ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY New York State Colleges OF Agriculture and Home Economics AT Cornell University THE GIFT OF J. D. "\ferplanck Cornell University Library SF 239.W69 Willard's practical dairy husbandry:a co 3 1924 002 984 114 The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924002984114 W,^IlEF^OE. TJp to the present time there has been no Standard Work on Practical Dairy Husbandry, or upon tlie improved American methods of manufacturing Butter and Cheese. A hoolc treating of these topics has long been needed, and tliis work is designed to meet the wants of tliose who are looking for a safe, practical Dairy Manual. With more than twenty years' experience in Dairy Farming, and an acquaintance from extensive personal observation with the l)est methods of dairy management in this Country and Europe — accustomed to the practical handling of Millc and the manufacture of its products — in fine, having made a specialty of this branch of industry, the writer ouglit to be able to discriminate between the practical and merely theoretical in dairy management. Dairy Farming in this country is no holiday affair. The men who engage in it are, for the most part, seekiug useful information — sucli knowledge as may be turned to a good account in their business. In other words, they seek to learn how Dairying in its several branches can best be made to pay. With this standpoint in view, no theories have been recommended which cannot stand the practical test of usefulness. I am not insensible to the favor with which the results of my experiments and observations have been received, or to the confidence reposed in me by American Dairymen. 1 can only say that I have been earnest for improvement in this branch of industry, and have labored heartily for the advancement of the whole Dairy Interest throughout the whole dairy districts of our country. The work here presented is not a compilation — though I have not hesitated to quote from other writers whenever their statements seemed to be useful. In making such quotations I have aimed to give proper credit, since nothing seems to me more repre- hensible in a writer than the appropriation of another's labor and brains without due acknowledgment. Among the papers to which special attention is called are those of Dr. VoBiiCKBR on the " Composition of Cheese " and " Cheese Experiments ;" also on "Recent English Dairy Improvements," by Mr. Hakding of Marksbury, England. These papers hitherto have not been in an available form for the American reader, and will be found, it is believed, both interesting and valuable. In a few instances I have selected matter from my own pen which has appeared in the Sural Mw-Torker, Western Bitral, and other publications ; but for the most part the work has been freshly written, and gives the most approved practice in dairying as conducted at the present day. I trust it will not be deemed out of place here to ~say that I feel under deep obligations to the Press for the uniform courtesy extended to my various contributions to Agricultural Literature, through a long series of years. Profoundly grateful for these favors, I can only hope in the present instance that this volume may be worthy a candid criticism. And that it may prove useful to the class for whom it is intended is the sincere wish of the Author. X. A. W. Little Falls, Herkimer Co., N. T., 1871. INTRODUCTORY. THE AMBEICAN DAIET BELT. The gteat American dairy belt lies between the fortieth and forty-fifth parallels of latitude. It stretches from the Atlantic to the Mississippi, and possibly to the Pacific. Within its limits are New England, New York, Pennsylvania, the Northern parts of Ohio, Illinois and Indiana, the greater portion of Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa and Minnesota, and a part of the Canadas. Of all this belt probably not more than a third of the land is adapted to dairying. The dairy lands are quite irregular in outline, lying not always continuously together, but often detached, and not unfrequently, if repre- sented on the map, would have the appearance of islands. THE CHAEACTEKISTICS OF A GOOD DAIET COUNTET are, high, undulating surfaces ; numerous springs and streams of never failing water ; a soil retentive of moisture ; a sweet and nutritious herbage, that springs up spontaneously and continues to grow with great tenacity ; a rather low average temperature ; frequent showers, rather than periodical drouths, and sufficient covering of the ground in winter to protect grass roots, so that the herbage may be permanent or enduring. Doubtless within the limits of the United States, on high table lands, or on the lower slopes of mountainous ranges, there are soils eminently adapted to dairying ; but we have no large and continuous stretch of country, like that to which we have referred, where the business naturally would develop itself into a specialty. DAIET COMPAEBD WITH OTHER HUSBANDEIES. In my opinion, upon this Northern belt of dairy lands, there is no descrip- tion of farming that promises better prospect of remuneration than the dairy. I refer now to farming in the broadest sense of the word, where thousands grow certain products, and compete with each other in the great markets of the world. If one happens to be possessed of land in the immediate vicinity of towns and cities, upon which market gardening may be conducted with facility, that land may without doubt be put to more profit in growing vege- tables than in dairying. Fruit lands, eligibly situated and intelligently man- aged, may also be a source of greater profit. 8 Practical Dairy Husbandry. Limited specialties of this kind, in ■which only the few comparatively can engage, must not be embraced in the statement. Compared with other great interests of the country, such as the production of wheat or corn, and other cereals, the raising and fattening of stock for the shambles, sheep hus- bandry, hop growing, and the like ; each and all are inferior in their re- munerative prospects to the dairy. In the first place, the mUk producer enters the great markets of the world, with less competition than he who is engaged in almost any other branch of farming. He has a wider range and a more diversified product to dispose of. The milk farmer may be a breeder to some extent of thorough- bred cattle. After the first outlay, (and that may be on a small scale at the commencement,) the expense of raising a thorough-bred cow will be no more than the raising of the meanest scrub of our common stock. Then, if there is any profit in fattening stock for the shambles, animals which fail in milk for the dairy, and are to be " turned," can be employed for this purpose. Both of these specialties are in the line, and connected with the dairy, as is also the fattening of swine on dairy slops. Again, the yield of his cows takes three forms of a commercial product, each of which enters into universal consumption, and is regarded both as a luxury and a necessity — ^Milk, Butter, and Cheese. The last two are highly concentrated forms of food, and less bulky of transport than other articles of food of the same value — for, two hundred pounds of butter, costing eighty dollars, will occupy no more space in a railroad car than a barrel of flour costing but six dollars. In other words, the eighty dollars' worth of butter can be carried as cheaply to market as the six dollars' worth of flour. This alone is an immense advantage, for when the farmer , comes to deduct freights on a low-priced, bulky product, together with commission to the middle men for handling, and there will remain often but little profit for the producer. In New York we have studied this question of THE DAIET ANB ITS KELATIVE ADVANTAGES, fdr many years. We cannot aiford to grow corn, for the West, with its rich prairie and bottom lands, easy of cultivation by machinery, can undersell us. Look at the average price of wheat for a series of years, and consider whether the hard, tenacious soil of New York and New England can produce it at a profit. How is it with wool? The immense plains of Texas and the West are competing with us, and can always afibrd to seU for less money than it costs us to produce it. We have no chance to enter European markets with our wool, for Australia and South America stand in the way. A GOOD DAIET FAEM, is a good Stock Farm, but stock farms are not necessarily good dairy farms. It is doubtful whether the great stock farms of the Southwest will ever be employed largely for dairying. The lands are not so well provided with water, and the climate is too warm to secure the finest flavored goods. Be- Practical Dairy Husbandrt. 9 sides, the stock farmer of the West and Southwest can at present make more money in raising stock than by dairying. With the great railroad facilities being developed in these directions, the New York and New England farmer will find it more and more difficult as a specialty to compete with these people in raising fat cattle for the shambles. On the other hand, there has been for the past few years a gradual but constant increase in the demand and price of dairy products. If you take THE GOLD PEICBS FOE DIFFBEENT KINDS OF FOOD in London for a series of years, the statistics present the remarkable fact that dairy products have remained steady, while other products have fluctuated in prices, and at times become very much depressed. The reason of this is that the whole world is not competing in this class of production. The supply being uniformly within the limits of consumption, A GOOD AETICLB IS ALWAYS NEEDED, and prices do not fall so low, comparatively, as for other products. It must be observed, too, that upon dairy lands the milk product, year after year, is pretty uniform as to quantity. Upon natural grazing lands there is no crop so reliable as grass. Grain, fruit, hops, and the like, are liable to numerous accidents that lessen or destroy the yield, but which do not obtain in the grass crop. Hence, the dairyman can count pretty accurately upon what his farm will yield, if stocked with an average lot of cows. Again, his lands are not so liable to be exhausted as those devoted to grain growing, and with an abundant source of manure at his command should be growing more and more productive from year to year. The great question with dairy farmers has been in regard to OVEE-PEODUCTION' OP DAIET GOODS. Since the inauguration of, the Associated Pairy System, fears have been entertained that the cheese and butter product, of the country would be beyond a healthy consumptive demand. Dairy products are so liable to decay that dealers do not. care to take the risk of stormg and holding in large quantities. T^ey must go into quick consumption, and hence, any considerable surplus, accumulating from year to year, would so depreciate prices that the business could not be carried on with profit. Statistics thus far show that in Europe production does not keep pace with consumption, and this difierence is every year growing wider and wider. In the United States the HOME CONSUMPTION OF BUTTER AND CHEESE, of late years, has more than kept pace with prpduction, notwi^thstanding the extraordinary development of dairying under the associated, system. Previous to the Tvar of the Eebellion we exporte4 bujter ; but for some years papt the home consumption has taken all our make, and at a price which consumers denounce as extortionate. 10 Practical Dairy Husbandry. The best Normandy butter sells in London to-day at about 150 shillings per cwt., or thirty-two cents gold per pound. Deducting freight and com- missions, and turning the gold into currency, it would net the shipper in the States a price below what the best grades are worth at home. In 1860 THE PEODUCTIOK OF BUTTER IN THE UNITED STATES AND TEEEITOKIES was nearly four hundred and sixty millions of pounds. It is, perhaps, to-day over six hundred millions of pounds, and if we were over-producing prices would decline, so that shippers could afford to export. Wherever you go among consumers in towns and cities you hear loud complaints of the diffi- culty of getting good butter, and the monstrous price which they are forced to pay. They talk bitterly against the cheese factories, charging them with the crime of absorbing the butter makers, and thus cutting off production. They forget that the rapid increase of population and the gormandizing habits of our people in the use of butter, are the causes which have led to this condition of things. There are NO SUCH BUTTER EATERS on the globe as we Americans. Everything that we cook must be swimming in butter. Our Irish domestics, many of whom never ate a pound of butter during their whole lives before reaching these shores, seem never able to get enough of this unctuous food. The waste of butter among all classes is enormous, and, in an economic point of view, is truly alarming. To those who have traveled in Europe and contrasted the difference in the habits of people there and here in the use of butter, it need be no surprise that our dairies are taxed to their utmost to satisfy the craving demands of our butter eaters. If the habit increases with our constantly increasing population, the prospects of butter dairying cannot be considered at all discouraging. If we take the article of cheese. Our people are evidently beginning to follow English tastes in their appreciation of this nutritious article of food. We are exporting now but little more cheese, comparatively, than in 1861, perhaps twenty millions of pounds more, and yet our production has in- creased from one hundred and three millions of pounds, in 1860, to two hundred and forty millions of pounds in 1869. Notwithstanding the war of the rebellion, and the consequent poverty of the Southern States, which cut off THE CHEESE TRADE in that direction, the home consumption has gone on increasing from sixty- three millions of pounds, in 1860, to one hundred and eighty millions of pounds, m 1869. The average increase of home consumption has been at the rate of thirteen millions of pounds per year. When the Southern States get into a healthy, prosperous condition, with the wonderful development of railroad facilities, the opening of the Southern Pacific Railroad, the influx of Chinese laborers, and a direct trade with China, it is doubtful whether the dairies in this country can be developed sufficiently to supply the demands. Practical Dairy Husbandry. 11 But there must always be a large dairy interest employed in supplying fresh milk to our cities and manufacturing towns. This is more apparent from year to year, and the real question of the dairy interest to-day should be, to so equalize the supply of MILK, BUTTEE AND CHEESE, tuat the Highest prices may be reached for eacn. ^'he difficulty is not so much the fear that dairying will be overdone, as that the equilibrium will be disturbed, and either one or the, other of these products be increased .beyond its proper proportion. If a large proportion of the cheese makers were to go to making butter, the butter interest would be overdone and prices decline ; and the same would result to the cheese interest from a large change from butter to cheese dairying ; while the milk interest would be greatly injured if a large proportion of dairymen should enter into that branch, either by furnishing condensed milk, or fresh milk, for city con- sumption. When Jesse Williams, the unpretending farmer of Rome, in 1850 conceived the idea of ASSOCIATED DAIEIES, it was forced upon him as a necessary means for accommodating members of his own family. He had not the remotest idea that he had hit upon a great principle — a principle that was of wide application, and which was destined, in all coming time, to be the means of lifting heavy burthens from the arms of toil. It is estimated there are now more than a thousand factories in the State of New York alone, and they are extending rapidly in other States' They have been carried to the Canadas and across the Atlantic ; and wherever cheese-making shall be known in after times, it will be inseparably connected with the name of Jessie Williams. But aside from the burthens of toil and the drudgery from which this system operates to relieve our farmers, it has developed another great economic principle, THE MEANS OF PEODUCING FOOD CHEAPLY, a principle which the Creator, in His infinite wisdom it seems, is now im- pressing upon the minds of people, by the establishment and wide-spread dissemination of this system. The question of food in all densely populated communities is one that underlies all others. No nation can rise to the highest civilization and power without her people are supplied with an abundance of CHEAP AND NUTEITIOUS FOOD. Where food is scarce, or is wanting in nutrition, there you will find poverty, squalid wretchedness, demoralization and crime — elements of weak- ness, opposed to progress and civilization. Food nourishes not only the body but the brain, and the cheapness and abundance of good food has had much to do in the rapid progress and active development of mind among the American people. But our population is increasing with wonderful rapidity, 1 2 Pba ctical Date t H usbande t. and already' the supply of meats in the Atlantic States is becoming compara- tively scarce. They are to-day at such a price that poor people have difficulty in obtaining' 'therh.' As our population increases there will be a still further scarcity of meats for the supply of our people. Some other form of animal food must be substituted in part, at least, for beef, and the question is be- coming every year more and more urgent, as to how it can be produced cheaply. And, in my opinion, we must look to the dairy as the chief means of solving this difficulty. I can illustrate this more satisfactorily, perhaps, by drawing a comparison between THE KELATTVE COST OF PEODUCTN'G BEEI" AND CHEESE. A steer which will weigh one thousand five hundred pounds at four years must be a good animal, and will yield say one thousand pounds of meat. Three steers at four years, on the above assumption, would produce three thousands pounds of beef. Now, a good cow will yield from five himdred to six hundred pounds of cheese per year ; if we take her product for twelve years at four hundred and fifty pounds per year, deducting the first two years in which, as a heifer, she yields nothing, we have four thousand five hundred ■ pounds of good, wholesome animal food. In other words, three steers at four years old, representing twelve years' growth for beef, amounts to three thousand pounds, while one cow, twelve years for cheese, four thousand five hundred pounds. But a pound of cheese, equal in nutrition to two pounds of beef, would make the difference still greater, giving for the dairy nine thousand pounds of food on the one hand, against three thousand pounds of meat on the other. Then there is cost of cooking, and the bone to be charged against the beef, which, as will be seen, adds further to the expense of tfcat kind of food. THE ECONOMICAL T7SE OP EOOD is not well understood by the majority of people, and perhaps there is no food in general use the nutritive value of which is more imder-estimated than that of milk. Indeed, many people regard it more as a luxury than as aflfo.rding any substantial nourishment like that obtained from meats or vegetables. Milk is oflen used sparingly, under the impression that it must always be an ex- pensive article of food, when in fact it is generally cheaper than any meats that can be had in the market; and we believe if its relative nutritive value, as compared with beef, was more generally understood, it would be more largely consumed, as a matter of economy. Good beef contains from fifty to sixty per cent, of water, and milk about eighty-seven per cent. On an average, then, three pounds and a half of milk, or a little more than three pints by measure, are equal in nutrition to a pound of beef. If the beef is worth twenty cents per pound, the milk, at ten cents per quart, would be the cheaper food of the two. Dr. Bellows gives the following analysis of seveiril Articles of food, in their natural state, from ■which Practical Daibt Hussandbt. 13 THE EBLATIVB NUTRITIVE VALUE QF MILK may be readily compared. We place them in a table, as more convenient for reference and compa;rison : NiTBATBS. OAKBONAIES. Phosphates. Water. Milk of Cow 5.0 15.0 11.0 13.5 10.0 14 17 ^5H 8.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 50.0 . very little, very little, none. 1.0 5.0 3.5 3.5 1,5, 5 to 6 5 to 6 86.0 Beef 50 50.5 Mutton-. 44.0 Pork .: 38 5 Codfish , 79 Trout 75 White of eggs 80 Of the nitrates, or flesh-forming elements, the beef contains just three times that of the milk, while the carbonates, or respiratory and fat-producing elements in the beef, are three and three-fourth times richer than the milk. The solid constituents of the two, in a hundred parts, would be in milk fourteen, and in beef fifty, or very nearly as one to three and one-half. Con- sequently, if both be represented in pounds, it would take three and one-half pounds of milk to give the same amount of nutrition that is contained in one pound of beef.. In fish and eggs the difference would not be so great. Now a quart of milk will weigh about thirty-six ounces, consequently the three pints of milk by measure will weigh three pounds six ounces, representing very nearly the equivalent in nutrition for a pound of beef. As there is always more or less waste in beef, even after it is separated from the bone, on account of muscle, tendons, cartilage and the like, which cannot be con- sumed, the three pints of milk may be considered to represent a fair equivar lent in nutrition for a pound of beef, exclusive of bone. On this assumption, if a pound of beef, exclusive of bone, is worth twenty cents, milk should be counted at a little over thirteen cents per quart, the exact figures being thir- teen and one-third cents. But if we reckon the loss from bone which the consumer takes with the meat, it will be seen the cost is considerably more,, which would by so much farther enhance the value of the milk. When milk is selling at/ six cents per quart, beef, exclusive of bone, at nine cents per pound would be the equivalent. It will be seen by carefully comparing the analysis of milk and meats, and making the proper deductions on the latter on account of waste, of bones, etc., that there is less difference between the economical value of milk and beefsteak, or fish and eggs, than is commonly supposed. Milk contains all the elements of nutrition, and is more whole- some than meats like pork and veal, which are justly regarded with suspicion. It should be more largely used in hot weather than it is, and especially in the diet of children, as it supplies material for building up the bones and muscles, which superfine flour, and butter and sugar, do not. It may not be advisable to substitute milk wholly for meat in any system of diet. Still by using, smaller quantities of meat with which to make up the requisite propor- tion of animal food, health would doubtless be greatly promoted, and at 14 Practical Dairy Hv^sbandry. mnch less expense, than where meat is exclusively used. The market value of milk is generally very much below its nutritive equivalent in beef; and those who are looking to economy in foods will do well to give this question attention. MILK AS A FOOD. Professor Lyon Platfaie, in speaking of milk as a food, says : — " We see how carefully nature has provided for the growth of the infant. In the casein there is abundance of structural food for the building up of organs ; in the highly combustible fat or butter, and in the less carbonaceous sugars we have a fuU supply of heat givers ; while in the mineral substances, bone earth for the building up of the young skeleton, besides common salt, potash salts, iron, silica, and every mineral ingredient that we find in the body. It may be interesting to inquire with regard to the typical food, what proportion the structural materials bear to the respiratory or heat-giving substances. For this purpose, we must convert both the butter and sugar into a common . value, and calculate them as if they were starch, which is the most common heat-giving body in dilQferent kinds of food. Estimated in this way, the quantity of heat-givers is three times greater than that of flesh-formers. But the nutrition of the young animal is in many respects different from that of the adult. In the case of the latter it is only necessary to supply the daily waste of the tissues ; in the former it is also requisite to furnish materials for the growing body, and also abundant fuel to maintain the higher temperature of the infant. With this difference kept in view, all our efforts in diet ap- pear to aim at imitating the typical food, milk, by adjusting a proper balance between the flesh-formers, heat-givers, and mineral bodies. Thus with a flesh-forming aliment like beef or mutton, we take a rich heat-giving one like potatoes or rice. To fat bacon, abounding already in heat-givers, we add beans, which compensate for its poverty in flesh-formers. With fowls, poor in fat, we consume ham, rich in this combustible. Our appetites and tastes become the regulators of food, and adjust the relative proportions of its several ingredients ; and until the appetite becomes depraved by indul- gence or disease, it is a safe guide in the selection of aliments." MUSCLE-MAKING FOOD. The importance of using food containing a due proportion of muscle- making elements, or albuminoids, has been demonstrated in repeated experi- ments, when loss of vigor and health has followed a continual use of food lacking in these elements. The experiments made in five prisons in Scotland bear upon this point. They were made to ascertain the smallest amount of food, and the proportion of nitrates and carbonates, that would keep the prisoner up to his weight while doing nothing, when it was found that by reducing the proportion of nitrates in the food from four ounces to two and three-quarter ounces daily the prisoners lost weight rapidly. Dr. Bellows, in commenting upon these experiments, which he gives in detail, says : PRACTICA.L Dairy Rvsbandry. 15 "It is a remarkable fact ■which shows the importance of connecting science with practice, that the deterioration in the quality of the diet in Dundee prison consisted in substituting molasses for milk, which had been previously used with oatmeal porridge and oatmeal cakes, molasses being entirely destitute of muscle-making material, while milk contains a full proporlion of these important principles. -This one experiment and its results are worthy of study by every mother and every housekeeper in the land. If any class of persons would suffer less than others from the use of too much' carbonaceous and too little nitrogenous food, it would be that class who are idle ; and yet the one hundred prisoners of Dundee, with an ounce more of the fat and heat-making principle than those of Edinburgh, lost two hundred and seven- teen and one-half pounds, while the same number in Edinburgh lost only twenty-seven pounds; the difference in their diet being, as stated in the report, that the prisoners of Edinburgh had milk with their pprridge and cakes, while those of Dundee had molasses instead." And he remarks further : — " If the same experiment had been tried on men in active life, or on children who are never stiU except when asleep, the result would have been more remarkable, in proportion to the greater waste of muscle in those who are active,' and the greater demand for nitrogenous food ; and yet how few mothers stop to consider or take pains to know, whether gingerbread made of fine flour, which has but a trace of food for muscle or brain, and sugar or molasses, and perhaps butter, which have none, or cakes made with unbolted wheat mixed with milk or buttermilk, all of which abound in muscle and brain-feeding materials, is the best food for a growing, active child ; indeed, the whole food of the child is given with the same want of knowledge or consideration. " But in view of these simple experiments in the Scotch prisons, who can doubt that a want of consideration o:f these principles of diet is the means of consigning to the tomb many of our most promising children. An intelligent farmer knows how to feed his land, his horses, his cattle and his pigs, but not how to feed his children. He knows that fine flour is not good for pigs, and he gives them the whole of the grain, or, perhaps, takes out the bran and coarser part, which contains food for muscles and brains, and gives them to his pigs, while the fine flour, which contains neither food for muscle or brain, he gives to Ms children. He separates, also, the mUk, and gives his pigs the skim milk and buttermilk, in which are found all the elements for muscle and brain, and gives his children the butter, which only heats them and makes them inactive, without iurnishing a particle of the nutriment which they need." Milk and cheese are doubtless the cheapest forms of animal food that can be had in our markets. They deserve to be more extensively used, and it is very likely they would enter more largely into consumption were it not from mistaken notions of economy, which exclude them from the table on the sup- position that they are costly luxuries rather than healthful and nutritious articles of food. 16 Practical Dairy Husbandry. Our country ia vast, and of great diversity in soil and climate. New England and the Middle States have long since ceased to be regarded as the most favorable sections in which men of moderate means may engage in grain farming. There is a tide of emigration sweeping westward; there is another tide ebbing to the cities, and so the rural population in these States is constantly decreasing. We live in an- age of intense competitive industry ; our people are impatient for gain ; and with a natural fondness' for adventure, and an eagerness for any change that holds out prospect of better- ment, it is not strange that old landmarks are dying out among the farming population of the North Atlantic States. I shall not stop now to discuss all the causes which have led to this condition of things. It will suffice for the present to name one, THE MISDIKECTIOlSr OE THE USE OE LAND, by failing to adopt the kind of farming suited to the peculiarities of soil and climate. With a favorable climate, and the proper expenditure of money, by the aid of science you may force an unpropitious soil to yield ample returns in crops to which originally it was not well adapted. But temperature, moisture and climatic influence are in. a measure beyond our control. Hence, with many disadvantages facing us at every step, we cannot compete successfully in growing grain with those sections which have none of these to contend with, but have everything in their favor. If we propose to grow corn and make it a specialty, the rugged lands of New York and New Eng- land will not present equal advantages with the fertile bottom and prairie soils of the West. From the natural fertility of these soils, and from the ease with which they may be cultivated, the Western farmer can put his surplus grain in our markets at a price which compels us to sell at meager profits. If we grow grain, therefore, it must be as an adjunct to some specialty, which gives us decided advantages over other sections. The dairy is one of those branches from which the great bulk of lands in the United States by natural causes is excluded. To the farmer, then, whose lands are adapted to dairying, it presents one of the most remunerative branches of agriculture in which he can engage ; and it may well be a question whether the older States, lying within the dairy belt we have named, and especially those of New England, with their established institutions, and nearness to the best markets in the world, may not now present inducements to the agriculturist through the channels of dairying second to no other sections in the Union. THE PEOGEESS AND PRESENT MAGNITUDE OP THE DAIET INTEREST OP THE UNITED STATES will be shown from the figures in the following tables, made up from ofiicial sources, some of which have been printed in the Patent Office reports, and reports of the Department of Agriculture : Practical Dairy Husbandry. 17 The following statement shows the number of Milch Cows, for the years 1840, 1850 and 1860, and their relations to the total population for each period : States ahs Tbbbitobiss. 1840. Eatio. Alabama Arkansas California Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri New Hampshire . . . New Jersey New York North Carolina Oliio Oregon Pennsylvania Bhode Island South Carolina Tennessee Texas Vermont Virginia Wisconsin District of Coliunbia Dakota Nebraska New Mexico Utah Washington Nevada Total 189,043 40,981 4,380 74,395 17,189 47,395 276,557 157,140 313,618 9,485 310,554 74,006 130,430 75,203 110,655 55,189 137,721 126,632 88,218 97,060 752,966 188,355 486,229 431,668 15,236 184,363 323,887 151,814 285,153 6,808 874 .33 .42 .05 .24 .22 .87 .40 .83 .31 .33 .37 .31 .34 .16 .15 .26 .34 .33 .31 .36 .31 .25 .33 .25 .14 .81 .37 .53 .23 .22 .03 4,837,043 -.38 1850. 237,791 93,151 4,280 85.461 19,348 73,876 834,328 294,671 284,554 45,704 247,475 105,576 133,556 86,856 180,099 99,676 607 214,331 330,169 94,377 118,736 931,334 221.799 544,499 9,427 580,224 18,698 193,244 250.456 217;811 146,128 317,619 64,339 818 10,635 4,861 Ratio. .30 .45 .05 .23 .21 .83 .87 .35 .29 .34 .35 .20 .33 .15 .13 .35 .10 .35 .34 .30 .24 .30 .25 .28 .71 .23 .18 .29 .25 1.02 .47 .33 .21 .03 .17 .43 6,385,094 1860. -1-27 330,537 171,008 205,407 98,877 33,595 93,974 399,688 532,684 363,553 189,802 28,550 369,315 129,663 147,314 99,468 144,492 179,543 40,344 307,646 845,343 94,880 138,818 1,133,634 228,638 676,585 53,170 673,547 19,700 163,938 349,514 601,540 174,667 330,713 308,001 639 286 6,995 84,369 11,967 9,660 947 8,581,785 Batio. .24 .36 .65 .21 .30 .81 .36 .38 .25 .23 .18 .23 .14 .13 .27 .23 .36 .29 .29 .31 .30 1.01 .23 .11 .33 .22 .99 .54 .31 .25 .01 .11 .35 .43 .33 .90 ARE THE FIGURES CORRECT? In absence of the last official census report, not yet printed for distri- bution, we take the statistics of 1870 from abstract of census returns of 1869, as given in the Tribune Almanac, and which purports to be a correct copy of the official returns. It must be evident, however, that the butter and cheese products are here put very much below the actual make, for it will be observed that the amounts are but little in excess of those made in 1860. Now it is well known that the increase in Dairy Farming since 1860 has been very large, and has been carried into new districts, while the increase of more than two millions two hundred and eighty thousand cows must plainly 2 18 Practical Dairy Husbandry. indicate a larger increase in dairy products than is here represented. In the last of the two subjoined tables the statistics are given in such form that the whole may be readily understood and compared. The following table shows the- number of Milch Cows, and the quantity of Butter and Cheese, made in the United States, in the year 1869, according to the census of 1870: St^^tes. MiioH Cows. PoTJNBS OP Cheese. Pounds Butter, Alabama Arkansas California Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri , Nebraska New Hampshire New Jersey. New York North Carolina Ohio Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina Tennessee Texas Vermont Virginia West Virginia Wisconsin Nevada and Territories. Total 11.008,935 270,537 190,500 1,830,800 99,350 24,198 99,108 801,180 850,340 390,450 201,740 41,310 280,191 148,330 190,110 100,030 160,330 198,580 60,740 800,101 890,130 99,540 149,450 1,980,300 801,102 960,332 79,812 878,212 23,180 171,480 260,190 640,803 190,430 401,860 250,313 15,933 16,810 1,348,689 3,898,411 6,579 5,380 15,578 1,848,557 605,795 918,635 39,045 190,400 6,153 1,799,862 8,342 5,294,090 1,641,897 199,314 4,427 359,688 24,342 2,328,093 182,172 48,548,289 51,119 21,618,893 105,379 3.508,556 181,511 1,543 135,575 375,138 8,315,030 280,852 Included in Va. 1,104,300 10,500,000 114^154,211 6,028,478 4,067,556 8,095,035 7,620,912 1,480,503 408,855 5,439,765 28,053,551 18,306,651 11,953,666 1,098,497 11,716,609 1,444,742 11,687,781 5,265,395 8,297,936 15,508,483 2,957,678 6,006,610 13,704,887 604,541 6,956,764 10,714,447 103,097,280 4,735,495 48,543,162 1,000,157 58,653,511 1,021,767 3,177.984 10,017,787 5,850,583 15,900,359 13,464,723 Included in Va. 13.611,828 11,100.000 470,586,468 The following table gives the number of Milch Cows, and the quantity of Butter and Cheese, manufactured during each of the years ending the successive decades ac- cording to the United States census reports of 1840, 1850, 1860 and 1870 : ' ' 1 MiLOH COWS. 1 Value of Dairy Pboduots. 1840 1 4,887,043 $33,787,008 1 Much Cows. Pounds Butteb. Pounds Cheese. 1850 6,385.094 8,581.735 11,008,925 313,345,306 459,681,373 470,586,468 105,535,893 108,663,927 114,154,311 1860 1870 Practical Daibt Husbandry. 19 Table showing the number of Milch Cows, quantity of Butter made and amount of Cheese and Milk sold in the State of New York, according to Census of 1865 : CoDHTIBa. MjUIH 1864. I Cows. 1865. Pounds of Butxsb.Made. 1864. Pounds or Cheese Sold. 1864. Gallons op Mtt.k- Sold. 1864. Albany Allegany , Broome Cattaraugus. . . Cayuga Chautauqua. . . Chemung Chenango Clinton Columbia Cortland Delaware Dutchess Erie Essex Franklin 'pulton Genesee Greene Hamilton ^erkimer .... . Jefferson Kings Lewis Livingston ' Madison Monroe Hffiontgomery. . Kew YorkT. . Niagara \Oneida Onondaga Ontario Orange Orleans Oswego Otsego Putnam Queens Rensselaer. .. , Riclimond . . . . Rockland St. Lawrence.. Saratoga 'Schenectady . . "fichoharie Schuyler Seneca. Stuben Suffolk ; Sullivan Tioga Tompkins. .. . Ulster Warren Washington . . Wayne Westchester. . Wyoming. .'. '. Yates 11,080 20,798 22,178 84,308 21,291 42,708 10,889 46,734 12 603 12,266 29,295 45,217 20,114 34,441 9,004 15,847 10,234 9,193 13,350 1,082 46,627 56,551 4,023 30,848 10,880 39,093 15,058 20,269 79 11,793 60,648 24,861 13,634 40,021 7,136 29,503 41,226 8,336 7,r" 15,405 1,195 3,610 65,263 15.148 5,374 19,461 7,320 6,496 24,173 8,538 13,487 14,109 15,878 18,561 6,016 17,315 14,256 16,719 19,499 6,919 Tolal. 1,195,481 10,615 18,525 20,696 80^559 31,794 40,008 9,647 41,459 13,968 11,943 31,920 38,525 20,014 31,851 9,219 15,804 ■ 9,974 9,009 12,059 1,043 45,461 55,198 4,030 30,639 10,605 38,995 14,963 19,903 86 11,860 58,417 23,730 13,411 40,096 7,197 28,393 36,040 8,426 7,893 14,302 1,191 3,658 65,286 14,583 5,118 16,506 6,897 6,470 22,785 9,057 13,667 13,673 14,575 18,226 5,874 16,863 14,239 17,154 18,329 6,838 1,147,351 1,066,196 1,655,776 3,291,268 2,412,333 2,208,049 105,205 105,345 4,042,336 946;735 965,064 2,683,773 5,052,395 1,358,573 1,558,573 654,174 1,326,598 706,612 763,082;^ 1,327,054 96,174 953,118 3,100,234 16^315 1,663,950 1,052,804 1,569,342 1,374;890 1,035,7311^ 966,386 2,868,740 2,149,141 1,110,593 2,363,6611^ 804,20912 1,988,0601^ 2,811,199 272,924 424,063M 1,144,726 23,575 231,231 5,417,779 1,823,024 514,607 1,978,640 737,673 690,428 2,261,034 596,189 1,195,868 1,432,650 1,676,823 1,547,217 478,085J^ 1,817,397 1,320,004 535,033 1,27^,761 642,324 84,584,458 30,763 1,335,748 113,922 3,635,356 205,155 2,105,642 21,747 - 2,552,066 100,020 • • • 33,447 2,074,155 35,519 11,599 3,344,734 96,255 135i733 991j002 80,263 16,961 1,865 13,893.801 5,348,615 4,755,643 101,417 3,452,682 69,044 4,307,006 52,260 8,108,540 1,844,336 119,357 133,575 59,598 2,383,806 3,335,144 1,155 528,133 650 2,922,001 185,161 82,064 143,641 32,948 12,331 291,185 1,030 12,316 49,655 385,697 1,060 71,139 807,374 90,591 r 186 1,801,781 30,084 72,195,337 464,885 250 41,385 12,513 91,511 73,085 84,449 11,652 6,300 231,130 715 6,046 8,964,574 489,206 970 1,100 1,084 104,632 2,192 100 17,686 278,337 444,530 138,126 33,233 13,506 358,400 7,885 12,650 25,889 191,698 263,946 32,020 8,835,0521/ 75 69,151 18,279 2,841,453 929,131 556,638 4,793 215,384 119,187 115,556 118,094 4,335 8,500 21,394 22,485 22,330 89,928 604 31,167 ■ 134,099 17,485 21,819 47,305 2,928,845-- 43,407 ' 10,551 29,631,530>^ 20 Practical Dairy Husbandry. As a basis for estimating the probable production, the following table will be useful: This table shows the total produce of Milk In thirteen States, for the year ending June 30, 1860, and also the quantity used for food, and the amount manufactured into Butter and Cheese for each State': States. Milch Cows. Ndmbeb. Total Prodtjob. Quarts. Used as Food. Quarts. MAK'rACTUR'D Butter. Quarts. Mahufao- TUBED Cheese. Quarts. Maine New Hampshire. Vermont Massachusetts Khode Island Connecticut New York Pennsylvania New Jersey Delaware Maryland Wisconsin Virginia 147,314 94,880 174,667 144,493 19,700 98,877 1,133,634 673,547 138,818 38,595 99,463 303,001 330,713 365,165,300 170,784,000 309,056,400 360,085,600 35,460,000 177,978,600 3,033,531,400 1,313,384,600 349,873,400 40,671,000 170,033,400 349,193,800 595,138,600 113,013,085 75,053,338 81,388,157 135,555,636 31,570,373 63,585,989 543,030,641 553,838,535 109,868,653 33,763,870 96,386,486 174,314,114 405,561,119 Total 3,381,701 5,858,334,000 3,394,618,865 3,173,447,704 391,367,431 146,097,363 88,959,550 196,033,935 103,734,300 18,193,138 99,071,856 1,388,695,987 648,697,450 139,387,811 17,881,375 73,714,130 170,638,163 188,463,968 7,054,853 8,773,133 31,745,318 30,805,774 696,600 15,330,755 190,794,773 9,858,635 715,936 35,855 33,784 4,340,534 1,103,513 According to these statistics fifty-four per cent, of the entire produce was made into butter. Now, on this basis, if we take one thousand eight hundred quarts of milk as the annual product on an average for each cow, and eighteen (1 8) quarts as the average quantity of milk required for a pound of butter, then the eleven millions and nine thousand cows of 1870 would yield, if their milk was all made into butter, one billion one hundred million pounds ; and if fifty-four per cent, of this is the actual product of the country, as is represented in the table for 1860, then we have the butter product of 1870 represented by nearly six hundred million pounds. But we think it may be safely estimated at more than this. The report of the Amer- ican Dairymen's Association for 1870, gives a list of nearly one thousand one hundred cheese factories. The list is very incomplete, as it is well known that there are a much larger number ; but this list alone, at an average of four hundred cows to the factory, would embrace nearly a half million of cows. There are a large number of farms scattered over the country, where cheese manufacture is carried on at the farm, and if the number of cows so employed be added to the number belonging to factories not reported, there can be but little doubt but that the whole number employed for cheese dairy- ing would be swelled to eight hundred thousand cows. At three hundred pounds of cheese to the cow, we should have the product of 1870, amounting to two hundred and forty million pounds. Now, according to the table for 1860, forty-one per cent, of the milk product is consumed directly as food, fifty-four per cent, is made into butter,, and five per cent, is made into cheese. Therefore we find that, allowing five quarts of milk to the pound of cheese, and taking five per cent, of the gross Practical Daisy Husbands r. 21 amount of milk, the cheese product of 1870 would amount to nearly two hundred million pounds, and this too on the basis that ratios are the same in 1870 as 1860. "We may remark here that THE AKSUAI. AVERAGE PRODUCT OF COWS in our estimate, (viz., — three hundred and sixty pounds of cheese per head ; or, if the milk is made into butter, one hundred pounds of butter per head,) is considered only a fair average annual product. These estimates of the present annual cheese product correspond very nearly with the quantity estimated by, thoee who have kept statistics in regard to this branch of industry. They put the whole product of cheese made in 1869 at two hundred and forty million pounds. If anything more was needed to show THE INACTJRACY OP THE CENSUS RETURNS of 1869 as here reported, we might refer to the cheese product of New York for that year in the table which is- put at forty-eight million five hundred and forty-eight thousand two hundred and eighty-nine pounds, when according to the New York census returns of 1864 the quantity of cheese made in the State that year for sale and exclusive of what was consumed in families of farmers amounted to seventy-two million one hundred and ninety-five thou- sand three hundred. and thirty-seven pounds. Cheese dairying in New York since 1864 has been largely increased. From the incomplete returns published in the report of the American Dairymen's Association for 1870, we find eight hundred and twenty-five factories given, and if each averaged three hundred cows they would make a total of two hundred and forty-seven thousand cows. If we estimate four hundred pounds of cheese to the cow as the average product, the gross make of cheese at these factories would amount to ninety-eight million eight hundred thousand pounds. In view of all the facts in my possession, I feel warranted in placing the butter product of the United States and Territories during 1870 at more than six hundred million pounds, and the cheese product at two hundred and forty million pounds. The table, on next page, given by Dr. LooMis in the Patent Office report of 1861, will be of interest, as showing THE PER CBNTAGB OF MILK CONSUMPTION, PREVIOUS TO 1861, IN THIRTEEN STATES. "It is worthy of nQtiee," he says, "that but five States, viz., New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New York, use over three per cent, of their milk for cheese, and that all south of Pennsylvania use less than one per cent. Rhode Island, Massachusetts and Maryland produce the least in proportion to their population ; Vermont, New Hamp- shire, New York and Wisconsin produce the most in proportion to their population. Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York and Maryland, consume the least in proportion to their population. Virginia consumes as food nearly seventy per cent, of the entire milk product of that State ; Rhode Island over sixty per cent., and Maryland, Delaware, Massa- 22 Practical Dairy Husbandry. chusetts and Wisconsin over fifty per cent, of the product of the States severally. New York and Vermont manufacture into butter nearly two- thirds of their entire milk product. But one State, Virgiiiia, uses less than one-third of its milk in the manufacture of butter. Rhode Island uses the largest per centage in the manufacture of cheese ; New York the largest per oentage in butter ; and Virginia the largest per centage as food. Virginia uses the smallest per centage in butter and cheese, and Vermont the least per centage as food. This table shows the per centage of Milk consumed sis food, and manufactured into Butter and Cheese. Also, the average produce in quarts to each peiSon, and the average amount each consumed : States. COHSmtBD. Pee CjiiNT. ButtEe. Pee Cekt. Manupao- tuebd Cheese. Pee Cent. Ayebagie PEODnOE TO Each Peesom. QUAETS. Average Consumed BY Each Peesqn. QUAETS. Maine .43 .44 .36 .53 .61 .35 .37 .46. .44 .56— .57— .50 .68-1- .55 .50 .63 .40 .37 .56 .64 .53 .55-1- .44r- .43- .48 .31-1- .03 .06 .11 .08 .03 .09 .09 .01 .01— .01— .01— .02 .01— 433 534 980 311 303 887 530 417 373 363 347 463 873 177 New Hampshire 230 Vermont 355 Massachusetts 110 Rhode Island 124 135 140 192 163 203 Maryland , 141 Wisconsin 233 Virginia 254 " The average amount consumed daily by each individual, taking the whole thirteen States, is one pint. The greatest average daily consumed by each person is 1.6 pint in Vermont and Virginia. The least average daily consumed by each person is 0.6 of a pint in Massachusetts. Dr. LooMis gives the following tablej showing the quantity of Milk received in the citv of New York, at the depots of the Erie, Harlem and Long Island Railroad compa- nies, for the year ending June 30, 1861 : ' Months. HAEI.EM B. B. QXJAETS. EeieE. E. QnAETS. Long Island E, E. QUABTS. Total. Quarts. July August September. October . . . November. December . January... February. . March April May June 2,816,720 3,657,150 3,399,410 3,330,610 3,057,570 2,068,330 3,061,730 1,853,080 3,169,590 2,203,010 3,436,800 3.463,090 3,743,750 2,636,880 3,225,800 1,959,740 1,715,128 1,564,670 1,547,630 1,474,150 1,788,910 1.044,770 3,830,670 2,493,510 283,530 286,250 365,190 369,890 ^67,890 262,660 260,010 366,740 375,840 286,180 801,900 801,650 Total. 37,507,080 34,414,608 3,336,730 5,843,000 5,580,280 4,890,400 4,550,240 4,040,588 3,895,650 3,869,370 3,593,970 4,234,340 4,433,960 5,059,370 5,367,350 55,348,418 In 1861 thirty thousand six hundred and ninety-four cow's were required Practical Dairy Husbandry. 23 to supply the milk transported to New York city on the Harlem, Erie and Long Island Railroads. The average annual cost of transport was five hundred and fifty-two thousand four hundred and eighty-four dollars, and the cost of milk as received for transportation was one million one hundred and four thousand nine hundred and sixty-eight dollars annually. We have no statistics at hand to show the quantity of milk used in New York city for the year 18t0, but the quantity and its cost must be very much greater than in 1861. VALUE OP THE MILK CROP IN 1860. Dr. Looms says : — " The value of the milk crop may be very fairly estimated from the value of milk used in the manufacture of butter. Fifty- four per cent, of the entire crop in the thirteen States before named is made into butter ; hence, the value of butter forms a very correct basis for ascer- taining the true value of milk. In the following table the prices of milk given for each State has been derived by taking the average prices given for the cost value of butter at the places where it is made, and extended over a period of twelve years. The localities were selected from various sections of each State. This method was pursued with all the States except Wisconsin, which extended over a period of only three years. He adds : — " I am aware that these values, with the exception of Dela- ware, fall below the generally estimated value of milk, yet I am confident that if there is any variation from the true value, it is that I have over-esti- mated them." The value of milk in the United States in 1860, or before the war, he thought would average less than one cent and five mills per quart. He says : — " The following ;table is a correct statement of the value of milk per quart ; the total value of the crop ; together with the value of the amount consumed in each of the named States : States. Pbice peb Qcabt Cbhts. Vaxue Consumed. ToTAii Value. Maine New Hampshire. Vermont Massachusetts. . . Bhode Island. . . . Connecticut New York Pennsylvania. . . . New jersey Delaware Maryland Wisconsin Virginia 1.36 1.44 1.38 1.68 1.64 1.60 1.86 1.28 1.76 2.00 1.20 1.48 1.12 Total. $1,523,377 96 1,080,753 52 1,040,488 41 2,277,334 52 353,753 46 1,017,375 82 7,385,216 72 7,089,005 12 1,933,688 29 455,377 40 1,155,437 83 2,578,368 89 4,542,284 53 $32,432,361 47 $3,606,246 73 2,459,289 60 3,955,921 92 4,369,438 08 518,544 00 2,847,657 60 27,506,291 04 15,518,523 88 4,396,754 24 813,420 00 2,040,400 80 5,160,053 44 6,665,440 32 $79.857,980 64 With the above tables as a basis, it was estimated that the entire milk 24 Practical Dairy Husbandry. crop of the United States for the year 1860, exceeded $160,000,000, or as follows : Amount consumed as food, $90,000,000 Amount manufactured into butter, 65,000,000 Amount manufactured into clieese, 5,000,000 Total $160,000,000 The additional value produced by the manufacture and transportation of butter and cheese he estimates will make the value of the crop for the year 1860, exceed $200,000,000. The estimate is made on the value of milk at 1.48 cent per quart. At two cents per quart the value of the dairy would be upwards of 260,000,000. MILK PRODUCT OF 1870. Now if wev proceed upon the above basis in estimating the entire milk crop of 1 870, taking its increase of quantity and advanced prices, we shall have the following. Milk consumed as food, say 40 per cent, of whole product, at 2 cents per quart $170,400,000 600,000,000 pounds of butter, at 30 cents 180,000,000 240,000,000 pounds of cheese, at 12 cents, 28,800,000 Total $379,200,000 This is below the estimate made by Commissioner Wells in his Report upon the " Industry, Trade and Commerce of the United States," for the year 1869. He puts the value of dairy products of the .United States at $400,000,000 per annum. It will be seen, then, that the diary has become an important branch of National Industry. DAIRY FARMS AND FIXTURES. In Dairy Farming the first thing, naturally, to be considered is the farm. Reference has been made to the importance of a suitable climate as one of the requisites to success. Experience and experiment must of course deter- mine what our several localities are best adapted to ; but it is certain that much of the land in this Northern belt is well adapted for making butter and cheese. Its climate is comparatively cool, and that is a matter of great mo- ment in securing dairy products of fine flavor and quality. With its showers and dews, pure water and fresh sweet feed, it answers the description of a good dairy country, which the warmer and drier Southern and Western lati- tudes do not. I am satisfied there is no branch of farming in this Northern belt that will sufier less from outside competition than dairying, and hence, where locality favors it nothing in the long run will pay better. PERMANENT PASTURES. But climate may be favorable and locality unfavorable for the dairy. We must consider whether the lands are naturally adapted to grass, or that pas- tures at least may be made enduring, and that the farm is well provided with an abundance of pure water. These two points are very essential to success. I refer to pastures, in dis- tinction from meadows, because a rotation of crops may be adopted on arable land, so that sufiicient hay may be produced, where the natural condition of the soil would not continue to be productive of grass from year to year, during long periods. But pastures should be of a character to be made enduring, for a variety of reasons which I shall presently notice. SIZE OF HEEDS. The question is often asked, how large a number of cows can be kept profitably in one herd ? or, rather, what is the limit to the number that will yield the best average returns as a dairy ? I have taken some pains to get the opinion of practical dairymen, both in this country and in Europe,. on this question ; and it seems to be the universal expression of those who have given the matter attention, that, in their experience, sixty cows are about the limit, or maximum number. If we take pains to look up the largest average yield of dairies in the country, we shall find, almost invariably, that they are among the small herds numbering from twenty to forty cows. 26 Practical Dairy 'Husbandry. Very large herds become unwieldy. They are more subject to disease, and a larger number of accidents in proportion, than smaller herds. In driving to and fro in the pasture, there is more excitement or worry, which operates to lessen the average quantity of milk. There is also a greater proportion of farrow, or abortive stock in such herds, hence in New York, dairymen who have large farms, prefer to divide them up, making their dairies number from thirty to fifty cows each. DIVIDING HERDS. I found this condition of things prevailing in the dairy districts of Eng- land and Scotland, and I therefore conclude that herds having a larger num- ber than sixty cows are not to be genei-ally recommended. If it is desired, however, to keep a larger number, I should advise that the cows be pastured in separate herds of say thirty each, and that they be milked and wintered in separate stables, allowing no communication among the several branches. In some instances, I have seen dairies of a hundred cows, divided up into two herds of fifty each, and good results were obtained. The herds were milked and wintered in one barn, but in stables opposite or adjoining each other, and so arranged that the cows of the difierent herds could have no communication with each other whatever. This fact in relation to the size of herds it is important to understand ; since large losses have been made by persons who have tried the herding of a large number of animals together for dairy purposes. FENCING. There is another point of considerable economy in the management of dairy farms, often overlooked even by old and experienced dairymen, and this is in regard to fences. In New York it is daily becoming a problem of increasing interest where we are to obtain our fences. All sorts of hedges are recommended, but who has ever seen a good one in New England orJNew York ! — one that will stand the test of every day practical utility in turning stock ? In England they are easily enough produced, and so are pastures. A humid atmosphere, frequent showers, frosts so light as not to injure grass in winter or even render it unfit for the sustenance of sheep ordinarily, even in mid-winter. Absence of our fervid heats of summer, and.during summer many more hours of daylight render any comparison between that country and our own in the way of growing hedges, of doubtful character. But few per- sons, I imagine, have even sat down to fairly estimate THE EXPENSE OP FENCING THE FAEMS OF A STATE. It has been vaguely estimated that $40,000,000 would not fence the farms of New York. But to fence one hundred aci-es of land with only four lots require nearly eight hundred rods of fence, which, at $1.50 per rod, would cost $1,200. Now deduct one-third of this for the fencing of the contiguous farms, and we have $800 per hundred acres for the cost of board fences. A town — after rejecting poor land — of say one hundred such farms, would cost Practical Dairy Husbandry. 27. $30,000, and a county of twenty such towns the enormous sum of at least $1,500,000. Multiply that by the number of counties in a State and see what an immense sum we arrive at. The corollory is a safe one that the fences of New York cost more than the Erie Canal or the Central Railroad. At least one-third of these fences are of no earthly use, but on the contrary, it can be proved, are a serious damage. Upon dairy farms, therefore where it is practicable, the farm should have but one line of inteiior fence. Immense sums are thrown away by the farm- ers of the country in USELESS SMALL ENCLOSURES. It is not necessary to go into the exact details of cost in erecting a substan- tial fence, dividing a farm into ten acre lots. This in the outset is a heavy outlay of capital and labor, but the burthen of repairing must be carried from year to year. Division lines between farms should always be marked with good substantial barriers. Where stone are plenty upon the farm, they are perhaps well employed in division or line fences, but it is hardly advisable to use them for interior barriers, especially such as may require to be removed from time to time. In early times when timber was plenty, and forests to be cleared, the expense of fencing a farm was of not so much account as now. Then a selection of timber could be made and a thousand rails split, with but a trifle more labor than a quarter that number from the cullings of the present wood lot of the farm. Timber among the early settlers was considered of very little value. Now it is costly, and the farmer .who has much fence to build must study economy in material as well as in labor, and even under the best management he finds the expense burthensome. The division of a dairy farm into numerous small enclosures, I regard as poor economy, and in many ways objectionable. The generality of fences upon American farms, to say the least, are unsightly. Besides the first expense and labor of keeping them in repair, they occupy too much land, and are a harbor for weeds and bushes, and briars ; all of which must be put down as serious objections. I know there are men who claim great advantages for small enclosures, and who regard five, eight, or ten acre lots as almost indispensable in their farming operations. I do not propose to argue points with them, but simply suggest that the cost of fencing Such enclosures for ten years be figured, and compared with the advantages claimed. In most instances, I think, the balance sheet will be a strong argument against the fences. Of course some small enclosures may be necessary, such as that for the vegetable garden, the orchard, &o. I do not object to these, but to the extending of them over the whole farm. Upon half the farms in the old States, it would pay the occupants to EMPLOY AN EXPEEIENCED BNGINBEE, to make a careful survey of the farm and establish the location of fences. Let the farmer make a plain statement of the character of farniing he is 28 Practical Dairy Husbandry. # about to follow, his actual necessities upon the farm, requiring of the fence engineer a reduction of the fences to the lowest possible point. I am very certain that the fences on most farms may be so arranged as to afford ample convenience, and yet be largely reduced as to length. The necessity of building strong and high fences along the road-side is not so imperative now as formerly. There is a law in many of the States against cattle running at large in the highways, which ought to be enacted in all the States and put in force in every neighborhood. THE LOG AND BAIL FENCES of the early settlers, have both had their day. Neither is to be recommended, except perhaps in heavily wooded regions, where timber is of little value. In old districts they must soon pass away, since timber is becoming scarce and land is too valuable to be wasted by this character of barrier. They are very objectionable in plowing, and even upon dairy farms when such a fence divides pasture and meadow, considerable more expense is required to do the mowing, as the machine cannot run into the corners, which must be trimmed by hand. Besides, as was remarked at the outset, they are a harbor for wee.ds and bushes, since they are more liable to be left uncut, than when the fences are straight, and there are no corners to prevent obstructions, as the work goes on. It should be remembered that we do not fence against the strength of cattle ; for if our animals were so inclined, they would break down nearly all the wooden fences which we build. What we seek in the construction of interior farm fences, is to l)uild a barrier that will appear formidable to cattle, of sufficient strength to resist ordinary storms of wind, and the occasional contact from cattle rubbing against it. It should be so high that cattle cannot reach over it, so compact that they cannot get their heads through it, and so near the ground that they cannot get under it. MOVEABLE PANELS. For surrounding patches of land that require breaking up and cultivating, and to be returned again to grass an effectual barrier can be erected at much less expense for labor and material than the heavy post and board fence commonly recommended. There are various forms of moveable panels, easily erected and taken down and removed from place to place, which are of great practical utility and economy upon dairy farms. Some of our New York dairy farmers find the picket fence the most formidable barrier to cattle, of all the kinds of wooden fence in use. A LIGHT FENCE of this description, and which has been found to be an ample protection against stock, for patches of grain, vegetables, &c., recommended by Mr. S. S. Whiteman of Herkimer, is constructed as follows : — The pickets are four feet long, two inches wide and five-eights of an inch thick. They are nailed three inches apart on the rails, or seventeen pickets to the rod. The rails are ten Practical Dairy Husbandry. 29 feet long, two inches wide and one and a half inches thick, three rails to a panel ; that is — a rail at top and bottom, and the third rail running diagonally between the other two in the form of a brace. In making these panels a frame or skeleton form is constructed arranged with wooden pins, so as to separate the various pieces the desired distance apart. The top and bottom rails are then dropped into their appropriate places, the pickets arranged between the pins, where they are rapidly nailed with five-penny nails. After the skeleton frame is once constructed, these panels may be speedily made. The pickets do not cover the ends of the rails, a space being left for lapping the panels together, when they are to be set up in the fence. The method of putting the fence up is to let the rails of one section overlap the rails of the other at the point where they are joined together ; the sections being supported at the right height from the ground by a stone or block. Then a stake about the size of a common hand spike, is driven down on each side of the lapping sections, and supporting block, and the top of the stakes fastened together with wire. These panels can be easily loaded on a wagon rack and removed from place to place as needed. DIGGING POST HOLES. Line fences and that separating the pasture and madow may be of a more permanent character. When posts are to be set, the holes can be dug expeditiously after the following method : — ^First, strike a line and mark off the distances between the posts, sticking small stakes about four inches from the line. Then make the center of the hole opposite the stakes. The digger stands faoeing the line of fence, making the hole the width of the spade at the line, and slanting towards him aa he digs, while all the other sides are perpendicular. This slant enables the digger to lower the handle of his spade and bring up a full spadeful, enabling him to do the work easily and expeditiously. BOARD FENCB. There are various ways of making board fence. When boards sixteen feet long are used, they may be six inches wide and one inch thick. The posts then should be set seven and a-half feet apart. Fasten the boards at each end with a seven inch spike and a two and a half inch slat, resting the boards on the spikes. The lap on each end of the boards should be six inches. At the middle post, as there is no lap, a six inch spike may be used. If the boards used are but thirteen feet long, they should be one and a-fourth inches thick, and the middle post may be omitted. By using slats, and allowing the boards to rest on spikes, rather than driving them through the boards, they are less liable to decay, while the panels may be easily removed as occasion may require. The question of ECOITOMT IN FENCING does not receive the attention which it deserves among farmers. The cost of fencing farms, and their repair year after year is enormous. It would be well if we could look forward to something more tasteful than thg rail 30 Pb ACTIO AL Dairy Husbandry. structures, which disfigure the country at every hand. We must get in the way of doing work in a more economical way. As we grow older as a nation, structures, whether they be in buildings or fences, must inevitably be improved. It would be better that we begin at once since much money would in the end be saved. CHANGE OP PASTURES. I have endeavored to show the importence of economy in the matter of fencing, and it may be well perhaps in this connection to name some of the practicle results of the plan recommended. The practice which obtains with some of dividing the pasturage into separate fields, and changing the herd every week or two from field to field is now generally disapproved of by our best dairymen. Cows confined to one field are more quiet and contented. They will usually go over in the course of the day every portion of the field, selecting their food, and when filled they lie down to rest, and manufacture grass into milk. All extra labor, excitement and gluttinous feeding from an over stimulated appetite lessens the quantity of milk. Everything about the " every day pasture " is familiar, and if food- is abundant, they have no thought beyond leisurely taking their meals, and reclining at ease on some favorite spot, ruminating or dozing over their " knitting work " as it has been aptly termed — no shadow of discontent clouding their peaceful and seemingly happy existance. But let a bite of grass in new fields be had and all this is changed. They over-feed, and in consequence their health is more or less deranged ; they tramp around in every nook and corner of the field in search of dainties — become restless and discontented, and not unfrequently some of the more active and enterprising members of the herd, try fences and make excursions into fields of grain and prohibited crops. I have seen herds with one or two unruly disposed members, though perfectly quiet and orderly while confined to one pasture, become so restless and discontented from a change to new fields, as to be exceedingly troublesome and cause serious losses. Thei'e are other reasons. The pastures will not be so uniformly cropped ; large portions will get a rank growth, be rejected by stock, and therefore afibrd less nutritious food through the season, than when used as one pasture. FEESH PASTURES PRODUCE SCOURS, Fresh pastures are more apt to produce scours, as is well known, deranging the appetite and health to a greater extent than when confined to one field. The argument generally used in favor of two pastures, is that the daily tramping of the cattle on the one pasture renders the food less fresh and palatable, and that the alternate pastures obviate this, giving time for grass to grow, thus producing more food and better results. The conclusion arrived at, is not true in fact. Stock when turned into a new pasture do not rest till they have roamed over and examined every part of it, and will tramp Practical Dairy Husbandry. 31 down, soil, and destroy more food than if the same land was in one pasture, thereby really affording or rendering available to the herd, a less amount oi nutritious food during the season. Cattle, it is true, like A CHANGE OF FOOD, but this change should exist in the varieties of grass in the same pasture, and not in different fields. Of course the aftermath and gleanings from grain fields are to be consumed by stock in fall, as deemed expedient, but the sum- mer pasture should be one field, as productive of more milk with less trouble, expense and loss. PASTURES SHOULD NOT BE OVEESTOCKED. Pastures, it is proper to say, should not be overstocked — the supply of food must be abundant, otherwise serious losses will be incurred. There is nothing gained by stocking clear up to, or a little beyond, the full capacity of the land, and trusting to an extraordinary good growing season to bring the animals through. Much milk will require a proportionate amount of food, and I have yet to see the cow miserly kept on scanty fare, that can turn that fare into a large dairy product* The rule should be, the largest quantity and best quality of dairy products per cow, and not the largest number of cows without thought or care as to the respective quantity or quality of milk from each. ^ DAIET BARNS. An important requisite in Dairy farming is to have a convenient barn. Indeed, of so much practical importance is this, that I must treat the subject at considerable length. A handy barn for a grain farm is a very different structure from what is needed on a dairy farm. Dairymen of experience affirm that a convenient dairy barn on a farm carrying fifty cows, will save an annual expense in labor of at least |200 over the structures in use twenty years ago, and, indeed, over those which are largely in use at the present day. THE MODERN DAIRY BARN began to be erected in the old dairy districts of New York about ten years ago, and it is a matter of surprise that a people who have been sixty years engaged in dairying as a specialty, should have neglected this branch of their art so long. The modern dairy barn is roomy, and arranged, if possible, so that one building or a structure under one roof, will meet all the wants of the farm. This is easily done, when a side hill and running water are convenient to the farm house. In such oases the stables for milking are those in which the cows are kept in winter. This arrangement saves the cost of a special building, or " milk barn " as it is termed. The stables should not only be well lighted, but arranged with wide drop doors at the sides, so that for summer use you can expose a skeleton or section of the frame, admitting into the stable a flood of light and pure air. 32 Practical Dairy Husbandry. itANUEE CELLARS. There has been great difference of opinion whether manure cellars under the stable are injurious or otherwise. Many barns in Central New York are constructed with the cellars under the stables, and in no instance where they have been properly ventilated, and absorbents used for taking up the liquid manure, have I heard of any bad effect on accoimt of the manures, &c. The stock is quite as healthy, and appears as thrifty at all seasons, as in barns without manure cellars. I have examined manure cellars under stables, at different seasons of the year. Some of them were badly ventilated, and were foul with gases emana- ting from the decomposing mass of excrement which had been dumped with- out absorbents. Such a condition of things must be a source of disease to stock and cannot be recommended. In others, where ventilation has been secured, and absorbents, such as muck, dry earth or sawdust freely used, the atmosphere was comparatively pure, and free from any disagreeable odor. Generally those who have manure cellars under their stables are pleased with them. They save a great deal of labor in the course of a year, and, with the precautions I have named as regards ventilation and absorbents, have not been found to be objectionable. A CONVENIENT DAIKT BAKN. I shall describe somewhat minutely what has been found to be a conven- ient dairy bam having capacity for fifty cows. It has a basement or manure cellar under the stables. The barn stands on the edge of a knoll or side hill, and is one hundred feet long by forty feet wide, and has a stone basement nine feet high. The bottom of this basement, which is used for manures, is paved with cobble stones, pounded down in the earth, and then cemented with water lime and sand, in the proportion of one part lime to nine parts sand. This forms a perfectly tight bottom and is the receptacle for all liquid and solid excrement from stock in the stables above. The basement is well lighted and ventilated, and teams can be driven through the central alley for removing manures. Muck and dry earth are hauled into the central alley, during odd spells in summer, to be used from time to time as absorbents, and when thus mingled with the liquid and solid excrement a large quantity of fertilizing material is made. THE STABLES are on the sides of the building, immediately above the basement, and are eleven feet wide back of the feed box, and the cows are fed from the central alley, which is fourteen feet wide. The cows stand four feet apart, or rather they occupy that space, and are fastened with double chains two feet long, attached to a ring sliding on a post. Between each cow there is a plank partition extending into the central alley, the width of the feed box, and back into the stable some two feet. This plan gives the cow more liberty and ease of position than stanchions, and some prefer these fastenings to stanchions on Practical Dairy Husbandry. 03 this account. Back of the cows and along the outside of the stables, the floor is raised some five inches higher than the drop where the cows stand, and there is an open space between the two floors where the manures are pushed into the cellar below. This it will be seen can.be done yery rapidly. (Some use a trap.) The stables are well lighted and ventilated. Above the cows are THE DRIVE FLOORS AND BAT& where the teams deposit the hay and fodder. The loads come in at one end and go out at the side on the other end, so that several teams can be in the barn and the work of loading and unloading go on at the same time,, and not interfere with each otherl On one side of the bam are the HORSE STABLES AND CARRIAGE HOUSE, communicating with the upper or drive floor,, and all arranged in the most perfect manner as to granai-y and the means of dropping hay for feeding horses and cattle. In the upper loft over the drive way, a flooring is arranged with open spaces, where a considerable quantity of corn in the stalk may be stored until such time as there is leisure for husking. The leading feature- of the barns now being buiit in the dairy region is to have the drive floors and bays above the stables. When the site is suitable some prefer to have the drive way near the peak or top of the barn. The hay may then be rolled Horn, the load on either side into the bays. In feeding, — the stables being below, — the fodder is thrown downwards, either through openings arranged in the bays, or in the central alley,, accord- ing to the manner in which the cows are placed in the stables. A portion of the basement is partitioned off for rowts, which at the time of harvesting are dumped' through a trap on the feed floor. Not far from the southern shores of Oneida Lake, and at the geograj)hical center of the State of New York, a peculiar religious sect, numbering about two hundred votaries, has established itself upon a few hundred acres of choice land. They do almost everything among themselves, and conduct a system of mechanical operations and high farming. They have men of science and education among them, and their workshops and farming operations are, in many respects, models of excellence. AN EXCELLENT DAIRT BARN, • A few years since, they sent their architects through the country to exam- ine all the best barns that could be found, and from a large number of plans they modeled and erected a dairy barn of the following description : — It is one hundred and thirty-five feet long by seventy feet broad, and has a hip roof. The structure is of wood', resting on a stone basement nine feet high. The basement is divided by walls into spaces for the manures, the root cellar, and bottom of the bays. There are three drive, ways or barn floors running 34 Practical Dairy Husbandry. across the building, with bays thirty feet square on either side of the central drive way, so that the teams can deliver their loads from the three floors. The stables run all around the outside, except in the spaces taken up by the drive way. The stables on the ends hold twenty cows each, and the four stables on the sides, between the floors, have nine stalls each, so that seventy- six animals can be housed at one time. Under the middle drive way is the root cellar, where roots are dumped by opening a trap door ; on the other floor are traps for dropping muck, or other absorbents into the manure cellar. The drive ways are fourteen feet wide, and the width of the stables sixteen feet, including the mangers, which are three feet. Back of the cows there is a manure sink two feet wide, and from this to the outside of the building is a space of flve feet. There are four VENTILATOES that run from top to bottom so as to give good ventilation. Saw-dust and im3AX)0"W BROOK FARM! DA-IBY BA.RN"-KLK-VA.TION. cut straw are used for bedding stock. Of the straw, about four hundred loads are used for the purpose during winter. The hay is cut into chaff, and at certain seasons, when cows are in milk, it is mingled with meal or bran before being fed. When bran is used the cows get each about four quarts per day. The root cellar holds about four thousand bushels, and the roots are fed during winter. It is the only barn I Bave seen arranged on this plan. The bays for hay extending into the basement seems to me to be objectionable. The arrangement for storing both hay and grain, and the feeding of stock, appear to be convenient. MEADOW BEOOK FARM DAIET BAEK. By the politeness of Mr. Geo. S. Bowen, of Chicago, HI., I am in re- ceipt of the accompanying cuts showing elevation and plan of Dairy Barn Pm ACTIO AL Dairy Husbandry. 35 IMVnSR FLOOR. erected in 1870 upon his Meadow Brook Farm, near Elgin 111,, the following description being taken from the Western Rural : " The barn is L-shaped, the main being 96x30, the wing 40x36 ; its hight from the ground to the ridge-pole is forty-two feet. The lower floor, as will be seen by the accompanying diagram, is devoted to stalls, milk-room, water-trough, root-cellar, etc. " Mr. B. has contrived to secure ample and ready ventilation — a point which is very often considered too lightly in the construction of buildings of this character. The stalls occupy portions of both the main part and the wing, and will ac- commodate sixty-three cattle, with single feed boxes for each, and long, hinged suppily lines immediately in front. There is a space of seven feet from the dron (or receptacle for the droppings) to the windows, which are large — their size admitting of increased ventilation during hot weather, and facilitating the re- moval of excremental matter. " A wind-mill pump is to be sup- plied to raise water into a reservoir so constructed as to fill the cooling vats in the milk-room, and to pro- vide water for the stock during stormy weather. " A protected flight of stairs leads from the lower to the upper floor, where there is a large room for storing farming utensils; a grain- bin, 36x20 ; two bays for hay, one 76x12 and the other 36x12. The entrance floors are seventy-six and thirty-six feet, respectively, and reached by bridges or causeways leading from the ground. There are eight large sliding double doors, all moving on rollers, and four hay slides to get whatever is needed to the lower floor. Successive flights of tIPFEB FLOOR. 36 Practical Dairy Husbandry. stairs communicate with a large cupola. The cost of this barn was three thousand six hundred dollars. There were used in its construction one hun- dred and ten thousand feet of lumber, fifty-five thousand shingles, and two thousand eight hundred pounds of nails." ■ ANOTHER STYLE OP BARN is used by those who have a prejudice against manure cellars. It is built with or without abasement. The cows stand in two rows opposite each other, with their heads facing the outside of the building, and the space in the center between the cows and the drop is wide enough for a drive way for hauling out the manures. The cows enter at the central dooi", and take their places on either side. Absorbents may be used for taking up the liquid manures, and every day, when tne stables are to be cleaned, it is piled upon a sled or wagon and taken directly to a field where it is to be used. HOW MANURES ARE MANAGED. Harris Lewis, Herkimer Co., E". Y., has been quite successful in managing the manures from his stock, from a barn of this description. He uses saw-dust for absorbing the liquid manures in his stables, at the rate of about sixty bushels per week for a stock of fifty cows. The liquid manure thus absorbed is hauled from day to day to a meadow lot containing twenty-five acres. It is spread as evenly as possible with a shovel or fork, and in the spring it is brushed, so as to be completely broken up and distributed in fine particles. By underdraining, and the use of this top dressing, he has been able to bring a piece of ground containing twenty-five acres, originally of only ordinary fertility, to a condition in which the annual yield of hay is suiEcient for the winter keep of fifty cows. THE CONVENIENCE OP MANURE CELLARS. Buildings of this kind, however, are much less convenient than those pro- vided with manure cellars, as there are many days in winter when it is stormy, and inconvenient and difficult to haul manure from the stables. Besides, if they. are to be applied upon grounds that are somewhat descending, a consid- erable portion of the manure is liable to be washed away as the snow goes off in the spring. With the cellar, on the contrary, advantage can be taken of the time in applying manures, and practically they are found to be productive of the best results. BARNS FOR CUTTING AND STEAMING FODDER. I have yet another barn to describe, adapted to a level surface, and where the straw from considerable quantities of grain is to be cut and steamed for cattle food. This bam was erected for Mr. Tei^esdale, an extensive dairy farmer in "Wisconsin, who spared no expense in obtaining the best models and architects, and who is said to have the most perfect dairy barn in that State. I visited this establishment in 1869, and give a sketch of it from my notes : The barn is an immense structure, being in outline the form of a T. The Practical Dairy Husbandry, zl top of the T is one hundred and twelve feet long by forty feet wide, with twenty-two feet posts. The whole stands upon a heavy wall, which forms a cellar under the building for manures. The part representing the top of the T is used for threshing, shelling corn, grinding the grain and cutting the fod- der. Immediately to the right, but separated only by a short platform, is another building in which all the fodder is cooked by steam. The cattle stand in the body of the T, in two long stables at the sides, with their heads facing each other, the central alley being sixteen feet wide. The stables are nine feet wide, and the platforni on which the cows stand is four feet nine inches to the stanchions, leaving a ditch one foot wide and a space of three feet back of the ditch to the sides of the building. The stanchions are three feet three inches apart from center to center, and the platform on which the cows stand is raised so as to give a drop of nine inches. Of this drop a space of five inches is left open, through which the manure is pushed to the cellar below. The stables will accommodate one hundred and forty cows — seventy animals on a side. The second story (above the cows) is used for oats, grain unthreshed, and hay, the hay being stored in the lower end, in a section by itself, for spring use. THE THRESHING is done as the straw and grain are needed for the stock. The threshing machine and straw cutter are in the second story of the top of the T. The grain in bundles or loose, is thrown on a car, which runs on rails through the different sections over tlie cows, and a load is drawn up to the machine by a simple arrangement operated by power from the engine. The various machines are then set in motion, and as the straw is threshed it passes to the straw cutter, and falls chopped in pieces, to a large bin below. The chaff is blown out of the grain and falls into the same bin, while the grain passes on and falls into a fan mill below, where it is cleaned, and goes into a bin. Everything is arranged so conveniently, that but little labor or time is em- ployed to do this part of the work, from time to time as needed. PBEPAEING THE FEED. The corn sheller and mill for grinding the gr^in are below with the grain bins opposite] Oats and corn are mirlgled together in the proportion of two-thirds of the former to one-third of the latter, when it is carried by machinery above, falls into the* hopper, and is ground and passed to its appropriate bin. There are two steam boxes sixteen feet long, five feet wide and five feet deep. They stand upon cars, with a track leading through the central alley of the stable to the steaming room. These cars are run up to the straw and meal bias, and the boxes filled. First the straw is filled into the steam box a foot deep, then one bushel of the mixture of oats and corn meal is sprinkled on, and so alter- nately with straw and meal until the box is filled, which gives four bushels of meal to the box. Then the boxes are run into the steam room and the con- tents wet down by pumping water through a hose. . 38 Practical Dairy Husbandry. At the bottom of the boxes are perforated iron pipes running three times lengthwise across the bottom, and arranged at one end so as to be locked on to the steam pipes connected with the engine. The cover is then fitted to the box, and the steam let on. In about half an hour the contents of the box are broken down and cooked. FEEDING THE COWS. The food steamed in the morning is thrown out into the car and left to cool till evening, when it is just pleasantly warm to the hand, and is ready' for feeding. The night's steaming is treated in the same way for the morning feed. The cars are run along the central alley, between the heads of the cows, and each animal receives her share in the manger before her. The two boxes of steamed food are sufficient for one feed of one hundred and forty head of cattle. It will be seen, therefore, that in addition to the straw, the one hundred and forty head get sixteen bushels of meal, or about three and one-half quarts of meal each per day. The cows are very fond of their rations, and under this treatment were looking sleek and in good condition. GAIN BY STEAMING FOOD. Mr. Truesdale's estimate shows about twenty-five per cent gain in cost of feed over the ordinary method where hay is used, to say nothing of the im- portant saving made in converting his straw into available manures. The stock is wintered in this manner, and when the cows begin to come in milk, he commences feeding hay. The stables, I should have remarked, are well lighted, and ample provision is made for ventilation, so that the cows have really a luxurious abode in their winter quarters. THE MANTJBE CELLAR is immediately under the cow stables, and is well lighted and ventilated. In the fall of the year, or during summer when work is not pressing, muck, which has been thrown out of the ditches and dried, is carted into the cellar and piled in the central alley as an absorbent. From five hundred to eight hundred loads of muck are thus stored annually. The liquid and solid excre- ment from the cows goes down into the cellar through the opening in the stable floor as I have described, and every day or two the muck from the central alley is thrown upon the dung until all moisture is absorbed. HOW THE MANURE IS USED. Mr. Truesdale's system here is, without doubt, a good one, and the large quantities of manure annually made, must in a few years give ample returns upon the farm. A portion of this manure is used for top-dressing meadows and newly seeded lands, in the fall, at the rate of about twenty loads to the acre, evenly spread and brushed down fine, and about fifty acres are annually treated in this way. Under this arrangement of barns and machinery, two men will take care of one hundred and forty head of cattle, steaming the food, cleaning the Pbactical Dairy Hussandby. 39 stables, and doing all the work necessary for the care and comfort of the ani- mals. There are two open yards, one on each side of the ham, where the cows from each stable are provided with water, which is pumped from a never- failing well. These yards are partly planked, and are to be wholly planked the coming year. BAEN WITH POUR BOWS OP STABLES. An Ohio correspondent of the Rural New-Yorker sends the following description of a Dairy Barn : Its distinguishing charaeteristics are a free use of tram-ways, and a separ- ate building for the factory operations incident to feeding a large drove of cattle, and for the storage of grain and feed. The size of the main barn is 96 by 56 feet ; of factory, 24 by 20. The barn will hold one hundred and twenty cattle, and hogs ad libitum. The basement story, or hog and manure cellar, is not shown in the elevation. It is divided into pens for hogs, on either side of a central alley. The base- ment story of factory contains the steam engine and a continuation of the tram-way which passes through the hog cellar. The second floor of the barn contains the cattle stables, arranged for four rows of cattle, each double row facing a feeding alley in which there is a tram-way for the easy conveyance of the cooked food. The second story of the factory is for the grist mill, cider mill, saw frame, or any other machinery it is desired to use. A belt also runs to a separate shaft in the main barn, for turning the hay cutter, threshing machine and corn sheller. The third story of the barn contains the barn floor, with large bays on either side. Also a room for cutting hay and a bin for the cut feed. A tram- way and hay car are provided for the easy handling of the hay and fodder used. The corresponding story of the factory is for the reception of grain, and of meal from the grist mill below. The necessary spouts and elevators are pro- vided, as common in grist mills. In the fourth story of factory is stored the bran or mill feed. On a level with the purline plates Is laid another floor for corn in the ear. This floor is also provided with tram-way and car. The stables are provided with manure traps, one foot by twelve, running the whole length of the stalls, and hung upon hinges. These render the cleaning of the stalls an easy task. If more accommodations are required, the length of the barn might be increased. Qne correspondent says : — I believe in this barn, three men might take care of one hundred and twenty cattle and five hundred hogs, including the running of the engine and the machinery. As to cost, no estimate can be made, since lumber and stone or brick vary so much in price in different localities. Where both are abundant, the cost would not exceed four thousand dollars. The accompanying plans will, perhaps, the better enable the reader to comprehend the arrangement of the barn. In Fig. 1 is shown the plan of the stables on the second floor, S, S, S, S, 40 Practical Dairy Husbandry. stalls for eattle ; M, M, M, M, mangers ; A, A, alleys in front of cattle ; Mt, Mt, Mt, manure traps ; t, t, tramways ; St, switch track between alleys ; machinery room is shown at end of elevation. Fig. 2, S, steam engine. t, tramway; B, steam hox. Practical Dairy Husbandry. 41 Fig. 3 shows a sectional view of barn and factory. A, first story; B, second story ; C, third story of barn ; D, D, hay bays ; E, corn loft ; e, e, (dotted line) ground level ; a, first, 6, second, c, third, and d, fourth stories of factory. PEACTICAL BEARING OF MANURE CELLARS. I have given some of the leading features esteemed requisite in the con- laiiiiiiiiiiiiiii "ilillllilllliaw. lli lilillllllilillliliiiMiiiiiiilliliilliliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliii 5 ^P A iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii m Fia. 1 —■Second Floob op Stock Baen. "i jsaaiaiiiia] Hi 5 J T) " Fio. 3.— Seotional View or Babn and Faotoky. Fio. 2.— Enoihe Room. struction of a convenient dairy barn. Of course the size of building and in- ternal arrangements may be modified to suit the wants of particular cases ; but I regard the manure cellars underneath the stable of great practical utility, I have seen such rapid and large improvement in dairy lands from its adoption, 42 Practical Dairy Husbandry. that it has commended itself strongly to favor. I know of farms that were quite ordinary a few years ago that are now made to carry an extraordinarily large stock, and I have repeatedly asked the occupants in what manner they have been enabled to produce crops sufficient to supply food for an extra number of cows upon the farm (sometimes double the number that are kept on adjoining farms of the same size,) and the reply has been that the result was accomplished through the manure cellar. Before the manure cellar was inaugurated they say : — " Do the best we could, much of the manure went to waste. The quantity at most was small compared with what is at present turned off, and yet the labor expended under the old system was vastly greater than now. I do not say but there are other methods for producing the same results, but they cost more, are less convenient, and from the liability of neg- lect are not so likely to prove successful. THE DAIET HOUSE. The question is often asked whether under our factory system a dairy house is required on the farm. I should advise such a structure, though it need not be so expensive and elaborate as is sometimes seen under the old system of family dairying. The building should be arranged and fitted up for both butter and cheese manufacture. The reason for the erection of such a structure even in cases where the mUk is to be carried to a factory will, from a moment's reflection, be obvious. In the first place, the factories open and close operations at stated periods, and during the time they are -not working considerable quantities of milk must be cared for and utilized at the farm. With no provision for the care and manufacture of such milk, the annual loss from waste will soon amount to more than the cost of building and fixtures, to say nothing of the worry and trouble in trying to utilize the milk without any conveniences. Again, occasions occur when it is desirable to make up the milk on the farm to secure the butter or cheese for family use. Possibly, from time to time some accident may happen which would exclude a batch of milk from the factory, and in such cases it may often be worked up on the farm without material loss. Cases not unfrequently occur where a factory is badly managed, where the cheese or butter maker is incompetent, and while such a condition of things remains, or during the time it may take to make a change of manu- taoturers, it will be desirable to hold the milk at the farm. There are a variety of circumstances constantly occurring in neighborhoods where fac- tories exist which make the necessity for a dairy house imperative, if the dairymen would avoid losses, and I therefore think it economy to provide such structures, and I hold that they belong to good dairy management. WHAT IS A PEOPBE DAIRY HOUSE, and how should it be located ? For convenience it should be situated near the milking stables, but out of the way of odors and gases arising from the decomposition of manures, since milk absorbs these with great facility, result- Practical Daibt Husbandry. 43 ing iti injury to the product. Where side-hills are convenient to the other buildings they afford advantageous situations for placing the dairy house. In such cases the lower story of the house, if built of stone, will help to secure a low and even temperature for the milk room. A building twenty-five feet by thirty feet, a story and a half high, would be ample for a dairy of forty cows. The lower part should be divided into two departments, one for butter manufacture and the other for cheese. The two departments should be ar- ranged so as to afford easy communication, the one with the other. If COLD SPRING WATBE can be conducted into the house the butter department should be arranged with water tanks sunk into the earth to hold water twenty inches deep. The tanks may be made of wood, but are better if of stone, well cemented. Pipes leading from the tank or tanks through the wall on the lower side of the building will conduct off surplus water. These tanks are for holding the cans of milk for obtaining cream and will be more fully described hereafter under the head of butter manufacture. There should also be A SMALL BUTTEE CELLAR connected with this department by partitioning off a part of the room next the bank or hillside. The milk room should have windows at the upper part or near the ceiling protected with gauze wire, so as to be used for ventilation. The floor of THE CHEESE MAKING EOOM may be a step higher than the butter room, and should be provided with self- heating vat for cheese making, press, hoops, and curd knife. The story above should be in one room, and is to be employed for curing cheese. There should be a large ventilator in the center, rising above the roof of the build- ing and extending through the ceiling of the Curing room provided with a wicket by which the draught may be regulated or shut off as desired. About the sides of the room, and even with the floor there should be openings nine inches by twelve, arranged with wickets, so that air may be admitted in large or small quantities, or closed off, as needed. With the small ventilators at the sides and the large ventilator in the center THE CUEING EOOM may be kept free from impurities and noxious gases, while the temperature to some extent may be controlled in warm weather. The curing room should be well lighted, as light operates benefloially in securing a fine flavor to the cheese. When the dairy house is to be located on a level surface, and stone is ex- pensive or not convenient, the building may be wholly of wood, the bottom room having double walls, and if possible should be shaded by trees. Instead of tanks set in the ground the room may be provided with the jenning's pans. The pans consist of large shallow tin vats, set in wooden vats, with spaces 44 - Practical Daisy Husbandbt. between for water. The pans are of various sizes and one pan is designed to hold the entire mess of milk of the dairy at one milking. The water may be con- veyed to the pans either by pipes leading from the penstock, or it may be PHA C 'IICAL DaIB T 'HUSBANDR T. 45 drawn from the well. I have not proposed here to enter into minute descrip- tions of dairy house and apparatus, as these more properly belong to the topics in which butter and cheese manufacture are considered. But I have given some of the leading features required in the construction of these establishments, from which a general idea may be had. DESCEIPTION AND PLAN OF A FAKM DAIET HOUSE. I In the plan of farm dairy house here presented, economy, simplicity and convenience have been studied, together w;ith the means of regulating tem- perature in the cheese-curing room to some extent by the use of wickets and ventilators. The design is for farms where cheese dairying is conducted as a specialty and where from twenty-five to thirty-five cows are kept. PIAZZA 3 MILK ROOM 12X11, STOREROOM loxia INOOD ROOM lSX24t W w c w "1 1 ro 1 i^ 1 ro 1 '^ 5 CURING ROOM 2l!y(30 "J J L" TABLE U A w r ^w i^^nB BASEMENT, OR FIRST PLOOR. SECOND FLOOR. A building twenty-four feet by thirty feet, story and arhalf high, will be large enough for an ordinary sized daii-y — say of the number of cows above- named. Light is to be admitted only on the north and south sides, as less liable to let rays of the sun fall on the cheese. The lower part is divided into rooms for making cheese, twelve by fourteen feet ; store-room, ten by twelve feet ; the balance, wood house,, eighteen by twenty-four feet. If desired, a portion of this latter room may be partitioned off, or nearly the whole of it converted into a place for setting milk for butter during spring and fall. A piazza runs along the sides of the store room and room for making cheese, rendering these parts cooler in summer, and affording a convenient place for drying aud sunning utensils. The upper part of building, the cheese-curing room, twienty-four by thirty feet, eight feet high, studded, and lathed and plastered. A ventilator runs from ceilins; in center of room above the roof, termi- 46 Practical Dairy Hvsbandrt. nating in usual form with arrangements at ceiling for closing draft entirely, or conducting larger or smaller quantities of air as desired. Air is admitted under the roof (where it joins the sides of the building) into the garret, so that by opening slides inside the ventilator above the ceiling, a current of air may be maintained in the garret part. Openings, with wickets, are placed at the bottom of the room, and along and through the sides of the building, to the open air — three or more on a side. These openings are ten inches by twenty inches ; the wickets close tight or admit more or less air as desired at pleasure. An ice reservoir or refrigerator on rollers can be set in the room in which ice may be exposed if neccessary, in extremely hot weather. A good coal stove, tables with hemlock bed-piece, for holding the cheese, thermometer and platform scales. These are the general features of the dairy house suggested. The whole wiU be readily understood by the cuts : — O, O, openings with wickets ; C, chimney ; E, elevator ; D, door for delivering cheese ; A, alleys ; W, windows ; V, vat and heater for making cheese ; P, cheese press ; E, ele- vator for elevating cheese ; S, stairs ; P, cistern pump. AX ABUNDANCE OF GOOD WATEE. In regard to water I start with the broad proposition universally recog- nized by dairymen of long experience, both in this country and in Europe that dairying cannot be successfully conducted without an abundance of good water to meet the daily wants of stock. Stagnant water, the water from sloughs, mingled as it often is with a considerable per centage of vegetable matter, even though it be abundant and easy of access, has an unfavorable influence on the flavor of " dairy goods," and of itself precludes the dairy- man from reaching the highest standard in his product. I have no space now to discuss the physiological side of this question, but I state a fact abundantly proved in practical experience. There is great difference of opinion among people who are not experts as to WHAT CONSTITUTES GOOD BUTTER AND GOOD CHEESE. Persons whose tastes have been educated by long use of an inferior product do not readily appreciate the imperfections existing in second class goods. The great markets of the world are demanding better grades of food than they did twenty or even ten years ago, and in no class of food is this more observ- able than in dairy products. It is only the best article that really pays or is made remunerative to the producer for a series of years. We must look then to some of THE LEADING REQUISITES TO SUCCESS. To the dairyman an abundance of pure water, of easy access to stock, will be found important. Many suppose that if there be water located on one part of the farm, the other parts being dry, that will suflSce for all practical pur- poses in supplying the needs of dairy stock. This is a mistake, especially Practical Datby Husbandrt. 47 where large herds are to be kept. Cows should at no time be compelled to travel long distances to slake their thirst, since the greater exertion and labor imposed must in proportion affect the quantity as well as the quality of their milk. Instances have repeatedly come under my observation where springs have failed and cows, in consequence, subjected to travel over a considerable distance to gcit water. The milk not only fell off rapidly in quantity, but in several ways depreciated in quality, especially in hot weather, showing a ten- dency to quick decomposition, and giving an inferior product when worked into cheese. "Water should be so conveniently situated in pastures that stock will require no extra or special travel to obtain it, and it should be situated at such points in the field that stock feeding over the grpund naturally go toward it, so that when a supply of food has been taken, the animals may slake their thirst, lie down and quietly convert their food into milk. MILCH STOCK AVERSE TO EXEBCISB. For it must be observed that milch stock are averse to any large amount of exercise, and do not ordinarily care to take more than is necessary in sup- plying themselves with food. Give them plenty of food and an easy access to water and they quickly fill themselves and spend most of their time at rest. When water is situated in out of the way places on the farm, cows will often gO' thirsty for a considerable portion of the day rather than make a special journey to obtain it. This has been observed by all practical farmers, and yet it is curious that many who are conversant with the fact neglect to take proper advantage of this peculiarity in the habits of the animal. It is an important object with the dairyman who desires the highest success, to promote as far as may be (without resorting to artificial means,) the taking of an abundant quantity of water by his herd. Milk cannot be made without water, and when it is secreted largely, a large amount of water is absolutely required. WATER IN MILK. Milk of an average good quality contains in one hundred parts from eighty-five to eighty-seven parts of water. Is it not surprising that any one would suppose that a material like this could be of excellent quality when the dilution is made up from pools of stagnant or putrid water, which would be shunned by every intelligent mind as the very hot-beds of disease ? And yet we often compel our animals to drink this character of water and expect them to manufacture from it a pure, healthy milk. The subject demands attention everywhere. Where there are an abundance of streams and springs of living water they only require to be properly utilized, but where they fail the diflS- culty can be obviated in the application of wind-power for raising water from wells. "WIND-POWBE FOE PUMPING WATER. The modern windmill is a very different affair from the old cumbersome and expensive power, which needed constant attention to make it serviceable. 