 
 f^m: fMc1Wlci=h: 1 
 'BtlriRjtyM^^: 11 
 
 Where he a sinner or an outcaste. 
 Or even a Brahminicide, or parricide, 
 Whoever is entertained at meal time, 
 That stranger will cause the host to attain 
 heaven {8var garni). 
 
 It is not with this^ what may be designated casual 
 mendicity, that w;e have any quarrel ;. rather we would 
 commend such almsgiving, though it is easy to see 
 how, even here, the thing may be abused by the lazy 
 loafing tramp. We cannot, however, view with any 
 such complacence a form of regular systematic mendi- 
 city that abounds on all hands, and that must be a 
 
HINDU MENDICITY. 205 
 
 terrible drain upon the resources of the people. We 
 allude to the professional religious beggars — a 
 fraternity answering in some respects to the begging 
 Friars of the middle ages, although they are under no 
 vowSj and do not live in communities. This profession 
 is not confined to any particular caste, or section of 
 the community, and there are many varieties of it. 
 It is impossible, within the prescribed limits, to give 
 a full and complete catalogue of the brotherhood ; and 
 it is intended here only to take a few specimens, by 
 which a tolerably accurate notion may be formed of 
 the whole. First in order, as is but meet, we will 
 give a description of the mendicant Brahmin. 
 
 In inculcating the merit of almsgiving, it is always 
 enunciated that the highest form of charity is to give 
 to the Brahmin. Mann, after mentioning various 
 conditions in which one may be placed, goes on to 
 say :— 
 
 These nine Brahmins let mankind consider as virtuous 
 mendicants, called snatacas ; and to relieve their wants, let gifts 
 of cattle or gold be presented to them in proportion to their 
 learning. 
 
 To these most excellent Brahmins must rice also be given 
 with holy presents at oblations to fire and within the consecrated 
 circle ; but the dressed rice, which others are to receive, must 
 not be delivered on the outside of the sacred hearth : gold and 
 the like may he given anywhere. 
 
 Let every man, according to his abiltiy, give wealth to 
 Brahmins detached from the world and le^^rned in Scripture : 
 such giver shall attain heaven after this life, (xi. 2, 3, 6.) 
 
 It must not be supposed that, whatever the original 
 theory may have been, all Brahmins live in these 
 modern days by gifts and alms. This is far from 
 being the case. The learned professions, and other 
 walks of life are crowded with Brahmins, who labour 
 for their subsistence as do others. Ptobably it is 
 only the principle of the thing, as stated above by the 
 lawgiver, that now survives; though even iri these 
 days, it is a principle that is acknowledged as such, 
 and in various parts, and in manifold ways, to a certain 
 
206 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 extent, is still acted upon. There is, however, even 
 now, a section of Brahmins who are professional 
 mendicants — who depend for their daily sustenance 
 upon the alms of the faithful. Of course the very poor 
 of all castes beg, and the poor Brahmin is no 
 exception to this rule ; those whom we are now de- 
 scribing are the professional mendicants. These are 
 principally the Pdnchangam Brahmins. A panchdngam 
 is an Almanack; the word being compounded of 
 pancha, five and angam, a number, or division. This 
 alludes to the five specific things taken into consi- 
 deration in computing by astrology, viz., the lunar day, 
 the day of the week, the sign in which the moon 
 happens to be, the conjunction of the planets, and the 
 combinations. The Pdnchangam Brahmin is one who, 
 by studying the Almanack, is able to state propitious 
 or unpropitious times. He gets his livelihood by going 
 certain rounds, day by day, from house to house, declar- 
 ing the condition of things, as per the Almanack, and 
 receiving in return a dole consisting, usually, of grain. 
 He is not held in much respect by his own caste people, 
 but he is. much looked up to by other castes. He is con- 
 sulted by his constituents, from time to time, when 
 they wish to know the propitious period for any under- 
 taking, as starting on a journey, making an important 
 purchase, putting on new clothes, or new jewels, 
 or when about to take up a new appointment, or 
 when any other important event is contemplated. He is 
 a Smartha by sect ; that is, he is really a worshipper of 
 Siva, and wears the marks of. that god, but at the 
 same time he respects and worships Vishnu. He 
 dresses very plainly, or rather he dresses very little 
 at all. He has the loin cloth, and an upper cloth 
 over his shoulder. His head is bare, but, as a 
 Smartha should be, he is plentifully marked with the 
 three horizontal white marks of Siva ; this not only 
 on the forehead, but also across the shoulders, on the 
 breast and stomach, as well as on the upper and lower 
 parts of each arm, and across the back of the neck. 
 Of course he wears the sacred thread, hanging over 
 his left shoulder, as a sign of being a twice-born. 
 In his hands he carries a copy of the current Alma- 
 
HINDTJ MENDICITY. 207 
 
 Hack, and a brass vessel in whicli he collects his 
 doles. He also has a spare cloth, to hold the 
 ' collection', which he carries as a bundle across his 
 shoulder. He does not confine his attention to 
 Brahmins, but he goes also to other castes, except the 
 Panchamas, and a few other sections of the community, 
 considered to be too inferior for his attention. On 
 going his daily round, when he comes to a house, he 
 shouts out Sitaramabhyam namah ! (Hail to Sita and 
 Bama !) ; or Ramachendra parabrahmane namah ! 
 (Hail to the beneficent supreme god Rama !) ; or Uma 
 Maheshvarabhyam namah ! (Hail to Siva and his 
 wife Uma !) ; or some other expressions of the same 
 kind. The people of the house, upon hearing the call, 
 present themselves, when he will go just inside, and 
 repeat the details of the Almanack for the day, his 
 particular point being to tell the unpropitious period 
 of the day [varjam], to which special attention is paid 
 by the people of the house. After tliis he reqeives his 
 dole of rice ; or very occasionally, a coin or two ; and 
 then takes his departure to the next house on his 
 list. The native Almanack is headed with slohas 
 declaring the benefits to be derived from hearing the 
 pdnchdngam. The following are specimens of these 
 verses : — 
 
 ^^qwe^rqt ^^% ii 
 
 2. fa^^JT uTRtfa 
 ^Rr?:msjisiq^ i 
 
208 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 mi m^]^^ 
 e^TTT^qt vi^^ II 
 
 (1) Hearing tlie Almanack is meritorious ; 
 In all undertakings it ensures success. 
 The prudent must never fail to hear it. 
 By this all sins will be destroyed. 
 
 (2) Hearing the lunar day will bring wealth ; 
 The day of the week will prolong life ; 
 The star will rid of sin ; 
 
 The conjunction of the planets will rid of disease. 
 
 (3) And the combination will promote success. 
 These benefits result from hearing the Almanack 
 Every day by merely hearing, 
 
 All sin will be destroyed. 
 
 The declaring of the Almanack by the panchdngam 
 Brahmin is somewhat as follows : — He begins by- 
 repeating, in a sing-song voice, and at a very rapid 
 rate, some such verses as those quoted above, showing 
 the benefits to be derived from hearing the Almanack ; 
 he then goes on, in a more deliberate manner, 
 to state the details of the day. Those for the day 
 upon which this paper is now being written would be 
 as follows. An old pandit friend reads it out, in 
 just the same way as though he were a professional, 
 and to the following effect : — Manmadha nama sam- 
 vatsara — chaitrabahula — 'dashami — shanivaram — 45, 
 56 — shravanam nakshatram — 40, 44 — Vishkambha 
 yogam — 20, 18 — karanam kimstughnkm — 14, 15 — 
 Varjam divi 23, 1 — tyajyam 3, 80 — dinapramanam 31, 
 20— Ashvani 1— Arkhabhukti 1, 15— Ohandu 20 — 
 April 20. 
 
 The meaning of this may be expressed as follows, 
 bearing in mind that a Hindu hour is equal to twenty 
 four English minutes and that thus the hour forms 
 the sixtieth part of a day : — The year Manmatha 
 
HINDU MENDICITY. 209 
 
 tbe month Chaitraj the dark fortnight — the tenth 
 day of that fortnight-^-the name of the day, Saturday 
 — the length of the dijiy, 45 hours and 56 minutes — 
 the star in the ascendant being Shravanam — lasting 
 for 40 hours and 44 minutes — the conflux of Visb- 
 kamba — lasting for 20 hours and 18 minutes — the 
 combination kinastughnam — lasting for 14 hours and 
 15 minutes — the unpropitious time commencing tbe 
 1st minute of the 23rd hour of the day — lasting until 
 the 30th minute of the 3rd hour — the length of the 
 daytime 31 hours and 20 minutes — the sun being in 
 the first quarter of Ashvani — the sun having passed 
 1 hour and 15 minutes of its present sign (Aries) — the 
 20th day of the moon — English time, April 20th. 
 
 It appears to be the custom in many houses to have 
 a certain portion of grain set apart, each morniog, to 
 be distributed to the beggars who may come that day. 
 The grain is put into a small basket, and is given 
 into the charge of, perhaps an elderly woman, or 
 perhaps one of the children, or some such person 
 who may not be particularly engaged in household 
 duties. When the mendicant comes before the door 
 and cries out for alma, the one in charge of the basket 
 will give a handful or two, according to the quantity 
 set aside for charity. Should the supply become 
 exhausted through the multitude of callers, a further 
 supply may be given out, if tbe household can afford 
 it ; otherwise the late comers must depart without 
 receiving anything. Of course it must often happen, 
 when beggars are so numerous, that many must go 
 away unsuccessful. It is a pleasant idea, though, 
 this setting aside a portion for the needy ; only it 
 would be more pleasant were it not for the fact that 
 so many of the recipients are not wortjiy of alms at 
 all. Sunday appears to be a specially good day for 
 beggars — this being a most propitious day ; and more 
 alms are distributed on Sunday than on other and 
 ordinary days. It need scaroely'be mentioned that 
 when the panchangam gentleman appears, he is 
 received by some of the elders, who may happen to be 
 at home, as his daily message is of importance. 
 
 The next class of professional mendicants whom 
 
 27 
 
210 THE HINDU AT HOMB, 
 
 we may describe is the Jangam mendicant. The 
 jangamas are a sect of Saivas who wear the Lingam on 
 their person, either in a box suspended from the 
 neck or else tied in a cloth round the arm. They are 
 a class of Sudras, who, theoretically, do not hold 
 caste distinctions, and in various other ways repudiate 
 Brahminioal rites. Many of this sect follow the 
 profession of tailor and dress-maker, whilst a 
 good number are native musicians. Some of this 
 sect are professional beggars. The Jangam beggar 
 may be known by his having the upper part of his 
 face and eyes plentifully covered with the white hori- 
 zontal marks of Siva. He also is clean shaven, not even 
 wearing the universal top-knot [sikha) . He is more 
 plentifully clothed than the ordinary mendicant, his 
 chief garment being a long reddish coloured coat. 
 He also wears a cap. He carries in his hand a long 
 staff with a steel trident at the end of it ; while 
 slung from one shoulder is a bell, and a conch shell, 
 and from the other the alms bag. Round his neck is 
 a rosary, composed of the rough spherical seeds of the 
 rudraksha tree (Elseooarpus ganitrus) ; and altogether 
 he is a person not easily to be mistaken. He will have 
 his constituents in various quarters, and he will visit 
 them in turn, according to their number, and his 
 own particular need or fancy. On coming to a house, 
 he will stand and ring his bell, to call attention to his 
 presence, at the same time shouting out the words, 
 Mahadeva shembo — names of Siva. Then standing 
 with his trident staff planted upright by his side, he 
 will begin to sing a snatch of some song, according 
 to the attention that may be paid to him. On receiv- 
 ing a dole, he will blow a long blast on his conch 
 shell, and then take his departure. The oonch is held 
 sacred to Siva, who is supposed to enjoy the peculiar 
 sound made by blowing through it. The following 
 are specimens of the songs thus sung. They are taken 
 from the Telugu, and an attempt has been made to 
 preserve the ideas, though somewhat altering the 
 form, so as to be the more suitable for English 
 readers. It will be noted what a pessimistic ring 
 there is about them. The Jangams are pure 
 
HINDU MENDICITY. 211 
 
 pessimists. The word Siva, Siva, appear to be used 
 as mere expletives : — 
 
 A SONG OF DESPAIR. 
 
 Befrain. — Trust not in the flesh ; 
 Do not trust in it. 
 Oh Siva ! Siva ! 
 Do not trust in it. 
 
 1. This body with all its poor deeds is hut vain ; 
 It but lingers a time here alone. 
 
 A mere acting puppet 'tis seen for a day ; 
 But at night it has perished and gone, 
 
 Trust not in the flesh, &o. 
 
 2. Their hopes are all vain, 'tis all fruitless I know ; 
 Who contentment and joy ever crave. 
 
 Though wealth without measure one has to his store. 
 He must leave it and sink in the grave. 
 
 Trust not in the flesh, &o. 
 
 3. We live in the midst of our lov'd ones who may 
 Perchance linger around us for years ; 
 
 Tet when the dread messenger calls us away, 
 Then alone we must leave them with tears. 
 
 Trust not in the flesh, &o. 
 
 4. Fond ties of affection the sweet thoughts of love. 
 Are but wretchedness, sorrow, and woe. 
 
 Death takes the fond wife, he spares not the loved child, 
 And our tears must eternally flow. 
 
 Trust not in the flesh, &o. 
 6. The soul that ne'er ponders on Sivas' great name, 
 Is but hopeless and worthless and dead. 
 All else is but vanity, mere empty show. 
 And such life's but one long weary dread. 
 
 Trust not in the flesh, &o, 
 
 A SONG OF MEDITATION. 
 
 Befrain,— Why murmur Oh my soul at death, 
 We each must feel his dart. 
 Alone into the world we came, 
 Alone we must depart. 
 
212 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 1. What wast thou then before thy birth ? 
 Why grieve at life's each smart ? 
 Enough thou know'st the saviour's name, 
 Serve him with all thy heart. 
 
 Why murmur Oh my soul, &c. 
 
 2. Though one may wander like the crow. 
 He can but meet his fate. 
 
 Seek Siva, trust to his strong arm. 
 And thus find heaven's bright gate. 
 
 Why murmur Oh my soul, &c. 
 
 3. When thou'st attained the Yogi's power. 
 And quit of life's vain show. 
 
 The narrow way to heaven is found, 
 Unaided thou canst go. 
 
 Why murmur Oh my soul, &o. 
 
 4. The flesh and all its ties are vain. 
 There's nought in life sublime. 
 Nor can we look for help from man. 
 In seeking the divine. 
 
 Why murmur Oh my soul, &c. 
 
 The subject of Hindu Mendicity will be continued 
 in the next chapter. 
 
CHAPT-EE XV. 
 
 HINDU ME^BICIT Y. -(Continued.) 
 ^^^, (Yachana.) 
 
 Both he who respectfully bestows a present, and he who 
 respectfully accepts it, shall go to a seat of bliss ; but if they 
 act otherwise, to a region of horror. (Manu iv. 235.) 
 
 The next class of religious mendicants that may be 
 described is the Sdtanis- 
 
 The Satanis are amongst the Vaishnavas what the 
 Jangamas are among the Saivas. This sect was 
 founded by Chaitanya in the 16th century, and origi- 
 nally its adherents were of all castes. Now, however, 
 in tlie Circars at least, Satanis are all Sudras ; they 
 particularly worship Krishna, whom they hold to be 
 the supreme God. A large number of this sect are 
 minstrels, or mendicants. Like the Jangam the 
 Satani should be clean shaven, botb face and head. 
 On his face and on various portions of his person he 
 is adorned with the trident-shaped mark of Vishnu. 
 On his shoulder he carries a guitar-shaped instru- 
 ment, having four wire strings. On this he strums 
 as he goes along, and with it also he accompanies his 
 songs. He has a pumpkin-shaped vessel to receive his 
 doles, which he transfers to a cloth when the vessel is 
 full. This vessel will also be adorned with the religi- 
 ous marks of Vishnu. He begs from all castes and 
 conditions expect the Panchamas. When he comes 
 in front of a house where he expects alms, he may 
 shout out ' Shri mate Ramanujaya namah M (Adora- 
 tion to the most excellent Ramanuja !), and then begin 
 to sing one of his songs, or hymns, of which the 
 following are specimens, rendered into English. 
 They are taken from the Telugu, as were those of the 
 Jangam in the previous chapter. In the first of these. 
 
214 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 Vishnu is called the saviour of the elephant {danti 
 varda), in allusion to a story in the eighth book of the 
 Bhdgavatam which has been already alluded to in the 
 ninth chapter. An elephant was bathing in a tank, 
 when it was attacked by a crocodile which would have 
 killed it had not Vishnu or Hari come to its relief^ — 
 so the story goes : — 
 
 A MEDITATION ON VISHNU. 
 
 Befrain : — My soul ! why settest thou thyself 
 On things that are bat vain. 
 The saviour of the elephant 
 Thy highest love doth claim. 
 
 1. My soul ! full satisfaction seek. 
 Engage thyself in this. 
 
 Go meditate on Hari's feet, 
 Make this thy chiefest bliss. 
 
 My soul ! why settest, &c. 
 
 2. My soul ! know death is ever near. 
 E'er ready to destroy. 
 
 On him who's great in excellence, 
 Thy heart and mind employ. 
 
 My soul ! why settest, &c. 
 
 3. My soul ! why spendest thou thyself, 
 On children, wife, or wealth. 
 
 Shri Vishnu serve and thus attain. 
 To joy of soul and health. 
 
 My soul ! why settest, &c. 
 
 4. My soul ! consider him who reigns, 
 At Kanchi's mountain home. 
 Whose wives Bhudevi, Shridevi, 
 Share his great golden throne. 
 
 My soul ! why settest, &c. 
 
 The following is a hymn to Eama, the various allu- 
 sions in it may be briefly explained. They are stories 
 to be found in the Ramayana. Maricha (verse 3) was 
 a malevolent being (Rakshasa) son of Tataka, He 
 
HINDU MENDICITY, 215 
 
 and his brother Subahu impishly interfered with a 
 Rushi named Vishvamitra and prevented his perform- 
 ance of a sacrifice {Yagnam). Being unable to 
 endure this interference, and at the same time power- 
 less to prevent it, the Rushi appealed to Rama 
 for assistance. Rama came and destroyed the two 
 brothers with two arrows. Subahu was slain with a 
 fire arrow ; and Maricha being struck with a wind 
 arrow {vdrgerhanam) fell into the sea. 
 
 In order to express his gratitude for this deliverance, 
 Vishvamitra told Rama of a certain king named 
 Janaka who had promised to give his daughter Sita 
 to wife to any one strong enough to break a certain 
 bow named Hara, or Harathanassu (verse 4). Rama 
 accompanied by Vishvamitra went to the king and 
 succeeded in performing the required test and thus 
 won his wife Sita. 
 
 Upon Rama's banishment from his father's home 
 into the eternal forest, he was accompanied by his wife 
 Sita and his brother Lakshmanna. This story has 
 already been alluded to in the fourth chapter. One 
 day whilst the three were thus living in the forest, 
 near a mountain called Ohitrakiita (a mountain in 
 Bundelkhand) , Rama lay sleeping with his head in 
 Sita's lap. A demon crow (Rakshasa) ,n amed Kakasura 
 (verse 5), seeing the bare foot of Sita, and thinking 
 from its red colour that it was meat, came near and 
 bit the foot so that the blood began to flow. (Red is 
 the beauty colour amongst Hindus.) At the cries of 
 Sita, Rama awoke, and on seeing the bleeding wound 
 was told what had been done. Upon this, the enraged 
 husband, made an arrow of a blade of grass, and shot 
 it from his bow at the demon crow, which was sitting 
 near by on a tree. This blade of grass became an 
 arrow of fire and followed the crow wherever it flew, 
 no matter in what direction it went. At length 
 Kakasura being unable to bear the persecution any 
 longer, flew to Rama and craved pardon. This was 
 granted on condition that the culprit should lose one 
 eye by way of punishment. To this Kakasura con- 
 sented whereupon his life was spared ; but he lost 
 an eye. 
 
216 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 PRAISE TO RAMA. 
 
 1. Thou parent of Brahma ; 
 Thou glorious Sri B.ania ; 
 
 Thy greatness what mortal can tell. 
 
 2. Attend and be gracious ; 
 I'll tell forth thy praises ; 
 
 Thy glory what mortal can tell. 
 
 3. "Who slew foul MarTcha ; 
 And saved Vishvamitra ; 
 
 Thy prowess what mortal can tell, 
 
 4. Who brake the bow Hara ; 
 And thus gained sweet Sita ; 
 
 Thy vigour what mortal can tell. 
 
 5. "Who spared Kakasura, 
 When pleading for mercy ; 
 
 Thy kindness what mortal can tell, 
 
 6. "Who e'er bestows bounty. 
 
 On those who seek from thee ; 
 
 Thy goodness what mortal can tell. 
 
 7. Thou friend of the friendless, 
 Relieve all my distress ; 
 
 Thy pity what mortal can tell. 
 
 Anotlier well known religious mendicant is the 
 DSsAEf, or Pariah priest. This functionary is the one 
 who performs all religious ceremonies for the Pariahs. 
 He oflSciates at their marriages and funerals ; and at 
 their celebrations for the dead, and all other such 
 ceremonies. He is also Physician, Astrologer, and 
 Soothsayer; and is, altogether, a very important man. 
 He receives fees for his services, but he also lives by 
 begging ; and from the fact that he begs from all 
 castes, and, hence, from those who do not need his 
 official services, he must be classed as a Mendicant. 
 He is a Vaiahnava by religion, and he wears the 
 trident-shaped mark of Vishnu on his forehead 
 
HINDU MENDICITY. 217 
 
 and also on his shoulders, neck, and stomach. He is 
 also known to belong to the Ramanuja sect by having 
 a clean shaven face and upper-lip. He carries on his 
 shoulder a guitar-shaped native instrument, having 
 three wire strings ; on this he strums as he goes along, 
 and with this he accompanies his songs. The strings 
 are struck with a spiked-ring kind of instrument, 
 something like what is used in playing the European 
 Zither. He carries either on his head, or on his 
 shoulder, or fastened round his waist, a large fluted 
 brass, or copper vessel, which is used for collecting 
 the alms. This vessel is also ornamented with the 
 trident-shaped marks j as also is the musical instru- 
 ment. He carries in his hand a pair of wooden 
 castanets, or a pair of small bell-metal cymbals ; these 
 he uses to beat time as he sings. As he walks along he 
 sings to himself, striking his cymbals, and strumming 
 on his instrument. He is generally a jovial, merry 
 fellow, of goodly condition as to his body ; being quite 
 the reverse, in this respect, of the pessimastic Jangam 
 described above. He looks on the bright side of 
 things, as becomes one of his sect, and he is a very 
 popular visitor as he goes his rounds ; people enjoy 
 listening to the merry fellow's songs. As he comes 
 into a village, or near a house where he expects a 
 dole, he will break into a song, of which a specimen 
 may be rendered into English as follows. The refrain 
 is sung at the commencement of the song, and also at 
 the end of each verse, as is generally the case with 
 native songs. The author of this song is supposed to 
 be one Srinivas who alludes to himself in the fourth 
 verse by name. The whole song is supposed to be 
 a divine meditation of the author upon his god 
 Krishna : — 
 
 DIVINE MEDITATION. 
 
 Befram : — Thou lord of the Sages all hail! 
 
 Thou dweUer on Yedus vast height. 
 
 Thou great purifier all hail ! 
 
 To thee goodness is e'er a delight. 
 
 28 
 
218 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 1. O thou in whom all things do move ; 
 Thou beauteous being divine. 
 Thou refuge of all in distress ; 
 Thine ear to my sorrows incline. 
 
 Thou lord of the Sages, &o. 
 
 2. Thou lovest me is it not so P 
 Thy mercy 'ill evermore crave. 
 I love thee too is it not so ? 
 
 Stretch forth thy right hand and now save. 
 Thou lord of the Sages, &c. 
 
 3. Thou friend of the one great supreme. 
 Thine anger I ever would flee. 
 
 I call but thou answerest not. 
 In love do thou turn unto me. 
 
 Thou lord of the Sages, &c. 
 
 4. In greatness thy name doth excell 
 Thy speech is as nectar to me. 
 Oh stay of thy slave Srinivas, 
 
 To thee, favoured of Vishnu, I flee. 
 
 Thou lord of the Sages, &o. 
 
 On coming in front of a dwelling where he expects 
 to receive alms, the Dasari will strike np some such 
 song as the following. It is in praise of Vishnu, who 
 is also known as Narayana. This term is also some- 
 times nsed as an appellation of the great supreme 
 (Parameshvara) . The author of this hymn is sup- 
 posed to be one Venkatadas who speaks of himself in 
 the third verse : — 
 
 A HYMN TO VISHNU. 
 
 Refrain :— Narayana ! Narayana ! the nectar of thy name. 
 
 To me is life, to me is health, to me is more than all. 
 Thou lotus eyed, creator thou,thon most beneficent ; 
 Be gracious now, attend my prayer, yea hear me 
 when I call. 
 
 1. Much fasting I cannot sustain. 
 Meditation and prayer I know not. 
 I feeble and worthy of blame, 
 Would share in thy bounty and grace. 
 
 Narayana ! Narayana ! &c. 
 
HINDU MENDICITY. 219 
 
 2. I practise not giving of alms, 
 Know nothing of heavenly ways. 
 Oh ! look upon me thy poor slave, 
 And aid me to bask in thy rays. 
 
 Narayana ! Narayana ! &c. 
 
 3. Oh refuge of Venkatadas ; 
 Great spirit of wisdom and grace ! 
 Enthroned on thy lotus attend ; 
 Grant me to behold thy lov'd face. 
 
 Narayana ! Narayana ! &c. 
 
 On receiving his dole, the Dasari will pronounce 
 a blessing upon the giver in some such words as the 
 following : — 
 
 THE DASARI'S BENEDICTION. 
 
 NO 
 
 f?irT:TfafqqT g'wl^ 
 e^55eigRqfef?[^ ii 
 
 Wealth, gold, and other riches in abundance — abundance of 
 children and grandchildren— long life, health, and prosperity 
 —My blessing is Brahma's blessing — by the mercy of the all 
 bountiful, may you have prosperity in abundance. 
 
 The Dasarij and the Panchangam Brahmin are much 
 sought after on account of their skill in settling which 
 are good or bad times for any particular event to take 
 place. In this respect they answer somewhat to the 
 fortune-tellers of Europe. Suppose a man wants to 
 know what is a good time to perform a marriage, or 
 to start on a particular journey, or anything of the 
 kind, he will seek out a person skilled in such matters. 
 
220 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 in order to know when is the best time to commence 
 the undertaking. The calculation seems to be made 
 somewhat in the following manner. There are twenty- 
 seven stars which are supposed to guide the affairs of 
 mankind. There is a rule by which certain letters of 
 the alphabet, and combinations thereof, are attached 
 to certain stars, and this is the starting point in these 
 predictions. Suppose a man is about to start on an 
 importanb journey, and he wishes to know when he 
 should set out. On repairing to a Dasari, he will be 
 asked his name. Suppose the name to be Venkayya, 
 the first combination of this name being Ve, and that 
 being attached to the star Mrugashira calculations are 
 made, with the help of the Almanack, as to the posi- 
 tion of that star with reference to the planetary system 
 generally, and in this way a conclusion is arrived as to 
 a certain particular period of time — an hour, or a day, 
 or a week, or a year, as the case may be — being 
 favourable or otherwise. Of course a fee is attacbed 
 to such services ; tbe amount of the fee depending, to 
 a certain extent, upon the nature and importance of 
 the event contemplated. 
 
 The fourth stage of a Brahmin's life is that of the 
 Sdniyasi, during whicb he is supposed to leave his 
 home and family and live entirely by alms. He 
 should shave off his sikha, or topknot, and discard bis 
 Sacred Thread ; and, going forth as an empty-handed 
 mendicant, live a life of hardship and self-denial for the 
 remainder of his days. 
 
 A gourd, a wooden bowl, an earthen dish, or a basket of 
 reeds, has Manu, son of the self-existing, declared fit vessels 
 to receive the food of Brahmins devoted to God. 
 
 Only once a day let him demand food ; let him not habi- 
 tuate himself to eat much at a time ; for an anchorite habitu- 
 ated to eat much becomes inclined to sensual gratifications. 
 
 At the time when the smoke of the kitchen fires has ceased, 
 when the pestle lies motionless, when the burning charcoal is' 
 extinguished, when people have eaten, and when dishes are 
 removed, that is, late in the day, let the saniyasi always beg 
 food. (Manu, vi. 54—56.) 
 
HINDU MENDICITY. 221 
 
 This may have been a general rule ia Vedio times, 
 but now-a-days there are very few indeed who adopt 
 this mode of life ; and those who do, are perhaps 
 mostly to be found at Benares and other Hindu holy 
 places. The chief Grurus (Superiors) of the three 
 great sects, who follow respectively the Dvaita, Advai- 
 ta and Visishtadvaita schools of philosophy, must be 
 Saniyasis ; only instead of leading a wandering life, 
 they reside at the chief seats of theological power ; 
 and though they subsist by the alms of the faithful, 
 their revenues are in reality very large indeed. Prom 
 time to time they go on tour in great state, with ele- 
 phants and horses, to confirm the faithful, and to 
 decide upon religious matters, as well as to receive 
 alms. Personally, these great Gurus are said to live 
 as Saniyasis should do, in great simplicity of life and 
 habits. 
 
