Farming ANoGARDENING Soil Fertility :^H irrigation, Drainage r Crop Culture :^^ J Gardening, TrucJung Fruits, Forestry Pruning, Grafting, Budding Training the Grape Injurious Insects Plant Diseases ^ - Spraying <.wv!s.«s. ' EDGERTON ERWiN TAFT TITUS Selecting and Feeding ] KERRICK Farm Animals for Profit 1 STEVENSON iSiSiSsiSSSSiSSiSiSSSSi^g;^. I RANKIN ^bl Farm Animals - CRAIG js &nd Silage - - - - WOLL Making Poultry Pay - - JACOBS Handy Rules, Useful Information ' - Cookery - - - - TANTY Price, $2.00 ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY New York State Colleges OF Agriculture and Home Economics Cornell University Cornell University Library S 405.M14 Practical farming and gardening. 3 1924 000 953 285 The original of tiiis book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000953285 1 (,-. 5". 1 FEEDING CHART. CIGfS TIDlpPROrEIN DIGESTIBLE CARBOHVDRATES. DI GESTIBLE FA T. ■■■I I 1 I 1 FCRTILIZ[R l'ALU[ PER TOii If: RUMINANTS. G5 O INDIGESTIBLE RESIDUE. rjUTRniVE RATIO ir 12,0 O.j^ GREEN OAT FODDER 76.6 GREEN RYE FODDER 79.3 Z± GREEN CORN FODDER' 70.4 11.6 Q. 5.^3 ^ cz^ttz ALFALFA, RED CLOVER, COWPEAS, SOY BEANS i'avERAGE) 39.2 I . 6 7,1 I I .4 SAME DRY i'aveR'^&E; 2.0 . 5.6 . 17.9 TIMOTHY AND CLOVER HAY i'eqUAL PARTS) O.a-3-4 4 0.5 CORN STOVER rm MANGEL DEETS ^ CORN MEAL «■ itf m 1 4.6 0.5__2,1 r ^■' tf n^^ 1 2 . ; WHEAT BRAN ■ '^ ? n. .^_e_ 9.9 12.2 20.28 NEW PROCESS LINSEED MEAL 7.0 1 .J 7.B r 1.7 1 1 ,0d GLUTEN FEEDS 43.4 10.4 0-9 8 .0 ^^ILS GLUTEN MEALS ' 17.5 ___, _ COTTONSEED MEAi. 3,eH0RSE. TIMOTHY HAY 3. 6 ^.O OATS t L.RA[N) 3 - 3 ,-K5 IG.D CORN 'KFRNELsTt CARROTS SWINE. CORN (KERNELS; 9 3-1 4^4 11.3 i "M 52. CORN MEAL i^ I5.0 2. 0.-.4..S^ I LB 25.6 1 1.4 2.3 Copyri^-bt, I'JUii, b.Y RanrJ, Mc>"Li)ij i . ij WHEAT SHORTS 1° FKEPIN-P rn.iT:T -X.itL-s; 1. '■. ■ Mvrl.k's 7iV// to Prcfiinhle r<-<''iinii. 2 ronHHisllhiii. iiv.'rat'i' of all varlftles' digestion coeffiriiTii , ili;m .'...rn. :; Cumitii^iti.in. Hi.Tirv's taljk--;. 4 A^a-i :iu'. .l.Mii an.i ni[ir. :. \h.--ai Im^ptts E-\)iorInjent Station, 189C. >^ .\\.raL-i- ..I all \ al■|,.tl.-■^. '. Flint ...irll, .Uw^tloll , 0,.|i;, Mn1..1,,i ,l,,,il i„,|m;j llll.l^ all.ahlu la ll|j;i.„t)oo coefficient for ;>, |=g ^^ a-d ■2^' il in ^ ec if s 3 a« £'t^. ■rt-^ .S a. j-J CO ,a j3 13 i- t^5. n be ■r;_o ■^ -•r^ 2 '1^ " ■^-1 Id orf ■f^ s Ct] ^ g£ .s'fe ti oj aj H V s g 0) r/; c3 a- P oT 0; ,N/- cij fia ?t «W •§" 4-. tD Is SS C3 0; S i> 3d "o — i-+^ 'S^ (Li id S:2 H ^ C3 I— ' or" g fl (h jr +3 ^ C£^" +J ^3 g| a 't^K- Oj-h .b; t-i '^'a i> m^ •c3 ^ ^1 '^tH ■ >.
  • FUN DA MEXTAL XOTIOXS m> 'ii w r^ if!, - , V vrw .» Fig. 3. I'liuln-raph of total root ot ..no liill of corn, shoiving- deptli I.) wliifli tliis plant i»i-in'tr;ifos the soilin its soarch for nioistnre and food. (prof. F. H. King: Physics vf Agriculture.) hrcikcii (li.wii into its (.'li(.'iiiic;il cou- .^litiicnts. 'J'liis (iri;";niic niuttei', i'uIIimI ]iiiinii.-<. is our of (lie most iiiijiortaiit factors lo lie (Mjiisid- oix'd in the study of soil iiitinipu- liilioii. Source of Plant Food — J'lants. ]ik(.' aiiiiiuds. reqtiiro both food and water for tlieir snste- luiiico. The watei- is idittiiiiod through tlie roots. Of flie food materials, the carhoii and a liirg'e l)art of the o.xygeii (wliieli together eonstitiite ;i large [jeroeiilage of tlte dry matter of all ]>]aiits) ai'e, under the iiiiluence of sunliglit, taken in tlii'ough tlie letn'es in the form of etn'ljon dioxide.' while the axli en- mineral i)orti(tn (eoiiijiosed essen- tially of nitrogen, jiliospjiorus. jio- tassiiini. caleinm, siil[)liiir, iron, nuignesium, and jiossihly sodium and chlorine") is taken up liy the roots from the soil, 'i'hese iriiueral constituents, with the exception of nitrogen/ are remlered available to the roots of the plants by the 1 This gas exists in tin' air as a resultant prodiiot of animal respii'ati.m and deooniposi- tion, and ot combustion g._'jierally. 2 There are other mini-ral elements found in the a.sh of plants, some of -n liich, such as sili.-a, are ].n-senl in large quanO'lii-s. Their presenc, ho\v.'\.-i'. is only incidental, owing to their pres- et!. ■.■ in til.- s.iil water. Tln-y aiv not c'ssential to the welfare ...£ the i)lant. 3 This element, owing I., its great injp.u-- tanee, and the need ot a thor..ngli kn.,wle,l-e of its som-ce and the means li\ whi.-li it may h.^ i]:.'r.-as..il, as well as Ih.- e.in.lifions un.l.-r wiiich it is I. .St. will receive especial attention in an- other ijlacw. WHAT GOVERNS SOIL FERTILITY? 1 gradual decomposition of the rock materials, aud their subsequent solution in the soil waters. Thus physical and chemical action in the soil are constantly transforming poten- tial into availalle plant food, and the soil water is transporting the salts thus prepared to the root hairs of the plant. This food-laden water is passed from 'cell to cell of the plant by what is called osmotic pressure,^ and the excess of water over , what is required for purposes of growth finally is transpired from the leaves of the plant, leaving the salts behind to enter into the combination of organized tissue. This brings us to the consideration of the subject of SOIL FERTILITY Determining Factors — Soil fertility is dependent upon natural condi- tions and upon soil management, and may be defined as the ability of a soil to produce m response to a given amount of assistance rendered it in the form of culti- vation. This term is too commonly used as referring only to the amount of the mineral elements a soil may contain in a soluble form. But in reality the quantity of salts or mineral plant food a soil may contain is only one of several factors that determine its fertility. In fact, it is a factor of rather secondary importance, because the most plentiful supply of plant food will fail to produce a crop in the absence of sufficient moisture to convey it to and through the T)lant. The quantity of soluble salts a soil contains is, nevertheless, of vital importance. While but a very small percentage of the total plant is made up of these elements, this little is just as necessary to the life of tlie plant as though it comprised the whole. The absence from the soil of any one of these elements will insure as com- plete a failure of plant growth as though they were all absent. If you plant seeds in a soil from which one of these essential elements, as potash, has been removed, there will be but a very feeble growth of two or three leaves to a plant, and this growth will be accomplished by the aid of the little of this element that nature has stored in the seed for the purpose of securing its germination and start in life. Some of these elements need to be present in much larger quantities than others. Iron, for example, is just as essential for the life of the plant as is any other element, but only a comparatively small percentage is necessary. In order for a soil to be fertile, it is necessary not only that these elements all be present in a soluble form, but that the quantity be many times greater than the immediate needs of the crop. This is owing to the fact that (a) tlie root hairs in 1 Osmosis is the term applied to tlie diffusion of liquids through porous membranes. 8 SOIL FERTILITY penetrating the soil come into contact with a very, very small part of it ; that (b) the capillary moisture is frequently so low that but a small portion of these salts is taken up thereby and moved into contact with the plant roots ; and that (c) the feeding period of the plant covers but a comparatively short space of time. It has been found by analyzing plants at various stages of development that, of the total mineral plant food taken uj) by a crop (wheat being used as an example), 75 per cent of it is taken up during the first fifty days of the plant's life (or, in the case of wheat, by the time it has reached the height of eighteen inches). Consider- ing these facts, it will be readily understood that not only must these materials be present in great abundance, but they must also be in readiness for plant use as early in the season as possible. This early availability will depend, especially as regards the nitrogen portion, upon the amount of moistufe, air, vegetable matter, and heat there is in the soil. Alkali Spots — A soil may be unproductive, on the other hand, from con- taining too large a quantity of some of these essential salts. Thus are produced what are termed alkali lands, or alkali spots. Through the presence of an excess of these alkali salts the vegetation is corroded and killed. Such soils are referred to as alkali soils, and occur mostly in sections having natural or artificial irrigation. Small alkali patches occur more or less frequently in semi-humid regions where there is a seepage of water from higher lands. The soluble salts in these higher lands, being carried down by the seepage water and left behind upon its evaporation, accumulate to an extent that is injurious to vegetation. Remedy for Alkali Spots — There are two forms of alkali — the car- bonate or "black alkali" and the sulphate or " white alkali." The latter may be present in much larger quantities than the former without producing injurious results. If the soil is unproductive from too much black alkali, it may often be corrected in part by the application of gypsum or land plaster, to convert the carbonate into a sulphate. In irrigated sections it is well to examine the water u.sed, and, if it is found to contain considerable quantities of carbonate salts, to use land plaster in the irrigation ditches to correct the condition of these salts before reaching the fields. In semi-humid climates these spots may often be temporarily remedied by scraping off the immediate surface after a long-continued drought, when the long-continued evaporation will have concentrated the greater portion of the excess of salts in the surface three or four inches of soil. "Where the trouble is mild a good application SOURCES OF SOIL NITROGEIST 9 of a coarse barnyard manure well worked into the soil will often afford temporary relief. The permanent remedy, however, is underdrainage. NITROGEN OF THE SOIL Outside of the elements of plant food contained in water, the nitrogen of the soil is the only constituent supplied to the plants through their roots, the source of which does not lie in the rock fragments, and the supply of which can not be increased by improving the facilities for decomposition. Source — Its source is the free nitrogen of the air, and the quantity in the soil may be increased naturally only by drawing upon this bounteous supply. How Obtained — Our ordinary farm crops can not use this nitrogen in its free form, but certain microscopical forms of life that grow upon the roots of leguminous plants (such as clover, lucerne [alfalfa], peas, beans, etc.), forming nodules thereon, have the power of taking this free nitrogen and converting it into organic nitrogen. In the subsequent decomposition of this organic matter the increased supply is made available for the use of succeeding crops. The amount of nitrogen that may be added to the soil by the growing of a single crop of some legume is often relatively very large. When the effect upon future cropis or the commercial value of nitrogen as a fertilizer is considered, this collateral benefit derived from a leguminous crop is often greater than the food value of the crop itself. 1 Except in soils well supplied with nitrogen, in the form ordinarily available, the leguminous plants will not thrive in the absence of these organisms. But if the organisms are present this family of plants will thrive luxuriantly even on soils con- taining little nitrogen. It follows that, while these organisms are parasitic in their nature, they are in reality a benefit to the host on which they grow. This relation of plants to each other, the growing together for mutual benefit, each obtaining support from the other, is called symbiosis. Some soils upon which clover ordina- rily refuses to thrive, after being inoculated with these germs by the addition of a sprinkling of soil from an old clover field, will produce clover of the finest kind. Forms of Soil Nitrogen — Nitrogen exists in the soil in several distinct forms, representing the various stages of transition from the free nitrogen of the air to that form available for farm crops. It may be present : 1 Crimson clover, when from 5 to 6 inches high, has been found -to contain nitrogen to the value of $21.94 per acre; from 12 to 14 inches high, to the value of $34.64 per acre; in bloom, S37.06 per acre; fully matured, to the value of $43.36 per acre. (Report of the Superin- tendent of Institutes for Ontario, Can., 1900.) 10 SOIL FERTILITY (a) As free nitrogen of the soil air, which is seized upon and made fast by the forms of niicrosco23ic life previously described. (b) iVs organic or albuminoid nitrogen, the product of these nitrogen-fixing germs, anil likewise present in all undecomposed vegetable and animal tissue. This is the only form of soil nitrogen that is not soluble in water, and hence readily leached out and lost from the soil. (r) As ammonia, nitrous acid, and nitric acid. These are transition stages in the development of the nitrate or available form from the organic or albuminoid form. (d) As nitrates of lime, magnesia, potash, and soda. , This is the form in which nitrogen is used by most farm crops, the nitrates being formed by the union of nitric acid with one of the bases — lime, magnesia, potash, etc. — found in the soil. Nitrification — The process of developing nitrates from the decayed and broken-down albuminoids is termed infnficatiun, and involves four distinct stages : (a) The ammonia stage, in which certain organisms, under the proper conditions of temperature, moisture, and air, feed upon the organic or albuminoid nitrogen, throw- ing off ammonia as a waste product. This is a highly volatile product, which, under improper soil conditions, may escape from the soil and pass off into the air as gas.^ But under the proper conditions the ammonia is absorbed by the soil and the soil water, and is retained for the use of another class of germs A\hich in the (b) nitrous-acid stage use it in their life processes, throwing off nitrous acid as a waste product. Still another class of germs^ take up this nitrous acid and oxidize it into (c) nitric acid, which attacks the bases that are held in the soil by weaker acids, displacing them and forming (d) the various nitrate salts. These nitrates are formed only under favorable conditions of temperature, moisture, and air ; and, on the other hand, when once formed, they may, iinder subse- quent unfavorable conditions, be changed back into Fig. 3. Drawing from photo^rapli showing comparative growtli of peas, rye, flax, oats, wheat, and buclcwheat in soil fertile in all elements of plant food except nitrogen, the peas thriving in virtue of the presence of nitrogen-fixing bacteria on their roots. (Prof. F. H. King; Physics of Agriculture, After P. Wagner.) 1 The pungent odor arising from a rapidly- fermenting manure heap is produced by am- monia that is being formed and is escaping to the air. 2 These are called "nitre germs'' or ''mother of petre."' Some idea of the amount of these nitrate salts that may be developed under proper conditions may be obtained from a consideration of the fact that formerly the nitrate of potash for the manufacture of gun- powder was obtained from the soil. Thereby was developed what was termed " nitre farm- ing," in which the soil was manipulated to get the most rapid nitrification possible. SOIL WATER ESSENTIAL 11 forms nuavailable to crops, or even be lost from the soil. This brings us to the consideration of another jDrocess, called : Deiiitrificatioii — This process, as the name implies, is exactly the opposite of nitrification. The soil is full of micro-oi'ganisnis that require oxygen for their existence, and their ability to extract it is such that, if the soil becomes so filled with water as to exclude the air, they will take away that which is combined in the nitrates, either partially or wholly deoxidizing them. In the latter case the nitrogen is set free and may escape entirely from the soil. Soils Lacking in Nitrogen — A soil that has little nitrogen in the avail- able form will give indication of the fact in the yellow, slender, unhealthy condition of the leaves of the vegetation growing upon it. To the other elements of plant food obtained from the soil, and the best means of maintaining or increasing their quantity, reference will be made under the head of " Vegetable Matter as a Factor of Fertility.'' SOIL, WATER AS AN ELEMENT OF FERTILITY lilr mm ^m^m if;: It has been seen that water is the vehicle -whereby food, in solution, is conveyed to the root hairs and distributed throughout the plants, besides entering largely into the vegetable structure.' It is therefore as essential :y.^ ,;,-...- ,. an element of fertility as is the mineral plant food. jj,/ V.Jr^&jS.sS Many soils containing a very high percentage of soluble ,-vVj>i;':~J^^f'sfiMS| plant food are a barren waste because of lack of moisture, and it follows, by the same token, that any addition of commercial fertilizers to soils deficient in plant food will prove ineffec- tual unless conditions of moisture are right. The great semi-desert regions of our western plains, as well as most, if not all, similar regions the world over, show the jireseuce, upon chem- ical analysis, of a large percentage of soluble plant food, and numerous mA 1 Water comprises from Gl to 91 per cent of the total weight of all green crops, the amount varying with the kind of crop aud stage of development. Fig. 4. Drawing from photograph showing oats growing under conditions identical with those illustrated in Fig. .3, except that the several pots received 1, 2, and 3 grams, respectively, of Chile saltpetre. Comparison shows the immense importance to such plants of nitric nitrogen. fProf . F. H. King : Physics of Agriculture.. After P. Wagner.) 12 SOIL FEETILITY experiments have demonstrated that all that is necessary to make these waste places fruitful is simply to supply the needed moisture. But water, on the other hand, must not be too abundant. It must not fill all the pores of the soil so as to exclude the air, or the land will be rendered unproductive while this condition exists. Plants that will thrive in water will not thrive in a soil saturated with water, because in the water culture the water is free to move, and, the constant change bringing different parts constantly to the surface and into contact with the air, a certain amount of this air is absorbed, replacing any that may have been taken out by the roots ; whereas, in a soil saturated with water there is not this opportunity for the air to enter. Water in soils is of three kinds — hygroscopic, capillary, and/ree. The hygroscopic water is present in the form of a film around each soil grain. Pressure will not expel it. Only heat above the boiling point of water will drive it off. Capillary water is the outer film around the soil grain, more or less closely filling the interstices, less firmly held than is the inner hygroscopic film by the molecular attraction of the soil, and capable of motion in any direction under stress of capil- lary attraction. Free water is that which lies outside the range of control of the molecular attrac- tion of the soil grains, and moves under the influence of gravity. This water practically excludes oxygen from the soil it occupies. Its surface is called the "water table." The capillary water is the only form of soil moisture that to any extent can be made use of by the plants. Water Required by Crops — The amount of water required in the proc- ess of plant building is very large, the various farm crops requiring to be tran- spired through their leaves from 300 to 600 tons of water for each ton of dry matter produced. According to Prof. F. II. King, the results of 138 trials with various farm crops show that, to grow an average acre, the product of which was 5.987 tons of dry matter, required 23.165 inches of water. The crop requiring the most was oats, the average yield of this crop being 8. 89- tons ; and water required, 39.53 inches. Capacity of Soils for Capillary Water — The amount of capillary water that may be retained in a given quantity of soil will depend upon the fineness of the soil particles, the amount of vegetable matter present,^ the general physical 1 The effect of vegetable matter upon the capil- I under the head of " Vegetable Matter as a Factor of lary capacity of soils will be referred to more fully I Fertility." ARTIFICIAL IRRIGATIOIS" 13 condition, the distance above the water table, and the frequency and amount of rainfall. Prof. F. H. King has found that under field conditions, and with the surface only eleven inches above the water table, soils would contain capillary water as follows : Clay loam ...32.2 per cent. Clay. _. 23. 8 to 24.5 percent. Clay and sand __. ___ 22, 6 per cent. Fine sand _. .A7.5 per cent. This, when averaged and reduced to inches, is equal to 21.24 inches of water distributed through the first five feet of soil.^ Water not all Available to Crops — Of this capillary water only from 50 to 75 per cent can be extracted by the crops for their use, owing to the fact that the roots, while thoroughly permeating the soil, actually come in contact with only a very small part of it ; and to the additional fact that, when the water move- ment through the plant for the translocation of materials falls below a certain rate, growth ceases to take place. Long before this point is reached, growth becomes very slow and imperfect. It frequently happens, in the absence of a properly dis- tributed rainfall, that this condition is reached Just as the crop is ready to form the seed or grain. The result is an average and sometimes large growth of foliage, but little grain. Time of G-reatest Need — By far the largest portion of the water used by a crop is required from the time of blossoming to maturity. This period fre- quently coincides with one of very limited rainfall. IKKIGATION It follows from what has been said that the artificial application of moisture may often, even in humid climates, be very beneficial to crops, and the farmer of a humid climate, who is so situated that he can at comparatively small expense maintain a storage supply of water for such use in time of need, will find this a very profitable investment. In fact, the returns should be greater in proportion to the amount invested than in arid countries, where all the water must be supplied in this way. A little additional water applied just at the right time may be pro- ductive of large results, even in average years. ^ 1 A 5-foot column of the same soil would contain less, because the water table would be much farther away from part of it than in the above case. 2 Prof, P. H. King reports the following result of an experiment conducted with a variety of flint corn: On the irrigated soil, 14.5 tons of dry matter were produced ; while on the same kind of soil, growing the same kind of corn, not iiTigated, but otherwise receiving the same treatment, there were produced only 4 tons of dry mat- ter per acre. In an experiment conducted by the writer during a year when the distribution of the rainfall was better than the average, an application of water equal to 5 per cent of moisture in the first four feet of soil resulted m increasing the yield of corn from 68 to 91.5 bushels per acre. 14 SOIL FERTILITY Tlio quantity of water required to irrigate a tract of land is seemingly very large. To eovrr one aero of land one inch dee]) will require 3,030 cubic feet of water ; and to carry this dejith of water onto 100 acres, in 50 hours, would require a stjH'aiu one square foot in cross-section, and flowing at the rate of two feet per second. TILLAGE TO CONSERVE MOISTURE Since the annual rainfall for a given locality, while fairly constant, is irregular and uncertain as regards its distribution throughout the season, and since irriga- tion is not generally i)racticahle, it becomes necessary to conserve the soil moisture and to make the available supply of capillary water as large as possible. These ends are accomplished by such means as proper tillage, underdrainage, and in- creasing the supply of humus. Deep plowing and subsoiling on heavy, close-textured clay soils may loosen them up and increase their water-holding capacity. This practice is especially applicable in climates whei'e the frost does not penetrate to loosen up the subsoil. Frequent stirring of the surface soil cuts off the capillary connection with the deeper soil water, and thus prevents its coming to the surface and being evaporated, besides checking the growth of weeds that would absorb moisture needed by the crop. This frequent stirring to check evaporation is necessary for the reason that when the surface is allowed to stand for a short time the capillary connection with the lower ground becomes reestablished. In case of a rain this reestablishment takes place very quickly ; so, to retain the largest possible amount of a given rainfall, it is necessary to thoroughly stir the surface soil as soon after the rain as it can be done without puddling.^ Tools used for this purpose should be such as will stir all the surface and pulverize it as thoroughly as possible. The Harrow — If the surface soil has been previously made very loose, or if it is somewhat rough as left by the plow, harrowing, thoroughly done, may develop a very good mulch. If, however, the surface has become somewhat fii-m, as after a heavy rain, the harrow may increase the loss by evaporation by simply cutting small furrows and increasing the amount of surface exposed. The Disk — The disk -harrow or cultivator, as well as the surface cultivators 1 Veiy fine-graiued soils have a tendency, owing to tlie close contact of their particles, to contract upon themselves at all times. When they become very wet this tendency is increased. If stirred at the proper stage, as the excess of moisture is leaving, this tendency is readily overcome. If, however, this cultivation is il is free and open to a good depth there will bo a much larger and better developed root system, with corresponding increase of caj)acity for absorbing and carrying moisture to the plant. This last is a most important factor, as it frequently haiipens, where the water table stands high during the early part of the season, that there is so small a develoi^ment of roots that, when the plant reaches the stage of most rapid development and most rapid transpiration of moisture, the roots will not be able to take in water fast enough to supply the needs of growth, even with a comparative abundance of water present in the soil.' 1 It is due to this fact that crops thrive and develop so much better in a dry summer if preceded by a moderately dry spring than when pre- ceded by a wet one. Fig. 5. Photograph showing root de- velopment of oats. (Prnf. F. H. King: Physics of AqricuHurc.) 18 SOIL FBETILITY HUMUS AS A CONSKRVEK OP MOISTURE The supply of humus,' as a factor in controlling the capillary supply of mois- ture, can not be too highly valued. Its presence (a) produces a more porous con- dition of soil, (b) prevents the soil particles from drawing together in a puddled condition, (c) increases the actual capillary capacity, and (d) tends to prevent the solidifying of the surface, thus .serving to check evaporation in the absence of cul- tivation, and making necessary less cultivation to maintain a good mulch. AIR AS AN ELEMENT OF FERTILITY As we have seen, air is necessary in the soil to supply oxygen for the develop- ment of the nitrogenous jilant food, and in its absence, though mily temporary, this plant food, once developed, may be reduced into an unavailable form, or even lost from the soil. Air is also needed for the processes of decomposition and other chemical action that develop the various f(jrms of plant food. Without air in the soil, the seeds of farm crops will not germinate. IE after germination the air be excluded, they will cease to grow, will get yellow and sickly, and, if this condition continues long enough, will die. A soil may also be too open and admit of a greater circulation of air than is best. A very coarse, gravelly soil ; land into which a large amount of coarse luanure has been plowed ; or a piece of poorly plowed land left without any further treatment, may in this way be subject to a loss of moisture by internal evaporation. The supply of air in the soil may be modified by (a) tillage, (b) kind of vegeta- tion grown, (c) underdrainage, and (d) the addition of vegetable matter. (a) Ventilation by Tillage — Almost all the different processes of tillage produce a change of air at the time, and also affect the movement of soil air for some time to come. Plowing a hard, compact soil breaks it up and admits a freer entrance and circulation of air, whereas, the plowing in of vegetable matter on soils that are too loose and open will result in a beneficial restraint upon this movement. Subsoiling will increase the air movement in the deeper soil. Harrowing may check the entrance and escape of air on fresh-plowed land where ventilation is excessive, or facilitate the aeration of lands that have lain without stirring until a crust has formed over the surface. Disking and stirring with the various forms of cultivators give more thorough aeration to the seed-bed. Rolling, by closing wp the pores to some extent, usually results in a lessened 1 The influence of humus on moisture will be discussed more in detail under the bead of "Vegetable JIatter as a Factor of Fertility," page 23. IMPORTANCE OF SOIL WARMTH 19 amount of air movement in the soil, and, on soils that are too open, will be beneficial for this purpose. (b) Ventilation by Vegetation — The growth of any kind of vege- tation, by drawing the moisture out of the soil, tends to draw air in lo take its place. The decomposition of the roots of deep-feeding plants leaves openings that admit of a greater aeration of the deeper soil. (c) Ventilation by Underdrainage — Underdrainage modifies the amount of air in the soil- (1) By removing the free water that would otherwise exclude the air. (3) By loosening up tlie soil and giving greater freedom of movement. (3) The water in passing from tlie soil into the drain will tend to draw the air into the soil to fill the space it has occupied. (d) Ventilation by Addition of Hnmus — Vegetable matter, added to the soil in the form of barnyard manure, stiibble, weeds, sod, and other green crops, plowed under, will have the effect of making a close, heavy soil more open, and of binding together those that are too thoroughly aerated. TEMPERATURE AS AFFECTING FERTILITY A proper soil temperature is an indispensable factor of a high degree of fertility. No matter how perfect the other conditions, if the temperature is too low germina- tion and growth will not take place. Corn, for example, requires a soil temperature of 60° to 65° Fahr. during a portion of the day, for satisfactory germination. If the soil is so cold as to allow only slow and feeble germination the crop can never make the growth and development that it would under the same after-conditions, but with a good, vigorous start. A certain degree of warmth is required also for the various chemical changes incident to the decomposition and development of plant food. This is especially true of the nitrogenous plant food. The nitrifying germs do not thrive below a temperature of 55° Fahr., and do not attain their most rapid growth and elabora- tion of nitrates until the soil temperature gets well up toward 100° Fahr. The temperature of the soil also affects the rate of plant-feeding. As we have seen,^ the water and plant food of the soil are supplied to the plant by osmotic pressure, and this, as well as the capillary movement of the soil water,, is to a marked degree affected by the temperature. If the soil temperature falls below a certain point, this action may become so feeble as to allow the plants to wilt when tbere is an abundance of water present in the soil. 1 See page 7, footnote. 20 SOIL FERTILITY Poor Stands of Grain are often caused, not by poor seed, as supposed, but because the seed was placed in a soil too cold for germination. The above con- sideration, coupled with the facts that the soil temperatures, under average field conditions, between latitudes 40° and 45°, will not average above 45° Fahr. for the mouth of April, or 58° Fahr. for the month of May, and that plants require the bulk of their nitrogenous food during the early stages of growth,^ emphasizes very strongly the need of increasing the temperature of the soil, especially early in the spring. Conditions Affecting Soil Temperature — These conditions are as follows : (a) Color of soil, (b) topography of surface, (c) smoothness and compact- ness of surface, (d) tilth, (e) wetness of soil, (f) rate of evaporation, and (g) amount of vegetable matter being decomposed therein. (a) Color of Soil — A dark-colored surface will absorb and pass on to the deeper soil more heat from the sun than will a light-colored one, the difference ranging from 1° to 3° Fahr." (b) Topography — A south slope will receive the sun's rays more nearly verti- cally than will a level field ; hence a given cross-section of heat rays will be spread over less surface of soil than on a level surface, or one sloping away from the sun. Professor King found that a stiff red clay soil, sloping 18° to the south, had a tem- perature of 70.3°, 68.1°, and 66.4° Fahr. for the first, second, and third feet in depth, as compared with 67.2°, G5.4°, and 63.6° for the same kind of soil and the corresponding depths on a level surface. ' (c) Smoothness and Compactness — A rough, uneven surface, owing to the greater amount of surface exposed, will radiate back into the atmosphere a larger portion of the heat received than will an even surface. If the roughness is due to a cloddy condition this loss is aggravated, since the poor connection between the clods and the underlying soil prevents the heat being conducted downward. A firm, compact soil will conduct the heat into the deeper soil much more readily than one that is very loose and open. (d) Tillage — It follows from what has just been said that thorough culti- vation, especially if deep, hinders the conduction of heat to the deeper soil. But while the total amount of heat stored in the soil may be lessened on this account, the temperature of the cultivated portion is very much increased by this concentra- tion. This is one of the chief advantages to be gained by a thorough and early ^ See page 9, footnote. 1 2 a. lipht-colored soil may be made materially darker 1 by the addition of vegetable matter. SOIL TEXTURE AND FERTILITY 21 preparation of the seed-bed. Tillage also favors a more rapid decomposition of tlie organic matter in the soil, which action produces heat. Thorough preparation further increases the temperature of the seed-bed by removing any excess of mois- ture that may exist, and by checking evaporation from the surface. (e) Wetxess of the Soil — A wet soil is colder than a similar soil when dry, for two reasons: (1) The various chemical changes which produce heat are taking place less rapidly. (2) It requires a greater amount of heat to raise the tempera- ture of a pound of wet soil through any given number of degrees than to efEect an equal increase of temperature in the same weight of dry soil. The specific heat of water is much greater than that of soils. To raise the temperature of water a given number of degrees requires nearly ten times as much heat as for sand, weights being equal in both cases. The matter of removing all excess of moisture is there- fore very important, from this standpoint. For the same reason the manner of removing should be by nnderdrainage rather than by evaporation. (f) EvAPORATioisr — This process has a marked cooling effect upon the soil, as much heat being required to evaporate a pound of water from the surface of the * soil as would raise through several degrees the temperature of a cubic foot of average soil. Professor King records a difference in temperature, in favor of drained as against undrained soil, as great as 12.5° Eahr. on a cloudy day, and states that the difference is due mainly to difference in rate of evaporation. (g) Effect of Vegetable Matter — The decay of vegetable matter in the soil increases its temperature (1) by making it darker colored, so that more of the sun's heat Avill be absorbed, (2) by lessening evaporation of water from the surface, and (3) by reason of heat produced in the process of decomposition.^ MECHANICAL, STKUCTUKE AND ITS RELiATION TO FERTILITY The size of the soil particles, and their mechanical relation to one another, is not the least of the factors that determine the value of a soil for the production of crops. Soil grains vary in size from the coarse grains of sand down to particles so fine that they can be seen only by the aid of a powerful microscope. The smaller the particles, the larger the amount of soil-grain surface in a cubic foot of soil. A soil with particles of a given average size contains practically ten times as much surface as one whose particles are ten times as large. The amount of surface, other things being equal, determines the rate of solution of the mineral plant food. 1 Everyone is familiar with the generation of heat in [ proportionally upon the decomposition of all organic the fermenting manure heap, and with the use of ma- matter everywhere, nure to develop heat in hotbeds. The same result follows | 3 22 SOIL FERTILITY The amount of surface also affects tlie amount of moisture that may be hold in the form nf a film around the soil grains. The amount of surface also is a measure of the amount of feeding ground allotted to the plant roots growing in the soil. A column of soil one foot square and four feet in depth (to which depth the roots of most of our farm crops penetrate), wliose particles have an average diameter of .01 of an inch, would exjioso a surface of .34 of an acre, while one whose particles aver- aged .001 of an intdi would have a soil-grain surface area of 3.4 acres. The size of the soil particles very materially affects the amount of pore space in a soil, as well as the size of the pores. The larger the particles, the larger the pores, but the smaller the aggregate amount of pore space ; ^ and a greatly lessened proportion of this space will consist of pores small enough to hold. water, or to draw it from the deeper soil by capillai'v attraction. It follows from the foregoing that, generally speaking, the finer the soil the more capillary water it will retain, and the greater will be its power to draw water from supplies deep down in the earth. It is possible, however, for both water movement and water caj)acity to be lessened by an extreme fineness of soil grains. In the ease of an extremely fine clay soil the particles may be so drawn together by their attraction for each other, i-endering the interspaces extien^ely fine, as to permit only a comparatively small amount of water to enter these vaiious aggrega- tions. An extremely fine-grained soil, with its consequent fine pore spaces, is unfavorable to thorough aeration ; neither does it allow the roots proper freedom in penetrating and exploring the feeding ground. Any tendency tiiward a jiuddled condition in these soils is apt to aifect the uniformity of development of the root systems, and in the case of tuberous crops, as potatoes, or root crops, such as sugar beets, may materially afEect the condition and quality of the crop. How Certain Physical Defects may he Reiiietliecl — (a) Tillage when the soil is in proper condition will break up the contracted condition and increase the aeration and capillary caioacity of the surface portion of very fine soils. (b) Freezing expands these soils, forcing the particles apart. Its beneficial effects on a stiff clay soil can hardly be estimated, especially if not counteracted by heavy rains after the frost goes out. The thoroughness with which the frost does this work can not be duplicated by the use of any tool or combination of tools. (c) t^nderdrainage, to prevent tlie free water remaining in the soil, is a great factor in preventing its contraction. 1 The amount of pore space in a cubic foot of soilthat I from a little more than one-third in tlii'ca,-.v' of a fine is unoccupied, or occupied only by air or water, varies | gravel to over one-half in some of the finest clay soils. FOOD EEQUIKEirENTS OF PLAXTS 23 (d) The growth of grasses whose roots Avill thoroughly fill the upper soil, and of the legumes, whose larger roots penetrate the deeper soil, is an important aid in loosening u]i and expanding tliese soils. The decaying roots and other vegetable matter, if sufiieient in cpiantit}-, will effectually prevent their contraction into a [)uddled condition, will render tlieni con- stantly m(ire loose and open, will make them much more easily cultivated, and, in fact, will improve them in every way. Decaying vegetable matter also tends to bind together those soils that are too coarse and whose pores are too large, increasing their water- holding capacity and decreasing evaporation therefrom. VEGETABLE MATTER AS A FACTOR OF FERTILITY Lauds continuiiusly cultivated gradually diminish in productive capacity. The growth of any kind of vegetation, as we have seen, takes up a certain amount of various mineral elements from the soil. The discovery of this fact, and of the additional one that these several substances are necessary elements of plant food, naturally led to the conclusion that the loss in productive capacity must be due to the diminished sujiply of mineral plant food, and that any successful effort to maintain or increase the fertility of a soil must lie in the direction of replacing these elements by artificial means. ^ The table- on the following page shows how much of eaidi of the three elements most readily lost from the soil is removed therefrom in the production of various crops. Fig. 6. PhotOKraijh yhowing root development of inediuni red clover. (Prof. F. H. Kinp : Phj/sics of Agriciiltxu-e.i 1 In pome of flj.- stales more than S6.000.000 is ex- pended annitally for conimercial feitilizT'rs in an effort to mcrease the productiveness o£ the land. - Adapted from publications of the United iStates Department of AgricuJture. 24 SOIL FEETILITY Fertilizing Constituents Removed from Soil by Given Quantities of Certain Crops KIND OF CROP. Weight o£ Jlaterial. Nitrogen. Potash. Phos- phoric Acid. Alfalfa, dry. green Barley, grain only.. Beans, kernels only Beets, red, roots only yellow fodder, roots only sugar (whole plant, to produce one ton roots). Buckwheat, dry hay green, in blossom Cabbage Carrots . Clover, Aisike dry green.. crimson, dry green red, dry _. " green white, dry green Corn, field (kernels and cobs) fodder, dry (with ears) sweet (whole plant, to produce one ton husked ears) . Cotton (to produce 100 lbs. lint) Cow-pea, dry, whole plant green Flax (to produce 100 lbs. fiber) Hemp (to produce 100 lbs. clean fiber) Hops, leaves and stems Kentucky blue grass Lettuce leaves Millet, dry , green — Oats, hay, in bloom " green fodder " grainonly Onions Parsnips Peas, dry,in bloom " green " seed only Potatoes, Irish, tubers .. sweet, roots.. Pumpkins, whole fruit Rice, unhuUed grain only Bye, grain only Sugar cane, leaves and tops removed Timothy hay Tobacco (to produce one ton leaf) Tomatoes, fruit Turnips, roots Wheat, winter (to produce one ton grain) . 1'(juih1s. S.OOd 2.0110 3,000 2,000 2,000 ;,50U to 3,0811 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,(HJ0 2,000 2.IKI0 2.)H1U 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 5,260 947 2,000 2,000 687 598 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 ,600 to .3,000 2,000 2,000 5,000 Pounds. 44.00 14.40 35.00 80.00 4..S0 3, HI) 4,60t(.]2.00 16.70 10.20 7.60 3.30 46 00 8.80 40.00 8.60 42.00 10 60 50.00 11.20 28.20 36.00 15.20 20.71 39.00 5.40 13.37 0.27 15.00 23.80 4.60 25.60 12.20 24.00 9.80 40.00 4.00 4.40 66.00 10.00 80,00 4,20 4,80 2,20 26,80 35,00 3,40 25,20 44 to 120.10 3.20 3.60 61.11 Pounds. 34.00 11.20 12.00 24.00 8 80 9.30 5.54 to 17.20 48.40 8.60 8.00 10 20 40 30 4 00 26.00 9.80 40.00 9 20 30.00 4 80 9.40 18.00 17.80 13.06 29.40 6,20 7.29 10.13 17.60 31.40 7.40 34.00 8.20 60.80 7.60 12,00 3.60 12.40 34.00 11.20 30.00 5.80 7.40 1.80 5.60 11.00 2.17 30.60 70 to 170 5.40 7.80 28.88 Pounds. 10.00 2.60 15 00 24.00 1.80 1.80 1.47to4.74 12.20 2.20 2 20 0.20 14.00 2.20 7. GO 2.C0 10.00 2.00 14,00 4,00 11,40 11,00 5.80 8.17 10.60 2.00 6.76 8.32 8.00 8.00 1,40 10,00 3,80 13,40 2,60 16,00 2,60 3,80 10,20 3.60 16.00 1.40 1,60 3.20 9.40 16.00 1.48 9.20 I1.8to20.4 1.00 2.00 It is the gravest error, however, as has been previously pointed out, to consider that the fertility of a soil depends upon its sujjply of mineral plant food ; neither is it any more correct to consider the supply of soluble mineral plant food in any soil as a definite amount, like so much horse feed in a barrel, to be drawn upon until exhausted, with no power in the barrel to renew the supply. As has been shown, all HUMUS THE PEIME ESSENTIAL 25 soils have their origin in the rock masses of the earth, and what has been developed from a giveji material may continue to be developed therefrom under like condi- tions ; under improved conditions the rate of its development may be accelerated. If there were no means of replacing tliese elements from the foundation soil, the estimates tliat have so commonly been made as to the number of years a given soil might be expected to produce a certain crop, based upon the amount of plant food in the soil as shown by chemical analysis, and the quantity taken up by an average growth of this crop, would be entirely erroneous. This method of calculation takes no account of leaching, which in humid or semi- humid climates is very great, there being leached out of an average soil by the percolating waters from five to seven pounds of plant food for every pound taken up by the crop. It is also a decided error to refer to the sale of so many pounds of plant food, contained in grain, as the only, or even the greatest, evil resulting from the continued production of grain crops and their sale from the land. Even if the whole crop were returned to the soil, there would be replaced only 15 to 20 per cent of the mineral plant food that has been given up by the soil during the production of that crop. As the rock fragments are decomposed and dissolved, a part is taken up by the plants, and, as we see, a much larger part is carried away by the percolating waters to the sea, to be again laid down, to go through the process of rock formation, and perhaps at some future day to repeat the process now going on. It may still be asked, what causes the reduction in fertility, if not the reduction of the amount of soluble plant food? The answer is, a lessening of that element in the soil which not only affects, but very largely controls, all the factors of fertility heretofore discussed, namely, humus. Eflfecfc of Humus on Mineral Plant Food — The supply of vege- table matter in the soil not only improves the mechanical condition thereof as regards the decay of the rock fragments, but the heat generated by its decom- position and the humic acid supplied therefrom are among the most potent agents in rendering soluble the mineral plant food. The following experiment is given to show the effect of vegetable matter in decomposing and rendering soluble the inert mineral matters of the soil. It also illustrates the loss of this soluble plant food from a soil, aside from what is taken up by the crop, as the soil was kept bare. Two boxes were filled with soil identi- cally the same, except that to one was added 20 per cent of its weight in cow 26 SOIL FERTILITY mannre. These boxes were treated exactly alike for twelve months, the soil receiving an occasional stirring. At the end of tliis period an analysis showed an increase of 30 jDer cent in the soluble plant food of the soil to which manure Avas added, after making allowance for what was contained in the manure, while that which received no manure showed a loss in soluble plant food of 4.36 per cent. According to a series of experiments that have been carried on for a number of years at the Jlinnesota Exjoeriment Station, continuous grain-cropping where (a) no manure was applied resulted in the reduction of the humus content of the soil at the rate of 1,500 to 1,800 jjounds an acre per annum. But where (b) a rotation was practiced that had clover for one of its factors, and had the second-growth clover plowed under as green manure, there was at the end of the first complete rotation not only no decrease, but a very decided increase, in the amount of humus in the soil. The amount of soluble plant food was very greatly reduced in the first case, wliile in the latter there was a decided increase. Tbis, too, in spite of the fact that the rotation lands had in consequence thereof produced larger crops which had consequently removed more plant food from the soil. The increase in yield was five bushels of wheat and twenty bushels of corn to the acre. The more abundant the vegetable matter in the soil, the more rapid will be its oxidation and reduction. It is found also that the amount of soluble plant food is reduced much more rapidly than is the humus content, the change in this latter showing itself very quickly in its effect upon the mechanical condition of a soil, and consequently upon the decomposition of its particles. Professor Snyder has done quite extensive work in the way of collecting and ana- lyzing soils that have been cropped in various ways ; also of soils that have not been cropped at all. He finds that a native prairie soil contains about twice as much vegetable matter, and three to five times as much of the more important elements of plant food in a soluble form, as adjacent soils that have been continuously cropped with grain for fifteen or twenty years, while many farms that have been under culti- vation for much longer periods, but which have been allowed to produce an occa- sional crop of timothy and clover (receiving now and then a dressing of manure), remain in a condition almost equal to that of the native soils. One particular instance may be cited. Of two adjoining farms, both under cultivation for thirty- five years, and originally alike, one has received frequent dressings of manure, has produced wheat, corn, oats and timothy, and clover in rotation, and shows no apparent decline in fertility. The other has grown grain continuously without receiving any manure or vegetable matter in any form. During the first few years HOW HUMUS OONSEEVES MOISTUEE 27 heavy crops were raised, but during the past few years the yields have been very low, especially in, dry years. It is estimated that the producing power of this piece of land has been reduced 68 per cent. A neighboring farm that has been under cultivation for forty-two years, and has received a systematic rotation, with a dress- ing of manure, every five years, at the rate of ten tons per acre, is in even better condition than the one first mentioned. Effect of Humus on Moisture of Soils- — It has been found that a native prairie soil will retain about 20 per cent more moisture than one that has been continuously grain-cropped for fifteen or twenty years. Some samples of soil taken in 1899, to a depth of four and one-half feet, showed the following relation to each other in percentage of moisture and total volatile matter. The samples were taken on the same day on land that was almost level, being taken from adjoining plots, which had produced the same kind of a crop, and liad had the same kind of cultivation and treatment throughout the season. The results are averages for the four and one-half feet in depth. SAMPLE. Vegetable Matter Per Cent. Moisture Per Cent. No. 1 . -- 2.. 37 4.5 11.93 No.3. - - 31.7 A soil will not yield all its water to plants. In a good average soil, j^lants can not reduce the moisture below 6 or 7 per cent. So that soil N"o. 2 contained at the time of sampling less than twice as much vegetable matter and more than two and one-half times as much available moisture as 'No. 1. In experiments to determine the effects of manure upon evaporation it has been found that a good application of well-rotted manure, well worked into the soil, will reduce the evaporation to the extent of one ton of water per acre per day. To show the efl:ect upon the moisture capacity of a soil produced by an extreme amount of vegetable matter, _ the following example is given : This sample was taken on a jiiece of permanent pasture land and to a depth of four feet. The per- centage of vegetable matter joresent was 34.66, and the moisture content was 63.13 per cent. During the extreme drought of 1901 the moisture was so conserved on a plat very rich in vegetable matter, as to result in a yield of over eighty bushels of corn to the acre ; while a plat a few rods distant, on practically the same level and 28 SOIL FERTILITY Fig. 7. Photograph of corn, showing moisture-oousiiTving effect of vege- talile niatrer in the soil during a dry season. (Edgertoii.) rei'i'iviiig the samo cultivation, hut poor in hnmus, pi-iiduccil less than twenty l)ushel« jicr aei'o. (Figs. 7 aiul .S.) The lo.s.s of vegetahlo matter produces a decided eifect upon the soil in another way especially uoticc- ahle in wet seasons or after heavy rains. As the vegotahle skeleton is decomposed the soil particles are allowed to come together more closely and form greater ohstruction to the passage of the excess of water through them, so that even if well under- drained a much longer time is required for the sur- face to get in proper condition for cultivation, and for the soil to receive a now supply of air for the use of roots and the various germs. The writer has known this ditference in vegetahlo content to mean, on the one haml, the almost continual exidusion of air fr(.)m the soil, with no opportunity for criltivation; and, on the other hand, fairly good aeration, a fair opportunity for cultivation, and a e <.i o d h a 1 1 h v gro\\'th of ci-op, (Figs. and 10.) Effect on Aeration — ^n soils that are at all compact the prohlem of iniproving the aeration is a very important one, and for this purpose no treatment or maiii2)ulati()n can ho applied that will duplicate the eifect produced hy the pi'osenco of decaying vegetaljle matter. Tillage will open up the surface portion hut can not extend to the deeper soil. After the soil is stirred, in the ahsence of a good supporting vegotahle skeleton, it tends to settle and draw together again, gradually cutting off the air movement. In very fine soils a heavy rain. Fig. R. Photograph of corn grown on soil having the same elev.-ition and located only a few j-ijils finni that "which priifluced corn slen\-)i in Fig. 7, lintwhich, hyreason of l^iig cultiva- tion, contained a very small amount of vegetable matter. (Edgcrton.) INCEEASING THE HUMUS CONTENT OP SOILS 29 soon after the stirring takes place, may cause almost an entire suspension of air movement. The presence of a good supply of Tegetable matter will maintain a constant open condition on any well-drained soil under almost any conditions of rainfall. The growth and decomposition of somewhat fleshy roots, as of clover and alfalfa, open up passageways for the air into the deeper soil. On soils that are too coarse and open, vegetable matter, by increasing the amount of water held and binding the particles together, also by partially filling some of the larger inter- spaces, tends to hold in check the excessive air movement of such soils and thus to lessen internal evaporation. Influence on Soil Temperature- — As we have observed, the temper- ature of a soil is a very important factor. Vegetable matter affects temperature (a) by making the soil darker in color, and enabling it to absorb more of the sun's heat ; (b) by lessening evaporation, which is a cooling process ; (c) by enabling the soil to get rid of its surplus water by percolation, so that the same amount of heat will raise the temperature of the soil to a higher degree ; (d) by its decomposition, and by furnishing condirtions more favorable for the action of the countless germs in the soil, and for the more rapid decomposition of the mineral matters. Almost all of these processes of decomposition generate more or less heat. Methods of Increasing the Humus Content of Soils — As pre- viously stated, the production of a cultivated crop on an average soil will result in the loss from that soil of from 1,500 to 1,800 pounds of humus per acre, which in some manner must be replaced if the fertility of the soil is to be maintained. There are three ways in which this may be done : (a) By the application of manure, (b) by proper rotation of crops, and (c) by a combination of the first two. (a) Applicatiok of Mandee^ — From what has been said it is but a logical deduction that the sale of the roughage from the farm, or the burning of the straw, is far worse for the fertility of that farm than is the sale of the grain portion of the crop, inasmuch as the greater portion of the vegetable fiber of a crop is contained in the fodder portion. If lands are to produce grain or other cultivated crops continuously, and to be maintained solely by the application of manure, they will require a dressing of at least fifteen tons of well-rotted manure every five years, or as may sometimes give better results, a dressing of three tons each year. This should be thoroughly worked into the soil. The time of application should be governed by the crop that is to follow. More- over, unless manure is plowed in soon after being drawn, the condition and topog- raphy of the surface will have a great deal of influence upon the loss that may 30 ROIL FERTILITY occur. Manure spread ami allowed to lie for some time on a stiff clay, with an unplowed surfa.ee, espceiall\' il' rolling, or on rollinn( iiiiionsly insoine ^rain or cultivated enip. (I'j-Mf, l;. l '. Uiiffiini, Uullelin -14, Wyounn;; E.\- perinienf Station.) 1 Tlie legal weight of oats in the various .States ranges hetween 2U potuids tilaryluud; and .'-ifj pounds (Oregon and Idaho) . BENEFITS OP ARTIEIOIAL DRAIRAGE 35 SOIL AMENDMENTS There may occur, eitlier from improper treatment or from unfavorable natural conditions, soil conditions that may be greatly ameliorated by the application of certain mineral ingredients as corrective agents. As we have seen, lands that have become unproductive through too great an accumulation of carbonate salts (black alkali) may be greatly improved by an application of gypsum to change these salts into the sulphate (white alkali) form, which is less injurious. Close, heavy soils, or even lighter soils, under improper conditions may become sour. In such cases an application of lime will be found of great value. From twenty to seventy-five bushels may be applied, according to the severity of the case. A direct application of lime is sometimes injurious to certain crops, so that tlie safer plan will be to make any such applications the fall before the land is to be put into crop. Lime may also perform a very valuable service in improving the texture of very fine heavy clays, by flocculating' the minute particles and thus rendering such soils more free and open for the entrance of air, the movement of moisture, and the penetration of roots. UNDERDRAINAGE WHAT TILE DRAINAGE DOES In what has gone before, many of the various soil amendments effected by proper drainage have been indicated in their connection. We may now summarize these benefits : It has been shown that air (the most important components of which are nitro- gen, oxygen, and a small proportion of carbon dioxide) must be present in the soil, being essential to the germination of seeds, to the growth of plants, to the activ- ities of the nitrifying bacteria, to the life of the parasites of the legumens, and to the chemical clianges that set free mineral plant food in the soil. Free water excludes air, and the mischief, as has been seen, does not end with the simple cessation of the processes mentioned ; for the denitrifying bacteria, dejDrived by excess of water of the oxygen they require, extract the needful element from the nitrates, so locking up or even setting free available nitrogen. Underdraiiiage Aerates the Soil— (a) By improving soil texture, or making possible such improvement, so as to admit air to sjoaces formerly occupied by free water ; (b) by admitting plants to a deeper growth and providing livable 1 This term refers to tbe gathering together of the fine particles into groups or clusters, and has the effect of making the soil somewhat coarser. 36 UXDERDRAIXACJE couditions for earthwoniis and Inn-rowing animuls, all of which aiil in \ cntilation ; (c) b}' permitting the flocenlatiou of the clay subsoil and by lessening its tendency to contract npon itself ; (d) by the agency of the lines of tile themselves, into which soil air is f(jrced by Ijardinetric high pressure or expansion due to rising temper- ature, and from which the plant roots derive fresh air when barometric low pressure or fall in temperature prodirces a partial vacuum in the soil. Effect OH Soil Moisture — We have also ohscr\ed that j'bmts can not properly develop without an adecpiate supply of capillary moisture. In the under- drained Held the reservoir of capilhiry water has been increased; surface washing and leaching are both reduced, owing to the greater capacity of this reservoir to handle tlie rainfall; a heavier rainfall may be rt'ceived without making the surface soil too wet for jiroper cultiva- tion. By no means of least importance is the fact that the lai'ger root develop- ment, that is stimulated Ijy underdrain- age, enables the ]ilant to absorb a given amount of water with a much less jier- centago of moisture present in the soil. Effect OH Soil Temperature — A warm soil, as we have learned, is also of the greatest im}ioi'tanee. TJn- derdrainago aids greatly in the produc- tion of a warmer condition of soil : (a) By removing the surplus moisture by percolation instead of c\'aporation ; (b) by decreasing the amount of surplus water in the soil, and thus enabling a given amount of heat to warm a larger amount of soil ; (c) by enabling the soil in the early spring to absorb a larger ])ro- portion of the warm rains (such rainfall containing a very large amount of latent heat); and (d) by impr()\-iiig the condi- tions for decomposition and various chemical actions which produce heat. AA:'M . - • \,t. •• . i.-'^'^t ft "^^ J 11 *? ** ' ^^H ll W m y j^^^H If^Klj ^^f H I ^M Ip. i^'i m V Fir H Phntoe;r ipli slio\Miitc \vill )W 1 ts is til Ti fi ni i flip (liain w lUv.hthe'V 1j idc nilpletHl^ (_1 ^^ged (Edgeiton ) COST OF TILE DEAmAGE 41 Filling the Ditch— After the line of tile has been carefully inspected a few inches of dirb (clay, if possible) should be carefully filled in by hand to hold the tile in place, after which the remainder of the filling may be done with horses attached to a plow by means of a long doubletree, that will enable one horse to walk on either side of the ditch. Frequency of Drains — The distance apart that drains should be placed on level land will depend upon : (a) The character of the subsoil through which the water must pass in order to reach the tile, whether fine and close or open ; (b) the depth of the tile below the surface, the deeper drain drawing water from a greater distance than the shallower one ; (c) the frequency of overflow or of rains sufficiently heavy to produce percolation. It is seldom necessary to place drains nearer than 100 feet, and in open, alluvial soils, 200 feet will usually suffice if the tile is laid four feet deep. On such lands a system may be put in in such a way that other laterals may be inserted later, if those first put in are found too far apart. This will avoid the possibility of needless expense in putting in more lines than are needed. Size of Tile — A tile should be sufficiently large to carry away tlie surplus water as fast as it can get to and into it. But any size greater than is necessary to do this is not only an unnecessary expense, but in many cases does not make so good a drain. The theory held by some that a large tile is less liable than a small one to become filled with sediment, is not correct. With a given amount of water pass- ing, the larger the tile the more readily will the sediment be deposited, because the water, being spread out over a greater surface, will be more shallow and run much more slowly. After this deposition has once begun the tendency is greatly increased. A 3-inch tile is the best size for laterals or any single lines of not more than half a mile in length and having a good fall. The fall is, of course, a large factor in determining the amount of water a tile will carry. Larger sizes should be used for the main drain, varying according to the amount drained into it. An 8-inch tile, with a fall of two or more inches for every 100 feet is sufficient to carry the surplus water from 80 acres of land. The carrying capacity of a tile varies according to the square of its diameter, except for the influence of friction which is proportionately greater in the smaller sizes. Keep Clear of Tree Roots — Any living trees should be avoided with lines of tile, or else the trees killed at once, lest they enter the tile and choke it up. Such trees as the willow, poplar, elm, and soft maple should never be left nearer than 75 feet. Cost of Tiling — This is a question that can be determined for each case 42 ROADS AND ROAD MAKING only by the conditions affecting the same. The cost of digging the ditch will depend upon the average depth, the size of the tile to be laid, flie character of the soil/ and by the amount of fall, making a greater or less amount of care necessary in getting the line of tile true and even. The cost of tile will also vary somewhat with different seasons and with the distance to a good tile factory. The writer has paid all the way from $9 to $13 a thousand for 3-inch tile, and from 20 to 35 cents per rod for cutting a 4rfoot ditch, laying the tile and filling in sufficient dirt to hold the tile securely in place. Most modern tile are made 12 inches in length and sixteen of them will lay one rod. ROADS AND ROAD MAKING The condition of the roadways of any locality, whether in city or country, largely determines the value of its property. A good road is essential, not only for pleasurable driving, but also for the marketing of the various products of the farm. In sections having very poor roads it frequently happens that the farmers are unable to take advantage of the favorable changes in the market, owing to inability to haul their crops whenever they desire. The cost of moving farm products and supplies averages,^ on all our country roads, twenty-five cents per ton per mile, while in the "good-roads" districts the average is only about eight cents — a difference whicli in the aggregate amounts to more than the entire annual expenditures of the National Government. Whereas, one-twelfth of the farm value of the agricultural products of the United States would be sufficient to pay for hauling over good roads to shijijping jDoints, the cost of hauling over roads as they are is equal to one-quarter of the farm value. The destruction of perishable products for want of access to markets, the failure to reach markets when prices are at a maximum, and the enforced idleness of men and draft animals during seasons of impassable roads, constitute a "bad-road tax" upon the industry of the nation generally and upon that of the farmer directly. EAKTH KOADS There are various systems of road construction, but for many years to come the greater portion of the roads in many parts of the country will continue to be con- structed entirely of earth, owing to the difficulty of obtaining other material. The 1 Whether friable and easy to dig, or hard and stony; also whether or not there are saad patches that are liable to give trouble by caving. 2 According to calculations made by the United States Department of Agriculture. EARTH EOAD CONSTRUCTION 43 earth road, however, by the use of proper methods of construction and of mainte- nance afterward, may be made into a very passable road for all seasons of the year. As the construction should be the same whether an all-eartli road is the end sought, or whether it is to be finished by surfacing a part or all of it with stone or gravel, the construction of the " dirt road " will be first considered. Drainage — The first essential of a good road, regardless of the surfacing material used, is thorougli surface and underdrainage, either natural or artificial. No stone surface will keep its place for any length of time If it has a soft, spongy foundation. There should be surface drains where necessary, to carry ofE the surface water quickly and not allow it to stand and soak into the road. If there is not good natural underdrainage, tile should be laid. This should have a free outlet and as much fall as possible. In most cases one line under the center of the road will be more effective than two lines run on either side of the road, as the former gives a greater depth of drained soil where it is most needed. Where possible, the tile should be laid four feet below the natural level of the ground, regard- less of the amount of grading that has been done. If the road passes through a springy place, in such a way that the water comes in from both sides, it is usually best to put a line of tile on each side of the road If it is on a hillside and water comes out directly under the roadbed, these lines, or branches therefrom, should be carried under the road in such a manner as to catch this seepage. If the road passes such a place on the lower side, so that water tends to enter the roadbed only from one side, the tile should be placed on that side in such manner as to catch the water before it enters the road, instead of, as sometimes placed, on the lower side to catch it after it has passed through the road and done the mischief. A 3-inch tile with a good fall will be large enough to carry the water for a half-mile of road, except in very wet places or where the surface drainage is not good. Where it is necessary to put in longer lines- larger^ sizes of tile will be necessary in- the lower part of the course. Owing to the difiiculty of securing outlets in many localities it may often be of mutual advan- tage for the road supervisors to join with the farmers and drain the road and adjacent farm lands in one system. Establishing- tlie Grades — The steeper grades in the road should be lessened as much as may be. The extent to which this should be carried, from an economical standpoint, will depend upon the quality of the roadbed. It will be of no special advantage to be able to haul very large loads over the main portion of the road if there are a few places over which these loads can not be drawn. Forming- the Koadbed — The roadbed should be made of medium width; 16 or 18 feet, with a strip of grass 3 feet wide on each side, making 33 to 34 feet between the surface drains, is usually satisfactory. The surface should be graded to a proper convexity by the use of a road machine, or by other means where a road machine can not be used. The surface should have sufficient slope to carry oil 44 ROADS AN"D ROAD MAKING the water quickly, but not enough to cause washing, or to cause vehicles to slide or cut deep ruts on the lower side by reason of the weight of the load being thrown largely on that side. A road of the width mentioned should be about 6 inches higher in the center than at the margins. The surface should be thoroughly harrowed to get it even and smooth and then well rolled with a heavy roller. This will put the surface in shape not only for convenient traveling but also for quick surface drainage, preventing the water from entering the road to soften it up. Surfacing-— In some localities where the soil is a gravelly loam, excellent roads may be maintained without the use of any other material. In most sections, however, they may be very greatly improved by surfacing with rock or gravel. MACADAM ROADS Where a road is required to support a large amount of heavy traffic the surfacing should be done on the macadam plan, which is as follows : Prepare the roadbed a year in advance, if possible, to allow it to become thoroughly settled. On each side of the portion of road that is to be surfaced, is left a shoulder of earth, of a height equal to the desired thickness of the made surface, to hold it in place. Over the roadbed is then spread a 3 or 4-inch layer of crushed rock of as nearly uniform size as possible. This layer is thoroughly rolled and then evenly covered with enough finely crushed rock to fill the interspaces between the larger rock, into which it is worked by thorough wetting and rolling. Then another layer is applied in like manner, making a very solid road surface, 8 or 9 inches thick. The layer of rock should be evenly spread, so there will be no tendency to bunches and hollows. The roller used should be heavy and of sufficient diameter so that it will not push the stone in front of it in the least. The rolling should begin at the outer edges and continue toward the center, and should be repeated until the surface is thoroughly hard and smooth. COMBINATION EARTH AND STONE ROAD Where there is less heavy traffic a much cheaper form of construction than the all-stone road, and one that gives very good satisfaction, is that which employs stone for one-half and earth for the other. The one track is sufficient for the heavy loads, and may, in times when the dirt surface is soft, carry all the traffic. GRAVEL ROADS In many sections there are beds of gravel that may be used with very good results for the surfacing of roads where traffic is not heavy. The best results are obtained by screening the gravel and using the same methods in its application as in the construction of the stone road. Crushing the gravel will very much increase its value for this work, as it is usually BOOKS ON SOIL TEEATMENT 45 so rounded as not to bind nearly so well as the more angular forms. The thickness of the application may depend somewhat upon the amount of traffic. SANDY KOADS A sandy country sometimes presents a difficult problem in roadmaking, owing to the almost complete absence of binding properties in the sand when dry and to the readiness with which it parts with its moisture. Sand, when containing the necessary amount of moisture to bind it together, forms a very good road, and with this principle in miud it may be readily under- stood that the most practical treatment of such roads will be along the line of increasing their water-holding capacity. Clay, where it can be obtained, if applied to the surface in proper quantity, will supply this deficiency in the best and most permanent form. Straw, sawdust, and any other form of vegetable matter will increase the moisture-holding c&,paoity of such roads, but the rapid decay of these substances renders their frequent renewal necessary. (S::i^:^t^'^-/^^^--A PUBLICATIONS ON TILLAGE AND GENERAL AGRICULTURE Agbicultuke and Chemistby. By F. H. Storer. Three volumes. OTiarles Scrihier's Sons, N. Y $5.00 An exhaustive treatise on the chemistry of soils, manures, and all farm products. Espe- cially adapted to the classroom, or to use by the student of agriculture who has already done considerable reading. Agbicultceb, Manual OP. By Emerson and Flint. Orange Judd Co., 'N.Y. . . . 1.00 Agbicdltubb, Physics OF. By Franklin H. King. i''. S ^jra^', Madison, Wis. (1901) . 1.75 A plain and comprehensive treatise on the origin, structure, and treatment of soils. Com- paratively free from technicalities, and well adapted to the use of the general reader. Contains chapters on the principles underlying the construction of farm buildings, and discusses in detail the operations of farm drainage, roadmaking, and the general application of mechanical prin- ciples to farm operations. Agbicultubb, Peinciplbs OF. By L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co., 'N.Y. (1902). . 1.35 A book well adapted to first reading, covering, in concise and simple form, the various operations of farm management. Alfalfa AND THE Soil. Farmers' Bulletin 31. United States JDepartment of Agriculture Confined to a consideration of the beneficial effects upon the soil produced by the growth of alfalfa. 46 BOOKS ON SOIL TEEATMENT Alkali Lands. Farmers' Bulletin S8, United Stalrx Department of Agriculture Baenyard Manure. Farmers' Bulletin 21. United states DrixirlnK'ut of Auricnllnre Dwells on the inipin-taiu'i^ of (■(iti.s('r\'iiif^ the natural manurial products of llii' farm, and passes iu review the various means of making economical use of this element of wealth. CuEMisTRY, Elementary. By Ira .1. Remsen Henry Holt & Co.. T^.^ . . $0.80 a te.Ytbook giving a clear presentation of the fundamentals of eheniislry. C'liEMiSTRY OP Soils and Fertilizers. By Harry Snyder. Chemkid PublUhing Co., Easton, Pa, . . . .... ... 1.50 Chemistry OP THE Farm. By R. Warrington. Oninr/e Jndd f'o., 'N. Y. . 1.75 A practical treatise in plain language on the 4'nTiiposition of the various farm cro|is and the modes in which the various elements of fertility are absorbed and converted into plant structure. Composition and Use op Fertilizers. By L. L. Van Slyke. Bulletin 55. Pennsyl- vania Departnunt of Aiji'iciiltnre, Harrisburg, Pa. (1899) . . A systematic discussion of the natural and artificial sources of fertility, with directions for home mixture of fertilizers, and specific formulas for application to various crojis. Draining POR Profit AND Health By George E. Waring Orange Judd Co., T^.Y 1.00 An exhaustive treatise on sanitary and commercial drainage. Embanking Lands from River Floods, Principles and Practice op. By AVilliam Hewson. D. Van jVostrand Co.. N Y . . 2.00 Considers the subject as applied to the levees of the Mississippi i;i\er. Experiment Station Work. I. Phosphates, Barnyard Manure, Potato Scab. Farmers' Bulletin 56. United States Department of Agriculture . Same. II Lime, Ashes, Mixing Fertilizers, etc. Farmers' Bulletin 65. United States Deparinicnt of Agriculture S.4.MB. IV. Loss of Fertility, Availability of Fertilizers. Farmers' Bulletin 7;!. United States Dcfartinent of AgrieiiUure . . . Same. V. Humus. Farmers' Bulletin 78. United States Department (f Agriculture S-VME. VII Home-Mixing of Fertilizers. Farmers' Bulletin M4. United Stairs Jh purt- ment of Agriculture . . Same. XVI. Fertilizers for Market Garden Crops. Farmers' Bulletin 124. United States Department of Agriculture . . . . . ..... Experiment Station Work. XIX. ^Mnter Orchard Irrigation. Farmers' Bulletin 144. United States Department of Agriculture . .... . . Farm Buildings, Practical Suggestions por. Farmers' Bulletin 136. United States Department of Agriculture . . . . . . ... . ... Farm Drainage. By French. Orange Judd Go., T^.Y . ... . . . i.oo This work gives a thorough discussion of the principles of drainage, explaining how to lay out a drainage system, and the various steps necessary to the proper laying of tile in face of various difQculties. Farm Drainage. Farmers' Bulletin 40. United States Department of Agriculture . . A. condensed discussion of the subject of drainage. BOOKS OK SOIL TREATMENT 47 Fertility of the Land. By I. P Roberts. The Macmillan Co , N. Y. (1899) . . . $ 1.35 A valuable work for either the classroom or the man who drives the plow, covering not only the subjects of soils and soil treatment, but irrigation and drainage as well. A practical treatise free from technicalities difficult to understand. Fertilizers. By E. B. Voorhees. The Macmillan Co., 'S Y (\9Q2) 1.00 An extensive, detailed discussion of the natural fertility of soils and of the various artificial fertilizers — their use in general and for specific crops. First PRrNCiPLES op Agriculture. By E. B. Voorhees. Silver, Burdette & Co., Boston . . 1.00 This work treats of agriculture in a general way. but contains chapters on soils, their com- position and improvement, treated in a less exhaustive manner than in the treatise on fertilizers. A good book for fii-st reading. Forage Crops. By Thomas Shaw. Orange Judd Co , N. Y. , . . . . . 1 00 Geology, First Book in. By N S, Shaler. D. G. Heath e properly masticated when fed whole. It is not quite so veil relished as corn, and ex- jjerinients indicate that its feeding value is a little less. Barley is well ada^ited to cool climates and to rich lands. Being shorter in the straw than oats or wheat it is less liable to lodge than either of them, aiul this, combined with its early ripening, makes it one of the best nurse crojjs we have. Considerable objection is sometimes offered to the raising of this crop on account of the beards; but with modern machin- ery and methods of handling this olijection should have but little weight. A'aiieties of beardless barley are being devel- oped, some of which give much promise for the future. The iSiiccess is one of the best of these, but as yet they are far outyielded by the six-rowed, bearded variety known as the Jlandsrheuri. Culture — Prepare the soil the same as for o .ts (except that richer ground may be used) and sow early with the drill. Barley will stand more freezing than oats, hence maj' be sown earlier. It is important to sow all these small grains that are adapted to cooler latitudes as early as conditions will permit. Their nature is to ripen about a certain time of the year, regardless of the time they were sown; so that a given variety, if sown early, has a longer time in which to gather plant food than if sown late. For this reason the carlj'-sown grain is better filled and weighs more to the bushel. Fig. 15. Photograpli show- li\tj ESdYenoivDent corn! Eye is morc resistant to cold and severe climatic changes b^Ta Bro'"^)""''"^ than winter wheat, hence, may be grown farther north. It EMilEE. 57 is adajDted also to jjlaces where for one reason or another the soil can not be put in proper condition for wheat. Being a more rugged phmt and a coarser feeder it will get hold where the wheat plant will not. This crop, when ground, makes a valuable food for all kinds of stock, there being no other feed that will make heavier fleeces on lambs. Culture — While it is true, as stated above, that barley will make a fair crop under conditions where wheat would fail, yet there is no other crop that will respond more freely than rye to good treatment. To get the best results the ground should be as carefulh' prepared as for wheat and the rye drilled in in the same manner It may be put in later than the wheat, but if put in early will make an abundance of fall and early spring pasture and a good crop of grain besides. Fig. 16- Photograph shomng a good type of tip end, Eeid Yel- low Dent corn. (From an ear fumished by L. C. Brown.) E3I3IEK ' Emmer is a cereal new to this country, but one that gives promise of great value to particular sections. It comes from Eurojie, Enssia, from which country we get our best seed, raising the largest amount.^ The great value of emmer lies in its drought-resisting qualities and its consequent adaptation to the regions of scanty and uncertain rainfall. It will thrive, however, under a very wide range of climatic conditions and is worth a trial in any section of the country. It is raised both as a winter and a sjDring crop. Emmer is closely related to the wheats, although the chaff adheres to the grain when threshed. It is similar in composition to oats, containing a little less fat and a little more protein. For the year 1900, at the Iowa Experiment Station, it gave a yield j^er acre of 2,200 pounds of grain, weighing 35 pounds to the struck bushel. The Xorth Dakota Exjieriment Station reports a yield for 1900 of 63 bushels jier acre. In a feeding experiment with shee]!, at the Iowa station, in wliich were compared the feeding value of emmer, soy beans, corn, and gluten-feed and corn, all other conditions being the same, the largest gains were made by the lot fed on emmer. The straw is shorter and stifEer than that of wheat, making it much less liable to lodge ; for 1 This grain is frequently improperly called speltz. 2 See Farmers' Bulletin 139, United States Department of Agriculture. Fig. 17. Photograph showing a good tj-pe of butt end, Reid Yellow Dent corn. (From an ear furnished by L. C. Brown. 58 GEAIK AND ROOT CROPS this reason it should prove an excellent nurse crop. Emmer seems thus far to be more resistant to the attacks of rust than the more common cereals of this country. Not the least of its prospective value lies in the improvement that may be made in our wheats by crossing them with it.' Culture — Same as for wheat, except that the earliness of seeding should be emphasized, and that the rate of seeding should be about the same as for oats. ' FLAX Flax is a grain rich in fat and protein, which supplies the linseed oil of com- merce on the one hand, and the oil cake, or oil meal for stock feeding on the other. Culture — Flax is a stroug-feeding plant adapted to the taming of freshly-broken -wild land, as it can be made to produce a fair crop where the sod is too resistant to bo properly worked up for any other crop. Such lands, however, should be put in as good condition as possible, as the extra work will be more than repaid by the increased yield. A good heavy roller is a necessaiy part of the equipment for properly putting in flax on freshly -broken wild land. If a soil that has been under cultivation is used, it should be rich in vegetable matter and should be prepared the same as for corn. The flax plant is very tender and seed should not be sown until all danger of frost is past. A press drill should be used in the seeding. Flax-sick Soil — One of the necessities for a rotation of crops lies in the fact that if a given species of plant is grown continuously on the same ground the various parasitic diseases that prey upon it have an opportunity to multiply until they may destroy the crop. This is especially true of flax, and for this reason it should not be grown two years in succession on the same ground. It is the continued cropping that gives rise to what is known as "flax-sick soil." BUCKWHEAT Buckwheat, while used primarily for human food,- is also a valuable food for stock, experiments indicating that it has a feeding value almost equal to that of wheat. Culture — One of the chief values of this crop lies in its adaptability to the production of a crop late in the season on lands that have been too wet in the early part of the season for the start- ing of other crops. It may be sown as late as the middle of July In sections as far north as the center of Iowa. A good seed-bed should be prepared and the seed sown broadcast and well covered or put in with the drill. ROOT CROPS One of the urgent needs of winter feeding in sections of the country where animals must be fed for a long time on dry feed is for some product that will furnish 1 See Bulletin 63, Iowa Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa. BEETS 59 l^.% the laxative that is ohtained in summer from the grass.. Too lax a condition in cold weather is not desirable, but a certain degree of it is necessary in order for the various food materials to be properly assimilated and carried through the body. This is especially true of animals from which it is desired to obtain a large flow of milk. There is probably no other form of succulent food that will so largely aid in the translocation of food materials from the digestive tract to their proper destination as the unor- ganized compounds found in the various root crops. Their value for use as a regulator of the system can hardly be over- estimated. BEETS Of these several varieties are used for field crops. The sugar beet, grown extensively for the manufacture of sugar, is also valuable for stock food, being better relished by hogs than the mangel varieties. Where used for the manufacture of sugar the pulp from which the juice has been expressed is a valuable food. The varieties of mangel are better adapted, however, for exclusive stock feeding as they yield more heavily, are much more easily harvested, carry less dirt with them to the cellar, are better relished by sheep and cattle, and are about as good for hogs. Of the mangel varieties the Mammoth Long Red is one of the best for light soils. It is usually the heaviest yielder and is less liable to be damaged if caught in a little freeze before being har'\'ested, as the heavier growth of leaves affords greater protection. In some sections the Golden Tankard makes a better keeper, but this is not universally true. Culture — When growing for feed select a piece of soil rich in vegetable matter or enrich well with well-rotted manure. This should be free from trash, corn stalks, etc., that will interfere with hoeing, or cause the small beets to be covered up when cultivating. Plow thoroughly in the fall or early spring. Develop a seed-bed early and kill all the weeds as nearly as possible before planting the crop, ^'"j^^l' eS'with ""smi^Zo A fine seed-l)ed is necessary, but it must not be too loo e. If loose in irregular, i James Atkin- the subsurface, the moisture will not be drawn up well around the seed o£ Agriculture.) ^^^ ''.^fiSS:<&--. 60 ROOT CROPS for their germination, and it there is too much loose earth on the immediate surface, a dashing rain may bury and destroy the young plants soon after they come up. The seed may be sown with any garden drill, or in large areas with horse drills made especially for that purpose. If the horse drill is used, care must be taken not to get the beets planted too deep, as a uniform stand is highly important. Use plenty of seed, as they must be thinned in any case. From 5 to 15 pounds of seed to the acre will be required, according to the width between the rows and the care used in planting. Much more seed should be used with the horse than with the hand drill, as the former is not so accurate in its work and more of the seed may be buried too deeply to come up. Give thorough cultivation. If done at the right time and if the land has been well cleaned of weeds, this may be done mostly with the horse, no hand work in many cases being needed, except a hoeing with a wheel-hoe when beets first come up, and thinning after they get well started. The thinning may be done, first, with the hoe — cutting through the row, leaving bunches of two and three in a place — and afterward by going over them and hand-thinning to one in a place, having one plant every 10 inches when through. Beets should not be harvested in the fall until there is danger of freezing weather, as it is more difficult to keep them if harvested before the warm days are past. A light freeze will do them no harm, if they remain in the ground until thawed out. When pulled, the tops should be cleanly removed and the dirt jarred ofE, as both affect their keeping. They should be stored in a cool place where the temperature will be as uniform as possible and where there is fair ventilation. Culture pok Sugak — Where the sugar beet is grown for sugar, care should be taken, in the first place, to obtain seed of beets that have been developed especially for that purpose. Secondly, the soil must not be overrich, especially in fresh manure, as too large and rough a growth is less productive of sugar. A smooth, clean beet of medium size gives the best quality of juice. Sugar beets will also bear being left closer together in the row than where more size is desired, 6 to 8 inches being a good width on good soils. CARROTS These are grown more especially for horses. They start more delicately than beets, are more difficult to harvest and do not yield so well, but horses are very fond of them, whereas they are not so fond of beets. For this purpose a large growing variety that will yield well should be selected. The Large White Vosges is perhaps the best variety. The Long Yellow Orange is a gocc yielder, but grows so long that it is more difficult to harvest. Culture — The same as for beets except that they may be left nearer together in the row, 6 inches apart being a good distance. TURISIPS A valuable crop for early winter feeding, but will not keep so well as beets. Sheep are especially fond of them, and in the milder climates they may be fed off the ground without harvesting. EUTABAGAS, KOHLRABI, POTATOES 61 Culture — The best soil for turnips is one rich in vegetable matter. Prepare and sow in drills, thinning and cultivating the same as for beets. Or, if the ground is free from weeds, they may be sown broadcast. For winter feeding they should not be sown before the latter part of June for Central Iowa. Turnips will stand considerable freezing weather, before harvesting, without damage. They are better, however, not to be harvested while In a frozen condition. If they are caught by a freeze, leave in the ground until the frost is again ou* of them. RUTABAGAS OB SWEDISH TURNIPS The rutabaga is a hard-fieshed turnip belonging to the same family as cabbage. It is a much better keeper than the common turnip and in cool climates is a heavy yielder and a very valuable crop ; but it is not adapted to the dry, hot summers of Iowa and localities farther south and southwest, developing practically no bulb in these sections. Culture — The same as for beets. KOHLRABI The kohlrabi is another plant closely related to cabbage, but differing from the one just considered in that it produces the bulb entirely above ground. It is not properly a root crop, but is treated here because of its similar economic relation in the problem of stock food supply The kohlrabi is a good keeper, is easy to raise and easy to harvest, starting much more quickly than beets or carrots. It is adapted to a much wider range of climatic conditions than the rutabaga ; growing in warm as well as cool climates and being resistant to drought. Culture — The same as for beets. POTATOES Culture — A good clover sod, well plowed and prepared, makes an excellent bed for the potato. The potato Ukes an abundance of vegetable matter, but not much of this should be in the form of freshly applied stable manure, especially if the crop is intended for market, as it tends to produce a scabby tuber. Too rich a soil is apt to cause a very rank growth of vine and few potatoes. For an early crop, potatoes may he planted as soon as the frost is out of the ground and the soil in workable condition. For a winter crop they should be planted late enough so that the tubers will not be ready to set until the fall rains commence. They may be tended very largely with the harrow if the soil is kept sufficiently loose for the harrow to be effective. A Httle drag- ging, pruning, and burying of the tops wiU do them no harm. Use level culture until the tubers set on, when they should be hilled enough to protect the tubers from injury by the sun. Experi- ments indicate that ridging does not increase the yield. 62 EOOT AXD SOILING CROPS Artie duriny t and tho Cult the hogs t and CTilliv t ARTICHOKES liol^ps are a valuidilc food for niniiitaiiiiiig liog's m a liealtliy condition lie f;dl. "wlu'ii tliey ai'e on a heaA-y food of corn. 'JMiey ar(^ very easily I'aiseJ lid^s do their own luirvcsting. li'C — Plant moderately early on a piece of ground where it will lie convenient to allow 1 run in the fall. If the soil is not already rich in vegetable mailer, manure well. Plant ale the same as potatoes. The tops, early in the season, will gel. large enough to shade the ground and keep down the weeds. Tlie label's are usually attached to the plant by much longer stems Ihan are potaloes, which makes them difficult lo liar\'est, Imt b}' allowing Ihc hogs to do the harvesting this objection is removed. By not allowing the hogs to dig them too close they will re-seed themselves and produce a crop the following year, without the neeessit}' ( if any jilanting or cultivation, PUMPKINS Tlio pumpkin lias a similar economic place in the feed yard to that of the root o'ops. It is a valnahle fall and eai'ly winter feed for cattle, sliecj), and s\\'ine, and is adapted to a very wide range of climatic conditions. Culture — Pumpkins maybe grown with the coi-n crop, producing, where the stand is not pcifect or where the corn does not grow large, a considerable amount of irvd without materially affecting the yield of corn. If grown as a separate ■inp, ibc ground should be prei)ared the same as for corn. Plant about the s:inic lime, in hills 8 feet apart each wa}-, putting ?> to 4 seeds in a hill, "When Ibe plants are well started, thin to one plant in a hill. /V't/-'.v J'.di: tj'iini, ,'<';iil.s : < 'iiK Ul'i l;u-li Ileal!-. i'ei|uii-e a wvy iniieli sliorter gniwinu; season, anil by succcssioiial sowinn's may lie liad lor lahle supply 1iiroiii:;lioiil llie summer. Tlie lasl, |ilai)l,iiig should be made al, least se\-ell or l i;jlll, Weel.s liefore liea\"3' flost. To secure yooil snap or si riii'j; hem is a rapid l;]'o\vIIi is necrssary, Ollicrwise llie pods liccomc .stringy. It is al-i> necessary to kee|i all pods |iiel;eil, allowing none to nialui'e, lor the lapiaiing seeds will cheek the growlh of Ihe plant and desi I'oy the fiiliire supply of green pods. Wdien grown as a held crop for maiicel Ihe jilaiiN are pulled hy hand and piled with Ihe roots upward, or harvested with a hean puller. II' not allowed lo si.md iinlil Ihe pods shell too much IIhv may be moweil and raked U]) as hay. I''oi' small i|uanlilie-. a hand Hail and f.aniiing mill may he used for threshing and cleaning. By large gi'owers, a j-e;jular bean Ihresher is employed ViU-ictit'.'S — Bush Beans: Y,ll,,ir^ I',hI,I,,I., Cnl,!,!,. \V„.r. and ];il,i,lnic \V,i.r. Shell and String Beans: S/ruir/l,xx On, i, /',„/ and A'i(r/,/ i;,fiir/,,'. Foi- held use, Ihe Xnri/ is p|-obahly best known, TJmrf LIiihik, Ilfii MUSKMELOXS, WATER]*IELOXS 95 insect ravages it is well to plant to 10 seeds to a bill, and tlim lo 3 when tbe plants l.iegin to vine well. Cultivate botb ways as long as possible. No fruit sboukl lie allowed to ripen on tbe vine, as this will cause tbe plants to discontinue growtb and cut sbort tbe crop. Varieties — Tbe Wliite Sjdiif, Lomj Onen, and Coul and Ci'inp arc standards, MUSKMELONS There is much confusion regtirdiiig tbe iiso of the term nntskmelon :uid canta- loup. AVitli some tlio terms are regarded ;is synonj'motts. According to Bailey's CyrJopedia of Americuii Ilor/iriil/un' the cantaloup is a special form of mnskmolou, having a deeper furrow and a hard rind. Culture — Tbe cul- ture of tbe muskmelon is similar to tbat of tbe cu- cumber. Tbe fruits are of a biglu-r flavor if al- lowed to remain on tbe vines until Ibey separate readily at tbe sboulder. A'arieties — A large, nearly smootb-skiuned type known astbe M"nti-ei'd muskmelon bas recently aroused considerable in- terest in tbe West. "While of a superior size it is coarse and low in cjnality. In fact, as a class, the m e d i u m - 1 o - s m a 1 1 - s i z e d Fig. 3"2. An excellent varit. -netted slciu type. (Ei'win ) varieties with a finely netted skin are tbe pur i.rr, 11, nee of (pialily Of this type tbe Xitted Gem and tbe well-known Rocky Furd. which is a slight variation of the Gem, are good examples. WATERMELONS The watermelon thrives best iit the South, (lood crops may be grown in the North, however, if planted on an early ••(puck " soil. , Culture — The hills are usually placed 8 or 10 feet apart, and, if tbe soil is thin, a shovelful of well-decayed manure should be placed under each bill. The fruit is borne on the side branches, and many growers recommend tbe pinching baciv of tbe terminal buds to stimulate side growth. Varieties — Mountain Sweet and Hungarian Uoncy are good northern sorts. 96 ANNUAL ROOT CROPS CITRON Citron is a fniit very similar to the watermelon in appearance and culture, but bearing a thick, hard, fleshy rind, which is used for preserving. PUMPKINS Pumpkins are coarse growers and, hence, are generally planted in the field rather than the garden. A favorite plan is to plant in alternate rows in every sec- ond hill in the cornfield. The fruit should be stored or covered with fodder upon the approach of heavy frost. The crop is largely grown for stock, and finds only limited use as a table vegetable. SQUASHES The term '^squash" is quite a broad one, including those classes of gourds which produce an edible fruit. It is a popular error that squashes, pumpkins, and melons will cross-fertilize if planted near one another. Those who have made careful investigation, however, are emphatic in their statements that such is not the case, and that squashes never cross with watermelons and spoil their flavor, as is sometimes stated. Hand crosses between the pumpkins and squashes failed in the majority of cases, and in no case were the results apparent until the second generation. Culture — The general cultural requirements of the squash are similar to those of the cucumber except with the long-vined sorts, for which the hills should be ten feet apart. Sow 6 to 8 seeds per hill and thin to 3. Of the summer squashes, 8ili)er Custard and Crookneck are good varieties ; of the winter squashes, Boston Marrow and Hubbard. Varieties — There are two distinct types of squashes — the summer and winter species. The summer varieties mature early and are used before the rind hardens. The fall and winter varieties are usually provided with a hard, flinty shell of a warty appearance. The Hubbard is a well-known and excellent representative of this class. Winter varieties are readily stored if handled carefully and held at a temperature of 40° to 50°. ANNUAL ROOT CROPS BEETS CABR0T8 TURNIPS SALSIFY PARSNIPS RADISH Root crops are of the easiest culture. The essential conditions are a deep, rich soil, with ample moisture. A straight, symmetrical root is required, and to secure this, deep plowing and a well-prepared seed-bed are necessary. The soil should be fertile, but it is not advisable to plow under fresh manure, as the roots are apt to acquire an astringent flavor and a forked growth. On poor, clay soils the roots are usually leathery and of inferior quality. BEETS, CAEROTS, TURKIPS 97 BEETS There are two general types of beets — the turnip-rooted and the long-rooted. The turnip-rooted sorts mature the more quickly and are generally grown for the early-season crop. Culture — The beet ranks with the onion and pea in point of hardiness, and should be sown as soon as the ground is in a tillable condition. Plant 1 inch deep in rows 3 feet apart. As the seed usually germinates unevenly, it is well to sow thickly. Thin as the plants reach 5 or 6 inches in height until they are 5 inches apart. The thinnings make excellent greens. By succeesional sowing a supply may be had throughout the summer and fall. Upon the approach of heavy frost the crop should be pulled and piled. The tops are cut ofE 2 inches above the crown. This is important, as, if the crown of the root is cut, they readily decay. Store in a cool cellar or root pit. If the atmosphere is dry they should be covered with slightly moistened soil or sand. If allowed to dry out the roots become wilted and corky. Good corn land is well adapted to beet growing, and for early varieties a quick, sandy soil is advantageous. Varieties — The Eclipse is a general favorite. Other standard varieties are the Early Turnip, ^Egyptian, and Long Bark Blood. CARKOTS Culture — Like other root crops, the carrot thrives best on a rich, deep, well-drained soil. The plants are quite hardy and of the easiest culture when once established. The seed germinates slowly, and hence it is a good practice to sow with it some companion crop, such as radish. This will keep the rows defined and insure early culture. Early culture is important, as the young plants are leather delicate and easily smothered out by weeds if neglected. The seed should be sown rather thickly and the plants thinned to 3 inches apart. Early varieties are sown as soon as the soil will permit. The winter crop should be sown about the first of June. Crops intended for storing should not be planted before this, as they may mature their gi'owth and the tops will die off while still in the soil. The roots which are harvested while still in a growing condition store best and are of superior quality. Harvesting — For convenience, the first step in gathering should be the mowing off of the tops with a brier scythe or cropping ofE with a hoe. Digging may be facilitated by plowing a furrow from the row on each side, or plowing out the roots. Varieties — Scarlet Horn and Improved, Long Orange are among the best. TURNIPS The turnip is a moisture-loving plant and does not thrive best in the hot, dry atmosphere of midsummer ; hence it is grown almost entirely as a spring and fall crop. Culture — The seed is sown early and the roots usually reach marketable size in eight to nine weeks. Turnips are often sown as a successional crop with early potatoes and cabbage. The seed is sown broadcast and the only important point in culture is that the plants have an ample supply of moisture. The soil is likely to be dry when the fall crop is sown ; hence, thorough 98 AX.M'AL TJOOT CROPS ]ii'c|)iiniliiin 111' (he sccd-licil is iirccssary. ( Hiiiiin;il ion in;iy l)c ;issislcil liy mlling, wliirli brings I he miiist |iai1icl('s III' Mill iiilocdiilMi-l wilh I hr scid, 'riiiiiips arr in jiirril Iiy fri-cziiiL'-. ami sIiduIiI lie xIoixmI ill a ciH.I rrilar lirlnri' liiavv frnvt. Tile nints arc iargi-ly usi'il as stook fiioil anil liml "iily a limited (lemaiiil as a lalilr vegetalilr. Varieties — l'iii[ili: Milan. Enrlij SnniHinll. RUTABAGAS Olt SWEDISH TURNIPS Tlie I'ntabaga is iilcntiral wiih ilie tiii'iii]) in its r.ultiii'e. witli tlie exception that it requires a longer seasiui fur gniwtli, ami for tlie winter crop should bo sown four or live wee]t anil may be left in till- erouiid over winter or sloriil. Tlii-y biMonie woody and i.iia 'wuh I , ..I :-,,l-,ity, ^mfn for u.-e afbr growth begins the sieond sjiring, however. The general culture requirrments of salsify arr similar to those of carrots and parsnips. Varieties — iSnmlinr/i Jnhnnl ^^Imnmulh. is one of the most productive varieties. PARSNIPS Culture — Sow early and givi- Wm- sanH' luitinv as for the carrot. The roots may be stored or left in tin/ ground over winter if >lorid it i- be.-l not to dig them until after heavy frost, as the roots serm to b,.- iinprovrd in qinlily liy fni-zing. The seed is slow in germinating and radishes may be sown witli tluni as in lln- e:i,r ot carrots. Varieties — Uulbjio Civirii, is an cvcelient sort. RADISHES, ASPARAGUS 99 RADISHES Culture — To produce crisp, tender roots the radish requires a cool, moist season of growth, similar to the turnip. Sow early in the spring, and repeat at intervals of ten days for successional crops. Early varieties mature in from twenty to thirty days. Winter varieties with a long, tapering root are grown to a limited extent only. One of the best varieties of this type is the Black Spanish. Varieties — White Turnip, Scarlet Qlobe. PEKEIVNIAL ROOT CROPS ASPARAGUS HORSE-RADISH RHUBARB The crops placed under this heading are not closely related botanically, and are arbitrarily placed in this section on account of tlieir similar cultural requirements and their permanent location in the garden. Their permanency indicates the necessity of thorough preparation before planting. An asparagus bed, for example, should yield profitable crops for twelve to fifteen years, provided the preparatory work has been properly done. In preparing the bed for any of these crops the ground should be deeply plowed and a heavy coat of well-rotted manure worked in. If the soil is not in good mechanical condition it will also be an advantage to plow in the fall and leave the ground in the rough over winter. ASPARAGUS Culture — Asparagus is a hardy perennial, native of Europe, propagated by division of the roots or by seed. If propagated from seed, which is the best method, the plants should be grown in the seed-bed the first year and transplanted to the permanent bed the second spring. As the bed will last for a number of years if the crop is properlj' planted, thorough preparation is of special importance. The land should be deeply plowed and heavily manured with well-rotted stable manure the fall before planting. As the stalks are the edible portion and asparagus is a strong feeder, it will require annual applications of manure throughout the life of the bed. The rows should be 6 feet apart and the plants 2 feet in the row. A convenient method of planting is to furrow out the rows to a depth of 8 inches, and plant in the bottom of the furrow. Cover the roots lightly at first, packing the soil well, howevei', around them, and gradually fill in the furrow as the stalks appear above the surface. This is a more convenient system than the old one of planting in solid beds, and will give good results. The plants should become well established before any crops are harvested, and for this reason it is best not to gather any stalks until the second spring after the plants are put out, and even then it should not be cropped heavily the first time. During the first two years frequent tillage is important. After the plants become well established the ground is sufficiently shaded and mulched to give little trouble from weeds. 100 PERENNIAL ROOT CROPS The shoots should be gathered as they appear in spring and before they are more than 8 or 10 inches in height. If allowed to grow taller than this they become woody The stalk should be gathered by reaching -3 or 3 Inches below the surface, grasping the stalk with the fingers and breaking off with a simple twist. A case-knife is often used for this work, but it is not to be recommended, as the young crowns are clustered together and the blade of the knife is likely to sever a number of them, spoiling the future crop. Cropping should cease about the middle of June and the tops thereafter should be allowed to grow at will. After frost in the fall the tops are mown off and the beds well dressed with rotted manure. Asparagus is a native of the seashore and occasional applications of salt will stimulate growth. Varieties — Among the best varieties are Cono-ver's Colossal and Palmetto. KHUBARB Culture — The most convenient method of propagating this vegetable is by division of roots. The plants may be set out in either spring or fall, planting 4 feet apart in rows 5 feet wide, in a rich, moist soil. No crop should be gathered until the second year after transplanting. Give clean culture during the summer and apply a coat of manure in the late fall. This should be plowed under the following spring. This mulch will prevent deep freezing, thus securing an early crop of stalks in the spring, and the additional supply of plant food will also aid in procuring a rapid growth Bhubarb is essentially a moisture-loving plant and if properly supplied with water and an ample food supply, an excellent growth is insured. "Varieties — There are apparently no new varieties of superior merit. The old standards, the Linneas and Victoria, are favorites. The Linneas is an early variety and less acid than the Victoria. The Victoria is a strong, heavy-growing sort with pink stalks and a more decided acid flavor. Forcing' — Rhubarb is readily forced in a warm cellar ; hence, winter crops of this delicious vegetable may be enjoyed by digging the roots late in the fall and storing them in a warm, dark cellar. The roots should be dug upon the approach of heavy frost and left above ground for a couple of weeks for the purpose of freezing. This freezing process is necessary, for without it the roots do not take on an active, vigorous growth when brought into a warmer temperature. The roots may be packed in closely, with only sulHcient soil attached to supply moisture, and the cellar should be practically dark. Occasional watering may be necessary to keep them moist. The tem- perature should be 50° to 60°. This winter forcing is a very simple process and may be employed by any farmer who will comply with these conditions. Well-established roots should be used. Forced roots, of course, are very much weakened, and if again planted out-of-doors will not bear crops until the second year. HORSE-RADISH Culture — Horse-radish is a hardy perennial of the simplest culture. A rich, deep soil fur- nishes the best conditions for the development of symmetrical roots. Propagation is by root cul^- tings, which should be one-half to three-fourths inch in diameter and 4 to 6 inches in length. To insure planting them with the crown end up it is well to make the upper cut sloping. The roots are used as a condiment with meats in late fall and early spring. A winter supply may be had by storing roots in moist soil or sand in the cellar. Grated horse-radish soon loses its strength. Freshly grated and neatly bottled packages find a ready sale in small towns, and one can nearly always find an excellent local trade for a limited supply. CABBAGE, BRUSSELS SPROUTS 101 COLE CROPS CABBAGE CAULIFLOWER BRUSSELS SPROUTS KOHLRABI CABBAGE Cabbage is a hardy, partial-season crop. The plants are usually started in the hotbed or window box and set out when the second or third true leaves appear. An excellent seed-bed for starting the plants may be secured by burning straw or brush to warm the soil and kill weed seeds ; then pulverize and sow at once. Culture — The early varieties are set out as soon as tlie state of the ground will permit, and do not suffer seriously even if caught by late frosts, provided the plants have been properly "hardened off." The seed for the fall and winter crop is usually sown about the middle of May. The distance for planting varies much, as some varieties produce very large heads and others small ones. For the general run of varieties, 3 feet apart in the row is a convenient distance. If the plants are spindling they should be planted deeply and side roots will be emitted along the buried portion of the stem. A rich soil and frequent surface tillage to conserve the moisture and a uni- form period of growth are the essential conditions for successful cabbage culture. If the soil becomes diy the heads "set." If rains follow later a second growth comes on, causing the heads to split and making them practicall}' worthless for market. Storing — Upon the approach of heavy frost the plants should be pulled and stored in a pile with the roots up. Cover with 3 or 4 inches of straw, and as winter approaches add layers of earth to protect from freezing and thawing. For storing purposes the heads which are not quite solid and mature preserve best. In storing out-of-doors, it is important to secure a site where the drainage is good. Ventilation should be provided by small openings through the sides of the pile. If the supply is to be used during the winter, a more convenient method is to store in a root cellar where the temperature is about 36°. In storing cabbage it is very important that the heads should be well drained. When growing in the field the leaves gather the dew, so that heads for storing should be pulled and piled with the roots upward for several hours to allow the water to drain out of the leaves. A method of storing, convenient for the farmer, is to store the heads in barrels ; they will preserve better, also, if each head of cabbage is wrapped up in a newspaper. Varieties — There are two general types of cabbage, the wrinkled and the smooth-leaved. The wrinkled-leaved sorts are regarded by some as superior in quality, but they are less productive than the common type and, hence, are not so generally grown. The smooth-leaved type may be subdivided into the purple-leaved and the green-leaved, or the common form. The purple-leaved is much prized by the Germans for pickling. The behavior of varieties of cabbage differs much according to local conditions. Early Jersey Wakefield is a standard early sort. Flat Dutch and Drum Head are valuable winter varieties. BRUSSELS SPROUTS This is a member of the cabbage family with small, lateral buds which are used similarly to cabbage. Its culture is practically the same as that of cabbage. 102 SALAD CEOPS CAULIFLOWER This is a variety of cabbage wbicli lias been improTed by the enlargement of the terminal flower buds. Its cultural requirements are similar to those of cabbage. It requires more careful attention, however, and commands a better price on the market. The heads should be shaded for blanching when two-thirds formed. A convenient method of doing this is to break the midrib on the large, outer leaves and pin them together over the head. , Varieties — Early Dwarf, Erfurt, Qiant, and Sonpareil are valuable. KOHLRABI This is another member of the cabbage family, with an enlarged, turnip-shaped stem, grown considerably as a winter food for stock and in a limited way as a garden vegetable. The tubers should be used when 2 or 3 inches in diameter, as they become tough and woody when older. White Vienna is one of the best known varieties. SALAD CROPS LETTUCE CELERY CRESSES LETTUCE As usually grown lettuce is a hardy, early-season crop of the simplest culture. Culture — For the first crop it is an advantage to sow in raised beds, as such, soil warms up earlier. Later crops are sown in rows and thinned to 8 inches apart. The last crop is usually cleared by midsummer, and the ground may be used for fall turnips. If the daily supply is gathered early in the morning before becoming wilted by the hot sun it will be the more crisp and palatable. There are two general types of lettuce — head or cos lettuce, and the loose or leafy type. The cos variety forms small cabbage-like heads, and is a type of superior quality. It requires a longer period of growth, however, and greater care in culture. For the farmer's garden the loose type will generally be found preferable. Varieties — There is an endless list of good varieties which have their special adaptation to local conditions. Black Seeded, Sirnpsun, and Grand Rupids are standard kinds. CELERY The growing of celery is largely restricted to the market gardener, for the reason that its cultural demands are more exacting than those of other crops. On the other hand, the value of the crop is greater in proportion. In fact, there is prob- ably no plant grown which will bring as lai-ge returns p)er acre as celerv. and in most towns and villages there is an excellent demand for a limited supply. The CELERY, CRESSES 103 essential requirements for successful celery growing are a rich, moist soil and early transplanting, that the plants may become established before the hot, dry weather comes on. The grower who is not able to irrigate will find bottom lands most satisfactory. The plants should be started in the seed-bed and transplanted once before being put out. The first transplanting is usually done when the second or third true leaves appear. The crop is usually put oat about the middle of June. Culture — There are two general systems of culture for celery — the level culture and the trench system. lu the trench system a furrow is laid out, a man following with a spade, to deepen the trench to 13 or 14 inches. The plants are then set in the bottom of this trench. At blanching time in the fall the trench is merely filled in. The level-culture system is similar to that practiced with other garden vegetables. Both systems of culture have their special points of advantage. In dry seasons the plants in the trench fare better on account of being protected from the dry winds and somewhat shaded. In wet seasons the level culture is very much more successful. This system involves less labor, and on the whole is probably to be preferred. The plants should be set out late in the evening, while it is cool, and it is also well to remove one- third or one-half of the top to prevent wilting. Frequent tillage should be given throughout the summer to insure a constant supply of moisture. Blancliing' — Before the stalks can be used for the table the green coloring matter must be removed. This is brought about by any practical method which will exclude the light. For the early, dwarf varieties, 12-inch boards may be used, set up on each side of the row, with a strip across the top to hold them together. The placing of 4-inch drain tile over each plant is also a simple method. With the later crop, soil is often used for blanching. If soil is used, care must be taken to gather the stalks together before placing it around them. A convenient method is for a man and boy to work together, the lad working on the opposite side of the row, gathering the stalks, and holding thern in position until the soil is filled in around them. This can not be completed at one time, and two or three operations are necessary. If the crop is to be stored in the cellar for the winter, outdoor blanching is not necessary. The roots should be taken up for storing upon the approach of heavy frost and placed in a cool cellar, packing a small quantity of soil around the roots to keep them moist. The plants may be packed quite closely together and if the light is excluded, blanching will be completed in three or four weeks. If the soil becomes dry, occasional watering may be necessary. A temperature of 50° to 60° is suitable. The crop may also be stored out-of-doors by covering with straw and layers of soil, to protect from frost. This is not convenient for getting out supplies in cold weather, however, and cellar storage is preferable for the small grower. Varieties — White Plume and Golden Self Blanching are good early varieties. For the main- winter crop, Qiant Pascal, Kalamazoo, and New Rose are considerably grown. Celeriac is a variety of celery with a turnip-shaped root. The enlarged root is the edible portion and is used as a salad. CRESSES Water Cress is a species of nasturtium of perennial growth, used for gar- nishing and salads. It is a hardy, moisture-loving plant and readily establishes 104 SOLAXACEOrS f'-ROPS itself along streams after the lied lias Ijeen pix-jiared and the seed sown. There is little variation in vai'ieties of cress. Garden Cress is a partial-season crop which is used to a, limited extent for garnishing. The crop is hardy and should be sown quite early. Wants mature in from six to eitrht weeks. TOMATO SOLANACEOl S CKOPS ECO PLAXT PEPPEn The jilants mentioned in this group are tender and rcfjuiro a long, warm season for growth. They should be started in the hotljed or Avindow box, and a better root system is secured by transplanting a second time before placing in the held. That the crop may have ample ti)ne to ripen it is of special importance to have strong, well-established plants to start with. This is especially true in the regions of the Northwest, where frost comes early. TOMATOES Culture — TVherc thcro is a clioicc of locatioD, a warm soil is alwaj's preferalile for tiio tomato. In a liad location or in cold, wet seasons plants set fniit iioorly. tlie foliai,'e takes on a 3'ellow compli-xion, and a poor ci'op invariably ffillows. To seeure fruit of ;;ooil e-olor and free from rot, a support of some kind is an advantage. Posts, wire netting, or any framework that will spread tbe vines and admit sunlight and air will fill tlie reipiireinenls. The j'ield of the tomato is materially increased by ju-opei- training-. Some experiments along this line with which the writer was connected at the Iowa Experiment Station showed the follow- ing residts ; A row of untrained plants yielded 157 pounds of souml fruit and r; 1 pounds of rotten fruit. The same number of trained plants yielded 197 pounds of sfiund fruit and 1.5 pounds of rotten fruit. In the one case we have 20 per cent of decayed fruit and in the oIIk i- only 7 per cent, which clearl)- inilieiifes the imiioi'tanee of getting the vines up off the ground to fin;veiit rot. The relaliAe solidity of fi'uif i-; ,'ibo ;ui iniporlaiit factor in determining the ^lii|iping and keep- ing qualities. Fi'uiis of the same size from difTerent varieties vary much in weiLdit, the heavy ones containing small sei-d chambers and a large pro- portion of fjetli. Varieties showing this characler of fruit invariably Fig. .34. Specimen tematoi-s of standard varieties. (Erwin.) keep and hhip better than the lighter TOMATOES, EGG PLAXT, PEPPERS 105 fruited sorts. For example, the J\^f w Jersey, a light tomato, rotted to the extent of 27 per cent, while the Lorillard, a well-known heavy va- riety, was affected only 5 per cent, Upon the approach of frost the green fruit may be gathered and stored in a suunj' room to ripen. Varieties — There is a long list of varieties of tomatoes, manj- of which are of excellent quality. The ideal type of tomato is a smooth, medium -sized fruit with small seed cavities and a large proportion of flesh. If they are grown for market the medium-sized fruit, evenly graded, is preferable to the large varieties. Acme, Dwarf Champion, and Livingstone Beauty are much grown. The yellow- fruited sorts are more meaty than the reds. The flavor is distinctly peculiar, however, and while preferred by a few who have cultivated a taste for them, the)' are not in general demand. Fig, -35. Oue of the favorite sorts of egg plant. (Erwiu.) EGG PLANT Culture — The egg plant, like the tomato, should be started within doors. It is even more tender than the former plant, however, and should not be planted out until the weather becomes settled and wann. 'Well-drained soil is important, and without this or in cool seasons the crop is likely to be a failure. The plants are usually set 2 feet apart in the row. Varieties — Black Pekin and Xew Tork Improted. There are also small scarlet and white varieties, the fruit of which is used for decorative purposes and is of little value as a vegetable. PEPPERS Culture — The plants may be started in the hotbed or sown directly out-of-doors after the weather be- comes warm, and thinned to 12 inches apart. A variety collection of pep- pers shows a most interesting varia- tion in size, shape, and color. The seedsmen's general list of standard varieties is quite successful. Fig. 30. Some popular varieties of peppers for vaiious uses, (Erwin,) 106 MAKIXG AND CAEE OF LA^^XS CORN 8WEET CORN POPGOBN SWEET COKN The general cultural requirements of this crop are identical with those of field corn, for details of which see page 40. Culture — For corn as a garden crop, earliness and a succession are matters of prime impor- tance. For tlie early crop choose a warm soil and plant in hills. For the main-season crop many prefer to plant in rows. Especially for the early varieties, which are planted before the ground has become thoroughly warmed, should one make sure of having fresh, vigorous seed. Germi- nation may be hastened by soaking the seed in warm water over night before sowing. Varieties — Varietie.s vary much in the length of their growing period, and are often classed as early, medium, and late. The Early Cory and Early Maine are excellent varieties for the West, and mature in eight to nine weeks. Sloieell's Erergrecn is largely grown for the main-season crop. Country Oentleman and Nc Plus Ultra are valuable late varieties. POPCORN This crop adds to the enjoyment of the long, winter evenings, and a few rows should find a jjlace in every vegetable garden. Its consumption is increasing, and popcorn is becoming a crop of commercial importance in a few localities. At one point in Northern Iowa a single grower devotes 500 acres to popcorn, and there are many others of less importance. Its general culture is largely the same as that of field corn. As the crop is not saleable until a year or more old, good storage room is important. White Pearl is a variety which is largely grown. MAKING AND CARE OF LAWNS There is nothing that adds more to the external beauty of a home than a well- kept lawn. A perfect lawn is not obtained by simply seeding with certain kinds of grasses. A green surface may be obtained in this way in a few months under favor- able conditions, but a soft, velvety turf that is a delight both to view. and to walk upon, is obtained only after the exercise of intelligent care for a period of years. Preparation of tlie Soil' — It must be remembered that the lawn, when once formed, is to remain undisturbed ; the sward is to be permanent, and hence the importance of most thorough preparation of the soil. The first essential is thorough underdrainage. Where the process of grading has involved much filling in time should be allowed for settling of the soil. If grading is done with soil removed SEEDIXG AND SODDING 107 in excavating the cellar, it should be covered over with 4 to 6 inches of good sur- face soil, as rich as possible in vegetable matter. If the soil is full of weed seed, it should be hoed one season, if possible, to get it cleaned up. Well-rotted manure should be used quite liberally and the surface put into the very finest condition possible, as the seeds to be used are very small and the plants, for a time, very delicate. Selection of Seed — For sections of the country to which it is adapted there is no better grass than the Kentucky blue grass. This is made more thrifty in many localities by the volunteer entrance of white clover during favorable seasons. Some of the fescues or timothy may be sown with it as a protection while it is getting a start. The blue grass will crowd them out when it gets a hold. Too great care can not be observed in obtaining pure seed, as foul seed may cause a great amount of annoyance and extra work. Seed should be sown very early in the spring to get a good start before the weather gets too dry and hot ; or in the early fall after the rains and cooler weather have arrived. The seed should be sown evenly and not covered very deep, a light raking with a garden rake being all that is necessary. If there is no immediate prospect of rain, the ground should then be rolled, to press the seeds into close con- tact with the earth and aid in their germination. If a good growth is not obtained the first season, and especially if the lawn is in an exposed situation in a severe climate, it should be covered the first winter with coarse manure for protection. This manure should be as free from weed seeds as may be. It can be left on in the spring until the grass starts, giving opportunity for some of its finer and more soluble particles to be transferred to the soil by the spring rains, when it should be raked off. Spring seeding, if followed by dry, hot summers, may also be advantageously protected from the sun in a similar way, using hay or straw for the covering, but only just enough to form a shade. Transplanting Turf — A good turf may be obtained more quickly in this manner than by seeding. The ground that is to receive the turf sliould be well loosened and made smooth and even on the surface. A piece of smooth, tough sod of the desired grass and free from weeds should be selected from which to obtain the supply. Cut this turf in strips about. one foot in width, two to three inches in thickness (great care should be taken to have the thickness uniform), and of such length as will make them of convenient weight to handle. These are rolled up into snug rolls for convenience in handling. 108 BOOKS OX GARDENING The turf is then transferred to the prepared soil, closely laid, rolled, and watered. This method has the advantage of providing a fine turf the first season and insures a good, clean sod, free from objectionable plants, a result not always readily obtained by seeding. An occasional covering with manure during the winter, as above described, will be found of great benefit in keeping up a healthy, vigorous growth, and in giving a rich, green color to the grass. » PUBIilCATIOlVS ON SPECIFIC CROPS, TRUCK FARMING, AND THE MARKETING OF PRODUCE A B C OF Potato Cdltuke. By T. B, Terry A. I. Soot & Co., Medina, O. (1893) % 0.50 Gives in detail the methods of one of the most successful potato growers in the United States. Asparagus. By F. M. Hexamer. Orara^e Jw&Z Co., N. Y. (1901) . .... .50 This is the most recent work on the subject of asparagus culture. Asparagus Culture. By Barnes and Robinson Qeo. Routledge & Sons, N. Y. . . .50 Asparagus Culture. Farmers' Bulletin 61. United States Department of Agriculture. Broom Corn and Broom. Orange Jiidd Co., N". Y. ... . . . .50 In addition to cultural directions, this book gives considerable information on the suLject of broom-making, for home use and for market. Cabbages, CAULrPLOWERS, Etc. By C. L Allen. Orange Jadd Co., N. Y. (1901) . .50 Treats of the various types and varieties of cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, kale, coUards, and kohlrabi, paying especial attention to seed growing. Celery for Profit. By T. Greiner T. Greiner, La Salle, N. Y (1893) . . .20 CycLOPEDi.v op Horticulture. By L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co , N. Y. (4 vols.) 20.00 The most comprehensive American work on this subject. All classes of vegetables and flowering plants are treated, culturally and botanically, by an acknowledged authority. Pro- fusely illustrated. Forcing Book, The. By L. H. Bailey. The MormiUan Co., y. Y. (1900) 1.00 The best American work on the forcing of vegetable crops. Gardening FOR Profit. By Peter Henderson. Orange Judd Co., !X, Y. (1897) 1,50 Peter Hendersr.n was one of the earliest and most successful growers in America. Garden Making. By L. H. Bailey. The Macinillan Co., 1^. Y (1899). . . 1.00 This is a book devoted to the general improvement of the home grounds. Ginseng. By Maurice G. Kains. Orange Judd Co., 'N.Y. {1%1). . .50 Greenhouse Construction. ByL. R. Taft. Orange Judd Co., 1^. Y. (1899) . 1.50 Professor Taft is regarded as the American authority on greenhouse construction. BOOKS ON GAEDENING 109 Greenhouse Management. By L. R. Taft. Orange Judd Co., 'N. Y. {IQOO) . . . |1.50 A standard work on all the details connected with the management of greenhouse plants. How TO Gkow Melons foe Market. By Van Oruam IF, A. Burpee & Co., Philadelpliia 20 How to Gkow Mtjshkooms. By Wm. Falconer. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 1.00 How TO Grow Mushrooms. Farmers' Bulletin 53. United States Department of Agri- culture ... How TO Make the Garden Pat. By T. Greiner. Wm. Henry Maule, Philadelpliia (1894) 2.00 Kitchen Garden op One Acre, A. By Van Ornam. W. A. Burpee & Oo., Philadelphia .30 Market Gardener, The Young. By T. Greiner. T. Greiner, La Salle, N. Y. (1896) . .50 Written as a guide for the beginner. Market Gardening and Farm Notes. By Burnett Landreth. Orange Judd Co., N. Y, (1893) 1.00 Marketing Farm Produce. Farmers' Bulletin 63. United States Department of Agriculture ... .... . . .... Mushrooms, Edible and Poisonous. By G F. Atkinson. Andrus & Church, Itbaca, K*. Y. (1900) 3.00 Clearly written and with a large number of illustrations which are of value to the amateur in determining edible and poisonous species. Mushrooms, Edlble and Poisonous. By J. A. Palmer Prang & Co., Boston . . 