i 
 
 Studies in the 
 History of Modem Education 
 
 Hoyt 
 
 SILVER,BURDEn& COMPANY 
 
BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME 
 FROM THE 
 
 SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND 
 
 THE GIFT OF 
 
 M^nvQ M. Sage 
 
 1S91 
 
 J...3L7. la/.a^Mf,. 
 
Cornell University Library 
 arW37684 
 
 Studies In the histonf of mo* 
 
 3 1924 031 787 744 
 olin.anx 
 
The original of tliis book is in 
 tlie Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031787744 
 
STUDIES 
 
 IN THE 
 
 History of Modem Education 
 
 BY 
 
 CHAELES OLIVER HOYT, Ph.D. 
 
 Professor of the History of Education, State Mormal College, 
 
 SILVEE, BUEDETT AND COMPAJTT 
 
 NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO 
 
Copyright, 1908, by 
 SILVER, BUBDBTT AND COMPANY 
 
PREFACE 
 
 It is only in recent years that the history of education has 
 been included in the teacher's professional training. Thirty 
 years ago the materials for this study were meager and un- 
 related, the few books that were available being little more 
 than compilations of meaningless facts. But with the recog- 
 nition of the value of this study as a factor in professional 
 training and in culture, attention has been directed to the 
 discovery of new material and the preparation of a suitable 
 text to meet the needs. The attempts to encompass within 
 the range of a single volume the whole scope of the subject 
 have, thus far, been failures. But many valuable contribu- 
 tions have been made in special fields, a large number of 
 authors having been content to take one subject each and 
 to treat it exhaustively. 
 
 It is therefore necessary for the teacher of the history of 
 education to draw upon many sources for material, and then 
 so to relate and present this material to the student that it 
 will accomplish its purpose. This book aims to do away 
 with this necessity, and is the result of several years' experi- 
 ence as a teacher of the history of education in a normal 
 school. Its inception was prompted by the desire to direct 
 students in their reading and thought while they were getting 
 at facts. The aim has been to make the study intensive 
 rather than extensive. The plan has been (1) to present to 
 the reader certain fundamental facts together with the sug- 
 gestion of a discussion; (2) to place before the student ques- 
 tions calculated to incite thought and to encourage research; 
 and (3) to direct this research by suggesting added material 
 to be used much or httle as the circumstances will allow. 
 This makes the book adaptable for use in colleges and nor- 
 mal schools with either large or small libraries, or in county 
 normals or reading circles where no libraries are available. 
 
 3 
 
4 Preface 
 
 In the prepai-ation of these studies it has been the constant 
 endeavor to provide the means whereby the student can dis- 
 cover the relation which education bears to civihzation, and 
 can see how educational doctrines have evolved and how they 
 have influenced present day theory and practice. The prob- 
 lem, therefore, has been not what to put into the book, but 
 what to leave out. A secondary purpose has been to put 
 into the hands of those preparing to teach what may be 
 termed an historical pedagogy, not by placing before them 
 the educational theories of one man, but, through the con- 
 sideration of educational doctrines in their historical settings, 
 to lead students to think out their own methods and thus 
 gain a sure basis for their philosophy and science of educa- 
 tion. A study of the facts and a discussion of the subject 
 matter will provide an excellent course in pedagogical train- 
 ing without the use of any outside reading. 
 
 Beside the maps and chronological outlines which have 
 been provided, a suggestive book list is offered. This will be 
 found helpful in building up or in making additions to a 
 library. (A) consists of twelve books, these being the only 
 ones necessary for carrjdng on the reference work of these 
 studies. These books should be secured first, after which 
 additions may be made from (B) — the general histories of 
 education and the original sources, or from (C) — ^the maga- 
 zines and reports. 
 
 To those of his former students into whose hands this book 
 may chance to come, the author extends a greeting and an 
 acknowledgment of the invaluable service which they have 
 rendered in its preparation. He is especially grateful for the 
 help and cooperation of his associate, Prof. Horace Z. 
 Wilber, and wishes to express his obligation to his friends 
 and colleagues for their criticisms and suggestions. 
 
 C. 0. HOYT. 
 
 Ypsiianti, Michigan, 
 August, 1908. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAOE 
 
 iNTKODUCTIOir 13 
 
 Education defined — national ideals — ^the institu- 
 tions of civilization — ^fundamental concepts — his- 
 tory of education defined — historical material — 
 methods of study — value of the study 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 comenius and realism in education ... 21 
 Introductory 21 
 
 The Renaissance and the Reformation — ^theol- 
 ogy vs. science — the beginnings of science and 
 philosophy — ^the problems of the seventeenth 
 century — empiricism vs. rationalism — the forerun- 
 ners of Comenius 
 
 Bibliography 27 
 
 Chronological Table 29 
 
 Biography 30 
 
 Early life and education — the influence of Alsted 
 — Comenius's first teaching — the elementary school 
 reforms at Lissa — his literary activity — the pan- 
 sophic idea — visit to England — his relations to 
 Sweden — life at Elbing — school at Saros Patak — 
 his last days in Holland 
 Educational Doctrine 35 
 
 The beginnings of a science of education — his 
 writings — analysis of the Great Didactic — ^the aim 
 of education — principles of certainty, facility, and 
 5 
 
6 Contents 
 
 PAaB 
 thoroughness — ^the problems of method — ^the 
 teaching of science, art, language, and morals — 
 school government — school organization 
 
 Summary 45 
 
 John Locke 46 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 Rousseau and Individualism 49 
 
 Inteoductoet 49 
 
 The spirit of the eighteenth century — the rela- 
 tion of the individual and the institution — how to 
 understand Rousseau — his teachings — the theories 
 of his time 
 
 Bibliography 52 
 
 Cheonological Table 54 
 
 Biography 55 
 
 Life at Geneva — apprenticeship — wanderings — 
 life in Paris — Venice — at the Hermitage — his Ht3r- 
 ary activity — life in England and return to Paris 
 Educational Doctrine 61 
 
 The change in educational ideals — ^Rousseau not 
 original — source of his ideas — the "natural state" 
 — The Social Contract — the Emile — his theory of 
 education — value of his work — selections from his 
 writings 
 Summary 70 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 Pestalozzi and a Psychological Method . . 72 
 
 Introductory 72 
 
 Influence of Comenius and Locke — ^the condi- 
 tions of his time — definition of education 
 
Contents 
 
 PAGE 
 
 BiBLIOGEAPHT 75 
 
 Chronologicai. Table 77 
 
 Biography 79 
 
 His epitaph — ancestry — early influences — edu- 
 cation — agricultural experiments and school at 
 Neuhof — his assistants — the school at Stanz — life 
 at Burgdorf — period of Uterary activity — the 
 school at Yverdon — his last days at Birr 
 Educational Doctrine 85 
 
 The Evening Hour of a Hermit — Leonard and 
 Gertrude — ^the Stanz letter — How Gertrude Teaches 
 Her Children — Morf's analysis — Song of the Dying 
 Swan — elementary education — method of sense 
 impression — the sources of the laws of instruction 
 — harmonious development — ^language — number — 
 form — quotations 
 Summary 95 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 Herbart and the Science op Education . . 97 
 Introductory 97 
 
 Educational theory — ^the controlling tendency of 
 the eighteenth century — ^the three movements — 
 education as world building — Herbart's problem 
 
 Bibliography 100 
 
 Chronological Table 102 
 
 Biography 103 
 
 Educator and philosopher — personal appearance 
 — ancestry — early education — Fichte's influence — 
 tutor in Switzerland — academic preparation — pro- 
 fessor at Gottingen — Konigsberg — ^pedagogical 
 seminary — the two Herbartian tendencies 
 Educational Doctrine 110 
 
Contents 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The three educational tendencies — Letters on 
 Education — How Gertrude Taught Her Children— 
 other writings — ^the postulate of pedagogics — aim 
 of education — ^the ethical ideas — process of mental 
 life — circle of thought — interest — government and 
 training — the course of study — the formal steps of 
 teaching 
 Summary 121 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 Froebbl and the Kindergarten .... 123 
 Introductory 123 
 
 The evolution of an educational system — philos- 
 ophy and education — representative men — the 
 new direction toward elementary schools — Froe- 
 bel's place 
 
 Bibliography 126 
 
 Chronological Table 128 
 
 Biography 130 
 
 Tendencies shown in his early life — life at his 
 uncle's home — study of forestry — student at Jena 
 — teaching at Frankfurt — influence of Pestalozzi 
 — soldier — the school at Keilhau — ^teaching in 
 Switzerland — founding of the kindergarten — 
 Liebenstein and Marienthal — the Froebel family 
 Educational Doctrine 137 
 
 Influence of ScheUing — sources of doctrine — 
 Education of Man — fundamental principles — unity 
 — law — God — ^the universe — nature, life — institu- 
 tions — law of inner connection— play — self-activ- 
 ity — the kindergarten — gifts and occupations 
 Summary 145 
 
Contents 9 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 HoEACE Mann and School Administration . . 147 
 Intkoductoey 147 
 
 Horace Mann and other educators — American 
 Educational Renaissance — the European ideal in 
 America — class distinctions — schools after the 
 Revolution — tendencies in the nineteenth century 
 — ^Mann's place 
 
 Bibliography 151 
 
 Chronological Table ... . 153 
 Biography 154 
 
 How to estimate Mann — his boyhood and educa- 
 tion — the Franklin library — religious influences — 
 college life — preparation in law — member of the 
 House of Representatives and Senate — ^influence of 
 phrenology — Secretary of State Board of Educa- 
 tion — -visit to Europe — member of Congress — pres- 
 ident of Antioch College 
 
 Henry Baenaed 161 
 
 Educational Doctrine 162 
 
 Analysis of Mann's twelve annual reports — a 
 practical man — preparation for his work — his 
 philosophy — quotations from his writings — ^his 
 service to education — supervision and organization 
 — libraries — ^training of teachers — influence and 
 estimate of him 
 Summary 173 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 European Influences on Education in America. 176 
 The principles of origin and adaptation — the 
 tendency in Europe towards individual freedom — 
 
10 Contents 
 
 PAQB 
 
 how expressed — European thought of the seven- 
 teenth century — how expressed . . . .176 
 
 Outhne of American Educational History . 179 
 
 How foreign influences affect a country - . 180 
 
 The influence of Comenius — known to the 
 scholars of America — the Great Didactic— the 
 Moravians in America .181 
 
 French influences — America's relations with 
 France — Jefferson, Adams, Franklin — Academy of 
 Arts and Sciences at Boston — ^the University of 
 Virginia — Catholepistemiad 182 
 
 German influences — our earliest knowledge of 
 German education — Americans at Gottingen — 
 Round Hill School — Cousin's Report — Home and 
 Colonial Training College — New Harmony — 
 Oswego Normal School — Henry Barnard and the 
 kindergarten — ^the three lines of development — the 
 kindergarten in St. Louis — the Herbart Society . 183 
 
 The colonial colleges — ^the origin — aim — organi- 
 zation — development — colleges following the Rev- 
 olution — the state university .... 192 
 
 Secondary education — foreign influences — ^three 
 stages in development — function of the secondary 
 school — Boston Latin School — the academy — the 
 high school 197 
 
 Normal schools — ^inception of the idea — early 
 development — Prussian influences — the school at 
 Lexington — Oswego Normal School — the academy 
 as a normal school 200 
 
 The professional training of teachers in universi- 
 ties 202 
 
 Bibliography 204 
 
 Questions for Research and Discussion . . 207 
 
 Book Lists 209 
 
 Index 211 
 
MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Map op Europe Frontispiece 
 
 Modern Educators and Philosophers 12 
 
 John Amos Comenius following 20 
 
 Jean Jacques Rousseau following 48 
 
 John Henry Pestalozzi following 72 
 
 The Environment of Pestalozzi 78 
 
 Father to the Orphans at Stanz following 84 
 
 John Frederick Hehbart follomng 96 
 
 Friedrich Frobbel follomng 122 
 
 The Environment op Froebel 129 
 
 Outline of Froebel's Educational Doctrine 138 
 
 Horace Mann foUowing 146 
 
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INTRODUCTION 
 
 Education is an abstract term, representing a process in 
 which the object to be matured is a concrete being. This 
 being is man, an organism living in an environment. This 
 organism adjusts itself to its environment, first unconsciously 
 and then consciously; and this process of adjustment may, 
 in the broad sense of the term, be called education. Though 
 physical and unconscious in its first stages, this process, as 
 evolution advances and the organism becomes more highly 
 differentiated, becomes mental and conscious. Since the 
 organism is self-active, it reacts upon and transforms its 
 environment when stimulated by it. In this way man 
 becomes creative and progressive. This is as true of a race 
 as of an individual. "The mind of the race is the mind of the 
 individual writ large." 
 
 A nation forms ideals which are expressed in institutions. 
 Institutions become reaUzed ideals when the people become 
 conscious of their necessity, and see in them a means for the 
 satisfaction of desire. Events are not the result of chance 
 nor of some unseen or unknown force, but they are builded 
 upon and grow out of the past. Every nation inherits the 
 ideals of its predecessors together with some elements of 
 institutional life; and with this endowment, under new con- 
 ditions in a new environment, it will evolve a new ideal by 
 forming new associations and organizations. This will, in 
 turn, be transmitted to posterity, and succeeding generations 
 will repeat the process. A dominant life ideal may enter 
 into the social consciousness with such intensity that freedom 
 and independence find expression in the pecuUar character 
 
 13 
 
14 Introduction 
 
 of the organized state, or that a religion expressed by a par- 
 ticular creed will be reaUzed in the established church. In 
 order, however, to perpetuate this ideal and transmit it to 
 succeeding generations, a system of education expressed in 
 a school is necessary. 
 
 Civilized man maintains certain relations to his institu- 
 tions, these relations having been estabUshed through ages 
 of evolution. These institutions — the home, the school, the 
 vocation, the state, and the church — have developed man, 
 and by and through them he has raised himself from a con- 
 dition of savagery to one of civilization. In the beginning, 
 man found himself subject to and controlled by the forces 
 of nature; but as he came to understand natural phenomena 
 and grew to fear them less, he learned to control energy and 
 to apply it to the satisfaction of his own desires. This led 
 logically to the formation of institutions, which in due course 
 of time enslaved him. The last stage in his development 
 was reached when, by the use of reason, he learned to use the 
 institution for his own development and for the expression of 
 his ideals. At last he found himself free under law. 
 
 The character and extent of the institutions of a race at 
 any time in its history are related to the progress that has 
 been made; in a large way this is dependent upon the con- 
 ditions of environment — the geographical situation and the 
 proximity to other people. These conditions produce men 
 who in turn react upon society and assure a leadership in the 
 processes of social evolution. Man comes to understand the 
 relation of education to all civilization when he generalizes 
 his individual nature and socializes his impulses. This is 
 accomplished when he produces consciously what a race has 
 produced. 
 
 The world views, then, held by the philosophers and edu- 
 cators, are not alone doctrines or systems of thought, they 
 are vital forces. One system of educational thought is 
 forced to give way to another, not because the latter chances 
 
Introduction 15 
 
 to be favored by a particular group of people, but because it 
 possesses an energy that is irresistible. Educational systems 
 do not happen, they come in obedience to law; just as a sys- 
 tem of philosophy may find its correlate in a practical edu- 
 cational system several years later. 
 
 To understand how the different expressions of man's self- 
 activity stand related to him and to each other at different 
 times and in different places it is necessary to form a clear 
 notion of certain fundamental terms. These concepts are 
 religion, ethics, science, literature, art, education, philosophy, 
 and history. 
 
 Being a socially evolved creature, man no sooner finds 
 himself in contact with nature and holding intercourse with 
 mankind than he begins to build his individual world. He 
 feels and thinks ; he forms ideals which he transforms into 
 realities; he fears and imitates; he remembers, imagines, and 
 reasons. Fearing the forces of nature which he does not 
 understand, he establishes his relationship to his God or gods 
 when he worships these unseen forces. In the course of time 
 the objective symbol becomes a source of subjective power 
 which regulates and rules his daily life and conduct; this is 
 his religion. In his daily association with his fellow men 
 certain situations lead to the perception of obligations and 
 duties that must be observed by each man if he is to live in 
 society with other men, — and he writes his code of ethics. In 
 time he comes to describe and explain the phenomena of 
 nature and of consciousness, and by classifying and arrang- 
 ing this knowledge he forms a science. He consciously 
 evolves a life ideal which he feels keenly and strives to realize; 
 the expression of this feeling in a beautiful form gives him 
 his literature and his art. The conscious endeavor to trans- 
 mit this ideal to his successors through the young, and to 
 cause them to realize it more fully in their lives through en- 
 larged institutions is education. Bringing all these things 
 to bear upon life and its meaning is philosophy; and the 
 
16 Introduction 
 
 record and interpretation of all these facts constitute history. 
 Religion and ethics stand preeminent in man's relations to 
 God and man. Science, literature, art, philosophy, and his- 
 tory show how man relates himself to nature for the good of 
 mankind. All together constitute the threefold environment 
 of man. 
 
 Explain, "The mind of the race is the mind of the individual writ 
 large." (Hornb, p. 145.) What were the savage desires? How is the 
 barbarian distinguished from the savage? Explain the meaning of the 
 "desecration of fire." What are the steps in the development of an 
 educational ideal? 
 
 Davidson, Thomas — Education as World Building; Educ.Rev.,XX, 
 325-345. 
 
 Davidson, Thomas — A History of Education, 1-30. 
 
 Falckbnberg, Richard — History of Modern Philosophy (Trans, by 
 A. C. Armstrong), 1-17. 
 
 GiDDiNGs, F. H. — The Principles of Sociology, 199-360. 
 
 HoRNE, Herman H. — Philosophy of Education, Chaps. I, IV, VIII. 
 
 Laurie, S. S. — Historical Survey of Pre-Christian Education, 6. 
 
 Morris, Charles — Civilization, Vol. I, Chaps. I-II. 
 
 Paulsen, Fr. — Introduction to Philosophy (Trans, by Frank Thilly), 
 1-50. 
 
 WuNDT, WihhiAu—Ethics, Vol. 1, 169 ff. 
 
 A history of education will have for its purpose the exam- 
 ination of national ideals and character, indicating how they 
 were formed and realized, and endeavoring to give an under- 
 standing of the agencies that have been employed to per- 
 petuate them. A history of education is not a history of 
 civilization, though it is closely related to it. It is not 
 a history of the school nor an account of school systems; 
 neither is it merely an account of the lives and the doctrines 
 of great educators. Rather it must find for itself a double 
 setting. On the one hand, it is the work of the student of 
 educational history to examine the development and influence 
 of great institutions and ideals; and, on the other hand, it is 
 his work to discover the nature, character, and growth of 
 great thought as it has been developed and formulated by 
 
Introduction 17 
 
 master minds and has been applied by man to the regulation 
 of his life conduct. The history of education, therefore, is 
 the record of the agencies that have been employed by men 
 and nations in transmitting their ideals and institutions to 
 their youth, thus making them efficient as members of the 
 social group. The materials of such history are, in a general 
 way, the materials of all history, but, more especially, the 
 writings of philosophers and educators, legislative enact- 
 ments, and the products of school organization and ad- 
 ministration. 
 
 An understanding of the various ways in which this mate- 
 rial has been employed by a race to advance itself and others 
 may properly come within the province of a study of the 
 history of education. This will, of necessity, include a study 
 of the work of the educator in schools and his connection 
 with school systems, the methods of instruction employed, 
 and the curriculum pursued. It must not be forgotten, how- 
 ever, that a knowledge of these out of their relations possesses 
 little or no value in itself; it is only as these matters con- 
 tribute to the solution of the larger problem that they have 
 worth. A study of the following topics will be a means for 
 coming into possession of the materials mentioned above: 
 (1) the geographical conditions, (2) the poUtical organizations, 
 (3) the social life, (4) the religious and moral conceptions, (5) 
 the relation of state and church, (6) the conception of educa- 
 tion — of educational ideals, and (7) the institutions for educa- 
 tion. The inductive method will perhaps be found the best 
 that can be employed. This method will necessitate, so far 
 as may be, a constant reference to original sources; while the 
 writings of educators and standard authors who have spoken 
 with authority may be studied as secondary sources. In 
 this way, ideals, tendencies, and principles will be disclosed 
 which later may be interpreted and applied with profit. 
 
 The process of analysis or of synthesis, or a judicious 
 blending of the two may be used to advantage. The student 
 
18 Introduction 
 
 may study the ideal, tendency, or system, genetically, and 
 in this way come to an understanding of it; or he may pro- 
 ceed by an analytic study to its various sources, and then, by 
 retracing his steps, build up the ideal synthetically, thus 
 making one method a check upon the other. Finally, the 
 conclusions may be corrected and amended by reference to 
 the conclusions of others. The ready-made judgments of the 
 critic are of Httle value until, by his own reasoning, one has 
 reached a conclusion for himself. 
 
 Much responsibiUty will, of course, rest upon the teacher. 
 He must teach, direct in reading and study, lead in the search 
 for truth, and finally, if need be, assist in interpretation. The 
 student may be given an enlarged view and added inspiration 
 to effort by frequent and timely lectures. If he is directed 
 to proper sources, his efforts will be richly rewarded by the 
 discovery of facts which in the classroom discussion will lead 
 him to a recognition and an appreciation of new truths. 
 
 The student of educational history may hope to gain, in 
 addition to a greater knowledge of facts, a power of inter- 
 pretation that will serve him in other fields. By catching 
 the spirit of a great scholar or educator, and comprehending 
 the meaning of a racial ideal, he cannot fail to become more 
 efficient in the work of teaching children. 
 
 Questions fob Reseahch and Discitssign 
 
 What is the meaning of evolution, nature, and self-activity? Distin- 
 guish between education and culture. (See Butler's Meaning of Edu- 
 cation.) Discuss, "While philosophers are wrangling over the govern- 
 ment of the world, hunger and love are doing their work." — Schiller. 
 How is the development of language related to the rise of intelligence? 
 What part does imitation play in education? How did the use of fire by 
 a people affect their social life? What is a fetich? Name the institu- 
 tions of civiUzation, and give the fundamental idea of each. What is an 
 ideal? How does a race form one? Compare Caliban and Ariel in 
 Shakespeare's The Tempest. Define civiUzation. Discuss, "Feeling 
 is the primitive datum. The question, therefore, is not how feeling 
 arises, but how it is modified and gives birth to sensations." — Rosmini. 
 
Introduction 19 
 
 What is the relation of thought and experience? Distinguish between 
 savage, barbarian, semicivilized, and civilized states. What is the dif- 
 ference between man and brute? Bismarck said after the battle of 
 Kdniggratz, "The schoolmaster has conquered." Explain. 
 
 CoMPATRE, Gabkiel — HistoTy of Pedagogy, Introduction. 
 
 Davidson, Thomas — The EdiuxUion of the Greek People, Chap. I. 
 
 Davidson, Thomas — A History of Education, Preface. 
 
 Hanus, Paul H. — EdiuxiMonal Aims and Values, 167-191. 
 
 Hinsdale, B. A. — Culture Value of the History of Education; Proc. 
 N. E. A. 1889, 210-218. 
 
 Hinsdale, B. A. — Studies in Education, 182-196. 
 
 HoBNE, Herman H. — Philosophy of Education, Chap. I. 
 
 Kemp, E. L. — History of Education. 
 
 KiEHLE, D. L. — History of Education: What It Stands For; School 
 Rev. IX, 310-315. 
 
 Laurie, S. S. — Historical Survey of Pre-Christian Education, Introduc- 
 tion. 
 
 Maxwell, W. H. — The Literature of Education; Educ. Rev. II, 
 323-334. 
 
 Monroe, James Phinnet — The Edticational Ideal, Introduction. 
 
 Monroe, Paul — History of Education, Chap. I. 
 
 Norton, Arthur O. — ^The Scope and Aims of the History of Educa- 
 tion; Educ. Rev. XXVII, 443-455. 
 
 Painter, F. V. N. — A History of Education, Editor's Preface. 
 
 Payne, W. H. — Contributions to the Science. of Education, Chap. XI, 
 180. 
 
 Payne, W. H. — Practical Value of the History of Education; Proc. 
 N. E. A. 1889, 218-223. 
 
 Quick, R. H. — Essays on Educational Reformers (Appleton Ed.), 
 Preface. 
 
 Williams, S. G. — ^Value to Teachers of the History of Education; 
 Proc. N. E. A. 1889, 223-231. 
 
ABBREVIATIONS 
 
 American Sch. Rev American School Review 
 
 Barnard's Jour Barnard's Journal 
 
 Con. Rev Contemporary Review 
 
 Edinburgh Rev Edinburgh Review 
 
 Educ Education 
 
 Educ. Rev Educational Review 
 
 Ency. Brit Encyclopedia Brittanica 
 
 Harper's Mo Harper's Monthly 
 
 New Eng. Jour, of Educ. . .New England Journal of Education 
 
 No. Am. Rev North American Review 
 
 Philos. Rev Philosophical Review 
 
 Pop. Sci. Mo Popular Science Monthly 
 
 Proc. N. E. A Proceedings of the National Education 
 
 Association 
 
 Rep. U. S. Com. of Educ . .Reports of the United States Commissioner 
 
 of Education 
 
 School Rev School Review 
 
 U. S. Bureau of Educ. Circ. 
 of Inf United States Bureau of Education, Circu- 
 lars of Information 
 The letters x, y, z are used before certain names in the Bibliographies 
 
 as an aid in identifying references cited in the text. 
 
f^huCK/c. 
 
 (^iwje l<^rmna~Ru^,^huc rvirrth, bctna Knon/ae 
 Qoauaw n/errS^maTei aJl tnc rvirria hct awrtc 
 
 from Hartlib's Reformation of Schools, published in 1643 
 
STUDIES IN THE 
 HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 COMENIUS AND REALISM IN EDUCATION 
 
 There is no fixed line of demarkation between the Mid- 
 dle Ages and modem times. In the early centuries of the 
 Christian era certain potent forces were at work whose 
 effects are to be seen in every phase of human life and in the 
 varied and complex institutions of civiUzation. 
 
 At the middle point between the sixteenth and the seven- 
 teenth centuries men began to record their experiences in 
 striking form. These share in the characteristics of both 
 medieval and modem times. This period seems to be dis- 
 tinctively one of transition and was well suited to produce 
 original thinkers. 
 
 The awakening began in Italy with the advent of Greek 
 scholars from Constantinople, and the translation of Aris- 
 totle's writings into the vernacular, in 1453. This new , 
 spiritual birth showed an aesthetic, a scientific, and a himian- 
 istic tendency. The preeminent manifestation of an eman- 
 cipation from dogma and traditional creed appeared in 
 Germany. The two movements, the Renaissance and the 
 Reformation, each showed the tendency toward the devel- j 
 opment of the individual as such, in opposition to and inde-/ 
 pendent of authority. 
 
 21 
 
22 Studies in tlie History of Modern Education 
 
 Before this time man had accepted everything blindly, 
 and had not questioned the authority of God as it had been 
 taught by the church. He gave the Scriptures a hteral in- 
 terpretation and explained all the phenomena of nature by 
 them. But with the cultivation of the head as well as of the 
 heart — with the development of the reason along with the 
 cultivation of the feeling — doubts arose. These were fol- 
 lowed by investigation, and for the first time man recog- 
 nized the importance and value of his own experience. The") 
 recording of experience caused authority to yield to truth L 
 and human sympathy, and produced the mystic and thej 
 skeptic. Modem science and philosophy thus had their 
 beginnings. 
 
 In the universities a bitter war was waged between theol- 
 ogy — the dogmatic assertion of belief — on the one hand, 
 and science — the free investigation of natm-e — on the other. 
 This all tended to the development of individualism which ' 
 expressed itself with increasing vigor in every phase of 
 human life — in religion, in politics, in society, and finally in 
 education. 
 
 The philosophers gleaned great principles from the rub- 
 bish of the disputation, and set new and vital forces at 
 work; in this way the church gradually lost its author- 
 ity, not, however, without a fierce and prolonged struggle. 
 It required bloody revolutions to deny the divine right of 
 kings and to fix the seat of authority in the people. Men 
 finally turned from the teachings of Aristotle, and, by learn-/ 
 ing to read the great book of nature, gave birth to modemj 
 science and evolved a new method of investigation. 
 
 After aU this had been accomplished these forces exerted 
 themselves in education, working down from the higher to 
 the lower institutions. As a result, master minds were 
 
Comenius and Bealism in Education 23 
 
 evolved. These minds became conscious of a great world 
 view; they felt the impelling force of a great ideal, in the 
 reaUzation of which they produced works that will live for- 
 ever. In this galaxy of names are those of the artist and 
 poet, the statesman, the theologian, the scientist, the phi- 
 losopher, and the educator. 
 
 At the beginning of the seventeenth century two men 
 stood out prominently as representatives of the growing 
 thought of the age, and as exponents of the new ideal: Des- 
 cartes, the founder of modern philosophy, and Comenius, \ 
 the founder of modem education. 
 
 What was the origin of mjrsticism? Why was science opposed by 
 theology? Define the Reformation, the Renaissance. Define human- 
 ism, sense-realism. Name some educators of each class. Consult 
 the chart of philosophers and educators and note the men who lived 
 at this time. Give a brief characterization of the age in which Co- 
 menius lived. — ^Adamson, Chap. II; Keatingb, 104; Monroe, Paul; 
 Monroe, W. S., Chap. I. 
 
 In our present study we are concerned with a considera- 
 tion of the labors of Comenius, but it is impossible either to 
 form a correct estimate of the results of his work or to appre- 
 ciate his influence as an educator without considering him 
 in his proper setting as a contemporary of Descartes, and as 
 a link in the chain of cause and effect in the intellectual 
 development of the age. 
 
 The specific labors of the early part of the seventeenth 
 century were a search after the solution of the great prob- 
 lems of science and knowledge. In attempting to break 
 away from institutional life, man developed his individual- 
 ity by directing his attention to the open book of nature. 
 This produced the materials of science and developed a new 
 method. Man gained still greater independence when he 
 
24 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 began to inquire into the sources of his knowledge; and this 
 led to two aspects of the problem, each of which was more 
 or less intimately related to science and its advancement. 
 
 The two theories of knowledge found their expression in 
 two parties, the first holding that the only true knowledge 
 of things is brought about through sense perception, and 
 that experience is the only means of verifying it. The other 
 and opposing party contended that it is only through the 
 understanding, or by clear and distinct thought, that the 
 true knowledge of things is gained. The first theory was 
 called empiricism, and was represented by Bacon, Hobbes, 
 and Locke; me second was called ratiemalism, and was 
 represented by Bruno, Descartes, and ppinoza. Bacon 
 founded the first party, Descartes the second, and Comenius 
 as an educator shared in the views of both. 
 
 The discussion of these two problems wa^notable for its 
 universality. Every country furnished its representative 
 in the conflict; but, as Falckenberg has shown, each nation 
 because of its peculiar temperament stood more or less fully 
 committed { to one party or the other. He ysays, " The 
 Frenchmanl tends chiefly to acuteness, the Englishman to 
 clearness and simplicity, and the German to profundity of 
 thought. France is the land of the mathematical England 
 of the practical, and Germany of the speculative thinkers; 
 the first is the home of the skeptics and also of the\enthu- 
 siasts, the sebond of the realists, and the third of theVideal- 
 ists." EnglaW is, therefore, the home of empiricism based 
 upon the method of observation and induction; the Cbnti- 
 nent the home of rationalism with its method of deduction. 
 
 The methods proposed for the solution of this philosoph- 
 ical question had a direct bearing upon the solution of edu- 
 cational problems. Unconsciously, perhaps, Comenius was 
 
Gomenius and Bealism in Education 25 
 
 affected by it and without doubt he received an impetus to 
 thought from the same sources as did Descartes. A few 
 men influenced him in a direct way. 
 
 Vives (1492-1540) in Spain broke away from the limita- 
 tions of Aristotle and took his stand for independent experi- 
 ment and the observation and careful study of nature. 
 Applying this to education, he contended for the classifica- 
 tion and organization of schools, imiversal education and 
 trained teachers, the teaching of science, and the correlation 
 of studies. 
 
 Bacon (1561-1626) in England held that the mind must 
 understand the instruments of knowledge and must depend 
 upon experience, deriving its materials from perception. 
 It must rise steadily and gradually from particulars to uni- 
 versal truths. The pupil must be introduced to nature first 
 hand, and the materials of perception must be organized 
 into coordinated knowledge. 
 
 Ratke (1571-1635) in Germany made a closer application 
 of the new philosophy to education and was more nearly a 
 contemporary of Comenius. His main principles have been 
 summarized as follows: but one thing should be presented 
 at a time, following the order of nature and using the mother 
 tongue. Everything must be learned through experience, 
 the thing itself being first studied and then explained ac- 
 cording to a definite method. Nothing is to be taken on 
 authority. 
 
 Bath (1564-1614) published a Janua which was an at- 
 tempt at arranging in twelve hundred sentences all the 
 common Latin words. These were accompanied by a word- 
 for-word vernacular translation. 
 
 These are some of the men who worked upon the educa- 
 tional problems before the time of Comenius. That he was 
 
26 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 influenced by them and that he clearly understood aU that 
 had gone before him, there can be no doubt. And yet he 
 did more than they, — he organized and adapted, and by mak- 
 ing his point of attack peculiar in itself he placed himself a 
 century in advance of his time. He held to the church as 
 an institution, believing that it and the school were the true 
 agents of education to be employed to prepare man for 
 eternity. But he would have the individual develop in 
 nature according to her laws. This universalized educa- 
 tion and made the individual free under the law of the insti- 
 tution. 
 
 How would a study of nature tend to develop individuality? Show 
 a relation between a theory of knowledge and the advancement of 
 science. What is the significance of the universality of the discussion 
 of the problem of knowledge? Why are nations different in their 
 temperaments? What is meant by "breaking away from the limita- 
 tions of Aristotle"? Explain the meaning of "rising from particulars 
 to imi versa! truths." Show the difference between induction and 
 deduction. — ^Palckestberg, 80; Monroe, Paxil, phap. II; Bwtlbe; 
 AsAMSON, Chaps. I-III. 
 
Comenius and Bealism in Education 27 
 
 Bibliography 
 
 In asking for books at the Kbrary, call for the titles printed in Italics. 
 
 Adamson, J. W. — Pioneers of Modern Education. 
 
 Bahdeen, C. W. — ^The Text-books of Comenius; Educ. Rev., Ill, 
 223-226. 
 
 Barnard, Henry — German Teachers and Educators. 
 
 (x) Barnard, Henry — John Amos Comenius (von Raumer); Bar- 
 nard's Jour., V, 257-298. 
 
 Blodgett, Jas. H. — Was Comenius Called to Harvard? Edv^. Ren,, 
 XVI, 391-393. 
 
 Butler, Nicholas Mttrray — ^The Place of Comenius in the History 
 of Education; Proc. N. E. A., 1893, 723-728. 
 
 Comenius, John Amos — ^The Orbis Pictus. 
 
 Compayre, Gabriel — History of Pedagogy, 122-136. 
 
 Davidson, Thomas — A History of Education, 191 S. 
 
 Hanus, Paul H. — The Permanent Influence of Comenius; Edu£. 
 Rev., Ill, 226-236. 
 
 Hare, J. M. — ^Private Life and Personal Characteristics of Comenius; 
 Proc. N. E. A., 189$, 703-711. 
 
 Heath, Richard — Living in Community; Con. Rev., LXX, 247. 
 
 Kbatinqe, M. W. — The Great Didactic of Comenius, (1896), with 
 Biographical and Historical Introduction. 
 
 Laurie, S. S. — John Amos Comenius. 
 
 (x) Laurie, S. S. — The Place of Comenius in the History of Educa- 
 tion; Educ. Rev., Ill, 211-223. 
 
 Maxwell, W. H. — ^The Text-books of Comenius; Proc. N. E. A., 
 1899, 712-723. 
 
 Monroe, Paul — History of Education, 480 ff. 
 
 Monroe, Will S. — Comenius and the Beginnings of Educatiorud 
 Reform. 
 
 (x) Monroe, Will S. — Comenius, the Evangel of Modem Pedagogy; 
 Educ., XIII, 212-219. 
 
 (y) Monroe, Will S. — ^Was Comenius Called to the Presidency of 
 Harvard? Educ. Rev., XII, 378-382. 
 
 (z) Monroe, Will S. — Comerdua'a School of Infancy. 
 
28 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 NoHLB, E. — ^History of the German School System; Rep. U. S. Com. 
 Educ., 1897-98, I, 3&-41. 
 
 Painter, F. V. N. — History of Editcation. 
 
 Payne, Joseph — Lectures on the History of Education, Vol. II. 
 
 Qdick, R. H. — Essays on Educational Reformers, Appleton Ed., 
 119-171. 
 
 ScswEiNiTZ, Edmtjnd de — Unitos Fratrum — History of the Moravian 
 Church, 479 ff. 
 
 Seblet, Levi — History of Ediuxition. 
 
 VosTROvsKY, CiiABA — ^A EiiTopean School of the Time of Comenius; 
 Educ., XVII, 356-^60. 
 
 Williams, S. G. — History of Modem Education. 
 
 Note: The best reference is Keatinge. (Use the introduction for 
 the biographical study.) Second to this is the book by Will S. Monroe. 
 The article by Butler gives an excellent idea of Comenius's relations to 
 other men of his time. Consult any general history of education for 
 his biography. Study his educational doctrine as set forth by Davidson, 
 Laurie, Keatinge, or Monroe. 
 
Comenius and Eealism in Education 29 
 
 Chronological Table 
 
 I. Early Lite and Education (1592-1628). 
 1592 Born, March 28th. 
 
 1604 Entered the elementary school at Strasnitz. 
 1608 Entered the gymnasium at Prerau. 
 1611 Matriculated at Herborn College. 
 
 1613 Matriculated at the University of Heidelbeig. 
 
 1614 A teacher at Prerau. 
 1616 Ordained as a minister. 
 
 1618 Pastor and superintendent of schools at Fulneck. 
 
 1627 Banished from his native country. 
 
 II. LiTEBARY Activity and Practical Work at Lissa (1628-1641). 
 
 1628 Assumed charge of the gymnasium at Lissa. 
 
 1631 Gate of Languages Unlocked (Janua). 
 
 1632 The Great Didactic, in the Czech language. 
 Consecrated as a bishop. 
 
 1633 The School of Infancy. 
 
 III. Residence in Englaud (1641-1642). 
 
 IV. Connection with Sweden (1642-1650). 
 
 1642 Went from England to Sweden. Settled at Elbing, Prussia. 
 
 1643 Pansophia pubUshed in England. 
 
 1647 Vestibule of the Latin Language. 
 
 1648 Returned to Lissa. Senior bishop of Moravian church. 
 New Method of Language Study. 
 
 V. The School at Saros Patak (1650-1654). 
 
 1650 Assumed charge of the school at Saros Patak, Hungary. 
 Plan of a Pansophic School. 
 VI. The Closing Years (1654-1670). 
 1654 Returned to lissa. 
 
 1656 School Dramas. 
 
 Lissa burned. Flight to Sileaa. 
 Settled in Amsterdam. 
 
 1657 OtUs Pictus. 
 
 Great Didactic, in Latin. 
 1660 History of the Bohemian Brethren. 
 
 1670 Died at Amsterdamj Nov. 15th. Buried at Naarden, Nov. 
 22nd. 
 
30 Studies in the History of Modem Education 
 
 Biography 
 
 John Amos Comenius was bom in Nivnitz, Moravia, 
 March 28th, 1592. His father was a member of the Mora- 
 vian Brotherhood, a rehgious sect founded upon the teach- 
 ings of John Huss. Comenius was left an orphan at an early 
 age, and, having been defrauded of his small inheritance, 
 was obliged to hve with an aunt who sent him for a short 
 time to the elementary school at Strasnitz, where he came 
 under the unwholesome influence of a schoolfellow named 
 Nicholas Drabik. At the age of sixteen he was sent to the 
 Latin school at Prerau, where he remained two years, spend- 
 ing his time principally in the study of Latin according to 
 the methods then in vogue. At this time Latin was the 
 universal language of the scholar, and no man was regarded 
 as educated who did not possess a knowledge of it. But the 
 methods of teaching were poor and ineffectual; and Come- 
 nius, much older than the other boys of his class, saw the 
 defects and thus received the incentive that afterward led 
 to his educational reforms. 
 
 Discuss the life and work of John Huss. What were the religious 
 doctrines of the Moravians? Describe the school 'at Strasnitz. How 
 was Comenius influenced by Drabik? What defects did Comenius see 
 in the school at Prerau? How did these influence his future work? 
 What advantages resulted from the universality of the Latin language? 
 What was the effect upon the schools? — Keatingb, 1-4, 55; Monroe, 
 W. S., Chap. Ill; Barnard; Schwbinitz; Laurie, 17-20. 
 
 Comenius's friends had planned that he should become a 
 minister in the Moravian church, and, accordingly, at the 
 
Comenius and Eealism in Education 31 
 
 age of nineteen he was matriculated at Herborn College, in 
 Nassau, that he might prepare himseK for this office. This 
 coUege had been foimded in 1584, and, among other things, 
 afforded excellent opportunities for the study of the new- 
 education. It maintained a preparatory department, 
 which was used as an experimental training school, and in 
 which instruction was carried on in the vernacular. Here 
 Comenius formed the acquaintance of Professor John Henry 
 Alsted, by whom he was greatly influenced. Alsted was a 
 man of considerable reputation both as a scholar and as a 
 teacher. Besides other writings, he was the author of an 
 Encyclopedia of the Sciences, which was published in 1730. 
 It was through the instrumentality of this man that Come- 
 nius heard of Ratlie's reforms in education and was per- 
 mitted to read the Essay on School Reform and the Report 
 of the professors of Jena and Giessen. 
 
 How far was Herborn from Comenius's home? Why did he not 
 study at Prague University? What was the tendency of the age 
 regarding knowledge? Why was Alsted's Encyclopedia remarkable? 
 How did Comenius differ in his views from Alsted? How did Alsted 
 influence him? Give a synopsis of Ratke's Essay. Outline Batke's 
 plan of education. Why did this appeal to Comenius? — QtncK, 103; 
 Keatinge; Monege, W. S.; Compatrb. 
 
 After leaving Herborn, in 1613, Comenius spent a short 
 time in Amsterdam and then matriculated at Heidelberg 
 University. But little is known of his stay there further 
 than that he purchased an original manuscript by Coper- 
 nicus. Soon after he returned to his home in Bohemia, and 
 being too young to enter the ministry, became a teacher 
 in the elementary school at Prerau. Here he began his re- 
 forms in education by preparing an easy Latin book for be- 
 ginners. He was ordained in 1616, but continued to teach 
 
32 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 for two years, when he became the pastor of a flourishing 
 chxu-ch at Fulneck. 
 
 The Thirty Years' War opened in 1618, and three years 
 later Fulneck was plundered and burned by the Spaniards. 
 By this act Comenius lost his manuscripts and library and 
 was driven from his native land, never to return. After 
 five years of wandering as an exile he found a safe refuge at 
 Lissa, in Poland. 
 
 Who was Copernicus? Can we anticipate Comenius's reforms? 
 What was the nature of the book he prepared? Was its plan original 
 with Comenius? What was the Thirty Years' War? Why did the 
 Spaniards plunder Fulneck? Why was Comenius expelled from 
 Bohemia? Why did he go to Lissa? Relate two important incidents 
 during his years of wandering. Who was Karl von Zerotin? Who 
 was Bodinus? How had certain prophets influenced Comenius? Who 
 was his protector at Lissa? — Kbatinge; (x) Baknakd; Quick; Mon- 
 EOE, W. S., Chap. IV. 
 
 Comenius remained at Lissa twelve years as master of 
 the gymnasium, and wrought many important school re- 
 forms. During this time he maintained his relations to his 
 church as a pastor of his people. This was the period of his 
 greatest literary activity, and during this time three of his 
 most important books appeared: The Janva Lmguarum 
 Reserata, in 1631; The Great Didactic, written in the Czech 
 language, in 1632; and The School of Infancy, in 1633. Dur- 
 ing this time he was also in correspondence with many of 
 the most distinguished men of Europe, and at one time was 
 invited by the government of Sweden to come to that coun- 
 try to reform the schools. On account of his church rela- 
 tions he was obliged to decline this invitation. 
 
 What reforms did he inaugurate? Describe each of the books men- 
 tioned. Into what languages were they translated? Who were some 
 of the men with whom he was in correspondence? Why did Sweden 
 
Comenitis and Eealism in Education 33 
 
 wish him to reform her schools? Summarize his ideas of elementary 
 school reform. — Keatinqe; Quick; Monboe, W. S.; Compayee. 
 
 While carrying on his elementary school reform, Come- 
 nius became interested in a pansophic plan of education; 
 and, in order that the work might be carried to completion, 
 felt the need of a patron. Mr. Samuel Hartlib had trans- 
 lated some of Comenius's writings into English, and, through 
 his influence, in 1641 Comenius received an invitation to 
 visit England. The invitation having been accepted, 
 Comenius arrived in London in September and learned for 
 the first time that he had been invited by order of Parlia- 
 ment. Here he remained until June, 1642. The EngUsh 
 scholars examined his pansophic scheme and regarded it 
 with favor, yet it was found impossible to carry out his plans. 
 
 What was the Pansophia? What constitutes its philosophic basis? 
 Tell something of Samuel Hartlib. Why was he interested in Comenius? 
 Which of Comenius's writings had he translated? By what philosophers 
 was Comenius influenced? Why? Who were some of the English 
 scholars of the day? Why were they favorably incUned to Comenius's 
 views? Why were his plans not put into practice? Is it probable that 
 he was known in America? Might he have been offered the presidency of 
 Harvard College ? What Englishmen may have influenced Comenius? — 
 Blodgett; (y) Monroe; Keatinge; Adamson, Chap. VI; Monboe, W. 
 S., 78; Barnard; Monroe, Paul, 472. 
 
 Through the influence of Lewis DeGeer, a rich merchant 
 residing in Stockholm, the invitation to Comenius to come 
 to Sweden was renewed and accepted. Here his educational 
 plans were examined by Lord Oxenstiern and Dr. John 
 Skyte. These men regarded his Didactic with favor, but 
 could see little practical value in his pansophic scheme. 
 This was not pleasing to Comenius. He accepted a com- 
 mission, however, to prepare a set of suitable text-books 
 for use in the schools, and upon their completion was to 
 receive certain stipulated sums from DeGeer. 
 
34 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 Who was Lewis DeGceer? When were Comenius's plans examined? 
 Tell something of the men who examined them. , Describe the inter- 
 view with Oxenstiem. Why was Comenius not satisfied with the 
 decision of Oxenstiern? Why did he accept the commission offered 
 him? Why did DeGeer pay him? — Keatingb, 49. 
 