 Besides the great orders of religious mendicants, of 
 which the above named may be taken as samples, there 
 are large numbers of professional beggars who travel 
 about the country, adopting various devices to attract 
 the attention of the people, and extract alms for them- 
 selves. One may often see a small group of men, usually 
 of the cow herd caste, having with them several trained 
 bulls. These are dressed up in a fantastic manner, 
 and have been taught to dance, or bow their heads 
 as if in assent to anything said to them, or place their 
 feet upon their masters, or to perform various other 
 tricks. The men have musical instruments and drums, 
 and are themselves clothed in a grotesque manner. 
 These are very sturdy beggars, and when they receive 
 anything, the givers may be blessed by the bull 
 licking them. There are also the snake-charmers, 
 the trained bear-leaders, and the trained monkey- 
 men, who travel up and down the country begging. 
 There is, too, the professional story-teller ; and it may 
 be interesting to mention that the story-tellers in 
 these parts, amongst other stories, tell that of Bussy 
 and his wars with the English. Some people go about 
 with a sort of portable puppet show, and some of 
 these will also flog themselves with a kind of scourge, 
 and this until the blood flows, all to excite pity or 
 
222 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 admiration and to get alms. Some also go about 
 with a small double drum^ sbaped like a large hour- 
 glassj which is sounded very rapidly by a quick turn 
 of the wrist bringing a bard knotted cord to bear 
 upon the parchment at both ends ; these perhaps also 
 add to their accomplishments by barking like a dog. 
 Numberless, indeed, are the devices of the lazy rogues 
 to get a comfortable livelihood without bard labour. 
 The indiscriminate giving of alms is an outgrowth of 
 the religious system which enjoins giving for the mere 
 asking, and that to one and all, whether orthodox or 
 heterodox. This is also carried to such an extreme 
 that not only is it meritorious to feed animals of 
 various kinds, but also even ants, to which a handful 
 of broken grain will be cast. 
 
 Gifts must be made by each housekeeper, as far as he has 
 ability, to religious mendicants, thougb heterodox ; and a just 
 portion must be reserved, without inconvenience to his family, 
 for all sentient beings, animal and vegetalle. (Manu, iv. 32.) 
 
 Connected with the subject of mendicity is that of 
 Satrams or Choultries, and also sheds erected in the hot 
 season for the giving of water, or butter-milk, or the 
 like, to the poor and thirsty wayfarer. There is no 
 town, and scarcely any large village, which has not 
 some kind of Satram, be it ever so humble a building, 
 that has been erected by charity — sometimes by an 
 individual, and sometimes by a group of persons, or 
 perhaps a whole village — to accommodate travellers. 
 In a country where there are no inns, or hotels, as in 
 Europe, these form an excellent substitute ; and con- 
 sidering the habits of the natives, they are more suitable 
 than anything European could be. So useful indeed 
 are these places, that Government, and public bodies 
 like Municipalities, sometimes either build them them- 
 selves, or assist by grants in the building of them. 
 These Satrams are of two kinds, those which are merely 
 for lodging, leaving the visitors to provide for them- 
 selves ; and those which, in addition to lodging, provide 
 food gratis to the needy traveller. It is this which 
 brings the Satrams within the subject of mendicity. 
 
HINDU MENDICITY. 223 
 
 Many of these institutions have endowments of lands 
 attached to them, which, in some cases, afford a large 
 income. A large choultry may have different divisions 
 for different castes j whilst others may be only for 
 one particular caste. lb is only poor travellers who 
 will receive their food gratis ; the well-to-do will 
 provide for themselves, though they gladly make use 
 of the accommodation provided. It is considered 
 very meritorious to build or endow a Satram, and 
 there are passages in Hindu sacred books which 
 enjoin this form of charity. The following is a quota- 
 tion from the Sheshadharmam of the Mahiabharata, 
 which bears on this subject : — 
 
 qr^^t^srrw^ ii 
 ftl ^% ^vpf =^ II 
 
 (1) In a country, village, town, or public way. 
 ■ A food-giving Satram should be erected. 
 
 Merit thus obtained will last 
 
 As long as the sun and moon endure. , 
 
 (2) There is no gift like unto water, and rice, 
 Which are satisfying to all. 
 
 Those who give these will obtain merit, 
 Both in this world and in the next. 
 
 Allusion may be made to the various occasions 
 upon which articles of food are distributed gratui- 
 tously, to Brahmins, or others, as the case may be. 
 
224 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 Notice has been taken of this in the chapters on 
 marriages, and funerals, and ceremonies for the dead. 
 Upon these and various other occasions, some of 
 which have been noticed in these pages, food is dis- 
 tributed to Brahmins, and to the poor, according to 
 the ability of the giver. It is these things which 
 cause such occasions as marriages and funerals to be 
 so great a source of debt, with all its kindred troubles ; 
 custom, however, and the rules of religion are so 
 strong that few if any dare to disregard them. 
 
 There is perhaps no need to dwell upon the ordinary- 
 street beggars, of whom there are so many to be met 
 with in this country as in other lands. In England, 
 the laws are severe upon the ordinary beggar, and 
 mendicity, in the form in which we see it in India, 
 is there suppressed by the strong hand of the law. 
 That being the case. Government takes care that 
 public institutions are provided for the relief of the 
 really indigent ; and this provision is met by a regular 
 tax upon the community. It is not that the English 
 are a less charitably disposed people than the Hindus ; 
 but they are also a practical people, and care is taken, 
 as far as possible, that charity shall not flow in un- 
 worthy channels. Doubtless in the West, as in the 
 East, there is a good deal of imposition on the good 
 feelings of the charitable ; but such evils are there 
 steadily suppressed, both by the law of the land and 
 also by public opinion. It would be impossible to 
 legislate against mendicity in India, in the present 
 condition of the country ; nor would it be wise, or 
 beneficial to attempt to do so, until something could 
 be devised to better meet the wants of the truly 
 indigent and helpless, of whona there are large numbers 
 up and down the land. It is the abuse of charity that 
 we deprecate and not charity itself. In these chapters 
 we have dealt chiefly with those forms of mendicity 
 which are an outcome of, and are fostered by the 
 Hindu religion. Not that anything approaching to 
 an exhaustive list has been given of the religious 
 mendicants to be met with ; those described are only 
 samples of a variety whose name is legion. Nothing 
 has been said of what may be called the forbidding. 
 
HINDU MENDICITY. 225 
 
 and even disgusting side o£ the -questioDj details of 
 whicli are found in the writings of Ward and others. 
 Such things may, even now, be seen by those who care 
 to enquire or to look for them ; where idle vagabonds, 
 by the most disgusting means, practically force people 
 to supply them with what they ask for. If a proper 
 computation could be made, it would, I believe, show 
 that a very large section of the people live directly or 
 indirectly, upon so-called charity ; and considering 
 that the Hindus are, as a people, comparatively poor, 
 this- must be a heavy tax upon the industrious portion' 
 of the community. This is not the only evil caused 
 by such widespread mendicity, for its effects upon the 
 morals of the mendicants themselves, as well as public 
 manners generally, cannot but be most deplorable. 
 Indolent habits are ever the parents of general evils, 
 and the results of such a state of things as has here 
 been described, must have a very evil effect upon 
 the moral and physical welfare of a people. Charity 
 in itself is a grace that, in its true and righteous 
 exercise, not only confers benefits, but brings a retiex 
 good. This cannot, however, be said of mere giving, 
 . as such, apart from the worthiness either of the 
 object or the motives impelling the giver. The 
 giving, merely with a desire of obtaining merit for 
 oneself, or to receive a quid pro quo in the shape of 
 pardon for sin, or a better position in a future birth, 
 lacks the very essence of true charity, which is the 
 doing of good for the sake of doing good. It must 
 not, however, be inferred, that many Hindus are not 
 truly charitable, in the best sense of the word j for 
 true benevolence is not confined within any bounds, 
 national or religious ; but I do distinctly say that, as 
 far as reading and observation enable me to form an 
 opinion on the matter, the teaching and practice of 
 Hinduism, as- regards charity, is not in accordance 
 with the spirit of true beneficence, properly so-called. 
 How different it is from the teaching of Christianity 
 the following quotations show : — 
 
 As we have opportunity, let us do good unto all men, 
 especially unto them who are of the household of faith, 
 (Gal. vi. 10.) 
 
 29 
 
226 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 For we hear there are some 'which walk amongst you dis- 
 orderly, working not at all, but are busy bodies. Now them 
 that are such we command and exhort by our Lord Jesus 
 Christ, that with quietness they work and eat their own 
 bread. (2 Thess. iii. 11-12.) 
 
 Let him labour working with his hands the thing which is 
 good, that he may have to give to him that needeth. (Eph. 
 vi. 28.) 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 HINDU FUNEEALS. 
 vJTKf^^ . (Uttara Kriya). 
 
 Single is each man born ; single he dies ; single he receives 
 the reward of his good, and single the punishment of his evil 
 deeds. 
 
 When he leaves his corse, like a log or a lump of clay, on 
 the ground, his kindred retire with averted faces; but his 
 virtue accompanies his soul. (Manu iv. 240, 241.) 
 
 The various modes of disposing of the dead amongst 
 different nations, and the ceremonies connected 
 therewith, have always been an interesting study. 
 We are able by such inquiry to understand a good 
 deal as to the religious ideas of the people, and to 
 enter somewhat into their inner life. This being the 
 case, it is hoped that the present subject will not be 
 devoid of intetest, and perhaps of a certain amount of 
 instruction. One would desire to approach such a 
 topic in anything but a light spirit, for, though much 
 of the ceremonial, and the meaning attached thereto, 
 may appear strange and peculiar, still the sorrow and 
 longings when we part with our dear ones, and pay 
 for them the last sad offices, are feelings we experience 
 in common with our fellow-men of whatever nation or 
 faith. Callous indeed must be that one who could 
 pass even the rudely formed bier of the Hindus, with 
 its strange and uncouth surroundings, without ex- 
 periencing, to some extent, feelings of saddened 
 solemnity. 
 
 There is a curious passage in Manu where the 
 question seems to be raised, as to how even death can 
 have any power over such • holy beings as Brahmins, 
 especially those learned in the Vedas, and who, un- 
 deviatingly, perform the duties laid down for their 
 guidance. It may be interesting to quote the passage 
 in question, though it is rather a long one, seeing 
 that it gives as a reason for the mortality of a twice- 
 
228 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 born, his probable remissness in performing religious 
 rites, or his possible offending in -the matter of diet. 
 There is nothing said as to the possible immortality 
 of one who may not deviate from the rules and re- 
 gulations laid down for his guidance ; perhaps the 
 hypothesis is considered so vague as not to be worthy 
 of mention. Chapter V. of Manava-Dharma-Sastra 
 which opens with the passage quoted, is largely com- 
 posed of the most minute rules and regulations as to 
 diet ; and it is difficult to conceive the possibility of 
 mortal man avoiding some offence according thereto, 
 and thus rendering himself amenable to the "genius 
 of death." The passage is as follows : — 
 
 The sages, having heard those laws delivered for the con- 
 duct o£ honse-keepersjthus addressed the highminded Bhrigu, 
 who proceeded in a former birth from the genius of Are. 
 
 How, Lord, can death prevail over Brahmans, who know 
 the scriptural ordinances, and perform their duties as they 
 have been declared ? 
 
 Then he, whose disposition was perfect virtue, even Bhrigu, 
 the son of Menu, thus answered the great Rishis : Hear, 
 from what sin proceeds the inclination of death, to destroy 
 the chief of the twice-born. 
 
 Through a neglect of reading the Veda, through adesertion. 
 of approved usages, through supine remissness in perform- 
 ing holy rites, and through various offences in diet, the 
 genius of death becomes eager to destroy them. (Manu 
 V. 1—4) 
 
 Amongst Hindus of -all castes, and both sexes, when 
 a person is so ill as to appear near death, the family 
 pnest is summoned to administer the last sacrament 
 (jivanamaskaram) which last solemn rite is adminis- 
 tered in the following manner. The sick person is lifted 
 from the couch upon which he may be lying,and caused 
 to recline upon the ground, supported, perhaps, by a 
 low stool. . It seems a cruel thing to lift a dying 
 person off the comfortp-ble couch and thus, perhaps, 
 hasten the end; but the rules of religion call for 
 it, and there can be no demur. A couch is not con- 
 sidered a pure place {madi) ; and the friends of a sick 
 
HINDU rUNEEALS. 229 
 
 man will not even feed him whilst lying on the couch, 
 unless he may be so ill as to be unable to move or be 
 moved. For the purpose of taking food he must be 
 lifted from off the couch, and made to sit on pure 
 mother earth. The priest then approaches with the 
 panchagavyam, which may be called the sacramental 
 elements. This consists of a mixture composed of the 
 five products of the cow — milk, curds, butter, urine, 
 and dung. The dying person is first asked to recite 
 after the priest certain Mantrams, and, if too weak 
 to articulate, he is desired to recite them within him- 
 self. Afterwards the vessel containing the nauseous 
 mixture is placed to his lips, and some of it is poured 
 into the mouth. This whole ceremony is called 
 prayaschittam, or ceremony of expiation. Of the 
 various texts recited, two are given below as speci- 
 mens : — 
 
 " I take this sacrament of panchagavyam for the absolution 
 of my sins, both those committed voluntarily and invo- 
 luntarily." 
 
 ^f faBfcT ^J^w^ i 
 ^l^rfjr^^^ 11 
 
 Whatever sins adhere to the skin and bone 
 Now present in this my body ; 
 May the partaking of this panchagavyam 
 Destroy them as fire destroys fuel. 
 
 The sick person is then replaced upon the conch to 
 await the end. Some tirde, perhaps days, may elapse 
 after this sacrament, before death, and indeed the 
 person may recover. If from sudden death, or any 
 
230 THE HINDF AT HOME. 
 
 other cause, this ceremony cannot be performed, the 
 death is not considered so happy a onej and there 
 seems to be something to provide specially for such 
 cases in the Mantrams that are said at the commemo- 
 rative ceremonies for the dead [shraddha) . 
 
 When it is evident that death is very near, the 
 dying person is laid on the ground, which has been 
 previously prepared by smearing with cowdung and 
 placing the sacred grass darbha {po a-cynosur aides) . 
 Much importance is placed upon a person breathing 
 his last on the bosom of pure mother earth. Indeed 
 it is a common way of cursing, when in anger, to say — 
 " When you come to die may there be no one to place 
 you on the ground." 
 
 There are cerbain phases on the moon during which 
 it would be considered a serious calamity for any one 
 to die inside the house, as has already been mentioned 
 in the second chapter on the Hindu Home ; we may, 
 however, again allude to the matter here in this con- 
 nection. Should death draw near at such a period, 
 the patient is carefully carried outside to die in some 
 outer verandah. Should the event, through any mis- 
 fortune, take place inside the house during such a 
 period, the whole dwelling would be considered pol- 
 luted ; it would have to be entirely vacated for some 
 time, after which a ceremony called punyahavachanam 
 would have to be performed in the place, to purify it 
 before it could be reoccupied. Sometimes when such 
 a calamity does befall a household, in order to avoid 
 the trouble and cost of moving out entirely, a hole is 
 made in the side-wall of the house, near the room 
 where the death took place, and the body is passed 
 outside through the hole. In such a case, only that 
 one side of the house would be impure and have to be 
 purified ; the other part could be inhabited as usual. 
 This mode of action however, is not considered proper 
 or respectable, and it is thought to reflect dishonour 
 upon the dead. 
 
 Much need not be said about the sad weeping and 
 wailing that is given way to so bitterly by the sur- 
 vivors, at the time of death. The wailing of eastern 
 women is proverbial j but it must be witnessed, and 
 
HINDU EUNEfiALS. 231 
 
 heard to be fully understood. The men are quiet in 
 their grief ; it is not considered seemly for a man to 
 weep, and wail ; but the females seem to abandon 
 themselves completely to their sorrow, and their 
 lamentations are both loud and long. Sometimes they 
 will tear their hair, or beat their foreheads, and roll 
 their bodies about as if in great agony, as they give 
 utterance to their sorrow for the dead. I know of 
 nothing more heart rending than to witness such 
 giving way to grief ; the effect upon one at the sight 
 of it is inexpressibly saddening. 
 
 As soon as death has taken place, a light is put at 
 the head of the body, and preparations are at once 
 made for the funeral. The chief person at the fune- 
 ral is the near relative who has to perform the neces- 
 sary rites, and who is called the Karma Karta or 
 Karta (the one who acts) . This is the eldest son, if 
 there is one who is so old as to have received wpana- 
 yanam. Failing such a son, if the dead person is a 
 woman, her husband ; if a man, his father ; if the 
 father is dead, the next brother, and so on in order 
 of nearest relationship. 
 
 All that has been described hitherto, applies to all — 
 both to those who burn and those who buiy their 
 dead — ^both modes are in use amongst Hindus. The 
 present chapter Will treat of those who burn their 
 dead — and the next will take up the case of those who 
 bury, showing any difference in usage. 
 
 Usually only a few hours elapse after death before 
 the funeral. There is, however, no fixed rule on this 
 point ; it seems to depend on circumstances. 
 
 The dead body is now washed and adorned with 
 the pun&rams (sacred marks), and then, being clothed 
 with only one long cloth, it is put in a sitting posture, 
 leaning against the wall, the head alone being 
 uncovered. The Karta now performs a homam 
 sacrifice in front of the dead; The fire for the homam 
 is brought from the house fire, and the sacrifice 
 consists of dropping into it ghee, and rice, and the 
 green twigs of some such tree as the ravi or peepul 
 
232 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 (Ficua religiosa) — Mantrams being repeated the 
 while, of which the following is a specimen : — 
 
 NO ^ 
 
 O fire do thou turn towards me ; look kindly towards me ; 
 have favour upon me ; with thy seven tongue^, spoken of 
 (in the Vedas) graciously partake of my ofiering. 
 
 After the homam the body, enveloped in a new 
 white cloth, is placed upon the bier. The bier is a 
 hastily formed construction of two long poles, usually 
 bamboos, with seven pieces of wood tied across. It is 
 said that seven cross pieces are used to represent the 
 seven upper worlds. 
 
 Some of the fire from the homam is placed in a new 
 earthen pot to be carried in the procession by the chief 
 mourner. The body, wrapped in the new cloth and 
 fastened to the bier, has the two thumbs, and also the 
 two great toes tied together with cords. 
 
 The bier is carried by several of the relatives, or at 
 least by persons of the same caste. It would be con- 
 sidered pollution for a person of any other caste to 
 assist in this office : — 
 
 " Let no kinsman, whilst any of his own class are at hand, 
 cause a deceased Brahmin to be carried out by a Sudra ; since 
 the funeral rite, polluted by the touch of a servile man, 
 obstructs his passage to heaven." (Manu v. 104.) 
 
 There is an expression used to one another amongst 
 Hindus — " Tou will soon ascend a palanquin carried 
 by bearers of your own caste," meaning you will 
 soon die. 
 
 The procession consists of a few of the friends, some- 
 times even females,with the men carrying the bier, and 
 the chief mourner, or Karta, carrying the pot of fire. 
 Where music is employed, the musicians also form 
 part of the procession, playing their wild music. It 
 may be well to notice that those who bury their dead 
 always have music ; those who cremate have it some- 
 
HINDU FONEEALS. 233 
 
 times, thougli it appears in such cases to be unlawful, 
 or, at least, irregular. On the way to the cemetery 
 the procession is stopped three times, and the bier 
 placed on the ground. The face is then uncovered, 
 and a Mantram is said. This appears to be done from 
 the fear that, owing the speedy funeral, the person 
 may not be really dead after all. The Mantram used 
 is this : — 
 
 " spirit ! hast thou returned ?" 
 
 The cemetery {shmashanam) is a vacant spot set 
 apart for this purpose, Every town and village has 
 one or more according to its size, and it is usually 
 situated to the north-east. The burning ground is a 
 dreary place enough, and is utterly unlike what is 
 sometimes imagined as an eastern cemetery — with its 
 shady trees and cool paths, adorned with white and 
 glistening statuary, and all the adjuncts conjured up 
 by a poetic mind. It is generally a mere waste, 
 barren, neglected spot with nothing to distinguish it 
 from any other waste, except here and there a few 
 blackened patches, testifying to more recent or more 
 ancient fires. These blackened places, and a few 
 broken pots are generally all there is to mark the 
 Hindu ' God's-acre.' The burying places, too, are, 
 as a rule, kept something in the same state of utter 
 neglect ; though sometimes, if private property, they 
 may be planted with trees, and kept nice ; this how- 
 ever, it must be admitted, is very much the ekception. 
 
 On arriving at the ground with their melancholy 
 burden, the friends will probably find the funeral pyre 
 already made, or in course of preparation. In 
 villages, in the case of poor people, each householder 
 puts out a little fuel to help form the funeral pile ; 
 this is collected by the man who splits the wood and 
 prepares the pyre. In the villages the one who does 
 this is the Vettyman, a kind of public messenger, and 
 low official drudge attached to each village, always a 
 Pariah, and generally holding a small piece of land 
 which, with certain fees, forms his remuneration. 
 
 30 
 
234 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 For funerals, part of his fee is the cloth wound round 
 the corpse, and the sticks of which the bier is made. 
 
 On arriving at the spot the bier is set down, and 
 the body is put on the pile. Before being thus 
 placed, the cloth in which it was wrapped is taken 
 off, any jewels in the ears, or else where, are also taken 
 off, as also is the sacred thread, and the waist cord. 
 The body must be completely naked — as it came into 
 the world, so it must thus depart. The corpse is laid 
 on the pile with its head towards the south, and its 
 legs to the north ; it is laid on its back, but the face 
 is slightly turned towards the east. 
 
 The Karta now perform the 'pradakshina ceremony. 
 He takes an earthen pot full of water and makes a 
 small hole in the bottom of it from which the water 
 may slowly trickle out. With his hair all hanging 
 down his back, he will take the pot of water on to his 
 shoulder, and, as the water slowly runs out, he will 
 walk round the pile, having his right shoulder to- 
 wards it. This is done three times ; before the second 
 round, a second hole is made in the pot ; and in like 
 manner, a third hole is made before the third round. 
 After the three circumambulations, he will throw the 
 pot over his head behind him and it is dashed to 
 pieces. This is supposed to assuage the thirst of the 
 Prefca during the fiery ordeal. 
 
 The Karta now performs a homam sacrifice, and 
 then, taking some of the sacred tire, applies it to 
 the right side, and breasts, and shoulders of the 
 body as it lies on the pile. This being done the 
 supreme moment has arrived when, taking some of 
 the sanctified fire, he applies it to the pile, near the 
 head of the body, and sets it all alight, during which 
 time the priest repeats Mantrams of which the following 
 are specimens : — 
 
 
HINDU FUNERALS. 235 
 
 After performing the preta homatn, he (the karta), takes 
 brands (from the homam), and standing with his face towards 
 the south, places a brand on the right side, and breasts, and 
 shoulders (of the corpse) . 
 
 ffRTnffif^5T tturf^ERt ^m%]^ fw^^ qturaft^ ii 
 
 O fire do not regret that thou art consuming this dead one. 
 Do not sorrow whilst thou art consuming his skin and his 
 whole body. 
 
 After this setting fire to the pile, the mourners sit 
 somewhat apart, whilst those who carried the bier 
 stay near to adjust the fire, from time to time, until 
 the skull is heard to burst, when the Karta is shaved 
 by the barber, after which he bathes. His head and 
 face must be completely shaved, except the sacred 
 top- knot (sikha) ; but should the deceased be younger 
 than he, this shaving is put off until the tenth day. 
 
 The chief mourner now return to the house with 
 his friends, but they do iiot enter it ; they simply go 
 there to get the materials for the Nitya karma sacri- 
 fice, which must now take place, and before which 
 the Karta should not re-enter the dwelling. It must 
 be observed, however, that if it should be after dark 
 in the evening before the Karta can have thus arrived, 
 the Nitya karma ceremony will not take place, 
 until the following morning. This ceremony can 
 never be done after darkness has set in. The Karta 
 with the Purohita, and any relatives or friends who 
 care to accompany him, now takes some fire and fuel, 
 and also some rice, ghee, curds, and pulse for a 
 sacrifice. He also receives from the Purohita, a 
 small round stone called, 29rete sMla, which, upon th^ 
 consecration ceremony being performed with reference 
 to it, (pratishta), iS supposed to become the personifica- 
 tion of the Preta, or disembodied spirit, of the 
 deceased. This stone the Karta ties up in a strip of 
 cloth previously torn from the winding sheet of the 
 deceased. This 6trip of cloth he wears as a kind of 
 Yagnopavitam, over the tight shoulder, during the 
 perfortnance of the Nitya kai-ma ceremonies for. the 
 
236 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 ensuing ten days. During all these ceremonies this 
 stone is honoured, and treated as though it were 
 really the spirit of the dead. 
 
 The party proceed to a particular place, outside the 
 town or village, where all such funeral rites are 
 performed. This place is usually a well, or near a 
 tank, or river, and it is only used for this particular 
 purpose. On arriving at the place in question, the 
 Karta proceeds to bathe, and then to cook the food 
 which he has brought. The preta shila is then placed 
 into a little receptacle formed for it of leaves — the leaf 
 of the lotus or some such leaf — and it is then 
 consecrated by the repetition of mantrams. A small 
 portion of the cooked food is then waved before the 
 stone, or offered to it, with suitable words. This is 
 supposed to appease the hunger of the Preta, as also 
 is water, which is poured over it, supposed to appease 
 its thirst. After this the remainder of the cooked 
 food is scattered to different sides, some thirty-two 
 different Mantrams being repeated, calling upon the 
 crows, and kites to come, and devour what is thus 
 scattered. The Mantrams are appeals to the disem- 
 bodied spirit to come, in the shape of the different 
 kinds of birds, and partake of the food thus provided. 
 All this is repeated every morning for ten days. The 
 following is a specimen of the texts thus said : — 
 
 5SRP7W#I m) W^qcri" I! 
 
 May this preta enjoy this food by means of the mouths of 
 these kites and crows. 
 
 When this ceremony is over, the scattered food is 
 eaten by the kites and crows which fly around in ex- 
 pectation of the feast, the signs of which they appear 
 to know well. 
 
 After this is all finished, the party return home 
 On entering the house, the Karta must purify his 
 eyes before looking upon any of the household, by 
 fixing them upon the Hght before spoken of as having 
 been placed on the spot where the deceased last lay 
 
He then proceeds to get a pot of water which he 
 suspends from a beam over the same place, that is 
 where the dead breathed his last. A snaall hole is 
 made in the bottom of this pot, and the water is 
 allowed slowly to drip on to the ground near the 
 place where the head lay. Here also is put some 
 earth having mixed in it nine different kinds of 
 grain. This pot is left there for the ten days of 
 the Nitya karma, and is supposed to assuage the 
 thirst of the spirit which is thought to still hover near 
 the spot. From the time of the death up to this, no 
 food has been cooked in the house j but now a meal is 
 prepared, a small portion of which is carefully placed 
 near the dripping water — also for the refreshment of 
 the disembodied spirit. This food is renewed daily 
 during the ten days of the Nitya karma ceremonies. 
 This last act may be said to end the ceremonies of the 
 funeral day itself, 'but not, as will be seen, all the 
 ceremonies for the dead. 
 
 On some one day of the ten during which the Nitya 
 karma rites are performed, there is a ceremony called 
 Sanchanam (collecting) . This takes place usually on 
 the fourth day, and it is performed at the burning 
 ground — it being different to and besides the daily 
 rite at the preta place above described. The Karta 
 and the Purohita, with a few friends, and probably 
 a few brahmins — especially if a fee should be given 
 to them for so coming — will proceed to the burning 
 ground, taking with them fire from the house and also 
 rice, ghee, and curds, with pots for cooking, besides 
 some of the sacred darhha grass. The Karta then 
 gathers together some of the pieces of bone that may 
 be left amongst the ashes of the funeral pile. • These 
 bones are preserved in a new earthen vessel or urn 
 {asihi'patra), for a longer or shorter time, after which 
 they are taken and thrown into some sacred river ; 
 or, failing that, buried in an unfrequented place. In 
 the case of wealthy people, it is a common thing for 
 Brahmins to be paid to take this urn with the calcined 
 bones all the way to Benares, there to be thrown into 
 the sacred Ganges. There is a shlokam as follows 
 which is current amongst the Purohitas showing the 
 
238 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 beneBts to be derived from the bones being thus cast 
 into the Ganges : — 
 
 S3 
 
 ^^^% qffq^ 11 
 
 How long soever the bones of a man, 
 Are in the waters of the Ganges ; 
 For so many thousands of years 
 They will be respected in Brahma lokam. 
 
 The rest of the ashes are carefully gathered together, 
 and put aside, or perhaps buried. The Karta now 
 proceeds to prepare a place for cooking the materials 
 he has brought for the purpose. This is done by 
 sprinkling a spot of ground with water and smearing 
 it with cow dung. He then bathes, and cooks the 
 food, after which he performs a homam sacrifice. 
 This being done he, with suitable mantrams, of which 
 a specimen has been given in connection with the 
 Nitya karma rites, casts food to the crows and kites 
 which have come there for the meal. This food, is 
 called — pretahdram or food for the spirit. 
 