2.00 Onion Culture. Farmers' Bulletin 39. United States Department of Agriculture . . Onion Culture, The New. By T. Greiner. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. (1891) ... .50 Detailing a new method of onion culture which Mr. Greiner has found very successful and profitable. Onions : How to Raise them Profitably. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. (1887) . . .20 Onions FOR Profit. By T. Greiner. T Greiner, ha, SaWe, 'N. Y. (18SS) 20 Open-Adr Vegetables. By H. A. Dreer. U. A. Dreer & Co., Philadelphia, Pa. (1900) .35 Plant Breeding. By L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co.,'E Y. (18%1) . ... 1.00 A work of distinct value to every grower interested in the improvement of plants by selection. Potato Culture. Farmers' Bulletin 35. United States Depa/i-tment of Agriculture . . Potatoes for Profit. By Van Ornam. W A. Burpee & Co., Philadelphia, Pa. . .20 A practical pamphlet devoted to the culture of this tuber. Prize Gardening. By G. B. Fiske. Orange Judd Co., "^.Y. (l^Ql) . . . . 1.00 A work describing the methods of a number of successful amateurs in various parts of the United States. Rhubarb Culture. By Fred S. Thompson. F«i«daZe c6 Co. , Milwaukee (1894) . .50 Rhubarb Culture, The New. By Mosse and Fiske. Ora?i^e JmcW Co., N. Y. (1901) . .50 The authoritative work on the winter forcing of rhubarb. 110 BOOKS OX GARDEXnJN'G Some Edible and Poisonous Fungi. Bulletin 15, Division of Vegetable Physiology, United States Department of Agriculture . . Sweet Potato Culture. By James Fitz Oraii^e /«drf 6'«., N. Y, (1886) . Sweet Potatoes. Farmers' Bulletin 129. United States Department of Agriculture . Tomato Qkowing. Farmers' Bulletin 76. United States Department of Agriculture . Vegetable Garden, The. Farmers' Bulletin 94. United States Department of Agriculture . . ■ . ........ Vegetable Gardening. By S. B. Green. Webb & Co., St. Paul (1900) Written in a clear, simple style ; the best work on the subject for the Mississippi Valley and the Northwest, Vegetable Gardening, Pkinciplbs of. By L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. (1901) . . Vegetables Under Glass. By H. A. Dreer. H. A. Dreer & Co., Philadelphia, Pa. (1896) A concise pamphlet containing valuable information on winter forcing. $0.15 .50 1.25 1.25 .25 Fruit Culture and Forestry By L. E. Taft, M. S. Horticulturist, Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station THE ORCHARD SITE AND ITS PREPARATION Success in growing and handling an orchard should not be expected unless care is taken to provide a suitable location and a soil adapted to the particular kinds of fruit that are to be planted. In a general way it may be said that only such locations as are elevated above the surrounding country are adapted for orchard purposes. Mere elevation alone will not suffice, however, as a rolling tract of land, with a consider- able area at a lower level near by, will give better results than a plateau that has a much greater altitude. Water and. Air Drainage — A rolling site is of value in providing both for water and air drainage, and while the former is essential — as none of our fruits will thrive when they have wet feet — the latter should never be overlooked. After severe winters it is often found that trees upon low land have been killed, while others but twenty feet higher up the slope have not only escaped without harm but produce a crop of fruit the following season. The danger from spring frosts is also greatest on the low land, and it frequently happens that on a hillside, when there is a movement of the air, little harm may be done, while on the lower land all the blossoms are destroyed. This is due to the fact that cold air sinks to the lower levels almost as freely as water, and if there is a broad plain or a large lake at the foot of the slope the effect is increased. Immunity from Fungous Disease — Another benefit from the use of a side hill rather than a hollow for orchard planting is that the fungi which jsrove so injurious to the foliage and fruit of most of our trees are far less troublesome in the former place than in the latter, as the dews are not so heavy and disappear much more quickly. Orelxard Soils — While neither sand, muck, nor clay soils are adapted for fruit growing, there is a wide range, which embraces everything from a moderately Copyright, 1903, by Eand, McNally & Co. 112 THE PROPAGATION OP PLANTS sandy loam to a fairly heavy clay loam, that can be used for this purpose. How- ever, certain of these soils are rather better adapted for some fruits than for others, and when possible, this adaptation should be considered in selecting locations for orchards. The pear does best on clay loam soils, and most plums do well on heavy soils. Apples also do well on a strong loam soil, in which it makes little difference whether the sand or clay predominates. The cherry rather prefers a moderately heavy sandy loam, as does the peach. While peach trees make a good growth on soil of a sandy nature they are neither so productive nor so long-lived as on a heavier soil. A soil to be used as a nursery for growing any of these fruits should be of the same nature as for an orchard, but should be richer and contain a considerable amount of humus, so that it will not suffer from drought. Preparation for Planting — In preparing a tract of land for planting it should be plowed to a good depth and thoroughly dragged. Before putting out an orchard it will be desirable to secure a clover sod to be turned under. If this is not available, a crop of Canada or cow-peas may be grown. If the land lacks in fertility, decomposed stable manure should be used — if possible, a year before the trees are to be set. It may be aj)plied before the land is plowed for the trees, or, if manure can not be secured, chemical fertilizers may be mixed with the soil when the trees are planted. THE PROPAGATION OF PLANTS The more common methods of growing plants are from seeds, cuttings, grafts, and buds. In the case of fruit plants it is seldom that varieties can be reproduced from seeds ; accordingly grafting or budding is generally employed with tree fruits, and cuttings or layers for vine and bush sorts. Growing of Stocks — In growing fruit trees it is customary to grow stocks, either from seeds or cuttings, upon which the improved varieties are worked by budding or grafting. Except in the case of the apple and peach, these stocks are for the most part imported from Europe. Apple stocks are generally obtained from Iowa or Kansas, while the peach seedlings are grown in the nursery and budded the same year. For the apple, French Crab seed is preferred, and for the pear the French stock is giving rather better results than the Japanese, although the largest trees can be grown from the latter. In most sections Mahaleb stocks are used for the cherry, the Mazzard being employed mainly for sweet varieties. The Myrabolan stock is generally employed for plum trees, although native American stocks are hardier and are used in the North- GROWING OF STOCKS 113 west. The Marianna stocks have not been satisfactory. In some sections peach stocfes are used for plums, especially for Japanese sorts, but they are not in favor in regions where yellows pre- vail. For propagating peach trees, the nurserymen generally use seedling pits from Tennessee and North Carolina. They give better restilts than the pits of improved varieties from canning factories. For growing dwarf trees, the Angers quince is used for pears, and the Doucin and Paradise stocks for apples. To grow apple, pear, plum, or cherry seedlings, the seed must be procured in the fall or early winter; after being placed in boxes in thin layers with moist sand between, they should be left out of doors in some shady place, to secure the action of frost upon them. In the spring a rich, moist soil, free from weed seeds, should be selected. It must be such as will bring the seedlings to a size of from one-fourth to one-half an inch in diameter in one year. The land should be thoroughly prepared and marked off into rows 3 feet apart, the furrows being 4 inches wide and 2 inches deep. If the seed does not show signs of sprouting, it should be thoroughly moistened and placed in a warm spot for several days. When it begins to sprout it should be scattered in the drills about 1 inch apart each way. During the summer, the seedlings should have frequent cultivation and hoeing. If fungi appear ujDon them they should be sprayed with Bordeaux mixture. By fall they will be ready for digging, and after being assorted and trimmed they should be packed in sand, sawdust or sphagnum, until needed for root-grafting or for planting out in nursery rows. The growing of peach seedlings is much the same, except that they are often planted in the fall. If dry when received, they should be placed in water for twenty-four hours, and then, whether for fall or spring planting, should be bedded out in some well-drained, sandy soil. A trench 1 foot deep and of the size required should be excavated, and in this the seed should be spread, the trench being filled with alternate layers of soil. Cover with 3 inches of soil and wet down thoroughly. If placed in the bed by the middle of October the seed may be planted in November, or it may be left until spring. For peach trees the drills should be 3| to 4 feet apart and the pits should be dropped once in 2 inches. Some of the larger nur- series use peach-pit planters. Sometimes the pits do not crack well when left to be planted in the spring, so that it will be well to examine them in the early part of April ; if they are not cracking the bed should be well wet down. When they have not cracked by planting time, which should be as soon as the ground can be prepared, some make it a practice to crack them with hammers, but this may injure the seed and better results are often obtained by using a little more seed. 114 THE PKOPAGATION OF PLANTS Budding* is always used for propagating the peach, plum, and cherry, but root-grafting is often used for growing the apple and sometimes for the pear, although straighter trees can generally be grown by budding. If to be budded, the stocks of all kinds — except the peach, which is budded without being dug — are planted in nursery rows about 4 feet apart at intervals of 1 foot. Before plant- ing, both roots and tops should be cut buck to a length of 8 inches. Seedlings with branched roots are generally preferred. By the middle of July the pears should be ready for budding, and these will be followed at intervals of ten days by the plums, apples, cherries, and peaches. The budding of peaches is generally completed by the first of September, although in good growing seasons fair results can be obtained even after the middle of the month, provided there are no hard frosts within ten days after the work is completed. Cake of the Seedling Before axd After Budding — Cultivation should be kept up at regular intervals up to the time of budding, in order to prevent any check to the growth of the seedling, which would make it impossible to bud them.^ Just before the trees are to be budded, the bj'anches and leaves should be removed for a distance of 5 inches from the ground, and the bud should be inserted as near the ground as convenient, usually within 2 inches. After a week, the buds should be examined and, if they have not taken, another bud should be inserted. About this time it will be noticed that the wrapping material used in budding is beginning to cut into the stocks, and, except when the budding is done very late in the season, these should be cut with a knife on the side opposite the buds, as otherwise the stocks might be girdled. The following spring the stocks should be cut off with a sloping cut just above the bud. The slope should be at an angle of about 45°, with the lower edge at the back and about even with the top of the bud. Soon after growth starts, a number of shoots will be seen coming out from the stub in addition to the one from the inserted bud. All but the latter should be rubbed off with the thumb and fingers when about 1 inch long, and this should be repeated if necessary. Under proper conditions, the buds will send shoots to a height of from 3 to 6 feet the first season. The peach trees should be taken up in the fall for orchard planting, but the other trees are generally allowed to grow for one or two years more. Low Heads are to be preferred for pears, cherries, and plums, and to secure 1 For notes on the meclianical process of budding, see page 118. 2 Pear, plum, and cherry seedlings are often attacked by leaf -blight, which destroys the f ohage ; the bark then becomes fast in the wood, so that the bud can not be inserted. To prevent this, make free use of Bordeaux mixture, especially if the weather is dry dur- ing June and July. GRAFTING 115 them the yearling trees should be cut back in the spring to a height of from 2 to 3 feet, according to the height of trunk desired. If they hare not reached this height the first year, they should be trimmed up to a whip in the spring and topped when high enough. Before the trees are ready for digging, the branches on the lower portion of the trunks should be removed. Some do this in July or early August, but it will be better to take ofE about one- half of what is to be removed about the first of July, and the remainder the latter part of the month. Under good conditions, budded trees can be dug when two years old, but if root-grafted it generally takes three years to bring them to the first- class size. The growing of trees from root grafts is much the same as from buds, except that the grafts are made dur- ing the winter and are planted out the same as seedlings in the spring. Care must be taken that only one shoot is allowed to start, but this seldom requires much attention, if the grafts are planted so that the top bud only is above ground. Fig. 38. Root veneer graft ; (1) stock ■ (2) scion ; (S) completed graft. (Taft.) Fio. 37. Root whip graft : (1) root ; (Z) scion ; (3) complete graft. (Taft.) GRAFTING Grafting is the art of so bringing together the parts of two plants that they will unite. Usually a portion of the last year's growth of one plant, with a length of 4 or 5 inches, called a scion, is united with another plant, called the stoch, either on the root, at the collar, or on the trunk or branches. Grafting may be employed for several pur- poses: (1) To reproduce non-seed-bearing varieties, or those that do not come true from seed ; (2) to increase the vigor ik; THE PROPAGATION OF PLANTS Fig. 39. Cleft graft: (1) stock; (3) scion. (Taft.) or hardiness of weak and tender sorts; (3) to bring slow-bear- ing kinds into earlier fruitfuliiess ; (4) to change varieties. Grafting is generally performed at the beginning of the season's growth. At that time dormant buds can be procured, and although the union would take place more quickly after the sap becomes thickened, the chance of failure will be greater at that time, owing to the evaporation from the leaves. The method employed depends to some extent upon the size and kind of tree upon which it is to be used. Whip Graft — The form most commonly used upoa small trees is known as the toUip or tongue graft. It is especially adapted for root-grafting (Fig. .37). The stock (1) is cut off at an angle, and a shaving of the bark and wood is removed from the longer side at the end; a tongue is then cut near the end. The scion is prepared by cutting off the lower end so that the exposed surface will be about 1 inch long (2). In the middle of this a tongue is cut. The tongues on the stock and scion are then fitted together so that the inner bark on one side of the scion will be in contact with that on the same side of the stock. The graft should then be bound firmly together (3). This may be done cither with waxed twine, paper, or cloth. These are prepared by dipping the string or cloth in melted grafting wax, and, in the case of paper, by applying the wax with a brush. The twine answers for root grafts, but the paper or cloth should be used where the grafts are above ground, unless grafting wax is used with the twine. For stem-grafting this method succeeds best where th'c stocks are from i to -J inch in diameter. The scions should be about 3 inches long, with a bud near the end, as in Fig. 37, 2. Root Graft — "When used for root grafts the scions should be 5 inches in length and the root about 4 inches. From a good seedling, two stocks for root grafts can be obtained. These grafts are made during the winter and are then tied in bundles and packed in sand in a cool cellar. By spring a perfect union will have formed, and a callus will appear at the lower end of the root from which rootlets will soon appear after the root graft has been planted. Veneer Graft — Although not in common use, a form known as mneer grafting has much merit for small stocks, either for root or stem- grafting. It is shown in Fig. 38, the parts being the same as in the illus- tration of whip-grafting. Its merit comes from the fact that cambium surface only is exposed, which makes it possible for a more perfect union to take place than when the pith is exposed, as in tongue-grafting. Greater care is required, however, to bring the parts into the close contact which „,„„,„ ^ , , . , * xi • FlQ- *>. Cleft graft must be secured m order to attain success. completed. (Taft.) CLEFT-GEAFTING, SIDE-GEAPTIN"G 117 Fio. 43. Sidegratt completed. (Taft.) Cleft Graft — When stocks that are more than 4 inch in diameter are to be grafted, it will be best to use the cleft graft shown in Figs. 39 and 40. In making this graft, the stock should be cut off at right angles and the end pared smooth. A split to the depth of 2 inches is then made in the center of the stub with a grafting chisel, or heavy knife, and this is held open with a steel or hai'd wood wedge. Two scions should be used for each stock. These should be about 3 inches long (2), with a wedge at the lower end, and with one bud near the upper end and an- other at the upper part of the wedge. In cutting the wedge, care should be taken to have the sides true, and the side of the wedge that is to be at the outside of the stock should be slightly thicker than the other. The scions should be inserted as shown in Fig. 40, taking pains to have the inner barks in contact. If there is sufficient spring to the stock to hold the scions securely in place no wrapping will be required, but if not they should be wrapped the same as whip grafts. The graft is then completed by covering all cut surfaces, including the split at the sides, with either grafting wax, waxed paper, or cloth, in order to prevent evaporation and the drying out of the surfaces. This form of graft can be used either on the trunks of small trees or the branches of larger ones. The best success will be obtained when the stubs are from 1 to H inches in diameter, and none much over 2 inches should be used. When grafting large trees it is advisable to extend the period over several years, grafting about one-third at a time. Side Graft — The method of grafting shown in Figs. 41 and 42 is valuable when grafting young seedlings growing in the nursery or green- house. A slanting cut is made just under the bark on the stock near the ground, and the scion is prepared much the same as for cleft-grafting, except that the cut on what is to be the outside of the scion is shorter than the other. It is then pushed into the cut on the stock, so that the barks will be in contact, and then wrapped and waxed the same as the other grafts. The scions used for grafts of all kinds should be well-ripened, healthy shoots of the previous year's growth. They should be cut in the fall and packed in sand or moss until needed. In the case of hardy sorts, good results can generally be secured with spring-cut grafts, but it is safer to cut them in the fall. April and May are the months for grafting. The best results in grafting are obtained when stock and scion come from plants of equal vigor and belonging to the same ^"stock, ^^^^^(TatS species, but in many cases fairly good success can be obtained 118 THE PEOPAGATIOX OF PLANTS between plants of nearly related species. Thus, the apple, pear, quince, thorn, and mountain-ash can be grafted one upon the other, but the union in most cases will not be so perfect or durable as between plants of the same species. BUDDING Budding differs from grafting in that only a bud with a small piece of bark attached is used in place of the scion. Budding can be done with the greatest success toward the close of the period of growth, but it should not be delayed until growth has stopped, as then the bark of the stock will be firmly attached to the wood, making it difficult or impossible to raise the bark so that the bud can be inserted. Stocks from one to three years old are best for budding. Operation of Budding — The scions maybe ciit as soon as the buds have developed on the new growth, generally in July or August, and the leaves are cut off so that a little of the petiole remains (Fig. 43, 1). A T-shaped cut is made in the bark. Usually the vertical cut is made first and in making the transverse cut the knife is given a downward slope, so that a slight twist will loosen and raise the corners of the bark, permitting the entrance of the bud. In cutting the bud the knife is placed about five-eighths of an inch below the bud, and a cut is made which will pass upward and beneath it, taking off a shaving of the wood, to a point three-fourths of an inch above the bud. For most fruits, except the cherry, it will be found best to remove the wood from the bud, leaving only the bark. To do this, make a cross-cut one-half inch above the bud, taking pains to cut through the bark without cutting into the wood. Then by taking hold of the leaf-stalk and giving a slight twist, the bark will separate, leaving the wood attached to the bud-stick (Fig. 43, 2). In the case of a few varieties of pear, as well as the cherry, the removal of the wood injures the bud, and then the cross-cut should be deep enough to pass through the wood beneath the bark. If the bark on the stock was in proper condition, and the cuts have been properly made, there will be no difficulty in inserting the bud and push- ing it well down i-nto place. If neces- sary, the corners of the bai'k may be lifted with the point of the knife blade, or the end of the knife handle. For tying the bark down upon the bud, raffia is most commonly used, although many prefer common cotton twine. Care should be taken not to cover the bud, and the bark should be securely bound in place. (Fig. 44.) Fig. 43. Budding: (1) Cut- ting out the scion : (2) separating from the baric ; (3) ready for in- sertion. (Taft.) Fig. 44. Budding the stoclc : (1) ready for the bud; (2) bud inserted; (3) budding completed. (Taft.) MULTIPLICATION BY CUTTIJSTGS AND LAYEKING 119 CUTTINGS AND LAYERS Propagation by Cuttings — For growing the grape, currant, gooseberry, and many other plants, the simplest method is to use long cuttings of the hard wood. These should be from 8 to 10 inches long, with one bud close to the lower end and another about 1 inch from the top. (Fig. 45.) There will generally be three buds upon grape cuttings and a dozen or more upon most others. They may be planted in the fall, but it is better to make them at that time and after tying in bun- dles place them in the ground for callusing. One way is to place them with the butts uppermost, and cover with 3 inches of soil and enough straw to keep out frost. Early in the spring remove the straw, and the butts, being near the surface, will soon callus. In planting the cuttings, select moist, rich land, and, making a trench about as deep as the cuttings are long, place them about 2 inches apart, pressing the soil closely about them as shown in Fig. 45. In one or two years they will be large enough to plant out. Propagation by Layering — Another method of growing these plants is to bend down branches and bury them about 3 inches deep, leaving the ends out of the soil. In the case of the grape vine, it will be best to cut a tongue or remove some of the bark at the point to be buried. When the vines are long they may be bent down at several points, forming what is called a serpentine layer. Black rasp- berries and dewberries are layered by covering the ends of the branches in August, forming what are known as tip-layers. Fig. 45. Cuttings: Manner of planting in trench. (Taft.) GRAFTING WAX For covering all cut surfaces made in grafting, a wax made of resin, beeswax, and either tallow or oil should be used. For use during the cool days of early spring the following formula will give good results : Eesin 4 parts. Beeswax 2 parts. Tallow - - 1 part. All by weight. Oil, % P^''''. ™^y ^^ used instead of tallow. Melt together and when well mixed pour into cold water ; after greasing the hands, pull like candy. When it reaches a light yellow color it can be used. If to be used in cold weather it may be softened with warm water, while for warm weather the amount of resin should be shghtly increased. 120 PEOPAGATION AXD PLAXTIXG TABLE TREATMENT OF WOUNDS When the bark upon a tree has been injured, or when large branches have been cut off, the wood exposed should be covered to keep it from drying out. The best treatment Vifill be to give it two coats of lead and oil paint. This is even better than grafting wax for the purpose, although the latter answers well for small wounds. PROPAGATION AND PLANTING TABLE Name Average Planting Distance How Multiplied Stocks Commonly Used 33 to 40 feet., ) 10 to 15 " ..( 16 to 30 " .. 20 to 24 " .... 4x7to6x9ft. 16 to 20 feet.. 1 20 to 30 " .. f 1 or 2 " .— 4x6 " .... 20 to 40 '' .... 6x8 " .... 6x8 to 8x12 ft. 25 to 30 feet.... 13 to 20 feet.-.. 18 to 30 " .. ) 10 to 12 " .. J" 18 to 20 " .... 20 to 30 '' ..1 12 to 18 '' -. \ 20 feet Seeds, budded or grafted seedlings .. Apple, dwarf Apricot Seedlings, Doucin, crab or wild crab; for dwarfs, Paradise stock. Apricot in deep, rich soil; plum in cold regions, peach in mild. Peach, plum, hardshell almond. Blackberry Suckers, root-cuttings, tip-layering.. Seedlings, budded Cherry, sour Cranberry Layering for sweet and dwarf sorts; Morello seedlings and wild pin cherry for hardy stock. Fig Hard or soft wood cuttings Goosieberry Cuttings, layering Hardwood cuttings, layering Budded seedlings, hardwood cuttings Mulberry Downing stock in South; Russian seedlings for ornamental sorts. Orange Seeds, budded or grafted, seedlings.. A Florida plan is to bud cuttings from ^/4 to i/^ inch in diameter and 12 inches locg, place in box and cover lightly with earth. Cuttings from roots transplanted. Orange, dwarf Seedlings, plum stocks for damp soils and for dwarfs. Seedlings, quince for dwarfs. Pear, standard Pear, dwarf Seeds, budded or grafted seedlings . . 20 to 25 feet.... 16 to 20 " .... 8 to 14 " .... 3x6 to 5x8 ft. 3x6to5x8 " 1x3 to 3x4 " Native persimmon. Plum See peach; also root-graftmg or top- grafting . .. Myrabolan seedlings, Chickasaw seedlings, peach. Seedlings,fine varieties grafted on An- gers stock, sometimes root-grafted on apple but when scion has rooted, apple root should be cut away. Quince Cuttings, grafted . Raspberry, black . . Raspberry, red Layering Plants or Trees to Acre — Multiply together the two distances (in feet) at which trees are to be placed, and divide 43,560 by product. Quotient will be number required. PRUNING: WHY AND WHEN 121 PRUNING The trunk and branches of trees and other plants form a sort of .framework whereby the leaves — the lungs of the plants — are exposed to the sunshine and air, and upon which the fruit is borne. To secure the best results, each tree of a given size should have a certain amount of leaf surface, but no two trees of the same size have exactly the same form and number of leaves. Some are so thick that the sun can not reach the fruit, while the leaves are so numerous as to shade and smother one another ; others have but a few straggling branches, and are misshapen or poorly balanced. The object of pruning is to aid nature in securing an ideal form for the trees. In many cases the pruning is neglected while the trees are young, and then, when the tops get so thick that something has to be done, the large branches are cut away. In other cases, the trees have not been pruned at all and the tops are a mass of watersprouts. In most cases it will be possible to thin out the top of the tree by removal of small branches only, thus avoiding large wounds and the sun-burning of the bark, which follows when large branches are cut away. In the case of large trees it may be necessary to head back some of the branches, in addition to thinning out the surplus shoots. Pruning Should Begin Early — To prune a tree properly, the work should commence with the nursery tree. When planted, only as many branches should be left as will be needed for the full-grown tree. Each year after this the trees should be looked over and all surplus shoots that have started should be removed. To do this work properly, one should not only know what form of tree is best suited to that region, but he must know the habit of growth of each variety, so that he may work in accordance with nature and when possible correct any of the defects that are natural to the variety. Season for Pruning — In a general waf it may be said that the best time for pruning is in the spring, just before growth sbarts. Wounds made at that time will not dry out as much as when made in the fall or winter, and when the ends of the branches are to be cut back, there is often danger that they will be killed back still more by the winter, whereas there is no danger of this when the trees are pruned in March or April, as soon as severe freezing weather is over. Spring pruning is especially desirable for tender varieties, as it not only lessens the tendency to winter-killing, but at that time it will be possible to tell how much the trees or plants have been killed back and to cut below the injured portion. 122 PRITNIJsTCt The rule, however, is not an inflexible one, and, in sections where there is little trouble from winter-killing, the pruning may be done at any time after the leaves drop in the fall and before grov/th starts in the spring. It used to be said that fall and winter pruning induced leaf growth, while summer pruning promoted fruitfulness. It is not strange that, if we remove a portion of the branches during the winter, the full vigor of the tree being turned into those that remain, a stronger growth should be secured than with the trees unpruned. We can then say that to improve the growth of a tree the pruning should be done while it is dormant. On the other hand, when a tree is making a strong growth without developing fruit buds it can often be brought into fruitfulness if it is given a severe pruning after growth is under way This will result in a check to the growth and the tree will be able not only to develop and ripen up the remaining branches but to form fruit buds for the coming year. How to Prune — For young trees a strong knife answers very well, and for larger ones much of the work can be done with hand shears. Pruning s;iws are needed for large branches, and for some purposes some of the lever shears may be used. To secure the best results it is important that the cuts should be made at the right point. Fig. 46 shows the method of cutting small branches back to a bud and also the improper places to cut them. If cut too long a bad stub will be formed, while if cut too close beneath the bud, it will dry out. The proper way is to have the cut start on the side opiDosite the bud, about even with its tip, and, with a slant of about 30° from a cut at right angles, come out just above the bud. Even greater care should be taken in cutting ofE large branches from the trunk or other branches. Sometimes the cut is made at right angles to the branch that is cut. This leaves a bad stub, which will be unsightly and the end of which will heal over very slowly, if at all. As a rule the interior of the stub decays, and a cavity is formed in the tree. On the other hand, the cut is often made parallel with the main trunk or branch. This is sometimes all right, but Fig. 46, Cutting small branches back to a bud; A. cut too close; C, cut too long ; B, properly cut. (Taft.j Fig 47 Cutting large blanches A, stub too long ; C, wound too large ; B, cut making small wound and leav- ing short stub. (Taft.) APPLE AND PEAR 123 generally there is a large shoulder at the base of the branch and a wound of considerable size is produced. By cutting at an angle of 15° or 30° from the last-named cut, the wound would often be reduced in size fully one-half, and it would not project so far but that the healing would be even more rapid than with a parallel cut. The method of making the three exits is shown in Fig. 47. PRUNING THE APPLE For the ordinary planter an apple tree shoulcl be two years old, 5 feet high and f of an inch to 1 inch in diameter. When it is planted it should be pruned so that it will have about four branches (Fig. 48). The cross-marks in the illustration show where these branches are to be headed back ; all the others should be removed. When the tree has a strong center shoot it is often desirable to leave this nearly twice as long as the other branches. If the trees have large roots that have ragged ends or that have been broken in handling, they should be cut oil smoothly. This applies to trees of all kinds. The head of an apple tree should not be more than 3 or 4 feet from the ground. They can be so pruned that it will not be difficult to work beneath them, and when they have low heads there is far less risk of the trunks becoming sun- burned; further, as the trees grow it will be easier to prune and spi-ay them, and to thin and gather the fruit, than when the heads are 6 or more feet from the ground. During the first year the young apple trees will need but little pruning, but if the heads are very thick or sprouts appear on the trunk they should have attention The second and third springs the surplus shoots in the center of the tree should be cut out, giving particular attention to those that cross or grow close together. If the head is poorly balanced, an attempt should be made to improve its symmetry. The branches should be left longest on the southwest side, that they may shade the trunk, especially if that is the direction of the prevailing winds. When the trees are of an open habit it is a good plan to head back the branches from one- fourth to one-half. This will strengthen the trunk and branches. The same rules can be followed as the trees develop. All dead branches and the watersprouts,' if not needed to fill up the head, should be cut out, and if the tree becomes too thick the thinning out process should be resorted to. Fig 48. Pruning young apple trees. (Taf t.) PRUNING THE PEAR The pruning required by standard pear trees does not difEer greatly from that for apples. The head should be not over 2 feet from the ground, and the top may be started with a central shoot, or the vase form may be used. By this method four or five branches are trained up from the main 1 Watersprouts are shoots (suckers) growing from the root or body of a tree. 124 PEUNIXG crotches of the tree. This is especially useful where pear-felight prevails, as if one branch is attacked it can be cut away with much less danger of losing the tree than when there is a central shoot. The variation in the form of pear trees is very great and the pruning should be suited to each. Thus, when they are of an upright habit, the upper branches should be cut back severely, while the spreading trees should have the side branches cut back to buds on the upper sides. This will tend to throw the growth upward. There are also many sorts that make a long slender growth each year ; as a result the branches are weak and bend and break under a load of fruit. If headed back from one-half to three-fourths for a number of years after they are planted the branches will be strengthened. This heading-in is of advantage for nearly all kinds of pear trees while young, and especially for those that make growths annually of more than 3 feet. Severe heading-back is of advantage in hastening the fruitfulness of tardy-bearing varieties, such as Anjou and Sheldon. PRUNING THE CHEERY AND PLUM In starting the head of the cherry and plum the height should not be more than Z% feet, whil; \l4. will be better for sweet cherries. Five or six branches may be left and these should be cut back one-third. These fruits do not need very much pruning other than cutting out branches that are too thick, although some of the strong-growing kinds may often be cut back to advantage. PRUNING THE PEACH Peach trees are always planted when one year old and range in size from whips 2 feet high to well-branched trees 6 feet or more in height. For most purposes a medium-sized tree is to be preferred, although with proper care the smaller trees may overtake them. The pruning when the trees are planted varies with the size of the trees. Thus, the large tree shown in Fig. 49 has developed into side shoots all of the buds that were first formed along the main stem, and if all of these are cut off close to the trunk, as is often recommended, the chances are that only a few weak shoots would be produced from latent buds that were not cut away in pruning. The proper way, when there are no strong buds on the main stem where the branches are desired, is to leave six or eight of the branches with one or two buds, cutting off all others, as well as the top of the tree at the height of perhaps 30 inches to 3 feet. The lowest branch should be 20 inches from the ground. Some prefer to leave only four spurs, but, as some of these may not grow, a safer way is to leave a larger number and then cut off the surplus ones after they have started. When the trees have but a few side branches, with numerous side buds, like the smaller tree in Fig. 49, it will be better to remove the side branches and cut the top back to 30 inches, '°§maU. (Taft.)"^^^^' ^^^ TRAI]SriN"G THE GRAPE 125 The second year all but four main branches should be removed, leaving those that are evenly distributed, and these should be cut back to about 18 inches. Each year after this the ends of the principal branches should be cut back and the others should be thinned out to keep the tree from becoming too thick. The amount of cutting back should be in proportion to the number of live fruit buds. Thus, when the trees are full of live buds it may be best to cut back some shoots three-fourths, whereas, if most of the buds are dead, very few fruit buds should be cut away. PRUNING AND TRAINING THE GRAPE The usual form of a grape vine when obtained from the nursery is shown in Fig. 50. It should be planted slightly deeper than it was in the nursery and cut back to a strong bud. Only one shoot should be allowed to grow. The next spring it should be again cut back to a strong bud, the length of the cane varying with its size. The terminal bud only should be allowed to develop and the cane should be tied to a stout stake as it grows. The next spring it should be cut back at the height of 4 to 5 feet according to the kind of trelUs to be used, and three buds at the top should be allowed to develop into shoots. Forms of Trellis — The following spring the vines will be ready for a trellis. The favorite forms are known as vertical and horizontal. The vertical trellis consists of 8-foot posts set 2i feet in the ground at intervals of 20 to 30 feet. These generally carry two lines of No. 10 galvanized wire, respectively 4 and 5i feet from the ground. The end posts should be strong and well braced, and the wire should be so arranged that the slack can be taken up when necessary. The other posts need not be very large if 20 feet apart, but for 30 feet good-sized posts are desirable.- The horizontal trellis differs in having a 2 x 6-inch strip placed on edge horizontally at the top of the post, so as to form an arm 2 feet long, upon which three wires are carried. Training the Grape — The previous year three shoots were grown on each vine. For the two-wire (vertical) trellis two of them should be placed on the lower wire and cut back to ten buds each. The other shoot should be cut off at the height of the upper wire, and a shoot from it should be trained in each direction. For the three-wire (horizontal) trellis, a shoot should be trained upon each of the wires, two in one direction and one in the other, and all should be cut back to eight buds. The KniflQn System — The simplest and most satis- factory method of training the grape is by the Kniffln system, Fig. 50. Young prape vine: where it should " a, point be pruned. (Taft.) 126 PEUXING The fruiting arms are tied to the wires in the spring and tlie new slioots as tliey come out are allowed to hang down. To growthe best fruit, whatever system is used, the vines should be fre- quently cut back and renewed. Some prefer to renew all the canes each year, starting all of them from the main trunk of the vine, while others renew but once in two years. The two methods are shown in the illustrations. Fig. 51 shows a vine as it appears before pruning. At a, a, in the same illus- tration, are shown the Fig. 51. Training the grape : Vine on vertical trellis, showing four-arm KnifBn system, a, Points for pruning for complete renewal ; 6, method of tying. (Tatt.) eight cuts that would have to be made to renew the entire vine, under the four-arm Kniffln system. Fig. 53 shows the same vine pruned and with the arms tied to the wires. Figs. 53 and 54 illustrate the same points when but two arms are renewed and the others are cut back to two buds each. Whatever the method of pruning or training, one should endeavor to leave about forty buds upon each vine, and these should be as near the main trunk as possible. PRUNIXG THE RASP- BERRY AXD BLACK- BERRY The stems of these fruits are biennial, growing one year and dying after fruiting the next sum- mer, new canes appearing from the roots each spring. When the new canes of black raspberries and Fig. 53. Training the grape: Four-arm system, pruned and tied. (Taf t.) blackberries reach a height of from BUSH FEUITS, QUINCE, OEANGE 127 ^^^^i^^tej^g^^^^S^^^.- Fig. 53. Kniffin system of training the grape, showing two arms renewed and others cut to spurs. (Taf t.) 3 to 4 feet, according to the va- riety, tliey should be pinched oflE. The old canes, and all but five or six of the new ones, should be removed in August. The following spring the side shoots should all be cut back to about 10 inches, and all canes that were not cut back the previous summer should be cut to 3 feet. PRUNIJfG CTJRRA]!fTS AND GOOSEBERRIES Five or six of the old shoots should be allowed to grow, besides two or three young ones. After the canes are four or five years old they should be cut out. If the growth of the branches is strong, they should be cut back one-half, and the tips of the new canes should be cut ofE. PRUNING THE QUINCE The trees should be started with a trunk about 1 foot long. When grown as a bush it is difficult to keep out the grass and weeds, while if there is a long trunk it is often injured by borers. The pruning is the same as for the apple, thinning out the head as needed and cut- ting back all long shoots. PRUNING THE ORANGE When set out, the trees should be headed back to a height of about 4 feet, and Fig. 54. Training the grape. Half-renewal, pruned and.tied. (Taft.) 128 ORCHARD PLANTIXG AND TILLAGE branches should be allowed to form so that the head will be about 3 feet from the ground. To prevent sun-scald it is often well to let all shoots above the bud grow the first year. The weaker branches should be cut out, if the head is too thick, and the strong shoots should be headed back. PLANTING AND TILLING THE ORCHARD After the soil has been thoroughly prepared the trees should be planted. Ordi- narily the spring is the best time for planting all tree fruits, but for hardy varieties, upon well-drained soil, the fall answers fairly well if the trees are well banked up. The land should be laid off, either with a corn marker, or by means of a line or wire, with the places at which the trees are to be set marked upon them. The first method is the quicker, and if one does it carefully, setting stakes at the intersec- tions where the trees are to stand, there will be little difficulty in correcting any slight errors that have been made. The holes should be dug large enough to receive the roots of the trees without bending, the surface soil and subsoil being put in different piles as taken out. The tree should be set a little deeper than it was in the nursery and the surface soil should be scattered over the roots. As soon as every space has been filled among the roots more soil should be added and should be firmly packed, either with the feet or with wooden tampers. The soil from the bottom of the hole should be placed on top and the surface left without packing. Oare should be taken in handling the trees that the roots be not exposed either to the sun or to drying winds. If they can not be planted at once they should be heeled in, covering the roots with moist earth, and packing it well about them. If the soil is fairly moist when the trees are piauted, they will not require water- ing, but if the soil is dry and the weather hot, it will be well, after covering the roots with soil, to fill the holes with water, putting in the remainder of the soil after the water has soaked away. CULTIVATION FOR ORCHARDS AND FRUIT GARDENS For the first year after the trees and fruit plants have been set, some hoed crop can be grown between them. It should be one that requires cultivation up to the first of August and that does not require the stirring of the ground to harvest it during August or September. Tomatoes, squashes, melons, corn, and late potatoes answer very well. The cultivation should be frequent, and, if the weather is dry, the soil about the trees should be hoed occasionally to keep a crust from forming. Most orchard trees will admit of growing some crop between them a second year, IMPLEMENTS, COVEE CROPS 129 but it will hardly pay after that time, except in the case of trees planted more than 20 feet apart. The injury to the trees and the increased labor of cultivating the orchard vill be more than the yalue of the catch-crop. Orchard Tillage Implements — Under average conditions it pays to cultivate all kinds of fruit trees after they come into bearing. In the spring, a cutaway or disk -harrow is desirable ; after that a spring-tooth harrow is to be pre- ferred, and after the weather becomes dry a spike-tooth harrow or weeder may be employed. In a wet season, when the growth has been strong, young trees need not be worked after the middle of July. In dry seasons, and when trees are bearing full crops of fruit it is generally best to keep up the cultivation into August. Cover Crops for Orchards — At the last cultivation some cover crop should be sown. In some sections, when the seeding can be done in July, 15 pounds of Mammoth or Crimson clover will bring excellent results. If not too far north, cow-peas and winter vetches also give good satisfaction. The former does best if sown in drills 3 feet apart early in July and cultivated once or twice. For early August, Canada peas and either barley or oats do well in the Northern States. After the middle of August it will be better to rely on either buckwheat or oats, the latter being the choice of the two. A good cover crop will hold the snow and fallen leaves, and will lessen the depth of the frost and the alternate freezing and thawing, thus often preventing the root-killing of the trees. All of them provide a considerable amount of humus, when turned under in the spring, and the clover, and other legumes leave in the soil a considerable amount of nitrogen that they have taken from the air. The use of crops like oats, that winterkill, have an advantage in serving as a mulch in the spring, and, by conserving the water and keeping down the weeds, making it possible to postpone the working of the land for several weeks longer than would be desirable if it were bare, or covered with some growing crop. After turning under one or two cover crops the soil becomes spongy and friable, and is much better able to resist drought than soils that have had no cover. Oats may be sown in August between the rows of currants, grapes, raspberries, and blackberries, and will serve a very useful purpose. When used among straw- berries the sowing should be delayed until September 1st. The only exceptions that are commonly met with — cases where it is not best to cultivate orchards — are: (1) Pears grown upon rich, moist land, and subject to blight ; (2) sweet cherries, on similar land, where the rank growth is injured by the winter ; (3) apples, under the same conditions. When trees are grown in 130 SUBSEQUENT CARE OF THE OECHARD sod it will be necessary either to use stable manure or to cut the grass and leave it on the ground to decay, so furnishing plant food and acting as a mulch. FERTILIZERS FOR ORCHARDS If a soil is in proper condition for planting the trees, it will generally contain plenty of plant food to supply thom until they come into bearing, unless catch crops have been grown between the rows, when some fertilizing material will be required. When it can be readily obtained, decomposed stable manure is the best fertilizer for fruits of all kinds. However, as farmyard manure contains a surplus of nitro- gen, it will often be found most economical to supplement it with some form of commercial fertilizer. When unleached, hardwood ashes, free from refuse, can be secured for $5 a ton, they will be a cheap source for potash or phosphoric acid. Otherwise the best source of potash will be found in muriate of potash, and of phosphoric acid in acid phosphate or ground bone. The amount of each of these required will vary with the age and condition of the trees and the nature of the soil. Of stable manure from 20 to 40 tons per acre could be used. If used with 50 to lOO bushels of wood ashes the amount could be reduced one-half, and the same reduction could be made for 200 pounds of muriate of pot- ash and 500 pounds of acid phosphate. When a complete fertilizer,' to be used without manure, is needed for an acre of bearing orchard, good results will gener- ally be secured from 100 to 200 pounds of nitrate of soda, 200 to 300 pounds of muriate of potash, and 500 to 700 pounds of acid phosphate. The manure should be scattered broadcast during the winter, or early spring, and the commercial fertilizers can be sown in the spring at any time before the ground is worked. If sown in the winter time there would be but little loss, except of nitrogen from the nitrate of soda. SUBSEQUENT CARE OF THE ORCHARD THINNING FRUIT If from one-half to three-fourths of the fruit on a tree is removed soon after it sets, the remainder will often bring more than when all of it is allowed to grow. This is especially true of peaches and pears and, under certain conditions, of plums and apples. The development of the seeds is what draws most heavily upon the trees and the soil, and when the number of the fruits is lessened, the quantity of fruit produced in a given season will often be as great as when all are allowed to lOnewhicli contains all the essential elements— nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash — likely to be lacking in the soil. SPRAYmG FOR INSECTS AND DISEASES 131 remain, while the chances for a crop the following season will he much better. Even though the amount of fruit is less, its value per bushel will often be from two to four times as great, so that the expense for thinning will be repaid several times over. Eeally the cost of thinning is no large item, as when all of tbe frnit is left upon the trees it has to be picked in the end, and it takes longer to place it in baskets than to drop it to the ground. In the case of the jjeach and grape, which produce their fruit on the wood of the previous year's growth, much of the thinning can be done by heading back the branches and in this way lessening the number of fruit buds upon the tree or vine. It is never safe, however, to rely entirely upon this, and, if too many fruits set the smaller ones should be removed after danger of dropping is over. Large varieties of peaches can often be thinned with profit so that the fruits stand 8 or 10 inches apart, when the trees have numerous branches, and 4 to 6 inches is none too much for the smaller kinds. The pear can generally be improved if only one fruit is left upon a spur, and the same is true of the large varieties of plums. For the smaller kinds it is better to rely upon pruning to thin the fruit, and then feed and cultivate the trees so that they can bring the fruit to its full size. Young apple trees can often be thinned to advantage, but it will seldom pay in the case of large trees. Raspberries, currants, and other bush fruits may be headed back to advantage, thus thin- ning the fruit in the same way, and with marked effect on the size. SPRAYESTG FOR INSECTS AND DISEASES' The injury done to fruit trees by noxious insects and fungous diseases has become so great that it is quite impossible to grow fruit to the best advantage with- out resorting to spraying to hold the various pests and blights in check. Under ordinary conditions the insects that do the most harm are those that eat the leaves or fruit, and for all such a cheap and efEectual remedy is at hand in paris green, white arsenic, green arsenoid, and other forms of arsenic. Nearly all the fungi which attack fruit trees are found also u|)on the fruit and foliage, and can generally be held in check by the use of Bordeaux mixture and other preparations into which copper sulphate enters. Both of these remedies may be combined and the treatment may be made for insects and diseases in one application. Fungi multiply by means of spores, a simple form of seed, which germinate in moisture on the sui'face of plants and grow down into the interior. If a thin film of Bordeaux mixture, or of almost any salt of copper, can be spread over the foliage and fruit the germination of the spores can be prevented. From this it can be seen that the treatment for fungi must be preventive, as it will have but little effect if the fungi have gained entrance to the plants. The same directions for the application of insecticides and fungicides answer for all fruits. The treatment should begin in the spring, before the buds open, using Bordeaux mixture combined 1 For specific directions for combating the various insects and diseases injurious to fruits, see page 137 etseq. 132 FOEESTEY HINTS with an arsenite. As soon as the fruit has set the application should be repeated. Another treat- ment is generally desirable in two or three weeks, and for late varieties of apples, pears, and plums a thorough spraying in the latter part of July is often worth while. To be effectual the materials should be applied so as to reach all parts of the plants in a mist- like spray. For this a pump capable of maintaining a pressure of 70 pounds to the square inch is needed. It should be ctjuipped with one or two lines of hose, an equal number of extension rods, and triple or quadruple nozzles. "With a large and powerful pump three men can spray from 300 to 1,000 trees in a day, according to the size of the trees and the convenience of the supplies. The first effect of spraying is to secure a healthy and uninjured foliage through- out the season. This makes it possible for the trees to develop their fruit and make a satisfactory growth. Of little less value is the benefit to the fruit by pro- tecting it from insects, rot, and scab, and making it possible for it to reach its full size, in perfect form and without blemishes. RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS Trees are often found which, although in full vigor, are unproductive. While this is sometimes due to location, or to the nature of the varieties, it frequently occurs in orchards that were at one time productive, and that seem to have proper surroundings. For such trees a treatment consisting of cultivation, manuring, pruning, and spraying, along lines previously outlined, will generally have a bene- ficial effect. If in sod, the land should be plowed, harrowed during the early part of the season, and then sown to some cover crop. The dead branches should be taken out and, if the heads are too thick, some of the smaller limbs can be removed. When the twigs are very weak, with small buds, it will often be well to head them back. Generally the cutting off of three or four years' growth at the ends of the branches will suffice, but in some instances the pruning may be even more severe. This treatment is especially advantageous for old apple and peach trees. For peach trees, especially, the severe heading back of the old trees that have been grown without pruning will often result in renewing them. The main branches will thicken up, making them less likely to break down, and a new head will be formed. If done in years when the fruit buds have been killed, nothing will be lost while much may be gained. Stable manure will be especially valuable for old apple orchards and can be used in large amounts with proiit, and the same is true of wood ashes. Spraying should by no means be neglected. Sometimes this alone has sufficed to bring trees into bearing, and has secured large crops of fine fruit, but for the best results it should be com- bined with pruning and manuring, and in most cases the orchards should be cultivated. FORESTRY HINTS The average person is more interested in the simple care of the farm wood lot than in any more elaborate scheme of forestry. There are two things should always OARE OP THE FARM WOOD LOT 133 be kept out of the wood lot — fires and live stock. "While fire is the more destruc- tive to the large trees, the stock do fully as much harm to the young growth, and thus both permit the grass to grow and kill the saplings needed to take the place of the large trees as they are cut away. When a tree reaches its prime it is best to cut it out and give the young trees a chance to develop. In doing this care should be taken not to injure the young growth. A judicious thinning out of the young trees will often be desirable. Enough firewood can generally be obtained to pay for the labor, and the trees that are left will be benefited. In the case of trees that will be used for timber purposes the removal of the lower branches will improve their quality for lumber. While it will not be profitable in all sections to go into the growing of a forest by transplanting trees or scattering seeds, there are many places where a wind- break can be put out to advantage, or where waste pieces of land can be used for growing forest trees. While good results can often be obtained with nut-trees and others with large seeds, by scattering them in the fall and plowing them in, it will generally be most satisfactory to first grow or purchase seedlings and transplant. Unless a large number are needed it will be cheapest to purchase them, as they can be obtained at a low price. The selection will depend upon the location. Thus, upon the prairies of the Central West, the catalpa will be found desirable, as it grows rapidly and is in demand for posts and ties. The black walnut also does well there. Farther north, the yellow locust offers many advantages for the same purpose. One good thing about this tree is that when cut down sprouts start and very quickly grow into a tree. The white pine, Austrian pine, and European larch are also promising timber trees. The trees should be planted about 5 to 6 feet apart each way upon land that has been plowed, and should be cultivated often enough for two or three years to keep a sod from forming. After that the only care will be to thin them out as they need it and to keep out fires and live stock. lO 134 BOOKS ON FRUIT CULTUEE PUBLICATIONS ON FRUIT CULTURE AND FORESTRY Apple CuLTUHE, Field Notes on. By L. H. Bailey, Jr. Orange Judd Co., N. T. $ .Vo Apple, How to Grow. Farmers' Bulletin 113. United States Department of AgricuUn re BiGGLE Berky Book. By J. Biggie. American Garden Go., T^.Y. ... .50 Bulbs axd Tdbekous-Rooted Plants. By C. L. Allen. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . 1.50 Bcsir Frtjits. ByF. W. Card. TU Maemillan Co.,^.Y. . . . ■ 1.00 California Fruits, The, and How to Grow Them. By EdwardJ. Wickson. Pacific ijM-raZ Press, San Francisco (1899) . . ... 2.50 A special treatise on varieties and methods in local favor. Cape Cod Cr.vnberries. By James Webb. Orange Judd Co., 1S[.Y. ... .40 Cider Maker's Handbook. By J. M. Trowbridge. Orange Judd Co., T^.Y. . 1.00 Country Homes, Beautifying. By J. Weidenmann. Orange Judd Co., 'H.Y. 10.00 Cranberry Culture. By Joseph J White. Orange Judd Co., "S. Y. . .1.00 Cross-Breeding and Hybridizing. By L. H. Bailey. The Macndllan Co., N. Y. Dahlia, Cultivation op. By Lawrence K. Peacock, i. ^. Peacock, Acton, N. J. .30 Evolution of Our Native Fruits, The. By L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. . 2.00 Discusses at lengtli the origin and development of the fruits peculiar to North America. Floriculture, Practical. By Peter Henderson. Orange Judd Co. , IS . Y . . 1.50 Florida Fruits. By Helen Harcourt. J. P. Morton, Louisville, Ky. . 1.25 Flower Garden, The Beautiful. By F. S. Mathews. W. A. Burpee & Co., Philadelphia, .40 Forest Nursery, Collection of Tree Seeds and Propagation of Seedlings. Bulle- tin 29, Bureau of Forestry. United States Departme7it of Agriculture . . .10 Forest Planting. By H. N. Jarchow. Orange Judd Co., N.Y. . 1.50 Forestry, Outlines of. By E. H. Houston /. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia . 1.00 Forestry, Practical. By Andrew S Puller. Orange Judd Co., '^.Y . . 1.50 Forestry, Primer op (Part I.) Bureau of Forestry. United Statc.i Bepiariment of Agri- culture ■ ■ . .35 Forestry FOR Faemers. Farmers' Bulletin 07. United States Department of Agriculture Fruit Culture. By W. C. Strong. Rural Publishing Co., N. Y. . Fruit Culturist, The American. By John J. Thomas; revised by William H. S. Wood. William Wood d Co., N.Y. {T.BQ7) . . . 2.50 An elaborate treatise on fruit propagation and culture, with comprehensive notes on varieties. Fruit Garden. By P, Barry. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. (1883) ... . 1.50 Treats of the various operations of fruit culture, the prevention of [disease and insect ravages, and the harvesting of the crop. Fruit Grower, Practical. By S. T. Maynard. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 50 BOOKS ON FEUIT CULTUEE 135 Fruit Growing, The Principles of. By L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. (1898) $1.35 Contains, in addition to exhaustive treatment of tlie subjects of the propagation and man- agement of fruits, a highly valuable chapter on harvesting and marketing the crop. Fruit Packages. Edited by B. C. Powell. Rural PuUisliing Co.,lii.'Y Fruits axd Fruit Trees of America, The. By A. J. Downing. John Wiley & Sons, N. Y. (1881) . . 5.00 Gardening FOR Pleasure. By Peter Henderson. Orange Judd Co., IS. Y. . . 1.50 Garden Making. By L. H. Bailey, aided by L. R. Taft, F. A. Waugh, and Ernst Walker. The Macmillan Co. ,T!{.Y.{1Q01). Along with chapters on ornamental and egetable gardening, this volume has a 45-page sec- tion on fruits for the home place. Grape CuLTURiST. By A. 8. Fuller. Orange Judd Co., TS.Y 1.50 Grape Growers' Guide. By Wm. Chorlton. Orange Judd Co., IS. Y 75 Grape-Growing and Wine-Making, Ajierican. By George Husmann. Orange Judd Co.,-S.Y 1.50 Grape-Growing in the South. Farmers' Bulletin 118. United Slates Department of Agriculture . Grape-Training, Ajierican. By L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co., "E-Y. . . .75 Hedges, Windbreaks, Shelters, and Live Fences, By E. P. Powell. Orange Judd Co., N.Y. .... 50 Horticulture, Annals of. By L. H. Bailey. Orange Judd Co., TS.Y. . ... 1.00 Horticulture, Cyclopedia op (4 vols.) By L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co., 'E.Y. . 20.00 Horticulturists' Rule Book. By L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co., IS. Y 75 A compendium of rules, practices, recipes, and figures likely to be of use to the horticulturist. House Plants and How to Succeed With Them. By Lizzie Page Hillhouse. Orange Judd Co., IS. Y 1.00 Irrigation for the Farm, Garden, and Orchard. By Henry Stewart. Orange Judd Co.,.lS.Y. ... 1.00 Landscape Gardening. By F. A. Waugh. Orange Judd Co., IS. Y. . . . .50 Maple Sugar and the Sugar Bush. By A. J. Cook. A. J. Cook, Claremont, Cal. . . 35 Marketing Farm Produce. Farmers' Bulletin 63. U. 8. Department of Agriculture . . Nursery Book, The. By L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co., TS. Y. (1900), and Orange JuddCo.,TS.Y 1.00 A practical treatise on the multiplication of plants — by seedage, separation and division, lay- erage, and cuttage, with a full discussion of graftage, a nursery list, and a glossary. Nut Culture in the United States. Division of Pomology. United States Department of Agiiculture • -30 Nut CuLTURiST, The. By Andrew S. Fuller. Orange Judd Co., IS. Y 1.50 Orchid Cultiyatoe's Guide Book, The Amateur. By H. A. Burberry. Blake & ifaciTerasjg, Liverpool, Eng. , 3.50 136 BOOKS ON FRUIT CULTURE Oknamental GARDENi>!r( FOR AjrERiCANS. By Eliiis A. LoDg. Orange Judd Co., N. Y, $1.50 Osier Culture. Bulletin 19, Bureau of Forestry. United States Department of Agriculture .05 Peach Culture. By J A. Fulton. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . ... . 1 00 PEAcir GROwtNG FOR MARKET. Farmers' Bulletin 33. United States Department ofAyri- ciilture . ... ... . Pear Culture for Profit. By P. T. Quinn. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . 1.00 Persimmons (Experiment Station "Work, XIII.) Farmers' Bulletin 107. United Stales Department of Agricvlture . ..... ... Pineapple Growing. Farmers' Bulletin 140. United States Department of Agriculture . Plant-Brbedins. By L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co., 'N. Y. . . . 1.00 Discusses variation, pollination and crossing, and the origination of garden varieties, with detailed directions for crossing. Plant Cultltre, Principles of. By E. S. Gofl. E. S. Ooff, Madison, Wis. . . 1.00 Plants and General Horticulture, Handbook of. By Peter Henderson. Peter Henderson & Co., l^.Y. . . . . 3.00 Plants, The Propagation of. By Andrew S. Fuller. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . 1.50 Plums and Plum Culture. By F. A. Waugh. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . . 1.50 Pruning Book, The. By L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co., "N Y. {18Q7) . .1.50 Quince Culture, The. By W. W. Meech. Orange Judd Co , N. Y. . . . 1 . 00 Recommended Fruits, American Pomological Society's Catalogue of. Bulletin 8, Division of Pomology. United States Department of Agriculture . 05 Rose, The. By H. B. Ellwanger. Dodd, Mead & Co., T^.Y. . . .1.25 Rose, The. By Samuel B. Parsons. Orange Judd Co., '^.Y. . . . .1.00 Rose Culture, Secrets of. By W. J. Hatton. W. J. Hatton, Riverdale, N. Y. . .50 Small Fruit Culturist. By Andrew S. Fuller, Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . 1.00 Spraying of Plants. By E. G. Lodeman. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. (1896) . 1.00 Written as a university thesis, this treatise goe:: more deeply into the history of spraying methods, solutions, and devices than is needful for the majority of orchardists, but the bulk of the matter is specific and easily available. Strawberry Culture, A B C of. By Terry. A. I. Root, Medina, O. Strawberry Culturist. By Andrew S. Fuller Orange Judd Co., T^.Y. Survival of the Unlike, The. By L. H. Bailey The Macmillan Co., N. Y. A collection of evolution essays suggested by the study of domestic plants. Timber and its Dlseases. By H. M. Ward. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. . Treb-Plantino, Practical. Bulletin 137, Bureau of Forestiy. United States Depart- ment of Agriculture . . . . . Trees of the Northern United States. ByA. C. Apgar. American Book Co., '^.Y. Window Flower Garden, The. By Julius J. Heinricli. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. .35 .25 2.00 1.75 .05 1.00 .50 Important Injurious Insects and Diseases Affect- ing- Field Crops, Fruits, and Shade Trees ^ By E. S. G. Titus, M. S. Field Assistant to the State Entomologist of Illinois IIVTRODUCTORY Clean Culture — Prevention is better than cure. Scientific tillage must include measures calculated to minimize the ravages of insect pests and plant diseases. Indeed, with not a few of the farmer's worst scourges preventive meas- ures are the only successful ones, and in every case, when thoroughly carried out, they are the most efficacious. One has only to walk through the fields in fall to find noxious insects hiber- nating in the stubble, and to be convinced of the necessity of clean cultivation. Clean the fields thoroughly after harvest, leaving a few rubbish piles to serve as shelter for hibernating pests. Burn these before winter opens, and the insects concealed therein will not have to be fought in spring, when the young crop is trying to grow. Destroy weeds and volunteer plants along with other refuse ; cut out those around the fence corners and along the ditches, even going out into the road to destroy them. Burning over stubble ground is an efEective precaution. Deep fall plowing kills many insects and buries many more, and proper drainage will keep other insects from multiplying. Wise tillage and careful fertilization often enable plants to withstand injuries that otherwise might prove fatal. Rotation of Crops is one of the most, if not the most, important factor in insect control. It should be carried on in such a manner that no single crop nor any two crops closely related botanically shall be grown continuously on the same land. 1 The author of this section desires to aclcnowledge the Idndoess of Br. S. A. Forbes, State Entomologist of UJinois, for the loan of many of the illustrations and for numerous other favors. He desires also to express his obhgation to Dr. T. J. Bun-ill, Botanist of the University of Ulinois, for aid In treating the subject of plant dis- t<3 Prof. J. C. Blair, for the loan of the photo- graph of a bitter-rot canker, elsewhere reproduced ; and to Dr. George William Hill, Chief of the Division of Pub- Ucations, United States Department of Agriculture, for several illustrations. Copyright, 1902, by Eand, McNally & Co. (137) 138 PEEVEXTIOX OF IXSECT EAYAGES Insects: Life Histories and Habits — Intelligence on this subject is indispensable to profitable farming. It will often enable one to choose the best time for planting, and will aid in determining the value of trap crops and in cor- rectly timing all economic measures. Study the insects you combat, for it means economy of insecticides and time, and increased value of crops. Some pests, the gnawing and biting insects — as the larvas of butterflies, of moths, and of saw-flies, and both larvffi and adults of beetles and grasshoppers — devour the substance of the leaf — the plant tissues themselves ; others, the sucking insects — as the young and the adults of the squash-bug, the leaf -hoppers, and the plant-lice — tap the plant with the beak and thus extract its juices. To kill the first class, aim to cover every part of the plant with an arsenical poison ; so surely cover- ing it that the insect must eat it and die, or leave it and starve to death. To kill sucking insects is a harder task. Try by spraying to drencli them with some con- tact insecticide, as kerosene emulsion, whale-oil soap, or one of the scale washes. Each one that gets a coating of the spray over it soon smothers to death, for they breathe through little spiracles along the sides of the body. Fungi — Insects either destroy or seriously damage the plant, or else they impair its vitality and affect the quality of its product, be it fruit or grain. Fungi, however, kill the plant by choking it to death. The purpose of spraying against fungi is to arrest the growths that are filling up the resjDiratory organs of the plant. The secret of success is to spray thoroughly and at the right time, as in treatment for insects. Location of New Orcliards — Do not make use of old orchard ground, for it may be filled with disease. Set trees at a distance from the farm boundary, for your neighbor may not be careful to control the insects in his orchard, and you would suffer thereby. Be sure that the stock you set out is free' from disease and insects. Better destroy it than be obliged to fight some new pest for years to • come. Beneficial Insects — While it is always well to be on the lookout for injurious insects and find a way to destroy them, the farmer should also learn his friends among the insects. Without the beneficial insects, all our Paris green sprays and our methods of preventing injury by the handling of our crops would avail little. It would be next to impossible to prevent the enormous increase in a few short years of the injurious species, were they not checked by the ladybirds, the lace-winged flies, the syrphus-flies and the ground-beetles, to say nothing of the myriads of minute parasitic enemies that are continually preying on the remainder of the insect world. BEISTEPICIAL INSECTS 139 Fig. 55, Tliirteen-spotted Ladybird 'Odamia convergens), beetle larva. Fig. 56. Twice-stabbed Ladybird {Chi- locoi-us bivulnerus\ beetle aid larva. The ladybirds are entitled to first rank as bene- ficial insects, for almost all the beetles and tlieir larvae in this large family feed on plant-lice and scale- insects. Two of the most eificient forms are illus- trated in Figs. 55 and 56. The many-spotted one feeds on plant-lice ; the other, on scale-insects. Besides these little beetles there are also the larvee of some flies that feed on plant-lice, one of which, the syrphns-fly, may be seen in Fig. 57. The larvffi of the lace-winged flies (Fig. 58) are among the most voracious of feeders, and while they destroy many plant-lice and psyllids they by no means confine tlieir attention to such small insects, but feed on large leaf -feeding larvae and their pupae. The cutworms, tomato worms, corn worms, and many other of the larger destructive larvae have a relentless enemy in the shape of the fiery ground- beetle (Fig. 59), so named because of its, gold-dotted wing-covers. The larva of this beetle has strong, prominent jaws, and when once they are set in the body of a victim there is no chance of escape. They will attack insects several times their size and come from the combat victorious. Xearly all of the ground- beetles are beneficial. Fig. 57. Syrphus-fly, adult and larva. Fig. 58. Lace-\vingedFly (CArj/sopaocjttoto); a, eggs; 6, larva; d, same, feeding on a pear-psylla; e, cocoon from which the adult (/) has emerged; g, head of adult enlarged. (Slingerland.) Fig. 59. Fiery Ground-beetle (Calo- soma calidum\ beetle and larva. (After Kiley.) 140 INSECTICIDES There are also many insects that lay their eggs on larvse of other species ; when the young hatch they work their way inside and feed on their host. More are prob- ably killed in this manner than in any other ; some parasites living in eggs, some in larvse, and others in the pupse. These parasitic insects are nsnally delicately formed in the adult state, having transparent wings and often being brilliantly colored. Birds and Agriculture — The relative benefit and injury received by the farmer from some of our common species of birds varies according to circumstances ; yet in some cases the injury done to growing crops, or the protection against insect pests afforded, is so jDOsitive as to admit of no question. Take, for instance, the crow-blackbirds and the crows. They work both positive injury and positive advantage to the farmer, and so long as they are not overabundant it is likely that they are worth more than they cost. If too numerous, of course their numbers must be reduced. Then, again, take the diet of nesting birds — almost exclusively animal ; It has been estimated that the passerine (sparrow-like) birds of Eastern Xebraska, by their destruction of locusts in the nesting season, save crops to the vahie of $1,744 a day. The United States Department of Agriculture declares the following twenty-five species of birds decidedly leneficicd and worthy of the fullest protection because of their consumption of insects, reptiles, rodents, and noxious weed seed: Marsh- hawk, Swainson's Hawk, Ferruginous Rough-leg, Squirrel-hawk, Sparrow-hawk, Eobin, Bluebird, Chickadee, House-wren, Eose-breasted Grosbeak, Song-sparrow, Chipping-sparrow, Tree-sparrow, Baltimore Oriole, Meadow-lark, Flicker, Downy Woodpecker, Hairy Woodpecker, Black-billed and Yellow-billed Cuckoos, Barn Owl, and the Long-eared, Short-eared, Barred, and Screech Owls. Five are distinctly injurious and should be destroyed, viz., the English Sparrow, Duck-hawk, Goshawk, Cooper's Hawk, and the Sharp-shinned Hawk. INSECTICIDES ARSENICAL POISONS FOB BITING INSECTS Paris Green, Liondon Purple, Scheele's Green, Paragrene, and Green Arsenoid are all arsenicals of the same general character. Paris green is composed of arsenic, copper, and acetic acid ; Sclieele's green is said to contain no acetic acid, ia more easily applied, and, like Paragrene, remains in suspension longer ; while London purple and Paragrene need more lime added to prevent foliage bums. For Speattng — Make a thin paste of the arsenical substance used, by adding a small quantity of the poison to a small quantity of water and freshly slaked lime in same quantity. Strain this POISON'S FOE BITING INSECTS 141 into a spray tank, and add water in the proportion of 100 to 300 gallons to each pound of poison. Apply the stronger mixtures to resistant foliage, such as the potato. For the apple, use 150 gal- lons to each pound of poison. Never spray fruit trees when in bloom, lest bees be poisoned. FOH Dry Use — For vegetables soon to be used for food, mix poison with 100 times its weight of plaster of Paris, flour, or lime, and apply lightly. Dust garden crops with poison from a bel- lows or bag. For low field crops, place in bags hung at ends of a pole and carry through field on horse or mule back. See under Cotton Worm. Combined Mixture: Bordeaux with Paris Green or Other Arseuite — Prepare Bordeaux mixture in the usual way (see Fungicides) and add to it the poison to be used. In this combination the BordeauA mixture simply takes the place of the water in the Paris green and other arsenical solutions. Arsenite of Lead — Least caustic of all arsenites in its effect on foliage. Remains in suspension and adheres to foliage much better than ordinary arsenites. May be bought at from 15 to 18 cents per pound. Prepare as follows : Combine 3 parts of arsenite of soda with 7 parts of acetate of lead, dissolving each in water separately and then pouring together. They unite readily and form a white precipitate. May be used much stronger than any other arsenite on foliage. Arsenite of Liinie — This is a cheap insecticide, and does not burn the foliage, because the amount of arsenic is under perfect control. It is made by boiling together, for 45 minutes, White arsenic 1 pound. Fresh stone lime 2 pounds. Water 1 gallon. Put this in a tight vessel marked POISON. Before using, stir thoroughly, and use one quart of solution to a barrel of water. Poison Fixative — To make poisons adhere to cabbage, etc. : Pulverized lesin 5 pounds. Concentrated lye 1 pound. Fish-oil, or any cheap animal oil except tallow 1 pint. Water. __ - 5 gallons. "Place oil, resin, and a gallon of water in an iron kettle and heat until resin is softened ; add lye solution made as for hard soap ; stir thoroughly ; add remainder of water and boil about two hours, or until the mixture will unite with cold water, making a clear, amber-colored liquid. If it has boiled away too much, add sufficient boiling water to make 5 gallons." — Sanderson. In using this, dilute 1 gallon of the solution with 16 gallons of water, and add 3 gallons milk of lime and a quarter of a pound of any arsenite. Poisoned Baits — For cutworms, grasshoppers, etc.: Green Bait — Dip fresh clover or other green succulent vegetation in a strong arsenical solu- tion and distribute in small bunches about infested fields. Cover with boards or stones to keep moist ; renew when dry. Bran Mash — For grasshoppers make a mash of 1 pound Paris green, or other arsenite, and 5 pounds bran ; sweeten with molasses. For cutworms, army-worms, etc., use 1 pound Paris 142 IXSECTICIDES green to 20 pounds dry middlings or bran, sweetened with 1 quart molasses and mixed with enough water to make moist. Drop a taljlespoonful of this in a place, along the front of the line of march of army-worms ; or at the base of each plant in a field, for cutworms. COXTACT IXSECTICIDES FOR SUCKIXG INSECTS Kerosene Ennilsion — Dissolve 2 pounds whale-oil soap (or hard soap, or 1 quart soft soap) in 1 gallon boiling water, add boiling hot, away from the fire, to 2 gallons coal-oil. Churn rapidly by driving the liquid back into itself with a force-pump until the mixture assumes the consistency of cream. Use this solution diluted as desired. For 10 per cent, solution add this preparation to 20 gallons water. A stronger solution can be applied to plants before the buds open. Wliale-Oil Soap — This is a very effective wash against scales, slugs, and many other soft-bodicd insects. For summer treatments use 1 pound to 7 gallons water. For winter use, dis- solve 2 pounds of the soap in 1 gallon water and apply hot. Liliiie, Sulphur, and Salt Wasli, or "California Wash" — The most effective wash at present known for use against the San Jose scale. Prepare as follows : Lirae (not slaked) _ 15 pounds. Powdered sulphur 15 Common salt .15 Slake the lime in a small quantity of hot water in an iron kettle over a fire, and slowly sift in the sulphur while the lime is slaking, stirring constantly. Boil this one hour, or until sulphur is all dissolved ; then add the salt and boil 15 minutes longer. Put this solution in spray barrel and add suifioient hot water to make 50 gallons. Spray on trees hot. This wash needs to be thoroughly boiletl. not simmered If steam heat is available it has been recommended to put the sulphur and lime in a barrel and steam-boil for three or four hours, adding the salt and boiling a short time longer. One and a half pounds of blue vitriol may be used in place of salt. GASES AND OTHER INSECTICIDES Carhon Bisulphide — This is the cheapest and most efficient insecticide for use against weevils in granaries and warehouses, and against Insects working on the roots of plants. The vapor of this liquid is not only highly poisonous but is inflammable and explosive ; hence, keep fire of etcry kind away from it. It is a colorless liquid, costing about 10 cents a pound, and can be used to advantage in grain bins, as the vapors are heavier than air and will work down through the grain. For this purpose use 1 pound to every lOO bushels of grain, make the enclosure as nearly air-tight as possible, and, if necessary, cover grain with blankets. Leave for not more thin twenty- fimr hours, then allow air to enter. For root-lice or other root insects use a teaspoonful to a hole made 2 or 3 inches away from the plant, and close the hole with the foot. For ant nests put 1 ounce in each of several holes made in the hill ; then cover with a wet blanket for ten minutes. Carholic Acid Wash — To prevent egg-laying on bark. In a 6-gallon saturated solution of washmg-soda dissolve 1 gallon soft soap, add 1 pint carbolic acid, mix thorough!}', add enough lime to make a thick whitewash, and stir in one-half pound of some arsenite, FITXGICIDES 143 Hellebore — Apply diy for saw-flies and otlier soft-bodied insects. It can also be used as a spray — 1 ounce to 3 or 3 gallons of water. Pyretlirum ("Buhacli, Persian Insect Powder) — Not poisonous, in ordinary quan- tities, to man. May be used dry by meons of a bellows. Thrown about the room in this wa}-, it will materially decrease the number of flies. Burn in a room to destroy mosquitoes. Used as a spray, 1 ounce to 3 gallons of water. Hydrocyanic Acid G as — The best agent in use for disinfection or fumigation of nursery stock, and for destruction of some greenhouse insects and pests in dwelling houses, storehouses, mills, etc. Diffuses quickly, and is a most deadly poison. FUNGICIDES Bordeaux Mixture- Copper sulphate (blue vitriol) _ ___ --. _. 4 pounds. Quicklime (not aii'-slaked) 4 pounds. Water, to make 50 gallons. Dissolve the copper sulphate in about two gallons, of water in a wooden vessel, or suspend it in a cheese-cloth sack in a large bucketful of cold water, "When dissolved, pour the solution into the apparatus used for spraying and fill about one-third full of water. Slake the lime in a small quantity of water, and when slaked, stir, adding more water. Strain this into the copper sulphate solution. If lime is left after straining, pour on more water and stir it. Repeat this until nothing but stone lumps and sand are left. Now add sufficient water to make 50 gallons in 3'our tank. Thoroughly agitate the mixture before spraying it. Bordeaux mixture should be used when fresh, and none should be kept over for the next spraying. If plants to be sprayed have very tender foliage and there is danger of burning it, use just half the above quantity of copper sulphate and lime to the 50 gallons and prepare as before. "What is sometimes called the " 1 to 11 formula" is made in the same way as the first one given, but using only sufficient water to make 44 gallons. Amnioniacal Copper-Carbonate Solution- Copper carbonate -^ G ounces. Ammonia, about 3 pints. Water 50 gallons. In a wooden pail make a paste of the copper carbonate by adding a little water. Pour into this the amm(mia necessary to dissolve the copper carbonate — no more — and stir until all is dis- solved. Dilute with water and use. To JIAKB Copper Carbonate — Dissolve 10 pounds copper sulphate in 10 gallons of water, and 12 pounds of carbonate of soda in same amount of water. When cool, mix the two solutions slowly, stirring well. Allow it to stand 12 hours and settle, then pour off liquid. Repeat this operation twice, and then drain and dry the resulting powder, which is copper carbonate. Copper-Sulphate Solution — Copper sulphate _ _ 4 pounds. Water, to make 50 gallons. Dissolve the copper sulphate as directed in preparation of Bordeaux mixture. This solution will injure foliage; use only before buds open, or on machinery and in granaries to disinfect. 144 INSECTS IXJUEIOUS TO FIELD CROPS Formalin — For Oats, Wheat, etc. — One pound (1 pint) to 50 gallons water. For Potatoes — One-half pint to 15 gallons water. Corrosive Sublimate — Corrosive sublimate _ - 2 ounces. Water 15V4 gallons. This can be used for potato scab and disinfection purposes. Label it POISON. Bordeaux Wash — To paint over wounds on trees and to wash injuries to limbs. Make a mixture as for the carbolic acid wash, adding one half pound blue vitriol in place of Paris green. I, FIELD CROPS (a) IMPORTA]VT INJURIOUS INSECTS Northern Corn-Root-worua {Diabrohca longicoi^nis, Fig. 60) — From Nebraska east to the Atlantic Ocean, but injurious only from Ohio to Xebraska. Attacks corn in both larval and adult stages. Eggs laid in early fall, one to five inches deep in the soil and within a few inches of stalks. Hibernates in the egg, which hatches from June to August. At first cats entire root, but later burrows under outer layers of larger roots, thus killing them and weakening the support of the stalk, causing it to dwarf and produce small ears if on poor land, or to be ^^-f^lfyW^.TH'v^ Fig. 60. Northern Corn-Eoot-worm: beetle, larva, and piece of corn root with larva. (Forbes, 18th Illinois Eeport.) blown over when on rich loams. Larvse are nearly white, with brown head ; are not quite ^ inch long, and are nearly cylindrical. Adult beetle is greenish or greenish yellow, J inch long, somewhat resembling in form the striped cucumber beetle. Larvas pupate near the roots in the soil, and adults emerge dirring the latter part of July and in August and feed on corn silks and pollen. Reports have been made of several other food plants for the beetles. CORN-ROOT-WORMS 145 Treatment — So far as known these worms are never injurious after a crop of the smaller grains ; corn crops following these will then be safe for two years. The remedy is, therefore, simple — rotation. Southern Corn-Root-worm {Diairotica duodecempunctata) — Abun- dant in Northern and Sontlaern States. Attacks corn seriously only in the South. AVell known, however, as a squash, melon, and cucumber pest, eating both leaves and fruit. Larva has habits very similar to those of the previous species. Beetle is larger than the northern corn-root-worm beetle, greenish yellow, with twelve black spots on wing-covers. The beetle injures corn by feeding on pollen, silk, and unripe kernels. Treatment — Same as for northern corn-root- worm. Wireworms {Drasterius elegans, Melmiotus crihulosus, and other species. Fig. 61) — Occur in all the states, attacking grasses, grains, and potatoes. The wireworms are hard, cylindrical ground worms, feeding upon roots and seeds in the ground, and are often very destructive to crops. The beetles, which are nar- row, elongate, and usually dark-colored, are generally known as " snapping-beetles," Fio. 61. Corn Wireworm larva, and beetle. (Forbes.) "spring-beetles," or " click-beetles." They lay eggs during May or June in grass land or wherever vegetation is plentiful, and the larvae feed upon roots. They de- velop slowly, taking in many cases two or three years to mature. When mature they pupate in the fall, and the adult stays in the pupal case until the following spring. Treatment — Fall plowing and rotation of crops. Do not plant corn or potatoes immediately after grass crops. Corn-root Web worm or Tobacco Stalk-worm {Crajnhus caligi- nosellus) — Eggs laid in grass land in May or early June by small whitish or yellowish moths. The young larvee form loose silken tubes close to the surface of the soil, usually a little below, and thence burrow among the roots and feed upon stalk, outer leaves, and crown. The moths emerge by August, and eggs are then laid for another brood, which hibernate in the web over winter as partly-grown larvae. Corn planted on sod land is thus often seriously injured by them. Treatment — Do not plant on sod land, but after some other crop. Late fall plowing or harrowing deeply will destroy many of the larvse. 146 IXSECTS INJURIOrS TO FIELD CEOPS Corn Root-louse {Aplils mriii/i-rf/ih'ris)^A]] coi'n states. Presence of tliis plant-louse on corn roots can be detected by dwarfed aiipearance and yellowing and reddening of plant. Jjice. found in masses on tlie I'oots, are readily I'ei'ognized if an infested plant is pulled np. The nests of the small bi'own ant, if opened in winter, -will be found to contain many of the little black eggs of this Ajililn well cared for l)y these ants. On apjjearance of the first smartweed, the ants carry the newly-hatched lice to them and i)lace them on the roiits. Latc^r, when the winged lice appear on these weeds and lay eggs, the ants ti'ansfer these to the corn roots. Late in the fall the females are housed by the ants in their nests, where the eggs are laid. Tkeatjient — Clean culture, eradication of weeds in early spring, destruction of ant hills in late fall, deep fall plowing and harrowing, rotation of crops. Larger Cornstalk-borei" {Diutrcea saccharaUs) — j\Iaryland to Alabama and westward to Kansas and Oklahoma. Lai'ge white, brown-spotted caterpillars of (liis species may be found boring into stalks of corn, esioei*ially when young. Often occasion large loss in crop. LarviB pass the winter in their cells in the tap- root of the cornstalk or sugar cane, and tra]isform in early spring. Often make several holes in a single stalk, weakening it and causing it to fall. Treat:ment — Where corn has been much infested in fall drag off and burn all old butts and stalks. Rotation will materially decrease injury by this insect. Corn Bill-bngs (Hplienopliorus oclireus, and others, Fig. G2) — (.'orn-groMing states. Attacks plant by feeding in the stalk when young. Adult beetles are hard oval insects with stout beak, by means of which they drill holes in the cornstalk ^(**'iijrwtfik*\ near the surface of the ground and feed on the interior. As -^ \ ,,lil ^ tlie corn continues growing and these leaves open out, many of them have a row of elongate holes across blade, where beetle has punctured it while it was rolled up. Beetles feed with the head downward. One species [S. parvidus) has been reported from ^Maryland and Xebi-aska as seriously injuring blue-grass. Another (;S'. rol/usfu.s) has been known to breed in the roots of corn. Xative food plants of this genus are the grasses, rushes, and sedges. Tkeatmext — Where land has recently been broken from swamp or marshes, plant at first some other crop than corn, such as flax or potatoes. ^*''Bm-bug.^(Forbes.) Fall plowing of infested land will tend to drive the beetles to other fields. COEN EAE-WOEM, ARMY-WOEMS U7 Corn Ear-worm {Heliotliis armiger) — All corn and cotton states, but not 80 destructive in the Xorth as in the South, where it feeds on cotton bolls. It is the worst pesb of sweet corn, injures tomatoes to an extent, and bores into the buds of tobacco. Olive-green moths appear about the time corn is silking and lay eggs on the silk. These hatch in a few days, and the young worms at first feed on silk, later working their way down into the ear and feeding on the tender kernels. When full grown the worms go to the ground to pupate, and in case of the fall brood stay in the cells as pupae until spring. Teeatmext — Xo practical remedy if in corn or tomatoes. TJaorougli breaking up of corn ground in fall reduces their number somewhat. For remedies for attacks on tobacco and cotton see under insects affecting those plants. Ariny-"worin {Lcucania unipuncta. Fig. 63) — All states. The true army- worm is a brownish- white striped caterpillar growing to 2 inches in length, the larva of a moth with dull-reddish fawn- colored wings, each fore-wing with a wliite spot. TJiey occur every year, but are only rarely so abundant as to justify the name. When this happens, they advance over the country in vast numbers, devouring all grasses and grains in their track, usually feed- ing by night or in cloudy weather. When mature they enter the ground and pupate, and a second brood of worms appears in September, hiber- nating as larvae. Tkeatmext — Clean culture, burn stubble in winter; when army is advancing use poi- soned baits, scattering them along in front of it ; dig ditches to entrap them and then drag a log through to kiU them. Fall Amiy-Ti'oriii, Common Grass-worm {Laplnjgma frugipenla, Fig. 6-4) — All states, but especially the Central and Southern. Distinguished from the true army-worm by dark stripes along each side, separated by a stripe of grayish yellow, and also by the fact that the most destructive brood appears after August 1st — whence its common name. The worms are especially injurious to lawns, but feed on all grasses and cereals and on some garden vegetables. Moths Fig. fi3. Army-worm: a, adult male, b, c, d, details; larva on grass, and pupa. (After Riley.) 148 IXSECTS INJUEIOUS TO FIELD CROPS Fig. 64. Fall Army-worm : larva at left; a, adult moth; 6, c, color varieties. (Bruner.) are variable in color : hind-wings are pearly- white ; fore-wings range from dull grayish brown to almost black, but always have a light spot on upper side near outer edge. Treatment — Same preventives as for the army- worm. Lawns may be rolled in early morning or late afternoon, or sprayed with kerosene emulsion and then thoroughly washed down with water. Hessian Fly [Ceridomjjia /leslructor) — All wheat states. Adult fly is a dark- col- ored, two-winged gnat (-J inch). Lays eggs in fall on upi)er surface of wheat leaf, or, in spring, beneath sheath. Maggots burrow into stem, spring brood remaining in portion above ground, fall brood going lower. Ravages are detected by stooling out of wheat, a darkening and broadening of leaver, absence of central stem, and a gradual yellowing and dying of plants. Damp springs favor the insect. Its emergence is retarded by drought, so that late sowing may fail as a remedy after summers with little rain. Treatment — Delay sowing of wheat until after time for the fly to lay its eggs. Farm practice as to date of sowing is in some states as follows : Northern Ohio, September 10th ; Cen- tral Ohio, September 2.jth ; Southern Ohio, October 10th ; Central Maryland, September 26th to October .5th ; Northern Delaware, October 1st ; New York, September 20th to 2.'jth ; Michigan, September 1st or not until October 1st. Clean cultivation, burning of stubble, rotation of crops. Chincli-bug: {BUssus leucopterus, Fig. 6.j) — Especially in Southern and Central States, and west to Rocky Mountains. One of the most de- stru ctive of pests, h av- ing doubtless caused more injury to the far- mers of theMississippi Valley than any other insect attacking grain. The adult bug is black, with white wings and FiG.65. OiiDch-bug: adultat left; a, 6, eggsmagnifled andnatm'alsize; cyoung j. i i . ji nymph; e, second stage of nymph; /, third stage; g, full-grown nymph; d, h, tWO Ciarli SpotS OR tllG 7, legs ; i, beak, through which food is taken. Small hnes show natural size. j. . x t i (Billy.) lore-wmg. In all CHINCH BUG, WHITE GRUBS, GRASSHOPPEES 149 stages it has a rank, fetid odor. Young bugs are mostly red but vary somewhat in the different stages. After wheat harvest it attacks first oats and then corn, later in the fall going to wheat again. In migrating from wheat to corn adult insects rarely ily. Eggs are laid on the corn, and this brood hibernates when full grown, and, coming out in the spring, lays eggs on the wheat stalks. Trbatmext — Plow strip around corn field or along side from whicli attack is expected, pulverize the soil very thoroughly, and when bugs begin to migrate make a deep furrow in this soil with the steeper side toward the corn. On a hot day myriads of bugs will perish attempting to cross the fine soil, but if any seem to be getting across drag a log up and down the furrow. If a line of coal-tar is spread in front of their line of march and post-holes dug a foot deep every ten feet along the line, the bugs will turn as the line is reached and fall into the holes, where they may be killed. Ten per cent, kerosene emulsion may be sprayed on the bugs when they are on corn stalks. It will pay to use every effort possible to keep them out. "White Grubs, May Beetles, June Bugs {Lachnosterna fusca, L. rugosa, and others. Fig. 66) — The Lachnosternas are widely distributed. The larvae are fleshy white, brown-headed grubs that feed on and sever grass roots and roots of some other plants. The adult beetle, which is generally known in some one, at least, of its many species, feeds on the leaves of trees, eating at night. Tkeatment — Beetles: Luring by means of lights into tubs with kerosene and water. The only objection to this is that many beneficial insects are also de- stroyed. ' Lance: Liberal sprays of kerosene emulsion, where they are affecting lawns; heavy potash fertilizers; allowing poultry to follow after the plow in break- ing sod ; letting hogs run in grass land before plowing ; rotation of crops , frequent breaking of meadow lands. Grasshoppers {Melanophis species, Schistocerca americana, and others. Figs. 67, 68) — Numerous species, attacking all kinds of plants. There is no need Fig. 66. White Grub : beetle, larva, and tip of posterior segment of beetle from beneath. (Forbes.) 1 See mider Codling-moth, page 172. 11 150 IXSECTS INJURIOUS TO FIELD CROPS Fig. 67. Above — Two-striped Grasshopper, M. bivittatus. (After Riley.) At right — Common Red-leffg^ed Grasshopper, 31. femur-rubriun. At left — Tlie Kooky Mountain Locust, M. spretus. (Forbes.)^ Fig. 68. Rocl^y Mountain Locust : a, female ovipositing: ; &, egg-pod removed from gi-ound, end broken away show- ing eggs; c, eggs; rf, c, egg-masses in ground; /, egg-mass completed and covered. (Riley.) to describe these well-known pests. The figures given show in one instance the man- ner in which the grasshoppers deposit their eggs, and, in tlie other, three of tlie more im- jiortant grasslioppers. Tlie Rocliy Mountain locust [Melanoplus spi'eiiix) has often caused an immense amount of damage in the regions it frequents — from the Mississippi westward to the mountains and from Canada south to Kansas. The other two species are well distributed over the country. Treatment — Protect the insect-eating birds ; place poisoned bait near crops to be protected; burn over stubble ground or roll hard ground in early spring to destroy the young. Where fighting on a large scale is needed, what is known as the "hopperdozer," Fig. 69, will be found the most successful means of destruction. This is made from 8 to 10 feet long, a foot wide, and an inch deep, set on runners, and provided at the back with a screen a foot high against which the „ , ,... .r,., „ ., , „ .„ , ^ "hoppers" strike and fall Fig. 69. Large Hopperdozer. (After Kiley, United States Department , , . . , , „, of Agriculture.) back mto the pan. The pan ■•^Kt CUTWORMS, COEN-EOOT WEBWOEM 151 may be made of sheet iron and the screen of canvas. Put crude petroleum in the pan and smear it on the canvas; then hitch a horse to the machine and draw it through the fields where the grass- hoppers are abundant. They will Jump up and either strike the screen and fall into the pan, or fall directly into the latter. Many will jump out again, but if they were even slightly wet with the coal-oil they will die. Tar may be used instead of petroleum for the screen and coal-oil on water for the pan. Cutworms {Agrotis ypsilon, Fig. 70, A. annexa, Periclroma saiicia, and many others) — All states. Thongli the life histories of the various species vary more or less, their general life is the same. Adults are moths with dark fore-wings and light hind-wings, as may be seen in the illustration. They feed at night, sucking nectar from various flowers. As a rule there is but a single brood of worms in a season, though a few species have two. Female moths lay their eggs on stones, leaves, sticks, etc., wherever there is plenty of vegetation, usually iu midsummer; larvae feed until winter, when they form an oval cell in the earth and curl in it Fig. 70. Greass CvAwovm, Agrotis ypsilon. Side and upper views of larva and adult moth. (Forbes.) until spring. Then they come forth and do the noticeable damage. They are rapid, voracious feeders, especially when attacking young crops. When full grown a cutworm is of a dull brown, gray, or greenish hue, usually marked with darker longitudinal lines, stripes, or dots. The head and next segment are reddish- brown and horny. When full grown the larvae enter the ground and pupate, the moths soon after appearing and laying their eggs. Some species vary from the above history by laying the eggs early in spring and hibernating in the pupal or adult state. Teeatmext — Plow land during midsummer or early fall, the sooner after midsummer the better. This treatment will cause many young larvae to perish from lack of food. Thorough cultivation of the land in spring is good practice. The most successful remedies found have been the use of poisoned baits, especially the poisoned bran mash. Put this in field where plants are to be set, a tablespoonful near each hill, keeping chickens out of the field for several days. Tobacco Stalk-worm or Corn-root Webw^orm {Crambus caligi- nosellus) — Some of the Atlantic States. Larva works in the stalk or at base of 152 IXSECTS INJURIOUS TO FIELD CEOPS stalk near surface of ground ; plant soon wilts and dies. "Where larger plants are attacked, stalks may be hollowed out to the first leaves. Several larvae often work on a single plant. Treatment — Avoid planting on grass or timothy sod land. Advisable to put grass land in wheat, and then clover before tobacco. Horn Worm or Tobacco-worm {Protoparce cdcus, Fig. 71, P. Caro- lina) — First named occurs in northern United States ; the other species, in the South. Insects hibernate in pupal state; moths emerge early in spring, laying Fig. 71. Northern Tobacco-worm : adult moth, above ; full-grown larva, at left ; pupa, at right, size. (From Howard, United States Department of Agriculture.) All natural eggs singly upon lower surfaces of leaves. During larval growth, which occupies about three weeks, they consume a great quantity of food, attaining a length of over two inches. Grown worm is green with oblique white stripes on the body, and a red or black "horn" prominent on posterior end. Moths are night-fliers, dark colored, with orange spots on sides of body. Treatment — Hand-picking is most successful. Jimson-weeds may be used as means of poisoning the moths. Insects visit these at night for the nectar, and a solution of cobalt (1 ounce), molasses (J- pint), and water (1 pint) can be placed in the flowers. Spraying with Paris green has been found successful in Kentucky, and tests show that there is not enough poison left on the leaves to injure the consumer. TOBACCO AND COTTOX WORMS 153 Tobacco Flea-beetle {Epitrix parvula) — All tobacco states. Minute, oval, reddish-brown beetle. Injury is dpne by adult beetle, holes being gnawed in leaves until they sometimes appear as if peppered with fine shot. Injury especially severe to young plants. Larvae have been ascertained (Chittenden) to feed on the roots of common nightshade and jimson-weed. Treatment — Bordeaux mixture has been found very successful. Spraying with Paris green will keep beetles in check on young plants. Tobacco Bud-worni {IleliotJus armiger, H. rhezicB) — The latter, south of Maryland ; the former, the ordinary corn-ear-worm in all tobacco states. Larvae of these two insects are very much alike, biit the adults are readily distinguished. Eggs deposited in the buds ; young larvae do serious damage by feeding on the unrolled leaves. Later, as leaves become larger and worms grow, large lioles are eaten, thus ruining tobacco for the best grade. The later broods seem to prefer unripened seed-capsules. Adult of H. rhexue is the smaller, and has green or dull sea-green wings, crossed by three white bands. Treatment ^ Clean cultivation ; arsenical sprays. Placing poisoned corn-meal on buds after heavy rains has been recommended. Tobacco Suck-fly {Dicyphus minimus) — Southern States only. A sraall bug that sucks sap from leaves, causing them to turn yellow, wilt, and split. Adult, a small black bug with long, yellowish green legs, under side greenish, and a yellow line just back of head. Treatment — Spray insects with "Nikoteen," one part to 60 gallons water, or with some other tobacco decoction. Clean up and burn trash in fields in fall. Cigarette Beetle {Lasioderma serricorne) — Southern States, and well- warmed warehouses farther north. Damages cigars and cigarettes by boring into them ; the leaves by puncturing them ; fillers and fine-cut by actual feeding and offensive admixture. Treatment — Cleanliness ; whitewash woodwork, and fumigate with carbon bisulphide. Cotton-worm (Aletia xylina) — Cotton-growing regions of United States and other American countries. Hibernates as a moth and lays eggs singly on leaves to number of 500 or less. Larvse, greenish yellow worms, slightly hairy, growing to be fully an inch in length. Late in summer they pupate in leaves, emerging in fall as dull olive-gray moths an inch or more in wing expanse. Treatment — Apply Paris green or other arsenite dry to leaves. Readily done by fastening a sack of cloth ("8 oz. Osnaburg" is recommended) containing the insecticide to each end of a pole and riding between rows on horseback, allowing it to be lightly jarred upon the leaves. The insect has many efficient parasites. 154 IXSECTS INJURIOUS TO FIELD CEOl'S Cotton Boll -worm, Corn Ear- worm {Hello/his armiger) — For description see corn insects, page li7. Teeatiiext — The treatment given for the cotton-worm will aid. Late fall plowing to destroy pupa, trap crops of corn in the cotton field, and poisoned baits have all been used with varying success. Early varieties are often exempt. Caterpillars and CntAvorms (several species of eacli) — Tliese as a rule do but slight damage. Caterpillars may usnalh- be destroyed by sjoraying operations recommended for cotton-worm. Cutworms can be mo.st easily handled by means of poisoned baits of clover or grass. Mexican Cotton-boll Weevil {Anthonomus grandis, Fig. 72) — This dangerous enemy of the cotton-grower was imported from ilexico about 1803. It has spread over most of Texas and the invasion of other cotton-growing states seems only a question of time.* Adult, a small gray snout-beetle {\ inch) which punctures and lays eggs in cotton bolls and "squares."' Young buds usually fall off, and weevils then finish growth on ground. Those that remain on plant feed in bolls and effectually destroy their value. Larva matures and becomes a beetle in about four weeks from the egg. Hibernates as an adult in sheltered places in fields and timber. Treatment — The planting of early varieties is pos- sibly the most successful means of combating; hand- picking of beetles and infested squares will also aid. Plants should be cut up or plowed out and burned as soon as possible after crop is gathered, at least by October, thus killing many adult beetles before they leave plants for other hibernating places. Plant-lice {A^ihis gossypii) — Seldom of enough importance to justify treat- ment, the hardy and quick growth of plants overcoming any injury. However, a treatment of kerosene emulsion may be given when thought necessary. Grasshoppers (several species) — Poisoned bran mash has been found very effectual in dealing with grasshoppers, and the hopperdozer might be used to advantage in thinning their numbers in adjoining grass or grain fields. Leaf-lioppers, " Sharp-shooters " — These are sucking insects and have been known to injure young bolls severely. Thorough spray of strong kero- sene emulsion, applied not to the cotton plant hut to tlie trees surrounding, has been recommended. The young of these insects live on shade trees in early sjjring. Fig Mexican Cotton-boll Weevil: a, beetlp; fo, pupa; c, larva. All enlarged. (From Howard, United States Department of Agriculture.) HOP-VINE IjSTSECTS, GRAIN SMUTS 155 Hop Plant-louse {Plwrodon Immuli) — All hop regions, attacking hop plants and plum-trees. This plant-louse has what is called an " alternate food plant" — the plum-tree — upon which the winter and spring are passed. Louse spends summer on hop-vines, increasing grgatly in numbers and doing much injury by sucking juices of plants. Lice fly to plum-trees as soon as hop-vines mature and die. Here eggs are laid, and in spring several generations appear and mature before plant-louse agaiu returns to hop plant. The winged forms develop only at the time of the migrations. Teeatmext — Destroy all wild plum-trees in vicinity; spray domestic trees in fall or spring with strong kerosene emulsion; spray hop-vines with same and destroy vines as soon as possible each year. Hop-vine Borer {Hydrcecia immanis) — States east of the Mississippi River. Eggs laid on tip of vines just as they begin to climb. Larva bores into vine and later drops to the ground and bores into stem, emerging under ground and feeding oh flowing sap. Injury recognized by vine growth stopping, the tips hanging limp soon after pest begins its work. Tbeatmext — Pinch off and burn "muffle-heads" when vmes are tied, and early in June expose roots as far as junction of new vine with old, and apply a handful of ashes. For mildews affecting hop-vine apply Bordeaux mixture as often as may be necessary. (b) IMPORTANT DISEASES OF FIELD CROPS General Treatment for Grain Smuts — It has been found that the grain smuts, at least of barley, oats, rye, and wheat, survive the winter on the seed of these grains ; and hence any method whereby the spores can be destroyed with- out afEecting the germination of the seed will be more or less successful in prevent- ing the disease in the fields. The following treatments are those recommended : Modified Hot-Watbr Tkeatmei^t — For Tiaiiey, oats, and wheat, soak seed, enclosed in sacks, four hours in cold water; remove, wait four hours, then dip in hot water at 133° F. for five minutes; dry and plant. Water should be at 130° only, for barley, according to Selby (Ohio Bulletin 121). Formalin Treatment — For oats, rye, and wheat. Sprinkle seed with a preparation of formalin and water — 1 pint formalin to 50 gallons water. Shovel seed over several times and cover with a blanket or heavy canvas for several hours. Plant soon after treatment. Grains may be sprayed with the formalin as they are being put in the drill, but it is not so successful a measure. Barley Smuts {Ustilago Hordei, U. nnda) — All barley regions. Known also as the covered and the naked barley smuts. The spores of the latter may be scattered by the wind. 156 IXSECTS IXJUEIOrS TO GAEDEX CHOPS Loose Smut of Oats ( T'stilago Avenm) — One of the most destructive smuts, the estimated loss from it in the United States being $18,000,000 annually. Where fields are affected, the spores by harvest time have often blown away to other heads, leaving large areas of affected heads entirely bare. Rye Smut ( UrorysUs occulta) — Attacks leaves and stems. It has been rec- ommended that the seed be treated with hot water (127° F.) for five minutes, and then dried and planted. Loose Smut of Wheat {Usiilago Tritin) — This smut has no fetid odor as has the following species. It attacks both kernel and chaff, converting the head into a mass of spores. Stinkiug Smut of Wheat {Tilhtia fostens) — The spores of this smut have a fetid odor, and a small quantity of infected grain will contaminate a whole bin-full, often making it useless for milling. Wheat attacked by this species grows as tall as unaffected grain. The kernels only become diseased, and usually all in the head will be affected. Granaries and implements may be disinfected witli copper sulphate (2 pounds to 10 gallons of water), articles treated being sprayed or washed. Wheat Rust {Puccima graminis, P. rubigo-vera) — The only chance of pre- vention for tliis disease yet known is to plant resistant varieties and keep farm clean of vohuiteer wheat. Corn Smut ( Ustilago Zem) — This wide-spread disease attacks the ear, tassels, leaves, brace-roots and sucker-shoots, and produces the well-known black lumps on corn in the field. Tkeatmext — Cutting and burning the smut bolls before they burst will aid in its control. Every possible means should be used to control this disease, as it seems to be constantly growing worse. II. GARDEN CROPS (a) IMPORTANT INJURIOUS INSECTS Variegated Cutworm (Peridroma saucia) — Occurs throughout the United States and attacks a very large variety of plants. Chittenden, in writing on the species in 1901, enumerated over fifty different food plants. This insect, in life history, is similar to other cutworms, the species usually hibernating as a larva, though in some localities it has been found in the winter as a pupa. The larvae on coming from winter quarters will attack any garden plant, several weeds, some field crops, and even shade and fruit trees. This species has a number of OUTWOEMS, WOOLLY BEAR, ASPARAGUS-BEETLES 157 Fig. 73. Yellow Bear: a, larva; 6, pupa; c, moth. (Forbes.) insect enemies, and birds of several species feed upon it. The full-grown larva when first hatched is a decided green, with black head. It measures at maturity about If inches in length, and varies in color from verj' pale forms with faint markings to dark or dull brown mottled with gray or smoky black; along the sides of both forms, undulating velvety black lines. Motli has pale grayish brown fore-wings (darker at outer edges) and pale hind- wings. Treatment — Poisoned baits, such as clover or pigweed, or tlie poisoned bran mash. Apply before planting if possible. Plants may also be protected with paper or tin cylinders. Yello'w or Woolly Bear {Spi- losoma virginica, Fig. 73) — Occurs in all states, being one of the commonest of our pests; attacks all classes of vegetation. Caterpillars, large, dark red, and hairy; moths have yellowish white wings and yellow spots on body. Treatment — Arsenical sprays and hand-picking. Conimoii Asparagus-beetle {Crioceris asparagi, Fig. 74) — New Eng- land and Middle States and as far west as Northern Illinois. Adult beetles hiber- nate, lay eggs on asparagus shoots early in spring, and also feed on them. Young larvae upon hatching are slimy greeuish slugs with black dottings and black head and legs. They do great damage to young plants. The beetles are about \ inch long ; wing-covers black, with red or yellow markings ; thorax red, with black dots. Treatment — Dust young plants, when wet with dew, with plaster of Paris mixed with some arsenical poison; in hot weather simply brush larvae from plants; allow fowls to run in beds; leave a few shoots when marketing, as the beetles will deposit eggs on these, which then may be cut down and destroyed. Twelve-spotted Asparagus- beetle {G. duodecempunctata) — Middle States. Larva much like that of previous species; beetles red, with twelve black spots, fig. 74. common Asparagus-beetle: a, beetle; TnirATATTTisiT SnTTip nq for common asnarao-ns- *' '^Sg, c> newly hatched larva; d. full-grown IRBATMENT — same as lOr common asparagus larva; e, pupa. All enlarged. (Chittenden, beetle. United states Department of Agriculture.) 158 IISTSECTS IKTUEIOUS TO GARDEN CROPS Fig. 75. Pale-striped Flea-beetle. Adult below ; larva above. (Forbes.) Bean Ladybird, Westei'ii Bean-beetle {Epilachna corrupta) — We.stern States; is working its way eastward. Serious enemy to bean crop in West. Beetles \ inch long, yellowish brown, with four black spots on each wing-cover; larvaj slug-like and yellow, feeding on under side of leaf ; eggs laid in same place. TEEATME^'T — Kerosene emulsion under-spraj' will help in controlling them ; hand-picking still better. Bean Leaf-beetle {Ccrotoma trifurrala) — Gulf and At- lantic States. Somewhat resembles stripied cucumber-beetle. Strips leaves, except midrib and larger veins. Treatment — Clean culture, destroying especially all tick-trefoil and bush clover. Arsenical spray harmless to plant if used very early ; hand-picliing, in small gardens, successful, as beetles, larvte, and eggs may be secured. Destructive Green Pea-louse {Nedaroplwra pisi) — States north of ^Xorth Carolina and east of "Wisconsin. Greenish plant-lice, occurring in great numbers on peas, some clovers, and several other crops. They multiply very rapidly. Tkeatjiekt — Brush vines and follow up with cultiva/tor to bury the lice. Nuttall's Blister-beetle {Cantlians mdtaUi) — North- western States. Bright metallic-green or blue-green beetle, elongate and narrow. Sporadic in attacks, usually most abundant after a grasshojiper year ; feeds on all legumes and some other plants. Teeatmext — Larvffi of this beetle feed on the eggs of the Rocky Moun- tain locust and do much to hold it in check; unless very destructive it might be good policy not to destroy them. Can be controlled by beating into pans of kerosene and water or by driving from the fields, going up and down the rows, brushing the plants always in the same direction. This treatment will serve for all blister-beetles. Pale-striped Flea-beetle {Sysicna tomiata, Fig. 7."")) — From New York to Colorado. Feeds on beets and many other plants in the garden. Red-headed Flea-beetle {Sydena frontalis) — East of Rocky Mountains. Feeds on several garden plants, including beets, and on gooseberry, grape, and pear among cultivated fruits. Flea-beetles eat small ragged holes in the leares of the plants on which they are feeding, and EXEMIES OF THE BEET AND CABBAGE 159 often do considerable damage. The larvae have been found feeding on the roots of wild plants, and in one instance in Illinois those of the pale-striped species on the roots of corn. The life history of the red-headed flea-beetle is not yet known. The adult has been found feeding on smartweed. TbeatmEjST — Arsenical sprays or Bordeaux mixture will control beetles when found on the leaves. Beet Aphis {Pemjjliigus befce) — Washington, Oregon. Has done immense damage on tlie Pacific Coast. Insect is small, pale yellow or whitish, and covered with a flocculent mass much like the covering of the woolly aphis. Infests several wild plants; yarrows, knot-weed, and grasses — both native and introduced. Treatment — In districts where present do not put beets on new ground nor continue beets in ground where it has appeared. Svigar-beet Webworm, Garden Web worm (Loxostege species) — These webworms are widely distributed. They feed on the leaves of many garden plants, each individual under a separate web. Treatment — Arsenical sprays will control them, as the web is not dense enough to prevent entrance of poison. Zebra Caterpillar {Mamestra ficta. Fig. 7G) — Distributed over United States, and quite common on garden crops. Brilliantly marked with black and yellow and has a red head. Dr. Forbes has recorded about forty food plants for this species, including garden and field crops, ornamental plants, and trees. Treatment — Arsenical sprays will control this in- sect. Where arsenites are not desirable, use pyrethrum or hellebore, dry or mixed with water. Cabbage Butterfly {Pieris rapm) — Almost all the states. Larva, well known as a cabbage feeder, living on and in the head and eatiug large holes in the leaves; pure green and sparsely hairy. Adult, a white butterfly, commonly seen in gardens. Treatment — Catch butterflies with a net. Dust plants with lime, or spray young cabbage plants with arsenites; older ones may be treated with hellebore. Harlequin Cabbage-bug {Murgantialiistrionica) — Probably occurs in all states, especially east of the Rocky ]\Iountains. Brilliantly marked witl:u red and yellow.' In South very destructive to cabbage, sucking sap from leaves and stems. Fig. 76. Zebra Caterpillar. Larva and moth. (From Riley, United States Department of Agriculture.) 160 INSECTS IXJUEIOUS TO GARDEN CROPS Fig. 77. Cabbage Flea-beetle: o, larva b, beetle. (Eiley.) According to most authorities there are a large num- ber of broods each season. They hibernate as adults. Treatment — Hand-picking is usually successful ; spray- ing witli pure kerosene lias also been tried witli good results where bugs are gathered on trap crops of mustard planted along the gardens. Cabbage Flea-beetle [PhyUoirda vittata, Fig. 77) — Many states. Especially destructive in T FBB X'WS^^l larval state to cabbage, turnips, and radishes, feeding i swiff" \^lff'j/ r on roots; beetles also do appreciable damage by rid- dling the leaves with holes. Adult beetle about -^-^ inch long, blacJi, wilh two yellowish stripes which are sometimes broken into four yellow spots. Hiber- nates in this stage in sheltered places in fields. Treatment — Endeavor to control beetles with arsenical or Bordeaux sprays. Destroy all leaves and rubbish in fields in fall. Striped Cucumber-beetle {Dialrotica vittata, Fig. 7k) — All states east of Rocky Mountains. Attacks melon, cucumber, and squash vines in both larval and adult stages. Many otlier plants are fed upon by the beetle. Larva3 are subter- ranean, feeding on roots of plants of the cucumber family; adults have been found feeding on beans, peas, and ripe apples, on leaves, silk, pollen and unripe kernels of corn, and on several wild plants. Beetle is yellow, striped with black ; hibernates. Treatment — Arsenical sprays must be used very early, as later the beetles seem to feed but little. Trap crops of early squash may be used to protect cucumber plants, or plants may be covered with netted boxes until they are well out of the ground; plants may be treated with Paris green either wet or dry. If trap crops are used, plant main ci'op as late as possible. S qu a s h - b u g {A n a mi trlstis) — All states north of Virginia; farther west extends more to the south. Attacks all members of the cucumber family and some other garden plants. Adult bugs are popularly known as striped Cucumber-beetle: a, adult; h, ,,,■■, -. w mi • i i i larva; c, pupa; d, last segment of larva. (From "stluk-DUgS. ihey are grayish DrOWn, % CWttenden, Uuited States Department of Agri- • i i t, -it culture.) inch long; young bugs are greenish, and Fio STALK-BOEEES, PIOKLE-WOEM 161 infest under side of leaves, sucking juices and causing them to wilt. Adults attack not only leaves but tender stems and lay eggs in masses on under side of leaves. Treatment — Place chips or other shelters near vines and collect and kill bugs found beneath them. Look plants over twice a week and crush brownish egg-masses on under surfaces. Squash- vine Borer {Melittia satyriniformis) — Quite widely distributed. Larva of one of the "clear-wing" moths. Eggs are laid on stems of young vines, especially near roots, about time vines begin to run ; young larva bores into stem and devours interior. "When full grown it is nearly or quite an inch long, tapering toward each end. It is whitish, semi transparent, and soft ; head a dark brown. Larva leaves plant when full grown and forms cocoon in earth near by, where it remains until folloAving season, when moths appear and lay eggs. Attacked vines droop, look sickly, and eventually die. Treatment — When vines are first attacked cut out worms and destro}^ else there is no chance to save plant. A good pi'eventive is to bank up young vines with earth as far out as the first blossoms. Pickle-'worm {Margaronia nitidalis) — Melon and cucumber regions. There are two broods each year, the second wintering as pups in ground. Moths, having yellowish brown wings with purple reflections, lay eggs on vines and young fruit in early spring ; larva eats hole in fruit, thus working its way inside. When full grown it is translucent, yellowish white, tinged with green, with yellow head, and is an inch, or more, long. Treatment — Destroy larvse hy hand-picking; destroy infested fruit by gathering and feeding to hogs or by scalding. Potato Stalk-borer {Trichoharis trinotata, Fig. 79) — Maryland, westward to Missouri and per- haps farther. These small ashen gray beetles appear early in spring and puncture base of potato stem, hol- lowing out small cavities and laying in each one a single egg. The grubs which hatch are white, with brown heads, and burrow in stalk or branches from early August to September. They pupate near the stalks close to the surface of the soil, and the beetles Fig. 79. Potato Stalk-borer- a, beetle; T T ■! J • 1 m 6, larva, from side ; c, pupa ; d. sec- soon emerge and hibernate m pupal cell. • tion of potato stalk, showing larva The larva of a moth {Hydroecia nitela) also bores Datufai'Szri d!"naturaisizey*'(From Chittenden, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture.) into potato stalks. 162 IMPOETANT DISEASES OF GARDEN CROPS Treatjeent — Rake up and destroy all vines in the fall as soon as potatoes are dug. Keep down all weeds belonging to this famil}' — horse-nettle, jimson-weed, etc. Use fertilizer to enable plants to mature crop. Potato riea-beetle (Ejufn'x cucumeris) — Many states. "This small, blackish, faintly shining, minutely punctured species lives as a larva, so far as known, only on roots of solanaceous plants — potato, tomato, eggplant, tobacco, etc.'' (Forbes.) The beetles feed on these plants and many others, almost all garden plants being attacked. Tkeatmekt — Bordeaux mixture has proved a first-class repellant for flea-beetles of all kinds. Mixture may be prepared in usual waj-, and Paris green added to destroy other pests ; coat vines well. Striped Blister-lbeetle {Epiamtu vittafa, Fig. 80) — Florida to Canada, and west to Rocky JMoitntains. Attacks princijoally jjotato and tomato, but feeds on many other plant.s, cultivated and wild. Beetle is yellow, with four or six black stripes, and is well known to most farmers and gardeners; often called "the old-fashioned potato-beetle."' Larva probably feeds on grasshoppers' eggs. Treatment — Arsenites may be used, or the beetles may be driven from the fields as described under Nuttall's blister-beetle. Colorado Potato-beetle {Lcptinotarsi dercmlineata) — All states; the worst of potato pests. Stout, yellowish beetle, with ten black stripes on wing-covers; lays orange-colored eggs beneath leaves. The reddish black-marked larvee are voracious feeders. Several generations each year ; hibernates in both pupal and adult stages. -Hand-picking of eggs and insects. Thorough Paris-green spraying. Begin Fig. 80. Striped Blister-beetle. (Bruner. ) Treatjiext - treating the pests as soon as they appear, and keep at it. (b) IMPORTANT DISEASES OF GARDEN CROPS Asparagus Rust (Puccinia Asparagi) — Generally distributed in Europe, but only recently reported from this country. Badly infested fields mature plants uiiusually early and the plants have a brown hue, as if sapped by insects or injured by frost. Rusted plants ajDpear to have the skin blistered, and are brown beneath the ruptures, but other stages of this rnst also occur in the fields. Treatment — Bordeaux sprays appear to reduce affection about one quarter, (Halsted.) Burning rusted brush in fall is recommended. Mow field off clean, and burn all refuse and rubbish in the fall. ROTS, SCAB, MILDEW, WILT DISEASES 163 Brown Rot of Cabbage, Cauliflower, and Turnips {Pseuclomonas camijestris) — Eastern and Central States. Disease caused by bacterium which enters through wounds, is spread by transplanting from infested fields, or is carried by insects to plants. Diseased heads dwarf, rot, turn brown in places, and give off an ofEensive odor ; stems often affected. Losses from this disease are at times large. Tee'atjiext — Prevention is tlie only recourse. Keep the insects down ; plant on new land and only from healthy seed-heds ; avoid stahle manures contaminated with cabbage refuse ; keep tools clean ; keep animals out of infested fields ; destroy all mustard weeds ; remove and destroy affected plants. Beet Root-rot {RMzodonia betw) — Some Eastern States. Leaves of attacked plants blacken at base and later fall , disease then works into the crown and root, causing them to crack ; later they begin rotting. Whether this disease or another introduced through the cracks causes the rotting is not known. TEEAT^IE^•T — B. M. Duggar has recommended applying 60 to 70 bushels of air-slaked lime to acre before planting. He states that rot seems to work on soils lacking sufficient limy content. Potato Scab — A well-known disease of the potato tuber. Organisms caus- ing it usually found in soil on which potatoes have been grown the previous year. Treatjiext — Soak seed potatoes in formalin solution (1 pint to 30 gallons water) for two or two and a half hours ; then dry, and plant on (/round free from scab. Bacterial Rot of Onions, "Slippery Onions" — Outer or inner layers rot and leave contiguous layers sound. Damp or wet weather seems to favor disease ; hence, clean cultivation, thorough drainage, and dry storage will aid in jjre venting it. Downy Mildew {Plasniopora Cuhensis) — Occurs in many states, but often not until late in tlie year. Attacks cucumbers and squashes. Angular yellowish spots appear on leaves, which turn yellow rajpidly and die as if by frost. The mildew spreads very rapidly through the fields. Tkeat.mext — Repeated applications of Bordeaux mixture at intervals of 8 to 10 days are recommended by Selby Dodder of Cucumber and other Plants ■ — Affected piants should he destroyed immediately upon appearance of the parasite. Wilt Diseases — The various wilt diseases affecting cucumbers, melons, squashes, etc., are difficult to handle. Gathering and destroying infested vines, and waging successful war against insects, especially squash-bugs and cucumber- beetles, is good practice. 164 IXSECTS IXJURIOUS TO STOEED GRAIA^S III. GRAINS AND SEEDS IN STORAGE IMPORTANT INJURIOUS INSECTS Some of the insects affecting stored grains begin their life history in the field ; others, in the granary or warehouse. Preventive and remedial measures generally applicable are as follows : Oexbhal Trkatiibxt — Harvest as soon as grain is ripe ; clean and fumigate granary before using ; quarantine and fumigate infested grain ; malie bins as nearly air-tight as possible and fumi- gate with bisulphide of carbon. Heating seed-wheat to a temperature of 130° to 150° will de'troy moths without injuring the germinating qualities of the seed. Aiigoumois Grain-motli {Sitotror/a ccrealella, Fig. 81) — A'"ery common throughout South and gradually working north; reported from Ohio and Pennsyl- vania. By far the worst granary pest known. The destructive caterpillar of this moth chiefly attacks corn (Fig. S3) and wheat. Eggs are laid in field on grains or in bin on the stored products. Moth is dull grayish brown with wing- spread of about ^ inch; caterpillar grows to be | inch long and is white with a yellow head. Indian-Meal-moth {Plodia interjJunctdht) — All states. The omnivorous whitish caterpillar of this gray or reddish brown moth lives in Indian meal and other cereals, dried fruits, English walnuts, etc. Kernels of grain are spun together with a web. Mediterranean Eloui'-moth [Ephestia kuhuieUu) — Occurs along Atlantic coast and in G-ulf States, Min- nesota, Colorado, California, New Mex- FiG. 82. Pop-corn showing woi-k of Angomnois Grain- ICO, and doubtless otlier statcs ; rapidly moth. (From Eiley, United States Department of -■ ■ -v r xi 1 i n ,. Agriculture.) Spreading. Jioth has leaden gray fore- FiG. 81. Angoumois Grain-moth: a, eggs; b, larva at worl^; c. larva, side view; d, pupa; e, moth; /, moth, side view. (From Chittenden,United States i)epartment of Agriculture. ) WEEVILS AND GRAIN-BEETLES 165 wings, with transverse markings and dirty white hind-wings. Caterpillar lives in flours and meals, spinning a web and making the mass lumpy; also feeds on honeycomb. Special Trbatmext — Mills should be kept tightly closed at night and all incoming grain quarantined and fumigated. Granary Weevil {Calandra granaria) — All states. Flattened, shining, chestnut-brown snout-beetle {\ to \ inch long). Punctures kernels of grain and inserts egg, or, in case of corn, several eggs, the larvae feeding on interior of grain. Beetles do as much damage as larvse, or even more, feeding on outside of kernels. Saw-toothetl Grain- beetle {Silvaniis surinamensis. Fig. 83) — All states. Slender brown beetle (^ inch long), very common. Larva feeds on and infests cereals and dried foods. Confused Flour-beetle {Tribolium confusum) — Plump, shining, reddish brown beetle, less than \ inch long. Very prolific, causing much injury to flours, feeds, and prepared cereal foods. Sqviare-necked Grain- beetle or Cotton -beetle ( Catliartus gemellatus) — Southern States and even as far north as New York. Glossy reddish brown insect. Breeds in the field in corn in the ear and in cotton in the bolls, and continues breeding in harvested crops. Feeds principally on germs of grains attacked. Kice-weevil {Calandra oryzm) — Many states, but especially destructive to rice in the South. Dull-brown beetle with four red spots on wing-covers. Feeds on soft wheat, corn, husked rice, etc. Pea- weevil {Bruchus pisoruni) — All states, attacking peas in storage and field. Beetle, a stout brownish or black insect, indistinctly marked with white. Eggs deposited on surface of pods. Larvae bore into soft peas, and also live on stored peas. Beetles emerge in late summer or autumn, or in early spring before planting time. Special Treatment — Keep seed peas in tight boxes over one season before planting ; plant as late as possible ; fumigate seed peas thoroughly ; throw seed in water, and reject and destroy all that float. 