 While engaged in the preparation of these text-books 
 Comenius resided in Elbing, Prussia. He was very tardy 
 in the completion of the promised work, but in spite of his 
 disappointed hopes, and the distracting influence which sur- 
 rounded him, he finally prepared a work on language teach- 
 ing, a lexicon, and a series of graded readers. About this 
 time he was chosen senior bishop in the church, and because 
 of the duties and obligations which his new office brought, 
 he severed his connection with DeGeer, in 1648, and re- 
 turned to Lissa. 
 
 Why did he reside at Elbing? Describe his work while living there. 
 Why did he consume so much time in this work? What were his 
 hopes? How did the Treaty of Westphalia affect the Moravians? 
 What were some of his new duties as bishop? — Keatinqe, 53. 
 
 In 1650 he moved from Lissa to Saros Patak, in Tran- 
 sylvania, having been offered liberal inducements to reform 
 the schools there. He remained at this place four years, 
 and put into successful operation his carefully matured 
 plans. Under the title Plan of a Pansophic School he pub- 
 lished the sketch of a seven grade school, and succeeded in 
 organizing three grades of the proposed plan. It was here 
 that he published his celebrated Orbis Pictus. 
 
 By whom was he invited to come to Saros Patak? What inducements 
 were offered him? Give an outline of his plan. Describe the Orbis Pictus. 
 Why was this school an important one? How did Bacon influence Co- 
 menius?— Adamson, Chap. Ill; Monroe, W. S., 64; Keatinge, 70. 
 
 Lawrence DeGeer now invited Comenius to spend his re- 
 maining years in Amsterdam. Without doubt, Holland 
 
Comenius and Eealism in Education 35 
 
 was then the most tolerant country in the world, and here 
 Comenius found a fitting place to spend his last days. He 
 occupied his time in ministering to his brethren, doing some 
 private teaching, and publishing a complete edition of his 
 educational writings. 
 
 Who was Lawrence DeGeer? Why was Holland tolerant? In what 
 language were Comenius's writings published? What philosophers had 
 found a refuge in Holland? 
 
 His grave at Naarden was unknown imtil 1871, when it 
 was accidentally identified. In 1892 the friends of educa- 
 tion erected thereon a monument with the following in- 
 scription: "A grateful posterity, to the memory of John 
 Amos Comenius, born at Nivnitz on the 28th of March, 
 1592; died at Amsterdam on the 15th of November, 1670; 
 buried at Naarden on the 22nd of November, 1670. He 
 fought a good fight." 
 
 Locate Naarden. How was Comenius's grave identified? Describe his 
 monument. Show why he was forgotten. Write a character sketch 
 of Comenius. What events in his life exerted an influence on his 
 educational doctrine? What and where is the Comenius Museum? — 
 Butler; Hark; Monkob, W. S., 76; Keatinge, 89. 
 
 Educational Doctrine 
 
 1 The first man to deal scientifically with the subject of 
 education, jand thus to bequeath to his followers the begin- 
 nings of a science of education, was John Amos Comenius. 
 (He was the first man who brought the methods of the phi- 
 losopher to bear practically upon the subject of education. ] 
 The attempt had been made to harmonize the schools with 
 the prevaihng ideals and growing tendencies; but it re- 
 mained for Comenius to gather up all that had preceded him 
 and to make it practical. He was able to do this because 
 
36 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 he knew the past, understood the present, and anticipated 
 the future. Devoted to his church and his religion, he 
 aimed to inculcate the highest ideals of religious teaching. 
 Alive to the needs of the children and understanding them 
 as no one had beforel he sought to make learning a pleasure\ 
 FuUy appreciating the work of the teacher, he formulated a 
 method the use of which made the school an institution 
 which developed Christian character and trained good citi- 
 zens. Finally, with true philosophic insight, he interpreted 
 all that was valuable as knowledge and pointed out the way 
 by which this could be taught to man, the better to fit him 
 for eternity. 
 
 Comenius's educational doctrine may be best imderstood 
 by a study of his books on education and method, and also 
 of his text-books. Of the former, the Great Didactic is the 
 most complete, while his most remarkable texts are the 
 Janua Linguarum Reserata, — the Gate of Tongues Unlocked, 
 and the Orbis Pictus, — the World of Sensible Things Pic- 
 tured. 
 
 The Great Didactic is a systematic treatment of the whole 
 subject of education, and is the most comprehensive of all 
 his educational writings. It was written in the Czech lan- 
 guage about 1632, translated into Latin in 1640, and pub- 
 lished in Amsterdam in 1657. The original manuscript was 
 discovered at Lissa in 1841, and published in 1849. Pre- 
 vious to its publication von Raumer had called attention to 
 it in his Geschichte der Padagogik. The first complete Eng- 
 lish translation was made by Mr. M. W. Keatinge, of Edin- 
 burgh, in 1896, although Professor Laurie, of London, had 
 printed a summary of it in 1883. 
 
 , The plan of the Janua was simple. Starting with several 
 (thousand of the most common Latin words referring to 
 
Comenius and Eealism in Education 37 
 
 familiar objects, the plan was to arrange them in sentences 
 progressively from the simple to the complex. This plan 
 presented not only a brief survey of knowledge, but also a 
 vocabulary and a working knowledge of simple Latin. The 
 Orbis Pictus was the Janica illustrated. 
 
 Was this idea original with Comeniiis? Explain the method of 
 translating the work. When and where was it written? Trace the 
 origin of the Janva. What were the sources of the Great Didacticf 
 The Orbis Pictus? When and where was the Orhis Pictus written? 
 Make a list of the subjects covered. What educational principle was 
 adhered to in this book? — Keatinge, 18, 77; Babdeen; Adamson, 
 Chap. IV; Laurie; Monroe, W. S., 125. 
 
 The Plan of a Pansophic School treats of the organi- 
 zation of schools and particularly of the Saros Patak gym- 
 nasium. The school was divided into seven classes, and 
 over the door of each classroom an inscription was placed. 
 Two grades were to precede the gymnasium, — the infant 
 school and the vernacular school. 
 
 Give the name of each grade and its motto. What subjects were 
 taught? Give the program of work. What does this plan anticipate? 
 Compare our graded school system with this. — ^Babdeen; Vosteovskt; 
 Maxwell; Keatinge, 72; Monroe, W. S., 64. 
 
 A reference to the analytical table of the Great Didactic 
 discloses Comenius's whole scheme of educational doctrine. 
 Deriving his aim from his philosophy of life, he next studied 
 nature in order to discover a general method by which this 
 aim could be reached. This led naturally to a general 
 method under which the eight problems of education were 
 considered, and this in turn was followed by methods in 
 science, art, language, morals, religion, school discipline, 
 and finally by a plan for the organization and grading of 
 the schools. 
 
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Comenius and Eealism in Education 39 
 
 A study of Comenius's educational doctrine can be best 
 carried on by a study of his own words. In giving them a 
 meaning, the student should endeavor (1) to keep in mind 
 the character of the times in which they were written, and 
 (2) to try to discover how present day practice is related to 
 them. 
 
 In formulating his aim of education Comenius said that 
 as man is the highest, the most absolute, and the most ex- 
 cellent of things created, and that as the ultimate end of 
 man is beyond this Ufe, life is a preparation for eternity. 
 — Keatinge, Chaps. I, II, III. 
 
 Compare this aim of education with the modem view. Can you ascribe 
 a reason for Comenius's formulating this view? In what was Comenius 
 chiefly interested — ^the church or the school? — Monkoe, Patjl, 482. 
 
 " Our nature shows that this life is not sufficient for us. 
 For here we live a threefold life, — the vegetative, the animal, 
 and the intellectual or the spiritual. Of these, the action 
 of the first is confined to the body; the second can extend 
 itself to objects by operation of the senses; while the third 
 is able to exist separately." — Keatinge, 779. 
 
 What is meant by a threefold life? Show how this is psychological. 
 Point out the evidences of Platonic influence in the above. Where is 
 heredity suggested? — ^Davidson's Aristotle, 138. 
 
 "There are three stages in the preparation for eternity: 
 (1) to know one's self and all things; (2) to rule one's self; 
 and (3) to direct one's self to God. Hence it follows that a 
 man must be (1) acquainted with all things, (2) endowed 
 with power over all things and over himself, and (3) willing 
 to refer himself and aU things to God, the source of all; 
 that is, he must be possessed of erudition, morals, and re- 
 ligion." —Keatinge, 188. 
 
40 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 Define knowledge, erudition, morals, and religion. Where is the 
 tendency to empiricism shown? Give the meaning of "endowed with 
 power"- How is the above an advance over the education of the 
 Reformation? — Monroe, Paul, 483. 
 
 "The seeds of learning, virtue, and piety are naturally 
 implanted within us, and as man has a natural craving for 
 knowledge he can only be formed by education. Educa- 
 tion must therefore be universal and common, and the time 
 for it is youth." 
 
 Give Comenius's proof for each of these statements. — Keatingb, 
 Chaps. V, XIV. How did he think the schools could be reformed? 
 What was his principle of order? Give the meaning of "a natural 
 craving for knowledge"- Show the rationalistic tendency in the above. 
 —Monroe, W. S., Chap. VI. 
 
 " The exact order of instruction must be borrowed from 
 nature and must be of such a kind that no obstacle can 
 hinder it. Accordingly, there must be principles of cer- 
 tainty, facihty, and thoroughness." 
 
 The Principles of Certainty: 
 
 1. Nature observes a suitable time. 
 
 2. Nature prepares the material before she begins to give 
 it form. 
 
 3. Nature chooses a fit subject to act upon, or first sub- 
 mits one to a suitable treatment in order to make it fit. 
 
 4. Nature is not confused in her operations, but in her 
 forward progress advances distinctly from one point to 
 another. 
 
 5. In all the operations of nature, development is from 
 within. 
 
 6. Nature, in her formative processes, begins with the 
 universal and ends with the particular. 
 
Comenius and Realism in Education 41 
 
 7. Nature makes no leaps, but proceeds step by step. 
 
 8. If nature commences anything, she does not leave off 
 until the operation is completed. 
 
 9. Nature carefully avoids obstacles and things likely to 
 cause hurt. 
 
 T'HB Principles of Facility: 
 
 1. Nature begins by a careful selection of materials. 
 
 2. Nature prepares her materials so that they actually 
 strive to attain the form. 
 
 3. Nature develops everything from beginnings which, 
 though insignificant in appearance, possess great potential 
 strength. 
 
 4. Nature advances from what is easy to what is more 
 difficult. 
 
 5. Nature does not overburden herself, but is content 
 with a little. 
 
 6. Nature advances slowly. 
 
 7. Nature compels nothing to advance that is not driven 
 forward by its own mature strength. 
 
 8. Nature assists its operations in every possible maimer. 
 
 9. Nothing is produced by nature of which the practical 
 application is not soon evident. 
 
 10. Nature is uniform in all her operations. 
 
 The Principles of Thoroughness: 
 
 1. Nature produces nothing that is useless. 
 
 2. When bodies are being formed nature omits nothing 
 that is necessary for their production. 
 
 3. Nature does not operate on anything unless it pos- 
 sesses a foimdation or roots. 
 
42 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 4. Bodies developed by nature strike their roots deep. 
 
 5. Nature develops everything from its roots and from 
 no other source. 
 
 6. When nature applies a thing to many uses she sup- 
 plies it with many distinct subdivisions. 
 
 7. Nature never remains at rest, but advances contin- 
 ually; never begins anything fresh at the expense of work 
 already in hand, but proceeds with what she has begxm and 
 brings it to completion. 
 
 8. Nature knits everything together in continuous com- 
 bination. 
 
 9. In both quality and quantity nature preserves a due 
 proportion between the roots and the branches. 
 
 10. Nature becomes fruitful and strong through constant 
 movement. 
 
 Explain the meaning of the term "nature". By what method were 
 the above principles deduced? Show how these principles anticipate 
 (a) the doctrine of many-sided interest, (b) correlation, (c) graded 
 schools, (d) other present day theories and practices. — Keatinge, 
 Chaps. XVI-XVIII; Hanus; Botlbk; Monroe, W. S., 90. 
 
 The following is a statement of Comenius's eight prob- 
 lems of method: 
 
 1. How can a single teacher instruct a number of boys 
 at one time, no matter how great their number may be? 
 
 2. How is it possible for all the scholars to be taught 
 from the same books? 
 
 3. How is it possible for all the scholars in a school to 
 do the same thing at one time? 
 
 4. How is it possible to teach everything by one and the 
 same method? 
 
 5. How can many things be explained in a few words? 
 
Comenius and Realism in Education 43 
 
 6. How is it possible to do two or three things by a single 
 operation? 
 
 7. How are the subjects of study to be progressively 
 graded? 
 
 8. How may we bring about a removal and an avoidance 
 of obstructions? 
 
 How were these problems solved? What that is modern do they 
 anticipate? Describe the Lancasterian system. — ^Monroe, W. S., 95; 
 Barnard's Jour., X, 355-370; Kbatingb, 316. 
 
 "The youth who wishes to penetrate the mysteries of 
 the sciences must carefully observe four rules: (1) he must 
 keep the eye of the mind pure; (2) he must see that the 
 object be brought near to it; (3) he must pay attention; 
 and (4) he must proceed from one object to another in 
 accordance with a suitable method." 
 
 Give the meaning of "keep the eye of the mind pure". Where is 
 Bacon's influence shown? Wherein is the above psychological? In 
 what way are the Jarma and the Orbis Pictus related to the above? — ■ 
 Keatingb, Chap. XX. 
 
 "In the acquisition of art three things are required: 
 (1) a model which the pupil may examine and then try to 
 imitate; (2) material on which the new form is to be 
 impressed; and (3) instruments by the aid of which the 
 work is accomplished. After these have been provided 
 three things more are necessary before the art can be 
 learned: (a) a proper use of materials, (b) skilled guidance, 
 and (c) frequent practice." 
 
 What is meant by art? How was imitation made use of? How 
 would originality be cultivated? Apply the above to drawing and 
 manual training. — Keatinge, Chap. XXI. 
 
 "Languages are learned not as forming in themselves a 
 
44 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 part of erudition or wisdom, but as be'ng the means by 
 which we may acquire knowledge an . may impart it to 
 others." — Keatinqe, 355. 
 
 What languages were regarded as necess?. y? How should a language 
 be learned? What are the stages in the study of a language? Describe 
 Comenius's text-books on language. — ^Monroe, W. S., Chap. VIII. 
 
 Comenius believed that all the virtues should be implanted j 
 in man. The cardinal virtues are prudence, temperance, 
 fortitude, and justice. ' 
 
 What were CJomenius's arguments for moral teaching? Outline the 
 method by which he would have morals taught. — Keatingb, Chap. 
 XXIII. 
 
 Specific methods of instruction are outlined in the Great 
 Didactic for the purpose of giving definite instruction in 
 rehgion. 
 
 Why is this so? Give the reasons for the teaching of religion. What 
 method did Comenius formulate? How does his religious teaching 
 differ from his moral teaching? What is said about pagan books? — 
 Keatingb, Chap. XXIV, 383; Monboe, W. S., 101. 
 
 " Discipline is nothing but an unfailing method by which 
 we make our scholars scholars in reality. It is advisable 
 that the educator of youth know its object, its subject 
 matter, and the various forms that it may assume." 
 
 What is the method of discipline? What forms of punishment should 
 be employed? How is nature to be followed? Compare Comenius's 
 methods with modern ones. — Keatinge, Chap. XXVI. 
 
 "The fourfold division of schools should be based on 
 
 age and acquirements. The whole period of education 
 
 must be divided into four distinct grades, — infancy, child- 
 
 ihood, boyhood, and youth — six years to each grade. A 
 
Comenius and Eealism in Education 45 
 
 mother school should exist in every house, q, vernacular 
 school in every hamlet and village, a gymnasium in every 
 city, and a university in every kingdom or province." 
 
 Describe each school. What subjects were to be taught in each? 
 What text-books were to be used? Compare the, above with our 
 graded school system. Why did Comenius fail to accomplish the re- 
 forms he proposed? Mention some of the educational ideals and move- 
 ments of the present day that can be traced back to Comenius. What 
 was the central thought in Comenius's theory of teaching? Explain 
 its meaning. Name ten rules of teaching drawn from the works of 
 Comenius. How has Comenius influenced modem educators? — Mon- 
 roe, W. S., Chap. IX; Butler; Hanus; (x) Laurie. 
 
 Summary 
 
 Comenius may be regarded as a man of striking person- 
 ality and strength of character. Of deep religious convic-i 
 tion and belonging to a peculiar sect he was first of all" 
 devoted to his church. His educational doctrine grew out 
 of this. He accepted the new scientific spirit and applied 
 it in his method. He believed that education as a prepara- j 
 tion for eternity must be accomplished through contact' 
 with nature in a natural way. 
 
 His educational doctrine was more or less influenced by 
 the following facts: (1) he did not begin the study of 
 Latin until he was old enough to perceive the defects in 
 the methods of teaching, (2) he was intimately associated 
 with John Alsted, (3) he listened to the prophecies of 
 Kotter and others, (4) he read the Didactic of Bodinus, 
 and (5) he had an opportunity to apply his doctrine at 
 Saros Patak. 
 
 His educational doctrine is twofold: (1) an attempt to ,^ 
 reform the teaching of Latin which led to the reform of 
 dementary schools, and (2) the pansophic idea which led 
 
46 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 to graded schools and the teaching of science. Comenius 
 was well and favorably known by the scholars of his time, 
 but he was neglected and forgotten for more than a cen- 
 tury because of his advance beyond the times in which he 
 lived. 
 
 He was the first educator to use the methods of the 
 philosopher to solve educational problems. His originality 
 consisted in his power of organization. 
 
 He anticipated much that is accepted in modern educa- 
 tion. Not a few books on pedagogy written previous to 
 1850 show his direct influence. 
 
 Illustrated text-books had their beginning with the 
 OrMs Pictus and the grading of schools had its inception 
 at Saros Patak. 
 
 Comenius's permanent contribution to education may 
 be summarized as follows: Knowledge must be acquired 
 through the senses by a contact with things; impression 
 must be followed by expression; the course of study must 
 be broadened and enriched; education must be universal, 
 the schools graded, and the teachers trained. 
 
 John Locke 
 
 It will be seen from the foregoing that Comenius, in 
 advocating and making practical the concrete in subject 
 matter and method, had departed far from the hitherto 
 existing ideas of education. Without realizing the full 
 import of these new ideas, he bequeathed to the world a 
 principle destined to modify the whole theory of method 
 and to establish it upon a scientific basis — the principle of 
 realism. It was not until later that Comenius's work in 
 this respect was recognized and appreciated. Other ideas 
 to which he gave expression exercised an earlier influence; 
 
Comenius and Eealism in Education 47 
 
 but the idea of realism put into a form to attract universal 
 attention was destined to await the coming of a man who 
 in race, character, and purpose was almost the antithesis 
 of Comenius, — the French-Swiss Rousseau. Meanwhile, in 
 yet another country and by the work of a man in an en- 
 tirely different sphere of hfe, this particular idea in educa- 
 tion was nurtured, and clothed in a garb that more readily 
 served to attract the attention of those who followed. In 
 a large sense, Locke, the Englishman, served to connect 
 the work of Comenius with that of the later educational 
 reformers, by whom it was given a wider scope and a 
 deeper meaning. 
 
 John Locke was born near Bristol, England, in 1632. 
 He was educated at Westminster School and later at 
 Oxford, from which university he was graduated in 1655. 
 He became greatly interested in natural science and in 
 the philosophy of Descartes, although his university train- 
 ing was designed to repress any original tendencies and to 
 influence him in the direction of the old scholastic ideals. 
 Having been graduated from the university, he studied 
 medicine that he might be the better fitted to improve his 
 own feeble health. Later he became physician in the home 
 of Lord Ashley, who was afterward made the Earl of 
 Shaftesbury. To Locke was intrusted also the education 
 of the earl's son, and from his observations and experiences 
 while engaged in this task he obtained the material that 
 he afterward embodied in a treatise entitled Some Thoughts 
 concerning Education, published in 1693. 
 
 In this work Locke places great stress upon environment 
 as a factor in education, and emphasizes the necessity of 
 recognizing individual differences in determining the 
 method of instruction. In selecting subjects for study, 
 
48 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 I he advocated the practical element, rather than the old 
 I scholastic idea. He would have the child study things and 
 ^ existing conditions in preference to books. His ideal of 
 j an educated being was one who possessed "a sound mind 
 1 in a sound body." 
 
 Locke deprecated compulsion as an incentive to action, 
 and objected to the prevailing ideas of discipline. He 
 maintained that the child should not be required to do 
 what was distasteful to him, and that he should be fol- 
 lowed rather than led. He suggested little that would 
 cause the young gentleman — and with him alone was he 
 concerned — to work out along original lines; instead, he 
 aimed to make him content with what had been achieved, 
 and sought only to fit him to fiU his place in the social life 
 of the day. 
 
 While not primarily an educator, Locke's insistence upon 
 the use of the concrete in giving instruction, and upon the 
 recognition and the fostering of the powers, wishes, and 
 whims of the individual exerted a great influence upon 
 educational ideas. He put into a new form the realistic 
 idea of Comenius, coupled with it the further idea of the 
 divine right of the individual, and then, having established 
 human reason as the final authority in all matters of dis- 
 pute, he passed on this doctrine, clothed in this attractive 
 garb, to a generation in which such ideas foimd ardent 
 response. This was Locke's service to education. — Pain- 
 tee, 230; Monroe, Paul, 512; Davidson, 199; QincK, 219. 
 
upen Court Philosophical Portrait Series 
 JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU 
 
CHAPTER II 
 ROUSSEAU AND INDIVIDUALISM 
 
 The spirit of the eighteenth century was revolutionary 
 in its character, and this spirit affected every phase of 
 human life. Men from every rank revolted against the 
 tyranny of kings and governments; they rebelled against 
 the mandates of society and the church, and began to 
 assert their rights as individuals. Freedom was the watch- 
 word of the hour; and the one vital question about which 
 all others centered was the relationship that the free 
 individual should bear to the political, the religious, and 
 the social institutions. 
 
 In the sixteenth century Luther and his contemporaries 
 had proposed the same question concerning the church, 
 and in the seventeenth century the same problem had been 
 vigorously attacked from all sides. Comenius from the 
 standpoint of education, following in the wake of the scien- 
 tists, appealed to nature and introduced realism into the 
 schools. In philosophy, Descartes, starting with doubt, 
 founded a new school of thought; Bacon, in the same way, 
 instituted a new method; and Hobbes, in his appUcation 
 of the doctrine of mechanism to the state, set at work a, 
 new influence that did much to solve the great problem. 
 
 In England, the Commonwealth had demonstrated the 
 right of the people to elect a king; and although imder 
 Louis XIV a powerful monarchy had been built up in 
 
 49 
 
50 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 France, and the American colonies were yet under the 
 control of the English kings, the seeds had been sown and 
 were slowly germinating in the minds of the common 
 people. A revolution was inevitable. 
 
 Thus we see that in the eighteenth century the question 
 of the relation of the individual to the institution would give 
 rise to other grave and important questions which must 
 necessarily engage the attention of every thinking man, 
 and more especially of the leaders. Men could not agree, 
 and each separate school of philosophy was contending 
 for supremacy. Was there not some one able to voice the 
 sentiment of the common people and so to decide the contest? 
 As is usual under such circumstances, such an one was not 
 wanting. Rousseau through his Emile and Social Contract 
 expressed the popular thought and so became the exponent 
 of the spirit of the age in matters of education and govern- 
 ment, just as Immanuel Kant with his Critique of Pure 
 Reason became the arbiter who both imified and harmon- 
 ized the philosophical schools of reason and experience. 
 
 Rousseau, more than any other man in history, reveals 
 in his life and writings the thoughts and tendencies of the 
 age in which he lived. In order, therefore, to understand 
 the educational or social theories of Rousseau it is neces- 
 sary to have a clear notion of the ideals that inspired and 
 directed his thoughts, and then, if possible, to come to an 
 understanding of his character and the conflicting expe- 
 riences that resulted from his unmentionable practices. 
 
 No more difficult problem confronts the student of the 
 history of education than that of understanding the life 
 of Rousseau. His teachings at the same time present a 
 philosophy of individual, social, economic, political, and 
 religious life. Moreover, it seems that the peculiar 
 
Eousseau and Individualism 51 
 
 subjectiveness of the man gathered up from his environment 
 all the good and bad influences; and further, that he 
 appropriated aU that was bad to himself and gave to the 
 world whatever good could be discovered or might result 
 from the process. 
 
 The attempted solutions of the problem of man's rela- 
 tion to nature were many, and the results of the attempts 
 found expression in many theories. One class believed in 
 the subjugation of nature to man. Another class held a 
 directly opposing view. As men belonged to one class or 
 the other they differed on questions of education. In 
 Rousseau's time the question of man and nature was much 
 talked about and written upon. There were five distinct 
 notions: (1) the normal human life is one of peace; (2) the 
 only basis for the justification of civil society is a social 
 contract; (3) the condition of inequality among men is due 
 to private property; (4) a law of nature is binding upon all 
 men; (5) man's most desirable condition is a state of 
 nature. 
 
 These ideas were taking shape in the minds of the people 
 when Rousseau entered the arena and proclaimed his solu- 
 tion of this great world problem. 
 
 Why was the spirit of the eighteenth century revolutionary? What 
 did Luther do for education? What is the doctrine of mechanism? 
 Who was Immanuel Kant? Describe the social and political conditions 
 of France in the time of Rousseau. Compare the general conditions of 
 Europe at this time with those at the time of Comenius. In what ways 
 had civiHzation advanced? — (x) Davidson, Chap. I; Monroe, Chap. X; 
 MORLEY, Chap. I. 
 
52 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 Bibliography 
 
 In asking for books at the library, call for titles printed in Italics. 
 
 Baenaed, Henry — Jean Jacques Rousseau; Barnard's Jour., V, 
 459-486. 
 
 (x) Baenard, Hbnet — German Teachers and Educators. 
 
 Blackwood, William — The Genius and Character of Rousseau; 
 Blackwood's Magazine, XI, 137-153. 
 
 Browning, Oscar— Educational Theories, Chap. IX. 
 
 Compayre, Gabriel — History of Pedagogy, 278-310, 332-337. 
 
 Davidson, Thomas— History of Education, 210-219. 
 
 (x) Davidson, Thomas — Rousseau and Education according to Nature. 
 
 Everett, A. H. — Life of Rousseau; N. A. Rev., XV, 1 f. 
 
 Gaerison, W. p. — Rousseau; Harper's Magazine, LVIII, 229 ff. 
 
 Goldsmith, Olivee — Essay on Education; Barnard's Jour, (old 
 series), XIII, 347-353; {-new series). III, 347-353. 
 
 Hanus, Paul H. — ^Rousseau's Emile (book review); Educ. Rev., VI, 
 187-190. 
 
 Lang, L. B. — Rousseau's Ideal Household; LitteU's Living Age, 
 CXCI, 175 ff. 
 
 Lbmaitee, Jules — Jean Jacques Rousseau. 
 
 Lowell, J. R. — ^Rousseau and the Sentimentalists; N. A. Rev 
 CV, 242. 
 
 Monroe, Vavij— History of Education, 547-577. 
 
 MoEiN, S. H. — Life and Character of Rousseau; Littdl's Living Age 
 XXXVIII, 259-264. 
 
 MoELEY, John — Rousseau (2 vols.). 
 
 MuNEOE, James P. — The Educational Ideal. 
 
 MuEEAY, J. Clark — Rousseau; PhUos. Rev., VIII, 357-370. 
 
 Paintee, F. V. i^.— Great Pedagogical Essays, Chap. XXI. 
 
 (x) Painter, F. V. N. — History of Education, 249-255. 
 
 (x) Payne, Joseph — Lectures on the History of Education, Vol. II. 
 
 Payne, W. H. — ^Education according to Nature; Proc. N. E A 
 1895, 114-125. ' '' 
 
 Quick, R. H. — Essays on Educational Reformers, 239-272. 
 
 Rousseau, J. J. — The Confessions (4 vols.). 
 
 (x) Rousseau, J. J.— Emile (trans, by W. H. Payne). 
 
Rousseau and Individualism 53 
 
 (y) RoussEAtr, J. J. — The Social Contract. 
 
 Seelbt, Levi — History of Education. 
 
 Street, A. E. — ^Rousseau's Theory of Education; Educ. Rev., V, 
 278-290. 
 
 Weib, Samuel — ^The Key to Rousseau's Eirule; Ediic. Rev., XVI, 
 61-69. 
 
 Williams, S. G. — History of Modem Education. 
 
 Note: The books by Davidson and Quick are best for the bio- 
 graphical study. The EmUe should be read. Read the article by 
 Weir. Davidson gives a critical discussion. Compayre and Browning 
 are excellent. The best critical treatment is by Morley. It should be 
 reserved for the last reading, however. The article by Morin is excel- 
 lent. Nearly all the general histories of education have good sketches 
 of Rousseau's life. 
 
54 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 Chronological Table 
 
 I. Formative ok Passive Pebiod (1712-1741), 
 1712 Bom at Geneva, June 28th. 
 1720 Entered school at Bossey. 
 
 1724 Apprenticed to a notary, afterward to an engraver. 
 1728 Ran away and became a wandering vagabond. Was sent to 
 
 Turin. 
 1732 Took up residence with Madame de Warens. 
 II. Productive or Active Period (1741-1767). 
 1741 Went to Paris. 
 
 1743 Secretary at Venice. 
 
 1744 Association with Th&6sa Le Vasseur. 
 1750 Influence of Arts and Sciences. 
 
 1753 Inequality among Men. 
 
 1754 Revisited Geneva. Returned to Protestantism. 
 1756 Took up residence at the Hermitage, Montmorency. 
 
 1769 TU New Hdoise. 
 1762 The Socud Contract. 
 
 EmUe. 
 
 Fled to Switzerland. 
 
 1766 Went to England. 
 Began The Confessions. 
 
 III. Last Days (1767-1778). 
 
 1767 Returned to France. 
 
 1770 Settled in Paris. 
 
 1777 Dialogties and Reveries. 
 
 1778 Died at Ermenonville, July 2nd. 
 
 1793 Body removed to the Pantheon in Paris. 
 
Eousseau and Individualism 55 
 
 Biography 
 
 Some men are objective in their tendencies. Others are 
 strongly subjective. These latter are concerned only with 
 what appeals to them for the moment. Consistency has 
 little claim upon them. Their lives and teachings may 
 harmonize or they may be diametrically opposed. What- 
 ever they do is performed with all the ardor of their natures; 
 whatever they advocate is clothed with intense feeling. 
 To understand such an one it is necessary to know the 
 experiences that give birth to motive, the motive that 
 prompts to action. Such an one was the man who is the 
 subject of our present study. 
 
 Explain the meaning of "subjective", "objective". Give the mean- 
 ing of motive. How do actions prompted by feelings differ from those 
 prompted by reason? 
 
 Jean Jacques Rousseau was born in the city of Geneva, 
 Switzerland, June 28th, 1712. His parents were Protes- 
 tants and belonged to the highest class of Genevan citizens. 
 On his father's side he was descended from an old French 
 family who had removed to Geneva early in the sixteenth 
 century and had occupied no mean place in the history of 
 that famous city. His father possessed the peculiar sub- 
 jectiveness characteristic of the French mind. He was 
 extremely sensitive, gallant, effusive, and pleasure loving. 
 His mother, the daughter of a Genevan minister, was of 
 much the same temperament as her husband. She pos- 
 sessed an overwrought sensibility which had been abnorm- 
 ally developed by the reading of the light, sentimental 
 
56 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 romances of the day. All these characteristics seem to 
 have been transmitted to the son, Jean Jacques. His 
 mother died at his birth — an event fraught with grave 
 meaning to one of his peculiarly subjective temperament. 
 His early training was entrusted to an aunt, a quiet, mild 
 woman whose pity for the motherless boy prevented the 
 sterner training he so much needed. The wrong thus done 
 him was heightened by the action of his father who in- 
 dulged him in every whim and cultivated the unhealthy 
 sensibility he already possessed. He was a very precocious 
 child, imaginative and self-willed. His training, if such it 
 may be called, fostered his natural inclinations and gave 
 him no idea of any guide save his own feeling. 
 
 What characteristics of Rousseau suggest his French ancestry? 
 Which show the Genevan influence? What made Geneva a "famous 
 city"? What was the character of Rousseau's earliest training? Show 
 how the father contributed to the son's weakness. What evidence can 
 you give that Rousseau was a precocious child? What that he was very 
 imaginative? How was he different from other children? Which ex- 
 erted the greater influence upon him, heredity or environment? — 
 (x) Davidson, Chap. II; Monroe, 547; Barnard; The Confessicms ; 
 MoBLET, Chap. II. 
 
 At eight years of age Jean Jacques, together with a 
 cousin of the same age, was sent to the near-by village of 
 Bossey to be educated in the home of a clergyman, Lam- 
 bercier by name. Here he lived for two years, learning 
 little that passed under the name of education, but imbibing 
 a love of the country and of simple life that remained 
 with him to the end of his days. His stay here was ter- 
 minated by an incident which, though trivial, had a 
 far-reaching effect: he was accused of a slight offence, and, 
 though he protested his innocence, he was severely pun- 
 ished. From the sting of this injustice he never recovered. 
 
EoTisseau and ladividualism 57 
 
 Soon after he returned to his uncle's home in Geneva where 
 he spent the next two years in idleness, knowing little of 
 tasks nor the necessity of doing anything except what his 
 feelings prompted. 
 
 Describe Rousseau's life at Bossey. What was the incident that led 
 to his leaving Bossey? Describe the two years spent in his uncle's 
 home. What associates had Rousseau as a child? What was the 
 effect? — Compayre; (x) Payne. 
 
 With such a training as has been described, it is not 
 surprising that the boy should be poorly fitted to enter 
 active life, which he was now supposed to do. When 
 scarcely twelve years of age he was apprenticed to a notary, 
 but as he had no capacity for that work he was soon after 
 apprenticed to an engraver, a cruel, violent man, whose 
 brutality served only to fix Jean Jacques the more firmly 
 in his weak ways. When the boy was sixteen years of 
 age his master's brutality became unbearable and he re- 
 solved to run away. He left Geneva and for four years 
 led the life of a wandering vagabond. Two incidents of 
 this time must be noted: his conversion to Catholicism, 
 and his meeting with Madame de Warens. The first of 
 these incidents was entirely in line with his life experiences 
 thus far. Tired and himgry he presented himself at the 
 home of a priest and asked for relief. The priest took him 
 in, welcomed him, and fed him. This kindness won the 
 heart of the boy, and when the new-found friend urged him 
 to accept the belief of the Catholic church he responded 
 readily. From here he was sent to the home of Madame de 
 Warens, a woman of intelligence and personal charm, but 
 with little regard for virtue. Her influence over the youth 
 was anything but wholesome, and for twelve years she held 
 him in bondage. 
 
58 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 What was the cause of Rousseau's failure as a notary's apprentice? 
 What incident caused him to run away? Give an account of his 
 wanderings. Relate the incident of his conversion to Catholicism. 
 Give an account of his life in Turin. 
 
 It was not until 1741 that circumstances caused Rousseau 
 to break away from the influence of Madame de Warens and 
 assert his own individuality. Heretofore his life had passed 
 aimlessly, himself a creature of caprice. Henceforth he was 
 to assume a more positive part in the world's activity. To 
 be sure we find the old characteristics asserting themselves, 
 but in general his life showed a new force. The formative, 
 passive period had passed, the productive period of activity 
 had begun. 
 
 What effect had Madame de Warens upon Rousseau's life? What 
 attempts at self-maintenance did he make during his stay with her? — 
 MoRLET, Chap. III. 
 
 After leaving Madame de Warens, Rousseau went to 
 Paris. A little later he became secretary to the French 
 ambassador at Venice. In the year and a half that he 
 spent in this capacity he revealed an energy and a firm- 
 ness heretofore foreign to him. Soon after returning to 
 Paris from Venice he befriended a poor working girl, 
 Theresa Le Vasseur. His kindness led to a mutual sym- 
 pathy if not to affection, and shortly afterward Rousseau 
 made her his wife in all but name. During the next few 
 years he led a somewhat irresponsible life, earning only a 
 scant livelihood by copying music, but acquiring a sym- 
 pathy with the common people and a knowledge of the 
 current thought that were destined to make him one of 
 the most powerful factors in his generation. 
 
 Under what circumstances did he go to Paris? Give an account of 
 his life as a diplomat. Give an account of his relations to Th6r^. — 
 (x) Davidson, Chap. Ill; Quick; Morley, Chap. IV. 
 
Eousseau and Individualism 59 
 
 In 1750, acting upon the advice of a friend, he prepared 
 a paper on the Influence of the Arts and Sciences, in compe- 
 tition for the Dijon Academy prize. His article not only 
 won the prize, but it revealed the strength of Rousseau 
 and marked him as the philosopher of the common people. 
 Three years later he submitted a second paper on the 
 causes of Inequality among Men. This paper attracted no 
 less attention than the first and added to the fame its 
 author had already attained. The following year he made 
 a short visit to his old home in Geneva where he was 
 received with marked honor. While here he renounced 
 Catholicism and returned to the faith of his boyhood. 
 
 What was the Dijon Academy prize? How did Rousseau happen 
 to compete for it? Why did he win it? Who were the principal men 
 in Paris at this time? Who were the Encyclopedists and why so 
 called? Give an account of Rousseau's visit to Geneva. — ^Morley, 
 Chap. V; (x) Davidson, 56; Qttick; Compatbe; The Confessions. 
 
 Soon after his return to Paris, upon the invitation of a 
 friend, he took up his residence at the Hermitage, a rural 
 retreat near Montmorency. His stay in this section was 
 marked by great literary activity. Works begun in the 
 Hermitage were completed in the near-by village. The 
 New Heloise appeared in 1759, The Social Contract — the 
 most complete statement of his political views — in 1762, 
 and the Emile — a work dealing with educational method — 
 a few weeks later. The publication of these works, par- 
 ticularly the latter, raised such a storm of protest that 
 Rousseau was obliged to leave France and take up his 
 abode in Switzerland. 
 
 Give an account of his life at the Hennitage. Why should his writ- 
 ings bring persecution upon him? — (x) Davidson, 63; Mokley, Chap. 
 VII. 
 
60 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 During the next five years Rousseau was an exile, endur- 
 ing persecutions real and imaginary, and constantly mov- 
 ing about to escape enemies, which were more often the 
 creations of his own fancy than real flesh and blood. In 
 1766 he accepted Hume's invitation to come to England. 
 While here he began writing his Confessions. His stay in 
 England was embittered by quarrels with his best friends, 
 and in the following year he returned to France, a moody, 
 petulent, fearful, prematurely-old man. 
 
 Give an account of his exile in Switzerland, Prussia, and England. 
 Why did Hume become interested in him ? How did Rousseau recipro- 
 cate? Formulate your opinion of his Confessions. How was he be- 
 friended by Frederick the Great? — (x) Davidson, 68; The Confes- 
 sions; MoKLBY, Chaps. XI, XV. 
 
 In 1770 he again settled in Paris, where he spent his few 
 remaining years. His income was meager and he again 
 took to copying music from sheer necessity. His wasted 
 life, coupled with his recent misfortunes, had made him 
 morbid and disagreeable. His extreme sensitiveness had 
 become almost a disease. As a result he kept few of his 
 former friends and made fewer new ones. In the spring 
 of 1778, at the direction of his physician, he removed to 
 Ermenonville, a few miles from Paris. The change from 
 the city to the country proved beneficial for a time, and 
 Rousseau began to regain some of his old-time enthusiasm. 
 This was but brief, however. On July 2nd, as he was 
 starting on one of his trips into the country, almost with- 
 out warning, he fell forward — dead. The life that began 
 in tragedy had a no less tragic ending. The same evening 
 he was buried on a little island in the Lake of Ermenonville, 
 a spot he loved dearly. Fifteen years later, in the triumph 
 of the French Revolution, which he more than any other 
 
Eousseau and Individualism 61 
 
 one man had caused, his body was brought back to Paris 
 amid the booming of cannon and the acclamations of the 
 populace, and placed in the Pantheon, the national temple 
 of the great men of France. With irony, and yet with a 
 strong element of truth and with a keen appreciation of the 
 man, someone has written: 
 
 "Jean Jacques Rousseau was bom at Geneva, thought 
 in Paris, wrote at Montmorency, plagued and tortiued 
 himself everywhere. His body he left to Ermenonville, 
 his head to Emile, his heart to Julie, and, in his Social 
 Contract, he bequeathed to the world the restlessness of 
 his soul." 
 
 What real troubles clouded Rousseau's last years? Write a character 
 sketch of the man. Some speak of Rousseau as an infidel; justify or 
 disprove the statement. To what extent are his poUtical teachings 
 accepted to-day? Account for his success as a writer. Show his rela- 
 tion to the French Revolution. — (x) Davidson, 71; Morley, Chaps. 
 XI, XVI. 
 
 Educational Doctrine 
 
 To few men has it been given to influence education as 
 did Rousseau. The change in educational ideals and 
 practices during the last century has been almost without 
 precedent in educational history. The aim of education, 
 as well as the means of attaining thereto, has assumed an 
 importance in scientific thought never before accorded it. 
 Education is constantly becoming more democratic. The 
 social element is being more and more emphasized as a 
 component of education. Industrial training in its various 
 forms is finding a place in the present day curriculum. 
 The influences that have resulted in these conditions are 
 traceable directly to Rousseau. It does not follow from 
 
62 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 this that Rousseau was conscious of the importance of these 
 various factors. On the contrary, it is doubtful if he saw 
 at all clearly their necessity. Rather did he grope blindly, 
 feeling the need of educational factors he could not name, 
 and yet pointing out the deficiencies of the prevailing 
 educational system so eloquently that others, responsive 
 to his influence, were enabled to divest his dream of its 
 crudities and give to education a saner aspect. 
 
 Indicate what changes have taken place in educational ideals during 
 the last century. Show that the aim and method of education occupy 
 a very important place in scientific thought to-day. What is meant 
 by democratic education? What is meant by the social element in 
 education? Give a sunmiary of Rousseau's social theory. — (x) David- 
 son, Chap. IV; Monroe. 
 
 At first thought it seems incredible that a man of Rous- 
 seau's characteristics should inaugurate so important and 
 far-reaching a movement, yet nothing is more natural. 
 Rousseau's ideas were not original with him. He merely 
 absorbed the ideas that permeated the world in his gen- 
 eration, idealized them, and then through the power of an 
 impassioned rhetoric gave them to the world clothed with 
 new life. Rousseau's generation occupied the nascent 
 period of a century of revolution. The movement which 
 a little later was destined to overturn thrones and estabhsh 
 the rights of the individual, existed only in thought when 
 Rousseau lived. To his subjective nature, what existed in 
 thought was real, and consequently all the ideas of his day 
 found expression in his voice, and their power was trans- 
 mitted to the educational world through him. 
 
 Show the sources of Rousseau's ideas. Would you consider Rousseau 
 a plagiarist? Explain. What caused him to cast his lot with the 
 common people? — Payne; Street; Compatbij, 
 
Eousseau and Individualism 63 
 
 Rousseau's educational ideas grew out of his social views. 
 To understand his educational theory one must know his 
 social doctrine. In fact, so intimately connected are these 
 ideas that it is difficult, in many cases, to discriminate 
 between what is educational and what is social. Rous- 
 seau's social teachings are largely expressed, as has been 
 previously indicated, in three works: his discourses on The 
 Infliience of Arts and Sciences and on Inequality among 
 Men, and his Social Contract. His educational work, the 
 Emile, is an outgrowth of these. A brief consideration of 
 these works will tend to show the basis and extent of his 
 educational theories. 
 
 In all his writings Rousseau assumes that man's original 
 condition, the "natural state", was one of liberty and hap- 
 piness. That such was not man's condition when Rousseau 
 wrote, was evident. Hence, he reasoned, happiness could 
 come only by a return to the primitive condition. In the 
 first of the discourses, Rousseau argues that civilization 
 and culture have debased man, rendering him effeminate 
 and immoral. AH progress he considers retrogression, all 
 art a means of weakening man, and culture an element 
 incompatible with virtue. The second discourse attempts 
 to show how the liberty man possessed originally had been 
 lost, and how from a condition of mutual equality he had 
 come into a state of inequality and subservience. So long 
 as man had lived in isolation he had been happy. Nor was 
 his happiness impaired until the social group was formed 
 and the conception of private property arose. Here, ac- 
 cording to Rousseau, was the beginning of inequality. To 
 quote directly: "If we follow the progress of inequality, we 
 shall find that the establishment of law and of the right of 
 private property was its first term; the institution of 
 
64 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 magistracy, its second; and its third and last, the transi- 
 tion from legitimate to arbitrary power: so that the condi- 
 tion of rich and poor was authorized by the first epoch; 
 that of strong and weak by the second; and by the third, 
 that of master and slave, which is the last degree of in- 
 equality, and the one to which all others finally come." 
 
 Which of Rousseau's contemporaries held a different view of the 
 "natural state"? What were their views? Account for the view held 
 by Rousseau. Trace Rousseau's argument to show that civilization 
 and culture tend to debase. — ^Monboe, 550; Weir; Payne; Davidson. 
 
 In Tfie Social Contract, Rousseau recognizes the impossi- 
 bility of returning to a "state of nature", and undertakes 
 to show how the liberty lost in passing from that state can 
 be regained in a state of culture. He designates govern- 
 ment as a social contract by means of which the people 
 vest their sovereignty in the monarch, who, by virtue of 
 the power vested in him, assumes certain obligations for 
 maintaining equality. Shouid there be an undue assump- 
 tion of power, or should the povver of the monarch be used 
 arbitrarily, the contract is by that act dissolved. Such 
 ideas were incompatible with the established customs of 
 monarchical government, and hence were strongly revolu- 
 tionary. Their full effect became evident in the closing 
 years of the century. 
 
 Give the meaning of "a state of nature". Show how the ideas set 
 forth in The Social Contract have affected France, England, America. 
 Account for the holding of such views by Rousseau. — ^Moblbt, Chap. 
 XII; Davidson, Chap. IV. 
 