 On the tenth and final day of the mourning, the 
 near- relatives, with the family priest and the Karta, 
 assemble at the place where the Nitya karma rites 
 are performed, for the last important ceremony. 
 
 The food is cooked and scattered to the birds, with 
 the repeating of Mantrams, for the last time ; after 
 which the chief mourners are all shaved and bathe ; 
 so as to be rendered free from defilement. The brass 
 pot in which this food has been cooked for the past 
 ten days, as well as the preta shila (the small stone), 
 are now thrown into the water by the Karta, as being 
 done with. This is called Shiladhivdsam or placing 
 the stone. The pot is afterwards secured by the 
 Purohita as a kind of fee. After this a homam is 
 
HINDU FUNERALS. 239 
 
 performed by the Karta, alms are distributed to attend- 
 ant Bralimins and all proceed to their homes. 
 
 If the deceased were a married man, it is at this 
 last ceremony that the poor widow is, as one may say, 
 depfraded into her state of widowhood. This rite is 
 called Sutrachchedam, or cutting ol: the cord. I know 
 of nothing in the whole range of Hindu rites and 
 ceremonies, that is more saddening that this relic of 
 barbarism ; and yet it is still in full active force, 
 even at the present day. As though it were for some 
 fault of hers that death has taken away her husband, 
 she is now to be initiated into that state of degrHdation 
 and misery which is the lot of the poor Indian widow. 
 No thought of youth or beauty, no bonds of nature or 
 ties of affection can ward off this inevitable curse. 
 The bright and happy life is visited with this dire 
 \anathema, and the iron rule must have it course. Tlie 
 relatives and friends of the poor forlorn creature as- 
 semble at the house, and the victim is adorned for the 
 sacrifice. Her festive raiment, is put on ; and she is 
 also beautified with her jewels, and flowers, snd 
 sweet smelling sandal-paste." The beauty is intensified 
 with rouge and bright pigments, and all is arranged as 
 for a festive day. Oh the bitterness of it ! the, unutter- 
 able misery ! For a time her loved friends weep with 
 her, and embrace her, condoling with her on her fate ; 
 after which she is taken in a palanquin of some sort, 
 and conveyed to the scene of her degrading. Arrived 
 here, and at the proper moment, her bright clothing 
 and jewels are taken off, and she must henceforth have 
 only one coarse covering ; her beautiful long hair, the 
 glory of her womanhood, is cut off, and her head is 
 close shaven, as it must ever more thereafter be ; the 
 Mangalasutram, or marriage token, of which so much 
 has been said in the chapter on marriages, is cut off, 
 and she is now a widow indeed. This cutting off of 
 the marriage cord is always done by a woman, as if 
 to make the ceremony, if possible, the more degrading 
 to her sex. The poor widow ia then taken back to 
 her home, ever after to be a drudge and a thing for 
 contempt, until the hand of death may relieve her of 
 her misery. What wonder is it that so many, in full 
 
240 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 contemplation of the life long misery, preferred the 
 death of a suttee ; and to escape the evil to come 
 gladly ascended the funeral pile ! The position of the 
 Hindu widow is one that, for its attendant miseries, 
 and also its temptations to evil, has not perhaps its 
 equal in the world. What wonder is it that, to 
 escape her wretchedness, or may be to conceal her 
 shame, so many a poor creature is driven to the sui- 
 cides death. A bitter cry on a pitch darknight, 
 followed by a heavy splash as a leap is taken into the 
 clammy depths of some terrible Indian well — 'a hasty 
 enquiry the next morning, followed by a speedy 
 funeral — another victim to the written and unwritten 
 man-made codes which selfishly and cowardly heap 
 the miseries of life upon the frailer being — ^leaving 
 the stronger one, simply because he is the stranger, to 
 enjoy the kernel and sweets of life, whilst her portion is 
 the husk and the bitterness. It must be remembered 
 to the credit of the Tengalai Vaishnavas, unorthodox 
 though they may be, that they refrain from, inflicting 
 on their widows the dishonour of shaving the head. 
 
 In the event of the widow being a child, not 
 having yet arrived at the age to join her husband, the 
 only ceremony is the breaking off of the Mangala- 
 siitram ; the other ceremonies and degradations are 
 reserved to the time when she may have arrived at 
 full age, when the whole ceremony is gone through, 
 very much as above described. Can any thing be 
 more pathetic that the thought of a bright little thing 
 growing up free and happy, in her own loved home, 
 probably for a long time unconscious of the fate that 
 lies before her ; and yet with that destiny fixed, as 
 though engraven with a pen of iron — immutable, 
 certain as death. 
 
 On the eleventh day there are some ceremonies at 
 the house which include the feeding of Brahmins. 
 On this day too, in days gone bye, there was a cere- 
 mony called Ekdvhanam (calling of one) by which a 
 Brahmin, for a sufficient consideration, took upon 
 himself the sins of the deceased, and expiated the 
 same by twenty-one days seclusion and repeating 
 numberless times the Gayatri, and similar ceremonies. 
 
HINDU FDNEBALS. '241 
 
 This, however, now appears to be an obsolete rite; 
 at least it seems never to be performed ia the Circars. 
 Instead of this, thirty-two lumps of rice and ghee, 
 mixed together, are taken and thrown into a pit near 
 to which a homam sacrifice is made. This is a 
 singular ceremony, and reminds one somewhat of 
 Jewish rites as prescribed in the Levitical law. This 
 thought is, however, more prominently suggested 
 by another ceremony that is sometimes performed 
 on this day — a ceremony strongly suggestive of 
 the expiatory rite of the scape-goat. A young bull 
 is dedicated by being stamped with the mark of 
 Yishnu'swheelorthetridentof Siva,as the case maybe. 
 By this the sins of the deceased are supposed to be 
 transferred to the animal, and it is set free to wander 
 for ever, at its own will, as a sacred animal which it is 
 meritorious to feed and care for. Even if such a bull 
 were to get into the fields and eat the growing corn, 
 it should not be driven out ; and one may often see in 
 the bazars, one of these huge pampered creatures 
 helping itself, in a lordly manner, from the grain 
 baskets of the merchants. Sometimes a cow calf is 
 also devoted, and a kind of marriage performed 
 between the two ; but this does not appear to be often 
 done. Those who cannot afford to give such costly 
 offerings will, on this day, at least give a cloth or two to 
 the Brahmins. This ceremony of dedicating an ani- 
 mal as a sinbearer will be seen to be worthy of fur- 
 ther consideration, in its possible connection with, the 
 Jewish rite above alladed to, when it will be found, 
 further on, in the chapter on unorthodox funerals, 
 that something of the kind is also observed amongst 
 such a primitive tribe as the Todas of the Nilgiri 
 hills in Southern India, and such an unorthodox people 
 as the Badagas of the same range of hills. / 
 
 Oa the twelfth day, the last, and a most important 
 one, of the various funeral ceremonies is performed 
 called the Sapindi Karemam; but this rite will be 
 described in the next chapter when we come to speak 
 of Shrdddhas. 
 
 A few words should be said about mourning ; for 
 the Hindu idea of mourning is not conveyed by the 
 
 31 
 
242 THE HINDU AT HOME, 
 
 English term. With them it means uncleanness, 
 ceremonial defilement; and it is quite apart from the 
 natural sorrow caused to survivors by death. The 
 word used for mourning, in the true Hindu sense, 
 is Ashushi or Sutakam, both which words mean 
 ceremonial defilement. The duration of this mourn- 
 ing varies according to the condition of the deceased. 
 In the case of mere infants the time is about one day. 
 In the case of a boy who has not yet celebrated the 
 Upanayanam, or of a girl as yet not married, the 
 time is three days ; and after that, in either case, the 
 proper time is ten days. In the case of a married 
 female, whether she may have yet joined her husband 
 or not, her own parents and brothers and sisters have 
 this ceremonial mourning for three days. During 
 these periods, the near relatives of the deceased are 
 considered unclean, and their touch would ceremoni- 
 ally defile any person or thing. They must not enter 
 their own kitchen or touch any cooking utensil ; the 
 food, during the days of mourning, must be prepared 
 by some one not personally connected with the 
 deceased, although, of course, of equal caste. Should 
 it be impossible, from any cause whatever, to obtain 
 the services of a proper person to cook for them, as 
 for instance a family being alone at a long distance 
 from their caste fellows, although such a contingency 
 rarely happens, the ceremonially unclean ones may 
 procure provisions, and temporary eookingutensils, and 
 prepare food for themselves in some place other than 
 the usual kitchen-^to enter this in an impure state 
 would render the stored provisions and everything 
 therein unclean and hence worthless. The mourners 
 will not lie down upon a mattress, as it would be 
 rendered unclean and call for much trouble in 
 purification ; they also will not put on the coloured 
 portions of the ordinary sacred marks; they will 
 refrain from wearing gay coloured garments and, in 
 various other outward ways, they will manifest their 
 defilement. During these days, also, it is customary 
 to refrain from all kinds of indulgences, as for 
 instance tasty food, the use of betel and tobacco or 
 snuff, or any like personal gratifications. With the 
 
HINDU FUNERALS. 243 
 
 prescribed days, however, this mourning comes to 
 an end, and things then go on as usual, after the 
 necessary purificatory ceremonies. This, of course, 
 is a difEerent thing to the heart-sorrow, the real 
 mourning, which cannot be confined within prescrib- 
 ed limits by any code or custom. 
 
 We have here endeavoured to give a pretty full 
 outline of the chief ceremonies connected with Hindu 
 cremation. We advisedly say the cfe'e/' ceremonies, 
 for there are others, beside those here described. 
 Enough has, however, been narrated to give a fair 
 idea of things so far. It must be understood that we 
 have been speaking, all along, of things connected 
 with the highest castes, and even in their case the 
 ceremonies m^ay not always be thus carefully per- 
 formed; doubtless in numbers of instances the affair 
 is disposed of in a much more summary manner ; still, 
 this is as it should be, and as it is really done in, per- 
 haps, the majority of. cases. 
 
 We reserve for the next chapter an account of the 
 ceremonies connected with burying the dead ; as also 
 a description of the Shrdddhas or ceremonies periodi- 
 cally performed by the survivors for the benefit of the 
 spirits of deceased ancestors. 
 
CHAPTER XVII. 
 HINDU EUNEEALS.-CConfimeci). 
 
 ^■^<Ph^. (Uttara fcriya), 
 
 " A mansion with hopes for its rafters and heams ; with 
 nerves and tendons for cords; with muscles and hlood for 
 mortar ; with skin for its outward covering. 
 
 " A mansion infested by age and by sorrow, the seat of 
 malady, and harassed by pains, haunted with the quality of 
 darkness, and incapable of standing long ; such a mansion of 
 the vital soul let its occupier always cheerfully quit. 
 
 As a tree leaves the bank of a river, when it falls in, or as 
 a bird leaves the branch of a tree at his pleasure, thus he, who 
 leaves his body by necessity or by legal choice, is delivered 
 from the ravening shark, or crocodile, of the world." (Manu, 
 vi. 76—78). 
 
 In the previous chapter, an account is given of the 
 ceremonies performed at the funerals of those Hindus 
 who practise cremation, and also of the Niiya karma 
 rites performed during the ten days succeeding the 
 death. In this chapter it is purposed to describe 
 some of the chief rites and ceremonies performed in 
 the case of those vsrho bury their dead; as well as to 
 give some account of the 8hrdddhas, or Hindu 
 ceremonies for deceased ancestors. 
 
 The great mass of Hindus are worshippers of fire, 
 in some form or other ; indeed, fire worship is one of 
 the earliest cults of India, it being one of the vedic 
 forms of Nature worship — a deification of the pheno- 
 mena of nature, which has ever been one of the first 
 forms of departure from the worship of the one true 
 God. As fire worshippers, therefore, the Hindus 
 burn their dead — making that sacred element the 
 vehicle for the destruction of the gross and material 
 form in which the divine element no longer dwells. 
 There are some Hindus, however, who depart from 
 the ordinary orthodox faith, and pay allegiance to 
 
HINDU EDNERALS. 245 
 
 earth {prudhivi) as a deity; and who hence bury 
 their dead, instead of practising cremation. Amongst 
 these are the Lingadharis, those worshippers of Siva 
 who wear the lingam {the phallus), the emblem of 
 their God, upon their person ; but who, although they 
 include, Brahmins amongst their number, are not 
 considered orthodox. Indeed this sect is opposed to 
 all the chief Brabminical religious customs, and, as 
 one difference amongst many, they bury instead of 
 burning their dead. The Jangams, again, who are 
 closely allied to the Lingadharis, and of whom 
 mention was made in the chapter on Mendicity, and 
 also the Sdtanis described in the same chapter, all 
 bnry their dead. This is also the case with a section 
 of the Goldsmith and Weaver caste, that is those of 
 them who worship the Lingam. It is also worthy of 
 note that these Hindus who bury their dead, do not 
 observe the imphire days, which are so strictly observed 
 by those who burn. 
 
 Besides there being those whose custom it is to 
 bury under all circumstances, there are conditions 
 under which those who 'usually practise cremation, 
 dispose of the dead by burial. In the first place we 
 may mention that Sanyasis (Hermits) , of every sect, 
 are buried — a portion of salt being placed in the 
 grave with the body. The only exception to this is 
 when the body is simply cast into some sacred river. 
 These holy persons are past the stage when ceremonies 
 of any kind, are necessary, and this is given as the 
 reason for the above practise. Amongst the three 
 higher castes, all unmarried girls are buried', and all 
 boys who have not undergone the ceremony of 
 Upanayanam, or initiation into the state of the twice- 
 born. This is a deviation from the law laid down by 
 Mann, who seems to imply that it is only in the cases 
 of children under two years of age that cremation 
 should not be performed. The passages, on this 
 point, from the ancient law-giver are as follows : — 
 
 " A dead child under the age'of two years, let his kinsmen 
 carry out having decked him with flowers, and bury him in 
 pure ground, without collecting his bones at a future time. 
 
246 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 " Let no ceremony with fire be performed for him, nor that, 
 of sprinkling water ; but his kindred, having left him like a 
 piece of wood in the forest shall be unclean for three days." 
 (v. 68-69.) 
 
 In the case of Sadras, boys and girls are not, 
 as a rule, married so young as in the three upper 
 castes ; and the practice amongst them seems to be 
 that unmarried boys and girla, under the age of eight 
 or ten, are buried. There is no exact rule as to the 
 age. 
 
 All those who die of small-pox, of whatever sect 
 or caste, are buried at once without any ceremony 
 whatever. This practice probably arose from sanitary 
 causes, although the common people give a religious 
 reason for it. Some say it is because this disease is 
 caused by Lakshmi, the wife of Vishnu, and, as no 
 sacrifices by fi,re are made to her, she would be dis- 
 pleased if they burned her victims. 
 
 In the case of those who practice cremation, when 
 they lose one of their children, it is taken away and 
 buried without any ceremony whatever. They leave 
 it " like a piece of wood in the forest" and it is all 
 over. There are no ceremonies at the time, except 
 that, in some cases, food is cooked near the grave 
 and thrown to the birds for three days; but this 
 withbut any repeating of Mantrams. There are also, 
 in such cases, no Shraddhas, or periodical observances 
 for the dead. This is the rule, but human nature 
 cannot always be entirely repressed, and it appears to 
 be not an uncommon practice for a mother who may 
 have lost a child, to give food or presents, once a 
 year, to some little boy or girl, as the case may be, 
 of about the same age and condition as her lost one. 
 
 There is much less ceremony connected with burial 
 than with cremation. Up to the time of the procession 
 leaving the house for the cemetery, the rites are 
 much about the same in both cases, except that there 
 is no homam, or sacrifice by fire. It is here that the 
 chief differences begin. The body is decked out with 
 flowers, and fine clothes; the face is exposed, and 
 the sacred marks are daubed on ; and, in the case of 
 
HINDU FUNEKAIS. 247 
 
 females, the jewels are also put on. As the body is 
 buried in a sitting posture, the bier has to be made 
 in a somewhat peculiar form to suit the same. The 
 body is placed as though sitting in a kind of open 
 sedan chair — the bier> being called Anantashayanam, 
 of the everlasting couch. Amongst the Lingadharis 
 the bier is borne by any of the sect, regardless of 
 caste, or whether wearers of the sacred thread 
 {Yajnopavltam) and hence considered twice-born, or 
 those who have not that privilege and distinction. 
 Often the bearers will be a mixed number from vari- 
 ous castes. This fact may seem a surprising one to 
 those who are Only conversant with the customs of 
 the more orthodox Hindus. There is always music 
 with the procession, and on the way the bier is put 
 down three times, and the plaintive question " spirit 
 hast thou return" is put to the deceased by the 
 Purohita just as in the case of those who cremate, 
 as already described in the previous chapter. 
 
 On arriving at the cemetery, the grave, usually a 
 very shallow one, is found ready prepared and the 
 ceremonies at once begin. The first thing is to puri- 
 fy the place ,• and this is done by sprinkling the grave, 
 and its surroundings with water in which Vibuthi, has 
 been mixed ; at the same time a mantram is repeated 
 by the purohita. This mantram is the one quoted in 
 the chapter on Sacred Marks as the first of the three 
 used by Vaishnavas on painting on their Pundrams. 
 It is an appeal to earth as a deity, and it may be well 
 to quote it again in this connection : — 
 
 c 
 
 ^Rq^^nfw^f^r ii 
 
 Oh earth ! destroy my sin, 
 
 Whatever sin may have been committed by me. 
 
 Oh earth ! thou art a gift of Brahma, 
 
 Thou hast been purified by Kasyapa. 
 
248 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 The body is then placed in the grave ; before putting 
 it in, however, the clothes, and jewels are all taken off,, 
 and it is stripped quite bare. The manner oii putting 
 the body into the grave is very peculiar amongst the 
 Jangams. I do not know whether this custom is 
 followed by any other sect, or whether there is any 
 thing answering to it in the case of those who do not 
 act so. This also may be merely a local custom. At 
 any rate, it was told me by a Jangam friend, and the 
 following story was given to account for it. 
 
 Many years ago there lived a Jangam mendicant 
 named Chennamallu, in a large village called Gudur 
 near to Masulipatam. This old mendicant, following 
 the well-known example of Charles V., conceived the 
 idea, which he carried into effect, of performing his 
 own funeral obsequies. He was carried to the grave 
 in the usual sedan chair like bier, and sat in the grave 
 for a seb time. Whilst being placed into the grave, he 
 is said to have repeated a poem of his own composing, 
 consisting of thirty-two stanzas. After returning from 
 the grave, the old ascetic duly performed his own 
 Shraddhas for a full year; at the end of which, after 
 the final monthly Shraddha, he died, and a tomb was 
 built over his grave. This story must be true for 
 there is the tomb to this day ! The Jangams, since 
 that time, have adopted the custom of repeating these 
 thirty-two stanzas at the burial of their dead, on 
 placing the body in the grave. The ground is sloped 
 in a kind of zigzas: down into the grave, and the body 
 is moved a little down the slope, at the repetition by 
 the Purohifca of each stanza of the poem; at the 
 thirty-second stanza the body is placed fairly into its 
 position in the grave. It may be interesting to give 
 a translation of one stanza of this poem as an example ; 
 it is in Telugu, and is called Chennamallu Seesam : — 
 
 By the grace and favour of the divine guru, I have been 
 
 permitted to worship the gurus. 
 Through the favour of the gurus, I have obtained divine 
 
 sustenance and happiness. 
 By their wisdom and favour I have attained to complete 
 
 devotion (bhakti). 
 
HINDU PDNBEALS. 249 
 
 By enjoying the happiness of complete devotion I have 
 attained to salvation. 
 
 (Oh my soul)! for the future there will be nothing 
 lacking unto thee. 
 
 Oh Chennamallu ! than humbly serving God with sing- 
 ing, and music, 
 
 And praising, and commending other things, 
 
 There are no other means of obtaining great benefit. 
 
 When the body has been placed in the grave, earth 
 is put in up to about the waist. The Kartu, or chief 
 mourner, then takes the Lingam of the deceased out 
 of its receptacle — which is usually a kind of silver 
 sarcophagus, suspended from the neck — and having 
 bathed and worshipped it, he places it in the left 
 hand of the dead person, where it is allowed to 
 remain, to be buried with the body. The priest then 
 repeats a mantram, the Karta joining in with him, 
 daring which he, the Karta, takes up a handful of 
 earth and throws it into the grave. This answers to 
 the setting fire to the pile in the case of those who 
 practice cremation. The mantram thus repeated is 
 as follows : — 
 
 so 
 
 Become united with Siva. 
 
 It is said that the skull of the deceased person is 
 now broken by a blow given with a cocoanut, so as to 
 facilitate the escape of the soul from the body through 
 the aperture, I am assured, however, , by those who 
 bury, that this is not the case; it being only a bit of 
 slander on the part of their adversaries. In the case 
 of Sanyasis, it seems, however, that this is actually 
 done, why in this case only, it is not easy to make out. 
 After the mantram, the friends present also throw in 
 handfuls of earth, and finally they fill up the grave, 
 and raise a low mound over it. In the middle of this 
 mound they form with mud the shape of a Lingam, 
 and at each of the four corners a rough model of a 
 bull. The bull (wawdi) is sacred to Siva, this being 
 his vehicle. 
 
 32 
 
250 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 These they all worship, and then disperse — bathing 
 on their way home in some convenient tank or river. 
 Those of the Lingadharis who wear the sacred thread, 
 before leaving the grave cook some rice, and give it 
 to the cows to eat, if any are near, or, failing them, 
 they throw it into a river or tank. On reaching home 
 they place a lighted lamp on the spot where the de- 
 ceased breathed his last, and then the chief mourner 
 and the Purohita, with several friends, partake of a 
 meal in company. For the ten days succeeding the 
 funeral, the Karta with the Purohita and friends pro- 
 ceed daily to the grave for worship. They worship 
 the Lingam and the bulls which have been made on 
 the grave, as above, by sprinkling them with Vibuthi 
 mixed with water, and scattering over them flowers 
 and coloured rice, as well as bits of cocoanut and sugar,' 
 at the same time repeating the thousand names of Siva 
 and various mantrams. Vibuthi, it will be remembered, 
 is the gray colouring material with which Saivites 
 make the sacred marks on their person. On the tenth 
 and final day, the earthen emblems of the Lingam 
 and the bulls are levelled on the mound, and thus 
 caused to disappear. Sometimes, if the friends can 
 afford it, they will build a kind of monument over 
 the grave, as those who burn their dead sometimes do 
 near the place of cremation. They may also have a 
 small bull made of stone, and place it on the grave as 
 a monument. The following is a specimen of the 
 mantrams thus said at the grave on these daily visits ; 
 it is said to be taken from the Skanda Purana : — 
 
 ^mT^ t^ q%07^q ii 
 
 I adore him (Siva) who sits immoveable in the universe, 
 Whose wisdom shines as a light dispelling darkness, 
 Who dwells in the hearts of all, 
 And who fills all things, the all wise. 
 
HINDU F0NEEALS. 251 
 
 e^rrciTRfnwiFifii? ft ^^^4 m ii 
 
 I adore him who fills the universe, who is without begin- 
 ning, 
 
 Solitary, pure, eternal, above all, without parts or passions. 
 
 Who is worshipped with thousands of lotus-petals and rice 
 procured by me. 
 
 Who, eternally happy, pervades all things shining in my 
 soul with unbounded beauty. 
 
 Whose nature is truth, who being invisible can assume any 
 form, the Supreme God. 
 
 When a member of a sect accustomed to burn its 
 dead dies of small-pox, and is therefore buried, a 
 curious custom is followed in order to give peace to 
 the spirit of the deceased. Two months after the 
 burial, or sometimes immediately after, the friends 
 take a small branch of the Ravi tree {Ficus religiosa), 
 or of the Zuvvi tree [Ficus infectoria) , or of the Moduga 
 tree ( Butea frondosa,) and treat this bit of stick as 
 though it were the deceased. By virtue of certain 
 mantrams, the stick is supposed to become the actual 
 dead body, and it is treated exactly as the body would 
 have been had it been cremated. It is bathed and 
 burnt, water and food are offered to the Pr'eta (spirit), 
 and all the ceremonies, for ten days, are gone through, 
 just as would have been the case had the deceased 
 died and been burnt in the ordinary way. 
 
 It may be asked what is done in the case of the 
 very poor ; or in the case of a stranger dying ? In 
 such cases who performs the funeral ceremonies, and 
 the burning or burying, as the case may be ? This 
 is not done by the public authorities, as in Europe, 
 but Hinduism has provided for the emergency in 
 another way. On the occasion of a death, not only is 
 the whole household ceremonially impure, but ^the 
 
252 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 immediate neighbours, also, are unclean until the dead 
 body is removed. Under such circumstances, no food 
 can be cooked or eaten j hence it is politic, nay ne- 
 cessary, for the neighbours to see to the speedy and 
 proper disposal of the remains. Under circum- 
 stances, therefore, calling for such action, the neigh- 
 bours are forced to attend to the matter, though 
 probably the ceremonies are not performed so 
 minutely or carefully as usual. 
 
 The ancient law-givers have also provided for 
 various emergencies that may arisen for instance, 
 in the case of a soldier dying in battle it would be im- 
 possible for all the ceremonies to be gone through. 
 All know the summary way in which the dead are 
 disposed of on ,the battle field. Here, then, there is 
 a special rule to provide for such a contingency : — 
 
 By a soldier discharing the duties of his class, and slain in , 
 the field with brandished weapons, the highest sacrifice is, in 
 that instant, complete; and so is his purification. This law is 
 fixed. (Manu v. 78.) 
 
 In the preceding chapter the custom was mentioned 
 o£ devoting a young bull, as a kind of scape-goat, by 
 those who practise cremation. Those who bury their. 
 dea,d never do this ; but they sometimes give a cow 
 with its calf to the priest, as also do the crematists. 
 This gift is called Godanam, or the cow offering. 
 
 Wenowcome to deal with the most important subject 
 of Shraddhas, or periodical ceremonies for deceased 
 ancestors. These ceremonies are a manifestation of 
 that ancestral worship which is seen, in some form or 
 other, as a part of so many of the various religions of 
 mankind. We see this as forming a very large portion 
 of the religious ceremonies of the Chinese, for instance; 
 but really and truly, it takes quite as important a 
 place in Hinduism, although it may manifest itself 
 in a somewhat different form. Those who practise cre- 
 mation are the more minute in their ancestral worship. 
 rites; but those who bury, also, have some ceremonies 
 of the kind, though differing in detail and in degree. 
 A learned Hindu professor is quoted as having said, 
 in one of a series of lectures, that :— " Ancestor- 
 worship, in some form or other, is the beginning, the 
 middle, and the end of what is known as the Hindu 
 
HINDU FONEEALS. 253 
 
 religion." {Bhattacharjya in Tagore lectures). The 
 object of the Hindu Shraddhas is to assist the departed 
 spirit through, the various experiences it will have to • 
 pass ; and at the same time, the one who duly performs 
 these rites and ceremonies, thereby lays up merit for 
 himself and his family, which merit will be duly 
 carried to the credit of the account hereafter to be 
 adjudicated upon. 
 
 The first of these ceremonies is the Nitya Jcarma 
 already described in the previous chapter as occupying 
 the ten days after the funeral. This is called Freta 
 Shraddha, and is not perhaps a Shraddha proper, as 
 ordinarily understood, hence it was dealt with as being 
 more in connection with the funeral rites themselves. 
 The object of the Nitya karma ceremonies is to provide 
 the departed spirit with an intermediate body. 
 The spirit at death leaves its former dwelling place 
 in an amorphous, invisible form, about the size of one's 
 thumb {Angushtha Matra) . This is called a Preta, and 
 were it not for the prescribed ceremonies, this spirit 
 would simply wander about for ever as an impure 
 ghost or goblin, amongst kindred demons and departed 
 evil spirits. By means of the Nitya Karma rites the 
 Preta is furnished with an intermediate kind of body 
 which enables it to feel the sensations of happiness or 
 misery, and thus be in a position to undergo the 
 punishment, or enjoy the good that may be its due. 
 
 On the twelfth day after the death' there mast be 
 the ceremony called Sapindi Karanam, or the mixing 
 together of the lumps, which is a great factor in this 
 desired change of form and nature of the Preta. It 
 appears that in some parts this ceremony is performed 
 on the eleventh day j but, as far as I can gather, it is 
 always done on the twelfth day in the Circars, and 
 probably in South India generally. On the morning 
 of the day in question, there is a large gathering of 
 Brahmins and friends and relatives at the house of the 
 deceased. It must be noted that it is supposed what- 
 ever nourishes the Brahmins fed on these occasions, 
 and who represent the departed spirits, also nour- 
 ishes and helps the spirits themselves. Thus the Brah- 
 mins are fed and well treated vicariously. There must 
 
254 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 be seven Brahmins specially called for this ceremony. 
 ' In the case of the ordinary Shraddhas, to be des- 
 cribed later on, there need be only two or three such. 
 To these is given the name of BhoMas, or those who 
 eat orenjoy. The seven called for the Sapindi rite are 
 said to be : — one to represent Vishnu, two the^Vishva- 
 devas (akind of deities that presides over Shraddhas), 
 three the deceased's immediate three ancestors, and. 
 one to represent the Preta. The two called for ordi- 
 nary Shraddha rites are said to be : — one to represent 
 the Vishva devas and one the spirit of the deceased. 
 It is not always easy to get fit and proper Brahmins 
 for these rites, and they must be rewarded for coming. 
 The food they vicariously eat on these occasions is 
 supposed to defile; and it necessitates purificatory 
 ceremonies of rather a severe nature. An old pundit 
 friend assured me that, though he used often to go to 
 such ceremonies, it was always against his desire ; but 
 that it would be sinful not to respond to the appeal 
 for help of the Karta. A Brahmin t,o be fit for this 
 duty should be over sixteen years of age, and should 
 have both parents still living ; probably because in the 
 event of his parents being dead he might have to be a 
 Karta on his own account ; he also, according to Manu, 
 should be a man of light and learning : — 
 
 Food, consecrated to the gods and the manes, must be pre- 
 sented to a theologian of eminent learning ; for certainly, when . 
 hands are smeared with blood, they cannot be cleaned with 
 blood only, nor can sin be removed by the company of 
 sinners. 
 