48 Practical Dairy Husbandry, The modern ■windmill regulates its own sails according to the force of the wind. It is started or stopped with the greatest ease ; it is easily erected and is not expensive, and therefore comes within the reach of any ordinary farmer. Where pure water then may be had from weUs, there can be no excuse for sub- jecting the herd to the bad influences I have enumerated, and I am convinced that one of the troubles complained of in the flavor of cheese is caused by bad water, and the sooner dairy farmers look this thing fairly in the face and set about correcting the evil, the sooner will they be on the right road to success. It should be understood that bad water must always be an insepar- able objection to the production of the nicer grades of butter and cheese. Where good clean running water cannot be had, I should advise the digging of wells and the use of wind-power for pumping water, at convenient points over the pasture lands. Then large tanks or troughs should be provided and arranged so that the surplus water may flow back into the well, as this course keeps the water in motion and obviates, in a measure, the necessity of extreme care and attention. SHADES IN PASTURES. There are those who advocate that shades in pastures are detrimental to milch cows ; or rather, that shade trees, by afibrding a comfortable place for cows to rest during hot weather, cause a decrease in their milk, and therefore they are objectionable, by holding out inducements to and fostering habits of laziness on the part of the cows. They reason that cows, to yield a large quantity of milk, will require a proportionate amount of food ; that the longer you can keep the cow feeding, the more grass she will store away to be manu- factured into milk. In hot weathei', they say, cows are not disposed to be industrious, but, lounge lazily under shade trees in the middle of the day, wast- ing valuable time and, what is of more consequence, neglecting to keep the milk-producing machinery in vigorous operation. If the pastures are deprived of shade, they say the cows will find it uncomfortable resting in the hot sun, will prefer to keep more upon their feet, and are therefore induced to spend most of their time in feeding. Some dairymen therefore cut down and destroy every vestige of shade in pastures, and are earnestly recommending, this sys- tem to the dairy public. I hear of some so eager in carrying out this princi- ple that pains are taken to go out among the herd from time to time during the day, starting the animals up from their resting places, and thus urging them to the consumption of more food. I do not approve of this system, nor do I believe that it has any advan- tages on the score of economy. It certainly cannpt commend itself for its humanity, since the system is a species of cruelty and a disregard for the comfort of creatures which, though dumb and devoid of reason, have the more claim to our kind care and protection. THE FOECING SYSTEM. It is undoubtedly true that the quantity of milk can be increased under a PsACTicAL Dairy Husbandry. 49 forcing system of feeding if certain circumstances and conditions are ob- served. And, first among these conditions is quietness and freedom from anything like labor or extra exertion on the part of the cow. A certain amount of exercise may be needed for health, but all exercise produces a ■waste of the animal structure which must be repaired by food. The first office of food is to support respiration and repair the natui'al waste of the body, and if the. waste is excessive, by reason of excessive labor, the food will go first to supply this waste and after that for the production of milk. Hence, those who study to get large results from milch cows are careful to KEEP THE ANIMALS AS QUIET AS POSSIBLE, avoiding excessive travel or labor, taking care that there be no disturbing causes for excitement, such as fear, anxiety, or solicitude, for these waste food, and check the secretion of milk to a much larger extent than most people imagine. The principle is true, whether acknowledged or not, t^at the more comfortable we make our milk stock the better will be the results. If during the heat of the day cattle seek shade and lie down to rest, their quietness, com- fort and enjoyment will add more to the milk-pail than food taken in discom- fort and excessive exercise. We are presuming, of course, that the animals are placed in pastures that afibrd an abundance of food, and pastures should never be overstocked. In good pastures IT IS NOT NECESSAET THAT COWS SHOULD BE CONSTANTLY FEEDING, for we can see from the peculiar structure of their stomachs, that nature in- tended a considerable portion of time to be spent at rest, that the process of rumination and digestion be perfected. The first stomach seems to be simply a receptacle for storing up a quantity of food to be used and enjoyed at leisure. The food as it goes into the first stomach is very imperfectly masticated. After having filled this receptacle the animal rests from her labors and is now prepared to enjoy her food, which is thrown back in small quantities into the mouth, where it is chewed, and then goes into the third and fourth stomachs to be properly assimilated and digested. Hence rest is required ; and to de- prive the animal of a comfortable resting-place or to drive her out in the hot sun while in the act of rumination or masticating her food is not only cruel but a piece of intolerable stupidity, THE ONLY REAL AEGUMENT AGAINST SHADE TREES in pastures is, that the animals collect there and deposit manure where it is not needed. The proper way to avoid this is to erect temporary shades, and they can be removed from time to time to different parts of the field and thus be made of double service — affording comfort to cattle and manuring the land. I have seen this plan adopted with the best results ; the temporary shades being placed on barren knolls and the poorest parts of the pastures, and these places were thus brought into a high state of fertility. I believe in shade 4 50 Practical Dairy Hvsbandrt. trees and shades in pastures, and am convinced from observation and expe- rience that the herds do better with them than without them. It is an inhuman practice to compel cattle to bear the intense rays of the sun during our hot summers. They need protection at such seasons, and if man finds shade at times not. only grateful but necessary, I cannot see why the same rule may not apply in some degree to our domestic animals. It is true they may not die from exposure to the sun's rays, but if the hot, panting beasts could speak we should learn that their health was not promoted by this exposure. MMAGEMENT OF GRASS LANDS. THE GEASS CEOP IS, without doubt, one of the most, if not the most important of any known to agriculture. It is the basis for all successful farming. It is the natural food of our most useful animals, and without grass we should soon have no stock, no manui-es, and scarcely any cultivated crop. The money value of the grass crop in the United States is immense. Lewis F. Allen, in his work on American cattle, estimates the number of neat cattle in the States and Terri- tories in 1867 at 28,145,240 head, and he puts their value at a thousand mil- lions of dollfirs. That is only one item which may be credited to grass ; for if we add the annual product of the ten millions of milch cows, together with the horses and the sheep and wool of the country, we shall begin to appreciate how much the nation owes to grass for its j)rosperity and wealth. Indeed, the enormous value of this crop is comparatively overlooked by political econo- mists in their calculations. Before going into an examination of its pecuniary value let us look for a moment at its value in the higher and more extensive relations it bears to the comforts not only, but existence of the human race. " All flesh is grass," say the Scriptures, but in a different and more ex- tensive sense than is there conveyed is, truly, all flesh grass. Strike out of existence the two great families of the bovine and wool-bearing animals, and where would the human race be left ? To say nothing of the innumerable comforts that spring from these two races of animals, such as wool, leather, &c., for which various substitutes could be doubtless discovered, the very existence of a large part of mankind is directly dependent upon them. Despising all vegetarian theories, we only call upon the common sense of mankind to prove that without meat, which is itself fed, nourished, and sus- tained upon grass and grass alone, one-half the human race would perish at once. Such is the value of grass aesthetically considered. But look at the PECUNIAET VALUE OP GEASS, and for this purpose we may refer to ofiicial statistics. In the repoi't of the Agricultural Department for 1864 the value of the hay crop that year in the United States is put at 1365,707,074. Commissioner Wells gives the hay 52 Pbactical Dairy Husbandry. crop of 1860 at 25,000,000 tons. He estimates its value at $10 per ton, which amounts to $250,000,000. But the value of pasturage must be equally as great, or greater. For probably, taking the country together, the hay represents the maintenance of the live stock for one-third only of the year, while pasturage embraces two-thirds. Then there is the labor of gathering the hay, which goes into its value to oifset a part of that. We cannot estimate the value of the grass crop for 1869, therefore, at less than $700,000,000. Remember we speak here of grass in its popular sense, as embracing the clovers, which, strictly speak- ing, belong to the leguminous family of plants. Now the cotton crop of 1869 was valued at $303,000,000, corn at $450,000,- 000, wheat, $375,000,000, oats, $137,000,000, potatoes, $90,000,000. Who will say in view of these facts that cotton, or corn, or wheat is king ? Among all the productions of the earth grass, unpretentious though it be, is truly king. It is the only truly indispensable product of the earth that nature herself takes care shall not fail. But for dairy farmers — who owe so much to this crop, and which if it failed but for a single season wide-spread ruin would stalk abroad — its importance need not further be discussed. The great question with dairy farmers to-day and at all times must be in what way can grass be made to thrive and produce abundantly ? The ques- tion is a broad one and I shall first touch upon the matter of pastures. PASTUEES, OVEESTOCKmG, ETC. In the first place many pastures are habitually overstocked. By this prac- tice the roots of grasses and the whole plants are kept so small that their growth is feeble, and not one-half the feed is afforded that the land would produce if stocked lightly a year or two and the grass allowed to get a good thrifty start. But this is not the only disadvantage from overstocking. The feebly growth of the grasses allows other plants to creep in, and the ground soon be- comes Overrun with weeds, which on account of their not being cropped by stock, grow in great luxuriance, maturing their seed and thus impoverishing the soil. THE CUESB OF AMBEIOAN DAIRYING to-day is weeds. When once they get full possession they become so formid- able that the farmer is often disheartened and gives up their eradication. Many farmers, too, have an erroneous notion in regard to the destruction of weeds on grass lands. The impression often prevails that the only way of getting rid of weeds is to break up and thoroughly cultivate the ground in hoed crops. This is not always convenient or even desirable, for in many cases it cannot be done without breaking up the herd or dairy, while some uneven surfaces cannot be plowed. There is another way of killing weeds such as the daisy an(J that class of plants, by the liberal use of manures and grass seeds. I have erad- icated white daisy in several instances by simply applying farm yard dung and gypsum, and strewing the ground with a heavy seeding of clover. Establish Practical Dairy Husbandry. 63 your clover upon the soil and feed it until it is luxuriant and it destroys the daisy and other weeds, by a system of plant-garroting, strangling and chok- ing the life out of them. Then some weeds may he killed by frequent cutting and not allowing them to seed. It is always advisable to pull up or extermi- nate bad weeds on their fii-st appearance in pastures, and not allow them to 'spread. The subject of pastures is of great importance to the dairy interest. To know how to produce milk cheaply and of the best quality, is the underlying stone of the dairyman's success. The points to be determined, it seems to me, are these : WHAT KIND OF PASTURES ARE BEST FOE THE DAIET ? Are they those which have been long in grass, or are they those which have been recently plowed and re-seeded ? Can pastures be kept productive when remaining long in grass ; or in beginning to fail, is it necessary to renew by plowing and re-seeding ; and, finally, what are the cheapest as well aJ& the best modes of obtaining quality and productiveness of pasturage ? In considering these questions it should be borne in mind that the subject has reference to pastures for the production of milk, or those adapted to the dairy. Soils vary in character, and -when under the modifying influence of climate and location, exhibit a peculiar fitness for certain plants ; thus we have those best adapted to the production of grain, grass, fruit, or for those abounding in textile fiber. I have said you cannot profitably carry the dairy upon the extensive plains of the West and South-west. They lack water. Pastures become brown and dried up long before midsummer ; nor will they hold grasses of any ap- proved kind for any long time. We are not, therefore, to consider the treat- ment of all pasture lands alike, but of those that are particularly well adapted to grass, and which cover a considerable portion of the lands known as the dairy region. Now, what are we to "do with pasture lands that begin to fail from over- cropping, or from other causes ? Shall we plow them up, re-seed, or shall we adopt some other mode of renovation ? I know of pastures that have been in grass for sixty years and upwards, and to-day show no signs of failure, Wherever I have been through the dairy region I find these pastures, and it is the universal testimony of those who have them that they are yielding better returns in milk than any recently re-seeded grounds. I have seen old pastures plowed, re-seeded, and put in meadow, where the annual crop for a few years was large, but when put back again in pastures gave poor returns, and took years to obtain a nice, thick sod. This may not always be the case, but it is frequent and, I am inclined to think, general. It may be said that the fault lay in re-seeding ; that a greater variety of s^eds should have been sown, timothy, the clovers, orchard-grass, blue grass, red top, &c. Our farmers generally, I believe, seed mostly with timothy, 54 Practical Dairy Husbandry. clover and red top, using the ground at first for meadows, and afterwards for pastures. What we want (and it is usually that which obtains in old pastures) is a variety of grasses springing up in succession, and those that will bear cropping, so that they will afford a good fresh bite from May till November. OLD PASTUEES are generally filled with a variety of plants that are adapted to the soil, and in plowing and taking oflT grain crops and then re-seeding, the conditions or elements of fertility are somewhat changed, so that anticipated results are not always obtained. In 1855 I plowed up an old meadow, about two acres of which was yield- ing large crops of timothy and clover, but so situated in the field that the hay crop could not be got off in time. I took from these two acres the first year one hundred and eighty bushels of corn and the second year one hundred bushels of barley, when the land was seeded down to timothy and clover. For two -or three years it did not produce satisfactorily, though receiving the usual dressing of plaster. I also top-dressed it with stable manure — ^perhaps twenty loads to the acre — but without getting the large crops-of grass that I did before re-seeding. Some mineral elements, therefore, I supposed to be wanting — perhaps potash, and so I top-dressed with ashes and had no further trouble. I have seen quite a number of old pastures that were yielding tolerably well, plowed with somewhat similar results. The land would bear abundant crops of grain, but grass failed to be enduring, or was less nutri- tious, and hence frequent plowings and re-seedings were resorted to. OLD PASTURES FOE FATTENING STOCK. I have visited many stock farms where men make a business of buying cattle and fattening them for the market, and they say to me that they have never been able to fatten stock with that facility from grass raised on newly seeded grounds as on that of those put down many years ago, or from pas- tures that have never been broken up at all. Others make similar statements, I shall not dispute the point that we may doctor up our lands to produce any desired crop, but to do so is expensive, and will often require more science and skill than are common in the country. When nature furnishes the conditions for producing grasses that give the best results in milk, and when these grasses become firmly established in the soil, are wenot pursuing a suicidal policy in destroying them, by over-cropping, or by allowing weeds to smother and crowd them from the soil, under the impres- sion that our pastures can be renewed at any time by plowing and re-seeding ? Would it not be better and cheaper to exterminate weeds and give our pastures some rest during the hot, dry weather of July and August, by feed- ing sowed com instead of cropping down to the roots and allowing the sun to roast them out and destroy the plants ? It is the weeds, and over-cropping, and unprotected covering of pasture lands in hot weather that are the fruitful sources, of faitee of grass in pastures. Practical Dairy Husbandry. 65 Generally on rich soils, like those of Herkimer, N". Y., the old dairy pastures need but little, if any, organic matter ; the decay of roots and the droppings of stock supply this matter in abundance, and hence the application of cheap min- eral manures is that which is most needed. These, of course, can be readily supplied , but if we are to plow up and take off grain crops, Tiarn-yard manures must be used, which are more expensive. It is very unprofitable for the dairyman to break up lands that are yielding, or can be made to yield readily, good crops of grass. Our most successful dairymen in the Eastern and Middle States believe that grain can be pur- chased from abroad cheaper than they can raise it. Grain raising, therefore, with many is considered a matter of necessity rather than choice, but grass fails and the lauds are plowed and re-seeded. This may be well enough for meadows, but is not so conveniently managed in pastures. If a part of the pasture land begins to fail and it is designed to plow and re-seed, the land must be fenced, which is expensive and often inconvenient. But after getting it down to grass cattle cannot be turned in until the plants become somewhat established, as they tread up the ground, pull up the grass by the roots, and by midsummer there is a barren field. Again, to plow pas- ture lands the herd must be reduced to meet the necessities of the case. This is also an objectionable feature, and one that is always distasteful to the dairyman. TOP-DKESSIN^G GBASS LANDS. When grass utterly fails, plowing and re-seeding doubtless should be re- sorted to ; but generally pasture lands may be kept permanently in grass by giving them a little extra care and attention. If they begin to fail from over- cropping or neglect, a judicious course of top-dressing and sowing seed will be found preferable to the plow. Usually on the black, slate lands of Herki- mer, plaster at the rate of one hundred to two hundred pounds to the acre every alternate year will keep pasture lands in good condition. I have found great benefit from the use of ashes in connection with plaster, at the rate of two or three barrels per acre ; well decomposed horse manure hauled out in the fall, broken up fin-e and applied when the cows are in the afterfeed, has produced good results. I have no doubt but that all pasture lands in the dairy region would be greatly benefited by the use of bones, as this material is largely taken from the soil. The quantity of phosphates that have been removed from soils long era- ployed in dairying must be very large. When in Europe in 1866 I had an in- terview with Professor Voelckee, who has made so many analyses of milk. In his laboratory the different constituents in a gallon of milk are separated in bottles. One bottle contains the oil, another the casein, another the phos- phates, another the milk-sugar, &c., &c. THE QUANTITY OT PHOSPHATES IK A GALLON OP MILK is by no means infinitesimal, but if placed in the hand would surprise most- 56 Practical Dairy Husbandry. dairy farmers on account of its bulk. If we consider for a moment the large number of such handsful that are taken from dairy pastures in milk every year and never returned, and in addition the bone material required in the young calf it must be evident that some soils at least are deteriorating in^his element. The Doctor remarked, while showing the bottle containing the phosphates, that they were really the manure, upon which the finer and more nutritious grasses feed, and that the best results nearly always follow from their appli- cation upon old dairy farms. There is an immense waste of bones in America. In England they are husbanded and imported from America and other coun- tries, and largely used. The views of Dr. Voelckee correspond with my own observation and experience in regard to old pastures, if properly kept up in fertility, being superior for milk to newly cultivated grounds. THE QtTAXITT OF MILK, he says, is greatly influenced by the finer grasses native to the soil, and these are only found upon the old swards. When we commence cultivating by breaking up, we get a coarser herbage that produces an inferior quality of milk. TOP-DRESSING WITH AETIPICIAL MANUEE. The remarks of Dr. Voelckee in a recent lecture before the Derby- shire Agricultural Society may be of interest in this connection. He said that some years ago he made a series of experiments with a variety of artificial manures as applied to grass lands ; and the result of those experiments, carried out on a tolerably large scale in several counties in England, was to lead him to the conclusion that the most economical and most efiicient manure that could be applied to grass lands was good farm yard manure. No manure produced so good a result, if they could get plenty of it, as good stable dung on grass land; but as they could not always get enough they must get the next best, or the land, instead of becoming richer would become poorer and poorer. In determining which was the best substitute, they had to consider what was the character of the land. If, as was the case with most of the Derby pastures, the land required lime ; they should lime it well, and having done so, leave it for a couple of years without putting any manure at all upon it. His experience showed that in most counties of England it was desirable to apply bones to grass land, but bones never did well on newly limed lands, and in many cases where they had been so applied, he had not been able to see where the bones went to. It was very important to settle the point whether the land needed lime. If the herbage looked unhealthy or " deathlike," as people said, they might take a little of the soil and pbur upon it weak spirits of salt, and if there was an efiervescence that would be an indication that there was enough lime. If they Practical Dairy Husbandry. 51 tested the land in that locality they would find that by far the larger part of the pasture land required lime. The eflfects of liming might be regarded as permanent, and after its application they should adopt other means. Suppos- ing the lime to be thoroughly incorporated with the land, the next thing to be decided was whether bones would answer as a manure. There were no general rules which would hold good under all circumstances. On some descriptions of land bones had little effect ; on others the effect was perfectly marvelous. Speaking generally, on heavy soils fresh bone dust, at any rate, did not show so well as on light and more porous soils ; and as some bone manure was rather expensive at the present time it was well to make an ex- periment on a small scale before applying it extensively. The result of his inquiries went to show that all good artificial manures for grass lands should contain a certain proportion of phosphatio materials, if possible, in the shape of bone dust ; and light land should also be supplied with salts of potash. Pasture lands to yield a good crop must be also supplied with a considerable proportion of nitrogenous matter in the shape of ammoniacal salts, and he would recommend for light pasture lands mixtures of manures which should include potash — a good deal of which was now got from Germany, where it had been discovered in a state called Kaihit. They ought to paf for that something like £3 to £3 10s. per ton retail. It was imported into England for something like £2 10s. It was retailed at £4, which was rather too much profit, and the farmers should insist upon getting it for less, and the dealers could well afford to reduce the price. He would recommend for light marly grass land one hundred weight of superphosphate, which would cost six shil- lings ; two hundred weight of bone dust, which at seven shillings and sixpence, would be fifteen shillings ; two hundred weight • of potash salt, at four shillings, which would be eight shillings ; and one and a-half hundredweight of Peruvian guano, which would be £1 or twenty-one shillings, making a total of £2 10s. per acre. He would not advise them to layout less than that if they wished to apply artificial manure to grass land at all, as he thought it would be like wasting away powder by dribbling it into the breech- lock of a gun, where it would produce no effect. Two hundred weight of bone dust -and the same quantity of Peruvian guano, and three-fourths hundred weight of nitrate of soda made a very good dressing for light grass lands. On heavy soils they might leave out the potash salts, more especially if they contained a fair proportion of the better description of the more unctuous kinds of red clay. FIELD BXPEKIMENTS ON CLOVER SEEDS AND PERMANENT PASTURE. . In the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, issued in 1869, Dr. VoELCKER gives a report of experiments on clover seeds and permanent pasture. Subjoined are the experiments : Field Experiments on Glover Seeds, made in 1867 at Escrich Park Borne Farm, hy Messrs. Coleman and Hull. The field upon which the following experiments were tried grew barley in 58 Practical Daibt Husbansbt. the preceding year. The usual mixture of clovers and Italian rye-grass was sown with the barley. I'he seeds came up well, and the plant was tolerably good and uniform on the piece selected for the experiments. ' Apparently the selected piece of land was uniform in depth and in its general character. It was divided into eleven equal and adjoining plots of one-twentieth of an acre each. The eleven plots were treated as follows, as regards manure : 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Kaue or Maitdbb. Nitrate of soda Sulphate of ammonia Mineral superpliospUate Common salt No manure Muriate of potasli Siilpliate of potasli Sulphate of lime Mineral superphosphate and nitrate of soda. Mineral superphosphate and muriate of potash, N(j manure Quantity ov Man- UBE FEB Plot. %%]4 IhS. 333^ Ihs. 33>< lbs. 33^ lbs. 331^ lbs. 33 J^ lbs. 1 lb. 33W lbs, 33}^ lbs. Bate per Aonx. ts. ct. 4 4 4 4 lb. The artificial manures were sown by hand on the 11th of April; the clover was cut on the 12th of June for the first time, and a second cutting was obtained August 24th, 1867. The produce of each plot was carefully weighed on the same day, and as soon as cut, when the results incorporated in the following table were obtained : Table showing tlie Produce-of Artificial Grasses (mixed Clover and Rye-grass) on Experi- mental plots of one-twentieth of an acre each, made at Escrick Park Home Farm, York, in 1867 : 1 2 8 4 6 6 7 8 9 10 11 MAiniKE Used. Nitrate of soda Sulphate of ammonia Mineral superphosphate Common salt No manure Muriate of potash Sulphate of jiotash Sulphate of lime Mineral superphosphate and nitrate of soda. . . Mineral superphosphate and muriate of potash . No manure Weight op Cloteb. First out- TINO. Ct. qr. lb. 8 3 7 10 5 5 S 6 5 4 10 9 6 3 3 14 3 16 1 36 1 31 1 13 1 33 8 16 17 Secoud Cut- tinq. ct. qr. 11). 2 7 3 1 17 3 3 9 3 8 7 3 3 4 3 1 14 2 3 7 3 2 3 3 4 8- 3 3 3 3 Total. ct. qr. lb. 10 3 14 13 8 8 8 9 7 6 13 13 3 17 23 16 1 3 7 3 19 3 36 8 16 3 3 8 18 Mr. Htill kindly furnished me with the following notes, which he took on the field during the progress of the experiments. Practical Dairt Husbandry: 59 The manures were sown on the 11th of April, and no perceptible change was produced by any one of them until the 23d of April, when the clover seeds on plot 1 and plot 9 could readily be distinguished from those on all the other plots by their darker green color and more vigorous growth. . First Cutting. Plot 1 was dressed with nitrate of soda alone, and plot 9 with a mixture of nitrate of soda and superphosphate. Both plots had a darker green color than the rest throughout the experiment. The nitrate of soda on plot 1 encouraged the growth of the rye-grass to such an extent that ^t quite smothered the growth of the clover plant. Plot 2. Sulphate of Ammonia. — The rye-grass grew vigorously, but was not so long and coarse as the rye-grass on the plot dressed with nitrate of soda, while it was superior in quality in comparison with the latter. The clover on the plot grew fairly, but was weak. Plot 3. Mineral Superphosphate. — ^Rye-grass good, but clover thin ; very weak, and much blighted. Plot 4. Com,m,on Salt. — ^Rye-grass and clover fair, but short. Plot 5. No Manure. — Appearance of plant much like that on preceding plot. Plot 6. Muriate of Potash. — The clover on this plot was very good, both as regards color and vigor of growth, and the rye-grass also was strong and of good quality; Plot 7. Sulphate of Potash. — Clover good, but rye-grass weak. Plot 8. Sulphate of lAme. — Rye-grass very thin and unhealthy in appear- ance ; the worst piece of the eleven experimental plots. Plot 9. Nitrate of Soda and Superphosphate. — Clover plant quite smothered by rye-grass, which grew very long and coarse, and of quality little better than good oat straw. Plot 10. Superphosphate and Muriate' of Potash, — ^Decidedly the best plot ; clover remarkably strong, with a good broad leaf of a dark green color. Rye-grass also very vigorous and of excellent quality. Plot 11. No Manure. — About the same as plots 3, 4 and 5. Second Cutting. Plot 1. There was scarcely any clover in the second cutting, and rye-grass also was very thin and weak. Plot 2. Clover very weak ; rye-grass much better than on the preceding plot, though short. Plot 3. Much the same as plot 2; rye-grass not quite so strong. Plot 4. Rye-grass and clover short and weak. Plot 5. Clover fair ; rye-grass short. Plot 6. Rye-grass good ; clover leaves broad and of a good color. Plot 1, Clover good, but rye-grass weak and thin. 60 Practical Dairy Husbandry. Plot 8. The produce on plot 8 small and -weak. Plot 9. Merely a few plants of clover were left on plot 9 after the first cutting, and the rye-grass was very thin and weak ; the soil appearing to have been quite exhausted by the first cutting. Plot 10. Clover very good, with a good broad and dark-colored leaf; the rye-grass also strong and healthy. By far the best plot. Plot 11. Much the same as 4 and 5. We owe to Messrs. Lavtes and Gilbekt a series of most valuable and instructive field experiments on the influence of different fertilizing matters on the quantity and, quality of the produce of permanent pastures. The changes which several of the fertilizers employed by Messrs. Lav7bs and Gilbert produced in the character of the herbage of several of their experimental plots are so instructive that for some years past I have made it a point to pay a visit to Rothamsted Park at the time when the grass crop is in the hight of perfec- tion. Having frequently seen with my own eyes in what a remarkable degree the growth of true grasses, especially the coarser kinds, is encouraged by nitrogenous fertilizers, and having also noticed the changes which a mix- ture of salts of potash and superphosphate produces on permanent pasture in the relative proportions of leguminous plants and true grasses, I was quite prepared for similar changes in the produce of the Esorick experiments. But the difference in the quality of the produce of some of the experimental plots at Escrick Park was more striking than that which I had previously witness- ed at Rothamsted Park, or anywhere else. The Italian rye-grass on plot 9 I found at harvest time, as Mr. Hull truly observes, so exceedingly coarse, that it appeared scarcely better than good oat straw, and very few clover plants could be seen. Again, the eflfect which muriate of potash, and in a still higher degree a mixture of muriate of potash and superphosphate produced on the clover plant was truly magical. I never before witnessed anything so striking and instructive as these ex- periments on artificial grasses. There must, of course, be a good reason why in this instance the quality as well as the quantity of the grass crop were so much more powerfully affected by the different manures than I found to be the case in other experimental trials. We know that the character of the soil materially affects the quality and the weight of the crops we raise upon different classes of soil. It is, therefore, natural to connect the remarkable results obtained ip the Escrick Park experiments with the peculiar character of the soil on the experimental field. I have, therefore, taken care to obtain a fair average sample from the field on which the grass experiments were tried, and after drying the sample at 212 Fahr., I submitted it to a careful analysis, according to which the composition of the soil is represented in the table on the following page. Practical Dairy Husbandry. 61 Composition of the Soil of tlie Field at Escriclt Paris Home Farm, on wliicli the Experi- ments upon Clover seeds were tried : Organic matter and loss on lieatiug 4.38 Oxide of iron 61 Alumina 3.16 Carbonate of lime 39 Sulphate of lime 25 Carbonate of magnesia 33 Potash 14 Soda 05 Phosphoric acid 08 Insoluble silicious matter (sand) 91.81 100.00 Even a superficial inspection will show at once that this is an extremely poor and very light, sandy soil. Mr. CoLBMAif, moreover, informs me that the field from which this soil had been taken, had been badly farmed, and that it was in consequence in a poor agricultural condition. It will be noticed that this soil is remarkably poor in available potash, and I may add, in almost all the more valuable fertilizing constituents found in good soils. The total amount of oxide of iron and alumina was not quite three per cent., and of lime there was not a-half per cent. On the other hand it abounds in sUioa, for on examination I found the ninety-two per cent, of silicious matter which enters into the composition of this soil to consist almost entirely of pure,fine grained quartz sand. I need hardly say that a soil containing ninety-two per cent, of sand and very little clay, and a still smaller proportion of the more valuable soil-con- stituents has to be regarded as extremely poor. Such soils are readily exhausted by cropping, and though they will yield fair crops when literally supplied with manure, they are naturally very unproductive. The extreme poverty of this soil in available potash at once intelligibly explains the benefits which both the clover seeds and the Italian rye-grass de- rived from the application of muriate of potash ; and presents us with a good illustration of the utility of chemical analyses and the aid of the chemist, of which the practical farmer may occasionally avail himself with advantage. The analysis clearly points out a deficiency of potash and also of phosphoric acid ; and hence the employment of potash manures on land of that descrip- tion may be recommended with confidence. The composition of land like that of the soil of the experimental field, moreover, shows that lime or clay- marl may be applied to it with advantage, and that it is impossible to grow any good roots, or barley, or wheat, or clover on land of that character with- out giving it a liberal dressing of phosphoric manures. Moreover, the loose and porous nature of the soil, and the want of a fair proportion of clay in it, clearly indicates the necessity of manuring it but very moderately with am- moniacal or nitrogenous manures ; for as the proportion of available mineral constituents which enters into the composition of the ashe? of our usual farm crops is but small, and the solubility of these matters in water is greatly 62 Practical Dairy Husbandry. facilitated by ammoniacal si^lts, such poor soils are all the more rapidly exhausted when the crops grown upon them are too liberally manured with fertilizers rich in nitrogenous matters, or in salts of ammonia. For the sake of better comparison 1 have calculated the yield of each experimental plot for an acre, and placed the results in the subjoined table : Table showing the Green produce per Acre of 11 Plots of Artificial Grass (Clover seed and Rye-grass) grown at Escrick Park Home Farm, 1867 : Masu»eb Vssd. Peoducb per Acre. First Cut- Second Cut- TING. ting. Total. ts. ct. lb. ts. ct. lb. ts. ct. lb. 8 10 38 3 1,^28 10 13 56 10 10 3 8 4 13 18 4 6 13 56 2 11 68 8 4 12 5 13 96 2 11 38 8 4 12 5 9 73 3 15 80 8 5 40 6 8 84 3 7 56 9 16 38 5 7 16 3 11 38 7 18 44 4 9 13 3 10 60 6 19 73 10 17 96 3 13 17 96 9 4 15 40 18 15 40 6 3 4 3 15 40 8 18 44 1 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Nitrate of soda Sulphate of ammonia Mineral superphosphate Common salt No manure Muriate of potash Sulphate of potash Sulphate of lime Mineral superphosphate and nitrate of soda. . Mineral superphosphate and muriate of potash No manure An attentive perusal of the preceding figures will bring to light several particulars on which a few observations may not be out of place. 1. In the first place it will be noticed that two plots were left unmanured. In all experimental trials, at least two, or, if possible, three plots, should ' be left unmanured. Although the crop in a field may appear quite even and the soil uniform as regards depth, texture and general character, the weight of the produce of such a field invariably differs to some extent in different parts. Natural variation in the productive powers of different portions of the same experimental field must be expected to occur in all cases ; but these variations must not surpass a certain limit, or else no fair and legitimate deduction with respect to the efficacy of the manuring matters employed can be made from the results of the experiments. Many of the anomalies which bo much per- plex the experimenting farmer, I am inclined to think, are often solely due to inequalities in the soil, or to differences in the agricultural condition of the several experimental plots. For this reason it is absolutely necessary in field trials to determine whether the natural variations in the productive powers of different parts of the experimental field are not so great as to spoil the exper- iments altogether. In the case before us it will be seen that one of the un- manured plots yielded, when calculated per acre, eight tons five hundred weight and forty pounds, and the second plot eight tons eighteen hundred weight and forty-four pounds; the variation in the production of the two Practical Dairy Husbandry. 63 plots thus amounted to thirteen hundred weight and four pounds, showing no greater difference than can he expected under favorable circumstances. 2. Neither common salt nor sulphate of potash appears to have had any effect upon the produce, for it will be seen that the weight of the clover seeds on plots 4 and 7, dressed respectively with salt and sulphate of potash, was somewhat less than that of the unmanured plots. I attach no value to the apparent diminution of the produce on plots 4 and 7, for the increase is not sufficiently large to entitle us to infer from the result that the saline matters used on these two plots had an injurious effect upon the crop. 3. On plot 8 sulphate of lime was used at the rate of one ton per acre. This is a very large dose. Although sulphate of lime and gypsum is but spar- ingly soluble in water, and for that reason may be used with perfect safety in much larger quantities than in this experiment, provided it is well mixed with the soU, a large dose of finely-powdered gypsum, when applied as a top- dressing to young clover seeds, appears to injure the plants and to retard their growth. 4. It is worthy of notice that while common salt had no effect upon the produce, muriate of potash materially increased it. We have here another direct proof that soda is incapable of taking the place of potash in the nutri- tion of plants. 6. On plot 3 mineral superphosphate alone had no effect whatever on the crop. This is an interesting result, for it seems to indicate that the great de- ficiency of potash, which is characteristic of the^soil of the experimental field, entirely prevented the display of the useful functions which we know per- fectly well that superphosphate of lime does discharge on land df a better char- acter. On poor, light, sandy soils we may learn from this that a purely mineral superphosphate cannot be used with advantage for clover seeds. I may observe in passing that on such soils mineral superphosphate has even little effect upon root crops, for which phosphatic manures are so largely used with the best effect. 6. It is remarkable that while plot 3, manured with mineral superphos- phate, gave no increase whatever; and plot 6, manuted with muriate of potash, gave an increase of one ton four hundred weight and forty-two pounds over the average produce of the two unmanured plots, (average produce eight tons eleven hundred weight and ninety-eight pounds,) the mixture of both manures on plot 10 gave the largest weight of clover seed and rye-grass per acre of any of the eleven experimental plots. In the first cutting plot 10 produced nine tons, and in second nearly five tons of green clover seeds, or both cuttings yielded in exact weight thirteen tons fifteen hundred weight and forty pounds, which is an increase of five tons three hundred weight and sixty-four pounds per acre over the average yield of the two unmanured plots. Plot 10 gave not only the largest increase per acre, but the quality of both 64 Practical Daibt Husbandbt. the clover and rye-grass was mucli superior to that of the produce of any other of the various experimental plots. 7. There is another circumstance connected with the result obtained on plot 10, which deserves the best attention of the practical agriculturist. It will be seen that, although the first cutting produced a heavy crop of clover seeds of by far the best quality of any of the experimental plots, the land was left in a better agricultural condition after the first cutting than where no manure at all was applied, and a much smaller weight of green clover seeds was reaped at first; for on plot 10 the second cutting yielded nearly five tons of green produce, in addition to the first, whereas the two unmanured plots, 5 and 7, yielded only two tons fifteen hundred weight of additional produce in the second cutting. The liberal supply of available potash and soluble phos- phates thus had the efiect of greatly increasing the weight of the crop, im- proving its quality, and leaving the soil in a better agricultural condition for the next crop. * 8. Again, it will be noticed that on plot 6, on which muriate -of potash alone was employed, the second cutting weighed more than the second cut- tings of the other plots, except that of plot 10, where superphosphate was added to the potash-salt. It therefore appears that the beneficial efiects of potash on soils so poor in this element as the land on which these experiments were tried, has a more permanently beneficial eflfect than some of the fertili- zing matters which were used on other plots. 9. On the other hand, nitr&te of soda unmistakably had a tendency to ex- haust the land ; for it will be noticed that on both the plots 1 and 9, on which nitrate of soda was used, the second cuttings weighed less than those of the unmanured plots. As already mentioned, the nitrate of soda on plots 1 and 9 encouraged the growth of very coarse and inferior rye-grass, which completely smothered the clover plant. When I saw the experimental field late in the autumn of 1867, after har- vest, the contrast in the appearance of the various experimental plots was most striking. While the' land on plots 1 and 9 appeared quite burned up and exhausted, and scarcely any clover was visible, the potash plots could be readily distinguished by a dark green color and healthy look of the remaining herbage, in which clover predominated. We may thus learn from these experiments that nitrate of soda alone, or even in conjunction with superphosphate, should not be used as a top-dressing for artificial grasses on very poor sandy soils, like the soil of the experimental field, inasmuch as nitrates hasten the exhaustion of the potash naturally present in such soils in very small proportions. Indeed, nitrate of soda, and in a minor degree, ammoniacal salts, are the worst artificial manures that can be used under such circumstances. It may be further observed, that no just estimate can be formed of the real value of a special manure if no account be Practical Dairy Husbandry. 65 taken of the condition in which the land is left after the crop has been removed from it. This is not the first time that I have noticed this tendency of nitrate of soda to produce rapid exhaustion of naturally poor soils, and I would therefore strongly recommend farmers to abstain from the employment of it as top-dressing for grass or corn crops which are intended to be grown on naturally poor, sandy soils. The following simple method for breaking down bones has been recom- mended : DISSOLVING BONES. Bones may be dissolved or broken down by taking a box or hogshead, and covering the bottom about two inches deep with ashes and lime mixed — one part of lime to two of ashes. The lime should be newly slaked and mixed with the ashes, both dry ; then put in a layer of bones, then two or three inches of lime and ashes again. Fill up in this way to about eight inches of the top, and then fill out with clean ashes on the compound and wet it gradually until the .whole mass is thoroughly saturated, but not so as to drain. Let it stand at least six months, and when wanted for use take it out, fork it over, pick out all the bones that are not soft, and save them for the next batch, and then pulverize and mix the ingredients well together. It makes one of the strongest and best fertilizers in use, and when composted with fine manures is admirable for top-dressing grass lands. The more ready way of dissolving bones is by the use of sulphuric acid. To every hundred pounds of bones about fifty or sixty of acid is taken. If bone dust is used, from twenty-five to forty-five pounds of acid. The acid must be mixed with two or three times its bulk of water, because if applied strong it would burn and blacken the bones without dissolving them. The bones are placed in a tub, and a portion of the previously diluted acid poured upon them. After standing a day another portion may be poured on and finally the remaining portion on the third day, if they are not already dissolved. The mass should be often stirred. Dr. J. F. Hodges of Belfast, at a meeting of the Chemico Agricultural Society of Ulster, recommended the farmers to adopt the following plan : Place in a wooden trough or tub, the bones, broken into as small pieces as possible, and pour upon them one-third of their weight of boiling water, and, having steamed the mass so as to render the bones completely moist, add one- third of the weight of the bones of sulphuric acid and common vitriol of the bleacher, and mix the materials completely, by stirring them, by means of a wooden shovel or old spade. The mixture may be conveniently made in an old sugar hogshead, and should be allowed to remain some weeks previous to being used. It may be mixed, if necessary, with dry peat, mold, or refuse charcoal, or with sawdust ; but lime should not be added to it. By carefully following these directions, the farmer may obtain a compound of high fertiliz- ing value, and much superior to many of the specimens of dissolved bones 66 Practical Dairy Husbandrt. offered for sale. The addition of slacked lime and soap-boilers refuse, which some persons occasionally use, should be avoided. By employing the bones as described, the manure will be found to contain a large amount of soluble phosphate, which very few of the advertised manures afford. ASHES are valuable in eradicating mosses, and furnishing food for grasses, and are worth at least twenty-five cents a bushel for most of our grass lands. LIMB is of great service to some soils. Six years ago I limed an old side hill meadow, mossed over and not producing. It was applied at the rate of forty bushels per acre, and the annual crop of grass has ever since been good. I am inclined to think that good old pastures produce a better quality of mUk than those recently re-seeded, and that it would be cheaper and .better to renovate by top-dressing than to plow and seed. THE TKOUBLE WITH EEOENTLT RE-SEEDED •PA8T0BE8 is, the grass early in the season is apt to be rank, watery and more fleshy than the thick, fine herbage of old pastures. Considerable portions of it often get the start and soon become woody, and are rejected by stock. A recently re-seeded pasture will not bear cropping like one that is old. The coarser varieties of grasses are so rank as to crowd out the smaller and finer grasses, which are the most valuable for the production of milk. The feed in old pas- tures springs up earlier and lasts longer than on grounds recently re-seeded. MILK-PKODUCING GBASSES. White clover, wire-grass, {poa compressa,) and June or Kentucky blue- grass are valuable for producing milk ; they are indigenous to most dairy soils, and are generally abundant in old pastures, where they seem to thrive best. The character of food a cow eats has a greater influence on the quality of milk she yields than many imagine. During the season of drouths, when the cows begin to eat the tufts and portions of pasture that have been rejected or left to grow up high and rank, I have found the quality of milk so depreciated that it took from twelve to thirteen pounds of milk, and in some instances more, to make one of cheese. We may perhaps get more bulk of grass by plowing and re-seeding, and yet obtain poorer results in milk than from the old, thick sward that has been broken up. One great source of failure and decline of grass in old pastures, is over-stocking, as I have already remarked. The lands are crowded to their utmost capacity year after year and receiving scarcely any attention, must succumb at last. Again, weeds are allowed to go to seed and get possession of the soil, and •where they thus overrun the ground and destroy the grasses, doubtless the best course to adopt is to plow and re-seed ; but the true course is to pay attention Practical Dairy Husbandry, 67 ♦ to pasture lands in season, giving them an occasional top-dressing, scarifying the surface in spring, and sowing seeds here and there upon patches that begin to fail. As a top-dressing SAWDUST, in which the liquid manures have been absorbed, applied in fall or spring, gives great vigor and growth to grasses. It can be spread over the surface in a finely divided state, and is in condition to be available to plants. Road-scrapings and composts of muck, earth, and manures applied in the fall, and pulverized over the surface with a brush harrow, together with the use of ashes, plaster and lime, all of which are available to farmers, will be found of service in keeping up a permanent pasture. And it is believed, by taking a few acres annually and treating them with manure, better results will be obtained at a less cost than by plowing and re-seeding. I may remark that, in the use of barn-yard manures, fresh cow-dung ought not to be used on pastures for the dairy, as it produces grass distasteful to dairy stock, and some claim it to be the cause of abortions. The more common method of improving pastures and meadows in the dairy district of Central New York is by THE USE OF GYPSUM (sULPHATE OP LIMe). It is very extensively employed by the farmers of Herkimer and the adjoin- ing counties, and with the most marked results. In the Valley of the Mohawk there are mills for grinding the stone into powder. The stone is taken from the quarries in Western New York, and is transported in boats on the Erie Canal in large quantities during the summer, and in this way the mills are supplied. The grinding is mostly done in winter, in spring and early summer. It is applied to lands usually in early spring and up to the middle of June, and sometimes as late as July, though for meadows an earlier application must be made to be of much benefit to the crop of standing grass. Many farmers commence hauling their gypsum in winter, depositing it in small box-like houses, located in diflerent parts of the farm, where it is con- venient for an early application in spring, when the roads are bad, and'thus ad- vantage can be taken of sowing or scattering it upon the land at the earliest moment after the snow is off the ground. Others living within a few miles of the mills haul and spread directly u|)on the land during the spring ot ea,rly part of June. It is sown either by machine or hand. Machine sowing is best, as it scatters it more evenly over the surface, a matter of considerable importance in the application of mineral fertilizers of this description. One of the best machines for the purpose with which we are acquainted is Seymoue's Improved Plaster Sower. It can be used not only for sowing plaster, but many other fertilizer^ besides, such as guano, bone dust, ashes, salt, Hma, &c., at the rate of any 68 Practical Daibt Husbandry. quantity per acre as desired. It will bow them as well when damp as when dry, and as the machine is light, simple, not liable to get out of repair, not expensive and sows rapidly, dairy farmers will find its use economical. The machine is represented in the accompanying cut. THE QUANTITY OF GYPSUM USED PER ACRE difiers considerably with difierent farmers — from one hundred to two hundred or more pounds to the acre. Some sow upon the land only every second year, taking half the pastures or meadows every year alternately. It has been estimated that in Herkimer county, a third more feed is obtained from the land, one year with another, by the judicious use of gypsum. However this may be, the increase in grass from its use, both in meadows and pastures, is very considerable, and dairymen regard " plaster," as it is termed, as one of the important adjuncts in dairying. It is certain that our pastures are kept fresher ^and greener by the use of gypsum, and a neglect in its application for any- considerable time is made apparent in the milk pail, and decrease of the cheese product. Gypsum in its natural state is a compound of sulphuric acid, with lime and two equivalents of water, and has the following composition in one hundred parts: Lime 33.56 Bnlpliuric acid i 46.51 Water 20.93 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 69 It is sometimes artificially made by pouring sulphuric acid upon quicklime. The fertilizing power of gypsum, when used in conjunction with animal ma- nures, is very apparent in the growth and richness of the vegetation produced, and experiments have placed its value beyond a doubt, in the cultivation ftf the artificial grasses, and especially such plants as sainfoin, lucerne and clover. It is found to answer best when spread in moist, damp weather, THE VALUE OF GYPSUM in agriculture has been the subject of great diversity of opinion ; due in part, no doubt, to a want of proper observation of the circumstances in which its application has or has not been successful. Upon some soils it is said to be of no appreciable benefit, while there is considerable difference observable in its efiects upon the dairy soils of New York in different seasons. There are various theories put forth in explanation of its action, and the question is not altogether a settled one, Liebig thus speaks of it : — " The evident influence of gypsum upon the growth of grasses, the striking fertility and luxuriance of a meadow upon which it is strewed, depend in some mea- sure upon its fixing in the soil the ammonia of the atmosphere, which would otherwise be volatilized with the water which fevaporates, " The carbonate of ammonia contained in rain water is decomposed by gypsum, in precisely the same manner as in the manufacture of sal-ammoniac, soluble sulphate of ammonia, and carbonate of lime ; and this salt of ammonia possessing no volatility, is conseqnently retained in the soil," One hundred pounds of gypsum, Liebig calculates, would be equal in ammoniaoal fertiliz- ing energy, to what would result from six thousand five hundred and twenty pounds of horses' urine. Sir Humphrey Davy held the opinion that the influence of gypsum on clover and other plants of this description is due to their containing naturally a large proportion of sulphate of lime, and oonsec^uently required it in greater abundance than all soils are capable of furnishing. He examined the ashes of these plants, and found that they aflforded considerable quantities of gyp- sum, which substance, he thought, might probably be intimately combined as a necessary part of their woody fiber ; and he believed that when gypsum failed to produce a good result, it would be found that the soil naturally con- tained so much of the salt that its artificial supply was unnecessary. LOCATIOIT OP PASTURES. Pastures, it may be remarked, should be located upon uplands, or -well- drained soils. This is of great practical importance. The grass upon swampy or' wet lands not only yields an inferior quality of milk, but milk often highly charged with the elements of putrefaction. When pastures are wholly or mostly composed of low or wet lands, the herds are liable to become more or less dis- eased. I^oot-rot, bloody murrain, and febrile diseases are not unfrequent. I have known bloody murrain to be so virulent on such lands that they had to be 70 Practical Dairy Husbandry. abandoned ; but by under-draining the land and returning to pasture the stock was rendered healthy. The excessive drain on the animal system in the production of milk, has aft important influence on this class of animals, rendering them less able to withstand disease than those that are not yielding milk ; hence they require more favorable conditions in their management than other stock. DEFICIENT DRAINAGE OF PASTURES. In some remarks on this subject the London Field has the following : " There can be no doubt, for experience has proved it, that one of the chief causes of periodical disease is a want of drainage. In this respect our tillage lands are generally better managed than grass lands, for many imagine that pastures do not require under-drainage ; but this is essentially a mistake. On some lands scouring takes place periodically ; others are liable to produce splenic apoplexy, black leg, and red water. Now, however different these may be in their characteristics. Dr. Voelckee, in his investigations, has thrown much light on the subject. It would appear that ' Scour is partly caused by a too rapid growth of grass, and its consumption, either green or converted into hay, while in an unripe state — ^that is, while containiijg an excess of saline and nitrogenous ingredients, and a lack of sugar.' And this is especially the case on imperfectly drained lands. Again, splenic apoplexy, which was very frequent during last autumn, was owing, in a great measure, to the rapid growth of grass from some warm showers in the autumn after the very dry summer. ' The plant found in the soil an excess of mineral matter ; the ani- mal eating such rapidly-formed and raw food was affected, the blood rendered viscid, and inflammation of the spleen ensued.' Even the liver-rot in sheep is caused hy a rank state of grass upon undrained or partially-drained lands, and Professor Simonds, in his investigations, shows that the conditions causing this terrible disorder only occur during two months of the year, and generally from rank yegeta'tion. Professor Coleman, in a paper lately read at the Central Farmers' Club, states : — ' As two instances of very fatal dis- eases which arise from unhealthy grass, I may mention black leg and red water. Black leg invariably attacked animals grazing on some peaty, swampy pastures, and disappeared when the same were thoroughly drained.' It may be objected to this, that these diseases may also be found on land that has been drained. But though this may be so in many cases, the fact still remains that in almost all cases where grass land is unhealthy for stock, it is because an excess of moisture impoverishes the herbage, and during the summer causes a too luxuriant and rapid growth." The importance of draining wet lands is so well understood, that I need only briefly allude to it here. A few years since I paid a visit to John John- ston, the great farmer of Geneva, the pioneer of draining in this country, and who, it is said, has had more practical experience in draining than any man in America. He said to me that in his first efforts he had made great mi& Practical Daisy Husbandry. 71 takes ; that all drains should be laid directly up the incline, instead of trying to cut oflf springs by running the ditches horizontally or diagonally across the inclines ; that it was not necessary to drain land when stagnant water stood more than four feet below the surface, but that when water stood within two feet of the surface, land is benefited by drainage. A soil filled with water cannot be heated downward, as experiments have shown that ice will remain unmelted in the bottom of a vessel filled with water, which has been made to boil by the application of heat to the surface. Under-drained soils are heated by the warm rains sinking into them. Mr. Johnston said that he would not build drains of stone, even if a supply were found on the farm, if he could get tiles at reasonable cost, because the excava- tions for stone drains would require greater labor, and such drains were liable to fill with mud or dirt, especially in soft lands. He would lay drains at least four feet deep, in order to secure their full- benefit in heavy rains, and to place them beyond the reach of subsoil plows, moles and roots. In order to prevent obstructions, drains should have a continuous fall, and this could be easily ascertained by stretching a line and measuring the depth of each tile from it. There was no danger of uniting the tiles too closely ; the joints should not have over a quarter of an inch space, and ground tan- bark or shavings are a suitable covering to the joints. LAYING DOWN PASTUEBS. In seeding for permanent pastures, a greater variety of seeds should be sown than is commonly employed. The grasses are evidently social in their character, and delight to congregate together. From a single sod in a rich, natural pasture as many as thirty varieties have been counted. If we mix the varieties of early and late blooming, we get not only a succession for feed, but also a heavier growth upon the land. The mixture of varieties recom- mended by Mr. Flint is excellent, and may be advantageously adopted. He recommends for seeding the following proportions: Sweet-scented vernal, flowering in April and May 1 pound Meadow fescue, May and June 3 " Meadow Foxtail " " 3 " Orcbard-grass " " 6 " June-grass " " 4 " Italian rye-grass, June 4 " Perennial rye-grass " 6 " Perennial clover " 3 " Timothy, June and July 3 " Red-top, " " 3 " BoughrStalked meadow, June and July. . ., 3 " White clover, May to September 5 " Total 40 pounds To this we should add, blue-grass {Poa compreasa,) three pounds, and Al- sike clover, three pounds. 72 Practical Dairy Husbandry. alsike clotee has only been recently introduced into this country, but from all the accounts we get of it, it would seem to be extremely valuable as a pasture grass ; more productive than white clover, and quite as hardy, highly relished by stock, and, like white clover, is adapted to the production of milk of good quality. Mr. Richard Gibson, of New York Mills, N. Y., who has for some years past managed with great success the noted thoroughbred herd of Walcott & Campbell, gives the following communication to the New York Central Farmers' Club as the result of his observation and experience, both in this country and England, in relation to PASTURE GRASSES. He says the objects sought are, to get our pastures as thickly covered with as good a quality of herbage as our soil is capable of growing, and to have them bear stocking early in the spring to withstand drought, and to continue to yield a " good bite " all through the season. To accomplish this, it will therefore be necessary for us to ascertain which of the cultivated grasses are best adapted to our particular soils, and in what proportion they should be sown. I shall not attempt to recommend a particular mixture of seeds, but will merely give a general description of some of our best pasture grasses, and the quantity of seed per acre generally sown in mixture with other grasses, and leave each one to select such as may seem best suited for his soil and purpose. If we take them in alphabetical order, we shall find first, agrostis vulgaris, a very common grass in some districts. * Agrostis Vulgaris, or red-top, is well suited for permanent pastures, but it should be fed close, otherwise it becomes wiry — ^grows in any soil, moist or dry — and stands our hot seasons well. I think it is over-estimated by most farmers, and worth more for lawns than for pastures^2 to 3' pounds. Anthoxanthum odoratum, or sweet vernal grass (6 pounds,) should be introduced into all mixtures for permanent pastures, on account of its early spring growth, as it is also one of the latest in the autumn — luxuriates most in rich and cool soils — J pound. Alopecurus pratensis, or meadow fox-tail (5-J pounds). This is one of our very best pasture grasses, being quite early, much liked by cattle, and with- stands our hot summers without burning. It flourishes best in a rich, moist, and rather strong soil (1-|- to 2^ pounds). Dactylis glomerata, or orchard grass, (11 pounds), is in my opinion the most valuable grass we have, and should enter largely into all mixtures in- tended for permanent * pasture. It is one of our earliest, as well as most nutritious and productive grasses, and is exceedingly palatable to stock of all * The numbers immediately after the nam£ of grass indicate the average weight of the seed per bushel. The numbers after the description the number of pounds generally sown per acre in mixture with other grasses. Practical Dairy Husbandry. 'ja kinds. As a pasture grass it should be cropped close (four to-five pounds). Festuca duHuscula or hard fescue (9^ pounds). This is not so productive as some of our pasture grasses, being one of the fine and dwarf-growing varieties, still it is desirable as thriving well in dry situations, and with- standing drought better than many other kinds (2 pounds). Of the numer- ous varieties of the fescues. Festuca Pratensis, or meadow fescue (13 pounds), is the most desirable, and it is one of our best grasses, producing a large bulk of very nutritious grass, highly relished by cattle, does not attain its full growth until three years from the time of sowing; prefers soils of good quality (3| pounds). Lolium Italicum, Italian rye-grass (15 pounds). Occupies the same posi- tion among grasses in England as timothy does here. Is remarkable for its early maturity and rapid reproduction. I have not succeeded in growing it satisfactorily here, but I think it can be done, as it succeeds well in the dry Australian climate. If it can be grown here it will become one of our standard grasses (6 to 8 pounds). Phleum Pratense, or timothy (44 pounds). Is so well known that it needs no description. More valuable for meadows than pastures, as it will not bear close grazing (3 pounds). Poa pratensis, or blue grass (13^ pounds). Is common in most sections of the country, but prefers limestone lands. Starts early in the spring and remains green until checked by frosts (1-J pounds). Poa frivialis, or rough-stalked meadow grass (15 pounds). Much like the blue grass in appearance, except that the one has a smooth and the other a rough sheath. It is one of our most valuable grasses, highly nutritive, and both cattle, horses and sheep are very fond of it (2 to 4 pounds). The above are some of the most valuable of the grasses ; the list might be extended, and I should always recommend sowing in a mixture with above grasses, red clover and trifolium repens, or white clover, say 3 or 4 pounds of each per acre. Mr. George Sinclair wrote a very instructive essay on " Grasses," in which he says, after advancing some reEisons why a variety of grasses should be sown, " There is another important law in the natural economy of the grasses which governs all those species of most value to the farmer. It is this, that individual plants of the same species will not grow close to each other for any length of time, for however thickly planted from seed in one or two sea- sons, intermediate plants decay and leave vacant spaces, which are soon filled up with spurious grasses, weeds or moss ; but when a variety of different species adapted to the soil are mixed together, they grow close, form a dense bottom and continue permanent." That is just what we want in this climate, " a dense bottom," to withstand our scorching sun and dry summers, and' to obtain which we must have a variety of grasses. 74 ■ Practical Dairy Husbandry. Just one instance, quoted from the same authority, to Ulustrate how closely plants will grow. " A rich natural pasture at Endsleigh, Devonshire, Eng., contained twenty-two different species of grasses on something less than the space of a square foot of the best fattening pastures ;" and in a turf one foot square of a very old pasture in Lincolnshire, on having the soil carefully washed from the roots of the herbage, and the individual plants of which it consisted separated, their number amounted to one thousand and ninety, while in a pasture formed of rye-grass and clover, only seventy-five plants were found per square foot." In seeding, whether it be for pastures or meadows, too great pains cannot be taken to have a good seed bed. In this latitude (43°), and on most of our dairy soils, I prefer SEEDING IN SPKING, as the young plants then have longer time to establish themselves before cold weather. However, location, the character of the soils, and circumstances, will always have controlling influence on this point. For spring seeding the land should be plowed in the fall, and unless mellow and in good tilth, it should be plowed again in the spring. Then, unless the land is very rich from previous manuring, well rotted manure should be spread upon the surface and worked in with the cultivator until the surface is finely pulverised, and for covering the seed, a light harrow or brush should be used that they may not be covered too deeply. The great point in successful seeding is to have the land in good heart and fine tilth. SOILING. There is another system of management adopted by some with great suc- cess. When lands are expensive and a considerable portion of the land is arable, the rougher or broken lands, and such as are not easily cultivated, are put into permanent pasture, and a system of half soiling is adopted. The plan of whole soiling, or keeping the cows in the stable and yard, has been strongly advocated by some, and there are many points about it that commend it to favor. But while it seems to have been successfully practised by a few persons, whose lands are located near cities and are of limited ex- tent, and are in consequence valuable, still the system is not generally adopted among the dairymen of this country or Great Britain. The profits of feeding cows wholly by soiling instead of pasturing, must depend of course upon the market value of land in different localities. Where land is cheap and a given quantity of food can be furnished cheaper by pas- turage than for the labor involved in soiling, it is evident pasturage will be preferred. But the system of part soiling, as now adopted by our best dairymen, is for the purpose of keeping up a flow of milk during the hot, dry weather, when grass in pasture depreciates in quantity and value. European writers have stated that thei-e are Practical Datry Husbandry, lb SIX, DISTINCT ADVANTAGES to be obtained from the practice of soiling : I. It saves land. II. It saves fencing. III. It economizes food. IV. It keeps the cattle in better condition and greater comfort. V. It produces more milk. VI. It increases immensely the quantity and quality of the manures. The second and third of these propositions are so self-evident that I need not discuss them here ; but of the other four I may allude briefly to the argu- ments urged by the advocates of this system. And first, how does it save land? Cattle that are turned to pastures, they say, waste as much and often more food than they consume. This is done in various ways — by treading it down ; by dunging ; by staling ; by blowing upon it ; by lying down upon it ; and again, when there is a flush of feed, by a portion of the grass not being touched by stock, thereby becoming rank, old and woody, and thus going to waste. The late Mr. Quincy of Massachusetts, who was an earnest advocate of the system, and who practiced it with great success upon his farm, says he was enabled by soiling to keep twenty cows on the product of seventeen acres of his land, but which under the old system required fifty acres. European >vriters make the difierence between the two systems (soiling and pasturing,) as one acre to seven. But, taking Mr. QuiifcT's maximum quantity, which he says was never at any time required to be increased for the full supply of food for the number of cows named, it will be seen that the number of acres needed through the soiling season for fifty cows would be forty-two and a-half acres. This, it will be seen, is quite a saving, as it would have taken, according to his statement, one hundred and twenty-five acres of this land for the same stock at pasture. The objection that the constant plowing of land under the soiling system would soon exhaust it, is answered by the argument that crops that are not permitted to go to seed make no heavy drafts on the soil ; besides, by the practice of soiling an abundance of manure is at all times at command, and hence it is concluded that by no system of farming can land be enriched at so little cost. Under the fourth proposition, that it keeps the cattle in better condition, it is contended that animals kept , under this system are healthier and not so liable to accident. HEALTH OP SOILED STOCK. The experiences of the English, as well as that of Mr. Quinct, seem to show that stock provided regularly with an abundance of food, with a plenti- ful supply of pure wjiter, and otherwise properly cared for, are seldom essen- tially ill ; seldom miscarry or meet with those accidents incident to herds that 76 Practical Dairy Husbandry. are roaming over pastures, often subjected to »hunger and thirst, drinking muddy and impure water, driven and woi-ried by dogs, breaking down and jumping over fences in quest of food, or otherwise gratifying their propen- sity for mischief. They are also moi-e protected against noxious weeds that often injure the milk as well as the animal. The soiling system does not necessarily confine the animals wholly to the stable. A yard is provided in which rubbing posts are set, and where shade is insured. Into this inclosure they are turned for several hours during the day, and where they can take all the exercise necessary for health. Those who have practiced soiling milch cows, seem to be unanimous in their statements that more milk is thus produced than by pasturage. The arguments proceed upon the principle that by soiling an abundance of nutrir trious, palatable food is always at command, whereby the flow of milk may be kept up to the highest point throughout the season. Expei-ience teaches us what high feeding is capable of doing in the production of milk, and other things being equal, the argument cannot be charged as wholly theoretical. ISr THE SAVING OF MANTJEES there can be no doubt but an immense advantage is gained. Mr. Quinct estimates the value of manures made from soiling to be equal to the whole cost of labor employed to take charge of his stock. KINDS OF FOOD TO BE USED IN SOILING. I have now gone over the chief points in favor of this system. I can only briefly touch upon the kinds of food to be used and the order of their suc- cession. The English speak of lucerne, clover, peas, cabbage, &c., as used for soiling. Mr. Quincy relied chiefly upon but four kinds of green crops for carrying on the system. 1st. grass ; 2d. oats ; 3d. Indian corn ; and 4th. cab- bages. He used grass for the first month of the soiling season. This was cut from his earliest pieces, patches here and there about his buildings, and the sides of a private road leading through the farm. He gives as the result of his experience, that one acre of good clover is sufficient for six head of grown cattle from the twentieth of May to the twentieth of June. Oats are made to be the food for July, one acre being sufficient for every four head of cattle soiled. The oats are sown at the earliest moment possible, and generally afford a good cut by the first of July. But when oats alone are depended upon without the aid of any other crop, he advises that one-half the destined quantity of land should be sown as early as the seed can go into the ground, and the other half a week or more later, tl^it the crop may have some succession. Indian corn is relied upon for the month of August ; and during the month of September reliance is placed upon the grass from the second crop, from those acres in which soiling was efl'ected in the month of June. The grass of the second crop, he says, will generally enable the farmer to soil to the fifteenth of October if his grass land be in good heart. Practical Dairy Husbandry. I'j From the fifteenth of Oetoher till the time cattle are housed, reliance is placed upon the tops of winter vegetables, such as carrots and turnips, together with cabbages. ' This food is distributed in racks under cover, or in the barn, about six times each day in due proportion. I do not propose in this place to discuss the minutise — the time of sowing and best manner of raising crops — as my object has been merely to give a general outline .of the system. It undoubtedly has great advantages under certain circumstances, and the plans of barns which I have given, are arrang- ed so that it could be in whole or in part adopted. HALF-SOILISTG. Now the half-soiling to which I have alluded is managed in this way (and I give simply an outline of practice adopted by some of our leading dairymen in Central New York. My description is the management of Dr. Wight, whose location is near Utica, N. Y.) : Dr. Wight has had some experience in " part^soiling," during several years past, and he says he is Satisfied that when the soil is well adapted to the system, as it is on the Mohawk flats, it is far more profitable than the old method of grazing. His practice has been to set apart about twenty-five acres of pasture for fifty cows. Commencing about the middle of May he lets the cows to pasture a few hours each, day, still giving them what they will eat of the early cut fine hay, of the previous year's crop, and which has' been cured and stbred especially for this purpose. Then he soon begins to cut some rye, sown early and thickly the previous autumn on rich soil. The advantage of rye is, that it is fit for feeding earlier than any other soiling food. But he feeds it no longer when he can get early clover, as it is too light a crop to be profitable. Early clover is then fed twice a day, as long as it remains green and succulent. Next late, and large clover, followed some- times by oats, sown thickly on rich soil, and cut just before they begin to head. Oats are succeeded by sowed corn, the seed having been drilled in at different times, and this he continues to feed till frost comes, exchanging awhile with the second crop of small clover, which furnishes as much feed as the first crop. He generally turns the cows upon such after-feed as he does not wish to cut for a second crop of hay, both for the purpose of saving the feed and to benefit the next year's crop of hay ; as a large growth of after-math left on the ground of the Mohawk intervales, injures the succeeding crop very much. By pursuing this course, he says he finds three acres will carry as many cows through the year as four acres treated in the usual way. The expense in labor is considerably more, but that is counterbalanced by the increase in manure. Cows fed thus, he affirms, will at least equal if not surpass those kept in the usual way, in both quantity and quality of milk, and the dairyman, by adopting this method, finds his profits enhanced nearly one-fourth. 18 Practical Daiby Husbandry. Full soiling he has never practiced, as he cannot overcome the prejudice of feeling it to be better for the health and comfort of stock to roam freely in the open air a considerable portion of the time. ME. BIKNIe's FLAW OP SOILING. In 1869 I -was at the residence of Mr. William Bienie, of Springfield, Mass. Mr. Bienie has a reputation as a breeder of Ayrshire stock, and he gave me the outlines of his management for a dairy of twenty cows, which are kept upon fifty acres of land in the immediate vicinity of Springfield, the nulk going to milk dealers for consumption in the city. Upon this farm the practice of soiling has been adopted for the last ten years, and the results have been eminently satisfactory. Out of the fifty acres there are ten acres which make up a rough, broken pasture, upon which the cows are allowed to feed daily and take their necessary exercise. In addition to the ten acres of rough pasture land, seven and one-half acres are employed for crops, in soiling, as follows : — Rye, one and one-half acres ; clover, two acres; and sowed corn, four acres.. He commences cutting and feeding the rye about the 1st of June, and by the time that is fed off the clover is ready. The clover is cut over three times during the season. For ten days, while the hay is being harvested, the cows are fed from the meadows. Then comes the sowed corn which, with the after-feed from the meadows, finishes the remainder of the season. As soon as the rye is cut and fed, the ground is immediately plowed and. prepared for cabbage ; and from this crop a considerable profit is realized, the sound, hard heads being sold, while the loose leaves and soft cabbage are fed to the cows on mornings during frosty weather in the fall, when grass begins to depreciate. Usually the plowed land has a four years' rotation, being then seeded in connection with an oat crop, and with the following proportion of seeds to the acre : Clover and herd's grass, one peck each, and red top, one bushel. Now, here are seventeen and a-half acres, five and a-half only of which are under the plow, that give an abundance of food during the pasturing season for twenty cows. Under the system of pasturage alone it would take at least forty acres to carry the cows through the same period ; and on many farms fifty acres would not suffice. It may be remarked that the rough, broken land of ten acres is of a poor character of soil, and does not afford a large amount of food, so that proper allowances should be made on this account. The labor of feeding, he said, would amount to something ; but this is partly and perhaps wholly paid back in the greater quantity of milk yielded, ■ the better health of stock and the saving of manures — this last being an im- portant item. Where lands are cheap we cannot expect the system of green soiling to pay, but where they are valuable and scarce the plan adopted by Mr. Bienib is suggestive, and will be found remunerative if properly conducted. Practical Bairt Husbandry. 19 raising and feeding boots. Mr. BiKNiE feeds largely of roots during the winter, of turnips and man- golds, each animal getting about one-half bushel per day. The turnips are fed during the early part of the winter, and the mangolds later. He gave me a statement of a crop of mangolds grown on two and one-half acres. The land had been prepared with the design of raising tobacco, but it was thought best to put it to mangolds. Thirteen cords of well rotted stable manure were hauled on, and the land plowed the 26th of April, and again the 7th of May. The ridges were made two feet apart, and fifteen hundred ppunds of bones dissolved or broken down in sulphuric acid, together with sixteen bushels of coarse salt, wei-e used as special fertilizers. Then about the 10th of May, seed of the long red variety was drilled in at the rate of six pounds per acre. On the 3d of June the plants were hoed the first time, and seven days after they were cultivated with the horse-hoe, followed by hand hoeing, thinned by drawing a hoe through, and the blank spaces filled by transplanting. In the first week of July the horse-hoe was again run through the rows, and the plants thinned out from eight to twelve inches apart — one plant in a place. On the 16th of July the horse-hoe was again used, which was the last cultivation employe^, as the plants now generally covered the ground ; but wherever vacancies occurred they were filled with cabbages. On the 15th of September the leaves were stripped to feed the cows, and eighteen two-horse wagon loads were taken from the piece before harvesting. At the time of harvesting twelve loads more of leaves were gathered and fed to the cows. He commenced to gather the crop on the 9th of October, finished on the 23d, and harvested seventy-six loads of roots, each load weighing twenty-five hundred pounds, the whole crop amounting to three thousand one hundred and sixty-five bushels, besides four hundred heads of sound cabbages. The expense of this crop was estimated as follows : 13 cords stable manure, at $6 per cord $78 00 1,500 pounds vitriolized bones 18 75 16 bushels salt 3 20 Total for manures $99 95 The labor employed was as follows : Men and teams five days in plowing ; men's labor twelve days planting ; twenty-five day's work cultivating in June ; eleven days' work cultivating in August ; twenty-seven and a-half days' work in October, harvesting ; ten days, man and team, hauling and storing roots in the cellar, &c. As the price of labor varies at diflferent seasons and in different places, I have not thought it worth while to set any special value upon it, but let each one figure the cost of labor to suit himself. The manures, it is evident, should not be wholly charged against the crop. 80 Practical Dairy Husbandry. as their influence extends over and benefits the land for other crops. The yield was a remarkably good one and shows what can be done by thorough cultivation. THE COMMON PLAN. Now, the usual system adopted by our dairy farmers is to rely mainly upon pasturage, and in giving a little extra food from green corn fodder, so as to meet the necessities of drought, or to help carry the stock along for about five weeks, say from the 20th of July to the 1st of September, when the animals are turned into the after-feed. Grass is usually most abundant during the early part of the season, and if pastures are not over-stocked up to the middle or latter part of July the herd may be carried through the balance of the season at little trouble and expense, by having a provision of forage from sowed corn. THE TIME FOE SOWING COEN for the summer soiling of milch cows is, for the latitude of Central New York, from the 1st to the 15th of June. The land should be heavily manured and the seed scattered thickly in drills, the rows say about two feet and a half apart and not to exceed three feet. I have experimented with this crop by sowing the seed broad-cast, planting in hills, and drilling in rows at various distances apart, and have uniformly found the best result when used in the way recommended. What we want to obtain is a heavy growth of tender, brittle stalks which will be readily consumed by stock with no waste. Thin seeding or drilling the rows too far apart will be apt to give the stalks considerable size, with a large amount of woody fiber, which the cows will not eat. The breadth of land to be sown must vary, of course, according to the quantity of food desired, but should not fall below an acre for every ten cows. It is true the season may be such that the whole may not be needed, but this will not result in loss, for if the stalks are cut, bound and shocked before frost, they may be cured, and will afford a large amount of valuable fodder for the. cows in fall and early winter, when something better than hay is required for the animals in milk. On rich land, well manured and in good tilth for the seed, it is surprising what a large amount of nutritious food can be grown to the acre of this crop. It is admirably adapted as a milk food, not only giving quantity but quality, and if we take into account its adaptation to a variety of soils, and wide range of climate, its productiveness and the ease with which it may be culti- vated, there is not in the whole catalogue of forage plants one so valuable for the summer soiling of milch cows as Indian corn. In sowing some use the Western or Dent variety. It gives a larger yield than any other, but the stalks are apt to grow coarse and woody, and it is less nutritious than other kinds. In our own experience, sweet corn of the Ever- green variety has given the best results in milk. From the following Practical Dairy Husbandry. 81 ANALYSES OF DIFFBEENT VARIETIES OP COEN it will be seen that sweet corn is comparatively rich, in caseine, albumen, and sugar, while the per centage of fiber is much less than that of other varieties : Ohio Dbht. White FUKT. BlOHT S^BT EOWED COBK. Yellow. TrsoA EOBA. Pop COBN. Buel's DUTTOlf Starch '. Gluten '. Oil Albumen Caaelne Dextrine Fiber Sugar unci Ext. Matter Water 41.85 4.62 3.88 2.64 1.32 5.40 21.36 10.00 10.00 40.34 7.69 4.68 3.40 0.50 2.90 18.01 8.30 14.00 30.29 5.60 3.90 6.00 2.30 4.61 26.80 5.20 13.40 11.60 4.62 3.60 14.30 5.84 24.82 11.24 14.62 10.32 48.90 8.72 2.32 2.00 14.00 10.00 13.68 101.07 99.82 98.10 100.96 99.62 100.51 93.91 46.90 9.24 6.96 5.02 3.60 2.25 8.50 7.03 13.13 36.06 5.00 3.44 4.43 1.93 1.30 18.50 7.25 15.02 No dairyman, looking for a profitable return from his herd should neglect to provide a patch of sowed corn for soiling in connection with pasturage daring the hot, dry weather of August and September. If the seed is put in early a portion of the crop will be fit to cut in the latter part of July, when pastures begin to fail. Cows should not be allowed to shrink in their milk for want of nutritious food at this season of the year, for when once the flow of milk is checked from this cause it will be difficult to get them back again into a " milky habit." An abundance of food for soiling, in the way referred to, will make a larger difierence in the receipts than most men imagine who are accustomed to depend solely on pasturage for summering the herd. And in case of drought the satisfaction of knowing that your stock is amply provided for, more than compensates for growing this special crop, to say nothing of the money receipts corning from its use. MEADOWS — ENGLISH SYSTEM. As to the management of meadow lands and the establishment of perma- nent meadows there is great diversity of opinion among dairy farmers. The English, who have studied these questions and who have had long experience upon a soil and in a climate particularly well adapted to permanent meadows, do not believe in setting apart much land for this purpose. In my tour through the dairy districts of England, I was often surprised at the small quantity of land put down in permanent meadows upon dairy farms. They believe that grass is most profitable when it is to be cropped by cattle ; hence the area of pastures is extended while that which we understand by meadow lands is reduced to the narrowest limits. THE ENGLISH DAIEY FARM may be said to be divided up into pastures and arable lands. Upon their cuTtivated fields much of the hay comes from a regular rotation after grain 6 82 Practical Daibt Httsbandrt. crops ; the field is mowed once or twice and is then broken up for a crop of wheat. Various mixtures are sown, and large yields often the result. I have seen meadows on what is termed the four or five course shift, where the first crop of hay would be at least three tons per acre. I was upon a splendid meadow of this kind in Devonshire, where the seeding of the previous year had been as follows : Eight pounds red clover, two pounds white clover, four pounds trefoil, and three pecks of Italian rye-grass. This is not given as an illustration of the best mixture, but rather as a specimen of what some of our American farmers would call heavy seeding. Lands often get more and a greater variety of seeds. The English say they can get more profit by cultivating their arable lands, raising grain, and feeding cows when not in milk, with cut straw, turnips and oil meal, instead of keeping them wholly on hay. And the profits of English dairy farms, I may remark, are very much larger than with us. Their permanent meadows are kept up by a system of mowing and cropping alternately. Ground bones and phosphatic manures are used to some extent as a top-dressing, but barn-yard manures are for the most part employed for the grain and root crops. I am inclined to think that A SYSTEM or EOTATIOlir IN CKOPS, in which the land should lie in meadow from four to eight years, according to the character of the soil, would be much more satisfactory in results than the attempt to make permanent meadows over a large area which, from its extent, cannot be properly top-dressed with manures furnished from the farm except at long intervals. And, although grain farming alone as a specialty cannot hold out a promise of any considerable gains on many of our Eastern soils, still in connection with the dairy, by which the straw and coarse fodder can be utilized and the land, by rotation, be made to produce better crops of hay, we may, on the whole, be able to get better profits than by a system of permanent meadows. PERMANENT MEADOWS. Much, of course, must depend upon the soil and its situation. When lands are rough, or not easily tilled — lands that are filled with stone, which at every seeding would require much labor in removing — it may be desirable, if possible, to put down in meadows that are to remain long in grass. How, then, can these be made productive from year to year, in the least expensive way ? Perhaps the most economical method in treating such lands would be in TOP-DRESSING WITH LIQUID MANURES, as the liquid excrements from animals produce the most remarkable results upon grass lands. In 1866 I was upon Alderman Mechi's farm near London, where the system of liquid manuring is most elaborate, and where the results obtained are truly astonishing. His stables are constructed over cellars laid in stone and cement, so as to be water tight. The cattle stand upon sparred floors, where the liquid and solid excrements drop through the openings f Practical Dairy Hvsbandry. 83 between the narrow joists to the manure pit below. A large tank is sunk in the ground outside the building, and pipes laid from this to the manure cellar. Pipes lead also from the tank into the fields where there are hydrants, to which gutta percha hose are attached for distributing the liquid manures. The solid and liquid manures in the cellar are every few days flushed with water, so that they can be pumped into the tank by the aid of a steam engine, and from the tank they are forced through the pipes to the fields and distributed over the crops from time to time, by simply manipulating the flexible hose. By this system his crop of Italian rye-grass yielded thirteen and a half tons green, or if made into hay about four tons seventeen hundred weight at the first cutting, and as much more at the second cutting. From THE MEADOWS NEAR EDINBUEGH, on which the town sewage flows, the rye-grass has been made to yield, it is stated, at the enormous rate of eighty tons green grass, or twenty-five tons of hay, to the acre. This system is not applicable, of course, to American dairy farms, but I mention it to show the value of irrigating grass lands with liquid manures. But I have another method more practical, one that has been adopted in Herkimer with success, and which may be carried out on the majority of dairy farms. ABSOEBING LIQUIDS WITH SAW DFST. It consists in absorbing the liquid manures of the stables by the use of saw-dust or muck, and applying as a top-dressing. Mr. Lewis of Herkimer, N. Y., has practiced this system with great success. He commenced some years ago by taking twenty-five acres of land which were then of only ordinary fertility. These he underdrained and seeded to timothy, clover and orchard grass, and began to top-dress with liquid manures. He uses saw-dust for the absorption of the liquid manures, and for this purpose it is spread in the stable behind the cows. As fast as the liquids are absorbed by the saw-dust, during the winter, they are hauled immediately to the field and placed in piles. In Spring these piles are spread as evenly as possible over the surface with a fork or shovel. Then he goes over it with a brush harrow, which completely breaks up and distributes the manure in fine particles. He uses basswood dust from seasoned wood, and which is obtained at a neighboring match factory. By this practice he has for some years past bejen enabled to get from this meadow a quantity of hay suflSoient for the winter keep of fifty cows. liquid manures. Dr. VoELCKBE, the celebrated agricultural chemist of England, in a recent lecture on the subject of manures, made the following remarks : — "He need not speak of the superior value of the liquid over the solid excremen- titious matters of dung, for that was well known to intelligent farmers ; but there was a chemical point to which he must be permitted to direct attention. 84 Practical Baibt Husbandbt. and it was this : The liquid portion of rotten dung had a most active power of dissolving the more valuable fertilizing matters of the solid excrements of animals. They know, for instance, that phosphate of lime — the material on which principally the value of bone dust depended — was soluble to a great extent in liquid manure. As the liquid in rotten dung dissolved a large proportion of the more valuable constituents of the solid excrements they would now see an additional reason for preserving their liquid manure, for in so doing they would not only retain the fertilizing matters in urine, but they would also prevent the waste of the most valuable constituents of the solid excrements. He had dwelt on that chemical point, because it had come under his notice especially, in consequence of an examination of the liquid portion of dung, sent to him by Mr. Campbell of Buscott Park. In that liquid he found a very large proportion of phosphate of lime, which was otherwise insoluble." Wherever I have seen liquid manures used in this way, whether absorbed by sawdust, or muck or loam, previously dried, the very best results have been obtained. A point of great importance in TOP-DEESSING MEADOWS is, to use fine manures, or such as can be readily broken up and distributed, so that the particles may reach the roots of all the plants. Coarse manures improperly prepared, ought not to be used, as they cannot well be broken down, remaining in lumps upon the surface, obstructing the growth of grass and clogging the machines while mowing. TOP-DRESSING AETEE MOWING. In top-dressing meadows with the solid excrements from cattle, or farm yard dung, very excellent results are obtained by making the application imniediately after mowing. The manure then acts as a mulch, protecting the grass roots from the scorching rays of the sun, while the fall rains carry the particles to the plants, giving them vigor, and thus enabling them to with- stand the severity of winter fi'osts. Gypsum should always be used immedi- ately after the application of manure for top-dressing, in order to avert the escape of ammonia. THE STANDAED VARIETIES OF GRASSES FOE MEADOWS are red-top, timothy, the clovers, and orchard grass, to which may be added perennial rye-grass, tall oat-grass, rough-stalked meadow-hard fescue, or such varieties as seem best adapted to the soil and situation. The following are the analyses of timothy and red-top at the time of flowering : Water Staeoh Woody FIBER Sugar. Albu- men, Gum. MrsBR- ALMAT- VXR. Timotliy, 70.0 71.0 5.5 3.8 12.5 13.0 42 4.9 40 3.3 1.8 1.5 2.0 2.5 Red-top Practical Dairy Husbandry. 85 OECHAED GEASS. Complaint is sometimes made against orchard grass, that it gro'^v^s too much in tufts or tussocks. This may be obviated by heavy seeding. I have seen meadows of great productiveness from this variety alone, where the turf was solid, and the yield of hay at the rate of four tons per acre. It was cut twice during the season, and even after the second cutting a large yield of after-math was produced. In these cases the land had been seeded at the rate of one and one-half to two bushels per acre. The following table shows THE NUTEITIVE VALUE OF GEASSES, as made from analyses. They do not always represent their experimental values, but still the table is useful in comparing approximate values of differ- ent varieties. It is taken from C. L. Flint's valuable work on " Grasses and Forage Plants." Haue or Gbasb. 9^S Plas or Herkimer Faotort. 1, Vats; 2, Sink on Kails; 4, Track; 3, Presses; 5, Engine and Boiler; 6, Engine room ; 7, Ranges in Curing room. DELIVBKING THE MILK. When a factory is located in a neighborhood where all or nearly all the dairymen are on one street, some one of the number may be employed to gather up the milk of the several dairies, and deliver it at the factory. Neigh- bors living near each other may take turns, each delivering one day out of the week. When men are hired to gather up and deliver the milk for a neighborhood during the season, the price paid for such delivery is one dollar per cow. TEBATMENT OF THE EVENING MILK. In cheese manufacture an important point to be considered is the proper management of the evening milk, and to do this to the best advantage the state of the atmosphere must be observed at the time the milk is placed in the vats. The milk room should be cool, airy, and free from impurities. In hot and. sultry weather much care must be given to have the evening's milk well exposed to the atmosphere, and thoroughly cooled down before it is left 230 Practical Dairy Husbandbt. at rest for the night. When there are large quantities of milk to be attended to in hot weather it will be better to spread it thinly over a considerable surface, rather than deeply, as in filling the vats the temperature of the even- ing's mUk should be so reduced that it will stand in the morning at about sixty-two or sixty-three degrees, and it should be reduced to at least sixty-two degrees before leaving it for the night. At the factories', where carrying the milk and mingling it together from several dairies has a tendency to hasten its acidity, there is more necessity f6r care and attention than in families ; or, rather, there is more danger of souring. It may be proper to observe that the • requisite degree of acidity in milk to the time of setting it with the rennet for a cheese is imperfectly under- stood by the generality of cheese makers, and must be learned by well and carefully-conducted experiments. It is not possible to make so good a quality of cheese from milk recently drawn from! the cow, or from any milk that has been kept too sweet, as from milk that has acquired proximate acidity — that is, after the ordinary method of cheese manufacture. iN'either will it be possible to obtain the greatest quantity of curd from the milk so manufac- tured. Such milk will require a treatment of sour whey, which will be considered under its appropriate head, further on. At the factories, it is believed there is more danger from too much acidity than otherwise, since there are many causes to hasten that condition of the milk which are not present in family dairies. In the factories it is usual to cool the evening's milk to about sixty degrees, by letting in water between the vats, by the use of ice, and by lifting and stirring the milk with an agita- tor which is moved by the waste water from the vats. This, under all circum- stances is, or should be, attended to. The lifting or stirring of the milk and exposing it to the atmosphere, not only serves to cool it down to the desired temperature, but also operates favorably on the condition of the milk for the production of fine cheese, since the stirring and lifting process allows the animal odor and impurities to pass off more readily. If a considerable quan- tity of milk directly from the cow be placed in the vat and cooled down without proper exposure to the atmosphere it retains more or less of this taint, and more especially if the cream soon rises to the surface, forming a barrier to escape and holding it in the milk. We urge, then, that the lifting, stirring, and moving of the milk, so as to come freely in contact with the atmosphere, is of material benefit. Some idea may be had of the effect of this animal odor by placing milk recently drawn in a vessel where it is closely confined and excluded from the air. In a few hours it becomes fetid and putrid. In family dairies too little attention is given to this point in the treatment of milk. PROXIMATE AfirOITT OP MILK FOB FINE CHEESE. The requisite acidity in milk for producing the best results in cheese man- ufacture has not been fully treated by American writers on the dairy, and Practical Dairy Husbandry. 231 is very imperfectly understood by most dairymen who make up their milk at the farm. Experienced cheese makers have observed the fact that milk ■which has been cooled down to a low temperature and kept very sweet, requires more rennet to form the curd, and when coagulated is longer in cooking, and often will not work down firm, but will be soft and spongy, forming what is termed a " honeycomb cheese." Many times a superabundance of whey is retained and cannot be pressed out ; this soon becomes sour and putrid ; the cheese does not cui-e evenly, but goes on depreciating in quality until it reaches a high state of decomposition, giving off an offensive odor, and not unfrequently requiring an immediate removal from the shelves to the pig-pen. When cheeses swell and puff up, the whey oozes out, carrying a portion of the butyraceous matter, changed to oil, and are saved with difficulty, and when saved, cannot be marketed at half the ordinary price of good cheese. The principal features of this character of cheese are given, that it may be identified, and because large quantities are annually made, during spring and fall, many farm dairymen not knowing where the tiouble lies or how to obviate the difficulty. Now, this results from manufacturing from milk that is too sweety and which should have been treated with sour whey. The use of sour whey in cheese manufacture, when the temperature of the evening's milk has been kept low, we deem of imperative necessity, if uniform cheese of firm quality be desired. It may be observed that milk should never have acquired sensible acidity at the time for setting with rennet, but should never- theless be well on its way to that point. By sensible acidity, we mean acidity that can be detected by the taste or smell. Some milk is more acid than other soon after being drawn from the cow, and often, when freshly drawn., Avill redden litmus paper, yet to the taste is perfectly sweet. The milk from cows fed with whey or slop, is more acid than that from those which get nothing but grass on sweet upland pastures. But if by chance or accident the milk is sensibly changed when about to be made into cheese, it should be set at a low temperature, and all the subsequent operations hastened as far as practicable. APPLICATION OP SOUE WHET AT FAKM DAIRIES. When the evening's milk stands in the morning at or below sixty-two degrees, the morning's milk may be added to it, and at the time of putting in the rennet a quantity of sour whey may be added, and stirred into the mass, in the proportion of two quarts whey for sixty or seventy gallons of milk. If the night's milk stands below sixty degrees a large quantity of whey may be used, and the quantity of whey always graduated according to the degree of the sweetness of the milk. If the evening's milk stand at or above sixty-five degrees in the morning, no sour whey need be used, as the milk is on its way towards a change, or has acquired a sufficient acidity to render the use of the whey not only unnecessary, but a damage, from excess of acid. 232 Practical Dairy Husbandry. When milk has not been treated with sour whey at the time of adding the rennet, and there is a difficulty in cooking the curd, it will be better to add to the mass while cooking a sufficient quantity of sour whey to harden up the curd; but it is always better, when practicable, to use the whey at the time of setting the cheese, as by that means the coagulation is rendered more per- fect, while more of the butyraceous matter is retained, and the cheese is consequently richer and of finer texture and flavor. When acid is used in this way to assist the rennet in its work of coagular tion, it passes off in the whey, and in pressing, and in the cheese room, leaving the cheese sweet, mild, firm, rich, and of the finest texture. It has none of the characteristics of cheese made from milk sensibly sour ; as in that case, it will be hard and retain an acid taste. In hot weather there will be no occasion to use the whey, unless the milk is cooled down with running water to a low temperature and so held through the night. We may remark here that it is presumed that the milk room, dairy utensils, &c., are kept sweet and clean ; for if otherwise, it will be use- less to attempt uniformity of manufacture — ^for no degree of skill in manu- facture can counteract all the damage done when the milk is constantly absorbing sour or putrid emanations, or where taints are received from unclean dairy utensils. The whey should be distinctly acid, about like that coming from a sweet curd in summer weather and standing thirty-six hours. If the weather be cool the whey must be kept in a warm atmosphere to acquire the requisite acidity. Milk treated as above with sour whey will produce curd that will be all that can be desired, which will work down evenly and without trouble, the cheese curing with a firm, compact texture, retaining^ more of the butyra- ceous matter, and having that mild, rich, pleasant flavor peculiar to first-class cheese. Attention to this matter, and a little experience and observation in the use of the whey, will, we are convinced, work a marked improvement in the quality of spring and fall cheese, while at the same time it will add in quan- tity, and save that which would otherwise go ofi" in the whey and be lost. SIZE or CHEESE. In starting a manufactory some little anxiety will be had in regard to the most suitable size of the cheese to be made. This doubtless must be con- trolled from time to time by the market for which the cheese is manufactured. The southern home trade prefers a medium-size, flat cheese — say from thirty to forty pounds, and pressed in fifteen, sixteen, or seventeen-inch hoops. This style of cheese should be about five inches thick. For shipping to Europe there seems to be a growing demand for cheese of moderate size. The Cheddar is now very much in favor for exportation— a cheese fifteen and a-half inches in diameter and twelve and a-half inches high, and when made smaller, in like proportions. In former years cheeses weighing from one Practical Dairy Husbandry. 