 What these writings were in the social and political 
 world, the Emile was in the educational world. The ideas 
 expressed in this work are strictly in line with those indi- 
 cated above. In the Emile, Rousseau attempts to work 
 
Rousseau and Individualism 65 
 
 out a scheme of education that will prepare one for life in J 
 accordance with his social views. As would be expected, 
 the book represents an extreme, whose exaggerations are 
 equalled only by the rhetoric in which they are clothed. 
 It has been said to contain " more absurdities, more para- 
 doxes, and more crudities on the subject than any other 
 book of the kind". And yet, despite aU this, the work 
 has been designated as " the greatest book ever written on 
 the subject of education". EmUe is an imaginary youth, 
 the task of whose education Rousseau assumes. He is 
 taken apart from society and educated "according to 
 nature". In a somewhat rambling way the reader is 
 shown, quite in detail, what is necessary in order to place 
 a youth in possession of all that belongs to him by nature. 
 The work is written in five books or chapters. The first 
 book considers the education of the boy up to the age of 
 five; the second, from five to twelve; the third, from 
 twelve to fifteen; and the fourth, from fifteen to twenty. 
 The last book is devoted to a consideration of the educa- 
 tion of women, which education, Rousseau thinks, must 
 differ both in its aim and content from the education of 
 men. The underlying thought of the whole work is that 
 education must seek to nullify the effects of civilization 
 and culture, and reduce man to the primitive condition 
 of natture. 
 
 What is meant by negative education? Why did the book, Emile, 
 attract so much attention? State the estimates placed upon the work 
 by others. Characterize the youth, Emile. Why did Rousseau select 
 a youth of wealth and rank? Why take him apart from society? In 
 hrhat way does the Emile show Locke's influence? — (x) Davidson, Chap. 
 V; Monroe, 557; Payne; Moklet, Chap. XIII. 
 
 Stripped of its verbiage, Rousseau's educational scheme 
 
66 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 is as follows: there are four periods through which the 
 individual passes before reaching matiuity — (a) the period 
 of infancy, extending from birth to the age of five; (b) the 
 period of childhood, extending from the fifth to the twelfth 
 year of the child's life; (c) boyhood, or the period from 
 twelve to fifteen years of age; and (d) youth, extending 
 from fifteen to twenty years of age. During the first 
 period the education of the child should be concerned 
 entirely with his physical being; the second period is 
 marked by the activity of the senses, and is the time for 
 gaining knowledge through observation; the third period 
 is the time for positive instruction, the learning of facts 
 as such; the fourth period is marked by the activity of the 
 reasoning powers and is the time for moral and rehgious 
 instruction. In this division Rousseau recognizes a natural 
 growth on the part of the child, and demands that the 
 methods of instruction shall show a corresponding develop- 
 ment. He pleads also for a recognition of the child as a 
 child, and demands that he shall be treated as a child and 
 not as a man. In matters of discipline he seeks to establish 
 , a natural connection between the offence and the resulting 
 I punishment, thus again emphasizing a natural basis in all 
 matters pertaining to education. 
 
 Show how Rousseau's educational scheme is an advance over the ideas 
 previously held. In what respects does his plan agree with present day 
 ideas? Criticize Rousseau's idea of educational periods and of the chaiv 
 acteristic work of each period. Show a psychological basis for Rous- 
 seau's educational ideas. In whatway does he anticipate child study? — 
 Davidson; Quick; Compayre; Mtjbrat. 
 
 The real value of Rousseau's work consisted in calling 
 attention to the children themselves, in emphasizing the 
 principle of growth in child life and hence in education, 
 
Eousseau and Individualism 67 
 
 in showing the necessity of making education bear some 
 relation to the world in which the child lives, and in the 
 introduction of a new principle in method. A more com- 
 plete idea of his views may be obtained by a study of the 
 following quotations from his Emile: 
 
 "Bverjrthing is good as it comes from the hands of the 
 Author of nature, but everything degenerates in the hands 
 of man." 
 
 "The natural man is complete in himself; he is the numer- 
 ical unit, the absolute whole, who is related only to himself 
 or to his fellow man. Civilized man is but a fractional unit 
 that is dependent on its denominator, and whose value con- 
 sists in its relation to the whole, which is the social organiza- 
 tion. Good social institutions are those that are the best 
 able to make man unnatural, and to take from him his abso- 
 lute existence in order to give him one that is relative." 
 
 " Plants are formed by cultivation and men by education." 
 
 " We are born weak, we have need of strength; we are born 
 destitute of everything, we have need of assistance; we are 
 born stupid, we have need of judgment. All that we have 
 not at birth, but that we need when we are grown, is given 
 us by education." 
 
 " Nature would have children be children before they are 
 men. If we wish to pervert this order, we shall produce pre- 
 cocious fruits which will have neither maturity nor flavor, 
 and will speedily deteriorate; we shall have young doctors and 
 old children." 
 
 "We derive education from nature, from men, or from 
 things. The internal development of our faculties and 
 organs is the education of nature; the use that we learn to 
 make of this development is the education of men; while the 
 acquisition of personal experience from the objects that affect 
 us is the education of things." 
 
 "Education is certainly nothing but a habit." 
 
 "It is to primitive dispositions that everything should be 
 referred, and this might be done if our three educations were 
 merely different. But what are we to do when they are op- 
 posed to one another; when, instead of educating a man for 
 himself, we wish to educate him for others? Then agreement 
 
68 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 is impossible. Compelled to oppose nature in our social insti- 
 tutions, we must choose between making a man and a citizen, 
 for we cannot make both at once." 
 
 "In a social sphere where all have their destined, places 
 each should be educated for his own; but where men are ever 
 passing from one social class to another, no one knows 
 whether, in educating his son for his own social order, he may 
 not be working in opposition to the son's interests." 
 
 "In the natural order of things, all men being equal, their 
 common vocation is manhood, and whoever is well trained 
 for that cannot fulfill badly any vocation connected with it." 
 
 " Whether my pupil be destined for the army, the church, 
 or the bar, concerns me but little. Regardless of the voca- 
 tion of his parents, nature summons him to the duties of 
 human life. To live is the trade I wish to teach him. On 
 leaving my hands he will not, I grant, be a magistrate, a 
 soldier, or a priest. First of all he will be a man, and all that 
 a man ought to be he can be when the occasion requires it, 
 just as well as anyone else can; and fortune will make him 
 change his place in vain for he will always be in his own." 
 
 "Our real study is that of human destiny. Real educa- 
 tion consists less in precepts than in practice. Our instruc- 
 tion begins when we begin to live; our education begins with 
 our birth; our first teacher is our nurse." 
 
 "The education of nature ought to make a man fit for all 
 the conditions of life." 
 
 "It is of less consequence to prevent a child from dying 
 than to teach him how to live. To live is not to breathe, but 
 to act; it is to make use of our organs, of our senses, of our 
 faculties, of every element of our nature that makes us sen- 
 sible of our existence." 
 
 "It is a barbarous education that sacrifices the present 
 to an uncertain future, that loads a child with chains of 
 every sort and begins by making him miserable in order to 
 prepare for him, long in advance, some pretended happiness 
 which it is probable he will never enjoy." 
 
 "The study proper for man is that of his relations. While 
 he knows himself only through his physical being he ought 
 to study himself through his relations with things, and this is 
 the occupation of his childhood; but when he begins to feel 
 his moral nature he ought to study himself through his 
 
Rousseau and Individualism 69 
 
 relations with men, and this is the occupation of his entire 
 Ufe." 
 
 " When I see that in the age of their greatest activity young 
 people are restricted to purely speculative studies and that 
 afterward, without the least experience, they are all at once 
 sent forth into the world and into business, I find that reason, 
 no less than nature, is shocked, and I am no longer surprised 
 that so few people know how to get on in the world." 
 
 " Announcing the truth to those who are not in a condition 
 to understand it is equivalent to substituting error for truth. 
 Not to know the Divinity is a lesser evil than to have un- 
 worthy conceptions of Him." 
 
 "The great evil of the deformed images of the Divinity 
 that are traced in the minds of children is that they remain, 
 and when children have become men they have no other con- 
 ception of God than that of their childhood." 
 
 "The whole education of women ought to be relative to 
 men. To please them, to be useful to them, to make them- 
 selves loved and honored by them, to educate them when 
 young, to care for them when grown, to counsel them, to con- 
 sole them, and to make life agreeable and sweet to them, — 
 these are the duties of women at all times." 
 
 "We do not know childhood. Acting on the false ideas 
 we have of it, the farther we go the farther we wander from 
 the right path. Those who are wisest are attached to what 
 is important for man to know, without considering what chil- 
 dren are able to comprehend." 
 
 "People are always looking for the man in the child, with- 
 out thinking of what he was before he became a man. Begin 
 by studying your pupils more thoroughly, for it is very cer- 
 tain that you do not know them." 
 
 "Our pedantic mania for instruction is always leading us 
 to teach children things that they would learn much better 
 of their own accord, and to forget what we alone are able to 
 teach them." 
 
 " I would as soon require a child to be five feet in height as 
 to have judgment at the age of ten. Reason is the check to 
 strength, but the child has no need of this check." 
 
 "The first education ought to be purely negative. It con- 
 sists not at all in teaching virtue and truth, but in shielding 
 the heart from vice and the mind from error." 
 
70 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 "The instruction of children is a business in which we must 
 know how to lose time in order to gain it." 
 
 "All lessons should be given in actions rather than in 
 words. Let pupils learn nothing in books that can be taught 
 them by experience." 
 
 "Offer to the child's indiscreet caprices only physical ob- 
 stacles or punishments that result from his actions them- 
 selves, and that he recalls on occasion. Without forbidding 
 him to do wrong, it suffices to prevent him from doing it. 
 Only experience or want of power should serve as law for him." 
 
 " Never command the child to do anything whatever, not 
 the least thing in the world. Never allow him even to 
 imagine that you assume to have any authority over him. 
 Let him know merely that he is weak and that you are strong; 
 that by virtue of his condition and your own he is necessarily 
 at your mercy. Let him see this necessity in things, but 
 never in the caprice of men." 
 
 "Employ force with children and reason with men; for 
 such is the order of nature." 
 
 I " Punishment must never be inflicted on children as a pun- 
 ishment; it ought always to come to them as the natural con- 
 -eequence of their bad acts." 
 
 Show that Rousseau anticipated industrial training in the schools. 
 Discuss Rousseau's ideas of moral and religious training. What was 
 Rousseau's conception of "nature"? What does Rousseau mean by 
 sacrificing "the present to an uncertain future"? By "the study 
 proper for man is that of his relations"? Point out the "practical" 
 phases of Rousseau's educational ideas. What is meant by knowing 
 how to "lose time in order to gain it"? Outline Rousseau's scheme 
 for the education of women. Criticize Rousseau's ideas relative to dis- 
 cipline. Explain the paradox of Rousseau. — ^Davidson; Monroe; 
 Payne; Street. 
 
 Summary 
 
 Rousseau was an epoch maker in the history of thought. 
 With his impassioned rhetoric he expressed the popular 
 thought and thus, in government and in education, aroused 
 the people to action. 
 
EoTisseau and Individualisin 71 
 
 His teachings present a philosophy of individual, social, 
 economic, political, and religious life. 
 
 Rousseau was the father of democracy; in a great sense 
 the French Revolution was his work. The Declaration of 
 Independence shows the influence of his thought. 
 
 The influences that have resulted in making education . 
 more democratic, the emphasis placed upon the social 
 element in education, and the giving a place to industrial 
 training in the present day curriculum are traceable directly 
 to him. 
 
 Rousseau was destructive rather than constructive. He i 
 pointed out the defects of society and education, but he \ 
 was unable to tell how reforms could be effected. 
 
 He believed that early education should be purely nega- 
 tive, that it should not consist in teaching virtue or truth, 
 but in guarding the child against vice and error. 
 
 Education is obtained from three sources: nature, men, 
 and things. 
 
 Rousseau demanded in education three things which 
 have been yielded: (1) that children should from the 
 moment of their birth be allowed complete freedom of 
 movement; (2) that they should be educated through ^ 
 direct experience and not through books; (3) that they 
 should be trained to use their bands and produce useful 
 articles. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 PESTALOZZI AND A PSYCHOLOGICAL METHOD 
 
 CoMBNius's aim in education was to prepare for eternity. 
 In his methods of instruction he had appealed to nature as 
 his guide. In the universality of his system he had sug- 
 gested that practically everything might be used as the 
 material of instruction. Beginning with an attempted 
 reform of the method of teaching Latin then in use, he 
 ended by leaving us a complete scheme for the elementary 
 school. He was far in advance of his age, however, and 
 was forgotten for more than a century. Basedow may be 
 said to have perpetuated his work, carrying it one step in 
 advance. 
 
 The humanistic tendency in England had met with a 
 reaction in the teachings of John Locke, who, basing his 
 theories upon his empirical philosophy, suggested, in the 
 education of the gentleman, a new basis for instruction — 
 the psychological. In the next century Rousseau intensi- 
 fied the individual. He perceived as did no one else the 
 need of social reform, and proposed as the remedy the 
 education of the individual apart from society. While, 
 as we have seen, his schemes were not practical, he at 
 least did two things: he provoked intense thought and 
 suggested the education of the child from the standpoint 
 of psychology. He believed that education would cure 
 social ills. 
 
 72 
 
JOHN HENRY PESTALOZZI 
 
Pestalozzi and a Psychological Method 73 
 
 The lines of caste were closely drawn in Europe in the 
 eighteenth century. Wealth and education belonged to 
 the small and ruling class. Ignorance and vice prevailed 
 among those of the larger and ruled class. These people 
 lived in the villages and worked the land owned by the 
 rulers whom they supported in extravagance. In theory 
 there was universal education, but there were few schods 
 and in these the methods were crude and the subject 
 matter of instruction was circumscribed by the church. 
 Children of the higher class were instructed by tutors, and 
 the universities were for this class alone. With the lower 
 class it was not so much a question of learning to read as 
 it was of finding the means to live. As has been said, 
 "While philosophers were wrangUng over the government 
 of the world, hunger and love were doing their work". 
 I In matters political, Europe was facing a crisis. Napo- 
 leon was about to obliterate all boundary lines and set up 
 new standards. The people were clamoring for liberty) 
 and overturning institutions. Later they must seek a 
 means to acquire such a freedom as would enable them to 
 regain their independence as nations. Fichte pointed to 
 Pestalozzi's schools and advised the German nation that 
 only by such education could they ever hope to redeem 
 what had been lost at Jena. The influence of Queen 
 Louise caused these same methods to be adopted in the 
 schools of the Prussian system. 
 
 It was under such circumstances as these that Pesta- 
 lozzi decided to devote his whole life to the study of 
 elementary education. Looking back over the years from 
 our view point in the present century, two aspects of the 
 prdblem of education that then confronted Europe are 
 evident: it was a social question in so far as its aim was ^ 
 
74 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 to secure better living on the part of each member of 
 society; and it was an individual or psychological ques- 
 tion in so far as the development of each individual was j 
 necessarily a natural process. The problem of instruction i 
 resolved itself into the making of sense perception (An- \ 
 schauung) the basis of all knowledge; the employment of 
 number, form, and language as the primary means; and 
 finally, the providing of a way by which impressions should 
 be made to stand in a series, the beginning and the advance 
 of which must needs keep pace with the developed powers 
 of expression. 
 
 Pestalozzi said that education consists in developing, 
 according to the natural law the child's various powers,] 
 moral, intellectual, and physical, with such subordinatior|i 
 as is necessary to their perfect equilibrium. Thus we se^ 
 the anticipation of the whole aim and method of modern 
 education. All the influences of the preceding years 
 seem to have led up to it, and all the benefits of suc- 
 ceeding years seem to have radiated from this idea. Stand- 
 ing at the meeting point of the old and the new was the 
 man who gave expression to the idea — Pestalozzi. 
 
 Show how Basedow advanced beyond Comenius. What was the 
 nature of Locke's social reform? State the arguments for universal 
 education. Why were the caste lines closely drawn in Europe? Why 
 was Europe facing a crisis? What had been lost at Jena? Give an 
 account of the life of Queen Louise. — Quick, 273. 
 
Pestalozzi and a Psychological Method '16 
 
 Bibliography 
 
 In asking for books at the library, call for titles printed in Italics. 
 
 Bachman, F. p. — ^The Social Factor in Pestalozzi's Theory of Educa- 
 tion; Educ. XXII, 402-414. 
 
 Babnahd, Henkt — Pestalozzi and, Pestalozzianism. 
 
 (x) Barnard, Henry — German Teachers and Educators, 
 
 (y) Barnard, Henry — Barnard's Journal: Life and Educational Prin^ 
 ciples of Pestalozzi (von Raumer), ///, 401-416; IV, 65-126; Pestalozzi 
 and the Schools of Germany, IV, 343-358; Memoir of Hermann Kriisi, 
 V, 161-186; Evening Hour of a Hermit, VI, 169-179; Student Life at 
 Yverdon, XXXI, 35-48; Letter by Froebel on Pestalozzi, XXXI, 49- 
 68; Fellenberg and Hofwyl (Griscom, 1818), XXXI, 269-280; The 
 Assistants and Disciples of Pestalozzi, VII, 285-318; Pestalozzi, de 
 Fellenberg, and Wehrli and Industrial Training, X, 81-92; Pestaloz- 
 zianism in the United States, XXX, 561-572. 
 
 Bradley, J. C. — Pestalozzi, the Teacher of Children; Educ, XI, 352- 
 359, 423-429. 
 
 Browning, Oscar — Educational Theories. 
 
 CoMPAYRE, Gabriel — History of Pedagogy, 413—445. 
 
 Edi'nburgh Review — ^Fellenberg's Establishments at Hofwyl, XXXI, 
 160-165. 
 
 Edinburgh Review — ^Tracts on Fellenberg's Establishments at Hofwyl, 
 XXXII, 488-507. 
 
 Gill, John — Systems of Education. 
 
 GniMPS, Roger de — Pestalozzi, His Life and Work (Appleton Ed., 
 1906). 
 
 Hailman, W. N. — From Pestalozzi to Froebel; Proc. N.E.A., .1880, 
 128-137. 
 
 Hamilton, C. J. — ^Henri Pestalozzi; Educ. Rev. Ill, 173-184. 
 
 Harris, William T. — Herbart and Pestalozzi Compared; Educ, Rev. 
 V, 417-423. 
 
 Hinsdale, B. A. — ^Notes on the History of Foreign Influences upon 
 Education in the United States; Rerp. U. S. Com. Educ. 1897-98, 1, 603. 
 
 Kellogg, Amos M. — Life of Pestalozzi. 
 
 Kemp, E. L. — History of Edu.cation. 
 
 Klbmm, L. R. — ^An Interview between Pestalozzi and Dr. Bell; Educ. 
 VII, 559-562. 
 
76 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 KIrusi, Hermann — Pestalozzi, His Life, Work, and Influence. 
 
 (x) KRtJsi, Hermann — Recollections of My lAfe, edited by C. S. 
 Ailing. 
 
 Monroe, Paul — History of Education, 597-622. 
 
 Monroe, Will S. — PestoiLozzianism in the United States. 
 
 (x) Monroe, Will S.. — Joseph Neef and Pestalozzianism in the 
 United States; Educ. XIV, 449-461. 
 
 Painter, F. V. N. — History of Education. 
 
 (x) Painter, F. V. N. — Great Pedagogical Essays. 
 
 Payne, Joseph — Lectures on the History of Education, Vol. II, 97-114. 
 
 Pestalozzi, Henry — Leonard and Oertrude. 
 
 (x) Pestalozzi, Henry — How Gertrude Teaches Her Children. 
 
 (y) Pestalozzi, Henry — Letters on Early Education, Addressed to J. 
 P. Greaves. 
 
 PiNLOCHE, A. — Pestalozzi and the Modern Elementary School. 
 
 Quick, R. H. — Essays on Educational Reformers, 290-383. 
 
 Eein, William — Pestalozzi and Herbart; The Forum, XXI, 346-360. 
 
 Sebley, Levi — History of Education. 
 
 WooDBRiDGE, M. C. — Sketches of Hofviyl and the Institutions of M. de 
 Fellenberg, 223-371. 
 
 Note: So much has been written about Pestalozzi that there is need 
 of caution against indiscriminate reading. Pestalozzi, His Life and 
 Work by De Guimps is the best ; second to this are the books by Pinloche 
 and Kriisi. Read Leonard and Gertrude. Study How Gertrude Teaches 
 Her Children. Essays on Educationxd Reformers by Quick is a valuable 
 single book to read. Do not neglect the articles in Barnard's Journal. 
 All general histories of education treat of Pestalozzi. 
 
Pestalozzi and a Psychological Method 77 
 
 Chronological Table 
 
 I. Eakly Lipb and Education (1746-1771). 
 1746 Bom at Zurich, January 12th. 
 1760 Entered the Carolinum in Ziirich. 
 
 1764 Read Rousseau's EmUe. 
 
 1765 Became a farmer. 
 
 1769 Marriage to Anna Schulthess. 
 II. Life at Neuhof (1771-1798). 
 1771 Agricultural experiment. 
 1774 Opened a school and home for beggars. 
 1776 An Appecd to the Friends and Benefactors of Humanity. 
 
 1780 The school closed. 
 Evening How of a Hermit. 
 
 1781 Leonard and Gertrude. 
 
 1797 The Fables. 
 
 III. The Obphjust School at Stanz (1798-1799). 
 
 1798 Organized school at Stanz. 
 
 1799 Letter describing the work at Stam. 
 The school closed. 
 
 IV. The Btjrgdorp Period (1799-1805). 
 
 1799 Became a teacher at Burgdorf. 
 
 1800 The Institute established. 
 
 1801 How Gertrude Teaches Her Children. 
 The A B C of Sense Perception. 
 
 The Teaching of Arithmetic by Sense Perception. 
 The Book for Mothers. 
 
 1802 Sent as a delegate to Paris. 
 
 1804 Institute transferred to Munchenbuchsee. 
 V. The School at Yvbrdon (1805-1825). 
 
 1805 Estabhshment of the school. 
 1808 New Year's Day Discourse. 
 1815 Death of Madame Pestalozzi. 
 1825 The school closed. 
 
 VI. His Last Years (1825-1827). 
 
 1825 Retirement to Neuhof. 
 
 1826 The Song of the Dying Swan. 
 
 1827 Died at Brugg, February 17th. 
 
Pestalozzi and a Psychological Method 79 
 
 Biography 
 
 Pestalozzi once said that he lived like a beggar in order 
 that he might teach beggars to Uve Uke men. When we 
 learn to appreciate the value of his philosophy and educa- 
 tional doctrine and fully reaUze his far-reaching influence 
 as an educator, reference to the story of his Ufe will make 
 clear much that otherwise might remain obscure. 
 
 Facing the churchyard in the Uttle village of Birr in 
 northern Switzerland stands a plain school building. One 
 side has been transformed into a monument on which the 
 following inscription may be read: "Here rests Henry 
 Pestalozzi, born in Zurich on the 12th of January, 1746; 
 died at Brugg on the 17th of February, 1827. Savior of 
 the poor at Neuhof. Preacher to the people in Leonard 
 and Gertrude. Father to the orphans at Stanz. Foxmder 
 of the new elementary school at Burgdorf and Miinchen- 
 buchsee. Educator of humanity at Yverdon. Man, 
 Christian, Citizen. Everything for others, for himself 
 nothing! Blessings be on his name! To our Father 
 Pestalozzi. Grateful Aargau." In this epitaph is told 
 the simple story of a great and good man. 
 
 His boyhood days were spent in the simple home in 
 Zurich, in company with his mother and a faithful servant, 
 or with his grandfather who was a pastor in the Uttle 
 village of Hongg. 
 
 Tell something of Pestalozzi's ancestors. Tell the story of Barbara. 
 How was Pestalozzi influenced by his early home life? Describe the 
 condition of the common people in his day. How was Pestalozzi affected 
 by this? — GrriMPS, Chap. I; Pinloche, Chap, I; Keusi, Chap. I. 
 
80 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 Physically Pestalozzi was a weak, shy, and awkward 
 boy. He was of an emotional temperament, imaginative, 
 absent-minded, inattentive, and careless. Being deprived 
 of the society of other boys and coming much into contact 
 with nature, he grew to disregard the society of men and 
 to love the world about him. He was first sent to day 
 school and passed through the elementary and grammar 
 schools. In these he was kept under rigorous discipline. 
 - He frnaUy passed to the college where he was prepared for 
 the ministry. Thus he may be said to have received a 
 good education. The three great influences of his school 
 life were his teachers, the writings of Rousseau, and the 
 Helvetian Society, of which he became an active member. 
 
 Try to discover the elements in his character and the facts in his 
 environment that would lead him to the conviction that the evils of 
 society can be remedied only by education. Relate incidents of his 
 school life. Describe the school system. Characterize Pestalozzi as a 
 student. Describe his teachers and show how they influenced him. 
 What was the prevaiUng spirit in Switzeriand at this time? What effect 
 did the EmUe and The Social Contract have on the people? What was 
 the Helvetian Society? What was the Memorial? How did Pestalozzi 
 show himself a leader? What were his views on education? Compare 
 the early education of Pestalozzi, Rousseau, and Comenius. — Guimps, 
 Chap. II; PiNLocHE, Chap. I; Barnard; Krusi. 
 
 ] He abandoned the study of theology for that of law, and 
 this in turn for agriculture. At the age of twenty-three, 
 having married Anna Shulthess, he moved to his farm — 
 Neuhof — near the village of Birr. His only son, Jacob, 
 was born here, and along with his agricultural experiments 
 he tried to educate the son according to the ideas of Rous- 
 seau. The agricultural experiment was a failure, but this 
 I fact resulted in making him a teacher and an educator. 
 In 1774 he opened at Neuhof a school and home for beg- 
 
Pestalozzi and a Psychological Method 81 
 
 gars. This was a new venture in education and was 
 apparently a success. It attracted a great deal of atten- 
 tion and the plan was imitated by others. Not having 
 sufficient funds, Pestalozzi appealed to the people through 
 his writings, the most important of which was An Appeal 
 to the Friends and Benefactors of Humanity. Despite his 
 efforts the school was forced to close in 1780, and Pestalozzi 
 was then as poor as the beggars he had tried to help. 
 
 Why did he abandon the study of theology? Of law? Where and 
 under what circumstances did he study agriciilture? Read the letters 
 written to Anna by Pestalozzi. Describe the agricultural experiment. 
 Give a sketch of Jacob's Ufe. Report from Pestalozzi'te journal showing 
 how he educated his son. Who was the mutual friend of Pestalozzi and 
 Anna, and what important advice did he give them? Show how the 
 experiences gained in agriculture influenced Pestalozzi. Why was the 
 experiment in agriculture a failure? How did he happen to open a 
 school? Describe the school. How was this a new venture? By whom 
 was it imitated? What schools of the kind have we in America? What 
 difficulties did he encounter? Make a report of the Appeal. Point out 
 the good resulting from this failure. — Guimps, 52 ff.; Kkusi, Chap. II; 
 PiNLocHE, Chap. II; Compatbe, 413. 
 
 Pestalozzi continued to live at Neuhof for eighteen years, 
 and these were years of extreme poverty and distress. 
 During all this time the family was faithfully cared for by 
 a friend and servant named EUzabeth Naef, who came to 
 their rescue when the school was closed. Pestalozzi's be- 
 lief in the possibility of elevating the human race by 
 education did not change. Encouraged and assisted by 
 his friend Iselin, he "entered upon the period of his greatest 
 literary activity. During this time he produced The Even- 
 ing Hour of a Hermit, Leonard and Gertrude, and An Inquiry 
 into the Gourse of Nature in the Development of the Human 
 Reason. In his letters to Fellenberg, Pestalozzi mentions 
 
82 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 his relations to Fichte, the philosopher, who called the 
 attention of the German nation to his work. 
 
 Describe Elizabeth Naef. Who was Iselin? Who was Fichte? 
 What was the result of his Addresses f Who was Fellenberg? Char- 
 acterize Pestalozzi's life from 1780 to 1800. What were his views of 
 the French Revolution? What part did he take in pohtical affairs? 
 What caused Fichte to refer to him? — Guimps, Chap. VI; Hamilton; 
 Barnard's Jour., F/, 169-179; Z, 81-92; ZF/, 765-776; ZX/,269-280. 
 
 While hving at Neuhof he had taken an active part in 
 
 the formation of the Swiss Republic, and as the only 
 
 reward for his services he had asked for and had been given 
 
 the privilege of teaching. The opportunity he desired 
 
 came as the result of a massacre in the Canton of Unter- 
 
 walden, when scores of children were rendered homeless. 
 
 J The Directory, finding it necessary to care for them, sent^ 
 
 pPestalozzi to conduct an orphan school at Stanz. The 
 
 school was opened in January, 1799, and Pestalozzi severed 
 
 his cpnnection with it in the following June. The Directory 
 
 required him to render a report of his work and this reveals 
 
 to us the many obstacles to be overcome, and indicates how 
 
 he met them. In a letter to his friend Gessner he gave an 
 
 excellent account of his work and of the methods used. 
 
 His health being impaired, he went for a short time to 
 
 Giirnigel to rest and later returned to Stanz hoping to 
 
 reopen the school, but this was impossible. 
 
 Describe the formation of the Swiss Republic. What part had Pesta- 
 lozzi taken? Describe the massacre at Unterwalden. What was the Di- 
 rectory? Why was the school closed so soon? Why could Pestalozzi 
 not return to the school? Describe the school. Who was Gessner? 
 Give an abstract of the letter to Gessner. Describe Pestalozzi's meth- 
 ods. — Guimps, Chap. VIII; Pinlochb, Chap. Ill; Krusi, Chap. III. 
 
 Circumstances were now such that Pestalozzi was trans- 
 ferred to the lower school at Burgdorf where he remained 
 
Pestalozzi and a Psychological Method 83 
 
 but a short time when he was made master of the school 
 in the upper part of the town. This school was afterward 
 changed into an institute for the training of teachers and 
 there he began his real work as a teacher and evolved 
 his theories of education. Kriisi, Tobler, Buss, Niederer, 
 and Neef became his associate teachers. Herbart visited 
 him and many of his students afterward attained promi- 
 nence as educators. In the reports of the government 
 commissioners and in the published accoxmts by Ramsauer 
 and others we have excellent pictures of the school. In 
 Pestalozzi's book How Gertrude Teaches Her Children, pub- 
 lished in 1801, we find a statement of his whole theory of 
 education. The A B C of Sense Perception, The Teaching 
 of Arithmetic by Sense Perception, and the Book for Mothers 
 were given to the public during this period. 
 
 Give sketches of each of his teachers. Give Herbart's account of his 
 visit. State the substance of the government reports. Who was 
 Ramsauer? Report on his description of Pestalozzi and the school. 
 Why was the school a success? Why did it attract so many visitors? 
 Who were some of them? — Guimps, Chap. IX; Pinlochb; Kkusi, 67- 
 100; Monroe, Paul; Hinsdale; Barnard's Jour., V, 161-186, VII, 
 285-318; Monroe, Will S. 
 
 In 1804 the Burgdorf Institute was moved to Miinchen- 
 buchsee and shortly thereafter was transferred to Yverdon 
 (Iferten). The famous school of Fellenberg was located at 
 Hofwyl and at one time Pestalozzi was associated with him, 
 but the conditions were such that the arrangement could 
 not long continue. 
 
 Why was the school moved from Burgdorf? How did it happen that 
 Pestalozzi went to Yverdon? Describe Fellenberg's school. Why did 
 Pestalozzi not remain with him? What Americans visited Fellenberg? 
 What was the Round Hill School? — Guimps; Monroe, Paul; Hins- 
 dale; Barnard's Jour., X, 81-92, XXXI, 269-280; Monroe, Will S. 
 
84 Studies in the History of Modem Education 
 
 The school at Yverdon was installed in an old castle 
 which had been sold to the town on the condition that 
 Pestalozzi should have the free use of it for educational 
 purposes during his life. Both the building and the loca- 
 tion were ideal for the school and its great success attracted 
 world wide attention. At first many of the pupils and 
 teachers came from Burgdorf, but soon visitors, students, 
 and teachers came from every country. Froebel spent 
 two years here as a tutor of two boys. 
 
 Describe the school in its early years. Report on the New Year's 
 Day Discourse of 1808. Who was Schmid? What teachers came here 
 from Burgdorf? How did this school influence education in America? 
 Germany? France? England? — -Monhge, Will S.; Krusi; Gtjimps, 
 Chap. XIII; Hamilton; Barnard's Jour., VII, 712-714. 
 
 The school at Yverdon passed through three distinct 
 epochs in the twenty years of its existence : the first years, 
 covering the period of organization, were prosperous ones; 
 these were followed by a period of disputes and dissensions 
 among the teachers; and finally came the years of its 
 decline. The Institute was closed in 1825 and Pestalozzi 
 returned to Neuhof. Here he spent his closing years in 
 peace, and always with hopes for the organization of 
 another school. 
 
 In what year did Madame Pestalozzi die? Give an account of the 
 disputes and controversies in the school. Describe the school during 
 its last years. What were Pestalozzi's plans for a school at Neuhof? — 
 Gtjimps; Pinloche; Krusi, Chap. V; Barnard; Barnard's Jour., 
 XXXI, 35-48, 269-280. 
 
 Pestalozzi's last writing was The Song of the Dying Swan. ! 
 He died at Brugg on the 17th of February, 1827, and was \ 
 buried in the churchyard at Birr under the eaves of a 
 schoolhouse in which the work begun by him at Neuhof 
 
Pestalozzi and a Psychological Method 85 
 
 is still being carried on. For half a century he had, so he 
 said, been seeking with unwearied activity to simplify the 
 elementary instruction of the people and to fashion it to 
 act in accordance with the laws which nature follows in 
 developing and perfecting a man's varied powers. During 
 all this time he worked zealously to this end. He did 
 everything for others and nothing for himself. 
 
 Describe the personality of Pestalozzi. Write a character sketch of 
 him. Compare the school at Burgdorf with the one at Saros Patak. 
 What schools in the United States are of the same type as the school 
 at Stanz? What events in Pestalozzi's life exerted an influence on his 
 educational doctrine? 
 
 Educational Doctrine 
 
 Pestalozzi was the first educator to show to the world, 
 by demonstration in the schoolroom, the necessity and 
 possibility of considering the problem of education from 
 the standpoint of the child, regarded as a maturing and 
 developing human being destined to become a member of 
 society. Being a man of strong feeling he entered into 
 sympathetic relationship with the unfortunate, and by 
 virtue of his vivid imagination it was possible for him to 
 discover in children the profound truths which he revealed 
 to the world. His conception of man .and his nature, and 
 of his development and powers, was a new one. His Ufe 
 task was to discover a method by the use of which the 
 child could be developed in society for the benefit of 
 society, according to the laws of natiu-e. In his writings 
 he has told, us how he did this. 
 
 The Evening Hour of a Hermit, the first of his educa- 
 tional productions, was written in 1780. It was first 
 pubhshed by Iselin in his Ephemerides, and in 1807 it was 
 
86 Studies in tlie History of Modern Education 
 
 reprinted by Pestalozzi in his weekly educational paper. 
 It consists of a collection of one hundred eight short 
 aphorisms, aU bearing upon the same subject and designed 
 to give the author's views regarding the elevation of the 
 human race by means of education. 
 
 Where was he Kving when he wrote this? After reading the work, 
 define education. State its aim and show how a method is anticipated. 
 What is said of the home?— Baraord's Jour., F/, 169-179; Guimps, 75. 
 
 Leonard and Gertrude was first published in 1781. It is 
 a simple story of village life with which Pestalozzi was 
 thoroughly familiar. Bonnal, the village in the story, was 
 the village of Birr, close by Neuhof, and a type of thou- 
 sands of such in his time. In Birr one can see to-day the 
 castle, the church, the schoolhouse, the inn, and the meadow 
 described in the story. 
 
 Leonard is an honest fellow of good intentions but fond 
 of drink. Gertrude, his wife, is the good mother. Hum- 
 mel, the innkeeper, is an unscrupulous character who 
 ruins men by enticing them to his home to drink and by 
 getting them in his debt. Arner, the squire, is a noble and 
 generous man who aids Gertrude in saving her family and 
 also in saving her husband, by baffling the plans of Hum- 
 mel. Gertrude's home and her method of teaching her 
 children become the model for the village school which in 
 turn regenerates the entire village. Through Gertrude, 
 Pestalozzi shows how children should be taught and made 
 to take part in the home life, and through Arner he shows 
 how a good administration can improve the moral and 
 social status of the poor. 
 
 How was the book received? How was Pestalozzi rewarded? Why 
 was it written? Describe each character. Give a synopsis of chapters 
 
Pestalozzi and a Psychological Method 87 
 
 eight, sixteen, twenty-five, and thirty-one. How is the character of 
 the people disclosed? What five educational principles underlie the 
 story? State reasons why this might be considered the greatest of his 
 writings. What is its pedagogical value? — Guimps, 80; Kkusi, 119. 
 
 While at Stanz, Pestalozzi wrote a letter to his friend 
 Gessner in which he described his experiences and observa- 
 tions and put some of his educational theories into form. 
 This letter was printed for the first time in 1807, in the 
 Weekly Journal for the Education of Humanity, and shows 
 us that, on account of the circumstances xmder which he 
 was obliged to do his teaching, the method used by Pesta- 
 lozzi was the only possible one. 
 
 After reading this letter formulate his aim, state the principles he fol- 
 lowed, formulate the method he employed, and name the results he ob- 
 tained. How is a method of child study anticipated? Was the method 
 rational or empirical? What were the Fables? — Guimps, 105, 149; 
 Quick, 318. 
 
 How Gertrude Teaches Her Children, which was written 
 in Burgdorf and published in 1801, has not, as the name 
 might imply, any logical connection with Leonard and > 
 Gertrude. Being desirous of communicating an account of 
 his work and his plans to the public, he addressed fifteen 
 letters to his friend Gessner. In them he formulated his 
 laws of instruction and principles of method, and laid 
 down a special method for the treatment of language, 
 writing, drawing, and arithmetic. In conclusion the whole 
 theory of sense impression is given. 
 
 Morf, his biographer, speaks of this as the most important 
 and most carefully thought out of any of Pestalozzi's pedsr 
 gogical writings. The following is Morf's summary of the 
 work: 
 ■^ 1. Sense impression is the foundation of instruction^ ' ^-'"^ 
 
88 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 2. Language must be connected with sense impression. 
 
 3. The time for learning is not the time for judgment or 
 criticism. 
 
 ( 4. In each branch instruction must begin with the sim- 
 plest elements and proceed gradually by following the child's 
 development. 
 
 5. A pause must be made at each stage of the instruc- 
 tion sufficiently long for each child to get the new matter 
 thoroughly into his grasp and under his control. 
 
 6. Teaching must follow the path of development and 
 not that of dogmatic exposition. 
 
 '/ 7. The individuality of the pupil must be sacred to the 
 
 teacher. 
 
 ^ 8. The chief aim of elementary instruction is not to 
 
 furnish the child with knowledge and talents, but to 
 
 develop and increase the powers of his mind. 
 
 9. To knowledge must be joined power; to what is 
 known, the ability to turn it to account. 
 / 10. The relation between master and pupil, especially 
 so far as disciphne is concerned, must be established and 
 regulated by love. 
 
 11. Instruction must be subordinated to the higher end 
 of education. 
 
 Explain number 3 above. What is meant by "pause" in number 57 
 What is the meaning of "individuality?" Define "knowledge." What 
 is meant by "the ability to turn it to account?" Explain the meaning 
 of number 11.— Gtjimps, Chap. XII; Pinloche, Chap. IV; Quick, 368. 
 
 His last writing; The Song of the Dying Swan, was pre- 
 pared in 1826, the year before his death. It might be 
 called a review or retrospect of his theory and method as 
 he had put them into practice, with a possible suggestion 
 
Pestalozzi and a Psychological Method 89 
 
 as to how they might have been improved. In it he treats 
 of the moral, intellectual, and industrial elements in society 
 and gives us an exposition of his idea of elementary educa- 
 tion. There are many defects in it, to be sure, but when 
 it is remembered that he was losing his strength and no 
 longer had the valuable help of his assistants, we can easily 
 overlook the illogical arrangement and may well wonder at 
 the wealth of original ideas. 
 
 How is education defined? What is said of the moral life? The 
 intellectual? The industrial? Make a synopsis of The Sang of the 
 Dying Swan. — Guimps, Chap. XVII; Quick. 
 
 We now come to a more detailed discussion of Pestalozzi's 
 philosophy of education, his psychological method, his prin- 
 ciples of teaching, and the means employed by him in pre- 
 senting the different subjects in his curriculum. 
 
 Early in life Pestalozzi became conscious of the debased 
 social condition of the people, and was convinced that 
 education was the one and only means by which this con- 
 dition could be improved; but he found the schools en- 
 tirely inadequate to this task. He therefore turned his 
 attention to elementary education, and for half a century 
 sought to simplify the instruction and make it a more 
 natural process. 
 
 Elementary education consists in reestablishing the 
 course of nature and in developing and improving man's 
 powers. This development must follow the order of 
 nature and be governed by the laws of nature: thus, and 
 only thus, will harmony between the head, the heart, and 
 the hand be maintained. This gives a threefold division 
 of elementary education: the intellectual, the moral, and 
 the physical, which are based respectively on the sense 
 
90 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 impressions, the feehngs or will, and the power of expres- 
 sion. 
 
 How was elementary education made a necessity? In what way 
 were the schools inadequate? What was the place of the mother in the 
 education of the child? What conditions must be met by the school? 
 Give Pestalozzi's view of nature and compare it with the ideas of 
 Comenius and Rousseau. Show the relation between a psychological 
 tendency and a naturalistic tendency in education. — Monroe, Paul; 
 Barnard; Gtjimps; Pinloche; Browning; Compatre. 
 
 Pestalozzi's method of sense impression is based upon 
 the idea of mental development. Every sense impression 
 must have provision made in some way for a motor ex- 
 pression, and this is possible only when the sense impres- 
 sion is clear and distinct. We understand him better when 
 we understand the meaning of his term Anschauung, which 
 is variously translated as intuition, sense impression, and 
 sense perception, and which Pestalozzi used at different 
 times to mean the mental act itself, the knowledge gained, 
 the mental faculties, and the subjects of the outer world. 
 But how is an Anschauung formed? Various stimuli from 
 the outer world come to our consciousness by way of the 
 senses, and we perceive the individual elements of knowl- 
 edge, such as color, sound, touch, etc. These fuse into a 
 whole or unit. In this way ideas are formed through sen- 
 sations, the obj ect being present. But ideas may be formed 
 without sensations, the object being absent. An idea is 
 simple when its content consists of one member only; it is 
 composite when it consists of several members. A com- 
 posite idea which is formed when the object is present, and 
 which is given a meaning by ideas previously formed, is 
 termed an Anschauung. 
 
 Give illustrations showing the various wajs in which Pestalozzi used the 
 term. — See How Gertrude Teaches (Bardeen Ed.) ; Monroe, Patjl; Krusi. 
 
Pestalozzi and a Psychological Method 91 
 
 The sources of the essential laws of instruction depend: 
 (1) upon nature, when the difference between appearance 
 and reality is made plain, when sense impressions are 
 associated, and when complex ideas are seen to depend 
 upon simple elements; (2) upon the emotional side of the 
 child's nature; and (3) upon preserving a harmony be- 
 tween the child and his environment. In consequence 
 the law of instruction will rest upon three principles: 
 (1) to teach the child to look upon everything that is 
 brought before him as a unit; (2) to teach the form of 
 every object; and (3) to make the child acquainted with 
 all the words and names descriptive of the objects known 
 to him. 
 
 Define instruction. What is the difference between appearance and 
 reality? Are emotions the result of ideas, or vice versa? What is your 
 view of the relation between the child and his environment? Show how 
 the three principles stated underlie the teaching of reading, language, 
 history, geography, arithmetic, and drawing. — ^Harris; Quick; Pin- 
 
 LOCHE. 
 
 We follow the simple course of nature when we classify 
 observations and complete the simple before advancing to 
 the complex; when all things essentially related to each 
 other in nature have the same connection in mind; and 
 when we strengthen and make clear the impressions of 
 certain objects by causing them, through instruction, to 
 affect the different senses. The development of the child's 
 mental powers depends upon making the sphere of sense 
 impressions (Anschauungen) broader, and upon relating 
 them through motor expression with life and conduct. 
 
 What is meant by the ' ' course of nature " ? What is meant by classi- 
 fying observations? Define "the complex." When are things related! 
 How are impressions made clear? What view did Pestalozzi hold 
 regarding mental powers? — Monkoe, Paul; Quick; Pinlochb. 
 
92 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 There are perceptions of the quahties of objects, of 
 quantity and time, and of space. These are elements which 
 fuse into the Anschauung of the object. Language is used 
 as the means of gaining qualitative ideas because such ideas 
 are expressed by it. Quantity and time are expressed by 
 number, and through the use of number such ideas may be 
 acquired. Space perceptions are expressed by form; hence 
 drawing may be employed to give ideas of this sort. In 
 order that all this may take place, an object present in 
 sense in some form is necessary. Words, figures, and 
 drawings are symbols only, and not real things. Instruc- 
 tion is assisting the child to gain an Anschauung, which 
 being related to the symbol gives it a meaning and is 
 afterward used to express the idea. 
 
 The following quotations from Pestalozzi's writings will 
 not only serve the purpose of class discussion, but will 
 elaborate and illustrate the foregoing principles : 
 
 "The education of men is nothing else than the fitting of 
 every ring of the great chain which cements humanity and 
 makes it a whole." 
 
 "The idea of elementary education to which I have de- 
 I voted my life consists in reestablishing the course of nature, 
 and in developing and iniproving the tendencies and powers 
 of humanity. It must aim at developing heart, mind, and 
 body in such a way as to bring the flesh into subjection to the 
 spirit." 
 
 " Education must consist in a continual benevolent super- 
 intendence, with the object of calling forth all the faculties 
 which Providence has implanted." 
 
 "Elementary education is nothing else but conformity to 
 nature in the development and perfection of the dispositions 
 and faculties of men." 
 I "The threefold aim of education is to fix the attention, to 
 form the judgment, and to elevate the sentiments." 
 
 "A child who knows how to pray, work, and think is al- 
 ready half educated. " 
 
Pestalozzi and a Psychological Method 93 
 
 "My idea of elementary education was suggested to me by 
 the sight of the evils I saw about ine; evils resulting from the 
 routine of the ordinary education." 
 
 " I wanted to prove by my experiment that if pubUe edu- 
 cation is to have any real value it must imitate the methods 
 which make the merit of domestic education." 
 
 "The home is the true basis of the education of humanity." 
 
 " All human growth and power spring from inborn capabili- 
 ties." 
 
 "Elementary education, then, ought to continue under 
 the master, the mother's work, in the spirit of the mother and 
 in the spirit of Christianity. It should in no way put itself 
 in opposition to the child's former relations of feeling and 
 disposition, but should bring its whole activity into living 
 connection with them." 
 
 "The aim of education is the development of man as a 
 whole with all his moral, physical, and intellectual powers; 
 the particular lines of the development depending upon his 
 position in the world, — ^that is, upon the actual Ufe that 
 awaits him." 
 
 "The aim of education is not to turn out soldiers, tailors, 
 tradesmen, or bookmakers that are just good; but to turn out 
 tailors, soldiers, etc., who are, in the highest meaning of the 
 word, men." 
 