 As many mouthfuls as an unlearned man shall swallow at 
 an oblation to the gods, and to ancestors, so many red hot iron 
 balls must the giver of the Shraddha swallow in the next 
 world, (iii. 132, 133). 
 
 The Sapindi rite may be described as follows ; it 
 may be here stated that this rite is performed on or 
 near the spot where the deceased breathed his last. 
 When the Bhoktas are seated, and before the food for 
 the meal is served, four vessels made of leaves are 
 placed, three in front of those who represent the three 
 
immediate ancestors^ and one in front of the repre- 
 sentative of the deceased. The Karta, having poured 
 water into these vessels; takes that which is for 
 the deceased, and at the repeating of a mantram, 
 pours some of the water from it into the other three 
 vessels. This is supposed to indicate the union of 
 the spirit of the deceased with those of the immediate 
 ancestors. After this ceremony, the food is placed 
 before the Bhoktas who proceed to partake of the same. 
 Whilst they are thus eating, the Karta prepares four 
 large lumps of the boiled rice with the various condi- 
 ments and other accessories that form the meal of the 
 Bhoktas. One of these lumps he rolls up into a cylin- 
 drical shape which he places side by side with the 
 other three lumps in front of those assembled. The 
 cylindrical mass is supposed to represent the deceased, 
 and the three lumps his three immediate ancestors — 
 father, '"grandfather, and great grandfather. The 
 mass representing the deceased is then divided by the 
 Karta into three portions, one of each of which is 
 mixed with one of the three balls ; during this oper- 
 ation various mantrams are said. The three balls are 
 then taken by the Karta and thrown into water — a 
 river, a tank or well. By this rite the Preta, or goblin, 
 or impure spirit stage of existence is supposed to pass 
 away, and the soul of the deceased becomes a Pita, 
 that is, one invested with a kind of ethereal body, and 
 admitted to the company of the semi-divine ancestral 
 fathers. By this Sapindi ceremony, also, the spirit of 
 the great grandfather is supposed to be elevated into 
 a condition so as no longer to require the ceremonies 
 of its relatives, so for him they henceforth cease. 
 The following is a specimen of the mantrams said at 
 the Sapindikaranam : — 
 
 NO 
 NO 
 
256 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 ^ IT "^^ e ^^ 11 
 
 May the winds become sweet and true ! 
 
 May the rivers give out sweetness ! 
 
 May the standing corn be full of honey for us ! 
 
 May day and night become sweet. 
 
 May the abundance of the earth become sweet ! 
 
 May the skies become sweet for us ! 
 
 May our father possess sweetness ! 
 
 May our trees drop with honey ! 
 
 May the snn give us sweet things ! 
 
 May cows supply us with sweet milk ! 
 
 Be pleased to depart ! Let it be so ! 
 
 We now enter upon a subject, with reference to 
 whicli there are very divided, and in some cases, very 
 vague ideas current amongst Hindus of the present 
 day. By some it seems to be supposed that by the 
 due observance of the rites already mentioned, the 
 Pita passes at once beyond the reach of Yama, the 
 genius of death and judge of departed spirits, into the 
 ancestral heaven (piiruEleam) , there to remain until 
 the end of the age, when it will become absorbed into 
 the divine essence. That is to say, by the ceremonies 
 of the survivors, rightly performed, not only will there 
 be no punishment in hell, but also there will be no 
 rebirths—all this will be escaped. According to this 
 notion, it will be observed, a man's future condition 
 is not made to depend so much upon his own good or 
 evil deeds, as upon the faithfulness with which the 
 survivors perform stated ceremonies. It does not 
 require much effort to show how entirely subversive 
 such an idea as this must be, of all inducements to 
 
HINDU FDNBEAIS. 257 
 
 morality. Others again, in accordance with theVedanta 
 philosophy, maintain what may be called the orthodox 
 doctrine, which with various modifications is the 
 belief of the mass of Hindus. This belief is that 
 upon attaining the Pita state of existence, the spirit 
 departs on its journey to Yama to receive its doom 
 according to its deeds done in the body. The temporary 
 hell {papalokam or yamalokam), or the temporary 
 heaven {punyalokam or svargam) to which it may be 
 consigned will be its abode until it has received in 
 either state the reward that is its due. At the end 
 of this period, whether long or short, the spirit will be 
 reborn into some other state, again to commence the 
 weary round of existence from which it would fain be 
 released. Those pious souls, however, who have in 
 their passage through their various states of existence 
 attained into Gnanam (true wisdom) will pass straight 
 to Brahma-lokam (the heaven of Brahma) there to remain 
 in the enjoyment of heavenly bliss until the end of the 
 age (pralayam) , when they will be elevated to Nirvana 
 (moksham),that is absorption into the supreme essence; 
 which consummation is the end and aim of every pious 
 Hindu, It seems to be the object of the Shraddhas to 
 assist the spirits of those intended in their course to 
 other worlds, and at their dreadful trial before Yama, 
 as well as to support them and further their develop- 
 ment in the state of being in which they may be doomed 
 to exist, hastening their passage through the same. For 
 Sanyasis or Holy Hermits no Nityakarmas or any other 
 rites are required ; the souls of such do not become 
 Pretas but pass at once on leaving the body into the 
 Pita stage and proceed straight to Brahmalokam. For 
 these therefore no ceremonies or Shraddhas are neces- 
 sary. To such only worship is paid as though they were 
 divine. There is much that is very complex and 
 conflicting in the various schools of thought as to the 
 future state, and the benefit of ancestral ceremonies ; 
 but the above seems to me to give in brief a sufficient 
 outline to answer our present purpose. It must be 
 borne in mind, as has before been mentioned, that it 
 is not intended in these pages to give an account of 
 Hinduism as a religion, but rather to present some 
 
 33 
 
258 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 more or less popular sketches of every day Hindu 
 life and thought. 
 
 Although the Sapindi karanam and the Nityakarma 
 are Shraddhas of a kind, the first Shraddha proper is 
 performed on the twelfth day, that is sometime during 
 the day on the morning of which the Sapindi rite has 
 been observed. This is called Masika or monthly 
 Shraddha, and it is the commencement of those which 
 are performed every month for the first year, on the 
 thirtieth day after the death. These monthly cere- 
 monies are very much like the Sapindi rite, except 
 that there will be only two br three Bhoktas, and 
 there will only be the three lamps of rice and condi- 
 ments without the long cylindrical roll. Very minute 
 directions are given in Manu as to the performance 
 of these rites. They must never be done at night, 
 but always in the day time :— 
 
 Obsequies must not be performed by night ; since the night is 
 called racshasi or infested by demons; nor whilst the sun is 
 rising or setting, nor when it has just risen. (III. 280.) 
 
 The Karta must treat the Bhoktas respectfully, 
 and ha must urge them to eat the various dishes 
 provided : — 
 
 Then being duly purified and with perfect presence of mind 
 let him take up all the dishes, one by one, and present them in 
 order to the Brahmans, proclaiming their qualities (III. 228) 
 
 He must be very cautious how he moves about and 
 also be careful of his feelings as well as repress any 
 emotion, or he may by carelessness or by his tears, 
 cause disaster instead of benefit to those for whom he 
 is performing the ceremony : — 
 
 Let him at no time drop a tear ; let him on no acconnt be 
 angry ; let him say nothing false ; let him not touch the eat- 
 ables with his foot ; let him not even shake the' dishes : 
 
 A tear sends the messes to restless ghosts ; anger, to foes ; 
 falsehood, to dogs ; contact with his foot, to demons ; agitation 
 to sinners (iii. 229, 230). 
 
HINDU FUNERALS. 259 
 
 He must 'be carefal how he disposes of any food 
 that may be left from this ceremonial meal, and not 
 dispose of it in the manner of ordinary food : — 
 
 Thus having ended the Shraddha, let him cause a cow, a 
 priest, a kid, or the fire, to devour what remains of the cakes j 
 or let him cast them into the waters (iii. 260). 
 
 Dire v^ill be the punishment upon those v\rho instead 
 of disposing of the remains gf the feast in the manner 
 above prescribed, should given them to a low caste 
 man to eat : — 
 
 That fool, who having eaten of the Shraddha, gives the 
 residue of it to a man of the servile class, falls headlong down 
 to the hell named Calasutra (iii. 240). 
 
 The o*"dinary Shraddah ceremony may be thus des- 
 cribed. Two or three Bhoktas with the Parobita come 
 to the house by invitation, and they are duly seated 
 in the usual place for such proceedings. At these 
 Shraddhas the Bhoktas and Purohita sit in the sacred 
 kitchen-dining room. If there are two guests, one sits 
 facing the North, and the other fading the East. If 
 there should be a third, he will sit looking towards 
 the South. The Karta having duly bathed performs 
 a, Homam sacrifice in presence of the guests, and then 
 seating himself opposite to them, recites the names of 
 the century, the year, the month, and the day {Sanhal' 
 pam) and the names of the two sacred rivers between 
 which the place is situated in which they happen to be. 
 In the case of Masulipatam, it would be the Kistna 
 and the Godavery. He then proceeds to wash their 
 feet and wipe them, after sprinkling some of the water 
 on his own head with darbha grass. After this he wor- 
 ships the guests, scattering over them darbha, sesamum 
 seeds, raw rice and sandalwood paste, looking 
 upon them as though they were actually his deceased 
 ancestors and performing the same worship to them 
 as he does to his gods. Another sacrifice by fire is 
 then performed into which is cas't some of the food 
 that has been specially pTepwred for the occasion. 
 The remainder is then served out to the guests, but 
 
260 THE HINDD AT HOME. 
 
 the chief performer or Karta must not partake of it. 
 la ancient times certain kinds of flesh used to be 
 eaten on these occasions ; but now this is replaced by 
 a kind of grain. After the meal the guests are asked 
 whether they have eaten heartily, and they must 
 answer in the affirmative. The question asked is as 
 follows with the answer : — ■ 
 
 tqcTfqfiR^sifqcimfT: ^m:i^ ^m:^ m]:m: ii 
 
 c ■ c c c 
 
 O my father! my grandfather! my great grandfather! 
 Are you satisfied P Are you satisfied P We are satisfied. 
 
 Whilst the Bhoktas have been eating the Karta 
 has been making three large lumps of rice and con- 
 diments from the various eatables, and after they have 
 finished eating he proceeds to worship the lumps in 
 the same way as he has before worshipped the guests. 
 The worship finished he takes a grain of the rice, and 
 repeating a mantram puts it into his mouth. The 
 lumps which represent the deceased ancestors for the 
 three preceding generations are given to a cow to eat, 
 or failing that, they are burnt or buried or thrown 
 into some deep river, or tank, or well, whichever may 
 be most convenient. The Karta after worshipping 
 the lumps, gets a little cooked rice in a leaf and pours 
 some water upon it. He then sprinkles this on the 
 floor around the leaf-plate of one of the Bhoktas, 
 saying at the same time, the following Slokam :— 
 
 Il=5f cTW^ te 1! 
 
 c 
 
 Whoever has died without the sacraments, 
 Whether man virgin or woman, of my tribe 
 Tor them this food I give ; 
 Tor them this is a Shraddha. 
 
HINDU FUNBKALS. 261 
 
 After this, the Karta takes a small portion of the 
 rice and placing, it before each o£ the Bhoktas says 
 the following mantram. This is for the benefit of any 
 ancestors who may have been accidentally killed by 
 fire or water ; and who perhaps may not have had the 
 necessary ceremonies duly performed owing to the 
 accompanying circumstances : — 
 
 ^W^ II 
 
 qi^rr sttctt: ^^ m i 
 
 cTHT q-tcT W nfcf 11 
 
 Whoever has perished in water or by fire, 
 
 Of those born in my family, 
 
 By this food which is now givei on earth. 
 
 May they be satisfied and attain to heaven (punyalokam). 
 
 The ceremony being now complete the Bhoktas are 
 presented with betel and the fee for their services, 
 after which they take their departure. It is the rule 
 that these guests take no more food on that day, nor 
 must they do anything or touch anything that would 
 cause ceremonial defilement. Before leaving the 
 house the guests pronounce the following blessing. 
 This is quoted from Manu and the context in that 
 book makes it appear as though the Karta should 
 pronounce it : — 
 
 May' generous givers abound in our house ! May the scrip- 
 tures be studied, and progeny increase in it ! May faith never 
 depart from us, and may we have much to bestow on the 
 needy ! (iii. 259). 
 
 Following upon this ceremonial feast, there is a feast 
 given by the Karta to his friends and relatives as 
 well as to many Brahmins ; and also presents are dis- 
 tributed to them of money, and cloths, or copper and 
 
262 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 brass vessels and the like. Oa the following day a 
 similar feast is given to lowest caste neighbours and 
 the poor ; these also expect presents from their host. 
 
 This concludes the first monthly Shraddha ; upon 
 its repetition on every thirtieth day there is only 
 the ceremonial feast for the Bhoktas, bat no general 
 feasting. 
 
 At the end of the year there is a good deal of feast- 
 ing according to the means of the family, as at the 
 first monthly Shraddha, to mark the termination of 
 the monthly ceremonies. And afterwards there is the 
 annual ceremony performed on the anniversary of the 
 death all being done in much the same way as above 
 described. 
 
 What has been written above applies to Brahmins, 
 The Sudras follow the same ritual to a certain extent, 
 but there are these exceptions. The three chief 
 guests are Brahmins, one of whom is the Purohita. 
 The feeding of these is not done on the spot, as they 
 could not eat food cooked by Sudras ; provisions are 
 given to them which they take away and cook and 
 eat by themselves. It is imperative tbat the very 
 articles thus given be actually cooked and eaten by 
 them. After the ceremonies have been duly perform- 
 ed in presence of the Brahmins and they have taken 
 their departure, the Sudra Karta sits down with near 
 relatives who have been previously invited, to partake 
 of a meal in honour of the dead. It may be noted 
 that although Sudras usually eat meat and fish, at 
 this meal it is only the Vaishnavas who partake of 
 flesh ; the others make a point of having no meat 
 whatever at this particular time. 
 
 These annual ceremonies, differing somewhat in 
 form, are performed for both sexes by Hindus of 
 every caste and sect. It is for the due performance 
 of the funeral and annual ceremonies, that a Hindu 
 longs 80 earnestly for a son. If a man dies having no 
 male issue, his soul must suffer accordingly. Hence 
 it is that if a man's wife bears him no son, he must 
 either marry another wife or adopt a boy. The latter 
 is what is usually done, and adoption has thus become 
 an important institution amongst Hindus. 
 
HINDU FUNERALS. 263 
 
 In addition to what may be called the ordinary 
 Shraddhas, when opportunity offers and there is the 
 ability to take advantage of the same, extra Shraddhas 
 are performed at sacred rivers, and at such holy places 
 as Rameshvaram, Srirangam, Kumbakonam and 
 others in the south, and Benares, Allahabad, Gaya and 
 others in the north ; but for these ceremonies {pitru- 
 kdryam) no plapes appear to be so beneficial as Gaya 
 and its peighbourhood. Great merit is attached to 
 the performance of the ceremonies at any such places, 
 but the eflBoacy of those at Gaya is such that, when 
 fully and properly performed, the spirits of the de- 
 parted relatives for whom the observances are made, 
 no matter at what stage of existence they may be, 
 are at once admitted to the heaven of Vishnu — ^the 
 highest heaven (Vaikuntha). 
 
 Besides the ceremonies above described, there are 
 also daily observances partaking of; the same nature. 
 Each day the Karta or head of the household, at the 
 time of going through his daily devotions, pours out 
 water to the manes of his ancestors mentioning them 
 as he does so. This is called Tarpanam, or a drink 
 offering. He also does the same just before par- 
 taking of his food — making an oblation or offering of 
 water to his forefathers. It will be thus seen how 
 large a share ancestral worship has in the religion 
 of the Hindu. 
 
 Although these chapters on Hindu Funerals have 
 occupied much space, it must be observed that there 
 are many details that have not been touched upon at 
 all. Various and manifold items have not been des- 
 cribed ; there may also be much difference in detail 
 in different parts of the country. Enough, however, 
 has been explained to give a fair idea of what is done, 
 and to show the' truth of the saying that the Hindus 
 are a very religious people. 
 
 We might dwell upon the grievous expense that 
 these observances involve, wasting the substance of 
 the bereaved and often loading them with debt. 
 There is no greater cause of financial misery in Hindu 
 families that the expenses at marriages and funerals. 
 In the case' of wealthy men the burden is a great 
 
2(34 THE HINDO AT HOMB. 
 
 one; bat in ordinary cases the funds have to be 
 obtained from the money lender at an exorbitant rate 
 of interest, loading the poor victims with a life long 
 burden of debt. So manifest is the evil that, accord- 
 ing to the newspapers, high personages connected with 
 the Indian government have for some time had 
 under consideration means for mitigating the evil. 
 The custom is, however, so deeply rooted and the 
 Hindus are so thoroughly conservative, it seems barely 
 possible for any thing efEectual to be done. The 
 amelioration of matters of -this kind amongst such a 
 people can only be effected by the gradual growth of 
 public opinion in the right direction; and any change of 
 opinion, suflSoient to be felt, must occupy a very long 
 time in its formation. 
 
 To the Christian well wisher of India it is touch- 
 ing to see a people thus groping after pardon for sin 
 and happiness beyond the grave ; striving to obtain 
 by a slavish adherence to the letter of a dead law, 
 what can only be obtained through that only " name 
 under heaven given among men whereby we must be 
 saved." Very different indeed are all tbe vague 
 longings of the Hindu from the bright hopes of the 
 Christian, and great is the contrast between the man- 
 trams repeated at a Hindu funeral and the comfort- 
 ing words used at the graveside of one who is com- 
 mitted to the earth : — 
 
 " la sure and certain hope of the Eesurrection to eternal 
 life, through Our Lord Jesus Christ ; who shall change our 
 vile hody, th8.t it may be like unto his glorious body, accord- 
 ing to the mighty working, whereby he is able to subdue all 
 things to himself." 
 
CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 UNOETHODo'x HINDU FUJI^EEALS 
 
 3T«nfiNn;f^. (Adharmottara Kriya.) 
 
 The Ayogava the Oshaitri and the Ghandala, the lowest of 
 men, spring from a Sudra in an inverse order of the classes, 
 and are therefore, all three excluded from the performance of 
 obsequies to their ancestors (Manu, z 16.) 
 
 Mana gives as the origin of the 'debased classes 
 irregular intercourse between members of ,the four 
 castes, and again the intermingling of the despic- 
 able offspring resulting from such irregularities, 
 (x. 5 — 40) During the life time of such they must 
 exist in a moat abject condition, living apart from 
 the upper castes in mountains, or groves, or places 
 for burning the dead — anywhere outside of the towns 
 inhabited by their superiors (x,, 50 — 51). Their 
 clothing, and food, and general surroundings, must 
 be of the most miserable iiature, and their occupation 
 should be of the most degrading character, (x. 50^ 
 56). Not only so, but even after death the curse of 
 their birth must follow them j and, as is seen from the 
 quotation at the head of this chapter, the poor un- 
 fortunates are not to have even the consolation of 
 funeral obsequies for their dead. 
 
 All that has been said in the preceding chapters 
 about funeral rites and periodical Shraddhas, have 
 only to do with the four castes, and particularly with 
 the three higher ones; but the non-castes or out-castes 
 are not supposed to have anything to do with such 
 things. Although this is the case, as a matter of 
 fact, just as the material and social position of the 
 non-castes is far better than the Brahminical Law- 
 givers would have it be, and than what they legislate 
 it should and ought to be, so in the matter of their dead, 
 these non-caste people do perform certain funeral rites 
 and they also have Shraddha ceremonies of a kind. 
 It is not, however, very clear with what object these 
 perform the various ceremonies. They have in view, 
 
 84 
 
266 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 probably, to a certain extent, the spiritual good of 
 the departed ; but their ideas on this head appear to 
 be very confused and uncertain. The motive that 
 seems to actuate them in a large measure is fear ; it 
 is thought well to treat kindly the departed spirit and 
 divert its attention so as to preven t its inflicting any 
 injury on the living. In fact these observances seem 
 to be a survival of ancient Dravidian rites tinged, at 
 tbe same time, with an admixture of Hinduism. Our 
 attention will, however, be again directed to this aspect 
 of the subject at the close of this description. It is 
 only necessary to say now that these remarks may 
 also be said to describe the ideas on this subject of 
 the lower class Sadras, particularly the ordinary 
 village ryots. 
 
 As was done in the chapter on Unorthodox Marri- 
 ages, it may be well here also to take the Malas or 
 Telugu Pariahs as representative of the middle line 
 between Hindus proper and the lowest Pagans. The 
 f uueral rites of the Malas will do well to represent, 
 generally, those of the classes here intended, and the 
 chapter may be concluded with some brief notices of 
 pure Pagan observances. 
 
 The Malas may be said, as a rule, to burn their 
 dead ; but though this is considered amongst them 
 as the more respectable, there are very many excep- 
 tions to the rule. There are some sections of this class 
 who always bury, and very many who would cremate 
 if they could afford it, but who are driven by poverty 
 to the less expensive method of disposing of their 
 dead. There seems to be a general notion, however, 
 amongst these latter, that the soul of the deceased, 
 somehow, suffers on account of such a departure 
 from custom. Children and small-pox victims are 
 buried amongst these as with the caste people. In 
 times of pestilence too, as when cholera is prevalent, 
 they bury ; as a rule this is merely from being gene- 
 rally panic stricken, or from the difficulty resulting 
 from fear of contagion to get any help from the 
 neighbours. At such times the dead are often disposed 
 of in a very summary way as may be mentioned 
 hereafter. 
 
UNOETHODOX HINDU FUNERALS. 267 
 
 When a person is seen to be near death, there do 
 not appear to be any religious rites or ceremonies 
 whatever amongst these people. They, however, follow 
 out the customs alluded to in a former Chapter of 
 taking the dying person outside the house so as to 
 prevent possible pollution to the dwelling place. 
 Should the household ascertain from the Dasari {the 
 Pariah priest) that the day is a lucky one, they will 
 suffer the patient to die in the house ; otherwise,- they 
 are as particular as the upper castes in putting the 
 sufferer outside to die. It must be borne in mind 
 that amongst Hindus, in the event of a person dying 
 inside the house during an unlucky conjunction of the 
 stars, not only must that particluar household vacate 
 the dwelling for a period of time, but also the neigh- 
 bours must do the same ; hence public opinion is very 
 strong in the matter of suffering any one to die inside 
 a house. It must be very trying, particularly if it 
 should be the rainy season, to have to turn out of 
 one's house and live, perhaps, in some temporary shed, 
 and this, may be, for some months. 
 
 The dying person is placed on the ground to die, 
 as in the case of the higher castes. Should the poor 
 sufferer seem to be a long time in dying, there is a 
 cruel custom which seems to be practised by the 
 upper castes too ; it is thought that from excessive 
 love for some one, the husband for the wife, or the 
 wife for the husband, or the parents for a child, as 
 the case may be, the spirit is loth to quit the body. 
 If it is thought that this is the case, a little water or 
 some other liquid is poured into the mouth by the one 
 supposed to be thus excessively loved, or perhaps by 
 several one after the other, and this operation pro- 
 bably soon settles the matter. If it should be thought 
 that through an avaricious disposition the spirit is loth 
 to depart, some coins are taken and washed in water, 
 the water being then poured into the mouth of the 
 dying person. It is not difficult to imagine how such 
 a practice may often hasten death, sometimes, perhaps, 
 even in cases where a recovery might otherwise have 
 been possible. 
 
 Burial or cremation follow quickly upon death ; 
 
268 THE HINDtr AT HOME. 
 
 within three or four hours of the last breath there 
 may be nothingf left oE the departed but a heap of 
 ashes. When life as left the body it is bathed and 
 treated to a certain extent like what has already been 
 described in a previous chapter, only of course there 
 are no mantrams or homams. The Dasari, if present, 
 may say a Slokam or verse of some kind, but if he 
 should not be present nothing isdone by wayof prayers; 
 the body is merely dressed up and fastened to the bier. 
 Some of the Malas are Vaishnavas of the Ramanuja 
 sect, and a few as Saivas ; but the bulk of them are 
 practically pagans — idolaters of a very low kind. 
 In some things they appear to follow Hindu rites in 
 a very feeble sort of way j but it is merely an apeing 
 of what they see the higher castes do, and really 
 and truly their religion, if they may be said to have 
 any at all, seems to be a relic of ancient Dravidian 
 idolatry just tinged with Hinduism, largely admixed 
 with demonolatry. This latter class of Malas take 
 the dead person straight off to the burning ground or 
 burying place and dispose of the body without any 
 rites, except that the Karta will carry water three times 
 round the pile and then throw it away, as already 
 described. The Vaishnavas, however, offer a sacrifice 
 before taking away the body. A fowl, or in some few 
 cases of comparatively wealthy people, a sheep or a 
 goat is killed and its blood allowed to drip on to the 
 spot where the deceased breathed his last. At least a 
 cocoanut will be broken over the spot and the water 
 allowed there to drip, even by the very poorest who 
 may not be able to procure a fowl. This is supposed, 
 tc 1 satisfy, the spirit just departed, and to keep it from 
 harming any one near. The Karta also cooks some 
 food of which the slain fowl will form a part, and a 
 portion of this is offered to the deceased by touching 
 the mouth with some of it three times. The portion 
 thus offered is then thrown to the crows. Arrack 
 also is poured into the poor dead mouth, all this 
 to please the departed spirit. The rest of the food 
 and arrack is then given to those who are to carry 
 the bier— the Karta placing the food into their hands 
 and giving them to drink of the arrack. 
 
UNOETHODOX HINDU FUNERALS. 269 
 
 After this the body is fastened to the bier and 
 borne to the cemetery. The Vaishnavas have a 
 peculiar arrangement attached to the head of the 
 bierj the reason for which is not easy to find out. 
 Two sticks are tied across each other which again 
 have cross pieces, the whole forming a kind of 
 St. Helena cross. At three of the four ends of , the 
 projecting cross pieces a lime is fastened. This 
 whole arrangement is fastened to one end of the bier 
 so as to form a kind of canopy over the head of the 
 corpse. This may have had its origin in serpent 
 worship, and the idea may be the cobra with expanded 
 hood swaying over the head. This possible explana- 
 tion is only given for what it is worth, no other, 
 however, suggests itself and the people themselves 
 can give no reason for it. Other Vaishnavas than 
 Malas appear also to adopt this .device. Pour men 
 carry the bier, and when the bearers lift up their 
 burden they raised it up a little and then lower it 
 again, doing this three times and each time, crying 
 out Narayana ! or Govinda! — names of Vishnu and 
 Krishna rpspeotiyely . The biei" is set down three times 
 on the way to the cemetery, when on each end of the 
 two main poles of the bier a coin is placed ; these 
 coins are taken up by the Dasari as a perquisite. 
 This ceremony of placing coins appears also to be 
 done by the upper castes. Whilst it is on the 
 ground some grain and saffron are scattered round 
 the bier ; the gtain is afterwards eaten by the birds. 
 Each time the bier is lifted up it is with the three 
 upliftings and the shouts of Narayana ! or Govinda ! 
 Some of the Malas who bury place the body in 
 the grave in a sitting position as before described, 
 thus necessitating a peculiar shaped bier ; ordinarily, 
 however, the recumbent posture is observed. The 
 funeral procession is much the same as with the 
 orthodox Hindus-^the Karta carrying the fire and 
 there being, as a rule, no women following. 
 
 The Mala cemetery is always distinct and often at 
 some' considerable distance from that of the caste 
 people; even in death there must be no contamina- 
 tioii by too close proximity. The place is, if possible, 
 
270 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 a more dreary and miserable spot still than that of 
 the orthodox ; the idea of paying any attention to 
 keeping the cemetery tidy seems never to enter into 
 the head of a Hindu. 
 
 The actual burning or burying details are, to a 
 certain extent, the same as those already described 
 in the case of the orthodox, except that there are no 
 mantrams or homams. The body is carefully stripped 
 before being put into the grave or on to the pile ; 
 and here we may but barely allude to a practice, that 
 appears to be prevalent amongst all Hindus of every 
 class. In the case of the death of a pregnant woman, 
 when the corpse is placed on the pile or just before 
 putting it into the grave, a kind of rough Cesarean 
 operation is performed by the husband the details 
 of which are too revolting to mention. This custom 
 appears to be connected with the same idea as that 
 which causes the body to be stripped quite naked. 
 ' We brought nothing with us into this world and we 
 must carry nothing out ; each must depart, as he 
 came.' 
 