12 Saw-toothed Grain-beetle: a, beetle; fo, pupa; c, larva; d, larval antenna. All enlarged. (From Cbitten- den, United States Department of Agriculture.) 166 PEUIT INSECTS AND DISEASES Bean-weevil {Bruchus ohfedus) — All states. Grayish brown beetle (-J inch long). Infests beans in storage, breeding there ; often attacks other legumes. Special Treatmekt — Same as for pea-weevil. Cow-pea-weevil {Bruclius chinensis); Four-spotted Bean-beetle {B. quadrimacuhttus) — Southern States, and west and north as far as Iowa. Resembles bean-weevil in habits and injurious work, and is amenable to same treatment. IV. FRUIT TREES The principal fruits grown in the United States that will be treated here in relation to the insects inhabiting them and the diseases affecting them are the ajjple, pear, peach, plum, cherry, and quince. A brief statement of the general spraying treatment necessary for each will be given and the principal insects and diseases discussed. The scale-insect enemies will be treated as a group, separately. Orchards of all kinds should be kept clean and free from rubbish, dead limbs, and old stumps. Care in pruning at the proper time and before the limbs get large will save many ugly wounds and prevent many diseases and insects from obtaining entrance to the trees. THE APPLE Speating Calen"dar The general spraying treatment required in the apple orchard, against both insects and fungi, may be summarized as follows: Tkbatmbnt Whex to Spray AGArKST 1. Bordeaux mixture with Paris green. Just as leaf buds expand. Scab, canker diseases, leaf -spot, bud-moth, case-bearers. ' 2. Bordeaux mixture with Paris green. 7-10 days later, or just as blossoms swell. Scab, leaf-spot, bud-worms, case-bearers, canker-worms, tent-caterpillars. 3. Bordeaux mixture with Paris green. Just after blossoms fall. Scab and other leaf diseases, canker- worms, tent-caterpillars, codling-moth. 4. Bordeaux mixture with Paris green. 10-14 days later. Scab, leaf -spot, etc., codling-moth, palmer- worm, Bucculatrix, and leaf feeders. THE APPLE 167 The last spraying is often especially necessary after damp or wet weather. Some experiment stations recommend three sprayings before the one marked 3 in the calendar. This will depend somewhat on the weather and advancement of the season. For the apple scab another treatment may be necessary after the fourth given above — say, a week or ten days latet'. For plant-lice, psyllids, and such leaf-sucking insects a 10 per cent, kerosene emulsion may be used, or, if applied before the leaves open out, it can be replaced by a stronger solution of whale- oil soap. (a) Important In"sects Injukioxjs to the Applb Woolly Apliis {Schizonevra lanigera, Eig. 84) — Thoroughly distributed over United States. The plant-lice of this species are readily recognized on the trunk and limbs by the woolly secretion attached to their bodies. When abundant it appears bluish white, not unlike some molds, beneath which may be found a cluster of minute, dark plant-lice. Lice are usually most abundant on roots, but appear above ground on branches, trunk, and young shoots, often collecting in an old scar. On large and small roots alike, they form gall-like growths of all sizes ; and by this fact and the smoothness of their galls these growths can usually be dis'tinguished from those of the crown-gall. Eig. 85 shows galls of both kinds. Species multiplies through most of year by birtli of living young from wingless females. In October, and later, winged females appear and fly freely, thus distributing the insect; females of next generation lay a single egg, and thus species is carried over winter. Tkeatmekt — For the aerial form 10 per cent, kerosene emulsion, or whale-oil soap, 1 to 7, may be suc- cessfully used. For the root form, place powdered tobacco around the tree under the surface of the ground, or treat with carbon bisulphide (which see). Apple-leaf Plant-lice {Aphis mali, and other species) — All apple-growing regions. On twigs of apple-trees in win- ter, especially on young stock, may be found ovul shining black eggs, placed near buds ^'%fngeI°d°Iil^FMaAat":)'^"^° ''""''= "' '"""' '' ^"P" ^' 168 FRUIT INSECTS AND DISEASES along stem, in crevices of bark or on roughened places. Early in spring tliey hatch and young lice suck juices of young buds and unfolding leaves, arresting growth and causing them to curl. On young trees considerable injury is often done by preventing free growth of the twigs. The last generation of the year produces both sexes. These pair, and the eggs are laid for the succeeding spring's first brood. Some of the species live a part of the year on grains and grasses. Treatment — Free use of 10 per cent, kerosene emulsion early in spring will aid in keeping these insects in check. Apple Leaf-hoppers {TyiMocyha mali, and other species) — Several forms occur on apple leaves throughout United States. Leaf-hoppers are sucking insects. Adult is minute, slender, with narrow wing-covers, and tapering from the head back. Those found on apple leaves vary from bright green to yellow, and often have brownish markings; May usually be found in all stages at any time during sum- mer, feeding on leaves, which appear spotted with white ; rarely do serious damage. Treatment — Kerosene sprays or other contact insecticides are the only means of combating these insects. CROW GALL Fig. 85. Woolly Aphis and Crown-galls, exterior views and sections. (After Forbes.) THE APPLE 169 Fig. 86. Flat-headed Apple-treeBorei-: 6, beetle; c, head of male; d, pupa, natural size. (From Chittenden, States Department of Agriculture.) a, larva; Twice United Flat-lieaded Apple-tree Borer {Clirysobothris femoratus, Fig. 86) — Larva has very flat head, wide, and with strong jaws; grows to about 1 inch in length. Beetle is bronze-colored, scarcely ^ inch long, with the head rounded and body tapering to a point. Tkeatment — Borers may be dug out or killed by inserting a wire in the burrow. Preventive methods are undoubtedly best. Tarred paper, wire mosquito- netting, or even ordinaiy newspapers may be used to wrap around trunk of tree, extending from ground up for 18 or 20 inches. This must be tied tightly at top and mounded up with an inch or two of dirt at bottom. Round-headed Apple-tree Borer {Sa- perda Candida, Fig. 87) — All apple-growing regions. Beetles are dark brown striped with white, and appear from late June to August ; eggs are laid on bark, or in its crevices, close to surface of ground. Young larva lives a year in the sap-wood, and later bores into trunk, changing in spring of third year to adult beetle. Larva is legless, white, and dis- tinguished from other apple-tree borers by its round head. Apple Twig-borer {AmpMcerus hicaudatus) — Twigs are injured by a small beetle which enters near the bud and makes a channel several inches long; injury is done in winter or early spring. Larva lives full life in dead or dying green brier roots or in grape roots. Borers sometimes attack grape twigs. Thbatmeut — Clean up neglected brier patches and vineyards and burn refuse in fall. Apple-tree Tent-caterplUar {CUsioccwipa aviericana, Fig. 88) — K"ew England, Middle and Central States ; working on leaves of fruit trees. Egg-masses may be found during winter and spring on small twigs of trees, appearing as small belt of brown encircling twig. This mass when broken open is found to be a large number of eggs closely fastened together and covered with a varnish-like sub- stance. Larvse hatch early in spring before leaves open out, and as soon as feed- ing commences begin to spin a web or "tent "in smaller forks of tree; feed in Fig. 87. Round-headed Apple-tree Borer; a, larva, from side; 6, larva, from above; c, adult female; d, pupa. Enlarfted one third. (From Chittenden, tjnited States Depart- ment of Agriculture.) IVO PRUIT INSECTS AND DISEASES colonies, and tent is enlarged, as larvae grow, until it sometimes nearly envelops a small tree. Full-grown larva is about 1^ inches long, quite hairy, dull black, with white line down back and a series of white dots on each side. Cocoons are spun of thin yellowish silk and concealed in tree or in some sheltered spot near by. From these, in fall, emerge dull-reddish moths having two oblique pale stripes on the fore-wing. These soon lay eggs on twigs and life cycle is completed. Tkeatment — Destroy egg-masses in winter and young nests in spring, burning latter with torch, or twisting them out and then burning. Branches around nest may be sprayed with an arsenite, which will prove eflfectual in killing worms. Yellow-necked Caterpillar {Datcma riiinistra) — MississijDpi Valley and eastward. Eggs laid in masses in spring by brownish yellow moths on under side of leaves. Insect hibernates in pupal state and moths emerge early. Worms feed in colonies, but without forming any web or tent; grow to be nearly 2 inches long, have a black head and a yellow "neck,"' and are marked with yellow and black stripes. When not feeding they have a peculiar habit of clinging to the twig with their false legs, and throwing back both the head and anal end. Become full grown in late July or early August, and, descending to ground, pupate beneath the surface. Treatment — Destroy colonies by hand when first noticed — several bare twigs near center of tree being usually the first thing to attract attention to them — and spray surrounding branches with a strong arsenite. Fall Webworm {Hyphantria cunea) — United States generally; attacks both fruit and shade trees. Insect hibernates as pupa, emerging in spring as rrioth with very white wings, which sometimes bear scattering black spots. Eggs are laid onleaves or small limbs in quite large masses, and young larvee make nest or web Fia. 88. Tent-caterpillar ; a, 6, larvae on nest ; c, egg- mass with gummy covering removed; d, cocoon. (Riley.) THE APPLE m in which they stay when not feeding. As they grow older they separate more, and are able to defoliate a considerable area of the tree. They pupate in early summer, and the second brood does far more damage than the first. These pupate in fall and remain in cocoons over winter. Treatment — Destroy webs when first seen ; use arsenical sprays on trees afiected. By keeping careful watch they can be controlled. Leaf-cruini)ler {Mineola indiginella. Fig. 89) — Apple-growing regions, and espe- cially in neglected nurseries and young or- chards; attacks also most other fruits. Eecog- nized in winter by presence, on twigs, of little irregular black masses, which prove on close inspection to be short-coiled tubes tightly fas- tened to twig. Early in spring larvae in these tubes begin to feed on young leaves, later binding together a small bunch of leaves, often at end of branch. When very abundant they sometimes attack young fruit and the bark of tender twigs. Larva is reddish brown, with dark brown head; becomes full grown in latter ^ig. 89. Leaf-crumpler; a, tube of larva; b, ^ cluster of tubes and leaves; c, head end of part of May; and pupates within tube. In larva; d, adult motb. (Riiey.) June a small gray moth emerges and begins to lay eggs. Larva upon hatching soon commences its case, and feeds on leaves throughout summer. Treatment — A single spraying with an arsenite applied when leaves are just unfolding will completely control pest. Cotlliiig-moth or Apple-"Worm {Carpocapsa pomonella, Fig. 90) — Thoroughly distributed over United States. Common flesh-colored worm that is found in "wormy" apples ; work so well known that it is not necessary to describe it. Pest hibernates as larva in tightly spun cocoon, hidden away in crevice of bark, under rubbish on ground, or in apple storage houses and cellars. Early in spring it pupates, and about middle of May moths commence emerging in time to lay eggs on the young fruit and leaves close by. Egg is a tiny, flattened, milk white form, not commonly seen. Larva commences feeding by crawling into calyx-cud of apple, thence boring its way to the center. From last of June and onward first brood become full grown; and soon pupate in crevices of bark. Moths emerge in a feu days and lay eggs on apples. Larvae hatching from these eggs rarely enter at end 172 FRUIT INSECTS AND DISEASES Fig. 90. Codling-moth: o, apple showing bur- row; 6, original entrance; e, larva; rf, pupa, /, g, moth; i, cocoon. (Riley.) of apple, but may bore in at any place. By first of August some of these are full grown, and descend to trunk of tree or to ground and spin a tight cocoon. There are but two broods in a year, the second brood hibernating as larvffi in tightly spun cocoons. Many worms are not full grown when apples are picked, and these thns find their way into storage houses or are shijjped to other places. Trbatiient — Spraying apple-trees immediately after the blossoms fall and before the calyxes of the fruit close, with a second spraying 7 to 10 days later with arsenites, will destroy most of these worms. In July trees may be banded with a piece of ordinary "gunny-sacking," 4 to 6 inches wide, which should be removed about every 10 days and worms destroyed. Storage houses and cellars should have screen doors and windows in order to prevent moths from escaping in the spring. Hogs allowed to run in orchard will destroy many worms in the fruit eaten. The "lantern-traps," and all the other so-called "moth-traps," in which lights are used to attract insects are of no value against the codling-moth or j^linii curculio, as neither is attracted by lights. In fact, the number of strictly beneficial insects caught by these "lantern-traps" is equal to, if not always much greater than, the number of injurious species captured. It will not pay the far- mer to use them. Green Fruit Worms {Xylina antcnnata, and other species) — Eastern and Central United States. Green or yellowish-green smooth worms which grow to a length of 1 to 1-J- inches. Feed on young fruit of almost any kind, esjiecially apple, peach, and pear. Hibernate as adult moths — dark, broad-winged night-fliers. Eggs are laid early iu spring and young larvaB attack both foliage and fruit. Are full grown by middle of June and joupate in ground, moths emerging early in fall. Treatment — Thorough cultivation late in summer may be of value in destroying the pupa , for the woi'ms, jar from tree as for plum curculio. They seem to be able to resist the arsenites ; probably because they eat but little of the surfaces treated. Caiiker-'ivoriiis, Spring {Paleacrita vernata, Figs. 91, 92) and Fall [Ani- sofUryx fometaria) — Distributed over United States, attacking fruit and shade trees, often causing serious damage. Early in spring, soon after leaves begin to put forth, small, green or dark green measuring worms may appear on trees, dropping to ground by a thread when disturbed. These pests, the canker-worms, usually occur THE APPLE 173 Fig. 91. Spring Canker-worm: a, larva; 6, eggs; c, d, details. (RUey.) Fig. 92. Spring Canker-worm, a, adult male; b, adult female; c, d, e, details. (Riley.) in such numbers as quickly to defoliate a tree. They are full grown by middle or last of May, descend to the ground, and form cocoons several inches below surface. Fall species comes out late in autumn and lays eggs on trees, while spring species appears the first warm days in late winter or early spring. The two sexes of the moths are very different, the males having thin ashy-gray wings crossed by several lines and bars, while the females are wingless. Soon after emerging females crawl up trunks of trees and lay eggs on twigs, buds, and smaller branches. Tre.^tmest — Thorough spraying with arsenites early in spring will control this insect in orchards. The application should be made as soon as leaves begin to open, and, if necessary, another treatment should be given in a few days. (See under Shade-Tree Insects for other remedies.) Pistol-case Bearer {Coleojjhora malivorella) — From Canada southward through Pennsylvania, and westward to In ebraska and jSTew Mexico. Hibernates in its little case as a partly grown larva, attacking buds, leaves, and flowers in early spring. As it grows larger it builds on to the old case pieces of stems and leaves. It feeds openly, never mining the leaves as does the next species, but is most destructive to petals and stems of flowers. It pupates the last of May, and in a few weeks moths appear and lay cinnamon-colored eggs on the leaves. The young caterpillar hatches in about a week, beginning immediately to construct a case, and in September it migrates to twigs and fastens itself up for the winter. Treatment — See under Bud Moth. Cigar-case Bearer ( Coleopliora fietcherella) — Canada and Eastern United States, and perhaps to some extent in other states. This species, which bears a case having a fancied resemblance to a cigar, feeds on buds, leaves, and flowers of fruit trees. It hibernates in its case as a half -grown larva, the case being firmly attached to a twig. In early spring the insects commence feeding on most tender foliage, and as they grow larger discard their case and mine between the leaf surfaces. At times the larva feeds on young fruit, but after flowers fall it gets its food chiefly by mining the leaves. Pupation occurs last of June. Soon thereafter a tiny moth emerges and lays eggs among the leaf hairs. The caterpillars hatch in July, and soon construct the case in which they winter. Tkbatment — See under Bud Moth. 174 FEUIT IXSECTS AXD DISEASES Bud Moth {Tiiutocera oceUana) — Probably occurs throughout most apple- producing states. During winter the larva lives securely fastened in a case con- cealed by a bud or rough plare in bark ; in early spring it comes forth and feeds on and in swelling buds and new leaves, tying them together -with silk for a retreat, the dry brown leaves often being seen at the ends of the twigs. Larva dark brown, with darker head, being when full grown nearly ^ inch in length ; pupates in May, the small, dark ashy-gray moth emerging early in June. Eggs laid by first of July; larvEe which hatch from them feed near tips of branches until hibernating time. Treatment — For the last three pests foregoing — lesser apple insects, as they might be called — the same treatment tan be applied — (ai'ly tliorov.rjh arsenical spraying. If buds are thoroughly coated with spray there will be but little trouble with these insects. The case-bearers may need a second treatment when flower buds are swelling. Do not spray open flowers. Apple-leaf Buccvilatrix {Burculatrix iwmifdieTla) — Most Eastern and Xorthern States, and to a less extent in Central and Southern. Does but little damage as a general rule, thoirgh it may be found mining the leaves in early sum- mer. Larva makes elongate white-ribbed cocoon and fastens it to branch of tree. Cocoons are often seen in fall and winter, and are sometimes objects of much concern to those who find them. Apple-fruit Maggot {Rhagoletis pomoneUn) — Xew England, south to Xew Jersey, and westward at least to Michigan and Xorthern Illinois. Early in summer, from eggs laid by a snmll two-winged fly on the fruit, hatch small, white, footless maggots, which channel the fririt in every direction, utterly ruin- ing it and causing it to rot and fall. Wherever the maggot occurs it is undoubtedly a serious p^est. Treatment — Destroy infested fruit by hand-picking or by allowing hogs to mn in orchard. Thorough cultivation in fall may aid in checking the pest, as it pupates in ground. Seventeen-year Locust {CiidiJa septcmderim, Fig. 93) — Adults injure apple and many other trees and shrubs by laying eggs in tender twigs and smaller branches ; larva, upon hatching from egg, falls Fig. 93. The Seventeen-year Locust: a, adult; c. pupa from which 6, an adult, has emerged; d, egg-punctxu-es. (From Eiley, United States Department of Agriculture.) THE APPLE 175 Buffalo Tree-hopper: a, adult; 6, c, d, tarsus, autenna, and wing; /, 3, tip of abdomen, showing ovipositor; e, h, i, details. (From Riley, United States Department of Agriculture.) M ground and burro-ws beneath soil, feed ing on juices of roots ; adult emerges in spring of seventeenth year after larva entered ground. Twigs in which eggs have been laid either break down later or become deformed in gi-owth. Treatjiext — There is no remedy for the trouble. It would be good practice to cut off the affected twigs, as they will never make bealtby branches. Do not plant young trees the year a brood is to appear. Buffalo Tree-hopper {Ceresa fig. 94 lulahis, Fig. 94) — This small grass-green insect often attracts attention by its tri- angular shape and leaping powers ; may be seen on twigs and leaves of several orchard trees; damages apple twigs by laying eggs in slits in new growth. Teeatmext — Insects difficult to combat ; best remedy is vigorous pruning of affected twigs in fall. Red Spider {Tetranyclius Mmamdatus, Fig. 95)— ^ While this is not an insect it often occurs in countless numbers on trees in the orchard. The red spider is a small mite and feeds on juices of leaves of several trees and shrubs. On apple-trees they sometimes cluster in masses at base of larger limbs and on trunk, spinning a thick network of fine silken threads. Teeatment — Spraying thoroughly with ordinary cold water has been found beneficial. (b) liiPOKTAST Diseases of the Apple Bitter-rot {Gleospormm fructigenuyn, Fig. 96) — A de- structive disease, occurring over most of the United States, and at times causing immense losses in fruit. Disease may be readily recognized. It begins in the form of one or more small brown specks, wbicli soon enlarge and become distinct dark- colored spots, circular and sunken ; tissue beneath always re- mains dry and tough ; numbers of pustules soon form over affected area, arranged in concentric circles and covering all but outer margin; pustules break and discharge a fine pinkish mass, which later turns ashy gray. The apples are affected with the fig. 95. Red spider, disease throughout, and shrivel up into hard wrinkled bodies nSed'^'cHar^ey!)''^' ne FRUIT n^SECTS AND DISEASES Fig. 96. Bitter-rot canker. (Blair, Dlinois Bulletin 77.) known as "mummies," which sometimes remain on tree throughout winter and until late the following year. The diseiise lives over winter in the old dried fruits or in wound- like infected spots on limbs. It is distributed by means of spores carried from the mummies or cankers by splashiug drops of raiii, or by insects. The first infection of the year evidently comes from the cankers, and the spores are carried by rain drops to the apples below, thus spreading in a cone-shaped form. Treatment — Disease travels slowly from orcliard to orchard and even from tree to tree. Destroy every affected apple as soon as noticed, and search for and destroy the canker in the tree; look for these sources of infection just above the infected apples ; remove and destroy all mummies. Disease can be kept in check by repeated applications of Bordeaux mixture. Leaf-spot, Apple Blotch [Phyllostida pirina) — Caused by fungi which attack leaves and sometimes fruit of apples and pears ; appears on leaves soon after they unfold, in form of small reddish-brown spots, which later turn gray; often confused with "spray burn" which, however, leaves darker markings. On the fruit this disease occurs as small, black, irregular spots, a number of which often unite in a blotch; not known to do serious damage to fruit. Trbatmext — Early Bordeaux spraying before leaves open, and again, if necessary, after fruit has formed. Leaf-blight ( Entomosporium maculatum ) — Disease appears early, and much resembles the one just described ; attacks quince as well as apple; leaves sometimes become so badly diseased that they fall. Treat.mext — Spray early with Bordeaux, and if necessary several times, until August. Apple Rust, Cedar Fungus {GiimnoKporangium macropus) — Occurs wherever red cedars and junipers are grown ; sometimes a serious pest on apple and quince. On apple leaves this disease is first noticed in May or June, when bright yellow spots appear ; fruit is often attacked in same manner ; spots are caused by spores blown or otherwise carried from the common "' cedar balls." Theatme^-t — Destroy surrounding cedar and juniper trees ; or, if this is not desirable, pick off cedar balls in fall and burn them. Bordeaux spray on the cedars early in spring has been found in some cases quite effective. THE APPLE 177 Fig. 97. Apple-scab on apples. Apple-scab {Fusicladlum dendrilicum, Fig. 97) — All 'apple region's. This fungous disease attacks, both leaves' and iruit of the apple and sometimes other' fruits. On the upper, surfaces of leaves irregular soot-colored spots are formed; on fruit the spots are at first of this same color, but later enlarge, get rough and black, check growth of apple, and cause it to become distorted and worthless as first-class fruit. Sometimes petioles and yonng twigs are attacked and even fruit stems injured. Tkeatment — While it is impos- sible to exterminate so wide-spread and common a disease, it can be thoroughly controlled by careful, conscientious spraying. Bordeaux mixture as the buds are swelling, just before the blossoms open, just after blossoms fall, 7 to 10 days later, and even again, if necessary, has been found to give best results. The last two sprayings may cause some burning of fair-skinned apples. Crown-gall of Apple (Fig. 85) — Many portions of United States and spreading rapidh-, being carried by infested nursery stock. The cause of the dis- ease is not known but has been ascribed to some form of bacteria not yet isolated. It is a dangerous disease, and growers should be very careful to see that nursery stock is absolutely free from it. "It most commonly affects the crown of the tree, producing a dark, rough, abruptly protruding tumor, varying in size from a pea to tliat of the fist, or larger. A badly affected tree is likely to show signs of starva- tion, its growth ceasing and its foliage having a sickly yellow look. Young trees often perish from the disease, and even large orchard trees will die and break off at the base. It is certainly contagious in some forms and perhaps in all. What is apparently a form of this same gall is found growing above the surface of the ground, at first appearing on the trunk as a small lump or tubercle, which later grows into a large wart-like excrescence and eventually girdles the trunk." (Forbes.) Young galls of this kind also start out on the limbs, especially along the under side, and as they grow older darken and get rough in the same manner. On old galls small white or yellow points may be seen early in spring, which later take on the darker color, harden, and break open into rough cankery spots. Treatment — There is no known cure for the disease. Destroy all trees found infested, or cut off the galls appearing on the limbs and paint over with Bordeaux wash. 178 FEUIT INSECTS AND DISEASES Root-rot ( TeJephora galladina) — A disease common in orchards, especially in those grown on old forest-land or where diseased trees formerly grew ; usually fatal ; trees affected suffer general loss of roots, and have a " starved and enfeebled look." Often a mass of gum and scaly bark collects at the base of the tree, or large irregular white layers of fungous growth spread between the bark and the wood or run through the ground from root to root. Several species of mushrooms that seem to be the fruiting bodies of some of these "rotten-root" fungi grow at the base of the trunk. Treatment — As this, fungus seems to be capable of spreading in the ground from tree to tree, it is well not to plant any young trees on land where old diseased ones have been until after thorough cultivation. An affected tree is worthless and should be at once destroyed. Apple-tree Canker, Apple-fruit Black Rot {Sphan-opsis malorum) — Occurs over a large part of the apple-growing area of the United States. Disease affects limbs and fruit of apple, pear, and quince. Large limbs blacken, and bark roughens and splits, disclosing wood and causing a very rough, ugly-looking canker. Can be distinguished from the bitter-rot canker by the fact that in that canker the bark does not split away and disclose wood beneath. Black rot of the ajople is caused by the same fungus, but rarely becomes a serious menace to the grower. Treatment — Remove and destroy affected limbs ; cut out diseased bark, and paint over all wounds with Bordeaux wash. When spraying in regular orchard treatment, see that the limbs are well covered with the spray. Apple-twig Blight {Bacillus amylovorus) — Caused by the same bacterium as the pear blight ; rarely affects much more than the young growth on twigs. Spraying has not been found of much avail ; cut off and destroy twigs affected. (See Pear Blight.) Ripe Rot {Monilia fructigena) — See under Phm. THE PEAR The general spraying treatment recommended for the apple will ap)ply to the pear, with the addition of a kerosene emulsion SjJray lefore the buds burst in the spring in order to control the pear-blister mite and psyllids. The pear is attacked by many of the apple enemies, such as the codling-moth, green fruit worms, case-bearers, and tent-caterpillars, and several of the leaf fungi and canker diseases work on this plant as well as on the apple. THE PEAR 179 Fig. 98. Sinuate Pear-tree Borer: a, larva; t, beetle; c, pupa, enlarged. (Banks, United States Department o£ Agri- culture.) (a) Important Insects Injueious to the Pear Sinuate Pear-tree Borer {Agrilus sinuatus., Fig. 98) — This dangerous enemy of the pear is proving difficult of control. It is as yet confined to some of the Eastern States, but will undoubtedly appear elsewhere Larva causing trouble is about two inches long when full grown, white or dirty white in color, with broad flat head and small jaws. Feeds for two years before attaining full growthj and in that time makes " immensely long zigzag galleries " between bark and wood, finally girdling tiee and killing it. Beetle is small (J- inch long), narrow, and dark colored, looking very much like other species of its genus, being square-headed and tapering back almost to a point. It appears in May or early June and lays eggs in crevices of bark, the slender whitish larvae soon hatching and commencing their fatal work. Tkbatmbnt — Xo absolutely successful treatment has yet been found. The general recom- mendations for the apple-tree borers will apply, and newspapers or other bands may be fastened about the tree to prevent eggs from being laid on it. Wire netting will not serve, as the beetle or young larva can readily pass through it. Thorough whitewashing of the trunks and lower limbs will aid in keeping the borers out. A little Paris green might be added to the whitewash. Pear-leaf Blister {Eriophyes pyri) — Occurs wherever pears are grown. The injury done the leaf and known by the above name is "caused by minute, four- legged mites which lire within the substance of the leaf, and pass the winter in the bud scales at or near the ends of the twigs." (Forbes.) There appear at first on the leaves ''reddish, blister-like spots, \ inch or more in diameter." These gradually change, through green, to black and unite, forming corky spots. The mites often destroy the larger part of the leaf tissue of a tree. Treatjient — Thorough spraying of infested trees in winter with strong kerosene emulsion diluted with 5 to 7 parts water, covering especially the terminal buds ; hand-picking and destruc- tion of leaves in early spring, when but a few are infested. Pear-slug {Selandria cerasi) — Light-colored slimy larvee of a "saw-fly," a four-winged fly, which appear on the leaves early in the year and often skeletonize them. Worms feed on upper surfaces only, but to such an extent that trees are sometimes completely defoliated. Teeatiiext — Usually controlled when spraying for other insects, but if. not, give a thorough treatment with Paris green or other arsenical spray. Other Insects Attacking the Pear — See Index. 180 FRUIT IXSECTS AXD DISEASES (b) Important Diseases of the Pear Peai'-blight, Fire-blight, Apple-twig Blight {Bacillus amylo- vorus) — A contagious liaeterial disease affecting several of the fruit trees, but doing greatest damage to the pear. Infests cells of plant, multiplying in sap and event- ually permeating and destroying the whole tree. Bacteria are supposed to get entrance at blossoming time, the infection perhaps being carried by insects. Tkeatme>"T — Cutout afEected part several inches below where it shows disease, and paint wound with Bordeaux wash. There being no known cure, trees should be cut out and burned after disease has once reached large limbs and body. Other Pear Diseases — See Index. THE PEACH Spraying Calendar The general spraying treatment for leaf-feeders and diseases affecting the peach is as follows : Theatmext "Whem to Spray Against 1. Bordeaux mixture and Paris green. Before buds swell. Leaf-cui-1, brown rot, bud-moth. 2. Bordeaux mixture and Paris green. After blossoms fall. Leaf-curl, brown rot, plum-cur- culio, leaf -feeders. 3. Bordeaux mixture and Paris green. Two weeks later. Brown rot and leaf -feeders. 4. Ammoniacal copper-carbonate. When fruit is well formed. Brown rot. On the peach, as on other frhit trees, kerosene emulsion may be used in 10 per cent, strength for such sucking insects as need treatment. As peach foliage is more tender than that of other trees, Bordeaux treatments need to be carefully given and the mixtures well prepared. (a) Important Insects Injurious to the Peach Peach-tree Borer {Sannino'idea exitiosa, Fig. 99) — All peach regions. May be recognized by gummy exudations about lower parts of trunk and often by sickly appearance of tree. Insect passes the winter in a cocoon near outer portion of burrow ; pupates and emerges as a moth in the spring. Male moths have clear wings and females purplish front wings and clear hind wings. Eggs are laid from May to July, according to latitude, and are placed singly on bark of tree near base. Larva, upon hatching, burrows into bark and mines between it and sap-wood THE PEACH 181 Fig. 99. Peat h-tree Borer: a, adult female; 6, adult male; c. tuU- gi'own larva ; d, female pupa ; e, male pupa ; /, pupa skin extended partially from cocoon. All natural size. (.From Marlatt, United States Department of Agriculture.) until fall; is inactive in winter, completing growth early the next year ; is soft, pale yellow in color, with a dark, shining head, and grows to be over 1 inch in length. Moths emerge in South very early in spring, bnt in the E^orth usually not until May or June. There is but one brood a year. Tee ATMEST — Digging out borers, killing by inserting a wire, and pro- tecting trees from their entrance. Last named is undoubtedly the best measure, but it is not uniformly successful, and trees should always be looked over each year to see that no larvse are getting a start. The same protective treatment as recommended for apple borers may be used ; that is, banding with newspapers or tarred paper. Fruit-tree Bark-beetle {Scolytus i-ugulosus, Fig. 100) — From Michigan south to Georgia and Alabama and from Massachusetts west to Arkan- sas. Beetle attacks all the orchard trees, but seems to be found more abundantly on plum and peach. Adult is a small brownish -black beetle, \ inch long, very active, and as early as the middle of March begins to form bur- rows in the bark. After penetrating to the sap-wood the female constructs a brood cham- ber, in which eggs are laid. Larvee upon hatching soon excavate little side galleries which they widen as they grow, full-grown larvae crossing and recrossing galleries until there is a network of grooves all under the bark. The injury is recognized from outside by tiny shot-hole-like openings scattered all over the bark. Larva is white, with yellowish head and brown Jaws, and its surface is much wrinkled. Two broods occur in the Xorth, and more Fig. lOO. lYult-tree Bark-beetle: adult beetle, highly magnified; twig showing holes, natural size, and twig showing burrows. (Forbes.) have been reported from the South. 13 182 FRUIT IXSECTS AXD DISEASES Treatment — Carbolic acid soap may be applied to trees to deter the beetles from making attempts to bore into the bark. This should be applied in March or April just before the warm days of spring. Clean culture TviU be found one of the best means of keeping this little pest out of the orchard. Black Peach-aphis {ApJds persicce-niger) — Most of the peach-growing regions. Worlis on peach roots in very much the same manner as does the woolly aphis on apple roots. The wingless lice live mostly on roots, bnt early in spring some climb up and infest the young twigs, where the winged form develops and then migrates to other trees. The wingless insects are reddish brown or black, and the winged females jet-black or dark brown, with yellow marks on legs. Affected trees have sickly foliage, the leaves being light green or yellowisli, with the edges slightly rolled. Tkeatmest — Use tobacco about roots or kill with carbon bisulphide fumes. Kerosene emul- sion used on infested trees in spring and early summer might prevent the infestation of other trees. Other Insects Attacking the Peach — See Index. (b) IiiPOETANT Diseases of the Peach Crown-gall of Peach (Deiidrojjhagns glolosus) — Throughout United States, affecting peach, apricot, and almond. This crown-gall has been proved very satisfactorily by Professor Toumey to be a contagious disease caused by a minute parasitic organism belonging to the "slime molds." In appearance it is very much like the crown-gall of the apple. TiiEATMEXT — No treatment known which can be relied upon to cure. Dig up and destroy affected trees, and be careful to examine roots of nurseiy stock before planting. Leaf-curl [Exoascus deformans) — ilost peach-growing regions. Leaves become distorted and curled, fii'st near end of twig and later along entire branch. As disease progresses, affected leaves get paler, then become covered with a grayish mealy substance, and often fall. Treatjient — Can be easily controlled by early thorough spraying with Bordeaux mixture. Peach-yellows — A highly contagious disease attacking peach and some varieties of plums; cause, unknown. Presence may be recognized by yellowish foliage, general sickly appearance of tree, premature ripening of fruit, and presence of reddish spots in flesh of fruit ; leaves often fall. Treatment — Dig up and burn all afOected trees, being careful that the diseased tree is not dragged against a healthy one, as it is believed that infection may occur in this manner. PEACH AND PLUM 183 Little Peach. Disease — Another contagions disease of unkiiowii cause. Trees, especially their leaves, look sickly, and fruit ripens late, scarcely attaining a third its ordinary size. Treatment — Dig up and bum all afEected trees. Peach Fruit-spot, Plum-scab, Cherry-scah — This is evidently the same disease, whether occurring in the peach, plum, or cherry, and it also attacks the apricot. It at first produces purple blotches on the fruit, which later cause the skin to split. It works on young bark in the same manner. Treatjient — Thorough Bordeaux sprayings early in spring, and again, later, as given in calendar, will control this disease. Brown Rot {MonUia fructigena) — Fungous disease of the peach fruit, somewhat more likely to be prevalent after warm, showery weather. Infection is from mummies remaining on the trees, and perhaps from other causes. The peaches rot rapidly when once started, many falling from the trees. Trbatjient — Destroy all mummies and diseased fruit. The regular sprays for the leaf -curl, with additional ones as given in the calendar, will control this disease. Other Peach Diseases — See Index. THE PLUM Speatii^g Calendar The general spraying treatment for the plum is as follows : TbeatmeisT When to Sprat Agaikst 1 . Bordeaux mixture and Paris green. When leaf buds open. Bud-worms, case-bearers, shot-hole fungus. 3. Bordeaux and Paris green. When fruit is just formed. Curculio, green fruit worms, fruit rot. 3. Bordeaux. Two weeks later. Brown rot. 4. Ammoniacal copper-carbo- nate. When fruit is large. Brown rot. Kerosene emulsion for plant-lice in the early spring. (a) Important Insects Injurious to the Plum Plum-curculio or "Little Turk" {Conotrachelus ne7iup'har, Fig. 101) — • Eanges through Atlantic States and westward to Missouri River, working on plum, peach, pear, apple, cherry, and quince. The work of this pest is first noticed 184 FRUIT INSECTS AXD DISEASES Fig. 101. Plum-cureulio: a, larva; 6, pupa; 0, beetle; d, young plum showing crescent. (Riley.) when the fruit is still small by the crescent-shaped spot cut by the beetle when pre- paring to deposit her egg. The larva is well protected from attack with any insec- ticide. Affected plums and some other fruits drop in a short time after larva begins feeding around stone. Larva is a small, stout, dirty white legless maggot, which when full grown pupates in the ground; beetle emerges from ground in latter part of summer, and immediately goes into hibernation until sjDring. Treatment — Sucress is attained in treating this insect only by persistent and continued effort. Spraying with arsenites will aid to some extent, but the most successful measure is to spres^d a sheet or other cloth on the ground in early morning, soon after plums begin to form, and jar the tree, collecting and destroying beetles that fall. This must be kept up for several days. In commei'cial orchards the cloth is stretched on a frame and the persons bearing it stand one on each side of tree, while another jars it. Other Insects Attacking the Plum — See Index. (b) Impoetant Diseases of the Pluji Black-knot {PlowrigJdia morbosa) — Widely distributed over the United States, in some places doing much damage to both plum and cherry-trees ; also attacks wild plum and wild cherry. Disease first appears as a thickening or swelling of the twig, which, becoming thicker on one side, soon breaks through bark, a spongy mass growing out, and large, sooty-black, wart-like masses appear, broken by deejj fissures. Where the knot girdles the twig or branch it soon kills it. Disease is spread from tree to tree by spores carried by wind or other agency. The most destructive and deadly of plum diseases, and every effort possible should be made to stamp it out. Trees are sometimes killed by it in a couple of years. Teb.^tment — Cut ofl and burn all parts showing any trace of the knots, cutting some dis- tance below the last sign of affection, washing cut surfaces with Bordeaux mixture, or, if large, painting them over thoroughly with Bordeaux wash. Shot-hole Fungus ( Cijlindrisporium padi ) — Disease appears first as a minute brown spot with reddish margin on leaf. Spot soon gets darker, and finally brownish black, at which stage many spots break away from surrounding tissue and fall out. This causes the characteristic appearance from which the name is taken. Tkeatment — Bordeaux sprays will control if applied early. CHEEEY AXD QUIXCE 185 Yellows — Attacks Japanese plums. See under Peach. Ripe-fruit Hot {Monilia frudigena) — Prevalent in most plum-growing regions. Due to attack of a fungus that probably lives over in a mummy on the tree ; fruit ripens early and at the same time rapidly rots. Tkeatmext — Keep trees clear of infested fruit; use Bordeaux mixture according to calendar. Plum-pockets {Exoascus pritni) — Xot common over the country but often quite serious locally. Attacks fruit soon after blossoming time, causing it to turn yellow, then dark brown and black ; fruit usually falls in June. Treatment — Spray with Bordeaux mixture when buds are beginning to swell and again just before blossoms open. Other Plum Diseases — See Index. THE CHERRY IlTPOETAXT IXSECTS AXD DISEASES The cherry requires the same general treatment as the plum. It is infested by some of the worst pests of the other fruits, among whicli are the fruit bark-beetle, pear-slug, black-knot, fruit rot, and leaf -spots, besides many others. Cherry Maggot {RhagoJetis cingulata) — Xot common. The life history of this insect is very similar to that of the apple maggot. Treatmext — The chief recommendations have been fall plowing, to destroy pu^a, and com- plete destruction of all infested fruit on trees as soon as seen. This last, if done in uime, would probably prevent its spread in the orchard. Clierry Aphis {Myzus cerasi) — Most cherry regions, but as a rule does little damage. A small black plant-louse, occurring as soon as leaves start in early spring. The young hatch from eggs laid on twigs and buds the preceding fall. ^lultiplies in the usual manner of plant-lice through summer ; hiberaates in egg state. Treatment — Kerosene emulsion on tree just before eggs are laid, and perhaps in spring soon after eggs hatch. Other Cherry Insects and Diseases — See Index. THE QUIXCE Impoetaxt Insects ax'd Diseases T7ie general treatment for the quince, in the matter of spraying, is practically the same as that for the apple. The quince is attacked by nearly all the apple enemies of rank, and also by pear- blight and shot-hole fungus. Quince Black Rot — This is identical with the black rot of apples. 186 IMPORTANT SCALE INSECTS Fruit-spot and Leaf-spot — These are caused by the bacillus of the pear leaf-blight. Quince Kust — Caused l^y same fungus as rust of the apple, and remedied by cutting out cedar ti-ees. Sometimes assumes on the quince a serious character, extending into tissue of young branches und deforming them. Other Quince Insects and Diseases — See Index. V. IMPORTANT SCALE INSECTS OF FRUIT TREES, BUSH FRUITS, AND VINES Range and Importance — Within recent years the scale insects have attained such an importance through tlieir multiplication and rapid spread over the United States, that they are regarded as highly dangerous pests, and in many states hiive necessitated stringent legislation. All herein treated are capable of doing serious damage to trees and vines. A few general statements regarding tlieir lives will apply to all the species treated. The scales belong to the same order of insects as do the plant-lice, squash-bugs, leaf- hoppers, and other sucking insects injurious to vegetation. Life History — From the outward appearance, one not informed would scarcely consider them insects at all ; but upon raising the tiny scale, the insect may be seen beneath it. This insect is a louse, ajDpearing to the naked eye only as a soft mass affixed tightly to the bark. Its long thread-like beak or sucking tube is driven far into the wood, and by means of it the louse gets its food — the sap of the tree or vine. The scale is a protective covering secreted from the body of the louse after it has affixed itself to the bark. The larger number of scale iusects hatch from eggs laid by the female under her scale, which protects them after she has died and dried away. In the case of the San Jose scale and the European fruit- scales, the young are usually brought forth alive, and this is occasionally true of some other scales also. The peach Lecanium secretes no true scale, but remains exposed all its life. The otlaer species here referred to affix themselves to the tender bark soon after hatching and begin in a short time to secrete their armor. Difficulty of Comlbating — By reason of the protective scale it is often a difficult matter to destroy the occupant beneath. Where the period of hatching is well defined a thorough treatment with a contact insecticide may be made before the scale of the louse has had time to become protective. Treatment for the more fully developed insect in those species that pass the winter partly grown can best SAN JOSE SCALE 187 be giTen after the leaves have fallen in autumn and before the buds open out in the spring. Most authorities seem to agree that the later the spray can be applied in the spring the better the results will be. In the winter no injury need be apprehended from the use of substances for spraying which would cause the destruction of foliage and often the death of the trees in the growing months. The scales to be treated have been divided into two classes : those belonging to the genus Aspidiotus, and often known as the /'ring and nipple " scales ; and those of various other genera, the most of which pass the winter in the egg stage beneath the female scale. THE RING AND NIPPLE SCALES To this genus belongs the most destnictive of the scale insects — the San Jose scale. Several other species at times do considerable damage. The species all closely resemble each other, and it is difficult for the ordinary observer to distin- guish them by the means usually at hand. Whenever a scale is found about which there is any doubt, the much safer plan is to send specimens to some com- petent authority for determina- tion. San Jose Scale {Aspid- iotus perniciosus, Fig. 102) — Widely distributed over the United States and rapidly spreading. It infests practi- cally all our fruit trees, many shade trees, and several shrubs. Trees badly infested show dark scurfy patches on the bark, and the fruit, when present, is often well covered with the scale. On the fruit and young CL +„•„„ j.u„_„ -;„ „„,,„il„ „ „„J/I4,,i, Fia. 102. San Jose Scale: a, natural size; 6, magnified. (Howard twigs tliere is usually a leacUsn and Marlatt, umted states Department of Agriculture.) 188 IMPORTANT SCALE INSECTS discoloration where the scale is present. The single scale is nearly circular in outline in the female, grayish in color in mature specimens, with an almost jet- black central nipple surrounded by one or more distinct yellowish or grayish rings. The crowding of scales on bark often changes the circular outline. The young scale is jet-black, evenly circular, and shows the central ni23ple and two depressed rings very plainly. The San Jose scale difiers from the European fruit-scale in general appearance only in the presence of the black nipple, and from the Forbes and the Putnam scales by the fact that it lacks the distinct brighter-colored exu- vium located near the center of those scales. Tlie insect passes the winter, partly grown, beneath scale. In spring it soon attains maturity, and the males, which are winged, appear and mate with females. No eggs are laid, female giving birth to living young. The number of broods is stated to depend on length of season, as females produce young when they are from "thirty-five to forty days old" and continue to do so for abou.t six weeks. Tkeatment — Use lime-sulphur-and-salt wash after leaves are off trees. If possible to treat trees just before buds swell in spring, do so, as treatment at that time will probably be the most effectual. Treat trees thoroughly, seeing that every branch and twig is well covered with solu- tion. The wash will not injure the trees. If for any reason the materials for this wash cannot readily be obtained, whale-oil soap can be used on all trees but peach at the rate of 3 pounds soap to 1 gallon water. For summer treatment for control of scale use 10 per cent, kerosene emulsion. Eiiroiieaii Fruit-scale {Aspidiotus ostrewformis) — Known as yet only in some of the Northern States. Occurs on all orchard trees. This scale passes the winter partly mature and by the last of June becomes full grown, the females soon afterward giving birth to living young. " There appears to be but one brood a year, at least in the Northern States." (Banks.) It very closely resembles the San Jose scale, although the young scales are paler, and the adult female scale is not so nearly circular and lacks dark central nipple. Tkeatment — Same as for San Jose scale. Putnam's Scale {As^ndiofus ancylus) — Widely distributed over the United States, and attacks all orchard trees and many shade trees ; rarely occurs, however, in abundance on fruit trees. Hibernates as a full-grown insect, the females laying eggs late in spring or early summer, and the young hatching in July ; one brood a year. Adult scales of this species also very closely resemble the San Jose scale, but have a visible, orange-colored exuvium and are less circular, while the young scales have no depressed ring about nipple. This scale is usually darker than the Forbes scale. Treatment — Same as for San .Jose scale. CHEERY SCALE, GRAPE SCALE 189 Forbes or Cherry Scale {Asjn- diottisforiesi, Fig. 103) — AVidely distrib- uted, attacking all orchard trees but rarely occurring in sufficient numbers to be con- sidered serious. Very similar to the scale last described and to the European fruit- scale, but when found on cherry appears to be more shining. It has a grayish rim and usually appears flatter than the other closely related species. Hibernates as a partly grown insect. Eggs laid in late April and through May, and young hatch the last of May and in early June. Two broods, young again ajopearing in August and September. Treatment — Same as for San Jose scale. Grape Scale [Ayndiotus uvce) — Occurs not uncommonly throughout all grape-growing regions ; rarely becomes a serious pest. The scales are usually found on vines from ground up to end of the second year's growth. When abundant they cover surface so that it appears to have had a ragged coat of whitewash, and in such cases vines need immediate atten- tion. "Female scale is flat, nearly circular, about ^ inch long, pale yellowish brown or dingy white. When removed, a conspicuous white speck upon bark marks its former position." (Forbes.) Winters as an egg beneath old female scale, and the eggs begin hatching about middle of May ; one brood a year. Theatment — A spray of whale-oil soap (1 to 7) or of 10 per cent, kerosene emulsion applied at time young are hatching will kill them easily. Fig. 103. Forbes Scale: twig; 6, female scale ; natural size on cherry male scale. (Forbes.) THE LESSER FRUIT SCALES Oyster-sliell Scale {Myiilaspis pomomm, Fig. 104) — All fruit states, infesting many fruit and shade trees, and several shrubs. The common name quite appropriately describes the shape of the female scale, which is about \ inch long. Scale is brownish or grayish white and two or three times as long as wide. In the 190 IMPORTAXT SCALE IX8ECTS winter the white or yellowish eggs may be found beneath old scale of female. These hatch in late spring and soon attach themselves to young twigs and smaller branches. The male scale is much smaller and more parallel-sided, as may be seen from Fig. 104. Tkeatjiext — Spray young scales with kerosene emulsion in early summer. Thorough treatment of affected trees with whale-oil soap, or with the lime-sulphur-and-salt wash before buds open in spring will perhaps be effective. May be kept in check if closely watched and not permitted to get a foot- hold. Scurfy Scale {CJiionas- pis furfur lis. Fig. 105) — All fruit states, especially infest- ing apple, crab-apple, pear, and quince ; occurs, however, on many other trees and some- times on shrubs. This is the most common of orchard scales and may be readily known by its whitish color — in winter turning to dirty wliite. The female is ovate in shape, while the male is fully twice as long as broad, with parallel sides, and is also nearer snow-white in color. Insect hibernates in egg stage under female scale; eggs when crushed yield a reddish fluid. One brood a year in Xorth, but more have been reported from South. Winged males appear in September, and soon thereafter eggs are laid and female dies ; young begin to appear by the middle of May or soon after. Treatment — Spray in the spring, immediately after eggs begin to hatch, as for oyster-shell scale. This scale rarely needs controlling unless it be present in large numbers on young trees. Peacli Scale {Diaspis pentagona) — Occurs throughout South and as far north as Pennsylvania, advancing northward each year. Attacks peach, plum. Fig. 104, Oj'ster-shell Scale: a, female scale, under side, showing the insect and its eggs within; 6, same, from above; c, same, natural size; rf, c, male scale, enlarged and exact size. (Howard, United States Department of Agriculture.) PEACH LECANIUM, RASPBEERY SCALE 191 Fig. 105. Scurfy Scale: a, b, female and male scales, natural size ; c, d, same, enlarged. (Howard, United States Department of Agri- culture.) cherry, and some other plants. This has sometimes been called the •• whitewash" scale, from the peculiar appearance it gives to trees badly infested. The female scale is grayish white, quite flat and irregularly cir- cular; male scale, elongate, three times as long as broad, and snow white. Eggs are laid in May, last of June, and in August. Females hatch from last brood of eggs and hibernate partly or fully deTeloped, but males pass win- ter in egg stage. Teeat^lext — Spray as for other scales that hibernate as eggs. A winter treatment is also ad- visable. Peach liecanium {Lecanium nigro- fasciatum, Fig. 106) — New York and Penn- sylvania, southward to Virginia, and west to Arkansas and Xew Mexico. Attacks peach, plum, and, more rarely, apple. " This insect, formerly known as L. persiccB, is one of the largest of the scale insects, being about \ inch long and two thirds as wide. It is elliptical in outline and strongly convex." (Banks.) Its color is dull greenish brown, sometimes marked with distinct darker bands. Female hibernates as an adult and lays eggs about last of May, young hatching from early June to mid-July. Young larvs are very fat, pale yellow, with a marginal rim. They become stationary in a short time, and the winged males appear by the latter part of July. Treatment — Treat in July with kerosene emulsion, or in winter with some one of the stronger solutions. Very easily kept in check. Rose or Kasjjberry Scale {Aulacasjns rosce) — Quite widely distributed, at- tacking not only rose and raspberry but blackberry and other plants belonging to tliia fiimilv Tn ATpw Tprapv I'™- 106. Peach Lecanium: adults at right, young at left, inis lamiiy. in xN e W J ersey Howard, united states Department of Agriculture.) (After 192 SMALL-FRUIT INSECTS AND DISEASES it hibernates in the egg, but farther south some of the eggs hatch in fall, and in Florida it nsiiallj' passes tlie winter beneath its scale as a partly developed insect. The scale is snowy white, circular in outline, and has a darli center. On account of its whiteness it may be readily seen on twigs and branches of infested plants. Treatment — The cleaning up of canes, dead wood, and rubbish in the fall will usually serve to control this insect ; kerosene emulsion spray may be used effectively at time of egg hatching. Insect rarely becomes a serious pest. VI. SMALL FRUITS AND VINES THE GRAPE (a) Importan"t Iitjueious Insects G-rape-vine Flea-beetle {Haltica chalyhea) — Occurs wherever grapes are grown east of the Eocky Mountains. On the Pacific Coast a nearly related species does the same damage to buds and leaves. Beetles, which are small and steely blue or greenish blue in color, appear in May and June on buds and leaves. The grub of this beetle is slender ; varies from yellow to yellowish brown in color, and lias a black head ; grows to be about f inch long ; and feeds on buds and leaves with adult beetles. Treatment — Spray vines with Paris green (1 pound to 50 gallons water) before buds open in spring, and later, when leaves are out, with regular Paris green mixture (1 pound to 150 gallons water). Add lime to iirst spray — 1 or 3 pounds to each 50 gallons of mixture. Grape Root-Avorin {Fidia viticida) — Distributed quite generally over the United States. The life history of this beetle has been worked out by Prof. F. M. Webster in Ohio. Eggs are laid on slightly loosened parts of bark early in year ; and young, upon hatcliing, drop to grountl, afterward finding their way to small fibrous upper roots through cracks in ground. Adult beetles feed on foliage early in year, doing considerable damage by eating irregular holes in upper surface of leaves. Larvte at first feed on fibrous roots, but as they grow larger pass to largo roots and gnaw off bark, working their way downward. In early autumn they form a little case near the root upon which they were feeding, and remain in this until the following sjjring, when they pupate, emerging in June. Treatment — Remedial measures have not been uniformly successful. Spray foliage with strong arsenical mixtures, using lime to prevent burning. This will destroy many adults. Keep ground well cultivated, so as to have a deep powdery soil over roots. This will help keep larvae from reaching food. THE GRAPE 193 G-rape Cane-borer or Apple Twig-borer {Amphicerus hicaudatus) — Occurs priucipally in Mississippi Valley states and Texas ; closely related species works in the same manner in Pacific Coast states. Eggs laid on stems (usually dead or dying) of grape or other plants early in spring by beetles that hibernated in burrows cut in twigs of apple and other fruit trees. Larva lives in these dead stems until autumn, when it pupates, and a cylin- drical brown adult beetle soon appears. Adult leaves grape stems and goes to some fruit tree, where it bores a channel several inches in length in a small twig, in which it passes the winter. Treatment — Carefully prune diseased wood and burn it ; clean up all neglected brier patcbes, as tbese are also breeding places for tbe insect. Grape Ijeaf-hopper {Typlilocyla vitis, T. comes, and others. Fig. 107) — Often erroneously called "Grape Thrips." Several species of leaf- hoppers infest grape-vine. Leaves are injured by their sucking the juices, and first show light spots, which later turn brown, the leaf appearing ' ■' burned. "'" If plant is now disturbed, myriads of tiny insects, rosy red, green, and yellow will arise a.nd then settle back on the leaves. The young insects are usually paler in color, and very active. Theatmext — Go tbrough vineyard witb a screen, or even a palm-leaf fan, upon wbicb has been smeared coal-tar, and as you go, disturb tbe vines and keep tbe fan or screen con- stantly moving. Many insects will be caugbt in tbis way. Spray the vines witb kerosene emulsion, 10 per cent, strength, at the same time jarring tbe vines to disturb the "hoppers," and filling air with spray. Grape-vine Phylloxera {Phylloxera vaxfa- trix) — Eastern States and parts of California ; rare elsewhere in United States. This is one of the root- infesting plant-lice that form galls on roots of plant and sometimes also on under sides of leaves. Insects winter mostly as immature wingless forms on roots. In spring they rapidly increase in size and soon begin to lay eggs. Young from these eggs are wingless, and as soon as grown lay eggs, several generations of this character occurring and rapidly spreading over roots. In midsummer a form appears that crawls up to the surface, acquires ■\\ings, and Fig. 107. Grape-vine Leaf -hoppers : above, young of different ages; at rigcht, adult of Typhlocyba vulne- rata; at left, T. comes. (Lugger.) 194 SMALL-FRUIT IXSECTS AXD DISEASES migrates to other vines, laying eggs on under side of leaves. The female of this generation lays a single egg, from which hatches a form like that which had wintered over. Treatment ^American vines can usually resist the attack, but should any treatment be necessary apply carbon bisulphide. Inject this substance — J ounce to each injection — in four or five places on each square yard of surface over the "whole vineyard. Put the fluid 8 to 12 inches deep and not less than a foot from base of vines, closing the holes tiglitly with the foot ; repeat operation every year until insects are destroyed. Grape-berry Moth {E^ldemia botr/ma) — All grape states. Larva; of first brood feed on leaves and blossoms ; the next brood attacks fruit, burrowing in pulp and producing appearance like black rot. Treatment — Arsenical spraying for first brood. For second brood, bag the fruit; leave none on fines to decity ; licep vineyard clear of trash. Grape Leaf-folder {Desnu'n macukilis) — East of the Eocky Mountains. Leaves are folded double and tightly fastened by a small greenisli larva which skeletonizes them from the upper side. Moth black, spotted with white; about an inch across wings. Treatment — Clean culture ; hand-picking of afEectcd leaves ; burning rubbish. Eight-spotted Forester (Alyjjia octomarulatit) — East of Rocky Moun- tains. Especially common on Virginia creeper and often on grape leaves. Cater- pillars are light brown, with black dots ; occur on leaves in spring, and are some- times very abundant. Moth, which appears in midsummer, has fore-wings black, with two yellow blotches; hind-wings varying, but with two white spots. Treatment — Arsenical sprays when first noticed, and hand-picking. Rose-chafer {Macrodadyhcs sicispinosns) — States east of Colorado and north of Virginia and Tennessee. Attacks many plants. Blossoms are destroyed and leaves eaten by this awkward, long-legged, light-brown beetle (^ inch long) early in the spring. Treatment — Vines maybe covered with netting and clusters bagged; hand-pick from grapes and other plants. Spraying rarely seems to be of value. Insect often infests Spiraea, hence this may be used as a trap crop. Grape-vine Saw-fly {Blennocampapygmna) — All grape states. Slugs are yellow, with black dots, and feed in the same way as the currant saw-fly, the same treatment sufficing when they become abundant. (b) Important Diseases of the Geape The following has been recommended as good practice in controlling grape diseases ; GEAPE AND CURRANT 195 8p7-a!/ with Bm-deaux mixture (a) just as pink tips of first leaves appear, (b) ten days or two iteeks later, before blossoms open, (c) just after blossoming, (d) (igain in from ten to fourteen days. If another treatment seem^ to be necessary, use ammoniacal copper-carbonate solution after the fruit is well formed. Downy Mildew {Plasmopora viticold) — All grape regions. This disease attacks all parts of the vine, on fruit causing what is known as brown rot, the berries shriveling and drying. Teeatment — For the mildews and rots that infest the grape, Bordeaux mixture is always successful if applied at the right times. PoAVtlery Miltle^v {Uncinula spiralis) — Attacks both foliage and fruit, . especially in midsummer, portions attacked being covered with the web-like threads of the fungus. Black Rot {Lwsiadia Bidwellii)- — One of the most common, wide-spread, and destructive of grape diseases. It chiefly attacks the fruit, causing dark spotting and rotting of the green berries, and may also work on leaves, petioles, and cluster branches, producing elongated dead spots. Rotted fruits dry and hang over winter on the vines, thus carrying the fungus over to the next season. Treatment — Spraying treatment above outlined will control this disease. Destroy all fruit affected by the rot. Chlorosis, Yello'«' Leaf — Disease shown by yellowing, browning, and dropping of leaves. Eventually kills vine. Supposed to be due to excess of lime in the soil. Small amounts of sulphate of iron have been recommended. Plant resistant stocks, such as Concord, Catawba, Delaware, Moore's Early, and Niagara. Some other varieties also may be resistant. Antliraenose, '^ Bird's-eye Rot" {SpJuweloma ampelinmn) — DarK spots form ou surface of leaf, cracking tissue and causing well-defined sunken spots which usually have a lighter-colored center. Treatment — Disease is entirely amenable to Bordeaux sprays. Swab surfaces of canes, eai'ly in spring befoi'e buds open, with a warm saturated solution of sulphate of iron, to which has been added 1 per cent, of sulphuric acid. Handle with care to avoid acid burns. THE CURRANT (a) Impoetant Injurious Insects Currant Saw-fly {Pristojihora grossularim), Cnrrant-worni (Nematus rilesii) — All fruit states. Small four-winged flies, with deep-yellow bodies. Lay eggs early in spring on under side of currant leaves along ribs. Larvae feed on leaf tissue and, when abundant, rapidly defoliate a bush. 196 SMALL-FRUIT INSPECTS A}nD DISEASES TitKATMEXT — Undcrspray with hellebore (1 ounce to 2 gallons water) when worms are very young ; if not checked, u>e again at double this strength. For other currant worms, arsenical spraying in spring is required. Four-lined Leaf-bug {Pa'cilorapsits Jmeafus) — Bright yellow bug, -^^ inch long, with hluck antenn;i' and two black stripes on each wing-cover; young, bright red. Eggs arc laid near growing tips of currant and other closely related plants, hatching the following May. Bugs suck juices of plant, especially working ou leaves. Tkeat:mext — Jar off in early morning into pans of kerosene and water ; cut off tips contain- ing eggs , use 10 per cent, kerosene emulsion on young. Currant Stem-borers {Sesia tipuUformis, Saw-fly Borers) — Through- out the United States. The larva of the former species attacks lilac and currant, boring in the old wood. The saw-fly borers work in young slioots. Treatmext — Cut out and burn infested stems, which may be recognized early in spring by wilting of leaves soon after coming out. (b) Diseases of the CriuiAXT Several leaf-spots and a mildew attack currant. They are amenable to treat- ment with Bordeaux mixture. Use same general treatment in spraying as for grape mildews. THE RASPBERRY, STRAWBERRY, AND CRANBERRY Impoetant Insects and Diseases Cane Maggots {Plwrbia sp.) and Cane -borers {Oberea sp.) — Canbe controlled by cutting out diseased canes. Saw-fly {Mono])lMdnns rubi) — LarvjB may be brushed from bushes or treated with hellebore spray (1 ounce to 1 gallon water). Raspberry Anthracnose {Colhtotrichium venetum) — All states. This fungous disease appears on bark, and occasionally on leaves and fruit of raspberry, blackberry, and other closely related plants. Small purple spots will first be seen on canes near ground. These spread, acquire a grayish white center, and later attain large size, having purple outer edges. Treatment — Carefully examine all nursery stock before planting. If disease is present, either destroy stock or dip in Bordeaux mixture. When present on planted stock, trim closely, burn all old canes and refuse, and treat young shoots with Bordeaux mixture. STRAWBEERY AXD CRAjSTBEERY 197 Strawberry Crown-lborer [Tyloderma fraga- ricB, Fig. 108) — Occurs in nearly all strawberrj' regions. Eggs are laid in June or Jiil3\ Larva burrows downward, eating substance of crown in which it remains until full grown. Beetle emerges in August, and hibernates through winter. It is about -^ inch long, brown, with several darker fig. los. strawberry ciown- , 1 , .,1 T IT, hoi-er: a, larva; b, c, adult spots, and marked with lines aud dots. beetle. (After Forbes.) TsEATiiESTT — Dig Up and bum infested vines ; transplant frequently. Strawbei'ry- weevil {Antlwnomus signatus) — All strawberry regions. A very troublesome pest that feeds in larval stage on flower buds. Beetle a small black insect with a hard snout or beak. Lays eggs in bud and then so punctures the flower stem that it dries and breaks off. A number of wild flowers are attacked in like manner. Treatment — Plant chiefly pistillate varieties, covering, until danger is over, tbe staminate varieties that are necessary. Strawberry Grubs — Larvae of May beetles, feeding on roots. Avoid use of sod land for berries until it has been several years in cultivation. Strawberry Leaf-spot {SphcBrella fragariw) — Also called rust or leaf- blight. This fungus may be kept in check by the use of Bordeaux mixture when plants are first set out and 3 or 4 times thereafter. Spray in spring before blossom- ing, and again about two weeks later; burn off beds in fall and destroy all old leaves. Cranberry Fire-worm (Teras mmuta) — All cranberry regions, attacking cranberr^v, apple, huckleberry, and other plants. On cranberries this larva often does much damage by spinning up and eating tips of growing shoots. Larva is small, green, with black head. Another worm {Rhopobota vacciana), closely resem- bling it but with a yellow head, also does considerable damage to cranberry plants. Treatment — Prof. J. B. Smith states that the only successful treatment is that of keeping the bogs covered with water until rather late — "until at least the middle of May.'' VII. SHADE TREES IMPORTANT INJURIOUS INSECTS White-marked Tussock-moth {Orgyia leucostigma, Fig. 109) — All of Eastern and Central United States. Caterpillar does great damage to shade trees in city parks and along streets, and also attacks fruit trees. Adult moth is a pale ashy-gray insect ; the female, quite stout and wingless, the males, with ash-gray 14 198 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SHADE TREES wings and feathered antennae. During July and August there may be seen on leaves, trunks, and branches of trees a silky-white cocoon, often partly hidden in crevices of the bark and later dis- colored by soot and dirt, and from this cocoon soon emerge the adult insecls. Female rarely travels far, and usually lays eggs on old cocoon — 100 to 500 in a place, fastened together and enveloped in a white frothy substance, which soon hardens and becomes impervious to rains and snows. Young larvae hatch in April or May in warm springs, and immediately begin feeding on buds and By July they are about full size, and then and in August make The larva is from f to 1^ inches in length when full grown ; Fig. 109. Tussock-moth; larva above, adult female at left, adult male at right. (After Forbes.) young leaves. their cocoons. j-ho laiva m Xiuiii J LU ±^ general color yellowish, the body with three darker stripes, and the head brilliant red ; three long black plumes, two near the head and one at the anal end, and four large white tufts along the center of the back, standing out prominently from the remainder of the long, scattered, yellowish pubescence. Treatment — Destroy egg-masses in fall and winter, and use arsenical sprays early in spring. In the Nortli there is probably but one brood ; two are reported in the South. Gipsy Moth {PortJietria dispai') — At present confined to New England, and principally to Massachusetts. Without doubt one of the most serious of the im- ported pests, feeding on all kinds of shade and fruit trees and on shrubbery. Eggs are laid in clusters of 400 to 500 on trees, fences, and in various other places, each cluster being covered with yellow hairs from the female's body. Larvae hatch early in spring and feed on foliage. When full grown they are about 2 inches long, have a mottled gray appearance, and are covered with long yellow and black hairs which arise from tubercles, blue at the anterior and red at the posterior end of the body. They pupate in July, and the moths emerge in August, soon laying eggs for the next year's brood. Adult female has whitish wings with dark spots along outer margins, but male is darker, and both have dark curved lines and spots on dyings. Tkeatment — Destroy egg-masses and cocoons ; spray with arsenites as soon as cateipillars hatch in the spring. FOREST TEXT-CATEEPILLAE, BAGWOEM 199 BrOAA'n-tailed Moth [Eujrrocii.f vlirysorrhca) — A most dangerous shade- aud fruit-tree pest, at present confined to some parts of Massachusetts. Egg-masses may be found in midsummer. 200 to 300 iu a cluster, attaclied to the under side of a leaf, and usually near end of branch. Cluster is covered with dense mass of brown hairs from female's body. Larvaj hatch in August and feed near ends of branches in colcinies. drawing leaves together into a sort of tent in which they hibenuite, beginning early in spring to feed on young leaves and buds. Full-grown larvre are dark brown, mottled and spotted with orange, and are clothed with reddish brown hairs ; two rows of dense white tufts stand prominently out of upper side of body. Pupate in June, moths soon emerging. Adults have white wings and female a brown tip at end of body. TREATME^'T — Destroy tents in fall and winter by collecting or burning out, and collect and destroy egg-masses iu summer. Forest Tent-caterpillar {CUsiocampa dissfria) — Eanges from Xew A'ork westward and southward to Texas and Xew ]\Iexico, attacking both fruit and shade trees. Eggs are laid by brown moths in July and August, in belts encircling smaller twigs of many shade and fruit trees ; from these egg-masses in spring hatch larva? which, when full grown, are dark and hairy, with silver spots along back and a blue head. Larva? live in colonies, but contrary to their common name do not sjjiii a terd: sometimes a slight web is made along a limb. When ijot feeding they collect in bunches on trunk or large limlis. C'ocoons are formed in June and fastened to the bark or at tlie forks of small limbs. One brood a year. Teeatment — Destroy egg-masses when on fruit trees or shrubbery ; kill caterpillars when they are massed on limbs or trunk, jarring them from trees, then collecting and destroying them. Spraying would be a costly process when they are working in large trees. Bagworm {Tlujridopte- ryx epliemeraformis, Fig. 110) T~, A^ ' "v^ 1 ^ 1 ^^'^^ '^^^- BapT^-orra: a, larva, removed from case; b. chrysalis: c, — ± roni JNeW lOrK westward adult female taken from case; rf, adult male; e, cross-sVction of -\r- • • ■ "P" -1 -, fl bag: and female within, latter full of esrgs: /, bas and larva from to JllSSlSSlppi Hn er anct SOUtn- evergreen; 3, very young larvas in their cases. (After Forbes.) 200 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SHADE TREES ward to the Gulf. Most common on evergreen shade-trees, such as cedar, pine, and arbor-vitse, but feeds also on many others, and on fruit trees of all kinds. Cases may be readily recognized on trees in winter. They are oval, soft, sack- like bodies, an inch or more in length, pointed at both ends, and attached by one end to a twig. Eggs hatch in May and June and the larva immediately com- mences a case, forming it from bits of leaf and stem. In early fall it pupates in this case. The males, which are dark moths with semi transparent wings, emerge and mate with the females. These have no wings and never leave cases until after laying eggs — and then only to fall out and die. Treatment — Destroy cases in winter by picking from trees, Tbey may be piled in a con- venient spot away from trees until, later in tbe spring, when all parasites have had a chance to emerge, and then be destroyed. Arsenical sprays early in the summer will aid in conlroUing the worms. Canker-worms, Fall (Anisopteryx pometaria) and Spring {Paleacrifa ver7iata,'Figs. 91, 92) — Canker-worms occur throughout the United States and attack many kinds of fruit and shade trees. (For descriptions see A^jple Insects, page 172.) Treatment — Band trees tbe first warm days late in winter or in very early spring. In case of threatened injury from fall species, banding must be done in fall before eggs are laid. A suc- cessful means of banding is as follows : Put a narrow band of rough cotton batting around the tree, cutting the bark smooth if it is very rough and uneven. Around this tie an 8-inch band of building or tarred paper, and on this spread a thin layer of ordinary cheap printer's ink, to which a little car-oil has been added to render it more sticky. If the ink gets crusted over, another coat of the car-oil will be required. The last of May, or when danger is over, these bands may be easily cut from the trees, leaving them clean and free from any sticky substance. Avoid putting sticky preparations directly on the trees, as many of them are very injurious. Where worms have already appeared on the leaves arsenical sprays may be used. Elm Leaf-beetle {Galerucella luteola, Fig. Ill) — Occurs commonly in New England and Middle Atlantic States and is gradually spreading westward. Appears to prefer English elms. Both beetles and larvae feed on the elm leaves and have proved to be serious pests, especially in cities and towns. Beetle is yellowish, with black stripes, and about \ inch long ; apjoears early in spring, and begins laying eggs on leaves in May. Larv^ finally attain nearly the color of mature beetle. When full grown they pass down tree and pupate in ground. Treatment — Arsenical sprays applied early on under side of leaves just after buds burst, and several times more if necessary. Kill larvae in latter part of June, when they are clustered on larger limbs and trunk preparatory to pupating. Cottonwood and Poplar Borers (species belonging to several genera) — These insects lay eggs on trunk of tree or near a wound, the larvse hatchiug ELM, WALNUT, AND MAPLE PESTS 201 Fio. 111. Elm Leaf-beetle; a, egg; 6, larva; c, adult; c, egg; g, larva; j, pupa; k, adult; e, g, j, k, enlarged; /, k, i, I, details. (From Riley, United States Department of Agriculture.) therefrom burrowing into tlie trunk or limbs of the tree and often killing it. Larvae may be destroyed by running a wire into their burrows. Cecropia {Attacus cecropia, Fig. 113) — Found attacking walnut and many other shade trees during latter joart of summer. It is a large green worm with red and yellow tubercles on upper side of body. It pupates in a dense silken cocoon among branches, or at base of tree on ground. Larvae often defoliate shade trees in parks and along boulevards. Treatmekt — Hand-picking or arsenical spraying. Gather cocoons in fall and destroy. !Eliu Scale {Chionasjns americana) — Female scale fawn-color until late in the year, when it becomes a dirty white. Much resembles scurfy scale but is more convex. Male scale pure white, sides nearly parallel, narrow and three-ridged. Eggs purplish, and concealed beneath old female scale. Insect hibernates in the egg stage, hatching about May 1st. Treatment — Kerosene emulsion applied early in spring, just as eggs are beginning to hatch. Cottony Maple-scale {Pulvinaria innumerahilis) - Quite common on maple and other shade trees through- out the United States. Usually noticed as a white cottony mass on under side of small limbs and twigs ; later in year young scales may be found on under side of leaves arranged along ribs, but without any cottony covering. They pass to limbs and fig. na. cecropia larva. 202 BOOKS ON INSECTS AND PLANT DISEASES twigs, and eggs are laid under the cottony covering, hatching in spring and early summer. Treatment — Trees may be freed from the large scales by fastening a sponge or cloth on the end of a pole, saturating it in kerosene, and swabbing the scale from the under side of the limbs. Oyster-shell Scale {Mytilaspis pomorum) — See Apple Insects. Walnut Scale {Aspidiotus juglcms-regice) — Well distributed over the United States. While this may be found at times on almost any of the fruit trees, it chiefly infests walnut, locust, and other shade trees. It is the largest of the " ring and nipple" scales, is irregularly circular in outline, and pale gray or dirty white in color. Treatment — Same as for San Jose scale, if it becomes abundant. O • O . V . ^-^^'-^i^tlc^ PUBLICATIONS ON INJURIOUS INSECTS AND PLANT DISEASES Apple Rots of Illinois. By George P Clinton. Bulletin 69. Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Urbana, 111. . ... ... . A thorough treatment of the apple rots, which, though written for lUiuois, is generally applicable. Asparagus Culture. Fanners' Bulletin 61. United States Department of A gricultxire . This general treatise includes short accounts of the insects affecting the asparagus plant, and suggests means of destruction. Black Rot op Cabbage. Farmers' Bulletin 68. United States Department of Agri- culture ... ... Boll Worm op Cotton. Bulletin 29, Division of Entomology. United States Depa/rt- ment of Agriculture .» . . . . . . f0,05 Butterflies and Moths Injurious to Fruit-Producing Plants. By Otto Lugger. Bulletin 65. Minmsuta Agricultural Experiment Station, St. Anthony Park, Minn. Short accounts of these insects, with many text illustrations. Butterfly Book, The. By W. J. PloUand. Douhleday, McOlure & Co., N. Y. . 3.00 Gives short accounts of all the important butterflies found in the United States, describes them, and gives food plants of larv£e where known. Is illustrated with 48 color-plates and many text figures. Carbon Bisulphide as an Insecticide. Farmers' Bulletin 145. United States Depart- ment of Agriculture . . . . .... ... . Chinch Bug, The. Bulletin 15, New Series, Division of Entomology. United States Department of Agriculture ■ . .10 BOOKS ON INSECTS AND PLANT DISEASES 203 COLEOPTERA, OE BEETLES. By Otto Lugger. Bulletin 66. Minnesota Agricultural Experi- ment Station, St. Anthony Park, Minn. . . Condensed Handbook op the Diseases op Cultivated Plants in Ohio. By A. D. Selby. Bulletin 121. Ohio Agricultural Mcperiment Station, Wooster, Ohio Gives a concise account of all the principal plant disea.ses, a general account of the manner of attack, a table of insecticides with directions for preparation, and a spray calendar. Calen- dar by Greene, Selby, and Webster. Destruotite Locusts. Bulletin 25, Division of Entomology. United States Department of Agriculture $0.15 Diseases of Field and Garden Crops. By W. G. Smith. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. 1.50 Economic Entomology. By J. B. Smith. J. B. Lippincott dt Co.,'P\i\\&A.&\^'iaa. . . 2.50 Designed as a handbook for the farmer and fruit grower, and a text-book for the student. Contains chapters on general structure of insects, farm practice with reference to keeping their ravages in check, insecticides, machinery, preventives, and descriptions of injurious insects. Illustrated with more than 400 figures. Economic Entomology op the Sugar Beet. By S. A. Forbes and C. A. Hart. Bul- letin 60. Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, \jT\>a.'!ia.,'Sl. . Very full and accurate account of all the insects attacking the sugar beet in this country. Illustrated with many figures. Entomology POR Beginners. By A. S. Packard. J! jB. Xjp;7i?ico« cfc Co., Philadelphia. 1.75 Written as a text-book, yet contains much that is of general value. Experiments with Insecticides for the San Jose Scale. By S. A. Forbes. Bul- letin 71. Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station . Fall Army 'Worm and Variegated Cutworm. Bulletin 29, New Series, Division of Entomology. United Slates Department of Agriculture Fully treats these two well-known enemies, and gives list of food-plants and means of control. Fumigation Methods. By WilUs G. Johnson. Orange Judd Co., 'Si. yi ... . 1.00 a practical treatise dealing thoroughly with the subject in its various aspects. Of especial value to nurseiymen, miUers, and greenhouse owners. Contains also a general review of United States laws relating to nursery and orchard inspection, and an alistract of foreign regulations. GiPST Moth in America. Bulletin 11, New Series, Division of Entomology. United States Department of Agriculture ... . . . . .05 A full account of the introduction of this pest, the nature of its ravages, and the means of control. Grain Smuts, The. Farmers' Bulletin 75. United Stales Department of Agriculture . Hemiptera, or Bups. By Otto Lugger. Bulletin 69. Minnesota Agricultural Experi- ment Station, St. Anthony Park, Minn. ... ... Hessian Fly, The. Bulletin 16, New Series, Division of Entomology. United States Department of Agriculture .10 Exhaustive treatment, including full bibliography. Household Insects. Bulletin 4, New Series, Division of Entomology. United States Depa/rtment of Agriculture , — - 204 BOOKS ON INSECTS AND PLANT DISEASES Insect Book, The, By L. O. Howard. Doubleday, Page & Co.. N.Y. . . . $3.00 Gives short accounts of many of the more important insects of the United States. A com- panion boolr to "The Butti-rti.y Book;." Contains 48 plates and about 300 text figures. Popu- lariy written and well illustrated. Insect Enemies of Growing Wheat. Farmers' Bulletin 132. United States Depart- ment of Agriculture . . . ... . .... . . Insect Enemies op the Grape. Farmers' Bulletin 70. United States Department of Agriculture . . ... .... . . Treats of life histories and means of combating nine of the most serious pests attacking the grape. Insect Life. B}- J. H. Comstock. D. Appleton & Co., N. Y. . . . . . if 1.75 The first part of this attractive book is designed as a course of study in insect life. The lat- ter part contains directions for the collection and preservation ot insects. Insects Affecting Domestic Animals. Bulletin 5, New Series, Division of Entomology. United States Department of Agricultvre . . ■ . ■ ■ Treats of the insects afEecting horses, cattle, sheep, hogs, dogs, and other domestic animals. Many illustrations are given and descriptions are so written that most of the insects will be readily recognized. Insects Affecting the Cotton Plant. Farmers' Bulletin 47. United States Depart- ment of Agriculture . . ... . . Insects Affecting the Tobacco Plant. Farmers' Bulletin 120. United States De- partment of Agriculture . . . . . ... Insects Injurious to Farm and Garden Crops. By Hopkins and Rumsey. Bulletin 44. West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, Morgantown, W. Va. . . Gives plainly and briefly character of injuries, insect responsible for each, and means of prevention and remedy. Insects Injurious to Fruits. By William Saunders. /. B. Lippincott & Co., Phila- delphia . . . 3.00 Though written several years ago, this is still the best work on the subject published. Treats insects attacking apple, peach, plum, cherry, orange, raspberry, strawberry, ctu^rant, etc. Many illustrations. Insects Injueious to Garden and Orchard Crops. Bulletin 19, New Series, Divi- eion of Entomologj\ United States Department of Agriculture . . .... .10 Insects Injurious to Garden Crops. Bulletin 33, New Series, Division of Entomol- ogy. United States Department of Agriculture . . .10 This bulletin, like several others mentioned later, deals with recently-discovered facts regarding many of the more important insects in their relations to the farmer, gardener, and fruit grower. Insects Injurious to Ornamental Plants. Bulletin 27, New Series, Division of Ento- mology. United States Department of Agriculture .... .10 Insects Injubious to Staple Crops. By E. Dwight Sanderson. John Wiley & Sons, N. Y. . . . 1.50 A book for the practical farmer. One of the most thorough of its kind recently issued. Treats of the life histories, habits, enemies, and ravages of insects affecting grains, grasses, and roots, cotton, tobacco, and hops, the means of combating, and includes a chapter on insecti- cides. BOOKS ON INSECTS AND PLANT DISEASES 205 Insects Injurious to Stored Grains. Farmers' Bulletin 45. United States Depart- ment of Agricvllure . ... ... . . . . . . IxsECTS. Study or. By J. H. Comstock. Comstock PiMisldng Co., Ithaca, N. Y. . . $ 3.75 Larger Apple-tree Borers. Circular 32, Second Series, Division of Entomology. United States Department of Agriculture .... . . Treats of the Eound-}ieaded, Flat-headed, and Spotted Apple-tree Borers. Laws concer:sing Ik^jurious Insects. Bulletin 13, New Series United States Depart- ment of Agriculture {ViQS) . . . . .05 Mexican Cotton-boll T.^eevil. Farmers' Bulletin 130. United Slates Department of Agriculture ... . . Miscellaneous Results. Bulletins 7, 10, 22, New Series, Division of Entomology. United Stiites Department of Agriculture . . . ... . . Each. .10 These treat of various insects and significant features of their life histories. Many of those treated ar3 of considerable economic importance. Orthoptera, or Grasshoppers, Locusts, Crickets, and Cockroaches, of Minnesota, By Otto Lugger. Bulletin 55. Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, St, Anthony Park, Minn. . . Peach Leaf-curl. Bulletin 30, Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology. United States Department of Agriculture . . . . . .... .35 Fuil account of this disease, its distribution, and remedies applicable. Peach Twig -BORER. Farmers' Bulletin 80. United States Department of Agricnltvre Peach Yellows and Peach Rosette. Bulletin 1, Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology. United States Department of Agriculture . .20 Periodical Cicada. Bulletin 14, Division of Entomology. United States Department of Agriculture . . .... .15 Treats of the "Seventeen-year Locust," its broods, and their life history. Useful to the fruit grower to enable him to avoid losses in "' locust years." Potato Diseases. Farmers' Bulletin 91. United States Department of Agriculture . Principal Insects Liable to be Distributed on Nursery Stock. Bulletin 34, New Series, Division of Entomology. United States Department of Agriculture .... Sa n Jose Scale. Bulletin 3, New Series, Division of Entomology. United States De- partment of Agriculture. . .... .10 Full account (illustrated) of this scale and its enemies. Some Common Birds in their Relations to Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletin 54. United States Department of Agriculture. ... Notes on the lives, food, and habits of cuckoos, woodpeckers, crows, blackbirds, and other common birds. Spraying of Plants. By E. G. Lodeman. The MacmUlan Co., N. Y". . . . 1.00 An unusually exhaustive treatise on methods and results in spraying. 206 BOOKS ON INSECTS AND PLANT DISEASES Three Insect Enemies op Shade Trees. Farmers' Bulletin 99. United States De- jii/i'tmuiit of Agriculture. . . ..... ... Treats of the Elm Leaf -beetle, Tussock-moth, and Web-worm. Trap-lanter.\s OR " Moth-catchers." By i\r. V. Slingerland. Bulletin 202. Cornell University Agricultural E.rperiinent Station, Ithaca, N. Y. . . ... An excellent bulletin, giving the facts about the trap-lanterns. Tells just what they do catch. The Division of Entomology, of the United States Department of Agriculture, publishes Cir- culars on important insects whenever information is particularly needed. Many of these are still availalile. Among those already published are : Circular 4, The Army Worm ; Circular 9, Canker- worms ; Circular 20, The A\'oolly Aphis of the Apple ; Circular 26, The Pear Slug ; Circular 31, The Cucumber Beetle ; Circular 37, The Use of Hydrocyanic Acid Gas ; Circular 4o, Destruc- tive Green Pea-louse. Almost all the bulletins of this division are of value to the farmer. The Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology publishes bulletins treating of plant diseases, their characters, and the remedies needful in combating them. The reports of several of the state entomologists are valuable publications, containing accounts of many injurious insects and the most approved methods of treating them. Selecting- and Feeding- Farm Animals for Profit By Herbert TV. Mumford, B. S. Professor of Animal Husbandt-y^ College of Agriculture^ University of Illinois^ and Chief of Animal Husbandry, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station I. LEADING BREEDS OF LIVE STOCK A stroll tlirougli the various exhibits at onr leading fairs and expositions tends to emjihasize the fact that we have a large number of breeds in each department of live stock. Those who are interested in animal husbandry from a business stand- point have their preferences. They are reasonably familiar with the origin, his- tory, and characteristics of their favorite breeds. They are apt to look with too mnch disfavor upon other breeds with which they are less familiar, and at times fail to see the weak points in the breeds which they champion. It is hardly to be expected that a breeder of pure-bred stock, much less the stock farmer, will be equally familiar with all breeds — a life of thorough study and closest observation is all too short for such knowledge — yet until one becomes fairly conversant with the strong and weak points of the various breeds he could hardly be looked upon as an intelligent breeder or feeder. It may as well be admitted that there is no best breed of horses, cattle, sheep, or swine. Practically all breeds have been developed to meet certain local needs. If the originators have followed wise methods the breeds which they have developed to meet their require- ments are undoubtedly the best breed from their point of view. But to conclude that, because a breed is the best under certain local conditions, it is the best breed for all conditions, is an absurd assvimption. Every breed has its faults, and no breed in existence is so utterly worthless as to possess no redeeming qualities. There are but very few breeds, if indeed any, that do not possess advantages in certain particulars over all other breeds. This then, in the judgment of the author, should be our frame of mind when we come to study breeds. We must not expect perfection in any breeds and still we must demand some advantageous qualities in every bree Copyright, 1902, by Eand, McNaUy & Co. (207) 208 LEADIXG BEEEDS OF LIVE STOCK The American people are not a nation of strong prejudices, but they are a people who are too apt to base their judgments on insufficient evidence. Caution, therefore, is necessary that final judgment of the value of a breed be not too quickly passed. Impressions of breeds should not be based on the behavior or performance of individual animals, but should rather be based upon the possibilities of the best, or, at any rate, the average of the breed. Oftentimes the selection of a breed hinges upon personal preference. A man may select a breed not because he believes it the best, but because it is as good as others and suits his fancy. This is a competent reason, for a man seldom succeeds with a breed of stock he does not like, while often a man achieves great success with a commonplace breed that just " fills his eye." In our discussion of the various breeds of improved live stock we shall confine ourselves largely to a discussion of the characteristics of the various breeds, as we find them, and of their adaptability to certain localities and for particular uses. It is evident that in a brief treatise of this nature it will be impossible to go into details as to the history and development of these breeds, no matter how important or how interesting such facts might be to the reader. The farmer and stock-raiser, as distinguished from the breeder of pure-bred stock, is interested in the production of animals for the open market, and only to a much less extent in animals which are to be used subsequently as breeding animals. The stock-raiser, therefore, looks upon pure-bred animals as a means to an end. He is interested in those characteristics which, if judiciously made use of, will make the common stock of his farm more profitable producers of meat or of other animal products. The discussion of the breeds which follows is intended solely for the benefit of stock-raisers. Stock breeders' require a more intricate and compre- hensive knowledge than it is possible to give in the limited space at our disposal. BREEDS OF CATTLE All the breeds of cattle belong to one or more of the following classes, viz.: beef, dairy, and dual purpose. The beef breeds are : Shorthorns, Polleu Durhams, Herefords, Aberdeen Angus, and Galloivays. The dual purpose breeds are Red Polled, Shorthorns, Polled Durhanis, Brown Swiss, and Devon. The dairy breeds are Jerseys, Guernseys, Ayrshires, Holsteins, and Dutch Belted. BEEP CATTLE: SHORTHOElSrS 209 It will be noted that Shorthorns and Polled Durhams are included in both the beef and dual purpose class. This is because numerous representatives of each of these breeds are distinctly of the beef type, while still others are as certainly of the dual purpose type. BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE The leading breeds of beef cattle are the Shorthorns, Polled Durhams, Here- fords, Alerdeen- Angus, and Galloivays. Sliorthorns — Shorthorns have been variously called Teeswater Cattle, Durhams, and Shorthorns. It is no longer correct to speak of Shorthorns as Durhams, and this term should not longer be used, since it is now applied to a more recently established classification of our improved breeds of beef cattle, namely. Polled Durhams. Both the names Duiham and Teeswater were formerly given the Shorthorns from the fact that the breed originated in the valley of the Tees and largely in Durham. They soon spread over the shires of Northumberland, Lincoln, and York. At this time it is hard to conceive that but little more than one hundred j'ears ago Shorthorns, and in fact all of the older breeds of beef cattle, were scarcely uniform enough to be looked upon as distinct breeds. They had little to recommend them to the attention of farmers and breeders above the common stock of the country. If the literature referring to early agriculture and live-stock conditions may be depended upon, the first popular idea of a beef animal was one of huge bulk. It was the breeder who produced the largest bullocks regardless of age that received the greatest consideration and patronage. It was this characteristic of the Shorthorn as is evidenced in the Durham Ox and the AYhite Heifer that Traveled, that first brought them into popular favor. This occurred some- thing over a century ago, and from that time untU this Shorthorns have remained the most universally popular breed of beef cattle in existence. The idea of the necessity of securing enormous size in order to get a profitable beef animal has long since been abandoned. Efforts to improve the Shorthorn breed have been along the line of getting refinement of bone and general form, with early maturing qualities, rather than the increase of bulk, yet without less- • ening that valuable characteristic of plenty of scale and growthiness. Shorthorn characteristics which ,have ever been valuable ones, especially wherever the Shorthorn has been used as an improver of native cattle. Originators and early improvers of the Shorthorn breed recognized the importance of an abundant supply of milk and they were careful to preserve, as far as possible, the strong mUking tendencies of the old Shorthorn stock. So ^^ 113 shorthorn bull (Merry Hampton characteristic of the Shorthorn breed did this milking 133572) and cow (Maiy Abbotsburn rth ^, , .^ . J i.^ J, X ^-^ ^ , 5 CV°1- ^^^^. A. H. B.] owned by AT. tendency become that it is undoubtedly true that no breed a. Boland, Grass Lake, Mich.) 210 LEADIXG BEEEDS OF LIVE STOCK of beef cattle possesses It to the same extent as do the Shorthorns. While other breeds of beef cattle crossed upon the common stock of the country often have a tendency to reduce the produc- tion of milk in their offspring, Shorthorns appear to have the opposite influence — in fact, Short- horns seem to have the happy faculty of blending admirably with native and common stock. No other breed of beef cattle will so rapidly improve native or common stock as well-bred Shorthorn bulls of creditable individual merit. Even the breeds of beef cattle blend well with the Shorthorn blood. The Shorthorn cow, with her deep milking tendencies, makes the best dam for a bullock. "While the modern Shorthorn has lost many of the faults of those of early times, the breed as a whole needs careful attention in the way of selection and weeding out of inferior animals. From the very fact that Shorthorns have been so popular and have become so widely disseminated, many herds have fallen into the hands of car'eless feeders and indifferent breeders who have allowed their herds to deteriorate so that the average pure-bred Shorthorn is hardly up to the standard of the average pure-bred beef animal of the other beef breeds. The most common faults among modern Shorthorns are their long legs, their prominent hips, and plain rumps, with a tendency to bunch at the tail-head and elsewhere when highly fitted. To be sure, these faults are not always present, but as we have said they are all too common. The breed is noted for its quiet disposition and, therefore, is well adapted for putting into small feed lots in preparing for tlie market. Herefords — The Herefords were named after the shire in the west of England where they originated. This countrjr, which was a grass country and largely devoted to dairying, subsequently became the home of one of the most profitable and useful breeds of improved live stock for which Great Britain has become famous. Lovers of " white faces " look upon Benjamin Tompkins as the first improver of Hereford cattle who paid especial attention to beef tendencies among the breed. The characteristic colors and markings of Herefords and their prepotency in transmitting these characteristics to their offspring have made them quite popular for crossing upon native and common stock, especially upon the range. It is generally conceded that no other breed of beef cattle quite equals the Herefords as a producer of beef when grass alone is depended upon. Herefords, as a rule, are closer to the ground, but not quite as massive as the Shorthorns, nor as good milkers. They mature rather more quickly than do the Shorthorns, but have the same tendency to become uneven and patchy when fed long and heavily on grain. They are well adapted to good grazing lands, but are not suited for conditions requiring cows to furnish a liberal amount of milk. They are hardly as quiet in disposition as are the Shorthorns. Aberdeen - Angus — The Aberdeen - Angus breed originated in the eastern part of Scotland under conditions well calculated to make a hardy race of cattle. Their con- tinued improvement, from the origin of the breed up to Fig. 114. Hereford bull (Dale 66481, sold at Chicago for $7,500) and cow (Dolly 2d 61799, sold, irithheifer calf, for $5,000). BEEP CATTLE: ABERDEEN- ANGUS, GALLOWAYS 211 Fig. 115. Polled Angus bull (Woodlawn 33923) and cow (Lena Estill 3d 22069). the present time, was somewhat interrupted, about the year 1810, by the widespread popularity of Shorthorns in Great Britain. It was at one time thought that the breed had become almost extinct. It is undoubtedly true that had it not been for William McComhie, this valuable race of cattle would have lost its identity. Its brief setback, owing to the somewhat unnatural boom enjoyed by the Shorthorns at an early date, has been more than regained, and it is to-day one of the most formidable breeds wilh which other beef cattle are compelled to compete Its general smooth- ness of outline, its early maturity, and its even fleshing tendencies have made it a general favorite among the pro- ducers of beef cattle for the market. No other breed has won greater or more signal honors at recent live-stock shows than has the Angus breed. It seems next to impos- sible to feed an Angus steer in such a way that he will become bunchy. They are, therefore, well adapted for long feeding periods. The quality of their beef is excel- lent, being well marbled and containing about the right pro- portion of lean and fat beef. Their refinement of form and feature makes them invariably dress a high percentage of beef. No other cattle of equal quality and condition will sell better in the open market than the Angus, a fact which emphasizes their good killing qualities together with the desirable quality of their flesh. Those selecting bulls of the Angus breed for use on grade or pure-bred herds should look well to secure a smoothly laid shoulder, not too open on top, and a straight, well-muscled hind leg. Gallo'ways — No breed of beef cattle in recent years has made the improvement that has been made by the Gal- loways. They were formerly angular, rough, coarse, and noticeably lacking in width. They were proverbially flat- ribbed and late maturing. During recent years several pro- gressive breeders have wrought such an improvement in the breed that their animals are hardly looked upon as typical Galloways. These improved herds, however, show the pos- sibilities resting in the GaUoway breed. Their beef has always been considered of the highest quality on the English market. They usually dress out a high percentage of beef carrying good grain. Their long, thick, woolly coats have made their hides valuable for the manufacture of coats, Fig. 116. Galloway bull (Druid of Castle- milk 17054 [6159], champion of Scotland, 1899, and of America, 1901; bred by Sir Robert Jarden, owned by O. H. Swigart, Champaign, 111.) and beifpr (Norma 3d of Avondale, senior champion, Interna- tional Live Stock Exposition, Chicago, 1901 ; same owner). 212 LEADING BREEDS OF LIVE STOCK robes, and mittens. The Galloways and Shorthorns make a very desirable cross for the produc- tion of steers for the feed lot and subsequently for the block. Polled. Durhams — It should be clearly understood that Polled Shorthorns and Polled Durbams are not necessarily the same breed. The Polled Shorthorn is eligible for registry in the American Shorthorn Herd Book and in the American Polled Durham Record. Polled Durhams are not eligible for registry in the American Shorthorn Herd Book. When an animal is spoken of as a " double standard Polled Durham " it is to be understood that such an animal is eligible for record in the American Shorthorn Herd Book and in the Polled Durham Herd Book as well. The Polled Durhams have practically the same characteristics as those possessed by the modern Short- horns. The standing of the breed has been somewhat endangered by a tendency among breeders to reserve all of the polled animals dropped in their herds rather than to discard a few inferior ones. The temptation to sell such unworthy polled cattle at a good price has been too strong to resist. BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE The leading breeds of dairy cattle are the Jerseys, Guernseys, Ayrshires, Hol- stem-Friesians, and Dutch Belted. Jerseys — The Jersey may be light or dark fawn in color and may be all fawn or fawn and white. When they are all fawn their color is spoken of as solid ; when spotted with white, as broken colored Jerseys. The solid fawn color is preferred. A black tongue and a black switch are also desirable markings. Formerly there was such a strong prejudice in favor of solid colored Jerseys with the desirable markings that many very good individual broken colored Jerseys were discarded much to the detriment of the breed. Breeders of Jerseys as well as breeders of all classes of live stock are not permitting color to stand as the chief basis for selection. While in many instances its im- portance is and should be recognized, it does not take pre- cedence of more important factors. The following are the most important characteristics of the Jersey breed: 1. A tendency to convert a large part of the food con- sumed into milk and not flesh and fat. 2. Their milk contains the highest percentage of butter fat of any of the dairy breeds. In other words, they give the richest milk. They are noted for quality rather than quantity of milk. 3. The fat globules in the milk are large, thus facilitat- ing creaming by the shallow or deep setting gravity methods. Largely owing to this fact the cream gathers more rapidly in churning than the cream taken from the milk of other breeds of cows. 4. Their early maturity makes it possible to breed them mo. 117. Jersey bull ■(Pedro 3187) and ""[ ^° ^^'^^ ^^"j ^^°°''' ^^^'^"g *^^ °^^'^^^i'y °^ lo^^S Pe^ods cow (Brown Bessie 74997). Of waiting while they are coming into usefulness. DAIEY CATTLE : GUER^'SEYS, AYESHIRES 21? Fig. 118. Guernsey bull (Sheet Anchor 3934) and cow (Vrangue's Favorite rv. 1923, owned by Alfred Le Pa- tourel, Island of Guernsey). Guernseys — Like Jerseys, Guernseys are sometimei spoken of as one of the Channel Island breeds because thej originated on the Island of Guernsey in the English Channel While these two breeds have been bred and developed inde pendently they doubtless had a common origin, and as thej have been developed for similar uses they resemble eacl other in their general appearance and in their characteristicf as well. Guernseys are larger, somewhat coarser in bone, and cari-j more flesh than Jerseys. They are noted for the rich color oi their milk and cream and the natural high color of the butte: made from Guernsey cream. It is generally believed thai they produce slightly more milk than the Jerseys; whethei or not their milk possesses a higher percentage of butter fal than Jersey milk is a disputed question. The color of the Guernsey is characteristic ; they an usually of a light yellowish, reddish, or orange fawn witl large and small patches of white unevenly distributed ovei the body and legs. The Guernseys are said to possess quiei dispositions. At any rate, they are cared for in their nativt home largely by women. Mature cows of this breed should weigh from 950 to 1,200 pounds, bulls from 1,200 to 1,600 pounds. Guernseys are persistent milkers; like the Jerseys, the fal globules in the milk are large. They are not usually bred so young as' the Jerseys. Ayrsliires — Ayrshires originated in the country or shire of Ayr, Scotland. Their flesh-carrying and flesh-taking tendencies are undoubtedly the result of the free use of Short- horn blood in the development of the breed. As a dairy breed they are especially valuable to furnish milk well suited for cheese-making. They give a large quantity of milk not containing a high percentage of butter fat but a high per- centage of casein. In general type, they are short-legged ,^^^^^^ and their thin necks, clean-cut heads, roomy paunches, and deep hind quarters give them a characteristic wedge-shaped appearance from the side. Mature bulls should weigh from 1,300 to 1,700 pounds. The udders of the Ayrshires are level, spreading, broad and flat rather than large and pen- dant. They are a very hardy race of cattle with a ten- dency to be somewhat nervous. In color, they are red and white, either color predominating or in most cases an indefinite spotting of white over the red' is characteristic. The fat globules in the milk are quite uneven in size although mostly small. 15 Fig. 119. Ayrshire bull (John Webb 518C and cow (Red Rose 5566). 214 LEADING BREEDS OF LIVE STOCK Holstein-Friesians — Tliis breed originated in North Holland and Frieslaud, a li)W, level, rich country. It is not surprising, tberef(jrc, that this breed, surrounded by such environment for centuries, is the largest and heaviest breed of dairy cattle in existence. Mature cows should weigh from 1,150 to 1,600 pounds, bulls from 1,900 to 2,400 pounds. In color they are black and white, black predominating in some and white in others ; disposition, quiet; constitution, strong; udders, usually large, being long and extending well up behind. Teats inclined to be large, milk veins prominent. No other breed equals them in quantity of milk. Their milk is, however, defi- cient in fat and solids. Where kept on the farm their abundant milk is very useful fur young growing calves and pigs. The fat globules in Holstein milk are small. Holsteina are Fig. 120. Hoktein-Friesian bull (De Brave Hendrik 230) and cow (Rosa Bonheur 5th 1]'3?7, owned by Michigan State Agricul- tural College). sometimes recom- mended for beef production. In this regard the au- thor believes they are apt to possess thin flesh of a coarse nature and to be too coarse in bone. Their beef does not possess the juiciness of the beef cut from the beef breeds. They are distinctly a dairy breed and should be looked ^ upon as such. Dutch Belted — The original name of these cattle was "Lakenfield cattle," a name now some- times used in their native country, Hol- land. As their name Fig. 121. Dutch Belted bull (Duke ot Ralph 255) and cow (Lady Aldine 124). Fig. 122. Red Polled bull (Boss 3398) and cow (Popsj 3d 9689). indicates they are belted, a broad band of white encircling the body, the main color being black. The cows weigh from 1,000 to 1,200 pounds, and the bulls from 1,300 to 1,800 pounds. They give a large amount of milk containing a small percentage of butter fat. In this respect they are similar to Holsteins. Their heads are long; horns, fine ; necks, thin ; udders, square and well placed. DUAL PUEPOSE CATTLE, HORSES 215 DUAL PURPOSE The leading dual purpose cattle are the Red Polled, Brown Swiss, and Devons. Red Polled — The Red Polled breed originated in Norfolk and Suffolk counties in the east of England. While they are looked upon as a general or dual purpose breed, their dairy qualities are rather better than their qualities as beef producers. As the name indicates they are polled; in weight they are somewhat heavier than the Devon and longer in leg and body. They are usually of a deep dark red color. Brown SavIss — In color these cattle are gray or brown with dark extremities except muzzle which is "mealy." The bulls are usually darker colored than the cows. Some individuals of the Brown Swiss breed might be mistaken for Jerseys, but they are generally much heavier and coarser. Mature cows weigh from 1,200 to 1,400 pounds and bulls from 1,600 to 2,100 pounds. Udder and teats large; bones, heavy; hide, thick; disposition, dull. Brown Swiss calves are large and vigorous at birth and with proper care grow quite rapidly, some- times weighing 600 pounds at six months of age. Devons — This dual purpose breed is very popular in Southwestern England. They were formerly more common in the United States than at the present time. Their active temperament made them desirable as work cattle. Their milk is rich and the quantity average. They are not very persistent milkers. Their beef is of excellent quality, but their lack of size and growth has prevented their becoming universally popular as a beef breed in the United States. Fig. 123. Brown Swiss IniU (Gilbo 72 and cow (Brienzi 168). Fig. 184. Devon bull (General Gordon 2d 5243, owned by W. F. Morse, Verona, Wis. (From the Breeder^s Gazette.) BREEDS OF HORSES In general, horses may be classified as draft, coach, carriage, and saddle horses. The draft breeds are Percheron, Clydesdale, English Shire, Belgian, Suffolk Punch. The coach breeds are French, Coach, German Coach, and Cleveland Bay. The carriage breeds are American Trotter and Hackney. The saddle breeds are English and American Thoroughired and American Saddler. In a technical sense the above classification may not be correct, but it is suffi- ciently accurate to aid materially in a clear understanding of the uses to which the various breeds are put. 216 LEADING BREEDS OP LIVE STOCK Fig. 125. Typical Pei-cheron stallion. (Breeder^s Gazette.) DRAFT BREEDS Percheron — The Percheron is the best known of all the draft breeds in the United States. The breed originated in France. When mature, stallions weigh from 1,800 to 2,000 pounds; marcs from 1,600 to 1,800 pounds; color, black, brown, bay, or gray; grays and blacks are most common. Percherons have an attrac- tive style and finish, being nicely turned, good actors, and spirited. They have a quiet disposition. Per- cherons cross well with the common draft stock of the country and stallions are more freely used for the pro- duction of heavy draft horses than those of any other breed. They are apt to be a trifle light in bone, hence, by mating a grade shire mare of naturally heavy strong bone with a Percheron stallion an ideal market draft horse is produced. English Shire — The Shire is the heaviest breed of draft horses in existence, mature horses weighing from 1,800 to 2,100 pounds. They range in height from 15i to 17i hands. Legs and body short and massive. A mass of fine, silky hair from knee and hock to fetlocks is often spoken of as the "feather." The Shire is chiefly noted for its bulk, heavy bone, and good feet. In tem- perament they are somewhat dull and sluggish, and are adapted for slow trucking where strength is the most important consideration. Many Shires are marked with a strip of white in the face and with two or more white stockings. Prevailing colors, bay, brown, and black. Clydesdale Fig. 126. Typical English Shire stallion. (Breeder^s Gazette.) Fig. 127. Typical Clydesdale stallion. — The Clydes- dale is hardly as low or massive as the Shire, but rather more active. In fact, the long stride of the Clydesdale at the walk is espe- cially characteristic. A trifle more slope in pastern and shoulder makes greater action possible. Othci-wise than the points noted above, the Clydesdale is very similar to the Shire. They are similarly marked, had a common origin, and formerly were more or less freely crossed. It is probably true that the Clydesdale is less beefy in the leg than the Shire and more stylish. Belgian — In its characteristics and origin, the Bel- gian is quite similar to the Percheron. As a rule, however. HORSES: COACH BEEEDS 217 they are a little heavier in bone and often shorter legged. They are good actors for draft horses and noted for their good feet. While they have not been imported to the United States in large numbers, the few that have been imported have given a good account of themselves and there is no reason why they should not increase in popularity. Suffolk Punch — Prevailing colors, sorrel and chestnut. Stallions weigh from 1,600 to 2,000 pounds. Their general rotund appearance has led many to speak of them as too beefy. They have great courage and strength in draft wort. They are without the feather or hair on the legs possessed by the Shire and Clydesdale ; legs short and bodies heavy. AYhile they are quite popular among the farmers in the south of England, they have never become so in the United States. Considering their bulk and the shortness of their legs they are good actors. COACH BREEDS French Coach — The French Coach horse has been developed in France under conditions well calculated to produce a horse of perfect conformation, good action, and endurance. The lighter class of native French mares were crossed with Arabian and English Thoroughbred stallions, so we can see that the French Coach has a considerable amount of Arabian blood. This undoubtedly accounts for the pleas- ing conformation of this breed of horses. The high quality of these horses is undoubtedly largely due to the interest taken by the French Government in their breeding. The Government seems to have taken more pride in the devel- opment of this coach horse than any other class of French horses. A large number of stallions of this breed are annually let to farmers and breeders throughout France at a nominal fee. In addition to this the Government has a system for the inspection of all stallions used in the country. All the stallions in France, outside of the Government stables, belong to one of three classes : 1st. Approved stal- lions — Approved stallions are such as the Government inspectors consider excellent individuals and of equally good breeding. The owners of such stallions receive a bonus from the Government of from ■$7-5 to $150 for standing them in France. 2d. Authorized stallions — These are stallions which Government inspectors believe to be good enough to be used on the common stock of the country, but which are not considered good enough to offer a bonus to their owners for standing them. 3d. Unauthorized stalliorts — There are a large number of stallions in France which are not good enough individually nor well enough bred to be used for breeding purposes so they are used for common work horees on the street and on the farms. The desirable action of the French Coach may be partially due to the method of developing, training, and speeding. This class of horses is sometimes spoken of as French Trotters. The races in France are seldom less than two or three miles in extent and usually over a sod track, so it is a trial of endurance as well as of speed. A sod track makes higher action necessary, and while it is Fig. 128. Typical French Coach stalhon. 218 LEADIXG BREEDS OF LIVE STOCK not conducive to high speed it influences knee and hock action. A mature French Coach horse weighs from 1,000 to 1,200 pounds. The predominating col- ors are bays, browns, and sorrels. German Coach — The German Coach and German Coacher is similar to the French Coach horse, but is heavier in body and limb. Their origin was very similar to that of the French Coach, except that native German mares were used as a foundation. They weigh from 1,050 to 1,350 pounds; are bays, browns, and chestnuts. These horses are heavy enough for most farm work. Cleveland Bay — The Cleveland Bay is the English Coach horse. They are the result of crossing large, native bay mares with thoroughbred stallions. Cleveland bays are the most uniform in color of any of the coach or carriage breeds, being usually a bright bay with black points ; larger than the French Coach and fully as heavy as the German or Oldenberg Coach horses ; weigh from 1,000 to 1,400 pounds. They are not so good actors nor have they produced so good results where they have been used on the common stock of the United States as has the French coach. In dispo- sition they are quiet and gentle. The breed as a whole lacks greatly in uniformity. Fig. 129. Typical Cleveland Bay stallion. {Breeder^s Gazette.) CARRIAGE BREEDS American Trotter — The American Trotter has been developed for the race course. There is a great lack of uniformity among standard bred horses. As to general appearance and conformation they have been developed with one object in view, that of securing great speed. The American Trotter undoubtedly stands at the head of the trotters of all nations for high speed at the trot. There are quite a number of standard bred horses that possess size, conformation, and action most desired in market, carriage, or coach horses, hence, many American Trotters are used as carriage and coach horses. More attention is being paid by breeders of American Trotters to the development of size, action, and conformation than formerly. The principal use to which American Trotters are put is the race course. This class of horses has been developed largely by breeding the lighter graded common mares of the United States with English thoroughbred stallions. Hackney — The Hackney is another carriage or coach horse that is not nearly so tall nor so heavy as the Cleve- , -, T, mi, • u i ncA ^ 1 cnn j tti F"*- l^O. Typical Hackney staUion. land Bay. They weigh from 950 to 1,300 pounds. For a (Breeder's Gazette.) HORSES, SHEEP 219 coacli breed they are short legged and very compact and exceptionally well muscled. They are noted for their knee and hocli action which in some instances is excessive. In some parts of England they are spoken of as the Norfolk Trotter. In the United States they are not considered fast, and they are used for the production of fancy drivers rather than for the production of speed. SADDLE BREEDS English Tliorougllbred — The English Thoroughbred is the running horse of Great Britain. They are very slim of build and devoid of flesh. They had their origin largely in the Arabian horse. Bays, chestnuts, and browns predominate. In disposition they are fearless and ambitious. These horses have great endurance. They are used principally for racing purposes and for mating with heavier horses possessing less spirit. The characteristics of the English and Americiin Thoroughbred are so nearly alike that it is unnecessary to describe the latter. American Saddler — The American Saddler, like the AmericaQ Trotter, had its origin very similar to that of the American Thoroughbred, the blood of the English Thoroughbred being the most conspicuous factor. The most desirable saddUrs are those with the most graeif ul car- riage and springy saddle gait. The American Saddler is bred quite largely in Missouri aud Ken- tucky, and he is rapidly becoming an important factor in the horse-breeding interests of the Uuited States. Horses largely of thoroughbred and trotting or pacing blood, which have shown especial adaptability for saddle purposes, have been selected until a breed has been developed which for intelligence, easy, and clean-going action is not surpassed. They are a breed of remarkable beauty and graceful carriage. In size they rank with the English Thoroughbred. BREEDS OF SHEEP The breeds of sheep best known in the United States belong to one of the following classes: Fii'st, fine wooled ; second, medium wooled ; aud third, coarse or long wooled class. The various races of Merinos are practically the only fine wooled breeds. The Southdown, Shropshire, Hampshire, Oxford, Dorset Horned, and Cheviot are the principal medium wooled breeds. The Leicester, Cotsivold and Lincoln belong to the coarse or long wooled class. ' FIIfE WOOIiED Merino — There are two great subdivisions of Merinos: First, those which are bred primarily for wool, like the American, Spanish, and Saxon MeriTws; and second, those which aie bred for both wool and mutton. This latter sub- FjG. 131. Typical Mering and CotswQld, 220 LEADIXG BREEDS OF LIVE STOCK ■'i^ft«' Fia. 132. Typical Delaine Merino. division includes the various breeds of Delaine Merino sheep and the Eambouillet (Fig. 1). Of the Merinos bred primarily for wool, the American Merino is by far the most important breed. They shear a fleece of great fineness and vreight. The body is more or less covered with wrinkles which lengthen into folds of consideralile promi- nence on the shoulder and neck. The wool is rather short of staple and very oily. It is used for the manufacture of the finest woolen fabrics. Owing to the inability of the American Merino to produce a good carcass of mutton at an early age, and to the fact that fine wool has sold at a discount, the breed has been in disfavor in the United States for a few years past. A united effort has been made among the breeders of Merino sheep to develop breeds of wool-mutton Merinos. Con- siderable progress has been made along this line in the United States, Trance, and Germany. There are a number of breeds belonging to this subclass, among which are the Standard Delaine, the Black Top, the Dickinson D;:laine, and the Rambouillet. The first three originated in the United States and the Rambouillet in France. The American breeds of Delaine Merinos are quite similar in their characteristics. They possess bodies carrying more fiesh than the American or Spanish varieties so that they are consid- ered fairly satisfactory for mutton production. It can hardly be said, however, that they rank with the English mutton breeds in this respect. They are more earlj' maturing than the American Merinos and produce a fleece of good length of staple. Their wool commands a, ready sale at a good price in the wool markets of the United States. The Rambouillet is considerably larger than the wool mutton American Delaines. They are more rangy and coarser in conformation throughout. While they are not as good shearers or as close to the ground as our American Delaines, they are more vigorous and growthy, being especially adapted for use on the western range. MEDIUM WOOLED Southdown — The Southdown conforms more nearly to the ideal mutton type than does any other breed of sheep. They are low set, broad, deep, and thick-fleshed. They are noted especially for their development of the leg of mutton, their well fleshed backs, and the quality of their mutton. Their fleeces are somewhat lighter than those of the other middle-wooled breeds, but it is fine in quality. Mature rams should range in weight from 175 to 235 pounds and ewes from 135 to 165 pounds. The Southdown ram is highly Fig. 133. Typical Lincoln and Southdown- SHEEP: MEDIUM WOOLED 221 Fig. 134. Typical Hampshire and Shrop- shire. (Hampshire, from a photo- graph of Columbian Exposition sweepstakes "winner, furnished by The American Sheep Breeder.) bandry that the Short- horn does to the cattle- raising industry. Hampshire — The Hampshire may be distinguished from the Shropshire by its greater scale and weight, its heavier bone, coarser head and ear. The face, legs, and ears are considerably blacker, and the head is not so well covered with wool. The fleece is similar to that of the Shropshire, but usually a little shorter in the staple, although quite often more dense. Mature rams should weigh from 235 to 300 pounds and ewes from 160 to 250 pounds. Like the Shrop- shire, the Hampshire ram crossed upon native or grade Merino ewes produces an excellent lamb for fattening purposes, espe- cially where the lamb is to be marketed under one year of age. This breed is largely used in its native home for crossing with the larger, less compact, long-wooled breeds. Oxford — The Oxford is the largest of the middle- wooled breeds. In fact, their wool is long enough to fre- quently grade as combing wool. Matui'e rams should weigh from 275 to 400 pounds and ewes from 175 to 360 pounds. The Oxford is undoubtedly the result of crossing the Cots- wold with the Hampshire. They are a very hardy race and well adapted to low, luxuriant pastures and liberal feeding. prized as a -sire for early lambs. The faces and legs of the Southdowns are usually gray or cinnamon brown in color. Like all other Down breeds they are hornless. The South- down has been extensively used in the improvement and refinement of some of the other middle- wooled breeds. Shropsliire — The Shropshire is the most numerous and the most universally popular of the English mutton breeds. They are of medium size, mature rams ranging in weight from 175 to 250 pounds with ewes about 50 pounds lighter. They carry a fleece of medium fineness and length. The average weight of the Shropshire fleece ranges from 8 to 12 pounds. While Shropshire rams have been known to shear 18 pounds, fleeces of such weight are exceptional. Breeders of Shropshires have made an effort to preserve the South- down ideal mutton type in a larger, more growthy sheep. In many respects they have been eminently successful. The Shropshire has more wool on the face and legs than the Southdown, while the color of the face and legs is a blackish or grayish brown. In its wide distribution and universal pop- ularity, the Shropshire bears the same relation to sheep hiis- Fig. 135. Typical Cheviot and Oxford. 