 "The aim of all education and instruction is and can be no 
 other than the harmonious development of the powers and 
 faculties of human nature." 
 
 "The problem or aim of education is to train those prac- 
 tical abilities which are necessary for the fulfillment of the! 
 duties of life." ' 
 
 "To be happy in this life and to become a useful member 
 of society is the destiny of man, and is the aim of the educa- 
 tion of children." 
 
 "The aim of education is the harmonious development of 
 the powers and faculties of human nature." 
 
 " Instruction is the imparting of knowledge subjected to a 
 certain order of succession, the beginning of which must be 
 adapted to the first unfolding of the powers of the child, and 
 the progress kept exactly parallel to that of his develop- 
 ment." 
 
 "The aim of education is to use the ways and means by 
 
94 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 which every child may be naturally and easily brought to the 
 talents, sentiments, judgments, and attachments by which 
 he becomes happy in his state of life and a useful member of 
 society." 
 
 "Teaching is helping the child to become what he is meant 
 to be." 
 
 "You should do for the children what their parents fail to 
 do for them. It is all well and good for them to learn some- 
 thing, but the really important thing is for them to become 
 what they are meant to be, and in becoming which they so 
 often have no guidance at home." 
 
 " Oh! if men would only comprehend that the aim of all in- 
 struction is and can be nothing but the development of 
 human nature by the harmonious cultivation of its powers 
 and talents and the promotion of manliness of life. Oh! if 
 they would only ask themselves, at every step in their 
 methods of education and instruction, — ' Does it further this 
 end?'" 
 
 "All instruction of man is only the art of helping nature 
 to develop in her own way. And this art rests essentially on 
 the relation and harmony between the impressions received 
 by the child and the exact degree of his developed powers." 
 
 "Sense perception considered by itself is nothing else than 
 the mere being there of external objects before, the senses 
 and the mere stirring of the consciousness of their impres- 
 sions." 
 
 " Object lessons are intended to teach the child to observe 
 and to talk by recounting all the impressions received by sur- 
 rounding objects." 
 
 "The child must (1) recognize objects generally and name 
 each as a unity or an object; (2) become conscious of their 
 characteristics and name these; and (3) by language gain 
 power of more precisely determining characteristics." 
 
 "It was my object to arouse the faculties and bring them 
 to bear on the pure and simple circumstances of domestic 
 life, for I was convinced that in this way I should be able to 
 form the hearts and minds of children almost as I pleased." 
 
 "The power of receiving impressions and the power of 
 thinking are separated by a wide gulf which can only be 
 bridged by the power of speaking." 
 
 "Words alone cannot give us a knowledge of things; they 
 
Pestalozzi and a Psychological Method 95 
 
 are useful only for giving expression to what we have in our 
 minds." 
 
 "Thus I found in teaching to read the necessity of sub- 
 ordination to the power of talking; and in the endeavor to 
 find the means of teaching children to talk, I came on the 
 principle of joining this art to the sequences by which nature 
 rises from sound to word and from word gradually to lan- 
 guage." 
 
 "The best elementary exercises for developing the child's 
 power of comparing and judging and thus strengthening his 
 thought, are those in number and form." 
 
 "The path of nature, which develops the forces of human- 
 ity, must be easy and open to all." 
 
 "I gave my children very few explanations; I taught them 
 neither morality nor religion." 
 
 "The schools hastily substitute an artificial method of 
 words for the true method of nature, which knows no hurry 
 arid is ready to wait." 
 
 What was the cause of Pestalozzi's failures and the secret of his 
 wonderful influence upon education? What is the fundamental prin- 
 ciple of Pestalozzian education? Give a summary of Pestalozzi's services 
 to the cause of education. What may the teacher of to-day learn from 
 Pestalozzi — the man and teacher? What from his educational theories? 
 — Krusi, 169-192; Rein; Babnabd; Quick; Habbis. 
 
 Summary 
 
 The circumstances under which Pestalozzi worked and 
 experimented had much to do in determining the char- 
 acter of his educational theories and practice. 
 
 Early in life he came under the influence of the writings 
 of Rousseau and in turn exerted a direct influence upon 
 Herbart and Froebel. Without him there would have 
 been no Horace Mann nor Henry Barnard. 
 
 Pestalozzi declared that education should be universal, 
 that it is the real cure for the ills of a debased society and 
 that it is the duty of the nation to care for and foster this 
 
96 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 education. He was the founder of the modern element- 
 ary school. 
 
 The Leonard and Gertrude is an educational classic. In 
 it he shows clearly the evils of society and points out the 
 remedy by educating the common people. 
 
 Pestalozzi insisted upon the necessity of sense training, 
 protested against verbalism and rote teaching, holding 
 that the highest purpose of the school is the moral one. 
 There was no finality in his system, and this was the 
 secret of his wonderful influence and power. 
 
 Pestalozzi used the term Anschauung in several ways : 
 
 1. For the knowledge obtained by the direct contempla- 
 tion of the object before the senses — sense impression. 
 
 2. (a) For the mental act by which the above knowledge 
 is obtained — observation; (b) for the mental faculties by 
 which it is obtained — the senses; (c) for the objects of the 
 world about which such knowledge is gained — sense objects. 
 
 The following great principles have become permanently 
 incorporated into our educational system : 
 
 1. Education reforms and elevates society. 
 
 2. Education is an affair and duty of the state. 
 
 3. The child must be educated in society. 
 
 4. Education must be a natural, harmonious development. 
 
 5. There must be an active cooperation of the home and 
 the school. 
 
 6. Instruction must be based on the immediate expe- 
 rience of the child. 
 
 7. The fundamental principle of aU instruction is sense 
 impression (Anschauung). 
 
 8. The means of instruction are number, form, and 
 language. 
 

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 Open Court Philosophical Portrait Series 
 JOHN FREDERICK HERBART 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 HERBART AND THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 
 
 The educational theory of any age is not the result of 
 chance nor of any one man's thought, but is a part of a 
 great revolution, at the basis of which are human condi- 
 tions. This movement stands in intimate relation to 
 religious doctrines and to social, ethical, and philosophical 
 theories as they are expressed in the institutional life of 
 the people. 
 
 Five tendencies controlled the life of the eighteenth 
 century: human reason instead of faith was employed to 
 test the validity of institutions and creeds, because men 
 sought liberation from tradition and dogma; it was an 
 age of individualism, and a psychology founded on expe- 
 rience was used to attack these problems; there was a 
 tendency in the direction of natural religion; a call for a 
 return to nature in all lines of life; and the social contract 
 was regarded as the foundation principle at the basis of 
 the state. Rousseau was the central figure in education. 
 
 These tendencies crystallized into three great move- 
 ments. The individual became recognized as a human 
 being who must grow by development rather than be 
 shaped and formed by society and law or the institution 
 under which he was born. This led to an almost mad love 
 of nature and was known as Naturalism. An extension of 
 this view of individualism and Naturalism, followed by a 
 
 97 
 
98 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 reaction toward a new movement looking to an ideal 
 community life, was called Romanticism. And, finally, 
 Idealism maintained that the world was in the making by 
 a process of becoming, and that the individual must realize 
 himself in an environment of social and ethical institutions 
 by building his own world of experience in obedience to an 
 imperative moral law. The Emile had caused Immanuel 
 Kant to see that education was not world appropriation, 
 but world building. He said, "Let each soul build up 
 within itself a coherent and rational world so that it can 
 lead a free, moral, natural life in the society of other souls." 
 
 Stimulated by Rousseau, Pestalozzi caught the inspira- 
 tion of the age and entered upon the supreme task of 
 educating humanity and of thereby bringing about a 
 regeneration of society. All future ages will look back to 
 Neuhof and Burgdorf and see there the beginnings of new 
 things in education. "The French-Swiss Rousseau took 
 the Saxon idea of education and converted it into a beau- 
 tiful dream; the German-Swiss Pestalozzi converted the 
 dream into a beautiful reality." 
 
 Pestalozzi was the founder of the modern elementary 
 school. He recognized the great importance that must 
 be placed on the home in education. He demanded that 
 teaching be based on each individual's experience, and 
 placed much emphasis on sense impression. Although he 
 attempted to point out a way whereby a method of in- 
 struction should grow out of this, there was, after all, no 
 finaUty, no science in his system. He must be considered 
 as a pioneer only. He saw with clearness certain funda- 
 mental truths, but he could not see their implications nor 
 how they could be practically applied. 
 
 Much remained to be done in education. The old 
 
Herbart and the Science of Education 99 
 
 psychology by which Pestalozzi and his contemporaries were 
 directed, following the lines of Descartes, Leibnitz, and 
 Wolff, was found inadequate to solve the new problems 
 of teaching. Hence there was need of a new psychology. 
 The tendencies in all phases of life were in the direction of 
 perfected moral character. Therefore a new standard was 
 necessary, and a new method must be formulated whereby 
 all the schoolroom activities, and especially instruction, 
 should bear directly upon the development of moral char- 
 acter. Herbart became the leader of this great advance 
 movement which put education on a scientific basis; and 
 by virtue of this he contributed as greatly to the problem 
 of instruction as did Socrates, Bacon, Descartes, or Kant 
 to the problems of philosophy. 
 
 With which of the movements mentioned was Locke identified? 
 Explain the meaning of "world building". What was Basedow's con- 
 tribution to education? — Davidson; Monbob, Paul; Eckoft; MacVan- 
 
 NBIi. 
 
 Note: It would be well at this time to fix in mind the fundamental 
 principles of the philosophers from Socrates to Kant, and the intellectual 
 tendencies o( the times. (See Falckenberg's History of Modern Philos- 
 ophy.) 
 
100 studies in the History; of Modern Education 
 
 Bibliography 
 
 In asking for books at the library, call for the titles printed in Itaiii. - 
 
 Adams, John — The Herhartian Psychology Applied to Education. 
 
 Adamson, John Williams — Pioneers of Modern Education. 
 
 Boone, Richard G.^Lines of Growth in Maturing; Educ. Rev., XIV, 
 118-131. 
 
 Bavidson, Thomas — Education as World Building; Educ. Rev., XX, 
 325-345. 
 
 Db Garmo, Charles — Herbart and the Herbartians. 
 
 (x) De Garmo, Charles — Interest and Education. 
 
 (y) Db Garmo, Charles — The Herbartian School of Pedagogics: 
 Educ. Rev., I, 35-45, 244-252, 453-462. 
 
 (z) De Garmo, Charles — Coordination of Studies; Educ. Rev., IV, 
 422-437. 
 
 (w) De Garmo, Charles — ^A Working Basis for the Correlation oi 
 Studies; Educ. Rev., V, 451-466. 
 
 (o) De Garmo, Charles — Principles of Secondary Education. 
 
 Dodd, Catherine I. — Introduction to Herhartian Principles of Teach- 
 ing. 
 
 EcKOPP, W. J. — (Trans.) The A B C of Sense Perception, and Minor 
 Works of Herbart. 
 
 Encyclopedia Brittanica — Article on Herbart. 
 
 Fblkin, H. M. and E. — (Trans.) Herbart's Science of Education. Bio- 
 graphical Introduction by Translators. 
 
 (x) Felkin, H. M. and E. — (Trans.) Herbart's Letters and Lectures on 
 Education. 
 
 Harris, William T. — Herbart and Pestalozzi Compared; Educ. Rev., 
 V, 417-423. 
 
 • (x) Harris, William T. — Herbart's Doctrine of Interest; Educ. 
 Rev., X, 71-80. 
 
 (y) Harris, William T. — Coordinate Groups of Studies; Educ. Rev., 
 XI, 323-334. 
 
 Herbart, John Fr. — A Text-book on Psychology (Trans, by Margaret 
 K. Smith). 
 
 Herbart Tear Books. 
 
 Lange and De Garmo — Herbart's Outlines of Educational Doctrine. 
 
Herbart and the Science of Education 101 
 
 Lttkins, H. T.— Correlation of Studies; Educ. Rev., X, 364-383. 
 
 MacYannel, John Angus — ^The Educational Theories of Herbart 
 and Froebel; Teachers' College Record, VI, No. 4, Sept., 1905. 
 
 McMtjhry, Charles A. — The Elements of General Method. 
 
 MoNBOB, Paul — History of Education, 622-639. 
 
 Paulsen, Fr. — Introdtiction to Philosophy (Trans, by Frank Thilly). 
 
 (x) Paulsen, Fb, — German Universities. 
 
 Rein, William — Outlines of Pedagogics (Trans, by C. C. Van Liew). 
 
 (x) Rein, William — ^Pestalozzi and Herbart; The Forum, XXI, 
 346-360. 
 
 RowE, S. H.— Student Life at Jena; Educ. Rev., XV, 136-146. 
 
 Russell, James E. — German Higher Schools. 
 
 Smith, Margaret K. — Herbart's Life; New Eng. Jour, of Educ, 
 XXIX, 131 (1889). 
 
 Tompkins, Arnold — Herbart's Philosophy and His Educational 
 Theory; Educ. Reo., XVI, 233-243. 
 
 Ufer, Christian — (Trans.) Introduction to the Pedagogy of Herbart. 
 
 Vandbwalkeb, Nina C. — ^The Culture Epoch Theory; Edv/:. Rev., 
 XV, 374r-391. 
 
 Van Liew, C. C. — Life of Herbart and Devdopment of His Pedagogical 
 Doctrine. 
 
 Note: Begin by reading the Biographical IntrodvxAm by H. M. and 
 E. Felkin in their translation of Herbart's Science of Education. Next 
 take up the writings of De Garmo Usted above. The book by Lange 
 and De Garmo is valuable for the study of the educational doctrine. 
 For correlation read (z) De Garmo, (y) Harris, Lukens, and Herbart 
 Year Books. 
 
102 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 Chronological Table 
 
 I. Boyhood and School Days (1776-1794). 
 1776 Born at Oldenburg, May 4th. 
 1788 Entered the gymnasium. 
 II. University Life (1794^1797). 
 
 1794 Matriculated at the University of Jena. 
 
 III. Life as a Tutor in Switzerland (1797-1800). 
 1797 Letters on Education. 
 
 1799 Visited Pestalozzi at Burgdorf. 
 
 IV. Life and Work as a University Professor (1800-1841). 
 
 (a) Period of Preparation (1800-1802). 
 
 1800 Residence at Bremen. 
 
 1801 A Pedagogical Plan for Higher Schools, 
 
 1802 Pestalozzi's How Gertrude Teaches. 
 
 (b) First Gottingen Period (1802-1809). 
 1802 Privat docent at Gottingen. 
 
 A B C of Sense Perception. 
 
 1804 The Moral and Ethical Revelation of the World. 
 Standpoint for Judging the Pestalozzian Method of Instruction. 
 
 1805 Call to Heidelberg. Made professor at Gottingen. 
 
 1806 General Pedagogics. 
 
 1808 General Practical Philosophy. 
 
 (c) Life at Konigsberg (1809-1833). 
 
 1809 Accepted call to Konigsberg. 
 Opens pedagogical seminary. 
 
 1811 Married to Mary Drake. 
 
 1816 Text-book on Psychology. 
 
 1829 General Metaphysics. 
 
 1831 A Brief Cyclopedia of Philosophy. 
 
 (d) The Second Gottingen Period (1833-1841). 
 1833 Accepts call to Gottingen. 
 
 1835 Outlines of Lectures on Pedagogy. 
 
 1841 Died at Gottingen, August 14th. i ^"f i 
 
Herbart and the Science of Education 103 
 
 Biography 
 
 John Frederick Herbart was both an educator and a 
 philosopher, although he subordinated his philosophy to his 
 pedagogy. In his day science had advanced, philosophy 
 had declined, and pedagogy, on account of its mysterious- 
 ness, was Uttle understood. Other philosophers lectured 
 on pedagogy in an indifferent way, but Herbart put his 
 whole force and energy into it and made it a system. He is 
 the common middle point of all the pedagogical study be- 
 cause he regarded pedagogy as an essential constituent of 
 philosophy, and believed that by means of it the necessity of 
 ethics and psychology as agencies of moral influence upon 
 the individual in society can be demonstrated. 
 
 Herbart was a man of fine personal appearance. He was 
 dignified and reserved, never careless in his dress, in his 
 behavior to others, or in his conversation. His most promi- 
 nent characteristic was his love for truth. His Hfe was 
 unusually simple and happy, always free from care, and de- 
 voted to philosophic thinking. He was a striking example 
 of the German scholar and university professor. 
 
 What was gained by regarding pedagogy as a constituent of pliilos- 
 ophy? Why was Herbart little known in his day? Define philosophy, 
 psychology, ethics. Give the meaning of the term pedagogy. (See 
 Introduction. ) — Eckoff. 
 
 Herbart was bom at Oldenburg, May 4th, 1776. His 
 father was a government counselor. His mother, the 
 daughter of a physician, was a woman of strong personality 
 and great intellectual power, and was well fitted to direct 
 
104 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 the education of her only child. Herbart was a delicate 
 boy and on this account it was impossible for him to enter 
 the public schools. Accordingly, he was placed in the care 
 of a tutor who, through the clearness, definiteness, and con- 
 tinuity of his teachings, did much to stimulate the boy's 
 native interest in learning. 
 
 Locate Oldenburg. What was Herbart's ancestry? Who was his 
 tutor? What did Herbart study as a boy? How did his mothtr assist 
 in his education? — Felkin; De Garmo; Smith. 
 
 As a child he showed wonderful powers of comprehending 
 and remembering. He was unusually interested in mathe- 
 matics and displayed considerable musical ability. At the 
 age of fourteen he wrote an essay on the freedom of the will 
 which was prophetic of the intellectual strength that char- 
 acterized his maturer years. He entered the gymnasium 
 of his native town at the age of twelve and remained there 
 until he was eighteen. His teachers reported of him that 
 "He was distinguished among his school fellows for order, 
 good conduct, and increasing industry in developing and 
 improving his excellent natural abilities." 
 
 What was the direction of his musical talent? What was the gynv- 
 nasium? What subjects did he study? Characterize Herbart as a 
 schoolboy. — Russell; Pelkin; De Garmo; Ency. Brit. 
 
 In 1794, having completed the course in the gymnasium, 
 he entered the university at Jena and took up the study of 
 jurisprudence. This was done in , compliance with the 
 wishes of his father, although it was not in harmony with his 
 own tastes, developed as they were under the influence of 
 classical training. Accordingly, we find him during his 
 three years' residence devoting much of his time to philo- 
 sophic studies. At this time Jena was the center of the 
 
Herbart and the Science of Education 105 
 
 philosophic thought and culture of Germany. Reinhold, 
 a disciple of Kant, had been succeeded by Fichte as pro- 
 fessor of philosophy. SchiUer was professor of history, and 
 Goethe Uving at the court in Weimar exerted no little 
 influence in university affairs. German philosophy at this 
 time was divided into idealism and realism. Fichte was an 
 idealist and Herbart at first beUeved as he did, but soon 
 after he became an independent thinker and broke away 
 from this doctrine and became a realist. 
 
 Locate Jena and tell something about the university. Define ideal- 
 ism, realism. How did Herbart differ from Fichte? Why did Herbart 
 reject idealism? Characterize him as a student. How was his mother 
 of assistance to him? — Felkin; Rowb; (x) Paulsen. 
 
 Acting on the advice of his mother, he left the university 
 in 1797, before completing his course, and went to Uve in 
 the home of Herr von Steiger, governor of Interlaken, Swit- 
 zerland, as tutor of his three sons. The education of these 
 boys was left entirely in his hands, the only condition being 
 that he should make bimonthly reports to his patron re- 
 garding the plan and character of the work, the methods 
 used, and the progress of the pupils. Twenty-four reports 
 in the form of letters were made. Five of these remain, 
 and in them are shown the outlines of a course of education 
 based on ethics and psychology. 
 
 Give the characteristics of each boy. How did Herbart teach, and 
 how did they study? Having read the letters, outline the plan of 
 instruction. How did he secure this place? How did his mother in- 
 fluence him in accepting it? Explain why he did not wish to accept 
 the position. — (x) Felkin; Felkin, Chap. V. 
 
 The Switzerland period was a valuable and productive 
 one, not alone from the standpoint of pedagogy but from 
 that of philosophy as well. He was mainly concerned with 
 
106 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 the problem of self-consciousness, the solution of which was 
 fundamental and paved the way for his psychology which 
 appeared sixteen years later. He visited Pestalozzi in his 
 school at Burgdorf and was greatly impressed by what he 
 saw there. As a result of this acquaintance and the study 
 of the three boys, he conceived the idea of educative instruc- 
 tion and the doctrine of many-sided interest. 
 
 What is the problem of seK-consciousness, and how is it related to 
 ethics and pedagogy? Why was there a need of a new psychology? 
 Describe Herbart's visit to Pestalozzi. What was therein Pestalozzi's 
 method that appealed to him? How did he profit by it? Define 
 educative instruction. — How Gertrude Teaches Her Children (Bakdeen) ; 
 Felkin, Chap. X. 
 
 In 1799, for certain political reasons and because of the 
 illness of his mother, Herbart resigned his position in Inter- 
 laken and went to Bremen, where he resided with a friend 
 and feUow student by the name of Schmidt. His teaching 
 experience had exerted such an influence upon him that he 
 resolved to abandon the study of law and to fit himself for 
 a university professorship. The two years of his residence 
 in Bremen were spent in the study of education and phil- 
 osophy in preparation for such a life. 
 
 Who was Schmidt? What qualifications were necessary for a pro- 
 fessorship? How did the Switzerland experiences influence his life 
 and educational doctrine? — Felkin; Db Garmo. 
 
 While living in Bremen, he prepared two important peda- 
 gogical papers : an essay entitled How Gertrude Taught Her 
 Children and a treatise on Pestalozzi's A B C of Sense Per- 
 ception (Anschauung). The first was written with the de- 
 sign of helping mothers to form a correct idea of the value 
 of Pestalozzi's method and of pointing out how it could be 
 
Herbart and the Science of Education 107 
 
 used to advantage. The second was written under the con- 
 viction that the principle of sense perception would be of 
 supreme importance when appUed in a developed form to 
 the whole of education. 
 
 Ascertain the circumstances under which these papers were written. 
 Did Herbart teach in Bremen? How did he support himself? Where 
 were his parents at this time? — Eckopf; Felkin, 12; De Garmo; 
 Monroe. 
 
 In the year 1802 Herbart defended his thesis in a public 
 disputation, and in consequence the University of Gottingen 
 conferred upon him the degree of doctor of philosophy. 
 Very soon after he qualified as privat docent and began lectur- 
 ing in the university on pedagogy and philosophy. These 
 lectures, which were always carefully prepared and delivered 
 extempore, soon attracted the attention of the entire univer- 
 sity. Not long after he began his work, the University of 
 Heidelberg offered him a professorship at a much larger 
 salary than he was receiving. Upon his declining this offer, 
 he was made associate professor of philosophy at Gottingen. 
 
 Why did he go to Gottingen for his promotion? What is a privat 
 docent? What war was now in progress? How did it affect Herbart? 
 Give an estimate of his professional standing. Is it probable that he 
 was known to any Americans? Name some of his students. — Felkin; 
 EcKOFP; Van Libw. 
 
 The Gottingen period was one of unusual hterary activity. 
 He made many contributions to philosophy and wrote much 
 on pedagogy. The Moral and Ethical Revelations of the 
 World and A Standpoint for Judging the Pestalozzian Method 
 of Instruction appeared in 1804. In 1806, his chief educa- 
 tional work, General Pedagogics, was printed, and in the 
 same year he completed his Practical Philosophy. 
 
108 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 Can you assign a reason for this unusual literary activity? Sum- 
 marize his work thus far. Why was he successful and popular? 
 
 In 1809 he accepted the chair of philosophy in the Uni- 
 versity of Konigsberg. He occupied the position for 
 twenty-four years and reached the height of his professional 
 and literary power while here. In regard to this position 
 he is reported as saying : " How happy I was to receive the 
 offer of this most renowned chair of philosophy which, when 
 a boy, I longed for in reverential dreams as I studied the 
 works of the " Sage of Konigsberg " ! 
 
 Locate Konigsberg. Who was the "Sage of Konigsberg"? Where 
 had Herbart studied his" works? — Fblkin, 20. 
 
 At Konigsberg he founded a pedagogical seminary with 
 which a practice school was connected, and thus realized a 
 long cherished hope. A few boys were taught by Herbart 
 and his students, and by means of this mutual observation 
 and exchange of experience school inspectors, teachers, and 
 professors were trained. Theory was combined with prac- 
 tice, and to this criticism was added. In this way the sem- 
 inary became a center of great influence. William von 
 Humboldt, Commissioner of Education for Prussia, encour- 
 aged the movement and appointed Herbart member of a 
 school commission having the interests of higher education 
 in charge. In 1811 Herbart was married to Mary Drake, an 
 English lady, who was both in character and education 
 worthy of his choice. The most important books written 
 by him at Konigsberg were philosophical. His Psychology 
 appeared in 1824. 
 
 In what respects did his practice school serve as a model for the 
 modern training school? Where had this experiment been tried before? 
 Where was Pestalozzi at this time? Why did von Humboldt encourage 
 
Herbart and the Science of Education 109 
 
 him? Characterize Herbart as a professor. Describe the work of his 
 practice school. — Felein, 20; Db Gahmo, 19; Van Liew. 
 
 Two educational tendencies have gone out from this 
 school: one, which may be designated as the orthodox, 
 follows Herbart literally; the other, the liberal, regards 
 him as the common point of departm-e in a scientific 
 study of education. When Herbart left Konigsberg the 
 seminary and practice school were discontinued, but the 
 work was not lost. In 1836 Brzoska, one of Herbart's 
 students and a professor at Jena, dedicated a monograph to 
 him entitled The Necessity of Pedagogical Seminaries in 
 Universities. In 1843 Volkmar Stoy, the successor of Brzoska 
 and also a student of Herbart, founded a Pedagogical Society 
 which grew into the Jena Pedagogical Seminary. Stoy be- 
 longed to the orthodox school. In 1862 Tuiscon ZUler, an 
 exponent but never a student of Herbart, foimded a similar 
 school at Leipsic where he became the leader of the liberal 
 movement. Professor William Rein, a student of Ziller, 
 succeeded Stoy as the head of the school at Jena, in 1885. 
 
 Ascertain the difference between the educational views of Stoy and 
 Ziller. Give a life sketch of each. — De Gabmo; Van Liew. 
 
 Herbart finally decided to leave Konigsberg and hoped to 
 be asked to succeed Hegel as professor of philosophy at the 
 University of Berlin. Instead, he accepted the offer of a 
 vacant chair at Gottingen where he remained until his 
 death. In his last years he directed his energies to the 
 preparation of his university lectures. The Ovilines of 
 Lectures on Pedagogy which appeared in 1835 completed 
 and supplemented his General Pedagogics. 
 
 Why did he leave Konigsberg? Why was he not invited to Berlin? 
 Whom did he succeed at Gottingen? — Db Garmo, 21; Felkin. 
 
110 studies in tlie History of Modern Education 
 
 Herbart lived to see his educational system completed. 
 He delivered his last lecture August 11th, 1841. On the 
 14th of the same month a stroke of apoplexy ended his life. 
 His students bore him to his last resting place, which is 
 marked by a marble cross bearing this fitting inscription: 
 " To penetrate the sacred depths of truth. 
 To strive in joyful hope for human weal 
 
 Was his life aim! 
 Now his free spirit hath the perfect light. 
 Here rests his mortal frame." 
 
 Educational Doctrine 
 
 To the eighteenth century belong three specific educa- 
 tional tendencies. (1) Pietism was represented by Francke 
 and avoided the use of the classics, basing its teachings upon 
 faith rather than upon knowledge. The work of the school, 
 according to this scheme, was to be made difficult-. Educa- 
 tion was of a purely religious character, and the child was to 
 be prepared for the church. (2) Philanthropism was repre- 
 sented by Basedow and aimed at encyclopedic and practical 
 education. Under this plan teaching was based on knowl- 
 edge. It demanded an easy method, since learning was to 
 be made Uke play in order that the child might be happy. 
 (3) New Humanism was represented by Lessing, Goethe, and 
 Schiller. Its ideal was to acquire a knowledge of classical 
 literature, the beauty of which, they believed, would win 
 the child with little effort on his part. There were to be 
 only a few subjects, but a deep insight was to be given into 
 these few. Herbart directed these various movements into 
 
Herbart and the Science of Education 111 
 
 a single movement with a scientific basis, and although he 
 maintained an independent attitude toward all of them he 
 was yet influenced by each. Moral education was based 
 upon religion — Pietism; the classics were to be used as 
 the material for instruction — New Humanism; and teach- 
 ing was to be made scientific — Philanthropism. 
 
 Describe the schools of Francke and Basedow. In what way were 
 these movements related to the Renaissance and the Reformation? 
 What is encyclopedic education? — Quick; Compayrb; Adamson, 
 Chap. XII; MacVannel; Monboe. 
 
 The first view of Herbart as a teacher is given us in the 
 letters written between 1797 and 1799 while he was living in 
 Switzerland. These letters point us to the beginning of his 
 lifelong task — to learn to apply the theoretical principles 
 which he hoped to discover. He saw clearly that a study 
 of the science of education was necessary as a preparation 
 for the art of teaching. The letters are valuable to us be- 
 cause they describe his practical attempts at teaching, and 
 at the same time enable us to foUow his mental development 
 during the formative period of his life. He believed the 
 Odyssey, in the original, to be the best book with which to 
 begin the instruction of boys, and he seems to have applied 
 the principle successfully. This anticipated a very import- 
 ant theory. He saw that the child's circle of thought 
 should be so enriched that it would enable him to gain new 
 moral and intellej;tual truth. His teaching experiences 
 enabled him to develop the doctrine of many-sided interest 
 and of educative instruction. In concerning himself with 
 the problem of self-consciousness he laid the foundations of 
 his psychology. 
 
 Describe the boys mentioned in the letters and point out their differ- 
 ences. What is the Odyssey f What theory did Herbart anticipate? 
 
112 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 Give meaning of "circle of thought"- How is a method of child study 
 suggested? — Boone; Vandewalker; HerbartYear Books; (x) Felkin; 
 Redt. 
 
 How Gertrude Taught Her Children, written during Her- 
 bart's residence in Bremen and addressed to three ladies of 
 wealth and culture with whom he was privileged to asso- 
 ciate, is especially valuable, showing as it does the relation 
 of Herbartianism to Pestalozzianism. He first describes 
 what he saw in Pestalozzi's schoolroom, and then shows how 
 the methods used, although they were correct, did not ex- 
 tend far enough, and that there is a necessary step beyond 
 mere sense perception, the use of which will lead to moral 
 character and will training. 
 
 How did Herbart criticize Pestalozzi? Show how Herbart would 
 extend the idea of the A B C of Sense Perception. How do Pestalozzi 
 and Herbart differ in their views of the ethical aim? — Harris; (x) Rein; 
 Eckopf; Felkin. 
 
 Herbart brought both his psychology and his pedagogy 
 to bear upon Pestalozzi's problems and showed how they 
 could be solved and what was necessary to make a com- 
 plete system of education. His idea is evident in the fol- 
 lowing: in On the Proper View for Judging the Pestalozzian 
 Method of Instruction he shows that such method is by no 
 means qualified to supplant any other, but is suited to 
 prepare the way for it. The whole problem of education, 
 and particularly the great question of morality as the end, 
 is discussed in The Aesthetic Presentation of the Universe. 
 And, finally. The A B of Sense Impression is the book 
 which can be applied in the schoolroom. 
 
 The student should now trace the line of development and show how 
 Pestalozzianism is complemented by Herbartianism. — (y) De Gakmo" 
 Adams; Harris; (x) Rein; Monroe. 
 
Herbart and the Science of Education 113 
 
 Herbart's General Pedagogics, written in 1808, and the 
 Outlme of Pedagogical Lectures disclose the entire system of 
 his science of education. They constitute the true source 
 for a study of his method and educational doctrine. It is 
 not an easy matter to separate that which was Herbart's 
 own thought from the contributions, interpretations, and 
 additions of his contemporaries and successors; hence it 
 may be well first to determine all that is comprehended 
 under the general term Herbartianism, and afterwards re- 
 solve it into its elements. 
 
 " The plasticity or educability of the pupil is the funda- 
 mental postulate of pedagogics. Man alone exhibits plas- 
 ticity of will in the direction of moral character. Peda- 
 gogics as a science is based upon ethics and psychology. 
 The former points out the aim of education; the latter the 
 way, the means, and the obstacles." 
 
 What is the meaning of educability? If fatalism is implied in the 
 above, how are we to escape it? Define pedagogics. Distinguish be- 
 tween education and training. Why is a teacher necessary? What is 
 the teacher's function? How should a teacher be prepared? Explain 
 the relationships above mentioned. What are some of the obstacles to 
 education? — Lanqh and Db Gakmo; MacVannel; Felkin; Monbob; 
 Rein. i 
 
 The aim of education is morality or virtue. " The term 
 virtue expresses the whole purpose of education. Virtue is 
 the idea of inner freedom which has developed into an abid- 
 ing actuaUty in the individual. Inner freedom is a com- 
 plete harmony between moral insight and volition." 
 
 Upon what does an act of the will depend? Explain the meaning of 
 moral insight. Define voluntarism. — Patjlsbn; Lange and Db Garmo. 
 
 There are four ethical ideas. (1) The idea of perfection, 
 which points to health of body and mind. (2) The idea of 
 
114 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 good win, which counsels the educator to ward off the temp- 
 tation to ill-will as long as such temptation might prove 
 dangerous. " The good will is the steady resolution of the 
 man to consider himself as an individual under the law 
 which is individually binding." (3) The idea of justice, 
 which demands that the pupil abstain from contention. (4) 
 The idea of equity, which is especially involved in cases 
 where the pupil has merited punishment as requital for the 
 intentional infliction of pain. 
 
 Where a number of pupils are assembled, there arises 
 naturally, on a small scale, a system of laws and rewards; 
 since every pupil, whatever his rank or social station, must 
 be trained for cooperation in the social whole. 
 
 Show the difference between a social aim and an ethical one. How 
 does law arise? Why does a child need training in cooperation? How 
 does a child acquire ethical notions? Define law, custom. What is the 
 relation of each to morals? Show how the children, in their own way, 
 work out the idea mentioned above and make their own law. — Paul- 
 sen; Davidson; Lange and De Gabmo. 
 
 " The soul is a unity not endowed with intuitive or in- 
 born faculties, which are only traditional terms employed 
 to distinguish mental phenomena. The soul is a blank at 
 birth, possessing but one power — that of entering into rela- 
 tion with its environment through the nervous system." 
 
 The Pkocebs op Mental Life 
 A — Soul B — Environment 
 
 a. Native b. Acquired a. Primitive b. Changed 
 
 The primitive environment acts upon the native soul, 
 which by reacting changes itself into an acquired soul, and 
 the primitive environment into a changed environment. 
 
Herbart and the Science of Education 115 
 
 What does "unity of conBciousness" mean? If the soul is a blank 
 at birth, how does it acquire a content? Does this imply fatalism? 
 Show how these notions differ from the old psychology. 
 
 "Through the relations mentioned the mind is furnished 
 with its primary presentations of sense perception, and 
 from these by interaction the whole mental life is developed. 
 The continued interaction of these presentations leads 
 through generalizations to concepts, and by similar pro- 
 cesses to acts of judgment and reasoning." 
 
 "The soul is built up or acquires a content, not through 
 the development of inherent faculties, but through presenta- 
 tions — through ideas resulting from its own experiences. 
 Inherently it is neither good nor bad, but develops one 
 way or the other according to external influences, according 
 to what it receives in the way of presentations and the man- 
 ner of their combination." 
 
 Contrast these views with those of Pestalozzi. In this connection 
 discuss the freedom of the will. Upon what does the "manner of 
 combination" depend? What is the function of the teacher in this 
 process? Upon what will the kind of subject matter presented to the 
 child depend? Define the term "educative instruction". — Db Gaemo; 
 Rein; Monroe; MacVannbl; Tompkins. 
 
 Ideas come from two main sources, experience and social 
 intercourse. Knowledge of nature is derived from the 
 former, and the sentiments entertained toward our fellows 
 from the latter. 
 
 Circle of Thought 
 
 A — Experience with Things B — Intercourse with Mankind 
 
 Knowledge Sympathy 
 
 Define experience, social intercourse. What is knowledge? Define 
 sympathy. What is man's relation to nature? How is geography 
 related to history, and vice versat — Rein; Moneos. 
 
116 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 The aim of instruction is such a training of the circle of 
 thought by means of interest that it will be capable of vo- 
 lition. The sequence is, knowledge — interest — volition. 
 The ultimate purpose of instruction is contained in the no- 
 tion of virtue, but in order tp realize this ultimate aim, 
 another and nearer one called many-sided interest must 
 be set up. Interest means self-activity, and stands in a 
 general way for that kind of mental activity which it is the 
 business of instruction to incite. Apperception is the as- 
 similative function of the mind, and only those ideas will 
 arouse interest that have an apperceiving basis, previously 
 gained in the circle of thought, by which the new may be 
 interpreted. 
 
 Distinguish between instruction and education. Define direct in- 
 terest, indirect interest. What is the meaning of many-sidedness? 
 What are its conditions? Define self-activity. Show the relation of 
 attention and interest. How are these related to sense impression? 
 Name and define the kinds of attention. Does interest depend upon 
 ideas, or upon will? Do ideas arouse interest, or is interest the means 
 by which ideas are acquired? Herbart was an intellectualist. Explain. 
 Can the teacher compel attention? Can a teacher compel interest on 
 the part of the child? — (x) Habeis; (x) Db Gabmo; Paulsen: Lange 
 AND De Gaemo ; McMuRHY. 
 
 " Instruction is to be linked to the knowledge that experi- 
 ence provides and to the ethical sentiments that arise from 
 social intercourse. Empirical interest relates directly to 
 experience, sympathetic interest to human association. 
 Discursive reflection on the objects of experience involves 
 the development of speculative interest; reflections on the 
 wider relations of society, the development of social inter- 
 ests. To these are added aesthetic interests on the one hand 
 and religious interests on the other, resulting from a non- 
 progressive contemplation of things and human destiny." 
 
Herbart and the Science of Education 117 
 
 Is it possible for these interests to unfold equally in all pupils? If 
 not, why not? If so, how? How may each of these interests grow 
 one-sided? What effect has specialization upon many-sidedness of 
 interest? Define discursive, speculative, empirical. Explain "non- 
 progressive contemplation". Give illustrations of each kind of interest. 
 
 Interests 
 1. As Objective — Knowledge 2. As Subjective — Sympathy 
 
 a. Theoretical b. Practical a. Man b. God 
 
 Knowledge Valuation 
 
 (a) Nature (b) Ideas (a) Individual (b) Group 
 
 1. Empirical 2. Speculative 3. Aesthetic 4. Sjrmpathetic 6. Religious 
 
 5. Social 
 
 Instruction is synthetic or analytic and depends upon 
 three factors: the teacher, the pupil, and the subject 
 taught. By the synthetic method the teacher himself 
 determines the sequence and grouping of the parts of the 
 lesson. By the analytic method the pupil's own thoughts 
 are expressed first, and these thoughts, with the teacher's 
 help, are analyzed, corrected, and supplemented. 
 
 Give concrete illustrations of each form of instruction. Point out 
 the merits of each. Show how the two methods may be combined in 
 one. What is the difference between hearing a recitation and teaching 
 a lesson? — (x) Harris; (x) De Garmo; Rein; McMurrt. 
 
 Government is the immediate maintenance of outward 
 order through enforced authority, partly that education may 
 succeed, and partly to secure the safety of the child and the 
 protection of society. Training is moral education in so 
 far as it works directly upon the mind. Training seeks to 
 build the will; government only holds it temporarily in check. 
 Government works for the present, training for the future. 
 
 Show the relation between training and the idea of inner freedom. 
 How is government possible and trainiug impossible? What are the 
 
118 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 essentials of good government? What is the George Junior RepubUc? 
 Can a school ever become self-govermng? — Outlook, Vol. 88, 351. 
 
 Mental life consists in the reciprocal actions, relations, 
 and conditions of the ideas. It is the business of education 
 to supply the ideas, to assist in their arrangement, and to 
 bring their proper relations before consciousness. This in- 
 volves three things on the part of the teacher: (1) the selec- 
 tion of proper materials of instruction; (2) the articulation 
 and arrangement of the same; and (3) its proper presenta- 
 tion. The first depends upon the aim of the lesson, the 
 second upon the child's experiences, and the third upon a 
 proper observance of mental laws. In the first we are con- 
 cerned with the course of study, in the second with the les- 
 son plan in general, and in the third with the teaching steps. 
 
 Give the meaning of reciprocal actions. What are the materials of 
 instruction? How is the aim of the lesson determined? What mental 
 laws must be observed? Explain the meaning of "teacher" in the 
 above. — De Gabmo; McMukht. 
 
 It has been shown that the circle of thought is made up of 
 experience and intercourse. The original sources of all 
 mental hfe are found in it, and aU ideas which serve as 
 an apperceptive basis are gained from it. The outer world 
 of reaUty is a unity, and the inner world of conscious experi- 
 ence must grow as a unity. The course of study is a cross- 
 section of the outer world, related and arranged, and follow- 
 ing the apperceiving basis of the child's mind. There are 
 two main divisions: (1) the historical, including history, 
 literature, language, and art, as the products of man's inter- 
 course with his fellows; and (2) the natural, including nat- 
 ural science and mathematics, which result from the ex- 
 periences gained by man in his contact with nature. The 
 
Herbart and the Science of Education 119 
 
 first of these soiorces supplies the ideas which arouse the in- 
 terests of sympathy; the second, the interests of knowledge. 
 
 The Couksb op Study 
 
 1. Man 2. Nature 
 
 Humanistic Realistic 
 
 a. History, b. Art c. Lan- a. Geography b. Nat- c. Mathe- 
 including guages ural Science matics 
 
 Literature 
 
 Expression 
 
 In arranging the subjects in the course of study with ref- 
 erence to each other and the sequence by years or grades, 
 two principles of relationship must be observed: (1) cor- 
 relation — the relation which one subject in any given year 
 bears to the other subjects in the same year; and (2) se- 
 quence — the relation which it bears to the same subject in 
 both the preceding and the succeeding year. 
 
 It is suggested that at this point the student take up the subject of 
 correlation and also the Culture Epoch Theory. The following refer- 
 ences are recommended: Boone; Vandewalkbk; Hebbaht Yeab 
 Books; (z) De Garmo; (y) Harris; Lttkens; McMurrt. 
 
 Herbart mentions four steps in instruction: (1) clearness, 
 or the apprehension of the single object; (2) association, or 
 an elementary stage in the process of apperception; (3) sys- 
 tem, or the step in which each part of that which is learned 
 finds its proper place in relation to the other parts; and (4) 
 method, the well-ordered self-activity in the solution of 
 tasks and in investigation under leadership of the teacher. 
 His successors have modified and extended this. Rein's 
 statement concerning the teaching process is that the aim 
 of the lesson should first be set forth. He sajrs, "It is an 
 imnatural condition if the pupil works and overtaxes him- 
 self without knowing the goal toward which he is striving." 
 
120 Studies in tlie History of Modem Education 
 
 Teaching being a process of mental development divides 
 itself into steps: (1) the gaining of a clear sense perception 
 (Anschauung) ; and (2) the development of an abstract idea 
 out of this perception. The first is a process of appercep- 
 tion by which an individtial notion is formed; the second is 
 a process of abstraction by which a general notion is formed. 
 Each of these steps naturally divides itself into two others. 
 It is necessary in the process of apperception first to arouse 
 such old ideas as the child may have and bring them into 
 the child's circle of thought that they may be ready for the 
 new ideas that are afterwards presented. One act is ana- 
 lytic, the other synthetic. In the abstraction or idea-forming 
 process there must first be an association or comparison of 
 the newly gained ideas with the old, and this is followed by 
 a complete separation of the concrete and the abstract, 
 which must afterwards be expressed in a formal statement. 
 A fifth step is now necessary; in this the process of knowing 
 finds application in an act of the will. Knowledge must be 
 translated into the ability to do. 
 
 What principle should govern in stating the aim of a lesson? Try to 
 discover these formal steps from your experience in learning. State 
 objections to the use of the formal steps. What are the advantages of 
 their use? What is a lesson plan? Why is one necessary? 
 
 The Formal Steps of the Teaching Process 
 
 Knowing Doing 
 
 Concrete Perception Abstract Thinking Abstract and Concrete 
 
 Individual Notion General Notion Application 
 
 The Old The New Comparison Fixing Practice 
 
 Analysis Synthesis Association System Function 
 
 I 11 III IV V 
 
 Preparat'n Pres'n Association General'n Application 
 
 Clearness of Instruction Forming Ideas Realization 
 
Herbart and the Science of Education 121 
 
 How do the theories of Pestalozzi and of Herbart agree? " Herbart's 
 theory of interest is illogical. " Explain. How is manual training based 
 on Herbartian principles? What is the Herbartian basis of correlation? 
 What is the difference between the development of individuality as an 
 aim in education and as a social aim? Contrast the conception of mind 
 held by Herbart and that held by Pestalozzi. What did Herbart owe 
 to Rousseau? What was Kant's educational philosophy? Is Her- 
 bartianism applicable to higher education? — ^Monboe; Hebbabt YEtit 
 Books; (x) Rein; Habbis; (y) De Qabmo. 
 
 Summary 
 
 Herbart was a philosopher educator. As a philosopher 
 he was influenced by Kant and Fichte. In education his 
 point of departure was Pestalozzi. He was an inteUectual- 
 ist and an individualist. His place has become a perma- 
 nent one because he applied philosophy to education. He 
 used the methods of the philosopher to solve the problem of 
 the educator. 
 
 His problem was a threefold one: to write a new psy- 
 chology, to point out a way of applying this to education, 
 and to show how instruction could be brought to bear upon 
 the development of moral character. In solving this prob- 
 lem he formulated a science of education. In doing this he 
 gave a permanency to the movement begun by Locke, de- 
 scribed by Rousseau, and made concrete by Pestalozzi. 
 
 His main principles may be stated as follows: 
 
 1. Education is individualistic. Social ends are reached 
 through the individual. 
 
 2. Education must find its foundation in experience. 
 The aim is found in ethics and the method in psychology. 
 Herbart reformed psychology and founded social ethics. 
 
 3. The aim of education is morality or virtue. 
 
122 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 4. The method of instruction is found in the doctrine of 
 apperception. 
 
 5. Will depends upon interest. Interest in turn depends 
 upon ideas — the kind of ideas represented and the way in 
 which they are assimilated. 
 
 6. The child's development follows the development of 
 the world. 
 
 7. The work of the teacher is threefold : (o) to select the 
 proper materials of instruction, (b) to relate and arrange the 
 same, and (c) to present this material in such a way as to 
 arouse many-sided interest. 
 