233 hundred and forty to one hundred and fifty pounds were in favor among the American dairies, but this size is now considered too large for the foreign trade, and a size not beyond fifty or sixty pounds in weight is more salable. Small cheeses are easily handled, and in case of accident either at the factory or in carrying to market, the loss is not so great as in the larger cheeses. Some of the factories for several years past have been making a limited number of immense cheeses, weighing seven hundred and more pounds each, and the sales of such have been in advance of the small size ; but for exten- sive sales, the market generally would regard them as objectionable. Ready sales of small lots of these large cheeses are doubtless made at an extra price, because being rai-e, they excite more or less curiosity and induce purchases at the shop where they are cut and sold. But such cheeses are of no better quality than the smaller size ; they are more liable to be broken ; are too large for families that are in the habit of purchasing a cheese from time to time, and therefore can never become popular for the general trade. "We shall have more to say on this topic in another place. COST OF PKODUCING MILK ITT OLD DISTRICTS. The question of the cost of producing milk should be determined on every dairy farm. The estimates should be carefully made and compared with the sales, and it will then be seen whether the business is profitable or not. "We have entered upon an extraordinary phase in the history of American taxa- tion, and our necessary annual expenditures must for years to come be greatly above those of the past. They must be met manfully, and ways devised for providing for these extra calls upon our earnings and profits. They cann'ot be met by poor herds and a shiftless and improvident mode of farming. The average annual yield of the cows must be brought up to six hundred or more pounds of cheese per head. "We must learn the means of keeping more stock on a less number of acres, and at the same time supplying the herds with a greater abundance of food at a less amount of labor in obtain- ing it. It has been remarked by Liebig that cows driven long distances to pasture, unless they get an extra supply of food, yield milk poor in caseine or cheesy matter ; the materials which would otherwise have formed that constituent of the milk being used in repairing the waste of muscles and other parts employed in locomotion. This fact is lost sight of by many farmers. Herds that are compelled to travel long distances for water, or which are occupied a considerable portion of the day in getting a supply of food, yield less milk, and of a poorer quality, than when they can fill themselves quickly and lie down to rest and manufacture their food into milk. In administering food to milch cows the first consideration should be the maintenance of a healthy, robust condition. That secured, the increase and improvement of their milk may be realized by paying due attention to securing quiet among the herds, and supplying the requisite food from which good milk may be produced. 234 Practical Dairy Husbandry. OLD DISTRICTS UNFAVOEABLY AFFECTED A FOEEIGN MAEKET NOW DEMANDED. But it is claimed that there is one feature with regard to cheese associa- tions that operates injuriously on the interests of old dairy districts. Cheese dairying is no longer a privileged business, narrowed down to a few places, where high skill in manufacturing has built up an enviable reputation. It is opened up to many localities. What has been acquired by long years of patient toil, by science and experience, is at once opened to whole communi- ties, where the art of manufacture is unknown. They pick off the best cheese makers, they erect factories, and meet in the market on an equality. So long as dairying was conducted on the old system, this Could only be done so slowly and gradually as not to influence the trade for years. Doubtless in this respect the factories act unfavorably on those who would prefer to see dairying confined within narrow limits, and the fears that the business may be overdone are not altogether groundless. But the step has been taken, and it is too late now to look back. It remains for us to make a market suffi- ciently large to take all our produce. In what manner this can be done is obvious. * The quality of American cheese must be improved, so that it will be sought after in all the markets of Europe. There is no reason why Amer- ican factory cheese may not become as noted in its line as the wines of Johannisberg, the porcelain of Sevres, the sword blades of Damascus, or the shawls of Cashmere. We can compete with the dairymen of the old world as to prices, and if we are able to outdo them in quality, a market for our " goods " is secured for all coming time. The business of cheese dairying is now assuming large proportions, and will increase rapidly under the stimulus of rapid sales, high prices, and the facilities offered for manufacture under the factory system. How far this influx of business is to influence prices remains to be seen. Without a market in Europe, at least for the present, the supply, it is evident, will be so great as to glut the home trade and render cheese dairying unprofitable. It is true, nature seems to have hedged the dairy within certain limits. The immense plains of the West and the South, as well as large portions of the Middle States, are not adapted to dairying. The lands are deficient in springs and streams of living water ; the soil is of such a character that grasses soon run out, and pastures become brown and dried, or afford scanty herbage long before midsummer. These lands are better adapted to wheat and corn, or the production of beef, or mutton and wool, and hence will not naturally be. employed for the dairy. But still there are large tracts of lands suitable for milch cows, and should they be generally devoted to the dairy, we may possibly find the annual supply of cheese so great as to sensibly affect prices. There is no question of more importance, none of more vital interest to the dairyman, than this matter of market — a market that is enduring and remunerative. Practical Dairy Husbandbt. 235 pekmanency of the system. The questions have been frequently asked : Is the factory system destined to stand the test of years ? Is it to continue to prosper, or will it soon break up and dairymen return again to the old order of cheese-ihaking ? In my opinion it is to live. The system is a progressive step, and all history teaches that when that is taken it is difficult to retrace it. Doubtless some may remember when the wool and the flax grown on the farm were spun and woven by the family. We shall never return to that again, because we cannot afford it. They can be more cheaply manufactured by associated capital, substituting the untiring arm of the machine for one of living muscle. The flesh and blood of our wives and daughters are of too much consequence to be worn out by this ceaseless toil, when the spindles and looms driven by steam or water power can relieve them of the burden at a fraction of what it costs in home manufacture. Why, then, should a neigh- borhood of dairymen do the work of cheese-making in families, employing many hands, when it can be performed equally well by half-a-dozen persons in a well-constituted factory ? Progi-ess is a law of nature. From the earliest dawn of creation there has been a constant series of developing improvements. Geology reveals that the lower orders of sensitive beings gave way to those of higher grade, until the last result of physical creation was attained in the creation of man, whose improvement, as a rational creature and an immortal soul, is still destined to be onward and upward. The inauguration of associated dairies is rapidly producing a revolution in old customs and heretofore fixed ideas. It teaches the important lesson that farmers can adopt successfully the same means that have proved so bene- ficial to the merchant, the banker, and the commercial man of the world. By a consolidation of interests, the dairymen of to-day can wield a power and influence never before reached. The vast capital in lands and herds is of a substantial and permanent character, while the aggregate product of the farms, annually amounting in value to millions of dollars, compels respect from those who would assume that the proper province of the farmer was merely to till the soil, leaving for others to divide the profits realized in marketing his productions. It has been suggested that an arrangement could be made by which lead- ing European houses would take choice factory brands direct from the pro- ducer, and advance, through an agent in New York, the stipulated price. Whether more could be realized in this way than by the present system, under which the country buyer gets one commission, the house in New York another, and the shipper another, is a matter that needs investigation. But the dairyman with his herd of fifty or one hundred cows, standing alone, has a circle of influence whose radius extends but little beyond his farm. He is, in a measure, at the mercy of corporations and speculators. 230 Fractical Daibt Husbandry. who, by operating together, may fix prices and control the trade. When associated with others in neighborhoods, in towns, in counties, and in the State, he becomes formidable, and meets on equal terms the community of dealers with whom he is operating. THE ORANGE COUNTY, N. T., BUTTEE EACTOKIES. Another feature springing out of the system of associated dairies, and of national importance, is the production of butter at factories in connexion with the manufacture of cheese. Its importance will be more readily seen when it is known that the finest quality of butter can be produced under this system, thus avoiding immense losses resulting from a poor article, as manufactured in private families, together with the saving efiected by turning the skimmed milk into cheese. It takes more skill and science to make cheese than butter. Cheese-making is a chemical process ; butter making is mechanical. The cheese-makers are, as a class, inferior butter-makers. Some have attempted to account for the poor butter in cheese-producing counties, on the ground that no limestone region can produce a prime article. They assert that soft water is indispensable in butter manufacture. There are many errors afloat in the world — errors so old and so well established that they are difficult to be overthrown. I do not propose to argue the point, or to waste breath upon fine-spun theories. Facts are opposing forces of more power than words, and, with due respect to the opinions of others, it is believed that as nice butter can be made in the hard water districts as in the far-famed butter regions. But the cows must be good, fed upon old, sweet, rich upland pasture, with abundance of pure water, the milk and manufacture perfect. Cows fed on leeks and onions will not make good butter, even if it be washed in the softest water. BUTTEE IN HAED WATEE DISTEICTS. There are butter-makers, even in the hard water districts of Oneida county, New York, who pack in Orange county pails, who manufacture specially for consumers in New York and Philadelphia, and whose butter is pronounced by competent judges equal to the best brought into those markets. I have seen as good butter made upon the black slate hills of Herkimer county. New York, as any in the soft water regions — butter that would keep at least nine months, as sweeit as a nut and as nice as could be desired. These are facts. I have no theories to advocate, and no feeling in the matter further than stating the truth. The cheese-makers have no conveniences for making butter ; they have no order nor system in managing the milk. Their milk is often set in a tainted atmosphere, in cheese vats, or mixed up with cheese utensils, and the butter therefrom has an unpleasant, and often a cheesy flavor. They do not intrust the butter making to careful manufacturers, but set their raw hands" to the work, pack it any kind of a tub that will carry it to market, and get the best price for it they can. A great deal of this butter soon becomes Practical Dairy Husbandry. 237 rancid, and is a miserable grease, unfit for anybody to eat. It is sold at com- paratively low prices, and hundreds of thousands of dollars are thus annually thrown away. It is hard to remedy the evil on the old system of private dairies, since the farmers tell you it wont pay to build a spring room and hire a skillful butter-maker for a few tubs of butter, spring and fall ; and even should he go to extra expense and care, it is not certain that the butter would sell any higher. The wife and daughters have more labor than they can attend to, without slaving over the butter-making, and so a good deal of poor butter goes to market. The associated dairies have the means of remedying this defect, in the establishment of butter factories in connection with cheese manufacture. Butter making at factories is of recent origin. It wa^ inaugurated in Orange county, New York, about ten years ago (1861), and, in connection with the manufacture of skim-milk cheese, has proved a success. A number of factories have been put in operation in that county, and the system has been adopted to some extent throughout the whole dairy region. If the system is managed judiciously, it will prove a source of profit to the producer and a great blessing to consumers. There is danger, however, that too many in the cheese producing counties may rush thoughtlessly into the manufacture of skim cheese, and thus, by over-production of both butter and a poor character of cheese, make the whole thing a failure — that is, render it unprofitable. How far markets may be opened for the disposal of skim cheese remains to be seen ; but it is evident that the great bulk of American cheese must be made of whole milk, or at least of milk "that has been but lightly skimmed. Dr. Voelckee's analysis of the best samples of English and Ameiican cheese shows that ours is about two and a-half per cent, richer in butter than the English samples, the latter containing more moisture. Whether, there- fore, we may be able to remove a portion of the cream and yet manufacture a nice, palatable cheese, equal to the best English qheddar, is for future experiments and skill in cheese making to determine. It is believed that as we progress in the science, great improvements will be made in this direction, and a superior quality of cheese be made from milk not particularly rich in butter ; but until the facts are fully established, and the processes of manufacture generally understood, there is danger of an excess of butter factories depreciating the standard of American cheese, by throwing upon the market a surplus of the poorer grades. Though in favor of butter factories, and fully in the belief that the public necessities demand them, in limited numbers, and that the system is an advanced step in dairy progress, there is necessity for caution, that we may not overdo the work and get " too much of a good thing " at once. This danger of an excess of butter and skim cheese factories will be more apparent when the comparative profits of the two systems, at present prices, are taken into account. 238 Practical Dairy HussAis-DJiY. MILK TO A POUND OF BUTTEE. In November, 1865, when in Orange county, I was told by Mr. Allison, superintendent at one of the factories, who had kept a record of work, that the average product during the season, up to October, from fourteen qual-ts of milk, wine measure, was one pound of butter and two of skim cheese. The cheese factories do not produce more than three pounds of cheese from the same quantity of milk. Now the average sale of factory cheese in 1805 was only a little over fifteen cents — call it sixteen cents — and we have forty- eight cents as the value of the milk by that system. But by the other system the average prices at which butter was sold in the fall would nearly cover that amouut, leaving the two pounds of skim cheese as clear gain. These are the facts which serve as a basis for estimating the relative profits of the two systems. We may assume that a given quantity of milk will yield an equal weight of product by either system, but in one a third of the weight is in butter. To be exact, I suppose that by the Orange county system the milk is worked up more perfectly, or with less waste, and hence there is really a larger product by that system ; but as some cheese makers claim to be able to work milk without much waste, the excess need not be named here. The cost of manufacturing butter and cheese combined, is slightly in advance of manufacturing cheese alone, but the difference is not so great as to be of much account. It will be seen, then, that the success of butter and cheese factories will depend upon the price by which butter is to rule in the market above that of cheese, and the facility in disposing of skim cheese. The Orange county factories have sometimes sold their butter at seventy cents, and their skim cheese at prices slightly in advance of whole milk cheese from the best factor- ies of Herkimer and Oneida. But such a condition of things may not occur again, and it would not be fair or safe to make these figures a basis for future operations. The dairy region has been trying to make a finely flavored, high priced cheese, such as will sell in the markets of Great Britain along with improved English Cheddar, at eighty-four to one hundred and twelve shillings per hundred — that is, from twenty to twenty-five cents in gold. Some of' our factories, during the last two years, have come up to the required standard, and American cheese now stands equal to any manufactured in the worldl If we can prove to our English customers that we are able to supply them with the best cheese, they will take of us from fifty to one hundred millions of pounds annually, and pay us well for it. But we must not get back on a poor grade, and lose the reputation we have labored so hard to obtain. These points should enter properly into the consideration of this subject, with those contemplating a change to butter and skim cheese manufacture. The advantages of butter making on the associated dairy system over that of private families, are very great. In the first place, a uniform product of Practical Dairy Husbandry. 239 superior character is secured. Every appliance that science or skill, or close attention to business is able to obtain, is brought to bear upon the manufac- ture, and prime quality necessarily follows as a result. If you could assume that, in a neighborhood of one hundred families, each was possessed of the skill and conveniences of the factories, and that each would give the subject the same close attention, there doubtless would be no difference as to quality of product ; but such a state of things rarely exists. Again, the factories are able to obtain a larger price, because it costs the dealer no more to purchase of the one hundred dairies combined, than it would of an individual dairy, and the uniformity and the reliability of the product does not entail the losses that are constantly accruing in different lots on account of inferior quality. The factories, too, relieve the farmer and his family from a great deal of drudgery, and unless the work is to be done by members of the family who cannot be employed profitably at other labor, it is a matter of economy to have the butter or cheese made at the factory ; since what would employ a hundred hands scattered over the country, is performed in the same time by three or four when the milk is worked up together at one place. . The only serious complaint against the factory system is in hauling the milk. This has been obviated, in many instances, by establishing a route of milk teams, where the milk is delivered for the season by the payment of a small sum. The associated system, applied to butter-making, has all the advantages, and will do as much for the improvement of butter as it has for cheese ; and no one at this day will deny that in the latter it has brought) about a wonderful improvement. The butter-making departments can be easily applied to cheese factories. There need be scarcely any alteration in the buildings. A spring room, churn room, and butter cellar must be added, but these need be but small and cheap structures. The spring room is to be provided with vats, or tanks for holding the water. They should be sunk in the earth in order to secure a lower and more even temperature of the water, as well" as for convenience in handling the milk. The vats may be about six feet wide, and from twelve" to twenty-four feet long, arranged for a depth of eighteen inches of water. There should be a constant flow of water in and out of the vats, so as to secure a uniform temperature of the milk after it has been divested of its animal heat. The milk is set in tin pails, eight inches in diameter by twenty inches long, each holding about fifteen quarts of milk. As fast as the milk is delivered, the pails are filled to the depth of seventeen inches and plunged into the water, care being taken that the water comes up even with or a little above the milk in the pails. The temperature of the water should be from forty-eight to fifty-six degrees. The old notion that cream cannot rise through a depth of milk greater than seven inches, it is believed, is an error. The Orange county farmers say they can get as much' cream by setting in pails on the above plan, as they can to set the milk shallower in pans, and the cream is of better quality, 240 Pb ACTIO aij Dairy HussANDBr. because a small surface being exposed to the air, there is not that liability for the top of the cream to get dry, which has a tendency to fleck the butter and injure its quality. Desiring to test this matter, I took glass cream jars, on which were graduated scales, and set milk of the same quality at different depths, from two to eighteen inches. The depth of the cream was always in proportion to the quantity of the milk. When the butter department is to be added to cheese factories already built, about a third of the cost will be in pails, two of which are required for every cow from which milk is delivered. To build a butter and cheese fac- tory combined, of a capacity for four hundred cows, fitted up with the necessary machinery complete, the cost is estimated at ten dollars per cow. It will hardly pay to build and run a factory for less than three hundred cows, and it is not desirable to have the number of cows above a thousand. In the working of any new system, practical men always desire statistics of results. I have seen the statement of receipts and expenditures of the Wallkill factory. Orange county, for the year 1865. The quantity of milk received from Apiil 1 to December 1 was six hundred and twenty-seven thousand one hundred and seventy-four quarts, of which twenty-seven thousand three hundred and eight quarts were sold at a little above seven cents per quart, leaving five hundred and ninety-nine thousand eight hundred and sixty-six quarts to be made up into butter and cheese. The product was as follows : thirty-one thousand six hundred and thirty pounds of butter, eighty-one thousand seven hundred and seventy-eight pounds of skim cheese, five thousand nine hundred and eight pounds of whole milk cheese, two thousand two hundred and sixty-one quarts of cream, sold at nineteen and six-tenths cents per quart, and one thousand five hundred and sixty-one quarts of skim milk, at one and five-eighths cents per quart. The net cash receipts, after deducting transportation and commissions, were as follows : For pure milk sold $1,926 22 skim milk 24 03 bulter 13,344 21 skim cheese 11,659 08 wliole milk cheese 1,065 44 3,261 quarts cream 443 33 Uogs fed upon whey 446 34 buttermilk and sundries 207 49 Making a total oF. 39,116 03 The expense account was as follows : For labor $1,476 40 fuel 79 96 clieese boxes 653 17 30 sacks salt 89 35 rennet, bandage, &c 483 55 carting cheese 273 10 liogs 179 90 3,335 S3 This gives an aggregate net receipt of $25,880 70. From these statements it appears that the butter averaged forty-two and PRACTICAL Dairy Husbandrt. 241 a-quarter cents per pound, the skim cheese fourteen and a-quarter cents, and the whole milk cheese eighteen cents per pound, while the average amount received on the whole quantity of milk was four and one-tenth cents per quart. The expenses of the factory were a little over half-a-cent per quart. From a report of average sales of cheese from the New York and Ohio factories, it appears that fifteen and a-half cents per pound was all that has been obtained by a majority of the best whole milk cheese factories during the year 1865, and the comparative profits may be thus stated: Fourteen quarts of milk, making three pounds of cheese, (at fifteen and a-half cents,) forty-six and a-half cents; deduct cost of manufacturing, boxes, &c., six cents — leaving forty and a-half cents. At the butter and skim cheese factory, fourteen quarts of milk, at four and one-tenth cents per quart, amount to fifty-seven and two-fifths cents ; deduct cost of manufacturing, &c., seven cents, and we have a difference of ten cents in favor of the butter and skim cheese on every fourteen quarts of milk. It may be asked. How do the butter and skim milk factories compare with those dairies where butter alone is manufactured from the milk ? I have no statistics from dairies in Orange county showing the quantity of milk for a pound of butter, but was told that by the factory system of taking off" part of the cream and working up the skim milk, greater profits were realized. The Hon. Zadock Peatt, in the account given of his butter dairy in Green county, gives the average quantity of milk required for a pound of butter during the season of 1860, to be eleven and twenty-hundredths quarts, and in 1861, ten and forty-two hundredths quarts. In 1859 it took fourteen and fifty hundredths quarts, and in 1858, sixteen and sixteen hundredths quarts, for one pound of butter. The milk in this dairy is set in shallow pans, and the cream skimmed ofif after the milk has soured and begins to thicken. At the Orange county factories it is not desired to take all the cream from the milk, since a portion of it is needed in the skim cheese. That which is taken oflT is fresh and sweet and is in condition to make the finest flavored butter. The management of the milk is without doubt the best that has yet been discovered, and should be generally adopted whenever good butter is sought after. The churning and working of the butter does not differ mate- rially at the factories from that of other experienced manufacturers. The cream is churned in the barrel and a-half dash churn, and the butter worked with a lever upon ah inclined slab. The whole system commends itself to the dairy public, especially to the butter districts, and if the cheese-makers would adopt it at their factories for making spring, fall, and winter butter, large sums would be annually saved, and the public greatly benefited by being able to secure readily a desirable article. TOPOGEAPHICAL FEATURES OF 0BAN6B CO. CHARACTEK OF THE SOIL, ETC. Orange county is broken up into numerous hills and valleys. The southern and eastern parts are mountainous. The great valleys run in a northeasterly 16 242 Practical Dairy Husbandry. and southwesterly direction. The Shawangunk mountains are at the north- west, and along the northern boundaries of the county flows the Shawangunk- kill, a considera-ble sti-eam which empties into the Wallkill. The Wallkill, rising in New Jersey, passes in a northerly direction through the central portion of the county and into Ulster county, emptying into the Hudson at Rondout. It is a sluggish stream, except in times of high water, in spring and . fall, but furnishes abundant and durable water power along its entire course. Along the valley of the Wallkill are some of the best farming lands in the county. There is a diversity of soil in the county, gravelly and sandy loams, light and heavy clay loams, and alluvial soils. The interior of the county is a rolling upland, broken in many places by abrupt and isolated hills, and the valleys and streams. In the town of Blooming Grove, the land is undulating, but in some places broken by ridges of rocks. The soil is generally a clayey loam, running sometimes into a gravelly loam, and, adjoining the ridges of slate rock, becoming a sandy loam. West of the valley of the Wallkill, the prevailing soil is a clayey loam, well adapted to grazing. It is in this district that the famous Goshen butter is produced. Here abound the natural meadows that have not received a plow for more tban a hundred years. The soil on these meadows is a black earth, made up from the wash of the hills and slopes, and is rich in vegetable mold. In some parts the soil is slaty, and strips of land occur that are stony, being filled with boulders and frag- ments of rock, but the whole section seems to be fertile and productive of grasses that are sweet and nourishing. The water is pure and the climate healthy. Soft and hard water are often found upon the same farm. A con- siderable portion of the surface of Orange county is occupied by the Hudson river group of rocks, which takes a north-east and south-west direction. On the banks of the Hudson, above Newbargh, is found the Utiea slate. The Trenton limestone is found near Mount Lookout, in Goshen, and in the adjoining town of Hamtonburgh. The Black river limestone is found in Goshen, and is the rock of which Mount Lookout is made up. THE BrTTEE GRASSES OP OEANGE COUNTY. In the old pastures there are several varieties of grasses, that spring up spontaneously, and afford sweet and nutritious feed, and from which the best qualities of milk and butter are produced. These grasses form a rich, thick turf, leaving no intervening spaces. In our conversation with farmers, much importance was given to these natural grasses as a means of securing the richest milk and the finest butter, and some affirmed that it was impossible to obtain the best flavored butter or so large a result from recently re-seeded grounds of clover and timothy. These grasses are similar to those found in the old pastures of Herkimer, Lewis, and Oneida— they embrace the June or blue grass, the fowl meadow grass, poa serotina, meadow fescue, festuca pratensia, red-top, agrostia vulgaris, the wire grass, poa compressa, and the sweet-scented vernal and vanilla grass. Timothy, orchard grass, red clover, Practical Dairy Hvsbandrt. 243 and other forage plants are also grown in pastures and meadows. The sweet- scented vernal grass grows best upon the moist soil of the old meadows ; it starts very early and gives off an agreeable odor. The June grass is regarded as very valuable, throwing out a dense mass of leaves, highly relished by Juim Gbass. Ebd-Top. cattle, and from which a superior quality of butter is made. It is found growing throughout the butter districts of the county. The wire grass is deemed one of the most nutritious of the grasses, is very hardy, eagerly sought after by cattle, and is one of the best grasses for fattening. Cows feeding upon it yield milk of the richest quality, and from which the nicest butter is made. 244 Practical Dairy Husbandry. It flourishes well upon gravelly knolls and in shaded places, and its stem is green after the seed has ripened. It is found growing in all parts of the county. The meadow fescue is common in the old grass lands where the sod is thick and grasses of different variety mingled together. It starts up early in spring, is relished by stock, and furnishes good early feed. The milk Orchard Qbass. Ueasow Febcitb. farmers hold it in high estimation as a reliable grass, tenacious of life, and not running out like timothy or clover. I have been thus particular in describing the soil and grasses of Orange county, that farmers in other sections may make a comparison with their own lands, and be better able to judge wherein the one differs from the other. I Practical Daisy Husbandry. 245 may remark here, that weeds common in other sections are common also in Orange county. The white daisy, the thistle, the golden rod, the fire weed, the snap-dragon and other weeds, seem to be common in the county. West of the Wallkill, farmers complain of the snap-dragon as the worst weed m FOA COMPESBA. SWEBT-SOEiraBD Verhai. against which they have to contend. The daisy is not regarded as formidable, since manuring with barn-yard manure, salt and plaster, it fs said, will rid the land of this pest. The rag weed, we observed, was common in cultivated grounds, but it was said, did not trouble grass lands. 246 Practical Dairy Husbandry. the stock. The herds are usually made up of native and grade cattle. In the milk dairies there is no particular prominence given to thorough-breds any more than in other localities of the dairy region. There is a sprinkling of Short- Horns, Ayrshires, Devons and Alderneys, and occasionally some Dutch cattle. The farms are not generally above an hundred acres. Mr. Slaughtee, who has an excellent farm about a mile and a-half west of the Wallkill, will carry forty-five head of cattle upon one hundred and fifty acres. His farm contains a hundred and seventy-five acres, twenty-five of which are in timber. He usually has about twelve acres annually under the plow, raising corn, oats, and wheat in rotation, and then seeding down to grass, and this is the rota- tion usually followed in this section of the county. The soil here, and generally through the county, is well adapted to corn, and the average crop will reach fifty bushels per acre. Wheat yields twenty-five bushels per acre, and oats from sixty to seventy bushels. Farmers generally do not believe in feeding down pastures close, so as to expose the roots of the grass to a burning sun, but rather seek to have the ground covered at all times with a good growth of herbage. SYSTEM OP OEGANISING F^LCTOKIES. The farmers of a neighborhood join together and erect the buildings, each one paying in proportion to the size of farm or number of cows from which milk is to be delivered. After the structure is completed and furnished, a superintendent is chosen, and help hired for running the factory, and the expenses are shared by stockholders, in proportion to the amount of milk delivered. Repairs, additions, &c., from year to year, are added to the expense account. THE CAPTAINS MARKETING BUTTEB. The manner of marketing butter difiers from that practiced in other sec- tions. Consignments are not generally made direct to the New York dealers, but shipments are entrusted to captains, as they are called, or persons who make' it a business to collect freight and take it in charge to New York, mak- ing the sales and returning the proceeds to the manufacturer. These captains go with their freight twice a week, are men of standing and responsibility, who are well posted in the trade, and know how and where to obtain the best prices. They receive a commission for their labors, and find it to their interest to make good bargains, otherwise they would lose the confidence of those entrusting freight to their charge, and would therefore be displaced. These captains often receive proposals or offers for large lots of butter, which are submitted to the factories, when they are rejected or accepted, as seems best to the parties interested. • THE MILK BUSINESS. Since the construction of the New York & Erie railroad, large quantities of milk are daily shipped to New York from the several depots. The milk Practical Dairy Husbandry. 247 trains start out of Goshea and Middletown late in the afternoon, and milk is shipped only once a day. A portion of the milk, when it arrives in New York and is ready for the milk carts, is thirty-six hours old. To carry milk sweet for that length of time, in hot weather, requires some art in handling, and this seems to be well understood by the Orange county farmers. The milk, as soon as it comes from the cow, is strained and put in long tin pails, which are set in water, care being taken that no portion of the milk be higher than the water. These pails look like sections of stove-pipe, being eight inches in diameter, and from seventeen inches to twenty inches long. The milk is occasionally stirred so as to keep the cream from rising It is deemed important that the animal heat be removed as soon as may be, at least in an hour's time after it comes from the cow. The old plan, which is yet practised by some, is to cool the milk in the cans, but it is regarded as a very unsafe way when it is designed to have the milk keep sweet for a considerable length of time. The milk stands in the pails until ready to be carted to the trains, when it is put in cans holding from fifty to sixty gallons. These, cans are filled full, and the cover, which fits close, adjusted. "Within a few years past creameries have been established within conven- ient distance along the route of the railroad, where the milk is cooled, and from thence shipped to the depot. Here farmers daily deliver their milk, night and morning, as at our cheese factories, where it is measured and credited, and no further trouble is had with it on their part. At the cream- eries a part of the cream is taken off the milk, put up in cans which, when ready for shipment, are set in wooden tubs, made so as to be tapering towards the bottom. The space between the cans and tubs is then packed with ice, the cover fastened, and it is ready for shipment, WALLKILL CEEAMEET ASSOCIATION. The main building consists of a two-storied structure, arranged on a plan similar to our cheese factories. Below are the vats, presses, &c., for making cheese, and above is the dry room. On one end of this building is erected the spring house, containing two rooms, the one twelve feet by sixteen feet, and the other fourteen feet by twenty-four feet. It has windows and doors for ventilation. The packing and churning room is a separate building, twelve feet by twenty-four feet, and stands opposite the spring room, with a narrow alley between. Adjoining to and connected with this is the horse- power for churning, and a store room. The establishment receives the milk from four hundred cows, and after the cream is taken from the milk, the milk is made up into skim cheese. THE SPRINGS AND MANNER OF TREATING THE MILK. There are two springs in the spring house. Vats are constructed about the springs for holding the water. They are three in number, twelve feet long by six feet wide, set down even with the floor, and with racks in the bottom for holding the cans. The water flows up through these racks and 248 Practical DAmr Hvsbandbt. above them to the depth of seventeen inches. The pails are twenty-two inches long, and eight inches in diameter, and as fast as the milk is received they are filled within five or six inches of the top, and immediately placed in the water. Care is taken that the surface of the milk in the pails is not above that of the water in the spring. The pails are set close together, and one spring will hold two thousand and forty quarts of milk. The spring should have a sufficient flow of water to divest the milk of the animal heat in less than an hour. Mr. SLAUtiHTER regards fifty-six degrees as the highest tem- perature that the water of the spring should be, for conducting operations successfully. He has not determined the precise temperature of water best HORS£: I POUHERt PRESSES 3 C3 oo CHURN ROOM —zA \ .0 C/tETS^-A/A/U^GRCVM WAS///?iXW SPR/A/G GBOOTTO PlAN OF WALLKILI. CbEAMERT— THE FlEST BUTTEB FaCTOKT DBECTES. 1, Water Pipe ; 2, Charns ; 8, Batter Worker ; 4, Whey Cistern. adapted for obtaining the most cream from the milk, but is satisfied from his experiments that the natural temperature of the water should not be below forty-eight degrees, nor above fifty-six degrees. He says, more cream, and that of better quality for butter making, can be obtained by setting the milk on the above plan, than in shallow pans. The object is to expose as little of the surface of the milk to the air as possible, in order that the top of the cream may not get dry, which has a tendency to fleck the butter, and injure its flavor. The milk of one day is left in the spring until next morning, when it is taken out, the cream dipped off and put immediately in the churns. In Practical Dairy Husbandry. 249 removing the cream a little tunnel shaped cup, with a long upright handle, is used. It is gently pushed into the pails and the cream dipped off. It is very expeditiously eflFected, and the milk line easily determined by the appear- ance of the milk. The cream in the fall of the year, and in spring, is churned sweet. In summer, the cream is dipped into the same pails and returned to the spring, and kept there until it sours. As fast as Ahe cream is removed, the milk in the pails is emptied into the vats for making skim cheese. THE CHUEN-EOOM AND CHUENING. The churning is done by horse power. The churns are the common barrel and a-half dash churn, four in number, and are placed on Pah, for settiso the Mn^. each side of the power, so as AND crbam dippeb. ^.q ^q ^U wovkcd together. About fifty quarts of cream are put in each churn, and each then receives a pail of cold spring water and the mass is brought to a temperature of six- ty-three degrees to sixty-four degrees. In warm weather ice is sometimes broken up and put in the churn to reduce the temperature to fifty-six degrees, but it is deemed better to churn without ice if the cream does not get above sixty-four degrees in the process of churning, as butter made with ice is more sensitive to heat. It is, howevei-, a less evil to .use ice than to have the butter come from the churn white and soft. It requires from forty-five minutes to an hour to churn, when the butter should come . solid and of a rich yellow color. It is then taken from the churns and thoroughly washed in spring water. In this process the ladle is used, and three times pouring on water is generally all that is required. It is then salted at the rate of one pound and ^ two ounces of = salt to twenty- two pounds of butter. In making winter butter a little more salt is added at the last working. The butter, after having been salted and worked, is allowed to stand till Chttkii Dashers. evening, and is then worked a second time and packed in sixty pound pails and shipped twice a week to New York. At this factory in hot weather, after the butter is salted and worked over, Orange ConNTT CmjRK. 250 Pb ACTIO AL Dairy Husbandry. it is taken to the spring and immersed in the water where it remains until evening when it is taken out and worked over and packed. For winter butter a small teaspoonful of pulverized saltpetre and a large tablespoonful of white sugar are added for the twenty-two pounds of butter at the last working. No coloring matter is used in butter at this establishment. The butter is worked on an inclined slab with beveled sides running down to the lower end and within four inches of each other. A long wooden lever, so formed as to fit in a socket at this point, is used for working the butter. It is very simple and does the work effectually. In churning, the dashers are so arranged as to go within a quarter of an inch of the bottom of the chum at every stroke, and rise above the cream in their upward stroke. When butter is packed in firkins, none but those made of white oak are used. These firkins are very handsomely made, and are tight so as not to allow the least leakage. Before using they are soaked in cold water, «and The Butter Bowi, aks Ladle. after that in hot water, and then again with cold water. After being filled with butter they are headed up and strong brine poured in at the top to fill all the intervening spaces. The pails for holding the milk in the springs are daily cleaned with soap and hot water, rinsed in spring water, and put on a rack to dry. In furnishing a factory two pails are allowed for each cow, as it is necessary to have a double set. THE CHEBSB. In making the cheese, the milk is set at eighty-two degrees ; highest heat, ninety-six degrees to ninety-eight degrees, and three pounds of salt to one hundred of curd. The curd is pressed in fourteen inch hoops, and cheese made four inchfes high. They are of a very good flavor, and by no means unpalatable — though of course, inferior to pure milk cheese. These cheeses are shipped to warm climates, and many of them go to China in exchange for tea. Practical Dairy Husbandry. 251 OBANGB COUNTY MILK ASSOCIATION. This establishment commenced operations in 1862. The main building is sixty feet by twenty-four feet, and is located about four miles northeast from Middletown. The number of cows from which milk is delivered is five hundred and fifty, and the farmers owning the building number thirty. The construction of the building and spring house is simiKr to that of the Wall- kill Association. There are two spring rooms, each ten by twenty-four feet. The water here is soft, aud stands at a temperature of fifty degrees. The factory stands near or adjoining a wet and springy piece of ground, covered with fragments of rock from the Shawangunk Mountains. At this c 31 3> 01 z 3 o N n 3) ^ >" is Q r = ■4- GBOtran Plas os Cbahob CotniTT Uilk Asbooiatioii Butter Faotort. establishment, in addition to the spring room there is a cellar twelve feet by fourteen feet, with walls nicely laid up with stone, and extending into the bank, at the rear end of the building. Here the butter is stored in summer as soon as packed, where it remains until ready to be shipped. In the fall of the year, when cream does not readily sour, it is put in the churn in the evening and a can of water raised to 100° set in the cream. It is left there over night, and by morning the cream sours. EOCKVILLE MILK ASSOCIATION. The main structure is twenty-five by fifty feet— two stories, which are used for manufacturing and curing cheese— adjoining this 'on one end, is the spring room, and on the side running back in the shape of L, is the churn room, twenty by thirty feet. On the end of the churn room is the ice house, which is arranged so as to lead out of the churn room with a broad hall or alley, which serves as a cellar for storing butter. 252 Practical Dairy Husbandry. This hall has double sides packed in with tan-bark, and the ice-house being on one side, with communication by door, makes it a cool and nice place for keeping butter or cream in summer. In the spring room there are two vats, one nine feet by twelve feet, and the other eight feet by twelve feet, sunk even with the floor, and arranged so as to be filled from one spring. The temperature of the water is 48*. It is soft water, but less so than those at the other factories to which we have referred. The delivery of the milk is at a window and on a platform the hight of the wagon. As the teams drive up, the cans are slid upon the platform and emptied into a large receiving box or can of tin inside the window, standing upon platform scales, where the milk is weighed and then conducted out by two faucets into the long tin pails or coolers. The cost of structure and fixtures was $3,000. The number of cows from which milk is delivered is four hundred and twenty-five, and on November 1st the receipts were eighteen hundred quarts — estimating a quart, wine measure, to weigh two pounds. Milk varies in weight, and a wine quart weighs at some seasons of the year, a trifle over two pounds. During the A n I I cy^ I ■ ' I TT PRESSES. NIANFG ROOM. 2S X SOfr. PRESSES. I I I I I I I I I I I I I I M I I HORSE pomR J Grounii Plan oj" EocKvniB Butter Paotort. month of May, when cows are in pasture, Mr. Slaughteb finds that one hundred quarts, wine measure, will weigh two hundred and eleven pounds. The milk here is kept in the spring from twenty-four to thirty-six hours, when the cream is taken oif and allowed to sour, and then churned. Mr. Upte- GEOVE, the Superintendent of the factory, says that about one-tenth more butter is obtained from the cream when churned sour than when sweet. BUTTBK MAKING AT THE OEANGE COUNTY PACTOET. The churns are the barrel and a-half dash churn, and are filled about half full of cream, which is diluted by putting in cold water in summer and warm Practical Dairy Husbandry. 233 water in cold weather, at the rate of sixteen to thirty quarts for each mess or churning. The temperature of the cream in summer, when the churns are started is about 60°, but in cold weather they are started at about 64°. When a mess of cream is to be churned the churns are filled about half full, and a pail of spring water added to dilute the cream ; in warm weather cold water is used and in cold weather warm water, so as to make the mass at a temperature of 60° to 62°. The temperature of the cream while churning is kept below 65 ° , for if at the close of the churning the buttermilk shoxild be at a temperature above 64° the flavor and color of the butter are injured. When the butter begins to come, the churn is rinsed down with cold water. After the butter is taken from the churn, care is taken not to touch it more than is necessary with the hands. The butter trays are elliptical in shape, and the ladle is used for turning over the butter while it is being washed. In salting and working over, the Avhole is done by the butter-worker heretofore described, and great care is taken not to work it too much, as overworking spoils the grain and makes the butter salvy. A twenty-two pound batch is laid upon the inclined slab or butter-worker, and the lever applied, first beginning at one side, until the whole is gone over. Only a few manipula- tions of this kind are required, and one is surprised at the expedition with which this part of the process is effected. The salting and working of the butter is by the same rule adopted at the other factories, eighteen ounces of salt being used for twenty-two pounds of butter. The butter-worker is similar to the one alluded to, except that the lever is diamond-shaped, which it is claimed is an improvement. The inclined triangular slab on which the butter is worked stands upon legs, and has beveled sides about three inches high. It is four feet long and twenty-five inches wide at the upper end, tapering down to five inches at the lower end. At this point there is an opening for the escape of the butter-milk into a pail below. In salting, the butter is washed and then spread out with the ladle upon the worker, and fine, pure Ashton salt sprinkled over the mass. It is then turned over a little with the ladle and afterwards worked with the lever. At this factory there was a little contrivance consisting of a wheel and lever and weight for regulating the stroke of the dashers when churning. The trays are elliptical, being two and a-half feet long and one and a-half feet across, and will hold twenty-five pounds of butter. The butter is packed in Orange county pails or tubs holding sixty pounds, or in oak firkins of eighty pounds, as at the other factories, and shipped twice a week to New York, bringing seventy cents per pound. The association is composed of twenty- eight farmers who have dairies running from five to ten and up to thirty cows. OrAHOE county BrTTEB-WORKEB. 254 Practical Dairy Husbandry. Four farmers not belonging to the association deliver milk here and are charged $1.50 per cow extra. ETtrBN BUTTBB PAIL. FlEKDT. Orasqb Couitrr Butter Faceaoeb. TTat.h * Firkik. DAIRY PBODUCTS OF THE UNITED STATES. The following tables give the number of pounds of butter and cheese made in different sections of the Union, according to the census returns of 1850 and 1860. The total production of butter in the United States and Territories in 1850 was 313,345,306 pounds, and in 1860, 469,681,372 pounds. Of cheese, the product in 1850 was 105,535,893, pounds, and in 1860, 103,- 663,927 pounds, showing an increase in the production of butter, and a decrease in cheese during that decade. From the tables it will be seen which States are largely interested in this branch of industry. For convenience of reference we have arranged the States in groups : Amount of Butter and Cheese made in 1860 and 1850. 1860. NEW ENGLAND STATBS. Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont Total, MIDDLE STATES. New Yorlt Pennsylvania, New Jersey Delaware, Maryland, District of Columbia, Total 7,630,912 11,687,781 8,397,936 6,956,764 10,311,767 15,900,859 60,675,519 103,097,380 58,653,511 10,714,447 1,430.503 5,265,295 18,835 6,498,119 9,343,811 8,071,370 6,977,056 995,670 12,137,980 53,924,006 79,766,094 39.878,418, 9,487,310. 1,055,308 3,806,160 3,898,411 1,799,868 5,394,090 2,333,093 181,511 8,215,030 31,630,996 48,648,289 2,508,556 183,173 6,579 8,343 179,179,870 184,008,063 51,253,938 5,363,277 3,434.454 7,088,143 8,196,563 316,508 8,730,834 27,119,778 49,741,413 2,505,034 365,756 3,187 3,975 1,500 52,630,865 Practical Dairy Husbandry. Amount of butler and cheese made in 1860 and 1850. — Continued. 255 1860. 1850. 1860. 1850. WESTBEN STATES. Indiana Illinois, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Ohio, Kentucky, Wisconsin, Kansas, Nebraslia, Total SOUTHEBN STATES. Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, Louisiana, Nortli Carolina South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, Total PACIFIC STATES AND TBRKITOBIES, California, , . . . Oregon, New Mexico, Washington, Utah Total, 18,306,651 38,052,551 11,953,666 15,503,483 3,957,673 13,704,837 48,543,163 11,716,609 13,611,828 1,093,497 343,541 164,786,997 6,028,478 4,067,556 408,855 5,439,765 5,006,610 1,444,743 4,735,495 3,777,934 10,017,787 5,850,583 13,464.723 60,243,358 3,095,035 1,000,157 13,359 153,093 316,046 4,577,589 13,881,535 12,536,543 3,171,188 7,065,878 •1,100 7,834,359 34,449,379 9,947,523 ' 3,633,750 90,511,255 4,008,811 1,854,339 371,498 4,640,599 4,346,234 683,069 4,746,290 2,981,850 8.139.583 3,344,900 11,089,359 45,306,392 705 311,464 111 83,309 605,795 1,848,557 918.635 1,641,897 199,314 259,633 ^1,618,893 190,400 1,104,300 29,045 12,343 28,428,811 15,933 16,810 5,280 15,587 4,437 6,153 51,119 1,543 183,575 375,138 280,853 808,397 1,343,689 105,379 37,340 12,146 53,331 395,589 1.551.785 634,564 1,278,235 309,840 1,011,492 203,572 20,819,543 213,954 400,383 24,761,473 31,413 30,088 18,015 46,976 31,191 1,957 95,931 4,970 177,681 95,399 436,293 959,803 150 86,980 5,848 30,998 73,976 We have not the exact figures on hand for giving the statistics of butter and cheese made in the Union during the year 1865, but the production of cheese in the middle and western States alone, it is believed, was more than two hundred millions of pounds. From facts gathered by the American Dairymen's Association, it is known that there are now upward of a thousand cheese factories in operation throughout the United States. If the number of cows to each be estimated at five hundred, we have half a million cows employed in the associated dairies, and if the average annual yield per cow be put at three hundred pounds, we have in the aggregate one hundred and fifty million pounds. But there are a large number of private or family dairies in operation, especially in the eastern or middle States, the production 256 Practical Dairy Husbanvrt. of which, it is believed, will more than make up the estimated annual product of cheese for 1865 to two hundred million pounds. If the value of the cheese product of 1865 be put on an average of fifteen cents per pound, it shows a total of $30,000,000, while the butter product, if no larger than that of 1860, at the low price of twenty-five cents per pound, would amount to over $114,000,000. In the estimate of the cheese product it will be proper to remark that the quantity is presumed to be the amount sold, and does not include that consumed in the families of producers. EXPOETS OF CHEESE AND BUTTER. The statistics of trade show that the dairy products of the country are becoming an important branch of commerce. The following table gives the quantity of butter and cheese exported from !N"ew York for a series of years : LBS. OF BUTTER. LBS. or CHEESB. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861. 1863. 1863. 1864 1865. 1866. 1867. 2,494,000 10,987,000 21,865,000 29,241,000 23,060,793 14,174,861 22,000,000 5,000,000 5,098,000 9,287,000 23,253,000 40.041,000 38,733,000 40.781,168 46,755,843 47.101,000 45,000,000 58.000,000 The decrease in the cheese exports of 1865 from those of the year previous, resulted from an extraordinary home demand, which took large quantities of cheese at a price in advance of what shippers felt warranted to pay for it to export. The shipments abroad have been mostly to Great Britain. A light exportation for a number of years has been kept up with the West Indies and with South America, the trade with the latter being for the most part in a a poorer grade of cheese made from skimmed milk. Kecently this chai-acter of cheese has found a favorite reception in China, where parcels have been sent in exchange for tea. It is believed there is a wide range of market yet unopened for the disposal of American cheescj needing only a little enterprise on the part of dealers for its introduction ; and that when once introduced, it will increase steadily until a heavy foreign demand is reached. Great Britain alone can now take considerably more than our surplus, and since the qualities and adaptation of styles to her needs meets, year by year, greater favor, the time cannot be far distant when America will be regarded, if she be not already, the great cheese-producing country of the world. ENGLISH AND AMERICAN DAIRYING THEIR POINTS OF DIFFERENCE AND COMPARATIVE MERITS. Associated dairying is now conducted on so large a scale, and has so wide a range in America, as to give it distinctive features of nationality. Practical Daisy Husbandry. 257 European writers have asserted that this system was inaugurated in Switzer- land, and that America simply borrowed the idea, putting it into successful operation, and therefore is not entitled to any merit as to its originality. Without stopping to point out the great dissimilarity between the associated dairy management of Switzerland and that of America, the truth of history demands the statement, that whatever excellence may attach to the American system, nothing in it has been borrowed from abroad. In the report of the Department of Agriculture for 1865 I gave a brief account of the origin of the cheese factory movement. Having been familiar with its early history, with the men and causes that led the way to this improvement in dairy prac- tice, I feel competent to speak authoritatively on the subject, and claim its originality as wholly American, The American factory system now stands pre-eminently in advance of dairy practice in the Old World. By it a more uniform and better product of cheese and butter can be made. These must soon take the lead in Euro- pean markets, and European nations will adopt the system or be content to see their own products rank as secondary, and sold at inferior prices. Since the adoption of the factory system a large export trade has grown up between America and Great Britain. The value of American cheese now sent abroad is from seven to ten millions of dollars annually, and as factories improve in the quality of their manufacture, a much larger trade, it is believed, will be inaugurated. England is old in dairy husbandry, and always claimed superiority in dairy practice. A great many styles of cheese are manufactured, and some of them sell in their principal markets at better prices than that made at our factories. American dairymen, previous to 1866 had never been able to find out wherein this superiority lay. In view of the large trade already existing, and likely to increase, it was deemed important that a better knowledge of English dairy husbandry and cheese-making be obtained. The American Dairy Asso- ciation, therefore, engaged the writer to go abroad for this purpose, and the following pages are briefly the result of observations over the dairy districts of Great Britain during the summer of 1866. The dajjigp, ^nds of Great Britain, it is believed, are no better than in the best dairy districts of America. Pastures, there, it is true, will generally carry more stock thim ours, because theirs are freer from weeds and better managed. The yield of hay from per- manent meadows is no larger than from our best lands, two tons per acre being considered a good crop, but theirs is composed of a greater variety of grasses, is finer, and doubtless more nutritious than ours on account of less waste in woody fiber. Their dairy stock is generally no better than in our first-class dairies. I think there is no county in England or Scotland where the average yield of cheese per cow is so large as in Herkimer county, New York- In the management of farms they are generally far in advance of us, but in cheese-making their appliances are inferior, their work more laborious, and they have but really one style of cheese that competes with the best grades 17 258 Practical Dairy Husbandry. of our factory make. This is the cheddar, of which the leading features in manufacture will be found under its appropriate head. In the cheddar process as well as in the management of stock of milk and dairy farms, there are doubtless suggestions which will be adopted in our practice when their supe- riority is demonstrated. I have endeavored to call attention to the fact, and to state the point clearly. THE CHEESE DISTRICTS OP ENGLAND. The cheese districts of England are grouped together in counties lying contiguous. Thus in the south are found Gloucester, Somerset, Wilts, Dorset, &c., while in the north there are Cheshire, Lancashire, Derbyshire, Leicestershire and Shropshire. Other counties produce cheese in limited quantities, but not to such an extent as to make it a leading business. I went into the southern districts first, and found three styles of cheese, each having a different shape and character, and differently manufactured. They were the Cheddar, the double and single Gloucester, and the Wilts. I had never seen any large tract of country so beautiful as this part of England. It was in June, when the hedges were covered with dark green foliage, the pastures flecked with the daisy and butter-cup, flowers celebrated by the poets. But the English daisy is not to be confounded with that pest of our fields, the ox-eye daisy, for it is small and unpretending, and does not suck up the life of the land. Then the smooth roads, the villas, the farm- houses, and the hamlets, with their adornments, together with the garden-like cultivation of the land, formed a picture ever to be remembered. ^Or quiet, pastoral scenery, England is surpassingly beautiful. Everything seems to be " picked up " and in place. You see no tumble-down fences, no unsightly stone heaps, disfiguring the land, no cheap wooden houses falling to pieces, no remains of wood-piles and other accumulated trash, like a cancer blotching the premises, but everything seems to be swept up and in order, or, to use a homely phrase, " prepared for company." SOMERSET AND ITS SYSTEM OF FARMING. Somerset has a rolling, undulating surface, and it is in this county that tbe &mous Cheddar cheese originated. In form the county is difficult to describe, perhaps partaking more of an oblong figure than any other. According to recent returns of live stock, &c., its area is one million seventy-four thou- sand two hundred and twenty acres, containing four hundred and forty- four thousand eight hundred and seventy-three inhabitants ; eighty-four thousand two hundred and sixty-two cows ; eighty-nine thousand two hundred and fifty-seven young stock ; six hundred and thirty-six thousand nine hundred and seventy-five sheep ; and seventy-five thousand four hundred and sixty- nine pigs. The surface of the country is generally uneven, and towards the west, on the borders of North Devon, approaching to mountainous. The principal hills lie east and west, and are nearly parallel with each other. These ranges are generally poor, affording pasture for a coarse kind of sheep Practical Dairy Husbandry. 259 and some young cattle. The hill-tops of the south and south-west are covered with heather. The geological features of the country are varied, and are chiefly composed of mountain limestone, inferior oolite, the white and blue lias, and the new red sandstone. The highest hills are mountain limestone, which has been forced up from its proper place, and is found overtopping the upper strata to a hight of six or seven hundred feet. The eastern part of the country is generally oolitic, stretching away northward to Bath, at which place it produces some of the finest building stone in the kingdom. The lias comes next in rotation, cropping out from under the oolite westward. The red sandstone is not so prevalent. This, with the oolite, is the lightest s,o\\ upon which large flocks of sheep are kept, which in the south, are chiefly of the South Down breed, but in the northern district, towards Bath, are crossed with the Leicester, forming a larger and more remunerative animal. The method of farming is the four or five-field shift — 1st, wheat : 2d, green crop (turnips, vetches, etc.); 3d, barley; 4th and 5th, clover first and second year. The wheat crop is from twenty-four to forty bushels per acre ; barley from thirty- two to sixty bushels, sometimes more. A heavier kind of land is found on the lias formation. A team of four horses, or six or eight oxen, is employed in plowing it. This is more productive of grain than the lighter land, and is farmed in a similar manner. In some places what is termed a dog-flock, that is, young sheep of a year or so old, are fattened for the Bristol and Bath markets. The lowlands and valleys are rich and productive. Between the ranges of hills before noticed are some of the richest plains in England. The vale of Taunton Dean, in the south of the county, is extremely rich. Another nearly level plain extends from the town of Bridgewater to the Mendip hills, and eastward to the city of Wells. Another plain, but rather more uneven, stretches north of the •Mendip towards Bristol. These plains are largely devoted to the fattening of beef and mutton for the supply of the local, and also the London markets. Somerset is noted for its cheese, of which large quantities, are made. It bears the name of Cheddar from a small village at the foot of the Mendip hills. The name originated from the farmers of the village uniting the milk of their cows for the purpose of making a larger cheese. This was done at each other's houses in turn. From that time, which was about one hundred years ago, the thick cheese made in Somersetshire has bome the name of Cheddar, and bears the highest quotations of any English cheese in the London and other markets. It is made much thicker than was at first anticipated. The size that now is in request ranges from forty to eighty and up to one hundred pounds ; the shape is from ten to fourteen inches in depth, and fifteen and arhalf inches in diameter. This county, and the others south, have suffered very little from the cattle plague. Dairy cows, however, during the season (1866) have been high, com- manding from eighteen to twenty pounds sterling per cow, or from ninety to one hundred dollars. The dairy cows are motley grades, and so far as I have 260 Practical Dairy Husbandry. seen, do not show any better milking qualities than the first-class dairies of Herkimer and Oneida counties, New York. DBSCEIPTION OF STOCK. The cattle kept in the county at this time are the Devon and Short-Horn, the former pure of their kind, the latter rarely so, but have been employed to improve the original stock of the country. The Devons are said to have been formerly (with few exceptions), a small, three-cornered, nondescript animal, of little use to the dairyman, and less to the breeder and grazier. Their home is South Somerset and North Devon. The race is wonderfully improved through the energy and perseverance of some farmers, who have taken the best animals they could find and bred from them, until they have succeeded in producing one of the best animals of which England can boast. In the opinion of some no beef is equal to it, the fat and lean being so nicely inter- mingled. Their milking qualities are not yet equal to those of other kinds. A few years since there was a breed called the Hampshire cow, a useful animal for any purpose, of good constitution, size, milk, and beef. Mr. Habding gave me a description of a cow of this breed, nearly the last of the race, which was twenty years old, and had been milked the previous summer, and in the March following went to the butchers at £20 Is. I was told that fifty years ago, in the neighborhood of the Mendip hills, they had what was termed the " Mendip cow," of little service but to milk ; but both these good, and inferior animals have passsed away, and they have scarcely any ccw but what partakes, in a greater or less degree, of the Short-Horn breed. QUANTITY 01" CHEESE, ETC. The increased quantity of cheese supplied by this county is not due, it is said, to the change of stock, so much as to the superior management of the present day in feeding stock, clearing the hedge-rows, and draining the wet land, &c. Fewer cows were kept thirty years ago than now. It was then generally supposed that no more could be kept with advantage beyond what half of the pasture or grass land would supply with grass in the summer, and the other half cut for the winter. Now they keep more cows, mow less, and in winter do with less hay ; they feed with straw and oil cake while the cows are dry, so that they get little or no hay till they calve. Three pounds of cajce per day (the best American) they say will keep a cow in fair condition if straw be given ad libitum. In some particular districts as much as six hundred weight or six hundred and seventy-two pounds of cheese per cow, it is said, are made. This is on the best cheese-producing land ; and this, from long observation, is chiefly on some one of the oolite formations. Not only does it produce the largest amount of cheese, but also of butter. There are no statistics of the quantity of cheese made annually in the county, but from all I can gather, it is from eighteen million to twenty-five million of pounds. Practical Dairy Husbandry. 261 wiltshibb. For diversity and beauty of scenery Wiltshire is not equal to Somerset. Its geological formation, in general terms, may be classed in three divisions, namely, the white lias, which is lowest, the several classes of oolite, and the chalk. According to the late returns the area is 865,092 acres. The number of cows kept is 44,760 ; young stock and oxen, 32,967 ; sheep, 596,822 ; and pigs, 61,012. The natural division of the county is so remarkably distinct, that it must be described accordingly, viz., north and south. The south part, with a few exceptions, is the chalk district, and forms what is called the Wiltshire downs. Lying high, the land is very thin ; still the valleys and slopes are rich for growing grain and turnips. The farms are large, some 1,000 to 2,000 acres. Large numbers of sheep, known as the South Downs; are kept upon these farms. They have black faces and feet, the wool short and fine. The mutton commands the highest price in the London market of any in the kingdom. Though small in size, they will frequently load themr selves with flesh, so as to reach 120 pounds in w6ight. In this district is the celebrated Salisbury Plain, also on the chalk. It is not strictly a plain, except in general appearance ; but is beautifully undulating, not unlike the Ocean with its long swells after a storm. The farming of this district is generally the four-field system. In some places, such as on the white clay and the sandy loam at the bottom of the hills, it is worked in the three-field system. All the light land is plowed with two horses. Neat and good farming is every- where seen, and it is claimed is scarcely sui-passed in England. North Wilt- shire is very difierent in appearance from the south. The broad uninclosed downs are no more seen, but rather inclosed fields with numbers of trees in the hedges, giving the appearance of forests from the surrounding bights. This is the oolite district, and is farmed in much the same manner as the south, being all light lands. The temperature of the climate being warmer, the grain ripens earlier and is therefore less liable to blight. THE WHITE LIAS AND DAIRY DISTEICT. The lias is a very small portion and may be merged into the dairy district, which is principally in the middle and northern partSd The cows are Short- Horns, and regarded here as the most useful in England, excellence in milk and meat being alike sought for. A large quantity of cheese is made which finds its way to the London and other markets. The quality of the cheese is not, the best ; a little milk butter is usually takeii out, but not always,' but a large quantity of whey butter is often made. The method of cheese making is laborious, not so much in the manipulation of the curd as in the salting and pressing and the preparation for market, all being unnecessary labor. The salting, which might and ought to be in the curd, is continued over two or three days, rubbing it in with the hand over the external parts of the cheese, which receives a fresh cloth every time it is salted, which in some instances is twice a day. The cheese is then continued in the press, turned every 262 Practical Daibt Husbandry. morning for from four to six days, after which it may venture to the cheese room, which is a large, airy room, supposed to he requisite for properly dry- ing. The cheese is then allowed to throw out a coat, generally hlue. This coat must be scraped off and a new one formed, after which it goes to the market, realizing from ten to fifteen shillings, under the improved Cheddar price. Wiltshire, up to the 21st of April last, had lost but ninety-nine cattle on account of cattle plague, and I heard of no cases in the county during the summer. The principal dairy district of Wilts ranges from Westbury, in the south, to Chippenham, northward, around Chippenham and towards Swindon, from forty to fifty miles in length. It is generally narrow from Westbury to Chip - penham, and from Chippenham to Swindon from ten to twelve miles wide, and a pretty level tract of country. Before reaching Salisbury to the south you strike the chalk formation which underlies the " Salisbury plains." In going to Salisbury from the north, the chalk first shows itself in a range of high bluffs or hills. The chalk lands are rather light and are worked with two horses, while with the heavier lands three or four horses are attached to the plow. TTpon the lowlands the soil is of richer character. In passing through this county one is continually coming upon lar'ge flocks of sheep in charge of shepherds — mutton sheep, of course, since the production of meat is always an important element in the resources of British agriculture. MANNER OF MAKING WILTS CHEESE. There is nothing in the manufacture of Wilts cheese that would be of any account to the dairymen of America, and it is a matter of surprise that the people of this district are so bound up in old practices as to waste their time and substance in manufacturing cheese of this character. Comparing the Wiltshire method and the apparatus in use with our factory system, the latter is about a century in advance. I give some of the leading features of the WUts method of manufacture, not for the purpose of benefiting anybody, but rather as a matter of curiosity, if I may so term it. I was upon some of the best farms of Wiltshire, and among some of the most intelligent of its cheese makers, and shall give their best practice. The night's milk is skimmed in the morning and added to the morning's mess ; mUk set at 80° and left about an hour to coagulate. It is then broken up with a circular breaker having an upright handle and used as you would push a churn dash up and down. The breaking is done gently at first. In cooking the mass is raised to 100°, stirring all the time with the breaker. It is then left to rest, and as soon as the curd can be handled it is taken out of scald and put to press. It remains in press twenty minutes ; is then taken out, ground and salted at the rate of two pounds of salt to the hundred weight of curd. It is ground again and put to press. The next day the cheese is taken out of press and salted on the outside, receives a new cloth, and is put back to press, the same course being pursued for two successive days, after Pbactical Dairy Husbandry. 263 which it gets no more salting, but is kept in press eight days, each day being taken out and turned. It is then put into a stone cheese room and left for a week or two and turned every day. At the end of this time the cheese will be covered with mold, when it is put in a "tepid bath or moistened and the mold scraped off, when it goes to the dry room. Here it is turned every day until fit for market, say from sixty to ninety days old, or according to the demand and price. The Wiltshire cheese is less solid than the Gloucester, to which I shall refer hereafter. At one of the farms I visited, where sixty cows were kept, and very nipe stock, too, the product was a trifle over two pounds of curd per day from each cow, and one and a-half pounds of butter for each cow per week. Cockey's cheese apparatus was in use, which consists of a tub having a double bottom, the upper one copper, heat being applied between the two, either with hot water or steam ; but generally the old-fashioned tubs hold sway. The hoop for pressing the cheese is turned out of a solid block of wood, with a bottom to it pierced with holes for the whey to escape. When put to press, some eight cheeses are piled up together, one above the other, and the pressure applied to the lot at one time. The milk pails are made of tin, and hold about twenty-four quarts ; they are formed with a projection or handle on one side and are carried upon the head while taking the milk to the dairy. The Wiltshire dairies are very cleanly. The dairy rooms are built of stone, with stone floors and whey vats of lead, and everything kept in the neatest possible manner. In this respect they are models, but the amount of labor in cheese making is very great, and the dairywomen adhere with perti- nacity to the old customs, giving no reason for this waste of labor, except that " that is the way we always do." In Wiltshire I found the stock better than in Somersetshire, some attention being paid to breeding. Wiltshire has a great cheese market at Chippenham. THE CHBESB MAEKET AT CHIPPENHAM. The market place is an open court surrounded by buildings, one side of which is open and supported by pillars, thus giving a spacious place for the stowing of cheese under cover. The open court is nicely paved, and the arcades on either side have a stone floor, The cheese is brought in carts, packed loosely in straw, without boxing. They are taken from the cart and placed upon the stone floors in the arcades, spread out or piled up. Each dairy farmer has his lot together, and they are thus exposed for sale. The cheesemongers or dealers come down from London, Bristol, Bath and other places, and make their purchases. There is a constant hum of voices and tread of feet, as one can readily imagine where a large number of people are collected together intent on selling or purchasing, or are here out of curiosity, or perhaps to meet persons on other business beside the cheese trade. The dealers go about testing the cheese, making their purchases and ordering it 264 Practical Dairy Husbandry. to be sent away as sales have been made. No boxes are used in the trans- portation of cheese as with us in America. The market days here are twice a month, and often, I was told, as much as two or three hundred tons of cheese are in the market during the fall sales. There was a considerable quantity on sale at the time of my visit, all new cheese, and most of it Wilt- shire. The "Wiltshire cheese is a small, flat cheese, from four to five inches thick, fifteen to sixteen inches in diameter, and taking four to make one hun- dred weight (one hundred and twelve pounds). They are inferior to the Cheddar, and very much inferior to American factory cheese, and the highest prices are only occasionally realized. GLOUCKSTEESHIEE. I think there are no statistics giving the number of pounds of cheese annually produced in Gloucestershire, but some estimate may be made from official returns of the number of cows in the county. It is put at 34,744 ; loss from cattle plague up to 21st of April, 116. I understand that the losses since that time have not been of much account. The geological features are the oolite, the lias and the new red sandstone, the former comprising the principal part of the hills and high lands, the lias the more level and the latter the richer and deeper soils of the valleys, which are chiefly pasture lands, upon which butter, cheese and meat are largely produced. The oolite strata in its varied character runs from north to south, forming the Cotswold hills. Entering Somersetshire at Lansdown, near Bath, where it furnishes the beautiful Bath stone, passing outward into North Somerset, widening as it enters Wiltshire, soon after which, in the neighborhood of Westbury, it is no longer the surface soil, but becomes loaded with the green sandstone and chalk formation, like the snail which bears its shell upon its back. The Cots- wold hills are well farmed in the four, flve or six course systems, according to the capability of the soil. Wheat, barley and turnips are successfully grown. The hills give the name to the Cotswold sheep — which have long been bred and fed there — beautiful animals, with white face, and of highly improved quality, both as regards meat and wool, the latter being long and fine, the fleece weighing from five to ten pounds. A ram will sometimes turn ofi" fifteen or sixteen pounds of wool. They are generally heavier in mutton than^the Downs. On the western side of the Cotswold hills, extending to the Severn River, and fifteen to twenty miles in length, is what is called the vale of Berkeley. It has every appearance of having been, in past time, covered with the sea. This valley is the chief dairy district of the county of Gloucester. The native cow is of dark coloi", with a black nose, short legs ; is a thick-set, well-built animal ; altogether a very useful beast ; but the Short-Horns and Herefords are displacing her. In the regular Gloucestershire dairies the cheese is made thin, eight of them only weighing one hundred and twenty pounds. They are made twice Practical Dairy Husbandry. 265 a day, the work beginning about seven o'clock in the morning, and being finished about ten or eleven o'clock. At five in the afternoon they commence with the evening milk, and finish between eight and nine o'clock. This cheese is known in the cheese-consuming world as the famous Berkely cheese. If well made it is rich and sweet, and the makers are quite as tenacious of their reputation as those who make cheese worth from ten to twenty shillings per hundred weight more money. Cows are generally kept, more or less, over the county except on the uplands. The south and south-west, around the neighborhood of Bristol, are the coal meadows. This district is not fai-med so well, comparatively, as the other sections, from various circumstances ; being in the coal district, the surface is uneven and the enclosures small, as are also the farms ; besides it is near Bristol, at which place hay, straw and milk are continually sold. CHEESE APPARATUS AND MODE OF " SINGLE GLOSTER " CHEESE MANUFACTURE. At a nice farm in the southern part of Gloucestershire, which I visited in June for the purpose of seeing the operations of making " Single Gloster " cheese, the dairy consisted of thii-ty-five cows. These were Short-Horns, large, handsome, but not showing extraordinary capacity for milk. The dwelling, dairy and buildings were all of stone, large, commodious, and every- thing kept in the neatest manner. The place where the cheese was made was a spacious room with stone floor, clean and well ventilated, and as cool and sweet an apartment as the most fastidious cheese-maker could desire. The utensils or appurtenances for cheese-making consisted of an unpainted tub for holding the milk, leaden vats for holding the whey, a circular wire curd- breaker, having an upright handle springing from the center, dippers, skim- mers, &c., with two box presses for pressing the cheese. The last were unlike anything I had ever seen, and consisted of large square boxes moving up between standards by means of pulleys and ropes attached to a windlass. The boxes were filled with stones, iron, &c., making a weight of several hundreds pounds, and applied directly on the cheese. These presses were very nicely made of dark wood, and varnished, evidently intended to be ornar mental as well as useful. From the manner of their make and the power to be applied in raising the weight, the services of a strong man would be required. The milk was being made up twice a day, making eleven cheeses of fourteen pounds each for every two days, each cheese being about two and a-half inches thick by fourteen or fifteen inches broad. There was no heating apparatus in the room, and none is required in the " Single Gloster " process of cheese-making. As soon as the milk is all deposited in the tub the rennet is added, when it is left to coagulate. As soon as properly coagulated it is broken up with the wire breaker, by moving it up and down, which has a tendency to pulp the curd rather than break it, as the word breaking is gener- ally understood by our cheese-makers. The mass is then left for the curd to settle, and after it has arrived at a proper degree of firmness to be handled 266 Practical Dairy Husbandry. the whey is dipped off down to the curd, the tub canted up to drain off what whey remains, and the curd gathered to the upper edge of the tub. The whey being removed, the curd is cut across and heaped up, and pressed with the hands to expel as much of the whey as possible, when it is put to press. It remains in press till morning, when it is taken out, turned and salted on the outside. It is then returned to the press and goes through the same ope- ration from four to six successive days. When taken from the press it is put upon the shelf for a few days, to be turned every day, and finally goes to the cheese room, when it will be ready for market in two or three months, if prices suit. This cheese or drying room is in the upper part of the dwelling house, and the cheeses, when taken here, are placed close together on the floor. A chance dealer from Bristol, who was present, made a test of the cheeses by walking upon them as they lay spread out upon the floor, which we were assured was the usual method of determining their firmness and solidity. They stood the test of his weight and boots, and were pronounced among the best in Gloucestershire. The hoops in which the cheese is pressed are turned out of a solid piece of wood, and each has a stationary bottom pierced with holes, similar to the hoops used in Wiltshire. In one of the presses I counted fifteen cheeses piled up one upon another, all of which were being pressed together. I think from the above description none of our dairymen will care to make "Single Gloster" cheese and I cannot see why people there will continue to keep along in the same old rut of their forefathers without making some effort to improve. I have now presented some of the general features of this great district. The country is well watered by springs and streams, but no better than, if as well as, many parts of the central counties of N"ew York. Where watering places are constructed the plan is somewhat different from ours — small ponds being more numerous. The pastures produce, perhaps, more feed than with us, from several causes. In the "first place they are more free from weeds ; they are better cared for in top-dressings of manures, while the humidity of the climate produces fresher feed and a greater quantity of verdure. The permanent pastures have a fine thick sod, filled with a variety of nutri- tious grasses, among which the following may be of interest in this connec- tion. The sweet-scented vernal grass {Anthoxanthum odorato) flowers in May, and grows freely in all soils and situations. It is one of the earliest of grasses, and the fragrant odor it affords when dried gives to meadow hay mxich of its sweetness. Meadow foxtail {Alopeeurus pratensis) flowers in May and June. Its early, abundant, leafy produce is much liked by cattle and sheep, and renders it one of the most valuable of pasture grasses. It forms part of the best pastures and thrives under judicious irrigation. Meadow fescue {Festuca pratensis) flowers in June, likes a good soil, and does not attain its full growth until three years from the time of sowing. The produce is nutritious and abundant, and it forms a uniform and abundant turf. Cocks-foot grass (Dactylis glomerata) flowers in June and July, grows three feet high and upward, and forms a large portion of all the best natural Practical Dairy Eusbandrt. 267 pastures, and is regarded superior to most grasses in the quantity and quality of its produce. Its coarse and tufted character makes it unsuitable for lawns. ■Crested dogstail {Gynosurus crystatus) flowers in July, and is found in all pastures. It suffers but little from dry weather, but produces only a moderate quantity of fine herbage. Hard-fescue grass (Festuca dv/riuscula) grows two feet high and forms a portion of all dry pastures, and retains a permanent verdure. It flowers in June. Sheep fescue (Festitca ovina) is found in all dry soils from the sea land to a great elevation ; flowers in June. Meadow grass {Poa pratensis), or Kentucky blue grass. It produces an early, nutri- tious herbage, and is regarded as particularly suited to light soils. Rough- stalked meadow grass {Poa trivialis), fibrous-rooted, rough stalks, forms a portion of almost all mixtures for permanent pasture-grasses, and is particu- larly desirable in grounds shaded with trees. Timothy is also found in pas- tures and meadows, but is not grown to the same extent as with us. Then there are the clovers, red and white, which are so largely grown with us ; and the Alsike clover {TrifoHum hybridum), a true perennial, very productive on moist, rich soils, and will succeed where red clover fails. It is regarded by many as superior to white clover in bulk and quality of produce, and equals it in duration. These are among the leading grasses ; and in seeding for permanent pastures, a compound of the best grasses and clovers is used, often as much as two bushels of the light and twelve pounds of the heavy seed to the acre. I think the question of pastures is better understood in England than with us, and it is a point on which we have something to learn from them. I can- not say that the quantity of grass from permanent meadows, or those long in grass, is larger than is often found with us, but the quality is finer and better — that is, the hay has less woody fiber than with us. At Rothamstead — Lawks' celebrated experimental farm — ^my attention was particularly called to the fineness of the grass made into hay. The old stocks which had been cut down, presented a solid mass of hay almost as fine as hair, and its nutri- tive quality must have been a third more than our timothy, on account of less waste of woody fiber. Allusion has been made to permanent meadows, but generally what we term meadows, that is, land devoted to the production of hay, are treated very differently from ours. Much of the hay is grown on what is termed the four or five course shift. It comes in regular rotation after grain crops. It is mowed once or twice, and then broken up for a crop of wheat. Various mixtures are sown, and large yields often result. I went upon a splendid meadow in Devonshire, where the yield of grass upon the ground must have made at least two and a-half tons of hay per acre, and perhaps more, and it was the first crop. The seeding per acre was as follows : Eight pounds of red clover ; two pounds of white clover ; four pounds of trefoil ; three pounds of Peek's Italian rye-grass. This is not given as an illustration of the best mix- ture, but rather as a specimen of what our farmers would term heavy seeding. 268 Pkactical Dairy Husbandbt. Lands often get more and a greater variety of seeds. Perhaps I am occupy- ing too much space by going so minutely into details ; but I feel earnest for the success of American farmers, and have thought that it might be of inter- est for them to get a little insight into the manner in which dairy farms are managed abroad. Perhaps this may be appreciated the more, when they are told that a farmer in the dairy regions of England often pays from $3,000 to $3,.500 per annum in rents and taxation for a two-hundred-acre farm.' He pays this for the land alone, and gets no use of any personal property what- ever. He then stocks it at his own expense. He is at all the cost of uten- sils, labor, and of keeping the farm in repair. As the wealthy or " well-to-do " farmer, for the most part, never lays his hand to any labor beyond superin- tendence, one might naturally conclude, as I did, that pretty shrewd manage- ment at least is required to pay this sum, support his establishment, and lay up money from his business. By the judicious use of capital and the liberal use of fertilizers, and by a system of mixed farming, he is able to accomplish these results. It is true, labor is cheap. He pays his laborers from thirty to forty cents per day, and in harvest a little more ; but he does not board them. They have cottages -^good, substantial buildings — and little gardens. These cottages, like the more pretentious mansion of the farmer, are erected by and at the expense of the landlord ; but a certain number of people go with the farm, and they pay rent to the farmer for their cottages, say about a shilling per week. > The condition of the peasantry is, in many respects, most wretched ; but that need not be discussed here. The farmer's position is infinitely above them, and he lives, for the most part, the life of a gentleman. He is a man who is expected to have some means, say from £8 to £10 per acre ; or, in other words, a floating capital of from forty to fifty dollars for every acre of his farm. This he uses in his business, purchasing stock and fertilizers, and making such improvements as he judges will pay him back remnuerative profits. And here I cannot do better than introduce the reader to Mr. Harding, of Marksbury, the great exponent of Cheddar cheese-making in England. Mr. Harding is perhaps sixty years old, and learned the great and essential principles of cheese-making from his ancestors. He has simplified the process of manufacture, and helped to reduce it more to a science ; but he does not claim to be the originator of the Cheddar style. He is an intelli- gent, companionable man, with a rich vein of humor- in his composition. A brief view of his mode of management will serve as an illustration of the manner in which dairy farms are conducted in the south of England, although in some respects, Mr. Harding's practice differs from that of others. ME. HABDING's farm. The farm may be regarded as of rather inferior land, some of it a com- pact, tenacious soil, requiring a four-horse team to plow it.' Comparatively, he places the farm under the head of middle-class lands, and when he first Practical Dairy Husbandry. 269 came upon it, it was considered unadapted to the dairy. But, for illustration it win serve our purpose better to take some extra farm, since a nearer approximation will be reached to average results. The farm consists of three hundred acres, two hundred of which are in permanent pasture and meadow, and one hundred acres arable land. The farm is hilly, and rises from the new red sandstone, which is the poorest part, to the white lias, which is level, and upon which lies the arable portion, and again rising to the oolite, which is the best part of the farm. The permanent grass lands are used alternately for pasture and meadow, the change being made annually. Mr. Harding making good cheese, which sells at a high price, believes it more remunerative to convert as much as possible of the arable land into milk. A considerable portion of the arable land is devoted to grasses that will come early to supply the cows in spring. The arable land is managed as follows: First crop, wheat ; second, turnips, vetches, tares, &c. ; third, barley ; when the land is seeded with rye-grass one bushel, trefoil, ten pounds, red clover, four pounds, white clover, three pounds per acre. Upon these grasses the cows are pastured two seasons, when it is broken up in August or September and sown with wheat in October, without additional plowing. After the wheat is harvested, a portion of the stubble is immediately plowed and sown with winter tares for feeding sheep early in spring. Another portion is sown at the same time with trifolium incarnatum (Italian crimson clover), another part is sown in February with spring tares, and the balance to Swedes and other turnips. All this feed is to be consumed for the feeding and fattening of sheep, of which from one to two hundred are kept. The sheep are purchased in August, at from six to eight months old, at prices ranging from seven dollars and a-half to ten dollars each, and the next season, after shearing, are sold at from fifteen to twenty dollars each. In fattening the sheep, they are hurdled and fed on the turnips, vetches, &c., with corn or cake, say of the latter at the rate of half a pound each per day. The turnips are grown in drills, with an application of from five to six hun- dred pounds of superphosphate per acre, leaving the principal part of the farm-yard manures for the permanent grass lands, upon which are kept from sixty-five to seventy cows, half-a-dozen heifers, and eight horses. Thirty-five dollars per ton are paid for the superphosphate. The cows are grades partaking largely of the Short-Horn blood, of good size, with a view that, when failing for the dairy, they may be turned to good account for making beef. Mr. Haediwg keeps more stock than he grows hay for, in the winter, thinking that grass is far more valuable than hay, and he makes up the lack of fodder by giving two parts straw and one of hay, out to chafi", with three or four pounds of oil-cake per day to each animal. The cows yield about four hundred and fifty pounds of cheese each annually. They " come in milk " in February, and cheese-making commences about the first of March. The calves are sold to the butcher when a few days old, as is the practice of some of our dairymen. The cows are not kept in barns or 2T0 Practical Dairy Husbandet. close stables as is the practice in New York, but are tied in sheds built of stone, the floors nicely paved. In these they take their place during sum- mer — night and morning, for milking, and each milker is allotted seven cows. Tin pails are used for milking, and the milkers place them on the head when carrying the milk to the dairy. The pig in this dairy forms an important item of profit. A hundred or more are fattened during the year on barley meal mingled with the whey, which annually realize about seven dollars and a-half per hundredweight, after paying for the meal. The hogs are of the Berkshire breed, and very fine ones. They are kept in a nice, spacious stone piggery, cleaned and bedded every day. The barn is a large stone building, provided with a water-wheel, to which is attached the threshing machine, chafi"-cutter and stones for grind- ing the grain. The dairy-house is connected with the dwelling, and is a model of neatness, being built of stone, and provided with Cocket's apparatus for cheese-making, a tolerably good apparatus, but much inferior to our factory vats. The milkers are not allowed to come into the dairy, but pour the milk into a receiver at the window, which conducts it to a tub. The whey passes oflF through pipes to a cistern in the piggery, where it is pumped for the pigs. The production of hay on permanent meadows of this farm is generally at the rate of three thousand eight hundred pounds to the acre. Farm-yard manures are not allowed to accumulate in the yard, but are taken to the field where they are to be used and there piled. Here it is turned until pretty well rotted, when it is spread upon the lands to be mowed. It is applied at the rate of twenty cartloads per acre, and brushed down fine. Results. — ^Under this system the annual average receipts and expenditures are as follows, the calculations of course, being upon a gold standard : Cheese sold $5,000 Profit on sheep, Including wool and mutton 500 Profit on pigs 600 Grain sold 1,800 Calves and butter 250 Total 8,150 The expenses are : For rent $2,500 For tithes 450 For poor rates and taxes 400 For labor 1 ,750 5,100 Leaving an annual profit or balance of 3,050 The number of male hands employed, including boys, is ten. They get on the average thirty-three cents and three pints of cider each per day. In harvest the men get fifty cents per day ; these sums always including the cost of board, since in England the hands do not live in the farmer's family, as with us, but find themselves in board. The two girls in the house are paid Practical Daibt Husbandry. 271 thirty and fifty dollars per year and board. These figures were given to me by Mr. Haeding as his average result of profits. To this should be added, doubtless, the value of the food consumed in the family. No items were given for beef sold, since these were made to balance depreciation of stock, purchase of oil-cake, &c. No comment need be made on the foregoing, because among practical men each will make the necessary comparisons and draw his own conclusions as to whether his own or this is the best system of dairy farming. But if any can show a better balance sheet, in gold, from a poor farm of this size, he is doing well. CHEDDAR CHEESE-MAKING. Having described the Gloster and Wilts process of cheese-making, I will say something of the Cheddar process. The improved English Cheddar cheese is regarded by Englishmen as the finest cheese that is made anywhere. It suits the general taste better than any other description of cheese manu- factured. The fact that Cheddar always commands the highest prices ; that there is an immense demand for it ; and that its manufacture has become more scientific and thorough than that of any other kind, make it important for us to study its character. I was among the Cheddar dairymen for more than two weeks, studying the process of manufacture, and saw some of their most noted dairies. I was at Mr. Gibbon's, who was awarded the gold medal for the best dairy at the international exhibition, at Paris, and at Mr. Harding's of Marksbnry, Mr, McAdam's of Gorsly Hill, Cheshire, and others, and after having seen all the different styles of cheese in Great Britain, I am of the opinion that the Cheddar is the only process from which American dairymen can obtain suggestions of much practical utility. I may here remark tjiat John Bull, like his blood relation Jonathan, is a man of strong prejudices, and will often'prefer a Cheddar cheese of no better quality than good American at ten to fifteen shillings per hundred weight more in price, simply because the English Cheddar has a better reputation. This feeling has very much to do in regulating the difference of price between the best samples of cheese of the two countries. But laying all prejudice aside I must, in truth, say that we have not yet been able to surpass in excel- lence the fine specimens of English Cheddar. It is a very high standard of cheese, and is deserving of all the encomiums which it has received from time to time. The quantity of extra Cheddar made in England is comparatively small, and its peculiar excellence has been rarely reached in American dairies. Its requisites may be briefly summed up in the following points: 1. Mildness and purity of flavor ; 2. Quality, which consists of mellowness or richness under the tongue ; 3. Long keeping qualities ; 4. Solidity or freedom from eyes or holes ; 5. An economical shape as regards shrinkage, handling and cutting. It is not within the range of a brief paper like this to go minutely into all the details of Cheddar cheese-making, but rather to present points of differ- 272 Practical Dairy Husbandry. ence between their points and our own. In the first place, English dairymen have a cleaner and better flavored milk than generally obtains with us. The milking is performed with great nicety in tin pails. The milk rooms are perfect models of neatness. They have stone floors and the joints of the flagging are cemented togethei', so that no slops or decomposed milk can have an entrance. They are situated in a cool, airy place, and the walls are of stone or of hollow brick, thus rendering them cool and of even temperature. Every part is well ventilated, and out of the reach of disagreeable or fetid odors. The floor, the utensils and cheese apparatus are kept as sweet and clean as the tables and crockery of the most fastidious housekeeper. This condition of things I found universal wherever I went among the dairymen — at the royal dairy, near the Queen's palace at Windsor Castle, and radiating thence through all parts of England. Nothing connected with cheese-making abroad struck me with more force and admiration than this perfect neatness and cleanliness of the dairy. In this respect they are greatly in advance of us ; and in my opinion it is one of the chief reasons why they are able to obtain that flne, clean flavor which is a distinguished character- istic of their choice cheese. There is nothing, perhaps, which indicates the progress and skill of our manufacturers more than the fact that they are able to take imperfect milk from the hands of patrons, manipulate it among the fetid odors of whey slops and decomposed milk, and yet turn out a cheese that will compete with the great bulk of English make. But these conditions will not and cannot pro- duce the fine, delicate flavor of the best Cheddar, and it is one reason why there is such a great bulk of American cheese condemned abroad as " not just right in flavor." Now this putrid inoculation does not show its whole character at first, but, like the insidious poison in the blood, increases from week to week, until it puts on a distinctive feature which spoils all the good material with which it comes in contact. I saw American cheese abroad, perfect in shape and color, rich in quality, splendidly manufactured, and it had a bright, handsome appearance, that would have placed it on an equality with the best in the world ; but the trier showed a flavor that could be plainly traced to a bad or imperfect condition of the milk before manipulation, I have been extremely mortified, while testing cheese abroad, to catch the taste or smell of putrid rennet and of the stables. This is one point of difierence between the dairy practice of the two nations. In the Cheddar process the milk is at a low temperature — from seventy-eight to eighty degrees — using some whey with the rennet, according to the condition of the milk. After coagulation is perfected, which takes from forty to sixty minutes, the cnrd is cut in large checks, and soon after they commence breaking with a wire breaker attached to a long handle. The breaking is at first slow and gentle, and is continued till the curd is minutely divided. This is efiected before any additional heat is applied. They claim that the curd cannot be properly broken at ninety or above ninety degrees, and Practical Dairy Ewsbandrt. 