222 LEADING BREEDS OP LIVE STOCK Dorset Horned — The Dorset Horned breed is the most prolific breed of sheep In the United States. They are the only medium-wooled breed that have horns, both the ewes and the rams possessing them. Their faces and legs are white. The legs show but little wool below the knees or hocks. Mature rams weigh from 175 to 200 pounds, and ewes from 35 to 50 pounds lighter. Dorset Horned sheep have a tendency to be light in the fore quarter and deficient in the girth. They produce a light fleece of wool possessing but little natural oil. As has been said, however, they are the most prolific of breeds and withal heavy milkers, hardy, and early maturing. They have given excellent satisfaction when used to produce early lambs. Cheviot — The Cheviot is a native of the Cheviot Hills. They are scattered over England and Scotland wherever conditions for their proper development are favorable. They are known as a "hill " breed in Great Britain and are well adapted to what is known as the "green hills " of England and Scotland. They are a good mutton sheep, being low, compact, and broad. Mature rams should weigh not less than 175 pounds and ewes not less than 185 pounds when bred in the United States. The range of weights in imported stock is somewhat less than this. Their wool contains but very little oil. They are very hardy and moderately early maturing. Their grazing qualities are excellent, but not on coarse grass, as they prefer short, fine herbage. They like the freedom of the hillside and do not take kindlj^ to confinement. They are regular, but not what might be called prolific breeders. They shear from 6 to 9 pounds of wool. Typical Dorsetshire COARSE OR LONG WOOLED Leicester — The Leicester bears the same relation to other long-wooled breeds that the Southdown does to the Down breeds ; that is, they have been used to improve and to refine the somewhat coarser breeds of their class. They were much improved by Robert Bakewell about 1780, at which timethey were the most popular of the mutton sheep in England. At the present time they are looked upon more as a valuable breed for crossing purposes than where bred pure. They are, perhaps, more compact than the other long-wooled breeds, and rather more early matur- ing. Their fleece, however, is not as heavy as either the Cotswold or Lincoln. In size they are similar to the Hampshire. Cotswold — The Cotswold (Fig. 131) is a very old race of sheep. Their characteristics are said to have been fixed as early as the thirteenth century. Some improvement was wrought after Bakewell's time by the use of the Leicester cross. Mature rams weigh from 250 to 300 pounds. Their heads are long, rather large, and decorated with a long forelock of curly wool. The ewes of this breed are said to be very good mothers. The lambs are somewhat delicate at birth. Cots- woUls are noted for the production of combing wool. Their faces and legs are white with often a light grayish tinge. Their fleeces range from eight inches to a foot in length and weigh from 12 to 18 pounds, COARSE WOOLED SHEEP, STVIXE 223 Liincoln — Lincolns (Tig. 134) are the largest framed, heaviest, and longest wooled breed of sheep with which we have to deal. They are a hardy race and adapted to low land where pasture and succulent food are abundant. It is believed that the Lincoln, like other long-wooled breeds, contain slightly more fat throughout their carcasses than the Down breeds. Owing to this fact they are not so well liked by many American markets. BREEDS OF SWIXE All breeds of swine belong either to the fat or the bacon class. This appears to be a legitimate and reasonable basis for classification. The leading breeds of fat hogs are Poland China, Berkshire, Chester White, Duroc-Jersey, Cheshire, and Victoria. The leading breeds developed especially for the production of bacon are the Tamworth and Large Yorkshire. FAT HOGS Poland China — The Poland China breed originated in the United States in Butler and Warren counties, Ohio. They are now, after being bred pure for over half a century, the most popular breed in the com belt of America. Some few have been exported to Canada, but they are not popular there. Poland Chinas are sometimes classed as the heaviest of the medium breeds. They were formerly larger and coarser than at the present time. For several years breeders of Poland Chinas have selected them for early maturity and quick fattening quahties. Besides their early maturing qualities the Poland China is unusually good in the hams. They lack somewhat in prolificacy and strength of bone. For crossing with the coarser, less refined, common stock of the country, they are unsurpassed. Mature boars in good flesh should weigh not less than 500 pounds ; sows, same age and condition, not less than 4o0 pounds. Berksliire — This breed ( Fig. 138 ) derives its name from the locality in which it originated, viz,, Berkshire, Eng- land. They are the most popular breed of swine in Southern England and they have been more largely imported to the United States than any other foreign breed. They are hardly as large as the Poland Chinas, but they mature at an early age, which is more important. Boars in good flesh, two years old or over, should weigh not less than 450 pounds ; sows, same age and condition, 400 pounds. Berkshires are good grazers, being active and possessed of good quality of bone. They dress a high percentage of meat and their flesh makes excellent pork or bacon. Advocates of this breed insist that the fat and lean are more evenly distributed throughout the carcass than in the Poland China. There is less uniformity in this breed than in Poland Chinas, but they are rather more Fig. 137. Typical Poland China and prolific. Tamworth sows. 224 LEADIXG BREEDS OF LIVE STOCK Fio. 138. Typical Berkshire and Chester White boars. Chester White — Like the Poland China the Chester White is purely an American breed. They originated in Chester County, Pennsylvania. They are an older breed than the Poland China, and considerably larger and coarser. They are more numerous in Pennsylvania and Ohio than in other States, although they are to be found in nearly every State in the Union. Jlature boars should weigh not less than 500 pounds and sows not less than 450 pounds. They are not quite so early maturing as the Poland Chinas. Their larger size seems to require a longer time for maturity. Chester Whites are good grazers. They are considered valuable for crossing upon finer boned and more compact breeds. In their leading characteristics they are similar to the Berkshire and Poland China, making them desirable for those preferring a white hog. Duroc- Jersey — The Duroc-Jersey is the most recent of our American breeds of swine. Perhaps no breed of swine has improved so much in the last ten years as has the Duroc- Jersey. As a result they are rapidly growing in favor in the corn belt, and give promise of permanent popularity. Owing to the fact that the breed is not an old one, the Duroc-Jersey type Is not as uniform or as well fixed as in some of the older breeds. They vary much in color, size, and early maturing qualities, consequently it can hardly be said that they are as early maturing as the Poland China, but they possess an advantage in being more prolific. Their grazing qualities are excellent and they are hardy. They have a good side, but need improvement in their hams. Cheshire — The Cheshire undoubtedly had their origin in the native white hogs of Jefferson County, New York, which were crossed with large Improved Yorkshires and Suflolks. They are chiefly bred in the Eastern States, rarely being seen in the corn belt or farther west. They are considerably smaller than the Poland China, early maturing, and fair grazers. Their flesh is firm and fine- grained. In disposition they are quiet. Victoria — Victorias may belong either to the strain originated by Colonel Curtis of New York or Mr. Davis of Indiana. The characteristics of these two varieties are very similar. In size they rank with the Berkshire, and in other characteristics they resemble the Chester White, although they undoubtedly are finer and more early maturing. BACON HOGS Large Yorkshire — Yorkshires originated in York shire, England. No other breed is as popular for the produc- tion of bacon either in Great Britain or America. They are especially highly prized in Canada. Their bodies are very long and while they do not possess the width of the Chester White, they are usually longer, deeper, and heavier. They have scarcely the depth of the Tamworth. They Fig. 139. Typical Yorkshire sow and Duroc-Jersey boar. ADVANTAGES OF STOCK RAISING 225 are strong boned, but rather late maturing. They are good grazers and the quality of the meat is excellent. Tamworth — The Tamworth (Fig. 137) is another English breed -which originated in Staf- fordshire, England. They are remarkable for their depth of body, thus furnishing an excellent foundation for the production of good bacon. They are similar in size to the Large Yorkshires. They can not be made a satisfactory fat hog -without considerable age, but are especially adapted for the production of bacon. As grazers they are probably unexcelled. Their carcasses are said to contain a higher percentage of lean to fat than any other breed of s-wine. Tam-worths are very prolific. II. THE BREEDING OF FARM ANIMAXS ADVA]STAGES OF STOCK RAISING' The majority of farmers believe that there are distinct advantages in the keep- ing of live stock on the farm ; few, ho-wever, appreciate that for permanent success the keef)ing of stock is imperative. To emphasize this thought it is ad-vdsable to enumerate the advantages of the keeping of live stock on the farm, before attempt- ing to discuss the general principles upon -which the successful breeding of domestic animals depends. Soil Improvement — The most important reason why live stock should be kept on the farm is that the fertility of the land may thereby be maintained or increased. A system of grain farming is a constant drain on the fertility of the land, unless an expensive system of green manuring or fertilizing is frequently resorted to. It should be borne in mind also, that farmyard manure has the double function of improving the physical as well as the chemical properties of most soils. Without the use of fannyard manure commercial fertilizers lose a large part of their effectireness. No other system of maintaining or increasing the fertility of the soil has been found so generally effective or so cheap as has the use of farm- yard manure. The source of farmyard manure is live stock, and under proper, intelligent management it will return a profit to the farmer beyond the fertilizing value of the manure produced. It -would seem that the possibility of marketing crops grown on the farm in the form of cash live-stock products at a higher price per bushel than that which can be secured for the grain, and having the manure left for keeping up and rendering more available the plant food in the soil, is an argument which ought to appeal to every practical man. Not only this, but, notwithstanding the 1 See also page 31. 226 BEEEDING OF FAEM AXIMALS fact th"at a system of stock farming involves more labor than one of grain growing, a modest profit may be secured upon all such labor. Profit ill Rotation — The maintenance of soil fertility is undoubtedly one of the greatest problems connected with successful agriculture. In considering it, two important factors should receive attention : First, the amount of plant food in the soil, and second, whether or not such plant food is available. While tillage does not add to the fertility of the soil, it renders the plant food in the soil more available. A proper rotation of crops may perform the same function, while farm- yard manure has, as has been said, the double function of actually adding plant food to the soil and rendering the supply already in the soil more available for use of the plant. Animal production on the farm renders the probability of profit from a rotation of crops greater. Certain crops that can not be sold as grown upon the land can readily be converted into cash products in the form of meat or dairy products. Since it is desirable to grow a variety of crops on the land, we would mention as the second advantage of keeping live stock on the farm, the possibility of grow- ing a greater variety of crops. Utilization of Wastes — Third, live stock consume the residues of the farm, such as straw, corn stover, and the like. Distribution of Labor and Income — Fourth, the labor necessary to carry on the farm is much more evenly distributed throughout the year where stock raising is a part of the genei'al plan. It is a well-known fact that in a system of grain growing it is necessary to keep a large number of horses and men during certain seasons, Avliile at others these teams are idle and but little work, if any, can be furnished to the men. It is an advantage to keep the men and to have profit- able employment for the teams throughout the year. No successful business man or manufacturer would think of running his plant but six or eight months in the year. Fifth, animal production distributes the farmer^s income throughou-t the year. Granting, then, that the keeping of live stock is advisable, we are ready to consider the principles underlying the breeding of farm animals. It is not our purpose in this chapter to discuss the question of how to select a good cow, either for dairy or for beef; a good sheep, for wool or for mutton; a good pig, for hams or for bacon ; nor yet a good horse, for draft or for carriage purposes, but rather to consider some of the fundamental principles which apply alike to the breeding of all animals. The subjects enumerated will be discussed elsewhere.' 1 See page 249, ef seg. RULES FOE SELECTION" 227 There are several different systems of stock farming. In the interest of clear- ness it is well to distinguish between : First, the man who is making the business of bi'eeding stock for breeding purposes only, in which instance it would be a question largely of breeding pure-bred animals; second, the man who is breeding market animals — either horses, cattle, sheep, or swine — the man who looks upon pure-bred animals as a means to an end, but who is not engaged in their breeding and sale ; and, third, the man who is a feeder and not a breeder of live stock. The business of such a man is to fit animals bred by others for the market. Mani- festly, what follows relative to the principles of stock feeding would be of little interest or importance to the man who simply feeds stock. An effort is made to make what is said applicable to the two other classes of stock farmers. In breeding live stock the first necessary operation is the selection of breeding stock. GElSTEKAIi RULES FOR SELECTIOIf 1. Fundamentals in selection — In selecting animals, two things are to be considered : The individual excellence of the animal, and its ancestry or breeding. 2. Select toward an ideal tyjje — Select pure-bred animals, or high grades of a breed conforming as nearly as possible to that ideal type. Do not try to remodel a breed, nor, in general, attempt to establish new breeds. Do not confuse the terms hreed and type. A type refers to a class of animals which In their leading characteristics, adaptability, and usefulness are veiy similar. It will be seen from this that it is possible for a type to include individual animals of various breeds. As, for example. Shorthorns, Herefords, Aberdeen-Angus, Galloways, and Polled Durhams all conform, or should conform, to the beef type ; and again, Jerseys, Guernsey's, Holstein-Friesians, and Ayrshires con- form to the dairy type. The term breed refers to a group of animals closely related in general blood lines which may or may not bear a close resemblance to one another in size, form, and color, and which have the ability to reproduce other animals that will inherit their various characteris- tics, some of which may be nothing more than breed characteristics. It is possible, but not often the case, that a breed includes more than one type, as is seen in the Shorthorn breed. Some Shorthorns are distinctly of the beef t3-pe, while others conform more nearly to the dairy type. The terra breed is never used except in referring to pure-bred animals, while it is entirely correct to use the tenn type in speaking of grade or cross-bred animals. 3. Personal preference is an important factor in the selection both of a class and of a breed of stock. 4. Choose deliberately — It is economy to take plenty of time to decide 228 BEEEDING OF FARM AXIMALS the class, type, and breed of animals best suited to your conditions, so that, once a choice is made, a permanent i^olicy may be pursued. 5. Select for viniforinity — In the breeding of market stock, a uniform load of steers, hogs, or sheep will command their full value in the market, whereas a mixed consignment might be sold at a discount. Careful attention to the question of uniformity in the selection of the breed of animals to comprise a breed- ing herd of pure-bred stock is of still greater importance than in tlie breeding of market animals. The history of successfid stock breeders of the past leads us to conclude that many a breeder's reputation has been won by persistent adherence to a definite tyjoe. In other words, the individuality of herds and flocks has made many a breeder famous. 6. Select animals with pronounced constitutional vigor and from strains of blood known to possess longevity and sustained fertility. 7. Select for quality rather than for size. Unusually large animals belonging to a particular breed or class of animals are spoken of as possessing "plenty of scale," or "great scale." Quality refers both to the feeding quality of an animal (as indicated by conformation and good handling quality) and to general quality, or a refinement of form and feature — characteristic evidences of good breeding. 8. If breeding animals for the open market, select animals with reference to their being adapted for feed lot, stable, or harness rather than for so-called "fancy points" of breed iyjtQ. 9. If breeding registered or pure-bred stock, due importance should be attached to these so-called characteristic points of breed type. The suc- cessful breeder of pure-bred stock realizes that it is not to his advantage to breed animals for which there is no sale, whether it be on account of their color, pedigree, or general conforrhation. 10. Adaptation — Select animals with temperaments adapted to the purpose for which they are intended. 11. Finally, having satisfied yourself as to the individual excellence of the animal, the ancestry or breeding should be taken into account, since this factor materially affects the prepotency of the animal, an important subject which will be considered elsewhere.* All animals need proving; the best breeding animals are those that produce the best individuals, and not necessarily the ones that show best individually. 1 See page 329. LAWS OF \NIMAL EEPRODUCTION 229 HEREDITY, PrJpOTENCY, AND REVERSION Of all the laws affecting the breeding of live stock, the one most important to the majority of stock farmers is the law of heredity, or that "like produces like." It is doubtless the oldest recognized law of animal reproduction, ^o other law has been so much discussed, and it would seem that nothing could be added to give greater force to this imjjortant law. Notwithstanding the^e facts, no author dis- cussing the principles of animal breeding can do other than consider this subject at length, not alone because its importance demands it, but because of the wide- spread indiffe-rence to its workings. Heredity — So far as we can judge from our present knowledge of the work- ings of the law of heredity it appears that there is a tendency for each individual characteristic in the parent to be transmitted to and reappear in the offspriag. Wheni offspring appear which bear only a remote resemblance to their ancestors, skeptics are inclined to lose their faith in the unvarying law of heredity. A few of t-he best autliorities on animal reproduction are beginning to look for the inheritance of individual character from generation to generation rather than the inheritance of characteristics in groups — characteristics which go to make up the individuality of the animal itself. This leads to the thought that in the past our ideas of hereditary transmission have been somewhat at fault, since we have been demanding that the characteristics of animals shoald reappear in the offspring in bulk rather than as individual characters. A study of the workings of the law of heredity should, therefore, involve chiefly a study of the inheritance of individual characteristics from generation to generation. Experienced stock breeders expect that certain characteristics — for example, such as are normal or natural to the race or breed — will be transmitted with greater certainty than others. Breeding' with Definite Aim — It is evident that where two animals possessing similar characteristics are mated, the characteristics of the family or breed to which the parents belong will be transmitted much more certainly than where animals are mated possessing notice- ably different characteristics. If, therefore, we are especially anxious to improve a certain point in animal form, it is obvious that we should mate animals which possess that particular character- istic to a high degree. In theory this is what is done by all breeders of pure-bred stock. Owing to carelessness in the selection of breeding animals and their mating, few breeders succeed in mak- ing permanent improvement in their herds. In fact, they are frequently obliged to purchase high- class bulls at long prices to maintain the excellence of their foundation stock. Prepotency — When an animal has the ability to transmit its characteristics to its offspring with great certainty it is said to be prepotent. Among the condi- 16 230 BEEEDIXCt of FARM^/SlXIMALS tious that are believed to affect the relative pr;2. otency of an animal are : First, the breeding of the animal ; second, its age or i_curity ; and third, the preijotency of the animal with ■ndiich it is mated. The Breedixg of Immature Stock, which is all too common, can not be too vigorously discouraged. The great popularity of the mutton breeds of sheep and their relatively high price, a few years ago, led to the extensive use of ram lambs. The author has reason to believe that sueli practice, except in rare instances, has proved unwise. It is best, from a monetary standpoint, not to permit ewes to drop their lambs before the ewes are two years old, or beef cattle their calves before the heifers are from two and a half to three years of age. The animal should be practically mature before called upon to reproduce itself. If any other system of breeding is followed the chances are that either the parents or offspring become dwarfed or unprofitable animals. The best results in breeding are to be expected when the animals reach full maturity and are in the prime of life, being neither too young nor too old. Relative Pkepotexct of Parexts — Since the sire often appears to be more prepotent than the dam, many have come to look upon the sire as having a greater influence upon the offspring than the dam. The sire has undoubtedly been selected with more care, both as to his individuality and, more especially, as to his breeding, than the dam. Granting that the inherent prepotency of the sire and dam are the same, or that the simple question of sex is involved, each parent will have an equal influence in adding the characteristics of the offspring, since, so far as our present knowledge goes, sex as such has little or no bearing upon the prepotency of an animal. The fact that the sire is usually better bred and a better individual fully accounts for the impression that prevails. Breeding and Prepotency — It is true that prepotency is influenced to a greater extent by the breeding of an animal than by any other factor. When an animal of low breeding and inferior merit is mated with a well-bred animal of high individual excellence, the offspring will resemble the well-bred parent much more than the one of low breeding. This question can not be too carefully considered by stock farmers who are breeding market animals. After good foundation breed- ing stock has been selected, the question of success hinges upon the ability of such animals to reproduce their kind. The fact of the relatively high prepotency of well-bred animals has long since become well established. Xo other fact or law connected with animal reproduction is more important, for it places within the reach of every stock farmer the possibility of producing animals of high individual INFLI .5XCE OF THE SIKB 231 merit whicli will meet every dem„iid of the open mai'ket at a price that will render their production highly profitable. It makes it possible for the stock farmer to select females of only ordinary merit and of indifferent breeding at a low price and mate them with well-bred sires possessing to a high degree characteristics demanded by the market. Comparative Influence of Sire and Dam — The relative importance of the sire and dam in stock breeding is not fully appreciated by American farmers. It should be borne in mind that the sire becomes the parent of numerous offspring, while it is possible for the dam, at best, to produce only a few individuals annually. As an illustration of how completely this idea is lost sight of by some inexperienced men, we relate the following incident : Not long since a young man in the Central West decided to become a breeder of Shorthorn cattle. He purchased ten cows at prices ranging from |250 to $500. After the cows and heifers were delivered at his farm, the purchase of a bull appeared to him to be the next necessary step. Instead of taking plenty of time and asking the advice of experienced breeders, this young man found a bull which could be bought for $135 — a bull witl^out individual merit and of indifferent breeding. This animal was purchased and placed at the head of the herd. Such a course, every experienced breeder will understand, can have but one outcome, namely, a failure to maintain the excellence of the foundation females, much less to improve them. At the present time females among pure breeds in the United States are selling at a much higher price, relatively, than our bulls. If a breeder can afford to pay $1,000 for a cow, he can afford to pay at least $5,000 for a bull. And yet, while we find many men who are anxious to pay $1,000 for a cow, how few would care to buy bulls at the figure stated. To be sure, the figures quoted are exceptional and not within the reach of the average breeder. However, the principle holds true, whether the quality of the stock commands $5,000, $1,000, or $100. Much of what is good in our breeding of live stock has been copied from the best breeders of live stock in Great Britain. A study of the conditions in Great Britain will at once convince the most careless observer that good sires are appreciated to a much greater extent there than in the United States. The writer can not recall a single breeder of improved live stock, whose reputation and the excellence of whose stock is well known, who has not achieved this success largely through the intelligent or fortunate selection of one or more great sires. Breeding of Mules — Successful rearing of mules consists, principally, in the judicious selection of the mare. The dominant features of the ass require modification. The ass is too large of head, too short of neck, too flat in sides, too low in shoulders, too narrow in croup, too thin in arms and thighs, and too narrow in hoof. These defects must be altered by the mare. On the other hand, the ass is preferable to the horse as a beast of burden, more patient in work, hardiei", thicker-skinned, surer-footed, and especially adapted to warm climates. The natural defects of the ass indicate what should be avoided in selecting a sire-ass for breed- ing. He should have relatively, a small head, thin neck, round body, high shoulders, broad croup, well-formed legs, and flat hoofs. The mare, on the other hand, should have a small head, short, round body, broad chest, muscular thighs, and wide, round hoofs. She should be fourteen or fifteen hands high, to insure a foal that will at maturity reach thirteen or fourteen hands. 232 BREEDIXG OF FAEM ^XIMALS The foa], therefore, it is to be borne in mind, takes fono and peculiarities from the sire ; size, from the mare. It rarely inherits physical unsoundness ^-^i^ 'he mare, which may therefore be used where she would be excluded as a breeder of horses. I'he mule is rarely serviceable before it is four )'ears old, but often works until thirty years of age. Reversion — It is sometimes discoTered that characteristics appearing in the offspring, apparently entirely different from those present in either parent, are characteristics wliicli -u'ere present in some ancestor more or less remote. When an animal resembles quite closely a distant ancestor it is a case of reversion. Other terms sometimes used to mean the same thing are "throwing back "and "breeding back." If the various ancestors of an individual animal have possessed to a marked degree desirable characteristics, and have not possessed undesirable characteristics to a marked degree, instances of reversion or atavism, in sucli cases, are not to be dreaded. On the other hand, if in the pedigree of an animal there appear a number of animals which possessed undesirable characteristics to a marked degree, it is not known at what time these undesirable characteristics will reappear in our breeding operations. It will be seen from this that a good pedigree, or good breeding, means that an animal shall be descended from a long line of ancestors of pronounced merit and that there shall be but few inferior animals in the pedigree. A'aturally, the longer the line of good ancestors, the more prepotent they will be, and their prepotency will extend along desired lines. It should be borne in mind that the laws governing hereditary transmission, atavism, and prepotency are equally opera- tive upon internal as well as external characteristics of the animal, and with refer- ence to undesirable characteristics as well as to those which are desirable. Pedigree in Grade Animals — Stock farmers quite generally are more or less indiffer- ent as to the principles of animal breeding, believing such principles to concern only breeders of pure-bred animals. For example, the question of pedigree in grade animals is universally disre- garded, although, as a matter of fact, every animal has a pedigree, whether it be native, grade, cross-bred, or pure-bred. The same things that make a good pedigree in pure-bred animals make a good pedigree in grade or cross-bred animals. The matter of selection of breeding stock is of greater importance in the breeding of pure-bred animals than in the breeding of grades, not only because a larger amount of capital is invested in each individual animal, but because pure-bred animals bred in line for generations are more prepotent than grade animals, and when we remember that prepotency is just as effective in the transmission of undesirable as desirable characteristics, and since we know that pure-bred animals are more prepotent than grades, we must be especially careful in the selection of pure-bred animals to get high individual merit. Breeders of registered animals too often attach too much importance to pedigree and too little to individual excellence, while breeders of animals for the market frequently attach too little importance to pedigree and too much to individual excellence. LAWS OF AOTMAL REPEODUCTION' 233 Registry no Absolute Criterion — It is well to remember that not all pure-bred animals are well bred, or in other words, not all pure-bred animals have good ancestors. Breeders' registry associations in the United States have thus far made but little progress in an attempt to make high individual merit a factor in the eligibility for registry ; about all that is expected is that satisfactoiy evidence shall be furnished that the animal is descended from registered stock. Many stock farmers have made a mistake in believing that because an animal is registered, it is one of high individual excellence, and that a certificate of registry is a guarantee of the future usefulness of an animal. In most breeders' associations, a certificate of registry simply guarantees to the purchaser that the animal is descended from registered stock. In buying pure-bred animals, the reader should satisfy himself on two points : First, the presence in the pedigree, close up to the animal involved, of a large number of animals of high individual merit ; and, second, the absence of any considerable number of inferior animals, especially during the last few generations. CORRELATION AND FECUNDITY It has been observed that certain groups of characteristics in animals vary simultaneously, or in other words, that any circumstance or condition which affects one character is more than likely to change some other characteristic of the animal. For example, an unusual development in the fat-forming tendencies in animals appears to be detrimental to prolificacy and often to fecundity, as well as to any natural tendency for the production of a large amount of milk. Another example along the same line is that the horns of a wether never develop as do those of a ram. Many other examples might be cited, but as all would simply illustrate the same principle, those given will be sufScient. The important thing for the breeder to consider in this connection is that a successful attempt to improve to any considerable extent a characteristic which from his standpoint is particularly desirable, may be followed by alterations desirable or othenvise in some other character of the animal, and that the unduly high development of one part or characteristic of an animal is usually at the expense of some other part. Conditions Affecting Fecundity — An animal is said to be fecund when it is fertile or has the ability to reproduce itself. An animal is said to be prolific when it is not only fecund, but also has a tendency to produce, at regular intervals, young in abundance. In general, the domestication of animals appears to have been favorable both to fecundity and to prolificacy. This is doubtless due to the fact that domesticated animals may be more regularly and intelligently nourished. Confinement of wild animals, on the other hand, has been shown to be unfavorable to fecundity. The amount and kind of food also affects fecundity. In general, a laxative diet of succulent foods is favorable to fecundity, while dry foods and those which are designated as heating foods 234 BKEEDIXG OF FAEM AXIMALS are unfavorable. Food-stuffs containing a large percentage of sugar are, in good practice, witliheld from breeding animals, because it has been shown that such a diet is not well adapted to the secur- ing of good results from breeding animals. Animals in the prime of life are more fecund than the immature, or than animals of advaDCeJ age. Young sows farrowing their first litter, for example, seldom produce as large litters as do fully matured sows, and the same has been observed in the breeding of immature ewes. GRADING, CROSS-BREEOIXG, IN-AXD-IX-BREEDI>G, AXD LINE-BREEDING A system of breeding which involves the use of females of a common grade of more or less indillerent breeding, and the use upon these and their female j)rogeny of pure-bred sires of merit for a series of 3'ear3, is sjooken of as (jrading-up or %q> gradinfj, the thought being that with each successive generation improvement upon the original stock is effected. Such a system of breeding is the most rational and valuable one within reach of the conditions which surround the average farmer. By starting even with females which have little to commend them, and mating them with pure-bred sires possessing to a marked degree the characteristics desired, rapid improvement is effected. It is of course unnecessary to start with distinctly inferior common stock. It is often economy to buy the best grade stock obtainable and buy pure-bred sires of correspondingly high merit. The first introduction of the blood of the pure-bred sire upon the common stock of the country is fol- lowed by the greatest improvement ; successive crobses show less rapid improvement until the fifth or sixth generation, when the grade females resulting from a system of grade breeding are practi- cally as good for the production of market animals as pure-bred females would be, provided pure- bred sires of high individual mei'it are always selected. The econom}' of such a system of breeding for the production of market animals will at once appeal to stock raisers, since it places within their reach the possibility of producing animals that will in every way meet the demands of the open market, without the necessity of purchasing high- bred females which, at best, during their whole period of usefulness, can influence only compara- tivelj' few offspring. Cross-breeding — The correct u.ve of the term cross-breeding is in applying it to a system of breeding involving the use of pure-bred parents of different breeds. It is not difficult to see that if snch a system of breeding were persistently and uni- versally followed it would not be long before our improved breeds would lose their identity and individuality. There can be but little question that such a system of breeding has been followed by good results in certain instances, especially in the production of market animals. "While such a system of breeding has been emjoloyed in one or two instances in the origination of breeds of live stock, an attempt to use m-AND-IX-BEEEDING 235 it for this purpose has usually been followed by failure ; especially has this been found true where breeds of widely different characters have been crossed. The valuable Oxford breed of sheep is undoubtedly the result of crossing the Old Hampshire and Cotswold breeds. It is not, however, for the production of new breeds that this system of breeding should be employed. For the production of animals for the block this system has been followed by good results where intelligently employed. By "intelligently employed" is meant the mating, for the production of meat-producing animals, of pure-bred individuals, of breeds bred for, and possessing, leading characteristics of a similar nature. This holds true only in some instances, as certain breeds do not appear to ' ' nick " well, even though bred with the same object in view. In the use of this system it is necessary to hazard the possibility of a failure by experimenting with new crosses or cross-breds, or use only such crosses as experience has long since proved will be followed by good results. The crossing of the Berkshire and Poland China breeds of hogs for the production of pork has proved a good one. The cross-bred animal resulting from the mating of the Shorthorn and Gallo- way breeds for the production of prime steers has also been found successful. Scotch and English farmers often cross the Cheviot and the Leicester with good results. Other examples might be given, but in the judgment of the author, such a system of breeding will seldom be followed by any considei'able number of stock raisers, and largely because of the practical reason that no matter how successful it may be it is open to the same objection as a system of breeding market animals from pure-bred dams and pure-bred sires of the same breed, viz., the expense of pure- bred females is in general prohibitive if the progeny can be sold only in the open market for prices which are little, if any, better than those which it is possible to secure for high grades produced by the intelligent and systematic use of pure-bred sires on common stock that has been graded up. In-and-in-breeding — Inbreeding may be defined as a system of breeding together parent and ofEspring, or own brother's and sister's blood. jSTo arbitrary rule has been agreed upon whereby we are able to define the term close-lreeding ; it may be looked upon, in general, as the mating of animals as closely related as second or possibly third cousins. No other system of breeding has been so generally resorted to by breeders who have achieved marked success in the improvement of breeds. In the early history of all breeds, when it was highly desirable to establish a uniform type, and when there were but few animals of merit from among which to select breeding animals, it was found that a system of somewhat close breeding was not only the quickest and most satis- factory, but it was practically the only available system of breeding that would bring about satisfactory results. It was followed as a means to an end ; it was used, not because the great breeders believed in a system of inbreeding, but because it was apparently necessary. A system of inbreeding, as practiced by the originators and early improvers of breeds, was a far different proposition from what it is at the present time. Breeds were founded by animals only distantly related, if at aU. Now, a majority of our improved breeds contain scores of individuals closely related. 236 BREEDING OF FARM AXIMALS Inbreeding has been so generally practiced that its further use should be left to the master spirits of the breeder's art, and should not be pursued by novices in the business of breeding fine stock. Even those famous breeders who made extensive use of a system of inbreeding to improve their flocks and herds agreed that inbreeding, long persisted in, was bound to be followed by loss of size, vigor, and fecundity. In the hands of our best breeders, where only occasionally resorted to, it may prove a valuable system of breeding, to refine evidences of coarseness, to improve early maturing qualities, to establish uniformity, and to increase prepotency. liine-breeding — Line-breeding is the breeding together of animals pos- sessing a family relationship, bat not close enough to be looked upon as close inbreeding. This system is the one usually advocated by adherents of the inbreed- ing system. It is the one which has been found more safe and satisfactory than the mating of more closely related animals. Its advantages, although somewhat longer in manifesting themselves, are the same as those which have in former years resulted from a system of inbreeding. If too long persisted in, the evil effects of the system will be the same as those noted in connection with a system of inbreeding followed by unskilled breeders. VABIATION All animals are more or less influenced by their environment or surroundings. Animals of the improved breeds deteriorate much more quickly when proper regard is not given to their comfort, feed, and other conditions surrounding them, than inferior animals improve, when surrounded by conditions well calculated to con- tribute to their general health, more rapid growth, and more uniform and perfect development. A very important factor in the improvement of our leading breeds of live stock has been the careful attention given to the surroundings of the animals at all times with conditions favorable for growth and development. Remove these conditions from animals of our improved breeds and they at once begin to deteriorate, and at a rapid rate. The excellence of pure-bred stock can not be maintained, much less improved upon, unless conditions under which these animals were developed and improved are continued. The feeding of animals, therefore, is an important factor in successful stock management. Crood Foundation Stock Essential — Before considering the subject of stock feeding, however, the importance of stock breeding should be emphasized. To the man who appreciates the differences between well-bred stock and inferior stock, there appears to be a vast amount of inferior stock throughout the country. This inferiority is due more to careless methods of breeding than to insufficient or injudicious feeding. The highest type of animal production is impossible without IMPOETAXT DATA CONCERNING BEEEDING 237 the right kind of animals with which to begin. Intelligent breeding is necessary to secure the right kind of animal. The breeding of animals is not an exact science, and although we make use of the best methods of breeding, we are not always certain of reaching the desired end. It is doubly important, therefore, that the possibilities of breeding inferior animals should be as far as possible eliminated. As our country grows older and the prices of land and food-stuffs increase in value, the possibility of securing a profit from the keeping of inferior stock will become less and less, and better quality in live stock will be a necessity. In this connection it is interesting to note that the average quality of the live stock of Great Britain is much above that of the United States. In order to pay the rent the British farmer must keep profitable stock. Inferior stock has been found to be unprofitable ; hence the uniformly good quality of their live stock. Con- ditions in the United States which have made it possible to render profitable the keeping of any grade of live stock, no matter how inferior, have not contributed to the upgrading of the common stock of the country. "We must look to the future, with its conditions more nearly comparable with those of Great Britain, to bring about this desired end. Management of Sires — The number of females a sire may cover with- out injury to himself or the quality of his get depends largely upon the age or maturity of the sire ; the care in, or method of, standing him ; his condition ; his constitutional vigor ; and the length of the breeding season. A bull may usually be depended upon to serve forty to sixty cows; a stallion, fifty to seventy-five mares ; a ram, forty to sixty ewes ; and a boar, fifteen to twenty-five sows, without injury to the male or his progeny. IMPORTANT DATA KEGABDING BREEDING Akisial Age to Begin Breeding Duration of Heat Interval between Heats Period of Gestation or Incubation Return for Breeding after Parturition Useful for Breeding Years 4 3 1 2 2 l^tol 2 1 Days 5-7 2-4 2-4 1-2 1-2 Days 21-28 21-28 17-28 9-12 Days 337-419 226-326 104-127 143-160 148-162 30 21 28 25 28-35 30-35 65-70 48-60 Days 7-10 21-28 35-42 120-180 120-180 Years Cow 10 12 Hog Q Sheep Q Eabbit ... 5-8 Hen -- -- 3-5 Turkey 10 Guinea. _ — 10 Duck _ 10 10 Dog - -- - 8 Cat - --- 6 238 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS GESTATION CALENDAR Average period of gestation with horses, 337 days ; cattle, 283 days ; swine, 113 days ; sheep, 148 days. Date of Service 6 11 " 16 " 21 " 26.. " 31.. Februarj- 5 10 15. 20 25 March 2 7.... " 12 " 17.. . " 22 " 27 April 1.. " 11 .. . " 16 " 21 " 26 May 1 " 6 " 11 " 16 " 21 " 26 " 31 June 5 " 10 " 15 " 20 " 25 " 30 Date on which Af 'IMAL IS Expected I TO Give Bibth Mare Cow Sow Ewe Dec. 2 Oct. 8 Apr. 23 May 37 " 7 •' 13 June 1 " 13 " 18 May 3 " 6 '• 17 '■ 23 " 7 " 11 " 23 " 2n " 13 " 16 " 27 Nov. 3 " 17 " 31 Jan. 1 " 7 n 0-> " 26 " 6 " 13 " 27 July 1 " 11 " 17 June 1 " 6 " 16 " 22 " 6 " 11 " 21 " 27 " 11 " 16 " 26 Dec. 2 " 16 " 21 Feb. 1 " 5 " 23 " 3? " 6 " 13 " 07 Aug. 1 " 11 " 18 July 3 ■' 6 " 16 " 23 " 7 " 11 " 21 " 28 " 13 " 16 " 26 Jan. 2 " 17 " 31 Mar. 3 U Ijr " 22 " 26 " 8 " 12 " 27 " .31 " 13 " 17 Aug. 1 Sept. 5 " 18 " 22 " 6 " 10 " 23 " 27 " 11 " 15 " 28 Feb. 1 " 16 " 20 April 2 " 6 " 21 " 25 " 7 " 11 " 26 " 30 " 12 " 16 " 31 Oct. 5 " 17 " 31 Sept. 5 " 10 " 22 " 26 " 10 " 15 " 27 Mar. 3 " 15 " 20 May 3 " 8 " 20 " 25 " 7 " 13 " 2.) " 30 " 12 " 18 " 30 Nov. 4 " 17 " 23 Oct. 5 " 9 " 23 " 28 " 10 " 14 " 27 AprU 2 " 15 " 10 June 1 u r^ " 30 " 34 Date op Service July 5 " 10 " 15.. " 20 " 25.. " 30 August 4 9.... 14 19 24 29.... September 3. 8. 13. 18. 23. 28.. October 3 8 " 13 " 18 " 23 December 12. 17. 22. 27 Date on which Animal is Expected TO Give Birth June 6 " 11 " 16 " 21 " 26 July 1 " 6 " 11 " 10 " 21 " 26 " 31 Aug. 5 " 10 " 15 " 30 " 25 " 30 Sept. 4 " 9 " 14 " 19 24 29 4 9 14 19 24 29 3 Oct. Nov, 13 18 23 28 Cow April 12 May June 1 " 6 " 11 " 16 " 21 " 26 July 1 " 6 " 11 " 16 " 21 " 26 " 31 Aug. 5 " 10 " 15 " 20 " 25 " 30 Sept. 4 " 9 " 14 " 19 " 24 " 29 Oct. 4 Sow Oct. 25 " 30 Nov. 4 " 9 " 14 " 19 " 24 " 29 Dee. 4 " 9 " 14 " 19 " 24 " 29 Jan. 3 " 8 " 13 " 18 " 23 " 28 Feb. 2 " 12 " 17 " 23 " 27 Mar. 4 " 9 " 14 " 19 " 24 " 29 April 3 " 8 " 13 " 18 Ewe Nov. 29 Dec. 4 " 9 " 14 " 19 " 24 " 29 Jan. 3 " 8 " 13 " 18 " 23 " 28 Feb. 2 " 7 " 12 " 17 " 23 " 27 Mar. 4 " 9 " 14 " 19 " 24 " 29 April 3 " 8 " 13 " 18 " 23 " 28 May 3 " 8 " 13 " 18 " 23 III. PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING Familiarity with the science, or the principles governing the processes, of stock breeding and stock feeding is highly desirable from the standpoint of the stock raiser. It is not to be asserted that such knowledge is absolutely necessary, for it is well known that we have many successful stock breeders and stock feeders who know little, if anything, about the principles of the enterprise to which they look with confidence for a competency. Success in farming is dependent more upon a thorough familiarity with the art or practice than with the scieace or fundamental principles of the business. The art is the practice of stock feeding. Successful stock feeding practice may be acquired from personal contact and experience, and by carefully observing the methods of our most successful feeders. Such experience is acquired, at best, but slowly, and often at great expense. However, a knowledge PEmCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING 239 of the scientific principles of stock feeding makes it possible for the inexperienced to learn tlie art more quickly, at less expense, and withal more thoroughly. Fewer mistakes will be made in stock feeding practice by men who are thoroughly familiar with the principles of the business than by those ignorant of the same principles. Mistakes in feeding practice are more serious now than formerly, and with the lapse of time this factor will get worse instead of better, because com- petition will be keener, land and food-stuffs more valuable, and labor more expensive. Professor Brooks of Massachusetts well says: "Some knowledge of the com- position of animal products and of foods ; some knowledge of the laws of nutrition, and of the facts discovered by scientific men regarding the most economical pro- duction of meat, of fat, of milk, and work, will help even the best practical feeder. Such knowledge will not render the exercise of the observing faculties and of the judgment the less important. It will rather sharpen the one and broaden the other." Chemistry of Stock Feeding — In an attempt to discover principles of stock feeding, investigators have given much attention to the chemical problems, neglecting to some extent, perhaiDS, the physical and the physiological factors involved. It is a pardonable oversight, since investigations tending to throw light upon the subject should begin with a study of the chemical substances necessary for the development of plant and animal life. The existence of our farm animals is dependent upon jjlant life. There must, therefore, be certain elements or com- pounds in the plant that contribute to the upbuilding of animal tissues. Of the seventy recognized chemical elements which in their infinite combinations form all organic and inorganic substances, only fifteen are involved in plant life, viz., calcium, carhon, chlorine, fluorine, liydroyen, iron, magnesium, manganese, nitrogen, oxygen, potassium, pUospliorus, silicon, sodium, and sulpliur. In making application of the chemistry of plant and animal bodies to the sub- ject of stock feeding it is seldom necessary to deal directly with these elements, but rather with certain compounds made up through various combinations of these elements, a knowledge of the nature of which combinations is unnecessary for a proper understanding of the chemistry of animal nutrition. These classes of com- pounds are practically the same in plant and animal bodies and are usually referred to as asli, crude filer, fat, nitrogen-free extract, protein, and water. The percent- ages of crude fiber and nitrogen-free extract are commonly grouped together and referred to as carbohydrates. We reproduce a table from Doctor Jordan's Tlie Feeding of Animals,^ which 1 New York: The Macmillan Co. 240 PEIXCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING Incombustibia Matter or Inorganic will aid the reader to understand the relation between the chemical elements and the chemical compounds to which we have referred. COMPOUNDS ELEMENTS ^^^®'---- - 1 Hydrogen ' Oxygen Sulphur Chlorine Phosphorus Silicon. Fluorine Potassium Sodium Calcium Magnesium Iron Manganese C Carbon Oxygen Hydrogen Nitrogen Sulphur (generally) Phosphorus (sometimes) Iron (in a few cases) Ail Vegetable or Animal Matter Combustible or Organic Matter Protein . C Carbon Carbohydrates and Fats -l Oxygen 1_ Hydrogen COMPOSITION OF FOOD-STUFFS It is necessary, first of all, that the stock raiser recognize the fact that the ele- ments with which he fertilizes his soil will reappear later on, in a measure large or small, in the bodies of the animals he fits for market. These elements will have suffered two transformations in the meantime, — being assimilated, first, by the plant, and second by the animal. All the undigested portion of the animal's food will have been returned to the land as fertilizer, and all the digested portion as well, except so much as has been permanently incorporated in the animal body, supposing, of course, that all the manure including the urine will be returned to the land. In fixing on the crops to be raised and the feeds to be bought, therefore, the intelligent farmer has in mind (1) availability for the purpose desired (depend- ing on composition and digestibility) and (2) fertilizer value. Water and Dry Slatter — All food-stuffs contain a considerable proportion of water. The residue is included under the general term "dry matter." A proper ration for a farm animal will contain a quantity of dry subst-ance which is practically uniform for animals of the same species, type, age. and condition. (See Table II., Page 246, Column A.) Because water is abundant in plant and animal life we should not conclude that it is value- less, but rather, as in the case of carbohydrates, that it is essential. The leading functions of water related to animal life are as a solvent and distributor of other compounds, while it gives elasticity and firmness as well to animal tissues. Investigations as to the percentage of water in animal bodies under normal conditions have shown that usually more than 50 per cent of the total COMPOSITION OF FOOD-STUFFS 241 weigM of an animal is water, the percentage varjdng with the age, condition, and species of animal. Ash and. Organic Matter — The dry matter of a food is subdivided into a^A (inorganic, or mineral components) and organic matter. The mineral substance is called "ash" because it alone remains when the organic matter is driven off by burning. From the foregoing chart (page 240) it will be observed that the constituent in plants and animals containing the greatest number of chemical elements is ash, and yet ash seldom consti- tutes more than one-tenth of the animal, and still less of the plant, seldom exceeding in general, one-twentieth. Clover hay contsiins a relatively high percentage of ash, while corn yields only a small amount. In the former case there are about 6.2 pounds, and in the latter 1.5 pounds ash per hundredweight. WMle the relative amount of ash in all food-stuffs is small, it is absolutely necessary to promote both animal and vegetable growth. As a matter of fact, little attention has been paid to the ash constituent of plants intended for animal food, largely because there has seem- ingly been a sufficient supply in most food-stuffs. The author is of the opinion that future investigations will reveal the fact that the ash constituent in food-stuffs is more closely related to economical production of animal products than has been generally supposed. Protein, Fat, and Carbohydrates — The organic components of feeding-stuffs fall into three groups : Proteids, fats, and carbohydrates. PKOTEijf — Protein is the nitrogenous element in vegetable and animal structure. Compounds of this class vary much in their nature, composition, and relative feeding value. They have one thing in common, namely, the possession of nitrogen. They are, therefore, frequently spoken of as nitrogenous compounds. The most expensive constituent in fertilizers is nitrogen ; likewise the most costly food-stuffs are those possessing the highest percentage of digestible protein. Whatever other functions protein may have, its chief one is that of a flesh-former. Cakbohtdrates — The carbohydrates are of two kinds : Fiber and nitrogen-free e-rtract. The fiber (composed principally of cellulose) is the hard, woody framework of the plant. The portion available for nutrition appears to be digested in the intestines. Nitrogen-free extract includes the more easily digested starches, sugars, and gums. The carbohydrates are the cheapest food- sources of heat, energy, and fat. Since their function is the same as that of the digestible fats found in feeding-stuSs, and since the fats are about 3i times as effective as the carbohydrates, it is customary for simplicity's sake to reckon them together. The fat-content of a feeding-stuff is multiplied by 2J and the product is added to the amount of carbohydrates present. Carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen — elements which may be derived from air and water — are the only elements found in the carbohydrates; they are frequently spoken of as nitrogen-free compounds. No other class of chemical compounds comprises so large a part of stock foods as the carbo- hydrates. In some cases, as in certain varieties of hay and grain, they comprise 80 per cent of the dry matter. While abundant in most food-stuffs, they are nevertheless a valuable constituent, as being the chief source of energy and fat. Fat ok Etheb-extract — The percentages indicated in the column headed ' ' Fat " (pages 344-5) include several compounds, mainly, however, fats that are soluble in ether. Some authorities prefer the use of the more accurate term of etTier-extract in referring to these compounds. The value of the ether-extract in a given food-stuff depends largely upon its nature. 242 PEIXCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING DIGESTION AND GROWTH Only a j)art of the nutrients in food-stuffs ever nourishes the animal, since only a part is digested. We speak of a given food-stuff as containing a certain number of pounds of protein per hundredweight. While this knowledge may in certain instances be useful to the feeder, the important thing to know is: How much digestible protein is there in a hundred pounds of a given food-stuff ? or, in other words, Hoiv much protein is there vliicli is (tvailahle for the use of the animal? Conditions Affecting Digestion — In the processes of digestion such portions of the food nutrients as are digestible are converted into a form which may be readily taken up by the absorbent vessels of the stomach and intestines. The undigested portions of food-stuffs are believed, in certain instances, to serve the purpose of distending the stomach and intestines. In general, a much higher percentage of the food nutrients in concentrates is digested than in roughages con- taining a large amount of crude fiber. Other conditions, also, affect the relative digestibility of nutrients in food-stuffs : ( 1 ) Certain classes of animals, such as cattle, sheep, and other ruminants, digest a higher percentage of crude fiber than do others ; for example, horses. ( 2 ) Xot only is there a difference in classes of animals as to their digestive capacities, but there are marked differences in animals of the same class in this regard. In other words, some animals are more econom- ical producers of animal products than others. Processes of Digestion — To be of any use, the digested food must be assimilated by the animal. The process of assimilation consists in the taking up or absorption of digested food particles, which are conveyed by the blood to every part of the animal. A general knowledge of where the various food nutrients are digested is desirable ; hence, a brief reference to the subject seems pertinent. The changes which take i:)lace in food during the processes of digestion are mainly chemical; but the first change or process is a mechanical one — that of mastication, the process during which the food is broken or ground up into fine particles, rendering it more susceptible to the chemical action of various juices with which the food particles come in contact during passage through the alimentary canal. The only food nutrient that is partially or wholly digested by the action of the digestive ferments with which the masticated food is brought in contact in the mouth is a portion of the starch constituent of carbohydrates. Wliether the amount digested is large or small depends upon the thoroughness of mastication and the length of time the food remains in the mouth. Under ordinary conditions, since the food remains there but a short time, the amount of starch digested is small. COMPOUNDIlSrG OP RATIONS 243 The remainder of the digestible starch is digested partly in the stomach and partly in the intestines. In general, then, we may say that carbohydrates are digested partly in the mouth, partly in the stomach, and partly in the intestines. It should be borne in mind, however, that the best authorities believe that the digestion of carbohydrate compounds in the stomach is but slight 9,t best. The food nutrients digested in the stomach under the action of the different ferments in gastric juice, the digestive agent with which the food comes in contact in the stomach, are proteids. The remaining digestible proteids are digested in the intestines. Fats and oils are mainly digested in the intestines. C03IP0UXDING OP RATIONS Agricultural investigators can not hope to attain to mathematically exact results. Food constituents vary from sample to sample ; digestive power varies from animal to animal. The farmer must concern himself with average results, to meet indi- vidual conditions and requirements. Table I. (pages 244-5) is a compilation of the results of American analyses of most of the common food-stuffs, expressly arranged for use by the practical farmer in connection with Table II. (page 246), which is a compilation of the recommendations of German experimenters as to the average ration required by animals of various types and ages. In examining any ration to ascertain how nearly it conforms to the standard, and what modifi- cations, if any, are needful, attention must be paid to five points: (1) Total amount of dry matter; (3) amount of digestible protein; (3) amount of digestible carbohydrates and fat; (4) amount of ether-extract or fat; (5) total amount of digestible nutrients, and (6) nutritive ratio. The Nutritive Batio of a food-stufE or a ration is the relation that exists between the quantity of digestible protein and the quantity of digestible carbohydrates which it contains. Thus, if 100 pounds of brewer's grains contain 15 pounds of digestible protein and 45 pounds of digestible carbohydrates and fat, the nutritive ratio is expressed thus : Protein is to Carbohydrates and Fat as 15 is toJfS, or. Protein is to Carboliydmtes and Fat a^ 1 is to 3, or, written mathematically. Protein : Carbohydrates + Fat : : 1 : S. To find the nutritive ratio, then, of a feeding-stuff — that is, to find how many pounds or what fraction of a pound of digestible carbohydrates and fat it contains for each pound of digestible protein — we divide its digestible carbohydrates and fat content by its digestible protein content. The medium ratios lie between 1 part protein to 5i parts carbohydrates and fat (1 : 5.5) and 1 part protein to 8 parts carbohydrates and fat (1 : 8.0). If the carbohydrates largely predominate, the ratio is said to be wide; if the proportion of protein is above the medium, the ratio is said to be narrow. Thus, timothy hay, with a nutritive ratio of 1 :16.6, makes a wide ration ; vetch hay (1 : 3.3) a narrow one. Nabeow Nutritive Ratio — The following common and commercial food-stuflfs are rela- tively high in digestible protein and low in digestible carbohydrates : Concentrates — Wheat bran, linseed oil meal, wheat middlings, cotton-seed ineal, gluten meal, pea meal, cow-peas, and soy beans. Roughage — Clover, alfalfa, cow-pea, and vetch hay. Wide Nutkitivb Ratio — The following food-stufEs are relatively high in digestible carbo- hydrates and low in digestible protein : Concentrates — Rye, corn, com meal, and corn and cob meal. BougJiage — Timothy, oat, red top, millet, and Hungarian grass hays, and corn stover. 244 PEINCIPLES OP STOCK FEEDING TABLE I.— Digestible Nutrients Per Pouncl of Various Feeding -stuffs, and Fertilizing Constituents Per 1,000 Pounds (Compiled by Willis MacGerald) Digestible NUTRI- OJ Nutrients Ratio S (K en .1 « S ^ >J 4 1, 01 ■9u ■Efc. 2^3 . fl ■^S'2 £f ^ a "^•e "^y. o§ $3 < n ■=h il "y S R fflT30 aS 1- H Qi c3 O ^ u- 1 "t^ 3 lu Decimal Fractious of 1 Pound A B C T) E .RRS ni2 .205 .006 .217 1 to )7.0 H .34S1 U3(: .216 .001- .247 1 to 7.2 11 .2Hil oa: .169 .004 .18! 1 to 8.4 H .347 (121 .226 .006 .247 1 to 10,8 H .27T .015 .125 .005 14C Ito 8.3 H .ana .03!i .138 .005 .177 1 to 3 5 H .293 ()2E .164 .007 .19;- 1 to 5.6 H .Ififi .018 .092 .002 .101- Ito 5.1 H .S49 .032 .121 005 .1.5F Ito 3.8 H .•x» .021 .150 .004 .171 1 to 7.1 H .21C .CIS .111 .004 .13( 1 to 5 8 H 37!- 026 .212 .ok; .'■>» 1 to 8.2 H .Ifill .018 .076 003 .094 1 to 4.2 H Ifin ,017 .077 .002 .094 1 to 4.5 H .207 .010 .125 .004 .135 1 to 12.5 H .200 .006 .131 .O'M 131- 1 to 21.8 H .140 .015 .086 .002 ,101 Ito 5.7 H .269 .014 .178 .006 192 1 to 13.0 A .209 .009 .129 007 ,138 Ito 14.3 H .2,S9 006 .154 .0(12 ,l(iO Ito 25, 6 H 207 .015 .106 .OOfl .121 1 to 7.0 H 258 02!' .116 013 .143 1 to 4.3 H 2R0 .02(1 .158 .OKi 178 Ito 7.9 H .275 .030 .128 019 .158 Ito 4.3 H Rfi8 .028 .466 014 .494 Ito 16. 6 H .8.59 .064 .417 .015 481 1 to 6.5 H 788 (MH .418 .02(1 466 Ito 8.7 H 901 .049 .455 .014 .504 Ito 9 2 H 923 .045 .540 .013 585 1 to 12.0 H 890 .072 .400 .010 472 1 to B.6 A 871 .0.59 .436 012 495 1 to 7.4 H m .079 .435 .015 514 1 to 5.5 H 916 .110 .423 .012 .533 Ito 3.8 H 847 068 .396 017 464 Ito 5.8 H 903 084 .459 015 543 Ito 5.4 H 893 lOH .410 011 ..518 Ito 8.8 H 887 108 .423 015 .530 Ito 3.9 H 887 129 406 031 53.-) 1 to 3.1 1) 911 .048 .402 010 .540 Ito 10.3 H 911 043 498 015 541 1 to 11.6 H RfiO 078 .393 .004 471 1 to 5.0 F 578 .025 .373 012 398 Ito 14.9 H 595 017 .340 .007 857 1 to 20.0 H 924 068 .487 030 555 1 to 7.2 F 904 .004 .372 004 376 llo 9.3.0 H 908 .012 .404 ,008 416 1 to 33.6 H 858 007 .426 006 433 1 to 60.8 H 929 006 .415 .004 431 1 to 69.1 H 864 043 .341 .008 .384 Ito 7.9 H 899 .023 .423 010 .446 Ito 18.4 H Food Green Fodders Timothy ._ Kentucky Bluegrass Hungarian Grass Redtop Orchard Grass Alfalfa _ Red Clover Cowpeas Soy Beans _ Rye Fodder Barley Fodder Oat Fodder Oats and Peas Barley and Peas _ Green Corn Fodder Green Sorghum Fodder Rape Barnyard Millet __ Common Vetch Fermented RougUage Corn Silage Sorghum Silage Cowpea Silage Soy Bean Silage Clover Silage Alfalfa Silage Hay and Straw Timothy Hay Mixed Grass and Clover Hay , Kentucky Bluegrass Hay Orchard Grass Hay , Hungarian Hay _ , Barnyard Millet Hay Mixed Grass Hay Mixed Rowen .; Alfalfa Hay Red Clover Hay._ .__ Alsike Clover Hay .., Cowpea Hay , Soy Bean Hay • Vetch Hay Redtop Hay Oat Hay Oat and Vetch Hay . _ Corn Fodder (Field-Cured). Corn Stover (Field-Cured). Peanut Hay Wheat Straw Oat Straw Barley Straw Rye Straw ". Peavine Straw Soy Bean Straw . , Fertilizer Content ftc c Sp- S§ tjj p, - CO ^ o S lbs, 4.8 4.9 12 6 17 11.9 13.1 12.0 14.1 16,1 21.9 20 7 4 19 5 23 2 11 5 lbs. 2.6 1.5 9 1.5 1 11.9 1.1 1^ lbs. 7.6 $2.31 5,5 3.8 17 6 10 4 .7.6 5 6.2 13 1 4.6 14 3 H 17.5 5.4 2.9 2 9 10.2 2.6 3.0 2.8 3 5 4.0 2 3 3 7 4,6 9.0 18 8 15 7 18.8 13.0 15 5 14.9 16 8 22 22.3 14.7 10.8 10 2 14 9.8 5.1 12 4 20.9 7 10 2 13 2 DIGESTIBLE CONSTITUENTS OF FEEDING-STUEFS 245 TABLiE 1.— {Continued) Digestible kutrients si^ o eg o In Decimal Fiactions of 1 Pound TIVE Ratio O a O (3 .as be Food Fertilizer Content B C .](ia .730 .017 .079 .764 04!1 .im .700 .011 .()K7 .693 .016 .092 .568 .042 -W7 .533 .01« .16K .534 .007 las .689 .ira .011 .056 .001 .011 .104 .001 Oflf .083 .m-> .010 .077 .002 .009 .165 .001 01H .091 .(KM .oac .173 .002 .OIC .065 Am .031 .382 .017 ,122 .453 .027 .122 586 .038 .tx, .658 .021 .Of« .647 .m. .070 .717 .ost OM .665 .m. .Ifif .533 .007 It's .6,54 .059 .11.5 .548 .030 074 .661 .030 074 .347 .019 ffiO .456 .054 m-B .705 .068 2,5? 681 .110 .204 .682 .08ii ,180 .409 017 ms .125 .014 157 .478 .051 .29S .485 .070 282 .464 038 373 .444 .123 .OOS .369 .017 42S .383 Ofiii 017 .051 003 006 .073 OK .144 .011 031 .065 .(H)^ 02f .059 .00? 0,3f .065 oil .008 .054 .00.^ 0.36 .133 .037 1> 832 .843 .499 1660 610 .702 .814 .067 .115 091 087 174 109 193 075 403 575 708 793 729 787 .709 700 785 .421 .676 .780 168 1 to 7.2 Ito 9.7 Ito 7.1 Ito 7.9 Ito 6.1 Ito 6.9 1 to 3.2 Ito 5.5 1 to 5.1 1 to 9.4 1 to 10.3 Ito 7.7 Ito 18 3 Ito 5.1 Ito 8.7 1 to 6.5 1 1» 18.2 Ito 3.7 Ito 4.8 Ito 4.9 Ito 7.9 Ito 10.2 1 to 15.1 Ito 3.0 Ito 9.3 Ito 48 Ito 8.9 1 to 4.7 Ito 3.1 Ito 9.4 Ito 3.6 Ito 3.3 Ito 2.3 Ito 3 2 Ito 30 Ito 1.6 Ito 1.7 1 to 1 2 ltol23.0 Ito 0.8! 1 to 3.0 1 to 12.0 1 to 14.4 Ito 2.1 Ito 2.0 Ito 1.7 Ito 6.8 Ito 8.6 Grains and Seeds Wheat Corn (average of all analyses) Rye Barley Oats Buckwheat Peas Whole Cottonseed. __ Boots, Tubers, Etc. Mangel Beets Sugar Beets .-. Carrots Flat Turnips Potatoes _ __ Cabbages --. Artichokes _ Field Pumpkins Acorns (Fresh) Mill Products Wheat Bran _ Wheat Shorts Dark Feeding Flour Low-Grade Flour _ Corn Meal _. Corn-and'Cob Meal Pea Meal Oat Meal Rye ^ran _ Barley Meal — Buckwheat Bran Buckwheat Middlings By-Products, TVastes, and Animal Products Hominy Chop Gluten Meal Gluten Feed _. Malt Sprouts , Wet Brewer^s Grains -. Dry Brewer's (drains Linseed Meal (Old Process) Linseed Meal (New Process) Cottonseed Meal Cottonseed Hulls Peanut Meal ._ _ Sugar-beet Leaves Sugar-beet Pulp. Apple Pomace Gravity Skim-milk Separator Skim-milk _ _ Buttermilk _ Whey .._ Whole Milk lbs. 33 6 18.2 17.6 15 1 30 6 14 4 30. 31 1. 3.2 1.5 1 3 3 3.8 3 6 lbs. 7 9 7 8 3 7. 8.2 4.4 8 2 12 0.9 1.0 9 1.0 1 2 1.1 1.4 lbs. 6.0 4 5 4 4 8 6.3 2.1 9.9 11 3.8 4 8 5 1 3 4 6 4 3 4.7 26. 28 2 31 8 28 9 15.8 14.1 80.8 23.6 33.2 15.5 28 18 5 31 4 5.6 6.3 5 7 8.2 16.1 5 9 10.9 3 5 4.0 4.7 22 8 6.6 14 3 4 13.8 9.8 8.3 3.1 14.3 3.1 10 16.6 18 3 28 8 2.6 13 1 1 5 2 02 2 2 C 1.7 1 4 1 3.4 4.9 0.5 3 16 8 0.5 9 13.7 13 9 8.7 10 2 15.0 6.2 4 1.3 1 9 1 1 6 1 1 17 246 PRINCIPLES OP stock: FEEDING TABLE II.— German Feeding Standartis for Daily Rations, Adapted for Use in Connection Witll Table I. (Arranged by Willis MacGerald) Notes on Daily Rations Particulars III Digestible Nutrients Kind op Animal Pro- tein Carbo- hydrates and Fat Fatietlier extract) alone Total tive Ratio In pounds and decimal fractions thereof Growing Dairy Cattle Per Head Age in mcs. Live wt. lbs. 2- 3.... ..150 3-6 300 6-12 500 12-18... 700 18-24 ..900 A 3.45 7.20 13.50 18.20 23.40 B 0.60 0.90 1.00 1.26 1.35 C 2.63 4..52 6.81 9.38 11.41 0.300 0..300 0.250 0.280 0.270 D 3.23 5.42 7.81 10.64 12.76 F 1 to 4.5 1 to 6.1 1 to 6.8 1 to 7.5 1 to 8.5 Growing Beef Cattle Per Head 2-3 105 .3- 6... 330 0-12 ..550 12-18 750 ■ 18-24 935 3.80 7.92 1.3.75 18.00 22.44 0.69 1.16 1.38 1.50 1.68 2 89 5.35 8.14 10.20 12.06 o.3;ao 0.496 0.:j86 0.375 0,374 3.58 6.51 9.52 11.70 13.74 1 to 4.2 1 to 4.7 1 to 6,0 1 to 6.8 1 to 7.2 Fattening Beef Cattle Per 100 lbs. Live Weiglit Preliminary period Main period Finishing period 3.00 3.00 2.60 0.25 0.30 0.27 1.61 1.61 1.66 0.050 0.070 0.070 1.86 1.91 1.93 1 to 6.5 1 to 5.4 1 to 6.2 Milch <;ows Per 100 lbs. Live Weight Mill? yield 11 lbs. daily.. Milk yield lO'/j lbs Milk yield 22 lbs Milk yield 27'/, lbs 2.50 2.70 2.90 3.20 0.16 0.20 0.25 0.33 1.07 1.19 1.41 1.48 0.030 0.040 0.0.50 0.080 1.23 1..39 166 181 1 to 6.7 1 to 6.0 1 to 5.7 1 to 4.5 Per 100 lbs. Live Weight 1.80 2.20 2.50 2.80 0.07 0.14 0.20 0.28 0.82 1.07 1.20 1.48 0.010 0.030 0.050 O.OSO 0.89 1.21 1.46 1.76 1 to 11.8 1 to 7.7 VVorlc Oxen Moderate work 1 to 6.5 Heavy work 1 to 5.3 Per 100 lbs. Live Weight Ligbt work 2.00 2.40 2.60 0.15 0.20 0.25 1.04 1.24 1.61 0.040 O.OBO 0.080 1.19 1,44 1.76 1 to 7.0 1 to 6.2 Heavy work 1 to 6.0 Growing Wool Sheep Per Head iVgeinmos. Live wt.lbs. 4- 6 60 C- 8... 75 8-11 86 11-15 90 15-20 100 1.50 1.88 1.96 1.98 2.20 0.20 0.21 0.18 0.16 0.15 1.02 1.14 1.07- 1.09 1.16 0.042 0.045 0.043 0.038 0.030 1.22 1.35 1.25 1,26 1.30 1 to 6.0 1 to 5,4 1 to 6,0 1 to 7.0 1 to 7.7 Growing Mutton Sheep Per Head 4- e 65 6- 8 85 8-11 100 11-15.... 120 15 20--- .--150 1.69 2.21 2.40 2.76 3.30 0.29 0..30 0..30 0.26 0.30 1.14 1.41 1.54 1.64 1.94 0.035 0.060 0.050 0.060 0.060 1.43 171 1,84 1,90 2.24 1 to 4.0 1 to 4.8 1 to 6.2 1 to 6.3 1 to 6,5 Fattening Sheep Per 100 lbs. Live Weight I^reliminary period Main period 3.00 2.80 0.30 0.36 1.61 1.69 0.050 0.060 1.91 1.94 1 to 6,4 1 to 4.5 Per 100 lbs. Live Weight 2.00 2..30 2.50 0.12 0.15 0.29 1.10 127 1.61 0.020 0.030 0.050 1.22 1,42 1.90 1 to 9.1 Mature Sheep 1 to 8.5 Ewes, suckling lambs.. 1 to 6.6 Growing Breeding Swine Per Head Age in mos. Live wt.lbs. 2- 3 45 3- 5... 100 5- 6 120 6-8 175 8-12.... ..260 1.98 3.50 3.84 4.90 6.50 0.34 0.60 0.44 0.49 0.65 1.36 2.49 2.66 3.40 3.98 0.046 0.080 0.048 0.053 0.062 1.70 2.99 3,10 3.89 4.53 1 to 4.0 1 to 5.0 1 to 6.0 1 to 7.0 1 to 7.5 Growing Fattening Swine Per Head 2-3... 45 3- 5 110 5- 6 150 6-8... 200 8-12 275 1.98 3.85 4.96 6.00 7.15 0.:34 0.56 0.66 0.72 0.&3 1.36 2.74 3.56 4.28 5.23 0.045 0.088 0.090 0.080 0.083 1.70 3.29 4,21 5,00 0,06 1 to 4.0 1 to 5.0 1 to 5.5 1 to 6.0 1 to 6.4 Fattening Swine Per 100 lbs. Live W^eight Preliminary period 3.60 3.20 2.60 0.46 0.40 0.27 2.66 2.61 1.89 0.070 0.050 0.040 3,11 2,91 2,16 1 to 5.9 1 to 6.3 Finishing period 1 to 7.0 Per 100 lbs. Live Weight Brood sows 2.20 0.25 1.64 0.040 1.89 1 to 0.6 COMPOUNDIKG OF RATIOXS 247 How to Use the Tables'— Suppose a herd of dairy cows, with an average weight of 1,000 pounds, and an average daily milk-yield of 22 pounds, is heing fed a ration of 25 pounds of red clover hay, 2 pounds of cotton-seed meal, and 6 pounds JC^c-^i^tx::/^ /OyCCt(ryy^(i^ jt-^ /.SV .7^ .8f /.65 /.7.2 Qx;t^ s:^if ss- 3.VO 3-f^ //4./ Z.ff /4^/f /r/f /;^7 2230 /37 of oats. In order to compare this ration with the standard, let us make a little hlank, ruled precisely as are Tables I. and II. (pages 244-6). Above the double «™ ^?'^J^® *^^ TABtE I. — Coefflcient of Digestibility -The percentage of a given element of nutri- tion (as. for example, protein) that is digested by an animal is called the coefflcient of digestibility, and is expressed in the dwjimal fonn. Multiplymg together the protein content (for example) of timothy hay and the coefflcient of digestibility f or tunothy-hay protein when consumed by ruminating animals, we obtain the per- centage of protem m famothy hay that may be digested, on the average, by ruminants Authorities— The following references give the authorities for the figures in the foregoing Table : (A) United States Department of Agriculture . Yearbook for 189S. (B) United States Department of Agriculture : Yearbook for 1895. (C) United States Department of Agriculture : Farmers' Bulletin 25. (D) Composition, Farmers' Bulletin 22; coefficients of digestibiUty (average for ruminants and swine). W. A. Henry : Feeds and Feeding. Di- (E) Farmers" Bulletin 16. (F) W.H.Jordan: The Feeding of Animals. gestibility calculated for ruminants only. (6) Herbert Myrick : Key to Profitable Feeding. (H) W. A. Henry : Feeds and Feeding. Based on experiments with ruminants and swine. (W) F. W. Woll : Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen. For references to the original sources from which all these figures have been drawn, the reader is ref prrpd tr. the several authors in question. >.™->-i ^ loioncu i,u giving, as they do, the total fertilizer content, merely furnish a basis for the comparison ot manurial values the Dortion of feeding-stuff that is available to ennch the soil being only that part that is not assimilated by the animal. 248 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING horizontal line we set down the standard, obtained by multiplying by 10 the stand- ard per hundredweight for a cow yielding 22 pounds of milk, as given in Table II. In the first vertical column we set down the names and amounts of our several feeding-stuffs. To fill out the horizontal line showing the constituents of clover hay, we mul- tiply the constituents of 1 pound (as shown in Table I.) by 25. To fill out the cotton-seed meal line we multiply by 2 the quantities found in Table I. For oats, we multiply by 6. The nutritive ratio of each feeding-stuff is set down in column E, of course, exactly as it appears in Table I. Lastly, we foot up columns A, B, C, and D, and divide the sum of the column (carbohydrates) by the sum of the B column (protein). That gives us the nutri- tive ratio of the whole ration, 1:4.6. Comparison with the standard shows that while the totals of dry matter and digestible nutrients and the quantity of carbohy- drates are not far out of the way, protein is in excess, while the nutritive ratio shows the same thing — that the ration as fed is too narrow. Since cotton-seed meal is a purchased product, and an expensive one, let us try cutting the amount in half, also reducing the oat ration to 5 pounds. Let us sub- stitute, in order to widen the ration and increase palatability, 12 pounds of corn silage (80 per cent water). Then our trial sheet will stand thus : /S^~^^^aI7 2Jr 7^.fi 1. 7 c Ml //.to I', 5-.% -n ^ HH .S% CJ.Z ^ H^^ .HC im 3M /;CJ (H^-TUryy A<^ 25/ .// /•SS I.U /.'f/S %%oC Z-C'f f¥.'/^ /T'^B i:s.ss This ration is balanced, it is seen, to conform very closely to the standard. The nutritive ratio (1:5.58) is nearly what is desired, and the total of digestible nutri- THE JUDGIXG OF LIVE STOCK 249 ents is less than a pound in excess of standard requirements. An animal will digest more of an appetizing ration than of an uninTiting one, but if the bulk of roughage is too great, the feeder will soon know it, and may reduce the whole ration uniformly, leaving the balance of nutrients unchanged. The foregoing is given for purposes of illustration, and not as a model ration. It is far better for a farmer to think, and to build up, on the groundwork of what he knows, an individual system of economical, scientific feeding, than to try to follow blindly the model rations recommended by anyone else. The accompanying feeding standards tabulated on page 246 must be studied in the same open-minded spirit. Their use must vary with circumstances. Model rations are the fruit of individual experience; standard rations are the summing up of average experience. Study of feeding standards tells the farmer when he is on the right track; study of model rations suggests how rations in use may be modified along lines other feeders have found profitable. IV. THE JUDGIIVG OF LIVE STOCK CHAKACTERISTICS OF PKIME STEERS When the word "prime" is used to designate the quality and condition of cattle, we should understand it as signifying the very best grade, unless possibly we were to except a few fancy cattle of show-yard merit that occasionally reach the market. Prime steers are taken largely by buyers for the eastern markets and by packers for the dressed-beef trade, the former taking the bulk of such cattle. Such steers are practically above criticism as to both quality and condition. The prime steer should present conclusive evidence to sight and touch that he jDossesses to a high degree the form, condition, and quality demanded by the dealer in high-class beef. Form — The butcher demands not so much that parallelogramic form popu- larly spoken of by many authorities, as he does a high state of development in loin, crops, back, thighs, twist, and rump. He demands development in these regions because they are the parts from which are secured the high-priced cuts. The ani- mal should show plenty of depth and breadth, furnishing a large surface for flesh, without that tendency to be paunchy which is objectionable to the butcher. The butcher seeks, also, smooth, well-rounded general outlines, which indicate both thickness and evenness of flesh, and an absence of that tendency to be rough and coarse, which would mean loss to him, since the waste in the dressing of a rough, coarse beast would be out of proportion with the weight of marketable beef. 250 THE JUDGING OP LIVE STOCK Then, too, the hntclier is not unmindful of the fact that, having secured satis- factory development of the parts from which are taken the high-priced cuts, there is an added value in securing thick, even flesh throughout, on the cheaper as well as on the more valuable parts of the carcass. To the untrained ej'c-, an un- usual development of loin, crops and- thighs would detract from the beaut}', style, or gracefulness of the beast. To the butcher, such devel- opment would increase rather than lessen its value. It should be clearly borne in mind, therefore, that no beauty of outline, style, or graceful- ness of carriage will ever take prece- dence of proper development in the most important antl valuable parts of the bullock. We should not assume, however, that tlie highest development in these most valual)le parts is incompatible with ideal beef form ; the truth of the matter is, we seldom get high development in the parts from which are taken the high-priced cuts except in animals which are symmetrically developed. It is entirely consistent and desirable, therefore, that we hold up as our ideal standard of the prime steer a combination of well-developed parts from which are taken the high-priced cuts, and a uniformly high develop- ment in all parts capable of taking on flesh, which gives to the animal symmetry and smoothness of outline, and that style and that beauty otherwise impossible. Correct conformation and prime condition must accompjauy each other in order to secure a high percentage of dressed beef. Quality and Condition — Quality may bo considered as (a) general quality and (li) quality of flesh and C(nidition of animal. (a) General QfALiTY — General quality in a fat steer is indicated by a medium-.sized, fine, clean cut, breedy-featured head, bearing ears of moderate size and texture ; .sliort legs with clean, fine bono ; a fine, nicely tapering tail ; fine huir ; a pliable skin of medium thickness, and smooth, well-rounded outlines. (b) Quality of Flesh and Condition of Animal — The quality of beef depends largely upon the condition of the animal. By condition we refer to the degree of fatness of a bullock. It should not be assumed, however, that the highest quality of beef is found in the fattest beast. Fio. 140. Tj-pical prim.- st.-.-y Ili-li-iTa.].- H.-rcfi ml fattened on the University of Illinoi.s f.arm, Urbana, 111. Oluniford.) OHAEACTERISTICS OP PEIME STEERS 251 There are three principal reasons for fattening a steer . (1) In order that, when dressed, there shall not be a high percentage of ofEal or waste, as a fat animal, other things being equal, wiU dress a higher percentage of carcass than a half fat or a thin one ; furthermore, in the fat animal, the proportion of those parts, ■which, from their very nature are unsaleable, is reduced to the mini- mum ; (2) in order that the flesh or lean meat shall be rendered more tender, more juicy, and of better flavor by the deposition of fat throughout its substance ; (3) in order to permit of proper ripening of the meat, as a thin carcass, being full of moisture and lacking the protection of a covering of fat, will rot before it will ripen. CoxDiTioxs Influexcixg Beef Quality — The possibility of securing the highest quality in beef is influenced by the breeding and general quality of the animal. Methods both of growing and fattening the beast also influence the quality of its flesh. There is, too, a quality of flesh which is peculiar to the individual, and which is independent both of breeding and methods of feeding. Desirable quality in flesh is indicated by a firm, yet mellow and springy, consistency of the flesh at Fig. 141. Names and location of points of external conformation of beef cattle. 1, muzzle; 2, face; 3, forehead; 4, poll; 5, crest; 6, throat; 7, dewlap; 8, brisket; 9, neck; 10, crops; 11, back; 12, loin; 13, nunp; 14, thigh; 15, flank; 16, fore ribs; 17, fore flank; 18, setting on of tail; 19, twist; 20, breast; 21, hip; 22, hock. (Mumford.) the crops, along the back, at the loins and even on the sides, beneath the gentle pressure of the outstretched hand. Good quality of flesh is indicated in the fat steer by the absence of ties and rolls, or patches of gaudy, flabby fat. A tendency to lay on fat in bunches and to roll at the loin indicates that the fat has been deposited in large masses and has not been so evenly distributed throughout the animal as to give to the flesh that marbled character so necessary to the highest qualit}' in beef. An animal without a tendency to lay on fat unevenly may become bunchy about the tailhead and show other indica- tions of a lack of a well-marbled condition of the flesh simply by being carried to the point of excessive fatness. Judging Beeves on the Hoof — Outstanding coarseness and lack of gen- eral quality in the live animal without doubt are inseparably linked with undesirable texture in the beef cut from such a beast. Fulness at base of tongue, fulness or a 252 THE JUDGING OF LIVE STOCK roll of fat in front of point of shoulder, a full twist, a large mellow cod, a low, full, thick flank that stands out and rolls visibly as the animal walks, with fulness and smoothness at rnmp and tailhead indicate that degree of fatness which is essential to the highest quality in beef. These points, which are to be judged by sight rather than by touch, are the ones most depended upon by buyers at the yards. If a close examination is desirable and possible we find that when the ends of the fingers are gently pressed into the flesh on the side of the beast in an effort to find the ribs, there should be a firmness of fiesh that does not admit of freely and easily forcing the fingers to the ribs and between them. A lack of firmness indicates the presence of too large a proportion of fat, which may be due either to a too-fat or overdone condition of the animal, or to an inherent lack of flesh, either of which is decidedly undesirable. A proper degree of firmness shows the presence of plenty of flesh or lean meat. Such an examination reveals the quality of the surface fiesh, but can not always be relied upon to determine the quality of the beef throughout the carcass. It sometimes occurs that a steer may cut too fat on the block and yet not have exhibited on foot bunchiness or other indications of an overdone condition. Animals which are carried to an extreme degree of fatness, as is seen in some show animals and occasionally among market animals, give evidence of an overdone condition, being very soft in flesh — a condition which often passes into a very hard, unyielding one. It sometimes happens, too, that certain individual animals become hard in the surface fat without ever having shown by softness of their flesh that they were approaching an overdone condition. There is such a thing, however, as an animal becoming too firm in the flesh, and such firmness indicating an overdone condition. What the Market Demands — Prime steers weighing from 1,300 to 1,400 pounds are wanted by shippers, by packers, and by exporters. The demand for steers of these weights, of good, choice, and medium quality, is greater than for steers of any other weight ; hence the market is less likely to be overstocked with these grades. Especially is this true with the steers of choice and prime quality. It is as difficult as it is unnecessary to decide whether form, condition, or qual- ity is of greatest importance to the butcher. The main point to bear in mind is, that an animal characteristically deficient in any one of the foregoing require- ments, is disqualified to meet the full demands of the dealer in high-class beef and consequently is not to be considered as a prime steer. Whether a lack of quality or a lack of condition is more evident in the cattle seen at the Union Stock Yard, Chicago, depends largely upon the prevailing prices for food-stuffs and the prices for cattle on foot. When high prices for food-stu£Es have prevailed for some time, and when market prices for cattle have been ruling high, the tendency among feeders is to send their cattle to market in a half-fat condition, in order to take advantage of the prevailing high prices and avoid feeding too much of high-priced food-stufEs, in which case many cattle would lack condition rather than quality. SELECTIOX OF CHOICE FEEDEES 253 CHARACTERISTICS OF CHOICE FEEDERS It is higlilv desirable to describe in detail a standard grade of stoekers and feeders : otherwise ve sliould confuse rather than define. If the animals in one grade of stoekers and feeders are more uniform than in the others, it is in the choice grade. Steers of this grade will, under proper management, develop into choice and prime steers. It would seem wise, therefore, to consider in detail their desir- able characteristics. It may be said then that "we demand in choice stoekers and feeders, fir.58 THE JUDGING OF LIVE STOCK Body, Well fouplfd up ; color uniform ami liriijlit ; quarters, full ; shoiildcrs. full ; chest, broad ; head, finely shaped ; ears, lar!i;e, tlexilile, jiointed, sli-aiglit, and alert ; eye. quick, full, and ,i;-entle; nostrils, large; hair, soft and silky; skin not thin; legs tlat, not roundish, and muscular ; hoofs, black ; feet broad, flat, and round ; in speeding, feet thrown not sidewise, but straight forward. Do not expect a .good colt from service of a traveling stallion, concerning whose antecedents you know nothiug. Mare for Breodiiisj — Of good size and color, sound in every particular; in the vigor of life ; large powers of endurance, good traveler, active gait, -well bred ; disposition gentle ; feet having neither toe nor quarter crack. The best breeding marc is not too good to use. More of the good physical qualities of the colt come from the mother than from the sire. HOW TO SELIXIT A BREKDING BOAR Fat Hog-s — The lireeding boar should be a .u'ood representative of some one of the leading breeds of swine. The ((uestion of selcetiTig a good individual is more important than the selection of the breed. The use of grade boars and those of inferior pedigree can not be too strongly dis- *^ •- M* ' iP*^ • Fig. 146. Typical fat bog. (From a photrtgrapti fur- nislied ijy Wallace's Fanner.) Fig. 147. Typical tiacon ho^ ; Englisli prize-winning Tannvoi'tU .sow. {Bn-edri-'x Gn'zrtfi'.) couraged. The character of the head should he such as to indicate masculinity — broad, and in length, medium to short ; the neck should be short and broad, and smoothlj' joined to the shoul- ders ; the jowl of good size, as indicating good feeding quality ; the legs should be short, strong, and straight, well placed to the outside of the body ; back and loin straight or .slightly arched, with plenty of width ; the chest should be wide and deep ; the flanks continuing the straight underline, making the sides deep ; the girth should be large, both at the heart and flank ; hams and shoulders well developed. Compactness and symmetry throughout are desirable points, while strength of limb and ma.sculine character should not be sacrificed to less important points. Such a boar selected from the Poland China. Berkshire, Chester White, or Duroc-Jersey breeds and bred to sows of merit that are high grades of some one of the above brceils will produce pigs which, if properly fed, will weigh 200 pounds at six months of age, and which will possess the desirable THE IDEAL MUTTOlsr SHEEP 259 characteristics of the fat hog for American markets, namely, well-developed hams and shoulders, good loins, and sides without too much waste. Bacon Hogs — In breeding hogs to produce the highest class of bacon, it is necessary to select animals which have been especially bred for this pur- pose, and feed them upon a ration best calculated to produce fine quality. The large Yorkshire and Tamworth are most extensively used for producing bacon hogs. They do not have the heavy jowls so prevalent in fat hogs, nor do they possess such a large amount of superfluous fat. The lean and fat in the pork is evenly distributed, while the sides are long and deep ; the belly The fat should cover the body in an even layer Fig. 148. Names and location of points of external conformation of the pig. ], snout; 2, face; 3, forehead; -4, neclc: 5, jowl; 6, breast; 7, shoulder; 8, ham; 9, flank; 10, belly; 11, heart girth; 12, back; 13, loin; 14, rump; 15, toes; 16, side. (Mum- ford.) wide and thick, and the back thinly fleshed. throughout — it should not be moi'e than about H inches in thickness, nor should it be less than about 1 inch. CHAKACTERISTICS OF MUTTON SHEEP The student of animal form soon discovers that the important points in all animals bred and fed for meat production are noticeably similar. In considering the form of the prime steer, the fat hog or the mutton sheep, it is the same low- set, broad, and compact confer- 4 mation that is demanded. Producers must cater to the demands of dealers and consum- ers or, owing to lessened con- sumption or to lower prices for an undesirable product, sacrifice what they have to offer. The butcher's ideal of a mutton sheep involves form, fleece quality, and condi- tion, the main points being form, condition, and such points of gen- Avnl nnnlifv fis pnntriViiifp in thp Fig.149. Points of external conformation of the sheep. 1, muzzle; eiai quality as COntriOUie to ine 2, face; 3, forehead; 4, poll; 5, scrag or neck; 6, brisket; 7, Viot + PT Irillino- nnnlitipa Tlio forearm; 8, heart girth; 9, back; 10, loin; 11, rump, 12, hip; Deiter-Kliling qualities. J.ne 13, dock; 14, thigh, or leg of mutton; 15, belly. (Mumford.) CHAEACTERISTICS OF MUTTOX SHEEP 261 Fig. 151. Typical fat. sheep: Shropshire wether, champion in middle wool class, Inlernational Fat Stock Show, Chicago, 1901. (Photograph furnished by T/ie Ainerlcan Sheep Breeder.) qnestion of fleece is important onl}' in so far as it increases or decreases the total value of tlie slieep to the slaughterer. Good killing or dressing quality is indicated by an absence, in the general appearance of the animal, of all wideness or coarseness. The bones of the leg and the head should be as fine as is consistent with good feeding quality and constitutional vigor. The butcher's ideal mutton sheep might lie one possessing bone so fine that the animal would be too delicate to make a profitable feeder. A thor- ough knowledge of the butcher's ideal is essential, but if the butcher's ideal animal for the block is at variance with the feeder's ideal for the feed lot. shed or pen, the feed lot ideal is bound to receive the most serious consideration at the hands of the pro- ducer. Fortunately, the butcher's ideal and the most profitable type of mutton sheep to feed are not materially different. B3' careful study the feeder can meet the demands of the butcher in almost every particular without sacrificing anything in animals .so selected as profitable feeders. Breeding' — To make a profitable carcass of beef and a profitable animal in the feed lot, it has been said that well-bred beef steers are necessary. The state- ment applies with equal force in speaking of mutton sheep. The importance of Ijreeding, as affecting the profitableness of a mutton sheep, is not generally enough recognizcil. High grades of almost any nf the niuti ai breeds possess the qualities most sought liy producer, dealer, and consumer, viz. : short legs and neck ; brotid back and loins ; long, level rumps, well fleshed thighs, low, full flanks, and thick flesh. Judging tlie 3Iiitton Ram — Tlie presence or absence of these cliaracteristics is not so easily recognized in a slieep as in a pig or a steer, because of the thick covering of wool, which may, in the hands of the expert shepherd, be made to disguise the real form Fig 152 Typical fat sheep Lincoln wether, champion in long wool class (Photograph furnished hy The Amei ican 6heep Bleeder.) 18 THE JUDCraG OF LIVE STOCK Fig. 153. Judging mutton slieep Depth of chest. (Mumford.) shears — the greater the possiljiHty of deception ; consequently, the more urgent the need of a careful and intel- ligent examination. The majority of sheep raisers are interested, at one time or another, in the selection of a ram of some one of the mutton hreeds ; hence, it is thought that a discussion o£ this suhject in connection with the illustrations "\Aill be found of most widespread interest. Mutton rams are so generally used on grade ewes for the production of grade lambs for winter fattening purposes that a description of the points of a ram suitable for such purpose is given. Considering- the use to which the ram is to be put it can readily be seen that relatively more importance should be attached to the mutton points of the sheep than to the so- of the sheep. It is important, therel'oi'e, to follow a deliiiile metliod of examination in order to deti.'rniine tlieir value. The figures' accompanying this discussion will be found suggestive, and if tlio )iiethod illusti'ati'd is persistently fol- loweil, what tippears to the noviru a.n iilnmst iinjiossiblo task, will bo found, in a ro- mai'kably short time to be rea- sonaljly simple. The Ijctter ;i sheep appears to be — tliat is, the smoother he Ints been made, either with feed oi' ^\'ith the Fig K4 Ju l^^in^' liiuttnn sh *]) luait. (Munitoid.) Thi( ktipss through the 1 For permission to use in tliis new ei>nnection tlie auth(.)r's photographs reproduced in Figs. 153-lGl, tlie eourtesj- of Pnjf. L. R Taft, Inspector of tl].' Michigan State Board of Agriculture, is acl^nowledgcd. MFTTOX FOEM VS. BEEED-TYPE 263 called "fancy" points of breed type. On the other hand, were a ram to be selected to head a high-class, pure-bred flock, care should be taken to secure characteristic-breeding points. It sim- plifies the discussion materially, however, to confine ourselves to mutton points. The mutton type should be possessed to a high degree bj' every individual of every breed of mutton sheep. It may be said to be almost the only breed-type characteristic that is held in com- mon hy all mutton breeds. True, more per- fect development of the leg of mutt(.)U is expected in the Southdown than would be looked for in the Oxford, but a glaring defect iu the leg of mutton should be a disqualifica- tion from the standpoint of mutton produc- tion, no matter what breed of mutton sheep is involved. It can be seen how even the breeder of pure Oxfords might pass over a deficient leg of mutton on a sheep possessed of excellent cjuality, breed-type, and finish. It would not be neeessarj' for the farmer in quest of a good mutton ram to put up with a poorly developed ram, i. e., in so far as mut- ton points are concerned. Every breeder recognizes the fact that a pttre-bred ram possessing an almost ideal mutton form may have to be sold at a low figure if lacking in breed-type jioints, while another pos- sessing better breed-type, but no better mutton form than the former — perhaps not so good — will bring a price relatively much higher. Just here is the lamb raiser's oppoi [unity ; he wants, first of all, a ram possessing as nearly as possible an ideal mutton form, with sufficient breeding to give a reasonable guarantj- that he will transmit his characteristics to his offspring. Such a ram can often be purchased at half the price that the good breeder would be required to pay for a ram combining good breeding, good breed- type, and ideal mutton foiin. It is not an easy task to select a ram simply for mutton points. A ram to do the most good must be iu good breeding condition, neither too fat nor yet too lean. The novice in judging sheep is often deceived in purchasing an overfat sheep because it looks good. While a sheep too thin in condition is a puzzle alike to the novice and experienced judge, a sheep in a condition bordering on either extreme is an unprofitable sheep to the purchaser. Systematic Exaiiiiiiation — The safest plan to follow in selecting a ram is to adopt a systematic method of examination. Thus one will generally avoid Fig. 155. Judging mutton sheep; Flesh-coveriug of back and loin. (Mumford.) 264 THE jrDGIXG OF LIVE STOCK Fig. 156. Judging mutton sheep: Width o£ loin, (llumford.) physiognomy can judge much of the characteristics of a man or woman b}' a good looli at the face. So, much can be seen in the head and face of a sheep to indicate its masculiuitj' The ram with a long narrow head is seldom a prepotent or satisfactory sire. Passing from the heid bade to th(? necl^ we should look for a sliort, thick neck, one that gradually thickens toward the Ijody, joining the shouldeu- smoothly and evenly. There should be no drop just in front of the top nf the shoul- ders, coustituling what is known as a " ewe neck." Doptli Ox' Chest — Fig. 1.53 shows the method of judging of the depth of chest by i^lacing one hand overlooking either the strong or defi- cient points of the animal. It goes without saying that one should know how a properly developed sheej^ should look and handle. It is not enough to make an examination with the eyes. It is safe to say that less can he told of the real characteristics of a sheep hy gen- oral appearance than of any other farm animal. More dependence must Ijo placed upon the use of the hands. A'ot all judges agree as to the hest method of examining a sheep. Some ijcgin with an examination of the most im- portant points, while others think it best to begin at the head,, taking the points in piassiiig to the rear of the sheep. The latter is the safer method. Head and Face — Careful students of Fig. 1.57. Judging mutton sheep: Length o£ hind quarter. (llumford.J SYSTEMATIC EXAMINATION^ OP SHEEP 265 Fig. 158. Judging mutton sheep: Fulness of rump. Olumford.) on top of shoulders and the other between the front legs of the sheep, noting also the width between the forelegs, which should be relatively great. Examine at this time also the fulness of the brisket, as well as the covering of the point of the shoul- der and the shoulder blade. It is well, too, to press firmly on top of the shoulders to determine whether the shoulders arc well overlaid. Thickness Tliroiis'h the Heart — Fig, 154 shows the method of getting an idea of thickness through the heart, which should always be great, since it indicates a good, strong constitution and ful- ness of the heart girth. The animal should not, as we say, be ''tucked up in the girth," Flesh-covering- of Back and Loin — By placing the hands a little higher aud nearer the middle of the back, the spring of the ribs should be noted. Fig, 15,5 shows the proper way to handle the back aud loin to determine the covering of tiesh. The hand should be open and laid flat on the back, then on loin ; the hand should be pressed firmly aud moved slightly liack and forth, pressing firmly all the time. If the back aud loin is not well covered, the spine will be more or less prominent. Width of Loin — Fig, 156 shows the proper method of judging the width of the loin. At the same time the thickness of the loin can also be noted, together with the dis- tance between point of hips and the first rill. This distance shovild be relatively short. Where the width of the loin is not too great one hand ma}- be used in such a mauner as to span the loin. T^'here it is desirable to compare the width of the loin of two sheep this method can often be Fig. 159. Judging mutton sheep: "Leg of mutton." i^llumford.) used to good advantage. 266 THE JUDGIXG OF LIVE STOCK Fig. ICO. Judging mutton sheep; Fleece. Olumford.) such an examination is of ijrac- tical utility. Foi- example, by a careful view of the sheep as a whole, at sonic little distance, we judge of carriage and style. The general outlines, providing the sheep has not been blocked by the professional trimmer, should indicate whether the top and bottom lines are straight and parallel, whether the body is deep, the flanks full, and the legs short. At suidi a distance the sheep should present a low, niassi\o, blocky appearance, the short legs standing well Length of Hind Quarter— Fig. 157 shows the method of determining the length of the hind rjuarter. It should be of good length and c;irried as level as p(]s>ilile. Fulness of IJiiinp — Fig. 1.58 shows one Wiiy of noting the fulness or defiei(/ney of the nimji. By this method one should be able to judge whether a sheep eariies its width well hack. In all of these examinations it is well to bear in mind that it is the form of the carcass of the sheep, regiirdless of the cover- ing of wool, for which we should look. To do this the hand, fir fingi-rs, as occasion may reciuire, must be firmly laid on the sheep. The "Lejr of Glutton "—Fig. 159 shows manner of examining the "leg of mut- ton." The fleshing of tliigh and the filling of the twist should be taken into consideration at this point. While the danger with the beginner in judging sheep is to judge too much by the general appearance of a sheep. Fig. IGl. Judging mutton sheep: Fleece. (.Mumford.) WOOL OE MUTTON, OE BOTH? 26^ apart and well to the corners of the body. The legs should be reasonably straight as viewed from the side, front, and rear, which indicates strength and feeding type. A sheep with ratlier heavy bone is to be preferred to one with a tendency to be too fine boned. As a rule, too fine-boned sheep lack vigor and growth, being delicate and undersized. The fleece of a mutton sheep is practically the last point to be looked to, but it is a point tliat has been too much neglected. To go into a discussion of the proper examination of the fleece would require a treatise of too great length. Perhaps it will be sufficient to say that the wool should be opened as shown in Fig. 160. Such an examination should give a general idea of the quality, length of staple, and density of wool. The best wool on the sheep will be found at the point indicated, while the fleece should be opened as indicated in Fig. 161, on the thigh, to see if the quality, density, and length of staple is fau-ly uniform over the whole body. The wool on the lower thigh is often coarse, open, and shaggy — not a good sign. In conclusion, it may be said that one never learns all there is to be learned about judging sheej). By one who is really anxious to learn, one with a love for sheep and a keen sense of discernment, much can be learned in a short time. The first step is to become familiar with a correct method ; the next, to know that the most important points of the mutton sheep are the leg of mutton, the loin, and the back. With a well-developed loin, back, and thigh, couple a low, massive form on short, strong legs, fronted with a masculine head, and you have a ram that is safe to depend upon as a producer of good feeding lambs. V. THE PRODUCTIOIV AND MARKETIIVG OF WOOIi" WOOL OK MUTTON, OR BOTH? It is very doubtful whether the time will ever come when the keeping of sheep for the production of wool alone can be made profitable in many localities in the United States. "Wool gi'owing upon such a basis must, in the future, be confined to localities remote from the great meat consuming centers, where farmers are unprovided with rapid transportation to these centers, or where the cost of transportation of mutton would be so high as to render the carcass of little or no value. A moment's consideration would suggest that wool growing under such con- ditions could only be made profitable upon cheap lands, where the herding of large flocks would be possible and where the climate and other conditions would be favor- able to the development of sheep and the healthy growth of the wool fiber. I From BuUetin )T8 of the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station, by the autbgr, 268 PKODUCTION AXD MARKETING OF WOOL We can conceive how present conditions might be so changed as to render sheep husbandry profitable, if the wool product only were taken into account. It is not l^robable, however, that we shall ever see a repetition of conditions which existed earlier in this century. It is not probable that the price of the finer grades of wool will go so high that the breeder, even of that class of sheep, can afford to entirely overlook the ultimate value of the carcass for the block. It is not difficult to see that the ranchman who can run large flocks of sheep in bands, and who has at his command an almost unlimited grazing ground, can pro- duce wool more economically than the general farmer who keeps a flock and looks ujoon it simply as an incidental contributor to his income. The owners of small flocks, then, soonest feel the effects of depression and are most apt quickly to dispose of their flocks after one or two unprofitable years. We believe future conditions will bear us out in the statement that there will be very few years when a man who has a flock of sheep of good quality, who pursues care- ful and painstaking methods in handling them, will fail to secure a net profit. There is a promising outlook for the American farmer who economically pro- duces wool and mutton. I doubt if we shall again see the time when the flock master can secure a net profit from his flock unless he makes a thorough study of the industry, knows what he is trying to do, how he is to accomplish his ends, and is willing to settle upon a policy in breeding and rigidly adhere to it. May I venture to suggest here that one of the greatest sources of loss to the American farmer has been his vacillating from one line of breeding to another, from one rotation of crops to another, and from one system of farming to another ? Use all of the means at hand to decide the wisest line of sheep husbandry to pursue under your conditions, and then do not deviate from it without the best of reasons. Remember that a constant, persistent, and settled policy is best. In connection with this subject the question naturally arises : Can sheep hus- bandry be made profitable by disregarding entirely the wool product? In some few favored localities such a course of sheep husbandry may be pursued with profit, but under ordinary conditions the wool product contributes materially to the net income from the flock. In some instances breeders of mutton sheep have realized as much for their, wool as the men who have been keeping sheep primarily for the wool which they produce. In making such a claim it should not be forgotten that the Ameri- can markets in the past have not been glutted with a large supply of the medium and coarse grades of wool, while the scarcity of fine wools, owing to the common stock of "the country being largely Merino grades^ has not been apparent until quite PEESENT A]SrD PUTUEB OF THE IISTDUSTEY 269 recently, although a few of the breeders of Merino sheep have persistently proph- esied that former conditions would return, and that the grading up of flocks for the production of tlie finer grades of wool would again profitably engage the atten- tion of American sheep men. Fashion in the manufacture of woolen fabrics, which has always been a potent factor in the price of different grades of wool, has seemed to encourage the growth of medium and coarse wools. "While the future of the wool industry will be settled by conditions almost entirely beyond the control of the growers of this country, still everything points to a brighter prospect for the wool grower than for several years past, and especially for the producer of fine delaine wools. WORLD'S WOOL PRODUCTION The number of sheep in the world in 1894, according to S. N. D. liorth, was 671,163,062, and the amount of wool produced was 2,693,986,773 pounds, showing the average weight of fleece per head to be 4. 7 pounds. Wool Product of the United States — From the same authority we learn that in the United States, during the same year, there were 45,084,017 sheep, producing 335,210,712 pounds of wool. By this we see the United States produces about one-eighth of the world's supply of wool. The average weight of fleece in the United States is 7.21 pounds; more than two pounds per head above the world's average. For the last twenty years the number of sheep in the United States has varied from approximately 40,000,000 to 50,000,000; the latter figure was exceeded in 1884, while in 1894 the number was estimated at 45,048,017. Current prices for wool and mutton, combined with other conditions, wliich have made the production of one or the other of these products unprofitable, have caused this variation in the number of sheep kept, and a similar variation in tlie amount of the mutton and wool produced. It has not been due to an overproduction of wool, for statistics show that never has home-grown wool excelled, or even equaled, the consumption of wool in the United States. Outlook for the Future — No one can consistently say thatVe ought not to produce at home every pound of wool consumed within our borders. The natural adaptability of many parts of the country for sheep-raising suggests that we should, in every way possible, so adjust our farming operations, and our commercial and economic conditions, that the farms in the United States can produce at least all of the wool needed for home consumption, and that at a fair profit. 270 PRODUCTION AND MARKETING OF WOOL From statistics furnished in the Wool Bool? for 1895, issued by the National Association of Wool Manufacturers, we learn that 4i).3,048,45() pounds of wool were consumed in the United States during the year 1894. The wool produced in the United States during the previous year, which would naturally contribute to such consumption, amounted to 348,538,138 pounds. This shows that we produce little more than three fourths of the wool consumed. Since it is a. well- known fact that the per capita consumption of the wool in the United States has steadily increased from 4.49 pounds in 1840 to 9.07 pounds in 1890, it is clear that wool growers have a prosperous future before them, if only they will give more careful attention to growing, preparing for market, and to developing markets for their homo-grown products. An advance in prices of wools tends to stimulate the industry. More wool is grown, but the manufacturer is obliged to pay higher prices for the raw material. It is difficult for clothiers to get a correspondingly high price for manufactured goods, so that the usual result is that manufacturers substitute, where possible, part cotton. The consumer gets his clothing Just as cheap, but does not get all-wool goods. Slieej) growers in the United States have been urged to grow all the wool consumed in the United States. We would go still farther and call attention to the vast undeveloped markets for manufactured products. When we remember that of the inhabitants of the world there are 250,000,000 who do not wear clothes, and 100,000 000 more who wear only about one-half as many as they should, we can see great opportunities ahead in the way of markets for manufactured goods. Perhaps woolen goods would not in all cases be suitable ; — then let garments manu- factured from cotton and other fibers be used, leaving a clearer field for the wool producer who must now compete in a measure witli producers of vegetable fibers grown at a minimum of cost. MANAGEMENT OF THE FLOCK AND ITS RELATION TO CONDITION AND VALUE OF WOOL Continuous Care Requisite — The sooner we, as wool growers, fully appreciate the difference in value to the manufacturer between wools well grown and those poorly grown, the sooner will all our wools command a better price. We must banish forever the idea that condition, quantity, quality, and length of stajile are all of the important factors affecting its value. But we must give more attention to the growing of wool fibers of great strength. Strength of the wool fiber depends, to a considerable extent, upon the quality of wool or the size of the fibers. The important point, however, in this connection, and the point wbich we wish to emphasize, is tbat there is a great difference in the relative strength of fibers of the same quality or grade of wool. When a difference of this kind exists it is largely due to the way it has been grown, HOW GOOD FLOCK MANAGEMENT PAYS 271 The strongest fiber of ■wool is produced on sheep when the animal has been supplied with an abundance of nourishing food throughout the j'ear. If, on the contrary, a sheep is poorly nourished, the strength of the wool fiber will sooner or later be seriously affected. Jf proper care is not continuous through- out the year and the flock is neglected during any period, then a break in the fiber occurs, which greatly weakens the fiber at that particular point. The strength of the weakest place in the fiber decides the strength of the whole fiber. So far as the writer has been 8,ble to discover there is no special ration, which, if fed to sheep, will produce wool of great strength, nor can it be said that any special ration is to be recommended to produce a large quantity of wool. It has often been observed that sheep and lambs which have been on full feed for long periods shear heavy fleeces of wool. This would indicate that any ration calculated to keep the sheep in a thrifty condition would be a suitable one for growing large quantities of wool. Erom what has been said, the wool grower will understand that it is highly desirable to provide the sheep proper nourishment throughout the year, permitting no periods of neglect to intervene to destroy the strength of the fibers of the fieece. Liberal and judicious feeding does not change the quality of the wool, but it does affect the strength and the qitantity of the wool produced by a given sheep. Tbe weight of wool produced is affected both by increase in the length of fiber and by increase in the amount of yolk, or natural oil, in the fleece. Condition of Wool refers to the cleanliness of the fleece — the absence of all foreign substances, such as sand, burs, chaff, and all other substances looked upon by the wool manufacturer as litter. It is not because these naturally light substances affect the weight of the fleece to any considerable extent that wool manufacturers so strenuously object to their pres- ence in the fleece, but that they must be removed from the fieece before it is ready for manufacturing purposes. The process of separating these substances from the fleece is not only very tedious, but very expensive, and, as a rule, it can not be done without more or less injury to the wool fiber. Knowing the above facts we can easily see how condition affects the price of wool, since it directly affects its value. It is not a diflBcult matter for the wool grower to so manage his flocks that the wool produced by them will be practically free from all litter. He must provide racks for tbe sheep which will permit them to eat without getting their necks full of chaff, seeds, and dust. (It is, of course, unnecessary to mention the old straw stack.) He must keep his farm free from bur-bearing weeds ; his flock will keep most other weeds in check. If we needed any proof that the farmers of our country are negligent about allowing weeds to grow and seed in abundance on their farms, we might visit some large wool-scouring or woolen mill, and carefully examine the refuse or waste from the mills : We would have abundant proof in the millions of weed seeds found. At some 272 PRODUCTION AND MARKETING OF WOOL mills where such refuse is so dumped that seeds can germinate and grow, we find a large number of species and varieties of weeds. Breeds and their Fleeces — That we might get more definite information concerning tlie wool produced by the various breeds of sheep, more or less common in the United States, we tried to secure, for each of the breeds, a ewe's and a ram's fleece, which should be average typical fleeces of the breed. In most cases we were successful in securing what we desired, but in other instances we were not fully satisfied that the fleeces submitted were typical of the breed. In examining the tabulated facts below, we make the request that the reader should not consider the figures there exhibited as settling the relative merits of the various breeds as wool producers. Certain general conclusions may be drawn from the table, but it must be obvious to every thoughtful reader that it would be very nearly impossible to secure two fleeces which would in every way be representative of the various breeds. Table Showing Weight op Fleece, Pek Cent of Shrink, Commercial Grade, and Price per Pound op Fleeces prom Dippekent Breeds op Sheep Breed CO tjj ^■^ %i ■§ § -a ^fe is CO (^■3 LBS. oz. 4 14V-. 72.36 G lUV, 75.15 4 1 57.79 .5 11 60.64 3 9% 55.42 4 9V, 44.19 4 SVo 60.73 a 4 55.75 H «Vo 50.00 4 111/2 39.11 5 9 48.35 » 66.95 5 41A 43 67 Y 13V-. 37.56 8 131/2 41.53 8 B2/, 33 33 9 13 35.39 7 lii 36 57 10 i% 33 77 10 2V> 30 85 4 5 43 75 4 1 40 09 4 41A 47.51 4 lOV, 47.90 4 HV, 46.04 li 10 27.39 4 4 41 38 Commercial Grade O ^ i^ 1^ O ft-o 1. a '^ S ts o (Ih CO American Merino American Merino National Delaine Merino Improved Black Top Merino . American Rambouillet American Rambouillet. Cross Bredi Southdown Southdown Southdown _ Shropshire SutEolk Hampshire . . . Oxford Down. Oxford Down. Leicester . Cotswold . Cotswold . Lincoln... Lincoln... Tunis Dorset Horn. Dorset Horn. Dorset Horn.. Dorset Horn.. Cheviot Cross Bred 2 . . Ewe Ram Ewe Ram Ewe Ram Ewe Ram Ewe Ewe Ewe Ram Ewe Ewe Ewe Earn Ram Ewe Ram Ewe Ewe Ewe Ram Ewe Ram Ewe Ewe LBS. OZ. 17 12 26 121/2 9 10 18 112/3 8 1% 15 1 BI/2 1 12 10 13 6 151/2 9 6 12 9 15 8 12 15 13 14 14 8 81/2 3 SI/2 8% 11 12% 121/2 21/2 15 iy2 4 X Clothing . . XX Clothing. Fine Delaine. Fine Delaine. X Clothing . . Fine Delaine. 1/2 Clothing.. % Combing _ % Combing . % Combing . 1/4 Combing Low % Combing. % Combing Braid Combing.. 14 Combing Low 14 Blood Coarse Combing. Braid Combing. . Braid Combing. . Braid Combing.. % Combing % Combing . 1/4 Combing . % Combing . 1^ Combing . V4 Combing . % Combing . I 14 .13 .211/2 .20 20 .22 .19 .22 .33 .23 .22 .23 .33 .20 .19 .19 .19 .19 .20 .20 .221/2 .221/2 .33 .22 .23 .221/2 .3IV2 I 50 .53 .51 .66% .441/2 50 46 373/4, 4214 53y2 41 32% 281/4 29% 30% 30% 29 39% 37 42% 43% 40 3A 31 1 Hampshire and Cotswold. 2 Rambouillet and American Merino, a Prices quoted Aug. 31, 1899. * Months old. GEADING OF WOOLS 273 That there might be absolute fairness in securing representative fleeces of each breed, the writer appealed to the secretaries of the various sheep breeders' and registry associations to aid in securing the fleeces. In most instances much valuable assistance was rendered. The weight of all fleeces is computed upon the basis of 365 days' growth. Commercial Grade — For the benefit of those who may not understand fully what is meant by the terms used in the column headed " Commercial Grade," a few brief explanations are made: General G-rades — All domestic wools may be classified according to their quality, strength, and length of staple as (a) clothing or carding wools ; (b) combing wools ; (c) Delaine wools. (a) Clothing Wools are short wools and incidentally of relatively fine quality. In a'general way all wools less than 2i inches in length are clothing or carding wools. (b) CoMBrNG "Wools are both long in staple and strong. Most of the coarser long wools are graded as combing wools. However, when a wool is long enough for combing and has the neces- sary size of fiber it may still be disqualified as a combing wool if it has been poorly grown. Breaks in the fiber caused by insufficient nourishment destroy the value of wools for combing purposes. (c) Delaine Wools are fine wools clipped from all varieties of Merinos or high grade Merinos which grow wool of long, strong staple. We might say that Delaine wools are combing fine wools. Subdivision op Grades — Each one of the three classes of wools above mentioned is subdi- vided according to quality or size of fiber, as follows: ■ Picklock XX^ f ^ '''?.°'' r Fine (a) Clotllingwools... -i X ,^^, ^ W '^"'"'""S ™°°'='- 1 Siarse or common (c) Delaine wools., -j Medium I No. I, or X^ blood d, .j L Low I No. 2, or % *• I, No. 3, or 14 " Picklock is a grade that is rarely found in the markets at the present time. Formerly a large quantity of this wool reached our markets. The wool from pure Saxony Merino sheep usually grades Picklock. XXX also is hard to find. When the Saxony Merino was crossed with the com- mon American or Spanish Merino, the cross-bred resulting usually produced wool grading XXX. XX is considered the standard for a pure-bred Merino. Some three-quarter blood Merino, neaily all of the high-grade Merino, and much of the coarser pure-blood Merino v/ool, grades as X. The terms i, f , and i blood do not necessarily mean that the wools were grown on sheep pos- sessing just that fraction of Merino blood. Many sheep containing no Merino blood grow wool grading f and i blood. No. 1 or i blood is the next coarser grade than X. No. 2 is coarser than No. 1, and so on. Coarse and Braid wools are invariably combing wools, and are the grades most frequently produced by Lincolns, Leicesters, and Cotswolds, which have fleeces coarse and long in staple, but bright and lustrous. 274 PEODUCTIOX AXD MAEKETIXG OF WOOL Fine Ddnine is the grade next coarser than the Braid Combing, while Low Delaine is long enough to be Combing, but a grade finer than the finest Combing wools, namely, f blood. Special Grades — Other grades of wool which are occasionally quoted in the markets are (a) felting wools and (b) noils. Upon request, Mr. Charles F. Avery of Boston, has defined felting wools and noils as follows : (a) " Felting AV ools are wools which are adapted for felting purposes, usually of short staple, and having properties which cause them to felt quickly. We presume that you understand that felting is a process whereby the fibers are interlocked in such a way that a solid fabric is produced without the intermediate processes of spinning and weaving." (b) Noils — ' ' In the process of combing wool the fibers are drawn between fine needles and the dead and tender wools are broken off in the process and produce what are called noils, or what might be called combing waste. The long and healthy fibers are carried along through the comb- ing process and are formed into what are called worsted tops. " ^¥ASHIKG AND SHEARING SHEEP Washing sheep is not nearly so prevalent as formerly. Most manufacturers agree that wool which has been washed in the country is not so desirable as that which has been sent to market unwashed. It is an unsatisfactory process at best, and many times the country washing makes scouring at the mills more difficult. Injury to tlie Wool — After a careful investigation of the subject we are convinced that, in the long run, it is more profitable to dispense with washing altogether. We have secured better results by shearing our sheep during the first half of April than later in the season. This, of course, makes it impossible to wash sheep before shearing. We are satisfied that we can get not only a heavier average fleece,- but also a wool of better strength from the same flock by shearing during the first half of April than by shearing in May or June. If reasonable care is taken to keep the wool free from dirt and litter while on the sheejo's back, then there is little to be gained by washing. By an examination of the wool market quotations a class of unmerchantable wools will be noted. This class includes wools poorly washed. Injury to the Sheep — The subject of washing should not be dismissed withou.t saying tliat if the author could believe the washing process an advantage to grower and consumer alike, he would still think the custom of doubtful utility on account of injury to the sheep. Sheep are often roughly handled, and not infrequently more injury is done to the sheep than good to the fleece. The sheep will suffer no inconvenience from early shearing, except for the first few days, if they are properly sheltered and protected from the cold, and more especially from WASHING, SHEARING, AND PACKING 2^5 storms. The wool makes a rapid growth during the cool months of spring, and the sheep are not sweltering under a thick blanket of wool. In the latter case the sheep are not only uncomfortable, but the wool makes little if any growth. For several years, in a majority of instances, the Eastern wool markets have been better in April than in June. This would give the grower who makes a practice of early spring shearing a slight advantage as to markets. Shearing — The best job of shearing is that which secures the largest amount of wool in the best condition for market without injury to the sheep. It is highly desirable that the sheep be closely shorn and that there should be no second cuts. The fleece should be kept intact, not torn apart, and the skin of the sheep should not be wounded. Nearly all of the sheep east of the Mississippi Eiver are shorn by hand, while many in the West and on the ranges are shorn with machines. aiARKETING WOOL Unlike most other farm products, wool can not be consumed on the farm. It is true that in the days of our grandmothers and the spinning wheel, a large part of the then small wool product of the United States was manufactured and used upon the farm. Now we neither spin the wool upon the farm, nor is it possible for us, when low prices prevail, to use up the surplus by feeding to our farm animals, thus converting it into meat products, as is possible with gi-ains and hay produced upon the farm. The question of wool markets and the preparation of wool for the market is, therefore, one of vital importance to tlie wool grower. Dealers in and manufac- turers of wool make the following objections to the majority of wool marketed in the United States : (a) Either by neglect or intent, tags and litter are often incor- porated in the fleeces, (b) Too much twine of an inferior grade is used, (c) The use of the wool box results in packing fleeces into a square bundle that is too compact. Let us consider these objections. (a) Tags — If tags are understood to refer to bunches or locks of manure which have accumulated on small bits of wool about the thighs and hocks, then by all means they should be left out of the fleece, and either sold separately as tags, for what they will bring, or used as manure. We have known breeders of fine wool sheep who have thoroughly washed and dried the tags and then put a handful or so in each fleece. There is no great objection to this, providing the tags are well washed and thoroughly dry. It would be more businesslike, however, to sell the 276 PRODUCTION AND MARKETING OF WOOL washed tags separately, as the wool will never be so valuable as the rest of the fleece. It is perfectly legitimate to tie up all the wool that grows on the sheep in the fleece, provided that the wool is free from all foreign substances which would add to the natural weight of the fleece. It is worth while to offer here one reason why a majority of wool growers incorporate tags and litter in the fleeces which they sell. There are two distinct classes of growers who put tags into the tleece. The first class includes growers who put tags into the fleece either through absolute carelessness or with the evident intent of deceiving the buyer. This class of men is small and undeserving of consideration. The second class includes growers who are progressive and busi- nesslike. This statement sounds inconsistent, but it is not. These men have cut out tags and litter very carefully, it may be, for two or three years ; they have observed that, as a rule, they get no more for their wool than the men who put tags and all into their fleeces. This suggests that buyers are not careful enough in recognizing painstaking methods on the part of progressive growers. Buyers know the extra value of clean wool. Let them encourage the honest, pains- taking growers in a substantial manner by giving more per pound for their wool, a thing which they can well afford to do. Let them at the same time, discriminate against wool carelessly tied, or that which contains chaff, burs, and other litter. Until buyers rigidly adhere to that policy, but little improvement can be expected among wool growers. (b) Twine — Besides weight, there is still another reason why buyers object to coarse twine. The coarse, hard fibers of the twine are apt to work in among the wool fibers. Manufacturers find it difficult to separate these foreign fibers frotn the wool, and unless they are removed they work injury to goods manufactured from such wool. AVe believe the time has come when wool growers shonld adopt a small twine of better quality. A small linen twine used by nearly all wool growers in Australia is to be recommended in everyway. While such twine costs about 25 cents per pound, it runs nearly 2,700 feet to the pound. A pound of linen twine should, therefore, tie 270 fleeces, allowing 10 feet to each fleece, or 135 fleeces, allowing 20 feet to each fleece. This linen twine is soft, and should the fibers become mixed with the wool no material injury would be done. No. 18 hemp twine is also to be recommended. There are about 1,600 feet of this twine to the pound and it can be purchased for about 10 cents per pound. The only objection that can be raised to the use of a small, fine twine for tying wool is that it is hard on the wool packers' hands. (c) Wool Boxes — The majority of wool boxes which tie the fleeces in a square bundle are too small. The most of them were made for fleeces from Merino sheep, and new ones have not been made for handling more bulky, coarse wool ; consequently the fleeces are packed too snugly together. This gives them a heavy, soggy appearance, whereas they should present a light, loose, and bulky appearance. The method of tying wool in Canada is quite satisfactory. The fleece is spread out on a clean shearing floor with the outer ends of the wool up. The skirts of the fleece are folded in toward TEN POINTS FOE WOOL GROWERS 277 the center, only a trifle at each end, but considerable on the sides, so that the sides lap well ; then the fleece is rolled from end to end, making a short, cylindrical roll of wool. A small hemp twine is then run snugly around the roll a little distance from each end. Ten Points for Wool Growers — In conclusion, the following items should receiye careful consideration : 1. The manufacturer buys wool on the basis of its true value for manufacturing purposes. The grower, the local dealer, the commission man, and the scourer should each make an honest effort to satisfy his reasonable demands. 