 The Karta carries a pot of water round the pile 
 three times before setting the fire alight, and then 
 throws it over his shoulder as already described ; in 
 the case of those who bury, the water is carried 
 round the grave. There seems to be little by way of 
 ceremony of any kind — no prayers or slokas are said, 
 except that when the body is placed on the pile or 
 into the grave the cry of Narayana ! or Govinda ! is 
 raised. The grave is dug and the pile also placed 
 so that the bqdy shall lie with its head towards the 
 south. This is a universal custom, and from it arises 
 the idea that it is unlucky to sleep with the head 
 towards the south. It may be mentioned that whilst 
 some Hindus will not sleep with head to the south, 
 others think it most unlucky to sleep with the head 
 towards the north. The company all bathe after the 
 funeral and that seems to finish the ceremonies for 
 that day. The funeral group usually, it seems, 
 repair to a drinking shop, there to drink arrack at the 
 expense of the Karta. Nothing seems to be done at 
 the house, except that the women clean up the place 
 
UNORTHODOX HINDU FUNERALS. 271 
 
 generally after the funeral party have gone, purify- 
 ing the place by smearing with cowdung and sprink- 
 ling with water in which that purifying substance 
 has been mixed. 
 
 In the case of burial, for several nights after- 
 wards a small fire of same kind is kept on the 
 grave, even if it should only be a smouldering 
 whisp of straw. This is to frighten off the jackals 
 which might otherwise unearth the body — a pre- 
 caution, however, which does not always prevent 
 such a revolting thing taking place. It must 
 be borne in mind that bodies are never put into 
 coffins by Hindus, though some of the Christians 
 who can afford it, especially in the towns, adopt the 
 European fashion — ^using wooden or bamboo wicker 
 basket coffins. In the villages, however, the Christ-; 
 ians have few facilities for such refinements, and a 
 winding sheet with, perhaps, an outer covering of 
 matting supplies all that is really needful for decen- 
 cy and reverential regard for the dead. Sometimes 
 when cholera or any other pestilence may be preva- 
 lent, or when, perhaps, any one happens to die whilst 
 on a journey, the survivors may merely cast out the 
 body to become a prey to the vultures and jackals. 
 The neighbourhood of the Hindu burying ground 
 often presents sights that are very ■ repulsive to the 
 eye of one unaccustomed to such things; and the 
 anatomical student need not be at much trouble, 
 especially in out of the way up-country parts, to get 
 specimens for the osteological branch of his studies. 
 
 We now came to those funeral obsequies which, in 
 a measure, represent the Nityakarma and Sapindi 
 rites of the Brahminical religion. There are two Such 
 ceremonies amongst the Malas, called in Telugu the 
 Chinnadinamu (-O^S^jSm) and the Peddadioamu 
 ("=g)JS as;6o) or the little day, and the big, or import- 
 ant day. The former of these may possibly be obser- 
 ved on the very day of the funeral, or on the third 
 or fifth day afterwards ; it is generally on the fifth 
 day. The day fixed upon will depend upon the posi- 
 tion of certain stars, which matter is decided 
 
272 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 hy the Dasari. It can never be on an even day, as 
 odd numbers are lucky whilst even days are unlucky. 
 The Peddadinamu is always observed the fifteenth 
 day after the death. Until the Chinnadinamu rite 
 has been performed it is proper for the Karta to 
 take his food sitting on the spot where the death 
 actually took place ; also it is nsual to place a light 
 there each night, until that rite has been performed. 
 
 Amongst the Malas there is a very peculiar divi- 
 sion into those who perform funeral observances in 
 the day time, and those who only do so at night. 
 According to the Brahminical religion, as has already 
 been seen, no such observances should take place at 
 night at all, and it is curious how this night observing 
 secb sprung into existence. Those who observe these 
 rite^ in the day time are called in Telugu Pahshivese- 
 varu (•5l>."^ft)'sr»{fi) or those who throw to the birds — 
 the reason for this will be seen further on. Those 
 who observe in the night time are called Tirupalli- 
 varu (SJfiti9^y»J6.) It is not clear what this word 
 means, but it is of Tamil origin and comes from a 
 word meaning a tomb. Although these two divisions 
 are very distinct amongst the Malas, it does not 
 appear to manifest itself in any other way than in the 
 differences in the observances of those funeral rites. 
 This distinction also appears to exist amongst some 
 other sections of the community. 
 
 On the day fixed upon by the Dasari for the 
 Chinnadinamu, there is a gathering of friends at the 
 house of the deceased. The observances amongst the 
 two sections are very much the same for this rite, 
 except that the one begin theirs in the morning and 
 perform them during the day, whilst the other begin 
 theirs in the evening and carry them on through the 
 night. It will be pointed out where the usages of 
 the Day-observers differ from those of the Night- 
 observers. 
 
 The Dasari and a few friends assemble at the house 
 of the deceased; the whole dwelling has been pre- 
 viously cleaned up by the women of the house and 
 the floors well smeared over with the all purifying 
 
miOETHODOX HINDU , FUNEEALB. 273 
 
 mixture of cowdung and water. The Dasari takes a 
 vessel of water and with a bunch of leaves pro- 
 ceeds to sprinkle the people present and the room in 
 which they are congregated, repeating at the same 
 time various names of Vishnu and the Sanhalpam, 
 which has several times been described as being a 
 declaration of the place, time, tribe, and name &o. — 
 including also a prayer for pardon for sin. He then 
 prepares a place on the earth near the spot where the 
 death took place, and with white powder draws a 
 cabalistic figure formed of two parallel lines drawn 
 at right angles across two other parallel lines, the 
 ends of the four lines being all joined together by 
 cross lines. This is called Ashtaksharam or the eight 
 figures. Near this figure is placed a heap of rice 
 which rice is a perquisite of the Dasari who is, said to 
 grumble much if the heap should not be as large as 
 he would like. Upon this heap are placed certain 
 figures brought by the Dasari and called in Telugu 
 Perumallu (t)e6ifr'^); these are said to represent 
 the gods and their retinue. The Karfca slays a fowl 
 or perhaps a sheep over the spot, as was done on the 
 day of the funeral; and this is. given to the women of 
 the household to cook. When the rice and curries 
 have been duly prepared a portion is placed near the 
 Pirumallu, and another portion is placed into, vessels 
 which the Dasari and Karta, with a few friends take 
 to the cemetery. 
 
 On arriving at the cemetery, if they are Night- 
 observers, the group proceed to gather together the 
 ashes of the funeral pile and pour water upon them — 
 the whole being flattened down and made smooth. 
 In the case of those who bury, the top of the grave is 
 thus prepared. A leaf-plate is put on the prepared 
 place and the food brought is laid upon it. The 
 Dasari then places on a separate leaf three lumps of 
 the food ; this is supposed to be for the departed spirit. 
 This portion is eaten by the Karta ; the remainder is 
 divided by the Dasari amongst the others present 
 who forthwith eat it and a little arrack is also given 
 them to drink. On thus dividing the food, the Dasari 
 
 35 ~~ 
 
274 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 in the name of the Karta says words to the following 
 efEect : — 
 
 As this departed spirit has committed sins, it cannot appear 
 before god ; therefore these ceremonies are performed in the 
 hope that it may thereby be fitted to enter heaven. 
 
 One need scarcely point out how much this cere- 
 mony resembles the feeding of the Bhoktas by the 
 orthodox ; it is probably a kind of imitation of the 
 same. In the case of the Day-observers, the food is 
 placed on the spot where the cremation took place 
 or on the grave, but, those present do not eat of it; 
 they simply place it 'there and go away a little dis- 
 tance to allow the crows and other birds to come and 
 take it. When the birds have once begun to eat the 
 food thus placed, the party are satisfied and take their 
 departure. On placing the food the Dasari says 
 words to the following efEect, instead of what has been 
 quoted above as said for the Night-observers ; — 
 
 O Narayana who bearest the conch shell, the -wheel and the 
 club, I make namaskaram to thee. Grant that by the giving 
 of this food this spirit may be satisfied. 
 
 Amongst this section, each day from the funeral to 
 the Chinnadinamu the Karta before he partakes of 
 his meals places a portion of his food on the house to 
 attract the birds, and until some bird or other has 
 begun to eat what is thus placed he does not taste his 
 meal. This must be very tantalizing to a hungry 
 man, especially if there should happen to be no birds 
 in the neighbourhood. The Indian crow, however, is 
 ubiquitous and it really seems to know untuitively 
 when any thing of the kind is going on by which it 
 can get something wherewith to satisfy its rapacious, 
 omnivorous appetite. It will be seen from the above 
 why this section are called Pakshivesevarn or those 
 who throw to the birds. 
 
 After this ceremony a small feast is prepared at the 
 house and partaken of by the Dasari and a few 
 friends; but especially the' Dasari, who must be well 
 fed and who also must have an extra liberal share of 
 
UNORTHODOX HINDU HJNEEALg. 275 
 
 the arrack provided for the feast. After the meal it 
 is customary for the Dasari to make a kind of funeral 
 oration in which he sets forth the good qualities of the 
 deceased. 
 
 Nothing further is done until the fifteenth day 
 upon which the most important ceremonies are per- 
 formed, answering perhaps to a certain extent to 
 the Sapindi rites of the orthodox. The ceremonies 
 on this day are very different amongst the two sec- 
 tions of these people. In the case of Night-observers, 
 the Dasari and friends assemble at the house of the 
 deceased, when the Karta and the friends and rela- 
 tives of the deceased who are of the same surname 
 {house-name) all shave, both head aid face ; the 
 Karta having also his moustache shaven off, and in 
 some cases even the Zuttu (sikha) . The killing of 
 the fowl or sheep, and the ceremony of the Ashtak- 
 sharam are all gone through as on the Chinnadinamu, 
 except that there is no visit paid to the cemetery. 
 As a much large number of people gather together 
 for this ceremony a pig may possibly be killed, 
 especially in the Kistna District, so as to provide a 
 BuflScient and savory dish for the feast ; on this 
 occasion there is feasting and drinking as at a great 
 wedding feast. 
 
 Sometime after sun down, the Dasari proceeds to 
 tie together with same sticks a contrivance about 
 two'or three feet high. Cross pieces are also tied so 
 as to make two little platforms inside, one of which 
 is for a lamp. Some cotton cloth is tied round the 
 upper part of this arrangement so as to form a shelter 
 for the lamp, and also to make it look like a little 
 shrine. The name given to this in Telugu is Triteru 
 (^©.■^jso) or the three storied car. A light is placed 
 inside this shrine and it is taken up by the Dasari who 
 accompanied by the assembled friends both male and 
 female, and strumming on his guitar like instrument, 
 proceeds singing a kind of song to some place near 
 a,n adjacent main road. A specimen of the songs thus 
 sung supplied by a Dasari is nothing but a meaning- 
 less sort of thing referring to Eama, in a pantheistic 
 
276 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 way as being all things and pervading all things ; 
 there is in it no allusion whatever to the ceremony itself 
 or anything connected with it. Arrived at a suitable 
 spot they all sit down round the lighted up temporary 
 shrine and the Dasari repeats some verses, during 
 which recitation the men and women come up to him 
 one by one to allow of his touching their foreheads 
 with , some coloured rice — ;each one thus coming up 
 gives a fee to the priest, perhaps a copper coin of small 
 value. 
 
 After this ceremony has been gone through, if the 
 one who died were a man leaving a widow, the rite of 
 declaring her widowhood is then performed. The 
 Dasari and several relatives, male and female, take the 
 widow apart to some adjacent place, probably the 
 bank of the village tank, where the Dasari repeating 
 some kind of slokam cuts the Mangalasiitram off the 
 widow's neck and breaks the glass bangles from her 
 wrists, putting on her a pair of brass bracelets which 
 have been brought for the purpose and which 
 amongst these people are a sign of widowhood. The 
 head of the Mala widow is not shaven, and she is at 
 liberty to marry again if opportunity should offer. A 
 new cloth is produced which is thrown over the head 
 of the widow, and then blindfolded she is led back to 
 the group around the Triteru. During the whole of 
 this operation there is much weeping and wailing by 
 the women assembled. If the deceased person should 
 be a woman, her husband is taken aside in the same 
 way and his loin-cord is cut off with some little cere- 
 mony. This loin-cord is a very important ^art of the 
 male belongings, being as it is the main stay of the 
 chief portion of a man's attire ; it is not easy, however, 
 to imagine the meaning of this ceremony. The follow- 
 ing is a free rendering of what the Dasari repeats when 
 cutting off the Mangalasiitram from the widow, or the 
 loin-cord from the man._ This is said to be a quota- 
 tion from the Bhagavatgita ; at any rate there does 
 not seem to be much connection between the words 
 and the circumstances : — 
 
 I (god) am the destroyer of all diseaBea ; I absolve thee 
 from such sins as the killing of infants, of women, of Brah- 
 
tFNOETHODOX HINDU FUNEEALS. 277 
 
 rains, and of cows, the causing abortions, of drunkenness, 
 stealing of gold, adultery, robbery, slander and the like. 
 Do not lament. 
 
 On returning to tlie group around the little shrine 
 there is usually much drinking of arrack, after which 
 the assembly repairs to the house for a big feast. 
 The relatives. make it a point of honour to show res- 
 pect or affection to the memory of the deceased, by 
 each one bringing a portion of arrack to add to the 
 amount for consumption. 
 
 In the case of the day-observing section, there is no 
 Triteru, but the friends repair to the bank of a neigh- 
 bouring tank or to some other water where the shav- 
 ing and widow rites are all gone through in much the 
 same way, after which they all bathe and then return 
 to the house for a feast. 
 
 After the feast it is usual, something after the fashion 
 of what is done at weddings, for the friends and 
 relatives to signify their respect for the deceased by 
 presenting money and other things to the Karta — 
 grain is also brought for this purpose. This custom 
 is really a way of mutually assisting each other in the 
 heavy expenses of the ceremony, and it is expected 
 that the recipients of such aid shall in like man- 
 ner assists the givers on any similar occasion. 
 This help is called Katnam, a word meaning dues or 
 gifts. The way these gifts are collected is rather 
 peculiar. After the feast is over the Dasari receives 
 from each one his gift, and as he takes it he holds it up 
 above his head, shouting out that so and so has given 
 such and such a sum in the name of so and so (the 
 deceased) ; he then gives a leap up into the air and re- 
 peats some verse or other. This goes on until each one 
 who intends doing so has presented his contributions ; 
 the Dasari receives a fee for his trouble — perhaps 
 a kind of percentage on the receipts. AjEter this the 
 Dasari sits and tells stories until night or day light, 
 as the case may be, when the company separate. 
 
 The reason given for all this feasting and drink- 
 ing and telling of stories is that the departed spirit 
 may be satisfied, and go away without causing any 
 
278 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 harm to the living. They fear that if it were not 
 satisfied the spirit might take away some one to be 
 with it, especially one whom it had loved in its life- 
 time ; hence the eating and drinking and entertain- 
 ing stories. This may be a fit place to pause and 
 somewhat amplify what was said at the beginning of 
 this chapter as to the intention of this class of people, 
 as a whole, in their funeral obsequies. As was then 
 said, there may- be some idea of benefiting the 
 departed spirit, as we have seen to be the case with 
 the orthodox Hindus. And there also seems to be 
 some notion that if the departed spirit attains to 
 heaven it may intercede for the survivors. Some 
 notions of the kind may have been imbibed by observ- 
 ing the rites of their superiors ; but, taken as a whole, 
 and speaking of the mass of tbe people as distinct 
 from a few of the more enlightened ones, th.e classes 
 in question seem to be chiefly prompted by a desire 
 to propitiate the departed spirit and so to prevent 
 its doing any harm to them or theirs. They have 
 little if any knowledge of the eschatology of the 
 orthodox ; whilst they in common with most Hindus 
 are intensely superstitious, perhaps much more so than 
 their more intellectual fellow-countrymen. A fear 
 of demons and departed evil spirits is one that domi- 
 nates their mind to a fearful extent, and there is 
 little doubt but that this feeling more than any 
 other prompts the masses of India in their funeral 
 rites and observance for the dead generally. A 
 residence in this and similar non-christian lands 
 enables one to realize something of the fullness 
 of "The glorious liberty of the children of Grod — 
 the liberty wherewith Christ hath made us free." 
 Under such circumstances one has clearer glimpse 
 of the meaning of the words of the prophet of 
 Nazareth : — " Ye shall know the truth, and the truth 
 shall make you free. If the Son therefore sliall make 
 you free, ye shall be free indeed," (Rom. viii. 21 ; 
 Gal. V. 1 ; John viii. 32, 36). 
 
 As with the orthodox Hindus,' the Malas have a 
 ceremony for the dead every month for the first year 
 after the decease, and on the last of these there is 
 
UNORTHODOX HINDU FDNEEAlg. . 279 
 
 feast something like that of the Peddadinamu; there 
 is also an annual ceremony, of a kind, according to 
 the ability of those concerned. 
 
 It may be mentioned that what has been herein 
 described as the funeral rites and ceremonies of the 
 Malas, may also serve for those of the Madigas or 
 dealers in skins and leather ; there are of course minor 
 differences, but substantially their ceremonies are the 
 same. 
 
 This description will also be sufficient to give a 
 general idea of the funeral rites of most of those 
 castes or tribes who, though not regularly included 
 within the pale of the Brahminical religion, still to a 
 certain extent perform in an illegitimate kind of 
 way rites and ceremonies of evidently Hindu origin ; 
 these at the same time being mixed up with those 
 from undoubted purely pagan sources. 
 
 Having no personal knowledge of the death cere- 
 monies of tribes totally, or almost so, unconnected 
 with Hinduism, I have consulted a few of the Govern- 
 ment District Manuals for information on the 
 subject, and the remainder of this chapter is chiefly 
 from these sources. That of the Nilagiri District 
 by the late Mr. Grigg contains most interesting infor- 
 mation which will, perhaps, answer all purposes with- 
 out going any further | describing as it does a great 
 variety of customs current amongst non-Hindu tribes. 
 
 Before referring to this book there is just one 
 case, that of the Goundans of the Ooimbatore District, 
 which may be worth alluding to as it contains several 
 points of interest. According to the Manual of that 
 District, when a person is seen to be dying a four 
 anna piece is sometimes put into milk which is then 
 poured down the throat of the one in extremis. 
 After death the dead body is washed and shaved, 
 and new clothes are put on it by the nearest relatives. 
 The funeral torch is carried by the My (scavenger), 
 but it is applied to the pile by the Karta as amongst 
 Hindus. If the deceased were a married man, the 
 widow herself breaks off her Mangalasutram before 
 the funeral and ties it round the toe of her deceased 
 husband. Ceremonies are observed three days after 
 
280 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 death when milk and ghee are poured over the grave, 
 and rice and cakes are offered to the spirit j also a 
 feast is prepared comprising some favourite dish 
 of the deceased, which is partaker of by the relatives. 
 
 The most interesting ceremonies, however, are those 
 of the ToDAS as described by Mr. Grigg. At the 
 funerals of this people a number of buffaloes are 
 killed to supply the deceased with milk in the next 
 world, of which they seem to have pretty distinct 
 ideas. The viaticum for a dying Toda is a drink of 
 milk, and after death he is wrapped up in a garment 
 into the pockets of which is placed a supply of grain 
 and sugar &c. for use on the ghostly journey. There 
 are two funeral ceremonies called the Green funeral 
 and the Dry funeral. The former is the actual fune- 
 ral ceremony, and the latter what answers somewhat 
 to the Sapindi rite of the orthodox. 
 
 Very soon after death the body is carried out to the 
 burying ground and a small herd of buffaloes is 
 driven along with the procession ; each animal has a 
 little bell hung round its neck and they are driven 
 close up to the funeral pile. The mourners present 
 include women and children. Bach one present takes 
 up three handfuls of earth and throwing it upon the 
 body says_ "Let him go into the soil." The rest of 
 this touching ceremony may be best given in Mr. 
 Grigg'a own words. " The recumbent corpse is now 
 lifted up in the arms of the relatives, and each cow 
 in succession is dragged by two men up to her master, 
 whose arm is raised and made to touch the animal's 
 horns. After this the pyre is lighted by fire made by 
 the friction of two sticks. The body is lifted up and 
 swung three times from side to side, then laid on the 
 burning wood /ace downwards. As the flames devour 
 the body the people cry ' shall we kill buffaloes for 
 you'? 'Ton are going to Amnur;' (heaven) 'may it 
 be well with you'; 'may all thy sins go.' One or 
 two buffaloes are now killed, and as each creature 
 falls dead from a blow from the butt end of an axe the 
 people crowd round it, sobbing and lamenting and 
 kissing its face. After this they sit round the bier in 
 pairs with their faces together and their foreheads 
 
UNOETHODOX HINDU FUNERALS. 281 
 
 touching, weeping bitterly and wailing in true oriental 
 fashion." 
 
 The skull and bones are preserved for the Dry 
 funeral. There is no religious ceremony at the cre- 
 mation nor is it necessary for any priests to be present. 
 
 The Dry funeral is not celebrated at any particular 
 period after death ; it seems that owing to the cere- 
 mony being a large one, involving comparatively, 
 considerable expense, opportunity is taken for two or 
 three Dry funerals to be celebrated together. The 
 whole lasts for three days and the chief feature 
 appears to be the slaughter of buffaloes — two o:^ three 
 for each of the dead commemorated. The carcases 
 of the slain buffaloes are a perquisite of the Kotas 
 who act as musicians on the occasion. Rites are 
 performed with the blood of one of the slain animals 
 such as to lead one to suppose they think it some way 
 or other, takes away the sins of the deceased. A 
 buffalo calf is also let loose as a kind of "scape-goat" 
 with shouts of " May he enter heaven ; may it be well 
 with his good deeds and his sins." The whole cere- 
 mony concludes as follows. What is called the Red 
 is burnt with some ceremony. It is not explained 
 what thq Kedis, but one gathers it is some receptacle 
 containing the skull and bones left from the crema- 
 tion, as before mentioned. In the earlymorning, 
 before dawn, this Ked is burnt, together with a minia- 
 ture bow and three arrows, also a sickle, an axe, and 
 a palm-leaf umbrella, as well as some coarse sugar 
 and pulse, etc. Sitting round the fire the mourners 
 wail for the dead, whilst the Kota musicians play on 
 their instruments. At dawn, water is sprinkled on 
 the embers and a pit is dug into which the ashes are 
 scraped ; the whole being covered with a large stone. 
 " Finally a dim figure enters the circle, and raising a 
 chatty high over his head, dashes it into pieces on the 
 stone covering the ashes, bends down, touches the 
 stone with his forehead, and hastens away. All the 
 others perform in turn the same prostration, and 
 flitting silently down the hill, a procession of hurry- 
 ing shadows fades into the mist, through which 
 twinkles the distant fire of the Kedmanei. Imagination 
 
 36 
 
282 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 might easily transform them into the departing spirits 
 of the propitiated dead." 
 
 In the chapter on Orthodox Marriages mention 
 was made of the exceedingly simple marriage rites 
 of the Badagas; their funeral ceremonies appear 
 to be much more elaborate. When a person is seen 
 to be dying, an exceedingly small gold coin is dipped 
 in ghee and placed between the lips. If this is 
 swallowed, so much the better ; if not it is tied to 
 the arm. This is supposed to pay the expenses of the 
 journey to the next world. This small coin is said to 
 be a Mysore one called a Birian-hanna or Viria raya 
 and valued at a quarter of a rupee. After death, 
 messengers are sent forth to call together friends 
 and relatives, and also to summon Kota musicians. 
 A funeral car is erected with wood and branches of 
 trees, all hung with cloth, and the body is placed on 
 a cot underneath this construction. All the next 
 day a kind of death dance is kept up ; the relatives do 
 not join in the dance but walk round the bier carry- 
 ing food in their hands and repeating, with much 
 weeping, the good qualities of the deceased. As with 
 the Todas, a calf is chosen to be a kind of " scape- 
 goat," and at this ceremony there appears to be much 
 chanting of prayers, concluding as follows. "Let all 
 his sins be forgiven, and may it be well with him, yea 
 all be well." The body with the car is then taken 
 and burnt near some neighbouring stream ; the ashes 
 being collected and thrown into the water. 
 
 The Kotas, who act as musicians to the other hill 
 tribes, appear in their funeral rites to copy both 
 Badagas and Todas. They have the car like erection 
 of the former, which they burn with the implements 
 of the deceased. They also have a kind of Dry funeral 
 in imitation of the latter, when skulls are placed on 
 cots and burnt, together with bows and arrows, and 
 various other implements. 
 
 The Kueumbas, another tribe described by Mr. 
 Grigg, appear, when they can afford it, to administer 
 the small gold coin to their sick when dying, in imi- 
 tation of the Badagas ; and they also place the body 
 under a kind of car, hung with cloths. After danc- 
 
ing round the car to the sounds of music the corpse is 
 burnt with the car and the ceremony is complete. 
 
 The Ieulas, whose simple marriages we have 
 already described, appear also to have very little by 
 way of ceremony in the manner of disposing of their 
 dead whoiQ they bury. The body is placed in the 
 grave in a sitting posture, with a lamp by its side ; 
 the friends dance round the grave for sometime, after 
 which they fill it up and place a small upright stone to 
 mark the spot. There appears to be no other funeral 
 ceremony than this amongst these people. 
 
 These instances are given as they seem to be re- 
 presentative of the various funeral rites of the non- 
 Hinduised tribes of South India ; and, as such, they 
 may, perhaps, be, to a certain extent, representative 
 of other parts of this vast country. 
 
 The three chapters on funerals may possibly be 
 thought by the ordinary reader to be somewhat 
 gruesome reading ; but, perhaps, nothing serves better 
 to illustrate the religious ideas of a people than a 
 study of the mode in which they dispose of their dead, 
 and their funeral rites generally. If the objecfa in 
 view is to learn something of the inner life of the 
 people of India, these chapters may serve to assist in 
 so desirable and interesting a study ; and this being 
 the case, it is felt that no apology is needed for 
 dwelling in such detail, upon what must always, 
 necessarily, be a melancholy subject. 
 
CHAPTEB XIX. 
 HIITsTDU OMEI^S. 
 q^^. (Shakunum). 
 
 Neither by explaining omens and prodigies, nor by skill in 
 astrology and palmistry, nor by casuistry and expositions of 
 holy texts let him (a Sannyasi) at any time gain his support. 
 {Manu vi. 50.) 
 
 On omen is defined to be an occurrence that is sup- 
 posed to portend, or show the character of some 
 future event, or any indication, or action regarded as 
 a foreshadowing. The belief in omens has existed in 
 all ages and countries, and traces of it still linger in 
 the most civilized and enlightened communities. 
 This being the case, it is not to be wondered at that 
 such belief pervades all classes in India^ though 
 probably, outside nations hafVe little idea of the 
 extent to which it dominates the every day life of the 
 people. ^ 
 
 The traveller, even the most unobservant, cannot 
 fail to be struck with the peculiar objects, some most 
 grotesque, and some even most obscene, that are put 
 up in gardens and fields to protect the crops from 
 the evil eye. It is with the object of protecting her 
 child from the same baleful influence that a mother 
 will deck it with some charm or some peculiar orna- 
 ment. The inexpressibly obscene figures also that 
 are sometimes seen over the gateways of Hindu 
 temples, are placed there from the same motive — to 
 protect the temple and its contents from the evil eye. 
 Such superstitions too, as a belief in the good or evil 
 influence of certain stars, or the conjunction of 
 certain planets have wonderful hold upon the Hindu 
 mind of every rank and station. Such things, too, as 
 the supposed influence of certain numbers is one very 
 largely believed in by the people generally; odd 
 
HINDU OMENS. 285 
 
 numbers are thought to be lucky, whilst even numbers 
 are unlucky; so, for instance, it because a matter of 
 very great anxiety to a candidate in any public 
 examination whether his number in the list of candi- 
 dates should turn out to be an odd or an even one. 
 The good or evil influences of certain gems, also, is so 
 strongly believed in that knowledge on the subject 
 has come to be, a science ! There is a book which 
 treats of the nature of precious stones, and, amongst 
 other things describes these which are lucky, and 
 those which are the reverse; telling also the probable 
 results of wearing the same. There is a verse bear- 
 ing upon this in Manava Dharma Sastram which is as 
 follows : 
 
 Together with all his food let him swallow such medical 
 substances as resist venom ; and let him constantly wear with 
 attention such gems as are known to repel it. (vii. 218). 
 
 "Any one who has had occasion to sell a horse to a 
 Hindu will have noticed with what care the animal 
 was examined to see if it had certain marks. These 
 marks are not, as one might suppose, signs of breed 
 or soundness ; but certain configurations of the hair, 
 showing whether the animal, is a lucky or an unlucky 
 one. The position and number of certain natural 
 twirls, or twists in the hair, are taken as indication 
 of the real value of the animal ; a horse with unlucky 
 marks is thought to be certain to bring misfortune, 
 and hence it is very difficult to sell one to a Hindu 
 that may be deficient in these so 'called marks. 
 