273 that there is a better separation of the whey and condition of the curd Toy breaking minutely at about seventy-five or eighty degrees without an increase of heat during the process. This process of minute breaking in the early stages of the curd appears to me to result in loss of butter, and this is the chief reason, I think, why Cheddars have less butter in their composition than our best American. That it does not result from inferior milk is shown from the quantity of whey butter manufactured. : The breaking at Mr. Hakdixg's usually occupied a full hour. The heat is raised in scalding to one hundred degrees. Their cheese apparatus is inferior to ours, and hence I think that part of the process is not capable of being done so well as with us, since heat is not applied so evenly to all parts of the mass ; but from this point there is a wide difference in the treatment of the curds. Whea the curd has reached a firm consistency, and the whey shows a slightly acid change — a change so slight as to be detected only by the experienced observer — it is immediately drawn and the curd heaped up in the bottom of the tub. I am not sure but this early drawing of the whey is an improvement. When in London I had some conversation with Dr. Voelckee, the cele- brated chemist of the Royal Agricultural Society. Among other things, he said:—" One of the greatest faults of cheese-makers is in the application of heat. • Many use too high heat. The lower the temperature that can be used, and the more evenly it can be applied, the better flavor will obtain to the cheese. Another point of importance in cheese-making, and one not generally understood, is in relation to the whey. It should be drawn off, got rid of just as soon as possible, or as soon as consistent with the necessary operations." He would draw the whey sweet. The reason he gave was, that " you can never tell what matter you have or what you are dealing with in the whey. It may contain taints, of the worst character. You cannot •vyell determine the degree of its- acidity, and hence great risks are run in steeping the curd for a long time in the fluid." He would prefer to draw the whey as early as possi-' ble and allow the curd to undergo the proper change and arrive at maturity heaped up in the bottom of the vat. Soon after the whey is drawn and the curd heaped, it is cut across in pieces a foot or more square and thrown again in a heap to facilitate drainage and develope further acidity. It remains in this condition for half-an-'hour, the whey meanwhile flowing slowly from the heap, when it is taken out of the cheese tub and placed in the sink or cooler. It is then split by the hand into thin flakes and spread out to cool. The curd at this stage has a distinctly acid smell, and is slightly sour to the taste. It is left here to cool for fifteen minutes, when it is turned over and left for the same length of time, or until it has the peculiar mellow or flaky feel desired. It is then gathered up and put to press for ten minutes, when it is taken out, ground in a curd-mill, and salted at the rate of two pounds salt to the hundred weight (one hundred and twelve pounds) of curd. It then goes to press, and is kept under pressure two or three days. The curd, when it goes to press, has a temperature of 18 274 Practical Dairy Husbandry. from sixty to sixty-five degreees, and when it is in the sink it is preferred not to get below this point. A proper temperature is retained in the curd during the various parts of the process, in cool weather, by throwing over it a thick cloth. It will be seen that, the whey being disposed of at an early stage, the attention of the manufacturer is to be directed only to one substance — the curd. By draining the whey and expelling it under the press, and then grinding, a uniform incorporation of this material is effected. The cooling of the curd before going to press, and the removal of the cheese after the pressure, to a cheese-room, where an even temperature is kept up, differing but little from that of the cheese when taken from the press, effects a gradual transformation of the parts into that compact, mellow, flaky condition which is characteristic of the Cheddar, and at the same time preserves its milky or nutty flavor. Now, apparently, there is nothing difficult in the process ; but the great art in this as in other methods of cheese-making, is to understand the condi- tion of the milk and the state of the curds during their various manipulations. These cannot be described, but can only be learned by experience. The pro- cess, however, is more easily acquired than that usually practiced at the factories, since the whey being got rid of, the curd is placed under better control of the operator, and the pressing, grinding and salting must, in this respect, make a more uniform product. We can scarcely yet appreciate the part that chemistry plays in the manufacture of cheese. We use a chemical agent — rennet — ^the nature of which even the most learned chemists do not fully understand. We note the changes that this produces in the milk and manipulate it in its new condition. We then employ heat, another agent, and develope an acid ; then another agent, salt ; and what wonder that, in all these conditions and changes, the careless and unskillful operator should fail in the quality of the article which he produces or the standard which he sets out to reach ? The most profound chemists are often thwarted in their operations by inexplicable conditions which, at first sight, seem easy of solution. Thus, for instance, take four well-known substances, viz., grape-sugar, corn-sugar, starch, and wood, each of which is made up of only three elements, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, which it must seem easy to use so that either of these substances could be converted into the others. There is very little difference, it will be seen, in the composition of any of these substances, and yet how widely different are they to our senses. It would seem a very simple thing to convert one of these substances into another by merely adding or subtrac- ting an element, yet we find that the most expert chemists experience the greatest difficulty in bringing about a result which nature is constantly accomplishing in her silent laboratories. The more we can reduce cheese- making to a science, and confine it within certain rules, the better will be our practice and the more uniform our product. It may not be advisable to adopt any one system exclusively, since fine cheese can be made by various methods ; Practical Dairy Husbandry. 216 but the study of the cheese-maker should be to seize upon a good point when- ever he can find it, and combine it in his own practice. Mr. Harding believes a sharp-cutting instrument in breaking the curd is injurious, and that the curd should be allowed to split apart according to its natural grain ; other persons in England, quite as good cheese-makers, believe in sharp-cutting imple- ments ; of these I might mention Dr. Voklckek of London, and Mr. McAdam of Gorsly Hill, who has not only written well on cheese-making, but has done much in introducing the Cheddar system into Scotland and Cheshire. Of this, however, we may assure ourselves : by no system can good cheese be made unless the manufacturer studies his business, and learns, by close appli- cation, by observation and experience, the changes that are going on in the process with the whey and curds, and can properly manipulate them. CHESHIRE CHEESE-MAKING. I suppose that many of our cheese-makers would hardly suspect that a really fine, delicious cheese could be made by the following process, which is the one in general practice in Cheshire ; and yet some of this cheese cannot be surpassed in flavor and excellence. The Cheshire mode of cheese-making is somewhat peculiar, and, to an American, would be called decidedly anti- quated. The night's milk is usually set in pans and added to the morning's mess, when it is set with rennet at a temperature of about seventy-five degrees. Often no heat is applied — the morning's milk being sufiiciently warm to keep the mass up to the desired temperature for setting. After the rennet is applied, the coagulation is perfected in about an hour, when it is carefully broken up with a wire or tin curd-cutter, of similar make to the old American curd-cutter. The breaking being perfected, and the curd becoming sufficiently firm, without any additional heat being applied, the whey is dipped off". The curd is then lifted into a drainer or kind of sink, where the whey can drain off more thoroughly, and from time to time the curd is cut across and heaped up, BO as to facilitate a more thorough separation of the whey. It is then salted, by guess, and ground in a curd-mill, when it is put into the hoop, but not immediately to press. The hoops filled with curd, are set in a warm place for a day or so, generally in a kind of oven constructed for the purpose ; and, on the second day are put under press. Here they are kept several days, as in the "Wiltshire and Gloucestershire districts. The hoops have no followers. They have a bottom pierced with holes, which is stationary. A strip of tin, four or five inches wide, is placed about the curd on the inside of the hoop, or above it, so as to raise the curd above the top of the hoop. A board is now thrown or placed on top of the curd, and as the press is applied, the tin sinks down with the curd until it is pressed even with the hoop. If the cheese is not found to be solid enough, another hoop of less hight, is used, and the tin put around that portion above the hoop, and pressed in a similar manner. Many of the 276 Practical Daisy Husbandry. presses are noithing but large square blocks of stone raised by a screw. They are rude affairs. The bed-tpieoes. on some are of stone, with a flue beneath for conducting heat, in order to. keep the cheese warm while pressing. The niilk is worked up into curd, and the utensils cleaned up every day by twelve o'clock M. It was really a matter of surprise to find that fine cheese could be made by this process, where everything ia done by guess, and where all the operations are so different from our method.. But a great deal of poor cheese is made in the Cheshire dairies, and as a whole is inferior to our factory make. That which is the best is as fine in flavor and quality as any cheese made, and will command the highest prices. The ' texture of Cheshire cheese is different from the Cheddar, being what is termed " open meated," that is, loose in texture without being porous. Their best cheese appears richer in butter than the Cheddar. I have merely given the outlines of the Cheshire mode of cheese making, as a matter of curiosity. In my judgment there is nothing in the process adapted to America^ we being at least fifty years ahead in our appliances and mode of manufacturing. I must say this, however, in favor of Cheshire dairymen : everything connected with the dairy is kept scrupulously clean. The floors, the utensils, and every part of the dairy are sweet and clean. And here, perhaps, is the secret, or at least a part of it, of the fine, clean flavor of their best cheese. During a portion of the time the Cheshire cheese is undergoing the process of curing, the cheese is placed on straw or hay upon the floor of the curing room. APPEAEANCB AND COMPARATIVE MERITS OP AMEEICAIT CHEESE ABROAD. Having now described the manufacture of the leading styles of English cheese, it may be well to say something in regard to the appearance of Amer- ican cheese in England, and what is thought of it in the foreign markets. I went into nearly all the principal market towns in England from the south to the north, and heard hundreds of people discuss the merits and faults of American cheese at the storehouses, the shops and at the table. I took much pains to get at the true state of feeling in the country, and I think I may safely say that American cheese to-day, as a whole, has more quality and is better manufactured than the bulk of English cheese. I have given them the credit of producing a limited quantity of cheese of the finest type that has ever been reached by any manufacture, but the quantity is comparatively , small, and when the whole bulk is considered, there is nothing like the richness and uniformity of that from our factories. This is not only my own opinion, but that of many of the best judges of cheese in Great Britain. I have been at hotels where American' cheese is always pur- chased in preference to English, and I have been amused to hear Englishmen contend that no such cheese could be produced in America; and nowhere else except in the best dailies of England, but who were forced to give way on Practical Dairy Husbandrt. 277 pointing out to them the bandage, which is an indisputable proof of American manufacture. Country dealers, cotters, middlemen, and shippers, admif that the highest grades of our iactory cheese have more quality and are superior to the general run of English make. I have often heard dealers declare in a spirit of vexation tliat if the Amer- icans continue to progress in the ratio of the last four years, two or three years more will place their cheese at the top of the market, and English inake must rank secondary. They say the Cheshire dairymen are " dough-heads " not to try to keep pace with modetn improvements. I have seen a dealer look at American and English cheese side by side, and while admitting that the American was in every respect the best, take the' English at a higher price, because, as he said, some of his customers had such foolish prejudices that they would not try the American, and' therefore could not ^dge of its quality. A leading dealer in Manchester told me he 'had many times tried to introduce American cheese among certain of his customers, and that they would not purchase. By and by, when they sent up an order, he would slip in a few of nice grade factory make, and after that the customer would be eager to purchase, declaring he never cut up better cheese. Now, this is the condition of things all over England; there is pr'ejudice to overcome, because formerly our cheese was of bad character, and thei-eis a feeling that it is of such perishable nature that it will spoil if not immediately consumed. These remarks apply to the nice grades of cheese. There is another class of our cheese which comes into market that does great injury to sales. It is cheese that is rich and w«ll made but of bad flavor. This, and large shipments of inferior make,the accumulated refuse from good and indif- ferent lots which cannot be sold alone, are mixed up with good • samples and shipped abroad to clean out New York storehouses. ' ' These lots drag on the market ; they are constantly accumulating, and sales are forced, which breaks the^market, besides carrying a prejudice whefe- ever they go, against American cheese. As to the outward appearance of American cheese, as I saw it abroad, ^it is generally good. Of course some of it comes to hand soft, melted, and in wretched condition, but generally the great bulk of factory make comes in store quite as bright and handsome as does the English manufacture. Many of the large dealers' told nle they had never had American cheese come to market with handsomer outward appearance than this year's (1866) make. And I think in getting the comparative merits of the cheese of the two nations we have often been misled and wrongly informed. Great condemnation has been made of our poor cheese, all of which was well deserved, but while great stress has been laid upon this, there has been a studied care to conceal'the merits of our best goods.' This is but natural,- Men engage in the cheese trade to make money? they run great risks, and cannot be expected to post otherS up to- their own disadvantage. The laws of tra^e are " to buy cheap and sell dear ;" and so^ after all, perhaps, they are not bo much to blame. 278 Practical Dairy Husbandry. Some of the dealers, acting in concert with parties in New Tork, take great pains to keep factories which make prime cheese, in ignorance of the fact. The factory names are erased from the boxes, and so customers are supplied with a line of cheese which they can only trace to the private brand of the dealer. Some have acquired in this way an enviable reputation for handling choice American cheese, and have made largely by the practice. It is a great damage to the factories, since other dealers are kept ignorant of the brands, and cannot enter into competition for the purchase. I know of no way for this to be remedied except by branding the name of the factory on the bandage. Perhaps a good way also would be to have the name of the factory neatly cut in rather broad letters upon the pressing follower, so that the cheese when pressed will show the name of the factory in raised letters. There is no difficulty in this, and no hurt will result to the cheese. I have seen samples of English cheese where elaborate figures were raised upon the surface in the manner suggested, but I would not advise any " gingerbread work " — nothing but plain carving. STYLES OF CHEESE DEMANDED. The styles of cheese demanded for the trade will depend somewhat upon the market for which they are intended. In London small Cheddar shapes of forty, fifty, sixty, and seventy pounds are popular, and will command an extra price over cheese of large size of the same quality. The true Cheddar shape is fifteen and a-half inches in diameter by twelve inches in hight, and by preserving this proportion for larger or smaller cheese that style is obtained. Cheddars are made varying in size from those named up to eighty and one hundred pounds, but the larger are not so common. A limited number of those weighing one hunded pounds would readily find sale. Those weighing about seventy pounds are not objectionable, but the smaller sizes are of readier sale, and often on account of their size bring better prices. It costs more, however, to manufacture small cheeses, and there is greater loss in shrinkage ; and this ought to enter into the account in determining the size that will be most profitable. It would be well for factories to make two sizes of Cheddars, regulating each somewhat in accordance with their own con- venience. The Cheddar shapes are popular all over England, and therefore may be regarded as best adapted as a general rule for our factories to make for exportation. There is another style called the Derby shape, which, when made of fine quality, brings the highest prices. It is a small, flat cheese, fourteen to fifteen inches in diameter, and two and a-half to three inches thick, and weighing twenty-five to thirty pounds. If care be taken in boxing, two cheeses might be put in a box, and thus the expense on that score lessened. There shoiild be two heavy scale boards between the cheese, and none but well-made, substantial boxes used. There is a moderate demand for our old-fashioned shaped cheese — ^that is, a cheese half as high as its diameter, and weighing Practical Dairy Husbandry. 219 from sixty to eighty pounds, but it should not exceed one hundred pounds. In Liverpool a variety of styles are worked off readily. Several of the dealers there told me they had no difficulty in disposing of cheese weighing one hundred and twenty pounds to one hundred and fifty pounds, providing it was all right as to quality and flavor ; but I am satisfied, after going among the country dealers in different parts of England, that preference is always given to cheese of smaller size when the other qualities are satisfactory. COLOE. The matter of color is a question which has long occupied the attention of American dairymen, and upon which very indistinct notions have been entertained. This is not to be wondered at when the different markets in England give preference to a variety of shades, and different dealers ask only for the color of their particular market. The Londoner likes a cheese of con- siderable color, something like the rich shade of butter made when the dande- lions are in bloom. It must be clear and pure ; not lemony or dirty, or mot- tled through the cheese, but a rich shade of cream that gives a pleasing effect to the eye, thus serving to highten the imagination that a delicious morsel is before you. London is the grand metropolis of the world, where wealth is unbounded. The best articles of food readily find a market here, and command the highest prices of any in the kingdom. If they can only get the best they are willing to pay for it, and this is the reason why choice cheese never goes begging at top prices. "When I went through the Manchester cheese markets they told me that colored cheese was a drug and did not suit that market. A very extensive dealer had just returned from Liverpool disappointed in not obtain- ing a supply of pale-colored cheese. In prices, quality and shape, he said, there was no difficulty in being suited, but his customers insisted upon an ungolored article, and as that was not to be had he did not purchase. It was in this man's storehouses that I saw some of the Herkimer county, New York, "coarse curds," and they were commended for their texture and quality. There are large quantities of pale-colored cheese made in England, and con- siderable of the high-priced Cheddar has no color except that which results from the natural condition of the milk. I went down to Chippenham to see the great annatto manufacturer, Mr. KiCHOLS. His preparation bears the reputation of the best in England, and I thought it might be worth while to have him send over samples, and thus have an article that was approved by English dealers. Mr. Nichols was willing to send out samples on my assurance that they would be properly distributed ; but when I reached London I learned from the chemists a secret which is worth a good many thousand dollars to American dairymen. It is, that all preparations of annatto depend for their excellence, not so much upon any patent for dissolving or cutting the crude annatto as upon the purity of the annatto itself. All the best English liquid annatto is cut with potash, so 1280 Practical Dairy Hvsbandrt. that American dairymen can just as well make their own coloring material as to send abroad at great expense for the English article. But it is important that we obtain a, pure article, and this can only be secured byi purchasing of a reliable person who is a good judge of it. If you use a bad article you are sure to get a bricky, uneven color, which is so objectionable, and which reduces the price of cheese. BAISDAGES, BOXES, ETC. In regard to bandaging and boxing I may remark that no cheese should be made in America for shipping abroad without having a bandage upon it, and without being put up in a strong box with heavy scale boards. I have seen considerable quantities of English cheese in the storehouses split open at the sides, a prey to skippers, and upon which losses were sustained. The Cheddar dairymen put a coarse linen bandage upon their cheese during the process of curing. It is brought round tight and temporarily secured. Some work eyelet holes at the ends of the bandage and bring it snugly about the cheese by lacing, as you would fasten a shoe upon the foot. These bandages are stripped off when the cheese goes to market. The cheeses would be better protected if they had permanent bandages, on our plan, and some of the English dairymen advocate its introduction in their dairies. By not bandaging something might, perhaps, occasionally be gained in helping the English dealer to deceive his customers by palming off our cheese as of English manufacture ; but good factories would lose their iden- tity, and the loss from breakage and other sources would overbalance by far, this advantage. Besides, it should be our object to make for American cheese a reputation that shall stand unchallenged as the best in the world. DEFECTS IN AMEEICAN OHBBSE BAD FLAVOK, ETC. We come to consider the two leading defects in American cheese^porosity and bad flavor ; and the last may be said to-day to overbalance all the other defects put together, two or three times over. I need not waste time upon that character of cheese known as soft, spongy, or salvy, or the poor grades which come from carelessness, inefficiency, or ignorance in manufacture. Good cheese-makers know at once how these may be corrected, but I refer to the better class of cheese made at factories. The English acknowledge that the American factories stand unrivaled as sending out a cheese full of meat — that is, full of butter or rich in quality. They speak in high terms of the improvements that have been made in texture, firmness and solidity ; but to see a cheese handsome in appearance, the meat having scarcely any objec- tionable feature to the eye or finger, yet under the nose a disagreeable odor, is what they cannot well understand. The large exportation of this poor, indifferent, or bad-flavored cheese, more than anything else, breaks prices and does immense damage. . The causes of bad flavor in cheese are various — ^insufficient and uneven salting; a faulty separation of the whey from the curds before going to Practical Dairy Husbandry. 281 press and while pressing ; putting the curds to press hot ; high heat and a rapid manipulation of the curds, getting them in press before the proper chemical changes have been effected ; but the chief causes of bad flavor in ■well-manufactured cheese, as I saw it abroad, are, in my opinion, bad milk, bad rennet, and bad curing of the cheese. I am satisfied that the cool, even climate in England, and the excellent condition of the milk, together with the uniform temperature of their curing rooms, enable them to succeed where we often fail. We have a hot-bed climate to contend with, and milk is often spoiled when it reaches the factory. If our dairy farmers would only look upon this matter in its proper light, instead of laying all the blame of bad-flavored cheese upon the manufacturer, there would be some hope of improvement. They send to the factory tainted milk and demand from it a perfect cheese. They impose upon the manufacturer conditions which no skill has yet been able to surmount. High skill and great experience in manipu- lating milk, together with favorable weather, and the putting the cheese in market at the right moment, may enable the manufacturer to counteract in part the faults of tainted milk ; but with intensely hot weather, and under unfavorable circumstances, it is beyond his art. Bad rennet and tainted milk are prominent; causes of the early decay of our cheese. We are told that American cheese will decay early, I have seen American cheese in England more than a year old, perfect in flavor and in the best pres- ervation, but it was not made in hot weather. The cheese made in July this year, 1866, and sent to England, was all of it, more or less of bad flavor. The complaint was universal, and against some of the most noted factories in America. We must look upon these things from the practical sidci I wUl not deceive the dairymen of America with a fine-spun theory. We have been greatly led astray in regard to this matter of flavor — ^led to believe that the people of the Old World had discovered some wonderful process' which would ensure a perfect cheese under all conditions of the mUk ; but I found the leading feature of their success was in cleanliness and an untainted condition df the mUk. It is well known that milk not divested of its animal odor, and closely confined in hot weather, soon becomes putrid. Cheese manufacturers tell me that inilk often comes to the factory having a most fetid and' sickening odor. In extremely hot weather, when cows have been exercised or unduly eicited the milk is often of a rank odor as soon as drawn. The practice' of putting warm milk in tight cans and conveying it a long distance to the factory is objectionable, especially in hot weather. Here is the commencement of bad flavor. The good milk is indculated with putrid matter, which shows itself sooner or later, and carries with it decay like any other decomposition. Some plan should be adopted for cooling the milk, or exposing it so that the animal odor may pass oflT, especially in hot, sultry weather. I fee^l certain, from my observations both here and abroad, that this is a leading cause of bad flavor, and hence the practice of the Cheddar dairymen in gettmgrid of the-vrhey 282 Pbactical Dairy Husbandry. as early as possible, and the exposure of the curd a long time to the atmos- phere, is founded upon philosophical principles. It is important to the dairy- interest of America that a reputation be maintained for producing the finest- flavored and best cheese made in the world, and, under our improved system of manufacture, with proper care as to the purity of milk, this wUl be of easy accomplishment. Again, the cheese-producing sections of the Union are being developed so rapidly that competition every year must be greater and greater. Every factory should now establish a reputation for "extra fine goods." They should keep the best manufacturers in the country. Make it an inducement for them to stay with you. High skill and experience conmiand ample remu- neration the world over. Old and established factories can afford to pay for it, rather than let new districts pick off their best cheese-makers. The London dealers complain that there is too little probability of factories sending forward a uniform brand of prime cheese year after year. They want a brand that can be relied upon, and when they find such will pay an extra price for it. The curing rooms ought to be arranged so that the temperature may be controlled. The curing rooms of England have walls of stone or hollow brick. The climate is cooler, more moist and less variable than ours. These facts ought to afford suggestions in the construction of our curing-houses. There is another way in which flavor is lost ; the shipment of cheese in hot weather, to lie in New York until heated through and through, and then stowing away in the vessel with cargoes of grain, oil-cakes, or some other freight from which taints are absorbed. Much of our nice cheese is injured in this way. In Bristol, Bath, London, Chester, Liverpool, Manchester — in fact, all over England, the commercial storehouses for cheese are well con- structed for the pui-pose of preserving flavor. They have stone floors, are cool and well ventilated. Cheese that comes in bad condition is often taken out of the boxes, or the covers removed, and then laid upon the floor to cool. The fine compact texture of English cheese, in my opinion, results, in a great measure, from their process of expelling the whey, grinding in the curd- mill, salting and pressing. I may remark that while porousness is an objec- tion, if the texture is not of a honey-comb character, but Avill fill the trier with a tolerably compact mass, dealers do not urge a reduction of price, if the flavor and quality are perfect. Extreme porosity shows a defect in manufac- ture, and carries with it the impression that the cheese will sooner go to decay, and is therefore dangerous to handle, requiring quick sales. THE PKOSPECTS OF THE EUGLISI-I MAEKET. In closing, a word may be offered in reference to the prospect of future exportation and prices. The English are a great cheese-eating people. "We have no conception of the extent to which this food enters into general con- sumption. Those who can afford to eat a good article purchase the best, and the poor take up with that which is inferior and bad. I have seen tons and Practical Dairy Husbandry. 283 tons of the most -worthless stuflF, apparently fit only for the pigs, in the shops and public markets, and it had a rapid sale. The cutters are extremely expert. They use a thin, circular knife, like a half moon, having an upright handle springing from the centre, and with this they cut the cheese upon the counter. They also use a fine wire, with handles at each end, for splitting a large cheese. I have been surprised at the accuracy with which they will cut the different weights. The crumbs are laid on one side, to be used for balancing the scales. There is an immense demand for inferior or low-priced cheese. If we could manufacture cheese so as to sell on the counter at four- pence to sixpence per pound, I think they would take our whole product. Cheese does not come upon the table with pastry, as with us, but is brought on as a separate and last course. A half or a quarter of a cheese, placed upon a silver dish, with a clean, white napkin under it, is set upon the table and cut as desired. I think there must be a good foreign demand for American cheese for some years to come. The production has been cut ofiT in the north- ern districts of England. The cattle plague has been terrible in its ravages through this section. In Cheshire and the adjoining counties the losses have been fearful. The Cheshire people feel very melancholy, and many of the farmers are unable to pay their rents. Some of them are trying sheep- farming, but with indifferent results. They have been long a dairy people and understand the management of cows. I am convinced they will go back to dairy farming when the cattle plague shall be effectually eradicated — and that appears now to be almost accomplished — ^but they will hardly get estab- lished again for a year or two. They will not abandon dairying till we can furnish cheese so cheaply as to drive them from the market. The cost of transportation and the high prices of labor, and heavy taxation, are against the production of a cheap cheese on this side, at least in the older States. Holland, too, enters into competition with us. She is now shipping to England 80,000,- 000 pounds of cheese per annum. Last year (1865) the quantity imported was nearly 73,000,000 pounds. The passage can be made in a day, and the cost of exportation is a mere trifle. Theii: cheese is very good, but not equal to ours ; but they are improving every year in quality. They make three styles of cheese, which are popular among the poorer classes. The Edams and Middlebaes are round, like a cannon ball, and weigh from six to twelve pounds. The Goudars are a small, flat cheese, of about twenty pounds weight. The agricultural laborers like Edams, as they can take a cheese into the field and cut it without waste. These cheeses sell at from eight to ten shillings per hundred weight, below American. There is less difference between the Derby Goudar and the American, the former often selling within four shillings of the price of ours. Our future successes will depend upon our making fine cheese, and getting it to market at cheap rates. Something might be done in opening up new markets. The English export cheese to Australia, the Cape of Good Hope, Brazil, and various other points. Something should be done by the cheese 284 Practical Dairy Husbandry. makers and shippers in the "way of regulating exportations. If we could give England a steady supply, without pushing forward an immense quantity to clog the market, prices would be maintained, and greater profits realized. The following table gives the number of packages of cheese shipped from New York to Liverpool, from May, 1862, to September, 1866, made up so that the comparative weekly shipmeuts of the different years may be seen at a glance : Weekly Exports of cheese from New York to Liverpool. Week Enbino 1862. Packages. 1863. Fackaqes. 1864. Packages. May 9 2,120 857 1,726 1,262 5,975 19,041 54,992 102,438 88,142 69,811 73,043 27,560 37,034 13,666 9,975 26,860 3,692 1,942 9,864 4,446 19,441 41,414 88,642 90,710 66,094 186,274 70,749 41,073 80,616 38,549 27,113 26,432 2,261 1,539 1,323 3,268 16 23 30 8,391 June 6......... 13 20 27 1,643 3,280 6,362 7,766 3,040 12,174 8,744 17,456 4,874 6,897 5,232 10,090 • 25 593 •^"^ A::. ::::: 18 7,107 18,441 6,961 27,483 22,896 17,032 29,661 19,163 24,090 29,886 47,944 33,103 S5 ...; 136,028 August 1 35,195 16,316 2^024 27,378 18,342 11,660 38,170 20,447 18,669 22,817 18,211 15 6,485 37,309 24,449 22 29 116,314 30,315 19,255 24,442 14,130 11,068 16,640 19,816 18,670 15,396 14,644 19,467 24,293 la".::::::: 19 26 no Aon 8,146 24,203 15,038 18,886 11,558 18,682 31,104 81,792 38,714 26,082. 15,260 18,805 12,406 20,653 25,642 10 17, 24 . a.. 92,666 November 7 14 . 24,302 24,198 13,705 18,840 22,818 17,706 10,110 20,115 24,674 23,700 16,369 24,921 21 28 88,664 December 5 12 19 938 8,460 8,329 9,843 12,485 12,787 10,268 6,533 11,794 8,496 11,919 9,901 26. 42,110 1863. 12,141 . 1864. 6,971 11,963 2,216 2,632 7,834 1865. 2,975 8,623 20,081 19,156 2,685 9 16 3,475 7,296 14,122 23 80 63,620 February 6. 13 886 9,687 1,295 1,798 6,423 ,10,834 4,813 16,479 4,851 16,069 6,689 ■15,668 20 27 42,267 Marcli 5 929 4,164 8,428 1,464 6,583 770 13,202 7,658 2,718 894 13,901 2,770 12 19 26 20,283 April 2 4,166 4,848 11,762 2,742 8,842 2,987 13,470 6,072 2,037 2,886 2,213 4,412 4,199 8,745 976 9 ' 18....... 28 80. 16,645 Total, , 628,427 677,110 716,256 Pbaoticjll Da-iry Husbandry. 285 Weekly Exporls of cheese from New- York to Liverpool — Continued. Week Ehbino 1865. Paokaoes. 1866. Packaobs. May 9 2,278 4,404 253 214 7,149 42,417 113,147 158,412 - 89,211 14,907 35,176 19,432 13,156 10,511 713 6,276 927 656 1,170 4,869 7,622 34,337 100,738 102,822 16::::::::: 23 30 June 6 3,861 6,091 20,714 11,751 2,614 6,168 11,374 14,480 13 20 27 Jnly 4, 36,345 16,391 35,097 25,314 20,994 21,447 27,875 30,423 11 18 25 Angnst 1 30,334 23,769 27,476 25,367 51,466 17,068 11,939 23,882 28,138 21,975 8 15 22 29 September, 5 27,383 27,634 20,139 14,046 12..::::::: 19 26 October 3 1,586 2,335 4,745 1,598 4,643 10 17 24 31 November 7 7,168 5,812 10,307 11,889 ' 14 21 28 December 6 4,121 9,347 4,038 1,926 12 19 26 January Z 1866. 8,274 1,531 1,117 1,395 839 1867. 9 16 23 80 .. . . 4,171 6,530 470 340 20 27 142 12 ; . 19 302 269 26 April 2 493 619 3,660 1,142 362 9 16 23 •.. 80 : Total 510,507 245,520* 321,125t SUpmenta of cheese to London from May 1 to August 31, 1865, 21,000 boxes ; 1866, 37,000 boxes. * Total from May 1, 1866, to September 1, 1866. t Total during same time, 1865. 286 Practical Dairy Husbandry. In the foregoing table the average weight of the packages may be esti- mated at about seventy pounds each. The following table gives the quantity of cheese shipped from New York to Liverpool from May, 1865 to December 20, 1866, reduced to one hundred pound packages, with the average weekly price in shillings (English) at which American cheese is sold in London. The tables are valuable in showing how prices are influenced by excessive ship- ments at any one time : SHIPMENTS OF CHEESE PROM NEW YORK TO ENGLAND, WITH PRICES IN LONDON. 1865-'66. 1866-'67. Week end- ing Box- es. 100 LBS. Price in London. Week end- ing Box- es. 100 I3S Pkicb nj London. 1865. 1665. ShiUinis. 1866. 1866. SlUUings. Jnue 6 S 4B June 22 64 to 68 June B 3 218 June SI 76 to 82 13 3 850 29 64 to 66 12 3 393 28 76 to 82 20 9 703 July 6 64 to 66 19 4 457 July 5 76 to 80 27 8 819 13 68 to 62 26 7 849 18 74 to 78 July 4 20 158 20 60 to 63 July « 10 872 19 72 to 76 11 14 607 27 60 to 62 111 12 506 26 70 to 74 18 18 67 August 3 58 to 62 17 16 899 August 2 70 to 74 25 24 644 10 58 to 68 24 16 234 9 70 to 74 August 1 20 95 17 56 to 60 31 10 627 16 70 to 72 8 9 809 84 58 to 68 August 7 11 527 23 70 to 72 IB 18 278 31 56 to 60 14 13 313 30 70 to 72 22 80 779 September 7 68 to 60 21 12 983 September 6 68 to 70 89 26 998 14 58 to 60 2H 16 466 13 66 to 70 September 5 17 646 21 56 to 68 September 4 17 374 20 66 to 70 12 18 342 28 56 to 62 11 17 126 27 64 to 70 19 16 531 October 6 56 to 62 18 4 914 October 4 62 to 68 26 4 486 12 56 to 62 85 7 716 11 62 to 68 October 8 4 486 19 60 to 63 October 2 15 82 18 62 to 68 10 2 825 86 60 to 63 9 16 891 25 60 to 64 17 2 201 November 8 60 to 63 16 10 787 November 1 60 to 64 84 6 596 9 60 to 86 23 19 705 8 60 to 64 31 3 838 16 65 to 70 30 8 261 15 60 to 64 November 7 4 175 83 65 to 70 November 6 8 154 22 60 to 64 14 6 10 30 65 to 70 13 11 660 29 60 to 64 21 11 636 December 7 65 to 70 20 8 858 December 6 62 to 66 28 7 861 14 65 to 70 27 10 847 13 66 to 68 December 5 4 640 21 65 to 70 December 4 11 651 20 66 to 68 12 6 829- 28 65 to 70 11 15 606 27 66 to 68 19 B 683 IS 10 981 26 6 81 1866. 25 6 413 1886. January 5 4 2 1 1 6 3 2 "k" 1 1 "i" ■"2" 683 49 996 8S8 983 553 146 747 407 630 865 124 157 133 706 460 168 906 896 871 Bas 515 January 4 11 • 18 25 February 1 8 IB 22 March 1 8 IB 22 89 April B 12 19 26 May 3 10 17 24 81 June 7 14 66 to 70 68 to 70 68 to 70 68 to 72 68 to 72 68 to 74 68 to 74 74 to 78 74 to 80 74 to 80 74 to 80 80 to 84 80 to 84 78 to 82 78 to 82 78 to 80 78 to 80 80 to 81 80 to 81 80 to 82 80 to 82 73 to 76 73 to 76 76 to 82 1867. January February March April May 1 8 15 22 89 5 12 19 26 6 12 19 26 8 9 16 28 SO 7 14 21 28 6 18 413 158 9 16 23 30 February 6 13 20 27 March 6 13 20 87 April 8 10 17 S4 May 1 8 IB 22 29 ENGLISH DAIRY PRACTICE. EECENT IMPBOVEMENTS. The following account of recent improvements in English dairy practice is from the pen of Mr. Joseph Harding of Marksbury, England, who is well known as the great exponent of Cheddar cheese making in Great Britain. The paper will be of interest to American dairymen. The spirit of improvement which has so largely pervaded the agricultural world during the last twenty-five or thirty years is not more manifest in the production of corn and meat than it is in the manufacture of butter and cheese ; and though the latter branch has not derived as much benefit from the assistance of national or local agricultural societies as the former, it has yet made great progress both as to the quantity and the quality of its prod- ucts. To the attainment of this object nearly every well-informed and intel- ligent dairy farmer has contributed his part. In detailing these improve- ments I may not, perhaps, be expected to go into all the dairy districts of England, and to particularize every improvement which has taken place in each of them ; my experience, as a Somershetshire man, milking a dairy of my own of from seventy to seventy-five cows, will enable. me to speak from personal and practical knowledge as to the improvements, in all their details, in the dairy practice of my own county, more especially in the manufacture of cheese. I believe, however, from the knowledge which I have of other daily dis- tricts, such as Gloucester, Wilts, Leicester, Derby and Cheshire, that any disinterested person taking upon himself to write upon the subject could not fix on a district better calculated to answer the requirements of the Royal Agricultural Society of England than the county of Somerset. It is true that this county is not much noted for its butter ; but as a district for making cheese, due regard being had both to quantity and quality, it is not surpassed in Great Britain. Here is made what is termed the " Cheddar cheese," which is always quoted in the London market at a higher price than any other (Stilton excepted, which is not a fair example). Here, too, an example has been set in the improvement of machinery, utensils and mode of manu- facture, which has given a stimulus not only to all the surrounding districts, but even to Scotland. 288 Practical Dairy Husbandry. But my business is not so much to eulogize the dairy practice and produce of this or any other district, as to detail, in a simple and intelligible manner, any improvements which have tended to increase the quantity, improve the quality of these products, and at the same time to reduce the labor of manufacture. 1NCEEA.SE IN QUANTITY. In order to show an increase in the dairy produce of any given district, it would be necessary to know its aggregate amount at different periods ; but as, to the best of my knowledge, no records exist which furnish this informa- tion as derived from any dairy district in England, it will be impossible to contrast our present average produce with that of former years. The only course, therefore, which we can adopt is to take a single farm which may be considered a fair specimen of the district in which it is situ- ated. A farm of one hundred and fifty acres in this county, of fair quality, divided into one hundred and ten acres of pasture and forty of arable, would, some years ago, probably have been stocked with thirty cows, five or six heifers (to keep up the stock), besides a few horses. The arable course would have been — one, fallow ; two, wheat ; three, beans ; four, wheat again ; five, clover mown twice, then fallow again ; barley being grown occasionally on suitable soil. It was thought that on the pasture land no more cows could be kept than the one-half would maintain in summer, the other half being mown for winter-keep ; that would give (allowing three acres per cow) ninety acres for thirty cows, and twenty acres would be left for the young stock and horses. The arable land at this time received the greater part, if not all, the manure. A farm of this description would now keep fifty cows. The larger part of the arable land would be in grass and roots, corn being grown only on the decay of the grass plant, which, instead of being mown, would be grazed by the cows, and admit of being stocked a fortnight earlier in spring than the meadow grass : the straw would be cut into chaff and mixed with roots, meal, oil-cake, or some other substitute to make it equal in nutriment to hay. The roots would be chiefly grown by artificial manures, and a portion of them fed off by dry sheep, so that a considerable part of the yard manure could be spared for the pasture land. Although I have spoken above only of an increase of twenty cows, I know some farms on which the extra number is even larger. Where the farm is wholly pasture, as is the case with a large number of the dairy farms in this county, there cannot be as large an increase of produce as is stated above. Yet even here, as the land is made to carry as much stock as possible, the increase in the number kept is considerable. Some farmers will feed nearly all their land and sell the cows in the autumn, looking forward to replacing them in the spring of the year. This seems to be an expensive mode of increasing dairy produce ; but where the land produces a large quantity of milk the grass is of far more value than the hay. Practical Dairy HaasANDRT. 289 Others, again, have adopted the plan of preserving a few acres of after- math (after being fed once) till the spring ; the young grass is thus drawn up by the shelter which the old affords, and consequently comes to feed earlier than it would otherwise do. This feed is valuable for turning out the cows by day ; it thus both lessens the consumption of hay and increases the yield of milk. Among my acquaintance the farmer. who realizes the largest amount of profit per cow, lives in Leicestershire, and makes both butter and cheese. His farm is a loamy soil, not much affected by drouth or wet, so that it is generally in a growing state throughout the summer. He keeps only cows and young stock. The cows have the first feed of every field, the heifers following them in the round of the farm. A man brings up the rear to clean up the droppings, so that the field is clean and fresh for the cows on their next round. The building of houses and yards for the accommodation of the cows has not a little tended to an increase of produce, inasmuch as it has enabled us to keep the stock off .the land during the winter months. The grass conse- quently grows earlier in the spring, and enables us to mow earlier, so as to secure a better feed on the aftergrass. The introduction of artificial manures has rendered us great assistance, especially for the arable lands, although the pasture likewise feels the effects of the change. Bones have been used on the pasture, but not to such an extent nor with such success as in Cheshire. Besides all this, nearly all the wet lands have been drained, and the wide and useless hedge rows grubbed up, so that our atmosphere has become dryer and more healthy. Nature has lent a helping hand, and we have in conse- quence a longer summer and a shorter winter. A large quantity of cheese is made from some of the hills which formerly only fed a few half-starved sheep and cattle. , Some of these improvements may seem to be of small importance to the casual reader ; but when carried out through a whole district, as in this county, the effect is great, and these, I believe, are the chief causes which have led to the dairy produce of this comity being increased, within a few years, twenty-five per cent. EEDUCTIOU OF LABOE IN THE MAlftrKiCTtrEI!. Under this head, speaking first of butter,. I may state that the improve- ments are not so great either in the mode of making, the utensils employed, or the reduction of labor, as in the case of cheese, because two very simple processes only are required to accomplish the object, namely, " churning " and " working." Churning is a simple process of agitation, and whether it be accomplished by a vertical, a longitudinal, or a rotary motion, the effect is the same ; and notwithstanding the many attempted improvements in the construction of the utensil employed, there is not for general purposes, any- thing superior to, or that is likely to supersede, the old barrel churn. In it, either a large or a small quantity of butter, and that of the best quality, may be produced. 19 290 Practical Dairy Husbandry. As to the working the butter — which is generally performed by the hand — the object is the extraction of all the buttermilk. Some persons use small wooden spades, others envelope their hands in a cloth, but nothing of this kind can be termed a " late improvemennt." The greatest step in advance consists in the fact that observation and the introduction of the thermometer has enabled us to lay down a rule for the temperature to be maintained in churning. It is found that if the cream be put into the churn at from 55° to 60° in summer, and not less than 60° in the winter, it will be churned m good time, that is, from half an hour to forty minutes, and, if properly worked, will produce good butter. If it be churned at a lower temperature it will be too long in churning, and will require heating during the process. If above that temperature, it will " come " too soon and will be frothy and oily ; in both cases the butter will be inferior. Until a comparatively recent date, it was a difficulty in cold weather to get the butter churned ; the process not unfrequently occupied several hours, and I have known the produce to be thrown away as utterly useless after all. This difficulty is now entirely overcome. Experience, moreover, has taught us that although, if milk be allowed to stand till it becomes stale or sour before the cream is removed from it, the butter thus made will not be good ; on the other hand, if the cream be taken while the milk is sweet, the cream may be kept until it becomes sour, without the butter being materially affected. The process of butter making varies in different countries. In Scotland, Ireland and Wales they churn the milk, and, when this is done properly, I believe that the butter, for delicacy of flavor, cannot be surpassed. In the making of cheese a much greater improvement has been effected, in consequence of its having received more attention than butter making, cheese being the staple commodity of the district, and, when well made, more remunerative to the farmer. For many years past it has been our object to produce the iest cheese with the least possible labor — an object we have, in no small degree, accomplished. Within my own recollection, a week, at least, may be said to have been occupied in making a cheese — that is, from the time the milk was coagulated till the cheese was taken from the press to the cheese-room. During this time it was turned in the press twice every day, and had salt rubbed over it by the hand every morning. I have known, in a dairy of fifty cows, fifty-two cheeses to be thus turned thrice a day, giving a vast amount of -unnecessary labor to the dairy woman and expense for cloths to the farmer. This state of things exists to this day in some of our largest cheese-making districts. The machinery and utensils, too, were of a rude description. The presses were either a large stone raised by a screw, or a box filled with some heavy material and suspended between two upright posts and lowered or raised by ropes and pulleys. I should have thought it almost incredible that there should exist a cheese-making district in England that had not partaken of the Practical Dairy Husbandry. 291 universal improvement in the cheese-press, had I not learned a lesson the other day. A friend of mine was traveling in a railway carriage in Lan- cashire in which some farmers were discussing the merits of an improved cheese-press lately introduced into their district, when one of them, convinced of its superiority, said, " I do not think I shall lay out much money in a stone press again." The utensils were generally made of wood, and the whey, however large the quantity, had to he ladled out of the tub with a heavy wooden bowl. The curd, when put into the vat, was broken into small pieces by the hand, — BO laborious a work that I have seen dairywomen whose finger joints were grown large and stiff in consequence. After the cheeses were introduced to the cheese-room, they had to be washed and scraped before they became Cheesb Fbzbs— 3-4thB of an Inch to a foot marketable, which was not generally the case until they were from four to six months old, although they were what we should now term thin cheese. In many instances the cheese was kept until the following spring. The pro- cess of manufacture was unsystematic and irregular, without regard to an even or proper temperature ; consequently the cheese was of unequal quality — some good, some bad — ^from causes unknown to the dairywomen. This was the state of things when improvement in the fmachinery and utensils began to be studied. It is just, however, to state that, with regard to the cheese tub, a few wealthy and enterprising men thought it desirable to substi- tute copper in lieu of wood many years before this general movement took place. These tubs were made rough and at a great expense, mg,ny of them them cost- ing from forty to sixty pounds apiece, according to the number of cows kept. 292 Practical Dairy Husbandry. About thirty years ago the first improved cheese press was exhibited in Weils market, in this county, and, though extremely simple, proved to be a step in the right direction. I think that prizes have been awarded to it in its incomplete shape more than once by the Royal and other Agricultural Societies. The principle of its construction was that of the lever in its simplest form. The subject was immediately taken up by the mechanics of the neighborhood, who gradually improved upon the cheese press until the model now in general use was produced. It consists of a screw and a lever, the former working in a brass socket, and serving as a fulcrum for the latter, by which the pressure, produced and regulated by a weight attached to the opposite end of the lever, is conveyed to the cheese. When the screw is reversed the lever drops on to a pin, the pressure is withdrawn, and the cheese may be removed. This is decidedly the best implement for the pur- pose that has yet been invented. It is manufactured in large numbers by the best agricultural implement makers in this and the adjoining counties. About this time copper, and sometimes brass, began to be used more fre- quently for making cheese tubs, but, being too expensive for general use, tin was successfully substituted and continues to be employed to the present time. It costs one-third the price of copper, and will last for twenty or thirty years. All the other utensils of the dairy which were formerly of wood, such as bowls, pails, &c., are now made of tin, which, saves a vast amount of labor and expense in brushes. The vessels are in some cases improved in shape as well as in material ; the cheese tub, which was flat at the bottom, is now made convex to facilitate draining off the whey. A large brass tap is solderesd into the bottom of the tub, inside of which is a strainer made of fine gauze, wire or other material, to prevent small particles of curd from escaping. The whey flowing from this tap is conveyed in a pipe, leading from the floor of the dairy to a tank or cistern in the piggery, from whence it is pumped for use. That the milk- ers may not enter the dairy, a tin receiver is placed outside the house, into which the milk is poured and conveyed to the cheese tub by a conduit, at each end of which is a strainer to prevent any filth from the yard froin pass- ing into the cheese tub. It is a mistaken notion with many practical cheese makers, and all theorists, than an exceedingly fine strainer is necessary in order to separate the whey from the curd. If the cheese be well made, the curd itself is the best strainer or filterer ; but where there is a large bulk of whey to be drawn off from the curd, it will flow through the tap with great force,. so as to carry away particles of curd, if something is not placed inside as a strainer. To obviate this, a new and valuable instrument, called the Whey Separator, has just been invented by Mr. Robekt McAdam of (Jarsty Hill, near Crewe, Cheshire, for which he has taken out a patent. It is made of brass, and is a telescopic tube, one end of which fits on inside the outlet in the bottom of the tub ; to the other end is screwed a receiver, which floats on the surface of the whey, which enters its perforated brass under- Practical Dairy Husbandry. 293 surface, and is thus conveyed down the tube to the brass tap at the bottom of the tub,' the tubes sinking into each' other as the wHey subsides. This separator costs about forty shillings ; it is the best thing of the kind I have ever seen, as it. takes the whey from the surface, where it is most free froni curd, and prevents the mass of the curd from being disturbed by the whey on its passage to the outlet. The curd breaker generally in use for breaking up the coagulated mass is either the shovel breaker or the revolving breaker. The former is made of wood in the shape of a shovel with a bent handle {^B: — ) ; through the lower end of the handle, at right angles to it, nine or ten brass rods are inserted, extending about six inches on either side, and secured at each end by a strip of wood about fourteen inches in length. The revolver is made of rods of iron, set in a framework fitted to the inside of the tub, where it is made to revolve upon a vertical axis by a handle at the outside of the tub like that of a churn. The Expandihs Chbbsb Vat, The vats, which were formerly made of turned wood, are now made of staves ^ike a cask. In not a few instances tin is employed for the purpose, but I soai'bely think it ■will come into general use for our thick cheeses. The stave vat has recently been improved by being made to open at the side at one of the joints between the staves, corresponding to opposite joints across the top and the bottom ; the opening is sufficiently wide to allow of the cheese being easily liberated from the vat when reversed for the purpose. To accomplish this, there are four projecting screw-holes : one at each end of the two severed iron hoops which encircle the vat, and one at the top and one at the bottom. When the vat is closed, two of these screw-holes will be opposite each other, and through them a screw-bolt is inserted which keeps the vat together ; by loosening these bolts the vat is enabled to expand and the cheese is easily liberated. An apparatus has been invented for cheese making by Mr, Kbevil of 294 Practical Dairy Husbandry. Wiltshire, and is in use in that and some other districts, which, though not applicable to the Somerset or Cheddar mode of making, is, I believe, of service in making the Wiltshire cheese. It consists of a tin tub, down the Side of which there runs a strip of gauze wire, three or four inches in width, which allows the whey to escape to a brass tap at the bottom. A breaker is used, similar to the revolver above described, but Mr. Keevil has altered the round rod to a flat, knife-shaped piece of iron, thus altering the principle of hreaking the mass to that of cutting. Instead of a vat into which weights were put for the purpose of pressing the curd in the tub, a perforated circu- lar piece of tin is used, fitting the inside of the tub, to which pressure is applied by a screw running through a strong cross-piece of iron, fastened to the opposite sides of the tub. The cheese tub is on a raised platform, and can be made to incline at pleasure, so as to allow the last drop of whey to escape. A much more useful apparatus for our improved method of cheese making has been invented by Messrs. Cocket & Son of Frome. Its object is to save the labor of carrying the milk to and from the boiler for heating previous to the introduction of the rennet, and also of carrying the whey for scalding the curd. A small boiler is placed in a desirable situation, from which hot water is conveyed by pipes to a chamber underneath the tub, where it can be turned off or on at pleasure, by stop-cocks. One advantage in this appar ratus is, that during the summer nights cold water may be let into the cham- ber underneath the evening's miltj, which is thus rapidly cooled down to the temperature of the water. This expedient is very valuable for keeping the milk sweet till the morning, as we make cheese only once a day. The appa- ratus is extensively used in this and some other countries. During the winter months the cheese-room and dairy are heated from the same boiler. THE IMPROVEMENT IN THE QUALITY OF CHEESE is due partly to what is here technically called " slip-scalding " and to increased attention bestowed on the manufacture, and partly to more careful storing in- the cheese-room. In all these cases the thermometer and the clock have greatly assisted in reducing cheese making to a regular system. The process is now conducted in the following manner : — The morning's milk is mixed with the evening's at a temperature of about 80° (varying two or three degrees in the spring and autumn), the rennet then is added, and an hour is allowed for the curd to form, when it is carefully broken up ; and here commences the system of slip-scalding, now generally adopted in prefer- ence tothe old method. The scalding whey is now added to the curd in its pulpy state, before it has had time to subside and get hard. Experience has shown us that a finer description of cheese is produced upon this principle, which is adopted by the best cheese makers in this county. What is here called scalding is the raising the mass of curd and whey to the temperature of 100° Fahr. By Cockey's apparatus, hot water is introduced into the chamber by pipes placed underneath the tub to accomplish this purpose ; Practical Daimt Husbanobt. 295 otherwise, hot whey is poured into the mass, which in both cases is being well stirred, until the desired heat is obtained. The curd is then allowed to sub- side, and, after the whey is drained off and the curd becomes dry, instead of being broken by the hand, it is passed through the curd mill, after which salt is added and mixed with it in the proportion of one pound to fifty-six pounds. It is then put into the vat and press, where it remains three days, after which it is taken to the cheese-room. The cheeses are made from nine to fourteen inches in thickness, some even more. They are turned only twice in the press, and that is when the cloths are changed. THE METHOD OP KEEPING THE CHEESE IN THE CHEESE-EOOM HAS ALSO BEEN IMPEOTED. " At one time we thought it desirable to keep them in a low and even damp temperature, but the cheese was then a long time in getting ripe, and a fine mellow flavor was not readily obtained. We now introduce them at once from the press to the cheese-room, which is kept at a temperature of from .50° to 70°, as the case may be ; and we find that the cheese ripens faster, acquires a richer flavor, and can be sold much sooner ; so that our thick cheeses are often cut over the counter at three months old, sometimes even less ; though a few years since the same sized cheese would have required eight or nine months to acquire the same degree of ripeness. This system of making has diminished the make of whey butter. Where we made one pound per cow, we now make one pound for every seven cows, and sometimes less ; the quantity is so reduced that we often do not think it worth the risk of imparting sourness to the cheese, but turn the whey off to the pig-tank. Some persons tell us that we lose a great deal of valuable food in our whey, as proved by the bacon fatted from it. When bacon is fatted from whey alone this must be the case ; but the whey from a cheese well and carefully made would not fatten a pig in six months. To the cheese consumers of London, who prefer an adulterated food to that which is pui'e, I have to announce an improvement in the annatto with which they compel the cheese makers to 'color the cheese. The improvement is not in the smell, which remains as unpleasant as ever ; neither is it in the taste — that is as filthy as ever ; but it consists in this — that we now get annatto in a liquid state, instead of a cake, which saves the trouble of rubbing out. I have now enumerated the principal improvements in dairy practice that have enabled us to send into the market a superior article, increased in quantity twenty-five per cent., at a reduction of the original labor of more than half. Although we have attained this result by studying, as far as our observation and experience go, the state of the curd through the various stages and manipulations which it undergoes, and have acquired, so far, some knowledge of what we are doing, we have not yet arrived at perfection. Cheese making, as a science, is not understood. I could ask a dozen ques- 296 Practical Dairy Husbandry. tions, which suggest themselves at the various stages of the process, and which cannot be answered. We have now a body of valuable rules laid down for our guidance; though strict observation and practical experience are, of course, requisite for their successful application. But this is not enough. A wide and unex- plored field is before us, into which we should enter. Milk, as taken from the cow, is of a peculiarly rich and delicious flavor. The object of the cheese maker should be to preserve that .flavor throughout the process, and leave it to ripen in the cheese ; but the accomplishment of this design is not always certain (especially in thunder weather), in the absence of an instrument with which we are not yet provided. Liebig and other chemists tell us that milk, in its p'ristine state, possesses a quantity of sugar, which, in the process towards decomposition, produces lactic acid. Alkalies are also present which neutralize the acid until an increased amount of the latter is generated, when the milk becomes sour. Believing this to be true, and knowing that heat promotes the formation of the acid, when the temperature of the atmos- phere is 65° we act cautiously lest we should make the cheese sour, and, no doubt, our precaution is frequently attended with success. But there are other agents besides heat which promote the souring of the milk, even when the atmosphere is as low as 60° : over these we have no control at the time, besides being generally unaware of their existence until it would be too late to seek a remedy, if any such were known to exist. The instrument, then, which we want is one which will show us the exact amount of acid present, that we may know when to introduce the rennet, and in what quantity. It is true we have litmus-paper, but this only indicates the presence of acid without measuring the quantity present. While searching for such an instrument as this among opticians and chemists for several years past, I have been recommended to try one or two chemical methods, the best of which is by Dr. Cameron of Dublin. None of these tests, however, are sufficiently simple to be of much use to a practical dairywoman, who wants an instrument effective and simple, by which she can as easily test the amount of acid present, as she can by the thermometer ascertain the degree of heat. Another desideratum is a chemical knowledge of the constitution of ihe curd and whey throughout the process. It is not likely that this investiga- tion will be carried out by the unaided efforts of any practical man ; but with assistance, such as the Royal Agricultural Society of England could render, this object might be attained, and the result would be that cheese could be made (as it ought to be) upon principles scientific and, consequently, unerring. The press illustrated on page 297 is the only one I have in use for seventy- two cows ; the other principal utensils are — cheese-tub, two milk-coolers, curd-mill, six vats for summer use, six smaller ones for the spring and autumn. The press was made by Stokbs of Dean, near Shipton-Mallet, and cost about nine pounds. COMPOSITION OF CHEESE. The most recent and valuable chemical investigations that we have on the composition and manufacture of cheese, are those made for the Royal Agricultural Society of England by Prof. Voelckbe. These papers hitherto have not been accessible to American dairymen. They are very suggestive and valuable, and will be found of important aid to those practicing the cheese-making art. I therefore introduce them in this connection. He says : In the opinion of many persons English cheese is not what it used to be in the good old time, when it was far more common than now-a-days for farmers' wives personally to preside over the dairy and conduct the making of cheese through its various stages. Some people assert positively that the English cheese of the present day is inferior in quality to that which was made centuries ago. It is of course impossible to give satisfactory proofs of this supposed inferiority ; but at the same time it must be admitted that the prevailing custom of leaving the chief dairy operations almost entirely in the hands of servants furnishes strong presumptive evidence in favor of those who maintain these views. As a rule, we have found the best cheese on farms where the mistress of the house was herself dairy-maid-in-chief, especially if industrious habits and scrupulous cleanliness were associated with superior intelligence. Indeed I have had recently frequent occasion to notice the intimate connection which appears to exist on the one hand between good cheese and cleanliness, order, general intelligence and desire to excel, and on the other hand between' bad cheese, slovenliness, ignorance and, practical conceit. In the best-managed dairies, however, cheese-making is practiced entirely as an empiric art, which is admitted by our best practi- cal authorities to be capable of great improvement, the importance of which is obvious when we consider the large amount of capital directly or indirectly embarked in dairy-farming. Mr. Httmbeestonb, member for Chester, has the merit of having first directed the attention of our Society to the import- ance of scientific investigation into the principles of cheese-making ; and the Council, on the recommendation of the Chemical Committee, made a special grant to enable me to visit the principal dairy districts of England, to carry out certain practical , experiments and obtain what practical assistance I required. The more direct laboratory experiments, which, like the whole 298 Pbaotwal Dairy Husbandry. investigation, are still in active progress, have been selected by the Chemical Committee as one of the regular subjects for investigation for the current year. During the last ten mouths I and two of my assistants have been almost exclusively occupied with the analytical work demanded by a thorough investigation into the principles of cheese-making. At the same time I have spent between four and five weeks at different times in visiting the dairies of Gloucestershire, Wilts, Somersetshire, Warwick, Stafford and part of Cheshire ; and I purpose paying another visit to Cheshire and Derbyshire in the ensuing summer vacation. This paper will embody some of the practical conclusions to which I have arrived, partly from my visits and partly from my investigations. The first point to be observed is, that cheese is often spoiled (to use an Irishism) before it is made — that is, before it is separated from the milk : in other words, the milk is spoiled. Then the cheese is spoiled during the making, and also in the keeping. Again I have learned that richer cheese may be made on some land, even when a portion of cream has been taken from the milk, than on other land where the whole milk is used. 3d. I concur, with our best and most intelligent cheese-makers in the opinion, that good saleable, though perhaps not very fine-flavored cheese, can be made on any description of land, provided proper care and attention are paid to the man- agement of the milk at the beginning, to the treatment of the cheese in the tub, and to its after ripening. 4th. From all I could learn practically, and from what I have seen with my own eyes, I have come to the conclusion that bones improve the quality of the pasture and the richness of the milk, but also that more care is required to make cheese from boned pasture than on poor land. 5th. The flavor of the different kinds of cheese, such as Cheddar, Stilton, Cheshire and others, is much more dependent on the method in ordi- nary use in these different counties than on the quality of the pasture, although the latter exercises a considerable influence. The inferiority of the Boothy cheese, made from dry food, to that produced when the cows are at grass, is well known. Nevertheless, admitting that food does much affect the flavor of cheese, I still am of opinion that the various practical manipulations exer- cise a yet higher influence iu this respect. 6th. Each system of cheese- making, whether that of Gloucestershire or Somersetshire, appears to have its peculiar excellences, but also its peculiar defects. 7th. Matters altogether indifferent are frequently insisted upon as essential to success, while others of the greatest importance are either neglected altogether or much under- valued : unless, therefore, a person thoroughly understands the grounds of his selection and preference, it is better to adopt one empiric method than to attempt to combine the different plans. 8th. I found good makers of cheese who had never heard a word about chemistry. 9th. Although much mystery is thrown around this art, all that is mysterious about it is purely accidental : the process in itself is very simple, and accords well with scientific principles so far as these have been ascertained ; but skillful management is perhaps Practical Daisy Husbandry. 299 rather the exception than the rule. 10th. Even good practice may be con- siderably improved, or, more correctly speaking, simplified, by the applica- tion of scientific principles to cheese-making. 11th. With respect to the recent mechanical improvements which have been introduced in the dairy districts, Keevil's and Coquet's apparatus, and others which have been described at some length in a former volume of our Journal, save, indeed, a great deal of labor and time, but otherwise effect nothing which may not be done by skillful hands. 12th. Milk, as I have ascertained by numerous analyses, varies much in its composition, for which reason great differences must also be expected in cheese. 13th. Considerable loss both in quality and quantity of cheese was found to arise from careless management. 14th. In studying the action of rennet on milk I find that misapprehension, if not alto- gether wrong statements, prevail in what has hitherto been said and written respecting its action. I shall have presently to advance proofs in confirma- tion of this assertion. 15th. I would observe, that generally the scientific principles involved in the manufacture of cheese are either misstated by scien- tific writers on the subject, or but imperfectly recognized by practical men. These are some of the principal conclusions at which I have arrived in the course of my investigation. As it is not my intention to write a complete essay on cheese-making, I shall at present only endeavor to point out — 1st, some of the chief errors made in the process, stating my reasons for speaking of them as such ; and 2dly, to suggest some remedies and safeguards. But, in order to make my subsequent remarks a little more intelligible, I must briefly allude to the composition of milk, which, as is well known, is not a uniform white liquid, but a fluid owing its opaque character to a number of little cream gobules. Seen under a microscope of no very great powei', milk appears as a colorless fluid in which there are floating innumerable little white globules or small bags containing fatty matter. The butter is encased in these microscopic bags or cells, which themselves are composed of very much the same material as the curd of milk. These, being lighter than water, rise on standing, and are removed as cream. If it were possible to separate the cream completely by standing, the milk would be almost colorless ; but inas- much as a certain number of milk-globules always remain suspended in milk, even after long standing, skimmed milk is always more or less opaque. We must find, therefore, in the cheese made from skimmed-milk a certain amount of butter, though much less than in whole-milk cheeses. On the removal of the cream the milk becomes bluer and more transparent ; and hence the transparent and peculiarly blue appearance of some of the London milk is indicative of its poorness. On allowing milk to become acid, which it does readily in warm weather, one of its constituents, which, from its sweet taste, is called sugar-of-milk, is converted, at least in part, into lactic acid. This change is effected by simple transposition of the elementary particles of milk- srigar, without anything being added or detracted from them. This lactic acid again separates the next constituent, the caseine or curd of milk, which 800 Pbactical Dairy Husbandbt. may also be separated by rennet. On the remoTal of the caseine, either arti- ficially by rennet or naturally by the lactioacid, we obtain whey; and,pro- vided this whey is perfectly clear and free from all butter and curd (which is not generally the case) in our dairies, we may, by evaporating the clear liquid, obtain milk-sugar and a certain quantity of matter which is incom- bustible, and constitutes the ash of milk. These then are the principal con- stituents of milk — curd or caseine, butter, milk-sugar, and mineral matters or ash. Now, in the preparation of cheese we separate the curd or caseine, and, if we want to make good cheese, also the butter and a small quantity of mineral matter contained in the milk. In the whey remains the milk-sugar and most of the mineral matter. A glance at the subjoined diagram, which gives the composition of different kinds of milk lately analyzed by me, will show the enormous difference that exists in the relative amounts of the vari- ous constituents of milk. COMPOSITION OF NEW MILK. • No. 1. Mn.K AHALT8BD Oct. 21, 1860. No. 2. Milk analtsbd Not. 29, 1860. No. 8. Milk analtbed Sept. 18, ■ 1860. No. 4. Milk analysed Aug. 7, 1860. No. 5. Milk analtsed Sept. 6, I860. (Moeh'q's Milk.) No. 6. Milk analysed Sept. 6, 1860. (Bten'o's Milk.) Water 83.90 7.63 3.31 4.46 .71 85.30 4.96 3.66 5.05 1.13 86.65 3.99 3.47 5.11 .78 87.40 3.43 3.13 5.13 .93 89.93 1.99 2.94 4.48 .64 90.70 Butter, 1.79 3.81 Milk-sugar, 4.04 .66 Percentage of dry matters, 100.00 16.10 100.00 14.80 100.00 13.35 100.00 12.60 100.00 10.05 100.00 9.30 I have selected these analyses from a considerable number of milk analyses lately made in my laboratory. They illustrate strikingly the great differences that exist in the quality of new milk. It might readily be imagined that milk such as that which I examined on the 6th of September, containing ninety and a-half per cent, of water, had either been diluted with water, or at least produced by cows fed on mangold-tops, distillery-wash, or similar food. Such, however, was not the case. The cows which yielded this poor milk were out in pasture, and every precaution was taken to get a fair average of the milkings from some eight or ten cows. The milk was received by me almost directly after it had left the udder, and I can thus vouch for its being genuine, and its watery condition natural. The pasture, however, was poor and overstocked, so that the daily growth of grass furnished hardly enough food to meet the daily waste to which the animal frame is subject, and was thus not calculated to meet an extra demand of materials for the formation of butter and curd. The milk consequently became not merely deficient in quantity, but also poor in quality. It is well then to bear in mind that an insufficient quantity of food in the case before us caused the supply of milk Practical Dairy Hvsbandry. 301 to be small and unusually poor. This analysis illustrates and. confirms a principle generally recognized by good dairy farmers, that it is bad policy to keep more cows than can be liberally supplied with food. The evening's milk on the 6th of September, it will be noticed, contained about three- fourths per cent, more water and somewhat less caseine and butter than the morning's milk of the same cows on the same day. From this and other instances some may be disposed to infer that the morning's milk is generally richer than the evening milk — a view which I myself was disposed to adopt until a larger range of experiments proved to me its inaccuracy. In truth, the comparatively greater richness of the morning or the evening milk depends on a variety of circumstances so complicated as to require a length- ened discussion, which I must postpone to a future paper. The remarkably small quantity of butter in the milk of the 6th of Sep- tember appears very striking when contrasted with the proportion of butter found in good milk, and still more so when compared with the unusually large quantity contained in the rich milk analyzed on the 21st of October. This milk, like that of the 6th of September, was produced by cows out in grass, without any additional food rich in fat, such as linseed or rape-cake, and yet it contained nearly four times as much butter as that of the cows kept on an insufficient quantity of poor grass. The beneficial influence of abundance of good pasture on the butter-yielding qualities of milk, and the contrary effect of a stinted supply of grass, are seen in bold relief in the first and the sixth analyses. While the proportion of butter in difierent samples of milk varies exceed- ingly the relative amounts of curd or caseine, of milk-sugar and of ash, though liable to certain fluctuations, do not greatly difler in good, indifierent, or even very poor milk. It would thus appear that the quantity and quality of food, and other varying circumstances which. afiect the composition of milk, exert their influence principally on the' proportion of butter. And as this is certainly the most valuable constituent of cheese, and one pound of butter suffices for about two pounds of salable cheese, we can readily under- stand that in one dairy a considerable quantity of cream may be taken off the milk, and yet a better quality and a greater quantity of cheese can be made than in another dairy, from the same quantity of milk, from which no cream has been removed. The second analysis exhibits nearly five per cent, of butter, a proportion which is decidedly above the average. This analysis has been selected as an example illustrating the increasing richness of milk in the fall of the year. Practical cheese-makers are. well acquainted with the fact, that in autumn, ■when green food becomes scarcer, the quantity of milk diminishes consider- ably, but that the weight of cheese which can then be made from a given quantity of milk is much greater than in spring or summer. An inspeotiom of the second and fourth analyses affords a ready explanation of this fact. Both these milks came from the same dairy. In Augnst the milk contained 302 Practical Dairy Husbandry. scarcely three and a-half per cent, of butter, and, in round numbers, three per cent, of caseiije ; in November it yielded five per cent, of butter and one- half per cent, more caseine than in August. Rightly to appreciate this increase, it should be regarded, not so much as an addition of two and a-half parts in one hundred parts of fluid, as of two and a-half parts to twelve and a-half solid matter, the total percentage found in August, or an increase of twenty per cent, on the solid matter. And if we consider that most of the milk-sugar and of the mineral matters pass into the whey in the cheese-manu- facturing process, the difference in the cheese-producing qualities of the August and November milk appears still greater. In one of the milks we have three and a-half per cent, of butter and three of caseine, or five and a-half per cent, of solid cheese-producing materials in every one hundred parts of milk ; in the other there are five per cent, of butter and three and a-half of caseine, or eight and a-half of solid cheese-pro- ducing matters. Thus the real proportion in the two milks is as five and a-half to eight and a-half — that is to say, the latter yields fifty-five per cent, more dry cheese-forming materials than the former ; and as we find in good cheese about one-third of its weight of water, the fifty-five per cent of dry matter with this complement of water will amount to eighty-three per cent. In other words, one gallon of the Novembei- milk will produce nearly double the quantity of salable cheese which can be made from the August milk. The third analysis represents the composition of good, rich milk, and the fourth the average composition of milk neither rich nor poor. In rich milk the proportion which the butter bears to the caseine is always " much greater than in milk of average quality. In the latter there is about as much butter as caseine, and in decidedly poor milk the proportion of caseine is larger than that of butter. The preceding analyses have brought to light unexpectedly large differ- ences in the amount of butter which is contained in different samples of milk. With proper care and skill in cheese-making nearly the whole of the butter becomes incorporated with the curd ; and as the market price of cheese depends in a great measure, though not entirely, upon the proportion of butter which it contains, it is evident that the original quality of the milk must have a decided and direct infiuence on the quality as well as the quan- tity of cheese which can be made from it. Although precisely the same process may be adopted, and equal care and attention may be bestowed on the manufacture, it nevertheless happens that not only more but also a better quality is made in one dairy than in another from the same number of gallons of milk. The food upon which dairy-stock is kept unquestionably exercises a great influence on the milk. It is, therefore, reasonable to expect certain pastures to be naturally better adapted for the production of rich cheese than others. Thus good old pasture not only produces richer milk than grass from irrigated meadows, but likewise a better quality of cheese, all other circumstances Practical Dairy Husbandry. 303 being equal in both cases. There is thus some reason in the almost univer- sally received opinion that on some land good cheese can invariably be made, while on other land no amount of skill or care can bring about a like result. But at the same time I believe it is quite a mistake to think that good cheese can only be made in certain localities, and Xh\a,t the character of the pasture accounts entirely for the great differences found in the quality of this article. Good salable, and even high-priced cheese, I believe with Mr. Harding, can be made in any locality, whatever the character of the pasture may be, where an industrious and skillful hand, and an observant and intelligent head, pre- sides over the operation ; and, on the other hand, the best sjfiA richest milk, the produce of peculiarly favoi-able pastures, may be spoiled by a slovenly and ignorant dairymaid. But inasmuch as the nature of the herbage, as is well known, affects the richness, and especially the flavor of the milk, and the herbage is sweeter in one locality than another, and at one time of the year than at another, it is not likely that the very finest-flavored cheese should be made indiscriminately on all land and all the year round. Still, after every allowance has been made for these natural peculiarities, it is nevertheless true that the various processes which are adopted in different countries determine in a great measure the prevailing character of the produce, while the want or bestowal of care and attention in making cheese, whether it be on the Cheshire, Cheddar or any other plan, materially influ- ences the quality of the produce. Before I proceed to point out some of the practical errors which are often made in the manufacture of cheese, let us examine the composition and chief peculiarities of some of the principal kinds made in England. English cheese is produced either from milk to which an extra quantity of cream has been added, or secondly from the whole-milk, or thirdly from milk from which more or less cream has been taken before the addition of the rennet. Accordingly we obtain — 1. Cream-cheeses. 2. Whole-milk cheeses. 3. Skim-milk cheeses. The first class is made in limited quantities only, and constitutes a luxury which is found chiefly in the houses of the wealthy. The second is produced in larger quantities ; and the third furnishes our chief supply of this important article of food for the working-classes of this country. To the first class belong Stilton, Cream-Cheddar, and the choicest quality of Cotherstone cheese, or Yorkshire Stilton. These, according to their quality, fetch more or less a fancy price in the market, as they are made in perfection only by few persons, and in limited quantity. To the second class belong the best Cheshire, some Cheddar, good Double Gloucester, most of the cheese made in the Vale of Berkeley, as well as whole-milk cheese produced in Wiltshire and other counties of England. 304 Practical Dairy IIusbandrt. In the third class we meet with ordinary Cheshire, Gloucester, Wiltshire, Warwickshire, Shropshire, Leicestershire, and other cheeses made in districts where its manufacKiire is combined with that of butter. This division into three classes is to a great extent an arbitrary one, adopted more for the sake of convenience than on account of any definite line of demarcation. In reality the richer admixture often only compensates for the inferiority of the natural product. Thus the best Cheshire and Cheddar cheese is frequently as good and rich in butter as Stilton. Again, it is well known that in some dairies a richer cheese can' be made from the mixed new morning's milk ^nd skimmed evening's milk than in others from the whole milk. The classification, therefore, does not so much refer to the quality and value of the cheese as to the description of milk which is used. STILTON AND COTHEESTONE CHEESE. The following table embociies tlie results obtained in the analyses of two samples of Stil- ton and Cotherstone cheese : Stiltoh. No. 1. No. 2. COTHEESTOOT, OR ToEKSHiBB Stilton. No. 1. No. 8. Water Butter (pure fatty matters) *Caseiue, Milk-sugar and extractive matters, +Mineral matters (ash), •Containing nitrogen f Containing common salt, , 33.18 37.36 24.81 2.22 3.93 20.27 43.98 I 33.55 2.30 38.28 30.89 ( 23.93 i 3.70 3.30 100.00 3.89 .89 100.00 .29 100.00 3.83 .79 38.33 29.13 24.38 3.76 5.51 100.00 3.90 2.55 The two Stilton cheeses are very rich in butter, especially the second, which contains forty-four per cent, of pure fatty matters ; and as we have in common butter from fifteen to eighteen per cent, of water, besides caseine and other impurities, the pure fat in the second Stilton represents more than fifty per cent, of butter. The first analysis expresses the composition of a rather new Stilton. It was sold at one shilling per pound last October. The second analysis-is that of an old Stilton, selling at fourteen pence per pound. There is about twelve per cent, less water in it then in new Stilton : more butter and less salt. Notwithstanding the smaller amount of salt, it had a more saline taste and much better flavor than the newer cheese. This saline taste is generally ascribed to the salt, and complaints are sometimes made by persons fond of mild-tasting cheese, that old cheese, in other respect rich and good, has been injured by too much salt. This is a mistake, of which the proof is found in the analysis of these two Stilton cheeses. The first was quite mild in flavor in comparison with the other, and yet it contained three times as much salt as the more saline-tasting older cheese. The fact is, the saline Practical Dairy Husbandry. 305 taste is developed during the ripening of cheese ; newly-made cheese, though strongly salted, is always mild in taste. During the ripening of the clieese a portion of the caseine or curd suffers decomposition, and is partially changed into ammonia ; the latter, however, does not escape, but combines with seve- ral fatty acids formed in the course of time from the butter. Peculiar ammo- niacal salts are thus produced, and these, like most other salts of ammonia, have a pungent, saline taste. The longer cheese is kept, within reasonable limits, the riper it gets ; and as it ripens the proportion of ammoniacal salts, with their pungent, saline taste, increases. It can be readily shown that old cheese contains a good deal of ammonia in the shape of ammoniacal salts. All that is necessary is to pound a piece with some quick lime, when, on the addition of a little ^ater, a strong smell of spirits of hartshorn will be devel- oped. In well-kept, sound old cheese the ammonia is not free, but exists in the form of salts, in which the base is ammonia, in combination with butyric, caprinic, caprylic, and other acids, generated under favorable circumstances by the fats of which butter consists. Ripe cheese, even if very old, but sound, instead of containing free ammonia, always exhibits a decidedly acid reaction when tested with blue litmus paper. Rotten cheese, on the other band, is generally alkaline in its reaction, and contains free ammonia. I have made a quantitative determination of the amount of ammonia in old Stilton cheese, and found it to amount to 1.81 per cent. The first Cotherstone or Yorkshire Stilton was made near Barnard Castle, in the Vale of the Tees, and sold at one shilling per pound. It is highly- esteemed in Durham and Yorkshire ; but to my taste, the cheese which 1 analyzed is not to be compared with good, genuine Stilton, nor is it equal in flavor to Cheshire or Cheddar. Cotherstone cheese, it will be noticed, contains a very much larger pro- portion of water than even new Stilton. This imparts to it a smooth and apparently rich texture, but the proportion of butter is not really as great as it appears to be, nor, in point of fact, equal to that found in an average Ched- dar. It has usually a very strong taste, which would be decidedly objected to by Cheshire or Gloucestershire factors. In its preparation a good deal of whey appears to be left in the curd in mechanical combination, and to be the principal cause of the strong taste and smell which are its chai-acteristicSj and in which, more than any other English cheese, it resembles the foreign Rochefort. CHESHIRE AND CHEDDAR CHEESE. In making besti Cheshire and good Cheddar cheese the whole milk is used, and cheese generally made but once a day. The first analysis illustrates the composition of good ripe, and the second that of good new Cheshire cheese. Since a good deal of water evaporates in keeping, the proportion of dry caseine, of mineral matters, and especially of butter (pure fat), must become larger with age. 20 306 Pb ACTIO AL Dairy Husbandry. The following table shows the composition of two kinds of Cheshire and a number of Cheddar cheeses. Cheshire Cheese. No. 1. OU). No. 2. KBW. Cheddab Cheese. No. 1. OLD. No. 2. 6mos. OLD. No. 3. 6 MOS. OLD. No. No. 6. No. 6. Water, Butter,. *Caseine, Hilk-sngar, lactic acid, and ) extractive matters, j fMineral matters (ash), •Containing nitrogen, fContaining common salt 32.59 32.51 26.06 4.53 4.31 100.00 4.17 1.59 36.96 29.84 24.08 5.17 4.45 30.33 35.53 28.18 1.66 4.31 36.17 31.83 24.93 3.21 3.86 31.17 33.68 26.81 4.91 8.98 100.00 3.84 1.91 100.00 4.51 1.55 100.00 3.99 1.18 100.00 4.21 1.15 33.92 33.15 28.12 3.85 100.00 4.50 1.28 37.85 28.91 25.00 4.91 8.33 100.00 4.00 38.43 23.28 82.37 2.10 3.82 100.00 5.18 .65 The rich appearance of old cheese, however, is by no means attributable entirely to a very large proportion of butter ; nor is the poor condition of new or badly-made cheese referable solely to a deficiency of butter. One of the chief tests of the skill of the dairymaid is the production of a rich tasting and looking, fine-flavored, mellow cheese from milk not particularly rich in cream. That this can be done is abundantly proved by the practice of good makers. One of the finest Cheddars which I have ever examined is that men- tioned as No. 4 in the above table. This was made by Mr. Harding, Marks- bury, Somersetshire, and analyzed by me when about six months old. Like all good cheeses, it of course contains a large amount of butter ; though as I found by experiment, not nearly so large an amount as its appearance, rich taste, and fine, mature condition seemed to imply. Though only six months old, it had a much more mature appearance than the Cheddar cheese No. 1, which was at least eleven months old when analyzed ; and, thanks to Mr. Haeding's skill and experience, had a much. fatter and more mellow appear- ance and richer taste than a specimen which actually contained two and a-half per cent, more butter. Thus we see that the proportion of butter does not entirely determine the value of cheese, since a high-priced Cheddar or Cheshire cheese does not necessarily contain more butter than another which fetches eight or ten shil- lings less per hundredweight in the market. In the opinion of good judges the Cheddar cheese No. 1, notwithstanding the larger amount of butter, and the smaller amount of water which it con- tained, was worth less than No. 4 by one penny per pound — no inconsiderable difference in the returns of a dairy to remunerate careful and skillful manage- ment. The peculiar mellow appearance of good cheese, though due to some extent to the butter which it contains, depends in a higher degree upon a gradual transformation which the caseine or curd undergoes in ripening. The Practical Dairy Husbandry. 307 curd is hard and insoluble in water, but by degrees it becomes softer and more soluble, or, speaking more correctly, gives rise to products of decomposition which are soluble in water. Now, if this ripening process is improperly conducted, or the original character of the curd is such that it adapts itself but slowly to this transfor- mation, the cheese when sold will be, comparatively speaking, tough, and appear less rich in butter than it really is ; while in a well-made and properly kept cheese, this series of changes will be rapidly and thoroughly effected. Proper ripening thus imparts to cheese a rich appearance, and unites with the butter in giving it that most desirable property of melting in the mouth. Oh examining some cheese deficient in this melting property, and accordingly pronounced by practical judges defective in butter, I nevertheless found in them a very high percentage of that substance — clear proof that the mellow and rich taste of cheese is not entirely, nor indeed chiefly, due to the fatty matters which it contains. Good Cheshire and Cheddar, on an average, contain about the same quan- tity of butter ; but of course inferior cheeses defective in this respect are to be found in both localities. The analysis No. 6 shows the composition of such an inferior Cheddar. DOUBLE AND SINGLE GLOUCESTER CHEESE. Gloucester, especially double Gloucester, is generally sold as a whole-milk cheese. It is, however, seldom made of the whole-milk. In most dairies more or less of the cream of the milk is made into butter ; but unless the whole evening's milk is skimmed and added to the whole new morning's milk — ^in which ease the cheese made is " half-coward " — the produce, whether single or double, is said to be whole-milk cheese. The distinction of single and double Gloucester is one merely of size and thickness, and has nothing to do with the quality. Tlie following tables embody the results of some analyses of double and single Gloucester clicese : DOUBLE GLOUCESTEB. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5. No. 6. Water, Butter, , *Caseiiie, Milk-snirar, lactic acid, and ex- tractive matters, fMineral matters (ash) *Contaiiiiiig nitrogen, fContaining common salt,. 33.44 30.17 31.75 1.22 4.43 100.00 5.12 i:41 33.80 37.33 100.00 1.37 38.83 3.77 r36.25 100.00 4.20 2.04 38.14 34.16 36.56 6.40. 4.74' 100.00 4.25 1.28 40.88 32.81 100.00 "i'.45' 33.41 82.69 27.75 3.23 3.93 100.00 , 4.44 ' 1.01 308 Practical Dairy Husbandry. SINGLE GLOUCESTER. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 6. No. 6. No. 7. Water Biiller, *Caseiiie, MilU-sugar, lactic ackl and extractive niat- tere, f Mineral matters (asli),. •Containing nitrogen,.., •|-Coutainiug common salt 38.10 33.68 80.81 3.73 4.19 100.00 4.85 1.13 31.96 31.37 39.37 3.85 4.45 37.30 27.30 34.50 7.44 3.56 31.81 29.26 36.13 8.63 4.18 83.42 37.43 184.46 5.70 37.91 22.70 I" 31. 25 ■j 3.80 4.84 100.00 4.70 1.35 100.00 3.92 .85 100.00 4.18 1.50 100.00 "'i!46' 100.00 5.00 1.23 86.50 38.75 25.75 4.68 4.33 100.00 4.13 1.38 The differences in the proportion of water and butter here are very large, though probably not greater than will be found in other descriptions of cheese on examining a considerable number of specimens. It is worthy of notice that the poorer the cheese in butter the more water it usually contains. Thus the first sample of double Gloucester, which contained thirty-two and a-half per cent, of water, yielded thirty per cent, of butter (pure fat), while the third sample, containing nearly thirty-nine per cent, of water, yielded twenty- seven per cent., and the fifth sample, with nearly forty-one per cent, of water, scarcely twenty-three per cent, of butter. These analyses show that the distinction made between double and single Gloucester has no reference to quality. Indeed, the first analysis in the table of the single Gloucester shows that thin cheeses are made which are as rich in butter as any of the best Cheddar and Cheshire cheeses. No. 1 and N"o. 6' in the list of double Gloucester, and Nos. 1, 2, and 4 in the table of single Gloucester, alike establish this equality. Nevertheless the price that is paid for thin, i.e., single Gloucester of excellent quality, was only seventy shillings per hundred weight, while Cheddar, not richer in butter, and containing nearly as much water, sold at ninety shillings per hundred weight. The latter, of course, was well-made and nicely flavored cheese, and nearly four months old, while the single Gloucester was only two months old. Still, making every allowance for loss in weight on keeping for two months longer, the difference in the price at which both were sold, amounting to exactly £1, leaves a handsome balance in favor of a system which I have no doubt will come more and more into- favor. "We have here again presented to us striking examples showing that the difference in the quality and price of the cheese is not "dependent merely on the richness or poverty of the milk, but that the process of manufacture exerts a decided ^nd direct influence on its value. Dif- ferent plans now followed have unquestionably various degrees of merit, but in our present state of knowledge it would be premature to lay down any absolute rule. Practical Dairy Husbandry. 309 LEICESTERSHIRE, WARWICKSHIEE AND WILTSHIRE CHEESE. Some excellent cheese is made iii Leicestershire and Warwickshire, but the geuerality of the produce of these two counties does not rank equalljr high with Cheshire, Cheddar, or even Gloucester cheese. Some parts of Wilts are celebrated for their rich pastures, and for au excellent delicate-flavored kind of cheese. In other parts of the county a good deal of butter is made, and here, as in all districts where much butter . is made and dairy farms are small, the cheese produced is of an inferior character. Whole milk cheese, I believe, is not generally made in Wiltshire, although, in North Wilts a good deal is sold as such in the market. Wiltshire and Gloucester cheese is commonly colored with annatto, while that made in Leicestershire and Warwickshire is mostly uncolored. Tlie following table shows the compositiou of some specimens from the three counties to which I have just referred : COMPOSITION OP LEICESTBBSniRE, WABWICKSHIRB, AND WILTSHIRE CHEESE. Water, Biilter, *Caseine, Milk-sngar, lactic acid, and ) extractive matter, f f Mineral matters (ash), •Containing nitrogen, fContaining common salt,. Lbicesteb. No. 1. 35.21 27.38 27.93 5.54 4.04 100.00 4.47 1.08 No. 8. 29.28 29.06 4.42 4.35 100.00 4.65 1.21 Wabwickshirb. No. 1. 31.97 29.08 27.43 7.16 4.36 100.00 4.39 .73 No. 2. 33.61 30.04 29.70 1.95 5.60 100.00 4.74 2.78 No .3. 33.53 30.89 28.19 2.84 4.55 100.00 4.51 1.13 Wn.TSHIEE. No. 1. 34.44 28.71 39.00 3.60 4.25 100.00 4.64 1.03 No. 2. 39.22 19.26 34.33 2.28 5.03 100.00 5.38 .60 No. 3. 40.07 25.55 26.81 2.24 100.00 4.29 1.14 The first analysis was made of an uncolored Leicestershire cheese, sold retail at ninepence per pound. The second was a much better specimen from the sanie county. The latter, it will be seen, is drier and richer than the former. The difierence in the composition of the three Warwickshire cheeses is not great. In all three the proportions of water, butter and caseine do not vary more than two and a-half per cent. The greatest difference is observable in the amount of salt used. In the second specimen we have nearly three per cent, of salt, a proportion far above the average, and the cheese was to a cer- tain extent spoiled by this excess. I would direct special attention to this, which I know from experience is not a solitary instance. For no description of cheese, should more than two pounds of salt per hundred weight be used, and one and arhalf pound per hundred weight will, I believe, in most cases be sufiicient. This was by no means a good cheese ; it had a strong taste, arid was sold as common Warwickshire cheese. This and the third were uncolored, and the flavor of the latter, as well as its texture and shape, was very good indeed. 310 Practical Dairy Husbandbt. The first analysis was made of a colored cheese which was sold as best Warwickshire ; apparently it w'as an old and very much richer cheese than No. 2, but on analysis it was found actually to contain one per cent, less butter than the common cheese of the same name, thus giving another instance of the fact that good materials are often spoiled by unskillful management. Of the three Wiltshire cheeses No. 1 was decidedly the best flavored, and, as will be seen, also the richest. No. 2 and No. 3 contained too much water, showing that the whey had not been carefully pressed out, and when this has been the case the cheese is very apt to heave and to acquire a strong taste. No. 2 is very poor in butter, and, although not sold as skim-milk cheese for all I know may have been made of skimmed milk. SKIM-MILK CHEESE. Milk varies so much in quality that in one dairy a better and richer cheese can be made from milk which has been skimmed than in another where only the evening milk is skimmed and added to the whole new morning's milk. The following analyses clearly bring out this important practical fact, but they also show that, as a rule, skimmed milk does not produce a good cheese : COMPOSITION OF SKIM-MILK 0HBK8E. No. 1. No. 2. No. a. No. 4. No. B. •Water 27.68 30.80 35.12 1.46 4.94 39.43 27.08 30.37 .33 3.90 38.39 33.31 38.37 6.80 3.33 43.87 15.89 28.93 6.47 4.84 45.39 BiiUer 9.97 *Cji8eine 33.12 Milk-sugar, lactio acid, and extractive ) matters J fMineral matters (ash) 6.39 5 13 100.00 5.63 1.27 100.00 4.86 .33 100.00 4.54 .33 100.00 4.63 1.66 100.00 5.34 f Containin'*" coininon salt 1.51 With the exception of No. 4, which was bought in a shop at Cirencester as skim-milk cheese at seven pence per pound, the other cheese, the composi- tion of which is here given, were either made under my direction or accord- ing to a plan with which I was made acquainted. No. 1, it will be noticed, though made from skim-milk, is as rich in butter as good Cheshire cheese. It was rather more than six months old before it was analysed,' when its quality was pronounced by several good judges to be excellent ; superior, indeed, to most of the Gloucester cheese which I have ever tasted. No. 2 and No. 3, though not equal to No. 1, after keeping for six months turned out very good cheeses indeed. No. 4, it will be seen, contained only sixteen per cent, of butter, in round numbers, and nearly forty-four per cent, of water. If such cheese can be sold at seven pence per pound, and butter at one shilling to one shilling Practical Dairy Husbandry. 