2. Breed and feed affect the value of wool from the manufacturei's' standpoint. Indiscriminate crossing is unprofitable. 3. A small linen, or flax or hemp twine is best for tying wool. 4. Coarse, heavy paint-marks should be avoided in marking sheep. 5. More and better wool can be secured by early shearing. 6. Loose, bulky fleeces sell best in the market. 7. Avoid lime and sulphur as a sheep dip. 8. Every pound of wool consitmed in the United States can be profitably grown here. 9. It is very doubtful, indeed, if the American avooI grower can ever afford to ignore the ultimate value of the carcass producing the fleece. 10. lEutton-growing with wool as an incidental product will continue to be a profitable industry. VI. SUGGESTIONS FOR IXTERPRETIIVG CATTLE MARKET QUOTATIOIVS 1. Learn to distinguish between a market class and a market grade. Speaking generally, the market classes of beef cattle are heef, hutclier-stock, cutters and canners, and stackers and feeders. The grades are prime, choice, good, medium, common, and inferior. 2. The names of the various classes indicate the uses to which cattle in those classes are put. The grades refer to quality, condition, and conformation, the relative importance of which factors, so far as they influence market values, is indicated by the order in which they have been enumerated, quality being of greatest importance, condition next, and conformation of least importance. 3. Weight has relatively but small influence in determining the grade and price of fat cattle. Quality and condition largely govern both. 19 2V8 INTERPRETING CATTLE MARKET QUOTATIONS 4. As a basis for comparison and study of other grades, become thoroughly familiar with the characteristics of prime steers and choice feeders ; these are the standard grades of fat cattle and feeders. Fluctuations in the market aSect these grades less than others. 5. It is, therefore, more difficult to determine an approximately correct valua- tion for a lot of low-grade cattle than for cattle of higher grades. 6. Where practicable, follow your consignments to the market ; find out the desirable and undesirable characteristics of your cattle from the standpoint of the market. 7. Observe other cattle on the market and compare their quality, condition, conformation, and the prices paid for them, with the quality, condition, conforma- tion, and price of your own cattle, with which you are more familiar. 8. Compare price for which various lots of cattle have been sold with market quotations and note what grade of cattle is bringing similar prices. 9. The terms export, shipping, and dressed leef steers are no longer significant of any particular grade of cattle. Several different grades and even difllerent classes are exported, shipped, and used for dressed beef. 10. The most desirable steer for export, for 'shipping, and for the best grade of dressed beef either for domestic or foreign trade is the same in each instance. 11. The best grade of any class of cattle must be practically above criticism. 12. When cattle grade the best of their class they command a premium on the market. Such cattle usually sell at strong prices and for their full value. 13. Cattle of the lower grades, necessarily deficient in certain particulars, sell at a discount which in many instances is greater than their inferiority demands. 14. Thus it will be seen that the tendency is to spring the market for choice, prime, and fancy grades, while the common and medium grades are seldom, if ever, sold for more than they are worth; while many times they do not bring their full value, owing to a tendency on the part of buyers to magnify defects of minor importance. ^ ^^t^.^Z.^^.^^'V^^^ BOOKS ON ANIMAL HUSBANDKY: THE HOESE 279 PUBLICATIONS ON ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, BEE KEEPING, AND FISH CULTURE GENERAL PUBLICATIONS ON ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AinaiAi. BHEEDrsG. By Thomas Shaw. Orange Judd Co., "Si.Y $1.50 Breeds, The Study of. By Thomas Shaw. Orange Judd Co., "S.Y 1.50 Faem Boy, Letters TO THE. By H. Wallace. The MacmiUan Co.,N. Y 1.00 Feeden-q Akimals. By Elliott W. Stewart. Orange Judd Co. , N . Y 3.00 Feedixg op Aktmals, The. By W. H. Jordan. The Macmillan Co., N. Y 1.35 Feedixg op Farm Ahtmals, The. Farmers' Bulletin 23. United States Department of Agriculture .... .... Feeds kso Feedixg. By W. A. Henry. W. A. Henry, Madison, Wis 3.00 Horses, Cattle, Sheep, AND SwixE. By George W. Curtis. Bural Publishing Co., IX.Y. 1.50 JuDorxG Live Stock. By John A. Craig. John A. Craig, Rice Lake, Wis 1.50 Reprigeration and Cold Storage. By A. J. Wallis-Tayler. D. Van Nostrand Co., N. Y. 4.50 Root Crops POR Stock. By W. A. Burpee. TF^ 4. iJi^r^jee cfc Co., Philadelphia ... .20 Stock BREEDrsG. By Manley Miles. D. Appleton & Co., TS.Y 1.50 WiKTEB Care of Horses axd Cattle. By T. B. Terry. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . . .35 PUBLICATIONS ON THE HORSE Brtdle Bits. By J. C. Battersby. Orange Judd Co., 'S.-Y 1.00 Family Horse, The. By George A. Martin. Orange Judd Co., "S.Y 1.00 Horse, How TO Judge a. By F. W. Bach. Orange Judd Co., "E.Y 1.00 Horse, Stonehenge on the. By J. H. Walsh. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 1.00 Horse, The. By Youatt and Spooner. Orange Judd Co., "S.Y . .1.00 Horse, The; How to Buy and Sell. By Peter Howden. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . 1.00 Horse Book, American Reformed. By Q. H. Dadd. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . . . 3.00 Horse Book, The American Farmer's. By Robert Stewart. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. 3.00 Horse Breeding. By J. H. Sanders. Orange Judd Co., "S.Y 1.50 Housekeepers, Hints to. By Hemy William Herbert. Orange Judd Co., "H. Y. \ . 1.50 Horses and Horse Breeding, American. By John Dimon. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . 3.50 Percheron Horse, The, in America and France. By Weld and DuHays. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 50 Saddle Horse, The. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. 1.00 Stable Guide, The American Gentleman's. By Robert McClure. SenryT. Coates& Co., Philadelphia . 1.00 Trotting Horse, Training The. By Charles Marvin. Orange JuM, Co., "^.Y. . . . 3.50 TuRP, Handbook OP The. By Samuel L. Beardman. Orange Judd Co., '^.Y. . . . 1.00 Vicious Horses, How to Handle and Educate. By Oscar R. Gleason, Orange Judd Co., N. Y 50 280 BOOKS ON CATTLE, SHEEP, AXD ANGOEAS PUBLICATIONS ON CATTLE AND DAIRYING Beef Phodtjction, Some Essentials in. Farmers' Bulletin 71. United States Depart- ment of Agriculture ... . Beep and Daiet Cattle, Confokmatiox or. Fanners' Bulletin 143. United States Department of Agriculture . . . • • — - — Cattle BEEEDrN'G. By William Warfield. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . . . . 12.00 Cattle Feeding, Manual of. By H. P. Armsby. John Wiley d; Sons, N. Y. 1.T.5 Cattle, Market Classes and Grades op. Bulletin 78. Illinois Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Urbana, 111. . . . . ■ . .... Cheese Making. By John W. Decker. Orange JvM Co., "S.f. . . . 1.75 Cheese Making, A B C in. By J. H. Monrad. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . .50 Cheese Making in Switzerland. By J. H. Monrad. Orange Judd Co., N. Y . . .50 Daiet Bacteriology, Outlines op. By H. L. Russell. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. 1.00 Dairy Calf, The. By L. S. Hardin. Orange Judd Co., "^.Y . ... .25 Dairying, American. By H. B. Gurler. Orange Judd Co., IS. Y. ... .1.00 Dairying, The Chemistry op. By Harry Snyder. Chemical Publishing Co., Easton, Pa. 1 . 50 Daxbyman's Manual. By Henry Stewart Orange Judd Co., IS. Y. ...... 1.50 Milch Cows, Guenon on. By Thomas J. Hand. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . 1.00 Milk and its Derivatives, Practical Treatise on the Examination of. By J. A. Wanklyn. D. Van Nostrand Co., TS.Y. . ... ... 1.00 Milk and Its Products. By Henry H. Wing. The Macmillan Co. , IS . Y 1.00 Milk : Its Nature and Composition. By C. M. Aikman. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. 1.00 Pasteurization. By J. H. Monrad. Orange Judd Co., "Si-Y .50 Shorthorn Cattle. By A. H. Sanders. Sanders Publishing Co ... 3.00 PUBLICATIONS ON SHEEP AND ANGOKA GOATS American Merino, The. By Stephen Powers. Orange Judd Co., IS. Y. . . 1.50 ANewInt)uste¥.i By WiUiam Black. TFm. SZacft, Fort Worth, Texas . 3.00 Angora Goat, Information Concerning the. Bulletin 27, Bureau of Animal Industry. United States Department of Agriculture . . ... .15 Angoea Goat, The. By S. C. C. Schreiner. Longmans, Oreen& Co., TS.Y. . 3.00 Angora Goats, American. By George Edward Allen. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. .25 Mutton, Raising Sheep for. Farmers' Bulletin 96. United States Department of Agri- culture ... Sheep, The. By William A. Rushworth. Orange Judd Co. , 'S . Y . . . . . 1.50 Sheep, The Domestic. By Henry Stewart. American Sheep Breeder Co., Chica,go . 1.50 Sheep Feeding. Farmers' Bulletin 49. United States Department of Agriculture . lAagora goat raising. BOOKS ON SHEEP, SWIXE, BEES, AND FISH 281 Sheep Industry, History, and Present Condition op the. Special Report, Bureau of Animal Industry. United States Department of Agriculture {199i) .... $1.40 WrxTER Lamb, The. By H, H. Miller, E. Wing, and H. O. Miller 50 Wool, The Production and Marketing of. Bulletin 178, Michigan AgncuUural Experiment Station, Agricultural College, Mich . . PUBLICATIOIVS ON SWINE Hog Raising in the South. Farmers' Bulletin 100. United States Department of Agri- culture ... ... . Home Pork Making. ByA.W. Fulton Orange Judd Co., l>i. Y .50 Pig, The. By Joseph Harris. Orange Judd Co., 'Si. Y. . . . . . 1.00 Swine Husbandry. By F. D. Cobum. Orange Judd Co., T^.Y. . . . . . 1.50 PUBLICATIONS ON BEES, BABBITS, AND FISH Apiary, JiLiNUAx OP THE. By A. J. Cook. Tlie MacmiUan Co.,l^.Y. . . . . 1.25 Bee CriTURE, A B C of By A. I. Root. A. I. Boot & Co., Medina, 1.20 Bee Keeping. Farmers' Bulletin 59. United States Department of Agriculture . . . Four. Brood, Laws RELATrvB to. Bulletin 13, New Series, Division of Entomology. United States Department of Agriculture . . ... .05 HiTE AND Honey Bee. ByL. L. Langstroth. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . . 1.25 Honey Bee, The- A !Ma.nual op Apiculture. Bulletin 1, New Series, Division of Entomology. United States Department of Agriculture 15 Qdimby's New Bee Keeping. By L. C. Root. Orange Judd Co., N. T 1.00 Belgian Hare Breeding. By J. W. Darrow. Orange Judd Co., N. T 25 Rabbit Keeper, Practical. By " Cuniculus." Orange Judd Co., N. T 1.50 American Angler's Book. By Thaddeus Norris Henry T. Coates & Co., Philadelphia 5.50 Carp Culture, A B C op. By Root and Finley A. I. Boot & Co., Medina, O. . .35 Familiar Fish AND How to Catch Them. By E McCarthy. D. Appleton d; Co., N.Y. 1.50 Fish Culture, Ajierican. By Thaddeus Norris. Henry T. Coates " |-:;fe:^'. i pi 'it 1- • ' ' n* ■ >• - it ^ mm € , ^ ^H ,^^^^««>**f3'1^^»«' . ''^^^^Hl Jh ^" .'f ""•V , ■ p !■ 9 « iS ■So J gag — IJ °,. V .— +J ^ Zl 'J^ "Jj , *^ c " ■<^3 ^i i. St,"" 53 = g H . ,-fJ (262) Beef Making- By L. H. Kerrick, Bloomington, HI. I^esident of the American Aberdeen- Angus Breeders^ Association THE CORN BELT FARMERS' OPPORTUNITY Beef is the imperial flesh food of the race ; it always has been and probably will continue to be. Therefore we may expect that the demand for beef, especially good beef, will be as constant as that for any other product of the farm. Intelli- gent beef production will certainly be rewarded with fairly constant and reasonable profits. Where conditions favor it, we strongly advise farmers to convert some part of the products of their farms into beef. Beef making is more intimately connected with the maintenance of soil fertility than any other branch of animal husbandry. Many kinds of forage and roughage and other farm products, which it is not practicable to harvest and prepare for market, may be converted into beef to sell and manure to enrich the soil of farms that have a beef herd. When prices of corn and oats and hay are very low — when a great amount of these brings a small amount of money, they may be stbred in the form of beef upon young, growing cattle, with chances gained of marketing in that way at a higher and profitable price. Beef making is a business of absorbing interest. It may be called a higher branch of farm study. The care of a herd of beef cattle affords room for the exercise of faculties only partially engaged in the ordinary routine of planting and tilling and harvesting. The boys are sure to become interested in it, and likely all the family. The world miist look to the Corn Belt of the United States for its chief supply of fine beef. Over all this vast region all the feeds required to make the best beef are produced in great abundance. The climate is well adapted to the production, of beef. The average farm equipment and improvement with little change or addition, can be well suited to raising and feeding cattle for beef. Costly barns for close housing of feeding cattle are not now deemed necessary or even desirable. Farmers of the Corn Belt have the capital and intelligence needed in the business of making high-class beef. They have shipping facilities almost complete. They have already a good but not adequate stock of beef cattle which is being rapidly increased and improved. Ctopyright, 1902, by Band, McNaUy & Co. (283) 284 L. H. KERRICK ON BEEF MAKING There are indications that Corn Belt farmers are being awakened to the peculiar opportunities and advantages which they may enjoy in the business of furnishing the world its good beef. More are engaging in the business than formerly and still more may engage in it with profit. The middle Western States — the corn States, should become, and I think will become, noted as the great beef-producing region of the world — noted not only for the amount, but for the fine quality of the beef produced. When Corn Belt farmers are fully aroused to their advantages it will not be long till a handsome share of the world's money will be coming their way to buy their good beef. It is the object of this article to encourage our farmers generally to engage in the business of breeding, raising, and feeding cattle for beef, and also to outline, as well as we can, the present state of knowledge of cattle feeding. We do not know so much yet about beef making that anyone need be discouraged about learning what is known about it. However, the less we know, the more important is it that prospective cattle feeders know the little that is known. THE THREE-YEAR-OLD STEER MUST GO Injudicious and wasteful methods of handling and feeding cattle should be promptly discarded. Our lands are now high priced, but not nearly so high as we believe they will be in the not distant future. In the days of cheap lands and cheap feed, half a bushel of corn a day to a steer and two or three acres to graze him on, and three to three and a half years to prepare him for market, might go for cattle business, but not now. With the passing of cheap lands the three-year-old steer must go, too. The Corn Belt beef must be made, if made with profit, in thirty months and under. Prime Beeves at Twenty to Thirty Months — It is entirely prac- ticable by simple, natural, economical methods to produce prime beeves of 1,400 to 1,600 pounds weight at twenty to thirty months old. We have produced them in carloads weighing over 1,700 pounds at about thirty-one months old. But this implies that they be fed continuously and fed properly from calves to ripe beeves. I am confident this will become the general practice with beef producers in the Corn Belt. High-priced land makes intensified farming necessary. It will also make inten- sified beef making, i. e., constant good feeding from calf to beef, equally necessary. The greatest weight of beef can be made with a given amount of feed during the first twenty or twenty-four months of a steer's life. Why not then let him have the FEEDIXG FOR MARBLED FLESH 285 feed during that period ? The whole mission of a steer is to convert our feed into beef. "Why not keep him busy every day at his proper work ? If we let him go a month or a day with less feed than he can make into beef, that month or day he fails to make us the money he might be making. Best Beef by Early, Constant Feeding — It is my opinion that not only the greatest weight of beef for the amount of food consumed, but also the best beef, is made by supplying a steer libcrclly and constantly with the riglit kind of feed during the first twenty or twenty -four months of liis life. It stands to reason, and OUT experience points to the fact, that the thickest red meat, so desirable and valuable, with the richest intermingling of fat, must be made during the period of the steer's most rapid growtli. If a steer be permitted to run until two or two and a half years old on barely living rations, we suspect his red meat can hardly be thickened or increased very much after that, by any kind of feeding. The fat may be put on him and put inside of him after he is two years old, and the quality of his red meat may be improved by good feeding. But I believe he has missed Ins chance to make the greatest thickness and best quality of red meat that he was capable of making. FEEDING FOB MARBLED FLESH The steers represented in Figs. 162 and 16-3 were fed a grain ration continuously from five to six months of age until tliey went to market. They ran with their dams on blue grass pasture until weaned. About five weeks before weaning we began to teach them to eat a little corn meal and ground oats mixed. At the first, very little — in fact, but a taste — was spread in their troughs. T\'hon finally taken off the cows they knew as well as older steers how to eat. For the next six or seven months they were fed all they could safely take of a mixed ration of corn in some form; oats, ground or whole; oil meal; and wheat bran. JVoi all of these different feeds are given all the time, but two or three at each feed. Corn is our principal and constant feed from start to finish. Four-fifths of all concentrated feed used is corn — sometimes ground, agaiu soaked ; sometimes broken and sometimes whole corn fodder, shuck corn and all, just as it comes from the shock. Full Feed at Twelve Months — Until twelve months old we feed our steers cautiously. It is not so bad to give them somewhat less than they can safely take up to that age, as it is to give them more. When about a year old they go on full feed, i. e., all they will clean up and digest well. Steers will readily learn (886) HIGH-GRADE BEEVES IX CARLOAD LOTS 287 to eat up clean mucli more than they can digest and assimilate. The point to make in good feeding is to keep steers eating up to the amount they can assimilate and make into good beef. The feeder must be the judge of what that amount is, and not the steer. I conclude that a peck of good sound dry corn, or at the most, one-third of a bushel, with two or three pounds of old process oil meal or the same quantity of gluten me;il, and a pound or so of wheat bran with suitable roughage, will make as much beef on a steer twenty to twenty-four months old as any larger ration. And it will make a better quality of beef. Younger steers will need a proportionately smaller amount. At this time we have on full feed sixty-four high-grade Angus steers. Their average age is about twenty-five months. They are fed twenty pounds of good sound ear corn soaked, one and one-fourth pounds oil meal, and one pound of wheat bran for every steer daily in two feeds, morning and evening. We will increase the oil meal to about two and a half pounds. They have mixed clover and timothy hay in quite moderate quantity, and the run of about twenty-six acres of blue grass pasture. These steers are preparing for the Christmas market. At this time, September 20th, they are making entirely satisfactory gains. By the first of December they will be finished, ripe, prime beeves, heavy enough and fat enough and not too fat to meet the highest market demand. These steers and all the steers we have fed for many years,are raised and fed in the open. They are never closely housed. They have sheds open to the south, to which they may go for protection from storms. Sometimes, in the height of fly time, we have arranged for a cool, darkened place into which a load or more of steers which are receiving special fitting may retreat from the files and extreme heat. Importance of Roughage — All our steers are fed in open troughs out of doors ; never less than a carload and sometimes three or four carloads eating together. It is of the utmost importance in full-feeding cattle to have them con- sume a proper amount of roughage. If steers are given all they will eat of concen- trated feed they are likely to acquire a morbid appetite for it and a capacity for making away with an extravagant amount of it, while they lose the natural appetite for more bulky food. In order to compel our cattle on full feed to consume a due proportion of rough- age, we often "bed" the feeding bunks or troughs with mixed clover and timothy hay, or shredded fodder. Over this layer or bedding of rougliage we carefully dis- tribute the concentrated feeds — corn, oil meal, etc. In this simple way, roughage and concentrated feeds are so mingled that the steers are obliged to take both at 288 L. H. KEREICK ON BEEF MAKING the same time. It should never be forgotten that a steer is a ruminant. His digestion will suffer and assimilation will be imperfect if there is failure to main- tain some just proportion between the concentrated feeds and roughage which he consumes. Without doubt much larger gains will be secured for the corn and other concentrates consumed by judicious mingling with suitable roughage. Beef or Tallo"w: Which? — Referring again to the pictures of the "Babes in the Wood" and the "Grand Champions," their great thickness is apparent. Which is it, beef or tallow ? Buyers and judges are prone to believe that such cattle are excessively fat — "overdone." It is true that the majority of steers showing such great thickness are too fat ; but not these. The majority of steers do not go on full feed till past two years old. They are then generally fed an excessive amount of corn — a fat-making food, without the protein-bearing oil meal or gluten meal to suj)plement it; and the result is, frequently, overdone and overfat cattle. Not so with steers fed during tlieir rapid-growing period with corn, properly balanced by the addition of oats and bran and some oil meal or gluten meal. The steers represented in the figures showed a great development of red meat richly mottled with fat ; but there was no excessive percentage of fat. And none need be feared from such feeding as they had. On this point we can speak from many years of experience. CONCLUSION Summing up, we advise farmers generally throughout the Corn Belt to breed and feed cattle for beef. Feed liberally, feed for beef all the time, from calves to finished ripe beeves. Instead of growing a steer to be afterward "fattened," grow a beef, ripe, finished, fat, and prime, in twenty to twenty-four months. You will thus make better beef, and make it in less time, and make more of it with a given amount of feed than by the old method of growing a steer to be afterward fat- tened. Aim to maintain good variety in the feed. Supplement the corn with oats, bran, oil meal, or gluten meal. Supply good roughage, and feed in such a way as to secure the consumption of a due amount of it. Breed for the early maturing type. Handle your cattle gently, always; treat them humanely, kindly; the very best results may not be expected without such treatment and handling. Feeding Native Cattle for Beef By John P. Stevknson, Tarkio, Mo. Practical farming, in a nutshell, is the farming that is planned and carried out, year by year, -with a view to making the most of every natural advantage, and turning even what might seem to be di.^ad vantages to profitable account. The practical farmer is the farmer who studies and solves his own problem, taking whatever he can get, to be sure, in the way of side-light from the experience and research of others, but never forgetting that bushels can not be measured with yard- sticks, and that what is gospel truth in one part of the country may be rank heresy in another. Many an Eastern farmer, for instance, seeing hundreds of bushels of ear corn hauled out daily to the steers in an Atchison County feed lot, doubtless would exclaim at what lie would consider a willful waste. Willful waste it might, indeed, be for him ; but for us, it is the most profitable way of marketing our staple crop. The hogs that follow the steers cee to it that scarcely a kernel, scattered, tramped in, or undigested, goes to waste. Xatives a'S. Rangers — Tlie feeders of the Missouri Valley who make it their business to put six months of beef-and-fat-growing on to the steers other farmers and ranchers have raised, have merely adapted themselves to the circum- • stance that their acres lie in the richest part of the Corn Belt, and convenient both to stocker markets and to beef markets. When it comes to choosing what sort of stockers they shall feed — whether natives or rangers — tliey must again accom- modate themselves to circumstances. A lai-ge feeder — and by that I mean one who turns out beeves by the thousand annually — can scarcely obtain for his feed lots native cattle of desired quality exclusively. Nor can one whose feeding opeiations extend to no more than 500 or GOO head a year be always sure of getting them. My own preference, however, is for Kansas feeders — any fairly well-bred cattle, regardless of breed. If native cattle of proper form and even condition are not obtainable, Westerns must be used; but with me they are a second choice. The best time of year for buying feeders in the stocker markets of tlie Missouri Eiver is between the middle of August and the middle of November. To buy them at that time means carrying the bunch through the winter, but at the age I buy them — two years or more — there is growth in the steers still, and the fleshiug-up they get is not simply a matter of laying on fat where there is roonr for it. Copyright, 1902, by Band, UcXally & Co. (280) J. p. STEVENSON OH NATIVE CATTLE EEEDINa 291 Summer Feeding of Young Steers — I have obtained my best results with Slimmer feeding of steers that will weigh, when bought, about 900 pounds. For from four to six months before putting in the feed lot, I run them on stalk- fields and pasture (blue grass preferred, because of the way it withstands frost). In the stalk-fields I give them a light ration of corn in extremely cold and stormy weather. They are turned on to grass in early spring, and in from two to four weeks, by slowly increasing their ration, they are safely got onto full feed of corn — half a bushel per head, salt being kept where they can always get at it. The feed- ing period lasts for about 180 days. There is profit, in my experience, in winter fattening, but not so much as in summer feeding. In the case of winter feeding, the steers are fed — under sheds, with free access to the open feed lot — all the hay or corn fodder they will eat, with a full ration of corn ■ — snapped, husked, or shelled, the shelled corn being used especially at finishing time. In the winter I have fed up to 4 pounds per day of cotton-seed meal with excellent results, and either bran or linseed meal, or both, in moderate quantities, has proved beneficial, though one can not count on the hogs receiving any appreciable share in the benefit from these feeding-stuffs. On the other hand, in the case of corn, when we run a shoat after every steer, as I do, we figure that the hogs get 15 per cent of the grain fed, and while the steers are making an average daily gain of about 3 pounds (on full feed of corn, with grass in summer) the hogs are laying on profits at the rate of from ■§ to 1 pound a day. In winter, on full feed of corn with dry roughness, we count on average daily gain, for the steers, of from 2 to 2|- pounds. Results — The cattle thus fed are shipped to the Chicago and Missouri Eiver markets at from 3 to 3|- years, when they weigh from 1,30Q to 1,350 pounds, the aim being to turn out beef steers of the market grade known as good.^ The year 1903 has been one of exceptional prices, for which the state of the beef-cattle supply has furnished sufficient explanation, without need of any allegation that a " corner " in the finished product was responsible. Under ordinary circumstances, in ordinary years, however, I should consider that a difEerence of from 11.50 to $1.75 between buying and selling prices gave an ample margin of profit on feeding, while a difference of only $1 would let me out without loss. iPnme beef comes from about one year's full-feeding of balanced rations, andis a higher grade than we make. (292) Feeding^ Rang-e Cattle for Beef By David Rahkin, Tarkio, Mo. The feeding of iDeef cattle with me is, to all intents and purposes, a manufactur- ing business. Where my farm practice is in harmony with scientific theory, it is because I have found that the theory brings profit in practice. Where I depart from theoretical practice, or stop short of following out an accepted theory to its extreme, it is because I can make more money the other way. Circumstances Grovern Methods — You can not get away wholly from local conditions. I do not mean to imply by that that for the sake of present returns one is justified in misusing his land. The man who feeds all he raises and sells the concentrated product — beef — is not misusing his land; for the fertility is returned to the soil. The man who feeds all he raises and buys more feed besides is doing even better by his land, even if he may not be doing so well by his pocketbook. I should make more money if I could raise all the corn I want to feed; but I do not begrudge the $100,000 or such a matter that it costs a year for extra feeding-stuffs. The point I make is simply this: The fe.eding of farm stock is a science, but it's a science that we follow for profit. To lose sight of the practical side is as bad as to ignore what the experiment stations are finding out for us. A man can not afEord to sell cheap corn and buy dear cotton-seed meal just because he will get a better- balanced ration out of the combination; whereas, on the other hand, when corn is high, he can better afEord to make his rations "narrower "by the purchase of nitrog- enous concentrates. Very likely anyone who feeds range steers on a similar scale and under like con- ditions might be interested in my way of doing things ; but if the general run of farmers and feeders find what I have to say helpful, it will be because my experi- ence emphasizes the need of sound business management on the farm, instead of a reckless running after every new thing. Sometimes the farmer can afEord to try experiments; sometimes he can't. Sometimes he can afford to do exactly the scientific thing — and can not afford not to do it ; sometimes he can't. He must be the judge, and not afraid to stand by his own judgment — not afraid to be in a Copyright, 1002, by Hand, McNaUy & Co. (293) 20 . 294 DAVID RANKIX OX RAXGE CATTLE FEEDIXG measure unscientifie, if he liiids that in all the circumstances it will i^ay him ; not slow to adopt new, scientific methods, if they commend themselves to his business sense. All that is precisely what the agricultural colleges and experiment stations are careful to tell the farmer : That no general rale can be followed blindly ; that every man must think for liimself, feed as well-compouuded a ration as he can afford, and keep his eye all the time on the prolit. Shredded Fodder for Winter Feediiit^- — In buying my range stock- ers, grown chielly in Texas and on the Xorthwcsterii plains, I necessarily take what I can get in the way of breed — any good breed, well bred up and in fair llesh, not less than three-year-olds and weighing generally 1,000 pounds or over. If I were able to take my choice, I probably shoidd prefer white-faces — Ilerefords. 1 m pg^ Fig. lUiJ- Plijwiii;,- and planting on Daviii Rankin's ranch No 12. S"il conditions in Nortliweftern JUssonri make it possible to list in the seed-corn, combining tlie preparation of the seed-bed and the iilanting in one operation. I used to say that summer feeding was the thing to follow, but I am not so sure of it now that we are using shredded fodder. I believe that with shredded fodder the steers do as well as on grass. So I lay in my stoekers according to my needs and the state of the range cattle market, but generally between August and October, and get them on full feed as quickly as possible, frequently in as short a time as ten days or two weeks. This sort of feeding is a wholesale matter. Labor must be economized. I never have a man do for a bunch of steers what the steers can just as well do for tliemselves; so they are fed husked corn from behind the shredded- fodder stacks during the winter, the shredded fodder giving them all the roughage they need; for they have all they will eat. METHODS AND RESULTS 295 Feeding Slethod and Rate of Gain — For pasture, I have dropped blue grass in favor of clover and timothy, and I run my cattle on it the year round, whenever the grass gets good. With the grass, in summer, I feed ear corn. From 150 to 200 steers are as many as I find it desirable to run in the feed lot together, and from 200 to 300 will ggt pasturage, if they have plenty of corn, after the grass gets well up, from every 160 acres. The heavy feeding begins about the first of March, and when corn is dear, each steer has from 6 to 6 pounds of cotton-seed meal daily. The salt is kept before them all the time. Feeding in that way, the bulk of the steers are finished during the summer months, when prices are best, and before fall poultry comes into competition with beef. Tlie selection for shipping goes on daily during the shipping season, the weights of the beeves ranging from 1,200 to 1,400 or 1,500 pounds. A steer well bred up and in fair flesh at the start ought to be a beef in four months' time, though some take as much as six months to be fit for market. I figure on an average daily gain per head, for the feeding period, of from 2 to 2^ pounds ; and with average conditions ( say corn at 35 cents, hay at 88, and other feeding stuffs in proportion ) I should want SI. 50 margin over cost price in order to make a satisfactory profit. 296 HOW FARMIXG PAYS BUSINESS METHODS ON THE FARM David Eankin's ranches are situated near Tarkio, Northwestern Missouri, and comprise between 22,000 and 23,000 acres of hind, most of which is v^^hied in the neighborhood of $100 an acre. As a practical illustration of the profit farming may be made to yield by the application of business principles to all its details, the following summary statement of Mr. Rankin's operations for the year 1900 will be found of interest : Statement of Farming Operations fob 1900 ■s Number Number Net Net Number ■^et a Foremen o£ of Proceeds Proceeds of Proceeds rt Acres Cattle of Cattle Per Head Hogs of Hogs 1 Ross 3,280 1,838 S 44,598.90 8 24 39 1,232 1 17,954.19 •> Kenney 660 447 10,467.17 23.39 330 4,675.96 5 800 163 3,760 23 23.14 343 4,545.98 New 2,880 660 13,197.68 20.30 567 7,634.31 fi Mullen 2,000 638 16,979.67 25.04 698 9,190.07 7 3,080 700 18,599.53 22.38 1,337 7,288.80 fi SuDdeiiand 1,680 500 8,613.33 17.23 666 9,226.72 9 KendaU 690 433 7,608.79 17.98 468 6,301.53 in 800 3,519 510 331 12,432.61 7,404.38 24.37 21.97 394 705 5,344.76 11 Wreath 9,642.04 K Town 941 631 13,116.31 21.11 468 6,176.43 IS Rankin & Nei Rankin & Coi 960 3,000 300 429 6,371.00 9,491.79 20.90 22.12 874 833 3,866.83 14 vden 10,099.52 Totals and Averages 33,190 7,539 §172,530.19 8 22.88 8,349 8111,846 14 a & Expenses Including Interest Expense Acre Corn Bought Bushels Amount Paid for Same Total Net Receipts Total Disbursements t Net Profit OR Loss Net Per Acre 1 $14,365.89 ?4.37 98,730 $ 25,455.81 $ 63,553.09 $ 39,811 .70 133,741.39 $6.93 2 2,303.21 4.11 37,191 10,522.00 15,133.13 12,824.21 2,308.92 4.12 M 3,191.96 3.98 2,800 840 00 8,396.31 4,031.96 4,264 25 5.33 5 13,286.75 4.37 10,743 3,333 90 20,831.99 1.5,609.65 5,332.34 1 85 6 9,553.85 4.77 41.601 13,462.08 36,169.74 33,014. 93 4 164.81 2.08 7 16,633.73 5.40 15,636 4,690,80 35,888.33 21,324.63 14,563.80 4.73 R 8,510.34 5.06 27,003 7,412.59 17,840 05 15,922.83 1,917 23 1.14 9 3,111 35 4.51 24,364 6,513 00 13,910.32 9,624.25 4,286.07 6.21 in 3,371.94 4.21 37,442 9,691.00 17,777.37 13,082.94 4,714 43 5.89 11 10,606.54 4.18 42,363 10,768 00 16,946.33 21,274 64 * 4,328.22 * 1 71 K 8,027.77 8.53 47,898 13,968.00 19,390.64 21,995.77 * 3,705.13 *2.87 13 ....*... If 10,137.83 jf __ ** 5,337.83 ** 6.55 14 - * ....*... i 19,591 31 i w 9,591.31 ** 4.79 891,851 13 S4.77 385,749 8105,546 18 $384,366 33 8197,397.31 t+ 886,969 02 3.93 * Loss. Ranch 11 is bottom land, aud suffered from excess of rain and from overflow. Ranch 12 is the home ranch, where all the ranch teams go to feed when in town. Thus its profits were eaten up by the other ranches. + From net proceeds. % Included in stock account for these ranches. § Ranch 3 has been consolidated with another. ** These figures are obtained by subtracting an assumed average expense per acre of $5. tt This total is made without the subtraction of assumed expense. Diseases of Farm Animals By E. A, Craig, D. V. M. Instructor in Veterinary Science, Purdue University, LaFayette^ Ind. ; and Assistant State Veterinarian of Indiana RECOGNIZING THE DISEASE Healtli and Disease — To understand the meaning of the many symptoms or signs of disease in the domestic animals, we must have some knowledge of the structure and physiological functions of the different organs of the body. Ve must be familiar with the animal when it is in good health in order to be able to recognize the deviation from normal due to disease. Laymen, as a rule, do not consider the difficulty of making a correct diagnosis, and few have an opportunity to learn from personal observation the different symptoms that characterize different diseases. All weU-informed stockmen who give personal attention to the animals under their care know when any of them are sick, as soon as the first symptom of disease manifests itself, by the changes in general appearance and behavior. In order to ascertain the exact condition, however, a general and systematic examination is necessary. The examiner, wn ner he be a layman or a veterinarian, must not be careless in the inspection, but observe the animal carefully, noting the behavior, appearance, general condition, and surroundings. The general symptoms of disease inform us of the condition of the animal, help us to arrive at a correct diagnosis, and guide us as to the progress of long and severe affections. Thus we have symptoms connected with the condition of (a) the pulse, (b) the respirations, (c) the body temperature, (d) the surface of the body, (e) the visible mucous membranes, (f) the secretions and excretions, and (g) the behavior of the animal. Before making a general examination it is well, if one is not already acquainted with the history of the case (care, surroundings, behavior, etc.) previous to seeing it, to learn as much about this from the attendant as is possible. Inquiry should be made as to the feeding, the conditions under which the animal has been kept, the length of time it has been sick, its actions, and various other points that may Copyright, 1902, by Rand, MoNaUy & Co. (297) 298 DISEASES OF EAEM ANIMALS he of help in forming a diagnosis as well as in indicating in part the treatment to be followed. (a) Pulse — The normal pulse beats per minute in domestic animals are as follows : Horse 36 to 43 Cattle - 38 to 50 Sheep and Goat _ _ _ ..70 to 80 Hog ....70 to 80 Dog -. --- 80 to 100 The frequency of the pulse in the different species is subject to great variation. Especially is this true of ruminants. In young animals the number of beats per minute is greater than in adults ; excitement and a nervous temperament may cause more rapid pulse ; during exercise and for a short time afterward the rate is higher than when at rest ; small animals have a more rapid pulse than large ones. Tlie Horse's Pulse is generally taken from the artery {submaxillary) at a point near the inside and in front of the angle of the jaw. Here the artery winds around the lower border of the bone in an outward and upward direction, is quite superficial, and can he readily located with the finger. In Cattle the same artery is used but the finger is placed a little higher up on the side. It is more difficult, however, to catch the pulse in this class of animals than in the horse, as the part is more fleshy. The pulse may be taken from the small artery on the under side and near the base of the tail. In Sheep and Goats the artery {femoral) on the inner side of the thigh is used. By pressing the hand over the region of the heart, one can also judge of its condition. In Dogs the beats of the heart can be counted in the same manner, as the artery {brachial) toward the inner side of the arm above the elbow can be used. In dogs the heart beats can be counted. The following varieties of pulse are recognized in disease : frequent, infrequent, quich, slow, large, small, hard, soft, and intermittent. The terms frequent and infrequent have reference to the number of pulse beats in a given time ; quick and slow, to the length of time it takes the jDulse wave to pass ; large and small, to its volume ; hard and soft, to its compressibility ; intermittent, to the occasional missing of a beat. (b) Respirations — In all domestic animals excepting ruminants, a some- what close relation exists between the number of pulse beats per minute and the respirations. This relationship is about 1 to 4 or 1 to 5, and during exertion is usually maintained. In ruminants the respirations may be about ten per minute and the pulse beats seventy or eighty. In disease the relationship between the two is disturbed and the following varieties of breathing may be observed : Abdominal, DIAGNOSIS 299 when the movements of the walls of the chest are limited and the muscles of the abdomen are brought into play; thoracic, when the muscles of the abdomen are kept as quiet as possible and the movements of the walls of the chest make up for the deficiency. In spasms of the diaphragm or "thumps," we notice a jerking movement in the region of the flank, accompanied by a short, Jerkiug expiration. A Cougll is generally due to some irritation of the air passages and is called moist, dry, and clironic. A moist cough occurs when the secretions in the air passages are abundant ; a dry cough, when the mucous membranes lining the air passages are dry and inflamed. In the different animals the chai'acter of the cough will vary. The chronic cough occurs in chronic diseases and varies in intensity. In pleurisy the cough is short and painful, and in broken wind shallow and suppressed. The odor of the expired air, character of the discharge, and the respira- tory sounds found out by auscultation, are important helps in arriving at a correct diagnosis. (c) Temperature — The temperature of domestic animals is taken in the rectum, the regular Fahrenheit fever thermometer being used. Before introducing it into the rectum the column of mercury must be shaken down below the normal body temperature of the animal and the bulb moistened. It should be inserted full length and left in position from two to five minutes, depending on the rapidity with which it will register. This must be done as gently as possible, especially in the case of the larger animals ; if they are vicious one must guard against kicks. The average normal temperatures of domestic animals are as follows : Range Average Horse 99,5 to 101.5 100.5 Cattle ...100.2 " 102.3 101.3 Sheep and Goat 101.3 " 105.0 103.0 Hog __ -_ 101.0 " 105.0 103.0 Dog ^.._ --100.0 " 102.0 101.0 The body temperature may be higher or lower than this and still be consid- ered normal. During exercise or when the weather or stable are warm and close it is elevated ; in cold weather or after drinking cold water it may be lower. Espe- cially is this true of ruminants. In order to get at the normal temperature in those animals showing wide variations it is well to take two or more readings at difllerent times ; also to take that of some healthy animal in the herd and compare this with the temperature of the sick one. (d) Condition of the Surface of the Body — When a horse is in good condition and well cared for, the coat is short, fine, glossy, and smooth, the skin pliable and elastic. Healthy cattle have a smooth, glossy coat and the skin feels mellow and elastic. The fleece of sheep should look smooth and have plenty of 300 DISEASES OP PAEM ANIMALS yolk; the skin, light pink in color. When the coat loses its luster and gloss, and the skin becomes hard, rigid or scurvy (hide bound), it indicates a lack of nutrition and an unhealthy condition of the body. In sheep, during sickness, the wool may become dry and brittle and the skin pale and rigid. When affected with external parasites the fleece looks taggy or the wool is lost over large areas of skin, the skin itself being greatly changed. During fever the temperature of the surface of the body is very unequal, and in serious diseases, or diseases about to terminate fatally, the surface feels cold ; frequently the hair is wet with a cold sweat. Horses and cattle that are allowed to "rough it" during the cold, changeable seasons of the year have a heavy, rough coat of hair, a provision of nature to protect them against the severe weather. When horses accustomed to hard work are kept in a stall for a few days the hind extremities are apt to till. This is seen in disease and frequently in mares toward the latter period of preg- nancy. In diseases of the heart and kidneys dropsical swellings are often seen. In lymphangitis, pleurisy, etc., swellings may appear under the chest and abdomen. Sheep that are debilitated and weak, especially if the condition is caused by internal parasites, may show swellings under the jaw and in different parts of the body. (e) Visible Mucous Membranes — The visible mucous membranes in a state of health are usually a pale red, and during exercise or excitement redder and more vascular. In cold in the head the membranes of the eye and nose are of a bright red color. When any of the internal organs become congested the various mucous membranes (mouth, nose, eye) may assume a violet hue, and if the liver does not perform its functions properly may become tinged with yellow. In internal hemorrhage, and in aneemic (bloodless) conditions, they are pale. In chronic indi- gestion the mouth is often foul and soapy ; in the dog the tongue is furred. When any irritation from the teeth is present, the mouth is excessively moist; if the animal is feverish, dry. (f) The Character of the Excretions from the bowels, kidneys, and skin is often modified. This will be taken up later in the description of the symp- toms of the different diseases. (g) General Behavior — The animal may appear normal in so far as nervous manifestations are concerned ; or it may be nervous and easily excited, travel in a circle, have spasms or convulsions, or become actually rabid. The nervous tone may be depressed ; the animal may be stupid, may stand leaning the head against some object, or lie quiet and unconscious. Locally there may be par- alysis of either motion or feeling, or both. TREATMENT 301 ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICINE Drugs may be administered by the following channels : (a) By the mouth, (b) by injecting into the tissues beneath the skin, (c) by rubbing into the skin, (d) by the air passages and lungs, and (e) by the rectum. (a) Drenching — The most common method of administration is by way of the mouth. Whenever possible, drugs should be given with the feed or drinking water, as this gives the attendant the least trouble. Bulky drenches are often hard to give, and one must count on a part being wasted. In drenching horses it is best to put a bridle on the head instead of a halter ; tie a small rope or line to a strap fastened to the ring on each side of the bit, and elevate the head by throwing one end of the rope over a beam and having it held there by an attendant. A heavy, long-necked glass bottle can be used. If the mouth is filled with the drench and the animal refuses to swallow it, a tablespoonful or so of water can be dropped into the nostril. This forces the horse to swallow. A drench should never be given through the nose, as it may cause a fatal inflammation of the air passages and lungs. In giving small drenches the head can be elevated with the hand and a dose syringe or a small bottle used. Cattle are quite easily drenched. Sheep can be drenched in the standing position or when thrown on the haunches and held between the knees. The standing position is to be pre- ferred, and it is best to use a small dose syringe. Care should be exercised in giving bulky or irritating drenches to sheep, as a part may get into the air passages and cause serious trouble. The easiest method of drenching a dog is to hold him between the knees, pull out the cheek so that a pocket is formed between it and the teeth, and then pour the medicine into the pocket." Balls — The most common method of giving horses drugs that do not go into solution readily is in the form of balls. They can be made by mixing the medicines with syrup, honey, and linseed meal and rolling the mass into the form of a cylin- der about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and a few inches in length. Tissue paper is then wrapped around it. Veterinarians seldom use balls, as gelatin capsules are more convenient. A powder may be rolled up in tissue paper alone and this is very often the handiest way to give it. In giving a ball, care must be used or the hand will be injured by coming in contact with the teeth. The ball must be held between the ends of the first finger and the thumb, the tongue pulled out as far as pos- sible and held to one side with the left hand, and the ball passed backward between the two rows of upper molars and deposited on the back part of the tongue. The tongue is then quickly released and the head elevated for about a minute. If the animal is at all restless it is well to have an attendant help hold the head, as the patient may work the ball between the teeth and quid it. (b) Hypodermic Administration — Injections beneath the skin are suitable when the drug is non-irritating and the dose small, or when prompt, ener- 302 DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS getic effects are required, as in acute pain or collapse. For tliis-purpose the active principles of drugs are generally used. The point of injection is usually on the side of the neck or shoulder. A fold of the skin is picked up with the fingers and the needle quickly introduced, care being taken not to prick or scratch the muscular tissue, as this might cause the animal some pain and make it struggle. In order to prevent an abscess from forming at the point of injection, it is necessaiy that the needle and syringe be sterile. If the hair is long, it should be clipped at the point of inoculation and the skin washed with an antiseptic solution, as carbolic acid or creolin. (c) Superficial Application — Drugs are not absorbed through the un- broken skin, but when applied with friction or when the outer layer is removed by blistering they may be absorbed. Liniments, blisters, and poultices are applied for a local effect only. (d) Administration by the Air Passages — Volatile drugs are absorbed very quickly by the enormous vascular surface of the lungs. Chloroform and ether are administered by way of the respiratory tract for the purpose of iiroducing gen- eral anaesthesia. Anesthetics are not so often used in veterinary surgery as in human surgery, but for some operations are indispensable. Inhalation of medicated steam is used for its local effect on the air passages and is useful in affections of the respiratory tract. In steaming large animals a pail about half full of boiling water should be used, an ounce or two of turpentine, creolin, or whatever drug is required, mixed with it, the pail held within about a foot of the animal's nose, and a light stable blanket thrown over its head so as to direct the steam toward the nostrils. Dogs can be placed on a cane-seated chair, a pail or pan of boiling water placed under it, and a sheet thrown over all. (e) Administration Iby the Rectum — Medicines are administered by way of the rectum at times when the animal can not be drenched, when it can not retain them in the mouth, and when a local action is desired. An enema or clyster is a fluid injection into the rectum and is employed for the following purposes ; To accelerate the action of a purgative ; to stimulate the peristaltic movement of the intestines ; for local effect in inflammation of the intestines ; to kill intestinal .para- sites ; to reduce body temperature ; to administer medicine, and to supply food. The best method of administering a clyster is to allow water to gravitate into the bowels from a height of from 2 to 4 feet. In giving large injections the hind parts of the animal should be raised. For large animals a good sized funnel to which are attached a few feet of rubber tubing or, in emergencies, of garden hose, is all the apparatus needed. The ordinary fountain syringe can be used for small animals and from half a pint to a quart of water Injected. From one to several gallons of water may be required for horses or cattle. STOMATITIS IX HORSES 303 The Dose— The doses given in the treatment of the different diseases, unless otherwise mentioned, are for adult animals. The dose for a colt one year old is about one-third the quantity given the adult ; two years of age, one-half ; and three years, two-thirds. In well-matured colts a larger dose can be given. In other immature animals the same proportion is followed, depending upon the degree of development. The character of the action of drugs is frequently entirely changed by varying the size of the dose. When drugs are administered at short intervals the size of the dose is reduced. DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT STOMATITIS {Inflammation of the Mucous Membrane Lining the M(mlh) STOMATITIS IX HORSES Causes — Stomatitis freqitently follows irritation from the bit, teeth, irritant drenches, or roughage containing beards of grasses, burs, etc. It occurs when prehension of the food is impaired, the mucous membrane of the mouth not being kept clean by the secretions, so that particles of food or parts of the lining mem- brane of the mouth that are shed, decompose, thereby setting up an irritation. Eust and molds on grains may cause it. Stomatitis may occur as a complication in any of the ordinary febrile diseases, especially if of long duration. Symptoms — At the outset the mucous membrane of the mouth is congested, hot, and dry, and portions of it may have a dark red color, especially that part lining the cheek. Other por- tions are coated with a slimy, grayish matter, and in a short time the odor from the mouth is fetid. Following this dry stage is the period of excessive secretion; saliva dribbles from the mouth, and ui bad cases is mixed with shreds of epithelium. Little blisters or vesicles in some cases may be scattered over the lining membrane of the lips, cheeks, and sides of the tongue. In the severe form the membrane becomes reddened and thickened : the swelling so great and the mouth so sore at times that the animal can not take food of any kind. When properly treated, recovery takes place very quickly. Treatment — Roughage and grasses that will irritate the mouth must be withheld. If due to a severe bit, its use must be discontinued ; sharp or diseased teeth should receive the proper attention. When the mouth is inflamed, mashes and gruels may be given, and plenty of clean water allowed. Twice a day the mouth should be washed out with a 2 or 3 per cent water solution of boric acid. It is advisable in some cases to use a water solution of some of the creolin prepara- tions (3 parts to 98 parts water). The wash should be thoroughly applied and plenty of it used. XTLCEEATI^i: STOMATITIS EST HORSES Causes — This form of inflammation of the mouth is not common among horses. It is more apt to be seen in weak and debilitated animals than in animals in good condition. It is seen in some infectious diseases. 304 DISEASES OP THE DIGESTIVE TEACT Symptoms — At first the symptoms are much the same as in the simple inflammation. Sores form along the gums, lips, and cheeks, considerable tissue is lost, and the ulcers may become deep and extensive. When these sores form the breath becomes fetid and the saliva is usually tinged with blood. The ulcers are tardy in healing, but unless complicated with some other disease recovery takes place. Tkeatment — Weak and debilitated animals should be built up if possible with nourishing foods, tonics, and good care. After washing out the mouth with a 4 or 5 per cent solution of some of the creolin preparations, the surface of the ulcers should be touched with lunar caustic. This treatment must be kept up until the ulcers show signs of healing. STOMATITIS IN CATTLE AND SHEEP Causes — The lining membrane of the mouths of cattle is thicker and more resistant to the attacks of bacteria than that of the horse, but still this does not pro- tect them from mechanical and chemical irritants, especially when on dry feed. Stomatitis is frequently seen in the infectious diseases that affect ruminants. Sheep have a more delicate buccal membrane, but the care with which they select their feed prevents this from being a very common disease. Symptoms — The symptoms are much the same as in the horse. Mastication is difficult, and the parts are congested, swollen, and inflamed. Saliva dribbles from the mouth. Tkeatment — The treatment is the same as for stomatitis of the horse. ULCERATIVE STOMATITIS IN CALVES AND LAMBS Causes — This disease seems to be communicated from one animal to another, and is no doubt due to some of the pathogenic germs. It is more common in lambs and calves that are debilitated and kept in unhygienic quarters (poorly-ventilated, filthy, damp stables). Symptoms — The gums become dark red, spongy, and bleed easily. In a short time a part dies, sloughs out, and a deep, ragged-looking ulcer forms. These ulcers are seen on the lips and gums and may become extensive, the teeth loosening and dropping out, and perforations occurring in the lips. Threads of saliva dribble from the mouth, and the breath is fetid. The first symptom noticed is that the young animal is careless with the teat or refuses to suckle. The animal soon becomes weak, refuses to eat, and a fetid diarrhea sets in. The disease frequently results in death. Recovery takes place slowly. Treatment — The preventive treatment consists in improving hygienic conditions and isolat- ing diseased animals. The quarters should be thoroughly cleaned, and the floors and walls washed with a disinfectant. The local treatment consists in removing the dead tissue from the ulcers and using antiseptic washes liberally. The ulcers should be touched with lunar caustic. STOMATITIS IN SWINE Causes — Irritating drenches, hot foods, and putrid or decomposed slops are among the common causes. The most common form of sore mouth is the STOMATITIS, LAMPAS, SALIVATION" 305 infectious or ulcerative form and is due to bacteria. It usually attacks suck- ling pigs. Symptoms — When a hog has a sore mouth, froth will accumulate around the lips, other- wise, in the simple form the symptoms are much the same as in other animals. In the infectious form the usual seat of the inflammation is on the inside of the lips and the gums. In bad cases it may extend to other parts of the mouth and outside of it so as to include the snout. The number of sores or ulcers may range from two to half a dozen. The ulceration progresses rapidly and con- siderable pieces of the gums, lips, or snout may drop off. The teeth may also fall out. Treatment — The preventive treatment is very important. If the disease is present in a herd, special measures must be taken to keep the pens clean. The diseased pigs must be separated from the healthy ones. The medicinal treatment consists in applying creolin preparations to the dis- eased parts of the mouth and washing the sow's udder with a solution of the same. liAMPAS {Congestion r THE HOESE Catarrh is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the nasal cavities and usually extending to the membrane lining the sinuses of the head. Sore throat is very often a complication, the membrane of the pharynx and larynx becoming inflamed. Causes — This disease is much more common in the horse than iu any of the other domestic animals. The most common causes are exposure to cold and wet 22 326 DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY TRACT and standing in a draft. Colds are common during changeable weather, especially if the animal is not cared for properly. Horses that are accustomed to warm stables are very apt to take cold if changed to a cold stable or improperly cared for after being driven or worked. Irritation to the mucous membrane from dust or smoke may sometimes cause it. The different infectious diseases (distemper, influenza, etc.) are very common causes. In sheep the larva (grub) of the bot-fly will cause catarrh. Symptoms — The early stage of the disease, unless accompanied by the general symptoms, ■will pass unnoticed by the owner. la mild cases the symptoms are not marked. The lining membrane of the nostrils is at first dry and red. In a few days a discharge appears. This is at first watery, but may become catarrhal, heavy, mucus-like, and turbid ; sometimes it is pus-like (purulent). The eyes are generally affected, the lining membrane of the lids looks red, and tears flow over the cheeks. The appetite may be impaired at first and the animal acts dull. Some- times fever is present, but this lasts only a short time unless the cold becomes complicated. When the throat is inflamed, the horse coughs and has some difiiculty in swallowing. It may breathe heavily. If the throat is manipulated it causes the animal to cough. Tho disease may terminate in about a week if the case is mild, or it may become chronic or cause the animal to be thick-winded. The throat occasionally remains sore for some time and the horse loses flesh. Treatment — Colds can be largely prevented if the proper precautions are used. Mild cases require nothing but good care and good quarters. Steaming the animal is useful during the early stages of the disease. Easily digested food, and, if the throat is so sore that the animal can not eat the ordinary feed, soft foods and slops should be given. A mild liniment may be rubbed on the throat and later, if the animal continues to cough, a cantharides blister (1 part powdered can- tharides to 8 parts vaseline) may be applied to the throat. The following mixture may be given: Tincture aconite (6 drams), tincture belladonna (1 ounce), syrup of squills (add enough to fill an 8-ounce bottle); give one tablespoonful three times a day. Chlorate of potassium may be given in the drinking water. Iodide of potassium in dram doses in the feed three times a day is also use- ful. If the animal becomes run down in flesh, bitter tonics are indicated. In chronic catarrh it is sometimes necessary to trephine the animal and wash the sinuses with an antiseptic solution. The treatment is very much the same in the different species of domestic animals. CATARRH AND SORE THROAT IN SWINE Causes — Exposure, irritating gases, dust, and overcrowding in pens and around straw stacks are common causes. Symptoms — The symptoms and different stages of catarrh in pigs are much the same as in other animals. Sore throat usually occurs as a secondary disease. The symptoms are as fol- lows : Distressed and noisy breathing ; slightly swollen throat ; dry, hard cough ; difiiculty in swallowing ; fever and loss of appetite. The disease develops rapidly and as a rule terminates favorably in about four days. Treatment — Preventive precautions are important. The only treatment necessary is good care. BRONCHITIS, HEMORRHAGE FROM THE LUNGS 327 BRONCHITIS Bronchitis is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes and may be either acute or chronic. When the smallest bronchial tubes are involved, it is termed capillary- bronchitis. Acute bronchitis is especially common in the horse, the chronic form being unusual. Causes — During the changeable seasons of the year this disease is frequently encountered. In general the causes are about the same as in other respiratory diseases. Cold is the principal cause. Overheated, poorly ventilated stables, and irritating vapors and gases are common causes. It may be associated with some of the contagious diseases. Symptoms — The disease comes on very quickly, the fever is high, and the pulse and respirations rapid. The visible mucous membranes are red, the animal does not eat and acts stupid. Frequently chills are observed. If we place our ear along under the neck or at the side of the chest, we can hear the respiratory sounds, which are rough and louder than normal. The cough is at first dry, then moist. The general symptoms subside in a few days, generally in about a day, but unless the animal is cared for may become complicated. In the horse bronchitis is not a serious disease, but in other domestic animals is more apt to run a longer course and become complicated. If the causes continue to act the disease may then become chronic. In this form the secretions are abundant, whitish curdled matter being discharged. This discharge is more abundant when the horse is first exercised than at any other time. Symptoms of broken wind are usually noticed, the animal is weak and unfit for work, and runs down in flesh quite rapidly. Treatment — Good care and comfortable, well- ventilated quarters are all that are necessary in mild cases. The animal must be protected with warm blankets, and, if chilling, it is best to rub the legs and then bandage them with woolen bandages. A laxative and easily digested diet should be given. Fumigations with steam every four or five hours are useful in allaying the inflammation. Liquor ammonia acetate in 2-ounce doses every three hours till the temperature falls to the normal, then three times a day for a few days, is very useful. If the animal coughs and has some difficulty in swallowing, a liniment should be rubbed on the throat and the follow- ing mixture given: Tincture aconite (6 drams), tincture belladonna (1 ounce), syrup of squills (add enough to make 8 ounces) ; give one tablespoonful three times a day. Animals affected with chronic bronchitis should not be worked. We should guard against their taking cold, give them good nourishing foods, and tonics if necessary. The following mixture may be given : Fluid extract of gentian (2 ounces). Fowler's solution (6 ounces) ; mix and give half an ounce in the feed or as a drench three times a day. Alkalies and strong alteratives may be given. HEMORRHAGE FROM THE LUNGS Causes — Pulmonary hemorrhage is generally due to overexertion and excite- ment. It may occur if the animal is forced to do severe work or exercised when sick or exhausted. It may accompany severe pulmonary congestion and pneumonia. 328 DISEASES OF THE RESPIEATOEY TRACT Symptoms — The characteristic Bymptom is a discharge from the nostrils or mouth of red frothy blood. The discharge is usually intermittent and may occur in large quantities. The mucous membranes are generally pale, the animal trembles, looks anxious, is restless, coughs, and has a weak pulse and a high fever. Difficult breathing is a prominent symptom. Death may occur in a short time. Tebatjibnt — The animal must be kept as quiet as possible. The quarters should be com- fortable and well ventilated. By using good judgment in handling the animal serious pulmonary hemorrhage can be largely avoided. In severe cases treatment is of little use. CROUPOUS PNEUMONIA PNEUMONIA OP THE HORSE Causes — -The causes are very much the same as in other respiratory affec- tions. During the cold weather it is more common than at any other time of the year. It may be due to contagious causes. If the animal is already suffering from some respiratory disease, such conditions as exposure to cold and wet, drafts in the stable, chilling suddenly after perspiring freely, washing ^\'itll cold water, and neg- lecting the proper protection of clipped horses during cold weather, are very likely to cause pneumonia. Symptoms — When the disease first affects some other part of the respiratory tract and the lungs are affected secondarily, the earliest symptoms are confounded with those of the first disease and will vary according to the severity of the attack. At first we notice chilling, the temperature of the surface of the body is uneven, and the animal has a high fever. The mucous membranes are reddened, the nostrils dilated, the respirations quickened and difficult, the expired air hot, the appetite diminished, and the pulse accelerated. We may hear the animal cough, and generally a rusty discharge accumulates around the margins of the nostrils. The horse is inclined to be con- stipated and remains standing. If it lies down at all it is on the diseased side. In severe cases the expression is anxious, the respirations labored, the general symptoms aggravated and the horse stands with elbows turned out and the front feet spread apart. The course of pneumonia is typical, and unless it terminates fatally in the first stages, the periods of congestion, hepatization (con- solidation), and resolution will generally follow each other in a regular manner. Auscultation and percussion are valuable aids in diagnosing and watching the progress of the disease. During the period of congestion, which lasts about one day, one can hear sounds in the diseased lung tissue. Consolidation follows, the lung tissue becoming red or reddish-gray in color, and dense, like liver. In the latter stage of the hepatization the dissolution and absorption of the matter in the air cells begins. In this period, which lasts several days, the respiratory sounds are suppressed. In the last period, resolution, the exudates undergo liquefaction and are absorbed or expelled with cough- ing. The disease is at its height, as a rule, in a little less than a week, but the convalescent period may extend over several weeks. In subacute cases the symptoms are mild and may terminate favorabljr in a short time. In serious cases death by asphyxia occurs. In some cases abscesses may form in the lung tissue. The disease may be the cause of broken wind. PKEUMOXIA, PLEURISY 329 Treatment — Good quarters and careful nursing are highly important in treating pneumonia. A comfortable, well ventilated, and clean box stall, free from drafts, should be provided. As the animal can use only a limited portion of the lungs, the air that he breathes should be pure. The droppings and wet bedding should be removed from the stall several times a day The body of the horse during cold weather should be well protected with woolen blankets and the limbs ban- daged. A laxative, easily digested diet should be given. Such measures, if talien early in the disease, may greatly modify it. In the early stage, when the animal is chilling, alcoholic stimu- lants and quinine can be given. In cases where the temperature runs high the following febrifuge may be given : Acetanilid {H ounces), quinine sulphate (1 ounce), bicarbonate of soda (1 ounce), and powdered nux vomica (i ounce); mix and divide into eight powders ; give one powder eveiy three or four hours. In mild cases liquor ammonia acetate may be given, and when the heart action is weak, digitalis. In most cases mustard paste rubbed into the hair and covered with oil cloth or brown paper will give material relief. Ground mustard ( about 1 pound ) is mixed with enough warm water to form a paste and applied to the walls of the chest. In about half an hour it must be thoroughly washed off with hot water and a mild stimulating liniment applied to the skin This should be repeated as often as necessary. In the latter convalescent stage iodide of potassiirm and bitter tonics should be given. PNEUMOXIA IX CATTLE Causes — This is not a common disease in cattle. It may follow other respira- tory diseases. The causes are very much the same as in the horse. Traumatic pneumonia may result from the food entering the trachea, as it sometimes does in paralytic diseases. Symptoms — The disease is usually subacute. The general symptoms are much the same as in the horse. The mouth is often diy and the tongue protruded to facilitate breathing. In severe cases the animal usually remains standing. In mild cases it often lies down. Tkeatment — The treatment does not differ much from that used in the horse. A cathartic of Epsom salts (1 pound) may be given in the early stage of the disease, and repeated if the animal becomes constipated. PLEURISY {Inflammation of the Pleura) Causes — Pleurisy is more common in the horse than in any of the other domestic animals. The causes are the same as in pneumonia. In many cases it is due to exposure and cold (rheumatismal form). It frequently develops as a compli- cation of pneumonia. Symptoms — Pleurisy generally starts with chills. The body temperature is quite high; the pulse accelerated and the respirations quick, labored, and abdominal, the abdominal muscles forming a ridge along the lower ends of the ribs. The animal does not stand still as in pneu- monia, but changes its position occasionally, its movements in many cases being accompanied by a grunt. Pressure on the walls of the chest causes pain and the animal rarely lies down. The 330 DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM cough is short and painful. The appetite is impaired or absent and the patient is weak. By auscultation we recognize friction sounds. In a day or two effusion talses place in the pleural cavities and the pain is greatly relieved, but this relief is only temporary in most cases. If the fluid collects in large quantities there is pressure on the heart and lungs, the pulse is weak, the respirations labored, and the countenance has a haggard appearance. Dropsical swellings are noticed beneath the breast and abdomen and there is an absence of respiratory sounds over the lower region of the chest; instead a splashing gurgling sound may be heard. Suffocation may take place ; the animal moves unsteadily, and finally dies. In favorable cases improvement begins in from four days to a week, the appetite returning, the effusion gradually disappearing, and the respirations becoming normal. Convalescence takes place very slowly. In severe cases the animal may continue weak and may have defective wind. Tbbatment — As in pneumonia, careful nursing and good quarters are important in the treat- ment of pleurisy. Mustard drafts should be applied to the walls of the chest and febrifuges given to reduce the fever. When the effusion occurs in the chest cavity we should give drugs that will stimulate the action of the heart and help in getting rid of the effusion. Such drugs as iodide of potassium, or acetate of potassium in combination with digitalis, are especially valuable for this purpose. Nitrate of potassiuip can be given in the drinking water. DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM CONGESTION AND ANEMIA OF THE BRAIN Causes — Congestion of the brain is more frequent in the horse than in any of the other domestic animals. In this disease the blood-vessels of the brain be- come engorged with blood. It may be either active or passive. Horses that are overfed and receive too little exercise are predisposed to it. It may be due to changing stables, shipping in poorly ventilated oars, poorly ventilated stables, im- proper feeding and foods hard to digest, excitement and excessive exertion. Con- gestion may occur in some of the contagious diseases and is sometimes caused by organic heart troubles. Extremely fat animals having short, thick necks are said to be j)redisposed to it. Passive congestion of the brain may be due to a narrow collai' pressing on the jugular vein and obsti'ucting the flow of blood from the brain. Pressure on the jugular vein from other causes may cause the same condition. Anemia of the brain is due to an insufficient amount of blood in the brain and is caused by abundant hemorrhage, obstruction of blood going to the brain, and cardiac weakness. Symptoms — The congestion in most cases comes on very suddenly, in others it develops slowly. The disease may manifest itself as soon as the animal is moved out of the stall, or it may come on while it is feeding. In the latter case, the horse stops suddenly, becomes restless, and later quite violent. The pulse is quick and hard, the animal is nervous, respirations hurried, and eyes INFLAMMATIOE" OP THE BEAIIST 331 staring. It braces itself, raves, or staggers and falls. It may regain its feet or have convulsions and pass into a comatose condition. Death may occur in a very short time. We will sometimes find the animal with its fore feet in the manger, or pressing the head hard against objects. Grinding the teeth, neighing, and shaking the head are some of the other symptoms that may be seen in this disease. Cattle leave the feed suddenly, are restless and excited, bellow, rotate the eyes in their sockets, butt the head against objects, and, if they fall, have convulsions. Coma is manifested by the animal becoming sleepy, stupid, not eating, without expression in the face, taking unusual positions, and staggering in its gait. It may take a recumbent position and appear as if dead. In cerebral anemia the gait is staggering and the pulse weak. The same symptoms as described in congestion may be manifested. In sortie cases congestion of the brain leads to an inflammation of the organ. Apoplexy due to rupture of capillaries may occur, or it may lead to vertigo or "staggers." Treatment — Preventive treatment is very important in this disease. Bleeding at the begin- ning will give good results. Cold applications to the head also are useful. A cathartic of linseed oil should be given. In anemia we must give stimulants. Recovery from the attack should be followed for at least a few days by a careful diet and rest. INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES {Enceplialitia) Causes — These are very much the same as in congestion of the brain. Uohygienio conditions, as unsanitary and poorly ventilated stables^ are common causes. It is more common in the spring and fall than at any other time of the year. It is sometimes seen in acute infections diseases. Feeding too rich or con- stipating a diet, overfeeding, changes in diet, changes in cliihate, high temperature, excessive exertion, excitement, and injuries to the head may cause it. Symptoms — The symptoms vary in different individuals, but in a general way are the same, and at the beginning similar to those seen in congestion of the brain. The animal is extremely nervous at first, is very sensitive to sounds, and the eyes are staring. The pupil of the eye is dilated, the pulse quick and hard, and the respirations more rapid than normal. The body temperature is elevated. In some cases the attack comes on so quickly that these symptoms are not noticed. The gait is uncertain, the animal does violence to itself and goes through uncontrol- lable movements. Recovery may take place gradually, or a partial paralysis may follow. Some- times the animal becomes comatose. The disease may run a course of a week or more to a fatal termination, or death may be very sudden. The prognosis is very unfavorable. Excitement is the most prominent symptom in cattle. They bellow, eyes are prominent, they tremble, shake the head, butt with the horns, climb into manger, and run against objects. Saliva dribbles from the mouth. The disease will very often pursue a very rapid course. The patient may live for several days and show the usual symptoms of inflammation of the brain. The prog- nosis in cattle is even more unfavorable than in horses. Treatment — The preventive treatment is the same as in congestion of the brain. When the animal becomes diseased it must have quiet, well- ventilated quarters and be inade as poijifortable 332 DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM as possible. If partly paralyzed slings can be used to good advantage. If violent we should try to prevent its injuring itself. Bleeding, as in congestion, is useful during the early stages. The following ball may be given to the horse : Powdered aloes (6 drams), powdered ginger (1 dram), and extract of belladonna {i dram). Cattle should receive full doses of Glauber's salts. If necessary a cathartic should be given often enough to keep the bowels open. The diet should be light and easily digested. Blisters may be applied along the side of the neck and to the poll of the head. If the weather is cold the animal must be protected and made comfortable. Large doses of powdered nux vomica or strychnine should be given if paralysis is present. CEREBRO-SPINAL, MENINGITIS IX THE HORSE Spasm of the neck, as this disease is sometimes called, is an inflammation of the membranes covering the brain and the anterior j^art of the spinal cord. It is more common in horses and sheep than in any of the other domestic animals and may occur in isolated cases, but usually as an enzootic disease in a certain stable or country district. Causes — This disease has been attributed to a variety of different causes. Poorly ventilated, unsanitary stables, impure food and water, and undrained lands are said to cause it. As in human pathology, the cause is said to be a specific one and the history of many outbreaks seems to point to this as a fact. Symptoms — In its acute and rapidly fatal form it is difficult to distinguish this disease from inflammation of the brain. The animal is at first weak, staggers, swallows with difficulty, saliva dribbles from the mouth and there are twitching and cramps of the different sets of muscles. The animal is soon unable to stand, and becomes violent and delirious. The temperature may be high in some cases and the pulse small and accelerated. When the symptoms come on gradually we notice a weakness or partial paralysis of the different sets of muscles. The animal is unable to switch its tail, becomes sleepy or comatose, snores, is delirious, and has cramps of the muscles of the neck and jaw. Sometimes death takes place without the development of violent symptoms, the animal passing into a deep sleep. The duration of the disease is from one to fifteen days. The prognosis is very unfavorable. Trbatmekt — If the disease appears as an enzootic in a stable, the animals should be removed to other quarters and the stable cleaned and disinfected. If in an unsanitary condition, this should be remedied. A change in the food and water supply is to be recommended. Treatment is seldom followed by success. The medicinal treatment is similar to that used in inflammation of the brain. CEEEBEO-SPINAE MENINGITIS IN SHEEP The symptoms are generally acute. The sheep are very sensitive ; weak ; saliva dribbles from the mouth; they fall to the ground; the shoulders are bent upward and backward ; they grind the teeth, and have spasms and convulsions. Death may ECZEMATOUS DISEASES 333 take place in a short time. In mild cases the disease may persist for a few weeks. The prognosis is unfavorable. INFIiA3I3IATION OF THE SPINAL CORD AND ITS COVERINGS {Myelitis and Spinal Meningitis) Causes — Blows and injuries to the back, fracture of the spine, exhaustion, and exposure are common causes. It may occur iu such diseases as blood poisoning, influenza, and rheumatism. Symptoms — The disease may be ushered in with a chill and the temperature may be higher than normal. The gait is stiff and back rigid ; the animal may stagger, fall, and become partially or wholly paralyzed. The animal seems to sufEer pain and is sometimes extremely sensi- tive. Small animals drag their hind parts, large animals are very often unable to stand at all and remain in a recumbent position. The disease is generally chronic, and the animal loses control of its hind parts. Teeatmext — The animal should be given comfortable quarters and kept as free from excite- ment as possible. If it will eat, easily digested food should be given. If constipated a cathartic must be administered. Cold applications along the spine are recommended. The paralysis can be combated with nux vomica or strychnine. Chronic cases should be destroyed. ECZEMATOUS DISEASES PRICKLY HEAT (Heat Pimples, Summer Erujition) This is an eruption of the skin and occurs in nearly all domestic animals, and generally during the warm weather. Causes — Young and thin-skinned animals at the time of shedding are espe- cially predisposed to this afEection. Local irritation to the skin from sweat, harness, and dirt is the common cause. Heating food, high feeding, and diseases of the digesti\e tract are the internal causes. Heat pimples sometimes occur during the course of strangles. Symptoms — Eruption is usuaU}' limited to the region of the neck, withers, back, thighs, and shoulders, but it may invade most of the surface of the body. At the beginning the little elevations or papules may be found by passing the hand over the surface of the skin. The papule vary in size and may be as large as a pea. In some cases they become confluent and cover quite an area of the skin. They soon dry and harden and the hair becomes ei'ect. Scabs or crusts form and adhere to the hair, and then drop out, carrying the hair along with them. Spots denuded of hair then remain. If the inflammation has not been severe this is replaced with hair of the same color. It is sometimes accompanied by a severe itching. Tkeatstext — "When due to high feeding or overheating food the diet should be corrected. Diseases of the digestive tract should be treated, and if the papules occur in poorly cared for horses 334 ECZEMATOUS DISEASES they should be given shelter, a good diet, and groomed every day. As an alterative, Fowler's solution (licjuor arsenitis) may be given in teaspoonful or tablespoonful doses in the horse's feed three times a day. Two or throe weeks is generally a long enough period to give it. Horses in high condition should be given two or three doses of Glauber's salts {i pound at a dose) at intervals of three or four days. Unthrifty animals should be given bitter tonics and the skin thoroughly washed with a 3 per cent water solution of a creolin preparation. This should be repeated if necessary. URTICARIA This is an eruption of flattened, well-defined nodules, or elevations in the skin, caused by an infiltration of the deeper layers of the skin with fiuid from the capil- laries. Causes — Urticaria is more common in the spring and fall than at any other time of the year and is frequently seen in fat, plethoric animals or those that are rapidly gaining in flesh. Sudden changes in the weather or food and abrupt chilling of the skin may cause it. It may occur in animals having digestive troubles. Irrita- tion to the skin from the bites of insects will cause it. Urticaria is not attended as a rule by any marked symptoms. Treatment — This consists in giving a cathartic of powdered aloes or Glauber's salts, following this for a week or more with artificial Carlsbad salts in the feed. SCRATCHES ON THE HORSE (Cracked Heel) This is an eczema of the flexor surfaces of the limbs ; its most common seat is the back part of the pasterns, in the hollow of the heel. Causes — The causes are overfeeding, dirty stables, irritation from urine, manure, wind, dust, cold, snow, and freezing mud. Any condition leading to the filling of the limbs may cause it. Symptoms — At first the part is hot, swollen, and tender and the animal may go lame. The part soon becomes moist, cracks from across its surface, and the skin becomes thick and rigid. In some cases portions of the skin become gangrenous and drop off. Some animals are predis- posed to scratches. Treatment — The first step is, if possible, to remove the cause. In overfed animals it is well to give a cathartic (Glauber's salts) and feed a laxative, easily digested diet. It is best in the ma- jority of cases to rest the animal. The part must be kept as clean as possible. The following lotion may be applied to the part twice a day; Sulphate of zinc (f part), acetate of lead (1 part), water (30 parts), or, the following ointment may be used : Oxide of zinc (1 part), vaseline (8 parts); this may be applied once or twice a day. Cases that do not respond to this treatment may be washed with a 1 to 1,000 water solution of corrosive sublimate once a day, and a flaxseed poultice naay be applied every evening, until improvement begins, DISEASES OP THE LOCOMOTOR ORGANS 335 GREASE IN THE HOKSE This disease afiEects the extremities of horses and is due to a parasitic fuugus. One can distinguish it from scratches by the disagreeable odor, the discharge, and the formation of thick folds and crevices in the skin, and red, raw granulation (••grapes""). It is generally due to filtliy stables and is treated by washing the parts with a strong water solution of creolin or other antiseptic. When hot and tender a poultice may be applied. It is necessary to clean and disinfect the floors of the stable. DISEASES OF THE LOCOMOTOR ORGAJS^S ]>rCSCULAR RHEFMATISBI Causes — -This disease is more common in the horse than in any of the other domestic animals. Cold seems to be the exciting cause. It maybe caused by cold, damp, chilly weather ; drafts in the stable ; cold, damp stables ; damp pastures or yards ; sudden chilling when the animal is heated, and allowing it to stand without blanketing in cold weather. A first attack always predisposes an animal to a second. Symptoms — The disease is usually local in the horse. In ruminants it may be generalized. The regions most commonly affected are the muscles of the shoulder and back. The disease may shift from one part to another. "When generalized the animal moves about and gets up with great difflculty, and the affected muscles are sore and sensitive. In these cases general symptoms are present. When the rheumatism is located in the muscles of the shoulder the limbs are not moved freely, there is a tendency to step short with the lame member and to drag the toe. When the muscles of the back are affected there is great difficulty in getting up and down and cattle fre- quently take the recumbent position. In ruminants it is usually complicated with the articular form. In localized rheumatism the prognosis is favorable. In order to prevent its recurrence the exciting causes must be removed. Tbzatmext — When the disease is localized the principal treatment is rubbing the part for several minutes with the hand every day and the application of some mild liniment. The follow- ing liniment maybe used: Spirits of camphor (10 parts), turpentine (2 parts). The following mixture may be used internally : Salicylate of soda (2 ounces), fluid extract of gentian (1 ounce), and water (enough to make an 8-ounce mixture); half an ounce can be given three times a day to horses and cattle. A febrifuge should also be given in the generalized form. Wai"m, comfortable quarters must be provided and the animal should not be driven or worked until the lameness is gone. ARTICULAR RHEU]>IATIS3I Causes — Cold and dampness seem to be the predisposing factors in this as well as in muscular rheumatism. It is very probable that the cause is of an infectious nature. 336 DISEASES OP THE LOCOMOTOR ORGANS Symptoms — Articular rheumatism is a common form in cattle. It appears very abruptly and is accompanied by certain general symptoms. One or more of the articulations of the extrem- ities becomes greatly enlarged in a very short time. The animal is lame, or stiff, feverish, and in severe pain. Where sesreral of the articulations are involved the disease may last for several months, the animal becoming badly emaciated. Sometimes the lameness disappears, but the enlargement is permanent. The prognosis is very unfavorable. Treatment — This is similar to that used in the muscular form. Blisters may be applied to the enlarged joints. AZOTURIA {Monday Morning Disease) Azoturia occurs solely in solipeds and is especially common at certain seasons of the year. Plethoric horses and nniles seem to be predisposed to it. In work ani- mals it usually follows a short rest. It rarely occurs when the animal is running in the pasture or while standing in the stall. Causes — Some investigators attribute the disease to irritation of the muscles from cold, and classify it among rheumatismal diseases. The cause advanced by most American veterinarians is an excess of proteid matter in the system, due to feeding the animal a strong ration during rest follov/ing a period of regular woi-k. AVhen suddenly put to work, this material, along with poisonous substances from the portal circulation, is thrown onto the system. Symptoms — When the animal is put to work it is usually full of life ; suddenly it begins to lag, goes lame, usually in the hind limbs, trembles, breaks out in a sweat, looks around toward the flanks, staggers, knuckles over in the hind pasterns, and may fall down and be unable to get up. The expression is anxious and the animal shows evidence of suffering severe pain. The symptoms may become manifest when the horse is first led out of his stall, or when fii'st turned in the pasture. The muscles of the fore quarters are sometimes affected, but it is usually the heavy muscles of the hind quarters that are involved. The resijirations and pulse are quickened and the affected muscles are hard, sensitive, and swollen. If the animal goes down it may be quite restless and have spasms. The urine is dark or coffee-colored. In most cases it is necessary to remove the urine, as the animal is unable to pass it. The paralytic symptoms may continue for several days and the animal be quite violent. In this class of cases the prognosis is not favorable. In the mild form, paralytic symptoms are not manifested and recovery takes place in a very short time. Atrophy of the affected muscles may follow. One attack predisposes the animal to a second. Treatment — The curative treatment of azoturia is frequently unsatisfactory. The pre- ventive treatment will give better results than the medicinal. At the seasons of the year when the animal is being worked steadily, if rested, the ration must Ije reduced. Horses should have access to plenty of salt and be watered regularly. As soon as the first symptoms of the disease become manifest, we must stop working the animal, blanket it if necessary, and allow it to stand until it is in fit condition to go to the stable. This precaution will often prevent the disease from becoming serious. Plenty of bedding and a good box stall are best for the sick animal, AZOTUEIA, FOUNDEK 337 especially if unable to get up. If the urine has not been passed it must be removed, and if the horse is violent it should be given a sedative ; fluid extract of gelsemium (2 to 4 drams) may be given eveiy few hours if necessary. Nitrate of potassium {i ounce) may be given in a ball or in the drinking water three times a day. The animal should be encouraged to drink plenty of water. To physic it, raw linseed oil may be given. If the horse will eat, it must be fed nothing but bran mashes for a few days. The paralytic symptoms must be combated with tincture nux vomica (2 drams) three times a day, or strychnine, given hypodermically. Unless the patient can stand fairly well, it is useless to keep it in slings. 'We must make the patient as comfortable as possible, keep the bed dry and turn it over two or three times a day. Azoturia patients often require very careful nursing. FOUXDER {Laminitis) Laminitis is an inflammation of the sensitive and very vascular laminae of the foot. This structure lies within the horny walls of the foot ; when the laminae become inflamed the walls do not yield to the swelling and, hence, cause severe pressure on these very sensitive tissues. Causes — Laminitis may be due to various causes. The most common are: Overfeeding, feeding grain and allowing the horse to drink large quantities of r.vater when in an overheated condition; heavy foods as wheat, rye, etc., especially if animal is not accustomed to it ; chilling of the body by cold winds ; overexertion, and exhaustion. Laminitis may be associated with other diseases, as colic, influenza, rheumatism, or pneumonia. Symptoms — The disease appears suddenly, usually in the front feet, rarely in all four feet. The pain is generally severe and the animal will try to avoid throwing weight on the affected feet. To avoid doing this, the front limbs are thrust well forward, moved very rapidly, and the hind limbs placed well under the body and most of the weight thrown on them. The animal may refuse to stand on his feet at all, or frequently they remain standing nearly all the time in order to avoid the pain caused by lying down and getting up again. The general symptoms are rapid, hard pulse, accelerated respirations, high body temperature and loss of appetite. The affected feet are hot, dry, and very sensitive to pressure. In mild cases the sensitive condition of the feet and the pecuharity of the gait, which is especially noticed when the animal is first moved or when turned, are about the only symptoms manifested. With the proper attention the disease usually terminates favorably in from four days to a week. When the inflammation becomes chronic, which it sometimes does, changes may occur in the shape and in the nutrition to the foot and the animal goes lame. One attack of laminitis will predispose the animal to a second. Treatiiext — The preventive treatment consists in avoiding conditions that may cause the disease. If the horse should become affected, it must have a comfortable stall, free from drafts, and deeply bedded with straw. In cold weather the body should be covered with heavy blankets ; in warm weather a light stable blanket is sufficient ; the stall should be darkened, the animal protected from flies, and kept as quiet as possible. It is best to remove the shoes. Large flaxseed 338 INFECTIOUS DISEASES poultices may be applied to the feet and renewed once or twice a day. Nitrate of potassium may be given in from 3 to 4 ounce doses three times a day in a ball or drench. Hot or cold water fomentatious are sometimes preferred to poultices ; if used they must be kept up continually until the inflammation subsides. In mild cases, standing the animal in a running stream will stop the Inflammation. When convalescence begins the shoes should be replaced. Iodide of potassium (in dram or 2-dram doses) in the feed is useful in this stage. A light diet should be given, a blister applied to the coronet, and in a few days the animal may be turned out to pasture. In chronic cases the feet may need careful attention. In shoeing it is best to raise the heel and slightly shorten the toe. INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS STRANGLES {Colt Distemper) Strangles is an acute infectious disease associated with a catarrhal condition of the air passages and suppuration of the lymphatic glands in the region of the throat. It is most common in young horses, as one attack confers considerable immunity for the future. Causes, — The specific cause is a germ, the infection taking place by bringing a susceptible animal in contact with the diseased one, or allowing it to run in the same pasture or stable. When the disease is once introduced into a stable of horses, it will affect every susceptible animal. The predisposing causes are cold and sudden changes in the weather ; fur this reason the disease is more common during the cold, changeable seasons than at any other time in the year. The period of incubation (the time between the exposure and the development of the first symptoms) is from four to eight days. Symptoms — At the beginning of the attacli the body temperature is elevated several degrees and the appetite is partially lost. The respirations and pulse may be accelerated and the animal appears quite stupid. The nasal mucous membranes are at first red and dry ; the animal sneezes and frequently coughs. The secretory stage soon begins, the secretions are first watery, but become heavy, purulent, and abundant, especially in young horses. The glands in the region of the jaw become hot, swollen, and painful ; the animal may be unable to eat and the respirations are difllcult. In a few days the abscesses that form will break, sometimes on the inside of the throat, and the symptoms may then become easier and the temperature fall to about normal. If other abscesses form the temperature may again rise. The disease may be accompanied by an eruption of nodules or vesicles on the skin. In old horses the symptoms are generally mild. In severe cases abscesses may form in different parts of the body and the animal becomes weak and emaciated and finally dies. Treatment — The disease will run a definite course and can not be abated. A comfortable stall, nourishing feed, and good care constitute the principal part of the treatment. When the abscesses mature they must be opened and the cavity washed out with some antiseptic solution. INFLUEXZA 339 Steaming the animal ■will modify the inflammation of the mucoiis membranes. If the abscesses are tardy in forming or the glands remain thickened, a blistering ointment (powdered cantharides 1 part, vaseline 8 parts) may be applied to the region. If necessary, bitter tonics may be admin- istered, or artificial Carlsbad salts given in the feed. We should avoid exposing susceptible animals to the disease. INFLUENZA {Pink-eye, CatarrliaZ Fever) EfFI-rrEXZA ES^ THE HORSE This is a well-kno'wn infectious disease of the hoi-se, and generally rages as an epidemic in certain years. One of the most serious ejiidemics in this country was in the early part of the 70's, when the disease received the name of "pink-eye." The last epidemic in this country was in 1900. The disease is present at all times in the horse centers of the country. Causes — The cause of the disease is a specific one, but the exact nature of the germ is not known. When an epidemic appears in a country it is first present, in the large cities, whence it is scattered to the outlying districts. The germs are present in the breath, nasal secretions, and the excreta. Close proximity to an affected animal is not necessary in spreading the disease, as it may be carried by the harness, blankets, etc., or by the air. The predisposing causes are cold, exposure, and changes in climate. The interval between exposure to the disease and its development is from four days to a week. Symptom s — At the beginning of the disease the temperature is high, the appetite is partially or entirely lost and the animal is greatly depressed. The horse holds his head down and acts sleepy. In different epidemics certain organs are more likely to be involved than others, so that the symptoms may differ. The respiratory mucous membranes are generally afEected by a catarrhal inflammation, the respirations are quickened, and the animal coughs. The submaxillary glands may become swollen and the influenza be complicated by a pneumonia, pleurisy, or bronchitis. The eyes are frequently afEected, the lids are swollen, hot, and painful and are kept closed. The secretions are at first watery, but may become purulent and the cornea and deeper tissues of the eye become inflamed. The digestive tract is commonly afEected, the animal yawns, the lining membrane of the mouth is hot and dry. At the beginning cohcky pains are sometimes present. The animal is sometimes constipated or may have a diarrhea. The legs and sheath usually become swollen or filled, this disappearing when the animal begins to improve. Complications frequently occur in influenza. The death rate is higher at the beginning of an epidemic than at the close. But a small proportion of the cases will prove fatal. TnEATiTEXT — When the disease is present in a locality we should avoid exposing susceptible animals to it. Horses that are bought in the market should be kept apart from the other horses for a week or two. When influenza is present in a stable the stalls, mangers, floors, and walls should be cleaned and disinfected. The treatment required for sick animals is largely good o40 IXFECTIOUS DISEASES nursing and care. A comfortable, clean, and well ventilated stall should be provided and ttie animal fed a laxative and easily digested diet. If the eyes are affected the stall must be darkened and the following lotion injected into the eye . Zinc sulphate (8 grains), boric acid (13 grains), and distilled water (3 ounces). In most cases this is all the treatment required. If the stable is cold the horse must be well blanketed and bandages I'oUed on the limbs as high as the knees. In the catarrhal form inhalation of steam is very beneficial. Stimulants are indicated when the animal is greatly depressed. We may be able, by careful nursing at the beginning, to shorten the course of the disease. Colicky symptoms can be treated with tincture of opium (from 3 to 4 drams in a little linseed oil every three or four hours). If the horse is constipated a cathartic of linseed oil (1 pint) can be given. Complications are common even in mild cases. IiyFLTJENZA IN CATTLE This disease resembles influenza in tlae horse and is apparently due to a specific cause. It generally occurs during the cold, changeable seasons and in cattle that are not provided with proper shelter. It usually afEects several cattle in the herd and in a considerable proportion of cases proves fatal. Symptoms — The respiratory passages are primarily affected. At the beginning the tem- perature is high, the animal is depressed and ceases to eat or ruminate. In milch cows there is a falling off in the milk. We may frequently hear the animal grinding its teeth. Complica- tions are common and if the disease continues for several weeks the animal becomes weak and emaciated. It may terminate fatally in a few days by becoming complicated with congestion of the brain. Treatment — Prevention is the principal treatment and consists in providing good quarters for the herd and isolating the sick animals. Inhalations of steam are useful in helping to allay the inflammation in the respiratory membranes. Mild liniments should be applied to the throat. The following mixture may be given : Tincture of aconite (i ounce), tincture of belladonna (4 ounces), and water (enough to make an 8-ounce mixture) ; half an ounce may be given three times a day. When the animal becomes weak, stimulants may be given. LOCKJAW ( Tetanus ) This is an infectious disease and is caused by a small club-shaped germ. This organism is very common in some localities and is present in the soil, dust, and stable litter. This disease occurs in all domestic animals excepting the dog, and is more common in warm than in cold countries. Caiise>S — The disease is due to the germs entering the body by way of a wound, generally a punctured -wound, as the conditions here are very favorable for its development. In some cases the wound is so small that it is not noticed and the symptoms may manifest themselves after the wound has healed. Infection may take place through some wound in the mucous membrane lining the digestive LOCKJAW, BLOOD POISONING 341 tract. It may follow a surgical operation. The period of incubation varies from a few days to a few weeks. Symptoms — The first symptom observed is a stiffness of the muscles. Those of the neck, back, and loins are afEected at first, and when pressed on with the fingers feel hard and rigid. In breathing the ribs show less movement than normal, the head is held higher than usual and the ears are stiff or pricked, the nostrils dilated, the lips rigid or drawn back, the eyes retracted, and the third eyelid protrudes over a portion of it. The tail is slightly elevated. In most cases the muscles of mastication and swallowing are involved and the animal is unable to open its mouth and swallows with difiBculty. It is usually very nervous and sensitive to noises. The gait is stiff and it stands with the limbs spread out so as to increase the base of support. Constipation usually occurs and the abdomen is tucked up. When the disease is about to terminate fatally the animal falls down, the pulse is quick and small, it breathes with difiiculty, sweats profusely, the body temperature may be elevated, it struggles and has spasms. The disease may take on a subacute form with the symptoms mild. When the diet is not looked after carefully colic may occur as a complication. When recovery begins the muscles gradually relax. The course of the disease will vary. In the acute form it may terminate fatally in from one to three days. In the subacute form it may last several weeks. In sheep the disease is very acute. Treatment — The preventive treatment consists in the careful disinfection of wounds, especially punctured wounds, and observing the proper antiseptic precautions in the various sur- gical operations. In coimtries where tetanus is a common disease as a result of wounds, tetanus antitoxine should be use(f as a preventive. The sick animal should have a comfortable box stall where it may be least annoyed by the noises about the stable. If the animal can eat, easily digested food should be given and but little roughage allowed. If the jaws are set, gruels can sometimes be given. A fresh pail of water must be left in the stall. We must avoid, so far as possible, annoying the animal with drenches. One may give bromide of potassium (1 dram every three or four hours), or chloral hydrate (3 drams every three hours) in the drinking water or feed. Fluid extract of gelsemium or cannabis indica may be given in half ounce doses three times a day. Hypodermic injections of a water solution of carbolic acid may also be used. Tetanus antitoxine is sometimes used as a curative agent. BliOOD POISONING (JPyamia and Sepiicmnia) In surgery, simple septicaemia and pyaemia are called blood poisoning. This is an infectious disease and may be due to several different kinds of organisms that gain entrance to the system by way of an extensive or badly cared for wound. The germs of pyaemia may, if conditions are favorable, give rise to abscesses in different parts of the body. In septicaemia the pathological symptoms may be due to the poisons elaborated by the germs. In most cases the two diseases exist together. Symptoms — The body temperature is high, the animal acts stupid and sleepy and does 23 342 INFECTIOUS DISEASES not eat. The pulse may be small and weak. Marked nervous disturbances may be present. The local lesions are extensive do\ighy swellings and the wound may slough considerably and have a characteristic disagreeable, sweetish odor. If the injury is on the extremities the animal is very lame. The blood is thin, coagulates imperfectly and changes in color. Toward the latter stage of the disease the swelling may disappear quite rapidly. Fatalities are much more frequent some years than others. Treatment — Preventive treatment consists in thoroughly cleansing and disinfecting all wounds and, if necessary (if the bottom of the wound is lower than its mouth), making an opening at the lowest point in order that the secretions from the cut surfaces may have an opportunity to escape. It is usually best not to close extensive lacerated wounds with sutures. Salicylate of soda or quinine may be given (in 1 or 2-dram doses) three times a day. Calomel may be given (in dram doses) once a day. BLACK LEG (Symptomatic Anthrax) This is a rapidly fatal, infections disease of young cattle, and is characterized by external swellings that give a crackling sound when pressed on with the fingers. The most common age at which young cattle are affected is around six months. Cattle are seldom afEected after they reach the age of four years. One attack confers immunity to the animal. Cause — Black leg is caused by a specific germ, rod-shaped and called a bacillus. It has the power of forming spores which enable it to withstand any ordinary condition, and therefore prolong the life of the germ. It is especially common on lowlands or in seasons that are warm and moist. When the disease once develops among the cattle grazing in a pasture it is apt to again develop in following years if the season is a favorable one. The germ enters the body by way of a wound in the skin or the mucous membrane of the mouth or intestines. The period of incubation for this disease is from one to five days. Symptoms — The disease runs a very short course and is attended by a very high mor- tality. The fever is high, there is a loss of appetite, the animal becomes stupid, and exhaustion rapidly follows. Swellings may develop on difiorent parts of the body. Their outline is very distinct and the swelling seldom goes below the knee or hock. The animal is lame in the affected quarter. At iirst these swellings are very sensitive, but become cold, insensitive, and gangrenous toward their centers, and when cut into are dark colored and contain gas. The blood is black, tarry, and slow to coagulate readily. Treatment — Medicinal treatment is of little benefit. Prevention is the only satisfactory treatment. In localities where the disease is common, the black leg vaccine should be used on all the younger animals each year. When this is practiced, the loss is insignificant. Dead animals should be burned, or buried so deeply with unslaked lime that there will be no chance of infec- tion from the cadaver. ANTHEAX 343 ANTHRAX {Charbon) This is an infectious disease that, no doubt, has existed for many centuries and. is Tory Avidely distributed. It may occur in any part of this country, but it is only in the southern section of the United States (lower Mississippi Valley) that it occurs from year to year. The disease is more apt to occur in sheep and cattle than in any of the other domestic animals. Cause — Anthrax is caused by a rod-shaped germ which in the presence of oxygen forms spores. It is called the Bacillus anfhracis, and sometimes several are arranged together so as to form chains. The germ itself is readily destroyed, but the spores are highly resistant to outside conditions. The organisms gain entrance to the body by the intestinal tract, the skin, and the lungs and air passages. The most common route is by way of the intestines, the animal becoming affected by eating forage grown on infected fields, the spores on the surface of the ground becoming attached to the grass or grain; if by way of the skin, the germ enters through a wound or bites of insects ; if by way of the lungs, it is due to the inhala- tion of dust containing spores. Man may become affected by handling the carcasses of animals that have died from this disease. Symptoms — This disease may take on several forms. In the apoplectic form the symp- toms are acute, and the animal, m a short time, dies in a convulsion, from cerebral apoplexy. There is generally a bloody discharge from the mouth, nose, and anus. This form is common among sheep and cattle. In the acute form the disease lasts somewhat longer. The animal has a high temperature, is restless, has convulsions, grinds the teeth, staggers, becomes insensible, and dies. The respirations may be accelerated and dilBcult, the heart palpitates, and the animal pants and groans. The mucous membranes of the head become dark colored, the animal has convul- sions and dies from suffocation. Bloody discharges may occur from the body openings. In the subacute form the course of the disease is longer and the symptoms are about the same as in the acute form, but more clearly marked. It may run an intermittent course and last from one to three days. The carbuncles or swellings of the skin that sometimes appear are at first hard and painful, but later become cold and painless. The diagnosis of the disease is based on the symptoms, autopsj', and bacteriological examination. The death rate is from 70 to 100 per cent. Treatment — It is not advisable to attempt curative treatment. Preventive treatment is important. As soon as the disease occurs in a herd all the animals should be vaccinated with the anthrax vaccine. We must avoid scattering the disease over pastures and roads by dragging the anthrax carcasses over them. They should be burned as near the spot where they died as possible. If buried there is a danger of the spores working to the top of the ground. The spot on which the animal lies must be thoroughly disinfected. 