 These and numerous similar things which might be 
 alluded to, serve to show how superstition ridden is 
 the Hindu, even in these days of intellectual progress; 
 but the subject of this chapter has not to do with 
 such things generally. Omens, as meaning things' 
 regarded as foreshadowing events, is the particular 
 subject here intended. The Sanskrit word used for 
 an omen at the head of this chapter, is Shakunam 
 which means primarily a bird, and comes to mean an 
 omen from the fact that in ancient days omens were 
 largely decided by the flight of birds. This also, as 
 is well known, was a feature in the auguries of the 
 
286 THE HlNDCr AT HOME. 
 
 ancient Romans. Ancient Hindu writings contain 
 passages referring to portents and omens, and the 
 passage quoted from Mann at the head of this chapter, 
 does not mean that the art, or science of explaining 
 omens is a disreputable one, rather the contrary ; all 
 that it means is that a Sannyasi being one who is 
 supposed to have finished having anything to do with 
 sublunary affairs generally, must not, for the sake of 
 acquiring gain even engage in what are ordinarily 
 considered sacred employments. 
 
 A knowledge of omens is considered an art or science 
 amongst the Hindus generally, and there is a book in 
 Telugn, translated from the Sanscrit, upon this subject. 
 The three divisions of this book are Palmistry, {Samu- 
 drikam), or the interpretation of spots on the body and 
 of creases in the hands; Enquiry [Frashnam), or 
 divination tried by dipping the hand into the Ram£ya- 
 nam; and Omens. There is a class of people 
 who are learned in omens and kindred subjects; 
 the chief of these are the Astronomers or Astrologers 
 (Jyotishha) who, as their name implies, are learned 
 in the stars and occult matters generally. I have a 
 copy in Telugu of the Shakuna bhargam, or the part 
 on omens of this book, and perhaps the simplest thing 
 to do will be to go through the book and freely 
 select specimens of the various things there in enume- 
 rated as being ominous. The first we will notice 
 are: — 
 
 OMENS ON SETTING OUT ON A JOURNEY. 
 
 There are no less than forty-three different things 
 enumerated as prognosticating good and thirty-four 
 evil if any of them should happen just on setting out 
 for a journey ; for instance, to overhear a pleasant 
 conversation, or to hear musical instruments, or to 
 see a good blaze of fire ; to meet a company of 
 dancing girls, or a few young women ; to meet an 
 elephant, a horse, or a bullock, or even a corpse ; to 
 meet two Brahmans, or four Komaties, or a Sndra 
 with a stick in his hand ; to see in front of one flesh 
 
HINDU OMENS. 237 
 
 or umbrellas, fans, mirrors, a harp, diamonds, gold, 
 weapons, fruit or flowers ; to hear the braying of an 
 ass from the east, south, north or north-east ; if there 
 passes from the left to the right, a crow, a parrot, a 
 stork, a heron, or a jackal ; if there passes from the 
 rigbt to the left a brahminy kite, a hawk, an owl, an 
 iguana, a deer, a muskrat, a dog, or a mungoose ; 
 if a lizard's cry is heard from the right, or from over- 
 head ; any of these are considered good omens, and 
 augur well for the journey. 
 
 It seems strange that, for instance, to meet a corpse, 
 should be a good omen, but it is the case ; moreover 
 to dream of a corpse is considered a lucky thing ; 
 also to dream of a blaze of fire, or of flowers, or fruit 
 is good ; or to dream of having stepped into filth, or 
 having any filth fall on one's body, all these things 
 are considered good omens. To dream of any thing 
 red is bad, as red flowers, or a red cloth, or blood. 
 
 The following are considered bad omens, and fore- 
 tell evil if any of them should happen to one just 
 starting on a journey. It is a very anxious thing, 
 therefore, when a good Hindu leaves his home to 
 start out for a journey ; he will naturally look and 
 listen carefully for some good sign, and be very 
 thankful if he should get away without any baleful 
 prognostication. A pandit friend tells me that there 
 is no definite distance laid down beyond which bad 
 omens have no efieot ; perhaps twenty or twenty -five 
 •yards or even less, may be considered enough as a 
 test; or. getting out into the main street, if the house 
 started from should be in a side street; after this 
 it would not matter much if any thing of the nature 
 of a bad omen were to happen. The setting out 
 therefore is the anxious time- It is a bad sign if any 
 one should try to persuade the departing traveller 
 not to go, or should say he had better take some food 
 before starting, or should offer to accompany him, or 
 should enquire as-to where he is going, or should pull 
 his garment to keep him back. It is considered a 
 bad omen on setting out, to meet, or to see before one 
 any of the following: — A woman with plaited red 
 hair, a widow, a new pot, a whirlwind, drops of rain 
 
288 THE HINDD AT HOME. 
 
 a handle of firewood, a single Brahmirij an oil-monger, 
 a pariah, a lame man, men quarrelling, men in suffer- 
 ing, men with dishevelled hair, a hunchback, a 
 leper, invalids, buttermilk, oil, empty pots, grass, 
 bones, a bundle of dirty clothes, smoking fire or 
 various other things which are mentioned. It is not 
 a good sign to see an ass either to the west, the 
 north-west, the. south-west or the south-east with its 
 head hanging down and braying ; or to see a crow, a 
 parrot, a stork, a heron, or a jackal pass from the 
 right to the left. 
 
 If any of the above bad omens were to manifest 
 themselves to a pious Hindu on setting out on a 
 journey, especially if the journey were an important 
 one, he would certainly turn back home again. On 
 entering his house he would carefully wash his feet 
 and then perform Achamanam, which is sipping of 
 water three times repeating the words Keshava 
 Svaha! hail Krishna, Narayana Svaha! hail Narayana, 
 Madhava Svaha ! hail Madhava — these being names 
 of Vishnu. The ceremony of Achamanam is neces- 
 sary before any religious ceremony, or before or after 
 meals, as well as at various other times. After this, 
 and spending a greater or less time in quiet medita- 
 tion according to the urgency of the case, the traveller 
 would again set forth, A succession of attempts 
 meeting with bad omens would be enough to defer a 
 journey entirely for the day, if not altogether. If 
 the traveller were a Sudra he would not be able to 
 repeat the above words on performing his Achamanam, 
 they are from the Vedas, and none but a twice-born 
 must take such holy words within his lips ; the Sudra 
 would sip the water and say Govinda ! Grovinda I 
 or Siva ! Siva ! as the case may be ; that is whether ' 
 he were a Vaishnava, or a Saiva — a worshipper of the 
 god Vishnu, or of the god Siva. 
 
 SNAKE OMENS. 
 
 In a country like India where serpent worship is so 
 common, it is not to be wondered at that the move- 
 
HINDU OMENS. 289 
 
 ments of these reptiles should be looked upon as 
 ominous. Serpent worship is a cult that seems to 
 have been prevalent, at sometime or other to a greater 
 or less degree, amongst most raoes of mankind; nor 
 is this to wonder at. Apart from the terrible connec- 
 tion of the serpent with the human race in the garden 
 of Eden — an account of which, has, doubtless, filtelred 
 through the legends of most branches of the human 
 race — there is something in the appearance of the 
 reptile itself, and in its habits, that readily account 
 for the superstitious feeling it inspires. There are 
 those who can see beauty in the bright-coloured 
 markings, and sinuous movements of the serpent; but 
 there are very few whom the habits and appearance 
 of these malevolent looking creatures do not inspire 
 with instinctive disgust and abhorrence. The vital 
 statistics of the Indian Government show an annual 
 loss of life by snake bite alone, averaging from twenty 
 to twenty-five thousand ; it is not to be wondered at, 
 therefore, that the serpent should inspire a dread 
 making it but a step to propitiatory worship, and 
 hence a natural subject for omens. 
 
 In the book of Shakunams before alluded to, the 
 following are the snake omens mentioned : — To see 
 two snakes fighting is said to denote a quarrel 
 between the beholder and his relatives. It also fore- 
 bodes poverty to one who sees two snakes making of£ 
 in the same direction. One snake swallowing another 
 is a sign of famine. It is a good omen to any one 
 who sees a serpent climbing up a green tree, he is 
 sure to be an emperor. It is a sign of coming 
 misfortune to a king if he sees a snake climbing 
 down from a tree ; but the same thing is to other 
 than kings a good omen. The entrance of a snake 
 into a house denotes wealth to the householder j but 
 it denotes just the reverse if it is seen departing from 
 a house. If a cobra is seen with its hood expanded 
 and its tail erect, going across from the left to the 
 right, it is a good sign ; if only its hood is expanded 
 as it thus proceeds, it denotes a good meal for the 
 beholder. If a snake goes away without making any 
 attempt to turn back, it is a good sign; if it should 
 
 37 
 
start straight off from one's side, it denotes poverty. 
 If a snake comes towards one from the right side it 
 foretells success ; but it is a bad sign if it should 
 come towards one from the left. If one sees a snake 
 crawling about in the road in front of him, it denotes 
 success to his projects ; but it would be evil if he 
 should therefore make a halt. If when the snake 
 sees anyone it should expand its hood and erect its 
 head, it foretells wealth and prosperity j if when it sees 
 him it crawls into its hole, it denotes wealth to the 
 poor, but poverty to the rich. To see a dead snake 
 lying on the ground foretells news of death. Should 
 a farmer on arriving at a field see a cobra with hood 
 expanded and head erect, it would show that the 
 field would yield a good crop ; but if it should crawl 
 away on seeing him, it would denote a bad crop. It 
 is a sign of a good crop if a cobra be seen with hood 
 expanded and head erect when the farmer is sowing 
 his seed. A snake crawling into the entrance of a 
 village, denotes good to the villagers ; but it denotes 
 evil to them if one should be seen running away from 
 a village. To hear a serpent hiss on entering a 
 village is a good omen ; it is bad to hear one hiss 
 when on a journey. If one were to see the trail of a 
 snake on the ground, he must walk backwards along 
 it, rubbing it out with his foot. 
 
 LIZARD OMENS. 
 
 There are two ways in which a lizard is supposed 
 to exercise a good or an evil influence, and these are 
 its cry and its falling upon any one. With reference 
 to the cry of a lizard it is ,said that if on entering a 
 town one hears a lizard's cry coming from the left 
 hand, it denotes prosperity ; but if it should be heard 
 from the right, it bespeaks delay in the accomplish- 
 ment of one's designs. If the cry is heard from the 
 front, it is a good omen ; but it is bad to hear it from 
 behind. If a number of lizard's cry out together, or if 
 one should cry many times it is a good sign. If when 
 one, is considering about any business a lizard's cl-y 
 
HINDU OMENS. 291 
 
 is heard from the right, or from above, it bespeaks 
 well for one's designs ; but it would denote disaster 
 if it were heard from the left side. 
 ' Every dweller in India knows how universal is the 
 ordinary lizard ; it is everywhere both indoors and out. 
 It is a very harmless thing and many of its ways are 
 rather entertaining than otherwise; especially its 
 dexterity in pouncing upon the insects which form 
 its food. Many lizards too, are very pretty, , and the 
 effect is very pleasing when one sees them darting 
 about in the sunlight, or along the white walla by 
 lamplight. Some of them, it is true, are not so 
 engaging in appearance ; but others have most beauti- 
 ful colours and markings, and their feeble little 
 "tweet" "tweet" is by no means unpleasant to the 
 ear, though not very musical. Everybody, too, 
 knows the habit the lizard has of falling down with a 
 flop, and that often with disastrous effect as to its 
 oandal appendage. In its peregrinations here, there 
 and everywhere, up the walls, along the beams, and 
 in and out among the rafters, seeking what it 
 may devour, the silly thing must very often go 
 very carelessly, or else it gets giddy from running 
 along horizontal beams with its natural position 
 reversed as to its legs and back. Any way it is 
 no unusual thing to hear a flop on the. floor, and to 
 see some unfortunate lizard lying stunned, as it 
 were, for the sixtieth part of a second, with, perhaps, 
 its tail twirling about like a fat worm in convul- 
 sions, at some distance from its natural place of 
 attachment. The little thing, however, is soon up 
 again and off like a dart, as it nothing had happened. 
 Its personal appearance is spoiled for the time, and 
 it does not seem quite capable of steering itself after 
 the loss of its tail; but, after all, that is no great 
 matter, for a new one will soon sprout out again, and 
 render its owner once more a thing of beauty, if not 
 a joy for ever. The Hindu has very superstitious 
 notions as to the fall of a lizard — that is if it should 
 happen to fall on his person ; and he will try all he 
 can to prevent such a thing happening. Although 
 under certain conditions, such a fall may be a token 
 
292 THE HIN&U AT HOME. 
 
 of good, the chances to the contrary are so great as to 
 make it worth while taking every precautions against 
 such a contingency. 
 
 In the book on omens there is given a list of no less 
 tban sixty-five places on the person which may fore- 
 bore good, or evil, if touched by a lizard in its fall. 
 If it falls upon the centre of one's head, it forebodes 
 a quarrel or disease ; if on the temples, evil to one's 
 brother; if on the front of the head, evil to oneself; 
 if on the head covering, evil to males, death to females; 
 if on the tips of one's hair, death ; if on the right 
 cheek, good for males, evil for females ; if on the left 
 cheek, good for females, evil for males and so on 
 through the whole body right down to the toes, and 
 even to the nails on the toes. For instance, if a 
 lizard were to fall on the toes of the right foot, it 
 would denote wealth ; but if on the nails of the same 
 foot, a quarrel ; if on the edge of the nails of the same 
 foot, annoyance, or suffering is betokened. If the fall 
 should touch either the toes, or the nails, or the edge 
 of the nails of the left foot, it would be an omen of 
 wealth and good fortune. 
 
 The chapter from which these are taken concluded 
 as follows : — Upon whatever part of the body a lizard 
 may fall, it is the best thing to at once bathe, and 
 having lit a lamp fed with oil, pray to a favourite god 
 
 (^S2^^*^ for the prevention of any evil that might 
 otherwise happen. To this it may be objected that 
 the omen might be a good one, hence why always 
 this deprecatory action. The reply to this would 
 probably be that owing to the possible uncertainty as 
 to the exact spot upon which the reptile alighted, it 
 would be safest to assume the omen were a bad one, 
 and hence the wisdom of at once providing for the 
 possible contingency. 
 
 Separate information is given as to what may be 
 denoted by the fall of a chameleon' — the large lizard 
 usually called a bloodsucker. Strange to say, some 
 of these omens are the opposite of those of the ordinary 
 lizard. JPor instance, if a lizard falls on the nose, it 
 betokens disease; whilst a fall of the chameleon 
 
HINDU OMENS. 293 
 
 on the same place foretells the cure of a disease. 
 Enough, however, has been said to show what a very 
 portentous creature a lizard is in the eyes of the 
 Hindus, and to account for the anxiety they evince to 
 prevent one, at any time, falling upon them. 
 
 CROW OMENS. 
 
 To one at all acquainted with the Indian crow, it is 
 not at all a matter of surprise that the ways of that wily 
 bird are thought to be highly ominous. The very glit- 
 ter of its wicked beady black eye is suggestive of evil. 
 The Hindus think, from the peculiar squinting way 
 the crow has of looking at a thing — turning its head 
 from side to side in a most uncanny fashion — that it 
 can only see with one eye at a time, but that it has the 
 power of transferring vision from one eye to the other 
 at will. According to this theory, one eye must, for 
 the time, be only a dummy. As one would expect, 
 the crow is a proverbial bird amongst the Hindus. 
 They say for instance " The crow's chick is dear to the 
 crow " or, as the English proverb has it, ' Even a beg- 
 gar loves her brat'; "The crow is black at birth 
 and black when grown," or, 'What is bred in 
 the bone will come out in the flesh'; "To kill 
 crows and throw them to kites" or, "To rob Peter 
 to pay Paul.' Interesting though -it certainly is 
 from some points of view, and perhaps in personal 
 appearance somewhat deserving the high soundirig 
 name {corvus splendens) with which naturalists have 
 endowed him, the moral character of the Indian crow 
 is truly of the lowest; he is a very Ishmaelite amongst 
 winged bipeds; for cunning craftiness, untiring perti- 
 nacity, fiendish cruelty, and outrageous impudence, 
 perhaps no feathered creature in existence is its equal 
 —the jackdaw of Eheims would be far behind in com- 
 petition, either in cleverness or in wickedness. It is, 
 therefore, perfectly natural that the crow should be 
 placed in the Hindu list of creatures of augury. The 
 following are some of those mentioned m the book ot 
 
 omens :— 
 
 If on setting out for a journey a crow should come 
 
294 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 in front of one and caWj it would denote the defeat of 
 tlie object of the journey. If it should caw first on 
 tbe left ha,nd side of one, and then on the right it 
 would denote that robbers may fall upon one m 
 the way; but should it caw first on the right 
 side and then on the left, it would foretell wealth 
 and the accomplishment of one's designs. If a crow 
 should caw on one's left hand, and then follow after 
 one, it would prognosticate an access of riches ; but 
 if after cawing on the left hand, it should come to- 
 wards one from the front, it would foretell difficulties 
 on the journey. On the other hand, this last omen 
 is good for those who are not setting out on a journey. 
 If a crow coming towards one should caw and then 
 goes behind to the right, it would foretell suffering 
 from ulcers. If any one should be fortunate enough 
 to see one crow feeding another, it would bespeak 
 happiness to the beholder. 
 
 DOG OMENS. 
 
 The dog of the country, the ordinary "pariah" 
 dog, as it is called, is such a poor miserable thing that 
 one is rather surprised to find so much space occu- 
 pied with them in the book on omens. There are 
 good, dogs in India, of course, and one sometimes 
 comes across specimens of really well-bred creatures. 
 
 A thorough bred brinjari or a really good poligar, 
 for instance, is an excellent animal and suits the 
 country ; but the canine of the east is proverbially a 
 miserable creature, and the word dog is universally 
 used as a term of contempt. Such terms as " a lucky 
 dog " or " a jolly dog " with the implied strain of 
 compliment rather than reproach, are unknown in 
 India, and probably the same may be said for the 
 east generally. There are, of course, expressions 
 having the same meaning as these phrases, but there 
 is a complete absence of any thing concerning the 
 dog in them. 
 
 It is considered to be a good sign if a dog should 
 come near to one with a piece of old shoe in its mouth ; 
 and it bespeaks wealth to one who sees a dog with 
 
HINDU OMENS. 295 
 
 some flesL. in its mouth. It is a lucky sign should a 
 dog pass by with a raw bone in its mouth ; but if a 
 dog has a burning stick, or a dry bone in its mouth, 
 it foretells death. Should a dog enter a house having 
 a dry bone in its mouth, it would denote that the 
 householder was in great danger of death ; if on so 
 entering it should have creepers, or ropes, or leather 
 straps in its mouth, it would bespeak the imprison- 
 ment of the householder. It forebodes goo^ if a dog 
 comes from the right towards one about to start on a 
 journey; as also if one should come towards one from 
 the front when actually on a journey. If a dog 
 shaking its ears should jump upon a traveller, or 
 walk behind him treading in his footsteps, it would 
 denote that difficulties may happen. When a dog 
 stops a traveller in the way and prevents his proceed- 
 ing it foretells that he will fall among robbers, or be 
 stopped by enemies. If any one were to see a dog 
 scratching itself, it would denote disease to the be- 
 holder ; evil also will happen to one who sees a dog 
 lying down with its tail cocked up. A journey is 
 foretold to one whose shoes a dog smells (kisses) ; 
 it also predicts danger from enemies, or from robbers 
 when a dog smells one's shoulders. 
 
 If a dog scratch the walls of a house, it denotes an 
 attempt by burglars ; if it also scratch the walls of the 
 cattle shed, it foretells that thieves will steal the 
 cattle. If a dog should stand at the entrance of a 
 house, and, looking in, on seeing the Master and 
 Mistress, it should bark, it would prognosticate sick- 
 ness to the Master ; but if the dog should enter and 
 holding up its head should bark, it would foretell 
 shame to the house-wife. If one or many dogs in 
 the middle of a village bark at the sun, it predicts 
 evil to the country; if they should so bark in the 
 morning, it would denote fire; if at sunset, evil to the 
 farmers. If a dog at midnight barks towards the 
 north, it betokens evil to Brahmins and danger from 
 robbers. If a dog were to bark in the middle of a 
 village and then, running to the cemetery, were to 
 bark there, it would foretell danger of death- to the 
 head man of the village, or to one of the chief m- 
 
296 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 habitants. If in the rainy season a dog should howl 
 standing on the dung-heap, or on the king's palace or 
 on the terrace or roof of a house, it would denote 
 great rain ; but if it should so howl at other times, it 
 would foretell evil from fire, or from some contagious 
 disease. If when there is an absence of rain in the 
 rainy season, a dog is seen often to dive into water, 
 or often to drink water, or throw water over itself, 
 it would bespeak a speedy rainfall. 
 
 CAT OMENS. 
 
 A cat is evidently not thought to be such a very 
 portentous creature, as but little is said about it in 
 the book on Shakunams. The following is a free 
 translation of all that is said there : — Should a cat be 
 in front of any one when he may be considering upon 
 any business, that business will not prosper. If one 
 should see a cat just on awaking in the morning, 
 nothing he may do that day will prosper. A cat 
 coming towards one on leaving home, shows that the 
 object one had in view will fail. Should a cat follow 
 one on leaving the house, the object in view will be 
 accomplished without any hindrance. It is a good 
 omen to hear a cat cry from the side towards the 
 west. 
 
 JACKAL OMENS. 
 
 There is also very little said about the jackal. This 
 is not what one would expect considering the crafty 
 nature and repulsive habits of that animal to say 
 nothing of its horrible cries which are heard mostly in 
 the night time. The jackal enters largely into Hindu 
 fable ; but very little is here said of it from the omen 
 point of view. The following are the chief things 
 mentioned as portending good or evil : — 
 
 It is a good omen for a traveller when a jackal 
 crosses over from the left to the right. It is also a 
 good portend when a jackal's cry is heard from the 
 east, or the north ; but it predicts great calamities if 
 
HINDU OMENS. 297 
 
 one should cry exactly at midday; if it sbould cry 
 from the south or turning towards the sun, it foretells 
 evil to the town or to the army. If one jackal should 
 cry out towards the south in reply to another, it 
 portends an execution by hanging ; if it should so 
 cry in reply to another, turning to the west, it 
 bespeaks death, by drowning. If a jackal should be 
 crying out so loud as to deafen one's ears, but upon 
 another beginning to cry out it should lessen its own 
 cry, that would foretell wealth and prosperity, and 
 also the safe return of friends and relatives who may 
 have gone on a distant journey. 
 
 SNEEZING REGARDED AS AN OMEN. 
 
 It has already been mentioned, in the chapter on 
 Marriages, that sneezing is considered as ominous, 
 and that a sneeze at the important rite of a marriage 
 ceremony is regarded as very unpropitions. Most 
 people in India also know that should a good Hinda 
 sneeze, he will snap his fingers and make some 
 deprecatory exclamation like chiramjeeva (live a long 
 life) or shutdyussu (a hundred years — live for) in order 
 to avert any evil. In the book on Shakunams, the 
 omens of sneezing are explained very fully, and 
 advice is given as to the best means of averting any 
 threatened calamity, or rather to make the evil omen 
 innoxious : — 
 
 It is said that to sneeze many times denotes the 
 accomplishment of one's desires; it is also a good 
 sign to cough after sneezing. On the other hand it 
 is a sign of evil to sneeze just once and then stop. 
 One must not blow one nose immediately after sneez- 
 ing, as that would be a sign of death. After a 
 single sneeze, or if one were unwittingly to blow 
 his nose immediately after sneezing, it were well to 
 cease thinking about any business that might have 
 been occupying the attention and immediately to he 
 down and be quiet for a time, having first expectora- 
 ted ; in this way the evil may be nullified. It is a 
 good oraen to hear sneezing when taking betel 
 {tambulam), or when about to take food, or upon 
 
 - 38 ' 
 
298 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 going to bed. If when thinking about some import- 
 ant business, one were to hear a fourfooted beast 
 sneeze, or if such a thing were to occur when one 
 happened to be contemplating a journey, it would 
 be a sign of death, or some equally great calamity. 
 It is a good thing to get up whilst sneezing ; but it 
 is an omen of delay in one's business to sit dowa 
 whilst sneezing. It would be a sign that his object 
 would be accomplished if one were to sneeze whilst 
 holding in his hand bell-metal, copper, or gold ; but 
 it would be the very opposite, if the metal in the 
 hand should be iron or silver. 
 
 It is good to hear young children, or infanta 
 sneeze j or to hear prostitutes, pariahs, or the lame ; 
 but it is a sign that many troubles will happen to any 
 one unfortunate enough to hear any of the following 
 women sneeze : — A married woman, or a widow ; one 
 who is blind, or dumb, or maimed ; a washerwoman, 
 or one of the toddy drawer caste, or a Madiga 
 (workers in leather) woman ; a woman of the 
 Terukala caste (gypsies), or one carrying a burden. 
 It is also a bad sign if on sneezing oneself, one should 
 happen to see a woman. 
 
 There is no importance to be attached to sneezes 
 caused by snufE, or red pepper, or a cold j nor to 
 sneezing heard in the bazar. The reason for the latter 
 is, probably, because the small dust in the bazar is 
 often charged with particles of pungent articles like 
 chillies, and spices of various kinds ; this is apt to 
 cause sneezing which is seems to be, considered 
 unnatural, and hence devoid of import. 
 
 BIRD OMENS. 
 
 The Indian Blue Jay.— The flight of this bird is 
 consulted as an omen. C. P. Brown quotes the follow- 
 ing from a treatise on omens : — ■^«aaoJS?5^^ ^lits-oSbej 
 ■ge) ^Jg&Sio-O SoiSi ^?fSe)cJ£o- That is— except the 
 Jay and the Brahminy kite, the omen for all the birds 
 is that they should pass from the left to the right. 
 This means that it is an auspicious sign when birds 
 
HINDU OMENS. 299 
 
 fly from the left to the right, except in the case of the 
 jay and the brahminy kite. In accordance with this, 
 the book of Shakanams from which we are quoting 
 says that it is a good omen when a jay flies from the 
 right to the left of one, but bad when it flies from 
 the left to the right. If it should sit in front of one, 
 it is a good sign ; if behind, it is a sign of evil. 
 To see a jay to the east denotes evil to the beholder ; 
 to the south-east difficulties ; to the south, or to the 
 south-west, or the west it denotes wealth; to the 
 north-west happiness ; to the north, death ; to the 
 north-ep.8t, sorrow ; if it should appear to one's right, 
 it denotes health to the beholder. 
 
 The Beahminy Kite. — In accordance with the 
 above quotation from the Telugu, it is stated that 
 for a kite to fly from the right of one to the left, 
 denotes wealth and an abundant harvest; but if it 
 were to fly from the left to the right it would 
 prognosticate evil. It is said to be exceedingly 
 auspicious to behold a kite flying from the right to the 
 left with anything in the shape of prey in its bill ; 
 indeed it bespeaks good to those of that quarter on 
 whatever side it may so appear. The sight of a jay, 
 or a kite, or a jackal, either together, or apart, is 
 Baid to be always propitious. 
 
 The King-Ceow. — This is a black long tailed bird 
 rather small in size, that is considered very clever by 
 the Hindus. It is very swift in its flight, and may 
 often be seen perched on the backs of cattle. Its 
 Indian name is bhdradvdja. It is said of this bird as 
 follows in the bbok of omens : — If it is seen in front 
 of one it bespeaks good. If the male bird passes 
 one from the right to the left, it foretells difficulties j 
 but if the female so pass, the omen is a happy one ; 
 if the pair should so pass it is considered as very 
 auspicious. 
 
 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF BREATHING. 
 
 The Hindus have a most curious idea with refer- 
 ence to breathing through the nose. They distin- 
 guish between breathing through the right, and the 
 
300 THE HINDU AT.HOMK. 
 
 left nostril. The right nostril is called Suryanadi, 
 or that of the sun, aud the breath that comes through 
 this is supposed to be comparatively warm ; whilst 
 the left nostril is called the Ohandranadi, or that of 
 the mooD, the breath coming through this being con- 
 sidered as comparatively cold. There is believed to 
 be a prepondeiaiioe of breath coming through one 
 nostril for a period of two hours, after which this 
 preponderance changes to the other nostril. Not 
 only so, bat actions performed, or things happening 
 during one or other of these periods are thought to 
 be influenced thereby. A list is given in the book 
 on omens showing what it would be well should 
 happen, or otherwise as the case may be, during the 
 j)revalence of either the Suryanadi, or the Chandra- 
 nddi. There is said to be a book on this subject 
 {Svara Shdstram) ; but I am not able to procure a 
 copy. These are persons said to be learned in this 
 science ! who are consulted on occasion. It is said 
 that at six o'clock in the morning of the first day of 
 a certain month in the^year, the Suryanadi commences 
 and from this, calculations can be made. Ordinarily 
 when a man may desire to consult this oracle he will 
 breathe hard down his nostrils on to the back of his 
 hand, and having thus determined, to his own satis- 
 faction, by the escess in volume of the flow of breath 
 from either nostril, the auspioiousness or otherwise 
 of the time, he will form a judgment thereupon and, 
 if action is called for, he will act accordingly. 
 