 Modern education has been influenced by Herbart along 
 a few definite hues : 
 
 1. Many training schools are conducted according to 
 Herbartian methods and teachers are scientifically trained. 
 The lesson plan and the formal steps are used in teaching. 
 
 2. Much of the psychology used in professional training 
 is essentially Herbartian. 
 
 3. Courses of study have been rationalized, enriched and 
 purified — an application of correlation and the culture 
 epoch theory. 
 
 4. Many modem text-books have been written according 
 to Herbartian principles. 
 
 5. Children are governed by means of interest aroused 
 by the ideas presented in the instruction. 
 
Cupijriy/it bij Milton Dnuitey Company. Used lnj pennibbtun 
 FRIEDRICH FROEBEL 
 
CHAPTER V 
 FROEBEL AND THE KINDERGARTEN 
 
 Educational systems and school organization, when re- 
 garded from the vantage ground of the twentieth century, 
 have the appearance of design. They seem to have devel- 
 oped from the lowest grade of the elementary school through 
 all the steps leading to the imiversity, according to a care- 
 fully arranged plan. There is a perfect articulation of all 
 the parts. Each fits into the other nicely, and all unite to 
 make what appears to be one great and complete unitary 
 system. 
 
 The evolution of an educational system is, in reality, the 
 opposite of the process stated above. The history of edu- 
 cational systems shows that they are not the product of 
 design nor the result of a prearranged plan, but that they 
 come into being merely because of necessity. From the 
 standpoint of the university there was perceived the need 
 for a preparatory school, and it came into existence; and the 
 same is true of each of the other schools. In the end each 
 department of education is organized, and each part is ad- 
 justed to every other part. This was not the work of any one 
 man nor of any one group of men, but some one, conscious 
 of the spirit and ideal of his age, and having an organism 
 fitted by nature to make use of his environment, expressed 
 this ideal and so appears to have originated a system. On 
 the contrary, however, he is only one link in the chain of 
 
 123 
 
124 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 cause and effect in expressing and organizing an ideal of 
 civilization. 
 
 It is an interesting fact that organized education is ante- 
 dated by the philosopher. In one century a great system 
 of philosophy is developed and matured; in the next century 
 abstract ideas and truths are tested in the institutions of 
 civilization and their worth there proved. But what is 
 philosophy and who is the philosopher? Philosophy at- 
 tempts to formulate a rational statement of man's personal 
 attitude toward the more serious affairs of life. We philos- 
 ophize when we reflect critically upon what we are actually 
 doing in life, or are asking ourselves what the passions, 
 faiths, successes, and doubts of life mean. He who formu- 
 lates all this accumulated experience into a rational whole, 
 according to a method, produces a system of philosophy 
 that may be applied to the regulation of affairs of state, 
 church, school, or personal life. Descartes, Spinoza, Leib- 
 nitz, Locke, Kant, Fichte, Herbart, and others are repre- 
 sentative men of this class, and their systems, when studied 
 and related one to the other, indicate the attempts on the 
 part of such to discover a solution for three great problems 
 of life: What is reality? How are its parts related to each 
 other? How do the answers inflioence men's conduct? 
 Comenius, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and Froebel, as opposed te 
 those named above, lived a philosophy but lacked a method, 
 and so formulated no system. They expressed their phil- 
 osophy in their schools. The others employed their sys- 
 tems in a scientific way, applying them to institutions of 
 every kind, — Herbart especially to education and schools. 
 This process has resulted in the formation of a science of 
 government, of religion, and of education. 
 
 Before the time of Comenius, with few exceptions, the 
 
Froebel and the Kindergarten 125 
 
 interest in education had been confined to the universities, 
 and while Comenius did much for elementary education, he 
 was more interested in his pansophic scheme as it concerned 
 higher education. Pestalozzi and Herbart had directed 
 their best thoughts toward the reform and upbuilding of the 
 elementary school. The spirit and tendency of the times 
 were in this direction. 
 
 As civilization had advanced and new governments and 
 new institutions had arisen in conformity to an ever ex- 
 panding ideal, the attention of men of thought and action 
 had been directed from man as such, destined for eternity 
 and living only that he might fulfill this end, to the child 
 destined to be a man, hving in the world and for the world 
 and for humanity. Both philosopher and educator gradu- 
 ally came to see that the man is the developed child. 
 
 The first attempts made to place education on a scientific 
 basis were made from the standpoint of the adult. Come- 
 nius was the foimder of modern educational method, not 
 because he possessed much knowledge of child nature, but 
 because he made clear the necessity of such knowledge. 
 Rousseau made clear the error of this when he said, "We 
 do not understand children and the first need of the teacher 
 is an luiderstanding of child nature." He inspired Pesta- 
 lozzi, who, by basing all teaching on sense perception, took 
 a step in advance. Herbart brought the strength of his 
 psychology to bear upon method and so came nearer to the 
 truth. But no one had yet seen that between the home and 
 the school an important and critical period of human fife 
 intervenes. At this point the genius of Froebel was mani- 
 fested, and in this is to be found his great contribution 
 to the world, his service to childhood. 
 
126 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 Bibliography 
 
 In asking for books at the library, call for titles printed in Italics. 
 
 Barnard, Henry — Kindergarten and Child Culture Papers. 
 
 (x) Barnard, Henry — Froebel's System of Infant Gardens; Bar- 
 nard's Jour., II, 449-451. 
 
 Bbust, F. — The Fundamental Theories of Pestalozzi and Froebel; 
 Educ., Ill, 42-57. 
 
 Blow, Susan E. — Symbolic Education. 
 
 (x) Blow, Susan E. — Kindergarten Education; Education in the 
 U. S., Monograph No. 2, Vol. I. 
 
 (y) Blow, Susan E. — The Kindergarten Ideal of Nurture; Rep. U. 
 S. Com. of Educ., 190^, I, 594-602. 
 
 BowEN, H. C. — Froebel and Education through Self- Activity. 
 
 BucHNER, Edw. F. — ^Froebel from a Psychological Standpoint; Educ., 
 XV, 105-113, 169-173. 
 
 BtTTLER, Nicholas Murray — Some Criticisms of the Kindergarten; 
 Educ. Rev., XVIII, 285-291. 
 
 Carter, M. H. — The Kindergarten Child after the Kindergarten; 
 Atlantic, LXXXIII, 358-86. 
 
 CoMPAYRB, Gabriel — History of Pedagogy, 446-465. 
 
 EucKEN, Rudolph — The Philosophy of Froebel; The Forum, XXX, 
 172. 
 
 Froebel, Fh. — Autobiography (trans, by Lucy Wheelock) ; Barnard's 
 Jour., XXX, 643-670. 
 
 Froebel, Fr. — Autobiography (trans, by Emilie Michaelis and H. 
 Keatley Moore). 
 
 (x) Froebel, Pr. — Education of Man (trans, by W. N. Hailman). 
 
 (y) Froebel, Fr. — Mothers' Songs, Games, and Stories (trans, by F. 
 and E. Lord). 
 
 (z) Froebel, Fr. — Education by Devehpmenl (trans, by Josephine 
 Jarvis). 
 
 (w) Froebel, Fr. — Mutter und Kose Ldeder. 
 
 Hailman, W. N. — Bearings of Froebel's Work; Educ, III, 185-191. 
 
 (x) Hailman, W. N. — From Pestalozzi to Froebel; Proc. N. E. A., 
 1880, 128-137. 
 
 Herford, William H. — The Student's Froebel. 
 
Froebel and the Kindergarten 127 
 
 HtjGHBS, James L. — Comparison of the Educational Theories of Froe- 
 bel and Herbart; Proc. N. E. A., 1895, 538-551; also Educ. Beo., X, 
 239-247. 
 
 (x) Hughes, James L. — Froebel's Educational Laws. 
 
 Lange, W. — Reminiscences of Froebel; Barnard's Jour., XXX, 833- 
 845. 
 
 MacVannal, John Angus — The Educational Theories of Herbart 
 and Froebel; Teachers' College Record, VI, No. 4, Sept., 1905. 
 
 Makenholz-von Bulow, Baroness — Reminiscences of Fr. Froebel 
 (trans, by Mary Mann). 
 
 Monroe, Paul H. — History of Education, 639-667. 
 
 MuNROE, James P. — The Educational Ideal. 
 
 Quick, R. H. — Essays on Educational Reformers. 
 
 SHraREPF, Emily A. E.— A Short Sketch of the Life of Friedrich Froebel. 
 
 Snider, Denton J. — The Life of Frederick Froebel. 
 
 Welton, Jambs — A Synthesis of Herbart and Froebel; Educ. Rev., 
 XX, 109-122. 
 
 Williams, S. G. — History of Modern Education. 
 
 Note: Perhaps the best book to start with is Froebel and Education 
 through Self- Activity, by Bowen. Read the Autobiography at the same 
 time if possible. The best treatment of his last days is by von Biilow; 
 this also gives one a good insight into his educational doctrine. The 
 book listed above by Barnard is excellent. Compayre's History of 
 Pedagogy has a good chapter, as has also Quick's Essays. Monroe's 
 treatment of the educational doctrine is good. 
 
128 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 Chronological Table 
 
 I. Eably Life and Education (1782-1813). 
 1782 Bom at Oberweissbach, April 21. 
 1792 Went to live with an uncle at Stadtihn. 
 1797 Apprenticed to a forester. 
 1799 Matriculated at the University of Jen^ 
 1802 Death of his father. 
 1805 Became a teach 3r at Frankfurt. 
 Visited Pestalozzi at Yverdon. 
 
 1807 Tutor of three boys. 
 
 1808 Studied under Pestalozzi. 
 
 1811 Student at the universities of Gottingen and Berlin. 
 n. Life as a Soldiek (1813-1816). 
 
 1813 Member of Ltitzow's corps. 
 
 Met Middendorf and Langenthal. 
 
 1814 Became assistant in museum at Berlin. 
 
 III. Life at Griesheim and Keilhau (1816-1829). 
 
 1816 Opened school at Griesheim. 
 
 1817 Removed school to Keilhau. 
 
 1818 Married Wilhemina Hoffmeister. 
 1826 Education of Man. 
 
 Family Journal of Education founded. 
 
 IV. Switzerland Period (1829-1835). 
 1829 School at Wartensee. 
 
 1833 School at Willisau. 
 1835 Orphanage at Burgdorf. 
 V. Blankenbubg Period (1835-1844). 
 
 1837 Opened kindergarten at Blankenburg. 
 1839 Death of his wife. 
 
 1843 Mutter und Kose Lieder. 
 
 1844 School closed. Lectured on the kindergarten. 
 VI. Liebenstein Period (1844-1852). 
 
 1849 Met Baroness Marenholz-von Billow and Diesterweg. 
 1860 Opened training school at Marienthal. 
 1851 Married Louise Levin. 
 The PrussiaoQ Decree. 
 1862 Died, June 21. 
 
130 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 Biography 
 
 We are concerned in our present study with the life of 
 one whose thought showed a rich and rare development from 
 a vague and indefinite notion of unity in the beginning to a 
 clear and perfect conception of reality at the end. His life, 
 far from being simple and uneventful, was filled with action 
 and strivings. To him the reaching out of his inner nature 
 after the inner connection of things had a deeper meaning 
 than environment. His life affords us a picture of that 
 perfect unity which characterizes his philosophy — a philos- 
 ophy' expressed in the kindergarten, and constituting the 
 basis of the modern elementary school. 
 
 Friedrich Wilhehn August Froebel was born April 21, 
 1782, in Oberweissbach, a small village situated in the 
 Thuringian Forest, in the southern part of Germany. His 
 father was a grave, somewhat stern, but kind-hearted man 
 — a Lutheran pastor having the supervision of the churches 
 in several villages. His mother having died when he was 
 an infant, he was left to the care of servants, by whom he 
 was neglected. He was cared for tenderly by his step- 
 mother until she had a son of her own, and then she turned 
 against him, neglecting him in every way, and even treating 
 him as a stranger. As a child Froebel was considered a dull 
 boy. His father, having failed in his attempts to teach him, 
 sent him to a girls' school, where he remained until he was 
 ten years of age. His early life is characterized by three 
 important tendencies: (1) the forming of the habit of 
 
Froebel and the Kindergarten ISJ, 
 
 introspection, (2) his intense rehgious feeling, and' (3) his 
 love of nature. 
 
 Describe Froebel's father. Describe his home. How did it influence 
 the formation of his character? How many brothers had he? How 
 did his step-mother express her feehngs for him? Give his impressions 
 of the girls' school. How was he influenced by it? Why was he sent 
 there? How was the habit of introspection formed? By what religious 
 influences was he surrounded? How did he acquire a love for nature? 
 Contrast his early lite with that of Comenius, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and 
 Herbart. — Autobiography; Bowen; Barnard; (x) Hailman; Quick. 
 
 Having gained the consent of his father, he went, in 1792, 
 to live in the home of an uncle in the village of Stadtilm. 
 He says in his AutoMography: " In my father's house sever- 
 ity reigned supreme; here, on the contrary, mildness and 
 kindness held sway. There I encoimtered mistrust; here I 
 was trusted. There I was under restraint; here I had lib- 
 erty. Hitherto I had hardly ever been with boys of my own 
 age; here I found forty schoolfellows, for I joined the upper 
 class of the town school." The life in his uncle's home 
 presents three aspects: (1) the development of strong moral 
 character out of his religious nature, (2) a development 
 through the external life of play, and (3) the development 
 of his inner life of thought. 
 
 Upon the completion of his course at Stadtilm he re- 
 turned to his father's home. Soon after he was appren- 
 ticed for two years to learn forestry, geometry, and land 
 surveying. His master did little to instruct him, but 
 the boy found many means for self-instruction and moral 
 advancement. At the end of his apprenticeship he again 
 returned to live with his father. 
 
 What did he study at Stadtilm ? Give an account of his life there. 
 Describe his teachers. What business did he wish to follow? Why was 
 he apprenticed to a forester? What was the fourfold aspect of his work 
 
132 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 as an apprentice? What report was made by the forester regarding 
 him? How was his reUgious Ufe affected by his co mm u ni on with 
 nature? — Aviobiography; Shirrepf; Bowen. 
 
 His brother, Traugott, was a student of medicine in the 
 University of Jena, and as the father wished to send him 
 money, Friedrich was chosen to carry it. He became so 
 much interested in the intellectual life of the university that 
 his father consented to his remaining imtil the end of the 
 semester. He possessed a small property which he had 
 inherited from his mother, and he now received permission 
 to realize from it. His father gave him a testimonial cer- 
 tifying to his fitness to pursue imiversity studies, and, in 
 the fall of 1799, he was matriculated as a student of philos- 
 ophy. He Hstened to lectures upon many subjects, but his 
 interest centered about a few. He said, "I desired and 
 sought after some inner connection between the simple 
 phenomena deduced from and explained by some simple 
 root principles." He had loaned money to his brother, 
 and in consequence of its not being repaid to him he foimd 
 himself in serious financial embarrassment. As a result he 
 was confined in the university prison for a period of eight 
 weeks. Upon being freed from arrest, he left the university.' 
 He was then nineteen years of age. 
 
 Give an account of his student lite. Upon what subjects did he hear 
 lectures? What lines of study did he prefer? How did he occupy him- 
 self while in prison? What was the state of the feeling between himself 
 and his father? In what year was Herbart a student at Jena? Did 
 Froebel study philoBophy'l—Autobiography; Shirbbff; Bowen. 
 
 The year following his return from Jena he worked with 
 a farmer, but had no definite purpose with regard to his 
 future career. Very shortly after, he was called home on 
 account of the failing health of his father, who died in 1802. 
 
Froebel and the Kindergarten 133 
 
 Froebel was now left to his own resources, and for three 
 years he was engaged in Bamberg as a clerk, secretary, and 
 bookkeeper. On the death of his uncle, Hoffman, with 
 whom he had lived at StadtUm, he came into possession of 
 a legacy, and this made a settled profession possible. In 
 1805 he settled at Frankfurt-on-Main with the intention of 
 preparing himself to be an architect. 
 
 How was he influenced by one of Schelling's books? What other 
 books did he read? Why did he select the profession of an architect? 
 How was he influenced by the death of his father? What changes had 
 taken place in his mental life? — Autobiography; Shihbeff; Bo'.ven. 
 
 Shortly after his arrival in Frankfurt he formed the ac- 
 quaintance of Dr. Griiner, the headmaster of a Model 
 School and a former pupil of Pestalozzi. Acting upon 
 Griiner's advice he gave up the idea of studying architec- 
 ture and became a teacher. Before entering upon his work 
 in the school he spent three weeks visiting Pestalozzi at 
 Yverdon, and was so deeply impressed with what he saw 
 and heard that he resolved to spend more time in studying 
 the methods employed there. This opportunity came two 
 years later. After leaving Dr. Griiner's school he became 
 a tutor to three boys and was permitted to take them to 
 Yverdon, where he remaiaed two years. In this way he 
 came to know and to understand the theory and practice 
 of Pestalozzianism. He saw the necessity for a better 
 preparation for the work of his chosen profession, and in 
 consequence the years 1811 and 1812 were spent in study 
 at the imiversities of Gottingen and Berlin. 
 
 Describe his first visit to Pestalozzi. How did Pestalozzi influence 
 him? What did he teach in Griiner's school? Describe his experiences 
 as tutor of the three boys. Compare this with Herbart's experience as 
 a tutor. What influence did nature have upon Froebel? Point out the 
 
134 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 principles of the Pestalozzian method that served as Froebel's starting 
 point. How did Froebel criticize Pestalozzi? What did Froebel study- 
 in the universities? What were his views on religion? On nature? 
 On education? — Autobiography; Bowen; Barnard's Jour., XXXI, 
 49-68; Baknabd. 
 
 When, in 1813, the call came to the German patriots to 
 defend Prussia against Napoleon, Froebel joined the army 
 and was assigned to the famous Liitzow corps. His regi- 
 ment saw no active service, and, peace being signed the fol- 
 lowing year, he returned to Berlin and became an assistant 
 in a mineralogical museum. His army experience was of 
 great importance because of the acquaintance with Langen- 
 thal and Middendorf, with whom he formed a friendship 
 which continued for life. They became his valued assist- 
 ants and did much to carry on his work. ' 
 
 What was the cause of this war? How was Froebel impressed by the 
 army? What were his duties in the museum? Of what value was this 
 experience? In what way was this related to his symbolism? Give a 
 short sketch of Middendorf and Langenthal. — ^Baenabd; Bowen; 
 Langb. 
 
 Having completed his work at the museum, Froebel 
 removed to Griesheim^ near his home, for the purpose of 
 opening a school to be known as the Universal German 
 Educational Institute. The following year the school w.ip 
 transferred to Keilhau, where it was continued until 1829. 
 Langenthal, Middendorf, and later Barop assisted him. At 
 first the school prospered, but on account of the suspicions 
 aroused concerning all new movements because of the or- 
 ganization of the German students, the government caused 
 the school to be inspected. The report of the inspectors 
 was not unfavorable, still from that time the institute grad- 
 ually declined. In 1818, he was married to Henrietta 
 
Froebel and the Kindergarten 135 
 
 Wilhelmina Hoffmeister, a woman in every way worthy of 
 him and one who proved a faithful helper in his great work. 
 In 1826, The Education of Man was pubUshed and The 
 Family Journal of Education founded. 
 
 What was the origin of the Griesheim school? Why was it moved to 
 Keilhau? Give an account of the report of the government inspectors. 
 What were the student organizations? Describe the school. Why was 
 it closed? What lesson did Froebel learn by this experience? Who 
 was Barop? — Aittobiography; Baknabd; Bowen. 
 
 In 1829, Froebel went to Switzerland to live. He first 
 opened a school at Wartensee, but meeting with clerical 
 opposition, he moved it to WiUisau. Soon after Froebel 
 accepted an invitation from the government to deUver a 
 course of lectures to teachers and to open an orphan school 
 at Burgdorf. The lectures were received with favor and 
 the experiences in the orphan school suggested to him the 
 idea of the kindergarten. The failing health of his wife, 
 who died in 1839, soon made it necessary for him to return 
 to Germany. 
 
 What were Proebel's relations with the Duke of Meiningen? Why 
 did he go to Switzerland? Who accompanied him? With what oppo- 
 sition did he meet? At what time was Pestalozzi at Burgdorf? De- 
 scribe Froebel's Burgdorf school and compare it with Festalozzi's, — 
 Avtohiography; Barnabd; Bowen. (See map, p. 78.) 
 
 While at Keilhau, in 1837, he decided to open a school 
 especially for the education of young children. This school 
 was opened in the village of Blankenbiu-g imder the name 
 Anstalt fiir Kleinkinderpflege, which name was afterwards 
 changed to kindergarten. From the beginning the school 
 attracted the attention of people of prominence, but owing 
 to poor management, it was closed in 1844. The Mutter 
 
136 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 und Kose Lieder was published during this period. He now 
 traveled over Germany, visiting the most prominent cities 
 lecturing to teachers and mothers on the subject of educa- 
 tion in explanation of the kindergarten idea. 
 
 How did the kindergarten receive its name? What is the Mutter und 
 Kose Lieder? What cities did Froebel visit? What method did he 
 employ to get his ideas before the people? With what result? Name 
 other great educational events that occurred in 1837. — Autobiography; 
 Barnard; Bowen. 
 
 In 1849, Froebel took up his residence at Liebenstein, a 
 small village famed for its mineral springs, which attracted 
 annually many people of wealth. • Among the first with 
 whom he became acquainted were Baroness Marenholz-von 
 Bulow and the celebrated educator Diesterweg. They were 
 attracted by his educational theories and became his advo- 
 cates and disciples. It had been his intention to open a 
 training school at this place, but von Biilow's influence se- 
 cured from the Duke of Weimar the use of a country house 
 admirably adapted to this purpose, located at Marienthal, 
 not far from Liebenstein. It was here that he opened his 
 training school for teachers and established a new Weekly 
 Journal of Education. In 1851 he was married to Louise 
 Levin who had been one of his assistants. 
 
 Here Froebel spent his last days in teaching and lecturing, 
 but not in peace. The unfortunate circumstances con- 
 nected with the Prussian Decree did much to sadden his 
 hfe. He died June 21, 1852, and was buried in the church- 
 yard at Schweina near Marienthal. His grave is marked by 
 a monument composed of a cube on which rests a cylinder 
 surmounted by a sphere. On the face of the cube we may 
 read: "Friedrich Froebel, born at Oberweissbach, April 
 21, 1782; died at Marienthal, June 21, 1852." Across the 
 
Froebel and the Kindergarten 137 
 
 cylinder are inscribed his own words, "Come, let us live 
 with our children." 
 
 Give an account of Diesterweg's work as an educator. Under what 
 circumstances did Froebel meet Baroness von Billow? Who was Louise 
 Levin? Why did the Prussian government issue the Decree? When 
 was it revoked? How did it affect Froebel? How was the work of 
 Froebel extended after his death? Name his assistants and helpers.^ — 
 Barnard; von BiJlow; Lange. 
 
 The following table will indicate the interesting relation- 
 ships that were established in the Froebel family : 
 
 John Jacob Froebel 
 
 t 
 
 Cristoph, 
 
 Christian lAidvng, Fribdrich, Aitgust, TraugoU, Karl 
 
 Julius 
 
 Ferdinand 
 
 Karl 
 
 William — ^Wilhehnina Hoffmeister 
 
 Theodore 
 
 Albertine-Middendorf Emestine-Langenthal 
 
 
 Alwin-La,nge — ^Louise Levin 
 
 
 EmUie-Barop 
 
 
 Elsie-SchaSer 
 
 Educational Doctrine 
 
 Two events which occurred in the life of Froebel, although 
 unimportant in themselves perhaps, indicate the direc- 
 tion of his interests and suggest the genesis of some of his 
 views and educational theories. After he left the Univer- 
 sity of Jena a friend placed ScheUing's Bruno, or the World 
 Soul, in his hands. After reading it he said, "What I 
 read in that book moved me profoundly." After the Keil- 
 hau school had closed, in company with Middendorf he 
 visited Gottingen. While here, Professor Krause called his 
 attention to one of Comenius's writings which treated of 
 the earliest education of children. The first of these books 
 
138 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 OUTLINE OP FKOEBEL S EDUCATIONAL DOCTEINE 
 
Froebel and the Kindergarten 139 
 
 contains the fundamental idea of his religious doctrine, 
 the other the basic idea of the kindergarten. 
 
 Froebel's educational doctrine is an outgrowth of his phil- 
 osophy which had developed gradually throughout his life. 
 He was an intensely religious man who practiced his 
 rehgion daily. His whole life was one of striving, a con- 
 stant endeavor to penetrate the mystery of the connection 
 between the harmony and the unity of the universe. The 
 crowning act of his life was the establishment of an institu- 
 tion whereby a little child might be led gradually into a con- 
 sciousness of the great and eternal unity. 
 
 The Education of Man was published in Keilhau in 1826. 
 It is his most important writing, and through its study we 
 may come to a knowledge of his entire system of education, 
 as well as of his philosophy. Here he gives us his views 
 concerning God and the universe. Here we read of his 
 theory of evolution and of its application to the education 
 of a child. He tells us of the principle of self-activity, and 
 of its relation to play and the power of creation. And 
 finally he points out how, by means of nature and by the 
 application of certain fundamental principles, human beings 
 come to self-realization in harmony with the imiverse. 
 
 The Mutter und Kose Ldeder, or Songs for the Mother and 
 Nursery, was pubhshed in 1843. This book represents 
 practical experience gained in the kindergarten, and, in a 
 sense, is a practical guidebook for mothers and teachers. 
 The songs and games each have a meaning in the develop- 
 ment of the child. They are intended to awaken self- 
 activity, to encourage and direct development, and finally 
 to lead to power and skill. 
 
 Make a study of these books, and show how the principles stated in 
 one are applied in the other. — ^Bowen; Beust; Hughes. 
 
140 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 The mastery of a few principles will make clear the theory 
 and application of Froebel's entire educational doctrine. 
 His starting point is the child and his goal is the universe. 
 The soul, Or that which is internal, is united to nature, which 
 is external, by the cogency of life and by obedience to a great 
 and eternal law. In accordance with the laws of his own 
 being the child must develop under the guidance and direc- 
 tion of another. That which at first is objective must be- 
 come subjective. The outer world of experience becomes 
 an inner world of reality, and realization comes through 
 the developed consciousness of self. 
 
 Explain the terms "subjective" and "objective." Compare the 
 view stated above with that of Herbart. Define self-consciousness. 
 What is the universe? Froebel is a voluntarist. Explain. — MacVan- 
 nel; Eucken; Buchner; Monroe. 
 
 " In all things there lives and reigns an eternal law. To 
 him whose mind, through disposition and faith, is filled, 
 penetrated, and quickened with the necessity that this can- 
 not be otherwise, as weU as to him whose clear, calm mental 
 vision beholds the inner in the outer and through the outer, 
 and sees the outer proceeding with logical necessity from 
 the essence of the inner, — this law has been and is an- 
 nounced with equal clearness and distinctness in nature 
 (the external), in spirit (the internal), and in life which 
 unites the two. This all-pervading law is necessarily based 
 on an all-pervading, energetic, living, self-conscious, and 
 hence eternal Unity. This fact, as well as the Unity itself, 
 is again vividly recognized, either through faith or through 
 insight, with equal clearness and comprehensiveness; there- 
 fore, a quietly observant human mind, a thoughtful, clear, 
 human intellect, has never failed and never will fail to recog- 
 nize the Unity. This Unity is God. All things have come 
 
Froebel and the Kindergarten 141 
 
 from the Divine Unity, from God, and have their origin in 
 the Divine Unity, in God alone. God is the sole source of 
 all things. In all things there lives and reigns the Divine 
 Unity, God. AH things live and have their being in and 
 through the; Divine Unity, in and through Grod. AH things 
 are only through the diAdne effluence that lives in them. 
 The divine effluence that lives in each thing is the essence of 
 each thing." — Education of Man. 
 
 In this opening paragraph of the Education of Man, 
 Froebel formulates his conception of reaUty or the universe, 
 and of the individual's relation to it. The world is a per- 
 fectly organized unity with law as the determining princi- 
 ple. The world or universe consists of imits or individuals 
 differing from each other. Each is independent in itself 
 and at the same time a part of, and dependent upon the 
 whole. Ultimately it is the destiny of each one to come into 
 a harmonious relation with nature — man and God. The 
 individual reaUzes self through his own activity — " the es- 
 sence of the inner." This realization is accomplished 
 through the process of evolution or development. By this 
 process the individual is so changed that he becomes differ- 
 ent from his former self, while still remaining a unit. The 
 structure becomes more complex, and power and skill are in- 
 creased. The law of education is the law of relation or 
 " inner connectedness," the process is that of development, 
 and the method of the process is self-activity. 
 
 " Education consists in leading man as a thinking, intel- 
 lectual being, growing into self-consciousness, to a pure and 
 unsullied, free representation of the inner law of Divine 
 Unity, and in teaching him ways and means thereto." 
 
 "The essential business of the school is not so much to 
 teach and to communicate a variety and multipUcity of 
 
142 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 things as it is to ^ve prominence to the ever living unity 
 that is in all things." 
 
 Every child discovers himself in the midst of a twofold 
 environment. He finds himself the center of a small circle 
 which comprises his real world — the universe. Education 
 must enlarge this circle. On the one hand he touches na- 
 ture, and on the other he lives in his inherited institutions 
 under law. These constitute the conditions under which 
 development is possible. But in order that this develop- 
 ment may take place, all the natural powers of the soul must 
 awaken into activity. By means of this self-activity the 
 soul unites with nature — comes to a knowledge of it. De- 
 velopment must be continuous. Every part must be related 
 to every other part, and the individual must feel himself 
 related to his reality, his universe. Development must be 
 connected. Knowledge must come as a whole. The en- 
 vironment is not regarded in its parts, but as a whole. As 
 the great world of nature constitutes one unity, so all knowl- 
 edge must of necessity be connected. Facts are not knowl- 
 edge. It is only when they are organized and related that 
 they may be regarded as such. It is, therefore, the work 
 of the teacher and the business of teaching to place the child 
 in the institutions in which he is to live, and to present to 
 him such material, of instruction taken from nature, in 
 such a sequence that development is certain. 
 
 What is man's relation to nature? Distinguish between development 
 and growth. What is the difference between the "inner connection" 
 of Froebel and the "correlation" of Herbart? — (x) Hughes; Buchnek; 
 Bowbn; Hailman. 
 
 Every sense impression must find a motor expression, 
 and the ideas and thoughts to be expressed must come from 
 the outer world, wherein the inner world reahzes itself. 
 
Froebel and the Kindergarten 143 
 
 Environment furnishes the material of knowledge, and the 
 child, by relating and expressing this material, converts it 
 into knowledge. Geography, history, hterature, and art, 
 as such, mean nothing to the child. He hves in the institu- 
 tions of man, and it is only as he comes in contact with 
 nature and finds opportunity to express himself ia these in- 
 stitutions, that he relates his experiences and makes his own 
 classification of reality. 
 
 How did institutions originate? How did man gain control of 
 nature? How does a child realize himself? What is the meaning of 
 "inner world"? How are experiences related? Show how geography 
 comprises the whole environment of the chUd. — ^Monboe; (x) Huqhes; 
 Barnard ; von Bulow. 
 
 Play is the only mode by which the human being in the 
 earliest stages of his development gives expression to the 
 inner activity of ideas previously gained in his environment. 
 In play, activity is not directed towards an end or aim for 
 its own sake, but for gratification and self-realization. The 
 play of a little child reveals the earUest beginnings of a voca- 
 tion. This is because of the fundamental law of self-activ- 
 ity, whereby the relations between the different parts of a 
 thing or of one thing to another are discovered. The prac- 
 tical application of this principle results in creativeness, by 
 the agency of which new forms and combinations are made 
 and ideas and mental images are given definite expression. 
 The gifts and occupations of the kindergarten are organized 
 means to this end. 
 
 What is the difference between play and work? What are the psycho- 
 logical steps in a creative act? What part does imitation play in this 
 act? Compare this with Herbart's theory of interest. What are the 
 gifts, and what are the occupations of the kindergarten? — Butler; 
 Carter; Beust; Hughes; MacVannal; Wblton. 
 
144 Studies in tlie History of Modern Education 
 
 The child is an organized, self-active being. God is the 
 inner essence of his being. By the law of his being he de- 
 velops and ever widens the horizon of his environment until 
 at last he contemplates God in the universe of nature. By 
 placing himself in harmony with man and the institutions 
 he perceives the Divine Unity and realizes himself as a part 
 of the great law — of reality itself. 
 
 How does man place himself in hannony with man? How is God 
 the inner essence of being? Is God identical with nature? Was 
 Froebel a pantheist? Explain. — MacVajstnal; Hughes; Euckbn; 
 Paulsen, 232. 
 
 The following selections, taken from the Education of 
 Man, will serve to elaborate the principles stated above, or 
 they will afford excellent material for classroom discussion. 
 
 " Education, in instructing and training originally and in 
 its first principles, should necessarily be passive, following 
 with due protection; not prescriptive, categorical, nor inter- 
 fering." 
 
 " In good education, in genuine instruction, in true train- 
 ing, necessity should call forth freedom; law, self-determina- 
 tion; external compulsion, inner free-wiU; external hate, 
 inner love." 
 
 "All true education in training and instruction should, 
 therefore, at every moment, in every demand and regula- 
 tion, be simultaneously double-sided, — giving and taking, 
 active and passive." 
 
 " Play is the highest phase of child development, for it is 
 self-active representation of the inner from necessity and 
 impulse. Play is the purest, most spiritual activity of man 
 at this stage, and at the same time typical of human life as a- 
 whole — of the inner hidden natural life in man and all 
 
Froebel and the Kindergarten 145 
 
 things. It gives, therefore, joy, freedom, contentment, 
 inner and outer rest, and peace with the world. It holds 
 the som-ce of all that is good." 
 
 " To give firmness to the wiU, to quicken it and to make it 
 pure, strong, and enduring in a life of pure humanity, is the 
 chief concern, the main object in the guidance of the boy, 
 in instruction and the school." 
 
 "What formerly the child did only for the sake of the 
 activity, the boy now does for the sake of the result or prod- 
 uct of his activity: the child's instinct of activity has in the 
 boy become a formative instinct." 
 
 Write a character sketch of Froebel. What principles of Froebel 
 may be applied to the grades above the kindergart;en? How does the 
 training received by a child in the kindergarten better fit him for work 
 in the grades? Trace the meaning of the term nature from Comenius 
 to Froebel. What events in his life had an influence in shaping Froebel 's 
 educational theory? In what ways are the theories of Froebel and 
 Herbart alike, and in what ways different? — MacVannai; Quick; 
 Bowen; (y) Blow; von BUlow; Hughes; (x) Hailman. 
 
 Summary 
 
 Froebel's educational doctrines are an outgrowth of his 
 philosophy of life, and his theories are far-reaching in their 
 application to all phases of education and life. 
 
 His greatest service to education is the kindergarten. 
 This institution has foimd a permanent place in our edu- 
 cational system, and its spirit and principles are fast 
 permeating every grade of the common school. 
 
 Froebel starts with the universe which is conceived as a 
 single organic unity having its being in a single principle — 
 law — God. The end of man is to come into harmonious 
 relation with nature, with humanity, and with God. He 
 
146 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 must develop by means of his self-activity in the institutions 
 of civilization. 
 
 The child comes to a realization of self by the exercise of 
 this activity in the home, school, society, church, and state. 
 These constitute the means of education. 
 
 The child is an acting and creating being. Knowledge 
 must grow out of action. The ultimate in education, there- 
 fore, is to attain to a complete reahzation of self, in the unity 
 of man, nature, and God. 
 
 The prime principle in education is the law of inner con- 
 nection and the means for development is self-activity. 
 The manifestation of this is seen in play, by means of which 
 the child becomes creative. 
 
 Froebel's four leading principles are as foUows: 
 
 1. Education and instruction demand a developing 
 method. The school must provide the means and assist 
 the child to realize self. 
 
 2. The instruction must take hold of the wiU of the child. 
 Every sensory impression must have a motor expression. 
 Knowledge must be applied. 
 
 3. There must be an education of the whole man. 
 
 4. Education must bring the child into a harmonious 
 relation with God, man, and nature. 
 

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 HORACE MANN 
 Froin a painting in tlje Westfield, Massachusetts, Normal Scljool 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 HORACE MAim AND SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 
 
 At the time. of the birth of Horace Mann, Pestalozzi, a 
 man of 'fifty years, was living with the poor at Neuhof, and 
 was just about to enter upon the real work of his life. Her- 
 bart, a young man of twenty, was a student at the Univer- 
 sity of Jena. Froebel, a boy of fourteen, had just completed 
 his work in the elementary school. Rousseau had been 
 dead eighteen years, and the school at Saros Patak had been 
 closed one hundred fifty years. 
 
 For a century and a half Harvard College and the Boston 
 Latin School had been in existence. There were common 
 schools, it is true, but they belonged to a civilization that 
 was neither European nor American. Our nation had par- 
 tially forgotten the terrors and was slowly recovering from 
 the disasters of the Revolutionary War. There was en- 
 couragement everywhere because the new and heretofore 
 untried experiment in government was proving successful. 
 New conditions were springing up, and new ideals which 
 were gradually assuming shape in new social and educa- 
 tional institutions were forming. Between 1830 and 1860 
 these new ideals assumed definite form in what is known as 
 the American Educational Renaissance. 
 
 The first and greatest care of the early colonists had been 
 for education and by one of their first acts of legislation they 
 had established the common school. They had brought 
 
 147 
 
148 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 with them to America the European systems of two cen- 
 turies previous, and a state church practically supervised 
 and controlled education. This European ideal of educa- 
 tion was the ideal of the colonists until the Revolution, and 
 for this reason we find that cities like Boston patterned 
 their schools after Eaton and Rugby. From Harvard Col- 
 lege down to the district school the controlling ideas were 
 British. When it is recalled that a large number of the 
 early colonists were men of education and culture, gradu- 
 ates of Oxford or Cambridge, it can be easily understood 
 how all this came about. 
 
 Another powerful influence in educational life was the 
 sharp distinction that from the first had been emphasized in 
 the social life of the rich and the poor. Class lines were 
 closely drawn between the wealthy and the poor, the edu- 
 cated and the uneducated. People could not easily forget 
 the glamour that gathered about nobility. In consequence 
 of this there were here, as in Europe, two distinct classes of 
 schools. The children of the wealthy and educated were 
 sent to private schools and colleges, or they received their 
 elementary training under a tutor, afterwards being sent to 
 England to finish their education. The children of the poor, 
 on the contrary, were of necessity obliged to attend the 
 common school, and as this was supported by those who did 
 not patronize it, it sometimes became almost as bad as no 
 school at all. 
 
 Such was the tendency in education at the time of the 
 Revolution, With the restoration of peace the schools be- 
 came less and less efficient and were regarded with still 
 greater indifference. As has been said, the church had, to a 
 great extent, controlled education, but with the Revolu- 
 tionary Wfir there came a religious demoralization, which in 
 
Horace Mann and School Administration 149 
 
 due time caused a revolt against the way in which religious 
 training had been conducted. 
 
 Such a thing as the pedagogical supervision of schools and 
 education had not been known, and a public institution for 
 the training of teachers had never been thought of. But 
 with the early days of the nineteenth century there ap- 
 peared a small group of cultured men who saw clearly the 
 untold worth to a repubUcan form of government of the 
 New England idea of a system of universal education, with 
 schools established, supported, and supervised by the whole 
 people. 
 
 These men prepared the way for the great educational 
 revival of 1837) which became so far-reaching in its effects 
 that its influence was felt to some extent in every state of 
 the Union. Its results were permanent, and everyone 
 finally came to believe in education as the only safeguard of 
 a free republic. It was next necessary to show that what 
 was needed was a reorganization of schools along new lines 
 and in accord with the new and growing ideal. There was 
 only one way by which this reorganization could be ac- 
 complished, by careful legislation enforced by vigorous, 
 trained, and judicious administration; and in that way it 
 was done. 
 
 When the time was ripe for action the right man was at 
 hand. Horace Mann, an educator through intuition rather 
 than by virtue of philosophical training, stood at the head 
 of a group of educators, and it fell to his lot to become the 
 leader. His was not the work of the teacher, but of the su- 
 pervisor, the director of legislation, the adviser of school- 
 boards, and the teacher of teachers. He was the first man 
 in the United States to give the world an object lesson in 
 school administration. He found the schools inefficient and 
 
150 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 unorganized, with diverse aims and methods and often con- 
 trolled by a foreign ideal. He bequeathed to his Common- 
 wealth a well-ordered system, with the schools standing as 
 a unit in perfect harmony with a new national ideal. 
 
Horace Mann and School Administration 151 
 
 Bibliography 
 
 In asking for books at the library, call for titles printed in Italics. 
 
 Barnard, Henry — Sketch of Life of Horace Mann; Barnard's Jour., 
 V, 611-645. 
 
 Bell, W. A. — Horace Mann at Antioch College; Proc. N. E. A., 1896, 
 72-74. 
 
 BowEN, Francis — Horace Mann and the Teachers of the Boston 
 Schools; N. A. Rev., LX, 224-246. 
 
 Combe, Georqe— Education in the State of Massachusetts; Edin- 
 burgh Rev., LXXIII, 486-502. 
 
 Dexter, Edwin Grant — History of Education in the United States. 
 
 GoBDT, J. P. — Rise and Growth of the Normal School Idea; U. S. 
 Bureau of Educ., Circ. of Inf. No. 8, 1891. 
 
 Harris, Wm. T. — Henry Barnard; Rep. U. S. Com. of Educ. for 190S, 
 I, 887-926. 
 
 (x) Harris, Wm. T.— Horace Mann; Proc. N. E. A., 1896, 52-74; 
 also New Eng.Jour.of Educ., XLIV, 140-142; and Educ. Rev., XII, 105- 
 119; and Rep. U. S. Com. of Educ., 1895-1896, 1, 887-927 (bibliography). 
 
 Hebset, J. T. D. — Horace Mann's Ancestors; New Eng. Jour, of 
 Educ., XLIV, 275. 
 
 Hinsdale, B. A. — Horace Mann and the Common School Revival in the 
 United States. 
 
 Kasson, Frank H. — Horace Mann; Education, XII, 36-43. 
 
 (y) Mann, Horace — Educational Tour; LitteU's Ldving Age, X, 105. 
 
 (z) Mann, Horace — Annual Reports on Education, S vols. 
 
 Mann, Mary — Life and Works of Horace Mann, 5 vols. 
 
 (x) Mann, Mary — Horace Mann; Education, III, 255-265. 
 
 Martin, George H. — Horace Mann and the Revival of Education 
 in Massachusetts; Educ. Rev., V, 434-450. 
 
 (x) Martin, George H. — Evolution of the Massachusetts School System. 
 
 Mayo, A. D. — Horace Mann and the Great Revival of the American 
 Common School, 1830-1850; Rep. U. S. Cam. of Educ., 1896-97, I, 
 715-767. 
 
 (x) Mayo, A. D. — Henry Barnard; Rep. U. S. Com. of Educ., 1896- 
 97, 1, 769-810. 
 
 Monroe, Will S. — The Educational Labors of Henry Barnard. 
 
152 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 Parker, Francis W. — ^Horace Mann; Ediic. Rev., XII, 65-74. 
 WiNSHiP, A. E. — Horace Mann ; New Eng. Jour, of Educ, XLIII, 247. 
 (x) WiNSHEP, A. E. — Great American Educators. 
 
 Note: The book by Hinsdale listed above is the most available and 
 is excellent. The biography found in Vol. I by Mary Mann is the most 
 valuable. The articles by Harris, Hinsdale, Mayo, and Parker are good. 
 
Horace Mann and School Administration 153 
 
 Chronological Table 
 
 I. Edttcation and Prepahation (1798-1827). 
 1796 Bom at Franklin, Massachusetts, May 4tb. 
 1816 Entered Brown University. 
 
 1819 Waa graduated and became tutor in the university. 
 1821 Began the study of law. 
 1823 Admitted to the bar. 
 II. Period of Public Service (1827-1853). 
 
 1827 Elected to the State House of Bepresentatives. 
 1833 Elected to the State Senate. 
 
 Went to Boston to live. 
 1835 Chosen President of the Senate. 
 
 1837 Became Secretary of the State Board of Education. 
 
 1838 Founded the Common School Journal. 
 1843 Visited Europe. 
 
 Married to Maiy Peabody. 
 1848 Elected to Congress. 
 III. His Last Days (1853-1859). 
 
 1853 President of Autioch College. 
 1859 Died, August 2ud. 
 
154 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 Biography 
 
 In order to form a just estimate of the great work of 
 Horace Mann and to be able to assign him his proper place 
 in the history of education, it is necessary that we know 
 something (1) of the social, political, and educational con- 
 ditions that made it possible for him to accomplish so much, 
 (2) of the nature and extent of his education, and (3) of the 
 strong and vigorous character of the man. 
 
 Horace Mann was born in Franklin, Massachusetts, May 
 4th, 1796. He was a member of an honorable and respected 
 family. His father, a man of strong character, died when 
 the boy was thirteen years of age. His mother was a 
 woman of superior mind and great force of character, and 
 was devoted to her children. Horace lived with his mother 
 and worked hard upon the farm, assisting the family in its 
 straitened circumstances until he was sixteen years of age. 
 His home life and early experiences exerted a great influence 
 upon him and did much to shape his character and to direct 
 the good work of his life. 
 
 Give an account of his ancestry. Describe his home. What was the 
 nature of the discipline in the home? What does Mann say of his 
 mother's influence upon him? — ^Hinsdalb, Chap. Ill; Mann, I, Chap. I ; 
 Mayo, 723; Barnard. 
 
 Mr. Mann was always accustomed to work; he seldom had 
 a day for recreation. But he had a great desire for knowl- 
 edge, and early in Ufe formed the determination to secure a 
 good education. As a boy his opportunities were meager; 
 
Horace Mann and School Administration 155 
 
 he did not attend school more than ten weeks in a year until 
 he was sixteen years of age. But although denied school 
 privileges, his education went on along other Unes. He had 
 no opportunity to study and enjoy nature, yet it was one 
 of his teachers. Dr. Franklin had donated a Ubrary to 
 the town of Franklin and the boy knew the books of this 
 library thoroughly. As a boy he listened to the Calvinistic 
 doctrines preached by Dr. Emmons in the parish church. 
 He rebelled against this teaching, and thus early began to 
 form for himself reUgious doctrines, which he always main- 
 tained. 
 
 Describe Mann's school days. Give the story of the founding of the 
 library mentioned. What was his reUgious belief 7 Characterize his boy- 
 hood, and compare it with that of Froebel. — Hinsdale, 79 if; Mayo, 
 723. 
 