344 IXFECTIOUS DISEASES HYDKOPHOBIA {Rabies) This is one of the oldest known diseases. Erroneous opinions about the cause of the disease are held by some people, and by others it is not considered a specific disease. It does occur, however, and its true character should be better known. Dogs, cats, horses, cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs are the domestic animals chiefly affected, and man, when bitten by a rabid animal, generally a dog, may develop the disease. Causes — The specific cause of rabies is not yet known. The virus is con- tained in the brain, sj)inal cord, nerves, glands, and their secretions, and is trans- mitted by the bite of a rabid animal. The time that may elapse from the bite to the development of the disease varies in the different species of animals. It may vary from seven days to one year, but the usual time is from twenty to seventy days. Symptoms — Rabies occurs in two forms, tlie dumb and the furious. Tlie furious form is tlie more common. Tlie symptoms differ somewliat in the different species. In the dog the symptoms are divided into three stages: melancholy, rabid or violent, and para- lytic. The first stage lasts from twelve to forty -eight hours, the behavior of the animal is altered, it becomes swollen, irritable, and nervous. Sometimes it is quite friendly. It may have a tendency to gnaw or swallow indigestible objects. Frequently the bite seems to itch and it will bite and lick it, Slight difficulty in swallowing, labored respirations, fever and constipation are sometimes noticed. The second stage may last four days. The violent or rabid symptoms are manifested, and the dog will leave home and take long journeys. It may move quite rapidly and generally does not return home. It acts strangely and shows an inclination to bite, snapping at persons, animals, and imaginary objects, and biting sticks or anything held toward it. The bark is peculiar, the appetite is lost, and the patient very rapidly becomes emaciated. In the third, or paralytic stage the dog is usually greatly emaciated and disfigured. The lower jaw drops, the tongue is lolled, and the eyes are sunken and glassy. Paralysis of the hind parts may be present. Death takes place in a short time. In the dumb form the first two stages are absent and the paralytic one predominates. Death occurs in a few days, usually during a convulsion. Ill the horse the symptoms come on quite rapidly and the course of the disease is short. Some animals become aggressive, and lacerate and mutilate their bodies. They are nervous and look about as if attracted by strange sounds. The bite is often the seat of an intense itching. The efforts to bite and kick are well directed and the animal may at times try to drink or eat. The dumb form may occur in the horse. Cattle butt with the horns and sometimes show a tendency to bite. They bellow more than usual and the sexual desire is increased. They are not very aggressive. The course is longer than in the horse. Finally the paralytic symptoms manifest themselves and the animal frequently falls down and is unable to rise for a few minutes. Patient usually becomes greatly emaciated. HYDROPHOBIA, GLANDEES 345 Pigs are restless, squeal, dig up the litter, and exhibit a desire to bite. Other symptoms are about the same as those already given. The diagnosis is determined by the character of the symptoms shown by the affected animals and the inoculation of susceptible animals (rabbits, usually) with a portion of the spinal cord of the dead animal. The disease is incurable and the affected animals should be destroyed. When rabies appears in a neighborhood all the dogs in that section should be tied up until all danger is over. In the human patient the disease is amenable to the Pasteur system of treatment. Madstones are con- demned as worthless, in so far £is any curative effects are concerned, by all medical authorities. GliAIfDERS (Farcy) Glanders of the horse has been known since ancient time and has long been regarded as a contagious disease. It is present in all parts of the United States, but has grown less common within recent years. All solipeds are susceptible. Men, when exposed to infection, may contract the disease. Cause — The specific cause of glanders. Bacillus mallei, was not known until 188"2. The germs are present in the secretions from the nostrils and the ulcers that may be present on different parts of the body. These dischai'ges may become deposited upon the feed troughs, mangers, stalls, harness, buckets, watering troughs, and feed. It may be conveyed in this way to other animals or by direct contact. Frequently, however, the healthy animals escape infection for months. It is usually the diseased animal's mate or the one that stands in an adjoining stall that is first affected. Catarrhal diseases predispose horses to glanders, as the normal resistance of the mucous membranes is thereby in part overcome. The most common route by wliich the germs enter the body is by way of the respiratory tract. The germs may enter the body by inoculation through a wound in the skin, or through the digestive tract. Symptoms — There are two forms of the disease, the chronic and the acute. Acute glanders rapidly ends in death. The chronic form develops slowly, may last for years, and sometimes becomes acute. This is the more common type. The most frequent seat of the disease is in the respiratory organs, Ijonph glands, and skin. The early stage of the disease usually escapes notice. The first symptom is a nasal discharge of a dirt}--white color from one nostril or from both. This is usually small at first, and sometimes intermittent, but becomes quite abundant. The discharge is very sticky, and adheres to the hair and skin. Nodules and ulcers appear on the nasal mem- brane. These may be high up and escape observation. The ulcers are very characteristic, are angry looking, with ragged raised margins and, when they heal, leave a puckered scar. The sub- maxillary glands are enlarged and, at first, more or less hard and painful, but they become nodular and adhere to the jaw or skin. Nodules and ulcers, known as "farcy buds," may form on the 346 INFECTIOUS DISEASES skin, usually on the hind limbs and under part of the abdomen ; the lymphatic vessels are swollen and hard. The animal loses flesh rapidly, does not stand hard work, and the limbs usually swell. When the disease is acute, the animal has a fever, is stupid, does not eat, and may have a diarrhea. In this form the lymphatic glands suppurate, and the animal becomes emaciated. Mules usually have the acute form of the disease. In the chronic form it is sometimes difficult to diagnose the disease. The ulcers on the nasal mucous membrane and elsewhere are very characteristic and, when present, enable one to form a diagnosis. A bacteriological examination of the nasal discharge also may be made. Mallein, a product of the germ when grown artificially, is a help in diagnosing obscure cases. When injected beneath the skin of a suspected animal, it causes a rise in temperature and a hot, charac- teristic swelling at the point of injection. Treatment — Curative treatment is not to be recommended. The protective treatment is to stamp out the disease wherever found by killing all affected animals and disinfecting the stables, harness, or anything else that has been used around the affected animals. TUBERCULOSIS {Consumption) Tuberculosis is a very widespread disease and is of great concern to the stock- man. Cattle are by far the most susceptible to the disease. Pigs, sheep, and horses are only occasionally ailected. The disease exists in all parts of the United States, but is more common in the Eastern States than in any other section. In European countries and in Canada a larger proportion of the cattle are affected than in this country. Tuberculosis has been known to exist in cattle for centuries, laws restricting the use of the flesh of such animals for food having been included in the Jewish code. It was not until 1882 that Koch discovered the germ that causes the disease. Causes — The specific cause of the disease is the Bacillus iiiberculosis. Unsanitary conditions favor the spread of the disease in a herd, so that we would expect to find fewer animals afiieoted where these sanitary conditions are perfect or nearly so. Animals having a low resisting power are predisposed to it. This is noticed in the difEerent breeds of dairy cattle. Infection takes place by healthy animals herding or stabling with diseased ones, and frequently the disease is intro- duced by the purchase of a single diseased animal. The tubercle bacillus may enter the body by four different routes : By way of the respiratory tract, the diges- tive tract, or the genital passages and through a wound in the skin. The' most common modes of infection are by inhalation and taking the germs in with the food. The disease is frequently transmitted to the calves through the milk of tuberculous cows. In adults infection probably takes place by their licking each TUBEECULOSIS 347 other, by taking in the germs with the food and water, and by inhalation of dust containing the dried virus. In pigs infection is due to drinking the milk of tuber- culous cattle. Symptoms — Tuberculosis usually runs a chronic course lasting for years and frequently without visible symptoms. At other times it takes on the acute fonn, the symptoms are marked, and death may occur in a few months or weeks. The symptoms vary with the different organs that are afiected and the species of animal. In advanced pulmonary tuberculosis there is a short, dry cough, especially noticeable when the animal moves around, and when it drinks ; the respirations are quickened and the mouth is sometimes held partly open ; chronic indigestion may be manifested, the appetite decreases, the coat is rough, the eyes sunken, and the animal is weak and emaciated. By auscultating one gets no sounds over the solidified areas of lung tissue. If we hear a decided blow we suspect a cavity. Friction sounds are frequently heard. If the lym- phatic glands are afEected we may find enlargements under the throat and at various points under the skin. If the udder is afEected there is a gradual enlargement and hardening of the quarters, but this condition is not painful. Abscesses may form and discharge through the teats or break on the outside. If there is tuberculosis of the genital organs of the cow she will come in heat more frequently, will not become pregnant so readily, and in some instances will be sterile. Abortion may be common in a dairy herd having tuberculosis. There may be some nasal discharge in tuberculous cattle. In cold weather they may chill after drinking cold water ; in hot weather, when moved about, they may pant. Usually they become very thin, the neck becoming wedge- shaped and clean-cut and the space back of the shoulders depressed. Cattle frequently maintain a good appetite and stay in good flesh if well cared for. The extent to which the disease may progress without producing more profound symptoms Is astonishing. During the first stages, the disease can not be detected by a physical examination. Certain symptoms may be manifested, but they are like those seen in other diseases. In the latter stages of the disease we can express an opinion with some certainty. A physical diagnosis then must be based upon a number of definite symptoms and a general history of the disease. The most certain and only practical method of diagnosing is by the application of the tuber- culin test. Tuberculin is a product of .the tubercle bacillus and is obtained by growing the germ on bouillon. When this is injected into the tissue beneath the skin in tuberculous animals it causes a characteristic rise in temperature. I'uberculin is germ-free and can not produce tubereulosia. The post-mortem lesions are very characteristic. Scattered through the diseased tissues are the tubercles, which may vary in size from that of a mustard seed to that of a grape, and when cut into usually contain soft, yellow, cheesy matter. When several of these nodules are close together they may unite, break down and form abscesses. Sometimes the tubercles contain a gray pus, or if of long standing become infiltrated with lime salts and are gritty. Masses of tuberculous material weighing many pounds may be found in the lungs and liver of advanced cases. No tissue of the body is exempt from the disease. Suppression of Tuberculosis Among Cattle — In foreign countries, since the application of the tuberculin test, tuberculosis has been found to be more widespread than one would fonnerly have believed. In well kept herds it may appear as an innocent disease at first, but it is sure in the end to cause senous financial losses, as well as a continual menace to public health. The greatest 348 IXFECTIOIJS DISEASES loss falls on the farmer and stock raiser, but until these classes become educated to this fact they prusumably will continue to take no interest in the suppression of the disease. Sick or suspected animals should be isolated or slaughtered; stables should be disinfected and kept as sanitary as possible. The milk of diseased animals should not be fed unless it is boiled; only those cattle that have been proved by the tuberculin test to be free from tuberculosis should be retained on the farm. HOG CHOLERA AND SWINE PLAGUE Hog cholera is not an old disease in the sense of having been known and described for a long time, as have glanders and anthrax, nor is it a new disease, as outbreaks occurred as long ago as 1833-1840 in the Middle and Southern States. Swine plague was not recognized as a separate disease until about 1890. The total loss to the swine industry from the two diseases has been enormous. Causes — There is a specific germ for each disease. Hog cholera is caused by the bacillus of hog cholera, and swine plague by the bacillus of swine plague. The two germs difEer in size, shape, activity, method of growth, resistance to outside conditions, and their effect on the body. The hog cholera germ is larger, more active, and is better able to resist outside conditions than the swine plague germ. When a hog is inoculated with cholera germs the intestines are affected; if inocu- lated ivitU swine plague the lungs are affected. There are other difEerences one might mention, but these are sufficient to satisfy the general reader. Swine plague germs are widely distributed, but are not harmful unless their virulence is increased or the resistance of the animal diminished by certain conditions. The germ may become virulent, if conditions are favorable, spreading to other farms the same as the germ of hog cholera. This latter organism is not usually present and must be introduced from diseased herds. There are secondary or predisposing causes that are of great importance. Injudicious management and unsanitary conditions are factors of the same importance here as in some of the other infectious diseases. Among the agents which may carry the germs are streams, wind, birds, dogs, persons walking from one farm to another, buying hogs from infected cars, and exhibiting at fairs. The time that elapses between the infection of the herd and the appearance of the first symptoms of the disease varies from four to twenty days. In hog cholera the virus is taken into the system with the food, by inhaling it along with the air and dust, and sometimes through the surface of a fresh wound. The swine jolague virus is generally inhaled along with the air. Symptoms — Cholera assumes several different forms and, therefore, one is frequently unable to recognize any specific set of symptoms. In the acute form the course is rapid ; running HOG CHOLERA AND SWINE PLAGUE 349 from a few hours to two or three days ; in the subacute form the course is from three days to a weeli, and in the chronic form from a week to a month or longer. The symptoms as here described are for the more common cases, that live from three to seven days. About the first symptom to be observed is a general droopy condition; the eyes are more or less closed and dimmed, the ears drop more than usual, there is a certain amount of sluggishness, and, although the hog eats, it is not with the greediness that is customary. The appetite becomes depraved and the animal will eat clay, earthy substances, and the droppings from other hogs or from chickens. The hog lies about more than usual, hiding in fence corners, under litter, and in out-of-the-way places. If he should have access to a manure pile, that will be a favorite place. During the hot days he will prefer to lie in the scorching sun rather than in the shade. At first he will respond to calling for fsed, but later he will not get up unless urged to do so. During the progress of the disease and sometimes from the very beginning, there will be pronounced rheumatic symptoms. The hog will be lame first in one leg and then in another. The back will be arched. Diarrhea usually makes its appearance with the onset and is almost always present at some time during the course of the disease. The discharge at first is thinner than normal, but very rapidly becomes tarry and has a characteristic odor. Constipation may occur and is almost sure to be present in those animals that eat earth. Vomiting is also present. There is rapid emaciation. The fever is high and the breathing rapid, but not labored. In acute cases death occurs so suddenly that the symptoms may not be developed. In the chronic type, the ears and tail swell and crack, and sometimes drop oS. Ulcers and sores may form on various parts of the body. Portions of the skin may become dry and gangrenous, and crack, the hair dropping ofE. In swine plague the cough may be the first symptom. It is noticed when the pig first gets up or after exercise. The breathing is short and rapid, with a jerking of the flanks. It soon becomes more labored, the throat swells, and the nose may bleed. Pressure on the ribs causes pain. The eyes are inflamed and watery, and constipation maj' be present. Swine plague is particularly common among old hogs. The course is usually longer than in hog cholera. Both diseases may be present in the same animal. Diagnosis — The history of the outbreak will help in making a correct diagnosis. We may be able to differentiate between the two diseases, hog cholera and swine plague, by noting the symp- toms, and by making an autopsy. In nearly all cases of cholera the post-mortem lesions are so characteristic that one should be able to recognize the disease. Red blotches are seen on the skin. The spleen may be enlarged. The intestines show inflammatory changes. Ulcers varying in size from that of a millet seed to that of a dime are seen in the cEecum and other parts of the digestive tract. These ulcers are especially common in the region of the opening from the small intestine into the csecum (ileo-csecal valve), and are quite characteristic in appearance. The edges project above the surface of the membrane, the ulcer may be irregular in shape and is of a reddish, brownish, or yellowish color. Hemorrhagic spots may appear in the different organs. The lymph glands are hemorrhagic, red, or enlarged. Swine plague germs may cause red patches 350 IXFECTIOUS DISEASES also. The primaiy organs affected are the lungs and a bronchitis, pneumonia, or pleurisy may be present. In hog cholera the lungs are not usually affected. Tkeatmeht — The preventive treatment is to admit no hogs to the general herd that have been purchased from unknown sources, at sales, or from stockyards, or exhibited at fairs, without quarantining for twenty days. Keep the hogs in comparatively small pens, so that the disease may not be distributed over the whole farm. Separate the well from the sick and not the sick from the well. Give plenty of comfortable shelter and room to prevent crowding. Above all secure good well water, from a driven well, and allow no wallows. Give the hogs plenty of water to drink and withhold all feed for a few days to a week. They will not starve. When beginning feed again use only sloppy food, as bran and meal mashes. Allow only small quantities at a time. Avoid green corn or wheat. If the bowels are constipated use calomel to move them. "With these attentions to care and diet, as much can be accomplished as by elaborate medicinal treatment. All litter should be kept cleaned up, all carcasses promptly burned or bui'ied with quicklime in order to limit the duration of the infection. , It is to be hoped that some method of prevention and cure will soon be discovered, but in the meantime cleanliness is the essential. LUMPY JAW (AeUnomyeosis) This is an infectious disease and may affect cattle, horses, and swine. It is generally local in character, affecting the bones or soft parts of the head, but may involve other parts, as the lungs or intestinal tract. It is very widely distributed. Causes — Actinomycosis is produced by a vegetable organism of a somewhat higher order of life than the bacteria and called the ray-fungus. The germs grow in colonies and can be seen in the diseased tissues or the pus from an actinomycotic abscess as spherical bodies about the size of a grain of sand, yellow, white or dark in color. They are made up of a large number of filaments that branch out around a central portion like the spokes of a wheel. The fungns is found originally on plants and enters the body in various ways, supposedly, as a general thing, through an abrasion of the lining membrane of the mouth, or of the skin, through diseased teeth or ducts of glands, and by inhalation. Symptoms — The disease is characterized by tumors or abscesses, usually in the region of the jaw. The tumor may involve only the softer tissues, or affect the jawbone, causing enlarge- ment and later honey-combing, finally breaking down and discharging pus. When the tongue is affected it is swollen and painful, and prehension and mastication of the food are frequently impossible. When the larynx or phai-ynx is the seat of the disease, breathing and swallowing are difficult and painful. Actinomycosis of the lungs may present the appearance of a chronic affec- tion of those organs. Other internal organs may become affected, but these cases are rare. In generalized cases the usual course ie 3low emaciation and death, These tumors are quite common PARASITES OP THE HORSE AND MULE 351 in cattle, and one has little difficulty in diagnosing the disease. In doubtful cases a microBCopic examination of the pus or of a section of the tumor may be necessary. Treatmekt — When the tumor is small and external, it maybe dissected out or laid open and tincture of iodine or Lugol's solution injected into it. From one to two drams of iodide of potas- sium should be given internally in the feed or drinking water every day for two or three weeks. One should not be sparing in the use of the drug if improvement does not follow. This treatment is a specific and, unless the disease is general and the animal weak, will result in a cure. In the large abattoirs, unless the disease is generalized, the carcass is not condemned, only the affected part being rejected. PARASITES PARASITES OF SOLIPEDS IlSrTESTINAr, ■WORMS OF THE HORSE AIO) MTILE Intestinal worms are generally seen in young or weak and debilitated animals. Horses running in pasture are frequently affected by tbem. The following varieties may be found in the intestines of the horse: Large Round Worm {Ascaris viegalocej^Jiald) — This is a large round worm, yellowish white in color, and from 4 to 12 inches in length, sometimes much longer, and varying in thickness from that of a straw to that of a lead pencil. They are rigid-looking worms, tapering toward the ends; at the anterior extremity one can see three well-developed lips. They are common in the small intestines of the horse. Pin Worms {Oxynris curvula) — These parasites are slender worms trom 1 to 3 inches in length, and partly transparent or white in color. They are very common parasites of the horse, and are present in the posterior part of the intestinal tract. They are often seen projecting from the anus or fixed to its margins. Varieties of the flat or tape worms may be 'found in the intestines, but are not common. Other varieties of round worms may also be present. Symptoms ^TVhen large numbers of round or pin worms are present in the intestines they may give rise to certain symptoms, such as colicky pains, itching, unthrifty condition, constipation, diarrhea, and depraved appetite. In thrifty, well cared for animals they do but little harm. Pin worms in particular may cause some annoyance by their irritation to the walls of the rectum or anus. Tkeatseent — In poorly cared for, unthrifty animals better care and bitter tonics constitute part of the treatment. Injections of soapsuds will assist in removing the pin worms. EXTERIfAi PARASITES OF THE HORSE AND MTJLE Biting Lice {Tridwdectodes) — The biting louse is the most common external parasite of the horse. It is most troublesome during the winter, and in colts and 352 PARASITES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS horses that are roughing it or running out in pasture. In poorly cared for, unthrifty animals it may do considerable harm. Symptoms — Animals infested with this parasite have a very rough, ragged looking coat, and on the neck and around the base of the tail, or wherever the lice are abundant, the hair may be rubbed off in their attempts to rid themselves of the annoyance. Tkeatjient — It is very easy to rid an animal of lice. A thorough washing with a 3 per cent water solution of some of the coal tar products is generally sufficient. It is best, however, to repeat the bath in about a week. During the cold weather one must guard against the animal catching cold. The stalls and walls of the stable in which the animal is kept should be whitewashed or sprayed with an antiseptic wash in order to prevent infection. Sucking Louse (Hamatopinus) — This is not so common a louse as the preceding variety. Its principal seat is at the mane and near the base of the tail. It gives rise to very much the same symptoms as the biting louse. The treatment is the same as for the former variety. Mange in Horses, Texas Itch {Sarcoptic Scahies) — Mange is not a common disease of the horse and occurs principally on the range. Native horses may become infected with this parasite by coming in contact with animals brought from infected herds. Itch is due to a mite that burrows into the skin forming galleries in which it deposits its eggs. The disease exists in both the warm and cold weather. The itching is greatest at night. Symptoms — The principal symptom at first is an intense itching, to allay which the animal rubs himself against posts or the sides of the stall. Little papules appear on the skin, in small patches at first, but gradually spread ; crusts form at the base of the hairs and cause matting The hair finally drops out and large dry patches are formed, covered %vith debris and crusts. Sores may be seen on different parts of the body, due to the animal rubbing and scraping itself in trying to relieve the itching. One may find the mites in the crusts on the affected parts. Tbeatmbnt — Washing the infected animals with a strong solution of any of the coal tar products will destroy the parasites. About a 4 per cent watery solution is suiHcient. It is usually best to repeat the wash in about one or two weeks after the first application. We must take certain precautions against reinfecting the animals by washing the harness, stalls, mangers, and walls of the stable with an antiseptic wash. PARASITES OF CATTLE INTESTIXAL WORMS Cattle are seldom affected with intestinal parasites. Several varieties may be found, including varieties of tape and round worms. The large rouud worm, the ascaride, is found in calves. It is reddish white and from 5 to 10 inches in length. This parasite causes some irritation in the intestines and may give rise to symptoms of indigestion. PAEASITES OF CATTLE 353 Treatment — One teaspoonf ul of turpentine may be given in the milk for a few days. To large calves a tablespoonful may be given. Lung "Worms (Verminous Bronchitis) — Verminous bronchitis in calves is not uncommon. It is due to a small thread-like worm, Strongylus micrurus, from 1-J to 2 inches in length. This disease may exist as an enzootic in a drove of calves. Symptoms — If the parasites in the bronchial lubes are not present in large numbers the symptoms are mild and develop slowly. The cough is broken and husky and may come on in paroxysms, in one of which the animal may die. In coughing the animal may expel mucus con- taining worms. The animal presents a very unthrifty appearance, the appetite is impaired or lost, the eyes are sunken, and the animal is weak and may become greatly emaciated. The disease is most severe during the cold weather and usually runs a long course, the calf gradually becoming weaker, or it may finally become strong enough to throw off the disease. In poorly cared for animals the prognosis is unfavorable. Tbbatmbnt — Infection takes place by the calves running on infected pastures, especially during the spring and early summer. We must keep the diseased calves separate from the healthy ones and avoid turning the latter into infected stables or pastures. The luugs of animals dying from the disease must be destroyed and we should try to limit the infection to as few pastures as possible. The principal treatment for sick animals is summed up in good quarters, good care, and plenty of nourishing food. Bitter tonics may be given if necessary. EXTERNAL PARASITES OE CATTLE Long and Short Nosed. Cattle Lice — These are the two common varieties of lice found on cattle. By irritating the skin they impair the thriftiness of the animal, especially when poorly cared for. They are most noticeable in the winter. Tbeatmbht — Lice on cattle are hard to destroy, and if found must receive prompt and thorough treatment, which is the same as recommended for the horse. Ring Worm, Barn Itch — This is an affection of the skin caused by a vegetable parasite. Tinea tonsurans, and is a common skin affection among young cattle in the winter and spring. It is readily transmitted from one animal to another. Symptoms — Patches of the skin on the head and neck are most commonly affected. The skin is first slightly inflamed, vesicles may form, followed by the formation of scaly, brittle crusts. The affected areas are gray in color and denuded of hair. The part itches, and the animal is frequently seen scratching it. In a few months the affection may disappear without any treat- ment. Tbbatmbnt — The stables and sheds should be whitewashed or disinfected in order to destroy the spores scattered around by the crusts. The affected skin areas should be washed thoroughly and the scales removed. Sulphur ointment may then be rubbed on the part once a day. 354 PARASITES OF DOMESTIC AXIMALS PARASITES OF SHEEP PAKASITES IN THE STOJIACH AND INTESTINES Twisted Stoiiiacli Worms {Strongylus contortu^) — This is a very com- mon parasite of sheep, found in the fourth stomacli. It is a very small, thread-like worm about f inch in length, usually reddish in color and present in large numbers. This parasite is widely distributed and is especially common on. low., wet pastures and in wet years. Symptoms — The symptoms are first manifest in the lambs and it is not until early summer that they begin to show evidence of the disease. The animal acts dull and lags behind the flock' The ears di'op and the animal looks unthrifty. Later it is aflfected with scours, becomes badly emaciated and weak, stands with arched back, and walks with stiff gait. The skin is pale and dropsical swellings appear under the jaw or on the neck. The usual termination is death. Treatment — The sheep usually becomes infested with stomach worms by grazing on infected pastures. Permanent sheep pastures are common sources of infection The preventive treatment consists in changing pastures and destroying the parasites in the old sheep by administering a veraiicide. If this is practiced the number of lambs lost from this cause will be greatly lessened. One should begin the treatment early in the disease. The cause can be determined by destroying a sick lamb and examining it carefully. Various remedies are proposed. The most common drench is turpentine (1 ounce to 16 ounces of milk, the dose being 2 to 4 ounces, repeated once a day for three days). Better results have been obtained with the following recipe: Coal tar creo- sote (1 part), water (99 parts); the dose is from 2 to 4 ounces. It need not be repeated as in the turpentine treatment. In drenching, some advantage results from keeping the sheep in the standing position. Intestinal Parasites — Two forms of tape worm and several varieties of round worms are commonly found in sheep. These intestinal round worms gen- erally seem to cause but little harm, but no doubt they add to the unthriftiness of the animal when it is affected by the stomach worm. The tapeworms cause heavy losses in the Western States, but are seldom seen east of the Mississippi Eiver, except in animals shipped in from the West. Treatment — The treatment for the stomach worm is usually sufficient to drive them out. If a water solution of coal tar creosote is used, the effect on the intestinal worms will be greater if from 30 to 80 grains of thymol are added to each dose after it is measured out. Nodular Disease — Nodular disease of sheep is caused by a very small worm [(Esophago stoma columManum). In the larval stage it becomes lodged beneath the "lining membrane of the intestines in tumors varying in size from that of a millet seed to that of a hazel nut. It is one of the most common intestinal parasites of sheep. Symptoms — These are not characteristic. Usually the sheep are debilitated and have PAEASITES OF SHEEP 355 diarrhea, or the opposite condition, constipation, may be present. The disease is easily diagnosed by making a post-mortem examination. Small tumors are found in the mucous membrane of the intestines. The contents of the largest are cheesy in .character and of a greenish color. The affection is most noticeable in yearling sheep while on dry feed in the winter Treatment — The treatment is wholly preventive. It consists in avoiding, if possible, the pasturing of sheep on undrained and permanent pastures, and destroying the adult worms by administei'ing a vermifuge. As soon as possible put the sheep on rye or wheat pasture, or feed roots. The nodules will disappear the following spring and summer. EXTEENAI/ PARASITES OP SHEEP The Sheep Tick {Melopliagus ovina) — This is a very common external par- asite of sheep. It is about \ inch in length, of a reddish or gray brown color and easily detected if present in any number on sheep. Ticks, abundant on sheep, cause unthriftiness. Upon lambs the damage is greater, and if not relieved, may result in death. The immature form of the tick is seedlike and brown, and adheres to the wool or skin. Treatment — Ticks are easily destroyed by dipping. This should be done as soon after shearing as possible, as it is then that the ticks leave the old sheep and attack the lambs. Any of the coal tar preparations make effective dips, as this parasite is easily destroyed. Common Scab — This disease is caused by a small animal parasite, the itch- mite {Psoroptes cormnunis). These mites are small, almost white in color, and about the same size as the dot over the letter i. If scabs and wool from an infested sheep are placed upon a black surface and in the warm sunlight one may see the mites crawling about. The scab mites live on the exudations from the skin caused by their bites. The bite causes irritation and considerable exudation, which dries, forming crusts. The parasites live under the crusts and scabs thus formed. The female deposits her eggs on the surface of the skin, to which they readily stick. Each female lays from fifteen to twenty eggs, which become mature parasites in about a week. This period may be longer under unfavorable conditions. Symptoms — The first symptom noticed is the uneasiness of the animal. The presence of the mite causes an intense itching, which the sheep attempts to relieve by scratching, biting, and rubbing itself. The fleece soon becomes "taggy," owing to the loose locks of wool that have been pulled out of the affected areas on the back and sides of the sheep. If we examine the sur- face in these regions the infested spots are seen to be covered with little elevations that give the skin a whitish or yellowish appearance. These patches gradually increase in size, the wool drops out, and the skin becomes thickly covered with scales" and scabs. The mites soon abandon the center of the scabs, which gradually heal and the disease slowly progresses on the margins of the spots. When badly infested the sheep becomes weak and emaciated, and if much of the fleece is lost the animal is unable to withstand cold weather. 356 PAEASITES OF DOMESTIC AISTIMALS Treatment — The treatment is both preventive and curative. The preventive measures consist in guarding against infesting the flock by quarantining all newly purchased animals unless satisfied that they are free from scab. The curative treatment consists in using some good dip, allowing the sheep to stay in the bath a sufficient time for it to soak through the crusts and destroy the parasites, and again dipping in about ten days in order to kill those that have hatched from the eggs. The tobacco dips are to be preferred. After dipping, the sheep should be put into fresh quarters, and the old qiiarters cleaned and disinfected by spraying the floors and walls with the dip. The old quarters should not be used again for sheep for at least six weeks. PARASITES OF SWINE IlfTESTINAI. PARASITES Thorn-headed Worm {Echinorhynclms gigas) — This is a large worm, from 3 to 8 inches in length. Its body is cylindrical, wrinkled, curved, and about the thickness of a lead pencil. The anterior extremity is armed with a proboscis surrounded with several rows of hooks. It is by means of this proboscis that the parasite attaches itself to the walls of the intestines. Tlie home of this parasite is in the small intestines but it may migrate to other parts of the alimentary tract. Large Round Worm {Ascaris suilla) — This worm is from 3 to 5 inches in length, the body is white, smooth, and tapering toward the extremities. It is a very common parasite of swine and inhabits the small intestines. It may be found on other parts of the tract. Pin and Whip Worm.s {OEsophagostoma chntatum and Tricliocephalus cre- natus) — These parasites inhabit the large intestine, especially toward its anterior extremity. The pin worm is small, about + inch in length, white, straight, and pointed at both ends. The whip worm is very slender and hair-like at the anterior portion, posteriorly it is thicker. It is about l-j inches long and white in color. The habits of swine are such that they are predisjDosed to all forms of intestinal parasites. In pigs these parasites are more common than in older animals. In unthrifty pigs they are usually present in large numbers. From half a dozen to a dozen of the thorn-headed worms may be present in one animal. The round worms are usually present in larger numbers. Symptoms — Thorn-headed worms are said to cause loss of appetite, constipation, diarrhea, restlessness, emaciation, weakness of the loins, and in young pigs convulsions and death. The symptoms attributed to the round worm are depraved appetite, unthriftincss, and restlessness. When present in large numbers they may cause obstruction of the intestinal canal. Treatment — This is the same for all varieties of intestinal worms. One teaspoonful of turpentine per hundred pounds of body weight may be given in the milk. This may be repeated PARASITES OF SWINE 357 the following day. One teaspoonful of a mixture of equal parts of powdered wonn seed and areca nut maybe mixed with a little corn meal and fed to the animal. Santonine (5 grains) and calomel (2 grains) may be given in the swill or feed. This dose should be repeated. kidni:y ^voem IX swrjTE This worm is from f to 1-| inches m length, dark colored, and pointed at both ends. It is found principally in the tissues around the kidneys, but it may be found in other parts of the abdominal cavity. Swine breeders attribute a weak back or paralysis of the hind parts of swine to this parasite. Post-mortem exami- nations do not bear out this theory, as it is seldom found in animals in this condition. BEOXCHITTS IX ST^TTSi: The parasite causing this trouble is the Strongylus paradoxus. It is from f to 1\ inches long, very slender and whitish or brown in color. It is rather a common parasite in pigs. The female lays a number of eggs, which may be expelled by coughing and undergo a part of their deyelopment outside of the auimal body. The pig probably becomes infested by drinking surface water or rooting in the mud. Symptoms — The bronchial tubes may become more or less inflamed and the inflammation may extend to the lung tissue and cause small patches of pneumonia. In some cases a large portion of the lung tissue may become affected. The first symptom is a cough that may occur upon leav- ing the bed, after exercise, and after eating. In badly infected cases the paroxysms of coughing are quite severe, and the condition may be such as to be mistaken for swine plague. In most cases the pig is unthrifty, but is usually able to overcome the disease. Treatjtent — The treatment is preventive. The pigs should be removed from the infected pasture and should have pure water. Nourishing food and good care will help the pig to overcome the disease. EXTEEXAIi PARASITES OF SWIOT; Hog Louse {Rcematopinmis suis) — This is the largest member of the louse family. The favorite points of attack are along the lower part of the neck, under and behind the forelegs, and on the belly. The itching is often severe, especially in young hogs, and may cause urticaria. Treatitext — The louse is easily killed and at little expense. The method of treatment should depend on the number of hogs to be treated. Where the drove is small, the hogs can be driven into a pen and sprinkled or sprayed with a 2 per cent solution of some of the coal tar products or a little kerosene. If a large number are to be treated, crude petroleum, a cheaper material, can be used. If a dipping vat is used, an inch or two of the crude petroleum may be poured on the surface of the water and the pigs driven through it. The hog houses and pens must be cleaned or the hogs will become reinfested from them. 24 358 PARASITES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS BOT-FLIE8 The bot-fly is important because the larval form is a parasite in the different species of domestic animals. The bot-flies form a distinct family and are easily recognized both in the larval and adult stages. The body of the fly is heavy and usually hairy, the head large and the eyes j^rominent. During the warm, bright, sunny days they can be seen flying around the animfils and depositing their eggs or larvffi in places whence they c;in readily gain access to the proper part. The body of the larvEe is segmented, thick, and fleshy. It is found in various parts of the body of its host — in the digestive tract, under the skin, in the sinuses of the head, and sometimes on the su.rface of the brain. BOT-FLY OF THE HOESE This fly {GasiropJiihis equi) is about f inch in length, the body is hairy, and its general color brown, with black or yellowish spots. The female fly is the one gen- erally seen. It hovers near the horse and when ready to deposit its egg, it darts toward the animal and fastens the egg to the hair. These eggs are yellow and in horses running in pasture may be so plentiful that the entire part takes on a yel- lowish tinge. The eggs hatch in from two to four weeks. The hatching of the larvEe is aided by the animal licking the part. At the same time the larvae are transferred to the mouth and thence they jjass to the stomach. As soon as the larva reaches the stomach it fixes itself on the walls of that organ, remains there until late the following spring, and when fully developed loosens its hold and passes out with the excrement. The next stage, the pupa, lasts for several weeks and is passed in the ground ; then the pupa is transformed into the fly, ready to deposit its egg. Symptoms — Unless the "bots" are present in large numbers in the stomach, they cause no appreciable symptoms. It is only in old, unthrifty, poorly cared for horses or in colts running in the pasture that they are at all numerous. They cause injury to the horse by irritating the walls of the stomach and obstructing the free passage of food; by drifting along the intestines and becoming attached to the walls of the rectum, they may cause great irritation. The symptoms shown by the horse are those seen in indigestion. Irritation to the rectum is manifested in the usual way. Treatment — The treatment is principally preventive. This consists in destroying the eggs before the escape of the larvae by washing the infested parts with a 2 or 3 per cent water solution of carbolic acid, or rubbing the hair lightly with kerosene. Other methods by which the eggs can be destroyed are by clipping the hair from the part or scraping off the eggs with a, sharp knife. This should be done every two weeks during the time the fly is about. Remedies for the BOT-FLIES OP THE HORSE, OX, AND SHEEP 359 destruction of bots in the stomadi should be used with considerable care. Prevention is the most successful method of treating them. There are other species of the horse bot-fly, but the one just described is the common bot-fly of this country. BOT-PLX OF THE OX This species {Hypoderma lineata) is the common bot-fly of cattle in this country. It resembles a honey bee in appearance, is about -J- inch long, and its general color is black. A portion of the front part of the body is covered with long, whitish hairs, and the upper part of the head, the thorax, and a portion of the abdomen, together with the legs, are covered with brownish black hairs. The fly appears during the warm months of the year and deposits its eggs on the lower portions of the body and the extremities. The act of depositing the eggs causes a great deal of annoyance and sometimes terror to the cattle. Ifature of the Injury and Symptoms — On the large ranges, during the spring and summer months, these flies annoy and excite the cattle and interfere with their fattening. The annoyance from the larvee must be greater than that caused by the adult fly, as the former produce a great amount of inflammation in the surrounding tissues during their development within the animal's body. The larvse I'each the mouth in the same manner as in the horse, by the animal licking the part. It then penetrates through the walls of the anterior part of the alimentary tract, and wanders through the tissues of the body until finally it reaches a point beneath the skin of the back. Here it develops rapidly, and can be felt as a small tumor. Finally it works its way out through the hole that it has made in the skin, drops to the ground, and in from three to six weeks develops into the adult fly. Besides the damage caused by the annoyance to the animal, the loss every year in the hides amounts to a very large sum. Treatment — Some of the preventive measures recommended are not practical when applied to cattle in general, such as housing the cattle or applying substances to the surface of the body that will prevent the female from depositing the eggs. A better way is to destroy the grubs either by closing the opening in the skin through which they breathe with mercurial ointment or a little kerosene, or by pressing on the skin in such a way as to squeeze the "grub" out and destroy it. This may be done as early as January or as late as March. BOT-FLY OF THE SHEEP This fly {(Estrtis ovis) is greatly dreaded by sheep. It- resembles an overgrown house fly and has a brown appearance. It is quite lazy, flying about but little. Symptoms — The fly makes its appearance in June or July and deposits live larvse in ths nostrils of the sheep. The larva works up the nostrils and finally reaches the sinuses of the head. Here it attaches itself to the lining membrane until developed. It then passes down to the nostrils, drops to the ground, buries itself, and in forty or fifty days becomes a mature fly. During its stay in the sinuses of the head it causes great annoyance to the animal. A catarrhal inflammation of the membranes is generally present. Nervous symptoms may be manifested, the appetite lost, and the animal quite weak. Frequently the animals die. 360 WOUNDS OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS Treatment — The most practical method of treating this disease is by using preventive measures. First, by providing shade in the pastures, and, second, by tarring the noses of the sheep every few days during the summer months to prevent the fly from depositing the larvse. Valuable animals may be treated by trephining into the sinuses and so removing the grubs. WOUNDS CLASSIFICATION AND MODES OF HEALING Classes of Wounds — ^ Whenever any part of the body is injnred by a mechanical cause to such an extent as to cause the severing of the tissues it is called a wound. If the injury is of such a character as to cut the parts clean, as with a sharp knife, it is called a cut or incif>ed wcmncl. If the parts are severed but the edges of the wound more or less ragged or torn, as when cut with a barb wire, it is called a torn or lacerated wound. If the wound be produced by some pointed object, as a nail, sharp splinter or fork tine, the opening small and deep, it is known as a jnnictztred wound. If the object causing the injury is large and blunt and the tissues are injured but not torn, it is a bruise or contused wound. In the latter variety there may be no injury to the skin or even to the superficial tissues, but the contusion may be deep) seated, at a point where the tissues meet with the greatest resistance from the bone. Sometimes wounds are given special names, as gunshot or poisoned, but these only indicate the manner in which they were inflicted, or some special character. They may also receive a special name from the region involved, as open joint. For all practical purposes wounds may be considered as cut or incised, torn or lacerated, bruised or contused, and punctured. Method of Healing — ISTo matter how clean-cut a wound may be, there is always some destruction of tissue and the parts do not return to exactly the original place. In a clean-cut \vound this destruction of tissue is small and the tissues when brought together may unite at once. Healing under such conditions is said to be hj primary tinion. This form of union rarely occurs in the lower animals. Practically, it never occurs excepting after a surgical operation and then only when the greatest care has been used to secure cleanliness and the exact bringing together of the parts. u The common method of union is known as healing iy granulation. In this case nature throws out small granulations between the gaping edges of a wound or over MODES OP HEALING 361 its surface, and these granulations finally develop into the same kind of tissue as that from which they originated, grow together, and thus make the necessary repair. At times the weak granulations on the surface and the exudations thrown out may coagulate and a hard surface is formed known as a scab. Healing then takes place under the scab. Other methods of healing may occur, but practically all wounds heal by the methods just described. Where wounds heal by the first method, or primary union, there is no appre- ciable scar, for the reason that so little new tissue has been formed. "Where wounds Ileal by granulation there is a scar of greater or less magnitude, as the new tissue which replaces that destroyed is not the same in character as the original. The rapidity with which wounds heal will depend upon the kind of tissue injured, the amount to be replaced, the degree of motion in the part, the infection and irritation, and the general condition of the animal. In general, skin and muscles heal rapidly, tendons often quite slowly, cartilage poorly, and nerve tissue very slowly. Healing is interfered with by motion. The more nearly absolute rest the better the result. Healing by primary union is seen only when no pus is present ; the more pus, the slower the healing process. Irritation by biting, lick- ing, bandages, or dirt retards rapid union. Finally, an animal in poor condition physically, or one kept under unfavorable conditions, can not make a rapid recovery . from an injury. Treatment — Wounds in domestic animals may heal without attention. It is fortunate that such is the case, but this does not make it less desirable that one administer proper treatment and thus decrease the chance of a bad result or lessened value of the animal. The time to begin treatment is as soon after the accident as possible, but the method of treatment will vary accord- ing to the character of the wound. If there is serious Jiemorrhage, the first step in the treatment is to check it. Serious bleeding ordinarily does not occur, owing to the fact that the ends of the vessels are so injured that a clot quickly forms. Stockmen often become alarmed, without sufficient reason, when an animal is cut. It requires the loss of a very considerable quantity of blood in the larger animals to consti- tute a serious hemorrhage. For bleeding from small blood-vessels, the wound may be bathed with hot water (from 115° to 120° Pahr.) Cold water may be used in the same manner, but is not so useful as when hot. The better method of stopping a hemorrhage is by the compress bandage, wherever it can be applied. A good one can be made by cutting cheese-cloth into strips about 4 or 5 inches wide and 20 feet long. A pack of jute or oakum should be applied directly to the surface of the wound and the bandage applied over this. It may be necessary, where the bleeding is from a good-sized vein or artery, to bandage the part heavily, allowing the bandage to extend some distance above and below the injury. Physicians and veterinarians have forceps, needles, and thread for the purpose of checking hemorrhage from medium-sized and large-sized vessels, but they are not always available. Other methods that can be used are the actual cautery 362 WOUXDS OF DOMESTIC AXIMALS and medicines which, when applied to a cut surface, constrict the vessels. What should be avoided in all cases is the use of road dust, puff-balls, cobwebs, and dirty rags. These all contain germs which may infect the wound, retarding healing and even causing blood poisoning. It is well for every stockman to prepare for accidents of this kind and keep on hand some clean, soft material that can be torn into bandages when needed. The cleansing of the wound is an important step in the treatment. Pure boiled water is to be preferred for this purpose. The hair should be clipped along the margins of the wound, the detached or torn shreds of skin or tissue cut off, and the wound cleansed with a 3 per cent water solution of carbolic acid, creolin, or any of the other antiseptics or disinfectants. If necessary, the parts around the injury should be washed with soap and water, and if we suspect the presence of a foreign body (splinters, etc. ) they should be looked for and removed. If the secretions that after- ward form do not drain off properly, but pocket on the inside of the wound, an incision in the tissues should be made, lower down if possible, and proper drainage secured. A wound having a deep non-draining pocket on the inside may permit the escape of pus along the muscular sheath and cause extensive suppuration or death. In domestic animals healing is impeded by a bandage, and it is better to leave the wound uncovered. If a bandage is used it must be changed twice a day, a clean one being used each time, and the wound dressed. Deep and gaping wounds may be drawn together with stitches or sutures. In clean-cut wounds, parallel to the muscular fibers, this is indicated. In lacerated wounds, if the direction is across the muscular fibers, or if one can not control the motion in the part, stitches are apt to tear out and may do far more harm than good. Ill the after treatment of the toound we must resort to agents that will destroy or retard the growth of the germs and at the same time not irritate the tissues. There are any number of such agents, but the two liquid disinfectants that are most satisfactory for general use are carbolic acid and creolin. Crude preparations resembling creolin are sold as sheep dips and are quite cheap. In general the strength of the wash for wounds should be 2 parts of the disinfectant to 98 parts water. The best dry antiseptic dressings are boric acid, calomel, and acetanilid. Equal parts by weight of boric acid and calomel makes a good dressing. The best means of applying powders to the surface of a wound is with a small insect-powder blower. In dressing the wound we should first wash it with the antiseptic wash, taking care not to injure the granulations, and remove all the pus and foreign matter that may have collected on its surface. A syringe or small piece of cotton may be used in applying the wash. A fresh piece of cotton should be used each time the wound is dressed. After cleansing it, the dry dressing may be applied. The length of time that may elapse between the dressings will depend on the condition of the wound. At first it may be necessary to treat it once or twice a day. Later, when healing begins, it will require less attention. If the hair and skin around the wound become soiled with the discharge, it should be washed off with soap and water and vaseline rubbed on the part. When a scab forms and no pus is discharged, cease dressing it. Sometirries, as soon as healing begins, the animal will lick and bite the part. If this is the case the horse must be confined in such a way that he can not get at the wound. In poorly cared for wounds granulations may pile up and form immense, hard, easily bleeding tumors. The whole limb may swell and become two or three times the natural size. Excessive or HAETfESS INJURIES 363 unhealthy granulations must be kept in check from the very beginning, as later they are difBcult to control. Pure carbolic acid applied with a small swab is sufficient to destroy them if not too advanced. A good wash for a wound that is not granulating as it should, is zinc sulphate and lead acetate ^l ounce of each) in water (1 quart). In some cases it is necessary to cut off the granulations with a sharp knife, down to a level with the surrounding skin. A red hot iron may also be used. The general treatment of punctured wounds does not difEer from that of other wounds. The opening should be enlarged and the proper drainage secured. It is impossible to judge the extent or the probable consequence of this kind of injury. We must examine the wound carefully for foreign bodies and if present remove them. Punctured wounds most often occur in the foot. The tissues here are hard, yielding but little to swelling, and the pain is severe. The opening of such wounds should be enlarged, taking care not to remove too much of the horn, and washed once or twice a day with an antiseptic wash. This will insure the proper cleansing and drainage and thus tend to a speedy repair and greatly diminish the dangers of tetanus and blood poisoning. Wounds of the joints are always serious and are usually punctured. At the earliest possible moment the wound should be cleansed and a blister applied at once to cause swelling and thus check the escape of the synovia. If the joint becomes infected, inflammation will follow, the part becomes badly swollen, the pain is severe and the articulation may be destroyed. It is very neces- sary that the part should be kept quiet even if a cast or splint needs to be applied. The swelling that may occur sometimes remains for months. It may be reduced and sometimes driven away by the frequent application of blisters. HARNESS INJURIES Causes — In horses not accustomed to heavy work the skin over the parts having to bear most of the weight is tender and easily irritated. The colt suffers worst. A large proportion of the injuries are due to ill-fitting harness. A harness, when not adjusted properly, may distribute the load unevenly, thereby injuring the parts on which the most of the weight is thrown. If the surface of the leather coming in contact with the skin becomes covered with sweat and dirt, making it rough and hard, it will act as an irritant to the part. The character of the work, too, is a factor; heavy work over rough ground, or fast work, especially if the animal goes about it awkwardly, is likely to cause sprains and bruises. SORB iraCKS ANT> GALLnSTG These are the simplest forms of injuries and are quite common on the farm when the rush of work begins in the spring. When horses are not hardened into work, we must keep in mind the fact that the skin on the shoulders and back is tender and easily inflamed. Especially is this true of the colt, but the older animals are not exempt from it and preventive measures should be used until the animal becomes s^cjcustomed to the work. The harness for each animal should be properly 364 IXJURIES OF DOMESTIC AXDIALS adjusted, cleaned, and oiled. One set should not be made to serve for several dif- ferent horses, and especially is this true of the collars. Galling may be prevented to a certain extent by stopping and lifting the collar or saddle every hour or oftener and rubbing the skin with the hand. Bathing the skin every noon and evening will also do mnch toward preventing galling. If the animal is cared for in this manner until the skin becomes hardened to the work, it will keep in better condi- tion and be able to do more work throughout the season. A green horse should not be worked steadily or made to do heavy work at first. Treatment — Zinc and smooth leather pads will not only prevent but often cure sore necks or saddle galls. Felt pads arc useful, but should always be made dry and soft before putting them on in the morning. Sometimes a pad may be so adjusted as not to rest on the sore spot. Such adjustment should be made with care and judgment, lest the misfit cause strain or undue pres- sure on some muscle. Bathing the inflamed skin with the following lotion will harden it and reduce the inflammation ; Lead acetate (4 ounces), zinc sulphate (3 ounces), water (1 gallon) ; the parts should be well sponged with this lotion on coming in from work at noon and in the evening. If sores are present the following preparations are useful : Tannic acid (1 ounce), carbolic acid (1 dram), glycerine (4 ounces) ; mix well and apply to the sore once a day ; or, calomel (4 drams), boric acid (4 ounces), tannic acid (1 ounce), mix and dust on the part once or twice a day. "SIT-PASTS" A sit-fast is generally due to wearing a collar that is too short and too tight at the top. Too much weight on top of the neck may cause it. Tkbatment — The treatment consists in removing the cause and cutting out the sit-fast. If this is not done the neck may continue sore and the horse will sometimes become disagreeable to handle. To encourage the separation of the sit-fast or ' ' core " from the healthy tissue and to reduce the inflammation, a hot flaxseed poultice should be applied to the top of the neck. It is well to renew the poultice every three or four hours during the day by dipping it in hot water. In a day or two the sit-fast can be removed. The after treatment is to keep the part clean and use dry dressing. ABSCESSES Abscesses on the shoulder are due to an unequal distribution of weight by the collars, the parts becoming bruised and the abscesses developing as a result. Treatment — Abscesses must be promptly opened and the contents allowed to escape. The opening must be large — at the lowest part and well to one side, so that the collar will not rest on the small scar that will result. The abscess should be washed out every day with an antiseptic wash, until healing begins, and after that at less frequent intervals. The opening should not be permitted to close until the abscess has filled in from the bottom. The animal should not be worked, at least not in a collar until the healing is complete. A breast harness may be used temporarily and the horse made to do light work. SPRAINS 365 TUMORS Tumors of the skin and muscles of the shoulders are caused in the same manner as the abscesses and sometimes result from abscesses that are not cared for properly. Tumors should be dissected out and the resulting wound treated in an antiseptic manner. SPRAINS Sprains are common in horses doing heavy work. Green horses, when made to do heavy work over rough ground soon become tired, pull awkwardly, and are very liable to a strain. When an animal has a sore shoulder, he may pull sidewise to avoid pressure on the part; thus, the weight will be distributed unevenly, and a sprain will often result. Unequal distribution of weight from an ill-fitting harness may also cause it. Sprains of the shoulder are frequently serious. The animal may not be very lame, but the muscles of the shoulder become atrophied, or "sweenied," in the more common expression. Tkbatment — Sometimes tbe animal is lame as well as "sweenied." In this case it should be placed in a warm stall as long as the lameness continues. In bad cases it is best not to take the animal out for any purpose, but to carry all water and feed to him. Sometimes it is good policy to tie the animal so that he can not lie down in the stall, as the getting up and down may be such an effort as to retard recovery. Nervous animals do better when turned out in a yard or in a small pasture by themselves, SHOULDER SLIP This is nothing more than a sprain of the shoulder muscles and should be treated in the same way. Tkbatment — The following liniment should be used : Oil of turpentine, aqua ammonia, and linseed oil (equal parts) ; or, spirits of camphor (10 parts), oil of turpentine (3 parts) ; apply to the part once a day. The latter liniment is a mild one, and considerable friction should be used in applying it. To help fill out atrophied muscles and treat a sprain of long standing, a blistering ointment (1 part powdered cantharides to 8 parts vaseline) should be used. SPRAINS OP TENDONS AND JOINTS These are treated in about the same manner as sprains of muscular tissue. Eepair does not take place so rapidly, however, and sometimes will require very careful treatment. Treatment — Rest is essential. When in a region where a plaster cast can be applied, great benefit is derived from it. Other lines of treatment are hot and cold applications. These should be used until the inflammatory st&ge is passed, and then counter irritation from a blister or the firing iron can be applied, 366 DISEASES OF THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS CHOKING Foreign bodies in the pharynx or oesophagus of animals may be due to penetra- tion of the mucous membrane by sharp objects swallowed, to the attempt to swallow objects too large to pass down, or to foreign bodies becoming crossed in the gullet. If the animal eats greedily and swallows the food hastily it may choke. Sometimes choking results from a paralysis of a portion of the gullet or a constriction in its walls that will not allow the food to pass along the canal. Frequently a dilation or sac-like distention occurs just in front of the constriction. Symptoms — The animal stops feeding, may cough and salivate, and has an anxious look. If the choke is complete it is unable to drink water, and if it tries, the water will be discharged from the nostrils. The respirations may he hurried and diflScult. In ruminants bloating may occur. Foreign bodies in the neck portion of the gullet may be detected with the hand, by pressing on the part. In cattle death may take place in a few heurs. In horses the symptoms usually develop more slowly. When the choke is incomplete the symptoms may not be marked. Treatment — Foreign bodies in the upper part of the gullet and in the pharynx in cattle can be removed with the hand. In the larger domestic animals one may be able to gradually force the body back into the mouth by pressure with the hands just below the object. Mucilaginous drinks, as flaxseed tea, oil, etc. , may be given. These may prove a source of danger, however, by passing into the air passages, causing a pneumonia. In most cases it will be necessary to resort to the probang. This instrument is for the purpose of pushing the obstruction on down the oesophagus and into the stomach. The probang is easily passed in the ox, but in the horse the operation is more difficult and will require the assistance of the veterinarian. Broomsticks, rakes, or fork handles should never be substituted for the probang. The injury to the parts as a result of their use will often prove fatal. As a substitute for a probang in cattle a piece of ordinary garden hose, well oiled, may be used. The head should be well extended on the neck and held as quiet as possible. In cattle it may be necessary to puncture the rumen with the trocar and cannula and remove the gas. DISEASES OF THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS INFLAMMATION OP THE WOMB (Metritis) Causes — This may be caused from injuries to the womb at the time of par- turition, dirty instruments or hands used in assisting in delivery, and from reten- tion of the foetal membranes. Unless antiseptics are used, this complication is of frequent occurrence in difficult cases of parturition. Symptoms — The inflammation will vary in intensity, depending upon its extent. If all the coats including the peritoneum are involved the symptoms are quite severe. The temperature t)ecome§ elevated, pulse small and quick and the respirations hurried and shallow. The pain is VAGINITIS, STERILITY 367 often severe, the animal grinding the teeth and showing evidence of colicky pains. Constipation is present at first, but gives way to diarrhea. There is abundant foul smelling discharge from the vulva The larger animals remain standing but finally become weak and lie down. Death usually occurs in from two to six days in fatal cases. It may terminate in a chronic inflamma- tion {leucorrhea). Prevention — The prevention consists in using the utmost care in securing cleanliness in all obstetrical operations. In difficult birth and in all cases where it is necessary to remove a dead fcetus or membranes, the womb should be washed out with an antiseptic solution (creolin 2 parts and boiled water 98 parts). The same antiseptic wash twice a day should be used in any case of inflammation of the womb. The following may be given to reduce the fever: Acetanilid (3 ounces) and quinine sulphate (1 ounce); mix and divide into eight powders. Give one powder every three or four hours. If the animal is constipated a cathartic may be given. Tonics and good food must be allowed until recover}"- takes place. INFLAMMATION OF THE VAGINA Causes — Vaginitis generally accompanies inflammation of the womb. It may follow difficult parturition, owing to injury of the parts by manipulation with the hands or instruments. Symptoms — When the vagina alone is inflamed the symptoms are not well marked. The parts are redder than normal, more or less swollen, and when the animal passes water there is evidence of pain. Ulceration and sloughing sometimes follow. The general symptoms are simi- lar to those of metritis. In mild cases recovery takes place without treatment. It may become chronic and a discharge be kept up continuously. Treatment — The treatment consists in washing the parts with an antiseptic solution, the same as used in inflammation of the womb. STERILITY Causes — ^ Sterility may be temporary or permanent, and may be due to either the male or female. In the male it may be a functional trouble due to some con- dition that prevents copulation, or to an absence of spermatozoa. In the female it may be due to obstruction at the os uteri or neck of the womb, to failure to ovulate, or to a chronic diseased condition of the uterus, causing secretions that destroy the vitality of the male element. Other causes in both are abuse of the generative organs, bad hygiene, insufficient exercise, and overfeeding. Hybrids are nearly always sterile. Treatment — The treatment will depend upon the cause. If due to unhygienic conditions or to overfattening, as is often the case with show stock, these should be corrected. All animals should have a reasonable amount of exercise, but should not be overworked. The male should not be permitted to copulate too frequently. If the trouble be due to obstruction at the mouth of the womb, this should be dilated. This operation is usually not very difficult. The intro- 368 DISEASES OP THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS duction of the oiled hand will nearly always suffice. Occasionally surgical means are necessary. If there is chronic disease, this must be treated as already indicated for inflammation of the womb. Stimulating drugs are of less service than is usually attributed to them. LEUCORKHEA This is a chronic inflammation of the mucons membrane of the vagina or womb, and associated with a whitish discharge. Symptoms — The discharge may be white, glutinous, and odorless, or it may be chocolate colored and foul smelling. The tail and hind parts are usually soiled with it. The discharge may be continuous or intermittent. In mild cases the health is not impaired, but the animal is usually barren, or if it does become impregnated is quite likely to abort. Loss of appetite and unthrifti- ness occur in severe cases. Treatment — The disease, if not of too long standing, will yield to treatment quite readily. The use of the following wash is advisable ■ Permanganate of potash (3 parts) and boiled water (98 parts). Inject twice a day and keep up the treatment for several weeks or until the secretions become normal. The 2 per cent creolin solution will answer very well. CONGESTIOlSr AND INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER Congestion of tlie udder is more common in the cow than in any of the other domestic animals. The most common cause is incomplete milking or milking at irregular times. It may be due to obstruction of the milk duct. Other causes are injuries, as from running or being stepped upon by the stable mate ; infection from germs ; and cold. Congestion may lead to active inflammation. Symptoms — The udder is swollen, tense, and hard This may be limited to one-quarter or a half, or may involve the whole gland. The secretion is diminished and may be streaked with blood. At times it may be lumpy or coagulated. This condition will pass away in a short time or may go on to inflammation, the symptoms becoming more intense. The udder becomes swollen, hard, and painful. The milk from the affected quarters is changed. The general symptoms are loss of appetite, dullness, increase in temperature, and rapid pulse. The udder is hard and pits on pressure. Recovery takes place very quickly in the mild form, but in the severe cases abscesses sometimes form and a portion of the gland is destroyed. Treatment — Milk out the gland at frequent intervals. Apply a camphorated ointment over the afEected part twice a day, and in mild cases this will be all that is necessary. In the more severe cases hot applications to the udder for several hours, or until the inflammation has sub- sided, will be found the best treatment. If the milk becomes mixed with pus it is advisable to wash out the udder with a weak solution of creolin, using a milking tube to which is attached a syringe, or a few feet of rubber tubing carrying a funnel ^t one end. If abscesses form they must be opened and drained the same as in any other part of the body. The following mixture is very good in relieving a sore, hardened condition: Vaseline (4 ounces), camphorated ointment (2 ounces), extract of belladonna (1 ounce); mix and rub on the gland for about five minutes daily. MILK FEVEK, KETENTION OF THE PLACENTA 369 Another preparation i8 linseed oil (4 ounces) and spirits of- turpentine (4 ounces) rubbed on in the same manner. SORE TEATS, SCABBY TEATS Causes — Any irritation of the teats will cause them to become sore and scabby. During cold weather the wetting of the teat in milking is a common cause. Filth also may cause it. Tkeatmbnt — An ointment of vaseline (10 parts) and acetate of lead (1 part), rubbed on the sores after milking, -will give good results. One or two drams acetate of lead to a pint of water also will answer. MILK FEVER {Parturient Paresis) This affection occurs in the cow^ especially in heavy milkers in good condition. It occurs most often after the third, fourth, and fifth calving. There are many theories to account for the disease, the latest being that it is a form of self-poison- ing as a result of unusual work thrown on the milk-secreting cells. Symptoms — This affection generally sets in between six hours and three days after calv- ing. The cow stops eating or ruminating, becomes uneasy, switches the tail, stamps the feet, and sometimes strikes the abdomen with the feet. There is more or less trembling at first and finally the animal will go down. Attempts will be made to rise, and at first with partial success. The paralytic symptoms become more prominent, the animal becomes stupid, throws the head from side to side in a half conscious manner, and finally draws the head up to one flank and remains unconscious. There is no movement of the bowels or from the bladder. The temper- ature is not increased, or only slightly. In the natural course the animal may make a sudden recovery after a few days or may linger along for five days or a week and die. The cases occur- ring shortly after calving are more unfavorable than those occurring the second or third day. Tkeatment — The treatment is much more successful now than formerly. The udder must be emptied and washed clean. A dram of iodide of potassium is dissolved in a quart of boiled water, and by means of a milking tube and a piece of rubber tubing and funnel it is introduced into each of the four quarters of the udder. The urine should be drawn with a catheter. Along with this treatment we may administer tincture of nux vomica (about 2 drams) three times a day. No attempt should be made to give large drenches. In emergency the udder may be injected with sterile water alone. If improvement is not noticed within twelve hours the operation should be repeated. Unless the udder and teats be carefully washed, the milking tube clean, and the water boiled, the udder may become inflamed. RETENTION OF AFTERBIRTH OR FCETAL MEMBRANES This accident is more common in the cow than in any of the other domestic animals. In ruminants the membranes are firmly attached to the walls of the uterus by a large number of cotyledons. In the mare the attachment is uniform and not nearly so firm, so that it comes away shortly after birth. Eetention is 370 DISEASES OE THE EEPEODUCTIVE OEGANS most frequent after abortion, especially after contagious abortion. Abnormal adhesions between the maternal and festal membranes may occur, or occasionally a lack of sufficient expulsive energy may cause its retention. Symptoms — The symptoms are so marked that a mistaken diagnosis is seldom made. Usually more or less of the membranes hang from the vulva, the tail and hind parts are more or less soiled, and decomposition begins early, causing an offensive characteristic odor. If only a portion of the membranes have been retained, decomposition vfHI begin in a few days and a shreddy discharge will occur. In many cases the membranes will all be discharged in about a week, and but little harm will result. In the more serious cases there is loss of appetite, with weakness, and the animal is generally sick. When retention occtu's in the mare the condition is more serious than when it occurs in the cow. Treatment — The most successful method of removing the afterbirth is with the hands. The objection to other methods is that they are too slow, that a part may be left behind and give rise to trouble. One should not wait longer than one or two days in the cow, and in the mare but a short time after birth before removing the membranes, as the mouth of the womb may contract and imprison them. The operator should take special precautions to thoroughly wash off the parts with antiseptics (as a solution of creolin) and to use plenty of antiseptics and oil on the hand and arm. Loosen and remove the membranes with as little manipulation as possible, and work quickly. After the membranes are removed the uterus should be well washed out with a 3 per cent watery solution of creolin. The operator must learn by experience not to mistake the large cotyledons on the walls of the uterus for a part of tfie afterbirth. PROLAPSUS OF THE VAGINA This accident occurs in pregnant animals, especially cows, toward the latter part of pregnancy or after parturition. The exciting cause is usually standing or lying in stalls that are lower behind than in front. Pasturing on hilly ground may also have the same effect. The tissue connecting the walls of the vagina with the walls of the pelvis may be lax and the heavy uterus, pressing back, displaces the vagina. Pro- lapse of the uterus may also occur after a difficult parturition. Symptoms — In slight cases the prolapsus occurs only when the animal lies down. At first it appears as a small, round tumor the size of an egg within the lips of the vulva, and afterward may become the size of the fist. At first the parts do not protrude outside the vulva, but as the ligaments relax more and more the protrusion becomes greater. When the animal rises the parts return to the normal. In aggravated cases they do not return, but gradually protrude more and more, become irritated, and the surface denuded. Voiding the urine is interfered with and if the condition has been present for many hours the bladder will be greatly distended. This is an acci- dent that is likely to recur after apparent recovery. Treatment — The first essential in preventing this accident is to have level floors for the cows and shallow gutters to receive the manure. Replacement treatment should follow the accident as early as possible. Draw the urine with a catheter and replace the protruding part by careful, ABORTION" 371 direct pressure. If the case is of moderate degree, tie the animal in a narrow stall and place suffi- cient litter under the hind feet to raise her at least six inches above the forefeet. Keeping the animal in such a stable for a few days may suffice. In animals that strain badly it is advisable to place several strong deep sutures in the skin on each side of the vulva and across it after the vagina has been replaced. A cord tied tightly around the body just in front of the udder will tend to prevent straining. ABORTION When pi'egnancy is terminated by an early delivery, so that the young is unable to live, it is termed an abortion. If delivery occurs at too early a date, but the young is alive and can live, it is called a miscarriage. Causes — Abortion may be due to improper methods of handling or feeding, to too severe work, to accidents, and to acute and general diseases. Some females seem to have a predisposition to abort. There is also a form of abortion that is infectious or contagious and due to a specific germ. When introduced into a herd it usually causes a large proportion to abort, and it requires considerable time to stamp it out. Mares are also subject to an infectious form of abortion. Symptoms — The symptoms of abortion vary and depend upon the period at which the accident occurs as well as on the cause. If occurring in the later period of pregnancy and caused by an accident, the symptoms are well marked; if due to contagion or occurring in the early period of gestation, there may be little to indicate that anything is amiss. When due to contagion abor- tion nearly always takes place between the third and the seventh month, in the cow, and from the. fourth to the ninth month in the mare. In the contagious form the act is usually easy, the foetus slipping away with so little evidence of labor that the cow often pays no attention to it. If the membranes do not come away with the foetus they soon disintegrate and are discharged a little at a time, keeping the hind parts soiled. If the accident occurs on pasture, the recurrence of heat may be the first intimation of its occurrence. After abortion from contagion the cow may have an unnatural rutting of a very exciting or violent character. Abortion due to accident is nearly always accompanied by more or less labor pain, as the parts are unprepared and rigid. The animal gives evidence of sickness. The foetal membranes are more often retained until they pass away as a discharge. Leucorrhea is a common complication. Treatment— The prevention consists in not exposing animals to conditions that will cause abortion. Cows should be excluded from pastures where there are steers, or where there are deep ditches ; they should have reasonable protection ; and spoiled ensilage or moldy food should be avoided. When the disease has been determined to be of a contagious nature, all aborting animals should be separated from the healthy and a rigid course of disinfection should follow. The foetus and placental membranes should be burned, the buttocks and tail washed free of all soiled material, using a strong carbolic or creolin solution. The vagina should be washed out with an injection of a 3 per cent creolin solution. This should be repeated daily for two weeks. The cows should not be permitted to breed for at least three months and then should be given a treatment a few days before breeding as a precautionary measure. The male should be washed 372 LAMEXESS OE HOESES out to avoid carrying the infection from one animal to another This treatment has proved suc- cessful in our hands in a number of herds. Of the untreated non-aborting cows in a herd, a large proportion aborted the second year, while of those treated only a few aborted. LAMENESS Good legs are essential in a good horse, and the value of the animal depends largely on the condition of his extremities and their ability to do the work for which they are intended. This fact is frequently overlooked by experienced horse- men, who pay more attention to general form and action than to sound legs. Im- perfect conformation may not interfere with a horse's usefulness, but if he be unsound in one or more of his limbs his capacity for work is greatly diminished, the degree depending upon the degree of the lameness or defect and the character of the work. Locating tlie Seat of the Lameness — Lameness is not a disease but a symptom, and greatly assists us in diagnosing the injury. The seat of the injury may be in a muscle, tendon, bone, or ligament. The degree of the lameness will vary, depending on the location and the character of the injury. "When slight or hidden more skill may be required in diagnosing or locating it than the average horse owner possesses. Such cases require the services of a competent veterinarian. Two points are involved in the diagnosis : (a) the identification of the lame leg and (b) the locating of the disease. "When there are local lesions, as a bony enlarge- ment, swelling, or iniiammation, or if the action be characteristic, diagnosis is not difficult. The majority of cases are not so simple, but require systematic examina- tion in order to determine accurately the point involved. Examination — It is usually best to examine the animal under as many different condi- tions as possible ; while standing, at rest in the stall or on level ground, when moved at a walk, at a brisli and at a slow trot, when resting after exercise, or when moved after a brief period of rest. While the horse is being subjected to these different conditions the examiner should observe very closely every movement of the animal, and at the same time remember that negative symptoms of lameness in a part are almost as valuable in forming a diagnosis as are the positive symptoms. If a horse rests either front foot when standing at ease, it indicates some soreness in the rested member. It is not uncommon, however, for a horse when standing quietly to rest a front and a hind foot of opposite sides, or rest the hind feet alternately. This is natural. When a front foot is carried forward ma position of ' ' pointing " or is held more or less sus- pended, the front or the toe of the foot resting on the floor, a soreness in some part of the limb is indicated. When a hind limb is afEected it may be flexed or extended, the weight resting on the toe or the front part of the wall of the foot ; sometimes it is held clear of the ground. MODE OF EXAMINATION 373 If both front feet are affected the animal may stand with the front feet forward, "pointing," and the hind ones well under the body. After observing the horse when at rest we should next examine him while in motion. This is the more important part of the examination, and is best done when the harness or blanket is removed and the animal is led with a loose halter and at a slow trot over a level road. The attendant should allow the animal full freedom of his head and trot him toward the observer as well as away from him. After making observations from these two positions the horse's movements should be studied from the sides. The effort of the animal to "favor" the lame member enables us to detect the one in which the lameness exists. The pain suffered every time weight is thrown on the diseased limb causes him to step quickly with it and shift as much weight as possible to the well one. Injuries in various parts of the limb cause the horse to "favor" the limb differently, but in general the movements are much the same. When the foot of the injured extremity comes in contact with the ground it is jerked up rather quickly, and, if a front one, gives the head a decided upward movement. When the foot of the sound limb comes to the ground more weight is thrown on it. If the lameness is in front the movement of the head is downward, or, using the common expression, the animal "nods." If the seat of the lameness is in the posterior extremity the haunch settles downward when weight is thrown on the sound leg, and when thrown on the diseased one the horse 'nods," and there may be a decided upward movement of the hip. When lame in both front feet locomotion may be difficult, and in order to throw the weight on the limbs better able to bear it, the hind extremities are placed well under the body and the animal takes short, quick steps with the feet of the sore extremities, aud vice versa, if the pos- terior ones are affected. If all four are affected, as is sometimes the case in laminitis or founder, the animal may lie down most of the time and generally refuses to move, or, when standing, shifts his weight from one foot to the other and changes as little as possible. The examiner should observe the animal very closely when it turns to the right or left, as the reluctancy with which it throws weight on the affected limb and the manner of "favoring" the part may point out the seat of the trouble. In some forms of lameness manipulating the limb with the hand may reveal the seat of the pain. This should be done by subjecting the affected region more or less forcibly to the different varieties of natural movement ; extension, flexing the joints, drawing the limb out, or pulling it in. SHOULDER LAMENESS Causes — Heavy work, rapid driving, or work on rough roads or icy streets may cause the animal to sprain or wrench the softer structures in the region of the shoulder. In addition to these, rheumatism is a common cause of shoulder lameness. Symptoms — The animal may point with the foot of the lame extremity, holding it forward but squarely on the floor. Sometimes the limb is suspended from the side. When moved, the 25 374 LAMEXESS OP HORSES motion in the upper part of tlie lame limb is more or less limited, the member being swung out- ward and not lifted so high from the ground as the well one. Other peculiarities in the gait may be shown, as difficulty in stepping over moderately high objects. Manipulating the limb by mov- ing the shoulder joint through the different natural movements may help in locating the soreness. In hidden forms of shoulder lameness a diagnosis is difficult and may be confounded with lame- ness in the region of the foot. Treatment — Rest is a very important part of the treatment. It is best to tie the patient in a single stall and keep it as quiet as possible. For a week or two it may be best to re.strict his movements by tying him in such a way that he can not lie down, and by watering and feeding him in his stall. If nervous or restless, better results will follow if the horse is allowed to run in a small yard. Mild liniments or blisters may be applied to the affected region. The following recipe may be used : Oil of turpentine, aqua ammonia, linseed oil (equal parts) ; mix and apply to the part once a day ; or, powdered cantharides (1 part), vaseline (8 parts) ; make into an ointment and rub on. Tie the animal up so that he can not rub or bite the part. SPLINTS Causes — The seat of the splint is between and on the sides of tlie splint and cannon bones. This is a very common blemish or unsoundness and is generally located on the splint bones of the front foot, especially the inner one. The inflam- mation which is due to a sprain or a blow begins in that part of the covering of the bone and tissue that fixes the splint to the cannon bone and leads to a swelling and growth of bone varying in size according to the extent of the inflammation. Young horses are predisposed to splints. Symptoins — The lameness will vary and is seldom absent during the time the splint is developing. "High" splints are more apt to cause a lameness than a "low" one, and there is danger of the lameness continuing for a longer time. The knee is sometimes held stiffly and the animal limps worst when trotted over a hard road. The observer has such local symptoms as heat, swelling, and pain to guide him in forming a diagnosis. The lameness usually lasts about three weeks. Treatment — Rest and cold applications to the part are indicated during the inflammatory period. Following this a water solution of iodine can be used ; iodine crystals (8 parts), iodide of potassium (1 part), water (30 parts) ; mix and apply to the part with a stiff brush once a day. In obstinate cases the firing-iron should be used. SPRAINS OF TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS OF THE FOOT The structures most commonly injured here are the large tendons just back of the cannon bone and the large ligament, the suspensory, that lies along the face of this bone, and the back and sides of the fetlock. Causes — The character of the work and the condition of the road i^redispose horses to this form of lameness. Trotting and running horses more often sufEer SPEAINS, RING-BONE 375 from injuries to tendons and ligaments than draft horses. Catching the foot in a Tut, car track, etc., may also cause it. Symptoms— 'The symptoms will vaiy with the severity of the injury. The lameness appears suddenly. When at ease the fetlock joint is flexed and the foot is rested on the toe. The lameness is sometimes very severe and the animal refuses to use the afEected foot. The injured tissues are usually warm and swollen, and when the tendon is ruptured it has a bowed appearance. Soreness in the fetlock region may cause the animal to knuckle over. Treatment — If the injury is slight, rest and cold bandages will remove the soreness in about a week. "When the lameness is severe complete rest to the part can be obtained by the application of a plaster-of-paris bandage. The bandage can be made by cutting cheese-cloth into strips about four or five inches wide and about fifteen or twenty feet long. The plaster of paris can be rubbed on the bandage as it is being rolled. It is then placed in warm water in which a little salt has been dissolved, until wet through, and then rolled on the part. The cast should reach as high as the knee and as low as the hoof, and in the majority of cases should remain on from two to four weeks. To protect the skin it is best before applying the plaster bandage to use a light cheese- cloth bandage. When removed a cantharides blister can be applied. Good results sometimes follow a period of rest and the application of a mild liniment. RING-BONE A ring-bone is a bony enlargement in the region of the coronary joint. The size of the enlargement or exostosis will vary and may be seen on the back, front, or the sides of the region, sometimes forming a thick ring encircling the foot just above the hoof. In the articular form of ring-bone the articulation between the first two bones of the digit is involved. In the periarticular form the thickening is on the outside of the articulation and on the faces of the two first bones of the digit. Causes — Bruises, sprains, blows, or any injury to the region of the coronet may cause it. A predisposition to ring-bones may be transmitted to the offspring and may be traced to small, badly shaped joints and faulty conformation of the limbs of the sire or dam. Symptoms — There may be difficulty in locating this form of lameness unless the enlarge- ment is well developed. Lameness is nearly always present. It may disappear after a long rest or when the animal is exercised. The degree of soreness will vary and does not always depend upon the size of the enlargement, and is more marked when the weight is thrown on the foot. In chronic cases of lameness, and when the enlargement is large and low down, the prognosis is unfavorable. Tkeatment — Proper attention given to the foot of young animals, keeping the walls of the hoof pared and in balance, and the careful selection of breeding animals, are useful preventive precautions. The treatment consists in resting the animal, balancing the foot, and counter-irrita- tion over the diseased region by means of blisters or the firing-iron. The latter is to be preferred- 376 LAMEXESS OF HORSES SIDEBONES This is a disease of the lateral cartilages of the foot and is especially common in draft horses and peculiar to the fore feet. Occasionally sidebones appear in the hind feet, but seldom cause lameness. These cartilages are attached to the heel of the pedal bone and can be detected by pressing on the side of the heel just above the coronary band. They forpi part of the elastic apparatus of the foot and when inflamed, lime salts may be deposited in the cartilaginous tissue and it is trans- formed to bone. Causes — Weak, poorly formed feet predispose a horse to sidebones. Certain conditions, such as heavy work over joaved streets, high-heeled shoes or high calk- ings may excite their growth. Injuries to the cartilages may set up an inflammatory process and result in the formation of the bony growths. Symptoms — A sidebone develops slowly and may not cause lameness at first. The animal may have a " stilty " action, step short with the affected feet and its movements lack the normal elasticity. After exercise the gait may be more nearly natural. When the animal is lame the toe of the foot touches the ground first and it steps short with the diseased feet. Instead of the cartilage feeling elastic when pressed on, it is rigid and may form a prominent enlargement. Treatment — The growth of the sidebone may be arrested by rest and counter-irritation from a blister or the firing-iron and the soreness partially removed. Animals with sidebones should generally be discarded for breeding purposes. NAVICULAR DISEASE {Coffin Joint Lameness) This is a chronic inflammation of the structures in the region of the "coffin joint," the gliding surface of the navicular bone, and the navicular bone with the flexor tendon of the foot at this point. Causes — Well bred horses are more commonly affected witli this form of lame- ness than roughly bred ones. ISTarrow, high heels, long pasterns and too long a toe may predispose a horse to the disease. The character of the work is also a predis- posing factor. Hurried, rapid movements throw considerable strain on this region and may result in injury to the part. This is one of the reasons why it is more common in driving and running horses than in slow-going work animals. Bad shoeing and punctured wounds in the region of the articulation may also cause it. One or both front feet may be affected. Symptoms — The lameness begins gradually and at first the soreness may disappear with exercise or after a long rest. The character of the gait is stiff and the horse frequently stumbles ; this is especially noticeable when trotted over rough ground. When the disease is well advanced CORNS, SANDCRACKS 377 the animal may suffer severe pain when weight is thrown on the diseased foot. When standing in the stable it will "point" with the diseased foot, resting it on the toe, sometimes on the front of the opposite foot. The articulation is so hidden that it is difflcult to detect the local inflam- mation or cause the animal to flinch by applying pressure over the region. In time, as but little weight is thrown on the foot it becomes smaller, contracted at the heel, more upright, the frog atrophies, and the wall frequently appears uneven. One or both front feet may be afEected. The prognosis is very unfavorable. Treatment — Allowing the animal to run on pasture, keeping the feet moist, and blisters applied to the coronet, may check the disease in its first stages. In shoeing the horse it is best to shorten the toe and raise the heel. The lameness can he removed by performing neurectomy (cutting the nerve supply to the foot and destroying the sensation in the part). COKNS A corn is an injury to the sensitive tissue of the sole, quarters, or bars of the foot. It consists in a bleeding from capillary blood-vessels that are pressed on or ruptured, and the surface of the horny tissue becomes stained a reddish color. If the part is infected by pus germs and matter forms it is termed a moist corn. If the inflammation is absent and the tissue dry it is called a dry corn. Causes — Weak, badly formed feet are predisposed to corns. The principal external causes are faulty shoeing and allowing the shoes to stay on for too long a time. Symptoms — Corns sometimes cause, considerable lameness. Suppurative corns are the most troublesome and require immediate attention. The foot is inflamed and may be swollen at the coronet. Tre-A-TMEKT — In badly formed feet it is impossible to stop the development of corns. The shoeing should receive the necessary attention. In bad cases removing the shoes and turning the horse on pasture is the best line of treatment. In dry corns little more is required. If the foot is inflamed a flaxseed poultice should be applied, and when pus is formed an exit should be provided for it, the foot kept clean, and the corn washed daily with an antiseptic wash (creolin, 3 parts, to 98 parts of water). SANDCRACKS, QUARTERCRACKS A sandcrack or quartercrack is a fissure in the wall of the foot running in the same direction as the horny fibers. Its position and extent varies and may occur .at the toe, quarter, heel, or bar, and may be deep and extend from the lower margin of the wall to the coronary band, or only a portion of the distance. When deep and complete it may cause the animal to go lame. The pain is caused by the crack opening up when weight is thrown on the foot, and when the weight is removed it will close, pinching and injuring the sensitive laminse that lie just beneath the horny wall. Cracks of long standing usually have thick rough margins. 378 LAMEXESS OP HORSES Causes — The horny -wall is secreted by the coronary band. Any injury to this secreting tissue may cause a fissure in the wall. This is one of the most common causes of sandcrack. If the bt'aring surface of the hoof is not properly trimmed, or the bearing surface of the shoe is uneven, a fissure may form. Weak walls and excessive drying of the feet may also cause it. Contracted upright feet are predis- posed to sandcracks. Treatment — Preventive treatment is very important and consists in avoiding conditions favorable for their development. Recovery can be assisted by preventing motion between the mar- gins of the crack. This can be done by thinning the wall along the margins of the fissure and cut- ting out the bearing margin of the wall on each side of the fissure. If the sandcrack is at the toe extra nail holes should be made in the shoe and a nail driven in the wall a little to each side of the crack. If on the quarter, that portion of the wall lying back of the crack and below it should be pared down till quite thin and the wall shortened so that it does not rest on the shoe. A bar shoe that does not give frog pressure is better in quartercrack than a common shoe, as it limits the expansion of the foot at the heel. To stimulate the secretion of horn a cantharides blister can be applied just above the coronary band, every two or three weeks. "STIFLE OUT" ( Luxation of the Patella ) This is a common accident in horses and mules. Young, immature animals are more apt to sufi'er from a luxation or displacement of the patella than when mature. The displacement is usually upward or out^\'ar(l. Causes — The patella is applied to a puUy-like surface at the lower extremity of the thigh bone, the outer lip of the pully being small. It is held here by liga- ments below that attach it to the leg bone and by tendons above. If these tendons or ligaments become relaxed or weak, it may permit of a slipping out of the patella. Strains of the ligaments, or a rupture of the internal lateral one, may also cause it. Upright limbs and oblique quarters are said to predispose an animal to it. Symptoni.s — The animal stands quietly as a rule, the affected leg held stifiiy and extended backward. If both hind limbs are affected the animal can not move. When the animal moves forward, it hops on the well leg and carries the affected one or drags it on the toe. The symptoms are so characteristic in luxation of the patella that it can be diagnosed from a distance. In com- plete or incomplete lateral displacement of the patella the joints may be flexed and the animal is very lame when weight is thrown on the affected leg. In most cases of luxation of the patella the prognosis is favorable. The condition may return to the normal without any assistance, but is apt to return again when the animal takes a few steps, and finally disappears after the animal has been worked a short time. When due to a rupture of the internal ligament or to weakness, it may terminate less favorably. It is not uncommon for the accident to recur. Tkeatmb-nt — It is not difHcult to return the patella to its natural position, but its retention SPAVIN 379 is more difficult. The animal should he rested and prevented from throwing weight on the affected leg. This can be done by tying the animal in a single stall, putting a collar on the neck, tying one end of a rope about 13 feet long to it, and running the other end back between the front legs to a ring in a strap buckled around the pastern of the affected leg, then back to the collar. The leg can then be pulled forward and the luxation reduced. After this has been done the rope can be tied and the toe allowed to touch the ground. The animal should be confined in this manner for at least one week. A blister (1 part cantharides to 8 parts vaseline) should be applied to the front and the outside of the joint. SPAVllS^ A spavin is a chronic inflammation of the hock, involving the articular surfaces of the small bones, the ligaments, and synovial membranes. The upper extremities of the cannon or splint bones may be involved as well, and in advanced cases the articulations between the smaller hock bones are entirely obliterated. Causes — A predisposition to spavin depends on the conformation of the hind limb and body. Heavily muscled hind quarters and straight hind legs predispose an animal to strains or injuries to the hock. The external causes are sprains caused by slipping, turning quickly, rearing, rapid work, and pulling heavy loads. Kicks on the hock may also cause it. Spavin is more common in young than in old horses, due to the incomplete development of the bones, ligaments, etc. Symptoms — "When no enlargement is present on the hock, the diagnosis is sometimes diffi- cult and uncertain. The enlargement is usually toward the front and side of the hock and when small will require considerable knowledge of the appearance of the normal hock joint in order to detect it. The best position to observe a spavin is from the front or a little to one side in order to compare the two hock joints, and note their differences in shape. Coarse hocks, however, should not be mistaken for a spavin. Both hocks may be enlarged and the animal go lame in both, or an enlargement may be present and not be accompanied by lameness. The lameness usually begins gradually and disappears shortly after exercise but will reappear if the horse is rested and again exercised. In old cases the lameness persists. The extension of the hock is incomplete, the step is short and quick, there is an extra movement of the quarter and the animal goes on the toe. When the animal is turned toward the well side the soreness may be increased. The "spavin test" may be of value in diagnosing an "occult" spavin, and consists in picking up the foot, flex- ing the limb and keeping it flexed for several minutes, then letting the foot down quickly and moving the animal in a trot. This will increase the soreness and the animal will limp badly. The prognosis is always uncertain and should be guided by the conformation of the limb, character of the work required of the animal, position of the enlargement, and the degree of the lameness. The enlargement usually remains about the same. Tkbatmbnt — The object of the treatment is to bring about a union between the smaller bones. This may require weeks or months. To do this it is necessary to rest the horse, and the more complete the rest the better are the chances for recovery. He should be kept in a single stall and must not be led out for the purpose of feeding or watering. To promote a secondary 380 LAMEXESS OF HORSES inflammation in the part and favor the bony union, counter-irritation from a blister or the firing- iron should be used. Blisters, unless in the very first stages of the disease, are too superficial in their action to cause a permanent recovery. The firing-iron is to be preferred. In all cases the horse should be rested at least four weeks and in some cases it is necessary to repeat the irritation. BOG SPAVIN This consists in a distention of the capsular ligament and synovial membrane of the hock joint. Bog spavins are more commonly seen in young horses and in upright or " fleshy " hocks. The exciting cause is frequently a sprain, causing an inflammation of the synovial membrane and an abundant secretion of synovia. Unless the part is inflamed the horse does not go lame. The most noticeable symp- tom is the swelling toward the anterior and inner part, sometimes the posterior part of the joint. In mature animals the swelling is generally permanent, but in immature, growing animals may disappear, sometimes without treatment. Tkbatmbnt — When lame and if the inflammation is acute, rest and cooling applications (cold bandages) are necessary. Following this treatment the hock should be blistered or cauterized with the firing-iron. In colts it is vyell to blister the spavin every few weeks with a blistering ointment (powdered cantharides 1 part, vaseline 8 parts). CAPPED HOCK All swellings on the point of the hock are called '^capped hock." This injury is generally due to a bruise caused by the animal kicking against the side of the stall or when in harness. The swelling may be due to an injury to the skin and subcutaneous tissue alone, or more important structures may be involved, as the tendinous cap over the point of the hock and the synovial bursa. When the skin is involved it pits on pressure ; if the tendon, it is hard, and if the bursa, soft and elastic. When the injury is of recent origin the part is warm and tender. In some cases the swelling is very large. Unless badly inflamed it does not cause lameness. Treatjiekt — When of recent origin cold applications should be used. This must be followed by blisters. If the swelling feels soft it should be opened and the fluid allowed to escape. The operation requires skill and should be attempted only by an experienced veterinarian. CURB This term is applied to all swellings on the posterior part of the hock. In some individuals an excessive development of the bones in this region gives to the hock the appearance of being curbed. Horses with " cow hocks " are predisposed to this form of unsoundness, due to the fact that its extreme length gives the powerful muscles attached to its summit a greater strain on the ligaments at the back part BOOKS ON ANIMAL DISEASES 381 of the hock. "Tied in" hocks are weak at this point. The exciting causes of curbs are jumping, rearing, heavy puUing, and kicks or blows on this region. Symptoms — The shape of the back part of the hock is changed and when observed from the side, instead of a straight line from the point of the hock to the upper end of the cannon region, a swelling that bulges backward is seen toward the lower part. The thickening in the part may be due to a disease of the tendon, its sheath or the skin. It may also be due to an inflammation of the bone and the resulting long enlargement. A careful examination with the fingers will enable us to detect the different tissues involved. It is only when the parts are sore and inflamed, as a result of the injury, that the animal goes lame. The lameness will resemble that caused by a sprain, and will disappear in a few weeks. The enlargement usually persists. Treatment — At the beginning, if the ligament and surrounding tissues are inflamed, cold bandages should be used, together with rubbing of the part. After the inflammation has subsided a water solution of iodine or blisters can be applied. Rest is a necessary part of the treatment during the inflammatory stage, and one should not be in too much of a hurry to put the animal to work, as the part may again become injured. If the curb does not respond to the ordinaiy treat- ment, cauterization with the firing-iron should be resorted to. ^- a- PUBLICATIONS ON THE DISEASES OF FAKM ANIMALS Aboktion, Contagious. ByC.E. Marsh. Bulletin 13. Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station, Agricultural College, Mich .... . . ... Actinomycosis or Lumpt-Jaw. Circular 7, Bureau of Animal Industry. United States Department of Agriculture Animal Castration. By A. Liautard. Wm. B. Jenkins, N. Y. . . $3.00 A clearly written work upon the subject. Cattle, Diseases op. Special Report, Bureau of Animal Industiy. United States Depart- ment of Agriculture '. . . . ... .65 Probably tlie best work in popular form upon the diseases of cattle. Cattle, Hydrophobia in. By J. B. Paige. Bulletin 37. Massachusetts Agricultural Ex- periment Station, Amherst, Mass. . . Cattle, Nitrate op Soda Poisoning of. By J. B. Paige. Bulletin 37. Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, Amherst, Mass. . . . . Cattle, Nitrate op Soda Poisoning op. By N. S. Mayo. Bulletin 49. Kansas Agri- cultural Experiment Station, Manhattan, Kan. ... ... . ... Cattle, Scabies in. Farmers' Bulletin 153. United States Department of Agriculture — ^ 382 BOOKS ON ANIMAL DISEASES CoMPAEATivK Anatomy op the Domesticated Animals. By A. Chaveau and G. Flem- ing. D. ApplrtoH d- Co.,N. Y . . . . . $7.00 Technical. Comparative PiiYsioLOfSY. By Wesley Mills. Wm. B. Jenkins, N. Y, . Dehoening Cattle. By J. F. Hickman. Report, Ohio Agricultural E.rperimcnt Station, Woostei-, Ohio (1896) . . ... Dehorhing, Effects on Milk. By C D Smith and T. L. Haecker. Bulletin 19. Min- nesota AgriniUn.ral Experiment Station, St. Anthony Park, Minn. . . . DEHORNrxG with Chemicals. By L. H. Adams. Report, Wisconsin Agrirnltnml Experi- ■wicni S^^/Ay;), Madison, Wis. (1891) . Dental Surgbky, Vetebinaky. By T. D. Hinebauch. Wm. B. Jenkins, N. Y. . . 2.00 An exhaustive treatise. Dog, Disb.IlSes op the. Translated by A. Glass from George Milller. W. H. Iloakins, Philadelphia . . ... . 5.00 Eye Diseases op Domestic Animals. By C. A. Gary. Bulletin 43. College Agiicnltural Experiment Station, Auburn, Ala. . . . . Farmer's Veterinary Adtiser. By James Law. James LatP, Ithaca, N. Y. . .3.00 AVritten in popular style. Glanders. By T.Butler. Bulletin 16. Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station K^ri- cultural College, Miss. . . ..... Glanders. By C. A. Cary. Bulletin 35. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Ala. . .... ... Glanders. By E. A. A. Grange. Bulletin 78. Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station, Agricultural College, Mich. . .... . . Glanders. By W. L. Williams. Bulletin 4. Montana Agricultural Experiment Station, Bozeman, Mont. . . ... . . . ... Hog Cholera. Report, Bureau of Animal Industry. United States Department of Agri- culture . . . . Hog Cholera and Swine Plague. By A. W. Bitting. Bulletin of the Indiana Agricul- tural Experiment Station, LaFayette, Ind. . Hog, Diseases op the. By A. W. Bitting and B. A Craig. Report, Indiana Depart- metit of Agriculture, Indianapolis, lud. (IdOO) ... . Hogs, Soaps as a Cause op Death Among. By V. A. Moore. Bulletin 141. Cm'nell Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y. . . ... Horse, Diseases op the. Report, Bureau of Animal Industry. United States Department of Agricultio'c . . . . .65 a very clearly written popular work on the diseases of the horse. Horse, The Clinical Diagnosis op Lameness in the. By W. E. A. Wyman. Wm. B. Jenkins, N. Y. . . .... . . . 2.50 A work intended for veterinarians. Horse, The Exterior op the. Translated from A. Gobaux and G. Barrier by S. Har- ger. /. B. lippiurott & Co., Philadelphia .... . . . . . . 5.00 The best work upon conformation and soundness. BOOKS ON ANIMAL DISEASES 383 HOKSE, The Foot of the. By David Roberge. Wm. B. Jenkins, T!i. Y $5.00 An exhaustive treatise with special reference to correcting lameness by shoeing. Houses, Enzootic Cbrebritis of. By N. S. Mayo. Bulletin 34. Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Manhattan, Kan. . . . . HoHSBS, Influenza in. By T. D. Hinebauch. Bulletin 27. Indiana Agricultural Ex- periment Station, LaFayette, Ind. . . ... ... . . HoESES, Lameness of. By A. Liautard. Wm. B. Jenkins, N. Y. . S.50 A technical work. Horses, Millet Disease in. By T. D. Hinebauch. Bulletin 27. Noi'th Dakota Agri- cultural Experiment Station, Fargo, N. D. . . . .... . . Horses: Sound and Unsound. By J. Irvine Lupton. Wm. B. Jenkins, N. Y. . 1.25 A somewhat popular treatise. Horses, The Examination of, as to Soundness and Selection as to Purchase. By Edward Se well. Wm. R. Jenkins, 'S.'^ 1.50 Useful to buyers and handlers. Horses and Mules, Colic in. By W. E. A. Wyman. Bulletin 32. South Carolina Ex- periment Station, Clemson, S. C. ..... . . Horses and Mules, Lameness in. By W. B. A. Wyman. Bulletin 33. South Carolina AgricuUural Experiment Station, Clemson, S. C. ... Horseshoeing. By E. P. Niles. Bulletins 46 and 54. Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, Blacksburg, Va . . . Horseshoeing, A Hand-Book of. By J. A. W". Dollar. Wm. R. Jenkins, N. Y. . , 4.75 A practical treatise on general shoeing and shoeing for lameness. Meat Inspection. By C. A. Gary. Bulletin 81. Alabama AgricuUural &periment Sta- tion, Auburn, Ala. . . . .... . Obstetrics, Bovine. Translated from M. G. DeBruin by W, E. A. Wyman. Wm. B. Jenkins, N. Y. . . 5.00 Technical. Obstetrics, Veterinary. By George Fleming . . . . . 6.35 Technical. Operativb Veterinary Surgery. By H. Moller. Wm. R. Jenkins, 'S.Y. . . . 5.25 Technical. Operative Veterinary Surgery, Manual of. By A. Liautard. Wm. B. Jenkins, N. Y. 6.00 Technical. Parasites and Parasitic Diseases op Domestic Animals. Translated by George Fleming from L. G. Neumann . . .... 7.50 Technical. Pathology and THERiPBUTics of the Domestic Animals. Translated by M. H. Hayes from Priedberg and Frohner (Vol. I.) W. T. Keener & Go. . . . . 3.75 An exhaustive treatise. English translation. Pathology and Therapeutics op the Domestic Animals. By Friedberg and Frohner. W. J. Dor nan, Philadelphia . . . . . . .6.00 An exhaustive treatise. American translation. Sheep, Diseases op. By J. H. Steel. Longmans, Qreen <& Co., N. Y 4.50 An English wort. 384 BOOKS OX AXIMAL DISEASES Sheep, Foot-kot of. By E. A. A. Grange. Bulletin 74. Michigan Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Agricultural College, Mich ... Sheep Scab. By C. P. Gillett. Bulletin 38. Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Colo. . . . . . Sheep Scab. Bulletin 21, Bureau of Animal Industry. United States Department of Agri- culture . . ....... . $0.15 Sheep Scab. By A. W. Bitting. Bulletin 80. Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station, LaFayette, Ind. . . .... .... Swine Plague and Hog Cholbea, Serum Treatment of. Bulletin 23, Bureau of Animal Industry. United States Department of Agriculture . . . . .05 Tuberculin Test, The. By C. E. Marshall. Bulletin 159. Michigan Agricultural Ex- periment Station, Agricultural College, Mich. . . . Tuberculosis, Legislation with Regard to Bovine. Bulletin 28. Bureau of Animal Industry. United States Department of Agriculture . ... .10 Tuberculosis and the Tuberculin Test. By B. Bang. Bulletin 41. Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, Amherst, Mass. . . . Tuberculosis and the Tuberculin Test. By M. H. Reynolds, Bulletin 51. Minne- sota Agricultural Experiment Station, St. Anthony Park, Minn. . . . Tuberculosis in Relation to Animal Industry and Public Health. By J. B, Law. Bulletin 65. Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y. . . . Veterinary Anatomy. By Vaughan and Strangeway . . ... 5 . 00 A technical work. Veterinary Hygiene, A Manual op. By F. Smith. Wm. R. Jenkins, N. Y. 3.25 Easily understood by layman as well as veterinarian. Veterinary Materia Medica and Therapeutics. By K. Winslow. Wm. R. Jenkins, N. Y. . 6.00 A work for the profession. Veterinary Medicine, By James Law. (Vols. I. to III. published.) James Law, Ithaca, N. Y . . . 11.00 The best work of the kind in the English lanfjuage. Veterinary Medicine and Surgery, Clinical. By J. A. W. Dollar. Wm. R. Jenkins, N.,Y. 5.25 A work for the profession. Veterinary Medicines. By Finlay Dun. TFm. iJ. J««/ans, N. Y. . . . . .3.75 Deals with the action of drugs. Veterinary Physiology, A Manual of. By F. Smith. Wm. R. Jenkins, N. Y. . 3.75 A very complete treatise upon the physiology of the domestic animals. Veterinary Therapeutics and Pharmacology. By E. W. Hoare. Wm. R. Jenkins, N. Y . 3.75 A work for veterinarians. Water Supply for Animals, By A. W. Bitting. Bulletin 70. Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station, LaFayette, Ind. .... . . . . Wounds, Antiseptic Treatment of. By E. P. Niles. Bulletins 13 and 18. Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station,, Blacksburg, Va The Silo in Modern Agriculture' By F. W. WoLL Assistant Professor of Agricultural Chemistry^ University of Wisconsin WHY BUILD A SILO? Economy of Nutrients — The silo enables ns to preserve a greater quantity of the food materials of the original fodder, for the feeding of farm aninaals, than is possible by any other system of preservation now known. The necessary losses of nutrients incurred in the siloing process need not exceed 10 per cent, and by beginning to feed from the silo soon after it has been filled, the loss will be reduced to a minimum which may not be far from 5 per cent. In haymak- ing or field-curing of coarse fodders, there is an unavoidable loss of leaves and other tender parts, and in curing fodder corn there will be a fermentative loss of toward 10 per cent under the best of conditions, or about as much as is lost in the silo. The loss of dry matter will approach 25 per cent in ordinary farm practice, and will even exceed this figure unless special precautions are taken in the handling of the fodder. Economy of Material — Crops unfit for haymaking may be preserved in the silo and changed into a palatable food. In case of fodder famine the silo may thus help the farmer to carry his cattle through the winter. Where haymaking is precluded, as is sometimes the case with second-crop clover, rowen, etc., on account of rainy weather late in the season, the silo will preserve the crop. Economy of Land — More cattle can be kept on a given area of land when silage is fed than is otherwise the case. The silo in this respect furnishes a similar advantage over field-curing fodders as does the soiling system over that of pastur- ing cattle. Pasturing cattle is an expensive method of feeding, as far as the use of the land goes, and can only be practiced to advantage where this is cheap. As the land increases in value, more stock must be kept on the same area in order to cor- respondingly increase the profits from the land. 1 Condensed from A Book on Silage, Chicago : Band, McNally & Co. Copyright, 1895, by Band, McNally & Co. Copyright, 1900, by Band, McNally & Co. Copyright, 1902, by Rand, McNally & Co. (385) 386 WHY BUILD A SILO ? Economy of Time and Storage Space — Rainy weather is a disad- vantage in filling silcis as in most other farm operations, but when the silo is once filled, the farmcu- is indc^pendcnt of the weather throughout tho season. Less roiim is required for the storage in a silo of the product from an a(!re of land than in cured condition in a barn. Economy of Labor — An acre of corn can bo iilacod in the silo at less cost than the same quantity can bo put up as cured fodder. To derive full benefit from the food matei'ials in the field-cured fodder corn, it must bo run through a feed cutter in small portions at a time ; the corn must, in most cases, bo husked, cribbed, and either ground, cob and all, or shelled and ground. Iti siloing the whole corn plant, the cutting is all done at once. Uniformity of Feed — The silo furnishes a feed of uniform quality, avail- able at any time during tho whole winter or year. Tliis is of advantage perhaps particularly in case of dairy cows and sheep, since these animals arc especially sensi- tive to sudden changes in the feed. Silage as a Preparatory Ration — Silage is of special value for feed- ing preparatory to turning cattle on to tho watery pasture grass in tho spring. When turned out in the spring, steers will be apt to lose weight, no matter whether silage or dry feed has been fed, unless they are fed some grain during the first week or two after they are let out. Silage as a Bowel Regulator — Succulent food is nature's food. The influence of well-preserved silage on the digestion and general health of animals is very beneficial, according to the unanimous testimony of good authorities. It is a mild laxative, and acts in this way very similarly to green fodders. By filling the silo with clover or other green summer crops early in tho season, a valuable succulent feed will be at hand at a time when pastures in most regions are apt to give out ; then again, the silo may be filled with corn when this is in the roasting stage, and the land thus entirely cleared earlier than when tho corn is loft to mature and the corn fodder shocked on the land, making it possilihs to finish the fall plowing sooner and to seed the land down to grass or to winter grain. THE FEEDINU OF SILAGE Silage may be fed with advantage to all classes of farm animals- — milch cows, steers, horses, mules, sheep, swine, and even poultry — but always in connection with some dry roughage. The nearer maturity the corn is when cut for tho silo, the more silage may safely be fed at a time, but it is always well to avoid feeding it excessively. SILAGE EATIONS FOR DAIRY COWS 88^ SILAGE FOK MILCH COWS Silage is par excellence a cow feed. As with other farm animals, cows fed silage should receive other roughage* in the shape of corn stalks, hay, etc. 1 To Illustrate the' quantities and combinations in which silage may be fed to milch cows, we give here- with a number of practical feed rations pubUshed in two bulletins by the author, viz. : Nos. 33 and 88, of the Wisconsin Experiment Station (October, 1892, and Jan- uary, 1894): American Silage Rations foU Bairt Cows 1. Com silage, 30 lbs, ; hay, 61/2 lbs.; corn and cob meal, 5 lbs. ; ground oats, 5 lbs. ; linseed meal, 3 lbs. 2. Com silage, 27 lbs.; dry fodder corn, 8 lbs.; clover hay, 6 lbs. ; oat straw,Ji^ lbs. ; wheat bran, 4 lbs. ; linseed meal, 4 lbs. .3. Com silage, 35 lbs. ; hay, 5 lbs. ; malt sprouts, 4 lbs. ; wheat bran, 2% lbs. ; cotton-seed meal, 1% lbs. 4. Com silage, 30 lbs. ; cut sheaf oats, G lbs. ; mixed meadow hay, 10 lbs.; wheat bran, 4 lbs. ; linseed meal, 2 lbs. 5. Corn silage, 30 lbs.; cut cornstalks, 12 lbs.: wheat bran, .3% lbs. ; corn meal, 3 lbs. ; oats, 314 lbs., with a sprinkling of peas. 6. Com silage, 32 lbs. ; clover silage, 22 lbs. ; clover and timothy hay mixed, 5 lbs.; wheat bran, 6 lbs.; groimd oats, 4 lbs. ; cotton-seed meal, 3 lbs. 7. Corn sUage, 35 lbs. ; hay, about 11 lbs. ; wheat bran, 3% lbs. ; ground oats, 3% lbs. ; linseed meal (O. P.) 21/3 lbs. 8. Com" silage, 30 lbs. ; hay, 8 lbs. ; corn fodder, 5 lbs. ; ground oats, 4 lbs. ; pea meal, 2 lbs. 9. Com silage, 40 lbs. ; clover hay, 8 lbs. ; wheat bran, 6 lbs.; pea meal, 2 lbs. 10. Whole com silage, 25 lbs. ; clover hay, 10 lbs. ; wheat bran, 10 lbs. 11. Com silage, 40 lbs. ; clover hay, 5 lbs. ; timothy hay, 5 lbs. ; wheat bran, 41^ lbs.; middlings, 41,^ lbs. 12. Corn silage, 45 lbs. ; clover hay, 12 lbs. ; wheat shorts, 8 lbs. ; com meal, 4 lbs. 13. Com silage, 24 lbs. ; com fodder, 15 lbs. ; clover hay, 5 lbs. ; wheat bran, 5 lbs. 14. Corn silage, 40 lbs. ; alfalfa hay, 15 lbs. ; wheat bran, 4 lbs. ; com chop, 4 lbs. 15. Com silage, 35 lbs. ; hay, 10 lbs. ; wheat bran, 3 lbs. ; corn and cob meal, 3 lbs. ; cotton-seed meal, 2 lbs. ; gluten meal, 2 lbs. 16. Corn silage, 50 lbs. ; wheat shorts, 4 lbs. ; grano- gluten feed, 4 lbs. 17. Corn silage, 30 lbs. ; clover hay, 5 lbs. ; com fodder, 3 lbs. ; straw, 2 lbs. ; wheat bran, 5 lbs. ; linseed meal, 2 lbs. ; cotton-seed meal, 2 lbs. 18. Com silage, 40 lbs. ; timothy and clover hay, 5 lbs. ; wheat bran or shorts, 7 lbs. 19. Corn silage, 40 lbs. ; English hay, 5 lbs. ; clover hay, 5 lbs. ; wheat bran, 2 lbs. ; gluten meal, 2 lbs. ; cot- ton-seed meal, 1 lb. ; Unseed meal, 1 lb. 20. Com silage, 40 lbs. ; hay, 6 lbs. ; gluten meal, 2 lbs. ; com and cob meal, 2 lbs. ; wheat shorts, 2 lbs. 21. Corn silage, 50 lbs. ; hay, 8 lbs. ; wheat bran, 3 lbs. ; wheat shorts, 2 lbs. ; .ground rye and oats, 3 lbs. ; barley, 2 lbs. 22. Corn silage, 35 lbs.; clover hay, 10 lbs.; o,at straw, 2 lbs. ; corn meal, 5 lbs. ; wheat bran, 5 lbs. ; oats, 5 lbs. 23. Com silage, 35 lbs.; hay, 7 lbs.; brewers' grains, 20 lbs. ; gluten meal, 1% lbs. ; cotton-seed meal, 1% lbs. ; wheat shorts, 1% lbs. ; linseed meal, 1% lbs. 24. Corn silage, 24 lbs. ; com meal, 8 lbs. ; wheat bran, 2 lbs. ; oats, 4 lbs. ; linseed meal, 2 lbs. 25. Corn silage, 40 lbs. ; corn fodder, 10 lbs. ; cot- ton-seed meal, 2% lbs. ; N. P. linseed meal. 2 lbs. ; wheat bran, 4 lbs. 26. Corn silage, 40 lbs.; timothy hay, 10 lbs.; wheat bran, 6 lbs. ; com meal, 3. lbs. ; Ijnseed meal, 21bs, 27. Com silage, 50 lbs. ; hay, 5 lbs. ; wheat bran, 4 " ? lbs. ; cotton-seed meal, 1 lb. ; ground cotton-seed meal, 3 lbs.; lbs. ; linseed meal, rye, 1 lb. 28. Corn silage, 40 lbs. ; com starch feed, 18 lbs. 29. Com silage, 30 lbs. ; clover hay, 12 lbs. ; wheat middlings, 8 lbs. ; linseed meal, l^lb. 30. Corn silage, 42 lbs. ; clover and timothy hay, 5 lbs. ; com and cob meal, 8 lbs. ; dried brewers' grains, m lbs. 31. Corn silage, 30 lbs.; fodder com, 8 lbs.; corn meal, 3 lbs. ; wheat bran, 3 lbs ; cotton-seed meal, 1 lb. 33. Com isilage, 50 lbs. ; clover hay, 8 lbs. ; whesKt shorts, 5 lbs. 33. Com silage, 30 lbs. : corn stover. 8 lbs. ; wheat bran, 5 lbs. ; malt sprouts, 4 lbs. ; linseed meal, 1 lb. 34. Com silage, 50 lbs. ; clover hay, 9 lbs. 35. Corn silage, 45 lbs. ; mixed hay, 7 lbs. ; wheat bran, 6 lbs. ; cotton-seed meal, 2 lbs. 36. Com silage, 15 lbs. ; sugar beets, 22 lbs. ; h&y, 10 lbs. ; oats, 5'%o ibs. ; corn meal, 7 lbs. 37. Corn silage, 40 lbs. ; clover hay, 8 lbs. ; coarse linseed meal, 6 lbs. 38. Com silage, 30 lbs.; sorghum hay, 13% lbs.; com meal, 13/io lbs. ; cotton-seed meal, 2%o lbs. ; cotton- seed, 2%o lbs. ; wheat bran, lyio lbs. 39. Com silage, 35 lbs. ; mixed bay, 10 lbs. ; wheat bran, 3 lbs.; corn meal, 3%olbs. ; linseed meal, lib.; cotton-seed meal, %o lbs. 40. Corn silage, 20 lbs. ; hay, 14 lbs. ; wheat bran, 3 lbs. ; gluten meal, 2 lbs. 41. Com silage, 30 lbs.; hay, 10 lbs.; com meal, 2 lbs. ; gluten meal, 2 lbs. ; wheat bran, 2 lbs, 42. Com silage, 48 lbs.; corn and cob meal, 2% lbs. ; ground wheat, 2I^ lbs. ; oats, 31^ lbs. ; barley meal, 21/2 lbs. 43. Corn silage, 40 lbs. ; hay, 5 lbs. ; straw, 5 lbs. ; wheat bran, 4% lbs. ; oats, 4% lbs. 44. Corn silage, 15 lbs.; turnips, 45 lbs.; wheat chaff, 7 lbs. ; oats, 2% lbs. ; pea meal, 2% lbs. 45. Corn silage, 30 lbs. ; hay, 12 lbs. ; ground oats, 10 lbs. 46. Com silage, 40 lbs.; turnips, 30 lbs.; clover hay, 8 lbs. ; straw, % lb. ; oats, 2 lbs. ; wheat bi-an, 2 lbs. 47. Corn silage, 50 lbs. ; clover hay, 10 lbs. ; straw, 3 lbs. : pea meal, 5 lbs. ; oats, 2 lbs. The rations given were fed in the following States: Nos. 1-13, Wisconsin; No. 14, Colorado; No. 15, Con- necticut; No. 16, Illinois: No. 17, Indiana; No. 18, Iowa; Nos. 19, 20, Massachusetts; No. 21, Minnesota; No. 23, Nebraslca; No. 23, New Hampshire; No. 24, New Jersey; Nos. 35-30, New York; No. 31, North Carolina; Nos. 32-34, Ohio; Nos. 35-37, Pennsylvania; No. 38, Texas; Nos. 39-41, Vermont; No. 42, West Virginia; and Nos. 43-47, Canada. 388 THE FEEDING OF SILAGE How Much to Feed — The quantities of eilage fed should not exceed 40 or, at the out- side, 50 pounds per day per head. It is possible that a maximum allowance of only 25 to 30 pounds per head daily is to be preferred where the keeping quality of the milk is an important consider- ation. The silage may be given in one or two feeds daily, and, in case of cows in milk, always after milking, and not before or during the same, as the peculiar silage odor will, in the latter case, be apt to reappear in the milk. EflPect on Milk Secretion — Silage exerts a very beneficial influence on the secretion of milk. Where winter dairying is practiced, cows will usually drop considerably in milk toward spring, if fed on dry feed, causing a loss of milk through the whole remaining portion of the lac- tation period. If silage is fed there will be no such marked decrease in the flow of milk before turning out to grass, and the cows will be able to keep up well in milk until late in the summer, or early in the fall, when they are to be dried up preparatory to calving. Silage has a similar effect on the milk secretion as green fodder or pasture, and if made from well-matured corn, so as not to contain an excessive amount of acid, is more like these feeds than any other at the disposal of the farmer. There is an abundance of evidence at hand showing that good'silage fed in moderate quantities will produce an excellent qualit}' of both butter and cheese. According to the testimony of butter experts, silage not only in no way injures the flavor of butter, but better-flavored butter is pro- duced by judicious silage feeding than can be made from dry feed. The combinations in which corn silage will be used in feeding milch cows will depend a good deal on local conditions ; it may be said in general that it should be supplemented by a fair pro- portion of nitrogenous feeds like clover hay, wheat bran, ground oats, linseed meal, and cotton- seed meal. SILAGE FOR STEERS Silage may be fed with advantage to steers, in quantities up to forty or fifty ponnds a day. The health of the animals and the quality of the beef produced on moderate silage feeding leave nothing to be wished for. If the silage is made from immature corn, care must be taken not to feed too large quantities at the start and to feed carefully, so as not to produce scouring in the animals. Young stock may be fed half as much silage as full-grown ones, with the same restrictions and precautions as given for steers. Experience obtained at the Kansas Experiment Station suggests that corn silage is not a fit food for breeding bulls, unless fed only as a relish ; fed heavily on silage, bulls lose virility and become slow and uncertain breeders. SILAGE FOR HORSES When fed in moderate quantities, not to exceed twenty pounds a day, silage is a good food for horses. It should be fed twice a day, a light feed being given at first and gradually increased as the animals become accustomed to the food. Some farmers feed it mixed with cut straw, two-thirds of straw, and one-third of silage, and feed all the horses will eat of this mixed feed. Some horses object to silage at first on account of its peculiar odor, but by sprinkling some oats or bran on top SILAGE von SHEEP AND SWINE 389 of the silage and feeding only very small amounts to begin with, they soon learn to eat and relish it. Some horses take it willingly from the beginning. Horses not working may be fed larger quantities than work horses, but in neither case should the silage form more than a portion of the coarse feed fed to the horses. Silage-fed horses will look well and come out in the spring in better condition than when fed almost any other food. What has been said about silage as a food for horses will most likely apply equally well to mules, although only very limited experience has thus far been gained with silage for this class of farm animals. SILAGE FOR SHEEP Silage is looked upon with great favor among sheep men ; sheep do well on it, and silage-fed ewes drop their lambs in the spring without trouble, the lambs being strong and vigorous. Silage containing a good deal of corn is not well adapted for breeding stock, tis it is too fattening ; for fattening stock, on the other hand, much corn in the silage is an advantage. Sheep may be fed a couple of pounds of silage a day and not to exceed five or six pounds per head. Professor Cook reports as follows in regard to the value of silage for sheep : "I have fed ensilage liberally to sheep for three winters and am remarkably pleased with the results. I make ensilage half the daily ration, the other half being corn stalks, or timothy hay, with bran or oats. The sheep do exceedingly well. Formerly I was much troubled to raise lambs from grade Merino ewes. Of late this trouble has almost ceased. Last spring I hardly lost a lamb. While ensilage may not be the entire cause of the change, I believe it is the main cause." Mr. J. S. Woodward, the well-known New York farmer who has made a specialty of early lamb raising, says regarding silage as a feed for lambs : "In order to be successful in raising fine lambs, it is imperative that the ewes and lambs both should have plenty of succulent food. Nothing can supply the deficiency. For this purpose roots of almost any kind are good. Turnips, ruta- bagas, and mangolds are aU good. Corn silage is excellent. Could I have my choice I would prefer both silage and roots. If I were depending on silage alone for succulent food, I would give four pounds per hundred pounds live weight of sheep, all at one feed, at the forenoon feed ; but when feeding both silage and roots, I would feed silage in the morning and roots in the afternoon." SILAGE FOR SWIISE The testimony concerning the value of silage as a food for swine is conflicting, both favorable and unfavorable reports being at hand. Many farmers have tried feeding it to their hogs,, but without success. On the other hand, a number of hog raisers have had good success with silage, and feed it regularly to their swine. It is possible that the differences in the quality of the silage and of the methods of feeding practiced explain the diversity of opinions formed. According to Professor Cook, Col. F. D. Curtiss, the great American authority on the swine industry, states that silage is valuable to add to the winter rations of swine. 20 390 THE BUILDING OF A SILO Ml'. J. W, Pierce of Indiana writes in regard to silage for hogs ; "We have fed our sows, about twenty-five in number, for four winters, equal parts of ensilage and corn meal put into a cooker, and brought up to a steaming state. It has proved to be very beneficial to them. It keeps up the flow of milk of the sows that are nursing the young, equal to when they are running on clover. "We find, too, when the pigs are farrowed, they become more robust, and take to nursing much sooner and better, than they did in winters when fed on an exclusively dry diet." In feeding silage to hogs, care should be taken to feed only very little, a pound or so, at the start, mixing it with corn meal, shorts, or other concentrated feeds. The diet of the hog should be largely made up of easily digested grain food ; bulky, coarse feeds like silage can only be fed to advantage in small quantities, not to exceed three or four pounds per head, per day. As in the case of breeding ewes, silage will give good results when fed.with care to brood sows, keeping the system in order and producing a good flow of milk. THE BUILDING OF A SILO GENERAL CONSIDERATION'S Several important points liave to be observed in building silos. First of all, the silo must he air-tight, and the fodder well packed in it, so as to exclude the air as far as practicable. In the second place, the silo must have smooth, perpendicular walls, which will allow the mass to settle without forming cavities along the walls. In a deep silo the fodder will settle several feet during the first few days after filling. Any unevenness in the wall will prevent the mass from settling uniformly, and air spaces in the mass thus formed will cause the surrounding silage to spoil. The lualls must furthermore he rigid, so as not to spring when the siloed fodder settles, on account of the lateral pressure in the silo, as air would thereby be admit- ted along the silo walls, causing decay and loss of silage. Size — In planning a silo the first point to be decided is how large it shall be made. We will suppose that the farmer has a herd of twenty-five cows, to which he wishes to feed silage during the winter season, e. g., for 180 days. As a rule, it will not be well to feed over forty pounds of silage daily per head. If this quantity be fed daily, on an average for a season of 180 days, we have for the twenty-five cows 180,000 pounds, or ninety tons. If ninety tons of silage is wanted, about one hundred tons of fodder corn must be placed in the silo. We may take forty pounds as the average weight of one cubic foot of corn silage. One ton of silage will accordingly take up fifty cubic feet ; and 100 tons, 5,000 cubic feet. If a rectangular one-hundred-ton silo is to be built, say 12 x 14 feet, it must then have a height of 30 feet. If a square silo is wanted it might be given dimensions 12 x 12 x 35 feet, or 13 x 13 x 30 feet. (See also under "Handy Rules.") GENEEAL OONSIDEEATIONS 391 Appkoximate Capacity op Ctlindeical Silos fob Well-matubbd Coen Silage, in Tons Depth of Silo, Inside Diameter of Silo, Feet Feet 10 13 14 15 16. 18 30 21 23 23 24 25 26 20 26 28 SO 33 31 36 38 40 42 45 47 49 51 38 40 43 46 49 52 55 58 61 64 68 70 73 51 55 59 62 66 70 74 78 83 88 93 96 101 69 63 67 72 I! 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 67 73 77 83 87 90 97 103 108 114 119 135 131 85 91 97 103 110 116 123 130 137 144 151 158 166 105 113 ISO 128 135 148 152 160 169 178 187 195 205 115 123 133 141 149 158 168 177 186 196 206 215 226 127 135 145 164 164 173 184 194 204 215 336 236 248 138 148 158 169 179 190 201 313 233 235 347 258 271 151 161 172 184 195 206 219 231 1 243 356 369 382 295 163 175 187 199 212 334 237 361 264 278 292 305 320 177 31 189 23 23 . .. 202 216 34 229 35 343 26 257 2r 279 28 W1 39 305 30 310 31 335 33 340 The silo should always be emptied from the top in horizontal layers, and the surface kept level, so as to expose as little of the silage as possible to the air. It should be fed out rapidly enough to avoid spoiling of the silage ; in ordinary northern winter weather a layer of a couple of inches should be fed off daily. Professor King estimates that there should be a feeding surface in the silo of about five square feet per cow in the herd ; a herd of thirty cows will then require 150 square feet of feeding surface, or the inside diameter of the silo should be 14 feet ; for a herd of forty cows a silo with a diameter of 16 feet will be required , for fifty cows, a diameter of 18 feet ; for one hundred cows, a diameter of 25i feet, etc. These considerations are at the foundation of the following table : Size of Silo Needed — (Harder) Number of Cows. 13. 21. 25-. Estimated Consump- tion of Silage. Tons. 20 30 45 74 Size of Silo Needed Diam. Height. 9 X 201 10 X 16 i 10 X 22 I 11 X 20 f 10 X 291 11 X 35 I 12 X 22 I 13x20j 11 X 371 13 X 32 13x29 15x24 16 X 22, 12x38'l 13 X 33 I 14 X 30 16x27 16 X 25 Average Acres of Corn Needed. 1 to 2 3 to 3 3 to 4 6 to 7 Number of Cows. 30, 35 40 45 50. Estimated Consump- tion of Silage. Tons. 108 126 144 162 180 Size of Silo Needed Diam. Heiglat. 13 X 381 14 X 34 15 X 30 I- 16 X 28 I 17 X 25 J 15 X 35 1 16 X 31 V 17 X 29 i 16 X 35 1 17 X 31 V 18 X 29 i 18 X 32 1 19 X 29 ) ir X 38 I 18 X 34 f Average Acres of Corn Needed. 