311 four pence per pound, I can well understand that it must pay a farmer to make nothing but skim-milk cheese and to convert all the cream into butter. No. 5 was made of milk skimmed at least three times, and sold on the farm where it was made to the laborers at three pence per pound. Such cheese cannot be kept for any great length of time, for it soon gets so hard and horn-like that a pickax must be used to break it into pieces. AMEBICAN CHEESE. Of late years a good deal of cheese has been imported into England from America, some of which is by no means bad : indeed one or two specimens which came under my notice were excellent in quality. The majority, how- ever, are inferior, and are sold at a low price, being generally badly made and deficient in flavor. The following Table gives the composition of American cheeses : COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN CHEESE. - No. 1. No. 2 No. 3. No. 4. Water 27.29 35.41 25.87 6.21 5.22 33.04 33.38 27.87 2.82 3.39 31.01 30.90 26.25 7.43 4.41 38 .24 Butter, 26.05 26.81 Milk-sugar, lactic acid and extractive matters, f MLaeral matters (aali), 3.64 5.26 100.00 4.14 1.97 100.00 4.38 -.47 100.00 4.20 1.59 100.00 4.29 1.94 No. 1 was as nice a cheese as could be desired ; in flavor it much resem- bled good Cheddar, and was found to contain even a higher proportion of butter and rather less water than good Cheddar. The second cheese, though rich in butter, was retailed at seven pence per pound, and the third at only six pence per pound. Both were deficient in flavor and badly made. The fourth cheese was the worst of the four, and had to be sold at five pence per pound. It was full of holes, badly made, and had a very strong smell. It was evident that the whey was not carefully pressed out in the making. The examination of these and other American cheeses leads me to the conclusion, judging from our imports, that good materials are even more thoroughly spoiled on the other side of the Atlantic than in England. Let me next direct attention to some of the principal mistakes which are not unfrequently committed in the manufacture of cheese. I have said in the beginning of this paper — 1st, that cheese is sometimes spoiled even before it is separated from the milk ; 2dly, that it is yet more frequently spoiled in the act of making ; and, lastly, that it is sometimes deteriorated by bad keeping after it has been made. 3 1 2 Pra ctical Dair y HusBAm)R r. I. PEACTICAL MISTAKES MADE IN THE MANUFACTURE OP CHEESE BEFORE THE CURD IS SEPARATED. The inferior character, and especially the bad flavor, of cheese owes its origin in many cases to a want of proper care in handling the milk from which it has been made. Milk sometimes gets spoiled by dirty fingers before it passes into the pail. If the vessels in which the milk is kept in the dairy have been carelessly washed, and the milk-pails and cheese-tub have not been well scrubbed, but merely been washed out, and if especially the dairy uten- sils have not been scalded with boiling-hot water, it is vain to expect that cheese of the finest quality can be made, let the milk be ever so rich in cream. The neglect of these simple but important precautions soon manifests itself in a dairy by a peculiar ferment which taints the whole milk, and afterwards affects the flavor and consequently the quality of the cheese. Cleanliness, indeed, may be said to be the first qualification of a good dairy woman. The nature of every ferment is to produce in other matters with which it comes into contact certain chemical changes depending on its own character. Thus a little yeast produces in fermentable liquids large quantities of alcohol and carbonic acid ; acid ferments containing acetic or lactic acid have a ten- dency to generate vinegar or lactic acid in other liquids. A small piece of "putrefying meat in contact with a large mass of sound flesh soon spreads putrefaction over the entire mass ; and other ferments act in a similar man- ner. Such ferments generally produce in other matters with which they are brought into contact changes similar to those which they themselves undergo. The disagreaable smell of dirty or badly cleaned milk-pails and cheese-tubs is due to a peculiar ferment, which is raj^idly formed, especially in warm weather, when milk is left in contact with air and with the porous wood of the cheese-tub and milk-pails. In the rapid process of vinegar manufacture a weak alcoholic liquid is allowed to trickle through a barrel perforated all over with holes to admit the air, and filled with wood shavings. If the tem- perature of the room in which the vinegar casks are put up is sufiiciently high, the alcohol, in trickling over these shavings when in contact with abundance of air, undergoes a complete transformation, and collects rapidly at the bottom of the cask as vinegar. But such a change does not take place if the alcoholic liquid is left for ever so long in a clean cask filled with such a liquid. Contact with air, subdivision of the liquid into drops, and the pres- ence of the porous wood shavings, are necessary for the transformation. These casks do not at first produce vinej^ar as rapidly as after they have been in use some time and become thoroughly soaked with vinegar ferment. And this is another peculiarity of all ferments, that, under favorable circumstances, they reproduce themselves from other materials in immense quantities. Thus fresh and active yeast is generated in gi-eat abundance in fermenting malt liquor, while the original yeast employed in brewing is more or less decom- posed and becomes what is called inactive yeast. These chemical facts, well Practical Dairy Husbandry. 313 known to the manufacturers of vinegar and to the intelligent brewer, have a direct bearing on cheese making. At the very beginning of her operations a good dairy woman unconsciously carries on a steady and constant battle with these remarkable ferments, and it is very interesting to the chemist to see her proceed in the most rational and philosophical manner. No milk is admitted into the cheese-tub before it has been carefully strained through a cloth, lest a little bit of dead leaf or any similar matter, accidentally blown into the milk in its passage from the milking place to the dairy, should spoil the flavor of the cheese. No sooner has the cheese left the tub than she begins to pour scalding water into it, to scrub it, and to make it as clean and sweet as possible. In good dairies no utensil is allowed to remain for a moment dirty, but hot water and clean brushes are always close at hand to scrub the pails and make them almost as white as snow. The dairywoman probably knows nothing about the nature of the ferment, which is rapidly formed when a little .milk is left at the bottom and adhering to the sides of the wooden milk pails ; she is unconscious that here, as in the vinegar process, the conditions most favorable to chemical change are present, and that the sugar of the milk, in contact with plenty of air and porous wood, is rapidly changed into lactic acid, while at the same time a peculiar milk fetment is produced ; all this may be a perfect mystery to her, but, never- theless, guided by experience, she thoroughly avoids everything that favors the production of ferment, or taint, as she calls it, by leaving no vessel uncleaned, by scalding all that have been in use with boiling water, and if ever so little milk be accidentally spilt on the floor of the dairy, taking care that it is at once removed, and the spot where it fell washed with clean water. It is, indeed, surprising how small a quantity of ferment taints a large quantity of milk. The most scrupulous cleanliness, therefore, is brought into constant play by a good dairywoman, who never minds any amount of trouble in scalding and scrubbing her vessels, and takes pride, as soon as possible after her cheeses are safely lodged in the presses, in having the dairy look as clean and tidy as the most fastidious can wish. It is a pleasure to see one of these hard-working women at work, especially as such a sight is not often witnessed, slovenly dairymaids being unfortunately in a majority. This being the case, we should encourage the use of tin pails and tin or brass cheese tubs. Wooden pails, &c., are very good in the hands of a tidy dairy- maid, but not otherwise. There is much less labor in thoroughly cleaning a tin or brass vessel than a wooden one, and boiling-hot water is not then required. Wood, being a porous material, inevitably absorbs more or less of the milk ; tin or brass does not. The milk thus absorbed cannot be removed by simple washing. Inasmuch as all ferments are destroyed by water at the temperature of 212°, it is important to ascertain that the water is perfectly boiling ; and yet .it is strange that few women, comparatively speaking, 314 Practical Dairy Husbandby. though they may have spent many years in the kitchen, know to a certainty w^en the kettle is really boiling. This remark applies to some educated as well as uneducated females. They often mistake the singing noise of the tea- kettle accompanied by a certain amount of vapor for a sign that water is in a state of ebullition ; so that if you would drink good tea you must be careful to whom you trust to make it. In some dairies of Cheshire it is customary to paint the wooden cheese tubs in the interior. I confess I do not like this at all ; lead paint is not a" very desirable thing to be used in connection with cheese ; and I am glad to find that the best dairy fai-mers are decidedly averse to this proceeding. Milk sometimes gets tainted by the close proximity of pig-sties or water- closets, or by underground drains. Not very long ago I visited a dairy in "Wiltshire, where every possible care was taken by the dairymaid to produce good cheese ; but I noticed a peculiarly disagreejable smell in the dairy, and on making inquiries I found that ther.e was a cesspool close at hand, which certainly tainted the milk, and rendered the making of good cheese an impos- sibility. In the third place, I would notice that if dairies are not well situ- ated, — if they have, for instance, a south aspect, so that a proper low temper- ature in summer cannot be maintained, — the milk is apt to turn sour and to make sour cheese. It is important, therefore, that dairies should be built with a northern aspect. These are some of the circumstances that spoil the cheese even before it is separated from the milk. The remedies are obvious. It is only with respect to the latter point — that of milk getting sour, that I would offer a few observations. If the situation of the dairy is bad, and a new dairy cannot be erected, we should employ all possible means to prevent the milk from getting warm. We should keep it in shallow tins or leads, or, better still, as I have seen in some parts of Somersetshire, in shallow tin vessels with a double bot- tom, through which cold water may be run during the warm part of the sea- son. By this means we can keep the milk at a considerably lower tempera- ture than we should otherwise be able to do. Having seen nitre and salt used with great advantage to prevent cream from turning sour, I would further suggest that they might probably be found serviceable in the same manner for the keeping of milk if used in moderate quantities. Some people, how- ever, maintain that milk requires to become sour before it can properly be made into cheese. A great deal has been said and written with respect to the great utility to the dairymen of an instrument by means of which the amount of acid in sour milk might be accurately and readily determined. A careful study of the action of rennet on milk, however, has led me to the conclusion that the more carefully milk is prevented from getting sour, and, consequently the less opportunity there is for the use of an acidometer, the more likely the cheese is to turn out good. Indeed, the acidometer appears to me a useless instrument — a scientific toy which can never be turned to any practical account. Practical Dairy Eusbandry. 315 If by accident the milk has become sour, the fact soon manifests itself suffi- ciently to the taste. An experienced dairymaid will even form a tolerably good opinion of the relative proportions of acid in the milk on different days and arrange her proceedings accordingly. Moreover, the knowledge of the precise amount of acid in the milk does not help us much. When milk has turned sour, the best thing to do is to hasten on the process of cheese-making as much as possible. 11. PRACTICAL FAULTS COMMITTED DURING THE MAKING OF CHEESE. 1. Under the second head I would observe, first, that sufficient care is not bestowed upon noticing the temperature at which the milk is " set," or " run," as it is called in Gloucestershire. Thermometers, indeed, are seldom in use. Even where they are hung up in the dairy, they are more frequently regarded as curious but useless ornaments than trustworthy guides, and therefore are seldom put into requisition. In fact, most dairymaids are guided entirely by their own feelings ; and as these are as variable as those of other mortals, the temperature of the milk when it is " set " (that is where the rennet is added) is often either too high or too low. They mostly profess to know the tem- perature of the milk to a nicety, and feel almost insulted if you tell them that much less reliance can be placed on the indications of ever so experienced a hand than upon an instrument which contracts and expands according to a fixed law, uninfluenced by the many disturbing causes to which a living body is necessarily subjected. It is really amusing to see the animosity with which some people look upon the thermometer. It is true that there are not many dairies in which it may not be found ; but if we took pains to ascertain in how many of these it is in constant use, I believe that the proportion would not exceed five per cent. This is a great pity, for a tolerably good one can now be bought or replaced at a trifling cost. I have spoken frankly but unfavorably of the acidometer. With equal frankness I express my regret that the use of the thermometer is not more general, as I believe it is indispensable for obtaining a uniformly good product. If the temperature of the milk when the rennet is added, is too low, the curd remains too soft, and much difficulty is experienced in separating the whey. If, on the other hand, the temperature is too high, the separation is easily efiected, but the curd becomes hard and dry. The amount of water which is left in the curd when it is ready to go into the cheese-presses, to some extent indicates 'whether a proper temperature has been employed. When this has been too low, the curd will contain more than fifty per cent, of mois- ture ; when too high, sometimes less than thirty-six per cent. How variable is this proportion of water (chiefly due to the whey in the curd) will appear from the following determinations made in the same dairy on the four follow- ing days : 316 Practical Dairy Husbandry. amount of water in cord wnkn ready to go into the vat. Percentage of water in 1st Cheese 41.53 " " 2cl Cheese 41.49 " " 3d Cheese 38.20 " " 4thCheese 35.80 In this dairy the thermometer was not in daily use, and the heat employed in making the fourth cheese was evidently too high, for in good Cheddar when ready for sale the amount of moisture is hardly less than in this curd when put into the vat. The cheese from these four specimens of curd was made according to the Cheddar system. Five other specimens gave the fol- lowing proportions of water : PERCENTAGE OP WATER IN CURD WHEN READY TO GO INTO THE VAT. 1st spechnen, percentage of water 59.67 2cl " " " 56.93 3d •• " " , 53.40 4th " " , " 52.80 5th " " " 50.01 These were produced according to the custom of Gloucestershire and Wiltshire, at a temperature varying from 72° to 75°; but, not having taken the observations myself, I am unable to speak more precisely. This much, however, is quite certain, that the lower temperature at which the cheese is usually made in Gloucestershire and Wiltshire, when compared with the Cheddar system, fully accounts for the large proportion of water that is found in curd made after the Gloucester or Wiltshire fashion. The cheese made from these five curds was best at the dairy in which I found the lowest proportion of water in the curd. The differences here noticed, however, are due not only to the higher or lower temperature employed, but also to the trouble and the time bestowed in breaking up the curd. Other circumstances being equal, the more thoroughly curd is broken up, and the longer time is occupied in this process, the more whey will pass out, and the better the cheese is likely to become. I consider fifty per cent, of moisture rather under the average, and fifty-three to fifty-four per cent, a proper quantity cif water to be contained in the curd when it is vatted to form a thin or moder- ately thick cheese. In making thick cheese, it should not have more than forty-five per cent of moisture. Fifty-seven or fifty-nine and a-half per cent., the proportions of water in the first and second specimens of curd, are too high even for a thin cheese. Curd being a very peculiar and delicate substance, which is greatly afFeoted by the temperature to which it is exposed, I directed some special experiments to the investigation of its properties. First, I coagulated new milk at 60° Fahrenheit, and found that at such a low temperature it took three hours to complete the process, though the rennet was added in a very large excess. The curd remained tender, and the whey could not be properly separated. Milk at 65° F., on addition of rennet, curdled in two hours ; but Practical Dairy Husbandry. 317 the curd, as before, remained tender, even after long standing. At "70° to 72° F. it only took from one-half to three-quarters of an hour, and the curd now separated in a more compact condition. The process was more expe- ditions, and the curd in better condition, when the temperature ranged from 80° to 84°. At 90° the rennet curdled the milk in twenty minutes, and at 100° F. an excess of rennet coagulated the milk in about a quarter of an hour, separating the curd in a somewhat close condition. By heating the curd in the whey to 130° F., I find it gets so soft that it runs like toasted cheese, and becomes quite hard on cooling. The limits of temperature between which curd can be improved and deteriorated in texture are there- fore not very wide. The exact temperature to be adopted depends upon the description of cheese that is wanted — a lower range, e. g. 72° to 75°, being desirable when a thin cheese is made ; while for thick cheese, such as Ched- dar, it should vary from 80° to 84°; 80° being best adapted to warm weather, and a little increase in the heat desirable in the cold season. After a portion of the whey has been separated, it is advisable to scald the curd and to raise the temperature of the whole contents of the cheese-tub to 95° or 100°, but certainly not higher. I have seen much injury done to cheese by using too high a temperature in the makisg. Secondly, apart from this influence of temperature, cheeses are often deteriorated by the frequently imperfect separation of the whey from the curd ; by hurrying on too much the operation of breaking ; and by too great an anxiety to get the curd vatted. The whey requires time to drain off properly, and hence the Somersetshire plan is a good one — to expose the curd for some time to the air, after it has been sufficiently broken and been gathered again and cut in slices of moderate size. A great deal of whey runs off, and the curd, moreover, is cooled, and runs less risk of heating too 'much after it leaves the presses. When the whey has been ill-separated from the curd, no amount of press- ure will squeeze out the excesss of whey, which then causes the cheese to heave and blister, and imparts to it a somewhat sweet and at the same time strong taste. This taste is always found in an ill-shaped cheese, which bulges out at the sides, the interior of which will be found to be full of cavities, and far from uniform in texture. Many cheeses imported from America are evi- dently spoiled in this way, for they are often full of holes, have a strong smell, and contain too much moisture — sure indications that the whey was not properly separated. The sweet taste is given to the cheese by part of the sugar of milk, of which a good deal is found in whey ; another portion of this, on entering into fermentation, forms, among other products, carbonic acid gas, which, in its endeavor to escape, heaves up the semi-solid curd, and causes it to blister, producing the numerous apertures of considerable size which are found in badly-made cheese. If the cheese is colored with annatto, the excess of whey at the same time causes a partial separation of the color- ing matter, so that more color collects in some parts than in others, and the 318 Practical Dairy Husbandry. cheese assumes that unequal condition in which it is called tallowy. A uni- form color and perfect shape are therefore to a certain extent indications of a superior quality ; while mottled, mis-shaped cheese, almost invariably proves tallowy, and in flavor, sweet when young, and very strong when older. The danger of leaving too much whey in the curd is especially great in warm weather, for it is then that the fermentation of the sugar of milk proceeds most rapidly. There are three precautions to be taken against an undue proportion of whey in the curd : 1. Plenty of time should be allowed for the whey to drain oflf properly. 2. Before the rennet is added, the milk should be heated to a temperature of 72° to 75° for thin, or of 80* to 84° for thick cheese. 3. The best preventive is the practice of slip-scalding, as it is called. The operation, which is highly recommended by Mr. Harding, one of our best Cheddar cheese-makers, and extensively practised in Somersetshire, consists of heating a portion of the whey, and adding it or hot water to the curd, while it is still covered with some of the whey, until the temperature of the whole be raised to from 95° to 100°. This has the effect of making the curd run together into a much smallA" compass, and enables the dairymaid to draw off the whey more perfectly and with very much less trouble than by the common method. If well done, no injury, but every advantage, results from this practice. The curd, when slip-scalded, settles down very readily, and its closer condition implies that it does not contain so much whey as it did before scalding. Hence, no skewers are required to drain off the whey from cheese that has been slip-scalded, and a great deal of subsequent labor and anxiety is avoided by this simple process. Slip-scalding, however, ought to be carefully performed, and the hot whey or water poured slowly upon the curd by one person, while another stirs up the contents of the cheese-tub, so as to ensure a uniform temperature throughout. The necessity for these pre- cautions will be best understood from the following explanation : "When curd, broken up and cut into slices, is suddenly and incautiously scalded with boil- ing water, the outer layer of the slices first melts and then becomes hard, enveloping the interior, which remains quite soft and full of whey. This hard covering acts like a waterproof wrapper, and prevents the escape of the whey, however strongly the curd may be pressed afterwards ; hence the importance of a gradual and careful admixture of the hot whey. Better still is it to employ one of Coquet's jacketed tin or brass cheese-tubs, into the hollow bottom of which steam may be let in, and the curd and whey be raised by degrees to the desired temperature. This utensil is to be strongly recommended to all who adopt the Cheddar mode of cheese-making in their dairies. Cheese is also spoiled by breaking up the curd too rapidly and carelessly. This delicate substance requires to be handled by nimble and experienced fingers, and to have a great amount of patient labor bestowed upon it. Practical Dairy Husbandry. 319 Dairymaids, as a class, break up the curd in far too -^reat a hurry. In conse- quence of their careless treatment some portions of the curd are broken into fragments so small that they pass into the whey when this is drawn off, while othei's are not sufficiently broken up and remain soft. The result is, that the curd is not uniform in texture, and that less cheese and of inferior quality is produced than when the curd is first cut very gently into large slices, and then broken up by degrees either by hand or machinery into small fragments. COMPOSITION OP WHET. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 6. Water, Butler (pure fatty matters),. ♦Nitrogenous substances (caseine and al- ) bumen, {■ fMilk-siigiir and lactic acid Mineral matter (ash), 93.95 .65 1.30 4.55 .65 93.65 .81 5.28 .58 93.60 .55 5.08 .81 93.75 .39 .87 5.13 .86 93.950 .490 1.435 4.491 .644 ^Containing nitrogen, fContaining free lactic acid,. 100.00 .19 .48 100.00 .13 .41 100.00 .15 .36 100.00 5.14 .41 100.000 .328 .130 No. 6. No. 7. No. 8. No. 9. No. 10. Water Butter (pure fatty matters), ♦Nitrogenous substances (caseine and al- bumen, i Milk-sugar and luetic acid, lineral matters (asli), 93.95 .29 1.01 5.08 .67 93.150 .546 1.056 4.663 .586 93.95 .34 .81 5.37 .73 93.30 .31 1.01 4.68 .70 93.25 .36 .91 4.70 ♦Containing nitrogen, fContaining free lactic acid,. 100.00 .16 .54 100.000 .169 None. 100.00 .131 .39 100.00 .16 .41 100.00 .148 • .41 No. 11. No. 12. No. 18. No. 14. No, 15. Water, Butter (pure fatty matters), ♦Nitrogenous substances (caseine and al- ) bumen, : ) glilk-sugar and lactic acid, ineral matters (asb), 93.85 .29 .93 5.03 .90 93.35 .35 .91 5.00 .49 93.70 .31 .96 6.31 .73 93.15 .14 .91 5.06 .74 93.10 .14 .76 5.31 •Containing nitrogen fContaining free lactic acid,. 100.00 .151 .60 100.00 .148 .43 100.00 .15 .40 100.00 .148 .48 100.00 .123 .46 The whey which separates from curd that has been gently broken up is as bright as Rhenish wine, provided the milk has been curdled at the proper temperature by a sufficient quantity of good rennet. On the other hand, if the curd has been broken up carelessly in too great a hurry, the whey is more or less milky, and separates on standing, a large quantity of fine curd of the choicest character, for this fine curd is very rich in butter. Thus the best 320 Practical Dairy Husbandry. part of the curd, instead of becoming incorporated with the cheese, finds its way into the whey leads. Be the curd, however, broken up ever so gently, and the whey drawn off ever so carefully, the latter always throws up, on standing, some cream, which it is worth while to make into butter. But the quantity of whey butter made in good dairies is very insignificant in com- parison with that produced where less attention is paid to the breaking of the curd. I know, it to be a fact, that in some dairies four times as much whey butter is made as in others. Where much whey butter is made the cheese is seldom of first-rate quality. Believing that this is a matter of some import- ance, I have visited many dairies, and repeatedly watched dairymaids break- ing the curd, and noticed the gentle, patient manner in which a clever woman goes to work, and the hurried, dashing proceedings of a slovenly girl. On these occasions I have taken samples of the whey, and submitted them after- wards to analysis. The results, as recorded in the preceding tables, show how much the whey of different dairies varies in chemical composition as well as in physical character. COMPOSITION OF WHET TAKEN AT THRBI3 DIFFERENT PERIODS. No. 16. 1st SAMPLE. No. 17. 2d SAMPLB, TAKEN 10 JrainTES AFTBR 1st SAMPLE. No. 18. Sd SAMPLE, "Water 93.90 .18 .94 5.30 .68 93.25 .18 .94 5.03 .60 93.55 03 Butler (pure fat), .94 4.83 .66 Mineral matters (asb), 100.00 .15 100.00 .15 100.00 .15 When it is remembered that milk of good quality contains from three and a-half to four per cent, of butter, it will be readily seen that where samples of whey contain more than one-half per cent, of butter, the cheese is deprived of a very considerable portion of its most valuable constituent,, and that its quality must therefore depend in a great measure on the care with which the curd is broken up and the manner in which the whey is drawn off. In some samples the amount of butter is so trifling that it is not considered worth the trouble to gather the cream and to make whey-butter. In the dairies in which this happy state of things exists excellent cheese is niade. When the whey first separates from the curd it is always more or less turbid, but by degrees it becomes clearer ; and if sufiicient time is allowed, and it is then tapped off without disturbing the curd, it runs off almost as clear as water. By this means nearly the whole of the butter may be retained in the cheese. In order to place this beyond a doubt, I exam- ' ined the whey which Mr. Keevil, the inventor of the excellent cheese-making Practical Dairx Husbandry. 321 apparatus -which bears his name, allowed me to take on the occasion of a visit which I recently paid to his dairy farm at Laycock, near Chippenham. One sample of whey was taken at the stage in which it was usually tapped off in Mr. Keevil's dairy ; the second when the whey had become a little brighter, about ten minutes after the first ; and the third about twenty minutes after the first. It then was as clear as water. These three samples when analyzed gave results as shown on preceding page. The first two samples are almost identical in composition; thoy both contain very little butter, but, small as that quantity is, it can be further reduced to a mere trace by letting the whey stand a little longer. In prac- tice it may for other reasons not be desirable to let the whey stand at rest quite so long as the third sample stood ; and a dairymaid may congratulate herself when she succeeds in breaking up the curd so carefully that the whey contains as little butter as that made under Mr. Kbevil's personal direction and excellent management. It may perhaps be supposed that the successful manner in which the butter is retained in the cheese in Mr. Keevil's dairy is entirely due to the use of his patent apparatus, and that by its introduction any^dairymaid may be enabled to make good cheese. But this supposition is not correct. Keevil's apparatus, useful and good as it is in many respects, is no safe- guard against carelessness. Cheese is spoiled witb, as well as without it. It does not supersede patience and skill, but its merit consists in saving a great deal of hard labor and time. Beyond this, I may say, without dis- paragement to his ingenious contrivances for breaking the curd, straining off the whey, and other appliances, that it effects nothing which may not be done by hand. But this saving of time and hard labor is, a great merit in an apparatus which can be bought at no great cost. Where from thirty to forty milking cows are kept, it may be safely recommended ; in smaller dairies there may not be sufficient use for it. Having made frequent trial of Keevtl's apparatus, I am anxious that its true merits should be known, but no unreasonable expectations be entertained. It has been said that it makes more and better cheese than can be made by hand. My own opinion is, that it makes neither more or less, neither better or worse cheese than a skillful dairymaid will make by hand, and that a careless one is as likely to spoil her cheese when using this apparatus as when making it according to her own fashion. Some of the very best and some of the very worst of cheeses which I have examined were made in dairies where Keevil's apparatus is in daily use. The superior character of the one cheese is as little a proof of the merits of Kbevil's apparatus as is the bad quality of the other an evidence against it. Again, I may point to the composition of the whey analyses marked N'o. 2, No. 3, No. 8 and No. 14, in the preceding large table, and to the three whey analyses to which I have just referred : 21 322 Practical Dairy Eusbandrt. No. 2, containing .68 per cent, of butter, was made from curd taken by Kbevil's apparatus. No. 16, containing .18 per cent, of butter, was made from curd taken by Keevil's apparatus. No. 18, containing .03 per cent, of butter, was made from curd taken by Keevil's apparatus. Here, then, we have two samples of whey very poor in butter, and one sample containing more butter than any of the seventeen which I analyzed. On the other hand : No. 8, containing .55 per cent, of butter, was made from curd broken by band. No. 8, containing .24 per cent, of butter, was made from curd broken by hand. No. 14, containing .14 per cent, of butter, was made from curd broken by hand. Here, again, we have two well-separated samples of whey, and one rich in butter, all three being made from curd broken by hand. Passing on from the loss of butter to that of the curd itself, I find that, although no doubt some fine curd is lost when the whey is very milky in appearance, yet as a rule this loss is small in most dairies. Indeed, my analyses prove positively that whey seldom contains much caseine or curd which might be retained by ever so careful filtration. I have filtered whey from good milk through the finest blotting paper, and obtained it as bright as crystal. On heating the perfectly clear whey to the boiling point, how- ever, a considerable quantity of a white, flaky substance, resembling in every respect albumen, or the white of egg, made its appearance. Collected on a filter, washed with distilled water, dried at 212° F., and weighed, this albu- minous or curd-like substance amounted on the average to about .9 or nearly one per cent, in good milk ; in very rich milk there may be a little more, in poor a little less. This albuminous matter is contained in the whey in a state of perfect solution, and difiers from caseine or curd in not being coagulated by rennet. I have called it an albuminous matter, because, like albumen, it separates in flakes from the whey at the temperature of boiling water. Any one may prove the existence of this substance, which, however bright the whey may be, it invariably deposits in abundance at the boiling point. Assuming, then, .9 to be the average proportion of this albuminous mat- ter in whey, and deducting this proportion from the total amount of nitro- genized substances in the eighteen samples of whey, we obtain the amount of curd held in mechanical suspension. Thus we get for No. 1 whey, .30 per cent, of curd, held in a state of mechanical suspension. No. 2, 4, 8 and 15 whey, none. No. 3 and 13 whey, .06 per cent, of curd, held in a state of mechanical suspension. No. 5 whey, .525 per cent, of curd, held in a state of mechanical suspension. No. 6 and 9 wliey, .11 per cent, of curd, held in a state of mechanical suspension. No. 7 wliey, .156 per cent, of curd, held in a state of mechanical suspension. No. 10, 12 and 14 whey .01 per cent, of curd, held in a state of mechanical suspension. No. 11 whey, .03 per cent, of curd, held in a state of mechanical suspension. No. 16, 17 and 18 whey, .04 per cent, of curd, held in a stale of mechanical suspension. Fractical Dairy Husbandry. 323 Thus only in one sample out of eighteen there was about one-half per cent, of curd held in mechanical suspension, and one sample containing three- tenths per cent., all the other samples, practically speaking, containing no suspended curd. Thus it is not so much the curd as the butter which is lost when whey is badly separated from the curd. 4. When the curd has become suflEiciently consolidated and is ready to be vatted, it is crumbled down into small fragments. For this operation every dairy should be furnished with a curd mill, a simple and inexpensive contri- vance, which saves much labor, and produces, generally speaking, a more uniform material than the hand. \ 5. Cheese is also spoiled occasionally by badly made rennet, that is, ren- net which is either too weak or has a disagreeable smell. In the one case the curd does not separate completely, and that which separates remains tender ; in the other the milk is tainted, and the flavor of the cheese is affected. The rennet used in different parts of England varies exceedingly in strength and in flavor. Even in the same locality the usage differs on adja- cent farms. Although I have in my possession some dozens of rennet recipes, which were given to me by experienced dairymaids, each as the very best, I shall not give a single recipe for making rennet, as my object is rather to elucidate chemical principles than to prescribe details ; and also because, as long as the smell of the rennet is fresh, and a sufiicient quantity is used, it matters little, in my opinion, how it is made. The ordinary practice in Cheshire is to make rennet fresh every morn- ing by taking a small bit of dried skin, infusing it in water, and using this infusion for one day's making. In Gloucestershire and Wiltshire a supply is made for the pickled veils, which lasts for two or three months. Generally the rennet is made in these counties twice in the season. I have had a good deal of discussion with practical men respecting the comparative merits of these two methods. The Cheshire farmers almost unanimously object that the rennet does not keep well when made in any quantity of pickled veils. This, however, is quite a mistake. I have in my possession some rennet which is as nicely flavored now as it was some nine months ago, when it was made. It has, of course, a peculiar animal odor, but nothing approaching a putrid smell. The spices which are used in some localities, such as cloves and lemons, tend very much to keep the rennet in a good con- dition and give it an agreeable flavor. The objection, then, of the Cheshire farmers, that rennet, when a supply is made, does not keep, and spoils the flavor of cheese, is certainly untenable. I am much inclined to consider the practice of Gloucestershire and Wiltshire, of making a considerable supply of rennet, a good one ; for, when once the strength of the rennet has been ascertained, it is merely necessary to take the proper quantity, one or two cupfuls, to produce the desired effect with certainty ; whereas, when the rennet is made day by day, there is not the same certainty of obtaining an infusion of uniform strength. 324 Practical Dairy Husbandry. Scientific and practical writers on milk have stated that the caseine is held in solution by a small quantity of alkali ; that when in warm weather milk curdles, lactic acid, which is always found in sour milk, is formed from a portion of the sugar of milk ; and this lactic acid, by neutralizing the alkali which holds the "caseine in solution, causes its separation from the milk. Rennet is supposed to act as a ferment, which i-apidly converts some of the sugar of milk into lactic acid. Whether, therefore, milk coagulates spon- taneously after some length of time, or more rapidly on the addition of i-ennet, in either case the separation of the curd is supposed to be due to the removal of the free alkali by lactic acid. This theory, however, is not quite consistent with facts. The caseine in milk cannot be said to be held in solution by free ^Ikali ; for, although it is true that milk often has a slightly alkaline reaction, it is likewise a fact that sometimes perfectly fresh milk is slightly acid. We might as well say, there- fore, that the caseine is held iu solution by a li,ttle free acid, as by free alkali. Newly drawn milk, again, is often perfectly neutral ; but, whether milk be neutral, or alkaline, or acid, the caseine exists in it in a state of solution, which cannot, therefore, depend on an alkaline reaction. We all know that milk, when it turns sour, curdles very readily. It is not the fact that a good deal of acid curdles milk wliich I dispute, but the assumption that the caseine in milk is held in solution by free alkali. The action of rennet upon milk, then, is not such as has been hitherto represented by all chemists who have treated of this subject. Like many other animal matters which act as fer- ments, rennet, it is true, rapidly induces the milk to turn sour ; but free lactic acid, I find, makes its appearance in milk after the curd has separated, and not simultaneously with the precipitation of the curd. Perfectly fresh and neutral milk, on the addition of rennet, coagulates, but the whey is per- fectly neutral. I have even purposely made milk alkaline, and yet succeeded in separating the curd by rennet ; and, what is more, obtained a whey which had an alkaline reaction. What may be the precise mode in which rennet acts upon milk, I do not presume to explain. I believe it to be an action sui generis, which as yet is only known by its ejGfects. We at present are even unacquainted with the precise chemical character and the composition of the active principle in rennet, and have not even a name for it. Finding the effect of rennet upon milk to be different from that which I expected, I made a number of experi- ments, which may here find a place. 1st Meperiment. — To a pint of new milk, slightly alkaline to test-paper, and of 60° Fahr., one-fourth ounce of rennet was added. [Result — No coagulation after three hours. Another quarter ounce of the same rennet was then added. Result — ^The milk coagulated one hour after this addition, but the caseine was by no means well separated, and remained tender and too spongy, even after twenty-four hours. The whey was slightly alkaline. Practical Dairy Husbandry. 325 id Exp. — To another pint of milk, neutral to test-paper, I added one-half ounce of the same rennet. The temperature of the milk was 60°, as before. Result — The curd separated (though imperfectly) after three hours. The whey was neutral. N. B. — It will be seen that the curd separated more readily from milk which was neutral, than from that which was alkaline. Zd JSJxp. — To two pints of skimmed milk (twenty-four hours old), and very slightly acid, I added one-half ounce of rennet. Temperature of milk 59° Fahr. Result — Curd separated in two hours ; reaction of whey the same as that of the milk. Thus, if the milk is slightly sour, rennet separates the curd more readily than when it is neutral, theugh the temperature may be low. Uh Exp. — To one pint of milk, slightly alkaline, and heated to 82° Fa;hr., one-fourth ounce of rennet was added. Result — ^The milk coagulated in twenty minutes ; the whey was slightly alkaline. 5th Map. — ^To one pint of milk heated to 100°, and neutral on reaction, oner:half ounce of rennet was added. Result — Milk coagulated in one-quarter of an hour ; whey perfectly neutral. 6th Map. — Added to one pint of milk one-fourth ounce of rennet. The ■temperature of milk was 110° ; its reaction alkaline. Result — Milk coagulated in ten minutes ; the whey was alkaline. 'Jth Exp. — Milk was raised to 120° Fahr., and one-fourth ounce of rennet added to one pint of milk, which was slightly alkaline to test-paper. Result — ^Milk coagulated in ten minutes ; the whey had the same reaction as the milk. 8th Exp. — One pint of milk was heated to 130°, and one-fourth ounce of rennet added. Result — Curd separated in twenty minutes ; whey had the same reaction as milk. The experiment was repeated, and found correct. It will thus appear that too high a temperature is not so favorable to the coagulation of the milk as a less elevated one. The separation, which at 120° took place in ten minutes, at 130° occupied twenty minutes. %th Exp. — Heated one pint of milk to 150°, added one-fourth ounce of rennet. Result — Milk did not coagulate after twenty-four hours. \Oth Exp. — Heated milk to 140°, added rennet. Result — No coagulation. ' 11th Exp. — Heated milk to 135°, added rennet. 326 Practical Dairy Husbandry. HesuU — ^No coagulation took place, even after three hours. I then added another quarter ounce ; the milk by this time had cooled down, and the fresh quantity of rennet caused the separation of curd in less than twenty minutes. Thus, at 120°, milk coagulates most readily; at 130°, it takes a some- what longer time ; and at 135°, and upwards, it ceases to coagulate. 12th Mcp. — Heated one pint of milk to boiling point, added one-fourth ounce of rennet. Result — No curd had separated when examined, after twenty-four hours' standing. 13th Mcp. — Heated another pint of milk to boiling point, and added one- fourth ounce of rennet. MesuU — Milk did not coagulate after twenty-four hours. I then added a little more fresh rennet to the cooled milk, and again gently heated it, when the curd separated in less than one-quarter of an hour. Thus the temperature of boiling water, and even a much lower heat, destroys the action of the rennet, but does not so permanently change the caseine of milk that it cannot be separated. The whey in the last experiment, again, was neutral, like the milk. lUh Exp. — To one pint of fresh milk I added ten grains of carbonate of potash, raised the temperature to 88° Fahr., and added one-fourth ounce of rennet. Result — Curd separated in half an hour. The milk and the whey were strongly alkaline. After twenty-four hours the whey was neutral, and then it became acid by degrees. \5th Mcp. — To one pint of milk I added twenty grains of carbonate of potash, heated to 90° Fahr., and added one-fourth ounce of rennet. Hesult — ^The curd separated in half an hour, but not so perfectly as in the preceding experiment, and in a softer condition. The whey was more milky in appearance, and strongly alkaline. Examined after twenty-four hours' standing, it was found to be neutral ; after a lapse of two days, it was acid. Even a considerable quantity of an alkali, therefore, does not prevent the coagulation of milk by rennet. 16th Mcp. — To another pint of milk I added an unweighed quantity of potash heated to 84°, and then one-fourth ounce of rennet. Mesult — ^No coagulation took place.. Much more alkali was used in this experiment than in the two preceding ; an excess of alkali, therefore, prevents the separation of curd by rennet. 11th Mcp. — ^To some milk, sufficient tartaric acid was added to make it distinctly acid. Result — No coagulation took place in the cold. On the application of heat, the milk coagulated but imperfectly. \%th Mcp. — ^To another portion of milk I added a good deal of tartaric acid. Practical Dairy Husbandry. 327 Result — ^The milk coagulated after some time, but imperfectly ; on raising the temperature, more curd fell down. In order to precipitate the caseine from milk by tartaric acid, it is thus necessary to add a very large excess of acid, and at the same time to raise the temperature of the milk. These experiments prove thus-^ «• — ^That the action of rennet on milk is not the same as that of an acid, inas- much as rennet coagulates new milk without turning it sour in the least degree. b. — ^That rennet can precipitate curd from milk, even when purposely made alkaline. c. — ^That the whey of milk, when produced from perfectly sweet or neutral milk, is at first perfectly sweet or neutral, but rapidly turns sour. If made from milk having an alkaline reaction, the whey at first is alka- line ; when from milk slightly acid, the whey likewise is slightly acid. d. — That rennet ceases to coagulate milk at about 135°, and upwards. e. — That the action of rennet upon milk is more energetic when the milk is slightly acid. This, perhaps, is the reason why some persons recom- mend putting some sour whey into the milk before or after adding the rennet. f. — ^That an excess of alkali prevents the coagulation of milk by rennet. g. — That an excess o'f acid coagulates milk, but not perfectly in the cold. h. — That a moderate amount of acid does not coagulate milk in the cold, and imperfectly at an elevated temperature. 6. Cheese, again, is sometimes spoiled when bad annatto is employed as a coloring matter. Annatto at the best is a nasty, disagreeable smelling sub- stance ; it would be well if it were banished altogether from the dairy. But, so long as a good many people will prefer colored to uncolored cheese, annatto wUl be employed for the purpose of imparting a more or less deep yellow color. The annatto of commerce is derived from the Orelan tree (Bixa orellana). The seeds and pulp of this tree appear to contain two coloring matters ; one, in a pure state, is orange-red, and is called bixin ; the other is yellow, and called orellin. These coloring matters are insoluble in water, but dissolve readily in alkalies, and also in fixed oils and fats. Solid annatto, the annatto cake of commerce, is a preparation, which contains, besides the pure coloring matter, a great deal of potash or soda, carbonate of lime, pipe clay, earthy matters and rubbish of various kinds. Soap, train-oil and other disagreeable smelling and tasting matters are often used in preparing annatto cake. Hence the annatto of commerce is often a most nauseous material, which, when put into the cheese tub, is apt to give the cheese a bad taste and an unsightly color. Far superior to this annatto, and more handy in its appli- cation, is the liquid annatto, which is mainly an alkaline solution of the pure coloring matter of the Bixa orellana. An excellent solution of that desorip- 328 Practical Dairy Husbandry. tion is manufactured by Mr. Nichols of Chippenham, which is perfectly clear, has a bright yellow color, and is free from any of the obnoxious and disagreeable substances which are frequently mixed up with annatto cake. 1. In the next place Iwoidd observe that cheese is occasionally spoiled if too much salt is used in curing it. Salt is a powerful antiseptic, that is, it prevents fermentation ; hence we use it for pickling beef and hams. A cer- tain amount of salt is necessary, not so much for giving a saline taste, as for keeping in check the fermentation to which cheese, like other animal matters, is liable. If no salt were used the cheese would putrefy, and acquire a very strong taste and smell, at least when made in the ordinary way. When an extra quantity of cream is put to the milk, it is not necessary, or even desi- rable, to salt the curd much ; we might even do without salt altogether, for the large amount of fat (butter) in extra rich cheeses, such as Stilton or Cream Cheddar, sufficiently preserves the caseine. If salt is employed in excess, the cheese does not ripen properly, or acquire that fine flavor, which depends upon the fermentation proceeding in a sufficiently active degree. Too much salt, by checking this chemical activity, is thus injurious to the proper' ripening of cheese. The saline taste of old cheese, as already explained, is not due so much to the Common salt used in its preparation, as to certain ammoniacal salts which are formed during the ripening process. It sounds strange, but it is nevertheless the case, that over-salted cheeses do not taste nearly so saline when kept for six or eight months, as under-salted cheeses kept equally long. If the milk is very rich, somewhat less salt should be used than when it is poor. On no account, however, should more than two pounds of salt be used per hundred weight of cheese ; one and a-half pounds in most cases is quite enough, and even one pound will be found a sufficient quantity when rich cheeses are made. 8. Lastly, an inferior quality of cheese is sometimes produced when it is imperfectly salted ; that is, when the salt is not properly applied to the cheese. I have often seen the salt put upon the curd in rough bits ; more often proper care is not taken to mix the curd with the salt, and the cheese becomes unequally salted. The consequence is that some particles of the cheese ferment too much, others too little, and that the portions which are too much salted do not stick well together, and acquire a dry and crumbly texture. The salt used in dairies should be of the finest description, and should be sifted evenly through a fine sieve on the curd, after the latter has been passed through the curd-mill, and thinly spread in shallow leads to cool. This plan of spreading the salt saves a good deal of labor, and is greatly to be preferred to the system of pickling the cheese in brine after it is made, or of rubbing in salt. When salt is applied, either in solution or by rubbing it into the cheese after it has been in the presses, the outside is apt to get hard, and close up too much. It is, of course, desirable to get a good and firm coat, but, at the same time, the pores should not be too much closed, so that the emanations which proceed from the cheese cannot escape. Thin cheeses Practical Dairy Husbandry. 329 may be salted after they have been in the press ; but, in making thick cheeses, it is far better to salt the curd before it is put into the vat. A rather novel way of salting cheese has lately been made the subject of experiments in America. As the following communication to the pages of the Country Gentleman and Cultivator, an American agricultural paper, may have some interest, I take the liberty of inserting it here : IMPORTANT EXPEEIMBNT IN CHEBSE-MAKING. " The dairy season is about commencing again, and I desire the privilege of a corner in your paper, to give the result of extended experiments in cheese-making. In the first place I shall take it for granted that the whole process up to salting is well understood, for it is of salting that I wish to speak in this article. "In June, 1859, I finished a few cheeses after the following manner: When my curd was scalded (I practice thorough scalding), I threw into the vat about four quarts of salt — sometimes only three — for a cheese of fifty to sixty pounds, stirring thoroughly. Those which went into the hoop before being well cooled ofi", acted badly ; but when I took time and means to cool sufficiently, the cheeses were very fine. On the whole, I did not like the process and abandoned it. " In 1860 I commenced again, changing the programme as follows : After scalding I drew off the whey, leaving just enough to float the curd, and began to cool off, hurrying the process by pumping in cold water and chang- ing often. Then, to a curd of say sixty pounds, a little more or less, I threw in sometimes three and sometimes four quarts of salt, and stirred till well cooled — then drew off the salted whey, and threw it on the compost heap — put the curd to press, and pressed rapidly and thoroughly. And now for the result. I lost from my whey tub about three pails of whey and some salt. I gained in this, that my dripping tub under the press never had a particle of cream rise upon it, and in having a cheese that gave me no trouble in curing, and that when sent to market sold for the very highest price, and called forth the unqualified approbation of dealers as being perfect in all respects — ^fine flavored, very solid (not porous), and very fat. " And now let me talk to the experience of dairymen. In the old-fash- ioned way of breaking up and salting a curd, more or less bruising of the curd to break the lumps, in order to get the salt evenly distributed; is neces- sary ; and when put to press the white whey runs off freely, or in other words the cream runs off, and of course with it the richness of the cheese, and more or less of its weight ; and if the curd is very dry you are liable to get your cheese too high salted, if not, the reverse. " My experiments clearly prove that a curd salted in whey will retain no more salt than it needs, and that as every particle comes in contact with the brine through the operation of stirring, no bruising is necessary. Whether this is the philosophy of it or not, I am not chemist enough to determine, 330 Practical Dairy Husbandry. but I do know that if there is no discharge of white whey, or cream, it is retained in the cheese, adding to it both richness and weight as a remunera- tion for the extra salt and the wasted whey." m. PRACTICAL EEEOBS MADE IN KEEPING CHEESE. The following are some of the practical mistakes that are occasionally made after the cheese has left the presses and is placed in the store-rooms. 1. Cheese is deteriorated in quality when it is placed in damp or in badly ventilated rooms. When beef or mutton is kept for a day or two in a damp and badly venti- lated place, the meat soon acquires a disagreeable, cellar-like taste. The same is the case with cheese. Kept in a damp place, it also becomes moldy, and generates abundance of mites. In some parts of Cheshire it is a common practice to keep cheese in dark rooms, carefully shutting out the free access of air. This is an objectionable practice, which no doubt has its origin in the desire to maintain in the store- rooms a somewhat elevated temperature, and to avoid draughts of cold air. It is quite true that draughts are injurious to newly-made cheese, and a somewhat elevated temperature decidedly favors its ripening and the devel- opment of a fine flavor ; but the one may be avoided, and the other can be maintained quite well, at the same time that due provision is made for the admission and circulation of fresh air. Dui-ing the first stage of ripening, a good deal of water and other emana- tions escape ftom the cheeses, which, if not allowed freely to pass away, make the air damp and injure the flavor of the cheeses. "Why cheese should be kept in dark rooms is to me a mystery. 2. Cheese newly made is spoiled hy not turning it frequently enough. Thick cheeses especially require to be frequently turned, in order that the water which is given off" from the interior warmer parts of the cheese may freely escape, and all sides be exposed at short intervals to the air. If this is neglected, that part which is in close contact with the board on which it rests becomes smeary and rots, and by degrees the whole cheese is spoiled. The boards, we need hardly say, should be wiped with a dry cloth from time to time as well as th'e cheese. 3, Cheese does not ripen properly, and therefore remains deficient in flavor, if the temperature of the cheese-room, is too low. The ripening of cheese is essentially a process of fermentation, which may be accelerated or depressed by a proper or by too low a temperature. Any temperature under 60° is unfavorable, and should therefore be avoided. 4. Cheese is also spoiled if the temperature of the cheese-room is too high. If the temperature of the room rises above 75°, the fermentation becomes so active that a cheese is apt to bulge out at the sides, and to lose the uniform and close texture which characterises it when good. .5. Lastly, cheese is sometimes spoiled if the temperature of the cheese- room varies too much at different times. Practical Dairy Husbandry. 331 A steady fermentation, which is essential to the proper ripening of the cheese, can only be maintained in a room which is not subject to great fluc- tuations in temperature. The more uniformly, therefore, the cheese-room is heated, the more readily cheese can be brought into the market, and the finer the quality will be. For this reason hot-water pipes, ^hich give a very steady, gentle, and lasting heat, are greatly to be preferred to stoves in cheese-rooms ; with the latter it is almost impossible to maintain an equable temperature. The cheeses nearest to the stove, again, are apt to get too much and those farthest off not enough, heat. Constant attention is moreover required; and firing in the room is always productive of more or less dust and dirt. These inconveniences are entirely avoided by the system of heating by hot-water pipes. In every dairy hot water is in constant request ; the same boiler which heats the water for cleaning the dairy utensils may be conveniently 4)onnected with iron pipes that pass in and round the cheese-room. Beyond the first cost of the iron pipes hardly any extra expense in fuel is thus incurred. An extra pipe likewise may be introduced which connects the boiler with Coquet's apparatus, and by this means the curd in the tub may be scalded much more conveniently and regularly than by pouring hot whey or water over it. I have not made a sufiicient number of observations to say definitely which is the best temperature to be maintained in a cheese-room ; but in my judge- ment a uniform temperature of 70° to 75° is highly favorable to the ripen- ing process. The proper regulation of the temperature of the cheese-room, and the general plan of heating by hot water, I believe, is one of the greatest of our recent improvements. These are some of the practical mistakes which I have noticed in our dairies. I have endeavored to assign reasons why they must be so regarded, and have ventured to point out the appropriate remedies, many of which, however, suggest themselves naturally to any intelligent observer. My object has been, not so much to write a treatise on cheese-making, as to enable those interested in dairy operations to read the various treatises and pamphlets on cheese-making with profit, so as to be able to sift the recom- mendations which are worth imitating from the heap of empirical rubbish under which they are too often buried. No directions, however carefully given, can ever be of much service in an art which, like cheese-making, does not so much presuppose a great amount of knowledge as practical experience, dexterity and cleanly habits. Neither skill in manipulation, nor habits of cleanliness, nor experience can be acquired by reading. A good or a sensible pamphlet, no doubt, may be read with benefit even by an experienced hand ; but the very best of treatises, in the nature of things, cannot teach a person who wants a rule or a receipt for everything, how to make a good cheese. A good cookery book, no doubt, is a useful literary production, but the best cookery-book is incapable of teaching an inexperienced person the art" of 332 P It ACTIO AL Daisy Husbandry. making light and vtolesome pie-crust. It is the same with cheese-making as with cookery, as we shall do well to hear in mind. Lest these observations on publications on cheese-making should seem to disparage too much the merits of the different authors, I may state distinctly that a few papers contain valuable and plain directions for making good cheese ; but I am bound at the same time to confess that the greater number, and more especially most of the prize essays on cheese-making which I have read, in my humble opinion, are next to useless to the dairy-farmer, inasmuch as they generally contain nothing good but what every dairy-farmer has long known ever since he began making cheese — and a great deal besides, which, though it may appear novel, ingenious or feasible, will at once be condemned by any man of sound judgement as visionary and utterly impracticable. There are many topics intimately connected with the manufacture of cheese on which I have not touched at all, such as the influence of the food on the quantity and quanlity of milk, an important subject as yet hardly investi- gated at all. Again, the influence of the race on the production of milk deserves to be carefully studied, besides various other points on which prac- tical men may wish to obtain trustworthy information. My passing them over in silence in the present paper will not, I trust, be taken as an indication of want of acquaintance with the real, practical wants of the dairy-farmer. Hitherto scarcely anything directly bearing on dairy-practice has been done by scientific men ; the whole investigation has, therefore, engaged my liveliest attention, and brought to light some unexpected chemical facts which have been recorded in the preceding pages. Others I hope to lay before the readers of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society when the researches still in hand shall be in a sufficiently advanced state to warrant their publication. VOELCKER'S CHEESE EXPERIMENTS. On Pasture Farms, where the milk is not all sold as new milk, nor used for fattening calves, the question arises, by what other means it may most profitably be converted into marketable produce, and there is still a choice between four difierent modes of proceeding : 1. The whole milk may be made into cheese. 2. The cream may be skimmed from part of the milk for making butter, and the skimmed milk added to new milk, and then made into cheese. 3. The whole of the milk may be skimmed and made into skim-milk cheese, and the cream into butter. 4. The whole milk may be skimmed, and made into skim-milk cheese ; the cream from the skimmed milk be added to new milk, and made into extra rich cheese. The question is, which of these four modes gives the best money return. Such a purely practical question can be tested satisfactorily in one way only, that is by actual trials. I therefore gladly availed myself of the kindness of my friend Mr. Thomas Pkoctoe, who most liberally placed his dairy at my command, that I might institute a series of experiments calculated to further the solution of this inquiry. I am, likewise, much indebted to Mr. Tanstee for the practical assistance which he rendered me by superintending the experi- ments which were made on a sufficiently large Scale to furnish reliable data. For each experimental cheese an equal quantity of milk was used, consist- ing of one hundred and thirty quarts of evening milk and one hundred and thirty quarts of morning milk. The first experimental cheese was made on the 11th of August, 1860; the others on the following days. In Mr. Peoctoe's dairy at Wall's Court (now in the occupation of Mr. RiCHAED Steatton) cheese is made in the Cheddar fashion. In making the different experimental cheeses, the same general process was adopted, being that usually employed in this dairy. Immediately after the morning milking, the evening and morning milks were put together into a Cockney's tin tub, having a jacketed bottom for the admission of steam or cold water. The temperature of the whole was slowly raised to 80°, by admitting steam into the jacketed bottom. Ko annatto was used for coloring ; after the 334 Practical Dairy Husbandry. addition of the necessary quantity of rennet, the tub was covered with a cloth and left for an hour. Rennet, it may be remarked, when properly prepared and added in sufficient quantity, should perfectly coagulate milk at 80° in from three-quarters of an hour to one hour. If the milk fail to be coagulated within the hour, the curd produced will be too tender, and not easily separated from the whey without loss of butter and injury to the quality of the cheese. These results invariably follow when the rennet is not sufficiently strong, or too little of it is employed. On the other hand, if the curd is completely separated from milk at 80° Fahrenheit in twenty to twenty-five minutes, the cheese produced is apt to be sour or hard. An excess of rennet always has the effect of separating the curd from the milk too rapidly, and in a hard condition. As much depends upon the strength of the rennet, it is useful in daily practice to prepare a large quantity at a time, and to ascertain by a few trials the proper amount for mixing with a given quantity of milk. In experi- mental trials, it is absolutely indispensable to know the strength of the rennet, and to employ the same rennet in all the trials. At Wall's Court we took special care to fulfil these conditions. Our plan of proceeding was as follows : — At about half-past eight o'clock, the curd was partially broken and allowed to subside for about half an hour, after which the temperature was raised very gradually to 108° Fahrenheit, by letting steam into the hollow bottom of the cheese-tub ; the curd and whey, meanwhile, being gently stirred with a wire breaker, so that the heat was uniformly distributed, and the curd minutely broken. The heat was kept at 108° for an hour, during which time the stirring was continued ; the curd, now broken into pieces of the size of a pea, was then left for half an hour to settle. The whey was then drawn off by opening a spigot near the bottom of the tub. As the curd which is obtained by this process is quite tough, it readily separates from the whey, and no pressure whatever is at first requisite to make the bulk of it run off in a perfectly clear state. The curd, collected in one mass, was then rapidly cooled and cut across into large slices, turned over once or twice, and left to drain for half an hour. As soon as it was tolerably dry and had cooled down considerably, it was placed under the press and much of the remaining whey removed by pressure. After this the cheese was broken at first coarsely by hand, and then by the curd-mill, which divides it into small fragments. A little salt was then added and thoroughly mingled with the curd. The next operation was the vatting. The cheese vat, completely filled with the broken and salted curd, was covered with a cloth ; the curd was reversed in the cloth, put back into the vat, covered up and placed in the press. The cheese cloth was removed several times, and the cheeses were ready to leave the press on the sixth morning. Mr. Pkoctoe's dairy was furnished with one of Messrs. Cockby's heating apparatus. This apparatus Practical Dairy Husbandry. 335 not only maintains a uniform temperature in the room in which the cheese is ripened, but provides a supply of steam, by which the milk and whey may he kept at any temperature which may be required ; the necessity of removing a large quantity of milk or whey to a boiler to be heated, that it may impart the proper temperature to the remainder of the milk or whey in the cheese- tub, is thus done away with. As the steam is quickly generated, careless dairymaids sometimes spoil the cheese in a few minutes by allowing the tem- perature to rise too high. "When the curd is overheated, the cheese made from it is always hard and deficient in flavor. In using Cockey's jacketed cheese-tub, care should also be taken to stir up constantly the contents of the tub when steam is admitted into the false bottom, for the purpose of raising the temperature to about 100°, after the curd has been broken up coarsely. If this precaution is neglected, a portion of the curd adheres to the heated bottom, and melts. The melted curd pre- vents the equal distribution of the heat, and by not amalgamating with the remaining curd produces a cheese which is not uniform in texture, ripens unequally, and is altogether of an inferior quality. When steam is admitted into the jacketed bottom of the tub, the dairymaid shoujd not leave her place for a moment, and constantly keep her hands employed in stirring the contents of the tub with the shovel wire-breaker. This is rather hard work, and therefore much better performed by men than by women, many of whom dislike Cockey's cheese-tub. Where it is in use there is, indeed, greater risk of the cheese being spoiled than when whey heated in a boiler is added- to raise the contents of an ordinary tub to the required temperature. But it is manifestly unjust to condemn a useful apparatus on account of the mischief which may arise from its misuse. Cockey's cheese-tub, I have no hesitation in saying, is an excellent appa- ratus which saves a great deal of labor ; but excellent though it may be, I cannot recommend its use to those who cannot place implicit reliance on the care and vigilance of the dairywoman. These women, as a class, are not willing to alter the plan of their operations, and learn the use of a new appar ratus, which, if it saves much labor, still requires some special attention — an effort which to some minds seems more troublesome than down-right hard manual labor. The rennet used in the dairy was made according to the following receipt : Slice the half of a lemon ; sprinkle it with about six ounces of salt, then pour upon it one quart of boiling water ; cover the vessel to retain the steam. When cold put into the liquid one fresh veil ; allow the whole to stand for two days, then strain the liquid through a fine cloth, and the ren- net is ready for use. This quantity is deemed sufficient to coagulate six hundred gallons of milk. Prepared in this mode, and carefully strained off from the sediment which makes its appearance in the course of some days, rennet keeps sweet and efiicient for several months. 336 Practical Dairy Husbandry. experimental cheese no. 1 (wholb-milk cheese.) A cheese was made from one hundred and thirty quarts of evening milk and one hundred and thirty quarts of morning milk as drawn from the cow. A sample of the mixed morning and evening milk, on analysis, gave the following results : Water, 87.30 Butter, 3.75 *Caseine 3.31 Milk-sugar and extractive matters, 4.86 Mineral matters (asli) 78 100.00 * Containing nitrogen 53 The whey obtained in this trial was as clear as Rhenish wine, and con- tained no suspended curd. It furnished the following analytical results : COMPOSITION OF WHET OBTAINED IN MAKING CHEESE NO. 1. Water, 93.35 Butter, 36 *Albuminous compounds, 91 f Milk-sugar, lactic acid, &c., 4.70 Mineral matters (asb), 88 100.00 * Containing nitrogen 166 f Lactic acid, 60 • This whey, though perfectly clear, like all other samples contained in solution a considerable quantity of a curd-like substance, which is not coagu- lated by rennet, but separates in flakes like the white of eggs when the liquid is raised to the boiling point. In all probability this curdlike substance is albumen. In the analysis of milk this albuminous compound is given together with caseine ; and as it constitutes one-fourth to one-third of the caseine men- tioned in the analysis of milk, much less curd is obtained as cheese than would be the case if the total quantity of curdlike substances was coagulated by rennet. I have tried various means of sepai-ating this curdlike substance together with the rest of the curd, in the hope of obtaining thereby a larger quantity of cheese from a given number of gallons of milk, but have not succeeded. The only simple way of obtaining this substance is to heat the milk or whey nearly to 212°, a temperature which of course, would alto- gether spoil the cheese. It has been said that perfectly clear whey possesses little nutritive value, but this is a mistake. Not only does such whey contain nearly the whole of the sugar of milk and bone-producing materials (ash), but also a considerable quantity of albuminous or flesh-producing compounds held in solution, besides some butter, the proportion of which, however, is very small when the operation has been carefully conducted. On no account, therefore, should the whey be allowed to run to waste. Mixed with a little barley-meal it constitutes the best food that can be given to pigs, for it fattens rapidly, and produces the most delicately-flavored bacon. Practical Dairy Husbandry. 337 In this trial two hundred and sixty quarts of milk produced two hundred and thirty-four quarts of whey. The cheese was weighed when fresh from the press, and again from time to time, with a view of ascertaining the loss -which it sustained in keeping. The loss is considerable, as -will be seen by the subjoined weighings : August 17th (fiesU from the press) 61 1>^ lbs. September 14th 60^ " December 14th 57^ " February 11th 57M " March 11th 57 " April 17lh 56 " Total loss in eight months, 5% lbs., or nine per cent, round numbers. This cheese -was considered quite ripe on the 14th of December, and there- fore lost one and three-quarter pounds after it was ready for the market. A portion analysed on the I7th of April, 1801, gave the following results : Water 37.85 Butter, 38.91 *Caseiue, 35 . 00 Extractive matters, lactic acid, &c., 4.91 fMineral matters (ash), 3.33 100.00 * Containing nitrogen, 4.00 t Containing common salt, 53 EXPEEIMENTAL CHEESE KG. 2 (PAETIALLT SKIMMED-MILK CHEESE.) The second cheese was made from one hundred and thirty quarts of skimmed milk and one hundred and thirty quarts of new milk. The morning milk stood thirty-six hours and the evening milk twenty-four hours before being skimmed. The cream removed measured ten pints, and produced nine pounds of butter. A sample of the mixed skim and new milk from which the cheese No. 2 was made, on analysis gave the following results : Water 87.89 Butter 3.13 *Caseine, , i 2.94 Milk sugar and exti'active matters, 5.39 Mineral matters (ash), 76 100.00 *Containingnitrogen, 47 The whey produced in this experiment measured two hundred and twenty- eight gallons, and was found to have the following composition : Moisture, 93.85 Butter, , , 29 *Albuminous compounds, , 93 Milk sugar, lactic acid, &c 5.03 fMineral matters (ash), 90 100.00 * Containing nitrogen, 168 f Containing lactic acid 48 22 338 Practical Daibt HusBANDny. The cheese No. 2 was made on the 13th of August, 1860, and weighed: August 21st (fresh from the press) 50% lbs. September 14tb, 491^ " December 14th, 47 " March nth 46 " April 18th, 45^^ " July 30th 44 " Total loss in eight months, Q% lbs., or thirteen and a-quarter per cent. Loss -when ready for sale, 3% lbs., or seven per cent. Analysed on the 30th of July, 1861, having been kept rather longer than ten months, it had the following composition : Water, 32.88 Butter, 29.25 »Caseine, 29.87 Extractive matters, lactic acid, &c 4.92 fMineral matters (ash) 3.08 100.00 * Containing nitrogen 4.78 f Containing common salt 29 Having been kept much longer than the preceding cheese, it contained five per cent, less water and cut rather drier. It will be noticed that this cheese contained very little salt. The dairymaid made a mistake not only in this, but in all the trials, by using an insnflScient quantity of salt ; not more than about six ounces having been taken for each cheese. The proper quantity of salt is one pound for every fifty pounds of cheese. BXPEEIMENTAI, CHEESE NO. 3 (SKIM-MILK CHEESE.) In this instance two hundred and sixty quarts of new milk were set aside ; the moruing milk stood twenty-four hours, and the evening milk thirty-six hours before being skimmed. The milk from which the cream was removed was then made into skimmed-milk cheese ; two hundred and sixty quarts of milk gave twenty pints of cream, which according to the preceding trial would have yielded eighteen pounds of butter. A sample of the skimmed milk from which the Cheese No. 3 was made, on analysis furnished the following results : Water 89.00 Butter 1.93 *Caseine 3.01 Milk-sugar and extractive matters 5.28 Mineral matters (ash) 78 100.00 * Containing nitrogen 48 The whey in this experiment measured two hundred and twenty-two quarts, and had the following composition : Water 93.15 Butter 14 Albuminous compounds 91 *Milk-8Ugar, lactic acid, &o 5.06 Mineral matters 74 100.00 * Containing lactic acid 48 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 339 The Cheese No. 3 was made on the 15th of August, and weighed : August 21st (fresh from the press) 48J^ lbs. September 14tli 47 " December 14th 44 February lltli 431^ " March 11th 431k " April 18th 43 Total loss in eight months, six and a-half pounds, or thirteen per cent. Loss when ready for sale, four and a-half pounds, or nine and one-quarter per cent. A portion of this cheese was analyzed on the 18th of April, 1861, and found to consist in one hundred parts of — Water ; 39.43 Butter 37.08 *Caseine 30.37 Extractive matters and lactic acid 33 fMineral matters (ash) 3.90 100.00 * Containing nitrogen 4.86 f Containing common salt 33 EXPEEIMENTAI, CHEESE NO. 4 (eXTRA-EICH CHEESe). The cream from two hundred and sixty quarts of milk was added to two hundred and sixty quarts of new milk and niade into cheese. A sample of the mixed cream and new milk from which No. 4 was made contained in one hundred parts : Water 85.75 Butter 6.11 ^Caseine 3.94 Milk-sugar and extractive matters 4.47 Mineral matters (ash) 73 100.00 * Containing nitrogen 47 In this trial two hundred and forty-three quarts of whey were produced. The following is an analysis of the whey obtained in making Cheese No. 4 : Water 92.95 Butter 65 Albuminous compounds 130 *Milk-sugar and lactic acid 4.55 Mineral matters (ash) 65 100.00 * Containing lactic acid 48 In comparison with the whey obtained in making the Cheeses No. 1, 2 and 3, this whey is richer in butter and also in albuminous matter. It was rather milky, and owed its turbid condition to finely-suspended particles of curd and butter. The Cheese No. 4 was made on the 15th of May, 1860, and weighed : August 21st (when it left the press) 70% lbs. September 14th 70 " December 14th 67 February 11th 66 " March 11th 66 " April 18th .' 64 " July 80th 62 " 340 Practical Dairy Husbandry. Total loss ill eleven montUs, eight and three-fourths pounds, or twelve and a-half per cent, in round numbers. Loss when ready for sale, three and three-fourths pounds, or five per cent. COMPOSITION OP EXTRA-RICH CHEESE HO. 4 ON JULY 30TH, 1861. Water 30.53 Butter 41.58 *Caseine 28.38 Extractive matters, lactic acitl, &c 3.45 fMineral matters (ash) 2.06 100.00 * Containing nitrogen 3.74 f Containing common salt 09 It was considered desirable to repeat these trials, and to make four other cheese precisely in the same way in which the preceding four cheeses were made respectively. CHEESE NO. 5 (wHOLE-MILK CHEBSe). Made from two hundred and sixty quarts of new milk. COMPOSITION OP THIS MILK (aUOTJST 21bT, 1860). "Water 87.00 Butter 3.99 *Caseine 3.44 Milk-sugar, extractive matter, &c 4.81 Mineral mattei-s (ash) 76 100.00 * Containing nitrogen 55 This milk, it will be seen, differs but slightly in composition from that used on the 11th of August, for making whole-milk cheese. COMPOSITION OP WHET PROM CHEESE NO. 5. Water 92.80 Butter 59 Albuminous compounds 91 Milk-sugar, lactic acid, &c 5.04 Mineral matters (ash) 66 100.00 This whey, like that made from Cheese No. 4, was not sufficiently clear, and contained too much fatty matter in a state of mechanical suspension. The Cheese No. 5 was made on 21st of August, and weighed: August 27th (fresh from tlie press) 61 J^ lbs. September 14th 60M " December 14th 58M " Marchllth 57 " Total loss in six and a-half months, four and a-half pounds, or seven and one-fourth per cent. Loss when ready for sale, three and one-fourth pounds, or five and one-fourth per cent. COMPOSITION OP CHEESE NO. 5 ON THE IItH JTJLT, 1861. Water 31.70 Butter 36.18 *Caseine 27.19 Extractive matters, lactic acid, &c 1.95 fMineral matters (ash) 2.98 100.00 * Containing nitrogen 4.35 f Containing common salt 34 Ps ACTIO AL Dairy Husbandry. 341 CHEESE NO. 6 (PAETIALLT-SKIMMED-MILK CHEBSb). Made from one hundred and thirty quarts of new milk and one hundred and thirty quarts of skimmed milk. COMPOSITIOK OF MILK FROM WHICH CHEESE NO. 6 WAS MADE. Water 88.50 Butter 2.43 *Caseme 3.35 Milk-sugar, e-xtractive matters, &c 5.03 Mineral matters (ash) 79 100.00 * Containing nitrogen 53 Ten pints of cream were taken from one hundred and thirty quarts of milk, and produced nine and one-fourth pounds of butter. COMPOSITION OF WHET FROM CHEESE NO 6. Water 93.05 Butter 40 Albuminous compounds 95 Milii-sugar, lactic acid, ecial meeting may be held in pursuance of a call of the Directors in writing to be filed with the Secretary, giving at least (7) seven days' notice of the time and place of such meeting ; and it shall be the duty of the Secretary, in case of such notice of a special meeting being delivered to him, to post in (3) three public places, and also an the cheese house front dbor,. a written notice of the time and place of such meeting. It shall also be the duty of the Secretary to give notice of the annual meeting of the com- pany, by posting (3) three notices as provided for a special meeting. Art. Xn. The capital stock of this company shall be Three Thousand Dollars, in shares of One Hundred Dollars each. Art. Xni. The foregoing By-Laws, or any one of them, may be repealed or amended at any annual meeting, by a majority vote of &e stock represented, there being not less than sixteen shares represented at such meeting. CREAM CHEESE DAIEY MANUPACTUKING CO. ^NOTICE TO PATRONS. The Directors are happy to announce to the public that they have secured the valuable services of Mr. Wm. Shakspeare, and that they will be prepared to commence the manufacture of Cheese on Monday, April ISth, upon the following TERMS : 1. Two Dollars, 'f welte and one-half Cents per Hundred Pounds (to be deducted from the receipts ateacn sale), and one good rennet for each four hundred pounds of cheese : which shall include manufacturing, curing, furnishing and ordinary expense, delivering the cheese at the door of the dry house ready for market. 2. The company will not be responsible for any loss by fire, theft, or other similar cause. 3. It is ej^ressly understood that every person sending milk to this Factory will conform to the following REGULATIONS : 1. All milk to be received for manufacture must be careftilly strained and brought to the factory in a tin can without faucet, pure and sweet. ' 2. Any milk which by reason of negligence, uncleanliness or other cause, is not In suitable condition for use WILL be rejected if discovered before it is let into the vat, 3. If any person shall bring milk which has been skimmed, watered, or otherwise tampered within a manner forbidden by law, then upon obtaining proof sufficient to convict the offender, the directors will prosecute such person and will not compromise or settle only as he pays the full penalty of the law and ALL DAMAGE ACCRUING FROM HIS OFFENSE, 4. It shall be the duty of the manufacturer, at least once in each week, to carefully test the milk from each and every dairy, and in case he shall find any that has been skimmed or watered or otherwise in viola- tion of law, shall at once report the same to the directors, and to no other person, and they will then take such measures as they think expedient to obtain conclusive proof against the offender. 5. It Is necessary that milk should be delivered at the factory before eight o'clock in the morning of each day, and the manufacturer will not be required to receive it after that time. — 6. Bach patron may take from the factory his share of whey in proportion each day to the amount of milk delivered the day previous ; the quantity to be regulated by the manufacturer. 7. These regulations shall apply to each director in all respects the same as to any other patron. DAN'L WEBSTER, ) HENRY CLAY, V Directors. Cream Hill, N. Y., April 10th, 1871. J. C. CALHOUN, j SELLING THE CHEESE. Usually a committee or some one person selected from the patrons, is chosen as salesman of the cheese, whose duty it is to make sales at best prices to be had, to' arrange dividends and to pay over shares to patrons, deducting of course the price per pound for manufacturing, which is made to cover all, including the per cent, on cost oi buildings and fixtures. Practical Dairy Husbandry. 365 certificate of sale. The accompanying form should be filled out to be given to each patron at the time of paying over his share of proceeds ; a book of printed blanks being provided for the purpose : foem of blaxk. Old Salisbury Cheese Factory, 1871. Sale No No. of Clieese sold, Price sold for W7iole amount of Cheese sold lbs. Milk Comprising Cheese from. to both days included. Pounds of Milk required for one pound of CJieese ; DIVIDEND TO Pounds of MUk, Pounds of Cheese, Amounts due2 cts. per lb. for making, die, deducted, $ , Salesman. paying the manufacturer by the pound. Sometimes a good cheese-maker is eniployed as manufacturer and manager, at a certain price per pound of the cheese manufactured. This manager employs his laborers or assistants, and bears all expense of running the factory, taking care of cheese, keeping record of milk delivered daily by different patrons, entering the same on the books of the factory, and upon the pass- books of patrons. Often the Company employ the manufacturer and all hands at fixed salaries. Some prefer one plan and some another. The milk is weighed at the factory when delivered, and as experience has shown that every ten pounds of milk (as an average for the season) should make one pound of cured cheese, firm, solid and in good marketable condition, each farmer thus has a daily record in his pass-book of what his herd is yielding. The manager is employed with the understanding that he is to make a good, fair article, and his product is examined from time to time by committees, by experts, and by patrons as they see fit, and thus bad work is soon, detected. If the management is not satisfactory the cheese-maker is discharged, or the causes of the bad work traced out and rectified. The stock-holders, and those delivering milk may meet from time to time and deliberate as to sales ; each one voting according to the number of cows from which he delivers mUk, and in this way instructions are issued to the salesman. FACTORY OWNED AND MANAGED BY ONE PERSON. Then there is another method of establishing factories. One man or a company erects buildings and bears all expenses, of running the factory, charg- ing by the pound of cured cheese for manufacturing. The cheese in this instance, it will be seen, belongs to patrons, who appoint a salesman and con- trol the product precisely as under the other method. We give a form of rules and regulations applicable to such cases ; also to cases where the pro- prietor of a factory purchases the milk of patrons. Of course these rules maybe varied to meet the views of persons in different localities. 306 Practical Dairy Husbandry. RULES AND EEGULATIONS FOE THE GOVERNMENT OP THE SINCLEARVILLE CHEESE FACTORY. I. The proprietor of the factory is to make and take care of the cheese, furnish boxes, salt, swathing, eoforlng matter, box and weigh the' cheese, mark the boxes, make out bills, tally out cheese lo cheese drawers, keep the books, receive the cheese and tally the same at the point of delivery, receive the money for the cheese and disburse the same among the patrons, for the sum of two cents (.02) per pound ; this includes patrons sendiug millc Ave months. Piitrons sending milk four moutlis and less than five months will be charged two cents and one mill (.021) per pound. Patrons sending milk three months and less than lour montlis will be charged two cents and two mills (.02S) per pound. Patrons sending millc less than three months will be charged two cents and three mills (.023) per pound tor majinl'acturing. II. Each patron sending millt to the factory is to furnish one pood calf rennet, in good order, to each cow's milk sent to the factory, or pay the sum of fifteen cunts in lieu thereof. in. Each patron shall have such proportion of the money received for the cheese as his milk beai-s to the whole quantity furnished by patrons during the time he sends milk to the factory (always subject to part flrst). IV. Bach patron shall furnish puro, sweet, unskimmed milk, and each one furnishing milk shall strain the same befoi'e it is delivered at the factory, and if any is reserved for use, it shall be of an average quality given by his cows. V. The milk of each patron delivered at the factory shall be properly tested once in each month during the season, and the result shall be publicly stated to those patrons requiring the same. VI. Any patron that knowing:ly skims, waters or adulterates his milk in any form, or takes out the strippings, shall forfeit the sum of iwenty-five dollars for the first otfense, and the sum of fifty dollars for the second oilense, and for the third offense he shall forfeit. his whole interest in the faclory. If his interest does not amount to seventy-five diiilurs, he shall pay the proprietor enough to make seventy-five dollars. All forfeit money received shall be disbursed among the patrons interested in tne same, in proportion to their inlerest. When such facts come to the knowledge of the proprietor, he shall retain the money received for cheese, and dispose of as aforesaid. VII. No milk shall be worked into cheese which, In the judgment of the manufacturer, will be a damage to the general interest of the patrons. VIII. Each patron sliall bring his milk as often as the manufacturer shall require, and at or before the time he may require, and all cans must be washed and scalded daily, and kept sweet and clean. IX. Each patron shall be to his proportion of the expense of getting the cheese to market. X. There shall bo a en nmittee on sale of cheese, said committee to consist of three persons having Interest in the cheese. The committee shall be William Keed, Fordyce Sylvester and John D. Dakoer. Said committee shall have power to sell the cheese once in each week, if in their judgment they think best, and shall see that the cheese is delivered according to contract. XI. That each patron who has a load of cheese at the time of sale shall be notified by com- mittee on sale of cheese, and if such patron fail to appear at the time specified in the notice, he Btiall pay all extra necessary expenses and damages tor the delivery or failure of the same. XII. There shall bo a committee on whey ; that committee shall be composed of three pat- rons, namely, Uekby Duhbak, Thomas Speak, ItussELL Sears. XIII. Any patron may take his proportion of whey and dispose of the same as he sees fit, providing he notifies tlie whey committee in writing of Ihe same on or before he sends his milk to the factory, providing he draws his whey from the bottom of the whey vat; otherwise he will have to stand tlie loss or gain in proportion to liis milk sent to tlio factory. No patron sliall take away more than two-thirds as much in bulk of whey as he sends milk to the factory. No patron shall feed whey to cows when milk is sent lo tlie factory. XIV. The whey committee shall have power to dispose of the balance of the whey to the best general interest and advantage of tlie patrons, in their judgment. XV. That the profit or loss on whey shall be divided or assessed on the patrons owning the same, in proportion to the amount of milk sunt to the factory. XVI. The proprietor agrees to make the whey butter, and furnish sufilcient to oil the cheese, the balance to be divided— the patrons to liiivo one-third and the proprietor two-thirds of the profits, the proprietor lo furnish salt and tubs. XVII. Besotoed, That all cheese sold shall bo paid for on delivery. XVIII. The proprietor shall take care of the cheese up to the flrst of December. If kept later, a fair compensation is to be allowed him. XIX. Each person furnishing milk to the factory is hereby understood as agreeing to. the foregoing rules. Chairman. CUrk. Proprietor. RULES FOE FAOTOET ■WHERE THE PROPRIETOR PURCHASES THE MILK OF PATRONS. Proprietor of the Cheese Factory, agrees as follows : To purchase the milk of the said patrins of the Cheese Factory for the year 1871, and to commence maklngr cheese on or about the first of April, and close on or about the flrst of November next. II. For value received, I promise to pny to each patron of the Cheese Factory, for his or her milk, as follows : As much per pound for his or her milk as the milk of any factory they Practical Dairy Husbandry. 367 choose nets them after they deduct expenses for making and furnishingf and gettinir the cheese ready for market, and three per cent, more in addition, and tajna the milk at the factory, the putrons to have no further expense with it. III. is to pay to each patron his proportion of money as soon as it can be ascer- tained how mucli eacli month's miik is worth. IV. Tlie patrons are to choose, on or before the first day of Juno, one of the following' facto- ries for a basis to malte our estimates on, mimely : Charlotte Center, Arkwright Union, Clear Spring, Walnut Creek or Hamlet Factory. Tbe factory chosen shall be by a vote of patrons sit a meeting called for that purpose. The meeting is to be called by the proprietor at any time when I wo or more of the patrons may direct. v. Each patron may take his proportion of the whey away ; tliat is, two-thirds as much in bulk as he or she sends milk to the factory. It he or she takes their whey away, they will not be entitled to the benefit of the three per cent., but will be entitled to ail other benefits that any other patron has. VI. Each patron sending millc to the factory is to furnish pure, sweet, unskimmed milk, and each one furnishing milk shall strain the same at the time of milking, and if any is reserved lor use it shall be of the average quality given by his or lier cows. VII. Any patron that knowingly skims, waters or a liiililllllllll^''^''''' i'!^i'l|VH''jl'l''1lii!ii'iltl{|^^^ BHii^i! limm FlOUHE 30. POSITIONS 01" HBATEE AND VATS. This apparatus is convenient to arrange for factory purposes. The heater can be placed in almost any position to suit the room. This will be readily understood from the plans at Fig. 31. Plan 1st shows vats connected to a right-hand heater ; Plan 2d shows vats connected to a left-hand heater ; and Pttd Door r'ewlJOoor FiGCBE 31.— Plan 1. Piotieb 31.— Pum 2. Plan 3d shows vats connected to a heater placed in front of them, which can be either right or left. The feed-door can be placed at either end of heater. Many other advantages are claimed for this apparatus besides those previ- ously mentioned, but the following is the most important, viz., the manner of applying the heat. The heating pipes, or those that distribute the hot water in the vat, enter and extend through the vat, on each side of the tin 394 Practical Dairy Husbandry. milk holder, thus diifusing the heated water equally along the sides of it. The lower or cold water pipe is attached to the bottom of the vat, and as through this pipe the water is continually passing out to thescr»>i!»ow.— Between the upper beams of the stout wooden frame two sectors, E E, are hung by wrought iron journals in iron boxes inserted in the beams. One of these sectors is geared on the inside and the other on the outside. They are operated by a pinion, the shaft of which passes through FiGUBB 43. FiauBB 43. the front beam, and on which the ratchet wheel, F, is fastened. Next to the ratchet the end of the lever, G, plays loosely, and then the crank is secured with a pin, which also keeps the lever in its place. The pitmen, or toggle levers, D D, are four in number ; their upper ends are secured on wrought-iron journals, cast solid in the sectors, and their bottom ends ai"e pivoted to the follower, and work in iron boxes. The follower. A, slides up and down between the posts, and is kept perfectly steady. To operate the press the lever, G, is raised and a dog at the back of the lever, which plays on a strong pivot, is hooked on to a pin in the beam and holds the lever up. The dog, H, is then turned back so that its other end shall take into the ratchet below the center ; the sectors, follower, &c., are then run up with the crank and held up by the dog, H ; the cheese is then put in, the dog, H, turned to the position as now represented; the lever is then raised, which dog and allows it to take into the rachet. Then press hang a weight and leave it as you please. The follower and sectors are rep- resented about half way down ; the journals on which the strain comes move but one-quarter of a revolution as at each operation of pressing, which con- sumes little power and produces little wear, while the pinion makes over three revolutions, which gives the end of the lever a traverse of over eighty- six feet. Fiemts 44. unhooks the lever the lever down, or 400 PRACTICAL Dairy Husbandry. FACTORY PEESS:BS. The presses at the factories (Fig. 46) are generally quite similar in con- struction, and, except the iron screw and its fittings, are usually made upon the spot by some carpenter. These presses are not patented, and are so FiGUhii 40. simple in construction that any one handy with tools can do the wood work for less money than their cost of transportation over long distances. The wooden frames should be made of well seasoned timber, and the parts of sufficient size to be strong, so as not to spring or warp. The sills for holding Practical Dairy Husbandry. 401 the hoops are about fifteen inches wide and four inches thick, and the beams ten inches by six inches thick. The posts are of the same thickness, and of the width of the sill at the bottom, slanting to the width of the beam at the top. The posts should be about four feet ten inches long. The sill and beam are let into the posts say about a half to three-quarters of an inch. The sills stand about twp feet from the floor, and the beams are about two feet five inches above the sills. The posts are set about two feet apart, which gives a space of two feet by two feet five inches for the hoop. Iron rods with nut and screw for the ends are used for holding the wood work firmly in place, and six or eight frames or presses may be connected together. Fig. 46 gives their general appearance. CHEESE PRESS SCREWS. "While for private dairies' lever presses are still used to some ex- tent, the screw presses have been universally adopted by cheese fac- torymen. The screws are usually placed in benches of six or eight. These benches, as we have re- marked, are made very strong, from heavy timber, with bolts, to hold them from spreading, between each screw. The ordinary screw has two holes drilled in its hub, and is turned by means of a round iron bar. Ratchet screws are much more convenient, but, as usually made, are very objectionable, on Figueb 46. account of their complication, thereby allowing the collection of whey and dirt, causing them to rust and smell badly ; they are also con- stantly getting out of order. Ths illustrations (Figs. 47 and 48) show an improved Ratchet Cheese Press Screw, which is said to' entirely overcome these objections. The screw is thus constructed : A toothed- or ratchet wheel is firmly attached to the screw, leaving about an inch space between the top of the flange and the lower side of the wheel. A lever, to which is attached the pawl of the ratchet, is made to fit in this space, thus when attached completing the ratchet. But as this lever can be readily removed from or attached to the screw, by merely pressing back the pawl, one lever can be made to answer for all screws in a factory. It will thus be seen that this arrangement combines all the advantages of the ordinary ratchet screw, with the simplicity, strength and cleanliness of the common plain screw. The pawl attached to the lever is made wide enough to turn the ratchet 26 402 Practical Dairy Husbandry. wheel, when placed either side up ; thus it can be readily adjusted to either raise or lower the screw. The screw, when relieved of pressure, can be FioUKE 47. FiecBE 4S. rapidly raised or lowered, by means ol a malleable iron handle, made expressly for this purpose (see Fig. 49). The flange of this screw is made very heavy and strong, and has an extra deep socket, in which the lower end FismiB 49. FisuBE 60. of the screw is carefully fitted, so that the flange cannot tip in the least, but will press the cheese true and even. Both the handle and lever of these Peaciical Dairy Husbandry, 403 screws are galvanized, wbich is quite important, as the salt and acid in the curd and whey will rust them badly. If the common screws are used, the iron bars for running them should always be galvanized, for the same reasons. Another pattern of these screws (shown at Fig. 60) is simple in construc- tion, consisting of a screw of refined wrought iron, attached to and turning in a heavy cast base, also a heavy cast nut through which the screw works, for fastening into the beam of the press. The sci-ews are turned by means of a wrought iron bar inserted into holes in the collar of the screw. They are usually of two sizes — one and three-fourths inches and one and a-half inches in diameter. The one and three-fourths inch screw is in extreme length twenty inches ; has thirteen inches length of screw thread ; four holes in collar for inserting a seven-eighths inch bar, and a base nine inches in diameter. The one and a-half inch screw is in entire length eighteen inches ; length of screw thread, eleven and a-half inches.; four holes in collar for three-fourths inch bar, and eight inch diameter of base. The grade and pitch of screw are calculated for the most rapid motion compatible with strength, great power and ease of working. iErv\ g^^ Figure 51. FKAZKr's GANtr CHEESE PJBESS. This press is constructed horizontally, and presses any given number of cheese, with a single ratchet screw set -in movable head-blocks, so as to repeat when run out its length. The cheeses are placed upon their edges in metallic hoops, made in sections, with heads or covers of the same material, not liable to shrink or swell, forming a complete box, the sections sliding together as the pressing is performed, finishing the cheese at one operation. The advantages claimed for it are : 1st. It saves the labor of one man, where a large number of cheese are made. 2d. It takes up less than one- half the room of the old presses. 3d. The hoops are so constructed that the air and whey escape as soon as pressure is applied. This is an advantage not appreciated heretofore. 4th. The hoops also make a perfectly smooth, rounding edge. 5th. The cheese are pressed in bandage at once — no turning in press, nor particle of trimming. This alone saves much labor. 6th It will press any number of cheese as perfectly as one. 7th. It presses perfectly 404 Practical Dairy Husbandry. even, and cannot do otherwise, if the press and hoops are made true. 8th. The pressing is so gradual, on a large number of cheese, that there is no curd forced off with the whey, as is the case with the single cheese press. 9th. The pressing is uniform ; as one is pressed against the other, therefore Figure all must be pressed exactly alike. 10th. A weight is attached to the lever to continue pressing, or indicate when manipulation is necessary. 11th. When the screw is reversed sufficiently to relieve one cheese, they will all come out, saving much labor running screws up and down, as in the ordinary press. 12th. The hoops are made in sections for bandaging and contracting, dispensing with all followers and bot- tom boards. Figs. 51 and 52 illus- trate these presses. CHEESE PRESS HOOPS. The hoops for pressing cheese were formerly, and are still, to a large extent, made from wood, but the last few seasons galvanized iron hoops (see Fig. 53) have been intro- duced to a great extent, and are bet- FiociiB 63. ter on many accounts. They do not shrink or swell, absorb no whey, and the cheese slips out more readily. KUBBBR PRESS RINGS. A source of considerable trouble and annoyance to cheese-makers is the shrinking and swelling of the cheese followers ; if they fit loosely, the curd Practical Daibt Husbandry. 405 will press up, thereby makbg it necessary to trim it off, thus causing a waste of cheese. Figs. 54 and 55 illustrate an invention designed to over- come this difficulty. Fig. 54 shows a cheese hoop cut in two perpendicularly. A, represents the cheese hoop ; B, the follower ; C, the cheese ; E and F, rubber washers or rings. One of these rubber rings (Fig. 55) is placed on the inside of the cheese hoop, resting on the press board below the curd or cheese. The other is placed above the cheese, directly under the follower. FiaiTBE 54. FiacBE 65. As soon as the pressure is applied, it causes the rubber rings to expand and fit tight to the hoops, preventing the curd from pressing either up around the follower or out underneath the bottom of the hoop. By using these rubber rings, the followers may fit the hoops very loosely. They are very valuable in using for the second pressing after the bandage has been put on ; the rings then prevent the bandage bursting at the edge, which has always been a great annoyance, as it allows the flies to get in, producing skippers in a place whence they can scarcely ever be gotten out. FlQDIil! 56. HOOPS AND WOODEN PEESS KINGS. Hoops and wooden press rings are usually made of staves and hard wood (see Fig. 56) doubled together and banded with riveted or welded bands. Hoops of heavy sheet iron, galvanized, with a welded band at top and bottom, are now generally preferred. The illustration (Fig. 56) is a perpendicular section of a wood hoop and press rings, showing the position of the rings in pressing, also a ring separate. The hoop is shown resting upon the press board, in which are seen the channels for conducting off the whey. A is the 406 Practical Baihy Husbandry. follower, with its edge slightly beveled, corresponding with one side of the upper or triangular ring, h. The lower ring, c, is in its section a right-angled triangle, and is seen in its place at the bottom of the hoop, though by some this ring is not considered necessary. D is the upper ring shown out of the hoop. These rings are made of hard and tough wood by machinery, which FlQCBK B7. FlSTTBE 58. smoothly rives them into a three-cornered shape and forms them into circles, so as to tightly fit the inner surface of the hoop, with ends butted together. The manner of rising is: first place the hoop on the press board, insert the lower ring, press it down till it is fiat upon the board, put in the curd, insert FlQtmB 59. FiouRE 60. FioUKB 61. the upper ring just below the top of the hoop, put on the follower, and it is ready for the press. On removing the cheese from the hoop the rings slip out with it. After bandaging put in the cheese and the upper ring, forcing it down to the cheese, insert the follower and apply the pressure. By this means nothing but the whey can pass the rings, the corners of the cheese are left perfect, and the edge of the bandage is firmly impressed ; no press cloth is required, though some prefer a small round cloth for top and bottom. Practical Daibt Husbandry. 