 At the age of twenty the young man devoted six months 
 to preparation for college, and in 1816 he entered the sopho- 
 more class of Brown University, from which he was gradu- 
 ated three years later, winning the highest honors in his 
 class. During the two years following his graduation he 
 served the university as tutor in the Latin and Greek lan- 
 guages, and as hbrarian. He proved to be an excellent 
 teacher and exerted a strong and lasting influence upon his 
 pupils. He took this opportunity to extend his knowledge 
 of the classics and he also became interested in the study of 
 science. 
 
 How was he prepared for college? Where is Brown University? 
 What was the subject of his graduating oration? Describe his life at 
 the iiniversity. What was his ideal at this time? Why did he win the 
 highest honors? — Hinsdale, 86. 
 
 Mr. Mann was regarded by his associates as a young man 
 of imusual ability, and they predicted for him a brilliant 
 
156 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 career. In 1821 he began the study of law in the school of 
 Judge Gould, at Litchfield, Connecticut. He was admitted 
 to the bar in 1823 and continued in the practice for fourteen 
 years. He is said to have achieved extraordinary success 
 as a counselor and as a practitioner. In 1827 he was elected 
 to the State House of Representatives, and was re-elected 
 each year until 1833, when he was transferred to the Senate, 
 where he served until 1837, being president of that body for 
 two years. As a public officer he showed great interest in 
 the large questions of the day, and was a member of influ- 
 ence, and highly esteemed by his colleagues. 
 
 Where did he live while practicing law? How did he attract the 
 attention of Adams and other prominent men? Why was he successful 
 as a lawyer? In what questions did he show interest? Who were some 
 of his intimate friends? — Hinsdale, 89; Mayo, 724. 
 
 Two events of his life, occurring in this period, were of 
 unusual significance in influencing his actions and in shaping 
 his future career: the death of his wife after only two years 
 of happy married life, and the reading of Combe's ConstiUi- 
 tion of Man. He had married the daughter of the president 
 of Brown University. Her life had made his life noble, and 
 her early death threw him back into the religious conflict of 
 his earlier days. Through the reading of the Constitution 
 of Man he became a behever in phrenology. The deduc- 
 tions drawn from the study of phrenology, as it was taught 
 in the time of Horace Mann, were of much the same charac- 
 ter and were relatively of as great service to education then 
 as the knowledge derived from child study and experimental 
 psychology is now. The insistence upon the care of the 
 body, the regard of food and clothing as factors in morality, 
 the study of environment as a necessary factor in educa- 
 tion, the tendency toward scientific rather than empirical 
 
Horace Marm and School Administration 157 
 
 teaching, the introduction of science into the curriculum, 
 and the demand for a practical education, were some of 
 the results of the study of phrenology. 
 
 Show in what way the death of his wife influenced his religious belief. 
 Who was George Combe? Who were some of the prominent adherents 
 of phrenology? Characterize Mann's life as studied thus far. — Hinsdale, 
 90; Mann, I, Chap. II. 
 
 ■ An event occurred in 1837 which changed Horace Mann's 
 whole course of life and made it possible for him to turn to 
 pubUc good the excellent preparation made by him in his 
 early life. The legislature had passed a biU creating a State 
 Board of Education in Massachusetts. This board was to 
 consist of the governor, the lieutenant-governor, and eight 
 members to be appointed by the governor and was em- 
 powered to appoint a secretary whose duty, vmder its di- 
 rection, was to " collect information of the actual condition 
 and efficiency of the common schools and other means of 
 popular education, and diffuse as widely as possible through- 
 out every part of the Commonwealth information concern- 
 ing the most approved and successful methods of arranging 
 the studies and conducting the education of the young, to 
 the end that all children who depend upon the common 
 schools for instruction may have the best education that 
 these schools can be made to impart." The board was re- 
 quired, through its secretary, to make annual reports to the 
 legislature. Mr. Mann, having been chosen secretary, 
 abandoned his excellent legal practice and for twelve years 
 devoted all his attention to this office. 
 
 Give the names of the members of this first board. Why was it 
 created? GiVe a description of the school conditions prior to 1837. 
 Why was Mann selected as secretary? How did these duties of the 
 secretary differ from those of the present State Superintendent of 
 
158 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 Schools? What had been the nature of state supervision in the United 
 States previous to this time? — Hinsdale, Chaps. IV-V; Mann, I, Chap. 
 II; Mato, 719. 
 
 Mr. Mann had no sooner assumed the duties of his new 
 office than he began a course of reading and study in prepa- 
 ration for his work. He came to see the needs of the schools 
 and set about as best he could to reform the conditions. He 
 planned a series of educational tours over the state, visited 
 the schools, held meetings of teachers and patrons, sug- 
 gested needed improvements, and then secured proper legis- 
 lation. The results are recorded in his eariier reports. In 
 1838 he founded The Common School Journal. In 1843 he 
 was married to Miss Mary Peabody, and spent the year 
 visiting the schools of Europe. An account of this visit is 
 recorded in his Seventh Annual Report. Through his in- 
 fluence and labors during these twelve years of service 
 libraries were founded, teachers' institutes were estab- 
 lished, and the schools of the state were improved in every 
 way. Indeed, his influence became national in character, 
 for the Massachusetts plan was widely copied in other states. 
 This, however, was not accomplished without opposition on 
 the part of three classes, — politicians, teachers, and the 
 clergy. 
 
 How did he prepare himself for his new work? What were some of 
 the defects in the schools? What countries did Mann visit in Europe? 
 Give an account of opposition from the sources named. What salary 
 did Mann receive as secretary? Who was Peabody? — Hinsdale, 
 Chaps. VIII-IX; Mann, I, Chap. V; (x) Harris; Living Age, X, 105; 
 Bowen; Mayo, 729. 
 
 At the death of John Quincy Adams, who had represented 
 his district in Congress for many years, Horace Mann suc- 
 ceeded him as a member of the House of Representatives in 
 
Horace Mann and School Administration 159 
 
 Washington. He was elected in 1848 and served until 1853. 
 His impaired health made him willing to give up the secre- 
 taryship, and his desire to take a part in the great issues of 
 the day, and especially to take part in the great controversy 
 on slavery, impelled him to accept this seat in Congress. He 
 made five leading speeches, all of which were upon the slav- 
 ery question; but although he was an anti-slavery man, he 
 was not an abolitionist. He was not regarded as a poUti- 
 cian; nevertheless, as a member of Congress, he had no little 
 influence. Aside from direct party issues he still main- 
 tained his interest in education, temperance, and morality. 
 On the same day in 1852 he was nominated as governor of 
 Massachusetts and was offered the presidency of Antioch 
 College. In accepting the latter he ended a political career 
 and public service covering a quarter of a century. 
 
 Give a review of his service ia Congress. What were the leading 
 issues of the day? Why did he accept the presidency of Antioch Col- 
 lege? To what political party did Mann belong? — Hinsdale, Chap. X; 
 Pakkeb; Mayo, 754 ff. 
 
 Antioch College was foimded by the Christian denomina- 
 tion and is located at Yellow Springs, Ohio. There was 
 much to attract Mr. Mann to this new field, for he was to be 
 its first president and would consequently have a hand in 
 shaping its organization. His services in connection with 
 the schools of Massachusetts had given him training in ad- 
 vanced ideas of the elementary, secondary, and normal 
 schools, and he was therefore especiaUy fitted to vmdertake 
 this new work. The college was to be co-educational and 
 there was to be no distinction made as to race. The spirit 
 which had characterized Mr. Mann in his labors for educa- 
 tion dominated his administration here. Among the 
 
160 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 characteristic features of the college was the requirement of 
 a study of the theory and practice of teaching as a part of the 
 regular course. The excessive use of text-books was dis- 
 couraged, and oral instruction was emphasized. In addi- 
 tion to the administrative work of the college, the president 
 was called upon to serve in the capacity of teacher. Mr. 
 Mann became a minister and finally the financial manager 
 of the institution. He was a popular lecturer and a suc- 
 cessful institute worker, and also took an active part in 
 educational meetings in Ohio and in other states. His 
 great power as a college president was seen chiefly in the 
 personal influence he exerted over every student with whom 
 he came in contact. Unfortunately, his usefulness and 
 the efficiency of the college were seriously impaired by the 
 financial difficulties with which it had been confronted from 
 the beginning and which he had not been able to remove. 
 This situation made the last days of Horace Mann sad ones. 
 He died August 2nd, 1859. He was buried in the college 
 grounds, but his remains were afterward removed to Provi- 
 dence, Rhode Island. In front of the State House in Bos- 
 ton stands a statue of Mann, erected by friends, teachers, 
 and school children. We can say of him as was said of 
 Comenius, "A grateful posterity to the memory" of Horace 
 Mann. 
 
 Why was Mann selected as the president of Antioch? What were 
 the ideals of this college? How did Mann influence his students? 
 What subjects did he teach? What reforms were inaugurated here? 
 Tell something of the addresses which he gave. What were his ideas 
 respecting moral teaching? Give an account of the financial difficulties 
 mentioned. Who were some of his friends? Write a character sketch 
 of Mann. Give a summary of his educational achievements. Enumer- 
 ate the reforms he inaugurated. — Hinsdale, Chap. XI; Mann, I, 
 Chap. VI; Bell; Mayo, 760. 
 
Horace Mann and School Administration 161 
 
 Henry Barnard 
 
 It is now necessary to direct our attention to a brief con- 
 sideration of the great work of Henry Barnard, the coad- 
 jutor of Horace Mann, whose work Mr. Barnard supple- 
 mented. He was born in Hartford, Connecticut, in 1811, 
 and died in 1900. He entered Yale College when only fif- 
 teen years of age and was graduated at the age of nineteen. 
 At twenty-four he was admitted to the bar as a lawyer. 
 The next two years were spent in travel in Europe and the 
 United States, and at twenty-six he was elected member of 
 the general assembly of his native state. At different times 
 he was State Superintendent of Common Schools in Connect- 
 icut and Rhode Island, and Chancellor of the University of 
 Wisconsin. In 1849 he took an active part in the organiza- 
 tion of a national convention of teachers, of which Horace 
 Mann became president. This convention developed into 
 the National Education Association of America. In 1867, 
 when the Bureau of Education was established by Congress, 
 Mr. Barnard was made the first Commissioner of Education. 
 
 From 1837 until his death he was recognized as one 
 of the foremost educators of the day, but the greatest 
 work of his life was the editorship of the fifty volumes 
 of the American Journal of Education. He collected the 
 records not only of the educational movements in this 
 country but of all similar movements elsewhere, and made 
 accessible the wisest and best things that have come from 
 the experience of the race in foimding and conducting 
 schools. His journal is the most reUable authority upon 
 all departments of education. Nowhere else can be found 
 such a number and variety of articles respecting education 
 in Europe and the growth of school organization in the 
 United States. — Harris; (x) Mayo. 
 
162 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 Educational Doctrine 
 
 Diu-ing the time that Horace Mann was Secretary of the 
 State Board of Education of Massachusetts, 1837-1848, he 
 tendered to the board annual reports. Nowhere is the 
 greatness of the man more fully shown than in these reports. 
 Far from being mere smnmaries of local facts and uninter- 
 esting statistics, they constitute a series of discussions on 
 educational topics of vital interest to the nation at large. 
 The reports, twelve in number, cover a range of topics as 
 extensive as the needs of the schools. The problems of 
 school economy, the equipment of schools, the duties of 
 parents, the needs of communities, and the relation of the 
 schools to the nation at large, are treated in a manner that 
 reveals the power of the trained administrator; while the 
 questions of the schoolroom, the methods of teaching, and 
 the preparation and quahfications of teachers, are discussed 
 with a grasp of the situation and a keeimess of insight that 
 mark the skilled teacher. Taken as a whole, the reports 
 comprise a body of educational classics almost without 
 parallel. A careful perusal of their contents reveals a 
 knowledge of the real needs, and a recognition of the ad- 
 justments necessary to meet them. In many of his plans 
 Mr. Mann anticipated present day ideas, and many of the 
 reforms agitated by educators to-day were suggested in his 
 reports. The reports are well worth a careful reading on the 
 part of every student of education; for our present purpose 
 we shall give but a brief summary of the contents of each. 
 
 In the First Report, written soon after he assumed office, 
 Mr. Mann points out certain weaknesses in the school sys- 
 tem and suggests definite remedies. He emphasizes the 
 
Horace Mann and Sctool Administration 163 
 
 necessity for better qualified teachers and a imiformity of 
 text-books, and deplores the lack of close supervision. He 
 discusses the duties of school conunittees and points out 
 the importance of their work, sets forth the value of public 
 schools as opposed to schools imder private control, and 
 urges the necessity of higher salaries for teachers. In a 
 supplementary report, he takes up the matter of school 
 buildings — plans of rooms, ventilation, lighting, seating, 
 etc., and shows the need of more thought and care in their 
 construction. 
 
 The Second Report is concerned principally with methods 
 of teaching reading, orthography, and composition. His 
 criticism of the a-b-c method of teaching reading, and his 
 reasons for recommending the word method in its stead, 
 might well serve as a present day discussion. The scrappi- 
 ness of the reading selections, and their lack of proper 
 arrangement in the texts in use are pointed out. His criti- 
 cisms, however, are constructive rather than destructive; 
 he makes definite suggestions as to ways in which the de- 
 fects may be remedied. 
 
 The Third Report emphasizes the responsibility of the 
 people for the improvement of the schools; refers to the em- 
 ployment of children in factories, and indicates the need of 
 legislation in their behalf; shows the desirability of prac- 
 tical education in the schools; calls attention to the import- 
 ance of school-district libraries, points out the need therefor, 
 and gives suggestions as to the character of the books to be 
 placed therein. 
 
 The Fourth Report shows the need of fewer school dis- 
 tricts and larger schools. The advantage of union schools, 
 from the standpoint of both economy of funds and ease of 
 discipline, is pointed out. Consolidation of districts is 
 
164 Studies in the History of Modem Education 
 
 favored, the qualifications of teachers further discussed, 
 the importance, in the interests of economy, of regular and 
 punctual attendance is shown and the influence of the par- 
 ents' interest upon the school is emphasized. 
 
 The Fifth Report is taken up largely with a discussion of 
 the influence of education upon the practical affairs of Ufe. 
 The data upon which the conclusions are based are derived 
 from Mr. Mann's own observation and from evidence sub- 
 mitted in reply to a circular letter of inquiry that had been 
 sent out. The latter part of the report is given to a review 
 of some of the industries of the state and to emphasizing 
 the necessity of education as a preparation therefor. 
 
 The Sixth Report gives interesting data in regard to the 
 number of pupils pursuing different school subjects, in- 
 quires into the reasons for their doing so, and makes sugges- 
 tions relative to the composition of the course of study. 
 With regard to the latter, the writer reaches the conclusion 
 that caprice rather than intelligence dictates the subjects 
 in the curriculum. The remainder of the report, and, in 
 fact, the larger portion of it, is devoted to a discussion of 
 the value of the study of physiology in the schools, and of 
 the practical application of a knowledge of the subject to 
 the affairs of every day life. 
 
 The Seventh Report is, in some respects, the most valu- 
 able of the series. It gives an account of the writer's visit 
 to certain European countries for the purpose of studying 
 the work of their schools. On this tour he visited England, 
 Ireland, Scotland, Germany, Holland, Belgium, and France. 
 In addition to making a study of the schools, Mr. Mann ob- 
 served the work being done in other institutions, such as 
 hospitals, asylums, prisons, etc. The report shows a grasp 
 of the fundamentals of school work and a recognition of the 
 
Horace Mann and School Administration 165 
 
 value of the methods used. In general, the writer speaks 
 highly of the work of the Prussian and Saxon schools, and 
 lamerits the conditions prevaiUng in England. In some re- 
 spects the report is derogatory to the American schools 
 although in other respects it is highly complimentary to 
 them. The necessity, in a republic, of a universal system 
 of education and the failure of the European countries in 
 this respect are clearly indicated. The report discusses the 
 condition of schoolhouses in Europe, as well as the text- 
 books and apparatus in use. The Lancasterian schools of 
 England are described, their claims considered, and their 
 weaknesses pointed out. The methods of teaching the deaf 
 and dumb, and the results accomplished, are given consid- 
 erable attention. The practical features of the report cen- 
 ter in the discussion of the situation in Prussia and Saxony. 
 The orphan asylums, the schools connected with prisons, 
 the Redemption Institutes for young offenders, all are 
 regarded as means for improving the general social condition. 
 Much space is given to a description of the system of classi- 
 fication used in the schools, and of the methods employed 
 in teaching the elementary subjects. Other topics consid- 
 ered are normal schools for the preparation of teachers, 
 school supervisors, compulsory attendance, organization 
 of higher schools, school government and discipline, and 
 moral and religious instruction. The report is interspersed 
 with suggestions as to how the American common school 
 can be improved, not by copying foreign ways, but by 
 adapting good wherever found. 
 
 The Eighth Report contains encouraging data relative to 
 school attendance, expresses satisfaction at the growing 
 tendency to employ women as teachers, mentions the work 
 which is being accomplished through teachers' institutes, 
 
166 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 indicates the extent and nature of the use of the Bible in the 
 schools, discusses the power of towns to raise money for 
 school purposes, and ends with an account of the teaching 
 of vocal music and the good that should result therefrom. 
 
 The Ninth Report emphasizes the importance of equality 
 of school privileges and the value of public education. Its 
 value, however, consists in a discussion of school motives 
 and school vices. The writer urges the importance of moral 
 education, although recognizing the difficulties in the way 
 of moral instruction. Means of obtaining obedience, school 
 government, the evils that prepare the way for school vices, 
 the value of interest as a moral factor, and the danger in 
 false incentives in the schoolroom, are all carefully consid- 
 ered and intelligently discussed. The latter part of the 
 report is given to a description of the Pestalozzian induc- 
 tive method of teaching and an exposition of its value. 
 
 The Tenth Report first gives an account of the origin and 
 development of the Massachusetts school system. It next 
 takes up the arguments in favor of it, and seeks to point 
 out the necessity for its maintenance. There are few dis- 
 cussions in educational hterature that show more conclu- 
 sively the duty of the state to provide and maintain means 
 for general education. It is a work worthy of its author. 
 
 The Eleventh Report is a study of the effects of common 
 school education, carried on in accordance with the princi- 
 ples of the New England system, upon the public good. 
 The power of education in lessening crime, and thus in pro- 
 moting the general social welfare, is emphasized, and the 
 essential conditions for more positive improvement are 
 shown. Mr. Mann's own views are reenforced by the tes- 
 timony of practical educators, respected for their ability 
 and the conservatism of their judgments. 
 
Horace Mann and School Administration 167 
 
 The Twelfth Report is somewhat in the nature of a vale- 
 dictory. In it Mr. Mann attempts to show his idea of the 
 power of the common schools to improve the general social 
 conditions. There is little that is new in this report, — little 
 of that nature is attempted. A resum6 of the author's work 
 during his twelve years in office is given, his views are reit- 
 erated, and no apology is made for any act. Data are sub- 
 mitted to show progress in the work of the common schools. 
 Mention is made of criticisms offered upon his work and of 
 the censure he has received because of the position he has 
 maintained. He vindicates himself fully, but does so with- 
 out malice. In a general way, he shows the value of physical 
 training as a part of the work of the school, points out 
 the relation of education to poverty and plenty, indicates 
 the necessity for education in civic matters, proclaims the 
 teaching of morals as an essential in an educational scheme, 
 and recognizes the need of religious instruction while point- 
 ing out its necessary aspects in American schools. Taken 
 all in all, it forms a proper conclusion to his official writings 
 and is in every way a production in keeping with the dignity 
 of a public officer and in every particular worthy of the ad- 
 ministrator, the educator, the man. 
 
 It can hardly be said that Mr. Mann had an educational 
 doctrine as did Pestalozzi or Herbart, who worked out cer- 
 tain great principles, leaving to others the task of applying 
 and adapting them. Mr. Mann was in no sense a theorist; 
 he was an intensely practical man, concerned with the study 
 of education more from the side of administration and or- 
 ganization than from that of the classroom. He did his 
 work in accordance with a high standard which had been 
 derived from his study of great truths. 
 
 When he came to the office of secretary he had the rich 
 
168 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 experience that comes from contact with men of intense 
 thought and action. He brought with him to this office a 
 rare strength of character, an intuitive genius, a high regard 
 for social and political virtue, and a trained intellect. He 
 soon perceived the condition and needs of education and his 
 past training and native power enabled him in an almost un- 
 conscious way to grasp and apply the proper remedy. He 
 was not a professed philosopher, and yet he had a philoso- 
 phy. This had grown out of his peculiar early religious ex- 
 periences and later out of his interest in the subject of 
 phrenology. This philosophy enabled him to attack edu- 
 cational questions from an entirely new standpoint, and it 
 affords the student a key to his theory and practice. 
 
 Compare the work of Pestalozzi and Mann. What did Mann say 
 of Pestalozzi ? What motive induced Mann to resign his seat in the 
 Senate for the position of secretary? What were the educational condi- 
 tions and needs of his time? State his early religious experiences. How 
 did phrenology influence him? What was Mann's method of work 
 in educational reform? — Mann, I, IV, 81 ; Mayo ; Hinsdale. 
 
 We can best study his philosophy and his views upon 
 education by a consideration of his own words. The fol- 
 lowing selections are chosen from his reports, his Journal of 
 Education, and his lectures and addresses: 
 
 "I hold it to be one of the laws of God that the talents of 
 man can be developed in the best way and can produce the 
 most beneficial results only when they act in full consonance 
 with all the precepts and the principles of religion. The 
 pursuit of knowledge or science is the pursuit of truth." 
 
 "I believe in the existence of a great immortal, immu- 
 table principle of natural law, a principle of divine origin, 
 clearly legible in the ways of Providence — the absolute right 
 to an education of every human being that comes into the 
 world." 
 
 "Between religion and science there must be harmony. 
 
Horace Mann and School Administration 169 
 
 Truth can never conflict with itself, nor God be the author 
 of contradiction. No work of God can ev6r come into col- 
 lision with any word of God." 
 
 Compare this view of God with that held by Froebel. What is meant 
 by "nature " 7 How did the theologians of this time regard science? — 
 Hinsdale; Mayo. 
 
 "Morality consists primarily in the performance of our 
 duties to our fellow men; religion is the performance of our 
 duties to God." 
 
 "Moral education is a primal necessity of social exist- 
 ence." 
 
 "How true it is that Christianity is made to shrink or 
 expand to fit the intellectual or moral caliber of its disci- 
 ples." 
 
 "We can conceive of a state of existence where we could 
 be happy without knowledge, but it is not in the power of 
 any human being to picture to itself a form of life where we 
 could be happy without virtue." 
 
 What is the difference between moral education and religious train- 
 ing? How is morality related to social existence? How does his idea 
 of virtue compare with Herbart's view? 
 
 "Civilization consists in a knowledge and an observance 
 of the laws of God." 
 
 "National virtue is as much a product of wise institutions 
 as is national wealth." 
 
 "The fortunes of a state depend upon antecedent causes. 
 The future condition of Massachusetts will be modified 
 and to a great extent determined by the force of causes 
 now put in practice. Enlightened reason discovers the 
 connection between cause and effect." 
 
 "To have created such beings as we are and to have 
 placed them in this world without the light of the sun would 
 have been no more cruel than for a government to suffer its 
 laboring classes to grow up without knowledge." 
 
 "However loftily the intellect of man may have been 
 gifted, however skillfully it may have been trained, if it be 
 not guided by a sense of justice, a love of mankind, and a 
 devotion to duty, its possessor is only a more splendid as he 
 is a more dangerous barbarian." 
 
170 Studies in the History of Modem Education 
 
 "Without understanding any other human agency it may 
 be affirmed that the common school, improved and ener- 
 gized as it can easily be, may become the most effective and 
 benignant of all the forces of civilization." 
 
 By what method would Mann have virtue taught in the schools? 
 Did the Calvinists beheve in the law of cause and effect? Name the 
 forces of civilization. — Mann, II, 7; IV, 346. 
 
 "Educate your children. Educate them in the great 
 eternal principles of justice and right which underlie the 
 entire length of human existence." 
 
 "As the moral tone of the community now is, children 
 have not a fair chance to become moral men." 
 
 " All human character and conduct can be referred to two 
 forces — the innate force of the mind acting outwards, and 
 the force of outward things acting upon the mind." 
 
 "Education alone can conduct us to that enjoyment 
 which is at once best in quality and infinite in quantity. 
 God has revealed to us by his mighty works what he holds to 
 be invaluable." 
 
 "Our means of education are the grand machinery by 
 which the raw material of human nature can be worked up 
 into scientific farmers, into scholars and jurists, into the 
 founders of benevolent institutions and the great expound- 
 ers of ethical and theological science." 
 
 "As each citizen is to participate in the power of govern- 
 ing others, it is an essential preliminary that he should be 
 imbued with a feeling for the wants and a sense of the rights 
 of those whom he is to govern." 
 
 "The great reforms in corporate bodies and in communi- 
 ties will never be achieved until private morals are brought 
 into closer approximation to the standards of the Gospel." 
 
 What does the word " educate ", as used above, mean? Where does he 
 make reference to heredity and environment? Which is regarded as 
 the more important? Formulate Maim's aim of education and compare 
 it with Pestalozzi's. 
 
 "Nothing but universal education can counterwork the 
 tendency to the domination of character and the servility of 
 labor." 
 
 "The annihilation of the sun would no more certainly be 
 
Horace Mann and School Administration I'll 
 
 followed by darkness than the extinction of human intelli- 
 gence would plunge the race at once into the darkness and 
 the helplessness of barbarism." 
 
 "We err if we regard the common schools as ends and 
 not as means. A forgetfulness of this distinction would 
 send the mass of our children into the world scantily pro- 
 vided either with the ability or the disposition to perform 
 even the most ordinary duties of hfe." 
 
 "A badly kept school is worse than none." 
 
 "All improvements in the school suppose and require a 
 corresponding and simultaneous improvement in public 
 sentiment." 
 
 "Whenever we find improvements in the schools it is a 
 gratifying proof that higher views are prevailing in the 
 community." 
 
 Elaborate the arguments for free and universal education. Why are 
 schools not ends? Of what are schools the index? Why? What is a 
 teacher's relation to the community? What is the process by which 
 schools are improved? 
 
 "We need school committeemen who will scrutinize as 
 carefully the moral character of the proposed teacher and 
 his ability to impart moral instruction as they do his liter- 
 ary attainments and his ability to impart knowledge." 
 
 "If none but teachers of pure tastes, of good manners, of 
 exemplary morals, had ever gained admission into our 
 schools, neither schoolrooms nor their appurtenances would 
 have been polluted as some of them now are." 
 
 "Every teacher ought to have some notion of the beings 
 confided to his hands. The character of children is always 
 forming." 
 
 "Preparation for teaching involves a knowledge of the 
 whole being to be taught, and of the precise manner in which 
 every possible application will affect it." 
 
 "It should never be forgotten that the highest duty of 
 the teacher is to produce the greatest quantity and purest 
 quality of moral action." 
 
 "One of the highest and most valuable objects to which 
 the influence of the school can be made conducive consists 
 in training our children to self-government." 
 
172 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 Formulate Mann's views concerning the qualifications of a teacher. 
 Does he overemphasize morality? How does he anticipate normal 
 schools? Why train for self-government? What was the school com- 
 mittee? — Hinsdale; Mayo. 
 
 "Aptness to teach involves the power of perceiving how 
 far the scholar understands the subject matter to be learned 
 — what, in the natural order, is the next step he is to take. 
 It involves the power of discovering and of solving at the 
 same time the exact difficulty by which the learner is em- 
 barrassed." 
 
 "The greater accumulation of facts until the comparing 
 and foreseeing faculties have acted upon them is as useless 
 as a telescope or a watch would be in the hands of a savage." 
 
 "Single ideas may be transferred from an author to a 
 reader, but habits of thinking are intransferable; they must 
 be formed within the reader's own mind if they are ever to 
 exist there." 
 
 "In every intellectual department there must be accurate 
 observation in collecting the elementary ideas, which ideas 
 must be compared, arranged and methodized in the mind 
 so that they may stand ready to be reproduced and to be 
 embodied in any outward fabric or institution which their 
 possessor may afterwards wish to construct." 
 
 "The ability to acquire and the ability to impart are 
 wholly different talents. The former may exist in the most 
 liberal measure without the latter." 
 
 " No one is so poor in resources for difficult emergencies 
 as they may arise as he whose knowledge of methods is lim- 
 ited to the one by which he happened to be instructed." 
 
 " We arrive at knowledge in two ways: First, by our own 
 observation of phenomena without; and second, by our own 
 consciousness of what goes on within us. And we seek 
 words aptly to designate whatever has been observed, 
 whether material or mental." 
 
 "The pupil may do something by intuition, but generally 
 there must be a conscious effort on his part. He must do 
 more than admit or welcome; he must reach out and grasp 
 and bring home. It is the duty of the teacher to bring 
 knowledge within the reach of the pupil, but the final ap- 
 propriating task must be the learner's." 
 
 "Until a desire to learn exists within the child, some 
 
Horace Mann and School Administration 173 
 
 foreign force must constantly be supplied to keep him 
 going; but from the moment that a desire is excited, he is 
 self-motived and goes alone." 
 
 Compare the above with Herbart's process of teaching. Where is 
 there a suggestion of Pestalozzianism? How is the above applicable 
 to the teaching of reading? Where is expression suggested? What is 
 meant by intuition? In what way does this psychology differ from 
 that of to-day? Why is a knowledge of method necessary? Where is 
 there a suggestion of a doctrine of interest? Point out the effects of 
 his study of phrenology. 
 
 Summary 
 
 From what has preceded it will be evident that Horace 
 Mann's service to the cause of education was of an entirely 
 different character and occupied a different field from that 
 of the other educators studied. They were educational 
 philosophers, while Horace Mann was an educational states- 
 man. The philosophers were concerned with the building 
 of ideals; the statesman with means and methods for mak- 
 ing these ideals practical realities. Three elements were 
 responsive to the influence and show the effects of Mr. 
 Mann's labors, — the people, the schools, and the teachers. 
 
 As regards the people, Mr. Mann aroused an interest in 
 the public school and a faith in its efficiency that has done 
 more to make common school education in the United 
 States universal than any other agency that can be men- 
 tioned. By emphasizing the necessity of an intelligent 
 citizenship in a republic, he did much to make the American 
 school an institution of the state and to establish its right 
 to state support and control. For the American state 
 school system as it exists, for the democratic character of 
 the common school, and for the practical aspects of Ameri- 
 can education, we are indebted primarily to Horace Mann. 
 
174 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 With respect to the schools themselves, in organization, 
 equipment, broadening of work, and clarifying of method, 
 Mr. Mann did much. He was among the first to show the 
 worth of supervision, and the responsibiUty attending the 
 labors of the school committee. He showed the need of 
 greater care in the erection of school buildings; he secured 
 recognition of the need of a proper material equipment for 
 the schools; he brought about the preparation of better text- 
 books, the material of which was selected and arranged with 
 a thought of the pupils' needs and limitations; he empha- 
 sized the need for moral and civic training in schools ; and he 
 helped to secure changes in the course of study in the in- 
 terest of studies that had a direct bearing upon the needs of 
 the life and the activities of the day. He recognized the 
 importance of environment, and sought to give it its proper 
 place in the school scheme. 
 
 In Mr. Mann's work for teachers two aspects are appar- 
 ent, — one dealing with preparation, the other with method. 
 Through his labors normal schools became a component 
 part of our school system, and institutes were started for 
 the special training of teachers. Futhermore, he made 
 apparent the value of libraries as school adjuncts and 
 brought about their establishment. He was keen to recog- 
 nize the teachers' shortcomings in the classroom and in 
 school discipline; and by directing attention to these mat- 
 ters and demanding reason and consistency in the teachers' 
 acts, he made possible a progress of which we may be justly 
 proud. 
 
 While Horace Mann's labors were in a sense local and are 
 often considered as belonging primarily to the evolution of 
 the common schools of a single state, yet in a larger sense 
 his services were national His work became a model for 
 
Horace Mann and School Administratioii 175 
 
 educational reform in many and widely scattered localities, 
 and the results of his labors served as an impetus to educa- 
 tional progress in aU those parts of our country that drew 
 their inspiration from New England sources. For the pres- 
 ent condition of our American conmaon schools, for much 
 that is commendable in the organization of the school sys- 
 tems of the middle and more extreme western sections of 
 the Union, and for many of the agencies that make possible 
 a better prepared body of American teachers, we are in- 
 debted to the skiU, the insight, the genius, and the earnest- 
 ness of the administrator, the politician, the educational 
 statesman, Horace Mann. 
 
 Give a summary of Mami's work and influence. Write a character 
 sketch of him. What can you discover in his theory and practice that is 
 due to foreign influence? Tell the story of the controversy with the 
 Boston schoolmasters. Write the history of normal schools in Massa- 
 chusetts. How have the schools of your own state been influenced by 
 Mann's work? — Gohdt. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 EUROPEAN INFLUENCES ON EDUCATION IN AMERICA 
 
 In concluding these studies, it is the author's purpose to 
 show how the work of the educators who have been studied 
 has exerted a modifying influence upon education in the 
 United States ; and how their educational doctrines, modified 
 by time and place, have become an organic part of the 
 theory and practice of our school system. Reference must 
 also be made to the great educational tendencies of the old 
 world, which, having grown out of its old civilization and 
 having manifested themselves in the new world, have ex- 
 erted a profound influence in shaping all institutional forms, 
 but especially those of education and the school. 
 
 Frequent reference has been made to certain fundamental 
 principles which are basic in educational systems. These 
 may now be named as the principle of origin and the princi- 
 ple of adaptation. It has been shown by the first principle 
 that the process by which an educational ideal becomes such 
 is one of selection and evolution rather than one of creation 
 according to. design. Great principles were first expressed 
 by the philosopher. In time these constituted the national 
 ideal, which was in turn expressed in the institutions of 
 state, church, or school. The processes of selection and 
 imitation constitute the method of the principle of adapta- 
 tion. A people selects and appropriates such elements from 
 the ever changing ideal as best accord with its physical 
 
 176 
 
European Influences on Education 177 
 
 conditions and its communal life, and these become incorpo- 
 rated in all forms of practical expression. This is also true 
 in a new country where the people are representative of an 
 old civilization. They select from the old that which seems 
 best to them, and which they think is best adapted to the 
 new place and circumstances. At first this is imitated in 
 the material form and afterwards unconsciously modified by 
 the new conditions. The law of development is as true in 
 the life of a nation as it is in the life of the individual. A 
 primitive environment acting upon the racial organism 
 transforms it. This new organism reacting upon the nat- 
 ural environment changes it, and thus the creative process 
 goes on. 
 
 Show how the foregoing principles are illustrated in France in the 
 time of Rousseau. In the time of the Republic. In Prussia at the 
 time of Frederick the Great. In England at the time of Comeniua. 
 In Sweden in the seventeenth century. In the spread of Pestalozzian- 
 ism in Europe. In the spread of the kindergarten. Of Herbart's doc- 
 trine. How did Comenius give the world a new educational ideal 1 Show 
 what was old and what was new in his ideal. Give illustrations to show 
 that the educational reformer is more adaptive than he is original. 
 
 During the three centuries of American life one of the 
 controlling tendencies in Europe has been a movement away 
 from authority and towards individual freedom, — the de- 
 velopment of the individual by means of voluntary acts 
 originating in man himself, rather than by the performance 
 of acts or duties imposed upon him by an outer authority. 
 This tendency found a definite expression in four ways. (1) 
 A new philosophical method was discovered. When fully 
 understood, this method was employed in the solution of 
 all kinds of life problems, and was applied in every phase of 
 human activity. Doubt being used as a starting point, the 
 certainty of self was estabUshed, and the difference between 
 
 C 
 
178 Studies in the History of Modem Education 
 
 the results upon the individual of an act that originated with 
 the self and one that was imposed by authority was demon- 
 strated. (2) The development of science and a new scien- 
 tific spirit and method resulted. While this was at first 
 bitterly opposed by theology, it gradually wrought out a 
 revision of church creeds and succeeded finally either in work- 
 ing reforms in the old church or in estabUshing a new one. 
 
 (3) Absolute and unlimited monarchies had been built up, 
 but with the growth of new ideas and the consequent devel- 
 opment of man's reason revolutions became frequent and 
 absolutism was replaced by constitutional governments. 
 Thus the chasm between church and state was widened and 
 a greater development of individuality was made possible. 
 
 (4) It now became possible for the common people to come 
 into possession of a great ideal. Each individual saw the 
 possibility of seizing upon it and making it his own by real- 
 izing it in his everyday acts. Everywhere there was a 
 growing demand for universal and public education. School 
 systems with new and better courses of study were organ- 
 ized, and new books and better school appliances came into 
 ready use. Great teachers were produced, and new and 
 improved educational theories and methods were evolved 
 and practically applied. 
 
 England, France, and Germany have exerted a direct and 
 lasting influence upon American education. In the New 
 England colonies the models were English schools and sys- 
 tems. In the eighteenth century French realism exerted 
 its influence. The dominating influence that inspired the 
 educational revival of the nineteenth century, and which 
 did much to shape its policy, was of a distinctly German 
 character. 
 
 The prevailing thought of Europe in the seventeenth 
 
European Influences on Education 179 
 
 century was the development of a new philosophy and a new 
 education on a non-scholastic basis, and the organization 
 of a school system that should be realistic rather than 
 humanistic. The first prepared the way for the second, 
 and the second applied the principles growing out of the 
 first movement. Descartes in France and Comenius in 
 Germany were, respectively, representatives of these move- 
 ments. John Locke of England, in attempting to harmon- 
 ize these two tendencies, exerted an indirect influence upon 
 early education in America. His theory of the develop- 
 ment of the human mind would tend to change humanistic 
 methods into realistic ones; but since his system was suited 
 only to royalty and the education of gentlemen's sons, it 
 found little favor in a new land where all men claimed to be 
 free and equal. Comenius, on the contrary, was imder- 
 stood, appreciated, and adopted. The Germans incorpo- 
 rated his ideas into the state system, and in this way his 
 influence was felt by the American schools. 
 
 Explain the meaning of individualism. Why did theology oppose 
 the advance of science? Why did people rebel against absolute mon- 
 archy? Give the arguments for free and universal education. Why 
 had Spain no influence on education in the United States? Show the 
 difference in results from the use of humanistic and realistic methods. 
 What is the educational tendency of the twentieth century? — Hoyt- 
 FoRD, Chap. I. 
 
 Any outline of American educational history must, of 
 necessity, be a tentative one; but for the piupose of examin- 
 ing into the nature of foreign influences, it seems best to 
 name four more or less distinctly marked periods. (1) The 
 colonial period extended from the earliest settlements to 
 the opening of the Revolutionary War. This period sub- 
 divides into the earlier and the later. In the early colonial 
 
180 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 period the people were engaged in subduing the wilderness, 
 in finding ways and means to live, and in adjusting them- 
 selves to a new environment. Their schools were naturally 
 a close copy of those of the mother country. In the later 
 period there is to be seen a working out of the processes of 
 selection and adaptation. Because of many changes the 
 schools suffer from a loss of efficiency. (2) The federal 
 period may be said to extend from the year 1776 to 1837. 
 Following the disasters of the Revolutionary War, and coin- 
 cident with the formation of a new government, education 
 as a system seemed to decline and began to assume a dis- 
 tinctly national character. This period shows foreign in- 
 fluences of a new kind. (3) The Renaissance included the 
 period extending from 1837 to the opening of the Civil War; 
 this period is distinguished as a time of organization and 
 administration. (4) The modern period extends from the 
 Civil War to the present time. This has been a period of 
 development, assimilation, and extension, and covers the 
 evolution of a distinctively national system of education. 
 
 There are three ways in which foreign influences through 
 personal contact or educational literature may affect a 
 country. (1) The original settlers bring with them the 
 home ideals which they endeavor to incorporate into a 
 new system under new conditions. (2) As the new country 
 becomes established, prominent men visit other countries 
 and in this way come in contact with new ideas which they 
 endeavor to work out in their home land. (3) Prominent 
 characters come from other countries to the new, and exert 
 no little influence upon the institutions which they find. 
 The first and second of these are seen to be true in the 
 colonial period, the second and third during the federal 
 period, and the third particularly during the modern period. 
 
European Influences on Education 181 
 
 Make a list of the original colonies, the date of the settlement of each, 
 and the European nation by which settled. Compare the early edu- 
 cational conditions of Virginia and Massachusetts. Of New York and 
 Massachusetts. Of New York and Pennsylvania. Of New Ei^land 
 and the South Atlantic States. Report on the early school legislation 
 of Massachusetts and Connecticut. — Draper; Martin; WiCEEBSaAti; 
 (x) Hinsdale; (x) Stbineb; Mayo; Adams. 
 
 It has already been shown that the educational doctrines 
 of Comenius developed along two lines which finally merged 
 into one: (1) an attempt to reform elementary education, 
 and (2) the pansophic idea which was applicable to higher 
 education. It is not probable that his philosophy and his 
 methods as such were known in the United States imtil near 
 the close of the colonial period, yet evidence can be found 
 that they were in practice long before this. Comenius visited 
 England in 1641, and it is safe to infer that he was some- 
 what known to the educated men of New England. The 
 scholars of America were more concerned with the ways 
 and means of higher education — of knowledge getting — 
 than they were with teaching and elementary education, 
 and as Comenius himself at this time was more concerned 
 with his pansophic scheme, his Didactic would attract little 
 or no attention. The Great Didactic had been translated 
 into the German language and its principles had long been 
 put into practice. It was through these translations that 
 America first knew of him, and afterwards through transla- 
 tions made from the Latin to the English language in Eng- 
 land. A careful comparison of The Great Didactic and most 
 of the books on pedagogy, written in the United States pre- 
 vious to 1850, will show marked resemblances, and will fur- 
 nish ample evidence that the writers had had access to the 
 writings of Comenius. This could have been possible only 
 through the original Latin edition or through the German 
 
182 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 translations. The Moravians who settled in the colonies 
 furnish no evidence of having exerted any influence upon 
 education in this country. 
 
 How do we know that Comenius's methods were practiced in the 
 United States? Why did the Moravians influence American education 
 so little? Compare any early work on pedagogy with The Great Didactic. 
 What is your conclusion? How has Comenius influenced the teaching 
 of Latin? When were schools first graded in the United States? Had 
 Comenius become president of Harvard, what do you think would have 
 been the effect upon American education? What practices do we find 
 in the schools to-day that are directly due to Comenius's influence? — 
 Butler; Hanus. 
 
 In issuing the Declaration of Independence it became 
 necessary for the American people to seek new relations 
 and to form alliance with some European power other than 
 the mother country. France had long been England's 
 enemy and it was but natural that the United States should 
 turn to her for assistance and that Congress should send 
 commissioners to that government. Jefferson, Adams, and 
 Franklin, who were sent in this capacity to France, were more 
 than diplomats, they were men of large views and broad 
 interest along the lines of science, art, and philosophy, and 
 they became the media through which the great questions 
 of the age in France and the wealth of European culture and 
 art became known in America. In the founding of the 
 American Academy of Arts and Sciences at Boston in 1780, 
 we see the first evidence of French influence. The Ameri- 
 can Philosophical Society had been founded in Philadelphia 
 in 1769. The former copied the Royal Academy of France, 
 the latter the Royal Society of Great Britain. 
 
 Thomas Jefferson was instrumental in causing the intro- 
 duction of French ideas into the University of Virginia, and 
 through the teaching of the French language in the different 
 
European Influences on Education 183 
 
 colleges these ideas were made familiar. In 1817, edu- 
 cation was first organized in Michigan and shows strong 
 French influence. The " Catholepistemiad or University of 
 Michigania," which was prepared by Judge Woodward and 
 established by legislative act, was no doubt suggested by 
 thejUniversity of France. The act provided not only for a 
 local university but for all public education; and later, after 
 it had been reduced to comprehensible language, became 
 the model in many states of the Union in the organization 
 of their school systems. 
 
 In what capacity did Franklin, Jefferson, and Adams visit France? 
 Is it probable that they were influenced by the work of Rousseau? By 
 Voltaire? Compare the organization of the University of Virginia and 
 the University of Michigan. Describe the Catholepistemiad. How did 
 Franklin influence education? Did French influence show itself prin- 
 cipally in higher or in elementary education? Why? — Adams; Hins- 
 dale; Davidson; Thorpe; Hoyt-Fobd; McLaughlin. 
 
 The influence of Germany upon education in the United 
 States was, however, by far the greatest of that of any coun- 
 try. It was chiefly concerned with the reform of elemen- 
 tary education, the organization of the several parts into a 
 system of schools, and the supervision of the same. Prussia 
 served as an exceUent model. Pestalozzi suggested object 
 teaching and industrial education; Froebel called attention 
 to infant education and infused a new spirit through the 
 kindergarten into the grades; and, finally, Herbart gave a 
 scientific aspect to the teaching art. 
 
 Our earliest knowledge of German education came from 
 Americans who visited that country, especially from Ameri- 
 can students who studied in German universities. In the 
 early part of the nineteenth century, the University of 
 Gottingen appears to have been the most popular with 
 
184 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 American students. Halle and Berlin came next and in the 
 order named. Among the large number of Americans at 
 Gottingen were Benjamia S. Barton, who received a degree 
 in 1799, and was probably the first American to have that 
 honor conferred upon him; Edward Everett was a student 
 there in 1812; George Ticknor, in 1815; George Bancroft, in 
 1818; and Henry W. Longfellow, in 1829. Dr. Franklin 
 was at Gottingen as early as 1766, and was the first 
 American to visit and study in a German university. 
 
 Dr. Cogswell, who had been a tutor at Harvard, during 
 his European travels, in 1818, visited and examined the work 
 of both Pestalozzi and Fellenberg. He was more strongly 
 impressed with the work of the latter than of the former. 
 As a result of his visits at Yverdon and Hofwyl, he, upon his 
 return in 1823, founded, in conjunction with Mr. Bancroft, 
 the Round Hill School near Northampton, Massachusetts. 
 The school was closed in 1839. While in existence, it at- 
 tracted pupils from many of the best families and became 
 very popular. It was probably the first school in this 
 country to be largely influenced by German ideas. These 
 ideas, however, were modified to suit the new conditions; 
 individual attention was given to each boy, and out-of-door 
 life was strongly emphasized. 
 
 In 1818-19, Prof. John Griscom of New York studied the 
 schools of Italy, France, Switzerland, Holland, and Great 
 Britain, and embodied the results of his visit in a,remarkable 
 book entitled A Year in Emope. In 1836, Prof. Stowe of 
 Ohio; in 1838, A. D. Bache, the newly-elected president of 
 Girard College; and in 1843, Horace Mann, made extensive 
 tours of the different European countries. The results of 
 their investigations are found recorded in their respective 
 reports. 
 