8 to 9 9 to 10 10 to 11 11 to 12 12 to 13 392 THE BUILDING OF A SILO Form of Silos — One of the essentials in silo building is that there shall be a minimum of surface and wall exposure of the silage, as both the cost and the danger from losses through spoil- ing are thereby reduced. The round silos are superior to all other forms in regard to this point, the cylindrical form being also the most economical to build of the three types, because lighter material and less of it may he used in their construction. Silage of all kinds will usually begin to spoil after a few days, if left exposed to the air ; hence the necessity of considering the extent of surface exposure of silage in the silo while it is being fed out. In a deep silo there is less silage exposed in the surface layer in proportion to the con- tents than 'in shallow silos. Location — The feeding of the silage is an every -day job during the whole winter and spring, and twice a day at that. The silo should be as handy to get at from the barn as possible. If the ground is dry outside the barn, the best plan is to build the silo there, in connection with the barn, going 4 to 6 feet below the surface, and providing for doors opening directly into the barn. The bottom of the silo should be on or below the level where the cattle stand, and, if prac- ticable, the silage should be moved out and placed before the cows at a single handling. While it is important to have the silo near at hand, it should be so located, in case the silage is used for milk production, that silage odors do not penetrate the whole stable, at milking or at other times. BottOHl of Silo — The bottom of the silo may be clay, or, preferably, a layer of small stones covered with cement. In some silos considerable damage has been done by rats burrowing their way into the silo from below, and destroying a great deal of silage, both directly and indirectly, by admitting air into the silo. The silo may be built 4 to 6 feet down into the ground, if this IS dry. Stave silos are built entirely above ground. Foundation and Wall — The silo should rest on a substantial stone foundation, to prevent the bot- tom of the silo from rotting and to guard against spread- ing of the silo wall. The foundation wall should be 18 to 24 inches thick . Professor Cook recommends mak- ing the bottom of the silo one foot below the ground, so that the stone wall on which it rests may be sustained by the earth on the outside, as shown in Fig. 167. In building rectangular silos sills made by two 2 x 10 planks (P) rest on the inside ten inches of the foundation wall ; one of these projects at each corner. The stud- dings (S), which are 2x10 planks, and as long as the silo is high, or two lengths toe-nailed together, are placed 12 to 16 inches apart, large silos requiring the smaller distance. As there is a considerable lateral pressure in the silo Fig. 167. Foundation of silo. Bottom ix,^jj-u tni-t- • i^i of silo one foot below ground. (Cook.) before the fodder has settled, it is very important to STONE OR BRICK SILOS 393 make the walls rigid and to place the studding sufficiently close together to prevent spreading of the wall. Mr. James M. Turner states that it was found necessary to use 2x12 studding, 22, 24, or 26 feet in length for the outside wall, as well as for the cross-partitions in his first silo. In addition to this, three courses of bridging in each side-wall were inserted. When the silage has settled there is no lateral pressure in the silo. While silos pi-ovided with partitions must be filled simultaneously on both sides of the partition to avoid bulging or even breaking of the partition, the silage in one compartment can be completely removed before that in the other is uncovered, without causing the partition to spring. To insure ventilation in rectangular wooden silos, the sills may be two inches narrower than the studding, so as to leave air spaces between the sills and the linings in the. same way the plate is made narrower than the studding to provide for an escape at the top. The same end may be reached by boring a series of holes at the bottom of the outside wall between every two studs, leaving an open space of about two inches on the inside at the top of the plate. Wire nettings should be nailed over ventilation openings to keep outs rats and mice. Roof — Where the silo is built in the bay of a barn, there will be no need of making any sep- arate roof, which otherwise generally will be the case. The roof may be either board or shingle, and should be provided with a cupola, so as to allow free ventilation in the silo. In extreme cold weather this should be shut, to prevent freezing of the silage. Material — Silos are at the present built almost exclusively of wood, stone, or concrete, or partly of one, partly of another of these materials. STONE OK BRICK SILOS .These silos are usually more expensive than wooden ones, but, in return, they will last longer when carefully built. Stone silos are easily built, being just like a cellar wall, if possible without any opening except the door, and provided with a roof like any other silo. The walls should be at least 16 inches thick, and should be jacketed with wood on the outside, to prevent injury from frost, and to form dead-air spaces, which will insure perfect 'preser-oation of the silage dear up to the silo wall. This applies still more to brick than to stone walls. With the outside covering nailed to studdings, 3x4, no trouble will, however, be experienced in either case. Ventilation of the silo frame must be provided for as in the case of wooden silos. The following mode of constructing stone silos has proved very convenient, and will make good, substantial silos : The silo is built 5 to 6 feet into the ground, if it can safely be done ■ the foundation wall is made two feet thick, and at the level of the ground a 4x 6 sill is laid on the outer edge of the wall and bedded in mortar ; a wooden frame is then erected of 2x6 studding, sheeted on the inside with common flooring, and on the outside with ship lap boarding, with or without building paper on the studding. The stone wall is then continued on the inside of this wooden frame up to the plate, the corners well rounded off, and the whole inside cemented. The stone or brick wall must be made smooth by means of a heavy coat of a first-class cement. Since the acid juices of silage are apt to gradually soften the cement, it may be found necessary to protect the coating by a whitewash with pure cement every other year before the silo is filled. If this precaution is taken, the silo wUl last for generations ; some of the earliest stone silos built in 394 THE BUILDITCCr OF A SILO this country have now been filled every season for over twenty years without deteriorating per- ceptibly. Like the wooden silos, stone silos may be rectangular, square, or circular ; if built according to either of the first two forms, the corners should be rounded off so as to assist the settling of the siloed mass, and avoid loss through insuflicient packing of the mass in the corners. The construction of a round, all-stone silo given by Professor King is shown in Fig. 168. A shows a section of the silo, with conical roof, and the arrange- ment of filling and feeding doors ; B and C are ground plans of circular and rectangu- lar stone silos ; D, E, F show construction of feeding doors. The construction of the door jambs, to make them air-tight, will be seen in the illustration. The doors are made from two layers of 4- inch matched fiooring, with a layer of 3-ply saturated acid and alkali-proof paper, and are held in place with large screws or lag bolts, as shown in E and F. The face of the jambs should be lined with 3-ply P. and B. "Ruberoid" paper or its equal ; this will act as a gasket to make the door perfectly air-tight. Construction of circular, all-stone silo. (King.) GROUT SILOS Where stone is scarce, and lumber high, the best silo is made of grout. Grout silos may be made according to the following directions : Having excavated for the silo, dig a trench all around the bottom, and fill it with cobble- stone, and from one corner lead a drain, if possible, so as to carry off all water. The trench under the proposed walls of the silo being filled with cobblestones, place standai'ds of scantling long enough to extend 13 inches higher than the top of the wall when it is finished. Place these stan- dards on each side of the proposed wall, and if you desire the walls to be 20 inches thick, place the standards 33 inches apart, a pair of standards being placed every 5 or 6 feet around the entire foundation ; be particular to have the standards exactly plumb, and in line ; fasten the bottoms of standards firmly in the ground, or by nailing a strip of wood across at the bottom of the stan- GROUT SILOS, STAVE SILOS 395 dards, and a little below where the floor of the silo will be ; fasten the tops of the standards by a heavy cross-piece securely nailed, and fasten the pairs of standards in their plumb positions by shores reaching the bank outside. Planks U inches thick and 14 inches wide are now placed edgewise inside the standards, 30 inches apart, thus forming a box, 14 inches deep, and running all along and around the entire foundation of the proposed wall. Pill this box with alternate layers of cobblestone or any rough stone, etc., and mortar or concrete. First a layer of mortar, and then a layer of stones, not allowing the stones to come quite out to the box- ing plank, but having con- crete over the edges : the con- crete must be tamped down solid. The concrete is prepared as follows ; One part of good cement is mixed thoroughly with four parts of dry sand, and then with six parts of clear gravel ; make into a thin mortar, sprinkling with water over the same by means of a sprinkler, and use at once. Put an inch or two of this mortar into the box, and then bed in cobblestones ; fill in with mortar, again covering the stones, and again put in a layer of stone. When the box is filled, and the mortar "set" so that the wall is firm, raise the box one foot, leaving two inches lap of plank on wall below, and go around again, raising the wall one foot each day, or every second day, according to the amount of labor on hand. If no gravel is obtainable, use five barrels of sand to one of cement, and bed in all the cobblestones possible. Stones with rough edges are better than smooth .ones, as they bind the wall more thoroughly, but any flat stones found about the fields will do as well. A layer of loose cobblestones should be placed against the outside wall before the earth is brought against it, so as to have an air space, and a free passage for water. As in case of the stone silos, the inside walls of grout silos must be made perfectly smooth, and preserved from softening by means of occasional whitewashings with pure cement ; they must also be protected from frost by an outside wooden lining nailed on the 3x4 studding. Fig. 169. Stave silo, 13 feet diameter, 24 feet high; capacity, 50 tons. (Elias.) STAVE SILOS The stave silo is the simplest type of the various separate silo buildings. Stave silos are, generally speaking, similar to large railroad or fermentation tanks, and to make satisfactory silos should be built at all events as well as a No. 1 water tank. 396 THE BUILDING OF A SILO Fig. 170. Base of stave silo. (Harder.) The stave silos sent out by manufacturing firms will generally be more expensive than such as a farmer can build himself, because they are built better. The writer believes that it does not paj' to build a poor silo ex- cept to bridge over an emergency, yet if a farmer can not afford to build a good silo, he is not necessarily barred from the advantage of having silage for his stock, since a tem- porary silo may be built at a very small cash outlay. We can therefore consistently, in most cases, recommend that persons intending to build stave silos patronize the manufacturers who have made silo construction a special business ; their advertisements will be found in any of the standard dairy or agricultural papers. These firms furnish all necessary silo fittings, with com- plete directions for setting up the silos, and, if desired, also sliilled help to superintend their build- ing. Perhaps a large majority of the farmers of the country can not patronize manufacturers of stave silos because the expense of shipping the lumber and fixtures would be prohibitory. For the convenience of such persons and others who may prefer to build their own stave silos, direc- tions for their construction are given in the following. The specifications for a 100-ton stave silo, printed below, were furnished at the request of the author by Claude & Starck, architects, Madison, Wis. : Specifications for a 100-ton Stave Silo Masonry — Excavate the entire area to be occupied by tlie silo to a deptli of 6 incbes ; excavate for foundation wall to a depth of 16 inches ; in this trench build wall 18 inches wide and 20 inches high, of field stone laid in rich lime mortar. Level off top and plaster inside, outside, and on top with cement mortar, one part cement to one part sand. Fill inside area with 4 inches of good gravel, thoroughly tamped down ; after the woodwork is in place, coat this with 1 inch of cement mortar, one part cement to one part clean sand. Cement shall be smoothly finished, dished well to the center and brought up at least 2 inches all around inside and outside walls. Carpentry — All staves shall be 26 feet long in two pieces, breaking joints, and made from clear, straight-grained cypress 2x6 inches, beveled on edges to an outside radius of 8 feet, mill-sized to the exact dimei;sions, and dressed on all sides. There shall be three doors in the fifth, eighth, and tenth spaces between hoops, mad© by cutting out from staves 28 inches long cut to a 45-degree bevel sloping to the inside. (See Fig. 174.) The staves shall then be fas- tened together with two 2x4-inch battens cut on inside to an 8-foot radius and bolted to each stave with two J4-inch diameter carriage bolts, with round head sunk on inside and nut on outside. The staves between the doors shall be fastened together, top and bottom, ^CEMENT COVE' COt^CRETE ^.(■^ EARTH SECTION SCALE /4 IN TO FOOT. FiQ. 171. Foimdation of stave silo. (Harder.) STAVE SILOS 397 c- - ^ 0^ '■ € ^ J_ ■f s_ W ' ■"- ' " /) - •v ■* Fig. 173. Cross-section of stave silo. The dotted lines are to show how soafEold- ing may be put up. (Clinton.) ■with ?^-Hich diameter hardwood dowel pins, and abutting ends of ^.%-,, staves shall be squared and toe-nailed together. f_\ y"...' Bottom Plates — Bottom plates shall be made of 2 x 4-inch pieces about 2 feet long, cut to a curve of 7 feet 10 inches radius out- side. They shall be bedded in cement mortar and the staves shall then be set on the foundation and well spilled to these plates. Hoops — Hoops shall be made from two pieces of ^-ineh diam- eter round iron with upset ends, threaded 8 inches, with nut and t washer at each end ; as a support for the hoops a piece of 4 x G-inch \^ shall be substituted for a stave on opposite sides and holes bored in V it and the ends of hoops passed through these holes and tightened against the sides of the 4 x G-inch. The hoops shall be twelve in number, starting at the bottom 6 inches apart and increasing in distance 6 inches between each hoop, until a space of 3 feet 6 inches is reached ; from this point up this distance shall be preserved as near as possible to the top. Roof — Roof shall be made to a half-pitch of 6 inches clear siding, lapping joint, nailed to 3 x 4-inch rafters, 3-foot centers, 1-foot by 4-inch ridge, and 2x4-lnch plates. These plates to be supported on two 4 s 4-inch pieces resting on top of hoops. (See Fig. 178.) Three 1 x 4-inch collar beams shall be spiked to end and middle rafters to tie side of roof together. Painting — The entire outside of the silo, including roof, shall be painted two coats of good mineral paint ; the entire inside surface of staves and doors shall be thoroughly coated with hot coal tar. Note — Before filhng silo, tarred paper should be tacked tightly over doors and the .entire inside of silo examined and all cracks tightly calked. Notes on Construction — The method of making the foundation of a stave silo recommended by a New York manufacturer is shown in Figs. 170 and 171. A good way of starting the building of a stave silo is illustrated in Figs. 173 and 175. Some manufacturers of stave silos furnish such silo fronts, all joined together and ready to set in place, at a small extra charge, with battens D, D, bolted on, and dowel-pinned together ; after the front is up and braced, so that it stands perfectly perpendicular every way, the silo is built by adding a stave at a time to this front, each stave being firmly fastened by cleats on the inside, one near the top, one in the middle, and one near the bottom. (Fig. 176.) Before filling the silo the hoops should be drawn somewhat tight, but not perfectly so, so as to allow for the swelling of the staves from the moisture which they will take up from the corn. The hoops should be watched closely for some days after the silo has been filled, and if the strain becomes very intense the nuts should be slightly loosened so that Fig. 173. Six- stave silo front, ready to be put up : A, A, A, doors; C, C, C, dowel pins ; D, D, D, door battens (Cap.Lbr.Co.) the hoops will not be broken or the thread stripped. Fig. 174. Appearance of door in stava silo after being sawed out, and side view of door in place. (Clinton.) 398 THE BITILDIXa OF A SILO * ■■■■ A Jit |wSB| HHJI^SRk^'Ii^Jr *4 mT'^ '!!(it^<^^£SHE Fig. 17'5. Sfttiiii,^ up tlit^ stave silo in sl tioiis. (HariliT.) brciikiug juiiits, tmd, if tborougljly nailrd, «'i tigbt silo. Ko toiiguiiig or matcbhig is lu-cdrd paper ma}' lie put ln'twcen tbe bourdiui;', if dusircd, but I doubt if it is of great utilitj'. "At some point most easily accessible, an opening extending nearljr tfie height of the silo must be made, to put in the corn and tiil^e out tbe silage. Tlie courses of boards should be cut shorter than the opening, to allow loose boards to Ijc set in, lap[iiug on tbe door- studding and making im air-tight joint. For all this work medium luinln'r is good enough, and a very lim- ited amount of mechanical skill and a few tools, which all farms should have, will enable most farmers to build their own silo. "A few iron rods, one-half inch in diameter, may he necessary to previ-nt sinTading by side pressure, but this will depend u()on tbeslrengtb of tbe original frame ()f the barn. Narrow boards, from .5 to 8 inches wide, In order to prevent the collapse of the silo during the summer when it is empty and the staves have be- come thoroughly dried out, the hoops should be fas- tened with numerous stajiles ; these will prevent the hoops from sagging or dropping down, and will also lioUl the staves in place. SQUAKK OK Rl^CTANGULAIl wooi)i:n silos Bays of tlio iKini mtiy bo easily cliaiigcd into silos according to the following directions given Ijy Professor Whitchof: "Remove floors, and if there is a barn cellar, place sills on the bottom of this and set 2x8 scantling verti- cally, bringing up the inside edges even witlj the sills of the barn. The bottom may or may not be cemented, according as the ground is wet or dry. If to be cemented, three casks of cement and an equal amount of sharp sand or gravel will ccjver a bottom IGx 16 and turn up on the sides two feet, which will give a tight silo. Common spruce or hemlock boards, square-edged and planed on one side, are best for boarding the inside of the silo; these are to be piut on in two courses, give a Tarred Fig. lie. Use ef barrel staves m setting up a stave .silo ; they should be removed before the silo is ailed. CROPS FOR THE SILO 399 Fig. 177. Door of stave silo. (Elias.) are better than wide ones, as they are not likely to swell and split. Eight-penny nails for the first hoard- ing and twelve-penny nails for the second course will hold the boards in place. "A silo constructed as above outlined will cost from 50 cents to $1 for each ton of its capacity, according as all materials, including lumber and stone, are charged, or only labor and naUs, rods, and cement." CROPS FOR THE SILO CORN SILAGE The varieties of corn to be planted for the silo must differ according to local conditions, as of climate and soil. Ideal Varieties — The ideal silage corn, accord- ing to Shelton, is a variety having a tall, slender, short- jointed stalk, well eared, and bearing an abundance of foliage. The leaves and ears should make up a large percentage of the total weight, and the yield per acre should be heavy. The lower leaves should keep green until the crop is ready to harvest, and it is desirable to have the plant stool well and throw out tall, grain-bearing suckers. A silage variety should mature late, the later the better, so long as it only matures, as a long-grow- ing, late-maturing sort will furnish much more feed from a given area than one that ripens early. Thickness of Planting — In planting corn for the silo we want the largest quantities of food materials that the land is capable of producing. This, evidently, can be obtained by a medium thickness of planting. If too thin or too thick planting be practiced, the total yields of food materials obtained will be decreased — in the for- mer case, because of the small stand of plants ; in the latter, because of insufficiency of light, moisture, and other conditions necessary to bring the plants forward to fuU growth. Com should he planted in hills or drills, and not broadcast. The objection to sowing com broadcast is that the laud can not be kept free from weeds in this case, except by hand labor ; that more seed is required, and that plants will shade one another, and therefore not reach fuU development, from lack of sufficient sunshine and mois- ^"■(Ctototf"*^ ^°°^ °* "*^^ ^°' tiire- ^s a result, the yield will be greatly diminished. 400 CROPS FOR THE SILO When to Harvest — The largest amount of food materials in the com crop is not obtained until the corn is well ripened. When a corn plant has reached its total growth in height, it has attained only one- third to one-half the weight of dry matter it will gain if left to grow to maturity ; and although there is a slight decrease in the digestibility of the diy matter and a marked decrease in that of the crude protein and crude fiber with the greater maturity of the fodder, we nevertheless find that the general practice of cutting corn for the silo at the time when the fruit has reached the roasting-ear stage, is good science, and in accord with our best knowledge on the subject. CLOVER A?fD ALFALFA SILAGE When properly made, clover silage is an ideal feed for nearly all kinds of stock. Aside from its higher protein content it has an advantage over corn silage in point of lower cost of production. The late A. F. Noyes of Dodge County, Wisconsin, who siloed 1,300 tons of clover during his last eight years, estimated the cost of one ton of clover silage at 70 cents to |1, against $1 to $1.25 per ton of corn silage. When to Cut — The common practice of farmers is to cut clover for the silo when in fuU bloom, or when the first single heads are beginning to wilt, that is, when right for haymaking, and we notice that the teachings of the investigations made are in conformity with this practice. What has been said in regard to the siloing of clover refers to alfalfa as well. Alfalfa silage compares favorably with clover silage, both in chemical composition and in feeding value. It is richer in flesh-forming substances (protein) than clover silage, or any other kind of silage, and makes a most valuable feed for farm animals, especially young stock and dairy cows. OTHER SILAGE CROPS Sorghum is sometimes siloed in the Western and Middle States. Sorghum for silage is sown in drills, three and one-half inches apart, with a stalk every six to ten inches in the row, and is cut when the kernels are In the dough stage, or before. Accord- ing to Shelton, the medium-growing saccharine and non-saccharine sorghums are all excellent silage materials. The sorghums are less liable to damage by insects than corn, and they remain green far into the fall, so that the work of filling the silo may be carried on long after the corn is ripe and the stalks all dried up. The yield per acre of green sorghum will often reach twenty tons, or one-half as much again as a good crop of corn. Cow-j)ea Silage is greatly relished by farm animals after they once become accustomed to its peculiar flavor ; farmers who have had considerable practical experience in feeding this silage are of the opinion that cow-pea silage has no equal as a food for cows and sheep. It is also a good hog food, and for all these animals is considered greatly superior to pea-vine hay. Soja Beans {soy beans) are another valuable silage crop. The vigorous late varieties are well adapted for silage. The crop is frequently siloed with corn (two FILLING THE SILO 401 parts of the latter to one of the former), and like other legumes it improves the silage by tending to counteract the acid reaction of corn silage. Mixed Silage — Professor Robertson of Canada has recommended the Rolertson Ensilage Mixture for the silo. The mixtxire is made up of cut Indian com, sunflower seed heads, and horse beans in the pro- portion of one acre corn, one-half acre horse beans, and one-quavter acre sunflowers. The princi- ple back of this practice is to furnish a feed richer in flesh-forming substances (protein) than corn, and thus avoid the purchase of large quantities of expensive protein foods, like bran, oil meal, etc. Feeding experiments conducted with the Robertson Silage Mixture for cows at several of our experiment stations have given very satisfactory results, and have shown that this silage mixture can be partly substituted for the grain ration of milch cows, without causing loss of flesh or less- ening the production of milk or fat. Fifteen pounds of this silage may be considered equivalent to three to four pounds of grain feeds. Beet Pulp Silage — In districts near sugar beet factories, where sugar beet pulp can be obtained in large quantities and at a trifling cost, stock feeders and dairymen have a most valuable aid in preserving the pulp in the silo. As the pulp is taken from the factory it contains about 90 per cent of water. The pulp packs well in the silo, being heavy, finely divided and homogeneous, and a more shallow silo can therefore be safely used in making pulp silage than is required in siloing corn, and especially clover and other crops of similar character. If pulp is siloed with other fodder crops, it is preferably placed uppermost, for the reason stated. Beet tops and pulp may also be siloed in alternate layers in pits three to four feet deep, and covered with boards and a layer of dirt. Beet pulp silage is relatively rich in protein and low in ash and carbohydrates (nutritive ratio 1:5.7). Its feeding value is equal to about half that of corn silage. FILLING THE SILO If the corn is to be cut before being filled into the silo, it is trnloaded on the table of the fodder-cutter and run through the cutter, after which the carrier elevates it to the silo window and delivers it into the silo. Fine vs. Coarse-cut Silage — The length of cutting practiced differs somewhat with different farmers, and according to variety of corn to be siloed. The general practice is to cut the corn in one-half to one-inch lengths, a few cut in two-inch lengths. The corn will pack better in the silo the finer it is cut, and cattle will eat the larger varieties cleaner if cut into inch lengths or less. On the other hand, it is possible that fine cutting implies larger losses through fermentations in the silo ; fine-cut silage may, furthermore, not keep as long as silage cut longer after having been taken out of the silo. There is, however, not sufiicient experimental evidence at hand to establish either of these points ; the majority of farmers filling silos, at any rate, prac- tice cutting com fine for the silo. 402 FILLING THE SILO Spreading and Packing — The carrier should deliver the corn as nearly in the middle of the silo as possible ; by means of a chute attached to the carrier, the cut corn may be delivered to any part of the silo desired ; and the labor of distributing and leveling the corn thus facilitated. If the corn is siloed "ears and all," it is necessary to keep a man or a boy in the silo while it is being filled, to level the surface and tramp down the sides and corners ; if left to itself, the heavier pieces of ears will be thrown farthest away and the light leaves and tops will all come nearest the discliarge ; as a result, the corn will not settle evenly, and the feeding value of different layers of silage will differ greatly. To assist in the distribution of the corn it is recom- mended that a pyramidal box be hung in front and below the top of the carrier ; this may be made about three feet square at the base and tapering to a point, at which a rope is attached for hanging to rafters. The descending mass of cut corn will strilie the top of the box and be divided so as to distribute to all parts of the silo. Another simple device is to place a board vertically, ornearly so, in front of the top of the carrier, against which the cut corn will strike; or, to tie a bag, open at the bottom, over the top of the carrier. Rapid vs. Slow Filling- — Generally speaking, rapid fllhng has the advantage in point of economy, both of labor and of food materials. The fermentations are left to proceed farther in case of slow filling than when the silo is filled rapidly, being greatly aided by the oxygen of the air, which then has better access to the separate layers ; this is plainly shown by the higher temperature reached in slowly filled silos. The rise in the temperature is due to the activity of bacteria, and a high temperature, therefore, means greater losses of food constituents. More silage can be obtained in the same silo by slow than by rapid filling, as the fodder will settle more in the former case than when the silo is filled at once, and refilled after a few days. As there may be some farmers who still hold slow filling to be preferable, we give the directions for filling the silo in this way • When enough corn has been added to fill three to six feet of the silo, the filling is discontinued and the mass allowed to heat up to 130° to 140° Fahrenheit. This may take a day or two; the filling is then continued, and another layer of three feet or more filled in, which is left to heat as before. This method of intermittent filling Is continued until the silo is full. Carbon Dioxide' Poi.soning — As soon as the corn in the silo begins to heat, carbon dioxide is evolved, and if the silo is shut up tight, the gas will gradually accumulate directly above the fodder, since it is heavier than air and does not mix with it under the conditions given. If a man or an animal goes down into this atmosphere, there is great danger of asphyxiation, as is the case under similar conditions in a deep cistern or well. Poisoning cases from this cause have occurred in filling silos where the filling has been interrupted for one or more days, the carbonic acid generated in the meantime having replaced the layer of air immediately above the corn, and men who have gone into the silo to tramp down the cut corn have been asphyxiated. If the doors above the siloed mass are left open when the filling is stopped, or at least the first door above the surface of the corn, and the silo thus ventilated, the gas will slowly diffuse into the air. Carbon dioxide being without odor or color, to all appearances like ordinary air, it can not be directly observed, but may be readily detected by means of a lighted lantern or candle. If the light goes out when lowered into the silo, there is an accumulation of this gas in it, and a person should open feed doors and fan the air in the silo before going down into it. 1 Popularly called "carbonic acid gas." BOOKS ON THE SILO 403 After the silage is made and tlie temperature in the silo has gone down considerably, there is no further evolution of carbon dioxide and therefore no danger in entering the silo, even if this has been shut up tight. Covering the Siloed Fodder — Straw, marsh hay, sawdust, finely cut corn stalks or green husked fodder, cotton-seed hulls, etc., are used in various localities to cover the siloed fod- der, but none of the materials recommended for the purpose can perfectly preserve the uppermost layer of silage, as far as my experience goes, some six to eight inches of the top layer usually being spoiled. The wet or green materials are better for cover than dry substances, since they prevent evaporation of water from the t©p layer. The practice of applying water to the fodder in the silo has been followed in a large number of cases. The surface is tramped thoroughly and a considerable amount of water added. By this method a sticky, almost impervious layer of rotten silage, a couple of inches thick, will form on the top, which will prevent evaporation of water from the corn below, and will preserve all but a few inches of the top. None of the different methods foregoing will preserve all of the silage intact, and the author knows of only one way in which this can be accomplished, viz. ; by beginning to feed the silage within a few days after the silo has been filled. This method is now practiced by many farmers, especially dairymen, who in this manner supplement scant fall pastures. r^#^ PUBLICATIONS OTf THE CONSTRUCTIOIN AND MANAGEMENT OF SILOS Note — In addition to the few publications on the subject of Silos and Silage here listed, many of the State agricultural experiment stations have issued bulletins which are sent free to residents of the respective States. For convenience in ordering these and other bulletins, a directory of the experimeut stations is given in this con- nection. Directors should be addressed in their official cafjacity, and not personally, to obviate the possibility of delay in the supplying of bulletins in their absence from their stations. A Book on Silage. By F. W. Woll. Rand, McJSfallij & Co., Chicago . . $0.75 Physics of Agricultxjke. By Franklin H. King. F. H. King, Madison, Wis. . 2.00 Thirty-four pages of this work are given over to a treatment of mechanical considerations in silo-buiiding. Silos, Ensilage, ai^d Silage. By Manley Miles. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . . .50 Silos and Silage. By C. S. Plumb. Farmers' Bulletin 32. United States Department of Agriculture 404 AGRICULTUEAL EXPEKIMEXT STATIONS DIRECTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES DiHECTOR post-ofpice Address State Director Post-office Address State P. H. Mell J. M. Richeson G. W. Carver E. H. Forbes Auburn i Uniontown 2 Tuskegees.. Tucson Fayetteville Berkeley Alabama Alabama Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Louisiana Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri J. T. Otinson S. Fortier -. E. A. Burnett.... J. E. Stubbs W. D. Gibbs E. B. Voorhees . . E. B. Voorhees .. Luther Foster . . . W. H. Jordan.... L P. Roberts B. W. Kilgore.... J. H. Worst C. E. Thorne John Fields J. Withycombe.. H. P. Armsby H.J.Wheeler... H. S. Hartzog ..- J. W. Heston ...- A. M. Soule. J. H. Connell J. A. Widtsoe.... J. L. Hills J. M. McBryde... E. A. Bryan J H. Stewart W. A. Henry E. E. Smiley Mountain Grove 9 Bozeman Lincoln Missouri Montana Nebraska R. L. Bennett Durham New Hampshire E. W. Hilgard.... L. G. Carpenter- . . E. H. Jenkins W. 0. Atwater A. T. Neale T. H. Taliaferro . . E.J. Redding J. A. McLean New Brunswickio New Brunswickil Mesilla Park Geneva 12... Ithaca 13 Raleigh New Jersey Fort Collins New Haven * Storrs 5 . . _ Newark Lake City Experiment Moscow New Jersey New Mexico New York New York North Carolina North Dakota Wooster Stillwater Ohio E. Davenport Urbana Lafayette Oklahoma C. F. Curtiss State College.... Kingston Clemson College. Brookings Knoxville College Station . . Logan Burlington Blacksburg Pullman Morgantown Madison Laramie Pennsylvania J.T.Willard M. A. Scovell W. C. Stubbs. W. C. Stubbs W.C. Stubbs- Clias. D. Woods Manhattan Lexington Baton Rouge 6--- New Orleans 7 . . . Calhoun 8.. Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah H. J Patterson... H. H. Goodell CD. Smith W. M. Liggett -.-- W. L. Hutchinson. H.J. Waters College Park Amherst Agricult. College. St. Anthony Park Agricult. College. Columbia Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming 1 College Station. 2 Canebrake Station. sTuskegee Station. "t State Station. 5 Storrs Station. 6 State Station. 7 Sugar Station. 8 North Station. 9 Fruit Station. 10 State Station. 11 College Station. 12 State Station. 13 Cornell Station. Making- Poultry Pay By P. H. Jacobs, Editor The Poultt'y Keeper^ Hammonton, N. J. CAUSES OF FAILURE While it may safely be asserted that all farms have their flocks of poultry, and that in proportion to capital invested larger pi'ofits are derived from that source than from any other live stock, yet farmers, as a rule, do not give that considera- tion to the poultry department to which it is justly entitled. Everything depends upon the man in the management of poultry ; that is, success or failure rests entirely upon the management, and in studying the causes of failures the poultry keeper must hold in view the fact that the fowls are creatures in his charge, and that upon his judgment hinges the question of profit or loss. What have been the causes of failure with the many who have ventured into the poultry business, only to fail and then to decide that "poultry keeping does not pay" ? The following are the chief reasons, and tliey should be carefully considered : 1. Endeavoring to keep two fowls where room for one only can be obtained ; that is, saving in expenses by cheapening the cost of houses and space. 2. Buying fowls from other farms and thus bringing disease and lice into the flocks. 3. Overfeeding, the fowls being supplied with the greatest abundance under the supposition, "the more feed the more eggs." 4. Cold drafts over the fowls at night, with a view to supplying fresh air, when the thermometer is low. 5. Wasting time with sick fowls instead of destroying all birds that can not be quickly cured. 6. Disregarding the breeds by keeping anything that is a fowl. 7. Lack of exercise, the fowls being idle, discontented, and consuming food because they have nothing to do. 8. Failure to provide sufficient warmth in winter, a season when eg'gs are highest. ■ Copyright, 1903, by Rand, McNally & Co. (405) 27 406 CAUSES OP FAILITRE WITH POULTRY 9. Feeding corn and wheat exclusively and omitting foods which supply albumen for the eggs. 10. Feeding three times a day, the result being indigestion and the introduction of disease in the flock. 11. Lief, both mites and the large lice that are found only on the bodies of the fowls and at all seasons of the year. 12. Failure to keep the houses and yards clean. Labor is withheld at the most important periods. Success, therefore, depends upon the observance of certain rules, a negligence of the one being almost equivalent to disregard of the whole. Let us now consider what the enterprising poultryman should do, and take iip each of the rules above by way of explanation : 1. Too Many Fowls — Some fowls, such as Brahmas, are not so active foragers as othei's, but they should have room in which to exercise. The proper plan is to allow at least five square feet of space on the floor for each fowl; hence, a house 10 x 10 feet (100 square feet) should not contain more than 20 fowls in winter. Such a house in summer, with the south side open, and protected by wire netting, with suitable roosts (all on a level, not stepped), may contain 30 or 40 fowls, as the yard affords room for exercise. The yard should have at least ten times the space of the house, but the larger the better. In winter the grain food should be scattered on the floor of the house, in chaff, cut straw, leaves, or even dry dirt, that each bird may scratch and work for its share, thus compelling exercise. More eggs will be obtained from ten hens having plenty of room than from twenty that are crowded ; while the cost of food and labor will be largely reduced. 2. Buying Fowls — Never allow a bird from elsewhere in your flock unless you are absolutely sure that it is free from disease and lice. It is cheaper to quar- antine all purchased birds for a week, or even a month, than to battle a whole year with a flock of diseased birds, as one bird will infect all the others. Keep neighbors' pigeons away from yoitr yards, also the sparrows, if possible, as they may carry dis- ease on their feet. 3. Overfeeding — The large majority of poultrymen feed too much. It is better to underfeed than to overfeed, for should a fowl become too fat it will be in excellent condition for market but will produce few, if any, eggs. Indigestion results, the generative organs become weakened, fatty degeneration of the heart and liver occurs, while baggy crops, the crop-bound condition, laziness, and general susceptibility to disease, will prevail. It is the eggs from overfed hens that fail to hatch in incubators, the chicks dying in the shells at an early stage, or just before they should come out. Always keep the fowls busy. Never feed three times a day, WAEM QUAETEES ESSENTIAL 407 Fig. 179. Brown Leghorn cock and hen. as there should be a long interval between meals for digestion and to prevent the filling of the crop before the previous food is digested and assimilated. 4. Cold Drafts — Our dv^elling houses are tight, plastered, and warm, and even then the cold "fresh air" is forced in by atmospheric pressure. Poultry houses are seldom plastered and can not easily be made tight. The fowls xisually roost near the upper part, which is not always close in winter. A^entilation does not mean cold drafts coming in upon the fowls. Never have an open ventilator at the top when the weather is damp or cold, and, as much depends upon the direction of the wind, just how to ventilate is a matter for observation. The conditions for to-day may not be suitable for to-morrow. Have the poultry house tight in winter, especially at the top, and keep the doors and windows open during the day. If the house is not crowded there will be no liability of insufficient air at night. To test this, go into tlie house at night with alighted candle, or a lighted cigar, and it will be noticed that fresh air is coming in from somewhere. It is more difficult to keep it out than to let it in. In summer have the house just as close, but open on one side. In other words, aim to have summer conditions in winter. 5. Sick Fowls — Do not waste several days' time "doctoring" a hen worth perhaps 50 cents. Always value your tinie and labor. Have a place for sick fowls. If it appears that a hen can not be cured within a reason- able time it is cheaper to get rid of her, for it does not pay to have her lose time, and such hens seldom amount to anything when they recover, ing disease. Better kill a few than lose all. 6. Disregarding the Breeds — The dairyman who overlooks the differ- ences between the beef breeds, milk breeds, and butter breeds, falls behind his more enterprising competitor. The strongest competitor of the pouUryman is some Fig. 180. White-faced Black Spanish cock and hen. Fig. 181. Silver-spangled Hamburg cock and hen. Take no risk of spread- 408 CAUSES OF FAILURE WITH POULTRY other ponltryman, and the one who understands the impor- tiiuce of the various breeds will win. It is not pleawa-nt to say that the man who of all others should know one breed from another — the farmer — really knows less about fowls than those living in the suburbs of cities and towns, and the farmer would consider it an affront to be so informed, as he is supposed to be as skilled in his calling as are tliose engaged in other industries. But all farmers are not igno- rant in that respect, for many of them realize the value of Fig. 183. Mack Minorca cock the breeds. Do not bcffiu bv ffoinff out and buyiiiE; fowls aud Blue Audalusian hen. ° J to & J & of all kinds, from all sources, but start with a few and raise them for yourself. One year only will make a great change in a flock by the use of pure-bred males. One good fowl is worth two worthless ones. Try to have them uniform. You may begin even with common hens, but always use pure-bred males, and your young stock will then be improved every year. 7. Lack of Exercise — No farmer keeps his horse standing idle continu- ally if he can prevent it. Keep the fowls busy. When they seem to have nothing to do keep the food away. Many flocks appear hungry all the time, but do not scratch. The cause is too much attention and too much food, as such fowls soon learn to wait for their owner to feed them, running to him every time he appears. They do not work because they do not have to work. 8. Lack of Warmth in Winter — It is not necessary to have a fire in the poultry house in winter unless the house is severely cold or damp, and even then a stable lantern hanging from a wire will give sufiicient heat; but have the house close on the north, east, and west sides, with large windows on the south, so as to admit heat from the sun during the day. Keep the floor littered six inches deep with leaves, cut straw, etc., which shuts off cold drafts along the floor and provides litter for scratching. Wire fences admit winds through the yards. Always provide hedges or boards as wind- breaks. If the combs of the fowls become frozen they will not lay. AVarmth will make the hens lay more eggs than will the food. 9. Feeding Crraiu — Throwing down corn and wheat, and nothing else, is a lazy method, and it Fig. IRS. Light Brahma cock and Dark Brahma hen. LICE 409 Fig. 184. BuH Cochin cock and hen. induces no results. Give a variety. Hens can not possibl}' produce eggs in large numbers from corn and wheat alone, as such foods do not contain all the essential elements of egg production. They will lay eggs for a while, and apparently liberally, but sooner or later they will fall off in number. 10. Feeding Three Times a Day — Do not do it, for the reasons already given. 11. Liice — All poultrymen are willing to get rid of lice, but they seldom know when their fowls are infested. They examine the poultry houses and destroy the mites, retiring with the satisfaction of being rid of the pests. The real depredators are those seldom seen. They exist at all seasons, winter and summer, on the bodies of the fowls, usually close to the skin, on the heads, under the wings, and wherever they can hide. As soon as chicks are hatched these large lice go to them from the hens. Thousands of young turkeys die from that cause, as a single large gray louse can torture a chick to death. Examine for lice frequently. There is but one remedy for lice — work. When mites infest the poultry house, apply kerosene (adding a gill of crude carbolic acid to every quart of kerosene), using a brush. With a sprayer the carbolic apid and kerosene may be sprayed over the house if an emulsion with soap is prepared. This is done by shaving a pound of hard soap in half a gallon of water, boiling until the soap is in the solution. While hot remove from the flre, adding the kerosene and acid, churning briskly for l.j minutes until a creamy substance results. Then add 20 quarts of cold or hot water, and spray. For lice on the bodies use melted lard, but never use grease or oils too freely on fowls. A mixture of a gill of lard and ten drops each of sassafras, cedar, and pennyroyal oils may be applied daily, until the lice are destroyed. The premises must be kept clean, a dust bath provided for the birds, and whitewash used Fig. 185. Black Langshan cock freely. Work performed at the proper time will save many and hen. hours' labor. 12. Liack of Cleanliness — The poultry house and yards must be kept as clean as possible. An excellent plan is to have two yards to each house, growing green food in one while the other is occupied, changing the fowls to the cultivated yards as occasion requires. In this manner the filth is turned under, the manure 410 staxdaed beeeds of pofltry utilized, aud no loss of space occurs, as the extra yard will produce a portion of the food. Fowls delight to work on spaded or plowed ground. The poultry keeper is disposed to consider Ids fowls as "flocks" instead of indi- viduals, overlooking the fact that a flock may contain a number of fowls, no two of which are alike. The individual peculiarities and characteristics of each individual must be a daily study, and the management must be regulated accordingly. THE BREEDS OF POULTRY The farmers who can not distinguish the breeds, and who allow their flocks to inbreed for generations, are legion, though there are many enterprising farmers, nevertheless, who keep only pure breeds and endeavor to make a profit therefrom. Such farmers know that eggs sell for cash, and that the supply from the flocks can be maintained every month in the year with good management. Those who give the fowls over to their wives and daughters to manage do not use judgment, for the reason that there is considerable labor to be performed in winter which is too severe for the female sex, the result being that on hundreds of farms the hens lay in the summer season, as they are then free to forage and secure for themselves all that may be required, but do not lay in winter because the condi- tions are changed. It is possible that the farmer's wife will occasionally give the hens a good meal when the weather is very severe, but there will be more irregular- ities in the periods of feeding than should be the case. Another cause of lack of profit is the adherence to grain only as a food for poultry, corn and wheat being relied upon almost exclusively, resulting in indi- gestion and inability to produce eggs because the food is not properly balanced in the essential requisites for egg production. Strictly speaking, there is no "'general- purpose" fowl, hence no "best breed" both for eggs and for mar- ket. The best breed for laying may be un- profitable because it can not endure the cli- FiG.186. Faverolle cock and hen. mate. Thebest breed Fig. 187. PlymoutliEock cock aud hen. COMPARATIVE MBEITS 411 Fia. 188. Silver-laced Wyandotte cock and hen. for market may not prove satisfactory for producing eggs. A breed may be best for one purpose and sadly deficient in some other respect. Another point is tliat the "best" breed may have some families better than the others, and in these families may be some undesir- able individuals. Some Jersey cows have produced more than 20 pounds of butter per week (one very close to 40 pounds, according to the claim), but there are hundreds of Jersey cows that do not produce 10 pounds of butter per week. Much, therefore, depends upon the individuals of each breed. It has been claimed that Leghorns, Hamburgs, Minorcas, and Black Spanish will surpass all other breeds as layers, yet some flocks of these breeds do not prove satisfactory. The really best layers are the Hamburgs, but unless kept under conditions adapted for them they are almost worthless, being tender, delicate, and inbred, '^he large combs of the Minorcas, Leghorns, and Black Spanish make them susceptible to the frost in winter, while they are not desirable in market. If you live in Texas, or south of the Ohio Eiver, such fowls may prove excel- lent for laying. If you live in those States where the winters a^re severe use breeds that can endure the cold. After all, so far as the breeds are concerned, there is not a dozen eggs' difference in a year between the " best" and most of the others. By using the pure breeds you can at least know what kind of fowls you have. For the farmer, we are willing to ask him to rely upon the Brahmas, Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Cochins, and Leg- horns, the latter thriving well if given extra care in winter. These breeds are not the best for every pur^jose but they are probably as hardy as any that can be tried. Some breeds, such as the Leghorns and other non-sitters, will become restless in confinement and pull feathers, as well as learn to eat eggs. They are active and prefer plenty of room, but under suitable conditions they do well and pay. Eggs may bring more in winter but they cost less in fw.iqo. pominicjurcocker?!, Fig. 189. Black Java cock and hen. 412 STANDAED BREEDS OF POULTRY summer. Many farmers sell eggs in summer that cost nothing but the food picked up on the farm, and Mhile higher prices may be obtainable in winter, the cost of food, shelter, and labor are items which must be deducted from the gross receipts. NON-SITTING BREEDS The non-sitting breeds are usually small, or of medium size ; disinclined to incu- bate, especially of timid temperament; easily frightened, and given to roaming ; destructive of insects, and addicted to flying if confined. They do not 23ut on flesh readily and are tough if much more than one year old. To this class belong the Li'tjliarns, SpaiiisJi, Hamburgs, Minorcas, Andidusians, and licil Caps. The Legliorns (White, Silver Ditekwinrj, Dominique, Black, Broirn, and Bnff, Fig. 179) are entitled to first consider- ation. Tliey have trim, rather small bodies; are too active to fatten readily; are hardy, and moderate feeders. They are persistent, regular layer.s of rather large, snow-white eggs, a fairly well-kept hen dropping 150 or more in a year. They Fig. 191. Colored Dorking cock and hen. begin to lay at 5 months of age and preserve their habit until 6 years old. These qualities may deteriorate from inbreeding, hence a new strain should be intro- duced into the flock every two or three years at most. The Bhick Spanish (Fig. 180) return large quantities of eggs. The bird, however, is not well feathered, more males are required to the same number of females than are necessary with the Leghorns, the young are more tender, and the breed re- quires more attention in winter. The Hamburg's {Silver-Spangled, Q olden-Spangled, Silwr-Penciled, Oolden-Pencihd, White, and Black, Fig. 181) are small, active, and great fliers, requiring a large range to do well. They are persistent layers, and, when properly kept, will equal the Leghorns. The chicks are rather delicate, and the adults demand more attention than any of the other egg- producing breeds to be equally profitable. The Minorcas {Black and White, Fig. 182) are the heav- iest of the egg-yielding breeds, and rank next to the Leghorns as layers. Weight ; Cock, 8 pounds ; hen, 6i pounds. The eggs are large. Both varieties are heavier than the Hamburgs. Tlie Andalusians (Fig. 183) rank with the Minorcas as hardy and excellent layers (being really Minorcas). Their plumage combines the light and dark shades of blue. The Ked Caps resemble the Hamburgs, but are larger. They are extremely good layers. Plumage is black and red. Fig. 192. Houdan cock and hen. COMPAEATIVB MERITS 413 SITTING BREEDS The principal sitting breeds are the Bralimas, Cochins, Langslians, and Fave- roUes, prized as being excellent layers and mothers, and also for their market qualities. All these breeds are slow in their motions, not easily frightened, not given to roam- ing, easily coniined by low fences, readily tamed, heavy feeders, and excellent layers. The Brahmas {Light and Da7% Fig. 183) are the best types of the meat producers "Weight : Cock, 13 pounds; hen, 9i pounds. Dark variety, 1 pound less in each case. The young mature rather slowly. So inactive are the Brahmas that a fence 4 or 5 feet high suffices to _ restrain them ; they are persistent sitters, hut so clumsy on the nest that they sometimes break many of the eggs. They are above the average as egg-producers, the Light being the better of the two varieties. The flesh is of ex- cellent quality, but they lack in breast meat. The Cochins (Buff, Partridge, Black, and White, Fig. 184) are good sitters, and, when properly managed, good layers, but are disposed to fatten readily. They equal the Brahmas as market fowls. Weight : Cock, 11 pounds (except Black Cochin, lOJ pounds); hen, 81 pounds. The Lang-shans (Black and White, Fig. 185) are smaller and more active than any of the other Asiatics,, and their flesh is of excellent quality. They are preferable to the Brahmas or Cochins only because they are better foragers. Weight : Cock, 10 pounds ; hen, 7 pounds. The Faverolles (Fig. 186) are the result of a cross among the Brahmas, Dorkings, Cochins, and Houdans. ,j-ijii^§'_ The chicks mature remarkably early, and are hardy and Fig. 194. Bufl Orpington cock and hen. easily reared; the flesh of the young birds is excellent. FiQ. 193. Rhode Island Red cock and hen. "GENEKAL-PUKPOSE" BREEDS The "general-purpose^' breeds (if such term may be used) are the Plymouth Bocks, Wyandottes, Javas, Dominiques, Dorlcings, Houdans, and Rhode Island Eeds, ranking as to excellence in the order named. The Plymouth Rocks (Barred, White, and Buff, Fig. 187) have plump, square bodies mature early, and are above the average as winter layers; the hens make excellent mothers, and this is considered by many as the general-purpose breed par excellence. The Barred variety is most popular. Weight: Cock, 9i pounds; hen, 7i pounds. 414 STANDARD BREEDS OP POULTRY Fig. 195. White Pekin duck and drake. The Wyandottes (White, Sihcr-laced, Golden, Buff, and Black, Fig. 188) are smaller than the Plymouth Kocks, and can be kept more economically. They have fuller breasts than some other varieties, are hardy, mature early, are well feathered, and attractive in appearance. The White variety is most desirable. Weight: Cock, 91 pounds; hen, 74 pounds. The Javas (Black, Mottled, and White, Fig. 189) are an old American class of fowls that for no good reason have lost popularity They are excellent as egg producers and for mar- ket purposes, maturing early, and having the yellow shanks and toes, the absence of which constitutes an objection to some of the dark-colored breeds. The hens make good sitters and mothers, and the Javas bear confinement well. The Black variety is most commonly kept. Weight : Cock, 9J pounds ; hen, 7+ pounds. The Doniiniques (Fig. 190) resemble the Plymouth Rocks. They bear confinement well and do not appear to deteriorate from inbreeding to the extent observed in some of the other breeds. They mature early, are hardy, make good mothers, and are valuable as a farm variety. Weight : Cock, 8J pounds ; hen, 6i pounds. The Dor'kiiigs (WJiite, 8ilver-0ray, and Colored, Fig. 191) have short legs and heavy bodies and are hardy if properly cared for, but still are too delicate to endure confinement in damp, cold houses. They rank high for quality of flesh. Weight ; White, cock, 71 pounds; hen, 6 pounds; Silver-Oray, cock, 8 pounds, hen, 6i pounds; Colored, cock, 9 pounds; hen, 7 pounds. The Houdans (Fig. 193) are the most popular of all the French breeds. Wright says of them : "Better table fowls there are none ; the laying powers are great; the chicks fledge and grow faster than almost any other breed, and the eggs are prolific." Their objectionable features are the fifth toe, heavy beard and crest, and their flying habit. Weight : Cock, 7 pounds ; hen, 6 pounds. Rhode Island Reds (Fig. 193) are smaller, more active, and mature earlier than the Plymouth Rocks. They are hardy, prolific, furnish a good quantity and quality of meat, and are excellent layers. Buff Orpingtons (Fig. 194) are a favorite fowl in Canada, where they are raised for export to England. The breed has been received with favor in the United States, because of the excellence and quantity of the flesh and the pullet's capacity as an egg-producer. Weight: Cock, lOi pounds; hen, 8i pounds. "FANCY" BREEDS The " fancy " breeds, as a rule, present few Qlaimg either as layers or as food producers. FiQ. 196. Eouen duck and drake. COMPARATIVE MERITS 415 Unless kept by themselves they will vitiate any other strain. Tlie most celebrated of the fancy varieties are the Polish, Games, Silky, Sultan, Frizzle, Rumjjless, and Bantams of several varieties. All these are more or less delicate, and require extra care, with the ex- ception of the Bantam, which is undesirable in any poultry yard except as a pet. DUCKS The White Pekin (Fig. 195) is the most pop- ular of the profitable breeds of ducks; pure white, FiG.^MJ.^Gray African goose and hardy, an excellent layer. Weight: Drake, 6 jDOunds; duck, 7 pounds. Birds 10 weeks old may be fatted to 5 pounds for marketing. Aylesburys by many are preferred to the Pekins, as being hardier, heavier, and more prolific, and by others are crossed upon the lighter breed. Weight: Drake, 9 pounds ; duck, 8 pounds. Roiiens (Fig. 190) also are heavier than Pekins, but dark plumage is a disad- vantage, as the white birds make better appearance when dressed ; flesh fine-grained and of good flavor; development rather slow. Weight. Drake, 9 pounds; duck, 8 pounds. Black Cayugas are hardy, domestic, and thrive in confinement, but are open to objection as to color ; mature early. Weight : Drake, 8 pounds ; duck, 7 pounds. GEESE G-ray African geese (Fig. 197) resemble the Pekin ducks in that they require little care, thrive in moderately close confinement, and mature early. Many raisers consider them the most profitable of all breeds. Young Africans can be marketed at 10 weeks, fattened to from 8 to 10 pounds. Flesh is of fine texture and good flavor. Toulouse geese (Fig. 198) are large framed ; Fig. 198. Toulouse goose and gander. 416 POULTRY HOUSES FiQ. 199. Embden goose and gander. good layers ; thrive in con- finement ; color, gray ; ab- dominal pouch hangs almost to ground. Weight : Gan- der, 20 pounds ; goose, 18 pounds. The Toulouse and Embden are the largest of the breeds. Embden geese (Fig. 199) are pure white, resem- bling Toulouse somewhat in form ; lay fewer eggs, and are more inclined to sit ; hardy, and of rapid growth. Fig. 200. Bronze turkey uock. TURKEYS Bronze turkeys (Fig. 260) are most generally kept because of their surpassing size, despite their roving disposition and the large range they require. Weiglit: Gobbler, 3G pounds; hen, 20 pounds. White Holland turkeys are persistent layers, and disinclined to sit early in season; mature early. "Weight: Gobbler, 20 pounds; hen, 16 pounds. Narragansetts are gray, with bronzed wings ; mature early, with plump, marketable bodies. Weight : Gobbler, 30 pounds ; hen, 18 pounds. The Biiifs, Slates, and Blacks are perhaps less profitable fowls than any of the foregoing, although the BufE is somewhat heavier than the Wh'te Hol- land. The Bronze and White Holland varieties are the most popular. POULTRY HOUSES There is no kind of poultry house that will suit all. One may prefer one design and another something different. All depends upon the cost. There is much disagreement in the ideas of poultrymen regarding poultry houses, and even if one selects a style that suits his ideas, the cost may be an objection. The accom- panying illustrations (Figs. 201-208) show some designs of poultry houses that have proved useful in practice. CONSTRUCTION FOR COMFORT 417 Fig. 801. House and yards for confined fowls : This house is so arranged as to be easily cleaned from the outside, the droppings falling into a trough at the rear, the floor under the roost being onan incline. C, incline; PP, roosts; NN, nests; D, dust box; "W, water trough; V, ventilator. Lathing and Plastering— All poultry houses should be lathed and plastered in order the more easily to destroy lice, but as such an item of expense is seldom incurred, iflore or less cold air always comes in. The majority of those designing poultry houses are more concerned about ventilation than about any- thing else, overlooking the fact that the houses are not plastered, and more failures occur from this cause than from all others combined. Avoid open ventilators in winter ; you will have more difficulty in keeping the cold air out than in get- ting it in. Koomy Quarters — While there is no "best" poultry house, one of the most desirable is that which provides a roosting place at night and a scratching ijlace during the day. It may take up considerable space, but one will get more eggs and have more vigorous fowls by giving plenty of room. As regards space required, the kind of fowls must be considered. One can keep three Leghorns on the space that two Brahmas will occupy. The floors should be of concrete, but should always be kept covered with cut straw or leaves. Any other floor will harbor rats underneath, but concrete is cold unless covered. Always protect poultry with wire against dogs, cats, rats, hawks, owls, and other enemies. Construction for Comfort — The-maiu object to desire in poultry houses should be warmth in winter and cool air in summer. Use plenty of glass, as fowls and chicks detest dark- ness, preferring the cold outside to a cheerless interior. Hens steal their nests to escape from lice, from too much warmth in summer, or from nests or houses which for one reason or another are, uncomfortable. They will lay in comfortable quarters rather than steal away to any other place. Do not construct the house for your convenience, endeavoring, at whatever cost to the fowls, to save labor for yourself. True, one may as well take advantage of all opportunities, but keep in view that the poultry house is for the comfort of the hens more than for the con- venience of their owner. The open side of a poultry house should face the southeast, as more , ,.. , J _, . „ ^ warmth will be thus obtained, espe- FiG. 202. Single house and scratching shed : Showing an excellent ■ „ ■ ^, ■ „,. , arrangement of house, shed, and yard for a small flock. Cially in the morning. Windows may 418 INCUBATOES AND BEOODEES Fig. 203. Poultry house with brooder apartment : Designed to show how glass may be employed to give light and warmth to front and rear apartments. be placed on the southeast side, and on the east and west sides if preferred. The climate, soil, and location must also L,^ovurn the selection of a design. Dampness must alwaj'S be avoided. INCUBATORS AND BROODERS At the present day the incubator performs an important part in the manage- ment of poultry, and as incubators and brooders have been perfected to a high degree, they are as easily operated as farm machines, and witli much less labor. The introduction of incubators, in- stead of reducing prices for early broilers, has increased them, as a larger number of consumers has been educated to enjoy such luxuries. At one time a breeder known to the writer put upon the market a large supply of ducklings, for which he had no sale. Being forced to almost give them away he did so, much discouraged, but those to whom he sold them returned for more, and the next season he could barely supply the demand. To-day the same man hatches annually over 10,000 ducklings, for which he receives sometimes as much as 30 cents per pound. Incubator Egg Supply — Prices of broilers are always high in April and May, and good every other month in the year. Many, however, make the mistake of selling inferior chicks, and conclude that the broiler business does not pay. One of the serious difficulties is to secure the eggs, as they are usually scarce in winter. When eggs are purchased they mrtst be secured in small lots, from separate farms, the result being that many of them do not hatch, as each lot of fowls contributing to the supply is kept under different conditions. In some yards, or on some farms, the hens may be too fat, the males may be impotent, and the pullets may be immature ; in fact, there are more drawbacks than one can easily enumerate. ' Fig. 204. Movable roost, designed for heavy fowls. Selecting- the Egg--Protlviciug' Flock — To succeed, the farmer must control his egg supply, and to do this he should keep a large number of hens, or select neighbors to do so for him. If he desires hardiness and quality in his broilers he should use Brahma, Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, or Cochin hens, the males to be Colored Dorkings. No pullets should be retained, as the Dorkings are only moderate layers, and a flock of Dorkings should be kept solely for the purpose of producing males. The cooperating neighbors also should be provided with such males. SELECTING THE EGG-PBODrClpv'G FLOCK 419 Cross-bred hens or pullets may be used, provided they are part Brahma, Cochin, Plymouth Rock, or "SVyandotte. Xo attempt should be made to select the "best laying breeds," as that -would entail the use of breeds not so .suitable for producing broilers. The chief desideratum is Jiardi- ness, as the object should be to hatch only such chicks as can be rai.sc'd, kept thrifty, and marketed to advantage. One good chick is worth more than two or three inferior ones, consumes less food, and entails less labor. The Dorking is the finest of all table fowls, and will give quality to the chicks. "While it is not a very hardy breed, yet, if crossed with the breeds mentioned, the chicks should prove hardy. In this connection, however, it is well to urge that before venturing too far experiments should be made with a few Dorkings, for the reason that the breeds which feather out rapidly when young are not so hardy as those which begin to feather later and slowly. The Dorking, like the turkey, feathers rapidly, the vitality of the chicks being heavily drained to produce feathers. Beginners should use Brahma or Cochin hens, or crosses of the same, and Plj'mouth Rocks or "Wyandotte males. Avoid black fowls, as the pin-feathers show on the carcasses when dressed. It will thus be seen that the "best " breed, even for producing broilers, is selected only with difficulty, as there are some faults in each breed. Even the hardy Brahma or Cochin is deticient in plump breast, and does not fatten readily when young, seeming to make use of all the food for purpose of growth. The Plymouth Rocks and "Wyandottes are freer from faults than many other breeds intended for broilers or market fowls. Either the "\Thite or the Barred Plymouth Rocks, or any variety of "Wyandottes may be selected, as there is no difference In the several varieties, except color. A brood consisting of Leghorns and Brahmas, or of any two breeds, will not always thrive so well together as when separate, for the reason that the Leghorn requires more warmth than the Brahma. It is best to have chicks as uniform as possible. Feeding for Eggs — Use hens in preference to pullets for producing broUers, as many pullets are immature. Chicks from eggs laid Ijy hens are usually stronger and more vigorous than those from pullets. A hen is one that is at least one year old. "When feeding the hens which are to produce eggs for incubators bear in mind that they may become too fat. Give meat, ground blood, clover hay (cut fine), green cut bone, and mixed grains, instead of feeding too much wheat and com, and never feed mature fowls three times a day. A light meal in the morning and a full meal at night may be allowed, but always scatter about a gill of millet seed in the litter, in order to induce the hens to scratch and work. A hen that is a good scratcher, one that is constantly busy, is alwaj's a good layer. Hints about Incubators and Brooders — As directions are always sent with incubators it is not necessary to attempt to tell liow to operate them. The temperature for hatching is 103° Fahrenheit. If the incubator hatch.es some of the eggs, but not all, the fault is with the eggs, as no two eggs (nor two hens) are exactly alike. The fact that an incubator hatches some of the eggs is proof that only the perfect eggs were suitable for the purpose. The hen does no better. Eggs placed under hens are usually selected, a dozen of the best in a large lot being used, while those placed in incubators are of all kinds. 420 INCUBATORS AND BROODERS When operating an incubator do not depend entirely upon the regulator. Bruins are more important than regulators. Do not hesitate to give care and hard work to the business. It is labor and brains that bring success. The operator who depends entirely upon the machine makes a mistake. Fig. 205. Double poultry house and sheds ; The sheds are shown at the ends, the roosting rooms in the center. This plan permits of any number of such houses, the interior arrangement being sliown in Figs. !!06 and 207. (Plan submitted by IVIr. M. K. Boyer, Hamniouton, N. J.) Constant Warnitli Necessary — Early broilers are not summer chicks. A hen's suc- cess in hatching and rearing a brood in the spring is not to be compared with the brooder's work in winter. Everything depends upon warmth in the brooder for the chicks, and the warmth must be constant and regular. The most successful broiler raisers are those who have an attendant in the brooder house to watch the chicks and the temperature, and another attendant to go on-duty at night ; for it is in the night, when the fires get low, that the chicks become chilled, owing to lower temperature or changes in the direction of the wind. YARD YARD r cd D3 YARD YARD Fig. 20G. Double poultry house and sheds: Floor plan. A, scratchinj? shed; B, roosting^ pon; a, door to scratching: shed: b, door from scratching shed into roosting pen; c, window; d, offset for drinking vessel; e, roost; f, small door into yard; g, gate in yard. Crops may be grown in alternate yards, the other yards being occupied by the fowls. CARE OF BEOr)DER CHICKS 421 Keep in view, then, that hatching broilers -svilh inctiliatnrs is winter 'work. It can lie done only with the incubator and brooder, as hens seldom become broody in winter. The incubator is always ready for work, and more chicks can be attended to with the aid of brooders than when hens are u>ed. It wimld re(iuire 10(1 hens, each bavin;,' 10 chicks, to hover 1,000. And, to make it plainer, a hen cannot successfully hover 10 chicks in winter. True, she does it — in summer, but if turned out to care for her chicks in the winter season, she and her brood would perish. Fig. 207. Closer view of double poultry hou.se and sheds, showing the fowls confined during cold weather. Care of Brooder Chicks — Tliero is no mystery in the care of brooder chicks. Tliey reqtiiro no IVkmI for 4S lioiirs after they are hatelied, but they shonkl have warmth in the Ijrooder — a tenijjeraturo not hiwer than 05'^ tlie iirst three days, and gradually reduced to 80'^. A clean board floor, on wliich sharp sand has been spread, and a me,=3 of pinliead oafmeal every two lioiirs, for the first two days, will be all tliat they will remde rotie) 468 Venison, saddle of, roast (Selle de C/ievretdl rotie) . . 469 Woodcock, roast (-B/casses rohs) 469 SALAOS Salad BREssrwas 470 Cabbage— Cold slaw {Salade de chou) 470 Chicken salad (Salade depoule) 469 Eg:^sa.\a.d (Salade d'Oeufs) 4?0 Fish salad (Salade depoisson) 469 Lettuce salad (Salade de laiiue) 470 Lobster salad (Salade de homard) 470 Pigs' feet salad (Salade de pieds de cochon) 470 Potato salad (iSa^arfedepommes de ferre) 470 Veal salad (Salade deveau) 469 VEGETABLES Asparagus with white sauce (Asperges sauce blanche) 471 Beans, baked (HaHcots an, four) 471 Beans, Boston baked (Haricots aufour a la Boston) 471 Beans, Lima, with butter (Gros Soissons au Beurre) 471 Beans, string (Haricots d, la Bonne Femme) 471 Beans, string, English style (Haricots verts a VAng- laise) -ilO Beets, boiled (Betteraves bouillien) 47:^ Carrots fried in batter (Garottes nouvelles sautees au Beurre) 471 Cauliflower au gratin (Choux fleurs au Gratin) — 472 Cauliflower with white sauce (Choux fleurs sauce blanche) 472 Celery with gravy (Ce^e/is au jus) 471 Corn, escalloped (SscaZope de ma'is) 471 Com fritters (Croquettes de ma'is) 471 Corn, sweet, broiled (Mats grilU) 471 Corn, sweet, with butter (Mais d VAmericaine) 471 Cucumbers, creamed (Concombres d la creme) 4tT4 Egg plant, fried (^Aubergines frittes) 472 Macaroni a Tltalienne 473 Macaroni au gratin (Macaroni au gratin) 473 Macaroni with tomato sauce (Macaroni sauce to- mate) 473 Mushrooms on toast (Croittes aux champignons) -.. 478 Mushrooms with cream (Champignons a la creme)^ 472 Oatmeal (Farine d'Avoine d VAmericaine) 473 Onions, creamed (Oignons a la crime) 472 Parsnip croquettes (Croquettes de panets) 472 Parsnips, fried (Panets frits) 472 Peas, French (Petits pois d la Fran^aise) 470 Peas, green, English style (Petits pois d VAnglaise) ^'O Peas, green, with bacon (Petits pois au lard) 470 Potato croquettes (Croquettes de pommes de terre) . 473 Potatoes au gratin (Pommes de terre au gratin) 473 Potatoes duchesse (Pommes de terre duchesse) 473 Potatoes, fried (Pommes de tei're frittes) 473 Potatoes, puffed (Pommes de t&rres soufftees) . .^ 473 Potatoes with cream (Pommes de terre d la creme). 473 Rice ^la Georgienne (Riz d la Georgienne) 473 Salsify, bofledCSaZsi^s bouillis) 473 Spaghetti with tomato sauce (Spaghetti sauce to- mate).. - •- 473 Spinach with cream (Spinards a Zatreme) 471 Spinach with poached eggs (Epinards aux oeufs poches) .T. 471 Squash, baked (Ciiro?u7Zes aufour) 472 Squash, boiled (Citronilles bouillies) - 472 Succotash (iifartcois ait ma'is) 471 Sweet potatoes, boiled (Pommes de terre aucrees en robede chambre) — 473 Tomatoes, fried (Tomates frittes) 472 Tomatoes, stuffed ( Tomates farcies) 472 Turnips, boiled (Navets bouillis') 472 Vegetable oysters (Salsifis bouillis) 473 BREADS General Notes on Bread Making 474 Yeast, soft 474 Miscellaneous Breads ...474-476 PASTRY AND PUDDINGS Remarks ON Pastry 476 French Puff Paste 476 Plain Pie-crust 476 Miscellaneous Pies 476, 4(7 General Remarks on Puddings 477 Miscellaneous Puddings .477-479 Sauces for Puddings 479 Ice Creams and Ices — 479 CAKES General Remarks on Cake Making 480 Miscellaneous Cakes .480, 482 Small Cakes, Crullers, and Cookies 482 Icings for Cakes 482 Wholesome Cooking- Without Waste Adapted from rKAN90is Tanty i The best cooking Is as pasily accomplished as is that of inferior sort. Assuming that the housewife is well grounded in the fundamentals of her art, there is none who may not gather, from the experience of the chefs of a nation that has made gastronomy a fine art, suggestions for making dainty dishes even daintier, and for enlarging the variety of the daily menus. In the following cooking rules, most of which have been selected from among the recipes worked out for American use by the late M. Tanty, there is no departure from the essential principles he lays down, but the extreme of simplicity has been sought, lest the reader be needlessly appalled by elaborate and oft-repeated admonition. The recipes for sweet cakes herein given, however, are not M. Tanty's, and such other additions and modifications have been made as have seemed expedient. The question of asin|f -wines and spirits in cooking and as beverages is with some a matter of clioice ; witli others, of conscience. The preferences of the one class, and the scruples of the other, are entitled to respect, and although wines and spirits are included in some few of the recipes that follow, they may quit^ as -well be omitted, if the housewife prefers. A Family Dinner is essentially composed of : ; A Soup A Pish ob Meat, with sauce and vegetable — called an "entree" , A Roast — meat, poultry, or game A Vegetable of the season, or one dried or canned, called an ' ' entremet " (side dish) A Sweet Dish — ice cream or pastry . Cheese and Fbuit Provided the dinner becomes more fashionable, one should serve two kinds of soup, a clear one and a puree or cream, from which the guest may choose; and should increase the number of entrees and entremets. Setting tlie Table — As regards the setting of the table, we will give only practical hints, taking for example a quite fashionable dinner, leaving to the housewife the simplifying of the scheme to serve for family dinners. The table should be spacious enough to avoid the crowding of dishes or covers and the too close seating of guests. Around a centerpiece of flowers may be disposed (if the size of. the table will pei'mit) smaller pieces, with fruits, bonbons, etc., and also the "hors d'oeuvres," served in special small dishes. Candlelight being more fashionable than gas, candelabra should be placed in sufficient number. Before each plate place the necessary number of glasses, according to the wines that are to be served. This number will not Exceed five, viz. : A glass for water; a glass for white wine, claret, 1 La Cuisine Frangaise: French Cooking for Every Home. By Francois Tanty. Chicago: Band, McNally & Ca Copyri^t, 1902, by Band, JHoNally & Co., Chicago- (455) 456 WHOLESOME COOKING: SOUPS and Burgundj'; a glass for Madeira, sherry, and sweet dessert wines; a glass (usually green or amlicr; for Rhine -wiue (if served); a glass for champagne. Do not fill the water glass before the dinner, but place decanters and crystal bowls filled with pieces of ice within easy reach of the guests. At the right of each cover place the knife, fork, and spoon (the knife having a sharp steel blade). These should be changed with each course. Before the cover place a smaller knife, fork, and spoon. (the knife with a silver blade) for the sweet dishes and dessert. The napkin should be of good size, placed on the plate, folded, with u, small roll between the folds. Between each two covers should be pepper and salt. Before each cover, and supported by the glass, should be a menu, printed or hand written. For menu use, where desired, the French name of each dish is given hereafter (See Index). On each card one may write the name of the particular guest who is to occupy the place. Service of Wines — In every dinner "a la Frangaise" wine is served; the number, kinds, and quality varying, of course, according to the Importance of the dinner. The general order in which they are served is as follows . Aftcv the soup — a strong, dry "wine, such as Madeira or Sherry; with the fish — a white, dry wine, such as the Sauternes, Chablis, Chateau d'Yquem, llhine wine, etc.; after tlie fish and until the roast — Claret; loith the roast — Burgundy; with sweet dishes — champagne or dessert wines, such as Tokay, Malaga, or Constance. A word as to the manner of serving wine is necessary. White wine ought to be chilled and is placed in cold water for one hour before serving. It is the same with ordinary claret. Fine wines, as claret of good quality, Burgundy, Madeira, sherry, and port wine, ought to be taken from tha cellar at least one hour before serving, so as to take the temperature of the air. Do not disturb the dust which with age has accumulated on the bottle. Draw the cork with great care, so as not to mix the dregs with the wine, and pour into the glasses without shaking the bottle. In the case of champagne, break the wires that hold the cork, but preserve the threads ; place in a tub or pail, and pack around the bottles cracked ice mixed with salt (5 pounds ice to 3 pounds salt). Stop freezing as soon as the champagne begins to be a little cloudy. ■ As a last admonition, remember the old adage : " The dinner never should await the guests, but the guests the dinner ; because, however well cooked, a dish can not be warmed over." SOUPS By modifying some of the recipes that follow — for instance, by replacing one kind of vege- table in a puree with another, by using game instead of fowl, or by varying the garnishing — the housewife will have an infinite number of soups at her disposal. She should always be careful, however, to follow closely the general rules, and especially in those essential points emphasized by heavy type. PUREE OK CKEAM: GENERAL NOTE " haisoH " (binding), to unite all the parts. TUs is The pur^e, or cream, is quite a thick soup, very made with yolks, cream, and butter, sometimes flour palatable and substantial. It is made out of fowl, or starch. One must never forget that this game, vegetables, or fish. In every case one must first liaison should be added only -when ready to cook the particular materials until tender, and then serve ; that the saucepan must be placed on strain them, to obtain a reasonably clear liquor, to a. corner of the range ; that one should add which must be added what the French cooks call a some of the hot liquor to the liaison before SOUPS 4:51 pouring' the latter into the saucepan ; and that never, under any circumstances, should a soup toe permitted to boil after pouring in a liaison. BOUILLON, STOCK SOTJP Stock beiug the foundation of many soups, and serving also for the basis of many sauces and dishes, it would prove advantageous for a housewife always to have some stock on hand. Stock may be kept fresh for several days in an earthen jar in an icebox, the only precaution necessary being to let it boil awhile, in case of a very hot or stormy day, to prevent souring. . For 1 gallon, wash thoroughly 5 pounds cheap b3ef and bones and 2 pounds hock veal. Put in kettle and cover with cold water. Boil slowly, skimming until clear, and adding from time to time a tablespoonful of cold water, to hasten separation of scum. When clear, add 2 carrots, }^ turnip, 1 onion, and some celery, and boil for 2 hours. Remove the veal, add 1 old fowl (cut in pieces), and boil slowly 3 hours more. Skim off float- ing grease and strain soup. Bouillon should be' only lightly salted. Half of the onion should have been browned on the stove, to give color and taste. CONSOMME Consomm^ is the name given to a stock stronger and more palatable than the common one. It forms the foundation of tbe soups for the more fashionable dinners, or is served in cups at ball suppers or lunch- eons. Cut in pieces 1 old fowl and 2 pounds veal hock ; let them brown lightly in butter; then put them in a kettle with 3 to 4 quarts of stock. Cook slowly for 2 hours, skimming from time to time. Remove floating grease and pass through strainer, or, better, a cloth. JULIENNE Shce 1 carrot, }^ turnip, Mo cabbage, and % leek (or onion) into thin strips; put them in saucepan with a little butter and a teaspoonful of sugar, and let cook awhile. Pour over them 2 quarts stock or consomme and cook for 1}^ hours. CONSOMME TTITH RICE Wash 1 tablespoonful rice and boil in water until soft; let drip, and cool with cold "water; then let drip again. Warm 2 quarts stock or consomme, and when ready to serve put rice in soup, which must not be allowed to boil again. MACARONI Break 2 ounces macaroni in J^-inch pieces, cook in boihng water, and proceed as for consomme with rice. OXTAIL SOUP Cut 1 oxtail in 1-inch pieces; boil in water until tender; let drip, and remove grease and small bones. Put in a saucepan with 2 or 3 quarts bouillon. J^ glass Madeira, 1 onion, 1 carrot, and some thyme and laurel; let the whole cook for 3 hours. Pour the bouillon through a strainer into another saucepan; take off floating grease; add J^ glass Madeira and a little red pepper; cook awhile, and when ready to serve, add while stir- ring, 1- tablespoonful cornstarch mixed with 1 glass cold bouillon. Serve in tureen in which the pieces of tail have been placed. BARLEY SOUP Wash 3 tablespoonf uls barley, and let stand V2 hour in cold water ; let drip, drop into boiling water, and cook until soft. Let drip, cool with cold water, and drip again. Put the barley in a saucepan with 2 quarts stock and cook for 1 hour. When ready to seive, beat together 1 yolk, 1 glassful cream, 1 tablespoonful but- ter ; add little by little, while stirring, some of the soup ; then pour the mixture in, all the time stirring, but do not let the soup boil again. TOMATO SOUP Put in a saucepan 1 quart can (or 3 pounds fresh) tomatoes (first scalded, if fresh), with 1 carrot and 1 onion minced, and some thyme and laurel; cook 1 hour. Pass the whole through a strainer, add 1 quart stock or water, salt, and white and cayenne pepper. Pour in 1 tablespoonful cornstarch mixed in a little cc'd water and add 1 tablespoonful butter. When ready to serve add 1 14 tablespoonf uls cooked rice. BEET SOUP Clean and mince 2 red beets, 1 onion, M cabbage ; put the whole in a saucepan with some butter, cook awhile, then add Yz tablespoonful flour and 2 to 3 quarts stock ; cook 1 hour. Grate 1 red beet, press through a cloth, and when ready to serve pour the juice into the soup and add a glass of milk. CREAai OF FOWL Take 1 hen or chicken and cook for 2 hoin-s in 2 quarts of water with Yi veal or beef knuckle, 1 onion, 1 carrot, and 1 stalk of cele^^'. When the chicken is very tender, let it drip and strain the stock through a cloth. Remove chicken meat from bones, set the fillets (ten- derloins) aside, and pound the remainder of the flesh in a chopping bowl. To the pounded flesh add the stock little by little, while beating, and pass the resulting pulp through a strainer, to obtain, a rich liquor. Melt in a saucepan 2 tablespoonf uls butter with IY2 tablespoon- 458 WHOLESOME COOKING: COLD RELISHES fuls flour, into whicbi poui" the liquor ; let it become hot, but not boiling. When ready to serve, add the chicken fillets, cut into small dices. CKEAM OF CELERY Wash 5 stalks of celerj", and let them boil in water 5 minutes ; let drip, cool with cold water and let drip again. Chop the celery stalks, put them in saucepan with 3 tablespoonfuls butter and 3 tablespoonfuls flour, cook awhile, and add 2 to 3 quarts stock ; cook all to- gether for 1 hour; pass through strainer and heat liquor in saucepan. When ready to serve add a liaison made of 3 yolks, 1 glass cream, and 3 tablespoonfuls butter, taking care not to let it boil again. CREAM OF ASPARAGUS Proceed as for Cream of Celery, but use 3 bunches asparagus instead of celery. CREAM OF CAULIFLOWER As for Cream of Celery, but use the white part of 1 cauUflower. CARROT SOUP Cut 6 carrots in small dices and cook in saucepan with some butter and a chopped onion. Add, while stir- ring, 1 tablespoonful flour and 2 to 3 quarts stock or water, and cook slowly for 1 hour. Pass through a strainer, and w^hen ready to serve add 1 tablespoonful butter and 1J4 tablespoonfuls cooked rice. GREEN PEA SOUP As for White Kidney Bean Soup, but take fresh or dried peas instead of beans. Serve with fried dices of bread sprmkled over it. WHITE KIDNEY BEAN SOUP Cook 1 pint white kidney beans in salted water with 1 sliced onion. When well cooked, strain. Heat in saucepan with 2 or 3 quarts stock or water, and when ready to serve add 2 tablespoonfuls butter. Serve hot with small pieces of dry toast. VEGETABLE SOUP Mince J4 cabbage, 1 carrot, 1 potato, ^ turnip, J^ onion and some celery ; wash and let drip. Put the minced vegetables in saucepan with 3 to 3 quarts water and a little salt ; boil for 1% hours. When ready to serve add 1 glass milk, 1 tablespoonful butter, and some pieces of toafet. VELVET SOUP Boil 3 (o 3 quarts of milk or stock, and add 1 table- spoonful cornstarch mixed with a glass of cold water, milk, or stock. Boil for 5 minutes; then add 2 whole eggs, beaten with 1 glass milk, and 2 tablespoonfuls butter. POTATO SOUP Fry 1^ minced onion until light brown, add 2 to 4 minced potatoes," and fry a little more. Add 2 quarts bouillon or water and boil for 20 minutes; strain, and put the puree back in the saucepan. When ready to serve, add 1 glass cream, mixed with 1 tablespoonful butter, not allowing the soup to boil again. CREAM OF PUMPKINS Cut in dices 1 inch square 3 to 4 pounds pumpkin; boil in water till tender; strain, and put the liquor in a saucepan with 4 tablespoonfuls butter, 1 teaspoonful sugar, and a little salt; heat, then add 2 quai-ts boiling water. Stir well, and serve with some fried toast. OYSTER SOUP Pour into kettle 1 quart boiling water; then 1 quart good rich milk; .stir in 1 teacupful rolled cracker crumbs, seasoned with pepper and salt to taste. When all comes to aboil, add 1 quart good fresh oysters; stir well, so as to keep from scorching; lastly add butter the size of an e^g; let it boil up once, remove fi'om fire immediately, and serve. RELISHES — COLD The relishes {hors d'auwes) are to be served more often at luncheons than at dinners, although a fashionable dinner must not lack some of them — or at least some of the cold ones^ psually the cold relishes are placed on the table in advance. They should always be served in special and appropriate dishes of china or glass. (See also Salads, page 469.) RADISHES Radishes should be young and fresh. Trim off the end of the root and leave only enough of the leaves to permit of taking them easily with the fingers. OLIVES Olives should be very green, and served on relish dish. SARDINES These should be taken from the box just before serving and laid gently on relish dish, with some ef their own oil poured over them. SMOKED OR DRIED MEAT OR FISH Should be sliced very thin, and the slices disposed in ft circle, with some parsley in the middle. WARM RELISHES, FISH 469 CUCUMBER 8AI.AD Pare and slice the cucumbers, sprinkling a little salt over them. After 10 minutes let drip, and mix with olive oil, pepper, and vinegar. OTSTEKS Oysters should be opened just before serving a.nd placed on the hollow shell, not on the flat one. Serve with lemons, cut in halves or quarters, not with vinegar. KELISHES — WARM The warm relishes belong rather to the restaurant than to the family dinner, but some are quite simple of preparation and are desirable for a fashionable dinner. They should be served when the guests are finishing their soup, and should be cooked just before serving ; from which it follows that they are served with difBculty to more than eight or ten guests and are to be recommended for luncheon and tea parties rather than for regular dinners. CROQUETTES OF FO^WL The flesh of fowls used to make soup stocl; may be utilized for croquettes. Remove the flesh of one fowl and chop fine, chopping also a few mushrooms and truflles (if obtainable) and a little parsley, and mix all together. Melt in saucepan 2 tablespoontuls butter, mixed with 2 tablespoonfuls flour; add, little by little, while stirring, 2 glassfuls of stock. Boil, stirring con- stantly, until stock thickens n little ; then add the chopped fowl, stir and add two yolks, stirring until well mixed. Pour into a dish a layer 1 inch thick, and let cool, taking care to cover with buttered paper, to prevent drying and darkening of surface. When cold, cut in squares 1x2 inches, roll in flour, and dip in beaten egg; roll again in bread or cracker crumbs ; fry in butter. FILLETS OF FOWL Remove the flllets and legs of 2 young chickens; cut the fillets in 2 and the legs in 3 pieces; dip them in milk, roll in floiu" or fine bread crumbs, and fry in butter. (The bodies of the chickens may be used in making stock, page 457.) FRIED OYSTERS Remove oysters from shell, dip in beaten egg, roll in bread or cracker crumbs, and fry in butter to a golden brown. RAMKINS Put in saucepan 1 glass water and 3 tablespoonfuls butter, let boil and while stirring add, little by little, 3 tablespoonfuls flour. When thick enough, let cool a little on corner of range, and add, one by one,. 4 eggs, beating mixture all the while, Add 6 ounces grated cheese, stir well and drop on a pie plate in the form of small cakes about 1 inch apart. Sprinkle over the little cakes 2 ounces cheese, cut into small dices; bake in hot oven until a light brown. FRIED TOMATOES Select smooth, large, green tomatoes, wash, but do not peel, and slice % inch thick. Roll in cracker dust or flour and fry in butter, salting and peppering well. Must be well browned on both sides and served hot. FISH (Fob Fish Satiobs, see Page 461) Do not forget that the first requisite in a fish is absolute freshness, and that the tests of fresh- ness are bright scales and gills, full and prominent eyes, and firm, unyielding flesh. BOILED SALMON, TROUT, PIKE, ETC. Clean and wash flsh, removing gills and fins, but leaving on tail and head ; place in flsh kettle (having grate at bottom to remove without breaking) with 2 carrots and 1 onion, sliced, some thyme and laurel, 6 grains whole pepper, and enough water to cover. Bring to a boil and immediately place kettle on corner of range ; let simmer for 1 hour, without letting boil. Serve in long dish, on folded napkin, with whole boiled potatoes as garnish, or separate. Serve any desired lish sauce separately. , STUFFED AND BAKED BASS, SHAD, FRESH COD, ETC. Mix bread, softened in boiling water, with 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls of butter, salt, pepper and 2 raw eggs. Stuff and sew up flsh, and place in dripping pan with water and a little butter. Bake 45 minutes. BROILED SALMON Sprinkle the, steaks with salt, pepper, and a little olive oil; turn them two or three times, and broil over a moderate Are, taking care to turn from time to 460 WHOLESOME COOKING . FISH, SHELL FISH time. Sprinkle with the juice of Yq lemon, garnish witli sixths of lemon, serving a raaitre d'hotel or other fish sauce separately. FRIED BROOK TROUT Clean and wash the fish, dip in milk, roll in flour, and fr\' in butter slowly for about 15 minutes, turning often to prevent burning of butter or fish. Serve on a ivarin dish, sprinkle with hashed parsley, squeeze a lemon over the fish and pour over them the butter in which they have been fried. PICKEREL, JEWISH STYLE , Clean and wash a 5 or 6-pound fish and place in a kettle of ample size, with 3 or 4 sliced onions, 1 handful parsley, J4 pound butter, 1 pint white wine, 1 glassful stock, and some salt and pepper. Cover and cook slowly, while basting, for about 30 minutes. Take the fish with care from the kettle and place on a warm dish ; then add, while stirring, about J4 pound butter to the liquor, and pour it over the fish. FRIED PERCH Clean and wash the fish, dip whole in milk, and roll in flour. Bring fat or lard in skillet to such a heat that a little piece of bread dropped into it will brown instantly; yet fat must not burn. In this fry perch until well col- ored, and serve garnished with parsley and lemon. BOILED BLACK BASS WITH CHOPPED PARSLEY Clean and wash a 5 or 6-pound fish; place on lower grate of fish kettle, plunge in boiling salted water and keep boiling for 10 or 15 minutes, according to size; drip and place on vrarm dish; sprinkle with juice of a lemon and 2 tablespoonfuls melted butter, mixed with 1 tablespoonful chopped parsley. Serve with boiled potatoes as garnish, or separate. BROILED BLACK BASS OR WHITEFISH Clean and wash the fish, divide lengthwise into two parts, place on dish and sprinkle with salt and pepper; also with 2 tablespoonfuls olive oil, to pre- vent sticking to broiler. Broil on moderate fire, turning from time to time. Sprinkle with a liltle lemon juice and serve with tartar sauce and sixths of lemon, or with maltre d'hotel sauce. BROILED EELS Clean and wash 3 or 4 pounds eels, remove skin, and cut in 3-inch lengths; put in saucepan with 2 quarts cold water, 1 glassful vinegar, 1 onion and 1 carrot sliced, some thyme, laurel, salt, and pepper. Bring to a boil; then let simmer for 15 mioutes on corner of range. Let the pieces drip on cloth, dip in melted butter, roll in bread crumbs, and broil on light fire, turning from time to time. Serve with tartar sauce. BROILED SHAD ROE Handle carefully, so as not to break membrane containing roe; broil as for black bass, and serve with a maitre d''hotel sauce. FRIED FROGS' LEGS Skin the frogs, saving only the hind legs and quar- ters; let stand for 1 hour in cold water to whiten the flesh. Dip in milk, roll in flour, and fry in butter until well colored. Serve with quarters of lemon. SALT COD Freshen cod for 24 hours, changing water 4 or 5 times ; 1 hour before time to serve, place in a kettle with co]d water; as soon as it boils remove to back of range and let simmer for 45 minutes. Serve on a warm dish, with caper sauce or generous lumps of butter (melted by heat of fish), and always with boiled potatoes. BOILED SALT MACKEREL Freshen over night, let drip, place in boiling water, and let cook 15 or 20 minutes, according to size; let drip, place in baking pan with pepper and lumps of butter, and bake in hot oven 10 or 15 minutes. Garnish with parsley. SHELL FISH FRIED OYSTERS (Entree) Drip oysters and dry on a cloth; dip in beaten egg and roll in cracker dust; fry until a golden brown in butter or equal parts of butter and lard. Serve with garnish of peppergrass or cress, with a quarter of lemon fur each guest. ESCALLOPED OYSTERS (Entree) Drip oysters and spread on a layer of bread crumbs in bottom of baking pan, pepper and salt, adding lumps of butter; spread another layer of crumbs and another of oysters, seasoning as before, and so continue, sprin- kling bread crumbs over the top. Cover with oyster liquor or milk (cream is better), and bake not more than 30 minutes. A glass of sherry, just before serving, improves the flavor for some palates. Serve hot in baking dish. "PIGS IN BLANKETS" (Entree) Choose large oysters, roll each in a very thin slice pf bacon and pin with tiny wooden skewers; fry brown SAUCES FOR FISH, EGGS 461 on both sides in fat of bacon, and serve on small tri- angles of toast, with garnish of parsley. ESCALLOPED CLAMS (Entree) Same as for Escalloped Oysters, oi>ly that clams should be chopped, and a suspicion of mace or nutmeg should be added to other seasoning. UEVItED CRABS (Enirc'e) Remove meat from as many boiled crabs as there are guests, carefully preserving shells intact; mix meat with bread crumbs (1 cup to 6 crabs), mustard (1 tea- spoonful to C) , butter (1 rounding tablespoonf ul to 6), and strong vinegar {2 teaspoonfuls to 6); salt and pepper to taste; mix well, fill shells with the forcemeat, and bake 10 minutes. Serve with garnish of letti^pe. ERIED SOFT SHEEE CRABS Crabs should be cooked immediately, and by no means should be kept over night after being taken from the water. Pull off spongy substance from sides and remove mouth and eyes; wash thoroughly and fry until brown in hot butter and lard (half and half). If preferred, dip in beaten eggs and roll in bread or cracker crumbs. BROILED LOBSTER Cut lobster in two lengthwise; place halves on a dish; pour over it 2 tablespoonf u Is olive oil, salted and peppered; broil on moderate fire for about 30 minutes, turning from time to time; serve with green parsley garnish, and sauce (tartar or mayonnaise) sepai'ate. COLD BOILED LOBSTER Choose heavy live lobster, wash and brush thor- oughly, tie claws and tail with twine, and plunge into kettle of boiling salted water. Let boil awhile; then let simmer for 30 minutes on corner of range. Drip and cool. Serve with tartar or mayonnaise sauce. SAUCES FOR FISH Hollandaise Sauce — Place in saucepan on back of range 34 pound butter, into which 3 tablespoon fuls flour have been mixed with wooden spoon ; add juice of 1 lemon, a little salt and pepper (and a little nutmeg, if liked), and 1 glass water ; stir until liquor becomes uniform, and while stirring add 3 yolks, and then, in small pieces, about J4 pound butter. At no time permit sauce to boil. Serve apart. Caper Sauce — As for H ollandaise Sauce, with the addition of 2 tablespoonf u Is pickled capers when ready to serve. Butter and Parsley Sauce (Maitre d'Hotel) — Mix chopped parsley thoroughly with cold, unmelted butter. Lay this iu lumps over fish or meat, to be melted by the heat of same. Mayonuaise Sauce — Beat 2 yolks with some salt and pepper ; then add, drop by drop, while sth-ring, about 14 pint oli\e oil ; still stirring, add, little by little, 1 tablespoonful white or cider vinegar. If this sauce is made as it should be, in a cold dish (preferably set in cracked ice) and a cold room, the vinegar will form a creamy emulsion with the oil ; yet its comi^ounding will require practice. Tartar Sauce — As for Mayonnaise Sauce, but when ready to serve add 2 tablespoonf uls chopped green onion and gherkins. Mustard Sauce — Melt in saucepan 2 tablespoon- fuls butter mixed with 1 tablespoonful flour, and while stirring add 1 glass warm water, 2 tablespoonfuls mus- tard, and some salt and pepper. Boil until quite thick and serve apart. Tomato Sauce — Chop 1 onion and let brown in 1 tablespoonful butter; add 3 tablespoonfuls tomato catsup and 2 tablespoonfuls butter and hashed parsley ; stir well and pour over the fish. Vinegar Sauce — Chop }4. handful parsley and the same amount of onion, cut 13 gherkins in small dices, and put all in a bowl with 1 small glass each of olive oil and vinegar ; salt and pepper to taste and mix thoroughly. Horse-radish Sauce — Grate 2 or 3 roots horse- radish ; put in a bowl with a little salt and white pep- per, and pour over it 1 glassful vinegar. EGGS HARD-BOILED EGGS Cook the eggs for 10 minutes in boihng water, then dip in cold water. EGGS TVITH CREAM Shce or cut in quarters 10 hard-boiled eggs and place in saucepan. In another saucepan brown lightly in a little butter 1 chopped onion ; sprinkle over it 2 table- spoonfuls flour, add 1 pint milk, and cook, whUe stirring, for about 5 minutes. Pour this cream over the eggs, warm the whole without allowing to boil, and when ready to serve, place iu deep dish and sprinkle with hashed parsley EGGS A LA TZARINE Cut pieces of bread from which the crust has been removed into cylinders 3 inches in diameter and 3 inches in height. Make in the n^^iddle of each a hole 1 y^ inches in 46'" roasting pan and sprinkle with salt; add, in frequently. When weU cooked, roast will be firm when P**"' ^ °°'°°^ *°'' 1 ''^^°*- sliced, 2 cupf uls stock, and pressed with the finger ^ cupful Madeira; baste frequently, allowing 15 minutes After removing roast from pan, add 1 cup stock or *° '•>« P°"°'J- ^^'^^ ^^^"^ ^""^ ^ 'o-^ ™ast beef; water; boil, while stirring, for a minute or two; skim ^^^^ with Jardiniere Garnish (page 467) . off floating grease and pass the gravy through a strainer. BROILED STEAK (Entree) This gravy is considered best to serve with roast beef, „ *.i i.-..i.ii..ivjjij.j,....,. ^■""5 J Have ste.aks cut 1 mch thick, and divide mto mdl- butlf thickened gravy is desired, see page 46/ . ., _, „.. „ i,„<, „ ,. t, ., v, . ui « ^ '' 1 *• to vidual portions before cooking. Broil on bright fire Roast beef, when served as » releve, should be g minutes; then turn and broil other side about 5 min- accompanied by a vegetable as a garnish, preferably ^^^. p^j them on warm dish, and place on each 1 tea- potatoes fried in butter, stuffed tomatoes, or others spoonful butter mixed with chopped parsley, similarly cooked. If served as a roast, it should be accompanied by a salad. BEEF SAUTK (Entree) Slice tenderloin or other steak in pieces the size of ROAST TENDERLOIN (Roast) a halt-dollar, but twice as thick ; brown 1 chopped onion As for Boast Beef, but roast not quite so long in in butter ; add sliced meat and fry for about 5 minutes ; proportion to weight. sprinkle with a little flour and add a cupful of cream 464 AYIIOLESOME COOKING : MEATS and a tablespoonful of Worcestershire sauce to the piuind of meat. Add some chopped parsley, cook awhile, and ser\e in a warm shallow dish. TEXDERLOIX AVITH GREKX PEAS (Entree) Slice tencU^rldin about I inch thick, brown in butter in shallow steupau 5 to 10 minutHs ; place on diyh and keep in warm place Add in the pan 1 scant tablespoon- ful Hour and Yz j^dassful stock or water; boil awhile and pour this sauce over the tenderloin ; serve with French peas (page 4;0) in separate dish. TEXDERLOIX STEAK AVITH MUSHROOMS {Entree) Same as for Tenderloin with Green Peas, but add in the pan }4-pouiid can of mushrooms, sliced in their own juice, and 1 tablespoonful flour. Brown awhile and pour over tenderloin. TEXDEREOIX STEAK A L'AMERICAINE (Entree) Same as for Tenderloin with Green Peas, but pour into the same pan 4 tableapoonfuls tomato catsup, 2 tablespoonfuls Worcest.-rshire sauce, and 1 cupful stock ; boil for 5 minutes and pour over tenderloin steak. MJXCED BEEF (Entree) Slice 2 pounds boiled beef quite fine ; place in shal- low dish ; fry 1 chopped onion in butter 5 minutes, sprinkle over it some chopped parsley and 1 tablespoon- ful flour ; stir, and add 1 glassful white wine and 1 glassful stock. Boil awhile and pour over the beef. Sprinkle with bread crumbs and bake 15 minutes. BEEFSTEAK SMOTHERED IX ONIONS (Entree) Put a generous piece of butter in a hot frying pan; then a thick layer of sliced onions; when these are slightly browned, add the steak, end cover with more sliced onions; turn often until done, seasoning to taste. POT ROAST OF BEEF (Eamihj Roast) Fry a generous piece of suet in a kettle for a few minutes; sprinkle a lean piece of beef wiLh flour, salt, and pepper (acheap out of meat may be used for this purpose) ; put in the pot and fry until brown on all sides; pour in water to half cover the beef; cover tightly and cook until tender, adding a little water at intervals to prevent burning. Thicken the gravy with flour and serve apart. Or, put good-sized piece of suet in kettle and add enough water to half cover roast when it shall be put in; salt the water, add 2 tablespoonfuls vinegar, and bring to aboil. When boiling-, drop in the beef. Let boil 10 minutes to the pound; then remove cover and boil down until beef is sizzling in the grease; let fry, turning over and over, until brown on all sides; make gravy in kettle, and serve it apart. By learning the proper time to remove cover and boil down, beef may be pot-roasted as rarely or as thoroughly as desii-ed. COLD SAXTED OR SMOKED TONGUE (Entree) Freshen a beef tongue in cold water for about 4 hours, changing water at least 4 times; place in kettle with enough cold water to cover; add 3 carrotp, 2 onions, and 1 stalk of celery, all sliced; cook 4 hours; dip in cold water, skin it, and serve cold for breakfast, luncheon, or picnic. CREAMED DRIED BEEF (Entree) Brown 1 tablespoonful butter in frying pan; put in y2 pound chipped beef arid heat thoroughly; pour in about 1 cup of milk and thicken with a little flour and water; scrambled eggs around the dish make an excel- lent addition. BEEF CROQUETTES (Entree) Chop 2 pounds boiled beef very fine; brown 3 chopped onions in 2 tablespoonfuls butter; mix with the chopped meat 6 chopped boiled potatoes, 3 raw eggs, salt, and pepper, and divide into croquettes about 4 inches long and 1^ inches in diameter; roll in flour and fry. Serve with tomato sauce apart. MOCK DUCK (Entree) Salt and pepper both sides of a round steak; pre- pare stuffing OS for duck and spread upon the steak; roll it up and tie; roast for ^ hour; serve with Maltre d'Hotel sauce (page '161) poured over it. STUFFED BEEF HEART (Family Boast) Boil heart 3 hours over slow fire; make dressing by mixing 3 cups bread crumbs, Yz cup minced salt pork; pepper, sage, and onion to taste; enlarge cavity in cooked heart, fill with dressing, and place in roasting pan with liquor in which boiled; bake 20 or 25 minutes. Make rich gravy, which serve apart. BEEF EOAF— VEAL EOAF (Entrees) Chop fine 3 pounds rare beef or veal (left over from roast), with i4 pound salt pork; add small cupful cracker crumbs, 3 tabl spoonfuls milk, and 3 beaten eggs; salt and pepper to taste, mix well, form into a loaf, over which pour % pint water; bake about 1 hour and set aside to cool; serve sliced, with garnish of parsley. ROAST EOIN OF VEAL (Roast) Remove kidney and kidney fat, unless kidney roast is preferred; stuff if desired, roll lengthwise and tie VEAL, MUTTON, LAMB 465 with twine. Place in a pan with 1 onion and 1 carrot sliced; sprinkle with salt, add 1 glassful water, and bake in hot oven, allowing 18 oi* 20 minutes to the pound and basting frequently. Cut off the twine and serve in a warm dish, with thick gravy made the same as for roast beef. VEAL POTPIE (Entree) Cut 2 pounds veal ribs in pieces 1 inch square, and place in pot (upon a small plate, to prevent burning) with 2 quarts cold water; boil for l}^ hours; then make biscuit dough of 3 cups flour, and half an hour before serving drop small lumps of the dough into the pot, which must still contain sufficient water to entirely cover the meat; cover and boil for 20 or 25 minutes. Serve with mashed potatoes apart. VEAL A LA BOUBGEOISE (Entree) Place 3 or 4 pounds chump eud of veal in a stewpan with 2 tablespoonfuls butter ; brown awhile and add 2 glassfuls stock or water, 6 carrots cut in quarters, and 12 small onions. Cook slowly, basting occasionally, for 1 Vz hours. Serve with a vegetable as garnish, skimming floating grease from gravy and serving latter apart. BROILED VEAL CHOPS (Entree) Dip the chops in melted butter, roll in bread crumbs, and let them brown over a slow fire. Serve on warm dish, placing on each chop a little chopped parsley mixed with butter. VEAL CHOPS WITH EBENCH PEAS (Entree) Melt ^ pound butter in shallow stewpan, and fry the chops about 20 minutes, turning frequently. Serve on warm dish, pouring over chops the gravy in which they were fried, with French peas (page 470) served apart. Spinach (page 471) may be served instead of peas. VEAL CHOPS WITH MUSHROOMS (Entree) Same as foregoing, but after placing chops in warm dish, add in saucepan 9 tablespoonfuls flour, stir well, add H glass white wine, and J4-pound can mushrooms (minced) with their juice; boil awhile, and pour over the chops. SMALL PARISIAN PATTIES Chop X pound veal trimmings and Va pound kidney fat, first separately and then together; mix with 2 eggs and ^ handful chopped parsley ; salt to taste. Roll puff- paste (see page 476) quite thin and cut with circular cutter 3 inches in diameter; roll the paste trimmings thinner than before and cut same number of pieces with same cutter. Place the thicker pieces on baking dish, and on each some of the chopped veal (pieces the size of a walnut), cover with the thinner pieces of paste, moistening the edges of under and upper crust; bru^h with beaten egg and bake i:ntil well colored. CALF'S LIVER WITH PARSLEY (Entree) Slice liver in pieces the size of tho hand and % inch thick; fry in butter or bacon fat; when ready to serve, sprinkle with chopped parsley and serve in a warm dish, pouring over slices gravy in which they have been fried. SWEETBREADS WITH SPINACH (Entree) Freshen sweetbreads for 1 hour in cold water; dip 5 minutes in boiling water, and then in cold water; let drip well; place in shallow stewpan, adding for each pound of sweetbreads Vs onion, Yz carrot, both sliced, and i4 glassful stock; bake 1 hour in hot oven, basting frequently; serve in warm dish, pouring over the sweet- breads the sauce in which they have been baked, having first skimmed oif grease and strained it. Serve spinach (page 471) separately. Instead of the spinach, tomato sauce (page 467) may be served separatelj"". SADDLE OE MUTTON ROASTED (Roast) Trim off the fat and remove the membranous skin that covers the back of the saddle ; place in baking pan, sprinkle with salt, add 1 glassful water and roast in hot oven, allowing 18 to 20 minutes to the pound. Serve with potatoes fried in butter as garnish, and gravy in gravy dish. LEG OF MUTTON A LAFRANCAISE (Roast) Remove outer skin and place in roasting pan; sprinkle with salt, add 1 glass water, and roast in hot oven, allowing 18 to 20 minutes to the pound; baste frequently. Serve with potatoes fried in butter, or a BOILED LEG OF MUTTON (Entree) Prepare the same as for foregoing; then tie leg in napkin and place in kettle of boiling salted water; let boil steadily 15 minutes for each pound; serve with boiled potatoes in a dish apart. Leg-may also be served with caper sauce (page 461). IRISH STEW (Entree) Cut mutton brisket in pieces one-half the size of the hand; place in a stewpan, add water to cover well, and skim while boiling, having added afew small onions and a small bunch of parsley, tied. Cook half an hour; add 3 tablespoonfuls flour beaten with 2 glassfuls stock or water, and some potatoes cut in halves or quarters; then cook again for half an hour. LEG OF LAMB WITH MINT SAUCE (Roast) Roast same as Leg of Mutton a la Fran9aise and serve with mint sauce (page 467) in a separate dish. 466 WHOLESOME COOKING : MEATS STUFFED SHOtJI.DEB OF MUTTON (Roast or Entree) Remo^'e bones, and stuff with dressing made as follows: Brown 1 chopped onion in butter, mix with H pint bread crumbs wet with 14 pint milk, add X hand- ful chopped parsley and 1 pound sausage meat chopped fine; mix well. Roast the same as roast beef; serve with potatoes fried in butter or mashed. FRENCH MUTTON CHOPS BROII.ED (Entree) ENGLISH MUTTON CHOPS BROILED (Entree) French chops are small rib chops, the end of the bone having been trimmed off, and the fat cut away from the end, leaving the round piece of meat attached to one end of the bone. English chops are thicker than the French, and are cut from the loin or tenderloin and trimmed into good shape. Broil the chops on a bright fire, turning frequently. Serve with potatoes fried in butter, mashed potatoes, or French peas (page 470). ROAST PORK (Eoast) Prepared and roasted the same as for roast beef (page 463), but add a little pepper and season with sage if desired. PORK CHOPS BROILED, WITH TOMATO SAUCE (Entree) Dip the chops in melted butter or beaten egg, roll in bread or cracker crumbs and fry until well done fpork chops grilled, owing to the necessity for thorough cook- ing, being ^' broiled " only in name). Salt and pepper to taste, and serve with tomato sauce in separate dish. BOILED PIGS* FEET (Entree) Clean feet thoroughly and cook until bones will slip out, using cold water if salted feet are used, hot water if fresh ; boil down, remove bones, and cut in 2-inch lengths ; salt and pepper to taste, and pour with liquor into shallow dish ; let cool to jelly and cut in slices ; serve with garnish of cress, peppergrass, or parsley. BROILED PIGS' FEET (Entree) Wash and clean 6 to 8 feet; place in kettle with 2 onions, 2 carrots, and 1 celery stalk, sliced, and some thyme and laurel. Cover with cold water and cook for about 4 hours, or until tender; cut them in two length- wise (after cooking), dip in butter, roll in bread crumbs, and broil 10 to 15 minutes. Serve with mustard and mashed potatoes for breakfast or luncheon. SUGAR-ROAST OF HAM (Roast) Freshen ham for 10 hours, entirely cover with water in kettle, and boil until tender. Let drip, remove rind, and sprinkle well with flour and coffee sugar or bro^vn sugar (equal parts) ; stick full of cloves, about an inch apart, and roast until a coffee brown ; garnish with parsley and serve either hot or cold. ROAST SPARERIB (Family Eoast) Trim ribs closely and chop in 6 inchlengths; place in roasting pan, dredge with flour, sprinkle with pepper, salt, and sage, add 1 cup water, and roast, basting fre- quently, until tender and brown. Thicken gravy with flour, and serve with baked apple or apple sauce and mustard sauce (which see) . Mashed potato and mashed turnips should be served in side dishes. FRIED SALT PORK WITH CREAM SAUCE (Entree) Slice thin fat salt pork, drop into boiling water in skillet and allow to freshen for 3 minutes ; pour off water, let drip and roll in flour ; fry in skillet to a golden brown ; lay on hot platter. Into fat in skillet pour }^ pint cream or milk, stir in flour and water to thicken ; let come to a boil, and pour over pork. Serve with baked potatoes for breakfast. NEW ENGLAND BOILED DINNER (Entree) Take a good-sized piece of corned beef and smaller pieces of salt pork and ham, cover with cold water, and cook over a moderately slow flre until nearly done; add potatoes, onions, turnips, and carrots, and continue to cook until vegetables are done. Have cooking in sepa- rate stewpans a cabbage, quartered, and beets. Gar- nish the meats with all the vegetables except the cab- bage, which serve as side dish. Provide sharp cider vinegar and sour, sharp mustard. HEAD CHEESE (Entree) Take 1 pig's head, clean and wash thoroughly, re- moving eyes, and digging out internal ears and nostrils; singe, wash again, and cut in pieces as small as possible, removing tongue, which should be left whole. Put in pot with 4 pig's feet, well cleaned, and 3 pounds neck beef. Boil all together until bones slip out. Remove bones, salt and pepper to taste, and chop very coarsely. Place in molds, or deep, square tin pans, into one of which the whole tongue, after skinning, should be put. Cover, with weights to give pressure, and when cold slice and serve with garnish of cress, peppergrass, or parsley. RABBIT, SAUTE (Entree) Skin and clean the rabbit, and cut in pieces the size of an egg; melt in a saucepan 3 tablespoonfuls butter; add the rabbit, with 2 onions, chopped, X handful parsley, chopped; sprinkle with salt and pepper and cook covered for about .50 minutes. Add juice of % lemon and serve for breakfast or luncheon. SAUCES AlfD GARNISHES EOE MEATS 467 KIDNEY SAUTE {Entree) Slice kidneys, place in cold water, bring to a boil, place again in cold water, bring again to a boil, pour off water and rinse in hot water ; let fry in butter in skillet, dredging witb flour ; when browned, add ?^ glassful stock and (if desired) }^ glassful Madeira, boil awhile, sprinkle with hashed parsley and serve in warm, shal- low dish. VEAL KIDNEYS BROIIiED (Entree) Cut each kidney lengthwise in such a way as to open it but not to divide entirely ; pass two wooden skew- ers through them to keep them flat ; sprinkle with salt and peppei", dip in melted butter, and broil on bright fire ; serve with Maitre d''Hotel sauce, page 461 (to which add a. little lemon juiced or mustard sauce. SAUCES FOR MEATS Gravy— After removing meat from pan, skim off any excess of fat, and set pan on range; scrape sides and bottom of pan, and after browning as much as may be without burning, add a little water and let boil up. Thicken, by gradually pouring in, while stirring, a cold paste of flour and water. For boiled meats, make drawn butter sauce, thus: Melt 2 tablespoonfula butter in saucepan; pom- in 1% cups boiling water, or equal parts boiUng water and milk; mix 1 tablespoonful flour in a little cold milk, which add, stirring constantly. To this sauce add capers, parsley, etc., if desired, according to kind of meat with which sauce is to be served. B&arnaise Sauce (Yellow) — Place in saucepan ^ glass white vinegar, with 1 tablespoonful butter, 1 onion, and a little pepper; boil on bright fire until vine- gar is half boiled down ; set on back of range, and add, while stirring, a little butter and 3 yolks ; place sauce- pan in another larger one, half full of boihng water, and add, little by httle, while stirring, 2 tablespooufuls butter; cook until quite thick. Soubise Sauce (W kite) — Feel and slice 12 on- ions, and cook for 15 minutes in boiling water; drip; dip in cold water; di'ip again; melt in saucepan 2 table- spoonfuls butter mixed with 2 tablespooufuls flour, and add, while stirring, 1 pint water; as soon as it boils, add onions and cook whole slowly 30 minutes; strain, and serve separately with steaks and chops. Tomato Sauce (Bed) — Slice 2 onions and 2 car- rots quite fine ; cut in dices about 1 pound cold boil ed ham (or omit if wished), cook 5 minutes with 1 tablespoonful butter in saucepan; clean and slice 13 ripe tomatoes, add them in saucepan with 1 glassful stock, some thyme, laurel, salt, and pepper, and cook about 1 hour; strain into another saucepan with 2 tablespoonfuls but- ter; warm, and when ready to serve add, while stirring, 2 tablespoonfuls cornstarch, mixed with a little stock or water; add a little cayenne pepper and serve sepa- rately. Pepper Sauce (Bro'om) — Melt in saucepan 1 tablespoonful butter; add 1 onion and 1 carrot finely chopped; cook 5 minutes, sprinkle with 1 tablespoon- ful flour, stir well, and add 1 glassful vinegar, 1 of stock, and high seasoning of thyme, laurel, salt, and pepper; CQok slowly ^ hour; strain, add cayenne pepper, and serve separately, or pour over meat. For Sauce Piquant (brown) add 6 gherkins, sliced fine. Mint Sauce (Green) — Chop 1 handful mint leaves, mix with Vz glassful vinegar and 1 tablespoonful sugar ; serve with leg of mutton or lamb. GARNISHES FOR MEATS Jardiniere Garnish — Fry from 2 to 4 potatoes in butter, and cook a number of other vegetables (as green peas, green beans, small carrots, cauliflower, cut in pieces the size of a hazel nut, etc.) separately in boiling water, afterward frying separately in butter. Place tenderloin or loin oq platter, a, potato at each end and on each side, and the other vegetables arranged around the meat according to color effect. Nivernaise Garnish — This garnish serves for veal loin, tenderloin, or saddle of mutton. Wash and pare 1 quart small carrots; place in saucepan with 1 glassful stock and 2 tablespoonfuls butter; cook imtil tender and when ready to serve, add 2 tablespoonfuls butter. Rrfetonne Garnish. — This garnish serves for leg or shoulder of mutton. Soak 1 pound kidney beans in cold water about 4 hours. Drip, and cook in salted water until tender; when ready to serve, chop 1 onion and brown in 1 tablespoonful butter; add the beans, dripped; stir, and add 2 tablespoonfuls butter; sprinkle with some chopped parsley, and serve with individual portions of meat. POULTKY GENEEAL EEMAEKS Select young fowls, as a rule, for roasting. Older birds should be served only in fricassfe or boiled. Remove feathers carefully, without scalding ; clean and wash the inside thoroughly; 468 \VnOLESOME COOKIXG: POULTRY singe with a burning newspaper on top of the range, and tie legs and wings to the body before roasting. In removing giblets care must be taken not to break the gall-bladder in cutting it away from the liver. ROAST TURKEY (Roast) Place turkey in roasting pan, rub it with about 2 tablespoonfuls butter, add 1 glassful water, and roast, allowing 15 minutes to the pound. Make gravy same as for roast beef. Instead of rubbing with butter, if desired, a few thin slices of bacon may be bound with twine on breast. If desired, before placing in roasting pan, stuff with dressing made of bread crumbs moistened with scalding water, adding a lump of butter the size of a walnut, salting and peppering, and seasoning with a chopped onion and sage to tasLe; or, with thyme, sweet marjoram, sunimer savory, mace, or nutmeg. With salt and pepper alone for seasoning, oj'^sters, chopped or whole, may be added, and in any case, dressing should be mixed up with a beaten egg TURKEY GIBLETS (Entree) Brown giblets (wings, gizzard, liver, etc.) in sauce- pan with 1 pound bacon cut in dices; sprinkle with 1 tablespoonful flour, and add 1 glassful water and 1 glassful stock, or 1 pint water, some salt and pepper, }/^ handful parsley tied, 10 or 12 small onions, 3 carrots cut in quarters lengthwise and then in thirds crosswise; cook slowly 134 hours ; skim off floating grease, and serve in shallow dish for breakfast only. ROAST CHICKEN (Roast) Prepare and roast the same as for turkey. BROILED CHICKEN (Entree) Cut chicken in two lengthwise, dip in melted butter, and broil on both sides over bright fire until thoroughly cooked. Serve for breakfast or luncheon. FRIED CHICKEN (Entree) Cut each chicken in about 8 pieces; sprinkle with salt and pepper, dip the pieces in milk, roll in flour, and fry in fat until well colored. Serve with parsley fried in same fat, and a lemon cut in fifths, lengthwise. CHICKEN PIE (Entree) Cut 1 chicken in pieces, place in stewpan, cover with water, and boil until tender ; when half cooked, add 1 teaspoonful salt. Remove chicken, placing in warming oven, and thicken gravy with 1 tablespoonful flour ; salt and pepper to taste, add lump of butter the size of a walnut, and boil 5 minutes. While chicken is cooking for the first time, following paste should be prepared : Mix, as for biscuit, 3 cups flour, 2 teaspoon- fuls baking powder, a dash of salt, and Va cup butter ; roll out half of this to a thickness of 34 inch, and with it line a baking dish, letting crust hang over the edges enough to turn up over top crust ; put in chicken and gravj ; roll remainder of paste for top crust ; slash in the center to permit escape of steam, moisten top crust around edge, turn up overhanging lower crust, and pinch tightly ; butter the top, and bake until a light brown. SPRING CHICKEN SAUTE (Entree) Remove logs and cut them in two; take off wings, but not the fillets; cut body in two lengthwise, between back and breast; then each half in two crosswise, and again the breast in two lengthwise. Brown one chopped onion in H pound butter, and add chicken; sprinkle with salt and pepper, and fry on bright fire 15 to 30 minutes; sprinkle with chopped parsley and serve hot. CHICKEN FRICASSEE (Entree) Prepare and cut chicken same as for preceding; soak in cold water 15 minutes; place in stewpan with 2 sliced onions, 2 carrots cut in 4, and '^ handful parsley tied; cover with water and cook slowly until tender, 1 pr 2 hours. Let drip, and place in saucepan in which have been melted 2 tablespoonfuls butter, mixed with same quantity of flour; stir, and add through strainer liquor in which chickens have been boiled; when ready to serve, place saucepan on corner of range and add 2 beaten yolks, with 2 tablespoonfuls milk; serve in shallow dish, with Rice a la Georgienne (page 473) in separate dish. ROAST GOOSE (Roast) Select a goose with clean white skin, plump breast, and yellow feet, red feet denote age. Hanging a few days improves the flavor. Pluck, singe, draw, and carefully wipe the fowl; cut off neck close to back, leaving skin long enough to turn over; cut off feet and beat breastbone flat; put a skewer across the back, through under part of each wing; draw legs up closely and tie. Make stuffing of bread crumbs, 1 or 2 onions, a little sage, butter, and salt and pepper to taste, the whole mixed with a beaten egg. Baste frequently while roasting. Serve with its own gravy, and with apple sauce if desired. ROAST DUCK (Roast) Draw legs as closely as possible to body and tie. If cooking a pair, stuff only one (making dressing as directed in case of turkey), as flavor is not relished by everyone. Another excellent dressing is made of GAME, SALADS 469 mashed potatoes, seasoned with chopped, onio s, pep- per, aiitl salt, aud wi.h just eiioiit;h bivad crubta h.Liri-ed in to give body. Sa^e may b« added if desired. Eoast in hot oven, basting often. Skim off any floating grease, and aerve gravy (thickened if desired), to which may^be added giblets, previously stewed in water with a lump of butter. Peas and currant jelly should accompany this roast. BROILEB PIGEONS (Entree) Prepare pi:jeons as indicated in ''General Re- marks" ; cut in tv.o lengthwise, flatten, dip in melted butter, roll in bread crumbs, and fry on a not too bright Are ; serve with Maitre d'Hotel (page 461), to which has been added a little lemon juice ; garnish with a lemon cut in 6 slices. GAME GENERAL REMARKS Game birds should not be plucked until a day or two after they are killed, and, if the weather ■will allow, they are better flavored for hanging three or four days in a cool place before cooking. Tastes vary, however, as to the length of banging. To remove the fishy taste which waterfowl sometimes have, baste them for a few minutes while roasting with hot water, to which an onion and a little salt have been added ; after that baste with butter only. Snipe, woodcock, and quail usually are not drawn, but are eaten, like oysters, clams, lobsters, and some small fish, entrails and all. ROAST SNIPE (Roasi) Snipe may be drawn if preferred. If left undrawn, they should be wiped on the outside after plucking. SUin head aud neck and truss them with head under wing; twist legs at first joint, press feet upon thighs, and pass a skewer through feet and body. Roast in quick oven, in pan with butter or bacon cut in dices. Serve on toast, with own gravy poured around. Should be sent to table very hot. ^ Undersized snipe are best grilled over a hot fire, and served on toast, with butter spread over the birds, which are set in the oven for a few moments before sending to table. ROAST WOODCOCK (Roast) Woodcock should not be drawn; pluck and wipe weU; truss with legs close to body; skin neck and head and bring beak under wing; set each bird on a piece of toast in dripping pan, and roast twenty to twenty-five minu es, basting frequently. Serve on same toast on which roasted, pouring some of the gravy over them, and serving remainder apart. ROAST PARTRIDGE (Roasi) Let the birds hang as long as the weather will per- mit; then pluck and draw ; wipe, but do not wash them inside or out; truss them without the head, same as for roast fowl; roast in hot ovenj basting frequently; serve on buttered toast soaked in dripping pan, with own gravy or nmstard sauce (page 461), apart. ROAST QUAIL (Roast) Precisely the same as for woodcock. ROAST SADDI.E OF VENISON (Roast) Soak in water over night; then with a knife remove the three skins; in taking off the inner skin, begin at the lower side and go upward to the top of the bone; then lard with small pieces of salt smoked pork and wrap the roasting piece, in a cloth saturated in vinegar, in which let it remain until the next day. Place in roasting pan a few shoes of pork and dry bread crusts; salt meat well, put it into the pan with a little water and pour over it Yz cup cream; baste frequently, roasting 15 minutes to the pound. Serve with potato croquettes (page 473). CHICKEN SALAD (Entree) VEAL SALAD (Entree) Chop finely and mix desired quantity of chicken or veal and one-third to one-half as much celery. Cover the bottom of salad dish with large, bright lettuce leaves, on which heap up the salad daintily, and pour over it a mayonnaise dressing; may be garnished also with hard-boiled eggs, cut in halves lengthwise. 31 SALADS FISH SALAD (Entree) Remove skin aud bones from 1 can Salmon, or any cold fish, either boiled or baked, mixing in 3 large boiled potatoes, chopped. Serve on lettuce leaves, or garnished with parsley, pouring over the salad a dress- ing made by seasoning 3 hard-boiled yolks with pepper, salt, and mustard, mashing flue, adding J^ cup vinegar and a wineglassful cream, and stirring thoroughly. 470 WHOLESO:\[E COOKIXG : SALADS, VEGETABLES EGG SALAD (Entree) Slice 10 hard-boiled eggs, place in salad dish, and pour over them 4 tahlespoonfuls olive oil, mixed with 3 tablespoonfuJs vinegar, some hashed parsley, and a Uttle salt and pepper. Garnish with parsley. PIGS' FEET SALAO (Entree) After cooking feet as in preparation for broiling, cut in pieces about 2 inches long and place in salad dish; pour over them a dressing made by mixing 1 table- spoonful mustard, 3 tahlespoonfuls oil, J4 handful chopped parsley, the same quantity of chopped young onion tops, and 4 tahlespoonfuls vinegar, salted and peppered to taste. Serve for luncheon or picnic party. POTATO SALAD (Cold Relish) Place in chopping bowl 1 small onion and a stalk of celery, chop fine* slice thin 10 or 12 cold boiled potatoes into the salad dish, in which lettuce leaves have been placed. Mix onion and celery thoroughly with 1 wine- glassful olive oil, 1 tahlespoonful mixed mustard, 3 tahlespoonfuls vinegar, and pepper and salt to taste. Pour this dressing over the potato. COLD SLAIV (Cold Relish) Shred, slice, or chop very fine desired amount of cabbage, and place in salad dish ; pour over the cab- bage a sauce made thus : Bring 1 cup vinegar to a boil ; add mixture of 1 teaspoonful mustard, 3 tahlespoon- fuls sugar, and 1 teaspoonful salt, scalded together with ^ cup boiling water; add J-^ cup milk or creapa and a lump of butter ; let boil again, stirring constantly, and stir in the beaten yolks of 3 eggs ; pour hot over cab- bage as soon as sauce is stirred to an even consistency ; let cool, place in ice-box, and serve cold. LOBSTER SALAD (Entree) Remove shell from boiled lobster, being careful to remove vein in back; chop meat, or pick it fine; chop together some celery, lettupe, or endive, with hard- boiled eggs, mix with lobster meat, saving the larger, reddest slices of meat for garnish ; place on lettuce leaves in salad dish, using 12 olives for additional gar- nish; pour over it 1 pint mayonnaise dressing; let cool awhile, and serve. LETTUCE SALAD (Cold Relish) Take 1 head of lettuce, separate leaves and dispose in salad dish, spreading over them 1 cold boiled potato, cut in dices, and 2 hard-boiled eggs, sliced ; pour over salad either a mayonnaise or a vinegar dressing. SALAD DRESSINGS Mayonnaise Dres§mg— See page 461. Vinegar Dressing Without Oil — Mix 1 cupful hot vinegar, 1 teaspoonful salt, 1 tahlespoonful sugar, a pinch of pepper, and a rounding tahlespoonful butter; when cool, pour over salad. Frencli Dressing — For lettuce, potato salad, or cold slaw: Grate ^ onion; mix with % teaspoonful salt, a pinch of pepper, 2 tahlespoonfuls olive oil, and 1 tablespoonful vinegar; stir to a creamy consistency. Cream Dressing "Witliout Oil — For cabbage, lettuce, tomato, or other vegetable salad: See Cold Slaw (page 470). Drawn Butter Dressing — Put 2 cupf uls boiling water in saucepan and stir in 2 tahlespoonfuls flour into which an equal amount of butter has been thoroughly mixed; let melt, stirring constantly; stir in ^ handful hashed parsley, pepper and salt to taste, and serve immediately. VEGETABLES TBENCH PEAS Melt in stewpan 2 tahlespoonfuls butter, add 1 quart shelled peas, 1 glassful water, 1 whole onion; ^ handful parsley, tied, and some salt and pepper; cook slowly for Jj hour; when ready to serve, take out onion and parsley, add 3 tahlespoonfuls butter, mixed with 1 tablespoonful flour, stirring until thickened, and serve in warm shallow dish as side dish, or as a garnish (2 tea- spoonfuls sugar may be added while cooking). GBEEN PEAS WITH BACON Cut 1 pound bacon in dices, and brown in saucepan ; sprinkle with 1 tablespoonful of flour, add 1 glassful water, 1 quart peas, 1 whole onion, J^ handful parsley, tied, and some salt and pepper ; cook 1 hour ; when ready to serve, remove onion and parsley, and serve in warm shallow dish as side dish. GBEEN PEAS, ENGLISH STYLE Pour peas into boiling water; cook quickly 15 minutes, salt, and drip; place in warm shallow dish and over them J4 pound butter, divided into small slices; serve as side dish. STBING BEANS, ENGLISH STYLE Clean green beans; break ofi: stem ends, at the same time stringing them on one side; break off blos- som ends also, stringing them on the other; if too long, break in two; cook quickly in a quantity of boiling water, salt, let drip, and serve as preceding. VEGETABLES 471 STRING BEANS Prepare as for preceding; melt in saucepan 2 table- spoonfuls butter; add 1 quart beans, 3^ glassful water, 1 whole onion, y^ handful parsley, tied, and some salt and pepper; cook slowly 15 minutes; when ready to serve, add 2 tablespoonfuls butter and 2 eggs beaten with % glassful milk; stir, but do not allow to boil; serve in warm dish as side dish. LIMA BEAXS WITH BUTTER Same as for preceding. BAKED BEANS Soak 1 quart white beans, well picked over, over night; drip and cover well with fresh water; addlpound lean salt pork; boil until beans are tender; place in baking dish with meat, its rind slashed ready to slice, in the center; sprinkle with pepper and bake until a light brown. To serve, cut meat in slices, dispose in center of platter, and garnish with beans. BOSTON BAKED BEANS Soak 1 quart picked-over beans over niglft ; place in kettle with J4 pound salt pork and 3 quarts water; boil slowly 1 hour, adding ^ teaspoonful saleratus just before taking them up; strain beans into an earthen- ware jar, adding 3 tablespoonfuls molasses and 1 tea- spoonful salt; place pork in middle, leaving rind even with top; add just enough of the liquor in which beans were cooked to cover them; bake 5 or 6 hours in slow oven, adding more of the liquor if required; when cooked, remove dried beans from top. SUCCOTASH Stew in least possible quantity of water equal parts green com and Lima or string beans, until tender; add ^ cupful cream or milk, a lump of butter, pepper and salt. Serve in warm dish as side dish. ESOAHOPBD CORN Cut the tops of the kernels from 6 ears tender sweet corn ; then scrape carefully, so as to get out all the juice with but little of the hull; add a dash of pepper and salt, 1 t^aspoonf ul sugar, a lump of butter, 2 eggs beaten sbghtly, and a little milk to mix; beat all together and bake 10 minutes; add J^ cup cream, stir well, and bake another 10 minutes; serve hot or cold as a side dish. CORN FRITTERS Cut from the cob the kernels of 3 ears cooked sweet corn ; beat thoroughly 1 egg ; mix i^ teaspoonf ul baking powder in i^ cup flour, stir into the egg, salt to taste, and add the corn, stirring thoroughly; add flour, if more is needed to form a moderately stiff batter. Have ready in skillet hot lard or bacon drippings % inch deep. Into thLs drop batter, a spoonful iu a plaee, and fry a few fritters at a time, serving when a golden brown Be careful to cook thoroughly, SWEET CORN WITH BUTTER Husk and wash the corn, and cook (on the cob) for Vi hour in boiling salted water, to which has been adde il 1 glassful of milk; serve on folded napkin with butter in dish at side. BROIIiED SWEET CORN Broil (on cob) over bright fire, and serve with butter, salt, and pepper, SPINACH WITH CREAM Clean and wash 3 or 4 times about Yt peck spinach; cook 10 minutes in quite large quantity salted water, pour off water, let drip, cover with cold water, drip again, and chop fine; 10 minutes brfore serving place in saucepan with 4 tablespoonfuls butter, 1 tablespoonful flour, a little sugar and some salt ; cook awhile, and add, while stirring, 1 glass milk; serve as a side dish or garnish, or may be served with pieces of toast fried in butter. SPINACH WITH POACHED EGGS Same as with cream, but place on spinach 6 poached eggs. CELERY WITH GRAVY Take lower part of 8 small stalks celery, clean and cut in pieces 5 inches long, place in saucepan, cover with stock, add a little salt, and cook slowly 1 hour; drip and place in shallow dish, and keep in warm place; boil down stock in which cooked; when ready to serve, thicken with 1 tablespoonful cornstarch mixed with it little cold stock and 2 tablespoonfuls butter; pour on celery and serve as side dish. CARROTS FRIED IN BUTTER Pare 3 bunches small carrots, shoe crosswise as thick as a half-dollar, and cook in boihng water until tender; melt in saucepan 2 tablespoonfuls butter, add carrots, carefully dripped, sprinkle with alittle sugar and fry about 10 minutes; serve as side dish. Carrots are excellent also cut in quarters lengthwise, stewed until tender in salt water, and served with drawn butter dressing (page 470). ASPARAGUS WITH WHITE SAUCE Clean and wash 3 bunches asparagus, cook in boil- ing salted water until tender, and serve on folded nap- kin with HoUandaise Sauce (page 461) separate. 