 It is propitious if it should be Suryanadi, when 
 first marching forth for war, or when commencing 
 any important commercial transaction. It should be 
 at this period that the marriage bath should take 
 place, (rnangalasnanam) and also the ceremony at the 
 coming together of a married pair when arrived at 
 a suitable age {garbhathanam) . It is said to be well if 
 during Suryanadi one should take food, or be frighten- 
 ed, or be defeated in any way ; also it is a propitious 
 sign at the commencement of any affliction. It is 
 also recommended that on starting out for any of the 
 aforesaid enterprizes, one should start off first with 
 the right foot. 
 
HINDU OMENS. 301 
 
 It is advised to fix upon the period of Chandrauadi 
 for setting forth on a journey, or for a marriage ; for 
 first putting on new jewels, or for commencing to 
 plough the fields ; for Beginning to build a house, or 
 to plant a garden. It furthermore expresses the 
 necessity of putting the left foot first on starting out 
 to do any of these things. 
 
 THE TINGLING OR THROBBING OF LIMBS OR 
 MEMBERS. 
 
 The tingling or throbbing of the veins of any par- 
 ticular part of the body is also thought to be porten- 
 tious ; and there is a small chapter in the book omens 
 devoted to this abstruse subject. There are no less 
 than twenty-two parts of the body mentioned, a 
 tingling in which is auspicious, or otherwise, as 
 the case may be. It will suffice to mention nearly 
 a few of these as specimens seeing that this chapter is 
 not intended to teach the science of Shakunams ! 
 but to explain Hindu ideas on the subject : — 
 
 The throbbing of any part of the right hand side of 
 the body is auspicious j whilst that of the left is only 
 a little so — betwixt and between. A throbbing of the 
 centre of the top of the head bespeaks good food ; 
 and that of the nose is also a good sign. A throbbing 
 of the right cheek is ominous of evil coming to one 
 from a ruler, whilst that of the left cheek bespeaks 
 employment. It is a good thing, therefore, said a 
 native friend, if on setting out to seek for employ- 
 ment one should have a tingling sensation in the left 
 cheek. The list goes on downwards from the eyes to 
 the lips and chin ; and thence on to the shoulders, 
 the chest and the arms, right down to the feet — the 
 tingling of the calf of the leg foretelling the possession 
 of jewels, and that of the sole of the foot happiness 
 generally. 
 
 YAWNING. 
 
 Before concluding this chapter it may be well to 
 allude to the prevalent notions with reference to 
 
302 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 Yawning; for though this is not properly speaking 
 regarded as an omen, nor is it included in the book of 
 Sbakunams, it may be interesting to mention some of 
 the very peculiar ideas on the subject current amongst 
 the people. It is thought that when one yawns, there 
 is danger of the life leaving the body, whether merely 
 from the efEects of the spasmodic action, or from any 
 other cause is not clear ; hence it is usual on yawning, 
 to snap the fingers and say Krishna ! Krishna ! or 
 Siva ! Siva ! as the case may be, deprecatory of any 
 evil that might otherwise result. So strong in the 
 belief that there is danger of the life leaving the body 
 through a hearty yawn, that ' to yawn' is sometimes 
 used as a euphemism for ' to die'. The Telugu people 
 sometimes use the expression : — ey^JsSsaser'sSDo'^. 
 That is — the lives in the body yawned ; or, the spirit 
 has departed. Should a baby yawn, the mother, or 
 some one near who may have observed it, will snap 
 the fingers saying Krishna ! Krishna ! or, Siva ! Siva ! 
 It is probable that the superstitious ideas with 
 reference to yawning, and sneezing, too, had their 
 origin in the fact of any spasmodic action itself being 
 pbysically somewhat dangerous. This presumption 
 is strengthened from thel fact of there being a shlokam 
 on the subject that also includes falling down — a 
 thing that is certainly not devoid of danger to the 
 physical system, especially so to the elderly. It was 
 probably an elderly man who first composed the 
 verse, which is as follows : — 
 
 ^cTqirt^T smq 1 
 
 €t^fTistiif55Sff^: I 
 
 On sneezing, falling, or yawning. 
 
 Snap the fingers and say live ! arise ! 
 
 It is fit even for a younger to do this to an elder 
 
 This is for the reviving. 
 
 The third line in the verse is an allusion to the 
 
HINDU OMENS. ' 303 
 
 well-kuown impropriety of a younger presuming to 
 bless an elder. In the three possible events mention- 
 ed, the danger is considered such as to warrant this 
 departure from what is ordinarily considered to be 
 fit and right. It appeal's that the usual practice on 
 falling down is simply to say chiramjeeva (live a long 
 life) , or words,, to that effect, without snapping the 
 fingers — this in spite of the, wording of the above 
 quotation. 
 
 It must not be thought that the list has been ex- 
 hausted, in this chapter, of things considered by the 
 Hindus ; as omens but enough has been given to show 
 how tied and bound with the chains of superstitions 
 are a people amongst whom omens and auguries are 
 so numerous. Doubtless there are many who pay 
 little heed to the things here mentioned ; but, take the 
 people as a whole, these ideas are universally prevalent 
 throughout the country, and they exercise great sway 
 over the daily life of the masses. Much might be 
 said, not only of the folly of such superstitions, but 
 also of the material harm they are calculated to do, 
 seeing that a fatalistic belief in impending evil may 
 often bring about its own fulfilment by paralyzing the 
 endeavour that might prevent it. To enlarge upon 
 this view of the matter were, however, beside the 
 object of these pages. The intention throughout has 
 been rather to describe things as they actually 
 exist, leaving all that might be said by way of com- 
 ment to the natural impressions of the thoughtful 
 reader. 
 
GHAPTEE XX. 
 gfT^or^. (Abharanam). 
 
 A wife being gaily adorned, her whole house is embellished; 
 but, if she be destitute of ornament, all will be deprived of 
 decoration, (Manu, III. 63.) 
 
 The passion for personal adornment is not a thing 
 of modern growth, confined solely to this KaUyuga ; 
 but, as is abundantly manifest it is a something that 
 seems inherent in the human race in the most 
 ancient records of mankind. The naked savage of 
 the forest primeval is seen to deck Himself out 
 proudly in gaudy feathers, and barbarous shapes of 
 shining metal j and the little infant of civilization 
 early learns, as if by intuition, to fashion with its 
 tiny fingers something to add to its personal at^ 
 tractions. And who shall say that this inclination is 
 not for good, that is when confined within proper 
 limits ! it is delightful to see the little ones decking 
 themselves out with wreaths, and garlands of the 
 flowers of the field, as it is pleasing to see, in those of 
 older growth, a manifestation of that innate desire to 
 appear well before one's fellows which cannot have 
 been implanted in the human heart in vain. Any 
 thing that tends to make life bright and beautiful, 
 or that adds to human happiness, is not to be con- 
 demned, or frowned down because evil is caused 
 through carrying to excess that which, within proper 
 bounds, is a source of pleasure and delight. It is 
 when the low and degrading passion for mere osten- 
 tatious display creeps in, that evil begins ; as also 
 when the unworthy desire of mere possession becomes 
 predominant in the mind eating away as a canker all 
 worthier feeling. In such a case the innocent happi- 
 ness of enjoying the beautiful becomes clouded over 
 by what must ever hide the sunshine of real joy and 
 true gladness. 
 
HINDU ORNAMENTS. 305 
 
 Probably in no country in the world is the love 
 of personal ornament so inanifest as it is in India. 
 The sight of the great princes in full gala dress is a 
 dream of brightness and wealth ; and even the lowest 
 coolie manages, somehow, to possess /a something; if it 
 be only a silver, or even copper ring for his finger, 
 or toe, to enhance his personal appearance. It must, 
 however, be confessed that the Hindu carries this 
 liking for jewels to an excess. It is a passion that, 
 fostered as it is, acts largely as a hindrance to true 
 advance in the welfare of the country. Money that 
 properly circulated would add infinitely to the comfort 
 of the individual, and the welfare of the community, is 
 locked up, as it were, in jewels that lie as a dead 
 weight, utterly unproductive of good, and largely a 
 cause of anxiety. It is said that if any thing like a 
 reasonable portion of the precious metal that is thus 
 looked up were only put into circulation, the diflBcult 
 problem as to the Indian currency would solve itself. 
 Any little extra gain, or any little savings are almost 
 unvariably invested in jewels. The owner is happy 
 that on gala days he can adorn himself, or his family 
 with so much jewellery; and he like to be spoken of 
 as a man possessing so many rupees worth of the 
 same. More often thaji not, a man's wealth is spoken 
 of as his being possessed of so much in jewels; and 
 this is said with bated breath when the sum is a large 
 one. Even a domestic servant, or day labourer will 
 have his little savings melted down and made into 
 some ornament or other, for himself, or one of his 
 family. Such people, when remonstrated with, will 
 say it is a good investment, seeing that when a rainy 
 day may come the money-lender will always make a 
 good advance on jewels. A Telugu proverb has 
 it: — 'Jewels worn for ornament will be useful in 
 times of difficulty.' Such people cannot be brought 
 to understand the simplest elements of political 
 economy the great improvement to health, and do- 
 mestic happiness, if the money thus buried, as it 
 were were expended in bettering the often miserable 
 condition of the house, or surroundings, or in provid- i 
 ing better food for the family; the positive gain 
 
 39 
 
306 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 tbat might be derived from properly laying out the 
 money, instead of carrying it to the melting pot 
 of the goldsmith — these are arguments that do not 
 weigh much against the passion for jewels that 
 seems to possess Hindus of every class and station 
 from the highest to the very lowest. Probably this 
 liking for jewels is chiefly fostered by the females 
 — as will be seen further on. Hindu men do adorn 
 themselves, in this way, more than those of western 
 countries ; but it is the women who wear the most 
 ornaments ; and it is not only her personal appearance, 
 but her dignity, and status, amongst her friends and 
 neighbours, that depend very much upon the amount 
 and value of the same. When women meet at the 
 village well or tank for a chat, amongst other things 
 that usually form the subject of conversation, jewels 
 are said to take a prominent place j in the same way, 
 perhaps, as dress generally is supposed at times to 
 occupy a large share of the conversation amongst the 
 softer sex in western lands. In the same way as a 
 European lady is apt to feel herself lowered in her own 
 estimation, and that of her friends, when her ward- 
 robe is not as replete as circumstance might demand, 
 so no Indian lady can hold up her head amongst her 
 friends and acquaintances, if there should be a lack in 
 the number and value of such jewels as are thought 
 becoming her rank and means. 
 
 As may readily be supposed, jewels are often a 
 subject of quarrels and bickering in Indian house- 
 holds. If ODC member has more than another, the 
 wife than the sister, or the sister-in-law, or the reverse, 
 as the case may be, the peace of the good man of the 
 house is often disturbed, and the household divided. 
 This state of things has, in fact, become proverbial. 
 There is a Sanscrit saying current which ironically 
 expresses this as follows: — 'Namaskaram (obeisance) 
 to gold which creates enmity between mother and son' ; 
 and a Telugu proverb says : — Even though the 
 brother-in-law has to go to prison, the elder sister 
 must have her anklets. These things however can 
 best be left to the imagination of the reader, who 
 perhaps need not be reminded that human nature 
 
HINDU ORNAMENTS. 307 
 
 is pretty much the same in all nationSj only that it 
 has different objects upon which it manifests itself, 
 and different modes of giving expression to its 
 cravings. 
 
 There is a saying amongst Hindus, which has been 
 before alluded to in these pages that speaks of the 
 necessity of some personal ornament, however small. 
 ' There must always'-^so goes the saying'—' be at 
 least a speck of gold op the person in Order to ensure 
 personal ceremonial purity.' In accordance with the 
 spirit of this saying — whether or not with the object in 
 view as there implied cannot be said — most Hindus do, 
 as a matter of fact, contrive to have some jewel, how- 
 ever small, somewhere or other upon their person— - 
 either in the nose, or the ear, or on the arm or hand, 
 there is generally a something of greater or less size 
 and value. Really and truly, according to rule, a 
 youth, until he is married (a brahmachdri) ou^ht not 
 to wear any ornaments at all ; but as a matter of fact, 
 in these days they do, and little boys are often orna- 
 mented as much, almost, as little girls. Those who have 
 performed a Yajnam sacrifice, and who thereby become 
 entitled to the proud title of Somayajulu, are allowed, 
 as a mark of personal distinction, to wear a certain 
 kind of ear-ring, also three peculiar shaped rings on 
 their fingers; these jewels at once proclaim to the 
 initiated, the spiritual rank of the wearer. 
 
 The liking for jewellery by way of personal adorn- 
 ment, is also one that has always been manifest in the 
 east. This is probably, from the fact that in a warm 
 climate there is not the same necessity for enveloping 
 the person so completely in clothing as is the case in 
 less sunny regions ; and hence the more opportunity 
 for personal display, than there would be in the case 
 of those dressed in western fashion. We gather from' 
 the Pentateuch that, even in those early days, jewels 
 of gold, chains and bracelets, armlets and necklets, 
 with rings for the fingers, the ears, and the nose were 
 in common use, as they are at this day ; and it must 
 have been a great manifestation of faith, and zeal, that 
 led the men and women of Israel to biding so freely 
 of their personal ornaments to be melted down, and 
 
308 THE HINDU AT HOMK. 
 
 worked into adornment for the Tabernacle, and its 
 sacred contents. 
 
 It would be out of place bere to more than barely 
 allude to the native workmen who, though having 
 but the simplest tools, with wonderful skill and patience 
 manufacture the native jewellery. The goldsmith 
 guild, or rather caste, is a very distinct one, and there 
 seems always plenty of work for them to do. True the 
 workmanship is somewhat crude, and there is a want 
 of finish, as compared with European manufacture ; 
 but it must be borne in mind that it is all hand work; 
 there is nothing in the shape of machinery to lessen 
 the task, or to give mechanical accuracy. Yet, what 
 ]S lacking in finish is made up in beauty of design, 
 for which Indian workmanship in the precious metals 
 is proverbial. If a new jewel should be required, the 
 customer does not go to a jeweller's shop and select 
 the article, from a variety, as in Europe. The designs 
 are well known, and the customer must take gold or 
 silver or gems with him, and the goldsmith works up 
 the materials thus brought. Sometimes the workman 
 will go to the house of the customer and do the work 
 there. Indeed some of the nobles and other men of 
 wealth will, perhaps, keep workmen constantlyemployed 
 in making, or altering, or repairing. The gold or silver 
 that is taken to be worked up, is almost invariably 
 in the shape of silver, or gold coins — Rupees or 
 Sovereigns; and it can readily be understood how 
 great a drain this must be upon the currency. What 
 has been here said applies of course chiefly to up- 
 country parts. In the Presidency towns there are 
 shops kept by Europeans, or natives, where things 
 are exposed for sale, miich as in Europe ; but that it 
 is not according to the ways of the country. Some- 
 time ago I had the pleasure of going through the 
 workshops pf a well known jeweller in Madras ; one 
 sees there, that happy combination of modern Euro- 
 pean appliances with the wonderful, patient mani- 
 pulation of the Indian workman, which may probably, 
 in course of time, revolutionize the trade of the 
 country. 
 
 It may be worth mentioning that, as a rule, the 
 
HINDU ORNAMENTS. 
 
 309 
 
 metal employed in Indian jewellery is good of its kind. 
 There is no pinch-beck, or plated ware. The outer 
 covering of gold or silver may be very thin, and the 
 inside, mere lead ; but what one sees, is pure of its 
 kind — be it ever so small, or so thin. The gems that 
 one sees worn by the lower orders are, however, 
 often false ; but the setting is almost invariably pure 
 metal-gold or silver, as the case may be. There 
 seem however, to be signs of other notions taking 
 rise, and cheap gilt jewellery coming into vogue. 
 Perhaps this is one of the consequences of closer 
 relationship between the east and the west ! Any 
 way, I saw a young man, the other day, wearing a 
 pair of new ear ornaments, each containing what 
 looked in the distance like a fair sized diamond. 
 There could not, however, have been much reality 
 about either the stones or their setting, seeing that 
 on asking him, I found he had bought the pair new 
 in the bazaar for less than nine pence. 
 
 Q.^he variety and number of ornaments is almost 
 bewildering ; but they all have their proper names 
 and shapes. Indian artizans do not have to rack 
 their brains to invent novelties. There are no chang- 
 ing fashions, either in dress, or in ornaments. A 
 woman can wear what once belonged to her grand- 
 mother, or to one removed very many degrees further 
 back, for the matter of that, either clothes or jewels ; 
 and this without any incongruity, or exciting of 
 remark. There is an ever recurrence of old patterns, 
 improved, it may be, but the design will be the same. 
 Of'course it is in jewels for females that the variety 
 occurs most. It may be well to go somewhat into 
 detail in this matter, so as to give some idea, at least, 
 of what ornamentation the human person is capable 
 of. It must be borne in mind, however, that there 
 may be minor differences in different parts of the 
 country; although perhaps, in personal ornaments 
 more than in any thing else, there is a general agree- 
 ment amongst all Hindus. 
 
 Men have the ear pierced for various kinds of 
 ornaments both the different parts of the outer rim 
 and also the lobe. They also sometimes have the 
 
310 THE HINDD AT HOME. 
 
 nose pierced for a small jewel — eitlier one of the 
 nostrils, or the cartilaginous division between the two 
 nostrils. They sometimes wear gold or silver beads 
 round the neck — these, may be, are used as a kind of 
 rosary. It is very common to wear a belt round the 
 waist, either of silver or gold. This is often made in 
 circular or square plates, joined together ; each plate 
 being either plain or ornamented with embossed or 
 raised work. Even an ordinary coolie will sometimes 
 be seen with one of these belts in silver. Men also 
 wear bracelets on the upper arm, and also on the wrist ; 
 the latter sometimes beautifully ornamented. They 
 wear more rings on the fingers than do the females, 
 and sometimes the gems in these rings are very 
 valuable ; perhaps the most valuable part of a man's 
 ornaments are the gems in his ear-rings, and finger 
 rings. A man may perhaps have very little in the 
 shape of clothing, whilst the lobes of his ears are 
 ornamented with diamonds of great value. Some- 
 times, too, a man may have a ring on his big toe ; but 
 this latter may be with an idea of its being beneficial 
 to his health — a toe ring being thought, by some, to 
 benefit impaired energies. 
 
 This may be a suitable place to mention a peculiar 
 custom that seems prevalent amongst Hindus, in the 
 event of no child being born to a married pair for a 
 long time, or one surviving after several have died in 
 infancy. In such a case, especially if it be a boy, but 
 also sometimes in the case of a girl, the parents will 
 beg money from their friends and neighbours, or even 
 from strangers — the money must be obtained in this 
 way — and with what is realized, they get made a 
 small jewel for the ear and the nose, to be worn as 
 amulets. It must at least be for one ear and one 
 nostril ; but if sufficient is obtained to meet the cost, 
 both ears and both nostrils are thus ornamented. 
 When these are once put on, they are never removed ; 
 great danger would be incurred by removing these 
 charms. 
 
 The ornaments for women are naturally far more 
 numerous. There ^re no less than twelve different 
 kinds for the head alone j probably this does not 
 
HINDU ORNAMENTS. 
 
 311 
 
 exhaust the list, but these are those in ordinary use, 
 either for gala days, or for every day wear. It may 
 be worth while going somewhat into detail as regards 
 these head ornaments. First there is what is called 
 the betel-leaf, from its resemblance to the same. 
 This is of gold, ornamented with little balls along its 
 edges, and worn on the top of the head towards the 
 front. Another ornament made into the shape of the 
 petal of certain Indian flower {pandanus ordo-ratis- 
 simus) is worn just behind the above. Next comes a 
 large circular ornament named after the Indian 
 chrysanthemum, and worn at the end of the chignon 
 — it must be born in mind that the chignon is worn 
 somewhat at the side and not at the extreme back of 
 the head. A combined kind of golden sun flower, 
 with a crescent attached to it by links, is worn right 
 on the crown of the head. It may be mentioned that 
 these four ornaments are in ordinary wear by well-to- 
 do females; those hereafter mentioned are, as a rule, 
 only worn on gala days. A kind of inverted letter V 
 shaped ornament, sometimes set with pearls, is worn 
 pendant on the forehead, the angle being attached to 
 the hair, in a line with the parting. Pendant from 
 this, in the angle, is a kind of locket adorned with 
 pearls. On the hair in front and just between the V 
 shaped ornament, and the betel-leaf shaped one first 
 described, are two jewels ; the one on the right being 
 called the sun, from its supposed resemblance to that 
 luminary, and the one on the left being named the 
 moon, from its crescent shape; both of these are some- 
 times adorned with precious stones. There is also 
 a kind of gold buckle worn on the side of the 
 chignon, and used to attach any artificial hair that 
 may be necessary to make the bunch of the approved 
 size and appearance. A small chrysanthemum shap- 
 ed ornament, having an emerald in the centre, is also 
 worn on the chignon as an additional ornament. 
 
 On great occasions, as on her wedding day, or 
 other great gala days, a Hindu lady may have all the 
 above on at the same time, though of course, it is 
 not always that the whole of them are available. 
 There are still two head ornaments to be described 
 
312 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 that are worn instead of those on the ctignon when 
 tlie wearer may be a young girl. In sucli an event 
 the hair will be plaited' up into a long tail^ hanging 
 straight down behind, and beautified with a long tail- 
 like ornament of gold, often set with precious stones. 
 At the end of this is attached yet another article 
 which consists of a bunch of gold ball-like ornaments 
 fastened on witb silk. 
 
 Those worn in the nose may also be described 
 somewhat in detail, after which the various lists must 
 be dismissed with briefer mention. Strange as it may 
 seem to western ideas, the nose is a favourite feature, 
 amongst Hindu ladies, for the attachment of orna- 
 mentation; and after many years of being daily 
 accustomed to see such things, it does not seem in 
 one's eyes to be any stranger a custom than the orna- 
 ments foi; the ears so freely worn by ladies in Europe 
 in our younger days. Bach nostril is pierced, and 
 also the cartilage between the two nostrils and by 
 the aid of these three holes, some or other of the 
 following are attached to the nose. First must be 
 mentioned a pendant from the centre, hanging down 
 over the upper lip; the middle of this ornament has a 
 stone of a some kind in it and pendant from that 
 again is a pearl. Into one of the nostrils is put a 
 kind of short pin having a head of some precious 
 stone and with a pendant pearl. Into the other 
 nostril may be inserted a flower shaped jewel of gold 
 and small pearls, called the Neem, or Margosa flower, 
 from its supposed resemblance to the same. These 
 three jewels are in ordinary daily wear by those 
 who can afford them, whilst the following are reserv- 
 ed for high days and holidays. A ring, sometimes as 
 large round as a rupee, and ornamented with pearls, 
 or precious stones, is worn in one of the nostrils; 
 whilst in the other may be worn a flowerlike jewel of 
 smaller size. A half moon shaped ornament is also 
 attached to a nostril. Of course it would not be 
 possible to have on all the above at one and the 
 same time ; but a fair number can be attached upon 
 occasion. 
 
 Leaving the hair and the nose, we come to the 
 
HINDU ORNAMENTS. ' §13 
 
 ears j and there are a great variety of jewels made to 
 attach to some part or other of the aural organ. There 
 are. at least four parts of the ear and sometimes even 
 more that are pierced to enable the various ornaments 
 to be attached, and I have a list of at least fifteen 
 different kinds of «ar-jewels all known by different 
 nameSj and doubtless there are more besides. Some 
 are of ornamented gold, whilst others are richly set 
 with gems and pearls, according to the means of the 
 owner. There are those for the lobe of the ear, and 
 those for the tip and middle of the outer rim, each 
 place being pierced for the purpose. There is also a 
 hole pierced in the little prominence in front of the 
 external opening of the ear (tragus), which is made to 
 serve the purpose of holding a jewel to aid in the 
 adorning of the wearer. 
 
 Leaving the head we come to the neck; and here 
 again the variety is very great. I have the names of 
 some twenty-four neck ornaments, although this 
 probably does not by any means exhaust the list. 
 As may be supposed, the style and quality differ very 
 largely. Some are tight bands, fitting close round 
 the neck, and usually composed of flat gold beads or 
 tablets strung together on silken, or other cord. 
 Amongst poorer people the gold beads will be alter- 
 nated with those of coloured glass, to eke out the 
 precious metal. Some of the neck ornaments are loose 
 hanging chains, whilst a very favourite neck jewel 
 is composed of gold coins — English or Australian 
 sovereigns, or French five or ten franc pieces, or 
 even the old Indian gold Mohur — all strung together 
 so as to form a loosely hanging necklace. To attempt, 
 however, to describe these neck ornaments would 
 occupy too much space and might perhaps weary the 
 reader. 
 
 There are jewels for the arms, both the upper part 
 of the arm and the wrists. Those for the upper part 
 are like bracelets of various kinds, except that there 
 are several varieties which have a disc, or flower like 
 ornament, of greater or less size, attached to them. 
 The number of these, however, is not great, but for 
 the wrists there are fifteen or more different kinds of 
 
 40 
 
314 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 bracelets worn. Some are like chains, and some are 
 merely plain bands, whilst others are beautifully- 
 embossed in various patterns; some also are orna- 
 mented with precious stones. 
 
 In speaking of wrist ornaments, particular mention 
 must be made of the glass bangles that are so marked 
 a feature in female ornaments. Those who, through 
 poverty or from any other cause, cannot obtain any 
 jewels whatever, will, at any rate, have glass bangles. 
 To be without these is a mark of widowhood. It is a 
 universal rule that Hindu females, from their very 
 childhood, should wear these glass bangles; to be 
 deprived of them would be a great disgrace. Widows 
 alone are prohibited the privilege of thus ornamenting 
 themselves. A widow even may wear gold bracelets ; 
 but not glass ones. A little infant of a month old will, 
 perhaps, have one or two glass bangles put on its 
 little wrist by the fond mother, and the number 
 increases with the age of the child. There is no 
 fixed number for any certain age or conditions; it 
 seems to be pretty much a matter of fancy and ability. 
 Some females will have a few, whilst others will have 
 a dozen or more, largely covering the arm from the 
 wrist upwards. An angry woman will sometimes 
 smash all her loved bangles before her husband's face, 
 when they may happen to quarrel — which is not an 
 unknown thing even in Hindu households ! Such an 
 act is as much as saying ' I would I were a widow,' 
 and it is a very dreadful thing to do ! There are 
 various kinds of' these bangles, some being much 
 thinner and finer than others ; and the price varies 
 accordingly. Common ones will sell at about four for 
 one anna, whilst the better class ones may be half an 
 anna, or even an anna each. The colours, too, vary ; 
 black, blue, and green being the usual colours. As 
 a rule, the same colours are worn indifferently by all 
 castes — the better class people having the finer and 
 more expensive kinds. There are however, some few 
 varieties affected by some of the castes. The females 
 of the cowherd caste, for instance, usually wear a 
 peculiar kind in which the ground is black, but 
 ornamented with green spots or streaks. The toddy 
 
HINDU OKNAMENTS. 315 
 
 drawer caste, again, have a particular kind. Prac- 
 tically, however these glass bangles are the same 
 kind worn by females of all castes, classes, and 
 conditions of the people. In addition to the glass 
 bangles, it is usual for coloured ones, made of lac, 
 to be worn, two on each arm.; that, is, the first and 
 last bangle is usually one of this kind — the glass 
 ones being between. The cost of these is more 
 than those of glass, and they are ornamented with 
 various colours and bits of glass, so as to produce 
 a very pretty effect. Such brittle things as the 
 ordinary glass bangles are, necessarily, often broken, 
 and periodically require to be renewed. The bangle- 
 man is a well known personage, and he may con- 
 stantly be met with his strings of bangles over 
 his shoulder, the better kinds being carefully rolled 
 up in paper and cloth, and the whole covered over 
 with his black blanket, which is thrown over the 
 shoulder to protect the brittle wares. The bangle- 
 man will have his usual rounds, and he appears to be 
 a very welcome personage. If his circuit should be 
 a wide one, and he be a bit above the common, he 
 may have a little country pony to lessen the toils of 
 his joumeyings. The bangles are put on by the 
 bangle-man himself, and a very painful process it 
 seems for the poor female. She sits on the ground 
 in front of the manipulator, and he, also seated, tailor 
 fashion, takes her hand in his, and begins the 
 operation-kneading and pressing with practised 
 fingers, and perhaps now and then soothing the 
 sufferer by pointing out the beauty that will be the 
 result of the pain. The wonder is, when one see the 
 comparative smallness of the circles, how they can be 
 got over the hand at all ; but the Hindu hand is very 
 supple, and the operator knows how to press and 
 squeeze so as to accomplish his purpose. It is posi- 
 tively a painful sight to the beholder, to see the hand 
 pressed together, all out of shape, until the palm 
 positively seems folded up with the whole thumb in 
 the middle— the tears perhapsrunningdown thecheeks 
 of the poor subject operated upon, whilst now and 
 then a cry of pain cannot be repressed. It must be 
 
316 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 done, however, and, like having a tooth out, the 
 sooner it is over, and the less fuss made about it the 
 better. The lac bangle is not put on over the hand 
 in this way ; it is cut and pressed open, and after, 
 perhaps, a piece has been snipped ofE to make it the 
 proper size, the ends are heated and pressed together, 
 when they readily join. When a female has in this 
 way had her bangles renewed, she will, as a wind up, 
 make obeisance to the bangle-man and also to his 
 stock in trade. 
 