European Influences on Education 185 
 
 The Report of Public Instruction in Prussia, made by 
 M. Victor Cousin to the French government, was one of the 
 most important dociunents in the educational history of its 
 time. M. Cousin had been commissioned by the French 
 government to visit and report upon the different school 
 systems of Europe. The report was printed in Paris in 
 1831. That portion of it relating to the Prussian schools 
 was translated into English by Mrs. Sarah Austin, and pub- 
 lished in London in 1834. This book was published in New 
 York in 1835 with an added preface by J. Orville Taylor, 
 and was read by John D. Pierce before he made his plan for 
 the Michigan school system in 1836. 
 
 Prepare short sketches of the men named as having studied in or 
 having visited the schools of Europe. Is it probable that any of them 
 met Herbart? Froebel? Why was there such an unusual interest in 
 education in America at this time? Compare the school system of your 
 state with that given in Cousin's Report. Why did the German in- 
 fluence affect America more than other influences? Give a description 
 of the Round Hill School. — ^Ellis; Hinsdale; Harper's Mo., LV, 704; 
 Hamilton; Index, Barnard's Jour.; Hoyt-Ford. 
 
 Through the acquaintance of Pestalozzi with Fichte, 
 Griiner, Froebel, Herbart, Ritter, Ramsauer, Diesterweg, 
 and others, Pestalozzianism found a ready and early accept- 
 ance in the German schools; and yet it was through English 
 sources that the methods first came into the United States. 
 James Greaves had spent several years with Pestalozzi at 
 Yverdon and CHndy. Upon his return to England he be- 
 came secretary of the Infant School Society and later 
 founded a Pestalozzian school near London. Charles Mayo 
 spent three years at Yverdon and upon his return founded 
 schools and did much to familiarize the people with the 
 theories of Pestalozzi. He assisted in founding the Home 
 
186 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 and Colonial Training College, in London, which aimed to 
 train teachers in Pestalozzian methods. Mr. Mayo's sister 
 became superintendent of this school, and Hermann Kriisi 
 Jr. was a teacher there before coming to the United States. 
 
 In 1819, Robert Owen, a practical philanthropist and 
 mill superintendent at New Lanark, Scotland, visited Pes- 
 talozzi and Fellenberg. Upon his return he incorporated the 
 new ideas in an Infant School. The spirit which pervaded 
 this school was the same as that which Froebel eighteen 
 years later incorporated into his kindergarten. Both 
 men drew their inspiration from the same source. Mr. 
 Owen afterwards removed to America and purchased the 
 great Harmonist estate in Indiana. This estate had been 
 built up by the followers of George Rapp, a zealous pietist 
 from southern Germany, who had been at the head of a 
 similar estate in Pennsylvania. It was one of the many 
 communistic, religious organizations so common in the 
 United States at this time, and like all of them had been 
 successful for a time, failing at last because of the character 
 of the organization. Mr. Owen caUed the place New Har- 
 mony and purposed to work out an experiment in coopera- 
 tive socialism. This experiment was of importance to edu- 
 cation because he was seconded in his efforts by William 
 Maclure, to whom may be ascribed the honor of having 
 given the earliest presentation of Pestalozzianism to the 
 United States. 
 
 Mr. Maclure was bom in Scotland in 1763. At the age 
 of nineteen he came to Philadelphia on a business trip. 
 Twenty years later he made that city his permanent home. 
 He was a man of broad culture and his interests in educa- 
 tion were many-sided. He was especially distinguished as a 
 geologist. In the course of his frequent trips to Europe he 
 
European Influences on Education 187 
 
 came into close touch with Pestalozzi and Fellenberg, and 
 with Owen at New Lanark. It had been his intention to 
 establish an agricultural and industrial school somewhere 
 in the United States, but his friend Owen having at this 
 time planned the New Harmony community, Maclure 
 united his interests with this project. In 1806, Mr. Maclure 
 had engaged Joseph Neef, a former assistant of Pestalozzi, 
 to open a school in the United States, and had agreed to pay 
 his expenses xmtil he had learned the English language. 
 The school was opened in Philadelphia in 1809, and con- 
 tinued there three years, when it was removed to Village 
 Green, Pennsylvania, and from there to Kentucky. In 
 1825, Mr. Neef went to New Harmony where he remained 
 until the colony broke up in 1828. He had charge of the 
 higher elementary classes, and his wife, who was a daughter 
 of Buss, another of Pestalozzi's assistants, taught the In- 
 fant School, which was modeled after the New Lanark 
 school. 
 
 Write sketches of James Greaves, Charles Mayo, and Robert Owen. 
 Describe the Rappites. What was Pietism? Describe the experiment 
 at New Harmony. Write a sketch of WilUam Maclure. Why was the 
 influence of New .Harmony not permanent? — ^Monroe; Lockwood; 
 
 WOODBRIDQE ; HlNSDALE. j 
 
 The Pestalozzian influence was felt in New England much 
 later than in other parts of the United States. Among the 
 earliest advocates were Henry Barnard, A. Bronson Alcott, 
 William Woodbridge, and Lowell Mason. These men did 
 much to adapt the new methods to the New World civiliza- 
 tion, and to give them a permanent form. Mr. Woodbridge 
 was interested in the study of music, but more particularly 
 in that of geography. Mr. Alcott organized schools and 
 exemplified Pestalozzian methods. Mr. Mason adapted 
 
188 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 the methods to the teaching of music, and Mr. Barnard, 
 through the American Journal of Education, has done more 
 than any other man to familiarize the people with Pestaloz- 
 zianism. He has kept the record and has made the move- 
 ment a permanent one. 
 
 The Oswego Normal School was the agency by which the 
 extension of Pestalozzian doctrine was accomplished, and 
 by means of which it became a fixed factor in our educa- 
 tional system. Dr. E. A. Sheldon, who had organized the 
 Oswego schools in 1860, shortly thereafter visited Toronto, 
 Canada, and examined some of the materials and appliances 
 used in the Home and Colonial Training College, in London. 
 He then continued the organization of the schools with par- 
 ticular attention to object teaching. After one year he se- 
 cured the services of Margaret E. M. Jones, of London, who 
 had been teaching in the Training College for several years. . 
 In 1862, Hermann Kriisi Jr. succeeded Miss Jones as head 
 of the training school at Oswego. Mr. Kriisi was the son 
 of one of Pestalozzi's assistants, and before coming to Os- 
 wego had taught in Mr. Mayo's school in London and in 
 Massachusetts and New Jersey. In 1863, the Oswego 
 school was made a state normal school. 
 
 Why was New England tardy in feeling Pestalozzian influence? 
 Give a sketch of Dr. E. A. Sheldon. What did he do to make his 
 school known? Who were some of his teachers? How did this school 
 influence other schools? Compare this school with the normal schools 
 founded before this in Massachusetts. — Abbr; Hollis; Gokdt; (x) 
 Krusi. 
 
 The influence of Froebel's teachings, as a result of the es- 
 tablishment of kindergartens in the United States, came 
 about in a unique way. The influence which had radiated 
 from the school at Marienthal led to the establishing of a 
 
European Influences on Education 189 
 
 considerable number of training schools in Germany, Eng- 
 land, and France; and while in no instance did the kinder- 
 garten become incorporated into the state school system as 
 an organic part of it, its value as an educating agency was 
 felt and appreciated. The attention of the American peo- 
 ple was first called to it by Henry Barnard, in 1854, and 
 again in a more official way in 1868, when he was United 
 States Commissioner of Education. Although the first 
 kindergarten was established in Coliunbus, Ohio, in 1858, 
 no great impulse was given to the movement until 1867, 
 when Miss Elizabeth Peabody, of Boston, who had studied 
 the theory and method of Froebel in Europe, returned and 
 founded the American Froebel Union. 
 
 The plan of development has been along three lines: the 
 private, the charitable, and the public kindergarten. Each 
 step has seemed to prepare the way for the following one. 
 The private kindergarten, as its name indicates, was main- 
 tained by tuition, usually under the patronage of a person 
 of prominence, or of an association of some kind. The first 
 was opened in Boston, and in 1872, the movement extended 
 to New York under the leadership of Miss Marie Boelte. It 
 was not long until all the principal cities were supporting 
 one or more such kindergartens. On the whole, this branch 
 of the movement was the least successful of any. The 
 charitable kindergarten was an outgrowth of the private, 
 and the two were not infrequently found side by side. The 
 tuition was free and the pupils came from the homes of the 
 poor. The schools were maintained by subscription and were 
 usually conducted under the auspices of a kindergarten as- 
 sociation. The first charity kindergarten was established 
 in New York, in 1870. Later we find them in San Fran- 
 cisco, Chicago, and, indeed, in almost every city of import- 
 
190 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 ance in the United States. The names of the persons most 
 prominently connected with this movement are Mrs. 
 Pauline Shaw, of Boston, Elizabeth Harrison, of Chicago, 
 and Kate Douglas Wiggin and Emma Marwedel, of San 
 Francisco. 
 
 As soon as the people saw the value of the kindergarten, 
 a demand was made for its incorporation into the public 
 school system, and thus it became possible for the charity 
 kindergarten to be made public and to be supported the 
 same as other schools. The first public kindergarten was 
 established in Boston in 1870, but was soon discontinued. 
 In 1873, Dr. William T. Harris, superintendent of schools of 
 St. Louis, Missouri, assisted by Susan E. Blow, opened a 
 public [kindergarten in that city. From this beginning, 
 in thirty-five years the influence has extended to 4,000 
 schools in which more than a quarter of a million pupils 
 are taught. 
 
 No greater service has been done for the kindergarten 
 than the translation of Froebel's writings into English, and 
 the original contributions to educational literature by 
 other leaders in this movement. 
 
 How did Mr. Barnard arouse an interest in the kindergarten? Who 
 was Elizabeth Peabody? Trace the development of the kindergarten 
 in your own state. Show the yearly increaee of kindergartens in the 
 United States during the last twenty years. Compile a list of the 
 writings of prominent kindergartners in the United States. — (y) Bak- 
 nahd; Fisher; Harris; Dexter. 
 
 The process by which the doctrines of Herbart have im- 
 pressed themselves upon the United States has been one of 
 adaptation rather than of imitation. Herbart was philo- 
 sophical and scientific, and left little that could be adopted 
 and concretely applied. In this respect he was unlike the 
 
European Influences on Education 191 
 
 others. They had worked out their theories in the school- 
 room, therefore it was an easy matter to imitate them; but 
 not so with Herbart. He dealt with great principles that 
 must first be understood and accepted, after which they 
 could be adapted to time, place, and circumstance. 
 
 Through the schools of ZUler and Rein, Herbart soon 
 gained a large number of enthusiastic disciples in Germany. 
 In fact, it may be said that he has influenced the scientific 
 aspect of teaching in that country in the same way as Pesta- 
 lozzi did the mechanical. Within the last thirty years a 
 large number of Americans have studied in the universities 
 of Germany and thus they have become familiar with Her- 
 bart's theories and their application. Upon their return to 
 the United States, by means of translations and their own 
 personal work, much has been done to impress Herbartian 
 principles upon the schools. In 1892, the National Herbart 
 Society was organized. Its purpose was to extend the ideas 
 of Herbart and to promote their appUcation under condi- 
 tions found in the United States. The Herbart Year 
 Books, the publication of the society, contain many valu- 
 able contributions. In addition to this, the translation of 
 Herbart's works has been accomplished by the members of 
 the society. In 1901, this organization was merged into the 
 National Society for the Scientific Study of Education. 
 The work of Herbart has thus been continued and broad- 
 ened. 
 
 Herbart's influence may be summarized as follows: (1) 
 many of the recent changes in the course of study are di- 
 rectly due to a better understanding of correlation and the 
 culture epoch theory. (2) Teaching has grown scientific 
 as a result of a better understanding of the teaching steps. 
 (3) The methods of training teachers have been changed and 
 
192 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 improved. And (4) the new psychology has become a real- 
 ity, because without it scientific teaching is impossible. 
 
 Name the leading Herbaxtians in the United States. What has each 
 done to further the influences of Herbartianism? How have normal 
 Bchools been affected by Herbartianism? Give a list of subjects treated 
 in Herbart Year Books. When and where are meetings of the 
 National Society held? What Americans have studied the Herbartian 
 methods in Germany? — Db Garmo. 
 
 Thus far it has been shown how only the elementary 
 schools of the United States have been affected by foreign 
 influences. It now remains to be shown to what extent this 
 influence came into play in the founding of the secondary 
 schools and higher institutions of learning. The principles 
 governing in the one case will be seen to prevail in the other. 
 
 The ideals of the mother coimtry were, after some modi- 
 fication, perpetuated in the new. The colonists at first 
 merely adapted themselves to the new conditions, and as 
 far as possible imder the circumstances they imitated some 
 cherished institution in the home land in realizing this 
 ideal. In doing this they were absolutely free. 
 
 Nine colleges were founded during the colonial period. 
 There seems to be no evidence that any of these was an orig- 
 inal idea, but was rather due to the imitation of a European 
 type. The colonists were highly rehgious and a large num- 
 ber of them were graduates of some English university« 
 How natural, then, that one of their first cares should be a 
 provision whereby future ministers and leaders might be pre- 
 pared, and that these institutions should in part at least be 
 supported by the church or state ! In nearly every in- 
 stance the colonial assemblies voted certain sums of money 
 for the founding and maintenance of a college. 
 
 In 1636, when the general court of the colony of 
 
European Influences on Education 193 
 
 Massachusetts voted £400 towards the founding of a college, 
 Harvard University had its beginning. The object of this 
 school at first was the training of young men for the ministry. 
 It was voted to locate the college at Newtown, a name which 
 was afterwards changed to Cambridge. In 1637, Rev. John 
 Harvard, a graduate of Emmanuel College at Cambridge, 
 England, came to America and settled at Charlestown. He 
 was a Puritan, a man of great intelligence and deeply in sjon- 
 pathy with the success of this new school. At his death he 
 bequeathed £800 and his library of three hundred and 
 twenty volumes towards the endowment of the college. 
 The Rev. Henry Dunster, who had been educated at Mag- 
 dalen College in Cambridge, England, was the first to 
 receive the title of President of Harvard College. — Bush. 
 With the beginnings of the Virginia colony careful atten- 
 tion had been given to the founding of schools. As early as 
 1619 the home government had granted liberal endowments, 
 and in 1620 taxes were levied for a college, open to both 
 white and Indian people, at Charles City. This was the 
 first attempt to establish a college in America. It had 
 its ending in the massacre at Charles City in 1622. 
 It was not until 1660 ' that the colonial assembly enacted 
 legislation which resulted in the founding of a university. 
 In 1691, William and Mary endowed the college by giving 
 two thousand pounds, twenty thousand acres of land, the 
 proceeds from a tax of one penny upon every poimd of to- 
 bacco exported from Maryland and Virginia, and all fees 
 from the ofiice of the surveyor-general. Later the House 
 of Burgesses added to this royal endowment. The college 
 was named in honor of the king and queen and was located 
 at WiUiamsburg. It gave Washington his degree as civil 
 engineer, and here Thomas Jefferson, Governor Randolph, 
 
194 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 Chief Justice Marshall and nearly all the Virginia statesmen 
 of the revolutionary period received their training in politics 
 and law. — ^Adams. 
 
 Previous to 1701 numerous unsuccessful attempts had 
 been made to found a college in the colony of Connecticut. 
 In that year, however, through the efforts of Rev. James 
 Pierpont, a Harvard graduate, the legislature granted a 
 charter for a collegiate school. It was not located at New 
 Haven until 1717. Through the instrumentality of Cotton 
 Mather, Elihu Yftle had made many valuable bequests to 
 the institution, and in 1745 a new charter was granted by 
 which the name of the school was changed to Yale College. As 
 Harvard traces its origin to graduates of Emmanuel, so Yale 
 traces its beginning to graduates of Harvard.— (x) Steiner. 
 
 Each of the colleges above mentioned grew out of the 
 needs of a single colony — the religion of a state. Prince- 
 ton, on the contrary, was of no established state or church, 
 nor of one colony or nationality, but was the outcome of 
 influences emanating from the Presbyterian Church. These 
 religious influences constituted a tie in the middle colonies 
 stronger than that of European government. The famous 
 "Log College" at the forks of the Neshaminy was the fore- 
 runner of this college. WiUiam Tennent, a graduate of 
 Edinburgh, appreciating the need of training ministers, in 
 1727 opened a school of divinity in a log structure con- 
 structed by himself. The school was discontinued at his 
 death, but it was the beginning and served as the model for 
 a college for which a charter was granted in 1748. It was 
 known at first as the College of New Jersey and afterward 
 as Princeton University.— Murray. 
 
 The University of Pennsylvania is closely connected with 
 the name of Benjamin FrankUn and in its management and 
 
European Influences on Education 195 
 
 organization more nearly resembles that of a state univer- 
 sity than does any other of the colonial period. In 1689 a 
 public grammar school was founded in Philadelphia after 
 the English idea. It was formally chartered in 1697, as the 
 William Penn Charter School and is said to be the origin of 
 the University of Pennsylvania. Mr. Franklin, in 1749, 
 I issued a pamphlet on education which aroused much in- 
 terest and was enthusiastically received. It resulted in the 
 founding of an institution known as the College, Academy, 
 and Charitable School of Philadelphia. The courses offered 
 were more liberal than those offered in any other college in 
 this country at that time. The first medical school in 
 America was established here. In 1791, the general assem- 
 bly interfering with the affairs, created the present corpora- 
 tion known as the Trustees of the University of Pennsyl- 
 vania. — ^Thorpe; Wickersham. 
 
 King George II granted a charter, in 1754, to King's Col- 
 lege " for the education and instruction of youth in liberal 
 arts and sciences." A fund of thirty-five hundred pounds 
 was raised and vested in a board of trustees composed of one 
 Presbyterian, two members from the Dutch Reformed 
 Church, and seven from the Church of England. A new 
 charter was granted by the legislature, in 1787, and the name 
 was changed to Columbia CoUege. The trustees were selected 
 from the board of regents of the State of New York and the 
 state made appropriations for its support.— Hathaway. 
 
 Brown University, first known as Rhode Island College, 
 was founded in Warren in 1764. In 1762 the Philadelphia 
 Baptist Association in order to better provide the means for 
 the propagation of their faith by better preparation for the 
 ministry, resolved to found a college in Rhode Island to be 
 under the control of that denomination. James Manning, 
 
196 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 a graduate of Princeton, was the first president. The col- 
 lege was supported by private subscription, much of which 
 was obtained in England and Ireland. In 1770 the college 
 was located at Providence and the name was changed to 
 Brown University, after a distinguished alumnus. Horace 
 Mann was a graduate of this institution.— Tolman. 
 
 Rutgers is a college of the Dutch Reformed Church. It is 
 located at New Brunswick, New Jersey, the charter being 
 originally granted for Queen's College in 1766. In 1770 a 
 second charter was granted under which it has continued to 
 the present time.— Murray. 
 
 In 1754 Rev. Eleazer Wheelock opened a school for In- 
 dians in New Lebanon, Connecticut. Dartmouth College is 
 an outgrowth of this school. The assemblies of Massa- 
 chusetts and New Hampshire gave financial aid. The 
 school attracted considerable attention and came to be 
 known as Moor's Indian Charity School. It was finally 
 located at Hanover, New Hampshire, and under a charter 
 from King George III it was named for Lord Dartmouth. 
 Daniel Webster was an alumnus and did much to preserve 
 and perpetuate this school.— (x) Bush. 
 
 In the period during and immediately following the Rev- 
 olutionary War not fewer than fifteen colleges were organ- 
 ized. Most of these were sectarian in character and show 
 little or no evidence of foreign influence, but with the open- 
 ing of the nineteenth century there were manifested new 
 features of control, support, and management. It is true 
 that later many schools were founded that have remained 
 under the control of private corporations. Yet upon the 
 organization of the federal government the states began to 
 assume the maintenance and to exercise control over sev- 
 eral institutions. This was the origin of the state umversity. 
 
European Influences on Education 197 
 
 It will be noticed that the colonial colleges were similar 
 in that they were chartered by and were in part at least 
 supported by the colonial government, but they were al- 
 ways sectarian and were not democratic. In the East, 
 attempts had been made by the states to secure control of 
 the colleges, but not with success. In the South and West, 
 in the framing of the new state constitutions, provisions were 
 made for a state imiversity. By the passage of the Morrill 
 Act, in 1862, the general government gave large grants of 
 land to be used for educational purposes and this made it 
 practical for every state in the imion to have such an insti- 
 tution. 
 
 Name the colleges founded between 1776 and 1800. How did they 
 differ from the colonial colleges? Show how the colonial colleges were 
 similar. When did the state university reach its fullest development? 
 What was the Catholepistemiad? When and how was the University 
 of Virginia foimded? What is the University of the State of New York? 
 In what way have state universities been affected by foreign influences? 
 — Dexter, 279; Adams; Bush; Tolman; Muhbat; Hathaway; 
 McLaughlin; (x) Mato; Blackmar. 
 
 A study of the origin and development of secondary edu- 
 cation in the United States reveals influences that are dis- 
 tinctly foreign in character. ( 1) The English grammar school 
 was the model which was closely followed in the beginning 
 and was modified to suit the peculiar needs of the people. 
 It was then used to aid in adjustment to new conditions. 
 (2) The peculiar trend of religious thought in England was 
 reflected in the colonies. This had much to do in shaping 
 educational systems and in determining the character of 
 the schools. 
 
 There are three stages in the development of secondary 
 education: (1) the Latin school of colonial times. 
 
198 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 followed (2) by the academy during the period from the 
 close of the Revolutionary War to the middle of the nine- 
 teenth century, and (3) the high school of the present. 
 
 As the prime function of the colonial college was the prep- 
 aration of ministers so the main object of the secondary 
 school was to prepare students for college. The curriculum 
 was narrow. Aside from the teaching of religion and the 
 classics little was attempted. It had been enacted 
 that every town of one hundred families might organize 
 a grammar school and as there was a virtual union of 
 state and church in the colonies at this time there was 
 no hkelihood of a dispute over the maintenance of these 
 schools. 
 
 The Boston Latin School, established in 1636, was the 
 first of the kind to be organized. It was supported by both 
 public and private means. This school was followed by 
 many others, notably at New Haven in 1641, at New 
 York in 1659, and at Philadelphia in 1696. 
 
 At the close of the Revolutionary War, the ties with 
 England having been severed, Americans were organizing 
 a new government and the tendency to sunder church and 
 state was everywhere more and more manifest. Nowhere 
 was this more completely shown than in secondary educa- 
 tion. The result was the academy. 
 
 The academy is distinctly of English origin. Milton first 
 suggests it in his Tractate. It was the school of the non- 
 conformist who had been excluded from all other schools. 
 As many of the Americans were in close sympathy with the 
 English dissenters, such schools were imitated in America. 
 Soon they showed the influence of adaptation by taking on 
 characteristics of a new and distinctive type., 
 
 The academies were endowed institutions and were 
 
European Influences on Education 199 
 
 organized not so much to prepare men for college as to meet 
 the needs of the middle class by affording a means for a 
 practical and completed education. Courses of study were 
 not very closely defined and much freedom was given the 
 individual in the choice of subjects to be studied. They 
 were organized under either self-perpetuating boards or 
 religious bodies. In consequence they were strongly re- 
 ligious in character. A tuition was usually charged not- 
 withstanding that they were sometimes called "free." In 
 many instances they were used to give professional training 
 to teachers. 
 
 At the close of the nineteenth century New York had 
 nineteen academies, Massachusetts the same number, and 
 every state could boast at least one. The Phillips Acade- 
 mies (Andover in Massachusetts in 1780, and Exeter in New 
 Hampshire, 1781) were the most famous. Two Moravian 
 academies were maintained at Bethlehem and Nazareth in 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 The academy was a school of a distinctive type. It orig- 
 inated because of peculiar needs and its influence was 
 great, but with the opening of the nineteenth century the 
 American ideal and tendency were setting toward a school 
 system that should be under the exclusive control of the 
 state. There was a growing demand for a school free from 
 the church, open to all, supported by taxation, and man- 
 aged by a board elected by the people and representative of 
 them. 
 
 This led to the establishment of high schools. They took 
 the place of the academy, grew out of the elementary schools, 
 and prepared the way for the university. With such be- 
 ginnings, such a system encouraged and fostered at times 
 by the federal government, yet always maintained and 
 
200 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 controlled by the people has developed into an American 
 school system. 
 
 Describe the Latin schools. What was the Tractate? Explain the 
 English origin of the academy. Describe the Phillips Academies? 
 When did this country first feel the French influences in education? 
 Describe the English grammar school. — ^Dexter; Brown; Boone. 
 
 It now remains to be seen how the normal school idea 
 originated, how it was affected by foreign influences, and 
 how it has developed into our present efficient system, in- 
 cluding the professional training of teachers in colleges and 
 universities. 
 
 It is probable that the inception of the normal school idea 
 was not directly due to foreign influence, yet there is an 
 abundance of evidence that there was such an influence at 
 work at the time of the organization of the normal schools. 
 At the beginning the idea came as a direct result of a com- 
 bination of circumstances in this country, for with the 
 growth and development of the educational ideal there 
 came an appreciation of the same need of trained teachers 
 as had been the case in Europe a century and a half earlier. 
 
 During the fifty years preceding the opening of the first 
 normal school in the United States, the importance and 
 necessity for the professional training of teachers, together 
 with suggestions for accompUshing this, had been made by 
 many prominent men in lectures and papers. 
 
 There appeared in The Massachusetts Magazine in 1789 an 
 article upon "The Importance of Studying the English 
 Language Grammatically," and in this the author showed 
 the importance of the preparation of teachers. Prof. James 
 L. Kingsley and William Russell in 1823, and Denison Olm- 
 sted in 1861, in lectures and addresses reiterated and em- 
 phasized the same idea. These were followed by scores of 
 
European Influences on Education 201 
 
 others. In 1826 Governor DeWitt Clinton of New York 
 and Governor Lincoln of Massachusetts urged upon their 
 legislatures the importance of making provision for the 
 training of teachers. 
 
 In 1823 Samuel R. Hall opened a school which offered 
 professional training at Concord, Vt. He remained here 
 xmtil 1830, when he opened another school of the same kind 
 at Andover, and finally a third school in Plymouth in 1837. 
 In 1829 he published a book entitled Lectures on School 
 Keeping. This book was extensively read and was the first 
 on the subject of teaching ever written in this country. 
 
 John C. Carter has been called the "Father of Normal 
 Schools." In 1824 he pubhshed his plan in The Boston 
 Patriot. In this he emphasized the three sides of the neces- 
 sary instruction of a teacher — the academic, the profes- 
 sional, and the practical. He drew the bill creating the 
 State Board of Education in Massachusetts in 1837, and 
 was instrumental in organizing the first state normal school. 
 It is at this point that foreign influences may be seen. The 
 training seminaries of Prussia were more or less closely 
 copied. They were made known in this country by such 
 men as Henry E. Dwight, Charles Brooks, Mr. Woodbridge, 
 and Prof. Calvin Stowe of Ohio, and by Taylor's translation 
 of Cousin's Report on Public Instruction in Prussia. The 
 Lancasterian system, which had at this time gained a strong 
 foothold in this country, was also a strong factor in arousing 
 interest in professionally trained teachers. The normal 
 school idea was given a wide publicity through the numer- 
 ous school journals and the educational societies. 
 
 In 1838 Edmund Dwight of Massachusetts gave $10,000 
 for the establishment of normal schools on condition that 
 the state should contribute a hke sum. This offer being 
 
202 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 accepted, the first normal school in the United States was 
 opened at Lexington, in 1839, with the Rev. Cyrus Pierce as 
 principal. The important part taken by Horace Mann in 
 this work has already been shown. 
 
 The forerunner of the normal school in New York was the 
 academy. There had been ingrafted upon them depart- 
 ments which were devoted to the professional training of 
 teachers. This plan was pursued until 1844, when the State 
 Normal School at Albany was established. 
 
 The normal school at Oswego, N. Y., is of importance be- 
 cause, having grown out of the necessities of the public 
 schools, it was the forerunner of the city training school, and 
 because through its founder, Dr. E. A. Sheldon, the Pesta- 
 lozzian influences were made permanent in this country. 
 The school was made a state normal in 1861. It has served 
 for the model of many schools founded since that time, and 
 has supplied scores of training teachers everywhere. 
 
 The European idea that the history and science and 
 the art of education are subjects of great importance to 
 every teacher led to a realization of the necessity of 
 professional training for teachers of secondary schools. 
 Normal schools had provided for the training of elementary 
 teachers; it remained for the university to care for the 
 secondary teachers. In 1850 Brown University organized 
 a department of pedagogy, but it was discontinued at the 
 end of fiVe years. In 1873 the University of Iowa estab- 
 lished the first permanent chair of pedagogy. This was 
 followed, in 1879, by the University of Michigan, and this in 
 turn by Wisconsin and others until at the present time 
 nearly every higher institution of learning recognizes this 
 department as one of its essential features. 
 
 How was the necessity for professional training first made apparent? 
 
European Influences on Education 203 
 
 Give synopsis of articles mentioned above (see Gordy). Give a sketch 
 of John C. Carter. What was Cousin's Report f Make a list of the 
 normal schools in the United States (see Rep. U. S. Com. of Educ.). 
 Describe the founding of the Oswego Normal School. Write the his- 
 tory of the normal schools of your own state. — Gordt. 
 
 The attempt has been made to lead the student of educa- 
 tion in his researches to follow the lines along which certain 
 educational doctrines, during the past three hundred years, 
 have developed, and to suggest how education in the United 
 States has been affected by them. It has been pointed out 
 that the history of education is but a phase of the history of 
 civilization, and that in any country it is vastly more than 
 mere effects of foreign influences. Education is indigenous, 
 and nowhere has this been better exemplified than in the 
 United States of America. Each nation has its peculiar 
 ideal, and in proportion as it comes to realize this it assumes 
 its place among the nations of the world. So should it be 
 with the teacher. When each teacher shall have learned 
 from Comenius the lesson of realism, from Rousseau the 
 lesson of individualism, from Pestalozzi the love for human- 
 ity; when each one has learned unity from Froebel, science 
 from Herbart, and administration from Horace Mann, then, 
 by means of the American public school, our people shall 
 enjoy a unified and progressive national life. 
 
204 Studies in tlie History of Modern Education 
 
 Bibliography 
 
 In asking for books at the library, call for titles printed in Italics. 
 
 Abbr, William M. — Oswego State Normal School; Pop. Sci. Mo., 
 XLIII, 51-76. 
 
 Adams, H. B. — Thomas Jefferson and the University of Virginia; 
 U. S. Bureau of Educ. Circ. of Inf., No. 1, 1888. 
 
 Adams, Herbebt B. — The College of William and ^ Mary; XJ. S. 
 Bureau of Educ. Circ. of Inf., No. 1, 1887. 
 
 Anon.— The Round Hill School; Harper's Mo., LV, 704. 
 
 Baknaed, Henby — History of Public Instruction in Prussia; Bar- 
 nard's Jour., XX, 335-360. 
 
 (v) Barnard, Henry — Pestalozzianism in the United States; Bar- 
 nard's Jour., XXX, 561-672. 
 
 (x) Barnard, Henry — German Teachers and Educators. 
 
 (y) Barnard, Henry — Kindergarten and Child Culture. 
 
 (z) Barnard, Henry — Educational Labors of Lowell Mason; Bar- 
 nard's Jour., IV, 141-148. 
 
 (w) Barnard, Henry — Charity Kindergartens in the United States ; 
 Barnard's Jour., XXX, 846-848. 
 
 Blackmar, Prank W. — Federal and State Aid to Higher Education 
 in the United States; U. S. Bureau of Educ. Circ. of Inf., No. 1, 1890. 
 
 Boone, Richard G. — Education in the United States. 
 
 Brown, Elmer E. — The Making of Our Middle Schools. 
 
 (x) Brown, Elmer E. — Secondary Education; Education in the 
 United States, Vol. I, Edited by Nicholas Murray Butler. 
 
 (y) Beown, Elmer E. — History of Secondary Education; Sch. Rev., 
 VI, 225-357-527; VII, 36-103-286. 
 
 Bush, George Gary — History of Higher Education in Massachu- 
 setts; U. S. Bureau of Educ. Circ. of Inf., No. 6, 1891. 
 
 (x) Bush, George Gary — History of Education in New Hamp- 
 shire; U. S. Bureau of Educ. Circ. of Inf., No. S, 1898. 
 
 Butler, Nicholas Murray — ^The Place of Comenius in the History 
 of Education; Proc. N. E. A. 189S, 723-728. 
 
 Carman, A. — A Pestalozzian Pioneer — Joseph Neef ; Pop. Sci. Mo., 
 XLV, 373. 
 
 Cousin, M. Victor — Report of the Prussian School System, Edited 
 by J. Orville Taylor. 
 
 Davidson, Thomas — Rousseau and Education according to Nature. 
 
 De Garmo, Charles — Herhart and the Herbartians. 
 
European Influences on Education 205 
 
 Dexter, E. G.— History of Education in the United States. 
 
 Draper, A. S. — Public School Pioneering in New York and Massa- 
 chusetts; Educ. Rev., HI, 313-336; IV, 34-46, 241-252; V, 345-362. 
 
 (x) Draper, A. S. — The Inception of an American State School Sys- 
 tem; Edve. Rev., VIII, 105-127. 
 
 Edinburgh ijeroew— Fellenberg's Establishment at Hofwyl; XXXI, 
 150-165. 
 
 Edinburgh Review — Tracts on Fellenberg's Establishment at Hofwyl; 
 XXXII, 488-507. 
 
 Ellis, George E. — Recollections of the Round Hill School; Edtic. 
 Rev., I, 337-344. 
 
 Fisher, Laura— The Kindergarten; Rep. U. S. Com. of Educ., 1903, 
 I, 689-719. 
 
 Ford, P. L. — The New England Primer. 
 
 GoRDT, J. P. — Rise and Growth of the Normal School Idea; Bureau 
 of Educ. Circ. of Inf., No. 8, 1891. 
 
 Hamilton, Sir William — Cousin on German Schools; Edinburgh 
 Rev., LVII, 505-542. 
 
 Hantjs, Paul H. — The Permanent Influence of Comenius; Educ. Rev., 
 Ill, 226-236. 
 
 Harris, William T. — Early History of the Kindergarten in St. Louis; 
 Rep. U. S. Com. of Educ, 1896-'97, I, 899-922. 
 
 Hathaway, Frank R. — Columbia University; U. S. Bureau of 
 Educ. Circ. of Inf., No. 3, 1900. 
 
 Hinsdale, B. A. — Notes on the History of Foreign Influences upon 
 Education in the United States; Rep. U. S. Com. of Educ., 1897-98, 1, 
 591-629. 
 
 (x) Hinsdale, B. A. — Documents Illustrative of American Educa- 
 tional History; Ibid., 189S~'93, II, 1226-1414. 
 
 (y) Hinsdale, B. A. — Horace Mann and the Common School Revival 
 in the United States, Chaps. I, II. 
 
 History of the National Educational Association; Proc. N. E. A., 
 1906, 453. 
 
 HoLLis, Andrew Philip — The Oswego Normal School. 
 
 HoTT, Charles O., and Ford, R. Clyde — John D. Pierce — a Study 
 of Education in the Northwest. 
 
 (x) KrtJsi, Hermann, Jr. — Recollections of My Life, Edited by E. S. 
 Ailing. 
 
 Krusi, Hermann, Jr. — Pestalozzi, His Life, Work, and Influence. 
 
 LocKwooD, George B. — The New Harmony Movement. 
 
 Martin, George H. — Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School 
 System. 
 
206 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 (x) Maetin, George H. — Public School Pioneering; Edtcc. Rev., IV, 
 34-46. 
 
 Mayo, A. D. — The Public Schools during the Colonial and the 
 Revolutionary Period; Rep. U. S. Com. Educ, 189S-'94, I, 639-738. 
 
 (x) Mayo, A. D. — The Original Establishment of State School Funds; 
 Rep. U. 8. Com. of Educ., 1894^'9S, I, 1505. 
 
 McLaughlin, Andrew C. — History of Higher Education in Mich- 
 igan; U. S. Bureau of Educ. Circ. of Inf., No. 4, 1891. 
 
 Meriwether, C. — History of Higher Education in South Carolina; 
 U. S. Bureau of Educ. Circ. of Inf., No. S, 1888. 
 
 Monroe, Will S. — Pestalozzian Movement in the United States. 
 
 (x) Monroe, Will S. — Comenius and the Beginnings of Educational 
 Reform. 
 
 (y) Monroe, Will S. — ^Joseph Neef and Pestalozzianism in America; 
 Education, XIV, 449-561. 
 
 Murray, David — History of Education in New Jersey ; U. S. Bureau 
 of Educ. Circ. of Inf., No. 1, 1899. 
 
 NoHLB, E. — History of the German School System; Rep. U. S. Com. 
 of Educ, 1897-98, 1, 45-61. 
 
 Oswego Normal School, Historical Sketches. 
 
 Powell, L. P. — History of Education in Delaware; U. S. Bureau of 
 Educ. Circ. of Inf., No. 3, 1893. 
 
 Russell, James E. — German Higher Schools. 
 
 Sbelby, Levi — The Common School System of Germany. 
 
 Smith, Charles L. — History of Education in North Carolina; U. S. 
 Bureau of Educ. Circ. of Inf., No. S, 1888. 
 
 Steiner, B. C. — History of Education in Maryland ; V. S. Bureau of 
 Educ. Circ. of Inf., No. 2, 1894. 
 
 (x) Steiner, B. C. — History of Education in Connecticut; U. S. 
 Bureau of Educ. Circ. of Inf., No. S, 1893. 
 
 Thorpe, Francis Newton — Franklin's Influence in American Educa- 
 tion; Rep. U. S. Com. of Educ, 190S, I, 91-100. Also U. S. Bureau of 
 Educ. Circ. of Inf., No. S, 1892. 
 
 Tolman, William Howe — History of Higher Education in Rhode 
 Island; U. 8. Bureau of Educ. Circ. of Inf., No. 1, 1894. 
 
 Wickersham, James P. — History of Education in Pennsylvania. 
 
 Winship, a. E. — Great American Educators. 
 
 Note: Many of the titles of the above references are sufficiently 
 suggestive of the subject matter contained in the article. Hinsdale's 
 articles and Monroe's book are excellent references. Barnard (x) and 
 (y) should be consulted. Kriisi for Pestalozzi; Davidson, Chap. XI, 
 for Rousseau ; Fisher for Froebel ; and De Garmo for Herbart, will be 
 found helpful. 
 
SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 
 AND DISCUSSION 
 
 1. To what extent was Comenius original? 
 
 2. Make a study of the text-books of Comenius. 
 
 3. How is Rousseau's influence felt in present day education? 
 
 4. What is the meaning of nature as expressed by the different 
 educators? 
 
 5. What were Proebel's religious views? 
 
 6. What is the educational value of play? 
 
 7. Compare the ideas of moral education of Rousseau and Horace 
 Mann. 
 
 8. How did Pestalozzi influence Froebel? Herbart? 
 
 9. Show how any practices of the schoolroom of to-day are influenced 
 by the educators studied. 
 
 10. State positively the ideas stated negatively by Rousseau. 
 
 11. What is the difference between the ideas of correlation and inner 
 connection? 
 
 12. Compare Comenius, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Herbart, Froebel, and 
 Horace Mann as to: a. early life and education, b. educational doc- 
 trines, c. relative importance and influence. 
 
 13. What is the relation of symbolism to education? 
 
 14. Discuss Horace Mann's religious views. 
 
 15. Discuss the Lancasterian system of education. 
 
 16. Why did the New Harmony movement fail? 
 
 17. Prepare a paper on the life and works of Henry Barnard. 
 
 18. Discuss the kindergarten in America. 
 
 19. Contrast the philosophic views of Herbart and Froebel. 
 
 20. What are the present day tendencies in education? 
 
 21. What similarity is there between the educational ideas of Jeflferson 
 and Rousseau? 
 
 22. Formulate a deflnition of self-activity. 
 
 23. Make an analysis of Cousin's Report. 
 
 24. What was Diesterweg's service to education? 
 
 25. Prepare sketches of the following: William Maclure, Joseph Neef, 
 Dr. E. A. Sheldon, John Griscom, Lowell .Mason. 
 
 207 
 
208 Studies in the History of Modern Education 
 
 26. Give the history of the United States Bureau of Education. 
 
 27. How has the teaching of arithmetic been influenced by Pestaloz- 
 zianism? 
 
 28. To what foreign influences can we trace industrial and manual 
 training? 
 
 29. Show the origin and trace the growth of normal schools in the 
 United States. 
 
 30. In what way have American universities been affected by foreign 
 influences? 
 
 31. Trace the history of the National Education Association. 
 
 32. Give the history of federal aid to education. 
 
BOOK LISTS 
 
 A. The more elementary and necessary books to be 
 used for reference: 
 
 BowBN, H. L. — Froehel and Education through Self-Activity (New 
 York, 1897). 
 
 Davidson, Thomas — Rousseau and Education according to Nature 
 (New York, 1902). 
 
 De Garmo, Charles — Herbarl and the Herbartians (New York, 1896). 
 
 Felkin, H. M. and E. — Herbart's Science of Education vnth Biographi- 
 cal Introduction (Boston, 1902). 
 
 Froebel, Fr. — Autobiography, trans, by Michaelis and Moore (Syra- 
 cuse, 1889). 
 
 GuiMPS, Roger de — Pestalozzi, His Aim and Work (New York, 1906). 
 
 Hinsdale, B. A. — Horace Mann and the Common School Revival in the 
 United States (New York, 1898). 
 
 Keatingb, M. W. — The Great Didactic of Comenius, with biographical 
 and historical introduction (London, 1896). 
 
 Ejitisi, Hermann, Jr. — Pestalozzi, His Life, Work and Influence (New 
 York, 1903). 
 
 Marenholz von Bulow — Reminiscences of Froebel, trans, by Mary 
 Mann (Boston, 1905). 
 
 Monroe, Will S. — Comenius and the Beginnings of Edu,cational Re- 
 form (New York, 1900). 
 
 PiNLOCHE, A. — Pestalozzi and the Modem Elem^tUary School (New 
 York, 1901). 
 
 B. General histories of education and original sources: 
 
 Browning, Oscar — Educational Theories. 
 
 Comenius, J. A. — The School of Infancy (Boston, 1901); The Orbis 
 Pictus (Syracuse, 1887). 
 
 Compayre, Gabriel — A History of Pedagogy, trans, by W. H. Payne. 
 
 Davidson, Thomcas — A History of Education (New York, 1901). 
 
 Dexter, E. G. — A History of Education in the United States (New 
 York, 1904). 
 
 Froebel, Fr. — The Education of Man, trans, by W. N". Haihnann 
 (New York, 1907) ; Mother and Nursery Songs (London, 1892). 
 
 Herbart, J. P. — A Text^Book on Psychology, trans, by Margaret K. 
 Smith (New York, 1891) ; Letters and Lectures on Education, trans, by 
 
 209 
 
210 Studies in tlhe History of Modern Education 
 
 H. M. and E. Felkin (London, 1901); Science of Education, trans, by 
 H. M. and E. Felkin (Boston, 1902) ; A B C of Sense Perception, trans, 
 by W. J. Eckoff (New York, 1903) ; Outlines of Educational Doctrine, 
 trans, by Lange and De Garmo (New York, 1904). 
 
 Hughes, Jas. L. — Eroebel's Educational Laws (New York, 1903). 
 
 Laurie, S. S. — John Amos Comenius (Cambridge, 1899). 
 
 Lemaitre, Jules — Jean Jacques Rousseau (New York, 1907). 
 
 Mann, Horace — Annual Reports and Addresses (Boston, 1868). 
 
 Monroe, Paul — A Text-Book on the History of Education (New York, 
 1905). 
 
 Monroe, Will S. — Pestalozzianism in the United States (Syracuse, 
 1907). 
 
 MuNROB, James P. — The Educational Ideal (Boston, 1902). 
 
 Painter, F. V. N. — A History of Education (New York, 1906). 
 
 Payne, Joseph — Lectures on the History of Education (London and 
 New York, 1892). 
 
 Pestalozzi, J. H. — Leonard and Oertrude, trans, by Eva Channing 
 (Boston, 1906) ; How Oertrude Teaches Her Children (Syracuse, 1898). 
 
 Quick, R. H. — Essays on Educational Reformers (New York, 1907). 
 
 Rousseau, J. J. — The Confessions (4 vols., London, 1897); the 
 Emile, trans, by W. H. Payne (New York, 1906). 
 
 Seeley, Levi — History of Education (New York, 1899). 
 
 Williams, S. G. — History of Modern Education (Syracuse, 1892). 
 
 C. Magazines and Reports: 
 
 ATnerican Journal of Education {Barnard's Jour.), Henry Barnard, 
 editor (Index), 1855-1881. 
 
 Circulars of Information, United States Bureau of Education. For 
 list consult Rep. U. S. Com. of Educ., 1906, I, 37-47. 
 
 Education (Boston), (Index), 1880 to date. 
 
 Educational Review (New York), Nicholas Murray Butler, editor (In- 
 dex), 1891 to date. 
 
 German Teachers and Educators, reprints from Barnard's Jour. 
 
 Herhari Year Books. 
 
 Kindergarten and Child Culture Papers, reprints from Barnard's Jour. 
 
 Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism, reprints from Barnard's Jour. 
 
 Proceedings of the National Education Association (Index), 1871 to 
 date. 
 
 Publications of the American Society for the Scientific Study of Edu- 
 cation. 
 
 Reports of the United States Commissioner of Education (no Index), 
 1867 to date. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Abbb, William M., 204. 
 
 Abstract idea, development of, 
 120. 
 
 Academies and schools of nine- 
 teenth century, 199. 
 
 Academy, for training teachers, 
 202; forerunner of the high 
 school, 199; function of, 199; 
 organization of, 199; origin of, 
 198. 
 
 Adams, H. B., 204. 
 
 Adams, John, 100. 
 
 Adams, J. Q., 158, 182. 
 
 Adamson, J. W., 27, 100. 
 
 Adaptation, principle of, 176. 
 
 Adjustment, process of, 13. 
 
 Aesthetic interest, 116. 
 
 Aesthetic Presentation of the Uni- 
 verse, The (Herbart), 112. 
 
 Albant Normal School, 202. 
 
 Alcott, a. Bbonson, 187. 
 
 Alsted, John Henry, 31, 45. 
 
 American Academy of Arts and 
 Sciences, 182. 
 
 American education, England's 
 influence upon, 178; foreign in- 
 fluences, 180; France's influ- 
 ence upon, 178, 182; Germany's 
 influence upon, 178, 183. 
 
 American educational history 
 outlined, 179. 
 
 American educational renais- 
 sance, 147. 
 