407 CAST-STEEL DAIET KNIVES FOE CUTTING UP THE CUED are differently arranged and mounted. They are of two kinds, the perpen- dicular and the horizontal (Figs. 57 and 58). The perpendicular is designed to pass through the vat, cutting up the curd into columns. Then the horizontal, passing through, cuts the columns into cubes. These knives are manufactured of sixteen, eighteen and twenty inch lengths, and from four to thirty blades each — ^to cut perpendicularly. The blades are now tin plated. From four to fifteen blades, the blades are half an inch apart ; the twenty-blade knives are three-eighths of an inch, and the thirty-blade knives quarter of an inch apart. The four to six blades inclusive have handles on top of head, as in illustration Fig. 59. The seven to thirteen blades have handle on side of head as in Fig. 60. The twenty and thirty blades have handles on both side and top of head, as shown on the horizontal cutting knife in the illustration. The thirty-blade perpendicular knife is intended for use where cheese is made FiausB 63. FieuitE 64. in the " coarse curd process," and is passed through the curd but once, cutting it into slices. The other perpendicular knives are passed through the curd both length and crosswise. The horizontal knives (Fig. 61) are eighteen and twenty inches long ; four, six and eight inches wide ; with blades half an inch apart. This knife is not intended to take the place of the per- pendicular knife, but to be used in connection with it. After cutting the curd length and crosswise, this knife cuts the columns into cubes. For dairy use, four to seven blades, perpendicular, and four inch horizontal ; for cheese factory, eleven and thirteen blades perpendicular, and eight inch horizontal. The rake agitator (Figure 62) is used for the purpose of agitating the curd while cooking, is very convenient and will save much labor. This is made of wood and tinned wire. The illustration (Fig. 63) gives another form of the agitator. Whey strainer and siphon (Figure 64), for the purpose of drawing 408 Practical Dairy Husbandry. off the whey. The lower part of the strainer is made of perforated tin. The syphon has a faucet attached to one end, with a valve at the other, so con- structed that when filled with whey they will prevent it from escaping. It can then be carried to the vat in which the strainer is placed, the valve end of the syphon is inserted in the strainer, the faucet end hanging over the trough for conducting off the whey. The whey immediately commences to run through the syphon on opening the faucets. CUKD-MILLS, DAIBY-DIPPEES, ETC. Curd Mills are now coming into general use in many sections of the coun- try. Figure 65 represents the McAdam Mill ; it is constructed from iron, with the exception of the frame and hopper, which is wood ; it is geared up so as to run rapidly, and has a heavy balance-wheel to make it run easily. They are invaluable where the Cheddar system is adopted, and will be found a valuable article, particularly in hot weather when the milk is often not in the very best condition. At such times it has the effect of improving the quality of the curd by finely divid- ing, cooling and exposing it to the air ; equalizing its character and insuring more perfect salting. We give an illustration in Figure 66 of Ralph's American Curd Mill. Re- ferring to the illustration it will be seen that the mill is fitted for lying upon the top of the cheese-vat or sink, and may be moved at pleasure or permanently FiocBE 65. secured at one place. It consists of a wood frame, upon which is secured a metallic rack with curved ribs ; in this rack lie the picking cylinder or cylinders which are of tinned iron ; each cylinder having two rows of teeth set spirally, which teeth by the revolving of the cylinders, gradually enter between the curved ribs of- the rack, carry- ing before them the picked curd into the receptacle below. The peculiarity of this machine is in the metallic cylinders, and the action of the teeth through the ribs of the curved rack, by means of which the curd is not only easily and rapidly picked up, but being gradually passed through the ribs, is not mashed, nor the butter separated from it. The cut represents a double cylinder or factory size, the cylinders being geared together. The dairy size has a single cylinder ; they are worked by hand with a crank, also arranged for power, being furnished with a balance- wheel to carry a belt. Dairy dippers (Figure 6V) should be made from IXXXX tin, and hold from three to four quarts, the seams should be well filled with solder, and they should be made plain and smooth. Figure 68 is a flat-sided pail made for the purpose of dipping out the curd from the vat ; it should be made from Practical Bairi Husbanort. 409 heavy tin, with bail, and a handle in the hack. A curd-Bcoop (Figure 69) should accompany it, which is made from tin, somewhat in the shape of an ordinary dust-pan, but' made heavier and more carefully soldered. The curd sink should be mounted on castors, so as to be readily moved in any direction ; these castors (Figure 70) should be made very heavy and substantial, with a FlGXTEE 66. projecting lip to take the weight off from the screws that fasten it to the legs of the sink. The wheel shank is so secured in the socket, that while it allows the wheel to revolve freely, it cannot slip out of place. The castors are secured to the legs by wood screws ; the bottom of the legs of the sink resting upon projecting lips made to receive them. Four constitute a set. FiouBE 67. FlSTTBB Rubber mops (Figure 71), a most desirable article for cleaning a wet floor, will save their cost in brooms several times during a season. No cheese factory will be without then when once tried. Dairy themiometers (Figure 72) should be made with a heavy brass back, and a small loose tin collar to slip over the bulb to protect it ; the handiest size is the ten-inch. The most approved patterns are now plated with nickel. 410 Practical Dairy Husbandry. SCALES. Good scales are an important feature in cheese factory fixtures. We give in Figs. 73, 74, 75, 76 and 77 different forms of the Howe scales. These FiQiniE 69. FlOIIEE 70. FiSUBE 71. 30-MlU kM I scales are accurate and reliable. By introducing chilled iron balls between the platform, and by making all the bearings self-adjusting, they take nearly all the wear from the pivots, upon the shai-pness of which the accuracy and durability of all scales very largely depend. Fig. 74 represents a platform scale on wheels. This, or the one shown in Fig. 73, is the kind wanted by every cheese factory for weighing the milk when it is ttvken in. About six hundred pound scales are the most desirable. Either of the scales shown in Figs. 75 and 76 are very convenient for weighing salt, &c., in cheese making, but the best to purchase in most cases is the Improved Union Scales (Fig. 77), as they not only answer for weighing small things, but have a convenient platform for weighing cheese or any heavy article. The Jones Scales are very similar in construction to the above, and are good, reliable scales. We give in Fig. 78 a cut of the Jones Stock Scales, which are found useful in weighing very heavy weights. THE EBCTANGULAE CHEESE. Cheese has been made from time to time in a variety of shapes. In England and America the cylindrical form has always been most popular. Other shapes, such as the " pine-apple," the " cannon ball," the " Limberger " or brick shape, and the " French cakes," have been, each and all, of limited demand. Some of these shapes, such as the " pine-apple," have been made and are still made in small quantities in this Country, and as a fancy article they sell at comparatively high prices. The "cannon ball " was at one time made in certain districts of New York to supply the FiGUBE 72. Pra.ctica.Ij Dairy Husbandry. 411 Navy. The "Edam" of Holland is round like a ball, and on account of its small size finds ready sale in England, where it is in favor among the lower classes, the farm laborers, and those who desire a low priced cheese, and cannot afford to indulge in the better sorts. The Limberger is only suited to German tastes. It is rank in taste and smell, and comparatively few English- men or Americans have learned to like it. It is manufactured to some extent in this country to supply our German population, but is not exported. The FlOUBB 73. FiauBE 74. FiauBE 75. French cakes have not been made in America. A good deal has been said at one time and another about changing the cylindrical or common shape of our cheese to a square ■ or oblong form. And the reasons urged for this change are that the present shapes entail a heavy expense in boxings while they cannot be cut in small pieces to advantage. A wedge of cheese, it is contended, must always leave more waste, when it is divided up for the table, than the same weight in a square form, and as small cubical blocks are more pleasing to the eye than irregular pieces cut from a wedge, this alone is good reason why a square or cubical-shaped cheese should be made. But at the FlQUBB 76. FlQTOBB 77. material for making cylindrical boxes is growing scarce and expensive, a cheese of another form is required to meet this difficulty. Square boxes are not only more economical in cost of material and in the labor of making, but as they can be packed closer, there would be a gain over round boxes in the matter of freight when sending to market. These are the arguments that have been urged by the advocates of this radical change in cheese manu- facture. On the other hand, serious objections have been suggested against 412 Practical Dairy Husbandry. the proposed change. In the first place a reputation has been established in the markets for cheese of a particular shape, and it is a question whether the prejudices of consumers for these shapes could be readily overcome. It was thought, too, by many, that by making cheese in a square form the corners and edges would be more liable to break in handling, and finally, that there would be difficulty in securing the bandage, and thus the matter has rested until quite recently. The first practical experiments in the way of making square-shaped cheeses, we believe, are due to Mr. Holdridge of Otsego county, N". Y. He has been for several years developing his system of cheese manufacture, but his plans were not fully matured until last year, when his new style of cheese was put upon the markets. We have seen several letters written by dealers who have handled the " Holdridge cheese," in which its shape and quality are highly commended, and from which it appears that sales have been readUy made at good figures. As the plan adopted by Mr. Holdridge is original, and may be somewhat new to the dairy public, I shall briefly allude to some of its leading features. In the first place the curds are pressed in a square box, arranged with fol- lower, &c., on the plan of the common hoop. The cubical block of curd is then removed from the frame and cut with a fine saw into blocks of the desired size. For these blocks Mr. HoT-DRiDGE adopts an ob- FisoKE 78. long form, the ends being square. A strip of bandage cloth, just wide enough to wrap around these blocks, (a small piece having previously been adjusted on the ends), is wet in water. The dampness causes it to adhere to the cheese. The blocks of curd are then simply laid upon the cloth and rolled over until the sides are covered, when the ends are lapped down, and this completes the process of bandaging. The bandaged blocks are then laid in the hoop in the same order, in which they were cut, the courses being separated by thin boards, and when in place form a cubical mass. Then the follower is adjusted and pressure applied in the same way as for ordinary cheese. This process fastens the bandage securely, and after being properly pressed the frame is taken off, the blocks separated and put upon the shelves. "While curing, these blocks of cheese are turned from day to day, but only a quarter revolution at a time. Mr. Holdridge claims that the escape of the whey by evaporation is greatly facilitated by the form of the cheese, inasmuch as the whey percolates towards the bottom, and the turning being only a quarter revolution, or at right angles, it constantly tends toward the outside, while in the ordinary form of cheese the turning from one side to the other has a tendency to keep the whey in the center of the cheese. In the block-shaped cheese, therefore, the Prautical Dairy Husbandry. 413 whey is so far dissipfited that decomposition ia less liable to take place, and further, that the cheese can be preserved without the greasing process com- monly employed. He claims also that for the retail trade the block cheese is of great advantage, since the dealer can weigh the whole cheese and cut by measure the exact weight desired. And again, for family use they are superior, since by turning the bandage back from the end a thin slice may be cut off for the table, the bandage replaced and the cheese set on end, thereby excluding the freshly cut surface from the air, preventing drying and the attack of flies. In the manufacture of small cheeses it will be observed the plan proposed must be a great saving in presses and hoops, while the ease and rapidity of adjusting the bandage is a matter jof some consideration. I have examined the HoLDEiDGE rectangular appliances I'or pressing with considerable care. The whole is very simple, easily operated, and not liable to get out of order. The plan, if successfully adopted, must save a large amount of labor at cheese factories, since one curb and one press is suf&cient for a large quantity of curd. Then the cheese can be made of any desired weight without going to the extra expense of procuring hoops and presses and screws to meet the emergency. For making small sized cheeses, say from ten to thirty pounds, it would seem to be admirably adapted. Small sized cheeses are very much needed in the home trade, and are not supplied in sufficient quantity for the reason that manufacturers have not been willing to take the extra expense of labor and appliances for their production. Under the rectangular plan most of the objections to making a small sized cheese are obviated. We see no reason why the rectangular cheese cannot be made of equal quality with ether shapes. Indeed, we have tested numerous samples made at different seasons of the year, and have found them excellent. The small expense in boxing this style of cheese alone commends it to favorable consideration. But of course the prejudice for round shapes among certain consumers may interfere for a time with the general introduction of rectangular cheese. Still fi-om the success already obtained for this plan, and the favor with which the cheese has been received in the home and foreign markets, there is reason to believe that the oblong shapes are destined to work a revolution in the old styles of cheese. We hear of a number of factories this year, 1871, entering upon their manufacture, and by the end of the season enough cheeses will have been made to fully test the feeling of different markets in regard to the new shapes. We give a cut (Fig. 79) representing the curb and press, and the manner in which the cheese is placed for pressure. A represents cheese with bandage. B, composite mold. C, square curb or hoop. D and E, mortised slips for connecting the hoops. Mr. Holdeidgb, the inventor, gives the following statement as regards the comparative cost of making rectangular cheese and round cheese, together with the directions for pressing, ban- 414 Practical Dairy Hvsbanbrt. daging and boxing, -which will be useful to those proposing to adopt this style of manufacture : Saving in Boxes, Down Weights and Handling. — Comparative cost of manufacture, boxing, &c., of one hundred pounds of cheese made into ten pound rectangular cheese, or made into fifty pound round cheese : — Ten FlGUEB 79. rectangular cheese, five by five by ten inches, weigh one hundred pounds. Two round cheese, fifteen inches in diameter and eight inches high, weigh one hundred pounds. Bandage for round cheese, three-quarters wide, say one yard, costs six cents ; to box two such cheese, forty-four cents. Total Practical Dairy Husbandry. 415 cost for one hundred pounds, fifty cents. Bandage for ten rectangular cheese, as above, three yards, three-quarters wide, cost eighteen cents ; boxes for one hundred pounds, thirty cents. Total cost per one hundred pounds, forty-eight cents ; a saving of two cents per one hundred pounds. Comparing ten pound rectangular with fifty pound round cheese : — These small cheeses are packed eighteen (one hundred and eighty pounds) in a case. The same ajnount of cheese in fifty pound round cheese would require three down weights or more — a loss of two weights, not less than one pound of cheese as compared with the small cheese — worth sixteen cents. A saving of about nine cents per one hundred pounds, which, added to the two cents saved as above, makes not less than eleven cents per one hundred pounds saved thus far in favor of rectangular small cheese. This saving greatly increases as the size of the round cheese compared with the rectangular diminishes. Compare twenty-five pounds rectangular with the same size round cheese: Round cheese of this weight are about thirteen inches in diameter and six inches high. Rectangular cheese, same weight, are seven by seven by four- teen inches. The bandage for round cheese, per one hundred pounds, costs seven cents ; four boxes at sixteen cents, sixty-four cents. Total for one hundred pounds, seventy-one cents. Rectangular cheese : — Bandage, twelve cents ; boxes, twenty-five cents. Total per one hundred pounds, thirty-seven cents ; saved, thirty-four cents. To this should be added seven down weights saved, (three and a-half pounds of cheese), to case of eight cheeses, per one hundred pounds, twenty-eight cents. Total saved per one hundred pounds, sixty-two cents. In comparing fifty pound round cheese with rectangular cheese eight by eight by sixteen inches,' weighing same, the saving per one hundred pounds is thirty cents. The above figures do not include the saving in screws, hoops and frames, nor in labor required to take care of them. Saving in Hoops, Screws, die. — To manufacture the milk from five hun- dred cows requires hoops,, screws and appurtenances to take care of at least one thousand pounds of curd. To manufacture this into fifty pound round cheese would require twenty hoops, screws, frames, &c., and would cost not less than $15 per set ; total, $300. To manufacture the same curd into rectangu- lar cheese, twenty-five pounds each, would, if pressed into eight cheeses, two hundred pounds in a curb, require but five curbs, which, with screws and frames, would not cost over $160. A net saving of fifty per cent. To make the same amount of curd into ten pound rectangular cheese would require, if pressed in curbs thirty by thirty inches, two cheese in thickness, three curbs and fixtures, and would not cost over $100. Saving in Boxes. — We box eight cheese, thirty-pound size, in one case — two hundred and forty pounds — and the box will cost not over sixty cents, and can be furnished for less, as they can be made of pieces of boards and refuse lumber. We box the ten-pound size, eighteen in a case — one hundred and eighty pounds — and boxes cost each sixty cents. By comparing these 416 Practical Dairy Husbandry. figures with the cost of boxes for round cheese, per one hundred pounds, the saving in expense is readily seen. We can use the same screws and frames as used with hoops. The common round hoops cost about $5 each, and press from twenty-five to fifty pounds of curd. Our curbs cost from |15 to $20 each, and press from two hundred to four hundred pounds, or more. Curbs without sections cost twenty per cent, less. The expense of these can be lessened by using one or more locked or hinged curbs, with Jjoxes dove- tailed or screwed together for first pressing the curd. And when several locked curbs are used they do not all require sections. Much less room for presses is required and the drying room can be much smaller for these cheeses than for round ones, as they occupy less space on the table or shelves, and the shelves can be placed one above the other. The rooms can be better ventilated, as the cheese are bandaged all over and will not crack. By using our style of press or curb, cheese can be pressed as long as desired, as each day's cheese can be put under one press. TJie Press Cloths. — Two press cloths are used with each curb. A square one, a little larger than the curb, and a long one, of sufficient length to reach around inside of the curb, and wide enough to protect the sides of the curb. Place the square press cloth upon the press board and put the curb upon it. Put in the long press cloth around the inside of the curb, and let it lap about an inch upon the bottom towards the center of the curb. If this cloth be not wide enough to cover the top of the cheese, a small square cloth should be used. Put in curd enough to make the cake of required thickness. Put in the follower and press the curd till next morning, or till sufficiently formed to cut. Having removed the screw, lift up one side of the curb and pull the bottom press cloth back half way, then lift up the other side and remove the cloth. Take out the pins and loosen and remove the curb and side and top press cloths, and the cake is ready to cut. Cut the cake by measure into desired sizes. To Bandage the Cheese. — Cut the bandage into strips, one inch wider than the length of the cheese, and of sufficient length to reach around the cheese and lap about an inch. Also cut square pieces one inch larger than the end of the cheese. Place the pieces of bandage in a vessel of water, and put on the bandage wet. Place the end pieces on first, lapping over the ends one-half an inch all around. The side piece is put on as follows : Place one end of the bandage near the middle of tlie uppermost side of the cheese, spread it smoothly and turn the cheese from the person, and the bandage can be put on very smooth. Smooth over the corners and ends, and replace the cheese into the curb for second pressing. Where quantities of this cheese are made, we use a common table having on the under side a trough of water, and the bandage is cut into long strips of proper width and placed in the water in rolls on Spools, and through slots in the table is drawn up as required, and cut off as each cheese is bandaged. This is a very simple and cheap arrangement, and will greatly assist in preparing and putting on the Practical Dairy Husbandry. 417 bandage. The bandaged cheese having been piled upon the press board, the curb is locked around it. Between each layer of cheese place an inch board same-size as the follower. Nothing but the bandage is placed between the cheeses in the same layer. Apply the screw and press as long as desired. When the cheeses are first put upon the shelves or tables, place them close together for a few days, to prevent drying too fast, and after that keep them about an inch apart — to be governed by the weather and how fast they are desired to dry. The cheese should be rubbed and turned a quarter revolu- tion daily, and kept nice and clean. £oxes. — We box these cheese as follows : Ten-pound cheese, eighteen cheeses in a case. Twenty to thirty-pound cheese, eight cheeses in a case. The boxes are made of one-half inch stuff for the sides, and inch stuff for the ends and middle partition. The end pieces are set in a little from the ends of the sides, and a small cleat nailed around the outside of the heads, as shown in the engraving, makes them very firm. The middle piece is same size and shape as the heads. A cleat is put around the boxes outside at the ends and middle to keep them from being packed too closely together. This cleat should be of one-half inch stuff, and about an inch wide. (This cleat does not show in engraving.) The lumber should all be planed, it looks so much better ; and if the cover is fastened on with screws, it will be an advantage, as shippers and others can inspect the cheese without injury to the box, and where the market is not too far off the empty boxes can be returned. A thin piece of veneer or board, of same size as side of cheese, should be put between each cheese in the box, as a scale board, and the boxes should always lie so that the cheese stand on end. It pays well to make a neat looking package. Butter dairymen understand this, and know that the price of their butter is seriously affected by the appearance of the package. We know from experience that good, neat looking boxes for our cheeses are a profit- able investment. THE CHEESE RACK AND SETTEE, were considered indispensable in the curing rooms of the early factories, but the necessity now for their use is not so great. Indeed, with the medium- sized cheese now generally made, many prefer the simple table on which to place the cheese while curing, as it is easier cleaned and affords more room. The cheese rack consists of scantling (four by five inches) with the corners beveled or cut so as to be five-sided ; these are framed the proper distance at the ends and set on legs of the desired hight, forming a skeleton table. Or, instead of legs, arms may be framed into the posts which support the floors of the curing room, and upon these arms the scantling are placed to form the rack. Then round covers of inch hemlock or pine, bound with stout elm rims, three or four inches wide, set upon the racks and hold the cheese. When the cheese is to be turned, a spare cover is placed on top, and the cheese and covers turned over ; the cover now on top is removed, rubbed with a cloth, and is ready to be applied to the next cheese. The rims of the .27 418 Practical Dairt Husbandry. covers protect the edges of the cheese in the pi'ocess of turning ; and a part of the cheese swinging down in the open space between the timbers, and the rims resting on the beveled sides, renders the operation not only easy, but insures safety to the cheese. A large cheese can be turned with as much ease on a properly constructed rack as the loosening of the cheese on the table preparatory to being turned^ Large cheeses are difficult to handle on a table, and are liable to have their edges broken or in other ways marred in turning. The illustration (Fig. 80) gives an idea of the manner of con- structing the rack. CONVENIENT APPLIANCES. In the construction and fitting up of factories, it is very important to have every department as conveniently arranged as possible. Attention should be given to have every appliance for saving labor and facilitating all the various operations. Good factory hands are comparatively scarce, and com- mand lai:ge wages. By having conveniently arranged buildings and handy implements, the labor of one or two persons may be saved, and this is an FiGOKE 80. important item. In a recent visit to Chautauqua County, I found some things adopted at the Sinclairville Factory, by which the operations were very expeditiously conducted. The Sinclairville Factory is one of the largest in the State of New York, receiving the milk of fifteen hundred cows and upward. Where such a large quantity of milk is received at one place, it is evident more than ordinary attention must be given to have the various parts of the factory and its appliances so as to be convenient, for if otherwise there would be great liability of neglect from time to time, which would result in damaging the product THE MAIN BUILDING is one hundred and twenty feet by fifty feet, three stories high, and this structure is wholly employed as a dry house or cheese curing department. The two lines of posts running through the central part of the building, in the several stories, to support the frame, are also made of use in holding the arms on which the tables or shelves rest, one above the other, thereby giving the building capacity for storing a large number of cheeses. Some idea of Practical Dairy Hvsbandrt. 419 its capacity will be had from the fact that at one time nine thousand cheeses (fifteen-inch size) were stored upon the shelves. THE MANUFACTURING DEPAETMENT is in a wing extending in a line with the main building, one hundred and thirty feet long by thirty-two feet broad, and one story high. From the ' main building to the end of the wing the floor has one foot fall. The floor also descends from either side toward the center, where there is a narrow ditch for conducting off the whey and slops. The vats are upon one side and the presses upon the other side, opposite. The space from the vats to the side of the bailding occupied by the presses is eleven feet, which gives ample room for the sink, provided with large casters, to move up and down between the vats and presses as desired, while sufficient room is given on either side of the sink for the hands to work in, stirring the curds, &c., &c. THE SINK is three feet two inches wide by thirteen feet four inches in length. The bottom is made dishing, and is of matched pine, except in the center, where there is a narrow strip of perforated tin, through which the whey escapes to a movable trough, which is a little wider than the tin, and fits up close to the bottom of the sink, so that all the whey dripping from the curds is caught. At the upper end of the manufacturing department, and adjoining the dry-house, a space thirty feet long is devoted to A DEBSSING EOOM. There are tables along the side of this department, where the cheese, when taken from the press, are received and dressed preparatory to going forward into the dry-house. At the lower end of the manufactory there is an open shed or covered drive-way, where the teams deliver milk. Upon one side stand the platform scales, three and a-half feet higher than the floor of the drive-way. The usual weighing can and its accompanying tin milk conductor are not used at this factory. Instead, there is a truck running on rails along the heads of vats. This truck has a platform about the same hight from the floor as that upon which the scales rest. When the milk teams come in, the cans are moved directly from the wagon to the scales, and after being weighed go upon the truck, which is then moved along to the head of the vat and dumped. One edge of the platform on the truck is cut down lower than the others, and has a notch to receive the bottom of the can on this side, so as to facilitate dumping, and also to prevent the can from slipping while being dumped. The platform scales being about the same hight as the milk wagons, there is no difficulty in rolling the can upon the scales, and from the scales to the dumping truck. Each patron's can is weighed and marked, so that the weight of milk is rapidly obtained. There is no bother with cranes, no weighing can to be kept clean, no milk con- ductor to look after, while the operation of weighing and delivering the milk 420 Practical Dairy Husbandry. to the vats, Mr. Buenham, the proprietor, says, can be done quite as rapidly and safely as by the usual method, and with no more labor. On the other hand, a very large amount of work in cleaning weighing can and milk con- ductors is obviated during the season, while at the same time there is less liability of sour milk, &c., arising from neglect on the part of factory hands to keep these utensils in proper order. The arrangement seemed to be convenient, as it certainly was ingenious, and being so different from the usual plan of delivering milk, may prove suggestive to those persons who are about to build cheese factories. THE OTJKD FILLER. Another handy device in use at this factory is that for filling the hoops with curd. A tin form (see Fig. 81) just large enough to slip down inside the hoop is used. It is a little longer than the hoop, and is surmounted by a flaring top, and when in place, has the appearance of a common tin pan sitting upon the hoop (see Fig. 82). FiGUBE 81. FlGUEB Now, when the hoop is to be filled with curd, the lower or smaller end of this tin form receives a circular piece of cotton cloth just large enough to cover the bottom and come up over the edges of the tin outside — say about an inch. The cloth having been dampened and spread over the tin, is pushed into the hoop. It covers the bottom of the hoop, and the edges, of course, are held between the hoop and the tin, about an inch high all around the hoop. The curd is now placed in the hoop, and when full the tin form drawn out, which leaves the bottom cloth with edges turned up between the curd and hoop, preventing the escape of the curd during pressure. A circular cap of cloth is put on the top when the follower is adjusted and the cheese goes to press. By this device the use of large pressing-cloths is avoided, while a nice surface is secured to the cheese, making a considerable saving, not only in expense for cloth, but in labor of washing, &c. Practical Dairy Husbandry. 421 THE BANDAGING MACHINE. This is another convenient arrangement by which a cheese can be very expeditiously bandaged. It consists simply of a circular-topped stool (see Figure 83) fo'r placing the cheese upon as it comes from the press. The top of the stool is about the same diameter as that of the cheese to be bandaged. A strip of tin is bent into a circle, so that it may be made to inclose the cheese. The ends are not joined together (see Figure 84), so that it may be contracted or expanded. It is provided with handles. Now, when the cheese is to be bandaged, it is placed upon the stool, the circular tin contracted so as to readily receive the bandage, when it is allowed to expand, and is then forced down over the cheese and over the stool, or so far as is necessary to make a lap of bandage for the under side of the cheese. FlQDIiE 83. FlQUBE 84. Then the tin is withdrawn, leaving the bandage nicely in place. The work is very rapidly effected, without trouble or tearing the bandage; and a closer and better fit may be made than where the bandage is drawn on by hand, as in the old way. THE MILK TESTER. In testing of milk, from time to time, the common lactometer, or set of glass tubes graduated, is used. But instead of marking the name of the patron back of each tube to designate it, as is usual at many factories, figures (see Figure 85) are used, which refer to corresponding names kept in a private book. Thus the tests may be conducted without arousing suspi- cion or causing unpleasant feeling among the patrons on account of subjecting the milk to a test. Tliis plan seems to be altogether preferable to the use of names directly on the apparatus, since all unpleasant remarks concerning certain specimens of milk by those going through the factory are avoided, as the names corresponding with the numbers are known only to the factory manager, and can be kept secret by him. We give an illustration herewith 422 Practical Dairy Eusbandbt. of the glass tubes set in a frame, and each with its appropriate number on the board at the back part of the frame. THE "young AMEEICAlir" CHEESE. Small cheeses of the " Young America " style have been manufactured at this factory, and sales for such have averaged considerably more than for large cheese. These cheeses are pressed in hoops seven inches in diameter, and the cheeses made from six to seven inches high. Several are pressed together under one screw — in some cases as many as sixteen. They are set together, the followers adjusted, and a thick, wide plank put upon the blocking, so that the whole may be pressed evenly and alike. In boxing these cheeses for market, twenty-one and a-half inch boxes are used, and seven cheeses put in a box. One cheese stands in the center of the box, and the others are arranged about it, and they thus fill the box, so that they may be safely sent to market, without moving about or marring. We were much pleased with several other features at this factory, but wliich we have no space now to describe. FlSTIBE 85. OK FACTOKT BTJILDINGS AND MXTUKBS. The following from the pen of Dr. L. L. Wight, who has had large expe- rience in the management of factories, will appropriately close this branch of our work : " The first thing to be considered in selecting a site for building, after having secured a suflicient number of cows, is a plentiful supply of cold, running water. The quantity should not be less than sufficient to fill a two- inch pipe, for the milk of every five hundred cows. The temperature of this water should not rise above sixty degrees in the warmest weather of summer. Instead of erecting the buildings over some low, marshy, swampy ground, where water, slop and whey will settle and stagnate and infect the superin- cumbent air, as is too often the case, by all means select some dry, hard, airy location, a little descending to the rear, and with a continuous descent from Practical Dairy Husbandry. 423 the building, to insure the escape of all decomposing liquids to a safe distance. The size of the main building should be thirty-two feet wide, two stories high, of eight feet each in the clear, and the length will depend upon the amount of milk anticipated. A building seventy-five feet long will accommo- date the milk from five or six hundred cows. Let the piers be made very substantial, extending to a depth beyond the possibility of frost, and not be over about ten feet apart in either direction. The main timbers, being ten by twelve inches square, support three by ten inch joists, not set in gains but resting on the cross-sills. The joists must be sound and set not over sixteen inches apart, being well bi'idged. The flooring of the manufactory, made of well-matched, sound yellow pine-plank, inclines three inches from the front, to a substantial box-drain made in the floor, four feet from the rear. The floor also inclines slightly from.the rear to said drain. The drain drops from each end of the manufactory to the center, where it enters another box which conveys all slop, whey, etc., to a safe distance from the building. The entire outside is covered with well-seasoned, matched, sound pine-siding. The entire sides and ends of the manufacturing part, inside, are ceiled with pine. The ceiling is well plastered. The curing-rooms have floors laid with good, sound, seasoned spruce flooring. The sides are double-plastered, so as to make two fixed air spaces. The ceilings are also all well plastered. There need be no posts to support the floor. The second floor is supported by iron rods suspended from bridges in the attic. The entire building is well lighted by double-sash windows, which are supplied with good rotary outside blinds..- Thorough ventilation of the curing-room is secured by the building being elevated so far above the ground as, to admit of an abundance of air; and the insertion of large registers in each bent, under every counter in the first ancl second floors, and by good ventilators through the attic floor and roof. By careful attention to these registers, and keeping the blinds closed in hot and sunny days, the temperature can usually be kept at a sufficiently low degree, even in the warmest weather. An ice chamber in the attic, so arranged as to register the cold, moist air into the curing-rooms below, would likely at times be beneficial. The curing-rooms are supplied with counters twenty-four inches high and three feet wide ; each table being made of two seventeen-inch wide pine plank, with a two inch space between them. Matched boards under cheese are objectionable, from the greater difficulty of cleansing and the danger of skippers infesting the cracks. It is better to have the counters two feet distant from each other for the convenience of the laborers, cheese-buyers and visitors. The manufacturing-rooija will be sepa- rated from the curing-room below by a tight double partition, with a large sliding door in the center, between the two lines of presses. The length of the manufacturing and pressing-room, in a building of the size above men- tioned, would be thirty-five or forty feet. The boiler-room, and wood or coal-room will be erected at the end and adjoining the manufactory, having easy entrance thereto. A building about thirteen feet square should be 424 Practical Dairy Husbandry. attached to the front of the manufactory, containing a drive-way and a receiving-platform. The platform will be closed toward the drive-way, except a slide window to receive the milk through, and be open toward the vats. The center of this building will correspond to the center of the vats, so that the receiving-can may stand equi-distant from each outside vat. The ground of the drive-way is four and one-half feet below the top of the weigh- ingfcan. The receiving-platform is about one foot higher than the top of the milk-vats. This building is supplied with means to hoist the cans of milk, either by a crane-derrick, or, what is preferable, a hoisting wheel. Permit no faucets in the transporting cans, as they cause the milk to taint when not cleansed thoroughly, and are liable to be neglected. The wooden vats being about fifteen feet in length, it gives three feet between the receiving-platform and the end of the vats ; two feet between the vats and the curd-sink ; two feet between the curd-sink and the presses, and two feet between the presses and the rear of the building. The vats are separated two feet from each other, and three feet from the end of the building. The wooden vats almost invariably leak, and I think it would be better to have them lined with sheet- lead. The tin vats should be made of the largest sheets of tin, of the best quality, and be soldered together very smoothly. The wooden vat should rest upon a frame-work extending the one-half length of the vat, and not coming to the edge or upper end within four inches. The wooden vats should not be incumbered with legs extending to the floor, to be in the way of the feet. The most convenient way of raising and lowering the foot of the vat is by means of a standard, spring and catch, attached to the floor and the lower end of the vat. The space, between the last vat and the curing- room will accommodate two tiers of presses, and give sufficient room for storing salt, for rennet and annatto jars, for hanging siphons, conductors, pails and knives ; for washing-sink, hot and cold water barrels, etc. Supply each milk vat with a water pipe of at least three-quarters of an inch bore. The water, after having circulated around and cooled the milk, will be conducted to a water-wheel and furnish the power to move the milk agitator, of which Austin's patent is recommended. If the factory is to receive the milk of five hundred cows or over, get a steam engine of not less than two horse- power, the boiler being not less than a six horse-power. It requires the expenditure of a large quantity of steam to warm the milk, and you want to be sure of it just when you need it ; and'the engine will enable you to pump ■water into the boiler, to grind your curds, to churn, if you wish, to saw your wood, or perform what other service soever you may desire. If you have a less number of cows than above indicated, a patent heater manufactured by Charles Millar & Son of TJtioa, will heat the milk gradually and very perfectly, and gives general satisfaction. If you do not grind your curds you will need two curd-sinks, so as to give greater facility for cooling the curds before putting to press. Your milk conductors will be. large, stout, and open at the top to insure easy cleansing. Procure a good curd-mill to be used at Practical Dairy Husbandry. 425 least in hot weather. You want one gang knife of thirty blades, with one- fourth inch spaces, and one horizontal curd knife. If you use a steam boiler use the steam dry, after the method patented by Mr. Schekmeehorn. Alto- gether the best method of warming the curing-room is by steam from the boiler. This gives a more equable temperature, and a moister, purer atmos- phere. The next best mode of heating is by a furnace, well supplied with water for evaporation. Wood or coal stoves do not suiBciently equalize the temperature. Having an ice chamber in the attic, you can perform the double operation of cooling and moistening the rooms at anytime. Curd- rakes, to keep the curd from packing, are nearly as indispensable as curd- knives. The patent horizontal press, pressing a number of cheeses at once, with one screw, will come into general use when the patentee has learned to obviate the difficulty of making an indentation or crease in each cheese, which harms their appearance, and supplies an excellent place for the generation of skippers in fly time. The followers must fit the hoops very nearly, or if not, the use of the rubber ring is necessitated. The use of this will hinder the curd from passing up between tlie hoop and the follower. In very hot weather, however, the acid in the whey soon decomposes the rubber and necessitates new purchases. No press cloths are needed. The rings and staples in the followers you buy are worthless, and should be replaced by your blacksmith, before attempting to use them. Turning covers are not wanted, even if the patentee will pay you for using them. Fairbanks' scales are the most reliable and give the best satisfaction. In weighing cheese for market, use a suitable sized counter-scale, which you can slip along readily on the counter, as you weigh each cheese, before being boxed. Give good ' up-weight in this manner, and' there need be no trouble of having short weights returned upon you. Fine cap cloths give the smoothest rind. A convenient door will be made in each end of the second story, and in the end of the curing-room below, through which the cheeses may pass to the wagons on shipping. The boxes may very readily be slid from the second story to the wagons on properly constructed skids." CHEESE MANUFACTURE. THE EITGLISH STANDAKD AS TO THE PLAVOE 01' CHEESE. Milk varies in character from various causes, but chiefly in the butter and milk-sugar, the caseine showing but slight variations. Now the great art sought by the cheese dairymen' is in extracting two of the above constituents of the milk — caseine and butter — and combining them with the water in such proportions as to make a palatable article to suit a certain arbitrary taste. I say arbitrary, because taste is educated, and different nations have different standards as to what is palatable. When I was in Switzerland I saw gentlemen, apparently of the highest respectability, eating cheese of a most intensely disagi-eeable odor. They ate this cheese with a relish, and pronounced it excellent, while, to my taste, it had all the peculiarities of badly tainted food, the very odor of which was nauseating. Some of the Germans also like a strong and rancid cheese. The English taste, both for butter and cheese, has changed materially during the last half century. What is now' required in cheese is a mild, clean flavor, with a certain mellowness of texture, readily dissolving under the tongue, and leaving a nutty, new milk taste in the mouth. The English demand a cheese of solid texture — that is, free from porosity — ^because a porous cheese usually indicates an imperfect separation of the whey, or undue fermentation. Such cheese often has a sweetish taste, which is owing to the, excess of the sugar of milk in the whey, and they invariably turn with a bad flavor. The market value of cheese does not depend entirely on the amount of butter which it contains. In an address before the American Dairymen's Association a few years ago, I broached and discussed this point. It was new doctrine, which the dairy public, and especially dealers, were not then prepared to admit. The experiments at factories, since that time, have proved the assump- tion, and shown that cheese made from milk partially skimmed was not even suspected by the dealer at home, and was pronounced first quality in the English market. The fact has also been established by Dr. Voelckbe, in the analyses of different samples of cheese ; the common or ordinary Amer- ican, he finds richer in butter than the best English Cheddar, which is the highest grade of cheese known to English taste. It may not be out of place, Practical Dairy Husbandry. 427 in this connection, to give Dr. Voelckee's language. He says : — " One of the chief tests of the skill of the dairymaid is the production of a rich tasting and looking, fine flavored and mellow cheese, from milk not particularly rich in cream. That this can be done, is abundantly proved by the practice of good makers. One of the finest Cheddars I ever examined was made by Mr. Joseph Haedustg of Marksbury, Somersetshire, and analyzed by me when six months old. Like all good cheese, it of course contained a large amount of butter, though, as I found by expei'iment, not nearly so large an amount as its appearance, rich taste, and fine, mature condition seemed to imply. Though only six months -old, it had a much more mature appearance than a Cheddar cheese which was at least eleven months old when analyzed, and, thanks to Mr. Harding's skill and experience, had a far much fatter and more mellow appearance and richer taste, than a specimen which actually contained two and a-half per cent, more butter." " In the opinion of good judges," he goes on to remark " this Cheddar cheese, notwithstanding the larger amount of butter and smaller amount of water it contained, was worth a penny a pound less than the specimen made by Mr. Haedistg." MELLOW APPEAEAJSrCE. " The peculiar mellow appearance of good cheese, though due to some extent to the butter it contains, depends, in a higher degree, upon a gradual transformation, which caseine or curd undergoes in ripening. Now, if this I'ipening process is badly conducted, or the original character of the curd is such that it adapts itself but slowly to the transformation, the cheese, when sold, will be comparatively tough, and appear less rich in butter than it really is, while in a well made and properly kept cheese, this series of changes will be rapidly and thoroughly effected." PEOPEE EIPENING. " Proper ripening, then, imparts to cheese a rich appearance, and unites with the butter in giving it that most desirable property of melting in the mouth. On examining some cheeses deficient in this melting, property, and accordingly pronounced by practical judges defective in butter, I neverthe- less found in them a very high percentage of that substance, clear proof that the mellow and rich taste is not owing entirely, or indeed is chiefly due, to the fatty matter which it contains." I do not introduce this topic for the purpose of advising manufacturers to skim the milk for cheese-making, but rather as a suggestion that no effort should be spared in acquiring that skill in manufecturing which is able to bring about desirable results, and to show that, even with the best material, a cheese unskillfully made may be tough, poor and unpalatable. THE PEOPOETION OF MOISTUEE IK CHEESE. Now, it may not be uninteresting to know what are the component parts of what is considered the highest grade of cheese in the English market, such 428 Practical Dairy Husbandry. as we are attempting to furnish. It at least gives us some general idea of the proportion of water, caseine and butter which has effected the highest results. The analysis of Mr. Hakdin&'s cheese gives the following in the one hundred parts : Water 33.93 Butler 33.15 Caseine. 38. 13 Milk sugar, lactic acid and extractive matter 00 96 Mineral matter , 3.85 Total •. 100.00 The 28.12 parts of caseine contain 21.50 parts of nitrogen, and of the 3.85 parts mineral matter, 1.15 was common salt. It will be seen, then, that good cheese, properly cured, has about thirty-four per cent, of water, and less than one per cent, of milk-sugar, lactic acid, &c. From the analyses which I have seen of different samples of the best English and American cheese, when ripe, it appears that the proportion of water should not be above thirty-four per cent. Any considerable increase above this almost invariably indicates bad flavor. There is no doubt, a due proportion of the water in cheese imparts to it a smooth and apparently rich texture, and it is to this point manufacturers should direct their attention. "When too much water is taken out of the curd, we have a dry, stiff cheese, the transformation of the caseine or curd being imperfect, and the cheese appears less rich than it really is. Any system of cheese-making, then, by which we may be able to judge the most accurately as to the amount of water to be retained in the curds, will be the most successful, other things being equal. SALTY TASTE. In regard to the saline taste sometimes complained of in old cheese, otherwise rich and good. Dr. Voelckee attributes it to ammoniacal salts, developed during the ripening process. He says : — " During the ripening of the cheese, a J)ortion of the caseine or curd suffers decomposition, and is partially changed into ammonia ; the latter, however, does not escape, but combines with several fatty acids, formed in the course of time from the butter. Peculiar ammoniacal salts are thus produced, and these, like most other salts of ammonia, have a pungent, saline taste. The longer cheese is kept within reasonable limits, the riper it gets, and as it ripens, the propor- tion of ammoniacal salts, with this pungent, saline taste, increases. It can be readily shown that old cheese contains a good deal of ammonia, in the shape of ammoniacal salts. All that is necessary is to pound a piece with quick lime, when, on the addition of a little water, a strong smell of spirits of hartshorn will be developed. In well kept, sound old cheese, the ammonia is not free, but exists in the form of salts, whose base is ammonia, in combi- nation with butyric, caprinic, caprylic and other acids, generated under Practical Dairy Husbandry. 429 favorable circumstances by the fats of -which butter consists. Ripe cheese, even if very old, but sound, instead of containing free ammonia, always exhibits a decidedly acid reaction, when tested with blue litmus paper. Rotten cheese, on the other hand, is generally alkaline in its reaction, and contains free ammonia." KBEPING- QUALITIES. I have alluded to some of the characteristics demanded in them, to suit the English taste. There is another requisite, which trade and our own interest imperatively demand : it is the production of cheese that is slow of deoay^— that will sustain its good qualities a long time ; one that can be kept, either at home upon the factory shelves, or in the hands of purchasers, with- out fear of deterioration or loss. English shippers and dealers have always complained of the early decay of American cheese, and the fear of loss from this source has had great influence upon the market. When considerable stocks have been accumulated, the dealer has been over-anxious to get rid of them, and has pushed them, at low prices, upon the market, on the assumption that the loss from deterioration, by holding, would more than cover any prospective advance in price. Factories, too, have often pushed forward their goods on this account. It is true there has been great improve- ment, during the last few years, in the keeping qualities of our cheese, but there is room for more improvement, and no factory should make a pound of cheese that cannot be kept, without deterioration, at least several months. It would seem to be evident that the exceedingly fine aroma which obtains in the best samples of Stilton, Cheddar and. Cheshire cheese, is secured, at least in part, by manufacturing perfectly pure milk, in good condition, at low temperature. THE CHIEF CHAEACTEEISTICS OF STILTON are a peculiar delicacy of flavor, a delicious mellowness, and a great aptness to acquire a species of artificial decay, without which, to the somewhat vitiated taste of the lovers of Stilton cheese, as now eaten, it is not consid- ered of prime account. To be in good order, according to the present standard, it must be decayed, blue and moist. Considerable quantities of Stilton, however, are sold in London free from mold, and good samples have a peculiarly delicate flavor and delicious mellowness, preserving theSe quali- ties for one or two years. Now the Stilton is set at a low temperature — about 78° — and after coagulation is perfected it is cut in blocks, and a short time afterwards it is lifted out carefully into a willow basket to drain, and then put into a small hoop and turned frequently, receiving no pressure except from its own weight. I do not propose to go into details of Stilton manufacture in this place since it is not adapted to our factory system : but I introduce the main feature to show in part the philosophy of cheese-making. Here, in this most delicious of all cheeses, in which there is an extra amount of cream, a 430 Practical Dairy Husbandry. Tery low temperature is employed, with scarcely any manipulation. The manipulations are not hastened, but the cheese is left, so to speak, to do its own work. The Stilton cheeses are thick hut small, only weighing from six to eight pounds. Of course we could not make our large cheese in this way, as the whey would not readily separate and pass oif. But it is a remarkable fact that these cheeses are capable of retaining a delicate flavor for a long time. In all the finest English cheeses coming under my observation the temperature for setting the milk ranged at about 78° to 82°, never above 84°- It is undoubtedly a fact that if coagulation takes place when the milk is too warm it becomes too adhesive, and the oily parts of the milk, being kept in solution, escape with the whey. THE AMEEICAN AND CHEDDAE PEOCESSES COMPAEED. The American process of manufacturing cheese, as now commonly prac- ticed, difiers but little from the improved Cheddar process of England. The night's and morning's mess of milk mingled together are taken to make the cheese. One great feature in the Cheddar process is to understand pretty accurately the condition of the milk in regard to its approximate acidity at the time of commencing the operation of manufacturing. They prefer there- fore to have the milk in a condition to use sour whey at the time of adding the rennet. When a large number of persons are delivering milk as at our factories, it is impossible to judge so well how far the milk has progressed toward sensible acidity, as in a single dairy where the milk is under the eye of the manufacturer from first to last. In the Cheddar practice the milk is set at a temperature of about 79° to 82°, receiving sour whey with the rennet according to the condition of the milk. A quantity of rennet is added sufficient to coagulate the mass in from forty to sixty minutes. When firm enough to break, the curd is cut across in checks. After it has stood from fifteen to twenty minutes for the whey to form, and the curd, to acquire a firm consistency, the Cheddar dairymen com- mence breaking with a shovel breaker, which is similar in construction to our factoiy agitator. The curd is handled very carefully until the whole is minutely broken, and they insist that this part of the process shall be done without any additional heat. After breaking, heat is applied, and the tem- perature gradually raised to 98° or 100°, according to circumstances of weather, etc., the mass meanwhile being carefully stirred. It is then left at rest and only occasionally stirred, until a scarcely perceptible change toward acidity is indicated in the whey ; the whey is then immediately drawn and the curd heaped up in the vat to drain and develop the required acidity gradually. It remains in this condition for half an hour or more, the whey meanwhile flowing slowly from the heap, when it is taken out and placed in the sink or cooler. It is then split by the hand into thin flakes and spread out to cool. The curd at this stage has a distinctly acid smell, and is slightly sour to the taste. Practical Dairy Husbandry. 431 It is left here to cool for fifteen minutes, when it is turned over and left for the same length of time, or until it has the peculiar mellow or flakey feel desired. It is then gathered up and put to press for ten minutes, when it is taken out, ground in the curd-mill and salted at the rate of two pounds of salt to one hundred and twelve pounds of curd. It then goes to press and is kept under pressure two or three days. The curd when it goes to press has a temperature of 60 " to 65 °, and when in the sink it is preferred not to go below this point. A proper temperature is retained in the curd during the various parts of the process, during cool weather by throwing over it a thick cloth. Much of our factory cheese has been injured by being put to press at too high a temperature. The thermometer should always be used to determine the condition of the curd when put to press ; and there is no doubt but that the Cheddar dairymen have hit upon the proper temperature. Mr. Haedhstg, the great exponent of this system in England, told me he had made a great many experiments in this direction, and that a higher tem- perature than 7.5 ° when put to press was almost always attended with loss of flavor, undue fermentation, and, as a consequence, greater or less porosity. He claimed that the 'curd could not be properly broken at 90 ° or above, and that a better separation of the whey and condition of the curd was effected by breaking at 75° to 80°. What we are to learn by the Cheddar process, is not so much following out blindly all details, but seizing upon a few leading principles of the process and adapting them to our use. These principles jnay be briefly summed up as follows: 1st. Studying the condition of the milk. 2d. Setting at a tem- perature from 78° to 82°. 3d. Drawing the whey early. 4th. Exposing the curd longer to the atmosphere and allowing it to perfect its acidity after the whey is drawn. 6th. Putting in press before salting at a temperature of 60° to 70°. 6th. Grinding in a curd-mill and then salting. These last two items are important, because you cannot rfegulate the salt accurately by guess, and can only get the right proportion by uniformity in the condition of the curd. The application of salt, too, at a higher temperature than 75° is claimed to be prejudicial. I am firmly of the opinion, not only from my observations abroad, but from my own experiments, that the exposure of the curd in small particles to the air is beneficial, and helps to secure a good flavor and mellowness of texture. When curds are exposed to the atmosphere the external parts become rapidly oxydized, which is seen by their heightened color. * ' FLOATING CUEDS. One of the troubles which cheese-makers have to contend with is a float- ing curd. It means tainted milk, putrefaction, fermentation, a most disagree- able customer, and one which no manufacturer cares to meet. There are various, ways of treating floating curds, but the main points to be observed are, drawing the whey early, developing an acid, exposure of the curd to the 432 Pbactical Dairy Husbandbt. atmosphere a long time, and grinding in a curd-mill. One experienced cheese-maker writes me as follows : " One morning in July last I noticed a peculiar odor in the milk which was delivered at the factory. I pronounced it tainted. The weather was warm and the milk from some of the dairies was quite near enough sour, heing so far advanced as to require rather rapid handling, faster than would be profitable with milk in the proper condition. I exposed it to the air by stirring it and dipping it, until ready to add the coloring and rennet, which was done at a heat of 82°. " The curd did not seem to act right while cooking ; it would not come down so as to present to the maker that feeling and appearance which indicate a good cheese. The curd came to the surface of the whey while it was cooking. The odor was so disagreeable that one of our hands could not bear to work over it. One individual who was present insisted that the curd was sour and the whey sweet. I could not see it so. I held it in the whey as long as I thought advisable, which I assure you was not any longer than was necessary to cook it fairly ; for I did not think the whey was improving it any. The heat must have been nearly to 100°, when I ran it into the curd sink, for I had been keeping up the heat hoping to cook it sufficiently. We stirred it a long while in the sink, opening the windows and doors of the woi'k-room, in order to give it all the air possible. I salted it in the proportion of three pounds of salt to one thousand pounds of milk, and put it to jiress. After press- ing for perhaps an hour, turned and bandaged them, then pressed again, until the next morning, when they were placed upon the shelves in the drying-room.' " I saw by the next day that they were inclined to give me trouble. They commenced rising en masse, like a loaf of bread. They did not leak whey, but there seemed to be a sort of internal working, and when pressed upon with the hand would emit a hissing sort of noise. I determined to experi- ment. I cut one into slices and ground it up in the curd-mill. The odor that had been present in the vat had not all left. I warmed a pailful of whey of the day before to 100° and poured it upon the curd. I kept the whey upon the curd but a short time, just long enough to warm it, say five minutes. I then added as much salt as I thought the whey had taken out, then pressed, turned and bandaged as before. When placed upon the shelf the next day it felt firm and had every appearance of lying quiet. I treated the other three in the same manner and with a similar result. We kept those cheeses until about foi^y days' old. They never raised in the least again. I called the attention of several buyers and professed judges of cheese to them and they without an exception, pronounced them ' all right.' They were firm never showing a pore when tried ; still, they were not over hard. The odor had so much left them that our buyers were unable to detect it. Perhaps upon other occasions the same process may not prove as satisfactory as upon this. Be that as it may, I feel confident that I saved four cheeses, which promised to be a total loss." Practical Dairy Husbandry. 433 He adds, " That when the cheeses were cut open for grinding, they were very porous, presenting the appearance of a loaf of bread, which if possible, had been over-risen." ME. lEOlSrs' PEOCESS. Mr. Irons, a young Englishman, whom Mr. Harding of England sent to me in the spring of 1868, and who has been managing some factories at the West since that time, says he has tried various modes of treating floating curds, and finds by the following process that he is able to make from such curds a cheese of good texture and taste. When the appearance of the whey shows numerous air bubbles floating in, or forming by the slightest agitation of the finger, and also a kind of greasy feeling of the curd, all of which are indications of an unusual fermen- tation, proceed with the process as at other times, only working a little slower. The temperature should not be raised above 100°. If you are in the habit of making coarse curds, then on this occasion they should be worked a little finer with the agitator. When the mass has been raised to the desired temperature the stirring should be continued for about half an hour. Then leave it to rest for a short time, or with only an occasional stirring. When you see the curds beginning to float upon the whey let them all come up, and then immediately draw the whey. The whey having been removed pack the curd in large heaps at the bottom of the vat, with a space down the middle for the whey to drain ofi", and which should be removed as fast as it gathers. When the curd has lain in this shape for about fifteen minutes, or until strong enough to bear turning, the heaps should be turned bottom side up, and, if possible, without breaking the curd. Now, let it lie, till the acid is properly developed, which will be indicated by the odor when opening one of the heaps in the center, and it will have a kind of flaky appearance, or as some have it, a kind of grain. Then break the heaps into three or four pieces, and spread over the bottom of the vat to cool gradually. When the pieces have laid thus for about fifteen or twenty minutes take them out of the vat, put them in the sink and break them into small pieces, and stir so as to cool. When the temperature has been reduced to about 70° to 75°, grind in a curd-mill and salt at the rate of two and a-half pounds salt to one thousand (1,000) pounds of milk. It would be better to put the mass to press for about ten minutes before grinding, but when there is a large mass of curd, and time is wanting, the course above may be a:dopted. Mr. Irons says he has under this treatment of floating curds, made them into good cheese, so good, indeed, tliat experienced cheese-dealers have not objected to their flavor, or even suspected that there had been any trouble with the curds more than ordinarily. The cheese, he adds, is of very solid texture, and no difficulty is had in curing, except the liability to check a little if care is not taken. Mr. Moon, manager of the North Fairfield Factory, gives the following 28 434 Practical Dairy Husbandrt. as his method of treating tainted milk and floating curds : — First, thorough stirring and cooling of the milk at night. In the morning do not begin to heat the milk until ready to heat rapidly, and then heat as quickly as possible, stirring the milk the while. Add an extra amount of rennet that the coagu- lation may be quite firm, cut and manipulate with unusual caution ; keep the whey drawn ofi" as close as possible ; heat gradually but continually until the temperature of about 98° is attained, then, when sufficiently cooked, dip to the sink and wait for the developemcnt of the lactic acid, in more than the usual quantity ; salt and allow to stand exposed to the air from one to three hours, according as the milk was bad or very bad. " Frequently," he says, " the acid will be developed enough when dipped to the sink ; in that case salt as soon as drained ; stir the curd before and after salting, in order that it may not pack in the sink. Having been exposed to the air for the proper length of time, put to press ; in the morning remove the hoop, and perforate the cheese in several places with a small wire, in order to allow any gas to escape that may have been generated in the cheese during the night. Put to press again, and if possible, allow, to press twenty-four hours longer, remove to the dry-house and treat like other cheese." Mr. Alexander McAdam, of the Smith Creek Factory, N. Y., who has been very successful as a manufacturer of "fancy cheese," and whose cheese is well-known in the markets on account of its superior quality, writes me in a recent letter as follows : CAUSE OP FLOATING CURDS. " The immediate cause of floating curds is the presence in each particle or cube of an extraordinary number of the spores of a species of fungus, which generate a gas in the middle of each cube of curd at the time when the curd is in the whey at a temperature of from 80° to 96°, when each cube of curd is expanded by this gas so much as to become lighter than its bulk of whey — there occurs a floating curd. " The reason why those spores are in so great abundance at times as to cause floating curds are two, viz. : First, diseased or fevered state of the cow before the milk is drawn from her. Second, improper handling of the milk afler being drawn from the cow. In regard to the first reason, there are a great many cows slightly diseased or fevered, a few of the causes of which, are cows drinking stagnant, putrid or filthy water ; the eating of vegetation growing on ground saturated with such water ; cows inhaling the odor arising from rapidly decomposing matter ; cows in heat, or having been driven rapidly from the pasture ; or any state of the cow which causes the milk to be at a higher temperature than blood heat (98°) when drawn from her, which in a great many instances is the case, and it has been known to be as high as 105° when milked. Such milk, when it has been coagulated and heated, is almost certain to produce floating curds. " In the second place, when the milk has been improperly handled after Practical Dairy Husbandry. 435 being drawn from the cow. This is the case when any filth, cow manure, or other impurity drops into the milk during milking, or in its transit from the farm to the cheese factory, and which can never afterwards be wholly removed from it bypassing it even through the finest strainer; or when the milk has come into contact with any utensils or strainers which have not been thoroughly cleansed ; or when the milk has not been thoroughly ventilated before being shut up in almost air-tight vessels. These are some of the most frequent causes of floating curds. PREVENTION OP FLOATING CUEDS. " To prevent floating curds, the milk intended to be manufactured into cheese ought to be milked from cows that have access at all times to pure running water, and have no access at all to stagnant, filthy water, as cows will often prefer such filthy water to clean water (for reasons unknown). Every one of the cows of a dairy ought to be in perfect health, as one dis- eased cow's milk will taint the milk from the whole dairy. Dairy cows ought not to have access to weeds of any description, and ought to have plenty of shade trees in their pasture in warm weather, and when driven to and from their pastures they ought not to be urged faster than a slow walk, and before being milked they ought to be allowed to stand one hour in cool, airy stables at a distance from manure heaps or any decomposing matter. " After standing an hour the cows ought to be milked with the most scru- pulous cleanliness, and the milk sti-ained. It must tlien be immediately venti- lated by exposure to the atmosphere to allow the animal odor to escape, and cooled. But cooling without ventilation is almost useless, or as some assert, worse than useless. The milk being cooled and ventilated, it can then be moved to the factory, and will arrive there in good condition. All the uten- sils with which the milk comes in contact ought to be thoi-oughly cleaned with warm water, soap and a brush, and afterwards scalded with boiling water or steam. All these particulars being attended to ther« will be no danger of floating curds. THE EEMBDY FOE FLOATING CUEDS. "When the milk which has to be manufactured into cheese emits the offensive odors which usually come from tainted milk, it is reasonably certain the curd after coagulation will either float or require the same treatment as if it did float. In such a case enough of rennet must be added so as to cause coagulation in thirty minutes or less. Then, after the curd is sufficiently cut, the mass of curd and whey must be heated quickly to a temperature of 96°, and so allowed to remain until acid is slightly perceptible to the smell or taste, the whey must then be separated from the curd, and the curd allowed to take on considerable more acid. The exact pitch to which the acid should be raised at this time can only be learned by experience ; when this has been attained the curd should be then ground and salted according to the Cheddar process, which is becoming too common to need explanation. After the curd 436 Practical Dairy Husbandry. is salted it should be thoroughly ventilated by repeated stirring and turning over before being put to press. The amount of salt to be used should be the same as when the curd is perfect. The reason that more rennet is required for floating curd is because such curd has to be made sooner than usual, and would take longer to cure if only the same amount of rennet was used. And the reason it is heated quickly is to induce the acid to develop sooner. " A strictly fine-flavoi-ed or good-keeping cheese can not be made from floating curds, but still when properly handled a very fair, merchantable article can be obtained, the only fault being insipidity and lack of the fine nutty aroma so highly prized by the dealers in and consumers of all kinds of high-priced cheese. The reason that this aroma is lost in floating curds is because so much acid has to be introduced into the curd to kill the taint or bad smell. Now, this acid also destroys the finest of the aroma, which is the most volatile and easily destroyed in either butter or cheese." TBEATMENT OF TLOATING CURDS. In the treatment of floating curds, a mill for grinding the curds renders very important aid. By grinding, the particles of curd are more minutely broken than it is easy to do by hand, and the breaking liberates not only the gases, but, by a free exposure of the particles to the air, the offensive odor passes off, and fermentation is checked. In some cases, even after the cheeses have been removed from the press to the curing room, and then begun to huff and behave badly, by cutting them up and passing through a curd mill, warming with whey at a temperature of 98°, and then draining, salting and pressing, no further trouble has been given, the cheese turning out of fair quality. As more or less trouble is had every year from tainted milk and floating curds, suggestions as to their management will be of important aid to the cheese manufacturer. MANUFACTURING PROM SMALL QUANTITIES OF MILK. Where only one vat is used, I should always prefer the portable vat, with heater attached. It is quite as convenient, and much less expensive, not only in the original outlay, but in the cost of running, than the steam boiler and vat separated, like those in use in many of the New York factories. In a small factory, where there is no probability of running more than two vats, and where part of the time only one is used, I should still prefer the " porta- ble" or "self-heater," as less expensive, while, as to the management of heat, some of these self-heating vats are as perfect as anything yet brought out. So far. as the manufacture of cheese is concerned there is nothing better than to heat with hpt water, if the arrangements are such as to be convenient, and the heat under control. The advantages of a steam boiler are, that the boiler is in a separate room by itself, and all litter, dirt, smoke, &c., are con- fined to that apartment, and do not get " mixed up " in the milk room, while the heat is applied simply by turning a faucet in the conducting pipe. Then again, the heat can be turned off in a moment. On these accounts many old Practical Dairy Husbandry. 437 faotorymen prefer steam boilers to the " self-heaters." The Ralph, the Millar and the Buekell heaters are good, so far as their arrangements for heating and manufacturing are concerned. They take but very little fuel. SOUR WHEY. The use of sour whey in cheese-making must be regulated according to the condition of the milk. If the milk has made progress toward acidity, so that it will be properly developed at the close of the process of cheese- making, the sour whey is not needed. But in cool weather, when the milk has been brought down to a low temperature, an acid condition of the curds is not easily developed, at least during the ordinary time for conducting the process of cheese-making. Sour wheyi under such circumstances, is often used with great advantage. In the spring of the year, when the cows are " bet^'een hay and grass," it is sometimes quite difficult for the cheese-maker to turn off a nice quality of cheese. The curds are often run up too sweet, and the consequence is a soft, spongy product, containing a superabundance of whey which has not been properly separated, and could not be expelled while the cheese was in press. This could have been remedied by a proper application of sour whey. At cheese factories there is not usually that necessity for using sour whey as at farm dairies, because the milk, from cartage and other causes, has gen- erally progressed further toward acidity, when cheese-making commences, than it would had the milk been kept and made up at the farm dairy. But, though the necessity for using sour whey may not be so great at the factory as at the farm, there are times when it can be employed in factory manufac- ture to very great advantage. At the farm 'dairy, when the night's milk has been cooled down to 45°^ we should say that the sour whey could be used ; for, if all utensils have been kept scrupulously clean, the milk will be veiT' sweet, and will not readily develop the desired change in proper time, or during the time usually employed in the process of manufacture into cheese, unless so treated. Sour whey cannot be used at random, but in the hands of skillful cheese-makers it produces the very best results. COOLING THE morning's MESS OF MILK AT FARM DAIRIES. As to the question of removing the animal heat from the morning's milk for farm dairies, when the night's milk has been cooled, as described above, it is not usually considered important to do so. If the morning's milk is to be carted to the factory, there is no question but it should be thoroughly cooled before putting in the cans, or as soon as may be after being drawn from the cow. And I have no doubt, for private dairies, the milk for cheese- making, both morning and evening mess, is improved by being divested of animal heat. In the private dairy, however, it must be observed, the quantity of milk to be handled is comparatively small. The morning's milk 438 Practical Dairy HusBANDRr. is added by degrees, or only as fast as drawn from the cow, and is at least partly cooled by coming in contact with the night's milk. And, again, the vat being open so as to allow free exposure to the air, while the process of cheese-making is commenced at once, all would seem to indicate that a special cooling of the morning's milk might, perhaps, be dispensed with. If, however, convenient apparatus be had for cooling the morning's milk as soon as drawn from the cow, so that it could be readily done, without loss of time or causing much trouble, I should do so, since I am of the opinion a more delicately flavoi-ed cheese would result from cooling and aerating both the night's and morning's mess of milk. But without apparatus or conven- iences, it would not, perhaps, be advisable to spend much time and trouble in attempting to cool the morning's milk for farm dairies. COLOEING CHEESE. An attempt has been made, from time to time, to induce factories to abandon the use of coloring matter in cheese. The fact that annatto (the only coloring matter that should ever be used for this purpose) adds nothing to the flavor or nutrition of cheese, would seem to favor the discontinuance of a practice which is troublesome, attended with expense, and sometimes injurious on account of the adulterations of annatto with red lead and other poisonous compounds. Pure annatto is a harmless vegetable substance, pre- pared from the seeds of a tree {JBixa orellana), and when used in the ordi- nary way for coloring cheese is in no way injurious. Its employment for this purpose comes down to us from the mother country. I do not know when or by whom the practice was first inaugurated, but it is of ancient date, and its object must have been to deceive consumers, by giving them the idea that the cheese was made from a very rich quality of milk. And that impression now generally prevails among the uninitiated. So much has the imagination to do in controlling human action, that I have seen poor, skim-milk cheese highly colored, preferred and purchased instead of a rich, nice-flavored, pale cheese, both standing on the counter, and offered at the same price. Color, therefore, has an important influence with some people, and it is useless for the dairyman to " run his head " against this prejudice, unless he chooses to have his pockets depleted by lower sales. It is true, in some of the English markets, like Manchester, for instance, pale cheese is in favor, and finds a better price than the colored article ; but the London trade insists upon color, and as it is willing to pay for it, Amer- ican dairymen must for the present submit. Some people think that, by abandoning the use of annatto, we can correct the English prejudice for colored cheese, and thereby benefit all parties. It would be an absurd and futile effort on our part, and would simply give the English dairymen addi- tional advantage in their own markets ; for you cannot force people to pur- chase what they do not want, however excellent your argument may be against their prejudices. Practical Dairy Husbandry. 439 method op prepaeing basket annatto for use. Some of the methods employed by old and experienced dairymen for preparing annatto for coloring cheese are as follows : First Recipe. — Dissolve six pounds concentrated potash and one pound saltpeter in five gallons of warm water ; then add thirty gallons cold water, put in as much choice annatto as the liquid will dissolve, heat gently to a boil ; put into a cask, and store in a cool place. Second Mecipe. — Dissolve four pounds potash in one-half barrel of water ; put in as much pure annatto as the liquid will cut. The mixture need not be boiled. Third Recipe. — Take four pounds of best annatto, two pounds concen- trated potash, five ounces saltpeter, one and a-half pounds sal-soda, and five gallons boiling water. Put the ingredients into a tub, and pour on the boiling water. The annatto should be inclosed in a cloth, and, as it dissolves, squeeze it through the cloth into the liquid. About two ounces of this mixture is sufficient for one hundred pounds of curd in summer. EECIPE rOE PREPARING ANNATTO USED AT BKOCKETt's BRIDGE FACTORY. To eight pounds crude annatto, add three pounds Babbitt's concentrated potash ; place in a cask, pour on boiling water, and stir frequently until all is dissolved. Water is then added to make it sufiiciently diluted, so that a pint of the liquid will color four thousand pounds of milk. In coloring cheese, the best way is to fix upon the desired shade by trial (marking the quantity of liquid used), and after that is known the same proportion will give color that is uniform. annattoine. Preparations of liquid annatto have been made and sold from time to time, some of which, like the Nichols & English preparation, have acquired a high reputation. The foreign liquid annattoes, however, are expensive, and their high cost has operated very much against their use among the factories. Recently a new preparation of annatto has been brought out by G. De Cor- dova, under the name of annattoine, or dry extract of annatto. The coloring material, which lies wholly on the surface of the seeds, is separated and pre- pared by Cordova by an improvement on the La Blond and Vauquelin theories. The latter asserts that boiling injures the color, and as this has been clearly proven, Cordova reduces the precipitation to powder instead of boiling to a paste. In the spring of 1870,1 made tests with the annattoine in coloring both butter and cheese, and found that it gave a clear and beauti- ful shade, equal to any preparation that I had seen, but on dissolving or cutting the annattoine in the usual manner I found the liquor on standing was inclined to form a coagulum. Soon after this time Mr. D. H. Bueeell of Little Falls entered upon a series of experiments for the purpose of overcoming this diffi- culty. In this he has been entirely successful, and we now have a perfect color- 440 Practical Dairf Husbandry. ing material, free from any injurious adulterations, and a preparation which has given satisfaction to both factories and shippers. Indeed, some of the latter have expressed the opinion that cheese colored with this preparation retains flavor better and for longer periods than cheese colored with the common basket annatto. The annattoine is largely coming into use among the facto- ries, and is superseding all other preparations. Prof. Caldwell, who has made an analysis of the annattoine, certifies as to its purity or freedom from deleterious adulterations, and we are therefore enabled to obtain a reliable coloring material at moderate cost. Mr. Bukrell's recipe for cutting the annattoine is as follows : — ^Put two pounds of annattoine in four gallons of clear, cold water, and let it stand in this state one day, stirring thoroughly, meantime, so as to perfectly dissolve the annattoine. Then put two pounds strongest potash, and one pound sal-soda (carbonate of soda) in three gallons of cold water. When this is perfectly dissolved and settled, pour off the clear liquor, and mix the two preparations together. Let this compound stand two or three days, until the annattoine is cut or dissolved perfectly by the potash, stirring occasionally meantime. Use about a teacupful for a thousand pounds of milk. Do not mix with the rennet, but put it in a little milk and then mix in the mass of milk in the vats by stirring it in thoroughly, just before the rennet is used. If in a day or two after the preparation is made the annattoine does not seem to be perfectly cut, so that specks can be seen, it is certain that the potash was not strong enough. Adding more of a stronger solution of the potash will remedy the trouble. When annattoine is used for coloring butter a portion of the prepared liquor is added to the cream at the commencement of churning. It gives a very rich color, and may be used in winter-made butter, often with advantage. CUTTING THE CUKDS. The steel curd-knife now in general use was invented some dozen years ago or thereabouts, by a Herkimer county dairyman. The old-fashioned curd- knife was of wood, a single blade, and a rude affair. The curds were cut into large blocks, and all the subsequent breaking was done with the hands. This necessitated a good deal of labor, and unless the curds were very care- fully handled, there was a considerable loss of cheese. The first improvement in'*this class of implements originated also in Herkimer, and consisted of a triangular iron frame, strung with brass wire. It was made of different sizes to correspond with the cheese-tub, half its diameter in length, so that going round with the breaker in the operation, no section of the curds would be broken twice. This was a great improvement over the wooden knife and hand breaking ; but after a while it was found objectionable, as the tender curds were torn and mashed by the frame of the breaker, and by the points where the wires crossed each other in forming the cheeks. The next improvement was a breaker of tin, formed into checks, so as to Practical Dairy Husbandbv. 441 cut the curd into long square strips as the instrument was pushed down to the bottom of the vat. I made some experiments with the tin and wire breakers at an early day, and found there was a saving in product* by using the tin. When the gang of steel knives was invented for cutting the curds into perpendicular columns, further experiments were made, and a decided advantage in product was found to result from the use of sharp, cutting blades over the tin cutter, which did not divide the curd as smoothly as the polished steel blades. These experiments, extended over a considerable period and conducted with care, convinced me that the first breaking of the tender curds should be done with sharp cutting blades ; since not one cheese- maker in a hundred ^will use sufficient care in breaking with the hands to avoid the loss that can be saved by the use of the steel knives, to say nothing of the labor and time gained by the knives over hand breaking. If it be admitted that these sharp, polished steel blades are better for breaking the curds in their tender state than the hands, or indeed than any device that tears the mass into particles, that bruises them or presses out the oily portion, then the whole of the breaking should be done with knives. The use of horizontal knives is only of recent introduction among the factories of New York. The perpendicular blades referred to above left the curds in cubical columns, which were to be in some way broken up, and it was done either by the hands, by an agitator, or by other imperfect means. Some of the best English cheese-makers use what is called the shovel-breaker for working or breaking the curds after the first cutting. It is of heavy wire, something in general form like a shovel, and attached to a long handle. They claim that in using this the curd splits apart in grains naturally, and hence the shovel breaker, skillfully used, is the best implement for the pur- pose that has yet been invented. As, until quite recently, they knew nothing of the operations of the American knives, and as their product from a given quantity of milk is less than that turned off by skillful American manufac- turers, it is evident they are not competent, at present, to pass upon the merits of this improved American implement. In the best English methods of cheese-making, as well as in the best American processes, it is deemed important that the breaking should be done when the curds are young and before additional heat is applied. All cheese- makers agree that any rough handling of curds at this early stage must be attended with loss. But if we can have an implement or implements that will pass through the curds perpendicularly and horizontally, separating the mass into parts of the desired size, and doing the work without any undue agitation or bruising of the mass, a great desideratum, it would seem, is reached. The perpendicular and horizontal curd-knives when used in con- nection with each other do this most effectually. The horizontal knives cut the long, perpendicular blocks of curd into small pieces of uniform size, leaving the mass completely broken up. I experimented with the horizontal knives long before they were brought 442 Practical Dairy Husbandry. out or used in the dairies of New York. The knives were made expressly for my experiments by Mr. Otsten of Little Falls, who had proposed at the time to tkke out a patent upon them. He did not do so, and the principle suggested itself to others, and is now adopted at factories. In a recent conversation with Mr. Davis, who owns and operates a fac- tory in Herkimer, N. T., he stated that he found from experiments- that a considerable gain was effected in the quantity of cheese by the use of the horizontal knives, and that by their use also the quality of his cheese was o-reatly improved. Mr. Davis is a manufacturer of experience, and his cheese has a high reputation for excellence, bringing a high price in the markets. Others make similar statements. From what has been said it will be seen that in factories of any consider- able size, the horizontal knives, in connection with the others, save during the season a large amount of labor, while the work is better performed than by operating on the old plan, as every portion of the mass is divided in pieces of uniform size. The object of cutting or breaking the curds is to favor the expulsion of whey ; hence, when the mass is broken up into pieces all of the same size, the progress and condition of the curds from time to time are more uniform in all their parts ; and this is an important point which many cheese- makers overlook in their operations. The principle to be observed is to treat every portion of the curd alike,. bo far as possible, in all its manipula- tions, and then we get a product upon which fermentation during the curing process will go on evenly, and good flavor is more readily secured, than when the particles of the curd are unlike, or not in the same condition. USE OF HEAT IN CHEESE MAKING. The term " cooking the curd " in cheese making is a misnomer. It con- veys to the mind a wrong impression and leads many astray. To make cheese properly, neither the milk nor the curds should be " cooked." The more you approximate to the cooking process the more you injure the cheese. Animal bodies are not cooked at a temperature of blood heat. As a rule in cheese making, no part of the process requires a temperature above blood heat. One hundred degrees is the maximum temperature that can be employed with safety. This is two degrees above blood heat, and is admis- sible only when heat is liable to pass off rapidly, and for the purpose of holding the mass at 98°. Heat is constantly passing off fi'om the whey and curds, and the loss is more rapid when the temperatui-e of the surrounding atmosphere is low. It is more rapid when a small quantity of milk is used than when a large quantity is collected together, hence we sometimes employ a temperature one or two degrees above blood heat in the process of solidifying the curds, in order to meet this loss of heat. It is a well recognized fact in cheese making that fine quality and delicate flavor cannot be secured when high heat is used in manipulating the curds. The best cheese are made at low temperatures, and when dairymen fancy the curd must be cooked to Practical Dairy Husbandry. 443 preserve it, they have an erroneous idea of the true principles of cheese making. The manufacture of cheese is in part a chemical process. We have a material composed of various constituents, and the art is to separate these constituents, selecting those required to form cheese and expelling the others. Milk as it comes from the cow is properly prepared for food. It needs no further cooking to be assimilated, and what the cheese maker wants is to extract the caseine and butter, getting rid of the water and reducing the mass to a solid. The butter is not improved by cooking, neither is the caseine, and hence, as we find in practice, the best cheese is made when neither the milk nor the curds have been subjected to so high a heat as would cook them. After the curds are broken up we use heat for the purpose of expelling the whey. A change is constantly going on. The heat assists in developing an acid, which causes the curds to contract, expelling the whey. The process of separating the whey should be slow, and the whey should flow away gradually, otherwise there is a loss of oily particles. The butter is contained in the shells of caseine and is not acted upon by rennet. If the contraction of the caseine is rapid, the oily globules are forced out with the whey, instead of being retained and amalgamated with the mass, and you have a tough, leathery cheese. Milk which is exposed to the atmosphere and warmth begins to put on an acid condition as soon as drawn from the cow. In cheese making we want to carry this acid just far enough to expel the surplus whey, retaining the butter and a certain amount of moisture. If we stop short of the required point, too much whey will be retained and cannot be pressed out. When the cheese is put upon the shelf this pent up whey decomposes, becomes acid, and parts from the caseine, and we have a leaky cheese. If the cheese is kept in a warm place and the whey is soon expelled, the cheese, though defective in flavor, may pass as second rate ; but if the whey cannot find an exit, it soon becomes sour and putrid, and the cheese, in consequence, is positively bad. On the other hand, when the acid is carried too fai', the curds part with too much moisture and we have a hard, dry cheese. What is understood, then, by the term " cooking the curd," is the application of a gentle heat for the purpose of developing a certain degree of acidity, that the whey may properly part from the solids, a sufficient amount being I'etained to carry on the process of ferm^tation when the cheese goes into the curing-room. It is very difficult to carry this acid to the proper point while the whey is in the vat. It is preferable, therefore, to draw the whey as soon as acidity becomes perceptible to . the taste or smell, and allow a further development in the curds after the whey is drawn. A good many cheese makers who get the idea that curds must be cooked like a piece of meat, often spoil their cheese by applying heat too rapidly and running the mass up at too high a temperature. They do not seem to under- stand the leading principle of this part of the process, which is a slow development of acid in the curds. Instead of heating gradually and watching 444 Practical Dairy Husbandry. for this development, they push the heat, thinking they can effect their object in cooking ; the consequence is, an inferior product, destitute of that quality and flavor that the market now demands. VIEWS OF MK. FISH OW HEAT IN CHEESE MAKING. In discussing the question of heat in cheese making, Mr. A. L. Fish of Herkimer, N. Y., well known as a distinguished practical cheese manufac- turer, as well as one of the early writers on dairy farming, has recently presented the following as his matured views on the subject of heat, and they deserve attention. He says: — "In contemplating the agency of heat in making and curing cheese, we are led to consider that cheese has a physical constitution, like other bodies, subject to growth and decay, that require a list of substances, in their formation, which is assimilated by special agencies and brought to an equipoise ; in other words, brought into such a condition that opposing forces balance each other equally. Such a condition we denominate the constitution of animate and inanimate bodies. The condition or power to hold an equipoise or equilibrium of opposing forces, determines the liability to slow or more speedy decay and dissolution. I have hinted the capacity of heat to prevent and destroy consolidation ; also, its indispensable agency in inducing relation and union of extraneous matter in forming solids. Its most judicious appliance in cheese making, where it is required to serve a double purpose, is the question to be discussed. First, what is a proper temperature to apply to the fluid mass (milk), in bringing it to condition most favorable for the aid and action of rennet in separating and dispelling such a portion of fluid parts as desirable, and no more, and why ? My answer is, not exceeding 98°, because that is the point nature has fixed to sustain the most healthy and active condition in the animal organism. Hence, a higher temperature weakens the action of the rennet in bringing the mass to a unity. Any excess of heat applied to a part unfits it for a union with other parts. Solids are formed by cohesive attraction, which draws particles of matter of a sameness together. Any agency or condition that makes these unlike, prevents a perfect union. In cheese, it is manifest in swelling after being pressed, or by a rough, sticky, or crackly surface, and a lack of close adhesiveness of the meat of the cheese,, which indicate that the agencies used in forming its constitution have no^ been equipoised in the process of manu- facture. Such a condition involves the question, which of the agencies used is in fault ? injudicious use of HEAT. " Some will say weak rennet, premature acidity, putrefactive fermentar tion from some unknown cause, &c. ; but few seem to appreciate that an injudicious use of heat may be a fruitful cause, while a proper use might be a preventive. I trust all practical cheese makers will agree with us in the assertion that curd having been exposed to 140° heat, and mixed with other curd not exposed to over 100°, will not make a good cheese; if so, does it Pb ACTIO AL Dairy Husbandry. 445 not follow logically, that any portion of the milk or curd exposed to that degree of high heat, will not unite harmoniously with other portions exposed to much less heat ? If such a varied condition is admitted to be wrong, the next question is, do we practice it, and if so, what is a remedy ? From my observations in the usual mode of managing heat in milk and curd, and curing-rooms, I am convinced that suiEcient care is not taken to suppress the action of heat when less is needed ; hence a large proportion of the imperfec- tions of our factory cheese is traceable to an injudicious management of heat. In explanation, I will address myself to the patrons of cheese factories first, because with them lies the first practical remedy, as they have the ability to suppress the action of heat upon the milk before it reaches the factorymen, by stirring and cooling it immediately after it is drawn from the cows, which should always be done to guard against the tendency of heat to induce acidity and putrescence. If the habit of thus cooling the milk to a low temperature was universal among dairymen, it would result in a profit that is now lost to all interested. The advantages would be more pounds and better quality of cheese from a given amount of milk, because the manufacturer would not be compelled to use means to hasten the separation of fluid portions of milk from the caseine too rapidly, which is always wasteful. BEST MODE OF APPLYING HEAT. " In considering the best mode of applying heat to the mass of milk or curd, I shall not favor or discard any patent or fixture now used for that purpose, but will lay down as a practical rule (and would invite the attention of skilled mechanics to it) that an apparatus or fixture by which heat is imparted or conveyed to the mass, the mildest and most uniformly to every part, and having otherwise the most perfect control of heat, is to be preferred, because a uniform low temperature conveyed to every part and particle of the mass, is the principle relied on to preserve a perfect affinity or sameness of condition. To insure the most perfect cheese, the less antagonism induced in the process of manufacture the more perfect cheese will be attained. Con- veying heat by any means into a thin sheet or volume of water contained between the outer and inner vat I consider injudicious, because there is not water enough to soften the heat before it comes in contact with the inner vat containing the milk or curd. I am not able to understand how a large vat of milk or curd can be heated by discharging steam or boiling water into a thin sheet of water between vats without some portions of it coming in contact with a surface heated to a point that will melt the buttery globules and otherwise unfit it to harmonize with other portions not so exposed. I have frequently examined the heated surface of inner vats, and found it so heated as to burn my flesh, and an oily substance floating on the whey, and clots of curd resting on the overheated surface melted together, and I did not wonder that cheese made with such practice got out of flavor and became unsalable. 446 Practical Dairy Husbandry. guard against ovebhbatiitg. " As a guard against thus overheating I would suggest a widening and enlargement of the heating medium between the vats, so that the heat con- veyed through it will be softened and equalized before coming in contact with the inner vat. It should be held in view by the vat builder, that the wider the space between the points of discharging heat, and the vat containing the milk or curd to be hot, the softer and more uniform will be the effect of heat, and the less liability to a deranged constitution in the cheese. When heat and rennet in their joint action are supposed to have dispelled a desired portion of the fluid of milk, it is essential to arrest uniformly their further progress through the whole mass to preserve an affinity of the parts to be pressed into cheese. This should not be done too suddenly before adding salt, as a sudden chill of the curd would cause it to reject the effect of salt to properly season the curd, which, while warm, has a tendency to expel animal odors if thoroughly stiri'ed in cooling. After being salted warm, and packed, and covered to steep for ten minutes, then if well stirred, and cooled to 80° before putting it in jirjss hoops, the action of the heat and rennet are so checked as to give the new agent (salt) control of opposing forces in the process of curing. The cooler the curing-room is kept, the less salt is required to preserve cheese from taint, and the less salt used the earlier the maturity of cheese. The proper construction of the curing-room is essential to a proper control of heat in process of curing. DANGER OF HIGH HEAT. " The danger of high heat is not past till cheese is ripened for market. A perfectly made cheese is often spoiled by too much and uneven heat in curing. A steady, even temperature should be kept, not exceeding 70°, with free ventilation at bottom and top of the room, so arranged that the outer air may be let in at pleasure at the bottom or near the floor below the cheese and pass out through draft tubes at the top of the room through the center, which should be made to be closed when a draft is not needed to carry off surplus heat or dampness in the room, or for changing the air. HEAT IN CURING-EOOMS. " Curing-rooms built tight with six inches space for air between inner and outer ceiling, with tubes six inches square passing through to the open air at the outer end, made to close at pleasure at the inside to reject too much air, placed once in ten feet on all sides of the room near the floor, with draft tubes twelve inches square once in ten feet through the center of the top of the room, will afford a sufiicient circulation of air at all times in the largest sized rooms ; the air chamber at the side and over the top of the room protects it from sudden effects of external heat. The upper floor or ceiling should be covered with sawdust or fine shavings, to prevent concentration of heat from above. No more windows sliould be used than are needed to give suflieient light, as they are seldom if ever needed for air. With such ventilation and Practical Dairy Husbandry. 447 construction of the curing-room, as described, I have found no difficulty in keeping any desired temperature down to 70". If a succession of extreme heat is raising the temperature above a desired point, it may be checked by closing the ventilating tubes when the air without is warmer than desired, and placing ice in the room on a drainer over a tub or box to catch the water as the ice dissolves." DR. wight's views. In a recent discussion before the National Dairymen's Club, Dr. Wight, of the Whitesboro Factory, said : — " If the milk tends to acidity, less heat and more rennet should be used; if the milk should be tainted the converse would be the treatment, viz., more heat and less rennet. I have observed that the slight difference of not more than two degrees in warming the curd will at times make one or two cents per pound difference in the price of the cheese when sold, all other conditions being apparently the same. I have also noticed that when green cheese- is exposed to too low a temperature in the early stages of curing, it invariably injures the texture, flavor and general quality of the product during all the future stages of curing. In fact, T firmly believe that if the milk should constantly be kept at a proper temperature, and the curing-rooms be kept at a temperature neither too low nor too high — all of which is barely and simply a work of art entirely under our own control — I firmly believe, I say, that these conditions being constantly and rigidly observed, we may readily save all that depreciation in the quality and price of cheese which now invariably takes place during the heat of summer ; losing to the dairyman seldom less than three, and frequently five and six cents per pound. With the tempei-ature of our milk and our manufactories kept at a sufficiently low degree during the months of June, July and August, we may preserve the cheese made during these months for the fall trade, and thus realize an equal, if not a higher price for them than we now do for our best fall cheese. WARMING CUEING-ROOMS BT STEAM. " I will close with a few suggestions about the best mode of preserving the most equable and proper temperatures in our curing-houses. Thorough ventilation being premised, I would warm the rooms by steam pipes and cool them by the admission of cold air from an ice-house, keeping the temperature as near 70° as may be, equable throughout the building, and a little moist rather than too dry. By strict attention to these few things much improve- ment may be made in the quality and profits of our products." Mr. Alexander McAdam, the very successful manufacturer of the Smith Creek Factory, said, " In making cheese now (very early in spring) we are making from milk three messes of which are skimmed and one new. When skimmed the milk is placed in a warm place where the temperature is adapted" for the cream rising* Set at eighty, and coagulated sufficient to cut in thirty minutes, it commences to thicken in fifteen minutes. He used extra rennet for skim-milk cheese. He heated it slowly to eighty-eight. Sometimes in 448 Practical Dairy Husbandry. cold weather the milk is very sweet and it may lie five or six hours in the ■whey. He meant to keep the temperature about eighty-eight. TEMPERATURE WHEN ONE MESS IS SKIMMED. " When the weather becomes warmer he will use the milk with one mess skimmed, and then the temperature would be at eighty-two and heat up to ninety-two and keep to this temperature. This milk would require thirty-five minutes to coagulate. He was accustomed to have coagulation occur sooner than some factories, as some let it run an hour or even an hour and ten minutes. By scalding as low as eighty-eight, the curd keeps soft and the acid is developed before the curd becomes solid. He used more rennet, less salt and less heat when making skim-milk cheese than without skimming the milk. The salt is applied upon the slightest appearance of the acid. He used it at the rate of one and one-half pounds of salt to the thousand pounds of milk. The appearance of the cheese after coming from the press must be the guide to the temperature and according to the appearance of the cheese is determined the place upon the shelves. The curd should be put to press as soon as convenient after grinding, and before it gets too cool to face good. MANAGEMENT WHEN FAILING TO FACE. " If it failed to face, he used hot water and hot cloths under the follower and hot water upon the press board. If too much rennet was used the curd would be rather slimy and it would not unite a.f well, but if the rennet was sweet the taste would not be affected. He thought if too much rennet was used some of the excess would be held at least mechanically in the curd and would appear in the color. TEMPEKATUEE FOK WHOLE MILK. " He used with all new milk in spring manufacture a temperature of eighty- two, and heat to ninety-four, and in curing he would not use over sixty-five in the dry-house — such a handling would produce a fine-flavored cheese. The action of heat facilitates the action of the rennet. He would use more heat after applying the rennet. As a general thing he did not think two or three degrees in temperature would make a great difierence in the price of the cheese when made. He thought time would modify the slight excess of temperature. He would heat whole milk up to ninety-six in the summer time." ADVANTAGES OF A CBLLAK UNDER CHEESE FACTORIES. Mr. McAdam spoke of a cheese factory which had a good cellar under it. He said " In the summer time this cellar could be used with great advan- tage as a curing-room. And in the spring and fall the cellar could be used for a making-room, and the cui-ing done above. , HOW IS THE RIPENING OF CHEESE AFFECTED BY THE MODE OF MANU- FACTURE ? " This subject is quite important, as it is often necessary to manufacture cheese that will ripen very quickly. When the market is declining, to have Practical Dairy Husbandry. 