 The ornaments hitherto enumerated are ordinarily 
 made of gold— the glass bangles, of course, excepted. 
 The body, or inner part of the jewel, may be of 
 copper, or lead, especially in the larger sized ones ; 
 but silver is only worn by poor people. Account is 
 not taken here of Lambardies, and some other gypsy 
 like tribes, the women of which are ornamented in the 
 most profuse, and barbarous fashion. They have 
 dangling from their hair over their ears, full blown 
 flower — like silver ornaments, with numerous small 
 globular pendants, which tinkle softly like little bells. 
 On the upper arm and wrists, they have large and 
 heavy bracelets of brass, or ivory, or even painted 
 wood ; and their heavy brass anklets, which are 
 hollow and contain little pellets, give out a tinkling 
 sound as they walk along. The dress of these women, 
 too, is quite different from that of ordinary Hindu 
 females ; it is very picturesque, and even grotesque, in 
 its shape and material. It has also a lavish ornamen- 
 tation of beads and cowry shells, which are sewn on to 
 the close fitting jacket and bag like pockets, which 
 dangle at the side of their particoloured skirts. 
 Though picturesque it is all very dirty, and looks as 
 though a change of raiment were a luxury seldom or 
 never indulged in. Oar task, however, is to describe 
 the ornaments of ordinary Hindus, and we must not 
 be led aside by these other than ordinary matters, 
 interesting though they may be, otherwise this chapter 
 may grow tedious in its very prolixity. 
 
 The ornaments for the female waist, and legs, and 
 feet are more often of silver than gold, especially the 
 anklets, and toe rings. A broad zone of gold, or 
 
HINDU ORNAMENTS. 317 
 
 silver, with clasps, is worn round tlie waist by those 
 who can afford it. This is sometimes ornamented 
 with, raised work, though perhaps oftener quite plain 
 and the efEeot is very pleasing in contrast with the 
 bright coloured raiment which picturesquely envelopes 
 the figure. The anklets are of various shapes, and 
 sizes — some circular, like the bracelets for the wrists, 
 whilst others are formed so as to curve over the ankles. 
 Some are chains, whilst others have attached to them 
 a number of little globular bells which tinkle tinkle 
 with a soft and pleasant sound, as the wearer moves 
 about. Silver rings, of various kinds, are worn on the 
 toes ; there must always be one ring on the middle toe 
 of one, or both feet. If through extreme poverty a 
 silver ring cannot be obtained for this toe, then one 
 of bell-metal will be used instead. The shape of 
 these rings for the toes of females, differs from that of 
 those for men, in that they are usually shaped like 
 two or three twists of wire ; hence the Telugu name 
 for women's toe rings is tsuttu, which means a twist 
 round. Married women wear a peculiar shaped ring 
 on the fourth toe which has an embossed seal-like 
 ornament on the top. Men's toe rings are more like 
 ordinary finger rings, except that they are not joined 
 underneath, so that they can be pulled open and 
 pressed together again, when put on, or taken off. 
 
 It has been already mentioned that all the orna- 
 ments here described are not worn at one and the 
 same time ; that were an impossibility. It is astonish- 
 ing however, how many jewels can, at times,be crowded 
 on to the person. The daughter of wealthy parents 
 is a sight to behold when dressed out for her wedding, 
 or even when in full gala dress to receive visitors. 
 The dress itself is not very elaborate as to quantity, 
 or shape. A cloth or fiari of some delicate material, 
 and lovely colour, beautifully embroidered in fine 
 gold may be, gracefully enfolds the figure ; and this, 
 together with a short tight-fitting bodice, forms the 
 chief article of clothing, properly so called. Therejs 
 no head covering other than the end of the Sari 
 thrown gracefully over the head, so as to conceal the 
 face at will. The lack of variety in garments, how- 
 
318 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 ever, is made up with the number, aud value of the 
 glittering jewels, which seem to occupy every available 
 space, and which must, in spite of their beauty, be 
 rather heavy and cumbersome to the wearer. So im- 
 perative is it at weddings that the bride should be 
 decked out in jewels, that they are freely borrowed, 
 and as freely lent by the neighbours and friends, 
 upon so important an occasion ; any danger, or loss 
 must be made up, and one can easily imagine the 
 troubles that sometime arise from this borrowing of 
 valuables. There is a Telugn proverb which says : — 
 ' Borrowed ornaments cause inconvenience by their 
 weight, pain by taking them ofE and putting them on, 
 and debt if one is lost.' 
 
 Besides the evils already alluded to from the uni- 
 versal passion for jewels amongst the Hindus, it is a 
 great inducement to crime. The open display of valu- 
 ables is a great temptation to the lawless ; and con- 
 stantly deeds of violence are enacted for the sake of 
 securing the jewels of the victim. On journies, 
 especially in the common bij.llock cart of the country, 
 and even in the railway train, robbers attack travellers 
 for the sake of the jewels, which are foolishly worn 
 on the person as if to tempt to robbery. In secluded 
 places near to towns or villages, or even in the open 
 streets, jewel-snatchers often manage, and at times 
 with great violence, to secure valuable booty. The 
 ' area sneak ' of Europe is a type of villain, male or 
 female, who decoys little children, and sometimes even 
 murders them, for the sake of the jewels with which 
 fond but foolish parents adorn their darlings. 
 Children, sometimes without a thread of clothing, may 
 be seen playing about, having bracelets, or necklets of 
 value, or ornaments of some kind or other on their 
 little brown bodies; and it is positively an induce- 
 ment to crime that such a custom should be so pre- 
 valent. A dear little girl, or boy is happily playing 
 about on or near the pial of its home. The eye of 
 some cunning man or woman — oftener, perhaps, the 
 latter, is attracted by the gold bracelet, or necklet of 
 gold, or may be of gold coins. An opportunity is 
 waited for, and the child is spoken to, and is delighted 
 
HINDU ORNAMENTS. 319 
 
 with some glittering toy, or much loved sweetmeat 
 which the tempter produces. G-radually the simple 
 little thing is drawn away into the neighbouring tope 
 of trees, or thicket of prickly pear ; and then ! — there 
 is much enquiry, anql "searching in the house, and 
 neighbourhood, for the lost loved one. Alas ! a little 
 body floating in the deep well, or village tank, or a 
 mangled form hidden in the jackal-infested thicket 
 tells but too plainly of the sad tragedy. Something 
 like this is by no means an uncommon occurrence; 
 and yet, in spite of such warnings, in spite of the 
 repeated advice of magistrates when child's 'Ornament 
 snatchers are brought before them, the custom still 
 continues, as is abundantly manifest any day to the 
 passer by in the streets and throughfares of town or 
 village. , _ 
 
 Before concluding this chapter it may be interesting 
 to describe somewhat, the Hindu ideas with reference 
 to gems; as distinct from jewels of gold, or silver. In 
 the previous chapter, allusion was made to popular 
 Hindu superstitions on the subject of gems, and men- 
 tion was made of a book, in the vernacular, dealing 
 with this subject. A few items may be called from 
 this book that cannot fail to interest, as showing 
 popular Hindu notions in regard to what are lucky, 
 and what are unlucky, in the matter of pearls and 
 precious stones. It is an old world notion that magic 
 properties are attached to certain gems, and this idea 
 has been systematized by the Hindus in the book 
 referred to. It is called ' the test of precious stones' 
 {Bdtna pariksha) ; but the testing is largely confined, 
 not to the intrinsic value, but the luckiness, or other- 
 wise, of the particular gem. 
 
 Nine kinds of precious stones are enumerated, and 
 mention is made of the particular deity, or planet with 
 which each is connected. It is stated, moreover, that 
 the wearer of a particular gem receives the blessing of 
 its patron deity. Thus, Rubies are the favoured of the 
 Sun; Diamonds, of Yenus; Pearls, of the Moon; 
 , Emeralds, of Budhudu— the son of the moon ; Sap- 
 phires, of Saturn ; Oats-eyes, of the dragon's tail, or 
 descending node of the moon; Topazes, of Jupiter; 
 
320 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 Coral, of the ascending node of the moon ; and the 
 Agate, of Mars. 
 
 There are no less than six kinds of rubies enu- 
 merated, each of which is said to bring misfortune to 
 the wearer. A ruby that has milky layers enveloping 
 it (lashunam) — is said to bring poverty to the wearer; 
 one having a broken ray {trdsam) in it, will cause 
 quarrels and disputes ; one chipped {hhinnam) will 
 make enmity between relatives ; one as though full 
 of cracks (patalam), will plunge the wearer into 
 sorrows for ever; one with many flaws {zarzharam) , 
 will endanger the life of the wearer ; one rough and 
 dark in colour {karhashanilam) will be sure to cause 
 evils. Hence it is advised to avoid either of the above 
 six kinds of rubies. It is furthermore said that rubies 
 containing two or three round spots are not lucky ; it 
 is not good to cast one's eyes upon such a stone on 
 awaking in the morning. It is most lucky to wear 
 good, and pure rubies ; the sun, their patron, will bless 
 the wearer with wealth and prosperity. 
 
 Diamonds are divided into four classes, or castes. 
 Those that are pure white are said to be of the 
 brahmin jat, and they are said to bestow great benefit 
 upon the wearer. Those that are red, are of the 
 kshatriya jat, and they bestow upon the wearer the 
 power of eliciting the obedience of his fellowmen. 
 Those that are yellow, are of the banyan jat, and they 
 bestow prosperity generally. Those that are black, 
 are of the sudra jat, and they mean ruin to the wearer. 
 It is further stated that when a diamond contains 
 shining streaks resembling the feet of a crow, it will 
 cause the death of the wearer. A good diamond 
 cannot be broken with a hammer ; it will nqt sink in 
 water; and it will be pure white when polished. If 
 such a gem be worn, Venus, its patron, will bless the 
 wearer with the comforts of life. 
 
 Pearls. — There are said to be nine places in which 
 pearls are found. (1) In the clouds ; this kind is 
 said to be oval in shape, and to be worn by the gods. 
 (2) In the head of a serpent ; these are said to be like 
 a small red seed, and to have the quality of relieving 
 their wearers from all troubles. (3) In the hollow of a 
 
HINDU OENAMKNTS. 321 
 
 bamboo j these are said to be black in colour, and to 
 give the wearer certain attractions. (4) In a fish j 
 these are white in colour, and protect the wearer 
 from danger by fire, (5} In the head of an elephant ; 
 these are yellowish green like ai certain seed,, and 
 should be worn by kings. (6) In a sugar cane ; thia 
 kind is of a reddish colour, and is said to have the 
 power of causing all, even kings and queens, to be 
 subjected to the will of the wearer. (7) In a conch, 
 shell ; these are said to be like a dove's egg ; but they 
 cannot be obtained by ordinary men ; it requires a 
 knowledge of mantrams, or magic, to get them. (8) 
 In the tusk of a wild boar ; this kind is red in colour,, 
 and is in size like the regn fruit {ziziphus jujuha) ; it 
 will bring fame to the wearer. (9) In the .pearl oyster ; 
 of these there are said to be three kinds, of a reddish 
 a golden, or a white colour. The moon, the patron, 
 of pearls, will bless a wearer of pure pearls with fame 
 and the pleasures of life. 
 
 E'meratds are said to be of eight classes according to 
 their colour. These eight colours are enumerated, and 
 then three evil marks are given. It is said, that poisons 
 have no power over those that wear a good emerald ; 
 it protects from the power of the evil eye ; and it deve- 
 lops the mental faculties. Emeralds also have the power 
 of protecting from the designs of foes, from sorrows, 
 madness, internal pains, swoons and various diseases 
 of the liver. A sure access to heaven is promised to 
 that one who freely gives an emerald to a brahmin. 
 
 Sapphires are divided into three classes according 
 to the depth of their colour. There are also six kinds 
 that are said to bring evil to the wearer ; such evils as 
 quarrels with relatives, loss of children, hazard to life, 
 certain death within a year, A sapphire is said to be 
 purest when, if placed in milk, it gives to the milk a 
 bluish tinge. It is then a true sapphire (ksheraghdhi) . 
 A sapphire is said to be electric {trunagrahi) when a 
 blade of grass will adhere to it though blown upon. 
 Such a stone is said to bring lustre to the wearer. 
 The planet Saturn, the patron of sapphires, will bless, 
 the wearer of a true sapphire, it is said, with prosperity 
 and immunity from death, 
 
 41 
 
322 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 The Topaz is described as having a colour like a 
 drop of dew on a flower, and its patron deity Jupiter 
 is said to bless the wearer with immense wealth. 
 
 Four kinds of Coral are enumerated that will 
 cause evil to the wearer — 'troubles, grief, disease, 
 and death. There are six kinds of good coral men- 
 tioned, according to the colour — that of the beak of a 
 parrot, or of the fruit of various trees — and the wearer 
 of such is promised the pleasures of life, and the 
 accomplishment of his designs. 
 
 The blessing of Mars is promised to the wearer of 
 an agate, which blessing is said to ensure wealth and 
 prosperity. 
 
 Much might be said regarding superstitious virtues 
 attributed to difEerent varieties of gems in ancient 
 Europe, as well as the various uses to which precious 
 stones have been applied. One might also say some- 
 thing of the various sources from which gems are 
 obtained, as well as give anecdotes of well known 
 stones, and pearls which have acquired celebrity in 
 the history of the world. All this, however, would be 
 beyond the object intended in these sketches. The 
 intention here has been merely to give some account 
 of the personal ornaments in vogue amongst present 
 day Hindus, and the mention that has been made of 
 superstitious notions attached to gems has only been 
 such as seemed to be naturally connected with that 
 subject. The details given in this chapter, have, I 
 think, served to show how strong is the passion for 
 jewels amongst even ptesent day Hindus, and it is not 
 difficult for the thoughtful reader to perceive the evils 
 resulting from this passion — evils that have already 
 been alluded to. One of the most hopeful signs of 
 the times is that thinking Hindus of ability, are 
 venturing to raise their voice against this and other 
 social evils. There is a hope, therefore, that, as reforms 
 have begun in other directions, so, too, something 
 may be done here to contract within legitimate bounds 
 that spirit, which, though innocent in itself, is seen 
 to cause so much evil and loss, when carried to such 
 extremes as have been here alluded to. 
 
CHAPTEB XXI. 
 CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 Action, either mental, verbal, or corporeal, bears good or 
 evil fruit, as itself is good or evil (Manu xx, 3.) 
 
 In reviewing the various subjects brought forward 
 in these sketches of every day Hindu life, I am re- 
 minded of the title of a certain book published many 
 years ago. If my memory serves me right, that title 
 was — " The Harvest of a quiet eye." I merely make 
 this allusion because those words exactly express the 
 habit of observation of which this small volume is an 
 outcome. Subjects kindred to those which form the 
 theme of these sketches have always had for me a 
 peculiar fascination. In a country like India the 
 objects of interest to the observing mind simply abound 
 on every hand. The Fauna in its countless multitude 
 and diversity attracts most attention from the sport 
 loving European ; whilst the Flora in its infinite 
 variety and beauty is an endless source of delight to 
 the Botanist. India has been called the paradise of 
 the Botanist. One may sit down on the green and 
 within one or two square yards gather a delightful 
 miniature bouquet of the most exquisitely beautiful 
 flowers — all most minute in size and yet each a perfect 
 study in itself ; whilst on the other hand we may see 
 great forest trees resplendent with a profusion of the 
 most gorgeous bloom perfectly bewildering in its beauty 
 and overpowering with its fragrance. The medical 
 student in search of simples need- not go far to fill 
 his wallet with plants possessing every variety of 
 curative quality — or the reverse, as the case may be. 
 In a short forenoon he may gather enough to sferve as 
 remedies for a good many of the ills that flesh is heir 
 to, or he may on almost any rubbish heap or in any 
 neglected corner collect enough deadly poison to 
 dispose of far more enemies than many a round of 
 shot and shell with all their terrible destructive 
 
324 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 power. The BntomologiBt need not go farther than 
 his own garden, or even than his own dinner table, to 
 find specimens more than suflScient in number and 
 variety to employ all his leisure. The birds, the rep- 
 tiles, the shells and the fishes in all their distracting 
 multitude and diversity, invite the attention of the 
 student of nature ; indeed to the Naturalist, in the 
 widest meaning of the word, there are endless objects 
 of interest on every hand, turn which way he may. 
 All this, to say nothing of the wide fields for scienti- 
 fic investigation that are here so plentifully opened 
 out to the lover of antiquity — such dry-as-dust matters 
 as Archaeology or Numismatology with many another 
 kindred science — kindred in their connection with 
 antiquity as well as in the fascination their study exer- 
 cises over some minds. For such, whilst the pursuit 
 of knowledge is under difficulties in England simply 
 from the lack of instances upon which to exercise their 
 faculties, here examples may be found in profusion 
 merely for the seeking of them. 1 have seen heaps of 
 celts, for instance, accumulated by a collector of such 
 things, and have inspected a freshly opened out Bud- 
 dhist mound, with the relics of which it had just been 
 rifled j these and such like things enough to excite 
 almost the adoration of some who give their minds to 
 such matters may here be found in plenty by any 
 careful enquirer. Dull indeed must be the mind of 
 that man who can spend much time in such a country 
 without fixing upon something or other to occupy his 
 leisure, and wherewith to form a hobby upon which 
 to exercise all the intellectual power he can spare 
 from his regular and official duties. 
 
 For my own part, however, I am inclined to agree 
 with the Poet-philosopher in his dictum that " The 
 proper study of mankind in man," and although there 
 is much that is delightful and profitable in the pur- 
 suits above alluded to, forming as they do pleasant 
 and refreshing occupation for hours of relaxation, 
 there is I think if possible more pleasure to be derived 
 from studying the habits and customs in their infinite 
 variety and detail, of the exceedingly interesting people 
 by whom we are surrounded in India. The stranger 
 
CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS. 325 
 
 on first arriving in the country is apt to be very much 
 interested with the sights and scenes around him — 
 tbings so foreign to what he has been accustomed to 
 in his own country ; but it is astonishing how soon the 
 novelty wears off and how capable one is. of getting 
 thoroughly accustomed to such things without in the 
 least knowing any thing as to their origin or meaning. 
 Apart from the pleasure of such a pursuit, there is 
 also much profit to be derived from acquiring a know- 
 ledge of the manners and ways of other nations, espe- 
 cially when it is, as in this case, a people with whom we 
 are so intimately connected. Any little trouble is I 
 think amply repaid if by careful enquiry and obser- 
 vation any thing like a correct knowledge can be arri- 
 ved at with reference to such matters. Speaking as a 
 missionary, I feel it is most important to get oneself 
 acquainted as much as possible with these things ; 
 seeing that it is impossible to be thoroughly ' in touch' 
 with a people of whose social and religious habits and 
 customs one may know but little or nothing. To some, 
 the labour of acquiring such information may be some- 
 what irksome ; the result, however, is surely, well worth 
 the efEort if there be the desire to influence and direct 
 the natives of India. A knowledge of the daily life of 
 the people aids in arriving at more or less correct 
 conclusions as to their modes of thought and motives 
 for action; and it is only with the aid of such knowledge 
 that one can reasonably hope to attain much result in 
 influencing them in such a deeply personal matter as 
 religion. 
 
 1 confess it is to me a mystery how little the ordi- 
 nary European in India troubles himself about the 
 every day things connected with Hindu religions and 
 social customs. Even men of thought and culture, 
 who consider no effort too great in the endeavour to 
 acquire correct knowledge concerning the manners and 
 customs of the peoples of antiquity for instance, will 
 be content to go on in a state of profound ignorance as 
 to the habits and modes of thought of those with 
 whom they are brought into daily contact. Probably 
 but comparatively few of the Europeans domiciled of 
 India could give any intelligent account of many in 
 
326 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 the every day things alluded to in these pages. Why, 
 for instance, the Hindu wears a few strands of cotton 
 thread over his shoulder and across his chest ; or why 
 he shaves his head leaving a top-knot most carefully 
 preserved ; or why, again, he paints those peculiar 
 marks upon his forehead and for what reason they 
 vary amongst different people. If questioned as to 
 the latter he might just give the ordinary European 
 explanation that they are " caste marks of some sort 
 or other" — not knowing, and possibly not caring to 
 know, that they have nothing whatever to do with 
 caste. Or again, except certain general and somewhat 
 vague notions, but little is known about such social 
 customs as perpetual widowhood, or the so great 
 desire for a son that one must be adopted at all 
 hazards if nature denies the precious boon* And yet 
 there are reasons for all these things — reasons so im- 
 portant and so binding upon the orthodox Hindu 
 that to neglect them were to imperil, not only his 
 social status, but also the safety of his very soul. 
 
 It may be pleaded in excuse that the Hindus them- 
 selves really know very little as to the reason why, of 
 by far the most of their customs and ceremonies ; and 
 occasional allusion has been made to this in these 
 chapters. A learned pandit will know all about the 
 rites and ceremonies of his own particular sect, but he 
 will readily express ignorance, an ignorance that is 
 evidently not feigned, of those connected with other 
 branches of the many sided Hindu religion. It 
 seems never to have occurred to him that it would be 
 interesting to examine into those things in which he 
 may not have a personal interest, and he is content to 
 go through life in comparative ignorance of the 
 doings even of his nearest neighbours. This is the 
 case not only with the old fashioned pandit, but even 
 more so with otherwise well informed Hindus of 
 modern education ; perhaps this may be because the 
 Indian University has not yet included such matters 
 in its curriculum. Be this as it may, it is a fact that 
 even amongst the educated classes, for we are not 
 here speaking of the illiterate masses, there is a 
 general ignorance concerning the rites and customs 
 
CONCLUDING OBSEEYATIONS. 327 
 
 wHcli they, nevertheless, undeviatingly perform and 
 follow. Of course this makes it the more difficult for 
 the outside observer to obtain correct information as 
 to Indian habits and customs. 
 
 I have already said that from a missionary point 
 of view the acquisition of such knowledge as is here 
 alluded to is imperatively necessary if there is much 
 to be looked for in the shape of real influence with 
 the people ; perhaps it would not be going out of our 
 way to add that such a study may not be unworthy 
 also of others than Missionaries. The noble work 
 which Great Britain has before her in this country 
 will never be fully accomplished until the people of 
 the land get to realize that the Government in its 
 actions is moved by a desire for their true welfare. 
 I think it does not need much by way of demonstra- 
 tion to convince any thinking person how greatly the 
 beneficent intentions of the supreme Government 
 may be retarded, and even frustrated, by a cynical 
 indifference on the part of its representatives to the 
 every day life and the manners and customs of the 
 people. Europeans who have had most influence in 
 the country have always been those who have mani- 
 fested a sympathy with the lives of those with whom 
 they have been brought in contact. Such men have 
 been able to exercise untold power in the desired 
 directions, because the people knew they had their 
 welfare at heart, and they trusted them accordingly. 
 Such sympathy, however, can only result from a more 
 or less intimate knowledge of the people and their 
 ways. Strongly entertaining these ideas, I trust the 
 hope is not a presumptuous one that even so small an 
 effort as this may serve, to some extent at least, to- 
 wards disseminating and popularizing a knowledge 
 of the every day things of Hindu life. And this as 
 I have already said not only amongst Missionaries, in 
 whose efforts T am necessarily most interested, but 
 also amongst others who have a share given to them 
 by God, whether they personally recognise it or not, 
 in carrying into effect His gracious designs towards 
 this great country. 
 
 Looking, however, beyond India to possible readers 
 
328 THE HJNDC AT HOME. 
 
 in England, I venture to hope that this book may be 
 found useful and entertaining reading at such gather- 
 ings as Mission working parties and thus be a means 
 of exciting increased interest in India and its people. 
 I am also not without a hope that the information 
 herein contained may find a somewhat wider range 
 of readers in England. Such a result as this were 
 well worth desiring, seeing that, after all, the British 
 public is the ultimate director of the destinies of 
 India and, therefore, a wider spread knowledge of 
 India and India's millions amongst the English people 
 must tend towards forming a public opinion that 
 cannot fail, directly or indirectly,, to have a reflex 
 influence beneficial to this country. 
 
 There is one thing that may perhaps in conclusion 
 be referred to at more length seeing that it is some- 
 thing which is so clearly exemplified in these detailed 
 descriptions of peculiar rites and manifold ceremonies, 
 I mean the exceedingly conglomerate character of the 
 Hindu religion. I am aware that this is touching' 
 upon a somewhat trite subject and one that has been 
 written upon by others better qualified to give 
 expression to it ; but seeing that these sketches may 
 come into the hands of some who have not the 
 opportunity of reading more learned works, it may 
 not be out of place here to make a few observations 
 on so interesting a topic. The Hinduism of the 
 present day is by no means the religion of the 
 Aryans as they brought it with them into India. It 
 is a mixture in which the new so absorbed and assi- 
 milated the old with- which it came in contact, and 
 was so influenced by it, as to have become, at least 
 as far as the outward expression of it is concerned, a 
 very different if not, in some respects quite a new 
 religion. This is naturally more perceptible in 
 Southern India where the Aryans seem not to have 
 penetrated in such large numbers as to allow of their 
 religious system overpowering the old cults which 
 they found flourishing there. In these Southern 
 parts, amongst large sections of the community, the 
 so called Hinduism of to-day is more Dravidian than 
 Aryan in its ulterior origin. Mr. Mayne in his well 
 
CONCLDDING OBSERVATIONS. 329 
 
 known " Treatise on Hindu Law and Usage," speaking 
 of Hindu law, makes some remarks that may well be 
 applied to the Hindu religion. He says : — When the 
 Aryans penetrated into India, they found there a 
 number of usages either the same or not wholly 
 unlike their own. They accepted these, with qr with- 
 out modifications, rejecting only those that were 
 incapable of being 'assimilated, such as polyandry, 
 incestuous marriages and the like. The latter lived 
 on a merely local life, while the former because 
 incorporated among the customs of the ruling race. . . 
 ....... I think it is impossible to imagine that any 
 
 body of usage could have obtained general acceptance 
 throughout India, merely because it was inculcated 
 by Brahmin writers, or even because it was held by 
 the Aryan tribes. In Southern India, at all events, 
 it seems clear that neither Aryans nor Brahmins 
 ever settled in sufficient numbers to produce any 
 such result. We know the tenacity with which 
 Eastern races cling to their customs, unaffected by 
 the example of those who live near them. We have 
 no reason to suppose that the Aryans in India ever 
 attempted to force their usages upon the conquered 
 races, or that they could have succeeded in doing so, 
 if they had tried (I. § 5. 6). 
 
 It is not difficult to see how closely what is here 
 said of the legal aspect of the case, applies to the 
 religions. Hinduism is but a reflection of the mixed 
 character of the inhabitants of India — not one race 
 but many and each with its own peculiar characteris- 
 tics. The history of Brahminism In this respect 
 very much resembles that of such invading tribes , as 
 the Huns and Gotha in their contact with ancient 
 Europe — here, where able to effect it, ruthlessly des- 
 troying; there, assimilating and incorporating until 
 ultimately they became so changed by the influences 
 around them as to be more like those they supplanted 
 in power than their former selves. Aryanism un- 
 doubtedly brought great religious changes, but it 
 gradually settled down to accommodating itself to 
 circumstances. What it could not break down it 
 incorporated, and yet so managed that the Brahmins 
 _ 
 
330 THE HINDU AT HOME. 
 
 should ever occupy the seat of authority; the 
 outcome being the Hinduism of to-day. Nothing 
 exemplifies this more clearly than the history of 
 Buddhism. Gautama the son of a petty prince 
 somewhere on the confines of Oude and Nepaul 
 founded a religion in the 5th or 6th century B. 0. 
 that spread over India with such irresistible power as 
 to threaten the extinction of Brahminism. This over- 
 whelming force being met in that accommodating 
 spirit of compromise' which is the characteristic of 
 Hinduism, it was finally itself absorbed into the all 
 embracing system ; Gautama Buddha was elevated 
 by the astute Brahmins to the position of the ninth 
 incarnation of Vishnu, and Buddhism as a distinct 
 cult became, practically, extinct throughout the length 
 and breadth of the land. 
 
 In concluding I may perhaps be permitted again 
 to allude to the grounds for hope one may so clearly 
 perceive in the religious disposition of the Hindus. 
 To those desirous of the spiritual good of these people, 
 their intensely religious nature which is so apparent 
 in every page of this book is full of encouragement. 
 None bat a people with the strongest religious ins- 
 tincts could possibly have borne for so many ages.the 
 accumulated burdens prescribed by their religions ; 
 and when the tide, which is now so perceptibly on 
 the turn, begins to flow freely with its irresistible 
 and ever increasing force, and the conglomeration of 
 Aryanism and Brahminism, Buddhism and Demono- 
 latry, the highest philosophical conceptions and 
 spiritual aspirations together with a pandering to the 
 lowest instincts of human nature^all of which, com- 
 bined, form what is called Hinduism — when this shall 
 have given place to a simpler ritual and the purer 
 faith of the one true incarnation, then will the religi- 
 ous life of India assume a form that one can even 
 now begin to contemplate with joyful anticipation. 
 
 " For from the rising of the sun even unto the going down 
 " of the same shall my name be great among the Gentiles ; 
 " and in every place incense shall be ofiEered unto my name, 
 " and a pure offering : for my name shall be great among the 
 " heathen, saith the Lord of ho^fcs.— Mai. i. II. 
 
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