 American Froebel Union, The, 
 189. 
 
 American Journal of Education, 
 161, 188. 
 
 American Philosophical Soci- 
 ety, 182. 
 
 Analytic method, 117. 
 
 Anschauung (Sense Perception), 
 basis of all knowledge, 74; 
 broadening of, 91 ; definition of, 
 
 90; elements of, 92; Pesta- 
 lozzi's use of, 96; translation of, 
 90. 
 
 Antioch College, 159. 
 
 Appeal to the Friends and Benefac- 
 tors of Humanity, An (Pesta- 
 lozzi), 81. 
 
 Apperception, 116. 
 
 Aristotle, teachings of, 22; 
 translation of writings, 21. 
 
 Akner, character in Leonard and 
 Gertrude (Pestalozzi), 86. 
 
 Art, acquisition of, 43; definition 
 of, 15. 
 
 Ashley, Lord, 47. 
 
 Austin, Sarah, 185. 
 
 Bache, a. D., president of Girard 
 College, 184. 
 
 Bachman, F. p., 75. 
 
 Bacon, Francis, advocate of 
 empiricism, 24; advocate of 
 perception, 25; forerunner of 
 Comenius, 25; institutes new 
 method, 49; mentioned, 99. 
 
 Bamberg, Froebel's life at, 133. 
 
 Bancroft, George, Round Hill 
 School, 184. 
 
 Baptist Association, relation to 
 Brown University, 195. 
 
 Bardeen, C. W., 27. 
 
 Barnard, Henry, biography, 
 161; birth, 161; coadjutor of 
 Mann, 161; educator, 161; first 
 U. S. Commissioner of Educa- 
 tion, 161 ; founder of American 
 Journal of Education, 161; 
 mentioned, 27, 52, 75, 126, 151, 
 187, 204 ; relation to Oie kinder- 
 garten, 189. 
 
 Babop, John, 134. 
 
 Barton, Benjamin S., 184. 
 
 Basedow, Johann B., mentioned, 
 
212 
 
 Index 
 
 110; perpetuated the work of 
 Comenius, 72; philanthropism, 
 110. 
 
 Bath, William, publishes a 
 Janua, 25. 
 
 Bell, W. A., 151. 
 
 Berlin, University of, 184. 
 
 Bethlehem, Pa., Moravian acad- 
 emy at, 199. 
 
 Betist, F., 126. 
 
 Bibliographies, Comenius, 27; 
 European influences, 204; Froe- 
 bel, 126; Herbart, 100; Mann, 
 151; Pestalozzi, 75; Rousseau, 
 52. 
 
 Biographies, Comenius, 30 ; Froe- 
 bel, 130; Herbart, 103; Mann, 
 154; Pestalozzi, 79; Rousseau, 
 55. 
 
 Birr, Pestalozzi buried at, 84. 
 
 Blackmar, Frank W., 204. 
 
 Blackwood, William, 52. 
 
 Blankenburg, kindergarten 
 founded at, 135. 
 
 Blodgbtt, James H., 27. 
 
 Blow, Susan E., 126, 190. 
 
 BoDiNus, influence upon Comen- 
 ius, 45. 
 
 Boblte, Marie, 189. 
 
 Bohemia, 31. 
 
 BONNAL, 86. 
 
 Boone, Richard G., 100, 204. 
 
 BossEY, home of Rousseau, 56. 
 
 Boston Latin School, 147, 198. 
 
 Boston Patriot, The, 201. 
 
 BowEN, Francis, 151. 
 
 Bowen, H. C, 126, 209. 
 
 Bradley, J. C, 75. 
 
 Bremen, Herbart's life at, 106, 
 112. 
 
 Brooks, Charles, 201. 
 
 Brown, Elmer E., 204. 
 
 Brown University, Mann, life 
 at, 155, 196; origin of, 195; 
 pedagogy taught in, 202. 
 
 Browning, Oscar, 52, 75, 209. 
 
 Brugg, place of Pestalozzi's death, 
 84. 
 
 Bruno, Giordano, advocate of 
 rationalism, 24. 
 
 Brzoska, Heinrich, writes The 
 
 Necessity of Pedagogical Semin- 
 aries in Universities, 109. 
 
 Bttchner, Edw. F., 126. 
 
 Bureau op Education, 161. 
 
 BuRGDORP Institute, mentioned, 
 98 ; moved to Munchenbuchaee, 
 83. 
 
 Bush, George G., 204. 
 
 Buss, John, 83. 
 
 Butler, Nicholas Murray, 27, 
 126, 204. 
 
 Carman, A., 204. 
 
 Carter, John C, "Father of Nor- 
 mal Schools," 201. 
 
 Carter, M. H., 126. 
 
 Caste, in the eighteenth century, 
 73. 
 
 Catholepistemiad or University of 
 Michigania (Woodward), 183. 
 
 Catholicism, Rousseau a convert 
 to, 57. 
 
 Channing, Eva, 210. 
 
 Charlestown, John Harvard's 
 residence in, 193. 
 
 Child, early instruction, 123; 
 natural growth of, 66; relation 
 to universe, 142 ; study of antici- 
 pated by Rousseau, 66 ; twofold 
 environment, 142. 
 
 Chronological tables, Comen- 
 ius, 29; Froebel, 128; Herbart, 
 102; Mann, 153; Pestalozzi, 
 77; Rousseau, 54. 
 
 Church op England, Columbia 
 College's relation to, 195. 
 
 Churches, agents of education, 
 26. 
 
 Circle op thought. The, 115, 
 116. 
 
 Clindy, Pestalozzi at, 185. 
 
 Clinton, DeWitt, 201. 
 
 Cogswell, J. G., Round Hill 
 School, 184. 
 
 College, Academy and Charit- 
 able School of Philadelphia, 
 195. 
 
 College op New Jersey, 194. 
 
 Colonial College, function of, 
 198 ; mentioned, 192 - 196 ; 
 teaching of religion in, 198, 
 
Index 
 
 213 
 
 Colonial period, colleges found- 
 ed, 192. 
 
 Colonies, care for education, 147, 
 148; educational distinctions a 
 strong factor, 148. 
 
 Columbia College, founding, 
 195; government, 195. 
 
 Columbus, Ohio, first American 
 kindergarten in, 189. 
 
 Combe, Geobge, 151, 156. 
 
 CoMENius, John Amos, aim of 
 education, 39; analysis of The 
 Great Didactic, 38; art require- 
 ments, 43; at Lissa, 32; bibli- 
 ography, 27, 28; biography, 30; 
 birth, 30; cardinal virtues, 44; 
 chronology, 29; church as edu- 
 cational factor, 26; contribu- 
 tions to education, 46; early 
 life, 30; educational doctrines, 
 36, 39, 45, 181 ; educational re- 
 forms of, 32, 45; founder of 
 modem education, 23; fourfold 
 division of schools, 44 ; Ge- 
 schichte der Padagogik, 36; 
 grave of, 35 ; The Great Didactic, 
 36, 44; ideas of eternity, 39; 
 influences of Alsted and Ratke, 
 31; influence upon Basedow, 
 72; influence upon education in 
 America, 181; influence upon 
 Froebel, 137; influence upon 
 Locke, 48; introduces realism in 
 schools, 49; invited to Holland, 
 34; Janua lAnguarwm Reserata, 
 36; last days at Amsterdam, 
 35; library destroyed, 32; matri- 
 culates at Heidelberg; 31 ; matri- 
 culates at Herbom College, 31 ; 
 men who influenced, 24; men- 
 tioned, 25, 27, 124, 179, 209; 
 method of discipline, 44; Orbis 
 Pictus, 36; plan as an educator, 
 36; Plan of a Pansophic School, 
 37; preaches at Fulneck, 32; 
 principles of certainty, 40; prin- 
 ciples of facility, 41; principles 
 of thoroughness, 41 ; problems 
 of, 25, 34 ; problems of method, 
 42; relation to other educators, 
 125; relations with England, 33; 
 
 relations with Swedet, 33; re- 
 sides in Elbing, 34; resides in 
 Saros Patak, 34; results of his 
 work, 46 ; rules for science teach- 
 ing, 43; school at Saros Patak, 
 34; study of language, 44; sum- 
 mary of the man, 45 ; teaching of 
 art, 43; visits England, 33; 
 writes Janua Linguarum Re- 
 serata, 32; T/ie Great Didactic, 
 32; Orbis Pictus, 34; Plan of a 
 Pansophic School, 34, The School 
 of Infancy, 32 ; writings of, 36. 
 
 Common school. The, now estab- 
 lished, 148. 
 
 Common School Journal, The, 158. 
 
 CoMPATHE, Gabriel, 27, 52, 75, 
 126, 209. 
 
 Confessions, The (Rousseau), 60. 
 
 Connecticut, early education in, 
 194. 
 
 Constitution of Man (Combe), 156. 
 
 Constitutional governments, 
 absolute monarchies replaced 
 by, 178. 
 
 Cousin, M. V., mentioned, 204; 
 report on instruction in Prussia, 
 185. 
 
 Critique of Pure Reason (Kant), 
 60. 
 
 Culture epoch theory, Her- 
 bart's anticipation of. 111. 
 
 Dartmouth College, 196. 
 
 DAVinsoN, Thomas, 27, 62, 100, 
 204, 209. 
 
 Declaration op Independence, 
 The, 182. 
 
 De Gabmo, Charles, 100, 204, 
 209, 210. 
 
 DeGeer, Lewis, patron of Co- 
 menius, 33; mentioned, 34. 
 
 Descartes, Ren]6, advocate of 
 rationalism, 24 ; founder of mod- 
 em philosophy, 23; foimder of 
 new school of thou^t, 49 ; men- 
 tioned, 25, 99, 124, 179; results 
 of his work, 23. 
 
 Dexter, Edwin G., 151, 205, 
 209. 
 
 Diesterweg, Adolf, Froebel's 
 
214 
 
 Index 
 
 acquaintance with, 136; men- 
 tioned, 185. 
 
 Dijon Academy Prize, 59. 
 
 Discipline, Comenius's method 
 in, 44; definition of, 44; Locke's 
 views upon, 48; Rousseau's 
 method of, 66. 
 
 Divine Unity, Proebel's idea of, 
 144. 
 
 DoDD, Catherine I., 100. 
 
 Drabik, Nicholas, influence upon 
 Comenius, 30. 
 
 Drake, Mary, wife of Herbart, 
 108. 
 
 Draper, A. S., 205. 
 
 Drawing, value of, 92. 
 
 DuNSTER, Henry, president of 
 Harvard, 193. 
 
 Dutch Reformed Church, rela- 
 tion to Columbia College, 195; 
 relation to Rutgers College, 196. 
 
 DwiGHT, Edmund, 201. 
 
 D WIGHT, Henry E., 201. 
 
 EcKOFF, W. J., 100, 210. 
 
 Education, aim of exemplified, by 
 Comenius, 39; by Froebel, 141; 
 by Herbart, 113; by Locke, 46; 
 by Mann, 168; by Pestalozzi, 
 92; by Rousseau, 65; American 
 outlined, 179; antedated by the 
 philosopher, 124; Comenius and 
 realism in, 21-47; development 
 of, 22, 23; doctrines of Comen- 
 ius, 35, 181 ; dogmatic belief af- 
 fecting, 22; early, 21; early dis- 
 putes concerning, 22; elemen- 
 tary reference books on, 209- 
 210; empiricism, 24; European 
 influence, 176; foreign influ- 
 ences, 178; free investigation of, 
 22; Froebel's principles, 144- 
 145; German influence upon 
 American, 183 ; Herbart and the 
 science of, 97-99 ; history of, de- 
 fined, 17; Mann's doctrine, 162; 
 modern, bibliography of, 204- 
 206; modern, suggestions for re- 
 search and discussion of, 207- 
 208; mysticism in, 22; National 
 Society for the Scientific Study 
 
 of, 191 ; nine colleges founded in 
 colonial period, 192 ; of women, 
 69 ; philosophical questions con- 
 cerning, 24; rationalism, 24; 
 realism in, 21; Rousseau's doc- 
 trine, 61-70; science of, 97; sec- 
 ondary, 197 ; status at the time 
 of Mann's birth, 149; theories 
 concerning, 24 ; universities dis- 
 cuss early, 22. 
 
 Education of Man, The (Proebel), 
 135, 139, 141. 
 
 Educational doctrine, of Co- 
 menius, 35; of Froebel, 137; of 
 Herbart, 110; of Mann, 162; of 
 Pestalozzi, 85; of Rousseau, 61. 
 (ChaH, 138). 
 
 Educational ideals, changes in, 
 61. 
 
 Educational problems in Eu- 
 rope in eighteenth century, 73. 
 
 Educational renaissance, 
 American, 147. 
 
 Educational system, basic prin- 
 ciples, 176; evolution of, 15} 
 123. 
 
 Elementary education, defini- 
 tion of, 92 ; threefold division of, 
 89. 
 
 Elementary school, reform of, 
 125. 
 
 Ellis, George E., 205. 
 
 EmiU (Rousseau), mentioned, 50, 
 59, 98; purposes for which cre- 
 ated, 64; selections from, 67. 
 
 Emmanuel College, 193. 
 
 Emmons, Dr., association with 
 Mann, 155. 
 
 Empirical interest, 116. 
 
 Empiricism, advocates of, 24. 
 
 Encyclopedia of the Sciences, 31. 
 
 England, home of empiricism, 24. 
 
 Ethical ideas, defined, 113-114. 
 
 Ethics, basis of pedagogics, 113. 
 
 Eton School, 148. 
 
 Eucken, Rudolph, 126. 
 
 Europe, home of rationalism, 24. 
 
 Evening Hour of a Hermit, The 
 (Pestalozzi), 81, 85. 
 
 Everett, A. H., 52. 
 
 Everett, Edward, 184. 
 
Index 
 
 215 
 
 Falckbnberg, Richard, 24. 
 
 Family Journal of Education, 135. 
 
 Fblkin, E., 100, 209, 210. 
 
 Felkin, H. M., 100, 209, 210. 
 
 Fellenberg School, 83, 186. 
 
 FiCHTE, J. G., association with 
 Herbart, 105; influenced by 
 Pestalozzi, 73; mentioned, 82, 
 124, 185. 
 
 Fisher, Laura, 205. 
 
 Ford, P. L., 205. 
 
 Ford, R. Clyde, 205. 
 
 Foreign influences, how ex- 
 erted, 180. 
 
 Forestry, Froebel an apprentice 
 in, 131. 
 
 France, influence upon American 
 education, 182. 
 
 Francke, August H., pietism re- 
 presented by, 110. 
 
 Feankpurt-am-Main, Froebel a 
 teacher at, 133. 
 
 Franklin, Benjamin, influence 
 on education, 182, 195; student 
 in Gottingen, 184. 
 
 Froebel, Friedrich, army life, 
 134; Autobiography, 131; bibli- 
 ography, 126-127; biography, 
 130-137; birth of, 130; charac- 
 terization of, 130; chronology, 
 128; conception of God, 144; 
 contribution to education, 146; 
 death of, 136; death of wife, 
 135; early life, 130; edticational 
 doctrine (Chart) 138; educa- 
 tional system, 123-145; envi- 
 ronment of (Map), 119; forms 
 Universal German Educational 
 Institute, 134; founds Family 
 Journal of Education, 135; in- 
 fluence of teachings, 188; life at 
 Bamberg, 133; at Frankfurt- 
 am-Main, 133; at Griesheim, 
 134; at Jena, 132; at Lieben- 
 stein, 136; at Marienthal, 136; 
 at Stadtilm, 131; in Switzer- 
 land, 135; marries Henrietta 
 Wilhelmina Hoffmeister, 135; 
 mentioned, 124, 147, 185, 189, 
 209; monument of, 136; philos- 
 ophy of, 124; principles of edu- 
 
 cation, 144-145; school at Keil- 
 hau, 134, 135; student at Uni- 
 versity of Jena, 132; studies to 
 be an architect, 133; summary 
 of work, 145-146; theory of 
 development of child, 140; visit 
 to Pestalozzi, 133; writes The 
 Education of Man, 135, 139; 
 Mviter und Kose l/ieder, 139. 
 
 Froebel, Traugott, 132. 
 
 FuLNECK, plimdered by Spaniards, 
 32. 
 
 Garrison, W. P., 52. 
 
 General Pedagogics (Herbart), 107, 
 
 113. 
 George II of England, 195. 
 George III of England, 196. 
 Germany, Froebel's travels in, 
 
 136; influence upon American 
 
 education, 183, 184. 
 Geschichte derPadagogik (vonRau- 
 
 mer), 36. 
 Gessner, John M., Pestalozzi's 
 
 letters to, 82, 87. 
 GiESSEN, University of, 31. 
 Gill, John, 75. 
 GiRARD College, 184. 
 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang, 110. 
 Goldsmith, Oliver, 52. 
 Gohdy, J. P., 151, 205. 
 Gottingen, University of, confers 
 
 degree upon Herbart, 107; fa- 
 mous Americans as students in, 
 
 184; Froebel a student in, 133; 
 
 Herbart a privat docent at, 107; 
 
 Herbart a professor at, 107, 109; 
 
 mentioned, 183. 
 Great Didactic, The (Comenius), 
 
 analysis, 38; mentioned, 37, 44, 
 
 45, 181. 
 Greaves, James, 185, association 
 
 with Pestalozzi, 185. 
 Griscom, John, writes A Year in 
 
 Europe, 184. 
 GrOner, Gottlieb, 133, 185. 
 GuiMPS, Roger db, 75, 209. 
 GuRNiGEL, Pestalozzi visits, 82. 
 
 Hailman, W. N., 75, 126, 209. 
 Hall, Samuel R., 201. 
 
216 
 
 Index 
 
 Halle, University of, 184. 
 
 Hamilton, C. J., 75. 
 
 Hamilton, Sir William, 205. 
 
 Hanus, Paul H., 27, 52, 205. 
 
 Hark, J. M., 27. 
 
 Harris, Wm. T., Commissioner of 
 Education, 75, 100, 151, 190, 
 205. 
 
 Harrison, Elizabeth, 190. 
 
 Hartlib, Samuel, translator, 33. 
 
 Harvard, John, 193. 
 
 Harvard University, controlled 
 by British ideas, 148; Emman- 
 uel College as model, 193; 
 founded, 193; mentioned, 147; 
 relation to Yale, 194. 
 
 Hathaway, Prank R., 205. 
 
 Heath, Richard, 27. 
 
 Hegel, G. W. F., 109. 
 
 Heidelberg University, Co- 
 menius a student at, 31; Her- 
 bart invited to professorship at, 
 107. 
 
 Helvetian Society, Pestalozzi 
 member of, 80. 
 
 Hekbart, John Frederick, ac- 
 cepts call to Gottingen, 109; ac- 
 cepts call to Konigsberg, 108; 
 advocates elementary schools, 
 125; America, influences in, 
 190, 191; bibliography, 100; 
 biography, 103-110; birth, 103; 
 characterization of, 103; child- 
 hood, 103; chronology, 102; 
 defends thesis, 107; degree con- 
 ferred upon, 107; doctrines im- 
 press America, 190; early edu- 
 cation, 104; education on a sci- 
 entific basis, 99; educational 
 doctrine, 110-121; ethical ideas 
 defined, 113-114; first views as 
 a teacher. 111; founds pedagogi- 
 cal seminary, 108 ; four steps in 
 instruction, 119; Gottingen, 
 last days at, 109 ; influence sum- 
 marized, 191; Jena school days, 
 104; last lecture, 110; leaves 
 Konigsberg, 109; life at Bre- 
 men, 106; life at Gottingen, 
 107; life at Konigsberg, 108; 
 marries Mary Drake, 108; men- 
 
 tioned, 124, 167, 183, 185, 209; 
 personal appearance, 103; re- 
 lation to other educators, 121, 
 125; relation to Pestalozzi, 112; 
 student at Jena, 104; summary 
 of work, 121-122; teaches pri- 
 vately, 105; theories, 97-99; 
 translation of writings of, 191; 
 tutor in Switzerland, 105 ; visits 
 Pestalozzi, 106; writes The 
 Aesthetic Presentation of the Uni- 
 verse, 112; General Pedagogics, 
 107, 113; How Oertrvde Taught 
 Her Children, 106; The Moral 
 and Ethical Relations of the 
 World, 107; The Outlines of 
 Lectures on Pedagogy, 109; 
 Practical Philosophy, 107; A 
 Standpoint for Judging the Pes- 
 talozzian Method of Instruction, 
 107; Year Books, 191. 
 
 Hbrbartian educational ten- 
 dencies, 109. 
 
 Herbartianism, exposition of, 
 113; in the United States, 191; 
 relation to Pestalozzianism, 112. 
 
 Herborn College, Comenius stu- 
 dent at, 31. 
 
 Herpoed, Wm. H., 126. 
 
 Hersey, J. T. D., 151. 
 
 Hinsdale, B. A., 75, 151, 205, 
 209. 
 
 History of education, defined, 
 17 ; materials of, 17 ; method of 
 study, 17; value of study, 17. 
 
 HoBBES, Thomas, accepts doc- 
 trine of mechanism, 49; advo- 
 cate of empiricism, 24. 
 
 HOPFMBISTER, HENRIETTA W., 
 
 135. 
 
 HoFWYL, 83, 184. 
 
 Hollis, Andrew P., 205. 
 
 HoNGG, Pestalozzi's association 
 with, 79. 
 
 How Gertrude Taught Her Children 
 (Herbart), 106, 112. 
 
 How Gertrude Teaches Her Chil- 
 dren (Pestalozzi), 87. 
 
 HoYT, Charles O., 205. 
 
 Hughes, James L., 127, 210. 
 
 Humanism, 21, 110. 
 
Index 
 
 217 
 
 Humboldt, William von, com- 
 missioner of education for Prus- 
 sia, 108; Herbart's relations to, 
 108. 
 
 Hume, David, Rousseau's rela- 
 tions to, 60. 
 
 Huss, John, 30. 
 
 Idealism, 98. 
 
 Ideals, how expressed, 13, 178. 
 
 Illustrations, see List of Illus- 
 trations, 11. 
 
 Individualism, development of, 
 49-71. 
 
 Industrial training anticipated 
 by Rousseau, 70. 
 
 Inequality among Men (Rousseau), 
 59, 63. 
 
 Infant School Socebtt, London, 
 185, 186. 
 
 Influence of the Arts and Sciences 
 (Rousseau), 59, 63. 
 
 Inquiry into the Course of Nature 
 in the Development of the Human 
 Reason, An (Pestalozzi), 81. 
 
 Instruction, aim of, 116; An- 
 schauung gained by, 92; defini- 
 tion of, 93; essential laws of, 
 91; factors of, 117; fitted to 
 child's development, 66; Her- 
 bart's four steps in, 119; laws 
 of, 91; materials of, 118, 142; 
 methods of Pestalozzi, 74; order 
 of, 40; problem of, 74; use of 
 the concrete in, 48. 
 
 Interest, definition of, 116; 
 kinds of , 1 16 ; relation to knowl- 
 edge, 116; to will, 116. 
 
 Introspection, Froebel's habit of, 
 131. 
 
 Iowa, University of, chair of peda- 
 gogy in, 202. 
 
 Italy, educational awakening, 21. 
 
 Janua (Bath), 25. 
 
 Janua lAnguarum Reserata (Co- 
 menius), 32, 36. 
 
 Jefferson, Thomas, 182. 
 
 Jena, Pedagogical Seminary, 109. 
 
 Jena, University of, Froebel a 
 student at, 132; Herbart a stu- 
 dent at, 104; mentioned, 31, 147. 
 
 Jones, MARaABET E. M., connec- 
 tion with Oswego Normal 
 School, 188. 
 
 Journal of Education, 168. 
 
 Kant, Immanuel, Critique of 
 Pure Reason, 50; mentioned, 
 99, 105, 124. 
 
 Kasson, Prank H., 151. 
 
 Keatinge, M. W., 27, 36, 209. 
 
 Keilhau, Froebel's association 
 with, 134, 135. 
 
 Kellogg, Amos M., 75. 
 
 Kemp, E. L., 75. 
 
 Kindergarten, first charity, 189 ; 
 first established, 189 ; first pub- 
 lic, 190; origin of term, 135; 
 system, 123-126. 
 
 King's College, 195. 
 
 Kingsley, James L., 200. 
 
 Klemm, L. R., 75. 
 
 Knowledge, two theories con- 
 cerning, 24. 
 
 KoNiGSBERG, University of, Her- 
 bart professor at, 108; peda- 
 gogical seminary, 108. 
 
 KoTTBB, Chbistoph, 45. 
 
 Krause, Carl C. F., Froebel's ac- 
 quaintance with, 137. 
 
 Kbtjsi, Hermann, 76, 83. 
 
 KbCsi, Hermann, Jr., 188, 205, 
 209. 
 
 Lamberciek, M., Rousseau's rela- 
 tions to, 56. 
 
 Lancastbbian schools, 165, 201. 
 
 Lang, L. B., 52. 
 
 Lange, W., 100, 127, 210. 
 
 Languages, value of, 44. 
 
 Latin, Comenius's reform in 
 teaching, 31, 45; universal lan- 
 guage, 30. 
 
 Laurie, S. S., 27, 210. 
 
 Law op instruction, principles 
 of, 91. 
 
 Laws, origin of, 114. 
 
 Lectures on School Keeping (Hall), 
 201. 
 
 Leibnitz, Gottfried W., 99, 124. 
 
 Lemaitbe, Jules, 52, 210. 
 
 Leonard and Gertrude (Pestalozzi), 
 
218 
 
 Index 
 
 description of, 86; mentioned, 
 81, 87, 96. 
 
 Lbssinq, Gotthold E., 110. 
 
 Lb Vasseuh, Th^b^sa, 58. 
 
 Levin, Louise, 136. 
 
 Liberal Hbrbartianism, repre- 
 sented by Tuiscon Ziller, 109. 
 
 Libraries, value of, 174. 
 
 Life, great problems of, 124. 
 
 LissA, Comenius master of gym- 
 nasium at, 32; literary period, 
 32. 
 
 Literature, defined, 15. 
 
 Locke, John, advocates environ- 
 ment as educational factor, 47; 
 advocate of empiricism, 24; bi- 
 ograpliy, 46—47 ; educational 
 views, 48; mentioned, 124, 179; 
 relation to Comenius, 48; services 
 to education, 48; theories, 72. 
 
 LocKwooD, George B., 205. 
 
 "Log College," 194. 
 
 Longfellow, Henrt W., 184. 
 
 Louis XIV of France, 49. 
 
 Lowell, J. R., 52. 
 
 Maclurb, W1LLIA.M, 186, 187. 
 
 McLaughlin, Andrew C., 206. 
 
 MacVannal, John A., 127. 
 
 Magdalen College, Dunster a 
 graduate of, 193. 
 
 Mann, Horace, bibliography, 
 151; biography, 154-160; birth, 
 147, 154; boyhood days, 154; 
 chronology, 153; coadjutor of 
 Barnard, 161; death, 160; edu- 
 cational conditions in time of, 
 147; educational doctrine, 162; 
 educational theories, 168-173; 
 elected to Congress, 158; founds 
 The Common School Journal, 
 158; life at Brown University, 
 155; marries Mary Peabody, 
 158; mentioned, 196, 210; on 
 equality of school privileges, 
 166; on European schools, 164; 
 on improvement of schools, 163; 
 on influence of education on 
 practical affairs, 164; on Mas- 
 sachusetts school system, 166; 
 on methods of teaching reading. 
 
 orthography and composition, 
 163; on New England school 
 system, 166; on power of com- 
 mon schools, 167; on school 
 weaknesses, 162; on value of 
 public education, 166; president 
 of Antioch College, 159; prob- 
 lem of, 149; report on employ- 
 ment of women as teachers, 165; 
 school administration, 147 ; 
 school reports by, 162-168; Sec- 
 retary State Board of Educa- 
 tion, 157; selections from re- 
 ports, 168-173; succeeds J. Q. 
 Adams, 158; summary of work, 
 173-175; tours Europe, 184; 
 visits European schools, 168. 
 
 Mann, Mahy, 151, 209. 
 
 Manning, James, first president of 
 Brown University, 195. 
 
 Map, environment of Proebel, 129; 
 environment of Pestalozzi, 78; 
 of Europe, frontispiece. 
 
 Marenholz-von BiJlow, Baron- 
 ess, 127, 136, 209. 
 
 Marienthal, Proebel's school at, 
 136. 
 
 Marshall, John, Chief Justice, 
 194. 
 
 Martin, George H., 151, 205. 
 
 Mabwedel, Emma, 190. 
 
 Mason, Lowell, 187. 
 
 Massachusetts, academies, 199. 
 
 Massachusetts Board op Edu- 
 cation reports, 162-168. 
 
 Massachusetts Magazine, The, 200. 
 
 Mather, Cotton, 194. 
 
 Maxwell, W. H., 27. 
 
 Mayo, A. D., 151, 20& 
 
 Mayo, Charles, 185. 
 
 Mental life, 118. 
 
 Meriwether, C, 206. 
 
 Michablis, E., 209. 
 
 Michigan, education in, 183. 
 
 Michigan, University of, 183, 202. 
 
 Middendorf, Wm., 134. 
 
 Middle Ages, relation to modem 
 times, 21. 
 
 Milton, John, influence of The 
 Tractate of, 198. 
 
 Monroe, Paul, 27, 52, 76, 127,210. 
 
Index 
 
 219 
 
 Monroe, WillS., 27, 76, 151, 206, 
 209, 210. 
 
 Montmorency, 59. 
 
 Moor's Indian Chakitt School, 
 196. 
 
 Moore, H. K., 209. 
 
 Moral and Ethical Revelations of 
 the World, The (Herbart), 107. 
 
 Morality, definition of, 113; 
 Mann's definition of, 169. 
 
 Moravians, influence upon edu- 
 cation, 182, 199. 
 
 MoRF, G. P., 87. 
 
 MoHiN, S. H., 52. 
 
 Mokley, John, 52. 
 
 Morrill Act, The, 197. 
 
 Mother school, the plan of, 45. 
 
 MttNCHENBTTCHSEE, 83. 
 
 Munrob, James P., 52, 127, 210. 
 Murray, David, 206. 
 Murray, J. Clark, 52. 
 Mutter und Kose Lieder (Froebel), 
 139. 
 
 Naardbn, 35. 
 
 Naep, Elizabeth, 81. 
 
 Napoleon, new standards set up 
 by, 73. 
 
 Nassau, 31. 
 
 National Herbart Society, 191. 
 
 National Society for the Sci- 
 entific Study op Education, 
 191. 
 
 Naturalism, 97. 
 
 Nature and instruction, 40; 
 following the course of, 91; 
 knowledge of, 115: man's rela- 
 tion to, 51 ; method of Comenius 
 derived from, 37; order of, 89; 
 Rousseau's idea of, 67. 
 
 Nature studies, place in curri- 
 culum, 118. 
 
 Nazareth, Pa., Moravian acad- 
 emy in, 199. 
 
 Necessity of Pedagogical Semin- 
 aries in Universities, The 
 (Brzoska), 109. 
 
 Neep, Joseph, 83, 187. 
 
 Neuhop, 98. 
 
 New Haven, 194. 
 
 New Heloise, The (Rousseau), 59. I 
 
 New Jersey, College of, 194. 
 
 New Lanark, 186, 187. 
 
 New Lebanon, Conn., 196. 
 
 New York academies, 199. 
 
 New York, first charity kinder- 
 garten in, 189. 
 
 Niederer, John, 83. 
 
 Nivnitz, birthplace of Comenius, 
 30. 
 
 Nohle, E., 28, 206. 
 
 Normal school, first in U. S., 
 202; foreign influences upon, 
 201; founders of, 201; growth 
 of, 201; inception of the idea 
 of, 200; Mann's labors for, 174. 
 
 Number, teaching of, 92. 
 
 Object lessons, purpose of, 94. 
 
 Odyssey, The, Herbart 's use of , 1 1 1 . 
 
 Oldenberg, birthplace of Her- 
 bart, 103. 
 
 Olmsted, Dbnison, 200. 
 
 On the Proper View for Judging the 
 Pestalozzian Method of Instruc- 
 tion (Herbart), 112. 
 
 Orbis Pictus (Comenius), 34, 36, 
 46. 
 
 Orthodox Herbartianism, rep- 
 resented by Volkmar Stoy, 109. 
 
 OswpQO Normal School, 188, 
 202. 
 
 Outline of Pedagogical Lectures, 
 The (Herbart), 113. 
 
 Outlines of Lectures on Pedagogy, 
 The (Herbart), 109. 
 
 Owen, Robert, 186, 187. 
 
 Oxenstibrn, Axel, 33. 
 
 Oxford University, Locke grad- 
 uate of, 47. 
 
 Painter, F. V. N., 28, 52, 76, 210. 
 
 Pantheon, 61. 
 
 Parker, Francis W., 152. 
 
 Payne, Joseph, 28, 52, 76, 210. 
 
 Payne, W. H., 62, 209, 210. 
 
 Peabody, Elizabeth, 189. 
 
 Peabody, Mary, 158. 
 
 Pedagogics, postulate of, 113; 
 science of, 113. 
 
 Pedagogy, books on, compared 
 with Thk Great Didactic, 181. 
 
 Pennsylvania, University of. 
 
220 
 
 Index 
 
 Franklin's relations to, 194; 
 origin of, 195. 
 
 Pestalozzi, a B C of Sense Per- 
 ception, 83, 106, 112; abandons 
 study of theology, 80; advo- 
 cates elementary schools, 125; 
 as an agriculturist, 80; bibli- 
 ography, 75; biography, 79-85; 
 birth, 79; Burgdorf school, 83; 
 characterization of, 85; chron- 
 ology, 77; definition of educa- 
 tion, 74; education and early 
 influences, 80; educational doc- 
 trine, 85-95; educational writ- 
 ings, 86; elementary education, 
 definition of, 89; elementary 
 school reforms, 125; environ- 
 ment of (Map), 78; epitaph at 
 Birr, 79; Fichte, relations to, 
 82; founder of modem elemen- 
 tary schools, 98; Froebel's visit 
 to, 133; ideas of education, 74; 
 influence felt in New England, 
 187; instruction, laws of, 91; 
 last days at Birr, 84; letters to 
 Fellenberg, 81 ; letters to Gess- 
 ner, 87; life at Stanz, 82; mar- 
 ries Anna Shulthess, 80; men- 
 tioned, 124, 147, 167, 183, 185, 
 210; methods, 72-96; methods 
 adopted in Prussia, 73 ; methods 
 of sense impression, 90; Morf's 
 summary of the work of, 87; 
 philosophy of education, 89; 
 place as an educator, 85; psy- 
 chological method, 72-74 ; school 
 at Burgdorf, 106; summary of 
 work, 95-96; summary of writ- 
 ings, 87, 88; teaches at Burg- 
 dorf, 82, teaches at Neuhof, 80; 
 writes An Appeal to the Friends 
 and Benefactors of Humanity, 
 81 ; The Evening Hour of a Her- 
 mit, 81; How Gertrude Teaches 
 Her Children, 87; An Inquiry 
 into the Course of Nature in the 
 Development of the Human Rea- 
 son, 81; Leonard and Gertrude, 
 81; The Song of the Dying Swan, 
 84; Yverdon institute, 83. 
 
 Pestalozzianism, advocates of, in 
 
 New England, 187; at Oswego 
 Normal School, 202; Neef's re- 
 lations to, in the U. S., 187 ; rela- 
 tion of Herbartianism to, 112. 
 
 Philadelphia, grammar school 
 formed, 195. 
 
 Philantheopism, definition of, 
 110; Herbart's relation to, 111. 
 
 Phillips Academy, 199. 
 
 Philosophical method, applica- 
 tion of, 177; employment of, 
 177; starting point of, 177. 
 
 Philosophy, beginnings of, 22; 
 definition of, 15, 124; method of, 
 124; problems of, 124. 
 
 Phrenology, Mann a student of, 
 156. 
 
 Pierce, Cyetts, 202. 
 
 Pierce, John D., 185. 
 
 PiERPONT, James, founds Yale 
 College, 194. 
 
 Pietism, definition of, 110; Her- 
 bart's relation to. 111. 
 
 Pinloche, a., 76, 209. 
 
 Plan of a Pansophic School (Co- 
 menius), 34, 37. 
 
 Play, Froebel's definition of, 143; 
 Froebel's idea of, 144. 
 
 Powell, L. P., 206. 
 
 Practical Philosophy (Herbart), 
 107. 
 
 Prussia, report of schools by M. 
 V. Cousin, 185. 
 
 Prussian Decree, Froebel af- 
 fected by, 136. 
 
 Prussian schools, influence of 
 Queen Louise, 73. 
 
 Psychology, basis of pedagogics, 
 113; Herbart's beginnings in, 
 106; Herbart's foundations of, 
 111; need for a new, 99. 
 
 Punishment, consequence of of- 
 fence, 66, 70. 
 
 Qualitative ideas, expression of, 
 92. 
 
 Quantity, number the expression 
 of, 92. 
 
 Queen's College, 196. 
 
 Quick, R. H., 28, 52, 76, 127, 210. 
 
 Quotations from writings or, 
 Comenius, 39; Froebel, 140; 
 
Index 
 
 221 
 
 Mann, 168; Pestalozzi, 92; 
 Rousseau, 67. 
 
 Ramsatter, John, description of 
 Burgdorf sehool,83; mentioned, 
 185. 
 
 Rapp, George, 186. 
 
 Rationalism, advocates of, 24; 
 definition of, 24. 
 
 Ratke, Wolfgang, advocate of 
 the definite method, 25; Essay 
 on School Reform, 31. 
 
 Raumbr, Kabl von, 36. 
 
 Ebalism, Comenius's principles of, 
 46. 
 
 Reformation, The, 21. 
 
 Rein, William, citations from, 
 119; Herbartianism represent- 
 ed by, 109; mentioned, 76. 
 
 Rein School, 191. 
 
 Reinhold, Karl, 105. 
 
 Religion, definition of, 15; 
 methods for the teaching of, 44. 
 
 Renaissance, American educa- 
 tional, 147; tendency of, 21. 
 
 Revolutionary War, educa^ 
 tional conditions at time of, 148. 
 
 Rhode Island College, 195. 
 
 RiGGS, K. D. W., see Wiggin, Kate 
 Douglas. 
 
 RiTTER, C, 185. 
 
 Romanticism, definition of, 98. 
 
 Round Hill School, 184. 
 
 Rousseau, Jean Jacques, as an 
 exile, 60; bibliography, 52-53; 
 biography, 55-61; birth, 55; 
 character of writings, 63; chron- 
 ology, 54; death, 60; Dijon 
 AcMemy prize, 59; early life, 
 56 ; educational doctrine, 61-67 ; 
 Emik, 50 ; four periods of devel- 
 opment, 66; ideals, 49-51; In- 
 fluence of the Arts and Sciences, 
 63; influence upon Pestalozzi, 
 80, 98; irresponsible life of, 58; 
 last days in Paris, 60; life at 
 Geneva, 57; life in England, 60; 
 mentioned, 47, 124, 210; Social 
 Contract, 50, 63, 64; sources of 
 ideas, 62; study of children, 66- 
 70; teachings, 50-51, 70-71; 
 
 theories, 50; value of his works, 
 66-70; writes Confessions, 50; 
 Emile, 59; Inequality among 
 Men, 59, 63; Influence of the 
 Arts and Sciences, 59; The New 
 Heloise, 59; The Social Contract, 
 59. 
 
 Royal Academy op France, 182. 
 
 Royal Society op Great Bri- 
 tain, 182. 
 
 Rugby School, 148. 
 
 Russell, James, E., 206. 
 
 Russell, William, 200. 
 
 Rutgers College, 196. 
 
 St. Charles College, 193. 
 
 St. Louis, Mo., kindergartens in, 
 190. 
 
 San Francisco, kindergartens in, 
 189. 
 
 Saros Patak, Comenius's associs/- 
 tion with, 34, 37, 45. 
 
 Schelling, Friedrich W. J., 
 Bruno or the World Soul, 137. 
 
 Schiller, Friedrich, represents 
 new humanism, 110. 
 
 Schmidt, Karl, 106. 
 
 School administration, Mann's 
 service to, 147, 149. 
 
 School of Infancy, The (Comenius), 
 32. 
 
 Schools, fourfold division of, 44. 
 
 ScHWEiNA, Froebel's grave at, 136. 
 
 ScHWEiNiTZ, Edmund de, 28. 
 
 Science, beginnings of, 22; defi- 
 nition of, 15; development of, 
 178; new method of, 178; rules 
 for study of, 43; war with the- 
 ology, 22, 178. 
 
 Secondary education in U. S., 
 197; stages of development, 
 197-198. 
 
 Secondary schools, training of 
 teachers in imiversities for, 202. 
 
 Seeley, Levi, 28, 53, 76, 206, 210. 
 
 Self-consciousness, Herbart's 
 problem of, 106. 
 
 Self-realization, play the means 
 of, 143. 
 
 Sense impression, expression of, 
 90; illustrations of, 92-95. 
 
222 
 
 Index 
 
 Sense perception (Anschauung) 
 
 basis of knowledge, 74; defini- 
 tion of, 94; mentioned, 24, 
 
 120. 
 Sense realism, 21. 
 Sequence, definition of, 119. 
 Seventeenth century, thought 
 
 in, 179. 
 Shaw, Pauline, 190. 
 Sheldon, E. A., founds Oswego 
 
 Normal School, 188, 202. 
 Shirrepf, Emily A. E., 127. 
 Shulthbss, Anna, 80. 
 Skyte, John, 33. 
 Smith, Charles L., 206. 
 Smith, Margaret K., 209. 
 Snider, Denton J., 127. 
 Social aim in education, 73. 
 Social Contract, The (Rousseau), 
 
 SO, 69, 63, 64. 
 Social interest, definition of, 
 
 116. 
 Socrates, 99. 
 Some Thov^hts Concerning Ediica- 
 
 tion (Locke), 47. 
 Song of the Dying Swan, The (Pes- 
 
 talozzi), 84, 88. 
 Soul, content of, 115; definition 
 
 of, 114; environment acting 
 
 upon, 114; Froebel's definition 
 
 of, 140. 
 Space perceptions, form of, 92. 
 Speculative interest, definition 
 
 of, 116. 
 Spinoza, Baruch, advocate of 
 
 rationalism, 24; mentioned, 
 
 124. 
 Stadtilm, Proebel at, 131. 
 Standpoint for Judging the Pes- 
 
 talozzian Method of Instruction, 
 
 A (Herbart), 107. 
 Stanz, orphan school conducted 
 
 by Pestalozzi at, 82. 
 State universities, origin of, 
 
 197. 
 Steiger, Landvogt, patron of 
 
 Herbart, 105. 
 Steiner, B. C, 206. 
 Stowe, Calvin, 184, 201. 
 Stoy, Volkmar, 109. 
 Street, A. E., 53. 
 
 Studies, correlation, advocated 
 
 by Vives, 25. 
 Summaries, Comenius, 45; Froe- 
 
 bel, 145; Herbart, 121; Mann, 
 
 173; Pestalozzi, 95; Rousseau, 
 
 70. 
 Sweden, work of Comenius in, 33. 
 Swiss Republic, Pestalozzi's part 
 
 in formation of, 82. 
 Switzerland, Froebel's life in, 
 
 135; Herbart teacher in, 111. 
 Synthetic method, definition of, 
 
 117. 
 
 Taylor, J. Orville, 185, 204. 
 
 Teacher, guidance of, 18; Mann's 
 work for, 174; preparation of, 
 170; training of, at Burgdorf, 
 83; work of, 118, 142. 
 
 Teaching, definition of, 94; for- 
 mal steps of, 120. 
 
 Tennent, William, founds 
 Princeton College, 194. 
 
 Theology opposes science, 22, 178. 
 
 Thirty Years' War, influence 
 upon Comenius, 32. 
 
 Thorpe, Francis Newton, 206. 
 
 Thought, The circle of, 115. 
 
 Thuringian Forest, Froebel's 
 association with, 130. 
 
 TiCKNOR, George, 184. 
 
 Time, number the expression of, 
 92. 
 
 TOBLER, GUSTAV, 83. 
 
 ToLMAN, William H., 206. 
 Tractate, The (Milton), 198. 
 Training, definition of, 117. 
 
 United States Commissioner op 
 Education, Henry Barnard 
 first, 161. 
 
 Universal German Educational 
 Institute, 134. 
 
 Universe, relation of child to, 
 142. 
 
 Universities, discuss early educa- 
 tion, 22; in U. S., 192, 196; 
 training of secondary teachers 
 in, 202. 
 
 University, place of, 45. 
 
 Unterwalden, massacre in, 82. 
 
Index 
 
 223 
 
 Venice, Rousseau's life in, 58. 
 Verbalism, Pestalozzi's protest 
 
 against, 96. 
 Vernacular school, plan of, 45. 
 Village Green, Pa., 187. 
 Virginia, first schools, 193. 
 ViRGiNLA., University of, 182. 
 ViVES, Juan Luis, advocate of 
 
 independent experiment, 25, 
 
 95. 
 VosTROvsKY, Clara, 28. 
 
 Wartensee, Froebel's association 
 
 with, 135. 
 Washington, George, 193. 
 Webster, Daniel, 196. 
 Weekly Journal for the Education 
 
 of Humanity, 87. 
 Weekly Journal of EducaMon, The, 
 
 136. 
 Weimar, Duke of, 136. 
 Weimar, 105. 
 Weir, Samuel, 53. 
 Welton, Jambs, 127. 
 Westminster School, Locke a 
 
 student at, 47. 
 Whbelock, Eleazer, 196. 
 
 WiCKBBSHAM, JaMES P., 206. 
 
 Wiggin, Kate Douglas, 190. 
 
 William and Mary College, be- 
 ginnings of, 193; graduates of, 
 194. 
 
 William Penn Charter School, 
 195. 
 
 Williams, S. G., 28, 53, 127, 210. 
 
 WiLLiSAU, Froebel's association 
 with, 135. 
 
 Winship, a. E., 152, 206. 
 
 Wisconsin, University of, 161. 
 
 WoLFP, Christian, 99. 
 
 Women, education of, 69. 
 
 WOODBRIDGE, M. C, 76. 
 WOODBRIDGE, WiLLIAM, 187, 201. 
 
 Woodward, Augustus B., pre- 
 pares Catholeptstemiad, 183. 
 
 Yale, Elihu, 194. 
 
 Yale College, beginnings of, 
 
 194; Henry Barnard graduate 
 
 of, 161. 
 Year in Europe, A (Griscom), 184. 
 Yellow Springs, O., 159. 
 YvERDON, Pestalozzi's school at, 
 
 84, 184, 1«5. 
 
 ZiLLEB, TUISCON, 109. 
 
 ZiLLBR School, 191. 
 Zt)RiCH, birthplace of Pestalozzi, 
 79. 
 
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