449 as many of them as possible fit for sale, and consequently bring a higher price, is the great desideratum. On the contrary, when the cheese-market is advancing it is often advisable to make cheese that will take a much longer time in curing, so that in holding for higher prices there will be less danger of deterioration in the quality of the cheese by their becoming oflF in flavor. Now, in the ripening or curing of cheese, I regard the action of the rennet as the element that does the whole business ; and, therefore, in making cheese that are to cure quickly, w^e have only to place the rennet in the most favor- able circumstances for promoting its growth all through the process of manu- facture, and to cure slowly, the opposite. Now, what are the most favorable circumstances for promoting the growth of the spores of the rennet ? "First, is the presence of the greatest quantity of butter in the milk to be. manufactured into cheese. Second, a larger amount of rennet added to such milk. Tliird, by using a lower temperature in cooking or scalding the curd. Fourth, the absence or a minimum amount of acid in the curd, when the salt is added ; and. Fifth, a less quantity of salt added to the curd; also by keeping the cheese in the curing-room at a higher temperature. Cheese made from tainted milk will naturally cure more quickly than if the milk was good. An exactly opposite process will check the growth of the spores of the rennet in the milk, curd and cheese, and cause the cheese to cure more slowly. Heat hastens the development of the acid more rapidly than the development of the rennet spores, and though heat hastens both developments, the acid is generated faster relatively. Cheese cured quickly ouglit to go into immediate consumption, as if kept, especially in warm weather, they deteriorate in quality very rapidly. And I think that the com- plaints of the English shippers about the defects in the color and flavor of American cheese, when held over winter, are mainly owing to the fact that these cheese have been cured too quickly to hold long." These views above, from some of our most successful cheese-makers, and very recently expressed (1871), are worthy of attention. SALTING THE CUEDS. The leading object of using salt in the curds is to iarrest putrefactive fer- mentation, and hold the cheese in a condition to make a suitable article of food. Different nations, it is true, differ in their tastes. Some of the people on the continent of Europe have so educated their taste as to prefer cheese that is more or less tainted, but the English rjece, as a rule, demand a clean, well- flavored article. As we are manufacturing mostly for English and American markets, my remarks must refer particularly to the great bulk of goods made to suit, what may be denominated as the English taste. The Swiss, the Lim- berger, and other characters of cheese are now made to some extent in this country, but the quantity is so small when compared with the great mass of our product, that American dairymen do not generally understand what the peculiar flavor is which is esteemed in the cheeses referred to. 29 450 Practical Dairy HtrsBANDRr. Salt is a very important agent in modifying the taste of cheese, and on the manner in which it is used, will depend in a great measure the character and reputation of the dairy in market. In the application of salt there can be but little doubt, that fine, clean flavor can be best secured in the cheese by salting when the curds are comparatively cool. Some manufacturers have the impression that salt is more efficient, and is more evenly distributed when the curds are quite warm. I believe it is a well-established rule among meat packers, that meats are secured in the best condition when salt is applied after the meat has cooled off. At any rate in cheese manufacture a fine, delicate flavor is only obtained when salt is applied to the' curds at a low temperature. This rule is strictly observed in the celebrated dairies of England, whether it be Cheshire or Cheddar. Among the best Cheshire dairies, the heat at no time during the process of manufacture is allowed to run above 78° or 80°, and in applying salt, as a rule 75° should -be regarded as the maximum tem- perature of the curds. In addition to the liability of affecting injuriously the flavor of cheese, by applying salt while the curds are too warm, the salt has another effect* Its action is to harden the parts of the curd with which it comes in contact, sur- rounding them with a tough pellicle or coat of caseine, and thus preventing a free flow of whey. The whey should be thoroughly expelled before salting, for in no other way can the quantity of salt be regulated with certainty. If there is much whey in the curds at the time of salting, it will be no easy matter to guess at the quantity of salt that will pass off in the whey, and hence, when this kind of guess work is relied on by the manufacturers, the cheese will not be of uniform character. When too small a quantity of salt is used, the cheese ripens with great rapidity, and must be eaten when com- paratively young, for it will soon get out of flavor. On the other hand, too much salt delays the ripening process ; the cheese is long in coming to maturity, and is likely to be hard and stiff. It will be seen, therefore, that the quantity of salt to be used should be pretty accurately determined, according to the character of cheese we design to make. If we want cheese to ripen in thirty days from the tub or vat, and go into market early and be consumed, the quantity of salt must be regulated for that object; while cheese of long-keeping qualities, maturing slowly, and requiring a higher per centage of salt, must needs have the quantity also regulated with precision. When the curds are drained, and subjected to pressure for a short time in the hoop, and then broken up by passing through a curd mill, and then salted as in the Cheddar process, the proportion of salt can be regulated with great nicety. But in all cases, before salting, it is well to have the curds as dry as they can be conveniently made. Another office of salt is to check the acidity of the curds. When the acid has been fully developed, and the process carried far enough, the appli- cation checks its further progress, and thus, in the manipulation, is made to serve a very important purpose in the hands of a skillful manufacturer. I can Practical Dairy Husbandry. 451 only announce some of the principles to be observed in tbe use of salt for cheese-making. What I particularly wish to impress is, that it cannot be employed at random, and that the making of fine cheese depends, in a good degree, upon the time, manner and quantity in which the manufacturer employs this agent for his work. The quantity of salt used by manufactui-ers varies according to the character of cheese to be miade at different seasons of the year, from two and one-fourth to three pounds of salt to one hundred pounds of green cheese. In spring, when it is desired to have the cheese ripen quickly, as low a proportion as two to two and one-fourth pounds are used. In hot weather, two and a-half to two and seven-tenths pounds, for one hundred pounds green cheese are employed by the best manufacturers, and sometimes three pounds are used, and these proportions refer to curds that are not pressed before salting, and consequently are not thoroughly drained of whey. The rule among the best Cheddar dairymen of England is one pound of salt for fifty-six pounds of curd ; the salt applied after the curds have been pressed for ten minutes in the hoop, and then ground in a curd mill, the temperature of the curds being from 60° to 65°. The English Cheddars are longer in coming to maturity than the usual atyle of American manufacture. It will be seen, also, that in the English process, the curds are made dryer at the time of salting, than generally obtains in American manufacture, and that in consequence a less amount of salt is required, or is used, than at the American factories. THB KIND OF SALT TO BE USED. Much has been said and written about salt for dairy purposes ; the subject is by no means exhausted ; it at least demands discussion and agitation, so long as dairy products continue to be injured and spoiled by the use of an impure article. Many, people imagine that all salt in the market is pure ; that if its appearance to the eye is clean, it contains no ingredients deleterious to butter and cheese, and that all the difference between a common article and the higher grades consists in pulverizing and putting up in neater packages. One can meet scores of men who will insist there is no other difference than that we have named, and that they do not propose to throw away money on a high-priced article. They prefer to prepare their own salt, crushing the lumps, if necessary, and chuckling over the superior sagacity they have to those who are throwing away their money on a high-priced article. Some- how it generally turns out that these very wise and saving persons have a low grade product of butter and cheese, and in consequence make sales con- siderably below those obtained for a first-class article. I have sustained losses, both in butter and cheese, on account of using poor salt, and I have no confidence in the common barrel salt constantly to be met with in the market. Some of it may be good, and most of it may possibly do for the ordinary purposes for which it was intended, but the risk never should be taken of using it in butter and cheese. The dealers and 452 PRACTICAL Dairy Kusbandby. experts in butter have for years cautioned the hiitter-makers to use nothing but the best Ashton or Liverpool salt. Chlorides of calcium and magnesium are the substances in salt which affect the taste and injure the quality, of butter, however carefully otherwise it may be made. Solar salt, produced by evaporating the brines, and which is largely used by packers, though it may not contain any deleterious substance that would affect meats, is very likely to contain a sufficient per centage of the chlorides to injure the taste of butter. To the cultivated taste of an experienced butter buyer, the least trace of the chlorides existing in the salt used betrays its presence. The Ashton is a very good salt, but is expensive. All the salt sold under the name or brand of Ashton is not genuine. Cheese and butter- makers should purchase their salt only of reliable dealers — men who know where they obtain their goods, and can vouch for their quality. Somewhat recently the Onondaga Salt Works, at Syracuse, N. Y., have been manufacturing a superior dairy salt. Prof. Goessman, a distinguished chemist, was employed for some years at the Works, to superintend the manufacture of salt, with a view of freeing it from deleterious substances, and it is by his process that the brand known as " factory filled" or dairy salt is now manufactured. From numerous chemical analyses, it exhibits greater purity than the Ashton and other foreign brands, and its use among our best dairymen, for some years, has proved its perfect adaptation to the dairy. At the N"ew York State Fair, in ISCV, there was a large exhibition of butter from different parts of the State, and among the packages were a num- ber of samples, half of which had been salted with Onondaga and half with Ashton salt. The Committee, composed of experts, pronounced, in twenty- five cases, the butter cured with factory filled salt, made at the U'ew York Mills, Syracuse, to be the best, as compared with its alternate package, cured in the same dairy with Ashton. Prof S. W. Johnson of the Sheffield Scien- tific School, Yale College, has stated that the purest salt made in this or any other country that he is acquainted with, came from Syracuse, where the ingenious processes of Dr. Gobssman were then employed, and that such factory filled salt must take rank second to none, as regards purity and free- dom from any deleterious ingredients, especially the chlorides of calcium and magnesium. Gov. Alvoed of Syracuse stated, at a meeting of the Amer- ican Dairymen's Association, that the Onondaga Salt Company were pre- pared to guarantee their factory filled salt, and to pay for every pound of butter or cheese that was injured by the use of such salt ; but the salt must come from the accredited agents of the Company, as certain dealers had been known to put up other salt in packages, using the factory filled brand. I have referred to these facts, because I know the genuine article to be good ; and as it is furnished much cheaper than the foreign or imported salt, it is of interest for dairymen to know it. Practical Dairy Husbandry. 463 to distinguish good salt. A satisfactory evidence of pure salt is its dryness, as the chlorides cause salt to absorb and retain moisture. In order that dairymen may be enabled to judge somewhat of the character of good dairy salt, from its appearance in addition to its dryness, I give the following from Prof. Charles H. Porter : — " A chalky or very fine grained or pulverulent salt is not the best for dairy purposes, and would at once be rejected, I believe, by experienced dairymen. A good dairy salt, ought, I imagine, besides being of proper chemical composition, to be of moderately fine grain, crystalline and trans- parent, and, when seen in a mass, of a pure white color ; it ought to be free from odor, and i possess that sharp, pungent taste characteristic of pure salt." STIRRING THE MILK. DURING THE NIGHT. One of the mechanical devices brought to the notice of cheese-manu- facturers, during the past few years, is the milk agitator. They commenced to be used in 1867, but since that time their use has become quite general, and our best factories in New York consider them of great utility. They are without doubt one of the useful improvements for cheese factories in this age of fertile invention. There are two or three kinds, but all work nearly upon the same principle, or accomplish the same object, that is, stirring the milk in the vats during the night, and are operated by the waste water from the vats. Before these appliances came in use, it was necessary for cheese- makers to stir the night's milk in the vats until it was reduced to a temper- ature of 60°. In hot weather the constant flow of water under the milk, or between the vats, was not sufficient to preserve it in good order, and this stirring had to be continued, from time to time, until a late hour of the night. It is evident if machinery can be introduced for this purjJose, a great saving of labor is secured. There is another object gained by stirring the milk at intervals dui'ing the night : the cream is prevented from rising, which is of great importance where butter is not made at the factory, as it is very difficult to get the cream which has once risen back again into the milk for cheese-making with- out loss ; and again, the particles of milk being moved so as to be exposed to the atmosphere, it keeps in better order. The apparatus is quite simple, and consists merely of a wooden float, attached to an arm, which is carried back and forward, at intervals, across the vat, and operated by a water wheel or water box, which is kept moving by the M'aste water from the vats. Doubtless much benefit is often gained by this movement of the milk, especially when not in perfect condition, as the particles are being constantly exposed to the atmosphere, and improved by allowing bad odors to pass off. During the summer of 1867 one of the best cheese manufacturers of Oneida wrote to me as follows : — " Believing, as I do, that the agitator deserves more extensive notice, and more general introduction into cheese 454 Practical Dairy Husbandry. factories than it has yet received, I desire to add/ my testimony respect- ing its merits and benefits. Some weeks since I consented to have the agitator introdnced into the four vats of my factory, on trial ; I am so far ■ pleased with it, that 1 have come to the conclusion that it is a necessary appurtenance to my factory. It is not claimed for it, I believe, that a larger yield of cheese can be obtained by its use, though I am of opinion [hat a slight increase in quantity and quality will result, when the agitator is judiciously used; this will especially be the case in the cold part of the season : it certainly is a perfect preventive of the raising of any cream, and that this is an important advantage no one will deny. I find, also, that the milk in the vats, in the morning, has an incomparably sweeter, cleaner, fresher taste and smell than ever before ; and this, notwithstanding the fact that my spring affords an abundance of excellent water, and the temperature of the milk in the morning, before the agitator was put in, had always been Austin's Asitatob, sHowiua Watek Wheel ahd mahker or appltino Bakes to the Vats. from 54° to 58°. The necessity of stirring milk until ten, eleven and even twelve o'clock at night, as is the case in very many factories, is entirely obviated. If there were no other advantage arising, resulting from its use, this alone should be sufiicient argument in its favor. Factory hands work hard, and if the night's labor can be dispensed with, it should be done. Of course, further experience and fuller acquaintance with its operations and effects may modify and radically change my views in relation to it. After the testimony of such experienced and successful cheese-makers as Col. MiLLEK and others, who used it last year, I hardly look for such a result. At present I heartily commend its use, only suggesting that, in my judg- ment, the motion of the frame and rakes should be slow — not over two or three strokes per minute." The experience of the past three years has con- firmed these views as to the utility of this appliance. Practical DAiar Husbandry. 455 rSE OF .ICE IN COOLING AND PEESEHVING MILK. The use of ice in cooling and preserving milk for cheese manufacture is practiced to a large extent. It is applied in various ways ; sometimes by adding it in messes to the milk in the vats, or by placing it in large tin cool- ers, which are then immersed in the milk, and in various other ways, to suit the convenience of those who have the care of the dairy. Recently coolers have been invented, to be used for cooling milk with ice at the farm ; but it may be well to caution those who employ ice for this purpose, that it should not be used in direct contact with the milk, or in any way in which the milk may come in contact with an ice-cold surface. An impression prevails with many that no injury can result to milk from the use of ice, no matter in what way it may be employed. Ice, if judiciously used in connection with the dairy, is convenient and useful in hot weather, and especially so when the supply of water is limited, or its temperature is so high that the milk cannot be cooled down properly by it alone. But because the direct application of an ice cold surface does not do the milk any apparent injury for the moment, it must not be inferred that it has no remote influence upon the product of butter and cheese which may be manufactured out of such milk. All animal bodies, though they naay be kept fresh and sweet for a long time when laid upon ice in an ice box, yet when exposed to the air and warmth rapidly decompose and become stale. When milk has been cooled by coming in contact with ice and then manufactured into cheese, the injury does not immediately show itself; but it has been observed that the cheese ripens rapidly, decays early, and will not keep in flavor like that which is made of milk, none of the particles of which have come in contact with a sur- face of lower temperature than 50°. The butter makers of Orange county, N. Y., who have experimented largely with milk, are extremely cautious in the use of ice in connection with butter manufacture. It is sometimes necessary to use it during hot weather while churning, by breaking it up fine and applying it to the cream in the churn ; but when ice has been employed in this way, the butter will not keep ; though for present use the butter may be regarded as of prime quality. In 1868, during the month of July, we had extremely warm weather, and ice was used in the New York factories quite freely — often injudiciously. From an account of the cheese made that year, given by the English shipper, Mr. Webb, it appears there was not a single factory sending cheese abroad that had it arrive and retain a good, clean flavor. He says : — " The English dealer and the English consumer alike began to get a surfeit of that strong flavored, loosely made, bad-keeping quality, which was the universal characteristic of the July make of cheese. This inferior quality," he remarks, " was doubtless . largely owing to the intensely hot weather then prevailing. But whatever the cause, your very serious attention should be directed to the discovery of a remedy — for not a single dairy, as far as my personal experience and pretty full inquiries extended, not one single dairy stood the test of that most trying 456 Practical Daimy Husbandry. month. Even those dairies that for a series of years have been always and uniformly excellent, did not hold their own last July ; but proved in the matter of flavor and keeping qualities to be no better than the great majority of your State factories." Now how far the injudicious use of ice may have added to the trouble I am unable to say ; but I have no doubt that some share at least may be justly laid to that source. I have personal knowledge of some factories where large quantities of ice are used to cool the milk by applying it directly to the milk in the vats, and the milk is apparently in good order, and yet great complaint is made of the cheese manufactured as soon " off flavor," while it must be observed that the best flavored goods are not made at those factories which use the ice in this way; but where there is an abundance of pure, cold water — cold water and an agitator which stirs the milk during the night, worked by the waste water from the vats, give practically the best results. As this question of ice is somewhat new to the dairy public, and has not been very closely investigated by cheese manufacturers, it will be sufficient to call attention to the mattei-, with the suggestion to avoid as far as possible the use of ice, or an ice cold surface in direct contact with the milk. DEAVriNG OrP THE CURDS. Where large quantities of milk are delivered at one point to be manufac- tured into cheese, it is important to have every convenience, so that it may be handled easily and expeditiously. Without convenient appliances the cheese factory system would be a failure. It would be very difficult, and perhaps impossible, to make the fine character of cheese now demanded in the leading markets of the world by massing the milk in large quantities, and using old appliances in operation before the factory system was inaugurated. It is to the perfection of cheese factory machinery and the mechanical devices for manipulating milk in proper time that the manufacturer, in a gi;eat measure, owes his success. It is true, intelligence and skill, with habits of close obser- vation, are necessary in cheese manufacture, and no amount of mechanical contrivance can be substituted for them. But as many of the operations in cheese making admit of no delay, but require immediate and rapid action, the appliances must be suited to the work, or the most skillful operator will be liable to fail in securing the best results. What seems to be a most for- tunate thing for American cheese dairying is, that whenever any essential point or principle is discovered in manufacture, the inventors imme- diately step in with devices or contrivances for easily securing the object desired. I could mention several of these which are unknown among the best Cheddar cheese makers of England, and which doubtless would not yet have been invented here had we remained under the old system of farm dairies. THE SHUTB. Among the somewhat recent improvements in cheese factory arrangements is the Bhute. This invention originated in Herkimer county, and is now PsACJJCAL Dairy Husbandry. 457 being adopted by all the new or impi-oved modled factories. The shute is now introduced among those factories in New York which produce cheese that sells for extreme or " top prices." I do not presume to say that tlie shute is the only or chief cause of the high reputation which these factories enjoy, and yet I have no doubt it has contributed somewhat in effecting this reputation. Indeed, in some instances at least, tlie manufacturers are from factories where the shute is not employed, and only in taking charge of the shute factories have their reputations reached the enviable position they now enjoy. The shute is an arrangement in the vats, whereby all the curds in the vats may be thrown upon the sink in a moment. In this arrangement the floor of the manufacturing room at one end of the vats is sunk some four feet below the part upon which the vats stand. Here is placed the sink upon rails, and in some instances immediately back of it the presses. The ends of the vats come out nearly to the fall in the floor, and in the end of each vat there is a large circular opening secured with an iron door, water-tight, which is opened for the discharge of the curds. When a vat is to be emptied the sink is rolled along opposite the vat, the vatcanted down, the tin conductor placed under the orifice or point of discharge in the vat, and the iron door removed. In this manner the vat is rapidly emptied of its contents, and the curds at once spread out upon the sink to cool. Old cheese makers will readily understand the advantage of this arrangement. When the acid is properly developed it should be immediately checked. With large masses of curd, and under the old arrangement, it was very difficult to time opera- tions to meet this condition. To dip the curd out with pails often required so much time that, do the best you could, the acid would often be carried too far before the work was accomplished. As the temperature of the atmosphere varies from day to day, and the condition of the milk is also different, it was exceedingly difficult to calculate the changes that would occur in a few minutes. It will be seen, then, how great the advantage is when the manu- facturer can empty his vat at once. Sometimes acidity goes on gradually for a time, and then all at once is developed much more rapidly than was antici- pated. With the shute you are master of the situation ; you have the whole matter under control ; you manipulate your forces to produce an exact result ; you march to the very threshold of danger, but do not step over the line ; you have control of the shute, and at the word of command you feel that you can count upon accomplishing the object desired. The shute is, without doubt, of considerable assistance in securing the make of nice, marketable goods, and its adoption can be recommended on this account, in addition to the labor it saves over the old plan of dipping. PKOCESS FOK MAKING EXTRA SINE CHEKSE. , We have now discussed at length some of the leading points in cheese manufacture, and I here give some of the most recent views and practice of manufacturers who have been successful in making a high-priced cheese, and 458 Practical Daiky HusBANDiir. in this connection the following paper of Mr. A. McAdam, read at the Dairy- men's Convention of 1871, so fuUyexplains in regular order and in detail the method of cheese making at the Smith Creek factory, that it will be useful. I may remark in passing that the cheese made at the Smith Creek factory in 1869 and 1870 was regarded by dealers and shippers as a fancy article, and it sold at the Little Falls, N. Y., market uniformly at the highest price paid for best factories. Mr. McAdam says : — " I will give a description of the process as I practice it, and state some of the reasons why I practice it. As you are probably all aware, the milk that is delivered at cheese factories is not always in the same state, sometimes being tainted or partially putrid, sometimes sour, or nearly so, and sometimes it is, what it always ought to be, perfect. I propose to describe the process, first, when the milk is right and good; second, when it is partially sour, and third, when tainted. The evening's milk, when delivered at the factory, ought to be cooled so as to reach a temperature of 58° to 62° in the morning. "When the morning's milk is added, it is heated to 80°, then enough rennet is added to coagulate the mass in as nearly forty minutes' time as possible. When the curd has attained sufficient consistency, it is cut four times — twice with the horizontal curd knife, and twice with the perpendicular one, with a short interval between each cutting. The curd is then gently manipulated and heated to 06°, care being taken to prevent the curd from packing on the bottom of the vat ; the time required for heating being from an hour to an hour and a-half. The stirring is continued for ten or fifteen minutes after this heat has been attained, and the curd is then allowed to pack on the bottom of the vat, where it lies undisturbed until the separation of the whey from the curd becomes necessary. Up to this stage the process is almost identical with that prac- ticed in manufacturing cheese in the usual manner. " In the manufacture of American cheese (I will so designate the method usually practiced, to distinguish it from the process, which I will term Ched- dar), it is of the utmost importance to determine the precise time at which to separate the whey from the curd, and it is also an operation requiring the greatest amount of skill and experience, as well as the exercise of the nicest sense of taste and smell. But in the manufacture of Cheddar cheese it is not of the same vital importance, as the whey can be separated from the curd from half an hour to an hour and a-half before acidity is developed so as to be perceptible ; and, on the other hand, the whey can be left on the curd till the acid is distinctly developed, without materially affecting the quality of the product. As the acid or souring generally makes its appearance about noon, in summer, the Cheddar system gives factory hands more time for dinner, and consequently they can masticate their food, instead of having to bolt it, as has to be done in many cases. When the whey is drawn off", and the vat tipped down on one end, the curd is then heaped on each side of the vat, leaving a space in the middle to allow the remainder of the whey to pass oflT. I may here state that when the " shute," or flood gate, is not used, there Practical Dairy Husbandry. 459 ought to be, in the Cheddar system, a faucet in the vat, to allow the whey to pass off as it drains from the curd. . After the curd has laid in a heap on the bottom of the vat for fifteen or twenty minutes, and the original particles of curd have become amalgamated into a solid mass, it is then cut into coi;- venient pieces with a knife, and turned over, and so left until the curd has become sour enough for grinding and salting, which is determined by the taste of the whey that drains from the curd. This whey should now have a sharp, sour milk taste, which can be understood by any intelligent cheese maker, after a few days' experience. The curd is then torn by hand into strips of two or three pounds weight, and allowed to cool for a short time, in order to allow the butter in it to become solid etiough so as not to escape during the operation of grinding. The curd is then ground into pieces, averaging about the size of hickory nuts. Five hundred pounds of curd can be ground by hand, with MoAdam's curd mill, in from five to fifteen minutes, - according to the toughness of the curd and muscle of the operator. The salt is then immediately added and mixed thoroughly, at the rate of from one and a-half to two and a quarter pounds per one thousand pounds of milk, accord- ing to circumstances. The curd is then ready to be put into the hoops for pressing. " 2d. Mode of procedure when the milk we have to handle is (from what- ever cause) sour, or partially so ; and such cases are liable to happen in any factory, however well regulated. You are all aware that when milk is par- tially sour, it will coagulate in the same time as sweet milk with the addition of considerably less rennet. But to such milk I usually add mbre rennet, instead of less, so as to have the coagulation occur very quickly. As soon as the rennet has completed its ofiice, I commence cutting and working the curd much more rapidly than usual. In such cases I use very little heat in scald- ing — seldom heating over 86° or 90°, according to the severity of the case. Indeed, in some instances, when the milk is very sour, I do not think that it is advisable to heat the curd at all after coagulation. I reason in this way : just as good cheese can be made without scalding at all, as with it ; the reason that we scald the curd (if heating to a temperature of 98° can be called scalding), is to develop the acid sooner, and if, when the curd is inclined to develop acid sooner than usual, we heat it to a temperature of 96° to 98°, we hasten the action of the acid, which is the very thing we are trying to avoid. In other words, when the acid in the curd is developing too fast of its own accord, we develop it still faster by means of heat, and thus aggra- vate the evil. After this curd is cut up, the whey must be removed from it as fast as it makes its appearance, and as soon as practicable the vat must be tipped down and the curd thrown to the upper end of the vat. The curd at this stage is very sloppy, as it contains considerable whey. One person should now cut it into small pieces with a knife, and another be employed in turning the pieces over and piling them up in heaps, so as to liberate the whey, which passes off in a continuous stream. When the curd has assumed 460 Practical Dairy Husbandrt. a proper consistency it must be ground and salted ; the quantity of salt used must be according to the amount of whey contained in the curd, which is generally, in such cases, considerably more than usual. In extreme cases, the whole process, from the adding of the rennet to the mixing in of the salt, can be performed in less than an hour. " To explain why more rennet is needed when the milk is partially sour, I will refer to the address delivered by Professor Caldwell last year, before this Convention, and also to the able and highly useful paper read by L. B. Arnold, Esq., on 'Rennet, its Nature and Use,' before the same Conven- tion. These gentlemen demonstrated to us very clearly that the acting principle of rennet consists of minute globules, or spores, which feed upon nitrogenous substances, and when placed in such, at a favorable temperature, multiply very rapidly. Now a quantity of rennet, containing a vast number of these spores, placed in a vat of milk which is highly nitrogenous, at a tem- perature of 80°, which is favorable to their growth, will multiply in a short time to such an extent as to cause its coagulation. And their action by no means stops here. They have still a very important mission to perform, viz., that of curing or ripening the cheese. And if the presence of these spores in the cheese, cures or ripens it, an excess of .them will ripen the cheese more quickly, and vice versa. Now we all know that a sour cheese, or a cheese which contains an excess of sour milk spores (Arthrococci), takes a much longer time to ripen than a sweet cheese, and vice versa. Therefore, to have a cheese cured in a given time, the spores of the Micrococci and of the Arthro- cocci, must be contained in it in relative quantities. So, when we have a vat of sour milk to handle, where the Arthrococci are in abundance, we must add more rennet to counterbalance their action on the nitrogenous ingredients of the milk, and thereby cause the cheese to ripen much quicker than if less rennet had been added. I have found by experiment, during the past sum- mer, that cheese made from sour milk in the above manner will cure as fast as other cheese, but they will require more annatto to make them of the same color, these sour milk spores appearing to have a destructive effect upon annatto. I have likewise noticed that such cheese will have more tendency to mold, but the flavor will not be objectionable. " 3. When the milk is tainted, or has an excess of putrefactive spores. This tainted milk occurs, in some localities, in hot weather, no matter what care is taken in cleaning the utensils with which it corties in contact, and I think that the milk is damaged in most cases before it is drawn from the cow. But of course it can be greatly aggravated by being brought into contact with unclean milk pails, strainers, cans, &c., which have not been properly cleansed, and therefore contain numbers of those putrefactive spores clinging to their seams and crevices, and which spring into new life and activity on being brought into contact with the warm milk. During the past season, from the middle of June to the middle of September, in a factory of over nine, hundred cows, I did not have a vat of milk which was not tainted, most of it FRA.OTICAL Dairy Husbandby. 461 very badly, and over one-third of it so much that the curd floated. The cheese made from this milk sold for the highest price in the Little Falls mar- ket. In handling such milk I prefer to have the temperature of the evening's mess about 68° or 70° in the morning before the morning's milk is added, for two reasons. First, it has been shown that the putrefactive spores are in great abundance in such tainted milk ; by leaving the evening's milk through the night at a higher temperature, we promote the growth of the Arthro- cocci, or sour milk spores, and these check the growth of the Micrococci, and counterbalance their action to a certain degree. Second, when the milk is left through the night at a higher temperature, a great number of the putrefac- tive spores pass off in the form of gas, especially where the milk agitator is used. This we know by the foul ,odor it emits when warm, but when the milk is cooled to a low temperature, this gas is not so volatile, and does not escape so readily, as we can perceive by its emitting little or no smell. But the cooling of the milk does not kill the Micrococci ; it only partially pre- vents their escape, and though at the same time cooling the milk," also retards their growth as well as their escape ; it also retards the growth of the sour milk spores, and these are much more efficient agents for the prevention of putrefaction than cooling is. Therefore, I maintain that the less tainted or putrid milk is cooled, so as not to be absolutely sour in the moi-ning, the better the product obtained will be, if the milk be properly handled. I know that some cheese-makers prefer cooling such milk to as low a temperature as possible, and add sour whey with the rennet in the morning, and have very good success, but I prefer the former method, as by it the formation of the putrefactive spores is checked at a much earlier stage of the proceedings. With this difference of cooling the milk, my process is the same with tainted milk as with good milk, until the separation of the whey from the curd* When tainted we allow the whey to remain on the curd until acid is slightly perceptible,, whether the curd floats or not. The whey is then drawn off and the curd handled as before. If the curd is badly tainted, while lying in a mass at the bottom of the vat, it will swell up to twice its original size, like dough under the action of the yeast, and when broken emits a very offensive odor. The exact degree of acidity to be allowed to develop at this point is the most important, as well as the most difficult thing to determine in the whole management of floating curds, as the odor and taste of both the curd and the whey that drains from it very much resemble acid, and are in a great many instances mistaken for it. The acid ought to be developed just enough to kill the taint, and no more, and the result, notwithstanding the assertions of some to the contrary, will be "a fine cheese. After the )-equisite amount of acid has been determined upbn, and the curd ground and salted (using the same amount of salt as when not tainted), the curd must be cooled and ven- tilated as much as possible before being put to press. " I do not pretend to say that cheese can be made from tainted milk and floating curds, possessing quite as much of the fine, nutty aroma as from 462 Practical Dairy Husbandry. curds properly handled which are not tainted at all. But I do assert that I have seen cheese made from floating curds, in several factories during the past summer, that were perfectly close, rich and meaty, having no objectionable flavor, and which not one expert in ten would object to. " One other fact I wish to mention : It requires more milk when tainted, to make a pound of cheese, than when it is not. One reason for this is, that more acid must be present in such cases, and, of course, the more acid the less cheese. In the Smith Creek Factory, last summer, it took two pounds more milk to make a pound of cheese in July than it did in April. " I have endeavored to tell you how I practice grinding curds. I will now try to tell yon why I practice it. In the first place, I think that it requires less milk to make a pound of cheese ; in the second place, it does not tax the judgment of the cheese-maker so much, or require so much skill and atten- tion ; and, in the third place, I think that cheese made by the Cheddar process will be closer, and at the same time appear more rich and buttery, and will cure faster. It takes less milk to make a pound of cheese because the whey is drawn from the curd before the acid is perceptible, while in the American system, the whey has to be left on the curd from ten to sixty minutes after acid is detected, in order to insure a good, solid cheese, and you all know that sour whey will eat or digest grease from any substance containing it, with which it comes in contact. The longer the curd is exposed to this acidity in the whey the slimier the whey becomes, on account of the grease it has taken from the curd, and, in fact, some cheese-makers determine when the curd is ready to dip into the sink by the sliminess or sudsing of the whey. The quantity of butter which passes off" unseen in the American system is certainly more than is contained in the small quantity of white whey which comes from the cheese when pressing in the Cheddar system. " During the past season, notwithstanding the general complaint that the milk did not yield well, and the fact that over half of the cheese made at Smith Creek Factory was from tainted milk, we used only 9 9-lOths pounds of milk for one pound of cured cheese. And the reason why the Cheddar cheese will appear more rich and buttery, with the same solidity, is that when the whey is drawn from the curd before the acid is detected, the action of the sour milk spores is retarded, and the rennet, at work in the mass of warm curd, is allowed full play. And, as the rennet cures the cheese, it will there- fore cure sooner, and, curing sooner, will be richer and more buttery at the same age." HERKIMER COUNTY " FANCY FACTORY CHEESE." As the manner of making a high-priced cheese is always of interest to manufacturers, I give some of the leading features at a few fancy factories where " gilt-edged" cheese is made. The processes are those adopted in 1 870. At the North Fairfield Factory, the temperature of milk in the morning is 66°. The night's milk is cooled by passing a stream of water between the vats and underneath the milk vat. Rennet is added for coagulating when the Practical Dairy Husbandry. 463 milk has been raised to a temperature of 84°. After coagulation is perfected the curds^ are cut first with the horizontal curd-knife, which leaves the mass in thin sheets. Then follow with the perpendicular knife, cutting lengthwise of the vat. Let the curds now stand ten minutes, or until the whey forms, when the curds are cut with the perpendicular knife across the vat. The breaking having been perfected, heat is begun to be gradually applied and is continued until the mass reaches a temperature of 98°, the time occu- pied being one and a-half hours or thereabouts. It is regarded of great importance to heat slowly, and care is taken that the increase in temperature in all parts of the heating process is regular and gradual. Sour whey is not usually employed, as it is preferred that the acid be developed in heating. The curds are taken out of the vat into the sink at 90° — the acid' having been developed — and they are left exposed in the sink to cool. If acid has by chance been carried too far in the vat, cold water is conducted between the vats, under the curds to cool them rapidly. It is preferred, however, to cool the curds by exposing them to the air, as they are spread out in the sink. When the curds have been cooled down to a temperature of from V5 ° to 80°, and also are thoroughly drained of whey; they are salted in summer at the rate of 2 9-lOths pounds of salt to one hundred pounds of green cheese, and for September about a tenth of a pound less salt. If the milk in hot weather is not all right, or if tainted, particular attention is given to have the curds exposed a long time to the atmosphere. The temperature of the curing-room is kept at 70°, or as near that point as possible. In May the average quantity of milk for a pound of cured cheese was 9 37-lOOths pounds; in June, 9 3-lOths pounds, and in July 9 V-lOths pounds. The cheese on hand at the time of my visit, were meaty, solid and of uniform fine flavor. The factory is convenient in its arrangements, but the building is very plain and cheap in appearance. The factory of the Norway Association receives the milk from four hun- dred cows, and careful attention is given among patrons to deliver clean, sweet milk. An agitator is kept moving in the night's milk, and the temper- ature of the water is reduced with ice, so that the night's milk will stand in the morning at a temperature of 60°. Mr. Jambs, the manufacturer, sets the milk for coagulation at 84°, and during the process of scalding 98° is the highest temperature employed. The best factory filled salt is used in spring at the rate of two and a-half pounds to one hundred of curd ; in summer the salt is three pounds, and in fall two and seven-tenths pounds. As at other factories where high-priced cheese is made, the heating process is very slow and gradual, requiring from one and Brquarter to one and a-half hours. Great attention is paid to the development of the acid, and Mr. James attributes his success to the faculty of distinguishing tbe proper con- dition of the curds in this respect, and to their exposure to the atmosphere in the sink until properly matured. Of course these peculiar conditions of the curds cannot be described in words, but must be learned by experience. 464 • Practical Dairy Hussandrt. Mr. James says he likes to develop the acid " sharp " through June, July and August, but in fall not so much. As soon as it can be detected in the vats, the whey is immediately withdrawn, and as I have before remarked, the appliance of the shute is here of service in taking immediate advantage for regulating this condition of the curds. The cheese at this factory are pressed in fourteen and a-half inch hoops, weigh about sixty pounds each. They are slightly colored. At the time of my visit fifteen cheeses were being made daily. The highest receipts of milk during the season were ten thousand pounds, which made eighteen and arhalf cheeses daily. THE " COARSE CUEDS " PROCESS is followed at the Cold Creek Factory, and whatever difference of opinion there may be as to the merits of this process, it is just to say that the cheese shows it to be a success. I saw the Cold Creek brand in England in 1866, and heard dealers express their opinion that it was among the best of the American factories. Since that time, if measured by the test of prices at home, the process, at least in Mr. Hopson's hands, must be considered a success. What is claimed in the coarse curds process, is the production of cheese, solid yet mellow in texture, having a sweet, nutty or new milk flavor, or as the trade expresses it, " clean flavored ;" and finally, a better retention of the butteraneous matter of the milk, than in the ordinary course of manufacture. The theory of the coarse curds is, that the less the cutting or agitation of the curds while in a soft state the more butter you retain, hence the curds are cut or broken no more than is absolutely necessary, while the stirring is of the gentlest kind, and just sufiicient to keep the mass from clinging together. Mr. HoPSON sets the milk for coagulaLion at 80°, using a sufiicient quantity of rennet to thoroughly coagulate the mass fit for the knife in an hour. Then he commences cutting with a gang of steel blades, lengthwise of the vat, going through once. The mass is now left at rest from ten to twenty minutes, until the whey begins to rise. Then a four-bladed knife (with blades three-fourths of an inch apart) is used for the cross-cutting. It is set at an angle of 45° with the bottom of the vat, and run through the mass crosswise" of the vat. Then if there is likely to be no immediate change in the whey, the mass is left at rest for ten or fifteen minutes, and the knife used again across the vat, the operator standing on the side opposite to whei'e he stood for the previous cutting. Inexperienced cheese-makers, or those who do not understand the philosophy of cheese-making, advise that all the cutting be done as quickly as possible, and if an instrument could be made for the purpose, would prefer that all the cutting should be done instantaneously. This is evidently inju- dicious, as the whey forms slowly, and a complete division of curds at once in their tender condition cannot be effected without liberating the oily parti- cles, and thus causing waste. Such cutting is admissible only when acidity is progressing rapidly, and all parts of the process require to be hastened. FsACTiCAZ, Dairy Husbandbt. 465 In the coarse curd process, the cutting having been performed as just described, it completes what is understood by " breaking " — for no other division or breaking up of the particles is deemed necessary. Heat is now begun to be applied veiy slowly, and the mass is stirred in the gentlest manner possible, and no more than to prevent the curds from running or clinging together. Great attention is paid to careful handling in this part of the pro- cess, in order that none of the buttery particles be pressed out, the theory being to let the curds do their own work as far as possible. The time of heating up is usually about an hour or an hour and a-quarter, the mass being raised to 100°. After heating, the curds are only stirred occasionally to pre- vent matting, and the mass remains in the vats till the acid is properly devel- oped. Mr. HopsoN depends for the most part upon the sense of smell in determining the degree of acidity required, and with long practice and good judgment in this respect, he is able to time operations so as to manage his curds with great uniformity. The curds are now thrown into the sink to be exposed to the atmosphere, where they are stirred, and when properly cooled down and the acidity carried to the exact point desired, salt is applied. THE SALTING during the summer is at the rate of three and a-half pounds salt to one hundred pounds curd, and it is thoroughly and evenly incorporated with the curds. In spring and up to the 10th of May three and a-quarter pounds salt is the rate. No sour whey is used except that employed for soaking the rennets. The curds when ready to salt, appear to be in particles about the size of chestnuts. They have a very nice look and feel, being what cheese- makers term " lively." Although this is an old factory the buildings are in good repair, clean and sweet, with neat surroundings. The size of the dairy-house is thirty by one hundred feet, and the manufactory, which is a separate structure, thirty-six by thirty-six feet. Milk is delivered from five hundred and fifty cows. Ordi- narily the cheese is pressed in fifteen and a-half inch hoops, and will weigh sixty-five pounds each. The factory is supplied with an abundance of pure spring water of a temperature of about 52°. In summer a stream of water is kept flowing under the night's milk in the vats, and the milk is stirred also during the night with Austin's agitator. On the 8th of September, 1869, Mr. Hopson had an order for one hun- dred large cheeses, eighty colored and twenty white. The order was com- pleted on the 12th of October. These cheeses weighed three hundred and thirty pounds each, and a handsomer lot could not well be got together. I tested a large number of cheeses in the curing-room, and found them uniformly very meaty, and of clean and delicate flavor. Something of their character may be indicated from the fact that twenty-two cents per pound was offered by a purchaser in our presence for the lot of large cheese, the highest market rates at Little Falls at that time being nineteen cents. 30 466 Practical Dairy Husbandrt. About two miles east of Salisbury Center is another " fancy factory," the " Herkimer County," or " Avery & Ives " — giving the name of the proprie- tors. This is an old factory, and the manufacturer, Mr. E. B. Faiechild, has been here seven years. Mr. Faikchild is, without doubt, one of the best cheese manufacturers in the State. His cheese stands high among the " fan- cies." He follows the coarse curds process, though not precisely in the steps of Mr. HopsoN. His cheese is very solid, meaty and fine-flavored. An old cheese-dealer and noted expert remarked to me, on the day of my visit, that probably nothing finer could be found in the State than the lot of cheese then on the shelves at the Avert & Ives factory. The factory takes the milk of six hundred cows, and the receipts on October 23d were five thousand pounds, and made into nine cheeses, which weighed sixty-five pounds each ; in shape, Cheddars, being pressed in fourteen and a-half inch hoops. The establishment is in two buildings, the making department being thirty by thirty feet, and the dry house one hundred by thirty-six feet, two stories high. The milk is set at 80°, the highest heat in scalding 100°. The curds are cut coarse, somewhat similar to Mr. Hopson's at Cold Creek, and the time of heating and extreme care in handling the curds are also similar; but the salting is not so high, the rate in summer being three pounds, and in fall two and eight-tenths pounds salt to one hun- dred pounds curd. Mr. Faiechild thinks the fine texture of his cheese results in a great measure from having the milk in perfect condition at the commencement of operations and then employing heat slowly, manipulating the curds in the gentlest manner, and finally, accuracy in developing the degree of acidity. During cool weather in the fall, sour whey is added with the rennet to the milk, at the rate of two pails whey for four hundred gallons of milk. He thinks coarse curds make a more meaty cheese and produce a larger quan- tity of cheese from a given quantity of milk than fine curds. Acid is devel- oped in the vat with the whey rather than in the sink, and from long practice and close watching, he is able to detect the changes from time to time very accurately. The practice at other factories might be given, but these described will suffice, it is believed, for all practical purposes. MAKING CHEESE FEOM A SMALL N^UMBEE OP COWS. If there happen to be three or four neighbors similarly situated, that is, each having but two or three cows, it will be a good plan for all to join together, delivering a certain quantity of milk daily at some central neigh- bor's house, where the cheese is to be made. There will be no very great trouble in this, and by assisting each other, all may be supplied. As the labor in manufacture will be no more for ten pails of milk than for four, and as the cheese can then be made up at once, it will be advisable to associate together whenever practicable. Ten pails of milk will make say twenty-five gallons, and the twenty-five Practical Dairy Husbandry. 467 gallons will give a cheese of twenty pounds, and perhaps a trifle over. If the milk is worked in the manner I have described, the curds may be pressed in a hoop eleven inches in diameter and about the same hight. Small cheeses of this kind need not be bandaged. After coming from the hoop, they should be oiled over with a little fresh butter to prevent the rind from checking, and may be placed upon the shelf. They will need turning every day, giving the surface a smart rubbing with the hand, which will prevent the cheese flies from securing a safe deposit of their eggs. If the rind of the cheese gets dry, it will be well to oil again with fresh butter. If properly cared for the cheese will begin to be mellow in four or five weeks, and will be eatable, though age will improve it, and when six months old it should be of delicious flavor and quality if well made. DOUBLE CURDS. But if the quantity of milk is too small to make a curd for one pressing, then resort may be had to what is termed double curds. These are managed after the following manner : The milk is treated precisely as if there was sufiicient for a cheese. After the curds have been drained and slightly salted and are ready for the hoop, they are set aside in a cool place in the cellar until next day. Then, after the next curds are ready, the previous day's curds are treated with warm whey, so that they may be broken up, when they are drained' and the two days' curds are thoroughly mingled together and salted. They are then put to press, and will unite together the same as if they had been a " one day's cheese." I have seen some most excellent cheese made in this way, cheese as fine in flavor and quality as one could wish to see. Sometimes curds are kept in this way three days, or more, until a sufiicient quantity has accumulated to make a cheese of the desired size. In this way cheese can be made when only one cow is kept. GEAFTING THE CUEDS. * There is another way of managing the curds, called grafting. As soon as the curds are ready they are put to press. The next day the hoop is taken off and a thin scale taken from the top of the cheese with a sharp knife, and the fresh surface made rough with a fork. The top rind and the upper edges being pared off the parings are broken up and warmed by the addition of whey. They are then mingled with the new curds and placed in the hoop on top of the previous day's cheese and put to press. The two days' curds will adhere, and in this way small quantities of milk may be utilized in cheese- making. Grafted cheese should always be bandaged, for unless the whey is very thoroughly drained from the curds, the two sections or grafts sometimes will not adhere so firmly as the parts where they are not joined. It is a good plan in grafting cheese, after paring off the rind as I have described, to cut across the cheese two or three times, taking out a small triangular strip. Some people after paring the rind and cutting across as above, make the 468 Practical Daisy Husbandry. upper surface also rough by scraping with the point of a knife or fork. This is done for the purpose of giving the new curds a stronger hold on those of the previous day. MAKING CHEESE WITHOUT PEOPEB APPARATUS AND FIXTURES. Sometimes the farmer who keeps only a few cows to supply his family with milk and butter, would like also to make a few cheeses for family use ; he does not care to make cheese to sell, and therefore hardly feels able to purchase cheese apparatus and fit up a dairy-house after the most approved models ; this he thinks would cost more than to purchase his supply of cheese in the market. But it often happens that where this state of things exists, the money cannot be spared for buying cheese, and so this luxury is dis- pensed with at the family table. Let us see now, how cheaply we can arrange for a primitive dairy. If nothing better is at hand, a common wash-tub, clean and sweet, will answer the purpose for setting the milk and working the curds. A hoop must be had from the cooper. Let it be ten inches in diameter, top and bottom, by twelve inches high, and fitted with a follower. A PRIMITIVE PRESS. A very good press may be made in a few hours from a twelve-foot plank, and a few pieces of scantling. , About a foot from either end of the plank TH1C»0LD-FASH10NED liOO CHEESE FBEBS. set up two short pieces of scantling four and a-half inches apart. Fasten them firmly to the plank with bolts or pins. The lever may be a joist, four by four, or four by six, and fourteen feet long. One end is secured by a pin passing through the uprights at one end of the plank, and it is to move freely up and down between the uprights at the other end. A weight hung at one end of the lever and you have a press that will do good service. The weights at the end of the long lever are a stone or two from the field. There may be another lever arranged for raising the long lever or press-beam, without removing the weights, which are stationary. We give an illustration of an old-fashioned log press. The hoop is placed near the stationary end of the press-beam, and blocks put upon the follower, the press-beam let down upon them, and in this way the cheese is pressed. A long, thin wooden knife will do for cutting the curds. A gallon of good milk (wine measure) will make nearly a pound of cheese. Pbavtical Dairy Husbandry. 469 the process. Tour milk having been placed in the tub, and the number of gallons known, a portion may be taken out and heated in pans over a common stove. The pan holding the milk should be set in another pan holding water or over a kettle containing water, so as not to scorch or burn the milk in the pan. Heat the milk and pour into the tub, till the mass indicates a temperature of 85 * . Then add a quantity of rennet (which has been previously prepared by steeping the dry skins or rennet in water), sufficient to coagulate the milk, say in forty or fifty minutes. Now put your finger into the curd, raise it slowly, and if it readily splits apart the mass is ready to cut into blocks with the curd knife. After cutting into checks two inches square, let it remain at rest ten to fifteen minutes for the whey to form. Then carefully break with the hands by lifting up the curds very gently, and when the mass has been gone over, let it rest for ten or fifteen minutes for the curd to subside. Now dip ofiTa portion of the whey into the pans, and heat on the stove in the same manner that the milk was warmed. In the meantime continue breaking, by gently lifting the curd, until the particles of curd are about the size of small chestnuts or large beans. Then pour in the warm whey and continue heating and adding the warm whey until the mass indicates a tem- perature of 98°. Do not be in a hurry, but take things leisurely, continuing the breaking or stirring the curds while heat is being applied. It may now be left at rest for half an hour and then stirred, so that the particles may not pack or adhere together in the tub, and this treatment continued until the curd has a firm consistency. Take up a handful and press it together in the hand, and if on opening the hand it readily falls to pieces, it is about ready for draining. Throw a cloth strainer over the tub and dip off the whey down to the curd. Then ptit the strainer on a willow clothes basket and dip the curd into it to drain. It may now be broken up with the hands, and when pretty dry may be salted in the basket or returned to the tub for salting. Salt at the rate of four to four and a-half ounces of salt to ten pounds curd ; mix it thoroughly and put to press. After remaining from two to four hours in press, turn and put to press again, leaving it under pressure till next morning, when it may be removed to the shelf. Very small cheeses need not be bandaged. They should be rubbed over with a little fresh butter, melted and applied warm, or with oil made from the cream that rises from the whey. They should be turned and rubbed daily until well ripened. THE CHEESE FLY. Most dairymen understand pretty well the habits of the cheese fly ; many, however, do not understand how to provide against its depredations. Some people profess to be fond of a skippery cheese, and regard it as an index of what the English understand as a "cheese full of meat" — that is, rich in butter. And it must be confessed that the cheese fly has a great partiality for the best goods in the curing house. They do not so readily attack your 470 Practical Dairy Husbandry. " white oak " and skim milk varieties, hence the notion that cheese infested ■with the fly is rich in butter is not far out of the way. The primary cause of skippery cheese, of course, is want of care. Cheese in hot weather should be closely examined every day ; they require to be turned once a day to facilitate the curing process ; the bandages and sides are to be rubbed at the time of turning, in order to brush off or destroy any nits of the fly which may happen to be deposited about the cheese. If there are cracks in the rind, or if the edges of the bandage do not flt snugly, they should at once be attended to, since it is at these points that the fly is most likely to make a safe deposit of its eggs. FILLING UP THE CBACKS. The cracks and checks in the cheese should be filled up with particles of cheese that have been crushed under a knife to make them mellow and plastic. When once filled, a strip of thin, tough paper, oiled and laid over the repaired feurface will serve as a further protection of the parts. The cheese in the checks soon hardens and forms a new rind. Deep and bad looking checks may be repaired in this way, so as to form a smooth surface, scarcely to be dis- tinguished from the sound parts of the cheese. It is a great mistake to send cheese that have deep checks or broken rinds to market ; for in addition to their liability to be attacked by the fiy, they have the appearance of being imperfect, and are justly regarded with suspicion. CUKING-KOOM NOT TO BE DAKK. Some dairymen think that a darkened curing-room is best for cheese, and at the same time is the best protection against the fly ; I think this is a mis- take ; cheese cures with the best flavor when it is exposed to light, and besides, it can be examined more minutely from time to time and freed from any depredation of the skipper. August and September are generally the worst months in the year to protect cheese against the attacks of the fly. Some years the trouble is greater than others, and various means have been resorted to for the purpose of avoiding the pest, such as rubbing the cheese over with a mixture of oil and cayenne pepper, &c. These things generally do not amount to much, and are not to be recommended ; the best protection is cleanliness, sharp eyes and a good care of the cheese. Whenever a lodge- ment of skippers has been made they must at once be removed ; sometimes it will be necessary to cut into the cheese and remove the nest with a knife, but if the colony is young and small in numbers, a thick oiled paper, plastered over the affected part so as to exclude the air, will bring the pests to the surface, when they may be removed ; the oiled paper should again be returned to its place and the skippers removed from time to time till all are destroyed. WASHING THE TABLES AND RANGES. If skippers begin to trouble the cheese, the best course to be adopted is to commence at once and wash the ranges, or tables on which the cheese are Practical Dairy Husbandry. 471 placed, with hot whey ; this \vill remove all accumulation of grease or nits about the ranges, giving a clean surface, which does not attract the flies. If the cheese also is washed in the hot whey and rubbed with a dry cloth, the labor of expelling the trouble from the curing-rooms will be greatly facilitated. Keep the curing-room clean and sweet ; see that the cheeses have a smooth rind, that the bandages are smoothly laid at the edges ; turn and rub the cheese daily, and there need be no trouble from the_ cheese fly. PAINTBD CHEESE. There are several kinds of foreign fancy cheeses that are peculiar in having their sides painted with a dark brown or red color. The double Gloucester or North Wilts, the small loaf and truckle shapes, and the Edams, are of this character. In the old process of curing the double Gloucester the cheese is rubbed with finely powdered salt, and this is thought to make the cheese more smooth and solid than when the salting process is performed in the curd. After the cheese has been in the curing-room and turned every day for a month or so, it is cleaned of all scurf and rubbed with a woolen cloth, dipped in a paint made of Indian red, or Spanish brown and small beer. After the paint is dry the cheese is rubbed once a week with a cloth. The Edam or Dutch cheese is colored on the outside, when ready for market, with what is called tournesal, the juice of a plant ( Groton tinctorium) which grows wild in France. Rags are saturated in this juice and then exposed to the 'vapor arising from lime mixed with urine, which gives them a violet color. The cheeses are rubbed over with these tournesal rags, which gives them the peculiar glowing red with which they appear in market. A friend, who makes small fancy cheeses in imitation of English, and which sell for a high price, makes a paint for coloring the rinds of the cheese of the following: — Sharp, sour whey, salt, Venetian red and burnt umber. The Venetian red and umber are added to the whey, so as to make a mixture of the consistency of paint and of the shade desired, and when the cheeses are ready for market the rinds are painted over and allowed to dry. He says that this mixture holds its place and color on the cheese without flaking off, and is altogether better than the English mixture made of beer and Indian red. No bandage is used upon cheese treated with this coloring matter. trSE OF SALTPETEE. The use of saltpeter in cheese manufacture has been long employed in some of the dairy districts of England. It is claimed by those who use salt- peter for this purpose that it helps preserve the flavor of cheese, improving also the keeping qualities of the goods. I am unable to say how this may be, never having made any direct experiments in my own dairy as a test. Salt- peter is used extensively in curing meats, and most people understand some- thing of its effects when employed for this purpose. I do not understand that saltpeter has ever been used to any great extent in American cheese manu- facture, but I am informed by an old and distinguished cheese factory manager 472 Practical Dairy Husbandry. at Oneida that it has been used at his factory with the best results. The manner of preparing it for use is as follows: — Take from three to three and a-half pounds saltpeter and reduce it to a powder. This will be sufficient for one barrel of salt, best factory filled. Now spread the salt on a clean floor and sprinkle over with the powder as evenly as possible, and mix thoroughly by shoveling it over. It may then be repacked in the barrel and it is fit for use. When the curds are to be salted use the usual quantity by weight of the compound as you would of salt, if that alone was to be employed. I have seen small quantities of saltpeter added to salt for preserving butter with good results, and it is possible that saltpeter used for preserving cheese in the way described may be of some advantage. BAD FLAVOR. It is very difiicult to point out the cause of bad flavor in cheese without seeing the cheese and knowing all the details in manufacture, together with the condition of pastures, care of stock, water, &c. There are a great many things that affect flavor in cheese, and of all the months in the year June and July are the most trying to the cheese-maker. Much of the July cheese is often out of flavor, and manufacturers are often at a loss to account for it. Cheese that is well made will take on a taint and get out of flavor by being kept in a badly ventilated and ill-contrived curing-room. Cheese in curing needs air and a uniform temperature not higher than 75°. Some cheese- rooms are excessively warm and close in hot weather, and the fermenting or' curing powers are carried on too rapidly. Scurfy cheese show that there has been fault in manufacture. If it pro- ceeds from whey oozing out, forming a kind of gummy, sticky substance on the sides, the curds have not been properly matured in the vat. The cheese when taken from the press to the table ought not to leak whey. Sometimes a mold or scurf forms on cheese from damp weather, wheii the cheese is not properly rubbed daily. The scurf should be removed and the cheese " slicked up " before sending to market. POISON CHEESE. During a visit to St. Lawrence county a prominent cheese dealer of that county called my attention to a case of cheese poisoning which had come under his observation : — A lot of cheese had been purchased from a dairyman of that county by the dealer referred to, and having been shipped by him and placed upon the market, a complaint was instituted that the cheese proved to be poisonous. No deaths, it is true, came from eating the cheese, but the persons who ate of it were taken suddenly ill with pains and cramps and excessive vomiting, showing evident indications that they had been poisoned. It was an easy matter of course to trace the source of this illness to the cheese of a particular dairy, and immediately a thorough investigation was inaugurated to discover the origin of the trouble. On an examination of the dairy where the cheese was made nothing unusual was found in the , inanner Practical Dairy Husbandry. 473 of manufacture, or in the appliances used in cheese making. The cheese had been made in the ordinary tin vat, and all the processes of manufacture were similar to those in common practice in the country. Due regard had been exercised as to cleanliness ; no known poisons had been employed about the premises, and it had become evident to the parties investigating that the poison, if any, in the cheese, must have come from the salt, the annatto, or in some way of which the cheese maker or his family were not cognizant, or indeed to be blamed. Samples of the cheese were also forwarded to Prof. Jackson of Boston for analysis ; and having been submitted to a rigid examination by this emi- nent chemist, the opinion was further confirmed that the dairyman was blameless in the matter. Dr. Jackson states in regard to the analysis of this cheese as follows : — " Each and all of the samples were entirely free from any tone poisons. There are no metal or mineral poisons of the kind present, nor any alkaloids or. deleterious vegetable principles. But there is a small pro- portion of offensive putrefying animal matter which has been separated here that does not belong to good cheese. It is impossible to give this impurity any correct name, and it is only an opinion of mine that it comes from the rennet used. It is not poisonous, although it occasions vomiting in dogs and cats, and small portions of it may be taken into the human stomach with- out effect." The facts elicited in this analysis of Dr. Jackson correspond in some respects with those discovered a few years since by Dr. Voelckee, and from which it would appear that cheese, as well as other kinds of animal food, under certain conditions of decay, generates a peculiar organic poison ; but what the composition of this virulent poison is the chemists are as yet unable to determine. Dr. Voblckbb stated to me that instances had come under his observation where this poison in cheese had become dissipated as the cheese passed into a further state of fermentation and decomposition, and that the cheese could then be safely eaten, producing no injurious or unpleasant effects. In his report upon this subject to the Royal Agricultural Society, a case is mentioned somewhat similar to that referred to in St. Lawrence county, and as it details more fully the nature of this peculiar poison than the statement of Dr. Jackson, it will be of interest perhaps to present it in this connection. Without going into a history of the particular dairy or the various cases of poisoning, it will be sufScient to say that quite a number of people were taken ill after partaking of the cheese, and that samples of the cheese causing the illness were forwarded to Dr. Voelckee for examination. This cheese, he says, presented nothing in appearance which could be regarded as an indi- cation of its spoiled condition or unwholesome quality. The taste was sharp, peculiar and quite different from the rich and pungent taste of well-ripened old cheese ; but it was not sufficiently characteristic of its unquestionably poisonous properties. He says : — " Having analyzed at different times cheese 474 Practical Dairy Husbandry. which produced bad effects when taken in any quantity, I cautioned my assistants not to take too much of it, and invited them to taste the cheese sent. Certain chemicals, which are sometimes put into cheese, can to a cer- tain extent be recognized by the peculiar taste which they impart. I tasted it myself, and although I took a piece only the size of a hazel nut, I felt its effects four hours after having tasted it. Both my assistants, who had taken no more at the most than a quarter of an ounce each, five hours afterward were violently attacked with vomiting and pain in the bowels ; one of them was ill all night, and scarcely able to follow his usual work next day. Both complained of a nasty mercurial taste, which seemed to remain with them for many hours after partaking of the cheese. " On a former occasion I found sulphate of zinc or white vitriol in a cheese which caused sickness, and in another instance I detected in cheese sulphate of copper. My attention, therefore, naturally was dii-ected to search for metallic poisons ; but though carefully operating on large quantities, I failed to detect even traces of zinc, copper, mercury, antimony, arsenic, or any of the metallic poisons which might possibly have imparted injurious properties to the cheese. Having failed to detect any mineral poison I next directed my attention to the examination of the organic constituents : the quantitative general analysis gave the following results : ■Wiiter 37.88 Organic constituents 58.04 Mineral 4.08 Total 100.00 Containing salt 1.33 " The proportion of water in this cheese was rather large, considering that it must have been cut for some time, and have lost water by evaporation. On further examining it I found it remarkably sour, and had no difficulty in detecting an unusually large quantity of fatty acids, which if not poisonous themselves are the vehicle conveying the peculiar organic poison which appears to be generated sometimes in cheese undergoing a peculiar kind of fermentation. " Probably the poison generated in this modified decay of cheese is iden- tical with the so-called sausage poison, which is sometimes found in German sausages, especially those made of coagulated blood. A similar poison appears to be generated sometimes in pickled salmon, smoked sprats, pork, tainted veal, bacon and hams. Bacon and hams when not properly cured, and fat meat, kept in a damp, badly-ventilated cellar, are very apt to become more or less injurious to health, and even butter after it has turned rancid ; and similar organic matters are liberated in it, which exist in this cheese in a free state, acts as a poison in most cases. Singularly enough, some people are not affected by these subtle organic poisons. "The poison of cheese was known in Germany as long ago as 1820, and probably even earlier. A great deal has been written on the subject, but we Practical Dairy Husbandry. 475 are yet as far as ever from knowing the composition of this virulent poison." Dr. VoELCKEE further states that cases of poisoning by cheese, in which no mineral poison can be detected, occur much more frequently than is gene- rally supposed. And it appears that cheese kept in damp, badly-ventilated places, or where too much whey is left, or indeed, all the circumstances which tend to produce a too acid curd, and to generate fatty acids are apt to pro- duce this peculiar poison. Dr. VoELOKEE regrets that we have no means of detecting this invidious poison, which, in a great many cases, has produced fatal results ; and he remarks that, what is indeed strange, poisonous cheese of this character when kept until it becomes quite decayed loses its poisonous properties and becomes harmless. Poisonous cheese always exhibits a strong acid reaction when tested with litmus paper. A slight acid reaction marks all fresh cheese, but while the outside of good old cheese is ammoniacal, the outside of cheese in which this poison occurs is acid. SCHWBITZEE EASE. The large element of foreign population now among us, and more espe- cially that from the German States, has introduced a demand, for certain arti- cles which a few years ago were almost unknown in many parts of the country. It is but natural that foreign tastes should thus creep in upon us by degrees, and become more or less adopted by our native population. The Schweitzer Kase and Limberger clieese, a few years ago were imported, and perhaps are to some extent at the present time, but their manufacture now having been established in this country, there is no necessity for such importation. Such cheese can be made here of equal quality with the imported article, and can be afforded also at less cost. I have frequently had occasion to compare our Schweitzer Kase, or Swiss cheese with the foreign article, and in the presence of good judges, who pronounced the American quite equal in quality and peculiar flavor to the foreign manufacture. Swiss cheese when eaten before it has acquired that strong, rank flavor which is deemed essential, or at least seems to suit the taste of a majority of foreigners, is very palatable, and many Americans who have been accustomed to eat of it, grow fond of it, and prefer it to our best grades of Cheddars. A few years since I visited a factory in Oneida Co., erected for the pur- pose of making Swiss cheese, and where a very superior article was produced. The manager here was a Swiss cheese-maker, and the arrangements and machinery of the establishment were after the most approved Swiss pattern. In the proper curing of Swiss cheese a room in which a low, even tempera- ture can be secured is requisite, hence a cellar basement of stone is deemed important for a good curing-room. The factory referred to was erected for manufacturing milk from about two hundred cows. The building is about 476 Practical Dairy Hvsbandrt. eighty-four feet long by thirty-four feet broad, and is placed upon a side-hill so as to have a stone basement or cellar, some eight feet high and extending under the entire upper structure, which is of wood. The cheeses are pressed in two sizes — the one thirty-two inches, and the other twenty-eight inches in diameter, but both are uniformly but five and a-half inches thick. The larger-sized cheese will weigh when cured some- where near a hundred pounds, and the curing process will require at least three months. The milk is made up fresh from the cow, that is, the morning's and even- ing's mess separately. As soon as the morning's milk is received it is turned into a large copper kettle, hanging upon a crane which swings over the fire in a broad, old-fashioned fire-place. When the temperatui-e of the milk indi- cates 81 ° the rennet is added. After the milk has coagulated a circular wire- breaker attached to a long handle is introduced, the curd broken up, and the whole mass stirred with the breaker. The kettle is now swung over the fire and the stirring kept up until the mass indicates a temperature of 120° to 125°, when it is moved back on the crane from the fire into the room, and the stirring continued for half an hour longer, or until the curd is sufficiently ■ cooked. This is indicated by its firm and elastic condition, similar to curd properly " cooked " in ordinary cheese-making. A cloth strainer is now introduced under the curd, the ends of the cloth brought together, when the mass is lifted out of the kettle, leaving the whey behind. It is then immediately put to press and remains in press about two hours, when it is taken out of press and plunged in cold water. Here it remains for two hours or more, or until thoroughly cooled, when it is returned again to the press, where it remains four or five hours. In pressing, light, adjustable hoops, made of thin strips of elm wood, are used. They are arranged with cords upon the ends, so that the size of the hoop may be contracted or expanded at pleasure. On removing the cheese from the press to the curing-room, these hoops are kept upon the cheese, and serve in lieu of bandages. No salt is used in the curd at the time of making as is usual in other styles of cheese, but the salt is applied in the curing-room ; here dry salt in small quantities is daily sprinkled over the cheese during the space of three months, and after that they are treated with salt every other day. Every two or three days during the curing process the cheeses are washed with brine, which serves to remove any mold that may be inclined to form or adhere to the rinds. These are briefly the main features in the process. The cheese, while curing, appears to be more elastic, and will not readily break and fall to pieces as that made in the ordinary way. When well made- they are mellow and rich, and of a sweet, delicate flavor if eaten before they acquire age. They are quite porous, which is esteemed a mark of good quality. After getting age they are apt to take on a peculiar rank flavor, which nevertheless is regarded as delicious by those who have acquired a taste for it. Practical Dairy Husbandry. 477 Good Swiss cheese usually brings an advanced price over the best grades of factory cheese as usually manufactured, which, I suppose, is on account of the small quantity made, and the supply being kept within the demand. PINE-APPLE CHEESE. So far as the manipulation of milk, and the treatment of curds are con- cerned, the making of pine-apple cheese does not differ materially from that of cheese commonly made at factories. The diamond-like impressions on the rind, by which it is made to resemble somewhat, the scales on the pine-apple fruit, are produced by the meshes of the net in which the cheese is sustained to cure. The main features in the manufacture consist of the molds and nets which give the desired shape and appearance to this style of cheese. The molds are capable of holding from six to ten pounds of curd. The mold is formed of four scantling, four or five inches square, by scooping out one corner of each in the right shape, and placing them together. The tim- bers are long enough to allow a' neck six or seven inches long, and three or more in diameter, to be grooved from the same corners, and when they are put together the curd is put into the mold through this neck, the neck also being filled with curd pressed in. The separate pieces of timber are bolted firmly together two and two, thus leaving it in two parts. These two parts are held firmly together by a hoop of strap iron tightened by wedges. When the cheese is to be taken out, the wedges are loosened, the hoop slipped off and the mold taken apart. The pressure is applied by any press, provided with a follower that will fit the neck, into which it is forced, and the whey escapes at the joining of the molds, which open a little by the pressure. The cheese-cloth is used the same as in the common hoop, though it should be pressed hard for a while to obliterate the impressions of the folds in the cloth. The follower should be a little concave at the bottom and force the curd down to a level with the curd in the mold. The whey should be entirely removed, and the cheese rendered as compact as possible. To effect this a follower sharpened in the form of a bodkin at the lower end, long enough to reach near the bottom of the mold, should be forced into the cheese immediately after the curd has been somewhat compacted by the follower, and the orifice filled up with new curd, if there is not enough already in the mold to fill it. • After it has remained in press a sufficient length of time it is removed, and a net is placed upon it similar to a cabbage net, knit with meshes half to three-fourths of an inch square, when they are suspended by the tightening cord to hooks driven into the wall or other place for the purpose. "When thoroughly dried they should be smeared with sweet whey butter. After hanging long enough to get their shape confirmed, the net is removed and they are set upon the large end upon trenchers until perfectly cured. During the whole process of curing they are to be rubbed as often as necessary to give them a fair skin and keep away insects. 478 Practical Dairy Husbandry. The molds are sometimes made of blocks of oak timber, about twenty inches long and ten inches square. They are sawed lengthwise through the middle, and each half is carved or worked out in the shape of a pine-apple, one-half in each part. Then a groove is cut about two and a-half inches in diameter, for passing the curd into the mold. Some manufacturers, after taking the cheese from the press, trim them, and then put on the nets, hanging the cheese for a short time in water of 120°. This is to soften the rind, that they may the better receive the impres- sion of the net, which is done by taking them from the water while enveloped in the nets, placing them in a frame and straining the nets tightly over them by means of screws. They are then hung up as before described, to harden, and finally, are set on shelves having suitable hollows or concavities for the cheese to rest upon. The nets are made from flax twine, and will last seve- ral years. The labor and trouble of making pine-apple cheese is so much, that a large price must be obtained in order to make its manufacture a paying business. STILTON CHEESE. Cheese of this character at present is of no commercial importance to American dairymen. Still it is possible small quantities may in time be made for home consumption. Stilton is made from the morning's mess of milk, to which has been added the cream of the night's milk, in proportion of a quart of cream for every ten quarts of milk. The milk and cream having been nicely mingled together, is set for coagulation in a small tub in which there has been previously arranged a linen strainer. The mass is set in the ordi- nary way with rennet, and when coagulation is perfected the curd is cut across in large checks, and without further breaking, is lifted gently into a willow basket for the whey to escape. No heat, except the natural heat as it comes from the cow, is used during the process. After the whey has sepa- rated from the curd in the basket^ as described above, the curd is carefully placed in a hoop, and is then turned every three hours, say four or five times during the day. No pressure is applied except its own weight, and it remains in the hoop without cloth or bandage, being turned from day to day, as before described, until sufficiently consolidated to hold together, when it is taken out, and a bandage pinned about it, and then it goes upon the shelf to cure. The hoop is seven inches in diameter and eight inches high; it is pierced with holes, and it has two little followers fitting above and below the cheese, each pierced with holes for the escape of the whey. Two " setters " or covers with rims are also provided and pierced with holes, so that in turn- ing the cheese all that is needed is to change ends without taking the cheese from the hoop. No salt is used in the curds — its application being from the outside after the cheese is taken from the hoop. The cheese is kept at a tem- perature of about 1Q° for some time, and then is placed ir^ a warm room for the development of the blue mold, which is considered of prime importance. Pbacjical Dairy Uusbanort. 479 impkoving hard, dby cheese. When a cheese which has been much salted and kept very dry, is washed several times in soft water, and then laid in a cloth moistened with wine or vinegar, it gradually loses its saltness, and from being hard and dry, becomes soft and mellow, provided it be rich cheese. This simple method of improv- ing cheese is worth knowing. It is generally practiced in Switzerland, where cheeses are kept stored for many years, and if they were not very salt and dry they would soon be the prey of worms and; mites. A dry Stilton cheese may thus be much improved. COTTAGE, OE DUTCH CHEESE. ' Cottage cheese is in some sections called Dutch cheese or curds. It is the curd of sour milk drained from the whey, pressed into balls or molded in small fancy shapes, and eaten when fresh, or soon after it is made. Some people are very fond of Dutch cheese or curds, and the process of manufac- ture is so simple and so well known, that we suppose every " good house- wife " is well posted in regard to its making. ' The milk is allowed to sour and become loppered or thick, when it is gently heated, which facilitates the separation of the whey. The curds are then gathered up, salted, or otherwise, to suit the taste, and pressed in small molds, or formed with the^hand into suitable shape, when it is ready for the table and may be used immediately. In cool weather, when milk does not readily thicken, the sour milk may be put in a suitable vessel set in hot water over the range. The milk is then stirred for a few minutes, when the whey will begin to separate, and it is removed, and another batch may be treated in the same manner. In summer some use large cans, having a spiggot near the bottom ; the sour milk is placed in these cans, and allowed to stand in the sun to thicken. The heat of the sun will be sufficient to separate the whey, which may then be drawn off through the spiggot. The curds are then removed to a sink having a slatted bottom, over which a strainer cloth is placed. The curds thrown upon this strainer cloth are soon drained of the whey, when it is ready to be pressed into balls with the hand, or molded into forms. Sometimes this kind of cheese is potted and left to decompose, and when it has acquired a strong, villainous smell, it is regarded as most delicious by those who have acquired a taste for eating il; in this state. In some markets, cottage or Dutch cheese finds a ready sale, and quite a profit is made by cer- tain butter-makers, in turning their sour milk into this product. POPTJLAE WEIGHTS, BOXING FOE MARKET, ETC., ETC. I have referred, in another place, to the Cheddar shapes as the most popu- lar for export. Cheese weighing from forty to sixty-five pounds are on the whole the sizes most commonly made at the factories. For home consump- tion the growing feeling is for smaller cheeses than those above-named. A cheese of thirty pounds weight is a very desirable size for our home trade. 480 Practical Daiby HusBANDBr. It is true the cost of manufacture may be greater, and the shrinkage is more, still the consumer can afford to pay a better price for small-sized cheeses, because of their convenience and less waste from decay and drying, incident to large cheese, which must remain a longer time on band before being consumed. In boxing cheese, whether for export or the home trade, the greatest care should be taken to have the packages well made, and with an extra band on the lower edge. Cheese should never be sent to market until they have properly ripened, and then they should be placed in boxes that fit — boxes that slip down easily over the cheese, but not so large as to allow " shaking," or a movement frqm one side to the other in the box, nor in so small a package as to prevent their being readily removed from the package without breaking it. Good, substantial scale-boards should be placed on both sides of the cheese, and no other material is so well adapted, to the purpose where cheese is to be exported, or is to remain some time in the package during its transit to market. For short distances heavy straw paper may be used, but care should be taken not to pack with newspaper, as the moisture from the cheese will reduce it to a pulp, giving the cheese a very bad appearance on removal from the box. When the cheese is in place the sidesof the package shpuld come up just even with the top surface of the cheese. If it is below this surface the cheese will be liable to be broken and marred about the edges. If the rim of the box be a little higher than the cheese, it should be trimmed down after the cheese is in the box with a sharp drawing-knife, and then covers that fit closely should be adjusted. Sometimes the boxes are very imperfectly made, with loose-fitting covers that are liable to fall off in rolling the cheese from the scales, or in moving from place to place. In such cases the covers are sometimes tacked in place with nails, but when nails are used, care should be taken that they do not reach through the wood and into the cheese. The boxes should be neatly branded with the name of the factory, or if from farm dairies with the name of the dairyman, and for this purpose stencil plates are most convenient, while the lettering makes a neater appearance than when the names are burned on with branding-irons. BUTTER MANUFACTURE. The question of butter-making has now become one of great importance. In my tour through Great Britain I took some pains to examine this subject, and compare butter-making abroad with our new system as inaugurated in Orange County, N. Y. The system has proved a great success, is being rapidly introduced in new districts, and has attracted attention not only in this country, but in Europe. There is no people, perhaps, on the face of the earth more fastidious about their food than the better classes in London. Possessed of immense wealth, they pay liberally for extra qualities of food, particularly the- products of the dairy. Good butter they will have at any cost. Their finest grades come from the continent — Normandy, Holstein and the Channel Islands. It is worth from one hundred and twenty to one hundred and forty shillings per hundred weight, or say about thirty cents gold per pound, wholesale, while Canadian, the only butter imported from America, sells for fifty-four to ninety shillings per hundred weight, and Irish extra, from one hundred and eight to one hundred and twelve shillings per hundred weight. Their best butter formerly came from Ireland, but the complaint now is, that Irish butter is too salt, and lacks the delicate flavor and aroma of that which comes from the continent. Irish butter is usually packed in stout oak firkins, securely headed. Normandy and Holstein butter is in small pack- ages, flaring at the top, resembling the Orange County tub. It is excellent in flavor and texture, very slightly salted, and of a rich golden color. In England I saw butter made for the Queen's table, at the Royal Dairy, near "Windsor Castle. The milk is set in porcelain pans, resting on marble tables. The walls, the ceiling and the floor of the milk room are of china, and the arrangements for ventilation are the best tha£ can be devised. Fountains of water are constantly playing on all sides of the room, which helps to maintain an even temperature. The churn is of tin and the butter ■is worked with two thin wooden paddles. The whole establishment, from the milk-room to the stables, is the most perfect specimen of neatness that can be imagined. I need not say that the butter is excellent. 31 482 Practical Dairy Husbansbt. Cream of average richness, according to the analysis of Dr. Voelckee, contains in one hundred parts : Water, 64.80 Butter (pure flilty matters) 25 . 40 Caseine and milk sugar 7. 61 Mineral matters (asli), 2. 19 100.00 • He says, that on an average one quart of good cream yields from thirteen to fifteen ounces commercial hutter. Occasionally cream is very rich ; thus Mr. HoESEFALL states that a quart of cream in his dairy yielded one pound of butter when the cows were out to grass, and no less than twenty-two to twenty-four ounces when the cows were fed in the barn with rape cake and other substances rich in oil. The first portions of cream which rise are always thin, but rich in fat, a fact that is explained by the circumstance that during milking and the subse- quent agitation to which milk is exposed, a portion of the milk globules get broken ; in consequence of which their light fatty contents, liberated from the denser caseine shells, rise to the surface with greater facility, and then occupy less room than the unbroken milk globules, which, on account of their specific gravity, are more sluggish in rising. Generally speaking, cream yields more butter when its bulk in proportion to that of the milk from which it is taken is small, and vice versa. The leading principles to be observed in butter-making, are cleanliness and temperature. Experience has shown that a temperature of about 60° and not higher than 65°, is most conducive to the rising of the cream glob- ules, and the more uniformly the temperature can be kept at 60° through winter and summer, the more readily the cream will be thrown up, while the milk will be kept sweet, provided the dairy is dry and properly ventilated. On no account should the temperature fall below 55°. In cooling milk for butter-making this point is important. It must not be imagined that the lower the temperature is allowed to sink, the more cream will rise, for we must bear in mind that with the reduction of the temperature, the specific gravity of the liquid is greater, and the rising of the cream or milk globules checked accordingly. Every precaution as to habits of cleanliness and the keeping from the milk and cream any article, plant, or impurity, which can by any possibility communicate a taint should be rigidly adopted. The pails and strainer should be washed {scalded with boiling water) and well rinsed in cold water, and then sufiered to dry in the open air. Every article connected with the dairy should be treated in a similar manner, as there is nothing so prejudicial to new milk as being mixed with ever so small a quantity of that which has become sour, and nothing so difiicult to eradicate as the traces left in any vessel of that which ha^ become stale and decomposed. Practical Dairy Husbandry. 483 spoiling in the chubit. Perfectly good cream is often spoiled in the chum, when the dairymaid haa been negligent in properly cleansing it. When the -wood once absorbs this milk taint it is very difficult to eradicate it by subsequent cleansing. MANNEE 01" CHTJENING. During the process of churning a certain uniformity of temperature must be observed, or the butter will be soft and spongy instead of being firm and compact. The agitation also of the cream should be regular — neither too quick nor too slow. If the agitation is too quick the butter will make and unmake itself before the churner is aware of it, as too rapid motion induces fermentation, which, when it has reached a certain point is entirely destruc- tive of anything like the possibility of making even moderately good or well tasted butter. If, on the other hand, the motion be too slow, the agitators in the churn fail to produce the desired separation of the component parts of the cream ; and the consequence is, that after a good deal of time spent in lazy action, the chumer is just as far from his butter as he was at the beginning of his labors. The best temperature for the cream in churning is from 55° to 60°. EXPERIMENTS IN TEMPEEATUEB. Some years ago a series of carefully conducted experiments were made in Scotland to determine the temperature at which butter can be best and easiest obtained from the cream. The following table exhibits the mean temperature of the cream used in each experiment : Ist experiment, cream stood at 57° 3d " " " 60° 3d " " " 62° 4th " " " 66° 5lli " " " 70° The butter produced in the first experiment was of the very best quality, rich, firm and well tasted. That produced in the' second experiment was not perceptibly inferior to the first. That produced in the third experiment was more soft and spongy, and that produced in the fourth and fifth experiments, decidedly inferior in every respect to any of the former specimens. From these experiments it appears that cream should not be kept at a high temperature in the process of churning, and the experimenters conclude that the best temperature to commence the operation of churning is about 55°, and at no time in the operation ought it to exceed 65 ° ; while on the con- trary, if at any time the cream should be under 50°, the labor will be much increased without any proportionate advantage being obtained. CHAEACTEE OP GOOD BUTTEE. Mr. Stevens well remarks that when butter is properly churned both as to time and temperature, it becomes firm with very little working, and is tenacious, but its most desirable state is that of waxy, when it is easily 484 Practical Dairy Husbanvrt. molded into any shape, and may be drawn out a considerable length without breaking. It is only in this state that butter possesses that rich, nutty flavor and smell which impart so high a degree of pleasure in eating it, and which enhance its value manifold. It is not always necessary to taste butter in judging of it ; the smooth, unctuous feel in rubbing a little between the finger and thumb, expresses at once its richness of quality ; the nutty smell indicates a similar taste, and the bright, glistening cream-colored surface shows its high state of cleanliness. EKEEING PEOM BTJTTEEMILK:, ETC. When butter forms the churning should cease, and the mass be taken out and cleansed from any buttermilk which may still be incorporated with it. The best test that this has been satisfactorily performed is the fresh water running from the butter as pure and bright as when poured over it. It should be recollected that the less butter is handled the better. Warm hands, however clean, are apt to impart a taint ; and the difficulty of keeping them so per- fectly clean as is absolutely necessary, appears to be almost insurmountable. The ladle and butter-worker, therefore, should be used in all the necessary manipulations. THE MODERN METHOD OF MANAGING MILK for butter-making is to have a spring house for setting the milk ; churning the cream rather than the whole milk. It is true there are those who contend that a fine quality of butter can be made by churning the " whole milk ;" but such butter is apt to have more of the caseine or cheesy particles of the milk in its composition, than when the cream alone is churned ; and this caseine will injure its keeping qualities. It has been contended, too, that when the whole milk is churned more butter is obtained than by setting the milk and churning the cream. If the butter contains a considerable portion of the caseine of the milk, this would readily explain the reason for the extra quantity claimed. But, however this may be, those who make " fancy butter," and have had long experience in the art, prefer to make their butter by churning the cream, and it is the course I should recommend. MILK-EOOM FOE PAEM DAIRIES. For farm dairies the Ceoziee milk cellar would seem to be a very good model, as the building can be erected at moderate expense. A committee of the American Institute Fanners' club, consisting of Mr. J. B. Lyman and Col. F. D. CuETis, visited this establishment, and their report upon it is as follows : — " The walls are thirty-six by eighteen feet, and it is divided into ice-house, milk-room and butter-kitchen. Two tubes or conductors go down from the upper part of the ice-house. They are made of boards eight inches wide and an inch thick, with many holes bored in them. The holes allow the cold air to enter from the ice, and it pours in a stream from the mouth of the tube into the milk-room. The temperature of the air as it comes out at Practical Dairy Husbandry. 