472 AVH0LE80ME COOKING : VEGETABLES CAULIFLOWER AVITH AVHITE SAUCE Clean 2 cauliflowers, cut in quarters and wash care- fully; cook in boiling salted water until tender; drip and place in shallow dish, ;n original shape; serve with Hollandaise sauce. CAULIFLOWER AU GRATIN Prepare and cook same as foregoing; nieltinsauce- ])an 2 tablespoonfuls butter, mixf] with 3 tablespoon- fuls floiu" add, while stirring, 1 pint milk or cream, boil, Stirling, until sauce becomes quite thick; add 2 tablespoonfuls butter; pour some of sauce in bottom of shallow dish, add cauhflowcr, nut in 4 or 5 pieces, pour over remainder of cream sauce, sprinkle with bread crumbs and grated cheese, brush with melted butter, and bake until well colored. i STUFFED TOMATOES Cut out a small core at top of tomato and squeeze slightly, so as to remove some of seeds; then stuff with mixture of 1 chopped onion, 3 tablespoonfuls flour, 4 ounces chopped cooked meat, 3 ounces white bread (dipped in milk or stock), and a little chopped parsley, all of which is put in saucepan and cooked awhile; sprinkle stuffed tomatoes with bread crumbs, grated cheese, and small lumps of butter. Bake 15 minutes. FRIED TOMATOES Wash firm green tomatoes and slice (Avithout peel- ing) ^ inc'i thick; roll in flour, sprinkle with salt and pepper, and fry in butter or bacon fat until a cinnamon brown. Serve 3 slices to a guest, on square or triangle of daintily browned toast. For breakfast or luncheon. Cucumbers (peeled and sliced) may be fried and served in the same fashion. CREAMED CUCUMBERS Peel 6 cucumbers, cut in quarters, remove seeds, and cut in pieces 2 inches long; melt ^4 pound butter in shallow stewpaa, and when warm add cucumbers; cook on bright fire 10 minutes; add 2 glassfuls cream and a little salt and sugar ; boil awhile and serve as side dish. FRIED PARSNIPS Cut boiled parsnips in thick slices lengthwise, roll in flour, and fry in butter or bacon fat to a deep brown. Salt and pepper before removing from skillet, and serve hot. MUSHROOMS AVITH CREA3I Pour 2 pounds mushrooms (fresh or canned) into saucepan and boil awhile in their juice, if canned, in a very little salted water, if fresh; place saucepan on coi'ner of range and add 2 yolks, mixed with 1 table- spoonful cornstarch, 1 tablespoonful cream, and some chopped paisley; serve on toast, or as garnish for fash- ionable dinners. MUSHRitOMS ON TOAST Prepare mushrooms as in foregoing, meanwhile frying in butter, for each guest, a piece of bread V/2 x 3x5 inches, in which a hole 2x4 inches and 1 inch deep has been cut. Place on buttered dish, the holes in the t ast filled with mushrooms and their cream, sprinkle with grated cheese and a little butter and bake for 10 minutes. PARSNIP CROQUETTES Boil parsnips, well sciaped and washed, in salted u'ater until very tender (in which state they may be served, if desn-ed, with lumps of butter melting over them); mash and season with butter, pepper, and salt; stir in 2 beaten eggs to which a little flour has been added : mold into croquettes and fry in butter or bacon fat until a golden brown. BOILED BEETS Beets require especial care in preparation, lest they bleed, and come to the table pale and unappetiz- ing, the stalk must not be cut down closely or the root broken off. Boil until tender; rub off skins while hot, and serve sliced, with lumps of butter melting over, peppered, and salted; or, sliced in vinegar, with pepper and salt. CREAMED ONIONS Boil 6 onions in ample water for 1 hour; let di'ip, cut in small pieces, salt and pepper, and serve Iiot, with drawn butter dressing (page 470) poured over. FRIED EGG PLANT Peel egg plant and slice % inch thick; soak VA hours in salted water; let drip, wet on both sides in beaten egg, roll in bread or cracker crumbs, and fry to a golden brown. Pepper to taste, salt lightly, and serve hot. BOILED TURNIPS Peel and slice turnips, and pour over them cold water; cook until quite tender, remembering that more time must be allowed than to most other vegetables; let drip thoroughly, mash with a little milk or cream, and serve as side dish, with lumps of butter melting over, pepper, and ealt. SQUASH {Hubbard^ Marrow, Summer; Baked or Boiled) Hubbard squashes are generally preferred baked, as their rinds are too hard to be removed easily ; remove all seeds and pith, cut in halves, put a teaspoonful of sugar in each hollow, and bake an hour or until tender; VEGETABLES 4V3 when done, remove hard crust, scrape from shell with spoon, and mash, sweetening, peppering;, and salting to taste, and serving as side dish with melting lumps of butter. Any of the marrows or summer squashes may be simply pared and cooked, seeds and all. if very young; in any case they should be cut in small" pieces and steamed or boiled until tender, peppered, and salted to taste, mashed with a small quantity of rich cream, and served as side dish with melting lumps of butter. BOILED SALSIFY {Vegetable Oysters) Scrape well, cut in thin slices, boil an hour or until tender, and when done add a little salt codfish picked very fine, having previously let the water boil nearly away; add plenty of milk or cream to make gravy, and season with salt, pepper, and butter; thicken slightly with flour and serve with small bits of toast. SWEET POTATOES, BOIEEL* Wash, cut off the ends, and boil in salted water until tender (about 30 minutes). Serve -with butter. When cold, may be peeled and sliced lengthwise and fried in butter. POTATOES TTITH CREAM Slice 8 or 10 boiled potatoes, place them in sauce- pan with 3 tablespoonfuls butter and 1 cup cream; sprinkle with salt and pepper, and chopped parsley, and boil 10 minutes. POTATOES AU GRATIN Prepare and cook potatoes already boiled same as foregoing; place in baking dish, sprinkle with grated cheese, bread crumbs, and small lumps of butter; bake to a light brown. POTATOES DUCHESSE Peel, slice, and cook until tender in just enough water to cover ; let drip and jilace ih warm saucepan ; mash with 3 yolks and a little flour; roU out on board sprinkled with flour, and divide into oblong cakes %x 3^x3 inches; fry on both sides in butter to golden brown and serve as garnish for I'oasts. POTATO CROQUETTES Prepare, cook, and mash tbe same as for the fore- going, but add a little butter while mashing ; roll in form of small cylinder 1J4 by 3 inches ; dip in beaten egg, roll in bread and cracker crumbs, and fry in butter ; serve for luncheon or as a garnish. FRIED POTATOES Heat well enough fat or lard to cover potato slices; peel raw potatoes, slice, and fry until well colored. Fat must be extremely hot, or it Avill soak into potatoes, making them sodden and unpala- table. PUFFEB POTATOES Peel the potatoes, cut them lengthwise in slices about Jii inch thick, put them in warm, but not liot fat, and cook until tender (about ten minutes). Remove from fat and drip, heat the fat v?ry hot, place pota- toes in it again, and fry quickly. MACARONI A X' ITAEIENNE Cook 1 pound macaroni in salted wjiter (with no fear of using too much water) until quite soft; drip, throw away water, and replace macaroni in the same warm kettle; add 4 tablespoonfuls butter, Y^ pound grated cheese, salt, and pepper; allow butter cad cheese to half melt while stirring, but do not replace kettle on range. MACARONI AVITH TOMATO SAUCE Same as for foregoing, but add 3 tablespoonfuls tomato catsup. MACARONI AU GKATIN Cook as for "Macaroni a, V ItalieQue." Place macaroni in baking dish, pour over it some bread or cracker crumbs, grated cheese and lumps of butter, and bake until well colored. SPAGHETTI TVITH TOMATO SAUCE Cook y2 package spaghetti 30 minutes in kettle with 4 cupfuls boiling water and 3 or 4 (or i4 can) tomatoes; stir frequently, add lump of butter the size of a walnut and pepper and salt to taste, with J4 salt- spoonful caj'enne pepper. RICE A liA GEORGIENNE Wash J^ pound rice several times in cold water (ceasing when water is clear); cook in boiling water until quite soft; let drip, cool, and drip again; melt in saucepan, ^ pound of butter, add the rice and some salt and pepper, mix well, cover saucepan, and bake J4 hour; serve as side dish or garnish. OATMEAL A liA AMERICAINE Mix in saucepan 1 pound of oatmeal with 1 table- spoonful butter, 1 pint water, and a pinch of salt; bake in hot oven for 15 minutes, and serve with butter and milk or cream. 474 WHOLESOME COOKING: BREAD MAKING BREADS GENERAL NOTES ON BREAD MAKING How to Choose the Flour — A good flour will be dry, heavy, and very soft to the touch ; it should have a clear white color, sometimes a little yellowish ; it should be adhesive to the dry fingers, and when pressed between the hands it should form a kind of ball, which will not immediately scatter. The "Rising'" — Peel, slice, and boil 2 large potatoes ; when tender, mash, and add 1 cupful soft yeast or 1 cake dried yeast dissolved in a little lukewarm water, 1 cup flour, 3 teaspoonfuls sugar, and a saltspoonful of salt. Rlix with the water (cooled) in which the potatoes were boiled. Set in moderately warm place (not a hot one) and let rise until light. The "iusing"isbest mixed up toward midday, as it requires about 2 or 3 hours to become light. The SiJonge — Mix in bread pan, in evening, 2 tablespoonfuls sugar, i tablespoonful salt, 1 tablespoonful lard or drippings, and 1 heaping kitchenspoonful flour, to which add 1 small cup- ful boiling water, stirring well to cook flour. Add 1 quart cool water or (better) milk, mix thoroughly and add "rising." Stir again, adding flour until batter can only just be stirred; stir for 5 minutes, and set in a warm, but not hot, place until morning. In the morning add flour suflicient to make a dough that can be kneaded on the board ; knead 30 minutes and replace lump in bread pan (whith has been floured to prevent sticking) ; cover with towel and let rise ; when light, make into loaves and let rise in baking pans. When light, bake from 30 minutes to 1 hour, according to size of loaves. The Oveu^ Success or failure in bread making depends in large measure on the fire. The oven, when bread is put in, should be hot enough to bake, but not so hot as is needed for pie-crust. To insure even heat, the fire must be planned beforehand, with enough fuel burning' to last throughout the baking of the bread. The houseAvife must understand her range, knowing precisely when fire must be checked or drafts opened, in order to keep an even heat. Adding fuel during baking first checks fire, then intensifies it. Too hot a fire makes dense, sodden bread ; too slow a fire makes bread light, dry, and crumbly. If baking is done with wood, heavy, well-dried sticks (that will form lasting bed of hot coals) must be used, lest fire flash out dui'ing the baking. Cooling — When taken from oven, loaves should be turned from the pan and laid on sides, not touching one another. The crusts will be rendered soft by brushing with a cloth dipped in melted butter. When thoroughly cool, put away in bread boxes. Bread that is "sweated" by cooling while wrapped in a cloth is no better for it, and will mold much more quickly. SOFT YEAST will keep a long time, and has the advantage of not Take 2 quarts water to 1 ounce hops ; boil 15 requiring any yeast to start it. It rises so quickly that minutes;. add 1 quart cold water, and let boil a few " 'ess quantity than of ordinary yeast must be put ia. minutes; strain, and add % pound flour, putting the RYE BREAD latter into a pan and pouring the water on slowly to Put 3 quarts rye flour into a stone jar; stir into it 1 prevent its getting lumpy. Add }/4 pound brown sugar, cup yeast (or 1 cake, dissolved in water), 2 teaspoonfuls and a handful of fine salt ; let stand 3 days, stirring salt, and enough water to moisten well; let rise over occasionally; when it ferments well, add 6 potatoes night in warm place; in the morning stir it down well; which have been boiled, mashed, and run t'hrough a do not add more flour, but put into well-buttered pans colander, making as smooth as possible. This yeast as soon as Ught. Bake m slow oven. BREADS 475 BOSTON BROTITN BREAD Sift together 3 cups cornmeal, 2 cups rye flour, and 1 cup wheat flour; mix 3 cups sour milk and 1 cup New Orleans molasses, 2 even teaspoonf uls salt, and 1)4 tea- spoonfuls soda, the soda having been dissolved in a little warm water. \\'hile mixture is effervescing, pour it into the flour, beating imtil smooth. Grease a pud- ding boiler (or 1-pound baking powder cans), pour in the batter, filling only to within 2 inches of the top ; cover" closely and place in kettle of boiling water; let steam 4 or 5 hours. CREAM BISCUIT Mix 2 heaping teaspoonfuls baking powder with 4 cups flour and 1 level teaspoonf ul salt; add a lump of butter the size of an egg and enough cream to make soft dough; roll thin, cut out, and bake in hot oven. SODA BISCUIT Mix 2 teaspoonfuls cream of tartar with 1 tea- spoonful soda, stir it well into 4 cupfuls flour; add a heaping tablespoonful butter or lard and a little salt, mixing all together quickly with enough milk, or milk and water, to make a soft dough ; roll out, cut, and bake quickly. FRENCH ROXXS Mix 2 heaping teaspoonfuls baking powder with 4 cups sifted flour and Yz teaspoonful salt, adding sweet milk, or milk and water, to make a soft dough; roll, and cut out in round pieces, placing a small lump of butter in the center of each, and folding dough over in form of half circle; bake in quick oven. BREAKFAST ROtLS Mix at evening 4 cups flour with 1 cup warm milk, 2 beaten eggs, ii cake yeast, and a little salt; work over thoroughly and set in warm place to rise over night; knead in butter the size of an egg, make into rolls, and bake. DROPPED BISCUIT Make a stiff batter of 2 cups warm (but not hot) milk, 2 tablespoonf uls butter, a pinch of salt, 1 cup of soft yeast (or 1 cake dry, dissolved in water), and white flour. When lig:ht, drop from spoon on to buttered pans to bake, being careful not to agitate batter. PARKER HOUSE ROLLS Mix in bowl 1 heaping tablespoonful butter, 1 table- spoonful sugar, and Yz teaspoonful salt, with 8 cups flour; make hole in flour and pour in 1 pint scalded mUk, still warm, and % yeast cake dissolved in a little water; stir in part of the flour, mixing thoroughly, and let rise over night; knead again, using remainder of flour, and let rise until afternoon; roll out, cut, butter, and fold as for French rolls; set in warm place and when light enough, bake. GRAHAM MUFFINS Mix 1 beaten egg, 4 cupfuls graham flour, 2 heap- ing teaspoonfuls baking powder, % teaspoonful salt, 2 tablespoonfuls butter, and milk enough to make soft batter; bake in muffin or gem tins. CORN MUFFINS Mix 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder with 1 cup flour, 1 cup cornmeal, a little sugar, and some salt ; add 2 beaten eggs and milk enough to make soft batter ; bake quickly. CURRANT BUXS To be served hot from the oven. Mix 2 heaping teaspoonfuls baking powder and Y2 teaspoonful salt with 4 cups flour ; mix in well butter the size of an egg, and add enough milk to make a soft dough ; roll out 14 inch thick, spread with sugar, then with English currants, then with another sprinkling of sugar and a dusting of cinnamon ; roll up as for jelly roll ; cut in 2-inch lengths, and bake on end, in buttered pans, in quick oven. JOHNNY CAKE Scald 4 cups cornmeal with 2 cups boiling water; while hot, add 2 tablespoonfuls butter or lard, 1 table- spoonful sugar, and 1 teaspoonful salt : when cool add 1 pint sour milk or cream, mixed with 1 teaspoonful soda and 1 beaten egg ; mix well and bake in well- buttered, shallow pans. Serve hot. CORN WAFFLES Mix 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder with 2 coffee cups cornmeal and some salt ; add 1 tablespoonful melted butter, 2 yolks beaten in 1 pint of milk ; stir, then add the beaten whites of the eggs, and bake quickly in very hot, buttered waffle iron. RAISED WAFFLES Mix 2 cups flour with one pint scalded milk, cool ; add 34 yeast cake dissolved in water, and a little salt ; let rise over night ; then add the whites and yolks of 2 eggs beaten separately and 1 tablespoonful melted butter ; bake in yery hot waflle iron. WHEAT CAKES Mix 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder with about 3 cups flour and a httle salt ; beat 1 or 2 eggs and add, with enough milk to make batter. 476 T\'HOLESOME COOKING : ' BEEADS, PASTEY CORN PANCAKES a thin batter; add yeast and a pinch of salt; let rise Mix 2 taaspoontuls baking powder with 1 pint corn- "™r nighty i° "^e morning add H teaspoontul soda to meal, H pint flour, and a little salt; add 2 beaten eggs sweeten, and bake on hot griddle. A little wheat flour and enough sweet milk to njake a batter. Or, put 1 tea- m^y be abided when mixing ba_tter, and the additi, n of spooutul soda in 1 pint sour cream, add a beaten egg, 1 tablespoonful syrup will make cakes brown nicely, a little salt, 4 tablespoonfuls flour, and enough cornmeal ^o'' *i'i^e or four days a little of the left-over batter to make soft batter niay be used instead of yeast, stirring in buckwheat, water, and salt each night, letting rise till morning, BUCKAVHEAT CAKES ^^^^ adding soda before baking. Left-over cakes may Dissolve ]^ yeast cake in a little water, mix enough be broken up and stirred into the next day's batter in buckwheat flour with 1 quart lukewarm water to make which they will dissjlve. PASTRY REMARKS ON PASTRY In making pastry always sift the flour. Kub the butter or lard into it before adding the water, which should be as cold as possible. If lard is used add salt ; mi-x quickly. Many prefer cutting with a knife instead of rubbing in shortening with the hands. Prencli Puff Paste — Take equal quantities of flour and butter, saj' 1 pound of each, J^ saltspoonful of salt, the yolks of 2 eggs, and rather more than J/j pint of water ; sift the flour, and' press all the water from the butter. Put the flour on the paste board, work lightly into it 2 ounces of the butter ; then make ahole in the flour, and into it put the yolks of 3 eggs, the salt, and about }^ pint of water ; knead quickly, and, when smooth, roll it out into a square J^ inch thick. Put the remainder of the butter in a ball on the paste, and fold the paste secure!}' over it ; roll it lightly with the rolling-pin, but not thin enough to allow the butter to break through ; keep the board well dredged. This rolling gives it the first turn ; now fold the paste in three and roll again; if weather is warm, cool paste between each two rollings, for unless butter is kept cool, paste will not answer at all. Continue this process until paste has had six rollings. If properly made and baked, this crust should rise in the oven 5 or 6 inches. Paste or pie-crust never must be squeezed up, for squeezing consolidates the laminaj that give it flakiness. The trimmings from pies, or the waste after cutting out patties or tarts, must be laid flat, one on another, and rolled together. Plain Pie-crust — Work 1 cup lard, or lard and butter together, into 3 cups flour, to which has been added 1 teaspoonful salt ; add enough cold water to make a stiff dough ; turn dough on floured paste board, sprinkle with flour, and roll out ; spread thickly with butter, sprinkle with flour, fold three-ply, and roll again ; repeat three times (or a few times more, if a pufEy crust is desired), spreading with butter each time. This makes enough crust for two large pies. LEMON CREAM PIE fuls white sugar, a pinch of salt, and the juice and Stir into 1 teacupful boiling water 1 tablespoonful grated rind of 2 large lemons; bake slowly until set. cornstarch dissolved in cold water ; add 1 tablespoon- Meanwhile beat white of 2 esgs, and beat in G table- ful butter and 1 teacupful powdered sugar ; let cool ; spoonfuls powdered sugar; spread this meringue over then add juice and grated rind of 1 lemon and 1 beaten Pies, and bake to a light brown, egg. Bake in tart without upper crust. APPLE PIE LEMON MERINGUE PIE Fill pie-crust with juicy apples, pared and sliced For filling, dis olve 2 tablespoonfuls cornstarca in 1 thin. To each pie take J^ teacupful sugar, butter the cupsweet milk; add C yolks and 4 whites, beaten, 2 cup- size of a walnut, 1 teaspoonful flour, and J^ nutmeg PASTRY, PUDDIXGS 477 grated; sta-ew tbis seasoning over apples, and add 2 or 3 tablespoonfuls water, according to the juiciness of the apples. Pinch close the edges of upper crust, and bake at once. COCOANUT PIE Mix 1 cupful grated cocoanut, 1 cup sugar, 1 quart milk, 1 tablespoonful butter, and 3 eggs. Flavor with nutmeg, and bake in deep pie plate, lined with pie-crust. CrSTARO PIE For 1 pie, beat 2 or 3 eggs, add 1 pint milk, sweeten to taste, and flavor with nutmeg; line pie plate with crust, pour in custard, and bake. RHUBARB PIE Peel and cut stalks in % inch pieces and cook in saucepan with very little water; when done, sweeten to taste, pour into crusts and sprinkle with cornstarch or a little flour; cover with crust or meringue and bake in quick oven. Serve as soon as cold. 3IINCE PIE To 3 i)Ounds finely chopped boiled beef add 6 pounds apples. 1 pound euet, 2 pounds raisins. 2 pounds cur- rants. 1 pound citron, 2 ounces candied lemon, 1 ounce mace, 1 ounce cinnamon, 1 ounce nutmeg, 1 pound sugar, 1 pint molasses or syrup, and 1 quart boiled cider. Seed raisins, and chop half of them; chop apples, thoroughly wash currants, and slice citron very thin; mix well, put on fire, and cook slowly until apples are done. Increase amount of cider, if too stiff; add sugar, if desired. To each pie, 1 tablespoonful brandy may be added. Pt3IPKIX PIE Stew pumpkin with just enough water to prevent burning; when soft, rub through colander, and to each coffee-cupful add 1 piut miik or cream, 2 eggs, 1 cup sugar, and flavoring to taste (ginger or mixed spiees). GOOSEBERRY PIE Fill crust^lined pie dish with ripe or canned goose- beri'ies. sweeten to ta.ste, dredge with flour or corn- starch, cover, and bake; when ready to sei-ve, dredge with powdered sugar CHERRT PIE Same as for Gooseberiy Pie, but omit dredging with flour or cornstarch. APPLE TARTS Cook soft 6 tart apples, rub them through a colan- der, and add 1 well-beaten egg, grated rind and juice of 1 lemon, butter the size of a walnut, and 1 cup sugar; mix well. Line tart pans with French puff paste, fill with the sauce, and bake quickly. PUDDINGS The pudding bag, in the case of boiled puddings, must be scalded before each using, then wrung out and allowed to cool. The bag must be liberally dredged with flour, to prevent sticking, and the pudding must not completely fill the bag, which must be securely tied. If a lioiled pud- ding is to be a success, care must be taken that the water is boiling so brisk!}" that dropping in the pudding will not bring it below the boiling point. A teakettle should be kept boiling on another hole of the range, so that none but boiling water need be added, for if the water stops boiling at any time, a soggy pudding will result. FEUIT PlDDIXft Mis 1 piDt sugar with 4 beaten eggs ; add ]4 pi^t sour cream mixed with J^ teaspoonf ul soda, a little salt, and 3 cups flour ; stir in 1 quart fruit (blackberries, raspberries, huckleberries, blueberries, or sweet cooked elderberries); place in baking dish and bake. Serve hot, with any pudding sauce preferred. If no sour milk is at hand, use the same quantity sweet milk, stirring 2 teaspoonf uls baking powder into the dry flour, and omitting the soda. APPIE Dt'M FLING Pare and core medium-sized, juicy, tart apples. Make dough same as for soda biscuit, cut into thick biscuits, roll out, and wrap each piece around an apple, which must first be liberally sugared and dusted with powdered cinnamon or nutmeg. Place in a steamer over kettle of boihng water, and cook until apples are soft. These dumplings, if preferred, may be baked until a deep golden brown, in which case, apples should be sliced. Serve with sweetened cream or hard sauce, the latter, if used, flavored with cinnamon or nutmeg. STRAWBEKRT SHOKTCAKE Mix 1 good half-teaspoonful soda with 1 large cup- ful sour milk or sour cream ; add 1 beaten egg, 1 table- spoonful sugar, and a little salt ; rub 3 tablespoonfuls butter into 4 cupfuls flour, and mix with the other in- 478 WHOLESOME COOKIXG : PUDDINGS gredients, handlmg as little as possible (as in case of piecrust, to avoid tougheniug). Roll into two ^-^-inch Ia3'^ei's, place one layer on top of the other, and bake in buttered pans. When done, separate the layers while warm, spread with butter, and place strawberries (or jicachcs, raspberries, or other fruit j thickly sprinkled with powdered sugar, between them. Cover top layer with fruit (if with strawberries, small ends up). Serve hot, dusting with powdered sugar just before bringing to the table. ROI.Y-POLY PUDDING Koll soda-biscuit dough }4 inch thick and spread to about the same thickness with preserves or ripe fruit, cut fine; roll up like a jelly roll, pinching the ends to keep fruit in, and pinching up the outer edge. Tie tightly in pudding bag and boil for about 1 hour. Serve hot, in slices crosswise, with wine sauce (or other liquid sauce) poured over individual portions. ENGLISH PLUM PUDDING BlixJ^ pound bread crumbs, i/^ pound flour, 1 pound each of currants, seedless raisins, brown sugar, and mixed candied peel, 1 teaspoonful salt, 1 tablespoonful inixed spices, and 1 cup chopped suet. When thor- oughly mixed, add 8 eggs, beat for 25 minutes, and stir iu 34 pint brandy (if desired). Butter a mold and fill 'it, and place iu pudding bag; tie rather loosely overtop of mold, and boil for 13 hours. BREAD PUDDING Pour 1 quart boiling milk into a dish filled with bread crumbs; stir in 2 beaten eggs and }4 cup sugar; sprinkle with cinnamon and bake 20 minutes, serve with cream and sugar. The pudding may be improved by the addition of any kind of fruit before baking. RICE PUDDING To 1 cupful boiled rice add 4 beaten eggs, 1 cupful each of sugar and seedless or seeded raisins, a little nut- meg, and ly^ pints milk; bake until milk is like custard, and brown on top. RICE PUDDING WITHOUT EGGS Wash )4 teacupf ul rice, and stir, with a little less than a teacupful sugar, the same quantity of raisins, and a teaspoonful of cinnamon or allspice, into 2 quarts milk; bake rather slowly from 2 to 3 hours; stir 2 or 3 times the first hour of baking. APPLE TAPIOCA PUDDING Peel 1^ dozen sour apples; if perfect, simply core, otherwise cut in halves, core, and place halves together; place in buttered pudding dish, sprinkle with sugar. cover with a plate, and bake until well done. Then over them pour 1 cupful tapioca which has been softened by soaking 3 hours iu 3 pints water on back of range. Hard tapioca is an abomination; the proper degree of softness can only be obtained by applying a gentle heat for a long time, or soaking over night. The tapioca should be sweetened slightly and flavored with lemon extract. Return to oven and bake until browned on top. Let cool to a jelly, and serve with cream and sugar. BOILED CUSTARD Boil 1 pint cream or rich milk, strain, and when cold mix well with 6 beaten eggs, and sugar and nut- meg to taste. Pour into cups and bake in slow oven for about half an hour. BAKED INDIAN PUDDING Scald 1 quart milk; stir into a little cold milk 1 tea- cupful yellow cornmea), and add to the boiling milk, stirring until it thickens, but no longer, or it will not bake well. When nearly cold, add 2 well-beaten eggs, a pinch of salt, a pint of cold milk, and sweeten with half sugar and half molasses; flavor with nutmeg, if at all; bake about 1 hour, or until water bubbles from the top. Serve hot. STEAMED SUET PUDDING Mix 3 cups flour with 2 cups sweet milk, 1 cup mo- lasses (into which 1 teaspoonful soda has been stirred), and 1 cup each of seeded raisins, currants, and chopped suet. Put in 2-quart basin or individual cups, and steam for 2 hours. Serve with any liquid sauce pre- ferred. CHOCOLATE PUDDING Pour 1 pint boiling milk over 4 ounces grated choc- olate (bitter or sweet). Dissolve 3 tablespoonf uls corn- starch in 1 pint milk, add 3 beaten eggs, 1 teaspoonful vanilla extract, and sweeten to taste. Mix and pour into the milk and chocolate. Boil 1 minute, stirring briskly; pour into cups or molds and set away in a cold place until wanted. This pudding may be improved by the addition of a meringue ( see page 476). VANILLA SOUFFLE Break 3 eggs, put whites aside, and yolks in sauce- pan with }4 pound sugar, 3 tablespoonfuls flour, some vanilla, the grated rind of a lemon, and 1 pint milk. Cook, while beating, about 10 minutes, until thick. Beat the whites stiff and pour, little by little, into the saucepan, stirring constantly. Pour into a buttered cake mold, and bake in oven not too warm, until it swells and has an attractive yellow color. Serve with granulated sugar sprinkled over, or with a httle green- grape or currant jelly on each individual plate. PUDDINGS, SAUCES, ICE CEEAM, ICES 479 SNOW EGGS — FLOATING ISLAND Place the yolks of 10 eggs in a saucepan and whip the whites separately. Poach the whites, spoonful after spoonful, in boihng milk (1 quart of milk, with 4 tablespoonfuls sugar and a little lemon or vanilla extract added, boiling quickly in a somewhat shallow pan) ; lift out carefully the poached spoonfuls of egg, and let drip on a platter. Mix yolks with 4 tablespoon- fuls sugar, and pour into the same pan of hot milk, stirring constantly until somewhat thickened. Pour into a shallow- dish and over the top carefully dispose the poached whites. When cool, place on each "island " a small piece of any preferred jelly. CHARLOTTE KUSSE Take 18 ladyflngers (or oblongs of sponge cJte V4 X 1 X 3 inches) ; brush edges with white of egg, and with these line the bottom of a plain round mold (placing cakes in form of star, or rosett«), likewise standing cakes upright around the edge, placing so closely that the white of egg will cement them. Place in oven for S minutes to dry the egg; whip % pint of cream to stiff froth, add 1 tablespoonful powdered sugar, !4 ounce melted gelatin, and 1 teaspoonful vanilla; beat thoroughly and pour into mold, covering top with circular slice of sponge cake. Place on ice. When cold, tui'n upside down on dish, remove mold, and serve. PICK-UP PUDDING Place in steamer slices of dry cake; while steam- ing, rub together 14 tablespoonful butter and 3 table- spoonfuls sugar, flavor with cinnamon and pour into a Uttle boiling water; thicken with a little cornstarch wet in cold water. Serve 1 or 2 slices to a person, with sauce poured over. SAUCES FOB PUDDINGS Cream Sauce — Beat together 1 yolk and 1 tea- spoonful flour, sweeten to taste, and stir into 1^ cups boiling milk; cool and flavor; may be used in place of cream. Hard Sauce — Cream together 1 cup sugar and J4 pound butter; flavor with nutmeg and add the juice and grated rind of a lemon (for which, if desired, 3 or 3 table- spoonfuls sherry may be substituted). Serve in small individual dish apart, or place a lump on top of each individual service of hot pudding. Vanilla Sauce — Mix 3 beaten eggs, ^ pound butter, and ^ pound sugar; flavor with vanilla and add a little boiling water to thicken. Sherry (or Madeira) Wine Sauce — Place in saucepan 3 tablespoonfuls butter and 1 teaspoonful flour; stir over Are until it thickens, then mix in beaten yolks of 4 eggs, 2 tablespoonfuls sugar, a pinch of salt, and J^ pint sherry or Madeira, stirring wine in briskly. Let remain on Are until on point of simmering, but do not let it boil, or it will curdle. For plum, suet, and bread puddings. Brandy Sauce — Warm (but do not melt) J4 pound butter and rub in 1 pound powdered sugar and flavor with a saltspoonf ul ground cinnamon (and same quan- tity of nutmeg if desired). Beat in 4 tablespoonfuls brandy, and place on ice. White ,Sau<-e — Rub to a cream J^ cup butter and 1 cup sugar; add the beaten white of an egg, y^ teaspoon- ful extract lemon or rose, and 1 cup boiling water, into which has been stirred 1 teaspoonful cornstarch (in a little cold water). Lemon Sauce — Prepare as for Sherry Wine Sauce above, but grate into the sugar the rind of 1 lemon, sub- stituting for the larger amount of sherry (or Madeira) 1 large wineglassful each of sherry and water and the juice of 1 lemon, strained. ICE CREAMS AND ICES VANILLA ICE CBEAM Place in saucepan 6 to 8 yolks, well mixed with 1)^ cups sugar; add 2 teaspoonfuls vanilla, and also add, little by little, while stirring, 1 quart cream. Place saucepan on comer of range, allowing mixture to warm, but not to boil. Cream will be ready when it sticks to the spoon. Cool and freeze. CHOCOLATE ICE CREAM Same as for Vanilla, but add "4 pound shaved chocolate. STBAWBEBRY ICE Clean 1 quart strawberries and press through sieve (or potato "ricer"). Pour into bowl with % pound sugai', IJ^ pints water, and juice of 4 lemons. Mix all and put aside, stirring from time to time until sugar is dissolved. Then freeze. RASPBERRY ICE Same as foregoing, but use raspberries. LEMON, ORANGE ICE Same as foregoing, but instead of other frait use grated rind of a lemon or orange, and the juice of 6. STEAWBEEBY, PEACH ICE CBEAM Same as for Vanilla, but when partly frozen, add in freezer whole strawberries or peaches cut up, and revolve briskly to distribute fruit. 480 WHOLESOME COOKIXG : CAKE MAKING CAKES GENERAL REMARKS The prime essentials for good cake, as for good pastry, are good flour and good butter. Some coolis prefer unsalted butter, some butter from which the salt has been washed, some salted butter, and some butter and lard mixed. Always sift the baliing powder with the flour (or, in a soda cake, soda must first be dissolved in warm water or sour cream). Always rub butter and sugar to a cream, adding next the well-beaten yolks of the eggs, then the milk and flour by degrees, and, lastly, the whites, beaten to a stiff froth. After these are added batter should be beaten as little as possible, ou which success ill cake making largely deiiends. Fruit must always be dredged with flour before adding to batter, or it will settle to bottom. Raisins should be seeded (unless the seedless are used) and chopped (except for fruit cakes, when some should be left whole). / Currants, as bought, are full of grit and dirt. They must be washed in many waters in a col- ander, spread on tins to dry, and put away in bulk for future use. Almonds may be quickly blanched by scalding with water, after which skins may he rubbed off. The economical housewife economizes, first of all, her time. There is no need to waste time and risk failure in experimenting with new recipes for plain cakes, when a few standard cakes of all the various sorts needed so readily lend themselves to all possible combinations. STANDARD CAKES sugar and hot water, beating quickly; then add 2 cups 1. Gold Cake -One and one-half cups sugar; \^ Ao"""' '° '^1"'^'^ ^^ teaspoontuls baking powder have cup butter; 1 cup sweet milk: 3 teaspoontuls baking been sifted; add small pinch of salt and 1 teaspoonful powder, mixed with 3 cups flour; beaten yolks of 6 eggs. l^""™ extract; lastly, add whites of eggs, mixing as Flavor with nutmeg or vanilla, or other flavoring if "g''tlJ' ^ Possible. Bake in quick oven. needed for combination. , ,,^ ' COMBINATION CAKES 2. Silver Cake — One and one-half cups sugar; Yi cup butter; 1 cup sweet milk; 2 teaspoonfuls baking Based upon Standard Cakes as Above powder ; 3 cups flour ; whites of G eggs beaten to a froth Cream Cake — Bake desired number of layers of and added last. Flavor with 'bitter almond or lemon, Silver Cake (No. 2 or 3) and put together with the fol- orasdesired. lowingfilling; Place in saucepan 1 pint milk, sweetened . 3. Plain ( Cup ) Cake — Three eggs ; IJ^ cups to taste; bring to a boil, and stir in 2 beaten eggs, add sugar; )4 cup melted butter; 1 cup water (or milk, in 1 tablespoonful cornstarch mixed with a little cold which case reducing butter by 1^); 3 cups flour; 3 tea- water. Let boil up once and flavor with lemon or spoonfuls baking powder ; flavor with vanUla, or as vanilla. Frost with desired icing, or sprinkle upper desired. layer with powdered sugar. 4. Fruit Spice Cake — One cup sugar; 1 cup Orange Cake — Bake desired number of layers of molasses; % cup butter; 1 cup sour milk; 3 cups flour; Phthi Cake (No. 3), (using, however, the yolks of 5 eggs 3 eggs; 1 teaspoonful each of soda, nutmeg, and cloves. and the whites of 3. and flavoring with orange extract). (Mix soda with molasses and sour milk.) One-half tea- Put together and frost with cooked icing, in which are spoonful cinnamon ; }^ cupful citron, chopped ; 1 cupful used the other two whites, and to which is added (when each of raisins and currants. a little cool) the grated rind and juice of one orange. 5. Sponge Cake — Pour 1 cup boihng water over Between the layers dispose thin slices of orange, seeded. 2 cups sugar; separate yolks and whites of 4 eggs, and Nougat Cake — Bake desired number of layers of beat both well, the whites to a stiff froth; add yolks to Silver Cake (^o.i). Put together and frost with cooked CAKES 481 icing to which are addol chopped nuts of various sorts. Flavor icing with a suspicion of bitter almond. Chocolate Nut Cake — This cake has layers of two colors. For hght layers, bake from Silver Cake batter (No. 2) ; for dark layers, stir into same batter 1 ounce finely grated chocolate; or, better, use Gold Cake batter (No. 1), adding chocolate. Put together with filling made of 4 ounces melted chocolate, to which are added 2 tablespoonfuls butter, J^ pound sugar, and 34 cupful cream, boil until it forms a soft cake when " tried ■" in ice water, and stir in 1 cupful finely chopped English walnuts. Frost with same icing, or, better, with a plain chocolate icing, over which are disposed the halves of walnuts. Cocoajiut Cake — Bake desired number of layers of Plain Cake (No. 3) and put together and frost with plain uncooked icing to which has been added all of 1 grated cocoanut except enough to sprinkle dry over top and sides. ITig Cake — Bake desired number of layers of Silver Cake (No. 2) and put together with 1 pound chopped figs cooked to a paste with % cup sugar and 1 cup water, stirring to make smooth. If desired, only two layers may be baked, and these split to make four. Frost top and sides with plain white icing, cooked or uncooked. ILoaf Cocoanut Cake — Use Plain Cake batter (No. S\ sturing in, the last thing before baking, 1 grated cocoanut. Leave plain, or ice as for cocoanut layer cake. Chocolate Cake — Use recipe for Silver Cake (No. 2) or Plain Cake (No. 3), the former being daintier, putting together and frosting Avith plain chocolate icing, or with cooked white icing into which 4 table- spoonfuls grated chocolate have been stirred. Flavor both cake and frosting with vanilla. Hickory Nut Cake — Employ recipe for Plain Cake (No. 3), but if desired use 4 eggs, 2 cups sugar, and 1 cup butter. The last thing before baking, stir tbrough batter 2 cups chopped hickory nut meats, dredged with flour. Flavor to taste and bake in loaf, sprinkling with powdered sugar, or icing if desired. Kibbon Cake has layers of two colors ; if a. quantity of cake is being baked, use recipes for Silver and Fruit Spice Cakes (Nos. 2 and 4); for a single cake, fill two layer tins with Silver Cake batter (No. 2), then for the middle layer stir into the remainder of the bat- ter 3^ cupful chopped raisins, ^ cupful citron, a little ground cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg. Put together and frost top and sides with generous quantity of fruit icing. Rolled Jelly Cake — Cake Sponge Cake (No. 5) in thin sheets in oblong tins. Turn from tin onto a double towel wrung out of cold water; spread the bot- tom with auy preferred jelly or jam, roll, and dust out- side with powdered sugar. SPECIAL CAKES Angel Cake — This is a very delicate cake, every condition prescribed for the making of which must be observed, or it will prove a failure. Take 1^ tum- blers pulverized sugar, or the very fine granulated, 1 tumbler flour, whites of TO eggs, 1 teaspoonful cream of tartar, and 1 teaspoonful extract lemon or vanilla. Beat whites to a stiff froth; then sift sugar, flour, and cream of tartar together four times, so as to make it extremely light. Stir in quickly the whites, and with as little beating as possible; put batter- in an unbut- tered tin (one with a pipe in the center to insure even baking is preferable), and bake 40 minutes in a slow oven. Turn upside down to cool, but put something under the edges to prevent its lying on a flat surface and becoming heavy. Tin used for Angel Cake should be used, from the first, for nothing else. Pound Cake — Beat the whites and yolks of 8 eggs separately; cream together 1 pound sugar and 1 pound butter, add the beaten eggs, and stir in 1 pound flour. Flavor to taste and bake in moderate oven, preferably in small pans. Fruit Pound Cake — Same as foregoing, but stir in 1 cup citron and 1 cup raisins (seeded but unchopped), dredged with flour. Rich Fruit Cake — Cream together 1% pounds butter and 2 pounds sugar; add 6 beaten eggs, I grated nutmeg, I teaspoonful cloves, and 1 teaspoonful cinna- mon, Vi cup milk, and 3 teaspoonfuls baking powder mixed with 2% pounds flour. Stir in 2 pounds each of raisins and cuiTants and ^ pound citron. Bake in a slow oven. Black Fruit Cake— Cream together 1 pound each of brown sugar and butter; add 10 beaten eggs, 2 tea- spoonfuls each of nutmeg and cinnamon, 1 teaspoonful of cloves, and 1 pound browned flour into which 1 tea- spoonful baking powder has been stirred. Stir in 2 pounds each currants and raisins, and 14 pound citron. Bake in slow oven, 2 or 3 days before using. Old -fashioned Pork Fruit Cake — Put in mixing bowl 6 cups sifted flour, and sift in 4 cups more which have been well browned, mixing weU. Chop 1 pound fat salt pork very fine, pour over it 2 cups boiling water, and set to cool. Into a hole in the flour pour 6 beaten eggs, mixed with 1 pound dark brown sugar and 1 teaspooijful each of allspice, cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg. Then stir in 1 cupful molasses and 1 pint sour milk, into which 1 level teaspoonful soda has been 482 WHOLESOME COOKING: CAKES Stirred; add the minced pork and water, and stir in the flour., adding more if batter is too thin. Lastly, add 1 pmmd chopped raisins, 1 pound whole seeded raisins, 1 pimnd currants, and 'J4 pound citron, all well dredged with flour. Stir gently through the batter, and bake in a slow nven. When done set away in stone jars, and do not use for four weeks, or more. This cake will keejo a year. Ouick Sponge Cake — Beat 2 eggs, add 1 cup sugar and 1 teaspoonful baking powder mixed in 1 cup flour; add 2 tablespoonfuls boiling water; stir well, but do not beat. Bake in aloaf in shallowtia, or in gem tin. Soft Molasses Cake — Mix 1 cup butter, 1 pint molasses into which 2 teaspoonfuls soda have been stirred, 1 pint flour, Yz pint milk, 2 eggs, 1 tablespoonful gingei', and enough more flour to make somewhat less' stifE batter than for Cup Cake. Bake in moderate oven. Soft Gingerbread — Pour 1 cup boiling water over 1^ cup butter and 1 cup molasses, into which 1 teaspoonful soda has been stirred; add 1 teaspoonful ginger, a small pinch oC cloves, 1 egg, and 2 cups flour. ICINGS FOR CAKES Boiled Wlilte Icing — Allow 1 cup of granulated sugar to the white of 1 egg; put sugar in saucepan with 14 cupful water aud boil without stirring until syrup hairs; beat the whites of eggs in bowl to a stiff froth, and when syrup is done, pour it, boiling hot, in a thin stream into the egg, beating vigorously meanwhile, lest the egg cook in lumps. If desired, a pinch of cream of tartar may be added; flavor to taste. Uncooked White Icing — Beat whites of eggs in bowl to stiff froth; then pour in piUverized sugar gradually, beating until smooth, and allowing 34 pound sugar to each egg. Add more sugar if needed, and flavor as desired. Lemon Icing — Beat together the juice and rinds of 1 or 2 lemons, 3 beaten eggs, 1 teaspoonful butter, i-a glass water, and 2 cupfuls sugar. Boil to a creamy consistency. Chocolate Icing — Mix together 1 cup sugar, 1 tablespoonful butter, 34 cake shaved chocolate, and 4 tablespuonfuls boiling water. Stir until dissolved, boil a little, and flavor with vanilla. Fruit Icing — Add to Boiled White Icing, 1 cup- ful chopped raisins or figs (or both) to each egg used. Chopped blanched almonds may be added if desired. Almond Cream Filling — Whip 1 pint thick cream to the stiffest possible froth; sweeten well, flavor ^vith vanilla, and add 2 cupfuls chopped blanched almonds. Spread thickly between layers very shortly before serving. SMALL CAKES, CRULLERS, AND COOKIES Spice Cakes — Mix 6 beaten eggs with 4 cups brown sugar and 2 large cups flour; add cinnamon and cloves to taste and 2 level teaspoonfuls baking powder. Drop from spoon onto buttered tin in cakes the size of a hickory nut. Bake quickly. Cocoanut Drops — Mix together the beaten white of 1 egg and 1 cup sugar; add 1 tablespoonful flour and 1 large cup cocoanut; line tin with buttered paper, drop from spoon in balls the size of a hickory nut, sprinkle with powdered sugar, and bake 20 minutes in slow oven. Macaroons — Mix J^ pound blanched almonds, pounded fine, with a little rosewater to moisten, and i^ pound sugar; add the whites of 2 eggs, beaten to a stiff froth; then, with a little flour on the hands, mold into little cakes, and bake in a moderately hot oven. Walnut Wafers — Mix 3 even tablespoonfuls flour with }4 teaspoonful baking powder, a little salt, 2 beaten eggs, J^ pound brown sugar, and 1 cupful walnut meats broken into small pieces. Drop onto buttered paper and bake slowly to a light brown. Douglinuts — Mix 1^^ cups sugar with 2 beaten eggs, 2 cups milk or cream, and flour enough to roll out, mixing 1 teaspoonful baking powder wdth each cup of flour. Flavor with nutmeg. Eoll quite thin and cut out in rings. Fry in a kettle of hot lard to a reddish brown, and roll while hot in powdered sugar. German Crullers — Mix 2 cups sugar with butter the size of an egg, 2 cups milk, 3 beaten eggs, and enough flour to roll out without sticking, allowing 1 tea- spoonful baking powder to each cup of flour. Flavor with nutmeg and cinnamon. Fry in hot lard and dust with powdered sugar. English W^ine Cakes — Work 2 pounds leaf lard in the hands on molding board until afl the strings are removed; add 2 pounds sugar, a httle salt, and flour enough to roll out in a stiff dough. Cut J4 inch thick with small cake cutter, and bake in a moderately quick oven. These cookies should be kept in a stone jar from a fortnight to a month before using. Sugar Cookies — Mix }^ cup butter with 1 cup sugar, 2 beaten eggs, 3 tablespoonfuls sweet milk, and flour enough to make a soft dough, in which is mixed 1 teaspoonful of baking powder to the cup of flour. Flavor with a suspicion of nutmeg, mix expeditiously, roll thin, sprinkle with coarse granulated sugar (rolling it in hghtly), cut out, and bake in a quick oven to a light brown. Molasses Cookies — Mix 1 cup brown sugar with 1 cup lard; add 1 cup molasses and 1 cup boiling water, with 1 teaspoonful soda. 1 teaspoonful ginger, and "^ teaspoonful powdered alum, put in last. Mix as soft as can be rolled aud bake in a quick oven. Index Note — Publications listed in the various Bibliograpkies are here indexed by title and author and are indicated by italics. A Abdominal breathing, defined 298 Aberdeen- Angus cattle 210 f;rades, as feeders 255 ortion^ Contagious 381 Abortion, defined 371 Abscesses 364 Acre, dimensions of 450 Actinomycosis 350 Actinomycosis, or Lumpy Jaw ..331 Adams, J. H. 383 ASration, see Ventilation Afforestation 133 African geese 415 Agricultural experiment stations, directory of 404 Agricultttre and Chemistry 45 Agriculture, general, publications on 45 Aikman, CM 48,280 Air as an element of fertility 18 lack of, in soil 11 Albiaminoid nitrogen 10 Alfalfa ,- 80 Alfalfa and the Soil 45 Alfalfa as green manure . . . -■ 34 for the silo- 400 Alfalfa, or Lucerne 80 Alkali Lands 46 Alkali lands, amendment of 35 corrected by underdrainage 37 Alkalispots ._ 8 Alkaline soils, macaroni wheat on 55 salt-bushes for 68 Allen, C.L 108,134 Allen, George Edward _.280 Almond, attacked by crown-gall. 182 Anaendments to soU --. 35 American Merino, The 280 American saddler 219 American Standard of Perfec- tion, The - 436 American trotter, carriage breed-218 Anunonia, nitrogen as 10 Ammoniafial copper-carbonate so- lution, f UBgicide 143 Andalusian fowls -412 Angers quince, stock for dwarf pears 113 Angora Goat, Information Con- cerning tlie 280 Angora Goat, The 280 Angora Goats, American ...280 Angoumois grain-moth, attacking stored grain 164 Angus, polled, as feeders 255 Animal Breeding 279 Animal Castration 381 Animal diseases, see Diseases of Farm Animals. Animal reproduction, laws of 229 Animals, feeding of 238 Anjou pear, heading back for the 124 Annuals for dry forage 65 Anthraonose of grape 195 of raspberry 196 Anthrax - 343 Apiary, Manual of the 281 Apoplexy in fowls - ---432 Aphis, of cherry 185 of beet 159 woolly, of apple 167 Appetite, depraved, in ruminants 306 Apple Culture 184 Apple, diseases of 175 French crab --112 fruit maggot of - - 174 fruit black rot of 178 heading back of 123 Apple, How to Grow the 134 Apple, insects injurious to— apple-fruit maggot - . . 174 apple-leaf bucculatrix - - 1 74 apple leaf -hoppers 168 apple-leaf plant-lice 1 67 apple-tree tent-caterpillar ..-169 apple twig-borer 169 apple-worm - 171 bud moth - 174 buffalo tr«e-hopper 1 75 canker-worms, spring 172 fall 172 cigar-case bearer - - 173 codling-motb - 171 fall webworm 170 flat-headed apple-tree borer- -169 green fruit worms -.-172 leaf-crumpler 170 pistol-case bearer -- -173 plum-purculio 183 red spider 175 round-headed apple-tree borer 169 scale insects 186 seventeen-year locust 174 woolly aphis ---167 yellow-necked caterpillar 170 Apple, leaf -blight of 176 leaf spot of 176 low heads for the 123 pruning the 123 Apple, ripe rot of 178 root-rot of--- 178 Apple Rots of Illinois 202 Apple rust - 176 scab- - 177 seedlings, nursery for -113 size to plant 123 spraying calendar for 166 stocks, where obtained 112 strong loam for 112 thinning fruit of the 131 tree canker 178 twig blight 178 when injured by cultivation 129 Apricot, attacked by crowii gall--]82 attacked by peach fruit-spot---lS3 Arid climates, emmerfor ---. 57 macaroni wheat in- 55 meadow seed mixtures for 70 Armsby, H. P. ^ 280 Army-worm - --1^37 fall -- '. - 147 Army-worm, Pal', and Varie- gated Cutworm... 203 Arsenical poisous for biting in- sects 140 Arseniteof lead 141 of lime 141 Artichol;es, culture 62 for hogs 62 Ashes, Application of 46 Ash, defined ,6, 241 taken up by roots 6 Asparagus 108 Asparagus, culture of- - 99 Asparagus Culture 202 Asparagus, insects injurious to — common asparagus- beetle 157 12-spotted asparagus-beetle--157 rust - ---.-162 varieties - 100 Asthenia, in fowls : 433 Atkinson, G. P. - 109 Aylesbury ducks 415 Ayrshire cattle 213 Azoturia - 336 B Bach, P. W. ---- ----279 Bacon hogs _ -224 characteristics of - - 259 Bacteria in soil - -- 10 Bacterial rot of onions -163 of legumes 9 Bagworm 199 .ffa!/ey,7;..ff.,45,108,109,110,134,i35,136 484 PRACTICAL FARMING AND GARDEXING Bailey, L. H.,Jr.... 134 BaiLs, puisoned 141 Balanced rations, compouoding of 243 Balls, for medication 301 Bang, B 3S4 Bantams 415 Bark-beetle, fruit-tree 181 Barley, culture of 56 smuts .. - 155 varieties 50 Barlow, J. B ..436 Barnes and Robinson 108 Barn itch of cattle 353 Barnyard Manure 46 Barnyard manure, best for fruits 130 effect on rate of evaporation. . . 27 for alkallr'spots 8 for old orcbards 132 for soil ventilation 19 mode of application 29 to add humus.- 26 with commercial fertilizers 32, 33, 225 Barry, P. 134 Baftersby,J. C. 279 Bay, Cleveland 218 Beal, Stephen 437 Beans, iusects injurious to — bean ladybird 158 bean leaf beetle 158 Nuttall's blister-beetle 158 variegated cutworm 156 western bean-beetle _ 158 woolly bear 157 Beans, bush 94 pole _ 93 ■ soy . - 51 velvet, for dry forage 68 Beiins, pole, varieties 94 Beardnian, Samuel L. 279 Bee Culture, A B C of 281 Beej and Daiiy Cattle, Confor- 7nation of ... 2*^0 Beef cattle, breeds of 209 cattle, points of 251 condition, ideal 250 form, ideal 249 making, L. H. Kerrick on 283 Beef Froduction, Some Essen- tials in _ 280 Beef quality, conditions influenc- ing 251 Beef quality, ideal 250 Beekeepmg 231 Beetles, May 149 Beet pulp silage 401 root-rot 163 Beets, culture 59 for trucking 97 sugar 60 varieties 59 Beets, insects injurious to— beet aphis 159 pale-striped flea -beetle 158 red -headed flea-beetle 158 sugar-beet web worm 159 Beeves, judging, on the hoof 251 Behavior of animals, in diagnosis 300 Belgian, draft breed - 216 Belgian FJarc Breeding 281 Berksiiire, cross with Poland China 235 fat-bog breed 223 Berry Book, Biggie 134 Bibliographies: Classified and an- notated lists of publications on agricultural topics — agriculture, genei-al ; tillage, fertilization, irrigation, and drainage 45 animal husbandry 279 bees, fish, and miscellaneous an i mals 281 cattle and dairying 280 construction and manage- ment of silos 403 diseases of farm animals 381 field and fom ge ci ops, seed se- lection, and the eradication of weeds 80 fruit culture and forestry 134 injuiious insects and plant diseases 202 poultry and pigeons 436 specific vegetable crops, truck farming, and the marketing of produce 108 sheep and Angora goats 280 swine 281 the horse 279 Biggie,/. ...134 Bill-bug, corn 146 Bin, contents of, to estimate 449 Birds, beneficial and injurious ..-140 Birds, Some Common, in Their Relations to Agriculture . . .205 "Bird''s-eye rot" of grape 195 Bisulphide of carbon fumigation. 142 Biting insects, poisons for 140 Bitter-rot of apple 175 Bitting, A, W. 382, 384 Bitting, A. W. and R. A. Craig 382 Blackberry, anthracnose of 196 attacked by rose scale 191 pruning the. 12G See also Bush Fruits. Black head in turkeys ...433 Black-knot, attacking plum and cherrv 184 Blackleg' 342 Black peach-aphis 182 rot, apple-fruit 178 Black Rot of Cabbage .202 Black rot of grape 195 of quince 185 Black Spanish crosses undesirable for caponizing 425 fowls 412 Black, William 280 Bladder, inflammation of 323 Blanching celery 103 Bligh t, apple-tw ig 178 Bhster-beetle, Nuttall's 158 striped 162 Blister-mites, pear-leaf 179 Blisters for animals 302 Bloating from rape 64 Bloating, see Tympanitis. Blood poisoning 341 Blotch of apple 1 76 Blue grass, injured by bill-bugs.. 146 in mowing land-. 69 pastures 291 Board measure contents of square timber. _ 445 Boar, for breediug bacon hogs . . .259 for breeding fat hogs 258 Bog spavin 380 Boll worm, cotton ...154 Boll Worm of Cotton 202 Book lists, see Bibliographies. Bordeaux mixture, fungicide .:..]43 Paris green with 141 Bordeaux wash, fungicide 144 Borer, apple-tree 1 69 apple twig 169, 193 Cottonwood 200 grape cane 1 93 hop- vine 1 55 peach-tree 180 poplar 200 cane, of bush fruits 196 currant stem 1 96 sinuate pear-tree 179 squash- vine 1 61 Bot-flies 358 Bowels, inflammation of ..312 Boxes, to compute capacity of.. .449 Boyce, S. S. 81 Boyer, M. K. 436 Brahma, crosses for caponizing.. 435 Brahma fowls 413 Braiding wools, deflued 213 Brain, anemia of... 330 cdngestiou of 330 inflammation of 331 Breed and type distinguished 227 choice of a 207 Breeding, advantage of pedigree in 233 age to begin, for various ani- mals 237 '■ Breeding back," or reversion ..233 Breeding boar, selection of 258 crossing io 234 fecundity as factor in 233 good foundation stock in.. 236 good, in mutton sheep 2G1 grading-up system of ..234 important data regarding 237 in-and-in _ 235 law of correlation in 233 law of herediiy in 239 line 236 management of sires in 237 of immature stock 230 of mules 231 of seed 74 phenomenon of reversion in ...232 prepotency a factor in r. _ 229 relative influence of parents in 230,231 return for, after parturition .,.337 rules for selection in 227 stallion and mare for 257 sterility 367 usefulness, period of, in vari- ous animals 2^37 variation in 236 Jtalicized titles and names refer to publications on agricultU7''al topics. INDEX 485 Breeds of live stock — cattle 208 horses ..-215 sheep 319 swine ..283 of steers for feeding 255 Breeds, The Study of 279 Brick, how laid 447 Bridle Bits.. 279 Brill, Francis 80 Broilers for Profit.. 436 Broilers, marketing 423 profits in raising 422 Bronchitis... 327 in swine 357 Brooder clucks, care of 421 Brooders .418 Brooks, Professor, on feeding of animals 239 Broom Corn and Brooms 108 Brown Swiss cattle... 215 Brussels sprouts 101 Bucculatrlx, apple-leaf 174 Buckwheat,as orchard cover crop 129 culture of 58 Budded seedlings, pruning of 114 trees, transplanting... 115 Budding, mechanical process of .118 use in fruit-tree propagation... 114 when perfonned 114 Bud moth of apple 174 worm, tobacco 153 Buffalo tree-hopper 175 Buff Orpington fowls. 414 Buhach (pyrethrum) 143 Bulbs and Tuberous-rooted Plants 134 Bumble foot in fowls... 434 Burberry, H. A. 135 Burpee, IV. A 279 Bush beans 94 Bushel, legal weights of 451 Bush Fruits 134 Bush fniits, anthracnose of. .195, 196 attacked by tour-lined leaf-bug 196 attacked by rose scale 191 cane-borers of 196 cane maggots of 196 pruning of 126,127 saw-fly of 196 scale insects of 186 thinning of. 131 Business Hen, The __.436 Butcher's ideal in steer form 249 of fat and bacon hogs 258 of mutton sheep 259 Butler, T. 382 Butterflies and Moths Injurious to Fruit -producing Plants. .202 Butterfly Book, The 203 Butterfly, cabbage ...159 C Cabbage, culture of 101 black rot of 202 brown rot of. - 163 insects injmious to — cabbage butterfly 159 cabbage flea-beetle ...160 harlequin cabbage-bug ..159 32 Italicized, titles Cabbages, Ca^iliflowers, etc 108 Calculi, intestinal 317 Calendai% perpetual 438 California Fruits, The, and How to Grow Them 134 "California wash^' .142 Calves, diseases of — diarrhea 314 licking disease ...306 mouth, ulcers in 304 stomatitis, ulcerative 304 See also Cattle, Diseases of Canada peas, as orchard green- manure 112 Cane-borers, grape 193 of bush fruits 196 Cane-maggots of bush fruits 196 Canker, apple-tree 178 in fowls. ...433 Canker-worms .173,200 Capacity of various receptacles, to compute. 448, 449 Capillarity, defined 13 Capillary capacity increased by humus 18 movement, retarded by low tem- perature 19 water, capacity of soils for. .12, 32 water supply, effect of under- drainage on 16, 36 Caponizing", advantages of 424 care of birds after 430 care of birds before 426 instruments for 425 Capons for Profit 436 Capped hock, in horses 380 Capsules, for medication 301 Carbohydrates, defined 341 CarboUc acid wash 143 Carbon Bisulphide as an Insecti- cide 202 Carbon bisulphide fumigation ...142 Carbon dioxide, poisoning by 402 taken in through leaves 6 Card, F. W. 134 Carman, H. ...436 Carp Culture, A B Cof.. .281 Carpentry, handy rules in 445 Carriage horses, breeds of .218 Carrots, culture 60 for trucking 97 Cary,C.A ...382, 383 Catarrh, acute 325 contagious, of fowls .431 gastro-intestinal 306 Catarrhal fever 339 Caterpillar, apple-tree tent.. 169 attacking cotton 154 forest tent 199 yellow-necked, of apple 170 zebra 159 Cattle, Diseases of. 381 Cattle, diseases of — anthrax 343 black leg 343 botflies 359 bowels, inflammation of 313 catarrh, gastro-intestinal 307 congestion and anemia of the brain.. 330 and names refer to publications on agricultural topics. Cattle, diseases of — croupous pneumonia 329 diarrhea 315 foreign bodies in stomachs. . .311 gastro-enteritis 313 heart, inflammation of... 324, 335 hydrophobia 344 indigestion 307 inflammation of the brain 331 influenza 340 J'aundice. 318 Lcking disease 306 lockjaw ...340 lumpy jaw 350 mouth, inflammation of 304 omasum, infection of 311 parasites 352, 359 peritonitis .319 pneumonia 329 reproductive organs, diseases of 366 retention of urine 322 rheumatism 335 stomach and intestines, in- flammation of 313 stomatitis 304 tuberculosis 346 tympanitis 808, 310 wounds 360 Cattle, beef, points of 251 Cattle Breeding. 280 Cattle, breeds of — beef 209 dairy 313 dual purpose 315 breeds of, for feeding 255 dairy, points of 256 drenching of 301 Cattle Feeding, Manual of 280 Cattle, growing, feeding of ..285, 289 Cattle, Hydrophobia in 381 Cattle, Market Classes and Grades of 280 Cattle market quotations, sugges- tions for interpreting 277 native, feeding of.. 389 Cattle, Nitrate of Soda Poison- ing of. 381 Cattle, normal temperature in. ..399 pulse of, how taken 298 Cattle Ranges of tlie Southwest . 80 Cattle, Scabies in ...381 Cattle, silage for .387 Caulifiower, culture 103 brown rot of.. 163 Cayuga ducks.. 415 Cecropia 301 Cedar fungus of apple... 176 Celery culture 103 Celery for Profit .108 Cement for various uses 447, 448 Centigrade thermometer scale. . 450 Chains, strength of 452 Chatnberlain, IV. I. 48 Chaveau, A., and G. Fleming... '^i Cheese Making 280 Cheese Making, A B C in 280 Cheese Making in Switzer- land... 280 Chemistry, Agriculture and 45 496 PRACTICAL PARMINa AND GARDENING Quinn.e, attacked by apple rust... 176 by black rot ..178, 185 by leaf -blight ^....176 by pear-blight 180 by shot-hole fungus _ .184 Quince Culture _136 Quince, fruit-spot of 180, 186 attacked by plum-curculio 183 leaf-spot of 180, 186 pruning the ...127 rust 176, 186 scale insects of 186 d seq Quimi.P T. 136 Quotations, cattle market, how to interpret _ 277 K Rabbit Keeper^ Practical.. 281 Rabies ..344 Radishes 99 cabbage flea-beetle, injurious to 160 Rafters, length of, to compute... 446 Rambouillet Merino 220 Ram, mutton, selection of 261-267 Rams, hydraulic 452 Range cattle, feeding of. 293 Rankin, David, farm operations of (financial statement) 396 on range cattle feeding 293 Rankin^ James 436 Rape, bloating from 64 culture for soiling. 64 Raspberry, thinning fruit of 1 31 anthracnose 196 insects and diseases of the 196 pruning the 126 scale 191 Rations, compounding of 243 daily, German standards for... 246 Reaumur thermometer scale 450 Rectal injections 202 Rectum, medication per 302 Red Cap fowls 412 Red Clover Seed 81 Red-headed flea-beetle 158 Red Polled cattle 215 Red spider 175 Refrigeration and Cold Stor- age 279 Registry, no criterion of excel- lence 333 Re?nsen^ Ira J. 46 Renovating old orchards 132 Reproductive organs, diseases of the 366 Respirations, in diagnosis 298 Respiratory organs, examination of. in disease 325 Reversion, defined 232 Reynolds, M. H. 384 Rheumatism 335 Rheumatismal pleurisy 329 Rhode Island Red fowls 414 Rhubarb 100 Rhubarb Culture 109 Rhubarb Culture^ The New 109 Rice-weevil 165 Ridged culture 16 Ring-bone 375 Ringworm of cattle 353 Italicized titles Ripe-rot of plum. .-. 184 of apple 178 Roads and road making _._ 42 Roadster, selection of 257 Roberge^ David 383 Roberts, I. P. _. 47 Robinson, Barnes and 108 Roller, use of. 16 Rolling, effect on soil ventilation . 18 Rolhug land, for orchard 111 Roof, span and pitch of 446 shingles for 446 Root, A. I. 281 Root and Finley 281 Root crops, annual, for trucking. 90 artichokes 62 as stock food 58 beets .' 59 carrots 60 Root Crops for Stock 279 Root crops, kohlrabi 61 perennial, for trucking 99 potatoes 61 rutabagas 61 turnips 60 See also Tuber and Bulb Crops. Root development, enlarged by underdrainage 16, 17, 36 Root grafting 116 Root, L, C. 281 Root-louse, corn 146 Root penetration, depth of 17 Root-rot of apple 178 of beets 163 Roots, obstruction in tile. _ 41 office in ventilating soil 19 of fruit trees, care in handling. 128 physical effect on soil 23 Root-worm of grape 192 corn 144, 145 Ropes, strength of 452 Rose-chafer 1 94 Rose Culture, Seci'ets of. 136 Rose scale 191 Rose, The 136 Rotation of crops 26,29, 30 best time for manure in 50 factor in insect control. -..137 forfl.ax-sick soil 58 in gardening 84 made profitable by animal pro- duction 226 Rot, bacterial, of onions 163 black, apple-fruit 178 of grape 195 of quince 185 brown, of cabbage, etc ..163 of peach 183 ripe, of plum 185 of apple ___.178 Rouen d ucks .415 Roughage, evils of sale from farm 29 importance of in beef -making .. 287 Rough lands, loss of heat from. . 20 Round-headed apple-tree' borer ..169 Round worms 351 , 354, 356 Roup, in fowls 431 Rumen, overloading of 310 Rumpless fowls 415 Rumsey, Hopkifzs and 204 Rupture... 318 Rushworth, William A ...280 Russell, H. L. 380 Rust of apple 176 of asparagus. -- 162 of quince 186, 176 of wheat 156 Rutabagas, culture. 61, 98 Rye, culture of 57, 64 smut of 156 Saddle Horse^ The 279 Saddle horses, breeds of 219 Salad crops, for trucking 102 Salivation .305 Salmon, D. E. 436 Salsify 98 Salt-bushes, culture for dry forage 68 Salt, for steers 291,295 Salts, excess of, remedied by un- derdrainage 37 soluble, importance of _ _ 7 Sandcracks . _ 377 Sanders, A. II. 280 Sanders, J. II. 279 Sanders, William 204 Sanderson, E. Dwight 204 Sand, fine, waterholding capacity 13 for masonry. .447 for plastering ...448 Sandy roads, how improved 45 San Jose scale 186, 187 San Jose Scale 205 San Jose Scale, Experiments with Insecticides for the 203 Saw-fly, attacking bush fruits ...196 currant 195 grape-vine 194 Saw-toothed grain-beetle. 165 Scabby legs in fowls 433 Scab of the apple .-. 177 of the cherry 183 of the plum 183 of potatoes 88, 168 of sheep 355 Scale insects 186, 201 Scheele's green 140 Schreiner,S. C. C. 280 Scientific farming, David Rankin on 293 Scions, cutting and storing 117 Scott and Morton 48 Scours 314 Scratches 334 Scurfy scale 190 Seed-bed, early preparation of... SO Seed, breeding and selection of. . 74 corn, selection of 76 development, drain on vitahty .130 for lawns 107 Seed, Good, The Farmer's In- terest in 80 Seed Growings Farm Garden- ing and 80 Seed, home-grown 74 improvement and modification of 74 mixtures for meadows ., 70 for pastures 72 and names refer to publications on agricultural topics. IInDEX 497 Seed, potatoes, cutting 89 preparation for planting 76 "running-out" of 76 selection, requisites in 76 Seedlings, care of before and after budding _ ; 114 growing of 118, 113 leaf-bUght of 114 Selby, A. D 203 Selection in breeding, rules for. . .327 Semi-arid climates, pasture seed mixtures for _ _ __ 72 Semfers, Frank W. 48 Septicaemia 341 Se^ticcemia^ Apoplectiform^ in Chickens .436 Sewell, Edward 383 Shade trees, insects injurious to— bagworm _. 199 brown-tailed moth 199 canker-worms 172 canker-worms, fall and spring .200 cecropia, attacking walnut. ..201 Cottonwood borer 200 cottony maple scale 201 elm leaf -beetle ..200 elm scale 201 fall webworm 170 forest tent-caterpillar 199 gipsy moth 198 oyster-shell scale 202 poplar borer.. 200 pruning of... 121 scale insects, see also. -186 et seg walnut scale. -. 202 white-marked tussock-moth .197 Shade Trees^ Three Insect En- emies of. 206 Shaler,N.S. 47 "Sharp-shooters," attacking cot- ton 154 Shaw, Thomas 47,80, 81, 82,279 Shearing of sheep 275 Sheep, breeds of 222 and their fleeces... 272 condition of wool in disease 299 continuous care of, requisite... 270 Sheep, Diseases of 383 Sheep, diseases of — anthrax 343 bot-flies .359 catarrh, gastro- intestinal 308 cerebro-spinal meningitis 332 gastro-enteritis 313 indigestion 308 jaundice - 318 licking disease 306 lockjaw ...340 mouth, inflammation of 304 parasites 364,359 peritonitis .319 reproductive organs, diseases of.. — 366 retention of urine 322 stomach and intestines, in- flammation of.. 313 stomatitis — 304 tympanitis.. 309,310 wounds.-- 360 Italicized titles Sheep Feeding 280 Sheep, Foot Rot of 384 Sheep, how drenched 301 Sheep Industry, History and Present Condition of the 281 Sheep, manure of 31 mutton, characteristics of 259 normal temperatuie in 299 points of 259 pulse of, how taken 298 rape for 64 Sheep Scab 384 Sheep-shearing 275 Sheep, silage for 389 Sheep, The 280 Sheep, The Domestic 260 Sheep, ticks infesting 35 turnips for 60 washing of, injurious 274 well-bred, most profitable for mutton 261 Shingles required for roof 446 Shippers of prime steers, de- mands of 252 Shire, English, draft breed 216 Shocking corn for dry forage 66 Shorthorn Cattle 280 Shorthorn cattle 209 cross v^ith Galloway ...235 Shorthorns, as feeders 255 Shot-hole fungus of plum 184 Shoulder slip ..365 lameness 373 Shredding corn for dry forage... 67 Shropshire sheep 221 Sidebones in the horse 376 Side grafting 117 Siding, clapboards for _ 446 Silage, A Book on 403 Silage, as a bowel regulator 386 beet-pulp 401 for horses 388 for sheep. 389 for steers 388 for swine 389 mixed 401 rations for dairy cows 387 Silo, alfalfa for the... 400 best form of 393 bottom of 392 brick 393 building, general considerations in 390 capacity of ..390,391 clover for the 400 corn for the 399 cow-peas for the 400 cylindrical, to compute capac- ity of 448 economies effected by means of 385 filling the...- .401 foundation of.. 392 grout 394 location of 392 material for 393 rectangular wooden 398 sorghum for the ...400 soy beans for the 400 specifications for .396 Silo, square, to compute capacity of 449 stave 395 stave, to find staves required for 448 stone 393 wall of 392 Silos and Silage ■. 403 Silos, Ensilage, and Silage .403 Sinuate pear-tree borer 179 Sire and dam, influence of, in breeding 231 Sires, management of 237 "Sit-tasts" 364 Skin, condition of, in disease 299 Slingerland, M. V. 206 Slippery onions 163 Sloughs, drainage of. 37 Slug, of pear 179 Small Fruit Culturist 136 Small fruits and vines, diseases of . 193 insects in jurious to 192 Smith, F. 384 Smith, f.B 203 Smith, W. G... 303 Smuts of grain, general treatment for 155 Snapping-beetles 145 Snyder, Harry. 46, 280 Sod-bound condition 69, 71 Sodding, tor lawns 107 Soil, aerated by underdrainage. . . 35 amendments 35 capillary capacity increased by humus 18 color of 20 elements removed by various crops 24 fertility, determining factors . . 7 maintained by stock 325 flax-sick 58 for gardening and trucking 83 forms of nitrogen in 9 inoculation of 52 may be too open 18 moisture, effect of humus on.. 27 effect of underdrainage on... 36 mulch, to check evaporation. 14, 15 native prairie 26 origin of 5 particles, size of 21 porosity due to humus 18 preparation of, for lawns .106 preparation of, for orchai'd 138 temperature 19 ventilation of 18 warmed by agency of humus 21, 29 wai-med by underdrainage 36 water, an element of fertility.. 11 water, conservation of 14 waterlogged 11 Soiling crops 63 Soiling Crops and the Silo 81 S5ils, alkaline, macaroni wheat on 55 salt-bushes for 68 capacity for capillary water... 12 fine, advantage of humus in 28 for orchards 111 liming of ._ 35 physical defects in, how rem- edied 22 and names refer to publications on agricultural topics. 488 PKACTICAL FARMING AXD GARDENING Diseases of farm animals- peritoneum, disease of tlie — peritonitis __ 319 poultices 302 pulse, in diaprnosis -Om recognizing variuus diseases .. .xiOT rectul injections 3Uii rectum, medicatimi per 30:2 reproductive organs, diseases of the- abortion -. 371 afterbirth, retention of 369 leucorrhea . _ 368 milk fever 309 sterility ... 367 teats, sore, scabby ..369 udder, congestion and intlam- mation of 368 vagina, inflammation of 367 vagina, prolapsus of 370 womb, inflannmation of 366 respirations, in diagnosis 298 respiratory tract, diseases of the— bronchitis _ 327 catarrh, acute ..325 cold in the head _--325 croupous pneumonia 328 lungs, hemorrhage from the. .327 pleurisy 329 respiratory organs, examina- tion of, in disease 325 skin, condition of, as symptom .299 spasms of diaphragm, breath- ing in - - 299 stupidity, as a symptom 300 swellings, in diagnosis 300 syringe, fountain, use of _ 302 temperature, in diagnosis 299 "thumps," breathing in _. 299 urinary organs, diseases of the — bladder, inflammation of 323 kidneys, affections of the 331 purulent nephritis 323 urination, frequent 321 urine, examination of 320 urine, retention of 332 wool, condition of 299 wounds- classification --- -S60 general treatment. 361 harness inj uries 363 Diseases of Field and Garden Crops 203 Diseases of poultry, see Poultry Diseases. Diseases of Poultry^ The 436 Disk, use of 14 Disking of meadows 69 of pastures _ 71 Ditches, filling, in underdrainage 41 location of _ 37 Ditching for underdrainage 40 Dodder of cucumbers 163 Dog, Diseases of the 382 Dog, how drenched 301 hydrophobia in 344 normal temperature in 299 peritonitis in the 319 Italicized titles Dog. pulse of, how taken 298 Dollar,;. A. IV. ...383,384 Dominique fowls _. 414 Dorking crosses for caponizing ..425 fowls 414 Dorset horned sheep 222 Doucin stocks for dwarf apples ..113 Doivningy A.f. 135 Downy mildew of cucumber 103 of grape 195 of squash 1 63 Draft horses, breeds of 216 Drainage of highways 43 natural for orchard Ill system, planning. _. 37 Draining for Profit and Health 46 Drains, depth of.. 38 frequency of 41 Draws, drainage of 37 Dreer, H. A 80,109, 110 Drenching 301 Drilling, advantage over broad- casting 55 Dropsical swelhngs, in diagnosis .300 Drought, conservation of moist- ure in S7 quick-growing crops against time of 62 meadows killed by 69 Dry forage, annuals for 66 matter in foodstuffs, defined . , .240 season, utility of underdrainage in 17 Drugs, volatile, how administered 302 Dual purpose cattle, breeds of ...215 Duck Culture 436 Ducks and Geese 436 Ducks, breeds of, see Poultry. notes on care of 435 Ducklings, feeding of 435 DuHays, Weld and 279 Dun.Pinlay 384 Duroc- Jersey swin e 224 Dust-mulch, see Soil-mulch. Dutch Belted cattle 214 Dwarf trees, stocks for 113 E Earth and stone roads 44 roads, constniction of 43 Ear-worm, corn 147 Eczematous diseases 333 Egg plant, culture. 105 potato flea-beetle injurious to. .162 Eggs and Their Uses as Poods .436 Eggs, feeding for 419 Eight-spotted forester 194 Elementary Chemistry 46 Elevation, desirable for orchard .111 Ellwanger, IT. B 136 Elm leaf-beetle. 200 Elm scale 201 Embanking Lands front River Floods^ Principles and Prac- tice of. 46 Embden geese 416 Emerson and Flint 45 Emmer, culture 58 for arid climates 57 Emulsion, kerosene 142 and names refer to publications on agricultural topics. Endocarditis 325 Energy, food sources of 341 English Shire horses 2U; English Thorougbbred horses 219 Enteritis ...3iy Entomology for Beginners 203 Eradication of weeds 77 Eruption, summer -..333 Ether extract, defined 241 European fruit-scale 188 Evaporation a cooling process ... 21 checking by tillage 14, 15, 16 in too open soil 18 rate of, reduced by manure. 18, 27 Evolutionof Our Native Fruits, The 134 Excretions, character of, in diag- nosis 300 Experiment stations, agricultural, directory of 404 Exporters, demands of, in prime steers. 252 Eye Diseases of Domestic Ani- mals 382 Fahrenheit thermometer scale. -.450 Falconer^ William 109 Fall Army Worm and Varie- gated Cutworm 203 Fall canker-worms 173, 200 plowing for corn 50 webworm of apple 170 Fainiliar Fish and How to Catch Them 281 Family Horse, The 279 Farcy 345 Farm animals, breeding of 225 diseases of, see Diseases of Farm Animals. feeding of 238 leading breeds of ...207 selection of 249 Farm Boy, Letters to the 279 Farm Buildings, Practical Sug- gestions for 46 Farm. Drainage 46 Farm garden, the 83 Farm Gardening and Seed Growing _ 80 Farm Poultry 436 Farm wood lot, care of 133 Farmer^s Veterinary Adviser, The 382 Farm ing, literature of 1 Fat, food-sources of .241 in foodstuffs, defined 241 Fat hogs, breeds of 223 characteristics of 258 FaveroUe fowls 413 Favus, disease of fowls 433 Fecundity, conditions affecting.. 233 Feeders, buying of 289 choice, characteristics of .253 native, preferred by J. P. Steven- son 389 Feeding, Professor Brooks on 339 See also Stock Feeding. Feeding Animals .279 Feeding, breeds of cattle for 355 INDEX 489 Feeding, brooder chicks 422 live stock, business of 227 Feeding of Animals^ The 279 Feeding of ducklings. 435 Feeding of Farm Animals^ The 279 Feeding of goslings 435 of poultry _ 423 of poultry, injudicious- .406, 408, 409 of young turkeys _ ,434 poultry for eggs 419 standards, German .246 tables, bow to use 247 Feeds and Feeding .279 Feeds, mixed, to compute cost of 449 Felck,I. K. J 437 Felting wools, defined 274 Fencing, stuff required for. 446 Fertility, air as an element of 18 a relative term 24 Fertility^ Loss of. 46 Fertility reduced by loss of bumus. 25 Fertilization, economy in 33 Fertilizer, complete, defined 130 commercial vs. natural 32 for orchards 130 mixed, to compute cost of 449 Fertilizers^ Availability of 46 Fertilizers, Composition and Useof. 4G Fertilizers for Market-Garden Crojis 46 Fertilizers, Hoyne-Mixingof.,, 46 Fertilizers, Mixing of, 46 Fertilizing constituents of food- stuffs (table) 244 removed from soil by various crops (table) 24 Fevers, infection of omasum in ..311 inflammation of mouth in 303 Field crops and grasses, planting table for 73 cultural directions for 49 diseases of 155 insects injurious to. 144 Field peas, culture 53 Fine soils, advantage of humus in 28 Finley, Root and .281 Fire blight of pear 180 Fires in timber 133 Fire- worm, cranberry _ 1 97 Fish Culture, American 281 Fiske, G. B.... 109,436,437 Fiske, Mosse and 109 Fitz, James 110 Fixative, for poisons 141 Flat-headed apple-tree borer 169 Flatulent colic 315 Flax, culture.. 58 Flax Culture... 80 Flax for Seed and Fiber 80 Flax-sick soil 58 Flea-beetle, cabbage 160 grape-vine 192 pale-striped 158 potato 162 red-headed 158 tobacco 153 Fleece, condition of in disease... 299 in various breeds 272 Jtalidzed titles Fleece, tags in 275 Fleming, George 383 Flies, lace-winged, beneficial 138 sy rphus, beneficial ,_ 138 Flint, Emerson and 45 Flocculation, defined 35 Floriculture, Practical 134 Flo7'ida Fruits 134 Flour beetle, confused 1 65 moth, Mediterranean 164 Flower Garden, The Beautiful. \Z^ Fodder and Forage Plants 80 Fodder, cutting for silo ,...401 Fcetal membranes, retention of -.369 Foodstuffs, choice of .240 composition of 240 fertilizing constituents of (table)244 various, digestible nutrients in (table) ...244 Forage, dry, annuals for 05 Forage Plants 80 Forage Plants Other Than Grasses 80 Forage Plants, Southern 80 Forbes scale 189 Forbes, S. A 203 Forcing Book, The 108 Forcing boxes, use in trucking. . . 87 of rhubarb 100 Foreign bodies, causing choking. 366 causing indigestion 306 causing salivation 305 in stomachs of cattle 311 Forest Nursery, The 134 Forest Planting 134 Forest tent-caterpillar 199 Forester, eight-spotted 194 Forestry for Farmers 134 Forestry hints 132 Forestry, Outlines of. 134 Forestry practical 134 Forestry, Primer of. .134 FormaUn fungicide __ 144 treatment for grain smuts 155 Foul Brood, Laws Relative to.. 2^1 Founder 337 Four-lined leaf -bug. _ 196 Four-spotted bean-beetle 16K Fowls: Care and Feeding 436 Fowls, Roup in... 436 Fowls, see also Poultry. various, period of incubation in 237 Free water, defined 12 removal by underdrainage 16 French coach horse 217 crab apple. 112 pear stocks 112 Freezing, effect of, on soil. 22 Friction, medication by 302 Friedberg and Frohner 383 Frizzle fowls 415 Frost, danger from, on low land..lll Fruit Culture 1 34 Fruit Culture and Forestry Ill Fruit Culturist, The American 134 Fruit, dried, quantity of fresh fruit for 452 Fruit Garden, The 134 Fruit gardens, cultivation for 128 Fruit Grower, The Practical ..134 am.0. names refer to publications on agricultural topics. Fruit Growing, The Principles of.. 135 Fruit-maggot of apple 174 Fruit Packages .,.135 Fruit-scales 186 Fi'uit-spot of peach 183 of quince IHO, 186 Fruit, thinning of 130 worms, green _. 172 Fruit-tree bark-beetle 181 Fruit trees, budded, transplanting of 115 diseases of 166 insects injurious to 166 low heads for certain 114 number to acre 120 planting of 128 pruning of 121 seedlings of 112, 113 wounds in .120 Fruits and Fruit Trees of America 135 Fruits, propagation and planting table for 120 cuttings and layering 119 Fruits, Recommended, Ameri- can Pomological Society's Catalogue of... 136 Fruits, spraying of ..166 Fuller, Andrew S 134, 135, 136 Full feed, caution in approaching. 291 Fulton, A, W. 281 Fulton, J. A. 136 Fumigation for insects 142 Fumigation Methods. 203 Fungicides— ammoniacal copper-carbonate solution 143 Bordeaux mixture 143 Bordeaux wash 144 copper-sulpbate solution 143 corrosive sublimate 144 formalin 144 Fungi, ho\r injurious to plants... 138 mode of reproduction 131 Fungi, Some Edible and Poison- ous 110 Fungous diseases, immunity of orchards from, on hillsides. ..Ill Fungus, shot-hole of plum 184 G Galling by harness 363 Galloway cattle .211 cross with Shorthorn 235 Galloways, as feeders 255 Game crosses for caponizing 425 fowls ..415 Gapes in fowls __. ..432 Garden, arrangement of 84 Garden crops, diseases of 162 insects injurious to 156 Garden Making. _ 108, 135 Garden webworm 159 Gardening, essentials in 83 Garden ing for Pleasure 135 Gardening for Profit 108 Gardening, see also Trucking. Gas insecticides ...142 Gastro- enteritis 312 490 PEACTICAL PAEMIXG AXD GAEDEXIXG Gastro-i otestinal catarrli 306 Gii'ese. breeds of, see Poultry. Geese, notes on care of 434 German roach hoj-se _x*lM German feeding standards '-2-H) Gernnuation, hastened by rolling IG temperature for 19 Germination of Seeds asAffected by Commercial Fertilizers ., 80 Germs in soi I 10 Gestation calendar, for various an i mals. 2;38 period of, iu various animals. -.237 Gillct. C. P..... 3St Ginseng 108 Gipsy moth lOy Gipsv Moth in America... 203 Glanders ..345 Glanders 383 Gleasoii, Oscar R 279 Gluten meal, as fed by L. H. Kerrick C87 Goat, normal temperature in liOO pulse of, how taken 298 Gobaux'^ A.y and G. Barrier 3'<2 Goff.E.S. 4W Am *' Going light," disease of fowls .-4-i J Good roads, importance of 42 Good Seed., The Farmer-' s hiier est in 80 Gooseberry, pruning the 127 red-headed flea-beetle of 158 Goslings, feeding of 435 Government agricultural publica- tions, how to obtain 1 Grade animals, importance of pedigree in 232 Grade for tile-laying, to establish. 39 Grading-up, defined 234 Grafting, mechanical process of-136 months for 117 season for 116 uses in fruit-tree propagation.-llS wax for 119 Grain-beetle, saw-toothed 165 square-necked 165 Grain- cropping, continuous _ 26 Grain crops 49 GrEiin in bin, to estimate .. 449 Grain-moth, Augoumois- 164 Grain smuts, general treatment for 155 Grain Smuts ^ The 203 Grams and seeds in storage, in- sects injurious to .164 Grains, insects injurious to— army-worm 147 cutworms 151 fall army-worm 147 grasshoppers 149 wireworms 145 See also Various Crops. Grains, weeds in 78 Granary weevil _.165 Grange, E. A. A 3S2, 384 Granulation, h^^aling by 360 Grape, anthracnose of _195 "bird's-eye rot" of -195 black rot of 195 chlorosis of 195 Jtalicized titles Grape Culiurzst, The 135 Grape, diseases of the 194 downy mildew of the ..195 form fur planting ,- 125 Grape Grozver's Guide, The 135 Grape-growing in the South 135 Grape-growing a^id Wine-mak- tng 135 Grape, insects injurious to— apple twig-borer 169, 193 eight-spotted forester 1 94 grape-berry moth 194 grape cane-borer 169, 193 grape leaf -folder 194 grape leaf -hopper 193 g rape roo1>worm .192 grajie-vine flea-beetle 193 grape-vine phylloxera 193 grape-vine saw-fly 1 94 red-headed flea-beetle 1 58 rose-chafer _ 191 scale insects 186 ^Z seq Grape, Kniffin system of training.125 powdery mildew of the 195 pruning and training the 125 spraying uf the .195 thinning fruit of the 131 trelhses'for the 135 "yellow leaf" of.. 195 Grape-trainings American 135 Grasses, America?! 80 Grasses and Clover 60 Grasses, field crops and, planting table for 73 insects injurious to — army-worm 147 beet aphis 159 corn bill-bugs 146 cutworms 151 fall army-worm _ 147 grasshoppers 149 white grubs 149 wireworms 145 Grasses, The True 80 Grasshoppers 149 attacking cotton 154 Gravel roads 44 Gray African geese 415 Grease in the horse 335 Green arsenoid 140 bait, for insects _ 141 Green fruit worms ...172 Greenhouse Construction 108 Greenhouse Management 109 Green-manure, cow-peas as 33 Green-manuring. 26 for soil ventilation 10 Green, S. B ....110 Green, Seth 281 Greiner, T. 108,109,436 Griffiths, A, B 48 Gross, Ema7i uel 81 Ground-beetles, beneficial to far- mer 138 Grout silos 394 Grubs, strawberry 197 white 149 Guernsey cattle 213 Gurler, H. B 280 Gypsum for alkafi lands 8, 35 H Hackeh Edward 80 Hackney horses 218 Hair balls, causing colic 317 Hair for plastering .448 Hamburg crobbes, undesirable for capouizing 425 fowls _412 Hajnpshire sheep 221 Hand, Thomas J. 2t0 Handy rules and useful informa- tion 439 Har court, Helen 134 "Hardening off" before trans- planting 86 Hardin, L. S. 3.'^0 Harlequin cabbage-bug 159 Harness injuries 363 Harris, Joseph 281 Harrow, for orchards 129 use of 14 Harrowing to ventilate soil 18 Hart, C. A. 203 Hatton, W.J. 136 Hay in stack, to estimate 449 mow, capacity of _ 449 Heading back, to hasten fruitful- neas .124 Heads, low, for pears, cherries, and plums 114 Healing of wounds, modes of 360 Heart, inflammation of 324 palpitation of 333 Heat, food sources of 242 generation of, in soil by decom- position 21 pimples 333 Heats, duration of, in various ani- mals.. 237 Hedges, Windbreaks, and Live Shelters 135 Heinrich, Julius J. 136 Hellebore ...143 Hemiptera, or Bugs 203 Hemorrhage from the lungs 327 Hemp 81 Hen ' ' cholera' ' , ,. 433 Henderson and Crozier 47 Henderson, Peter. ..IQQ, 134, 135, 136 Henry, W. A. 379 Herbert, Henry William 2i9 Heredity, defined 229 Hereford cattle 21 Heref ords, as feeders 255 Hernia 318 Hessian fly 148 Hessian Fly, The 203 Hessian fly, wheats resistant to.. 54 Hewson, iVilliam 46 Hexamer, F. M _]08 Hickman, J. F. ^^^2 Hilgard.E W. 81 Hilihouse, Lizzie Page.. 135 Hillsides, boggy, drainage of 38 Hinebauch, T. D 382,383 Hive a?id Honey Bee 281 Hcare, E. W. 384 Hocks, "tied in" 381 Hog cholera 348 Hog Cholera 383 and names refer to publications on agricultural topics. ind:^x 491 Hog Cholera ayid Swine Plague. ^i Hog,, Diseases of the 382 Hog-raising in the South 381 Hogs, artichokes for fi3 bacon, selection of boar 250 breeds of -.- 223 fat, selection of boar 258 following steei-s ..291 Hogs., Soaps as a Cause of Death Among ...382 Holland turkeys, white 416 Holland, W.'f. 202 Holstein-Friesian cattle 214 Home Fishing and Home Water, s 281 Ho7ne Pork Making 281 Honey Bee, The 281 Hop Culture in California 81 Hop plant-louse ..155 Hop. The 81 Hopkins and Rumsey 204 Hopper, contents of 449 Hopperdozer, use of 150 Hops 81 Hop-vine borer .155 Horn worm 152 Horse-radish 100 Horse Book, American Re- formed 279 Horse Book, The American Far- mers' 279 Horse Breeding 279 Horse, Diseases of the 382 Horse, diseases of the — azoturia 336 bog-spavin 380 bot-flies 358 bronchitis, acute 327 capped hock 380 catarrh, acute 325 catarrh, gastro-intestinal 306 catarrhal fever. ._ 339 cerebro-spinal meningitis 332 coffin joint lameness 376 colics 315 colt distemper 338 congestion and anemia of the brain 330 corns 377 croupous pneumonia 328 T^urb 3P0 diarrhea 315 founder frequent urination 321 gastro-enteritis 312 glanders.. --- 345 grease 335 harness injuries 363 heart, inflammation of ..324, 325 hydrophobia 344 indigestion 306 inflammation of the brain 331 influenza 339 jaundice 318 lameness, examination for.. .372 laminitis 337 lampas 305- lockjaw --340 lumpy jaw 350 Monday morning disease 336 mouth, inflammation of 303 Jtalicized titles Horse, diseases of the — muscular rheumatism 330 navicular disease 376 palpitation of the heart 323 parasites 351, 358 patella, luxation of 378 peritonitis 319 pink-eye .339 prickly heat 333 quartercracks 377 reproductive organs, diseases of- 366 retention of urine 322 ring-bone 375 sandcracks 377 scratches 334 shoulder lameness 373 Sidebones 376 sore throat 325 spavin 379 splints 374 sprains 365, 374 "stifle out" 378 stomach and intestines, in- flammation of 312 stomatitis 303 stomatitis, ulcerative 303 strangles 338 teething J 305 "thumps" 323 wounds - - 360 Horse, How to fudge a 279 Horse, Influenza in _. 383 Horse Keepers, Hin ts to 279 Horse, Lameness of. 383 Horse, normal temperature in... 299 points of 357 pulse of, how taken 298 selection of 257 Horse, Sound ana Unsound 383 Horse, Stonehenge on the 279 Horse, The 279 Horse, The Clinical Diagnosis of Tameness in the 382 Horse^ The Exterior of the 382 Horse, The Foot of the 383 Horse, The, How to Buy and Sell 279 Horses and Horse Breeding, A merican 279 Horses and Mules, Colic in 383 Horses and Abides, Lameness m.383 Horses, breeds of 316 carrots for 60 Horses, Cattle, Sheep and Swine ^<:) Hordes, Enzootic Cerebritis of .%%^ Horses, how drenched .301 silage for ^ 388 Horses, Millet Disease in 383 Horses, The Examination of, as to Soundness and Selectio7i as to Purchase 383 Horseshoeing 383 Horseshoeing, A Hand Book (3/".3S3 Horticulture, Annals of 1 35 Horticulture, Cyclopedia of 108 Horticulture, General, Hand Book of. 136 Horticulturist's Rule Book 135 Hotbeds, location and construc- tion of. 86 and names refer to publications on agricultural topics. Hotrwater treatment for grain smuts 155 Houdan crosses for caponizing ..425 fowls 414 Household Insects. 203 House Plants and How to Suc- ceed with Them 135 Houston, E. H.. 134 Hoven, see Tympanitis. Howard, L. O... 204 Howden, Peter 279 How to Make the Garden Pay .'.109 Humid climates, meadow seed mixture^ for 70 pasture seed mixtures for 72 Tfum us 46 Humus, as conserver of moisture. 18 content of soils, how increased, 29 defined 6 effect of, on soil conditions 19, 21, 25-29 Hunt, Morrow and 48 Husmann, George 135 Hydraulic rams 4.'>2 Hydrocyanic-acid gas. 143 Hydrophobia 344 Hygroscopic water, defined 12 HjiJodermic injections 301 Icterus 318 Immature stock, breeding of 230 Implements for gardening 85 for orchard tillage 129 In-and-in-breeding, defined 235 Incubafion, period of, in various fowls .237 Incubators 418 Indian-meal moth 164 Indigestion 806 in fowls 433 Infectious diseases of domestic animals 338 Influenza 339 Inhalation, medication by .303 Injections, rectal 303 Injurious Insects, Laws Con- cerning. 205 Inoculation for black leg... 342 for lockjaw 341 for tuberculosis 347 of soil 9, 53 Insecticides against biting insects 140 against sucking insects 143 gases and other 142 hisect Book, The 204 Insect Enemies of the Grape 204 Insect Life 204 Insects Affecting Domestic Ani- mals _204 Disects Affecting the Cotton Plant 304 Insects Affecting the Tobacco Plant 304 Insects, beneficial 138 gnawing and sucking distin- guished.... .,.138 injurious, parasites of 138 Insects Injurious to Farm a7id Garden Crops 204 491 PEACTIOAL FARMING AXD GARDENING Insects Injurious to Fruits 204 Insects Jnjuyious to Garden Crops ^04 Insects Injurious to Gardon and Orchard Crops _ _ 304 Insectslnjurious to Ornamental Plants 204 Insects Injurious to Staple Crops ....-iOS Insects Injurious to Stored Grain 1(14 Insects injurious to various crops and fruits: St'"' under several food-plants and trees. Insects Liable to be Distributed on Xursery Stock 305 Insect Sy Study op 305 Intensified farming on high-priced lands _ . . 3M4 Interest, to compute __ 44,") Intestinal worms 351, 352, 354, 356 Intestines, function in digestive process 243 i n vaginat ion of 318 Investigations Concerning In- fectious Diseases Amoiig Poultry 436 Iron essential in soil 7 Irrigation por the Farm-, Gar- den^ and Orchard 135 Irrigation in humid climates 13 Irrigation^ Winter Orchard... 46 Itch, barn, of cattle 353 Texas, in horses 352 J Japanese pear stocks 112 larchow.IIN. 134 Jaundice 318 Java fowls 414 Jersey cattle -212 Johnson^ S IV 47 Johnson. IV. G 203 Jones, B. IV.. 81 Jordan, W. H. 2T9 Judging Live Stock .279 Judging of live stock — choice feeders, characteristics of 253 dairy cow. how to judge 256 hogs, bacon.. 259 hogs, fat _ - 258 horse, how to judge 257 judging beeves on the hoof ..251 points of bf ef cattle- 251 points of dairy cattle 256 points of the horse 257 points of the pig -259 points of the sheep- 259 prime steers, characteristics of 249 sheep, mutton, characteristics of... - 259 sheep, mutton, selecting ram to breed 261-267 June bugs - 149 Juniper, harboring apple-rust 176 K Kajir-cotn 81 Italicized titl^^ Kafir-corn, culture 51 for soiling 63 KainSy Maurice G. ..108 Kerosene emulsion - . 142 Kerrick, L. H., on beef making ..283 Kidneys, diseases of 321 Kidney worm in swine 357 Killebrew and Myrick 83 Kingy Franklin H. - _ .45, 47 Kitchen Garden of One Acre. . .109 Kniffin system of grape-training. 125 Kohlrabi culture 61, 103 I, Lace-winged flies, beneficial 138 Ladybi rd, bean 158 Ladybirds, beneficial 138 Lambs, diseases of— licking disease - .306 mouth, ulcers in 304 See also Sheep. Lameness, coffin joint 376 examination for 372 in fowls 434 shoulder 373 Laminitis 337 Lampas of the horse 305 Landreth^ Burnett 109 Landscape Gardening. 135 Langshau crosses for caponiziug.425 fowls .- 413 La7igstroth, L. L 281 Larger Apple-Tree Borers 205 Lathing, materials for. 448 Law, James 382, 384 Lawns, injured by fall army- worm 1 47 by white grubs 149 making and care of 106 seeding of 107 Laxative, root crops as a 58 Layering, fruit propagation by. .119 Lead, arsenite of 141 Leaf-beetle, bean 158 elm 200 Leaf-blight of apple 176 of seedlings, prevention of 114 Leaf-crumpler of apple 171 Leaf-curl of peach 182 Leaf -folder, grape. .194 Leaf -hopper, grape 193 apple -168 attacking cotton 154 Leaf-spot of apple ..176 of quince.. 180, 186 Lecanium of the peach 186, 191 Leeks 92 Legal weights per bushel ..451 Leghorn crosses, undesirable for capouizing 425 fowls. 412 Legumes as green manure 33 as nitrogen-gatherers 9 as orchard cover crop 129 in rotations 30 roots of, in soils _ 23 Leguni inosa 92 Legumifious Plants 81 Leicester sheep 222 cross with Cheviot 235 and names refer to publications on agricultural topics. Lettuce.. 102 Lftucorrhea .368 Level culture, to conserve mois- ture 16 land, drainage of 37 Liautard, A --.381,3&3 Lice, on cattle 353 on hogs. 357 on hoise and mule 351 on poultry 409 Licking disease in ruminants 306 Lilac, attacked by stem-borers, ..196 Lime., Applicatioji of.... 46 Lime, arsenite of 141 for masonry 447 for plastering 448 sulphur, and salt wash.-- 142 to amend soils 35 Lincoln sheep 223 Line-brpeding, defined 236 Liniments 303 Literature of farming 1 Little peach disease 183 "Little Turk'' 183 Liver, diseases of the 318 Live-stock, breeds of 207 feeding, business of... 227 judging of 249 Lockjaw 340 Locomotor organs, diseases of the a35 Locust, attacked by walnut scale 203 seventeen-j'ear 174 Lodenian, E. G .136,205 Lodging of oats, remedy for 56 London purple 140 Long, Elias A 136 Loose smut of oats and wheat . . .156 Lowland, danger from frost on. .111 Lugger, Otto 202, 203, 205 Lumbering, handy rules in 445 Lumpy jaw 350 Lungs, hemorrhage from the 327 Lung worms 353 Lupton,J. Irvine 383 Luxation of the patella 378 M Macadam roads 44 Macaroni wheat, culture 55 Maggot, of cherry... 185 cane, of bush fruits 196 Mahaleb cherry stocks 113 Main-season crops 84 Mange in horses 352 Mangel beets. 59 Mangel-wurzels, see Beets. Mangolds, see Beets. Manual of Agriculture 45 Manure, barnyard, best for fruits 130 liquid, absorbents for 31 See also Barnyard Manure. Manurial values of various feed- ing-stuffs (table) 344 Manuring J Cotton^ The 81 Maple scale, cottony 201 Maple Sugar and the Sugar Busk 135 Mare for breeding, selection of 257 Marianna plum stock U3 INDEX 493 Market animals, breeding of 227 Market Gardener^ The Voun^.lOQ Market Gardening and Farm Notes ...109 Market quotations, cattle, how to iaterpret 277 Marketing broilers 423 Marketing Parm Produce 109 Marsh, C. P. 384 Marshall, C. P. 381 Martin, George A 279 Marvin, Charles 279 Masouwork, handy rules for 447 Mastication, function In digestive process- 242 Mathews, P, S, 134 May beetles 149 Maynard, S. T. — 134 Mayo, N. S. .381, 383 McCarthy, E. 281 McClure, Robert ...279 Meadows and Pastures in the Middle Eastern States 81 Meadows, nurse crops for 70 Meadows, seed mixtui-es for 70 Meal-moth, Indian 164 Measure, apothecaries' fluid 440 cu'cular 441 cubic 440 dry 440 linear 439 liquid 440 square 439 surveyor's, or chain 439 surveyor's surface 439 Measures of length, occasional... 439 of sui-face, occasional 430 of weight, see Weight. Meat Inspection 383 Mechanical structure of soil 21 Medicine, administration of 301 Mediterranean flour-moth 164 Melons, How to Grow for Market 109 Melons, insects injurious to — pickle-worm 161 southern corn-root-worra 145 squash-bug 160 striped cucumber-beetle 160 Melons, wilt diseases of 163 Meningitis, cerebro-spinal 332 Merino, American .219 Delame.- --- 220 grades, common stock of Amer- ica - — .268 Rambouillet 220 Metric and common weights and measures, equivalents 442 system at a glance , 443 Metritis 366 Mexican cotton-boll weevil 154 Mexican Cotton-boll Weevil 205 Milch Cows, Guenonon 280 Mildew, downy 163 powdery, of grape 195 Miles, P. P.... - 383 Miles, Manley 48, 279, 403 Milk and its Derivatives, Px- amination of. 280 Milk and its Products 280 Milk fever --369 JtaliQised titles Milk, Its Nature and Compo- sition .280 Milk, quarts and pounds of 452 Miller, H. H. 281 Miller, H. O. 281 Millet, culture for dry forage 67 Millets, The 81 Mills, Wesley 382 Milo Maize, culture for dry forage 67 Mineral elements of plant food ... 6 Minnesota experiment station, humus tests at 26 Minnesota, Orthoptera of 205 Minorca fowls 412 Miscarriage, defined 371 Mixed farming, advantages of 31, 225, 283 feeds, to compute cost of 449 Moisture, conservation of .,.14 et seq in soil, effect of humus on 27 effect of underdrainage on . . . 36 Moller,H. 383 Monday morning disease . . 336 Monrad,f. H. 280 Moore^ V. A 382 Morris, Thaddeiis 281 Morrow and Hunt 48 Morton, Scott and . 48 Mosse and Piske 109 Moth, brown-tailed 199 grape-berry 194 gypsy 198 white-marked tussock 197 Mouth, sore, in various animals. . .303 Mows, capacity of 449 Mucous membranes, state of, in diagnosis 300 Muffle-heads, of hops 155 Mulch, to check evaporation 14, 15, 10 Mules, breeding of 231 diseases of, see Horses, Diseases of. parasites of 351 Miiller, George 382 Mushrooms, Pdible and Poison- ous 109 Mushrooins, How to Grow 109 Musknielous 95 Mutton and wool-growing com- bined, profit in 268 Mutton, Raising Sheep for 280 Mutton ram, selecting 261-267 sheep, characteristics of 259 Myrabolan plum stocks 112 Myrick, Herbert :....80, 81, 437 Myrick, Killebrew and 82 N Nails required for various pur- poses 446 to the pound 447 Narragansett turkeys 416 ' ' Narrow '' ' nutritive ratio, defined 243 Native cattle, feeding of .289 Navicular disease 376 Nephritis, purulent 322 Nervousness, symptom of disease 300 Nervous system, diseases of the.. 330 Neumann, L. G 383 New Industry, A 280 Niles, P.P ...384 Nitrates, defined 10 nitrogen as 10 ''Nitre farming'' 10 Nitric acid, nitrogen as 10 Nitrification, defined 10 Nitrogen, forms in soil 9 free 10 gathered by legumes.. 9 lack of in soil, how indicated... 11 Nitrous acid, nitrogen as 10. Nodular disease 354 Noils, defined 274 Northern corn-root>- worm 144 Nubbins of corn, due to root- worms 144 Nurse crops for meadows 70 Nursery Book, The.. 135 Nursery for fruits, preparation of 113 Nut Culture in the United States 135 Nut Culturist, The 135 Nutrients, digestible, per pound of various feeding-stuffs (table) .244 Nutritive ratio, defined 243 Nuttairs blister beetle 158 O Oats and field peas, culture for dry forage 68 as orchard cover crop 126 chinch-bug, injurious to 148 culture 59 lodging of 56 loose smut of .156 varieties compared 55 vetches with 68 Obstetrics, Bovine.. 383 Obstetrics, Veterinary 383 Obstructions in intestines, colics due to .- 317 Oestrum, duration of, in various animals 237 Oil meal, as fed by L. H. Kerrick287 Omasum, infection of, in cattle ..311 Onion, bacterial rot of 163 culture 91 sets 92 Onion Culture 109 Onions for Profit ..109 Onions, How to Raise Them Profitably ....109 Onions, slippery .163 varieties 92 Operative Vetei-inary Surgery, Manual of.. 383 Orange, pruning the 127 Orchard, nursery for ..113 care after maturity 130 cover crops for ..129 cultivation for 128 fertilizers for 130 hoed crops in 128 old, renovation of 132 planting and tilling the 128 preparation of soil for .112 site for Ill, 138 soil for 111 spraying in 131, 166 tillage implements 129 anO> names refer to publications on agricultural topics, 494 PEACTICAL FAEMIXG AXD GAEDEXIXG Orchid Cultivator^ s Guide Book^ file Amateur _ 135 Orgiinic matter in foodstuffs, de- fined 541 nitrug:eii 10 Ornamental Gardening- for Americans _ 136 Orpiogton fowls, Buff 414 Orthoptcra^ or Grasshoppers, etc. , of Minnesota _ _ _205 Osier Culture 13(j Osmosis --- 7, 19 Outlet for drain, selecting. 37 '' Overdone ' cattle, cause of con- dition 288 Overflow on lands, prevented by underdrainage . _ 37 Overloaded stomach,, colic due to. 316 rumen 310 Oxford breed, result of cross 235 Oxford sheep 221 Oxygen, necessary in soil 18 taUen in through leaves 6 Oyster-shell scale 189, 202 P Packard, A.S. 203 Packers, demands of, in prime steers,.. _253 PaigeJ. B .381 Paint for given £rrea 446 Palate, hard, congestion of, in horse 305 Pale-striped flea-beetle 158 Palmer J. A 109 Palpitation of the heart 323 Paradise stocks for dwarf apples. 113 Paragrene 140 Parasites and Parasitic Diseases of Domestic Animals 383 Parasites, external, of domestic ani mals 351 , 353. 355, 357 intestinal, of domestic animals 351, 352, 354, 356 of injurious insects 138 Parents, relative influence of, in breeding 230 Paris green 140 Bordeaux mixture with 141 Parsn ips 98 Parsons, Samuel B ..136 Partial- season crops 84 Parturient paresis 369 Parturition, return for breeding after.... ....237 Pasteurization 280 Pasteur treatment for hydropho- bia ...345 Pastures, permanent. 71 seed mixtures for 72 Patella, luxation of 378 Pathology and Therapeutics of the Domestic Animals 383 Peach, brown rot of 183 crown gall of 182 Peach Cult ure 136 Peach, diseases of 182 fruit-spot 183 Peach Growing for Market 136 Peach, heading back the 124 Italicized titles Peach, heavy sandy loam for 112 insects injurious to — black peach-aphis .182 bud moth 1*4 fruit-tree bark-beetle 181 green fruit-worms ...K2 peach-tree borer 180 plum-curculio lH^i scale insects 186 et seq Peach Leap-curl X;05 Peach, leaf -curl of lf-2 lecanium 186, 191 little-peach disease of... 183 low heads for the ..-124 pits, planting of 113 prunmg the 124 seedlings, nursery for 113 size to plant 124 spraying calendar for .-180 stocks 112, 113 thinning fruit of the 131 Peach Twig-borer... _.x;05 Peach-yel lows l h2 Peach Yellows and Peach Reset te'^^'b Peacock^ Lawrence K. 134 Peanut Plant, The 81 Peanuts: Their Culture and Uses 81 Pear, attacked by apple-fruit black rot ITH by apple-twig blight 1 80 by leaf -spot 176 blight 180 clay loam for 112 Pear Culture for Profit 136 Pear, diseases of 180 fire-blight of ISO heading back the.. 124 insects injurious to— apple-tree tent-caterpillar ...169 cigar-case bearer 173 codling-moth 171 green fruit worms 172 pear-leaf blister. 179 pear-slug 107 pistol-case bearer l';3 plum-curculio 1 S3 red-headed flea-beetle 158 scale insects \%^etseq sinuate pear-tree borer 179 low heads for the 1 23 pruning the 123 seedlings, nurseiy for 113 stocks, where obtained 112 thinning fruit of the 131 when injured by cultivation.. .129 Peas, Canada, as orchard green- manure 112 cow, as orchard green-manure. 112 cow, culture 52 field 53 for trucking 92 insects injurious to- destructive green pea-louse,. 158 Nuttall's blister-beetle 158 variegated cutworm 156 woolly bear 157 Peas-and-oats for soiling 64 for dry forage 68 Pea- weevil 165 Pedigree in grade animals .232 what constitutes a good 233 Pekin ducks 415 Peppei-s ... . 105 Percheron Horse, The, in Amer- ica and France ...279 Perennial crops 84 Pericarditis 324 Periodi cat Cicada 205 Peritonitis 319 Perpetual calendar. 438 Persian insect powder 143 Persim?no?is 130 Phosphates 46 Phylloxera, grape-vine 193 Physical defects in soils, how remedied 23 Physics of Agriculture.. 45 Pickle-worm _ 161 Picklock wools, defined .273 Pig, points of the 259 Pi^, The 281 Pig-eon Keeper, Practical 436 Pigeon Queries 436 Pigeons, carrying disease to poul- try .....406 Pineapple Growing 1 36 Pink-eye 339 Pin worms 351,356 Pip in fowls 432 Pistol-case bearer ..173 Pitch of roof, defined _ 446 Placenta, retention of 369 Plant Breeding 109' Plant Culture, Principles £»/... 136 Plant -feeding, retarded by low temperature 19 Plant food, abundance necessary. 7 early availability 8 elements of 6 potential and available 7 Plant tissue, building of 7 Planting, of timber 133 preparation of seedfor 76 table for field crops and grasses 73 table, for fruits 120 the orchard _ _ 128 Plant-lice, apple-Jeaf 167 attacking cotton 354 hop 155 Plants and General Horticul- ture, Handbook of . 136 Plants, number to acre 120 propagation of 112 Plants, The Propagation of. 136 Plastering, materials for 448 Pleurisy 329 Plowing, deep, to increase water- holding capacity 14 for corn _ 50 for potatoes 88 to conserve moisture 15 to ventilate soil 18 Plum, attacked by peach-yellows 182 by shot-hole fungus 1R4 Plum, diseases of- 184 heading back the 124 heavy soil for 113 insects injurious to — bud worms, see bud moth 174 and names refer to publications on agricultural topics, INDEX 495 Plum, insects injurious to — case-bearers 173 fruit-tree bark-beetle. 181 green fruit worms 172 plum-curculio (*' Little Turk'')183 scale insects iS&etseg Mariamia stocks for., _ 113 peach, stocks for 112, 113 pockets, fruit disease of 185 pruning the _ VM ripe fruit rot of 18") scab---- 183 seedlings, nureery for 113 spraying calendar for 183 yellows of -.184 Plums and Plum Culture.. 136 Plumb, as. 80,403 Plymouth Rock crosses for capon- iziug 4:25 fowls 413 Plymouth Rock, The 436 Pneumonia ^ 328 Points of beef cattle. --.251 dairy cattle 256 tbe horse 357 the pig 1 ---259 the sheep -.259 Poisoned baits 141 Poison fixative -- 141 Poisoning from sorghum 63 Poisonous Plants in the United States, Principal 81 Poisonous Plants of the South .. 81 Poisonous Plants, Thirty 81 Poland-China, cross with Berk- shire-- -- 235 swine 223 Pole beans 93 Polish crosses, undesirable for caponizing .__ -425 Polish fowls - 415 Polled Durham, cattle 212 Popcorn - 106 Poplar borer 200 Potato Culture 109 Potato Culture, A B C of 108 Potato Diseases 205 Potato, insects injurious to— Colorado potato-beetle -162 flea-beetle 163 stalk-borer . - 161 striped blister-beetle 162 ' wireworms 145 Potato Scab 46 Potato scab 163 Potatoes for Profit 109 Potatoes, Irish, culture 61, 88 sprouting in storage 90 sweet, propagation and culture 90 Poularde, term defined - 425, 429 Poultices for animals 302 Poultry Appliances and Handi- craft -436 Poultry Architecture - 437 Poultry Booky Revised Com- plete ---- 437 Poultry Culture 437 Poultry Culture, Practical 437 Poultry Keeper, Profitable 437 Poultry, Profits in 436 Italicized, titles Poultry Raisin^-, Five Hundred Questions and Answers in.A^l Poultry Raising on the Farm ..437 Poultry Record Book, Money inAB7 Poultry, The Illustrated Book of. - 436 Poultry, breeds of — chickens- 410 ducks --.415 geese - 415 turkeys 416 caponizing — breeds for 425 care of birds after operation. 430 cockerels, operation on 426 instruments and their use 425 preparatory care --.426 pullets, operation on 429 causes of failure with 405 cleanliness essential for.-, .409, 410 cold drafts on 407 Poultry, diseases of — apoplexy .432 asthenia (" going light ") 433 blackhead in turkeys 433 bumblefoot 434 canker 433 ' ' cholera *" 433 constipation - 433 consumption 431 corns -.434 crop diseases -.432 diarrhea, ordinary 432 favus 4133 ^apes 432 indigestion 433 lameness 434 pip 432 remedies, administration of.. 431 roup.- 431 scabby legs .433 •worms 433 exercise essential 408 feeding ~ in summer .424 methodical practice in 424 of brooder chicks -422 of laying hens, food for.. 419, 423 quantity for each fowl 424 house construction — allowable latitude in. .410 brooder attachment, house with .-.- -.418 confined fowls, double house and sheds for -420 confined fowls, house and yards for 417 construction for comfort 417 fattening house 423 heavy fowls, roost for ---418 lathing and plastering 417 roomy quarters, necessity for 417 scratching shed 417 incubators and brooders- broilers, marketing .- 423 broilers, profits in raising 422 brooder chicks, care of 421 eggs, feeding for _ 419 egg supply, for incubators 4iti hints on use 419 and names refer to publications on agricultural topics. Poultry, lice, remedy for 409 overcrowding of 406 overfeeding of 406 quarantining of purchased fowls406 sick fowls, time wasted on 407 space required for 406 turkeys, geese, and ducks, notes on 434 warmth as an eg^-producer 408 Powdery mildew of grape.. 195 Powell, E. C 135 Powell, E. P. ..^.. 135 Powers, Stephen 280 Prairie soil, humus content of . -. . 26 Prepotency, defined 229 Prickly heat 333 Primary union, healing by 360 Prime steers, characteristics of ..249 market demands in 252 Principles of Agriculture 45 Prize Gardening 109 Prolapsus of the vagina .370 Propagation and planting table for fruits 120 Propagation of fruits 112 Protein in foodstuffs 241 Prufiing Book, The 136 Pruning, general method of 122 object of 121 of budded seedlings 114 old orchards 132 season for 121 the apple . - 123 the blackberry _- 126 the cherry 124 the currant- -- 127 the gooseberry 127 the grape J 25 the orange - 127 the peach 124 the pear 123 tbe plum 124 the quince 127 the raspberry ..126 to produce low heading 114 Publications, government agricul- tural, how to obtain . 1 on agricultural topics, see Bib- liographies. Puddling, defined 14 prevented by humus 18 prevented by underdrainage ... 17 prevented by vegetation 23 Pullets, made poulardes 429 Pulse crops, for trucking 92 Pulse, in diagnosis --- -_.298 Pumpkins, as field crop 62 for trucking 96 Pure bred animals, breeding of ..227 Putnam's scale 188 Pyaemia ..-341 Pyrethrum powder 143 Q Quarantining of purchased fowls 406 Quartercracks :- - .377 Quick, E. E,^ 436 Quicksand, increasing cost of til- ing 42 Quimby's New Bee Keeping 281 496 PRACTICAL FAEMIXG AND GAEDENING Quinne, attacked by apple rust. . .176 by black rot 178, 185 by leaf-blight .176 by pear-blight .....180 by shot-hole fungus 184 Quince Culture 136 Quince, fruit-spot of - 180,186 attacked by phim-curculio 183 leaf -spot of _ 180, 186 pruning the ,. 137 rust 176, 186 scale insects of 186 ttsi?q Quinn, P T. 136 Quotations, cattle market, how to interpret 277 R Rabbit Keeper^ Practical 281 Rabies 344 Radishes -.. 99 cabbage flea-beetle, injurious to 160 Rafters, length of, to compute .._ 446 Rambouillet Merino _ . 220 Ram, mutton, selection of 261-267 Ra.ms, hydrauHc 452 Range cattle, feeding of 293 Rankin, David, farm operations of (financial statement) 296 on range cattle feeding 293 Rankin^ James 436 Rape, bloating from 64 culture for soiling 64 Raspberry, thinning fruit of 131 anthracnose ..196 insects and diseases of the 196 pruning the 126 scale 191 Rations, compounding of 243 daily, German standards for... 246 Reaumur thermometer scale 450 Rectal injections S02 Rectum, medication per 302 Red Cap Eowls 412 Red Clover Seed 81 Red-headed flea-beetle 158 Red Polled cattle. 215 Red spider _ 175 Refrigeration a7td Cold Stor- age 379 Registry, no criterion of excel- lence 233 Remsen, IraJ. 46 Renovating old orchards. ia2 Reproductive organs, diseases of the _ 366 Respirations, in diagnosis 298 Respiratory organs, examination of. in disease 325 Reversion, defined 232 Reynolds, M. H, .384 Rheumatism 335 Rheumatismal pleurisy 329 Rhode Island Red fowls 414 Rhubarb 100 Rhubarb Culture 109 Rhubarb Culture^ The New 109 Rice-weevil 165 Ridged culture 16 Ring-bone- . , 375 Ringworm of cattle 353 Italicized titles Ripe-rot of plum 184 of apple 178 Roads and road making.. 42 Roadster, selection of _ . - 257 Roberge, David 383 Roberts, I. P. 47 Robinson^ Barnes and 108 Roller, use of _ _ _ 16 Rolling, effect on soil ventilation. 18 Rolling land, for orchard 111 Roof, span and pitch of 446 shingles for 446 Root, A. I 281 Root and Fiiiley .281 Root crops, annual, for trucking. 96 artichokes 62 as stock food 58 beets ' 59 carrots 60 Root Crops for Stock.... 279 Root crops, kohlrabi 61 perennial, for trucking 99 potatoes. 61 rutabagas 61 turnips 60 See also Tuber and Bulb Crops. Root development, enlarged by underdrainage 16, 17, 36 Root grafting 116 Root, L. C 281 Root-luuse, corn 146 Root penetration, depth of 17 Root-rot of apple 178 of beets 163 Roots, obstruction in tile 41 office in ventilating soil 19 of fruit trees, care m handling. 128 physical effect on soil 23 Root-worm of grape 192 corn 144, 145 Ropes, sti-ength of 452 Rose-chafer 1 94 Rose Culture^ Secrets of. 136 Rose seal e 191 Rose, The 136 Rotation of crops 26, 29, 30 best time for manure in 50 factor in insect control. .137 for flax-sick soil 58 in gardening 84 made profitable by animal pro- duction 226 Rot, bacterial, of onions 163 black, apple-fruit 178 of grape 195 of quince 185 brown, of cabbage, etc. 163 of peach 183 ripe, of plum 185 of apple ,-178 Rouen ducks 415 Roughage, evils of sale from farm 29 importance of in beef-making„287 Rough lands, loss of heat from.. 20 Round-headed apple-tree' borer ..169 Round worms 351 , 354, 356 Roup, in fowls 431 Rumen, overloading of 310 Rumpless fowls 415 Rumsey^ Hopkins and 204 Rupture 318 Rushworlh, William A. _ 280 Russell, H. L .280 Rust of apple 176 of asparagus 162 of quince 186, 176 of wheat .. 156 Rutabagas, culture ..61, 98 Rye, culture of .57, 64 smut of ..156 Saddle Horse, The ....279 Saddle horses, breeds of ..219 Salad crops, for trucking 102 Salivation _. 305 Salmon, D. E. 436 Salsify ____ 98 Salt-bushes, culture for dry forage 68 Salt, for steers 291, 295 Salts, excess of, remedied by un- derdrainage 37 soluble, importance of 7 Sandcracks 377 Sanders, A. H. 280 Sanders, J. H. 279 Sanders, William 204 Sanderson, E. Dwight 204 Sand, fine, waterholding capacity 13 for masonry 447 for plastering 448 Sandy roads, how improved 45 San Jose scale 186, 167 San Jose Scale 205 San Jose Scale, Exp>eriments with Insecticides for the 203 Saw-fiy, attacking bush fruits ,..196 currant .195 grape-vine 194 Saw-toothed grain-beetle 165 Scabby legs in fowls 433 Scab of the apple 177 of the cherry 183 of the plum _ ...183 of potatoes 88, 163 of sheep 355 Scale insects 186, 201 Scheele's green 140 Schreiner,S. C. C. 280 Scientific farming, David Rankin on.. 293 Scions, cutting and storing 117 Scott and Morton 48 Scours 314 Scratches 334 Scurfy scale 190 Seed-bed, early preparation of... 20 Seed, breeding and selection of. . 74 corn, selection of 76 development, drain on vitality .130 for lawns ...107 Seed, Good, The Earmej'-'s In- terest in 80 Seed Growing, Farm Garden- ing and 80 Seed, home-grown 74 improvement and modification of 74 mixtures for meadows 70 for pastures.-- 72 and names refer to publications on agricultural topics. i:\DEX 497 Seed, potatoes, cutting 89 preparation for planting 76 "running-out" of 76 selection, requisites in 76 Seedlings, care of before and after budding _.. ^ 114 growing of 112, 113 leaf-blight of 114 Selby, A. D 203 Selection in breeding, rules for. . .2;J7 Semi-arid climates, pasture seed mixtures for 72 Semper s^ Frank W. 48 SepticEemia ._. .341 Septicamia^ Apoplectiform^ in Chickens 436 Sewell, Edward 383 Shade trees, insects injurious to— bagworm 199 brown-tailed moth __ 199 canker-worms 172 canker - worms, fall and spring 200 cecropia, attacking walnut. ..201 Cottonwood borer 200 cottony maple scale 201 ehn leaf-beetle ..200 elm scale 201 fall webworm 170 forest tent- caterpillar 199 gipsy moth 198 oyster-shell scale 202 poplar borer... __. 200 pruning of 121 scale insects, see also. ,186 €i 5e(? walnut scale 202 white-marked tussock-moth .197 Shade Trees^ Three Insect En- em, ies of. — 206 Shaler.N.S. . 47 "Sharp-shooters," attacking cot- ton 154 Shaw, Thomas 47,80, 81, 82,279 Shearing of sheep .- 275 Sheep, breeds of 222 and their fleeces 272 condition of wool in disease 299 continuous care of, requisite. . .270 Sheep, Diseases of 383 Sheep, diseases of — anthrax 343 bot-flies 359 catarrh, gastro-int^tinal 308 cerebro-spinal meningitis 333 gastro-enteritis 313 mdigestion 308 jaundice 318 licking disease 306 lockjaw 340 mouth, inflammation of 304 parasites ..354,359 peritonitis 319 reproductive organs, diseases of - -366 retention of urine .323 stomach and intestines, in- flammation of 313 stomatitis 304 tympanitis .309,310 wounds 360 Italicized titles Sheep Feeding .280 Sheep, Foot Rot of, ZU Sheep, how drenched 301 Sheep Industry, History and Present Condition of the 281 Sheep, manure of 31 mutton, characteristics of 259 normal temperature in 299 points of 259 pulse of, how taken 298 rape for 64 Sheep Scab. 384 Sheep-shearing 275 Sheep, silage for 389 Sheep, The ..280 Sheep, The Domestic 260 Sheep, ticks infesting. 35 turnips for 60 washing of, injurious 274 well-bred, most profitable for mutton 261 Shingles required for roof 446 Shippers of prime steers, de- mands of 252 Shire, English, draft breed 216 Shocking corn for dry forage 66 Shorthorn Cattle 280 Shorthorn cattle 209 cross v.ith Galloway 235 Shorthorns, as feeders 255 Shot-hole fungus of plum ...184 Shoulder slip 365 lameness .373 Shredding corn for dry forage... 67 Shropshire sheep 221 Sidebones in the horse 376 Side grafting. 117 Siding, clapboards for 446 Silage, A Book on. ..403 Silage, as a bowel regulator 386 beet-pulp 401 for horses 388 for sheep ..389 for steers 388 for swine.- 389 mixed 401 rations for dairy cows 387 Silo, alfalfa for the 400 best form of 392 bottom of 392 brick 393 building, general considerations in 390 capacity of 390,391 clover for the 400 corn for the. 399 cow-peas for the 400 cylindrical, to compute capac- ity of 448 economies effected by means of 385 filling the 401 foundation of 393 grout. ..394 location of. 392 material for 393 rectangular wooden 398 sorghum for the 400 soy beans for the 400 specifications for. ..396 Silo, square, to compute capacity of 449 stave 395 stave, to find staves required for 448 stone 393 wall of 392 Silos and Silage ■. 403 Silos, Ensilage, a?id Silage 403 Sinuate pear-tree borer 179 Sire and dam, influence of, in breeding 231 Sires, management of _ 237 "Sit-fasts^'. _ 364 Skin, condition of, in disease 299 Slingerland, M. V 206 Slippery onions 163 Sloughs, drainage of 37 Slug, of pear 179 Small Fruit Culturist 136 Small fruits and vines, diseases of. 192 insects injurious to 192 Smith, F. 384 Smith, f.B 203 Smith, W. G 303 Smuts of grain, general treatment for 155 Snapping-beetles 145 Snyder, Harry ^46, 280 Sod-bound condition 69, 71 Sodding, for lawns 107 Soil, aerated by underdrainage.-- 35 amendments 35 capillary capacity increased by humus 18 color of --- 20 elements removed by various crops 24 fertiUty. determining factors .. 7 maintained by stock 325 flax-sick 58 for gardening and trucking 83 forms of nitrogen in,. 9 inoculation of 52 may be too open 18 moisture, effect of humus on.. 27 effect of underdrainage on, .- 36 mulch, to check evaporation, 14, 15 native prairie 26 origin of 5 particles, size of 21 porosity due to humus 18 preparation of, for lawns 106 preparation of, for orchard 128 temperature 19 ventilation of 18 warmed by agency of humus 31, 29 warmed by underdrainage 36 water, an element of fertility., 11 water, conservation of 14 waterlogged 11 Soiling crops 62 Soiling Crops and the Silo 81 S5ils, alkaline, macaroni wheat on 55 salt-bushes for 68 capacity for capillary water.,. 12 fine, advantage of humus in 28 for orchards 1 11 liming of 35 physical defects in, how rem- edied 22 and names refer to publications on agricultural topics. 498 PRACTICAL FAEMING AXD GARDENIXG Soils, pore space in _ 22 waterholding capacity increased by underdrainage _ 17 Soia beaus, see Soj' Beans. Solanaceous crops, for trucking.. 104 Sore mouth, in various animals.. 303 Sore necks .- 363 Sore throat in horses and swine 325, 326 Sorghum as a Forage PI aijt Hi borghuui, culture 63. 07 for the silo_ 400 poisoning 63 Sorg/nun :^yrup Manufacture.. 81 Southdown sheep 220 Southern corn -root-worm 145 South slope, advantage of 20 Soy Beau ^ The 81 Soy beans, benefit to crops fol- lowing 51 culture 52, 65, 68 for the silo 4ilO ground, for feed 51 Span of roof, defined .446 Sparrows, carrying disease to poultry 406 Spasmodic colic. 316 Spasms of diaphragm 299, 323 Spavin 379 Speltz, not the same as emmer... 57 Spider, red 175 Spinal cord, inflammation of 333 Splints in the horse ...374 SpooJier, Youatt and 279 Sprains 365,374 Spraying, arsenical poisons for ..140 of fruits — the apple 166 the cherry 185 the grape 195 the peach 150 the pear 178 the plum 183 the quince 185 Spraying of Plants 205 Spray mg old orchards 132 proper method of 132 utility of, in orchard. __ .131 Sprin g-beetles 1 45 Spri ng canker-worms 1 72, 200 Spring wheat, culture 54 plowing for corn 50 Square-necked grain-beetle 1G5 Squash 96 downy mildew of ...103 insects injurious to — Southern corn- root- worm 145 squash-bug 160 squash-vine borer 161 striped cucumber-beetle 160 wilt diseases of .163 Stable Guide, The American Gen tlemeii' s 279 Stack, hay in, to estimate.. 449 Stalk-borer, larger com 146 potato - . - 161 Stalk-worm, tobacco 145, 151 Stallion for breeding, selection of 257 Stand of grain, poor, due to cold soil 20 Italicized titles Stave silos 395 Steele, J. H. 383 Steers, breeds of, for feeding 255 followed by hogs 291 growing, feeding of 285, 289 native, feeding of 2H9 on full feed at twelve months. -2is5 prime, characteristics of 249 reasons for fattening 251 salt for 291, 295 silage for 388 summer feeding of.. 291 winter feeding of... 294 Stem-borers, currant 196 Sterility 1 307 Stevenson, J. P,, on native cattle feeding.-'..... 289 Stewart, Elliott W. 279 Stcivart, Heni-y 47, 135, 280 Stewart, Robert. 279 "Stifteout" 378 Stinking smut of wheat 156 Stock Breeding. 21 9 Stockers, see Feeders. Stock farming, kinds distin- guished 227 Stock feeding- balanced rations, compounding of 243 breeds of steers for feeding 255 cattle, silage for 387 chemistry of 2^39 close housing not desirable 283 Corn Belt facilities for beef- making. _. 283 corn, marketing in form of beef 283,289,293 digestibility, importance of 242 digestible nutrients per pound of various feeding-stuffs (table) 244 digestion and growth 242 early feeding for best beef 285 energy, heat, and fat, food- sources of 241 feeding tables, how to use 247 fertilizing constituents of vari- ous foodstuffs (table) 244 flesh-forming foods. 241 foodstuffs, composition of 240 choice of 240 full feed, caution in approach- ing 201 future of .239 German feeding standards 246 hogs, following steers 291 horses, silage for 388 manurial values of various feed- ing-stuffs - 244 marbled flesh, feeding for 285 native cattle feeding, J. P. Ste- venson on 289 "overdone" cattle, cause of con- dition 288 range cattle feeding,David Ran- kin, on 293 rate of gain in hogs 291 rate of gain in steers 291, 295 rations, daily, German ' stand- ards for 246 Stock feeding, rations fed by L. H Kerrick 287 roughage, importance of 287 salting of steers 291, 295 sheep, silage for 389 shredded fodder for steers 294 silage, feeding of 386 steers, age and condition of, for feeding 255 steers on full feed at 12 months. 285 steers, silage for 388 summer feeding 291 swine, silage for 389 winter feeding 294 Stock, injury to timber by 133 judging of, see Judging of Live Stock, raising, advantages of. .31, 225, 283 Stocks for budding or grafting, growing of 112 Stomach, function in digestive process _ 243 inflammation of 312 worms. 354 Stomatitis 303 St07ie, Livingston 2H1 Stone silos 393 Stored grains and seeds, insects injurious to 164 Storer.F. H. 45 Strangles 338 Strawberry crown-borer . . _ 197 Strawberry Culture, A B C of.AZQ Straivberry Culturist 136 Strawberry, insects and diseases of the 196 Straw, evil of burnmg 29 Striped blister-beetle ...162 cucumber-beetle 160 Strong, W. C. .134 Stupidity, symptom of disease.. .300 Subsoiling, to increase waterhold- ing capacity 14 to ventilate soil J8 Succulent foods, caiosing bloating 309 Suck-fly, tobacco 153 Suffolk Punch, draft breed 217 Sugar Beet, Eco?iomic Entomol- ogy of the 203 Sugar-beet machinery, for plant- ing soy beans ". 52 Sugarbeets, culture 60 Siigar Beet Seed, Selecticn in Groiuing 81 Sugar Beet, The 81 Sugar-beet webworm 159 Sugar Industry^ American 81 Sultan fowls 415 Sunlight, agency in plant growth 6 Surface water, removal by drain- . age 38 Survival of the Unlike 1 36 Swedish turnips, see Rutabagas. Sweet Potato Culture 110 Siveet Potatoes 110 Swellings,symptomatic of disease 300 Swine, breeds of 223 diseases of — catarrh and sore throat 326 catarrh, gastro-intestinal 308 and names refer to publications on agricultural topics. INDEX 499 Swine, diseases of — gastro-enteritis ...313 hog cholera 348 hy t-irophobia ,_ 344 indigestion 308 lockjaw 340 lumpy jaw 350 mouth, intiammation of 304 parasites -. 356 peritonitis 319 reproductive organs, diseases of... 366 stomach and intestines, in- flammation of 313 stomatitis 304 swine plague 348 wounds 3G0 Swine Husbandry 281 Swine, judging of 258 normal pulse in 298 normal temperature in 299 Swine Plague and Hog Cholera^ Serum Treatment of . Z^ Swine, points of .259 rape for _ 64 silage for 389 Symbiosis, defined ^. 9 Symptomatic anthrax 342 Syringe, fountain, use for ani- mals _ .302 Syrphns-flies, beneficial 138 T Taft, L. R 108, 109, 135 Tags in fleeces 275 Tam worth swine 225 Tapeworms ._. 354 Teats, sore, scabby ..369 Teeth, uneven 305 Teething, in horses 305 Temperature as affecting fertil- ity 10 in diagnosis ..299 of soil, affected by uaderdrain- age 36 Tent-caterpillar, apple-tree 169 forest 199 Teosinte, for soiling 65 Terry, T. B. 108, 136,279 Tetanus 340 Texas itch in horses.. 352 Texture of soil, improved by lime 35 Thennqmeter scales 450 Thinning of fruit on trees 130 of timber... .133 Thomas and Wood 134 Thompson^ Fred S. 109 Thoracic breathing, defined 299 Thorn-headed worm 356 Thoroughbred, English 219 "Throwing back,'' or reversion .. 232 *' Thumps,"" breathing in 299 distinguished from palpitation 323 Ticks on sheep 355 Tile drainage, what it does 35 Tiling, cost of 41 method of 40 Tillage, implements for 14 for orchards 129 to aerate soil 18 ItaliQiztO. titles Tillage, to conserve moisture , to remedy physical defects . Tilth, affecting temperature 20 Timber and Its Diseases.. .136 Timber on the farm, care of 132 round, to compute volume of ..445 square, to compute board- measure contents of 445 Timothy and clover in rotations. 26 Tobacco bud worm in^ Tobacco Culture 82 Tobacco, insects injm'ious to — cigarette beetle 153 horn worm 152 potato flea-beetle 1 63 tobacco bud- worm 153 tobacco flea-beetle .153 tobacco stalk- worm 1 51 tobacco suck-fly 153 Tobacco Leaf 83 TobaccT^ Methods of Curing 83 Tobacco Soils 82 Tomatoes, culture 104 insects injurious to — corn ear-worm 147 potato flea-beetle 162 striped bfister-beetle 1 62 vai'ieties 105 Tomato Growing 110 Topography, affecting soil tem- perature 20 Toulouse geese 415 Transplanting, directions for 85 of budded trees... 115 Trap-lanterns or Moth-catchers 206 Tree-hopper, buffalo 175 Tree Planting, Practical 136 Tree, standing, to estimate vol- ume of 445 to estimate height of 445 Trees, number to acre 120 Trees of the iSlorthern United States ..136 Trees, wounds in 120 Trellis, forms for the grape 135 Trocar and cannula, use for bloat- ing 309, 310 danger in use on sheep... 311 Trotter, American 218 Trotting Horse, Training the., 21^ Trout, Domesticated : How to Breed and Grow 281 Trowbridge, J. N 134 Trucking— annual root crops for 96 cole cropsfor 101 corn for 106 perennial root crops for 99 pulse crops for 92 salad crops for 103 soil for 83 solanaceous crops for 104 tuber and bulb crops for 88 vine cropsfor 94 Tuber and bulb crops, see also Root Crops. Tuberculin, inoculation with 347 Tuberculin Test, The 384 Tuberculosis 346 Tuberculosis and the Tubercu- lin Test.:. 384 anH names re^et to publications on agrtCultural topics. 14 Tuberculosis in Relation to Ani- 22 mal Industry and Public Health 384 Tuberculosis, Legislation with Regard to Bovine... .384 Tumors 365 Turf, Handbook of the 279 Turf, transplanting of 107 7u?-keys and How to Grow Them 437 Turkeys, black-head in 433 Ttirkeys, B/ack-Head of. ..437 Turkeys, see also Poultry. notes on cai'e of 434 young, easily raised.. ...434 Turnip, brown rot of the 163 culture 61 Turnips, for sheep 60 for trucking 97 cabbage flea-beetle injurious to. 160 Turnips, Swedish, see Rutabagas. Tussock-moth, white-marked 1 97 Twelve-spotted asparagus beetle-157 Twig-borer, apple 169, 193 Twine, for tying fleeces... 376 'Tympanitis 308 Type and breed distinguished 327 U Udder, congestion and inflamma- tion of. 368 Ulcers in mouth ZQZet seg Underdrainage,objectand method of 35 cost of tiling in 41 for alkali spots 9, 37 to conserve moisture. 16 to remedy physical defects 33 to ventilate soil 19 when beneficial 37 Up-grading, defined 234 Urinary organs, diseases of the.. 330 Urination, frequent 321 Urine, examination of. ..320 retention of 322 Urticaria _ 334 Vagina, inflammation of. Vaji Or nam Van Slyke^ L. L Variation, law of. -.367 ..370 ..109 .. 46 ..236 Variegated cutworm 1 66 Vaughan and Strangeway 384 Vegetable Gardening 110 Vegetable Gardeni?zg^ Princi- ples of ..110 Vegetable garden and trucking crops, cultural directions for. 83 Vegetable Garden, The 110 Vegetable matter, see Humus. Vegetables, Open-Air 109 Vegetables Under Glass ..110 Vegetation, sickly, what it indi- cates,. 11, 18 Veneer grafting ..116 Ventilation of poultry houses 407 of soil 18,19,38, 35 Vetch, as orchard cover crop 139 hairy, culture for dxy forage... 68 500 PRACTICAL FAEMIXG AND GARDEXIXG Veterinary Anatomy 384 Veterinary Hygiene, A Manual of. --- :384 Veterinary Materia Medica and Therapeutics 384 Veterinary Medicine 384 Veterinary Medicine and Sur- gery, Clinical - 384 Veterinary Phvsiology, A Man- ual of '... 384 Veterinary Therapeutics and Pita r macology 384 Vicious Horses, How to Handle and Educate 279 Victoria swine 224 Vine crops, for trucking 94 Vitriol, blue, to kill weeds 78 Volvulus of the intestines --.317 VoorheeSy E. B 47 Walker, Ernst 135 Wallace, H. _. 279 Wallis- Taylor, A. J. 279 Walnut, attacked by cecropia 201 Walnut scale 203 Walsh, f. H.. ....279 Wanklyn,f. A ....280 Ward, H. M 136 Ware, Lewis S 81 Warfield, William.. ....280 Waring^ George E. 46, 47 Warming of soil 30, 21, 36 Warm soil in spring, necessity of. 20 Warrington, R 46 Washing of sheep, injurious 274 Water, amount required by crops 12 capillary, defined. 12 in fine soils 22 cress 103 free, defined 12 in foodstuffs 2J0 in soils, kinds of 12 not all available to crops 13 office in soil - 11 Water Supply for Animals 384 Water-holding capacity affected by size of soil-grains 22 Waterlogged soil. _ 11 Watermelons 95 Waterpowers 452 Watersprouts, defined 123 Water-table, defined 12 how to find 37 lowering of, by underdrainage. 16 Watson, George C. 436 Waugh.F.A 135,136 Wax, for grafting 119 Webb^ James. 134 Webworm, corn-root 145, 151 fall, of apple 170 garden 159 sugar-beet 159 V/eeds and Hoiv to Kill Them ._ 82 Weeds and their eradication 77 Weeds, annuals 77 Weeds, How to Eradicate Them 83 Weeds, Legislation Against 82 Weeds, poisonous ..- 79 seeding and sprouting peren- nials 79 seeding perennials 78 Weevil, cow-pea 166 beau 166 granary 165 Mexican cotton-boll 154 pea - 165 rice 165 strawberry 1 97 Weiden?nann, J. _134 Weight, apothecaries' 441 avoirdupois, or commercial 440 troy, or jewelers*' ..440 Weights and measures — circular measures 441 decimal numbers for rapid conversion 441, 442 length, measures of. 439 metric system 443, 443 surface, measures of 439 weight, measures of 440 volume, measures of 440 Weights, legal, per bushel 451 Weights of various substances for given volumes 450 Weld and Du Hays 279 Western bean-beetle 158 Wet seasons, buckwheat in Wetsoilacold one. 21 Wet spring, followed by dry sum- mer 17 Whale-oil soap for spraying 142 Wheat bran, as fed by L H. Ker- rick 387 Wheat, chinch-bug, injurious to.. 148 Hessian fly, injurious to 148 late sowing of, to escape fly 148 loose smut of 156 macaroni 55 rust 156 spring, culture 54 stinking smut of 156 stooling out, yellowing and dy- ing of 148 winter, culture 53 varieties resistant to Hessian fiy 54 vetches with _ _ . 68 Wheat Culture 82 Wheat Growing, Insect Enemies of 204 Wheel-boe, essential in garden- ing - - 85 Whip grafting 116 worms ...356 White grubs 149 Whi te, Joseph J. 1 34 White-marked tussock-moth 197 Wichson, EdiuardJ. 134 "Wide " nutritive ratio, defined. 343 Wilcojc, L.M. 47 Williams, W. L. 382 Wilt diseases 163 Wind colic... ....315 Windmills 452 Window Elozuer Garden, The..l3G Wing,E 281 Wing, He7i?-y H. 280 W-inslow, K. ...384 Winter Care of Horses and Cattle. ...379 Winter Lamb, The 381 Winter-killing of fruits 121 of meadows 69 Woll,F. W. 403 Womb, inflammation of 366 Wooden silos 398 Wood lot, care of 132 Wood, Thomas and ...134 Woods, various, value and weight of 446 Wool-boxes, tight 276 Wool, breeds of sheep and their. 273 condition of, as affecting value. 271 condition of, m disease... 299 grading of,. 273 industry, outlook for future of .269 marketing of... 275 sheep-shearing 275 tags in fleeces 375 tight wool-boxes an injury 276 twine for tying fleeces 276 United States wool production 369 value of, as affected by flock management 370 washing of sheep injurious to.. 274 wool-growers, ten points for... 377 wool-growing alone improfit- able 367 world's wool production 269 Woolly bear 157 aphis of the apple 167 Work-horse, selection of __ 357 Worms, causing bronchitis in swine 357 in fowls 433 kidney, in swine 357 large round, in horse and mule_351 in swine .-. 356 lung, in cattle _. 353 pin, in horse and mule 351 in swine 356 round, in sheep 354 tape, in sheep : 354 thorn-headed, in swine. 356 twisted stomach, in sheep 354 whip, in swine 356 Wounds, Antiseptic Treat- ment of ■ 384 Wounds, treatment of 361 Wright, Lewis 436,437 Wyandotte crosses for caponizing 435 fowls 414 Wyman, W. E. A. 382,383 T Yellow bear 157 "Yellow leaf of grape 195 Yellow-necked caterpillar, of apple 170 Yellows in plums 113 of peach 182 of plum 185 Yorkshire, large, swine.. 234 Youatt and Spooner 279 Z Zfebra caterpillar 159 ItallQiztd titles and names refer to publications on agricultural topioe.