485 the mouth of the tubes is about 35°. As the milk-room has thick walls and the windows are high this flood of air at 35 " is able to lower the mercury to 62°, and even lower, in July. Sometimes he closes one tube to keep the room from growing too cold. The draught is the strongest in the hottest weather. In spring and fall there is little current, and in winter, when the fire in the stove is constantly burning, the draught would be the other way. But then the mouths of the ice-tubes are closed. By this arrangement the desired temperature is secured the season through, and there is no difierence between the June butter and the January butter. He makes June butter the year round. He gets ten cents per pound over the highest market price. Making, say, two hundred pounds a week, his gain is $20 a week by having " the best arrangement for butter-making. Thus his milk-house pays for itself every nine months, to say nothing of the greatly increased facilities for doing work afforded by a pump, churn and stove so convenient. He consumes about a ton of anthracite in the four coldest months, and a slight allowance is to be made for wood tised in summer to heat water for waishing and scalding." THE BEST TEMPEEATUEB POK SETTING MILK to get the cream is about 60° to 62°. The range of temperature should run no higher than 65°. The butter-makers of Orange Co., N. Y., are of the opinion that the best quality of butter is made from cream that has been obtained at a temperature a little below 60°. Cream can be obtained in a short time, and in large quantity by raising the milk to a temperature near boiling and then setting aside to cool; but such cream has more of (the caseine -or cheesy particles of the milk mingled with it than milk set without the application of artificial heat, and the butter will be injured in its keeping qualities. COLOE AND TEXTUEE. In butter-making it is important to have the butter come of a good color and of a texture that is hard and has a waxy consistency, and that will retain that peculiar aroma which imparts so much pleasure in eating it. THE MODEEN MILK PAN. When it is not convenient to have a spring-house, the best arrangement with which I am acquainted for setting the milk is the Jennings pan. It is of tin and sets upon a shallow wooden vat, which is to be filled with water from the well or pen stock, as the case may be, and thus the milk is rapidly divested of its animal heat, and a pretty even temperature maintained while the cream is rising. These pans are of different sizes to accommodate differ- ent sized dairies, and each one is intended to accommodate the entire mess of milk from the herd at one milking. Four pans are all that are needed for a dairy, or at least with that number of pans the milk may be kept until thirty- six hours old before skimming. After- the pans have been once filled the milk that has stood the longest is skimmed and drawn off, and is then ready 486 Practical Dairy Husbandry. for the next milking. The age of the milk in the different pans from day to day will be more readily seen by the following diagram : New Milk. T&ILK 12 HODBS Mile 24 Hotrss Mile i H Where a stream of cold water can be kept constantly flowing under the pans, expensive milk-ceUars can be dispensed with, and very good results obtained in properly constructed rooms that are kept well ventilated. In the Jennings pan the milk is set from three to four inches deep and there is an arrangement of pipes for drawing off either the milk or water with conve- nience. These pans are provided with gauze net-work covers to be used as occasion requires for keeping out dust or flies. The general form of these pans is represented in the subjoined illustration (Figure 1). The Jewett pan is of very similar construction to the one just named, except that the water underneath the milk is conducted in channels instead of being spread out in a thin sheet as in the Jennings invention. Mr. Jbwbtt describes his apparatus as follows : — ^The illustration (see FiGDEB 1. figure 2) represents a full set of pans, arranged with fixtures necessary for using them, for butter factories, or dairies large or small, by making them of any size required ; for factories, as wide as can be conveniently skimmed from the center, and long enough to obtain the required surface, it being perfectly practical to make them large enough for one hundred and fifty cows ; for more cows additional sets may be added. The way to use them is, put one milking of the entire dairy into one pan, adjusting the faucet on the supply pipe so as to use just water enough to extract the animal heat from the milk, and keep it at the desired temperature while the cream is rising — from 60° to 62° ; at the time the fourth is wanted for use the first will be ready to skim ; then stop the water from running into the pan, and open the faucet near the bottom of the pan, that a sufiioient quantity of water may run out, while the milk is skimmed and run off to enable the milk-maid to clean the pan. The bottom of the pans being protected from the warm atmosphere in FBAVTicAh Dairy Husbands r. 487 the room by the tables on which they set, the inside bottom being covered with milk, the means of cooling is hidden, yet it is done by keeping the milk cool in a warm, dry room without cooling or dampening the room, which is to be desired by butter-makers, thus reversing the process of carrying the milk to a cool place, where the benefits to be derived are so intermingled with dele- terious influences that it is a good illusti-ation of the saying, you must take the bitter with the sweet. This way of handling the milk in my pans, besides reducing the labor more than one-half, enhances the net proceeds of the daii-y, both in quantity and quality of the butter, fully twenty per cent. With a' book of instructions any good tin-smith can make and set them up. As given in the engraving, one of the series of pans, A A, is represented as broken away to show the internal arrangement. These pans are provided with a space, B, between their top and bottom walls. Within this space are a number of compartments, communicating with each other at alternate ends, in such a manner as to form one continuous channel, zigzag in its course, havin PEOCESS, The other process, called the Egsae,. or cold pro B IS an m g 1 90 —38 '87 —29 96 -23 103 -31 % -18 96 —18 99 -15 91 —22 96 -20 93 -27 98 —26 90 —15 95 —10 9T -9 9r —17 93 —14 93 -8 94 —13 93 -11 91 -13 98 —10 93 -13 95 -10 96 -26 104 —35 98 —28 99 -n 96 —20 95 — 4 99 —33 99 -12 96 -10 103 I if « B !| O CD ll|B » g.g" ^ ■ Sff o^ g g.3 o :s? 3'& sq o.« as s* C *T) J^S' P Mean Temperature each of four months. O SB B B IW Oi'leaoa County.Crafts- bury,Vt Chittenden Co., Bur- lington, Vt Kutland County, Bran- don, Vt Hampden Co., Spring- field, Mass Berkshire County, Wil- liams College, Mass. Albany, Orange Co, burgh, . . , Oneida Co., South Trenton, Oneida Co., Clin- ton, Jefferson Co., The- New- Madison Co , Onei- da, Oneida Co., Utrca, Oswego Co., Os- wego, Monroe Co., Roch- ester, Brie Co., Buffalo,. Chatauqua County Jamestown, Ashtabula County, Austinburg,. ... Columbiana Co., E. Fairfield, Geauga Co., Welsh- field, Cuyahoga County, Cleveland, Huron Co., Nor- walk, Wayne Co., Woos- ter Erie Co , Kelley's Island, Lake County Mad- ison, , DeKalbCo,Sand-' wich La Salle Co., Otta- wa, Winneba go Co., Winnebago, McHenry Co., Ma- rengo, Kane Co., Aurora. Monroe County, Mon- roe, Mich , Ingham Co. Agricultu- ral College, Mich Cincinnati, Ohio, Louisville, Ky Montgomery County, Clarksville, Tenn... 40.3 43. 45.8 46.5 44.5 50.5 £0.3 44. 48. 44.5 46.3 45.75 47.3 48. 46. 47.75 48.3 48.8 49.5 48.5 43.8 49. 49.3 46.2 47.5 44. 45.5 46.5 48.75 45.8 55. 54.5 66.75 59.1 62 5 65.5 65.5 63. 70. 70.2 65. 68. 64. 65.5 66.5 64. 46.2 66.6 67. 68.5 68.6 67.5 71. 69.8 72. 67.75 68.75 68. 66.3 67.5 67.3 66. 74. 75. 78. 20.7 24.5 25. 24.5 25.5 31.3 31. 25. 27. 27.5 38. 25.75 28.75 35.5 30. 30. 25.5 27.7 20-8 305 23. 25.75 33.5 28.5 25.2 87. 34.6 40.6 45.5 47.5 53. 50.2 49. 57.5 54.5 44.5 50.5 48.2 50.6 44. 61. 48. 49. 52. 54. 62.6 53. 63.6 54.5 52. ■5 .6 61.5 62. 61. 63. 66.5 60. 58. 58.2 64.6 40. 43. 44.5 43.6 46.5 49.5 43.4 44.5 42.5 46. 45.5 45. 45.5 41.5 44. 46.6 43. 46.6 46.6 44.5 48.5 43. 41. 42.5 41. 44.6 44. 42.6 43.6 49. 49. 51.5 44.09 40.78 40.43 36.25 35.56 38.81 38.82 56.26 43.67 40.71 62.55 44-00 36.88 44.11 60.34 43.39 69.44 61.88 40.84 39.81 31.07 46.54 36.75 38.91 36.17 43.93 31.86 39.52 28.12 41,31 62.31 65. 66.6 64.5 68-6 69. 64.6 69. 63. 64. 64. 62.2 66.6 66. 66.6 63.6 67. 69. 70.5 67. 70. 66.6 67. 67.5 1.5 73, 72,2 72,5 68. 72. 73. 69. 72.1 77. 72.5 69. 71. 70.6 68.5 69.6 73. 73.5 72. 71.5 73. 73.3 74. 73. 76. 75. 71.7 75. 74.75 74. 75. 76. 73.2 73.6 78.3 78,5 77.5 68,2 63.3 62. 70. 67. 69.2 67. 68. 65. 66.7 66.6 67.5 68. 70. 71. 64. 71. 67. 70. 73.5 72. 68.4 68. 69.5 68.5 65. 68. 68.6 66.5 74.3 73. 73.5 52.6 54.3 67.6 60.6 58. 61.4 68. 64. 61. 56. 62. 58.4 68. 58. 60.6 59. 68. 60. 61. 62. 60. 63. 63.6 64.6 59.5 59, 57. 2 57, 67,8 66,5 68,6 15.66 16.77 17.73 11.42 16.73 30.04 17.20 34.77 17,15 9.00 13.02 12.57 15.42 18.30 13.77 28.64 18.01 18.96 18 88 13.69 15.63 17,40 13,38 17,77 24,94 16,65 18,81 10,71 15,83 23,17 16,49 1863-66 1863-64 1863-66 1864-66 1866 1866 1866 1866 1858-63 1863-64 1863-66 1863-66 1863-66 1858-«6 1864 1863-64 1866 1858-64 1857-66 1866 1864 1863-66 1867-58 1864-66 1857-66 1858-66 1866 1866 1863-66 1864-66 1857-66 1864^6 1864-66 Afpmkdix. S21 of our country to 98° or 100°, the real troubles and difflculties of a cheese-maker begin to be experienced ; and tainted milk, that worst of all forms of milk, is met with, I believe, only when the thermomeler marks a mean temperature for the day of over 70°. The preceding table, prepared with care, and compiled with a great deal of labor, shows the highest temperature, the lowest degree, mean annual temperature, mean temperature of summer, mean temperature of winter (counting four months, June, July, August and September, as summer, and four months, December, January, February and Miirch, as winter), the mean temperature of two spring months, the mean of two fall mouths, the mean annual raiu fall, the mean tentperatnre of each of the four months, June, July, August and September, and the mean rain of all these four warmest months, at some thiriy-fuur different stations, iieginning in the Northeast part of Vermont and Western Massachusetts, extending through New York, Northern Ohio, Southern Mich- igan and in the Northern part of Illinois, one station in Cincinnati, in Southern Ohio, Louisville, Ky., and Clarksville, Tennessee. COMPARATIYB STATEMENT OF MILK Hf GAILONB, CARRIED ON THE ERIE RAILWAY, FOB THE TEARS 1861, 1862, 1863, 1864 and 1865. 1361. 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. 386,907 iW8,537 447,227 486,192 680,167 623,127 655,467 604,895 521,265 499,247 394.522 400,222 389,085 372,297 448,525 501,000 613.992 556'650 609,107 407,192 394,920 398,295 384,917 469,755 650,722 715.500 786.852 782,845 796,092 tfn,995 604,673 492,992 423,805 393,995 413,277 521,430 682,667 765,087 816,975 808,066 780,577 640,687 611,342 616,920 456,826 422,327 March 'y:::":::::^j"::::j.:"":^:. 610:902 630 865 April ]^[iy 809,195 935 972 July 941667 871,332 733,760 640,763 November s * ,.. 628,470 490,258 Total 6,967,770 6,180,537 7,078,455 7,2%,740 7,956,189 BECAPITULATION. 1861, total gallons. . 1862, do 1863, Qo 1864, ao 1865, do . 6,967,770 . 6,W0,637 , 7,078,465 . 7,296,740 . 7,966,189 DAIRY PRODUCT OF THE STATE OF OHIO AND THAT OF HERKIMER COUNTY, N. Y. The statement is made on the authority of the Ohio Farmer that for the past ten years there lias been a gi-adual decline in the dairy products of that State. The statistics given show that in 1860 there was a larger amount of cheese and butter made in the State than ill 1868. These statistics are as follows : OHIO DAIRY PEODtrOT. Pounds Butter. Po'nds Cheese. Pounds Butter. Po'nds Cheese. 38,440.498 35.442,868 3!!l2i;275 31,141,876 24,816,424 20,637,263 20,752,097 19,130,750 18,097,095 1865 32,450,139 36,344,608 34,833,445 37,006,378 19,985,486 17,814,589 1866 1862 1867 1863 1868 HERKIMER COUNTY, N. Y., DAIRY PRODUCT. Pounds Butter. EM'nds Cheese. Pounds Butter. Po'nds Cheese. 1864 492,673 313,765 232,961 16.767,999 16,808.362 18,172,91§ 1867 1868 204,385 241,682 204,634 16,772.031 16.734,920 15,670,487 1865 ... 1866 18(19 522 Appendix. Price got for making O Ol-H . T-1 coca Founds of milk to one of cured cheese 00 t-t- eocoos Pounds of milk to one of green cheese Per cent, of shrinkage. Average weight drj.. s — 00 « o ^ Oi.^ r-4 size of cheese.. 3Jo00 1OlOodo5i-rco" (MCO C«CO Tl OS : o oh5 • cs • bo : 3 ■ cS • cu :o : a . o 000 : c d ^ ■_; m 2 03 - .0 .a c3 c ;i P « o . 2« Ho .a S CO to 5^ -.2 & S. : c3 . o ,„ . P I. m i- o o S - 3 .a oa W WPH East Berkshire Ingraham & Hustis' Whitestown Turin Sears' Loraine Brown's Canton B. N. Carrier's Westcott's Location and County. McLean, Tompkins Adams, Jefferson Cortlandville, Cortland Gilbert Mills, Oawego , Oneida, Madison , Oneida Luke, Madison Oneida, Madison b^'loyd, Oneida Yorkshire, Cattaraugus Higglnsville, Oneida Eaton, Madison , Frankfort, Herkimer Little Falls, Herkimer MannsvlUe, Jefferson.,., Ward well, Jefferson Otego, Otsego Waterville, One ida Decatur, Otsego Middletown, Orange Barber's Corners, Jefferson., Yerona, Oneida McDonough, Chenango Holmesville, do Constableville, Lewis Collins, Erie.' Hawleyton, Broome Coal Creek. Herkimer. Lowville, Lewis Charleston, Montgomery Nelson, Madison West Schuyler, Herkimer.... Springfield Center, Otsego... Fenner, Madison West Exeter, Otsego Brookfield, Madison Orwell, Oawego North Litchfield. Herkimer.. Deansville, Oneida Marcy, Oneida Adams, Jefferson Scriba, Oswego Franklin, Vermont Adams, Jefferson Whitestown, Oneida Turin, Lewis Cuyler, Cortland Loraine, Jefferson Columbus, Chenango Canton, St. Lawrence Watertown, Jefferson.. Average number of Am'nt of c'd cheese made in Ay'e price per a., in cents and pounds. fractions. 937 302,084 71,800 110,465 119,346 55 422 21.00 350 18 96 21.42 174,848 21 05 200 22.17 23.00 345 65,776 21.81 850 284,543 20.50 VIb 191,702 21.23 460 161,980 22.43 600 162,000 23.06 300 72,010 21.60 21,945 25.00 260 61,140 22.54 600 207.634 400 73,100 90,401 21.68 530 173,691 21.31 600 ■ 149,131 19.50 400 114,246 20.62 680 182,111 22.77 851 249,608 20.73 265 68,660 21.80 475 176,000 18.80 760 207,121 21.60 336 98,101 22.25 676 199,884 19.69 550 196,916 21.90 300 137,866 21.29 360 122,105 21.14 600 172,894 21.75 200 64,999 24.25 250 72,657 21.70 375 127,275 21.70 275 83,094 21.33 1,032 295,115 20.07 400 134,050 18.80 400 100,744 20.00 600 101,5,39 24.00 600 142,518 23.09 600 204,025 22.70 730 206,333 19.68 770 206,897 400 106,000 2i.25 375 114,429 68,032 126,625 22.00 400 318 91,639 23.37 Av'e lbs. milk for one cured cheese. 9.60 9.95 10.12 10.10 9.S7 10.30 9.94 9.51 9.75 9.91 9.42 9.88 10.01 10.13 9.60 9.75 9.S0 9.54 10.00 10.16 9.84 9.78 9.71 9.97 9.85 lO.ff? 8..31 10.00 9.90 10.38 10.26 9.90 9.35 10.00 9.95 10.05 9.68 9.93 9.72 9.64 9.76 9.69 9.52 524 Appenbis. The following table gives the average number of cows, amount of cured cheese, average price, and average pounds of milk: to one of cured cheese for the several factories from which full reports have been received for the year 1865 : Name ov Factort. Whiteaboro Willow G-rove Bagg's , Ohuakfery Foster's Weeks' Battabun's Herkimer County Union.. StarkTille West Schuyler Herkimer Oneida JjamunlOD & C, No. 3 Hunt's Houseville Hiffh Market ..^ ^. Miners HfiilPs.. *.. Rees' Barker's Sonthville.. Olln's Volney Gentel*. Ptattvllle I...... Gilbert's Mill Bast Sandy Gr)eek Parker's. LefQngwell's Bonfoy & Co.'a Union ' '. Ingraham & Go.'s Gayadutta Gharleston Four Corners. . Springfield Center Smith's Center Brook McLean Association....... Freeville Union Burnbam's ^ Canadawa b . . . . Coon's (4) 1 Throopsville ..... i k Simpson's t.... Seattle's ;. >..... Holmesville Brown's <..... Maine Mlctiigan Ct'eamery...k..w Wallklll ,.... Worcester Co, Association Bast Berkshire Mason's ; . . . . Bartlett's.. , i . . . . Baker's Dairy. LOCATION AND C0TJN*y. do do do do Whitesboro, Oneida. . Trenton, do *. Holland Patent, do Paris, DurhamTillei Veroha, StlttTille, Little Falls, Herkimer.. _. StarkviUc, do West Schuyler, do Herkimer, do Oneida Castle, Madison . . . Stockbridge. do HubbardsTllle, do Houaeville, Lewis High Market. do ConstableTllle, do Barnes' Corners, 06 Martlnaburgh, do RIchT'ille, St. Lawrence.., SouthTllle, do Canton, do Volney Center, Oswego PrattTllle, do Gnbert's Mills, dd B. Sandy Greek, do Ward well, JefTerson. . .-.-. . , Henderson, do Loraine, do Watertown, do Adams, do Fonda, Montgomery , Charlest'n 4 Cor., do Spring. Center, Otsego , WestBzeter, do Otego, do , McLean, i?omp«:ins , Freeville, do Slnclairyille, Chautauqua., Arkwright, do , Mina & Sherman, do Throopsville, Cfiyuga , New Hudson^ Allegany Truxioh, Cortland Holmesville, GhQnango..., Columbus, do , Maine, Broome , "iddletowB^ Orange iddletown. do ........ f./arren, Massachusetts..,, ast Berkshire, Vermont., ichmond, , do ... vowljsr's Mills, Ohio........ Fairfield, Michigan,,.., Average number of cows. GOO 250 500 650 680 580 1,000 490 400 800 460 750 5(H) 150 640 100 354 200 400 340 1,000 400 135 650 300 600 200 450 800 671 27.75C, Am'nt of c'd cheese made in pounds. 206.567 275,270 168,592 169,714 74,146 174.110 206,000 226.017 168.037 401,884 190.538 191,681 118,171 135.552 257.029 148,981 261,364 125,753 58,680 181,465 45,060 106,227 46.686 116,154 131,042 292,494 140,183 . .66.847 170 . iS!,m 875 868,800 M5 323.436 600 J83,S84 m m.l36 m 188,951 m ' .30.696 556,811 9.452,567 Av*e price per B., In cents and fractions. Av'e lbs. milk for one cured cheese. 17.85 16.12 ■is'bo 16.00 15.89 ]6.8r 16.50 ih'M 16.05 16.09 16.00 15.43 15.60 15.68 16.01 14.55 15.41 14.50 15.17 15.85 16.00 14.70 15.25 14.64 15.29 i6!25 li'.m 15.61 15.60 16.13 15.75 17.45 17.60 15.93 15.00 16.0! 15.85 16.00 15.S0 16.00 ih'M 17.00 16.60 16.76. . 10.05 9.75 9.43 9.53 10,43 9.99 9.68 9.91 9.90 9.61 9.99 9.79 9.74 9.91 9.60 9.21 9.43 9.46 9.41 8.87 10.00 9.84 10.44 10.03 .9.73 10.10 9.81 10.00 10.64. 10.08 9.77 10.10 9.78 9.88 9.78 9.88 9.84 I6!l7 9.50 The following Talile gives tli6 humbet of coWs, amount of cuted chisesfe, average pricev average pounds Of toilk lo one of cured cheese, and average weiglit, for llie several Factories, from which full Efiporta have been received, for the year 1866 : Name of Factobt. Locrioi* AND County, Whole numBer of Cows. Shri 'It- age. Per ot. Amount Aver. of cured price cheese $ te.,in made, in Gtfi. and pounds. fraoi'DS 311.881 18.07 65 69,a77 17.68 67 82,100 17.41 90 96,716 168,661 17.64 96 212,075 17.92 77 233,802 17.38 61 869,064 17.02 118,412 17.60 78 183,479 17.91 71 97,000 17.25 72 77,784 17.25 61 Aver. lbs. milk for one cured cheese WhlteSboro A. Blue's Koberts' Dorn's Ghuckery Weeks' Gedarville First Niitional Lamunion & Clark's Hunt's Excelsior Bmpire Whitesboro, Oneida . . North Gage, do .. Floyd, do .. Ara, do . . Paris, do . . Verona, do . . Cedarvllle, Herkimer. Frankfort, do , . Stockbridge, Madison HubbardsTille, do Brookfleld, do Florida, Montgomery. 140 275 350 690 620 675 650 400 6X 3'" 4« 10.1 10.5 9.S 9.i 9.i 10.1 Appendix. 525 Table for 1866.-- Continued. NAME OP FAOTOBT. LOCATIOH- AND COUNTT. Whole number of Cows. Shri'k- age. Per ct. Amount ot cured cheese made, in ' pounds. Aver. price pr lb. in cts. and Aver, w't. Aver, lbs. milk for one cured cheese Charleston Four Corners... Chari'tn 4 Cor., Montgomery. . Palatine, do Gilbert's Mills, Oswego Volney, do Mexico. do Pulaski, do 525 675 430 375 516 270 ■ 650 700 770 675 80O 530 662 625 300 687' . 1,049 468i 40O 400 300 200 '266 148 500 260 339 250 163,8£S 222,390 151,621 126,939 134,181 67,406 229,863 273,490 214,282 136.157 167,878 248,376 181,686 246,739 216,479 106,466 186,608 238,060 150,720 139.455 136,030 103,453 60,000 ■62,'o60 44,01& 128,196, 101.336 103,650 60,000 17.25 - 17.25 16.70 6.70 14.83 16.00 18.01 . 17.10 15.48 17.21 16^76. 17.82. 15.86. 16.52 16.75 15.43 6.67 7.69. 6.41 6.13 18189. 18.00 17.50 17.61 16.60 16.42 '79 162 ■9! 106 '83 ■72 70 67 56 83 96 ■75 70 '62 'It ' 9-''3 ii 9.62 9.51 9.69 9 84 Gilbert's Mills, Ingell * Smith's PratTille... Miller's G-lensdale l"iWa?k'e't»^!-.:::::::::::: LowTiiie. dS ::;:::::" HlRh Markefc do 9.35 9.66 Collljjs Oeiiter ?1? First Collins Brant Center Arkwright Chautauqua Sinclairville. do ....... 9.65 Sinclalrvllle Seattle's.. 9.85 Throopsville C. M. A Auburn, Cayuga Simpson's De WlttCM-A New Hudson, Alleganr 9,29 Hawleyto^ „. i 9 28 SpringTilie Sprlngville, Pennsylvania Bridge water, do do do ..... 9.6^ Spring Hill 9 55 Taiiey.. ..:...:;.:;::::::::::: Fslrfleld Fairfield, Michigan .... \" Wljder's 9 60 Compton.l...,. Compton, Quebec, Canada .... 9.26 18,779 4.64 8,366,412 17.02 76X 9.68 —■ ' Tlie following Table gives the number of cowa, amount of cured cheese, average price, average pounds of milk to one of cured chqeae, and average weight, for the several Factories from which full Reports have been received, for the year 1867 : name: 07 FAOTORT. LOCAIIOI? AND COXTNTT. Whole number of Cows. Amou't of c'd cheese made, in pounds. Ave. price peril)., in cents and fractions. Aver- wefght Aver. lbs. milk for one 9>. o'd' cheese. Verona Landing C. M. A. . . . Weeks' Higginsvllle, Oneida Verona, do 200 740 460 1,050 400 475 600 646 175 560 681 460 1,200 260 220 220 138 325 400 350 600 229 850 475 . 175 489 640 79,763 250,510 184,141 349,603 ■ 117,696 128,''60, 147 967 129,633 38,891 179,440 271,410 158,984 244,609 66,592 61,771 133,662 37,760 37,000 88,400 104,898 148.'548 70,030 107,688 126,600 33,646 155,4li2 215,498 14.00 14.40 14142 13.94 13.02 13.50 iilw 13.13 15.12 13.08 13.16 12.50 11.50 12.18 18.60 12.50 13.00 12.20 12.26 13.00 12.92 13.00 13.00 12.60 12.75 14.00 68 75 70 80 70 76 66 79 9.75 9.91 9.7S Miller's , . . . ConstablevUle, Lewis Colilerijvllle, do Boot, Montgomery , . Oneida Luke, Madison Hamlet, Chautauqua Im 9.77 10.00 10.07 9.90 Port Byron 0. M. A 10.12 9.54 Collins C'tr do 9.48 Gilbert's Mills Gllbert'B.Mills, Oswego Mexico. do do. do Granby Center, do ColOBBC, &o ..... Oswego^ do Scriba, do do do Vermillion,, do Voney, do Futon, do Sandy Creeic, do SohroeppeU do do do Ne.w,HaTen, do Granby,, do Faliflera, Michigan 9.64 10.02 Prattville 10.20 9.7S 9.88 10.60 10.00 9.91 Volney Center Smith's.......;.. 9;91 9.41 10.00: 9.7S pbcentx .' 9 97 Bmith's , 9.70 Bowen's Corners Fairfield 9.33 9.53 12,778 3,779,045 13.12 73 9^83 526 Appendix. The following Table gives tlie number of cows, amount of cured cheese, average price, average pounds of milk to one of cured cheese, and average weight, for the several Factories from which full Reports liave been received, for the year 1868 : Name oi' faotobt. Location and County. Whole number of Cows. Amount of cheese ' made. Average Srice per ) pounds Aver- age weight Aver. lbs. milk for onepound cheese. Bagg's Wilcox's Yeronu Lauding. Weeks' West Canadu Creek Cook, Ives & Co. 's KewviUe Association North Cazenovia Leb!»non Brown & Oo.'s J. F. Torpy's Beech & Co.'s Mack's B. Fletcher's Sulphur Springs Miller's Leyden Cheese Association Evans Mills Cooper's Jefferson County Factories Mexico Union Prattville Colosse Hastings Smith's Smith's Boot Delphi East Pablus Seattle's Orangerille Lancaster Simpson's Meadow Valley H. &8. Smith's BinelearviUe , Canadawa Clear Spring Gerry Valley Carter's Wllder's Elk Mountain Blue Grass , Ontario Holland Patent, Oneida Paris, do Higginsvllle, do Verona. do North Gage, do Salisbury, Herkimer NewTlUe, do Chlttenango Falls, Madison. Leonardsville, do Georgetown, do do do do do LowTlUe, ConstableviUe, do Leyden, do Erans Mills, Jefferson do do Lewis.. Mexico, Oswego do . do Colosse, do Hastings, do Votney, . doi NewHaven,do Root, Montgomery Delphi, Onondaga FabluB, do Truzbon, Cortland Orangeyilte, Wyoming Lancaster, Erie New Hudson, Allegany Elllcottville, Cattaraugus. . . West Exeter, Otsego SlnclearviUe, Chautauqua. . Arkwright, do Fredonla, do Gerry, do Hinesvllle. Vermont PainesTille. Ohio EvansvlUe, Wisconsin Asheville, North Carolina. . Childsburg, Kentucky Norwich, Ontario, Canada . . 6ai 140 300 S60 350 650 650 300 450 550 140 200 175 300 ' 500 1,000 553 1,100 2ro 23,093 800 450 400 130 475 130 530 450 450 176 875 813 968 410 400 400 200 300 230 250 300 42,643 42,126 118,770 183,616 124,076 183,319 193,110 73,450 148,750 179.473 42,284 68,185 52,530 102.184 1!9,111 300,649 170.246 336,860 51,078 6,246,H06 164.266 82,324 77,673 12,676 153,577 26,120 339.351 148,766 142,683 169,233 109,487 i(5b',88i 55,327 115,621 '203,567 263.348 74,078 86,916 123,100 41,039 78,746 80,000 72,500 72,070 11,505,640 16.80 1S.13 16.33 16.09 16.50 16.00 16.64 16.00 15:47 15.36 16.62 16.86 16.63 16.66 16.87 16.32 16.21 15.33 16.33 1£.02 14.60 16.00 14.00 14.60 15.60 16.68 16.26 15.30 15.75 16.29 i6!i6 15.06 15.65 15.27 16.01 16.60 16.00 16.25 26.00 16.70 14.10 16.65 75 76 63 65 70 10.26 10.17 9.80 9.76 10.16 10.00 'i'.Si 9.76 9.88 9.65 10.00 10.06 10.28 10.12 10.32 9.31 9.14 9.90 10.17 9.63 10.27 9.63 9.80 9.50 9.75 10.19 10.38 9.90 9.90 9.80 10.10 9.87 The following Table gives the number of cows, amount of cured cheese, average price, average pounds of milk to one of cured cheese, and average weight, for the several Factories from whicli full Reports have been received, for the year 1869 : Name of pactort. Whole number of Cows. Amount ' Average Aver- of cheese price per 100 pounds age made. wel£bt 260.307 16.69 .... 389,876 17.02 63 61,226 16.25 •• ■ 139,675 16.38 216,69il 16.17 99,101 s •■ 40,600 16.00 99,606 ' 16:71 •■ 63 111,906 17.46 11,848 16.65 77,439 16.56 311,413 16.77 67 189,531 16.76 C5 97.418 16.00 136,490 68 129,618 16.25 64 169.806 16.98 60 168,637 16.13 62 850.191 16.84 64 102,176 16.22 66 93,263 15.73 60 Aver, lbs, milk for onepound cheese. Whltesboro willow Grove Wilcox Lee Center ...:... Waterville ;. West Branch Ward's ;... Vernon 1,., Verona Landing Newvllle Association,! ',! Herkimer County Union Danube Cold Spring Smith's Cazenovia Bridgeport Excelsior Otis' Turin Sulphur Spring Kvans Mills Hamlin's Alexandria Bay Whltesboro, Oneida. . . Trenton, do ... SaumiOlt, do . . . Lee Center, do ... Waterville, do ... West Branch, do ... Holland P't'nt, do . . . Vernon,' do ... Higginsvllle, do ... Verona, do ... Little vails, Herkimer do do do do Frankfort, do Cazenovia, Madison ... Bridgeport, do BrooKfleld, do Deer River, Lewis Turin, do ..... Lowvllle, do Evims Mills, Jefferson. Rutland, do Alexandria Bay,do . 600 ,000 200 400 276 650 400 590 856 360 200 800 S81 800 400 850 560 671 1,140 360 820 9.99 10.09 9.47 9.46 9.41 9.77 9.68 9.75 9.86 9.82 10.11 9.66 9.90 9.69 9.80 9.65 9.64 9.53 9.64 9.45 9.90 9.71 Appendix. 527 Table for 1869.— Continued. Name of Factory. South Champion .. . Union Gilbert's Mills Bowen'8 Corners. . . Hermon Boot Seattle Scott Gowanda First Collins Farmersrilie Clear Spring North Collins Kast Log Sugartown Sharon Center Eagle North Bend Fort Ann Franklin Creamery Valley Carter's Delaware Bosendale Location and County. South Champion, Jefierson. Mexico, Oswego Gllbert'sMHls,do Bowen's Cor's, do Hermon, St. Lawrence Root, Montgomery Truxton, Cortland Scott, do Gowanda, Cattaraugus do do FarmersTllle, do Fredonia, Chautauqua North Collins, Erie Pike, Wyoming Sugartown, do Sharon Center, Schoharie.. . West Bdmeston, Otsego .... Middle Granville, Wash'n.. Fort Ann, do . . Franklin, Delaware Hinesburg, Vermont Perry, Ohio Delaware, Iowa Bosendale, Wisconsin Whole number of Cows. 400 950 SOO 3S0 700 150 600 730 345 32S 450 200 ,355 S50 900 250 700 400 100 £80 Amount of cheese made. 142,139 257,916 163,746 110,581 218,319 184,478 112,705 48,U2 196,716 306,239 127,107 119,633 150,451 71.496 113,650 47,221 304,667 96,224 167,768 137,161 20,000 60,500 6,928,193 Average Srice per I pounds 16.73 16.86 16.43 16.10 16.81 16.88 islso i5.er 16.28 15.68 15.41 16.15 i6!i6 15.76 16.62 15.92 15.42 17.00 16.50 16.02 Aver- age weight Aver. lbs. milk for one pound cheese. 9.76 9.17 9.40" 9.14 9.80 9.77 9.45 9.35 9.00 9.43 9.73 9.75 9.13 9.90 The following table gives the number of cows, amount of cured cheese, average price, avei-age pounds of milk to one of cured cheese, and average weight for the several factories from which full reports have been received for the year 1870: NAME OF factoby. Location and County. Whole number of cows. Amount of cheese made. Average price per 100 lbs. Av'ge weight Average lbs. milk for one n. cheese. Willow Grove W 6GkS > « • > * ■ Borne Association.... Lee Center Sfcittville Wilcox Hampton Association Glen Smith Creek Boot South Jordan New Woodstock Vallev ■•- •.••■•■•.•• North Filrfleid." '.'..! Sulphur Spring Leyden Association.. McLean do South Berlin Pierrepont Simpson Bast Ashford Gowanda Burnham'B (3) Riverside Cold Spring Trenton, Oneida Verona, do Rome, do LeeCenter, do Stittville, do Sauquoit, do Hampton, do Glen, Montgomery Fort Plain, do Root, do Brookfleld, Madison New Woodstock, do Stockbridge. . do North Falrfleld, Herkimer. . Lowvllle, Lewis Leyden, do McLean, Tompkins South Berlin, Rensselaer... Pierrepont, St. Lawrence. . . New H;udson, AUeginy East Ashford, Cattaraugus. Gowanda, do Chatauqua Rochester, Minnesota Whitewater, Wisconsin 900 700 760 660 800 160 450 725 1,000 775 600 450 370 625 270 420 700 660 430 1,731 180 150 1S,0H 221,061 262,685 198,118 267,271 38,291 147,099 181,600 315,381 185,162 136,653 211,611 171,787 168,217 157,102 114,609 200,261 70,777 93,787 196,072 129,961 158.900 629,705 38,727 41,111 1.622,786 14.25 14.28 14.03 14.00 14.24 13.15 13.66 13.60 14.75 13.83 13.80 13.80 13.87 14.63 13.62 13.43 1S.lb 13.65 16.00 13.76 13.82 13.23 13.90 10.10 10.00 10.78 9.91 10.30 10.50 10.01 10.21 9.90 10.12 9.66 9.95 9.78 9.68 10.16 9.92 9.62 10.12 9.42 9.99 9.76 9.49 9.53 9.95 928 Appendix. THE CHEESE TRADE— 1869, 1870 AND 1871. The following tables are copied from the columiia of llie Utica Herald : — We give Ijelow full tables of the cheese trade for the years 1869 and 1870 and up to August, 1871 showing the receipts of boxes of cheese in New York city and the exports, the highest quotation iu Liverpool and New York, and tlie highest price of gold for each weelc of the two years. The totals of 1870 show a healthy growth, both iu production and foreign trade, over 1869. The average highest quotation of gold from the first week of May la the close of the year 1869 was 131% ; and for the. same portion of 1870, 117. Tlie average highest quotation of cheese in the city for the same period of 1869 was"18^c., and of 1870, ISJ^c: Receipts. Exports. Price in Liv'rpool. Price in N'wYork. 2,359 9,647 73S; 20cts. 1.928 8,066 733. 20 2,012 6,086 ' 74s: 21 865 4,706 74s; 21 2,269 2,208 74s. 21 1,317 4,042 74s. 22 2,837 1,300 74s. 22 1,(MS 848 743. 22 364 610 74s. 22 1.278 5S0 748. 22 1,423 621 74s. 22 2.693 1,133 748. 22 1.107 1,220 74s. 22 1,258 2,480 76s. 22 3,508 3,041 793. 23 1,219 6,317 76s. 21 3,382 6,317 803. 23 4,280 2,370 83s. 23 9,028 4,236 83s; 23 14,520 7,076 82s. 23 12' 038 8.700 82». 23 22 217 14,179 80a. 22 22,202 18,564 793. 21 34,250 32,250 78a.. 9 42,571 38,685 73s. 8 46,118 34,249 67s. 6 33,137 42,008 64s. 6)i 47,501 46,153 62s. 6d; 6 54,098 44,141 61s. 16 62,527 ^ 49,e8L 62s. 16>i 94,642 ra,357 62s. 6d. 16 01,716 62s. 16 51,857 84,803 62s. 16 60,492 47,763 62s. 16K 44,977 89,294, 61s. 6d: 16j| 31,976 29,197- 61s. ea. 6^ 34,3W 61a. ea. 6 47,523 331656 633. 6Vi 81,337 27,600 Ms. 6H 24.872 47,280 6Ss. 1«X 38,958 28,401 ms. 18 57,359 15,997 67s. 6d.' M, a 6,237 , 69a. 6d. 19' 1 "^^ 698. 18H 35,169 , 69s. 18 24,910 elsfif- 63s. 6d. 18 35,551 68s. 18 3*,ew 68a. 17X 26,628 ' 2,6sr 6Ss. KJi 22.733 1B,890 . 69s. 18 8,2S6 4,606 . 68s. 18 6,530 I.IPQ 689. ts 1.3.12,017 926.4U Price of Gold.. January 9. . 16,. February 6. . 13.. 20.. 27.. March 6. . 13., 20.. 27.. 10.. 17.. 24.. 1.. 8.. 15.. 22., 29.. 5.. 12.. 19.. April May July August 10*. 17.. 24.. 3L. 7.. 14.. 21.. September 4.. 18!! 25.. October 2., 16.. November 6 13 20. 27 December 4 11 18. 25 31 Total \ 1.3.12,017 H5>« 186Ji 133X 132 130X 131 131 131 131K 133 133 133 135 138 138. 141 140 138X 139 }§§* 137 137 "&• 135K laeji 136>i 136^ 134 132 134 136H;' 135>i 137 136 130 130 130 131 129 1» 127 123 123 120^, 120K, 120« Appendix. 629 January 8. 15, 23. 29. February 6. 12. 19 Maroh 5. 12. 19. 26. April 2. 9. 16. 23. 80. May 7. 14. 21. 28. June 4. 11. 18. 26. July 2. 9. 16. 23. 30. August «. 13. 20. 27 September 3. 10. 17. 24. October 1. 8. 15. S- 29. November 6. 12. 19. 26. December 3. 10. 17. 24. 81. Total.... Receipts. 3,460 4,040 8,362 5,640 3,789 4,000 4,992 o,791. 1,484 1,500. 5,266 6,726 6,815 8,791 6,956 4 676 9,643 4.554 8,868 13,270 18,722 16,3:4 19,088 14,025 40,247 65,356 26,274 72,830 58,646 64.491 66,291 68,352 31,646 .32,069 60,106 69,324 60,268 6 ',239 61,607 38,0116 43,792 28,279 60,019 53,330 63,';61 40,696 28,338 64,361 69,489 32,.316 13,174 11,636 li^xports. 2,726 1,70b 7,813 4103 6,604 2,600 2,740 3,628 6,735 U,017 7,478 6,956 14,705 8,627 6,378 7,396 10,293 9,639 9,484 11,233 12,636 16,760 22,842 36.861 40,084 47,600 46,378 ,61,401 59,056 60,761 68,090 60,687 41,886 39,354 37,819 62,Uffr 42,082 24.463 31,431 24,491 19,880 12,022 28,033 18,844 19,931 19,246 20,639 34,627 23,059 22,733 13,935 1,184,687 Price in Liv'rpool. 709. 7l3. 7l8. 72b. 739. 749. 73s. 71s. 70b. 64. 69s. 70s. 6d. 71s. 6a. 7l8. 6a. 73s. 6d. 748. 748. 748. 748. 72s. 68s. 6d. 68s. 679. 649. 63s. 61s. 6d. 6l9. 6d. 6l9. 6d. 6l9. 61s. 64s. 678. 6a. 69s. 699. 6d. 698. 6d. 71s. 6a. 71s. 6d. 72b. 6d. 728. 6d. 729. 6a. 739. 73b. Price in N'w yorlt. 17^ Ct9 18 18 18 18 13 18 17X !?^ 16 16M 17 17 17 17 17 l"" .P 14:^ 14M 14)4 14)i W4 P 14 14 14 14 15 16K P 16 16 16K 16X 16« 16X Price of Gold. 122 m% 120X 121 m% mH 116>« 113K 112 112 lllX lllK 113X ia3ji 113M 116 lis 116 U4X H4>4 113>4- 113 HI 112 112 116X 121M 121X 117« 114V 116 J< 114 114 114 U3 114 113« ]13>4 118 lllX UOM UIM U2« uox 110!!^ 1871. Receiptg. Exports. Price In Liv'rpool. Price in N'w York. Price of Gold. January 1 9,574 4,870 6,468 2,385 6,414 ,5.i2 3,987 2,993 6,330 6.938 6,927 8,012 6,856 ,619 ,092 2,860 ,608 ,636 i,164 9,141 16,029 22,630 26,580 43,258 48,799 47,617 46,345 66,478 67,679 69,986 9,469 i?;lf2 17,663 8,344 9,366 8,364 9,671 4,381 10,661 10,063 8,178 7,669 7.659 10,062 11,698 16,927 20,472 22,742 37,543 87,293 45,633 41,340 65,869 611,420 61,.S21 73s. 73s. 739. 738. 728. 72s. 728. 72s. 718. 7l8. ea. 71s. 6d. 70s. 708. 70s. 699. C9s. 698. 698. 668. 6d. 669. 649. 639. 0l9. 6d. 608. 699. 688. 66b. 559. 639. 62s. 16 cts. 16 16 16 16 16 16 16>4 16K 16X 6 16 15 16 15 14 14 16 14 13 13 18 12X 12>i ¥ 11 IIIK 111% 14.. 21 28 February 4 11 w::::::::::::"::::"::::::::"::":::::; :: 26 UIX HI 4 u" IIW 18 M 26 llOK April 1 11 s::::::::::"::::":::::::::;:::::::: :::: llOJi IB lOX 22 29'..: :!:;:!!::::::::: UH May 6 IIU u3 20 12 m ilx 3 12>S 12% 17 ]3X QJ 12M July 1 8 113^' 113 15 11% •22 29 112^ ma 530 Appendix. We take the following from the Farmers' and Mechanics' Manual :— " The milk of nearly all animals contain the same ingredients. The best known vmietiea consist nearly of Woman. Cow. Ass. Goat. Ewe. Caseine ,,»... 1.9 3.6 6.5 0.6 87.9 4.6 i.l ' 4.8 0.6 87.0 1.8 0.1 6.1 0.3 91.7 4.1 3.3 6.3 0.6 86.T 4.5 Butter , 4.2 Mnk Sugar 6.0 Saline Blatter ...,., 0.7 Water ............:.:.::;.::::";::: 85.6 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 " One gallon otpure water weighs neai-ly 83-^ pounds avoirdiipoisj hence a pint weighs about a pound. One quart of milk, wine measure, weighs 33 ounce's. One quart of milk, beer measure, weighs 41 ounces." LIST OF CHEESE AND BUTTEE PAOTOEIES, AS REPORTED TO AMERICAN DAIRYMEN'S ASSOCIATION, IN 1871. NJKTV YORK.— 9 Warwick. Sanford & Smith do H. Milburn do T. Durland do „„ Brown, Bailey & Co, Edenville 400 Foster Clark's Wlckham's Pond 350 W. H.Clark&Co Minisink 300 Barton Spring Monroe 100 Parlor Blooming Grove ^ — r Wood's Chester. . Kidd's Walden.. J. F. VaU&Co Brown, Lane & Co Wawanda J. B. Halsey & Co B. Bull's Chester Bankers Brother's do F.Davis' do P. Holbert's '. Mlddletown.. Mapes & Go do James Hulse do Wm.Mead&Co do Christee &Co Unionville ... O. P.Green Greenville... H. Reamey db Finohville .,..Otisville J. A. Wood Slate Hill Howell & Co Monroe Sugar Loaf Sugar Loaf... Union Cond'sed Milk Go.,NewMilford,, 450 250 375 300 150 200 225 275 300 300 125 400 550 GREENE G0nNTY.-4 FACTORIES. Towner's Jewett.. Hunter's Creamery. .,,.,, .Jewett. . Smith's .Ashland. Kirkland Durham. . ALLBGANT COUNTT.-44 FACTORIES. Simpson's New Hudson Reservoir Seymour Rushford Rusliford ,1, Forsyfche's Whitesville S.Sherman & Co : Nile RichburK Rich burg Curtis' do - D. T. Burdiok's Alfred ......^ Greene's do - Friendship ^ Friendship Centervllle Geuterville Aekerley's Rushford Barns' Fill more Andover Andover '.. Blaok Creek Black Greek Oramel Oramel Niel — — Wellsville WellsvlUe...., Lyndon Cuba , Pettibone'a Alfred - Dodge's Creek Portville - Jackson's Belmont - 450 Morley's Whitney's Grossing... Flanagan's Cole Creek Crandall's Dodge's Corners Belvidere Belvidere Rice's do Granger Granger Little Genesee Little Genesee Carr Valley Almond A. Congdon's.... West Clarksville Babbit's Hume „. Philips' Creek Philips Greek Vandermarsh Scio R. Smith's Cuba West Almond West Almond G. West's Alfred Center J. Wiloox's Wirt Center Wiscoy Wiscoy Genesee Little Genesee Elm Valley Andover Angelica Angelica Clean Olean McHenry Valley ,.,,. Alfred Center YATES COUNTY.-l FACTORY. Italy Hollow CM. A Italy Hollow — - ERIE GOnNTY.-54 FACTORIES. Stickney'a Collins 1, W. G. Huntington Pontiao North Concord Concord - First Collins Collins Center Collins Center 1, Brant Center Brant Marshfleld Collins Center 1 Morton's Corners Morton's Corners Richmond & Co.'B Sardinia Olenwood Glenwood Dick& Co.'s Willlnk North Collins Shirley - Kirby's Shirley - Young's Alden Wheelock's Gowanda Gowanda Staffln's Collins W. Smith's Ballard's Henler Grand Island Cotesworth Grand Island ,.... North Boston Boston Center Golden Golden Marilla Marilla ;....- Kimball's Lancaster , - Cheese M. A Spring Brook - 400 450 275 350 120 150 800 ,100 550 ,100 60O SOO 400 Boston Boston 400 Concord Center Woodward's Hollow.. 500 Wales Wales 460 Faxton's Eden 600 SisBon's Slilrley 600 North Evans , North Evans 600 Angola Angola..,...., 360 Brant , Collins : 400 SprlneviUe Springvllle. . Blakeley's , East Aurora Jackson's ..........East Hamburg.. Hamburg Hamburg North Evans North Evans Bast Evans East Evans Eden Corners.. Eden Corners North Concord North Concord... Sardinia Valley Sardinia Valley.. Newton Sardinia. Hosmer's do Wales Center. .^ Wales Center Fuller's ,, do South Wales Wales Elma d.o Burroughs & Co do Francis *.. Farrington's Holland Moulton's .Protection ' .1,200 300 300 460 250 450 Speedsville , TIOGA C0UNTY.-2 FACTORIES. .Speedsville — Jenksville ...,. .Jenksville., 536 Appendix. HERKIMER COTJNTr.-69 FACTORIES. NameofTactorv. Location, Herkimer Co. Union Little Fulls. do do do do do do do do No. of Cows. 700 600 600 900 450 900 600 . 150 Manheim Center. Munheim Turn NewvlUeC. M. A.... Rice, Broat & Co.'a. G. W. Davis Cold Spring, r Top Notch Van Allen's Fairfield Association Fairfield. Old Fairfield do ..., North Fairfield do .... Eatonville Eatonville . Jjocuat Grove do . ___ Mohawk Valley Bast Schuyler 460 Richardson's do 860 Budlong's West Schuyler 300 Warren^s Warren 400 FortHerkimer Fort Herkimer 400 Bellinger's do 40O Beckwith's CedarvUle 300 Cold Soring do Stewart's do Howard's do — • CedarvUle do 30O Smith's Frankfort 800 ■A.G.Norton's do Frankfort Center do Russell's Russell's Hill Wetmore do D. Hawn's Starkville 800 Snell's Russia 600 Nash's Frankfort Center Rider's Cedar Lake Stuart's Cedarville Name of Factory. Location. No. of Cows. Richardson's West Schuyler Skinner's South Columbia Kling's Paine's Hollow — Middleville Middlevllle Northrup's Litchfield Kinney's do Walrath North Litchfield. Van Hornaville Van Hornsville.. Young's do Lackey's West Winfleld... H.C.Brown's do Wadsworth's do W. Palmer's do Edick's Mohawk Mort's do J. Clark's Winfleld B. Bartlett's do North Winfleld North Winfleld... Moon's Russia Poland Cheddar Poland Herkimer Herkimer Herkiraer Union do G.W.Pine's do Newport Newport Morey's do-- Cook, Ives & Co.'s Salisbury L. H. Carr's do W.Peck's do Old Salisbury do Avery & Ives' Salisbury Center. Norway Association Norway J.D.Ives' do Columbia Center Columbia Center. J. Russell's Graefenberg 750 215 300 400 200 225 500 300 700 300 460 600 260 400 159 600 50O CAYUGA COUNTY.-S FACTORIES. Throopsville CM. A Auburn 450 Moravia Moravia 250 Sennett Sennett 400 Carpenter's New Hope Ira Ira Lincoln's Conquest Center. . Port Byron C. M. Co.'s Port Byron Meridian Meridian 400 200 OTSEGO COUNTY.-46 FACTORIES. 600 Wykotrs Richfield Springs. Bush's do - — - M. D.Lamb's Unadllla Forks ,. 350 Center Brook Otsego 200 Stocker & Fox's East Springfleld 600 easier & Andrews Springfleld Center 450 Hartwlck Hartwiok 200 Pitt Cushman's Edmeston Center 200 Col. Gardner's Burlington Flats 150 Ed. Gardner's do 150 Benj. Smith's Spooner'a Comers 400 Brockway's Richfield 400 Smith & Wilber WestBxeter 400 Kly Creek Fly Creek Park's Burlington Green. Parley Phillips' Unadilla Forks Wm. L. Brown's do Clark's Schuyler's Lake... Edmeston Center Edmeston Center. Warren Chase's WeatBdmeston... Joseph King's Burlington Green. George Clark's Hyde Park....:... Nearmg & Co.'s Butternuts 200 360 200 200 200 750 250 200 Russell Bower's Bxeter Perkin's do Hind's Cooperstown Hoxie's do Hoxie's Unadilla Forks R. L. Warren's East Springfleld.... West Burlington Wast Bu rlington . . Parker's South Edmeston... Pope's do L. N. Brown's West Edmeston Ed. Loomis' .; Richfleld L. O. Vebber's Exeter Center H.& S.Smith's West Exeter J.H.Pratt's do Lyman Johnson Burlington Flats... Colman's do ..... Newel N. Talbot's do '... Hartwlck Union Cooperstown Chamberlain's Richfleld Springs.. Cherry Valley Cherry Valley Tuttle's South Edmeston.. Rider's Schuyler's Lake.. Baker's do 300 400 .106 600 150 600 300 400 500 200 105 260 100 CHAUTAUQUA C0UNTY.-12 FACTORIES. Hamlet. . . .Hamlet 1,100 Brainard's J. B. Robertson's Bust! _-, Clear Spring Fredonia 700 Bnrnham's SInclairyille 1,049 J. S.Hulbert's Fnrrestville 400 Villanova Vlllanova 400 . .Hamlet. . Coon's (3) Mina do Sherman . . . Canadawa Arkwright . Gerry , Gerry Cassadaga Cassadaga. . .1,260 .. 467 500 400 SCHOHARIE COUNTY.— 9 FACTORIES. Sharon Center Sharon Center 250 ArgusviUe ArgusviUe.. Seward Valley Seward 200 Carlisle Carlisle HindsvlUe Hlndsvllle 200 BameyvJUe Barneyville. Gardnersville Gardnersville Bsperance Esperanoe .. Coblesklll CoblesklU RENSSELAER COUNTY.-l FACTORY. Matteson's South Berlin • TOMPKINS C0UNTY.-9 FACTORIES. Dryden Union Etna 600 Groton Groton Hollow 50O Ellis Hollow Ithiioa Arnold's Ithaca McLean Association McLean 700 FreevUle Union Freeville Slaterville Slatervllle Pern Peruville Rldgway Creamery Caroline Depot. . 700 Appendix. 537 cattaraugus countr.-55 factories. Name of Waatorm. Location, No. of Cows. Name of Factor]/. LocaUon. No. of Cowa. Weloh'8 Dayton Farmersville Farmersville 400 Perrysburgh Poirysburgh 560 Cook & Brothers do Tioknor's Versailles 5U0 Napaer do Slab City Slab City J. K. Button's do Leon Center Leon Center Iscbua Ischua Randolph Randolph 200 Portville Portville First Collins Gowanda 700 Olean Clean Stebbln's Cattaraugus Hinsdale Hinsdale Waverly Waverly ■ .Cady's Franklinvtlle Safford Bast Otto Union , . . . .Bllieottville GUO Union do MoMahon's do Tiffts' do 400 Meadow Valley do Ornmp's do Little Valley Little Valley Ashlord Ashford 600 Great Valley Great Valley Westville Westville Merrilly's Napoli West Ashford Ashford Hollow Lyndon Lyndon Machias Corners Machias Corners Cadiz Cadiz 850 Woodwprtli's Yorkshire 460 N«w Ashford New Ashford 400 Maple Ridge Fairview 660 Yorkshire Center Yorkshire Center 60O Gowanda Qowanda 660 NewAlbion 600 Dwight'a do Jenk's Gowanda 1,000 Allen's.. Bddyville 350 Pieeon Valley 3B9 Maple Grove ElUoottville 200 West Valley West Valley 400 BastAshford Bast Ashford 650 Ballard 400 Follett's.. Maohais 400 Bigelow's Ashlord Lewis & Haskell's Sandusky Vedder'a Corners do S'toi K'ton 400 Gamp's Ashford Hollow, Kawsou Rawson —^ CHEMUNG C0UNTY.-3 FACTORIES. Bunnell & Horton'a Millport 750 Van Buzer & Son's Horseheads Rundle's Horseheads OTTIO.-103 H'^VCTOEIES. GEAUGA COUNTY.— 26 FACTORIES. Rooky Dell Bissell's 250 Colton&Co Nelson Andrews' do 800 Spring Brook Welshfleld 300 Bartlett's Chester Cross Roads.. 800 Grove do 300 Bartlett'a Muluerry Corners 300 Munson's Fowler's 400 Hood's Auburn 600' Pope's Welshfleld 500 Odell's do 600 Randall's Burton 700 Smith's Ford 800 Hall's Claridon 400 Freeman's South Newbury 500 Armatrong's East Claridon 700 Hall's Fowler's Mills 60O Smith & Co.'a Parkman 600 Murray'a Chardon 800 Armstrong's Huntsburgh 800 Randall's Chardon 700 Randall's Montville 800 Pope's Welshfleld 600 Murray'a do ,.. 500 Ruaaell ► 500 Smith's Thompaon 500 PORTAGE COUNTY.— 13 FACTORIES. B. B. Higley Windham H. F. Hudaon Ravenna Horr& Risden Shalersville Beman Spring Ravenna 250 H. S. Johnson Garrettsville Hinkley's Mantua Hurd & Bro Aurora Burrows Freedom Harmons&Root Aurora — Aurora Grove Aurora 500 T. C. Bradley Mantua — ■ Anderson's Ravenna 300 I.e. Scram Ravenna ASHTABULA C0UNTY.-12 FACTORIES. S. E. &H. N. Carter Windsor 600 J. Pelton's Wayne Lattimer'a New Lyme Wire's Austinburgh Oaborn's Morgan • Weldon & Brown Conneaut . 3St -' G. C. Dolph West Andover Pierce's Eagleville Austinburgh Austinburgh ■ — • Harrington &Randall Morgan Morley Bros Andover Alderney New Lyme TRUMBULL C0UNTY.-13 FACTORIES. J. M. Trew Farmington Baldwin's Fowler B. H. Peabody Kinsman Cortland :* Bazetta Cold Spring do Raymond's ^..Mesopotamia.. Caldwell & Lewis West Farmington Cowdery & Craft's Bazetta Farmington Center Farmington Center... Sager& House Brlatolville . . . B.C. Cox Mesopotamia Harshman&McCannell's.Soutbingtou.. do North Bloomfield HENRY COUNTY.-l FACTORY. Ridgevllle Kidgeville Corners... FULTON C0UNTY.-1 FACTORY. Boyalton Royalton LORAIN COUNTY.— 8 FACTORIES. Camden Cheese Co Kipton — - Snow's Huntington... Miisaey & Viets BIyrIa G. H. Van Wagnen & Co.. North Baton.. Horr& Warner Huntington Corning & Hanee Grafton Magraugh & Whitlook.... Wellington Penfleld Wellington.... 1'1 538 Appendix. LAKE C0UNTY.-5 FACTORIES. Name of Factory. Location. No. of Cows. Name of Factory. Location, No. of Cows. S. E. Carter Leroy.Pamesv'leP.O. Hitta Willouffhby 300 H. N. Curter Perry — Bartlett & McKee South Kirtland XI. Freeiiian & Co Madison MEDINA C0UNTY.-6 FACTORIES. McDowell Bros Medina Fellows Chatham . . Benedict & Brooker -. .Lltchlleld . Crane & Co Sharon Colbetzes &Go Spencer Chatham Chatham Center. . SUMMIT COUNTY. -8 FACTORIES. Twinsburg Cheese A83'n..TwinaburK.. Wm. Wilcox Twinsburg. . S. Straight & Co T wtnaburjr. . do Hudson Bichfleld West Biehfleld., S. Straight & Co Streetsboro Oak Hill Peninsula M. D.Call Hudson , ASHLAND C0UNTY.-3 FACTORIES. Drake, Eaton &;Go.'s Sullivan., Clark & Bailey Sullivan., Havilaad & Conant Greenwich... J. W. Jenne New London. HURON COUNTY.— 3 FACTORIES. .... Wakeman Cheese Co , Wak^man . , A. J. Lockwood Bedford J.Q.Lander Solon ... CUYAHOGA COUNTY.— 3 FACTORIES. Wyatt*s Brecksville. IIjIL.IN'OIS-— 4.6 F-A-CTORIES. Hainesville Hainesvllle, Lake Co. Burchard's Sumner, Kank'ee Co. . Patterson & Mix Momence, do Wm. Keeney's .Mantino, do W. C. Richards Momence, do W- A. Clark's Sherburnv'le, do Wanzer & Co Herman, Kane Co R. B. Stone's Richmond, McH. Co.. R. II, Stone's Spring Grove, do .. Thompson & Abbott Greenwood, do Huntley Grove Huntley, Marengo Marengo, Greenwood Woodstock, Marsh & Jackson Union, Boies .1 Kingston, DeKalb Co. Sugar Grove Aurora Dunton Dunton Kennicott do Cameron do Perry do Williams' do Gould & Hammond's Hanover Tattle's Lodi do do do do Gould & Hammond's Elgin. Barber & Co Polo . Albro & Co Wayne Winslow Shirtand ,. Kilbor's Richmond , i Buckland's Ringwood Jones' Hebron , Conn's do Woodstock.. Woodstock, McH. Co. Riley -. .Riley, do Buena Vista .Huntley, do Spring Grove Ricbmond, do Garden Prairie .Garden Prairie Mead's Hebron Milk Condensing Co Elgin , . BrOckton Rockton Stuart Bros Hebron, McHenry Co. Oneida .,,,.. , Rockf ord Belvidere Belvldere, Boone Co.. Hale Hale, Ogle Co Wanzer's Hanover do Elgin Cameron Northfleld. ,*...., 425 300 600 400 350 3U0 400 500 50O K:EIsrXTJOKY--5 F^OI'ORIES. Chileaburg , Chilesburg, Fay'teCo. Clark Winchester, Clark Co. Shelby City Shelby City ■ 300 Versailles Versailles, W'df'd Co. 200 Madison County C. M. A.. Richmond MIIlSriSrESOTJ^.— 4 FACTORIES. Anderson Mower City. . Wells Wells Star. Rochester.. Owatonna Owatonna. . •wi«coisrsi]sr.-3'i h'-A.cxojries. C. H. Wilder*s ...Evansville, Rock Co.- Sprlngvale Nanaupa BldreUge Afton Elkhorn Elkhorn RosoncliLle Rosendale Hazen's Ladoga Sparta Sparta Favll's LakeMllls, Jeflf. Co... Barrett's Burnett Station Coolidge Windsor, Dane Co ... . Watervllle Waterville, Wauk. Co. goynton's Waupun ©ward's do Johnson'^ do Downey's do Carpenter's Ken osha Holt's,..^.. dQ 400 Joh nson's , Ken osha Long's , do Pierce & Simmons ..... do Truesdell's.. . .^ do White's do Fort Atkinson Fort Atkinson ... Spring Mills Somers Bullock's......*.., Rookton Cold Spring Whitewater Coburn's , .... do Drake's Lake Mills Gilbert & Co.'s Hazel Green Tappan's Morrison Wilbur &Co.'fl Wilmot.., Strong & Co.'s , .Oakfleld Cochran's ,Trenton, Dodge Oo. . Reigart&RoBS .....Belolt.^ .7 Appendix. 539 ]Vt^SSACinJSE:TTS.-36 F^CXORIKS. Name of Factory. Location. Worcester Co Warren Union Hiirdwick New Braintree New Braintree.. . Barre Central Cheese Co. .Barre Center Barre Cheese Co Barre Southwest do Hardwlok Center Hardwlck Boise's Blandford Williamstown WiUiarastown ... West Brookfleld West Brookfleld Laneaboro'.. ; 1 janesboro' North Marlboro' North Marlboro' Lenox Lenox No. of Cows. Name of Factory. Location. No. of Gowb. 500 New Lenox Lenox Cheshire Cheshire 642 Petersham Cheese Co Petersham Cheshire do South Adams 375 Westboro' do Westboro' 125 Lewis Milk Condensing . . .West BrookSeld 600 Coy's Hill Cheese Co Warren 300 South Williamstown South Williamstown.. Walker's Greenwich DanaO. M. C Dana • Putnam's Belchertown ■ — ■ Slater's Tyringham Greylock SouthAdams "VEE.M:0NT.-33 B^-A^OaOKIlflS. East Berkshire Bast Berkshire.... BnoBburgh Factory Co...,Bnosburgh , North Enosburgb North Bnosburgh., Bast Franklin Bast Franklin Mlddletown Middletown Bose West Rupert West Pawlet WestPawlet Hill Middletown West Tinmouth West Tinmouth . . . Norton's Wells Vfllentine's Tinmouth Otter Creek Center Rutland... Billing's Rutland Sheldon's West Rutland Wickham's Pawlet Camp's Stowe 400 Mlssisquoi North Sheldon 600 Gleason's Shrewsbury 400 Mason's Richmond 80 600 Valley Hinesburg 650 600 BastPoultney East Poultney 300 625 Walllngford Walllngford SS Williams' Danby 100 Rutland Rutland WestOrwell Orwell 460 BastOrwell do 350 125 Hosford's Charlotte 360 200 Milton Milton — - Milton Falls Milton Falls ■ Ferrisburgh Ferrisburgh 800 New Haven New Haven Shoreham Shqreham iaxCJ3.ZC3-AJSr.-SS B'.A.CTORIES. St. Clair St. Clair 450 Fairfleld Fairfield 700 Horton's Adrian Hoadley's Oakford Saunders' Trenton Smith 's Augusta White's Ceresco — Maple Grove Farmington 600 Canton Canton 400 Real's Rollin Clayton Clayton Spring Brook Farmington 400 GlltBdge do 400 Ionia Ionia Reading Reading 450 Fowler&Co.'s do Adrian C. M. Co Adrian Ames' Hudson Sawin's Mattison Utica Utica Welton's North A dams Hillsdale Hillsdale Holston . "VIRGHISriA..- .SaltviUe, Smith Co.... — -1 B^ACXOK^y. Elk Mountain . TiTOR'TBC C-A.ROLIN-^.-l FA.CTOTIV. AshevlUe, Bune'e Co. 230 TEN-JSTESSBK.-l inj^OTORY. Stratton's Crossville, Cumb'd Co. K^N-SA-S.-l F-A.CTORY. .Amerlcus Eagle Cheese Co.. CONN-KOTICTTX.-l FAd'ORY. .North Colebrooke I>ENN"SYrj'V^lSriA..-l.i FA.CTORIKS. Springvllle SprinKville, Susq. Co.. 158 Bridgewater Brldgewater, do .. 200 Gage ao *o •• 80 Worth's Marshallton. Ch'tr Co. — : Damascus Creamery Damascus, Wayne Co. Woodcock First Premlum.Woodcock, Crawf d Co Woodcock Boro'Cream'y. Woodcock Boro' do Venango Venango, Crawf d Co. Keystone N.Richmond, do . . — Cambridge Rockdale, do . Ellis & Smith's Waterford, Brie Co. . . New Mllf ord Creamery New Milford, Susq. Co 200 Spring Hill Spring Hill, Brad. Co. 160 Barl's Carthage 360 i^tnith'a Mason City Strawberry Point Fayette Co ■ HicklinB's" ' ■"> Kidder's Bpworth, Dubuque Co - Wyoming Wyoming. Jones Co .. Pierce's Belmond - Clear Lake! Clear Lake 540 Appendix, Name of Factory. L. B. Merrill's No. of Oowa. Location. . .Merrlllsville FACTORIES. Name of Factory. Location. No. of Cows. Brooiiman's Crown Point CJSJNJ^T}J^,~35 E^-A.CTORIES. Smith & Son's Norwich, Ox. Co., Ont. Galloway's Insersoll, do Josiab. CfoIUns MountElgin do Moyers' West Zorra do Adams' .Nissouri, do Wade's Cobourg do James Harris Ingeraoll, do do Branch do do H. Farrington's Norwich, do do Brunch... .do do Chas. Banbury's St. Mnry's do Harris & Adams Mt. Blgin do Ballard's Norwiohvllle, do Ballantyne's Sebrihgville do Ontario Norwich, do Pioneer do do People's do do E. Nissouri Ingersoll do 400 Lossing's Durham, Prov. Ont 150 Scott's Lobo, do 350 Kearn's Oxford, do 100 Bodge's do do 450 Silverthorn's do do 450 Tho. Abram's Norwich, do 400 G.Dunkin's do do 300 Wra. Bailey's do do 300 Andrew Piekert Lowville, do 200 Bichard Carter ..Brampton^ do 300 Wilmot's ...Milton, do 250 Cambell's do do ... 200 300 Lawson's Sulford, do ... 450 400 Degeer's Queensville, do 300 Pearce's 'Tyrconnell, do 560 Middlesex Bowood, do -'— Smith & Cochrane's Compton, Pr. Quebec . 250 200 200 70 275 200 175 150 175 INDEX, PAGE. Abortion 108 Absorbing liquid manure with sawdust 83 Acid, Development of in cheese maltrng 443 Acidity in cream, Influence of in churning 501 Acids, Advantages of over rennet 859 — for coagulating milk over rennet 359 — Amount of required 358 — for coagulating milk 358 Agitator, Curd 407 — for stirring milk 453 Albumen 167 — inmilk 322 Al derney bull 116 Alderneys as butter cows 115 — or Jerseys 114 AUgauer and Holland cows compared with other breeds 17&-177 American cheese 311 — — abroad. Appearance and comparative merits of 276 — — Composition of 311 — and Cheddar processes compared 430 — dairy belt 7 Ammoniacal salts In cheese ^ Analysis of beets and turnips..- ^8 — — lestuminoua and other plants— Bousslngault 85 — — milk and whey in cheese making 336 — — poiBon cheese, Voelcfeer 474 — — skim milk and whey in ski m cheese making; 837 whey : 319 — at three periods of manufacture 320 Annatto, Cheese spoiled by bad... 327 — Description of 438 — Dry extract of or annattoiiie it,, oatter. 499 — Method of preparing 439 — NichoUs' 379 — — English for butter 499 — Preparing at the Brockett Bridge Factory 439 A rinattoine 439 — CaldweU's analysis 440 — Beceipt for cutting 440 Apparatus, Factory, Cost of 872 Appliances, Factory, Convenient 418 Ashes 66 — f or eradioatiDg mosses 66 Associated dairies 11 — dairying 362 — — Rise and progress of 213 Austin's agitator, Description of 454 Average product of cows 21 Avrshires 113 — and Alderney, Crossing 115 — Crossing com.mon stock with 114 Bad flavored cheese; its cause 472 Bandages, boxes, &g 280 Bandaging machine 421 Barley, Composition of 104 Barn, Absorbing the liquid manures in 86 — A convenient dairy 82 — An excellent dairy 83 — Another style of ;., 36 — Basement for roots 33 — Clark's dairy ..517-519 — Drive floors and bays v S3 — Drive-way near the peak S3 — Fodder thrown downwardfi 83 — horse stable and carriage house S3 — Manuresink 84 — — cellars under 82 •— Meadow Brook Dairy* Description of 34 _ Elevation of 84 — Ground plan 85 — Modern dairy 31 — Stables for dairy 32 — Truesdale's, The manure cellar 88 — ven tiiators • . . 34 PAGE. Barn with four rows of atablea 39 — without manure cellar 36 Barns, Dairy 31 — for cutting and steaming fodder 36 — Threshing 37 — Truesdale's, Feeding the cows 88 — — Preparing the feed 37 Beef and cheese. Relative cost of producing 12 Beets, American improved imperial sugar 96 — Costof raising 98 — Distance between rows 97 — Harvesting 97 — Plants in a row 97 — Preparation of soil for 96 — SinwlinK and hoeing 97 — Time of sowing 97 Blue grass 73 Boiler and engine, Another new , 385 — Vertical 385 — — Jones & Faulkner's 382 — steam gen erator, Clark's. 3S5 Bone manure 90 Bones to grass lands. Application of, 56 — How to dissolve 65 Box! ng cheese for market 479 Branch factories. , 377 Breaking the curds 441 Breeding from healthy animals 108 — Excessive use of the male 108 — stock. Bad habits inherited in 119 — Tainting of the mother's blood. Examples of. 109 — What is to be considered 110 Buckwheat, Composition of 104 Bulls from good milking families, Importance of thoroughbred 120 Butter, Baters of, no such 10 — and cheese, Equalizing the supply of 11 — What constitutes good 46 — Cellars 498 — Character of good 483 — Colorand textureof 485 — colored with carrots 499 — Coloring 499 — Composition of 489-500 — factory, Plan of Rockville 253 -" factories. Expense and profits 210 — — System of organizing 246 — — The Orange Co 236 — — Water pools for 494 — flrkins.Oak 512 — —White oak 495 — Freeingfi'om buttermilk 484 — grasses of Orange Co 242 — Halrsin 511 — How to keep the salt for 511 — work 509 — Influence of washing 495 — in hard water districts 236 — its lEeeping qualities 483 — Xjosin? the aroma of 495 — made in New York In 1864 19 — making— American system 493 — — at Orange Co. factories 2o2 — the Queen's dairy 481 — — Leading principles for 482 — — milk room for farm dairies 484 — — Philosophy of 500 — — Bcotch method 498 — —Taints in 508 — manufacture 481 — — Modern method of managing milk 484 — marketing:, TheCaptain's 246 — Over-working and spoiling the grain 609 — package and packing 511 — — Elmer's *...; 513 — packages. Kind of wood for 512 542 Index, PAGE. Butter packages— Preparing for use 513 — Pacltingo! 495 — piiil and flrkina 354 — — Philadelphia, description of 491 — — Westcott's oak 613 — Percentage consumed as food 20 — — manufactured, table for 32 — Philadelphia, Making of 490 — Price of in London 10 — Production of in U. S. and Territories 10 — Salt— its action 508 — The grain of 508 — Washing 249 — Whey, Cold process ; Slo — — Hot process 514 — worker 509 — — Corbln's 610 — — Orange county 353 — Working 250 Buttermilk 497 — Composition of 500 Calves, Importance of freely handling 130 — Howto akin 149 — Raising of 147 — Raising, on the Boiling principle 148 — stomacii. The fourth for rennet 130 — When to be deaconed 149 Can handles. Milk 397 Cans. Factory milk 397 Card Ing co wa 129 Carrots, Coloring butter with 499 Caseine 166 — shells, Influence of 489 — Solubility of ,. 167 Cattle food. Table of comparative equivalents. ... 105 — Importance of acclimating 107 Cause of floating curds 434 Cellars, Manu re 33 — under cheese factories 448 Census, Are the figures correct 17 — Inuccuracy of returus 31 — report of 1S70, Are the figures correct 17 Centrifugal machine for cheese making 346 Certificate of stock— Form for cheese factory company 363 Ohed dar cheese— its styl e 378 — — making 271 — process, Principles of 431 Cheese, American 311 — — abroad— Appearance and merits 276 — Comparative merits of 376 exports In 1848, '49, '50 314 — and butter exports for ten years, from 1858 to 1868 256 — factories. List of 631-540 — Home consumption of 9 — made in United States in 1869 18 — — beef, Relative cost of producing 13 — apparatus and making single Gloster cheese.. 265 — associations— Old districts affected 234 — bad from Imperfect salting.. 328 — bandages, boxes, &c 280 — Cannon ball 410 — certiflcaie of sale 365 — Cheshire of excellent quality 344 — dairying as a specialty— Its history 213 — Defects in American, bad flavor, &c 2S0 — districts Of England 258 — dressing room 419 — English, improvement in keeping, cheese room, &c 395 — in quality 294 — Errors In keeping 330 — Experiments at Frocester Court 345 ^^ ^~ 'V'ofilcker'fl AA^ — Exports frora'NewYorkfrom'i862 to 1866*'.'.*.'.' 284 tal860, '61.. ;f 315 — Extra rich. Analysis of 340 — — fine, Process for making 4^7-462 — factory owned and managed by one person.... i)65 — — SinclairvlUe, Rules and regulations for 366 — — system In ,New York and capital invested in 1863 -. 215 — factories. Advantages of a cellar under 448 — — Another form oforganlzing 38iJ — — Capital Invested and persons employed In New York 216 — — inaugurated by Jesse Williams 315 — — Notice to patrons, form for 364 — — Number built In 16 years 216 — — Regulations for 364 — factories—Rules for organizing 363 — — The early ,.,, 326 — Fancy fiictory 462 — Flavor of, English standard 426 — fly 469 — from tainted milk 461 — GloucesterBhlre 264 Cheese, Graf ted 467 — Hard, dry— How to Improve 479 — hoop followers 435 — — and utensils, English 293 — hoops 404 — howafTected by fungus 190 — Keeping qualities 429 — made from whey 351 — — by centrifugal machine, Analysis of 349 — makers. Salary of flrst-class 193 — making, acids for. 358, 359 — — American and Cheddar processes compared. 430 — — at Avery & Ives' factory 466 — — Coarse curds process 464 — — Cutting the curds 440 — — Fish's views on heat 444 — — from a small quantity of milk, Process 469 __ number of cows 466 — — Machinery 3ffl — — Norway factory 463 — — paying f(or by the pound 365 — — Practical mistakes in 313 — — Process where milk is sour 459 — — Tempei-ature for skimmed milk 443 — whole milk 448 — — under JdifQcuIties.. 468 — — use of Sour whey 437 — heat in 442 — manufacture 426 — ~ coat in families 220 — — English reduction of labor in ^ — — of, from small quantities of milk. 436 — skimmed 496 — market kt Chippenham 263 — — The^nglish 282 — Mellow appearance of 427 — Not ripening at too low temperature 330 — of ,Bomei;8et 260 — partially skimmed. Analysis of 341 — percentage. Manufacture table for 22 — — consumed as food ^ 20 — Fractrbal faults in making 815 — p/ess, A primitive 468 — — English 291 — -f Frazer*s gang 403 — /- log and how made 468 — — screws 401 — pr,essGs, Factory , 400 — — Herkimer Co., Description of 399 — Proper ripening of 427 — Proportion of moisture in 427 — rackabd setter 417 — Bectahgular 4lO — — Baiidaging 416 Boxing 417 — — Curb and press for 413 — — Desqriptloa of making ....412 — — press. Cloths for 416 — — Saving in boxes, and down weights 414 — . hoops and screws. 415 — Ripening or— How aifected by manufacture.. 448 — rooms. Hot water pipes for heating 331 — sales, Blank for 365 — Salting In the whey 829 — Salty taste of 428 — selling at fiictories... 364 — shipments from New York and prices in Lon- doii in 1866 and 1867 286 — Size of 232 — Skim milk. Making 350 — BoldinNew York In 1864 19 — spoiled by bad rennet K3 — high temperature 830 — not turning 330 — spoiling by breaking curd too rapidly 818 — statistics 523-K7 — Stilton 439 — — and Cotherstone, Analysis of S04 — — Characteristics of... 429 — — improved by cream 343 — styles demanded abroad 278 — The Derby shape 278 — — young American 432 — trade for 1869, '70 and '71 638,529 of 10 — tub,Cockey's 835 — vat, Another form of heater under 888 — — and heater, Millar's circulating «. 390' — — automatic, Description of..... 387 — — Oneida 396 — — with automatic heater 885 — Water In ti good 428 — WlUahire 3e»-2B4 Cheshire cheese making 273 — and Cheddar cheese, ComposlttoQ of 306 Churn dash 249 — room and churning 249 — Shape of tbe FhUudelphla 401 Index. 543 PAOZi. Churninff, Causes affectine -....* 504 — Dog and sh^ep power for. 607 — Durationof 501 — Experiments in tempemture. 483 — How to be done 483 — Power for 505 — the cream or the milk 498 — — milk, Dutch process >■■ 498 — too quick ,,.i..-. 488 Churns, Patent 495 Gleaning dairy utensils ..■• ••>•• 3S2 — milk cans 855 Clover, Alsllce 73 — seed and permanent pasture. Field experi- ments on 67 Clovers, Value for milk 103 — Analysis of 102 CoagulatinK milk. Experiments in 357 Coarse curds process, Salting. . . > 465 Coloring butter 499 — cheese 438 — — for the London market 279 Common stock. Grossing with thorough-breds.... 109 Composition of cheese 297 Concentrated food, Injury from feeding lliS Condensed milk 193 Mlfftnfactory 198 — — Mnglish Company 197 — — Iflxports from New York 2(S of 195 . — — in Switzerland 195 Irish 197 — — trade* Origin and development of 193 Two kinds of 201 — milks, Cobsistency of 201 Condensing factory. Provost's 201 — milk, Process of 197 _ _ „ _ at Borden factory 197 -^ — The Borden factories 197 Cooking the curds 443 — — curd, Wight's views 447 Cooler, can and strainer, Burnap'a 375 Cooling milk with ice 455 — —at the farm 373 •^ morning's milk 437 Corn— Analysis of varieties ■• 81 Cottage cheese, how made 479 Cotton cake, compared with linseed cuke 100 — seed meal 98 _ statement of A. W. Cheever as to its value fur milch cows 99 -_ Voelcker's views 99 — Analysis of ..•.. Iw Cow, Marks 01 a good 131 Cowa, Alderneys as butter 115 — Annual average product 31 — average number for factory 367 -« bad habits inherited 119 — Best breed of for the dairy 106 — Breeding instead of purchasing 107 ^ calving Igi — change of food required tfl — confined to one field more contented SO — driving from pasture 356 — drying them of their milk 12o — Escutcheon of for good i^ -_ In bad 134 — in mediocre 124 — Fall and winter food for 136 — feedingand management important 134 — Form of escutcheon for first rate 123 — good tempered. Value of 120 — Guenon's discoveries • 122 — Importance of drawing all the milk 137 — good condition for winter 131 shelterfor 127 — in close confinement 130 — — New York in 1864 and 1865 19 — iiijured by exposure 128 — keptqulet 49 — Magne's, Classification of 133 — Milch for years 1S40, 1850 and 1860, and ratio of population 17 — Mr. Scott^B management of.... • 134 — not necessary to be constantly feeding 49 — Number for 1840, 1850, 1860, 1870 18 of in U.S. in 1869 18 — tetnafkable for large yields 134 *- Selecting for the dairy 131 — teats— Wetting with milk 357 Cracked cheese. How to remedy 470 Cream affected by bad odors 5^ — Analysis of 4^ — two samples 497 — Composition of 600 — Densltyof Jw — How the English transport... 18d — Scalding, For butter making 605 PAaB, Cream spoiled in the churn 483 — strainep, Baker's 488 — Straining of, For butter 488 — Temperature of. For summer 495 — that first rises 488 — When ready for churning 500 Creamery Association of Wallkill 247 Crossing Alderneys and Ayrshires 115 Curd agitator rake 407 — Amount of water in, When ready to go to the vat 316 — cutting implements 441 — filler 420 — knives, Cast steel dairy 407 — Limits of temperature for improvement 317 — mills 408 — ' Precautions against too much whey 318 — scoops 409 — Water in, When ready to go to press 316 Curds, Drawing off 453 — floating 431 — Salting 449 — Why tney should be ground 462 Curing room not to be dark 470 — — floors 423 — rooms. Appliances for 433 — — heat in 446 — — warmed by steam 447 Cutting the curds 440 — and cooking the food. Skinner's experiments. 136 — Stuart's experiments 136 — down the boxes in packing 480 Dairies, Associated 11 Dairy belt, American 7 — Company, Form of certificate for Stock 363 — compared with other husbandries 7 — Country, Characteristics of a good 7 — district of Wiltshire 291 — dippers vm — farm, A good 8 — — English management of 81 — — system of rotation in crops S2 — forms and fixtures 25 , — goods. Over production of 9 — house, A small butter cellar for 43 — — cheese making room for 48 _ _ Cold spring water for 43 — — Ourlngroom 43 — — for farm dairies 42 — — Plan and description of for farm 45 _ _ What Is a proper one •^••a" ^ — Interest of, Progress and magnitude in U- S. . 16 — practice, English 287 — product of Herkimer Co., N. Y 531 — _ — Ohio 521 — Troducts of in U. S. for 1840-1850-1860-1870 18 — — Com. Wells* estimates 35 of the U.S. in 1850-1860 254 Value in 1840 314 — Belatlve advantages 8 — stock, Education of 131 — — in Orange Co 348 — utensils. Cleaning 852 Dairying, Associated BTO — — iiiuropean Idea ■ 363 — English and American points of difference and merits 356 '— Bequisltes to success „4B — fiise and progress of associated 213 Daisy, destroying 245 Dancel's experiments in watering cows 144 Decay, fermentation and decomposition, Prof. Caldwell's views 188 Derrick and hoisting wheel 434 Devons.... "^'Hg Devonshire cream w6 Distance In delivering milk sra Double curds 467 Drains, How to be laid 71 Driving cowa 356 Dutch breed 116 — oattleas mtlk producers 117 Enclosures, Small, Poor economy 37 Engine and boiler. Another new 385 Exercise, Importance of for cows 137 Expenditure of food by respiration— J. B. Law's experiments 139 Experiments on clover seed and permanent pas- tures 57 — with centrifugal machine for cheese making. 847 fiiposure, Cows injured by 128 Factory buildings 867 — — and fixtures. Dr. Wight on 423 Cost of.... 871 — Herkimer Coh fancy.. .^r 370 — Feports.Ohio .^ 523 — Bunborn's 368 — Slnclairvllle, Atoln building.. 41S 544 Index. PAon. Factory site 2i!G — system, Advantiiges uf 5*22 — — Hauling the milk 239 — — Its permanency 235 — — Objections to 224 — weighing can 398 — WiUow Grove, Description ot 368 Factories, Branch 377 — — Advantages of 380 — — Objections to 381 — Distances in delivering millc 372 — in Allegany Co., N. Y 635 — - Ashland Co., Ohio 638 — — Ashtabula Co., Ohio 637 Broome Co., N. T 634 — — Canada— Butter and cheese 540 Cattaraugus Co., N. Y 637 — — Cayuga Co., N. Y 636 . — — Chautauqua Co., N. Y 536 Chemung Co., N. Y 637 Chenango Co., N. Y 631 Clinton Co., N. Y 633 Columhia Co.,N. Y 63,? — — Connecticut— Butter and cheese 639 Cortland Co.,N. Y 632 — — Cuyahoga Co., Ohio 638 Dutchess Co., N. Y 632 — — Brie Co.,N.Y S.^ Fulton Co., N. Y 633 Ohio 637 — — Geauga Co., Ohio 637 — — Genesee Co.,^H. Y 534 — — Greene Co.. N. Y 636 — — I-Ienry Co., Ohio 637 Herliimer Co., N. Y 536 — — Huron Co., Ohio 638 — — Illinois-Butter and cheese 638 — — Indiana— Butter and cheese 540 — — Iowa— Butter and cheese 539 — - Jefferson Co., N. Y 634 — — Kansas — Butter and cheese 639 — — Ken tucfcy— Butter and cheese 6.38 — — Lalco Co., Ohio 538 — — Lewis Co., N. Y 633 — — liOrainCo., Ohio * 637 — — Madison Co., N. Y 632 — — Massachusetts— Butter and cheese 639 — — Medina Co.. Ohio 538 — — Michigan— Butter and cheese 539 — — Mtunesota^Butter and cheese 538 — — Monroe Co., N. Y 533 — — Montgomery Co., N. Y 633 — — New York State— List of 631-637 Niagara Co., N. Y 634 — — Uhio—Bntter and cheese 637,538 Oneida Co., N.T -631 — — Onondaga Co., N. Y 633 — - Ontario Co., N. Y 633 — — Orange Co.. N. Y 535 Orleans Co., N. Y 533 — — Oswego Co., N. Y 632 — - Otsego Co., N. Y 635 — — Pennsylvania— Butter and clieese 639 — — Portage Co., Ohio 537 — — Rensselaer Co., N. Y 630 — — Saratoga Co., N. Y 635 — — Schenectady Co., N. Y 634 — — Schoharie Co., N.Y 636 Schuyler Co., N. Y 632 — — Steuben Co., N. 1 633 — — St. Lawrence Co., N. Y 534 — — Summit Co., Ohio 638 — — Tennessee— Butter and cheese 639 — — Tioga Co., N. Y 635 — — Tompkins Co., N. Y 636 — — Trumbull Co., Ohio 537 — — Vermont— Butter and clieeae 539 — — Virginia— Butter and cheese 639 — — Washington Co.. N. y mi Wayne Co., N. Y 631 — — Wisconsin— Butter and cheese 638 — — Wyoming Co.lN. Y 634 Yates Co., N.Y 685 — Ingersoll..... 378,379 — List ot Cheese and Butter 531-640 — Organization and selection of sites 225 — Popular method of organizing 362 — Belling cheese 364 Fairfield factory. Description ot 368 Falling to face, Management of cheese when 448 Fall feeding cows 146 — management of cows 146 Fancy factory cheese, Herkimer On 462 Farm dairies, Cooling morning's milk 437 — English, Harding's 2i;8 — rents in England 268 Faults practical in iuaking cheese 316 Fded, Spring and summer, for milch cows 137 Feeding cows for milk— Horsfall's experiments. . 141 — grain in summer 142 Fence, A light. How to make 28 — Board 29 — — Howtomake jjg — Interior, lor dairy farms 37 Fences, Log and rail 28 — Movable panel — , 28 — Picket 28 Fencing .rr 26 — Economyin , 29 — BmployiDg an ei^gineer for 27 — Expense of for farms of the State 26 Flavor, Delicate of Stilton 430 Floating curds 431 — —Grinding for 432 — — Iron's processfor 433 — —Moon's process 434 — — Preventive of 435 — — Remedy for 435' — — Treatment of 436 Fodder, Barns tor cutting and steaming 36 Food, A good article needed :;. 9 — Cheap and nutritious. Influence of 11 — Dr. Thompson's experiments with, for ani- mals 103 — Economical use of 12 — Experiments in Dundee prison '16 — gained by steaming 88 — Gold prices for difFerent kinds 9 — Muscle making 14^ — Producing cheaply 11^ Gloucester cheese. Single and double analysis of. 307 Gloucestershire 264 Grades, Short-Horns Ill Grafting the curds 467 Grass, artificial. Green produce at Escrick Park. . 62 — compared with cotton, corn, wheat, oat and potato crops — values of each 52 — crop. Importance of 61 — early and late cut. Relative value for cows — 131 — — cut. Value of 133 — lands improved by irrigation 86 — — Liquid manure for 67 — — Management of 51 — — Seeding in spring 74 — — Top dressing of 65 — with artificial manure 66 — gypsum 67 — — Treatment of rough surf aces 82 — Pecuniary value of 51 — Turning cows to 143 Grasses, artificial. Table showing produce of 68 — Butter, of OrangeCo 242 — for the dairy In England 266 — — pastures, Gibson's views 72 — Influence of nitrogenous fertilizers 60 — Lawes' and Gilbert's experiments .'. 60 — Milk producing varieties 68 — nutritivevalueofditrerent varieties, Table for 86 — of OrangeCo 242 — Standard varieties for meadows 84 Gypsum, Best method of sowing 67 — Composition of 68 — Quantity used per acre 68 — Valueof 69 Hair In stomach, Balis of 130 Hail soiling 77 Hard fescue grass ' 73 Hay on Harding's farm 270 Heat, Best mode of applying 445 — Dangerof high 446 — in cheese making 442 — In curlngrooms 446 — Injudicious use of 444 Heater and steamer. Agricultural, 396 — — vats. Position of 893 — Automatic 886 — — and cheese vat, Burreil's 386 — Millar's, Description of 391 — Old style self...; 388 — under vat, Ralph's ■ 388, 389 — — the vat. Another form of 388 Heating with dry steam 425 Hellers coming In when two years old 120 Herds, Division of 26 — Large, unwieldy 26 — SIzeol 26 Herkimer factory 228 Holsteln or Dutch cuttle 116 Hoops, Cheese press 404 Horsfall's experiments 141 Huven In cattle 160 — Howlo treat 161 Ice in cooling milk. Use of 455 — Injuring butter 466 Improving hard dry cheese 479 Irrigation of meadows 86 Index, 545 PAGE. Irrigation— Sinclair's opinion. »T — Utilizing water from spriugs 86 Ital la n ry e grass 73 Jennings' pan 4H — milli pan 4 j3 Jersey s 114 Jewitt's pan 487 June f^i'asB 243 Kindness on milkini; stock. Influence of IJO Lactoineter in court 155 Lund, MUilirecUon in the use of /., 16 liice, Hutchin*^ fuiuigator for destroying Vi% — Mean>) of (lestruying I'ii Liming grass lands G6 Linseed 101 — and beans. Milk and butter produced by feed- ing 102 — Best way of feeding lOi — cake 101 Liquid manuring. Application of to grass lands . . 83 — — Ur. Voelcker's views as to value 83 — — on Alderman Mechl's farm 82 Lucerne 102 — Analysis of 102 — Composition of 102 Machinery fur clieese making Soiled stock. Health of 75 Soiling, advantages of 75 — Dr. Wight's experience. ■ TT — Kinds of food to be used 76 — Manures saved in 76 — milch stock 74 — Mr. Birnie's plan 7K — Quincy's experiments 75 — 'I'he common plan 80 — Timefnr sowingcorn 80 — with fodder corn 80 Somerset and its system of farming 253 Sour Whey, Use In cheese making 437 — — application of at farm dairies.., 231 Specific gravity of milk 164 — drawn from different quarters of ihe udder 161 — Experiments with , 158 — — from different cows 155 — Influence of tlie molecular c(jiidition of caseine * 160 — varies in different day=j 163 — of skimmed milk....... 154 — watered milk 154 Spring and summer feed for milch cows 137 Stencil plates for marking 480 Stilton cheese 478 — —Size of 430 — — Temperature low for ^ Stirring the milk during night 453 Stuck of Somerset 260 — Selection, care and managerae. t of IOC — j:faould be wintered well 132 Stomach, The fourth Irtcalve.s 130 Stomachs tts of 341 — In cheese making. Sour 437 — — the curd. Caution against too much 318 — strainer and siphon 407 Wilts cheese, Manner of making 262 Wiltshire 261 — Warwickshire and Leicestershire cheese. Composition of 309 Wire grass 243 VERY FEW MEX Have ever made the mauufactvire of Chums a specialty, and have put into their work enough money, or time, or conscience, to make a really first-class article. The present manufacturers of "■The Blanchard Churn" have been engaged (father and sons) in the making of Churns for over fifty years! They have devoted much time to the scientific investigation of the process of Butter Making, and devel- oping the best mechanical means for aiding it. It has been for many years their only business. They have carefully observed and examined every new claimant for the dairyman's favor. They have been constantly testing and applying improvements to the Churn they have been making. They have been perfecting the machinery and appliances of their factory. They have been untiring in their efforts to combine every desirable quality in their Churn, and to omit every thing needless or compli- cated. They believe they have succeeded, and confidently offer "The Blanchard Churn" as combining more good qualities than any other Churn now made. It has been made and used over twenty years, and there axe now in successful operation over No other Churn is made of as good material, or as well. It cannot get out of order, because it is so simple. It has no cog wheels or gearing. It brings the Butter as quickly as it ought to come. It works the Butter free from buttermilk, in the Churn, without any change of dasher, quicker and better than it can be done by hand. It worlcs in the Sait in the same way. It is a perfect AUTOMATIC BUTTER MAKER. THE AUTHOR OF THIS BOOK, Hon, jr. .^a "WHUard, S9uiry ISditor of Jftoore'a JBtttral Jfetc-J^orker , Maya of iti " Tour Churn has been in use in my dairy during the past season. It is simple in its construction, is easily cleaned, and does its work in the best manner. It is a Churn I can safely recommend to butter makers." HON. MASON C. WELD, Xdttie .Matociaie JEdiiOf of the •Mntericau u^gricuHttritij aaya of it t " I will not simply say that it does its work well, for we are very critical; but will Bay it does it to our supreme satisfaction, both in churning and work- ing the butter. Of late the whole work has been done by a girl of fourteen," Our Churns are now in gen'eral use in the dairies of the most intelligent farmers in the country. They are on sale in every State in the Union, by all dealers in really first-class Farmers' Implements. WE MAKE FIVE SIZES. "So, 3, foi about 2 gols. of Cream. Betail price, $6 No. 4, " 4 " "7 No. 5, " 8 " "8 No. 6, for about 12 gals, of Oreami Betail price, $9 No. 7, " 18 " ''^ 10 Fnlleys fiunished for poweii SAMPLE CHURNS sent for examination and trial to towns where we have no Agents, on receipt of 25 per cent less than our retail prices, and satisfaction guaranteed. No Churns sent for saie on Consignment or Commission. For Churns, Agencies, or full Descriptive Circulars, send to the Sole Manufacturers, POETEE BLANOHAED'S SONS, Concord, N. H. THE BEST IN ITS SPHERE OF JOURNALISM ! HAS FOE NEAELY TWBNTY-PIYE YBAES BEEN THE RECOGNIZED LEADER in its Important Field of Journalism. Favorably known tlirough tlie length and breadth of the land, and in Europe, it has the L^AHQEST CIRCUL^TIOISr of any Newspaper of its Class on this Continent or in the World, and the LARGEST INFLUENCE, from the Reliability of its Teachings. The Extent and Variety of the In- formation in its pages, make it not only the Best Agricultural Paper, but the Best Family Paper, and the Best Literary Paper, as it is the Beat Authority on Rural Topics, and furnishes XHE BESX STORIES ! THE FJRESHESX NEfTS ! TUE L.AXESX I>ISCOTEieiES ! ACCURAXE niARKEX REPORXS ! IL,EUSXRAXEI> ARXICr.ES, &c., &c. Beside tlie writing3 of Ibe Conducting and Associate Editors, its Corps of Paid and Volunteer Contributors is larger than tliat attached to any other Rdbal, Literauy and Family Weekly, making MOORE'S RURAL NEW-YORKER the Organ in and through which great and beneficial efforts toward "PROGRESS AND IMPROVEMEIVT » are originated and communicated to the People. In the Future, as in the Past, the Rubal'b Motto will be " Meeelaior / " except in Price, whicji was reduced Jan. 1, 1872— making it THE CHEAPEST PAPER OF ITS SIZE! THE CHEAPEST UITUAL AVEEKI.ir ! THE CHEAPEST FAIHILT JOURNAL! IIVEFROVED STYIJE ANB REDVCED FKICE ! Each No. of the BuaAij NEW-TonKEn for 1872 will compriBe Sixteen Qunrto Pages, (larirer than Harper's Weekly,) printed from New Type, on Extra Fine aud Heavy Paper, and IltotrotoJ and Printed In the Hiaheat Style of the Typographie Art. REDVCEB TERms, In Advances-Single Copy, $2.50 per Tear. To CInha: Five Copies, and one copy free to Agent or sretter-up oC Club, for $12.50 ; Seven Copies, and one free, for $16 ; Ton Copies, and one free, for $20— only $2 per copy. As we are obligred to pre-pay the American postage on papers mniled to foreign countries. Twenty Cents should l)e added to above rates for each yearly copy mniled to Cnnadn, and One Dollar per copy to Europe. Drafts, Post-OfiSoe Money Orders and Registered Letters may be mailed at our risk. ^^ Liberal Premiums to all CInb Agents who do not take free copies. Specimen Num- bers, Sliow-Bills, &o., sent free. Address D. D. T. MOOR£, Rural Ne-w-Yorlcer Office, New York City. Jtloore's Stanbarb IHnxal ^Publications. The People's Practical Poultry Book. A WOllK ON THE BREEDING, REARING, CARE AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY. BY -WVa. IVE. IiEWIS. This work contains Practical Information on THE BEST BREEDS TO RAISE, BEST MODE OP MANAGEMENT, NUMBER OP FOWLS TO KEEP, DRESSING AND PACKING, PREVENTION AND CURE OP DISEASES, CAPONIZING PROCESS, INCUBATORS, POULTRY HOUSES, POULTRY ENEMIES, &c. The work is the most thorough Treatise on the subject that has yet been issued, and has won unqualified approbation from the Press, and from Poul- try Raisers all over the country. It is PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED with Engravings, mostly from Original Designs by tlie best Artists. IVBAT THE PRESS SAITS OF IT. From the Kansas Farmer. Fob a thorough and complele work, it is the most concise and direct of any.poiiUry hoolt we are acquainted willi. Tliero are single pages wortli the price of llie boolc to any one wlio keeps fowls. From the Michigan Farmer. It is the American ponllry book of tlie times, williout doubt, anil Mr. Moore is en- titled to a vote of thanks for bringing it out, as well as Mr. Lewis for writing it. From Vie American Bural Home. The author has evidenlly aimed to briiig together the greatest amount of praeticnl in- formation from all sources wUhip his reach, and present it to the reader in a popular and convenient form, making liis work espe- cially valuable for reference. From the Country Gentleman. Thk author presents a book which will be a convenient addition to the library of any poultry keeper. F'om the JRoeheater Daily Express. The method of artificial hatching and C'lre of the young, is fully set forth, and the most improved iiiculjatorsilluKtrated. Those who have had yearsof experience in poultry raising will find siew and valuable Informa- tion in the chapter on caponizlug, while for the l)eginner and amateur the whole work is indispensable. From the N. Y. Daily Sun. It Is just such a book as every person wants who keeps domestic fowls, either for profit or pleasure. Sent by mail, free of postage, for 81.50. Address D. D. T. MOORE, Publisher, Rural New-Yorlter Office, We-w Tork City. Moore's Stanborb Enrol |)Mblication0. NE^W EDITION OP The Practical Shepherd, By HENRV S. RANDALL, LL. J}., Author of "Sheep husbandry in the South," "Fine Wool Sheep Sus- bandry" dtc, and JEJditor of the Sheep Husbandry Depart- ment of Moore^s Rural New- Yorker This work is the Standard Atjthoeitt on the BEEEDiG, MANAGEMIT Al DISEASES OF SHEEP. The book contains all that is known of the subject up to the time of its publication, and is universally acknowledged to be the MOST COMPLETE WORK ON SHEEP HUSBANDRY EXTANT. OFimOXVS OF THE FKISSS. Vrom, the New Erigland Farmer, Boston. Thb Pjractical Shepheed is a work that has loug been needed by our people. It should be in the baud and head of every person owning sheep. From, the Country Gentleman and Cultkator. As a whole, this hook is unquestionably in advance of anything of the kind now be- fore the public. From tlie Maine Farmer. The name of the author, Hon. H. 8. Ean- dall, is a guarantee of its completeness and reliability. From tlie New Toi-k Trrhune. In this volume the author has exhausted the subject, and given all that is necessary for any farmer to know about selecting, breeding and general management of sheep, in health or sickness. We heartily com- mend this work to all who wish for a sound and thorough treatise on Sheep Husbandry. From the Ohio Farmer. The reputation of the author — who ranks as THE authority in this country upon all that pertains to tlie breeding and manage- ment of sheep — will induce a large and con- tinued demand for " The Practical Shep- herd." From the Journal of the N. T. State AgH 8oc% The ■ Practical Shepherd is a most complete work on Sheep Husbandry for the practical wool grower, and gives all the important matter required for the manage- ment of slieep, as well as a description of tlie various breeds adapted to our country. This work meets the wants of the wool growers. From, tlie Prairie Farmer. The illustrations of sheep are by the best artists of New York, and well done. The letter press and paper are all that could be desired in a work of this description. It will undoubtedly meet with the large sale its merits demand. Twenty-seventh Edition now ready. Sent by mail, free of postage, for Tiao Dollars. Address all orders to D. D. T. MOORE, Publisher, Rural New Yorker Office, Ne^r York City. LIST OF RURAL BOOKS, rOR SALE AT THE OFFICE OF MOORE'S RURAL NEW-YORKER, Or Sent by Mail, post-paid, on Heceipt of Price. Allen's [L. F.] American Cattle $2 00 Do. New American Fai-m Book 2 50 JDo. Biseajies of Domestic Animals 1 00 Do. Hnral Ai'chitectnre 1 00 American Bird Fancier 30 American Pomology [ii90 Dlnstrations] . 3 00 American Practical Cookery 1 75 American Eose Cultm'ifit 30 American Sharp - Shooter [Telescopic Eifle] 50 American Wheat Cnltnrist [Todd] 8 00 Ai'chitectnre [Cnmmiags & Miller] 3S2 Designs and 714 lUustratlans 10 00 Architecture, National, [Geo. E. Wood- waidj 12 00 ATohitectnre, Principles and Practice of [Loring& Jenny] 12 00 Bee-Keepers' Text-Book, Paper 40 Do. Mnslin 75 Bement's Babbit Fancier 30 Blcknell'a Village Builder [55 Plates, showing New and Practical Designs] 10 00 Bommer'B Method of Making Manures. . 22 Boussinganlt's Eural Economy 1 fiO Breck's Book of Flowers [new] 1 75 Bridgeman'B Gardener's Assistant 2 50 Buist's Family Elltchen Gardener 1 00 Do. Flower Garden 1 60 Burr's Vegetables of America 5 CO Chemistry of the Farm [ Nich olsl 1 25 Chorlton's Grape Grower's Guide 75 Cider Maker's Manual 1 50 Clater'B New Illustrated Cattle Doctor, [Colored Plates] 6 00 Cobbett'8 American Gardener 75 Cole's American Fruit Book 75 Cole's American Veterinarian 75 Cotton Culture 1 50 Cotton Planter's Manual [Turner] 1 50 Crack Shot [BaiberJ 1 75 Cranberry Cnltme [John J. VThite's] Ills. 1 25 Dadd's American Cattle Doctor 1 50 Do. Modem Horse Doctor 1 50 Dana's Muck Manual 1 25 Darlington's American Weeds and Use- fulPIants 1 15 Darwin's Animals and Plants 6 00 Dead Shot; or. Sportsman's Complete Guide 1 75 Bowning's Cottage Eesidences 3 00 Do. Fruits and Fruit Trees of America [IJOOpn.] 5 00 Do Landscape Gardening 6 50 Do. Knral Essays 3 .50 Drainage for Profit and Health 1 50 Dn Breuil's Vineyard Culture [Warder] . 2 00 Dyer and Color Maker's Companion %l 25 Eveleth's School House Architecture 10 00 Eastwood's Cranberry Culture 75 Elliott's Lawn and Shade Trees 1 50 Everybody His Own Lawyer 1 25 Farm Drainage [H. F. French] 1 50 Farm Implements and Machinery [J. J. Thomas] ;.. 1 50 Fai-mer's Bam Book 1 50 Farming for Boys 1 50 Field's Fear Culture 1 25 Fishing in American Waters [Scott] 3 50 Flagg's European Vineyards 1 60 Flint on Grasses 2 50 Fulton's Peach Culture. A Haud-Book and Guide to Every Planter 1 50 Do. Milch Cows and Dairy Forming 2 50 Frank Forrester's Field Sports [2 vols] . . 6 00 Do. Fish and Fishing [100 engravings] . . 3 00 Do. Manual For Young Sportsmen 3 00 Fuller's Illustrated Straw'jeny Cultnrist. 25 Do. Forest Tree Cnlturist.... 1 .50 Do. Small Fmlts [Illustrated] 1 50 Gardening for Profit [P. Henderson] 1 50 (.Jardening for the South 2 00 Grape Cnlturist [A. S. Fuller] 1 50 Gray'sManualof Botany and Lessons .. 4 00 Do. School and Field Book of Botany 2 50 Do. How Plants Grow [500 Illustrations] I 18 Do. Manual of Botany in the Northern States [700pp,,IUustratedJ 1 25 Do. Introduction to Stniotural and Sys- tematic Botany and Vegetable Physiol- ogy [1300 Hlustrations] 3 50 Gregoryon Sciunshes 30 Guenon on Milch Cows 75 Gun, Bod and Saddle 1 50 Harney'sBams,Outbuildlngs andFences.lO 00 Harris on Insects 4 00 Do. on the Pig— Breeding, Management, &o 1 50 Hatfield's American House Carpenter. . . 3 50 Hibbard's Bustle Adornments for Homes of Taste. [Colored Plates] 9 00 Hints to Horse Keepers [Herbert's] 1 75 High Farming Without Manure 35 Holly's Art of Saw-Filing 1 50 Holly's Carpenter's Haind-Book [new] ... 75 Hooper's Dog and Gun 30 Hoope's Book of Evergreens 3 00 Hop Culture 40 How Crops Feed 2 00 How Crops Grow 2 00 How to Ubok, Carve and Eat 1 50 Hunter and Trapper 1 00 Hussmann's Grapes and Wine I SO EUEAX ^NBW-TOEKEE BOOK LIST. Inditui Corn; Its Valne, Culture and TTaeB tl 50 Jennings on Cattle 1 75 Do. IIors« and Iiis Diseases 1 75 Do. Horse Training: Made Easy 1 25 Do. Slieep, Swine and Poultry 1 75 JoLnston's Agricultural Chemistry. . .... 1 75 Do. Elements of Agricultural Chemistry 1 50 Kemp's Landscape Gardening. 2 00 Langstroth on the Hive and Honey Bee. 2 00 Leuchai-*s How to build Hot- Houses 1 50 Liebig's Agricultural Chemistry 1 00 Manual of Agriculture [Emerson and EUnt 1 25 Manual on Flax and Hemp Culture 23 Manual of TobaecoCultm'e 30 Market Assistant [De Toe] 2 50 Masury's Treatise on Plain and Decora- tive House Painting. 1 75 Mayhew'sIllnstratedKorse Management 3 00 Mason's Parrier and Stud Book 1 50 McMahon's American Gardener 2 25 Mechanic's f Companion [Nicholson] 3 00 Mcehau's Hand -Book of Ornamental Trees 75 Miles on Horse's Foot [cloth] 75 Modem Cookery [by Miss Acton and Mrs, S.J. Hale] 1 50 My Farm at Edgewood 1 75 McClure's Diseases of Horse, Cattle and Sheep 2 00 Money in the Garden [by P. T. Quinn] . . 1 00 Nonis'Fish Culture 1 75 Jf orton's Elements Scientific Agi'ionlture 75 Onion Culture 25 Our Farm of Four Acres 30 Pardee on Strawberiy Culture 75 Parkman's Book of Eoses 3 00 Parsons on the Eose 1 50 Pear Cnlture for Profit [P. T. Qolnn] 1 00 Peat and its Uses 1 25 Pedder'sLand Measure 60 Practical and Scientific Fruit Cultnro [Baker] 4 00 Practical Floriculture [P. Henderson].. 1 50 Practical Poultry-Keeper [L. Wright]-- 2 00 Practical Shepherd [Eandall] 2 00 Practical Stair Builder[30 original plates] 1 00 Preparation of Cooked Food for the Fat- tening of Cattle 25 Quia by^s Mysteries of Bee-Keeping 1 50 Quincy on Soiling Cattle 1 25 Kaod's Bnlbs 3 00 Do. Garden Flowers 3 00 Eandail's Fine Wood Husbandry 1 00 Do. Sheep Husbandry in the South 1 50 Eiehardsun on the Dog 30 ElTer'a Miniature Fruit Garden }1 OC Schenck's Gardener's Text-Book 75 Scribncr's Produce Tables 30 Do. Eeady Eeckoncr and Log Book 30 Simpson's Horse Portraiture— Breeding, Ecaring and Ti-aining Trotters 2 50 Six Hundred Beceipts 1 75 Skillful Housewife 75 Squashes [tlregory] 30 Stewart's [John] Stable Book 1 50 'Tegetmeier a Poultry Book [Colored Plates] 9 00 Tegetmeier's Pigeon Book [Col'dPlates]. S 00 Ten Acres Enough 150 The Mule— A Treatise on the Breeding, Training and Uses to which he may be put 1 50 The Bara-Yard [A Manual] 1 00 TheEookofETcrgreeus 3 00 The Doston Machinist [Fitzgerald] 75 The Dog [by Dinks, Mayhew and Hntch- Inson] 3 00 The Garden [A Manual] 1 00 The Percheron Horse 1 00 The People's Practical Poultry Book 1 50 The Tree Lifter, a New Method of Trans- planting Foi'est Trees ■- 1 50 Thomas' American Fi-ait Culturiot [480 Dlustrations] 3 00 Thompson's Food of Animals 1 00' Do. Young Farmer's Manual 2 50 Trapper's Guide.... 2 00 Trout Cnlture [by Seth Green] 1 00 Trowbridge's, Mrs. Laura, Ezoelsior Cook-Book and Housekeeper's Aid 1 25 Ventilation in American Dwellings 1 50 Warder's II edges and Evergreens 1 50 Waring's Eaith Closets 50 Do. Elements of Agriculture 1 00' Watson's American Home Garden 2 00 Wax Flowers and How to Make Them.. 2 00 Western Fruit Growers' Guide 1 50 Wheeler's Homes for the People 3 00 Do Enrnl Homes 2 00 Woodmff'B Trotting Borse of America. . 2 25 Woodward's Graperies and Uorticultural Buildings 1 50 Do. Country Homes 150 Do Cottages and Fariu Houses 1 .'iO Do. Snburoan and Country Houses ... 1 50 Youatt on the Horse 1 50 Touatt and Martin on Cattle 1 60 Youatt and Martin on the Hog 1 00 Youman's Hand-Book of Household Sci- ence 2 00 Do New Uhemisti'y 2 00 ^ff" -Any Books— Agricultural or Miscellaneous— not enumerated in the above lint, may be obtajned at either of the Offices of the Eoral Nbw-Yohkee, (New York or Eoohester, N. Y.,) or they will be famished by mail, post-paid, on receipt of price Eemittances by Draft, P. O. Honey Order, or iiegistered Letter, may be made at the risk of the Publisher. Address all orders by mail to JJ. D. T. MOOBE, Publisher, HvirsLl IVeTV-TTorlcer OflQce, NETT TfOKIC CITY. AaRICULTURAL StEAMER HAS NOT YET FOUND ITS EdUAl mOR THK COIINEB QUALITIES OF SAFETY, DUBABILITY, UTILITY AND ECONOMY, For Cooking Food for Stock, and for General Purposes about the Dairy and Piggery. We have the past season added a Patent Flue to pass the heat and flame around the boiler before reach- ing the slack. This Fhie can be fitted to any Steamer of our make at trifling cost, and with it we are able to get up steam with thirty gallons of water in thu'ty minutes, by the use of thirty-three pounds of wood, and a good Are remaining. This Steamer can be had of any responsible dealer, but if not found address as below. DIRECTIONS FOR COOKING FOOD AND USE OF THE STEAMER. In setting the steamer, get a good draft, and let it be near the work to be done, and whore water in abundance is at hand to wet the fodder. To Cook Hat.— Cut It, wet it weU, put it in upright tanlcs or caalts. with false bottom and tight cover, press it down firmly, pass tlie steam in under the false bottom, and ooolt until done. To Cook Corn.— Soalt as many barrels half full as you wish to cook from fifteen to twenty- four hours, turn on steam, and cook until done, when the barrels should be full. To Make Mttsh.— Fill as many barrels half full of water, as you wish to make barrels of mush, bring the water nearly to a boil by passing the steam to the bottom, stir in each batrel l}i to 1% bushels meal until well mixed, then cook until done, when the barrels should be full. To Cook Vegetables. —Fill the barrels full, and if no other cover at hand, chop the top fine with a shovel, then cover them over with bran, meal or provender, and cook until done ; have holes in the bottom of the barrels to carry off condensed steam. To Scald Hogs.— Set a cask (if a box is not used) on an incline against your platform, pass your steam to the bottom of the water until sufSciently hot. To Wash Clothing.— Pass the steam into your tub of water to heat it to do the washing. The clothes can be boiled after by steam in the tub, or any wooden vessel, without fear of rust. To Scald Churns ob Cans.— Put a small quantity of water in the article, pass Ihe steam pipe to the bottom, put a cloth around the top, and turn on the steam. Milk Pans can be scalded in a tub of water. In all cases pass the steam to the bottom to boil any substance, and shut off steam, or take out the pipes when the cooking Is dune, as the boiler in cooling off draws the substance into it and the pipes. Full directions for use sent with each steamer. Prize Essays on Cooking and Cooked Pood for Stock, with CIroulnr containing price, capacity, directious fur use, etc., forwarded, postage paid, on receipt of ten centt. Ciiculais sent free. BARROWS, SAVERY & CO., Manufacturers. lAMES C. BAITD A CO., Faetors. Philadelphia, Sept., 1871. STEEL AND IRON PLOWS. Knox's Patent and ImproTed Eagle. Improved HiiriTel —for 8ide Uill and Level Land, that leave no Ridges or Dead Furroivs. Boston Steel Clipper. Sessions and Knox's Patent Hard Steel. Ufapes' Improved Subsoil. THE AMERICAN HAY TEDDER, Enables the most important Agrricultural product o( America to be out, cured and stored In the barn in one day. Improves the quality and increases the value of the Hay Crop. Prevents all risk of damagre from storms and sudden showers. Is simple, durable and of light draft. Was awarded the New England Agricultural Society's only First Prize at the Great Field Trial nc Amiierst, Mass., In 1869, as being superior to all others, and the best and only perfect machine for tedding or turning hay. THE PERRT GOLD MEDAL MOWER. Bart's Self-Adjusting' Hoi-se Hay Rake. Boston Horse Hoe. French's Patent Cultivator. Harrington's Patent Single or Combined Seed So'n'er and Hand CultiTator. 3VEjivX9x: oisrxj'S' AMES PLOW COMPANY, Manufacturers of Agricultural Implements and Machines. Dealers in Seeds, Fertilizers and other requirements of Agriculturists and Agricultural Districts. Factories at Worcester and Ayer, Warehouses, Qnincy Hall, Bostoo, and 53 Beekman Street, IVew York. IGF'oKDEUs fili,i:d promptlv. Price Lists and Descriptive Circulars on appliontlon. JONES, FAULKNER & CO., MANtTFACTURERS OF Steam Dairy Apparatus. '9 IRON-CLAD MILK CANS AND PAILS, PRESS SCREWS AND CHEESE HOOPS, CHEESE AND BUTTER TRYERS, TORNADO, BLANCHARD AND DASH CHURNS. DEAIiEBS IN EVERY DESCEIPTION OP DAIRY FURNISHING GOODS. We keep constantly in stock VPRICmX ANn HORIZOIVXAr. For Factory usie, and also for Steaming and Cookings Food for Stock. OSCILLATING AND RECIPROCATING ENGINES, STEAM PUMPS. HAND FORCE PUMPS, STEAM PIPES, VALVES, COCKS, CAVaXiS, WBISTUiS, &e. THERMOMETERS AND MILK-TESTI5fG INSTRUMENTS OF ALL KINDS. We are prepared to fit up Cheese Factories, on short notice, with everything' com- plete for operation. |@r" Send for Illustrated Price I^ist. Nos. 31 GENESEE & 6 JOHN STS., Utica, N. Y. Near Bass's Hotel. l^ :^^'^ Patent Mili A % They extract the animnl heat from the milk and keep it nt the desired temperature in a wariTi.dryroom, while the cream is beinB niised, without cooling or dampeningr the room, thereby producingr more butter and a better quality than has been heretofore made from the same amount of milk. It is not necessary to move them from the tables durin(r the dairying season, the milk and rinse water runiiinpr from them without being lifted, thereby reducing the labor of taking care of the milk to a mere trifle. They render butter factories practical and profitable, and are adapted to large and small dairies, l)y making them of any required size. READ TBE TESTIXMCONIAIiS : li. R. TOWTTSEND— Sir; It Is with pleasure that I certify to the superiority of the Jewett Patent Milk Pans over iiU known ifcrrangementa for butter making. When I first commenced work in my butter factory I set my pans tn wooden vats, contiittilng running wuter. but soon found tluit I cuuld not control the tem- fteruture of the milk, iind the evaporation from ttie water mttde the room tno damp, uiul after exneritiienl- ng for some time I finally dispensed with the entire iirranf?ement. and put In the -Tewett Piins. I urn fully satisfied with them, and that there is no other process by which so much cream can he got from a given quantity of milk, and by which butter of iin equal quality can be made, as by using these Pans. My last sale of butter brought me thirty-three cents per pound. Chateaugay. Sept. 28, 1871. A. M. BBNNET. L. R. TowNSBND :— I did not get your Patent Milfe Pans to work in perfect order until the beat of the butter season wtis over, and for that reason 1 cannot give you what would be a ftiir estimate; but I can say, after all the disadvantages which I have labored under, I have used them about eight muntlis with great satisfaction. My pans are liirge enough for fifty cows: I have liad only twenty-seven the pastseiison. I elevate the water about ten feet, and It takes about flive barrels ever-jr twenty-four hours, and makes about one-fifth more butter, wliich sold for five cents more per pound. It is one-half less labor to tnke care of a dairy than with tiie small nillic pan;'. I would say for the benefit of thuso who have to elevate the water, that it can be used for the pans, and then conducted into a trough for cattle, just as well as to pump it for them in the first place. I am so well pleased witli the pans that 1 shall increase my dairy to one hundred cows another season, and procure another set of pans. Brasher Iron Works, N. Y.. Sept., 1871, R. "W. SMITH. We, the undersigned, Trustees of the Berry Butter Factory, at Malone. N. T., have had In use three set of the Jewett Patent Milk Pans during the piisfc season, and cheerfully certify to their many good points, viz :— They save a great deal of hard labor ; we can keep the milk at just the right temperature, be the weiither hot or cold : more cream can be produced tlian byanynthcr known process; it Is in better condition ; it makes better butter; the butter is more uniform in quality ; It sells for five to eight cents per pound more than the best butter made in private diitries. These advEintages are snfBclent to give It the precedence over all other arrangements for making butter, and we recommeud U to the attention of dairy- men everywhere. SEYMOUR L. ANDRIJS, Malone, Sept. 22, 1S71. JOHN C. WILLIAMSON, LEVI M. BLDRKD. ^ ,. .T^^^ l^,'° certify that I purchased a set of Mr. Jewett's Patent Milk Pans this spring, large enough to hold the milk of twenty cows. I have used them four weeks, and am well pleased with them. I use well water for cooling the milk. It takes from fifteen to twenty minutes per flay to pump water sufficient for "86- |£^" ^eep my milk a"y.ich to mnnufncture and sell by roynlty, mnv nddress D. F. Jewett, at North Bangor, Fmnkllri Co., N. Y., who will give them the desired Informntion. xr 1 For Inforrpntjon In relation to the Pnns, for tlie Stare of New York, nddress L. R. Townsend, Maione, Fianklin Co., N. Y., who owpa the right for the Stiito, and manufactures them at that place, and Is an authorized ngent for the sale of all unsold territory. L R. TOWNSEND, Malone, Franklin Co., IV. V. B. F. JEWETT, Iforth Bang'or, Franklin Co., IT. TT, WILLIAM RALPH & CO., MANUFACTUKERS AND DEALERS IN Cheese Factory and Dairy Apparatus In the apparatus line, wo would call attention to THE ONEIDA CHEESE VAT, (See Pages 389 and 391,) The Best and Cheapest Vat in the World. It is suited to all classes of Cheese Factories and Dairies. Over 1,000 are already used in the former, and 1,SQ0 in the latter. CS^ It vrill make more cliccao from a iriTcii quantity of milk tlinn cnn be maile by nuy otlier apparatua* and with less of labor auil fuel. Superiority of quality is an luTariable resalt. Nn additional expense is incurred in setting up; it is ready for ttse. Simple in construc- tion and operation, it is readily understood, and not liable to any accident in use. There is nothing to explode about it, nor any parts to fill up by hard water scale. The heating is perfect in all respects, and easily controlled. It is very durable. WB ALSO SBLI, STEAM AHD "HOT WATER CIBCnLATING" APPAEATUS For Cheese Factories, and all articles and fittings for setting up same. CURD MILLS, FEESS HOOFS AND SCREWS, MILK OANS, And all other implements and articles used in cheese-making;. A OOOD ASSORTMENT OF Cheese-Makers' Findings, Such as REIVjVEXS, hest kinds; ANIVATTO, dry and extracts; PRESS and BANDACtK Cf.OVHS, &.C., &.C., alTvays on hand. We shall endeavor to "Iteep up with the times" in being able to supply all new inven- tions, if of value. Descriptive Circulars and Prices send on application. Address WM. RAI.PH &; CO., Utica, N. Y. IMPORTANT TO DAIRYMEN, STOCK-RAISERS AND FARMERS! (COrYRIG-HT.) PURE BONE FILINGS, BfATURE'S OWX COIVDITIOIV POIVBKRS, (F-A-TKNT APPLIED FOK,,) FOR TEEDINO CATTLl STOCK OF ALL Mil, M POETRY, OP BOTH SEXES, ALL AGES AND EVERY CONDITION. Prepared from pure, seleotea, liaid bone, by a formula originating with ourselves Guaran- teed by analysis griven below and to contain no injurious or deleterious subatancls. For thi S?e of stoolt of ail kinds. It is recommended by tlie highest and best authority in our own mwIi?II foreign countries. Being rich in Phospliatic matter, in a concentrated form, it^un^liesthl S^wp' ^^rS^^,^*-^ * '^ elements so essential to the promotion of a iVid growth of BODY Eeme^"VnTJn°rLeip%ffT';i:tTo^smmp°' °' <"'"=•■ ^"^^ '' *•"« ^''^^ ^"^ -"-' '^^ .= „.n° Pi""® 'i*"'^ ^S'"*!!!'? coi'PO'lnd within the reach of all, we have put it in small paokaees Parkages'sYb.? liflO lb'., jwf e"ach^ ^'""'^''' "' ^'''^"^^^ °° ''^''^'P' °* *^« »""« :-Bbls.,'^|lf efch: ^i^ress' JOHN RALSTON Sc CO., 170 Front St., Wew Vork, Sole Proprietors. AlsTALYSIS. SHEFFIELD SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL OF TALE COILBGB > mu , ^.. -o « NEW HAVEN, Conn., Sept. 16, 1871. J coinpo™1onrn''l«)°partrr' ^"^ ^'*"«'- ™°^'^^'* *'™ ■""•° ^'''™ * "o.. New York, has the following Moisture „ „„ Sand .:..: 8.20 Chloride of Sodium !...'." „Sg Bone Phosphate of Lime gi-jS Carbonate ol lUm'^.^.""!^**''^"®'"' ""^ S'l"»™ie not sWpiVateif estimatid.). ' ' Ossein (yielding gelatine) with a iiuiefat\'.'.'.\\\\\;.\\'.\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\'^ ji'lt Sodium"" '™'"^ '"'"rsiEne°d* f "^ ^"^' ^""'^ '" "■ '*"'" "* *"^ *'^'='°=' '^'t'' 2^ J>eroent.Tf Chloride of l-°'S°°"-J SAM'L W. JOHNSON. JOHN RALSTON & CO., 17© Front Street, New York, WHOLESALE AND RETAIL DEALERS IN OF KNOWN EXCELLENCE ONLY. (GUARANTEED BY ANALYSIS.) Wo, 1 PXSRWIAir eUASro (CWncha or ©uanape), Direct from the Gov't consignees. In oriffSnal paokages-2,240 lbs. to ton-at gold prices. CLESrTan'iUa^Si''^^i^^^S?-^°^^,ny^S ^^™' "^ ^^^ ^«^^- LEACHED iSHES, FISH SCRAP and NOVA SCOTIA PLASTER FURMSHED BY THE CARfiO. quota&alif fn'?;?,^K''Jf%YaTti"oreil"nl^^^^^ «"'*• ^-«^Vtive Circulars and reliable tion g^irnteed1n'"ever;"o^e^''° ^'"''^ *.° P""='^''=« ""^^ '"-"^d ^ correspond with us. Satis&c THOROUGHLY TESTED. — PERFECT IN EVERY RESPECT. ROE'S PATENT PREMIUM CHEESE VAT, DAIRY AND FACTORY USE, Has been before the public for a longer time than any other fixture of its kind, and has proved to be the best apparatus ever offered to the public for the manufacture of cheese. These Viits are furnished with an Improved Heater and Valves to Kegulate the Heat. By this means the heat is perfectly controlled, and they are rendered the Most Efficient, Simpi.e and Dubabli'. Vats in use. Manufactured and for sale by H. H. ROE & CO., naadisoa, £ake County, Ohio. We respectfully Invite the attention of all interested in Cheese Making to our list of manu- factures, comprisinf; everything' necessary for the equipment of From a Dairy of 20 to a Factory of 1,000 Cows« We mention in this connection only a few of the more important of these, such as Single or Associated Dairy a.nd Factory Tats, -with ImproTed JHeaters ; I^arge Factory Vats, complete, Tvlth Pipes tor Distribution of Steam ; Curd Draiuers ; Presses ; Hoops ; Scre-ws ; Carryiiigr Cams ; Weigli- ing Cans; Sacl^ers ; Conductors, &c., &c,, &.C. We use only the best materials, and employ the most experienced workmen in making thes( floods. In this ivay we are able to guarantee everything to be of the best quality in market A trial could not fail to convince of this. •♦« FACTORY AND DAIRY SUPPLIES. There has been, heretofore, no place this side of the State of New York, where a full list oi Dairy and Factory Supplies could be obtained at all times, and on short notice. We have determ- ined to supply this need, deeply felt by the dairymen of Ohio and the West, in whose interests our business will be conducted, and the continuance of whose patronage, so liberallyextended to us during the past, we earnestly solicit for the future. We shall endeavor to keep constantly on hnnd a full assortment of Cheese Bandage Strainer Cloth, Annatto. Annattoine, Rennete, Pactobt Filled Salt, Citrd Knives, Thebmometers, Milk-Testing Instruments, Scales, Curd Scoops, Milk Pails, and in fac* everything wanted in the manufacture of Cheese. ^~ Send for Circular and Price list. Please state where you saw this notice. B. B. ROE & CO. CHARLES MILLAR & SON, STo. 1S7 and 139 Oenesee Street, IJtica, N. ¥., MANUFACTUEEES OF MILLAR'S PATENT CIRCULATING COIL HEATERS AND CHEESE VATS. Positi'vely tbc best clieese>iuakiiig apparatus in tbe ir^oi-ld. In \ use in tbe best Cbeese Factories and pri'vate daii-ies tbroug^bout tbe United States and Australia. ^ST" Satiafaction guaranteed in every caae^ Also, MANtTTACTTJRERS OF MILIAB'S PATEST RATCHET CHEESE PRESS SCREWS, PATE:NfT HILK CANS, IHlIiK PAILS, CAIV HANDIiES, CURD AGITATORS, AND OTHER GREAT IMPROVEMENTS IN CHEESE FACTORY AND DAIRY UTENSILS. MILLAR'S RUBBER PRESS RINGS, an invention of decided value. Tiiey prevent the ourd from pressing: up around the follower of a cheese hoop, and take the place of press cloths. In pressing: after tlie cheese has been bandag;ed, they prevent the bursting' of the bandage at the edge. This of itself renders them invaluabU to the cheese-maker. fci? lUnstratod Clrcularsi slTini: full Information, mailed on application. Address CHARLES MILLAR & SOX, Utica, N. Y.